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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 12 2013)

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C M Y CM MY CY CMY K 8071_hkTecher_cover_1112_op.pdf 1 11/12/13 下午6:50 i 香港教師中心香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議而於 1989年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。此外，教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、一個常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72名委員組成，其中 35位由教育團體提名及選出，35位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位教育局代表。各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內，交通便捷，毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站，另有多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備，內有電腦服務、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等。同時，教育局九龍塘教育服務中心設有演講廳和多用途會議室，供教師中心舉辦各類會議、講座及工作坊等活動。歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁：www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub- committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corner, resting area and display-boards, etc. Moreover, multi-purpose meeting rooms and conference rooms for organising seminars, workshops and meetings are available at the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please visit our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁　鋼華東師範大學李兆璋香港浸會大學李榮安新加坡國立教育學院侯傑泰香港中文大學唐創時香港考試及評核局 iii 張國華香港公開大學梁湘明香港中文大學莫家豪香港教育學院陳建強香港城市大學傅浩堅香港浸會大學葉蔭榮教育局靳玉樂西南大學潘慧玲淡江大學鄧廣威香港公開大學鄭燕祥香港教育學院顧明遠北京師範大學編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editor）簡加言路德會西門英才中學副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育學院楊沛銘香港地理學會趙淑媚香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學委員（Members）何景安香港學科教育研究學會李子建香港教育學院李少鶴香港初等教育研究學會李宏峯保良局羅傑承（一九八三）中學梁兆棠香港資助小學校長會郭禮賢香港華人基督教聯會真道書院葉建源香港教育專業人員協會雷其昌羅定邦中學 iv v 主編序《香港教師中心學報》是一份教育研究及教師專業教學的分享刊物。過去得到很多學者及教師的支持，使學報能順利出版，今期也不例外。本期主題「新高中學制 ─ 學生發展、教師發展、學校發展」，同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供寶貴的研究及分享文章，連同特邀稿文，本期共選刊了十二篇。經評審後，第一部分共收錄了六篇專題文章，內容包括：2012年香港中學文憑通識教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序、新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核、新高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究、通識教育科的現況及前瞻、新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響、應用學習之反思與檢討。內容非常豐富，這些研究都是從資料數據及課程實踐中得到的經驗分享，且特別針對過去實施了新高中課程後的檢視與反思，實在很值得同行參考及研究。第二部分是關於理論及政策評論，共有三篇文章，內容包括：測試分數可信程度研究、臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究、新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革。這部分的內容看來硬資料較多，但寶貴的是從不同角度看基礎教育正是我們要研究的範圍。香港正在研究十五年免費教育的課題，對學前教育的探討同樣是香港教育制度的熱門課題，這部分的研究對一直關注學前教育的前線工作者尤為寶貴。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，共有三篇文章。內容包括：教師對通識教育科文憑試與高階思維能力培育關係認知的探求、在香港推行國民教育的討論、教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學。這部分是前線教師的實踐分享，一直都很受教師歡迎，因為教學講的是實戰，是具體操作，並檢視成效。因此，很受教師歡迎。最後，要衷心感謝為學報擔任評審的專家們。學報能順利出版，評審員的功勞不可少，我在這兒非常感謝尹紹賢先生、何世昌先生、何景安先生、李子建教授、李宏峯先生、李偉雄先生、李國毅先生、周蘿茜女士、侯傑泰教授、胡少偉博士、胡志偉博士、英汝興教授、袁達榮先生、曹錫光博士、梁兆棠先生、梁志鏘博士、梁炳華博士、梁偉傑先生、梁雪梅女士、郭禮賢博士、黃素蘭博士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博士、葉建源先生、雷其昌先生、趙淑媚博士、盧兆興教授、戴繼志先生、魏國珍女士、羅天佑博士及羅慧燕博士。我謹代表學報編輯委員會表達我們真誠的謝意。《香港教師中心學報》主編簡加言二零一三年十二月目錄 Contents 一、主題：新高中學制－學生發展、教師發展、學校發展 1. Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination ......................................................... 1 FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze 2. Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong ...................... 21 S Y MAK Barley 3. Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study....................................... 49 YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man 4. 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 ............................................................................. 89 林德成、李子建 5. 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 ............................................... 101 陳國棟 6. 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 ........................................................................... 115 梁亦華二、理論及政策評論 1. How much can we trust test scores? ...................................................................... 131 Kay Cheng SOH v 2. 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 ............................................................... 151 何慧群、永井正武 3. 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 ........................................................................... 169 胡少偉三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. An inquiry of teachers’perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong ............ 183 LEUNG Lai Sim 2. 也要還國民教育一個公道 ................................................................................... 217 倪紹強 3. 在教學法與社會實踐之間： ..................................................................................... 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ ................................................... 223 朱耀光 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Abstract Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. Standards-referenced reporting (SRR) is adopted to report candidate performance, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5). Some LS teachers expressed doubts after the announcement of the grading results of the 2012 HKDSE LS subject. To address these concerns, this paper aims at reviewing the essence of marking and grading procedures for the 2012 HKDSE LS Examination. It is expected that the public could have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority after having a clear and overall picture about the whole procedure. Keywords Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination, Liberal Studies, standards- referenced reporting, marking and grading 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. In the HKDSE Examination, every subject adopts standards-referenced reporting (SRR) to report candidates’ assessment results. In SRR, candidates’ assessment results are reported, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5) with reference to explicit and fixed standards of performance stipulated as a set of level descriptors for a given subject. SRR has been adopted in Chinese Language and English Language of the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) since 2007. Some LS teachers raised concerns after the announcement of the LS grading results in the 2012 HKDSE Examination. One of the controversial points is that 2 the percentage of LS candidates obtaining Level 2 or above amounts to some 90%, which may seem to be “unreasonably” high. In this regard, this paper aims at explaining the essence of marking and grading procedures of LS. It is expected that the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority after having knowledge about the marking and grading procedures. In the following, the relevant marking and grading procedures of LS, and the related research studies and results will be highlighted. First, the LS assessment framework will be outlined. Secondly, marking arrangement for examination papers of LS will be mentioned; especially on the measures ensuring the reliability and validity in the marking process. Thirdly, moderation process of school raw marks on SBA will be studied, which aims at ensuring fairness and across-school comparability. After discussing marking process of exam papers and moderation process of SBA raw marks, the grading process, which is an essential part to determine the cut scores for various performance levels, will be examined. 2. Assessment framework of LS There are two components in the assessment of LS, namely: (i) Public Examination, and (ii) School-based Assessment. In the component of Public Examination, there are two papers – Paper 1 and Paper 2. The Public Examination component amounts to 80% of the total (Paper 1: 50% and Paper 2: 30%), and the SBA component amounts to the rest, that is 20%. Paper 1 consists of data-response questions, all of which have to be answered. Data- response questions aim to assess abilities such as identification, application and analysis of given data. The data define the scope and reflect the complexity or controversial nature of the issues involved; and such kind of questions also reflects the cross-modular nature of the curriculum. Paper 2 consists of three extended-response questions. Candidates are required to answer one question only. Extended-response questions with data as stimulus information provide a wider context for candidates to demonstrate various high-order skills, such as drawing critically on relevant experience, creative thinking, and communicating in a systematic manner. In addition to attending the public examination, each candidate of LS is required to complete an Independent Enquiry Study (IES) on a selected social issue, which is adopted as the mode of SBA in LS. The IES extends over a certain period of time and requires students to demonstrate various skills, such as data gathering, and analysis and presentation of findings. The IES is divided into three stages. The first is a preparatory 3 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination stage during which a candidate formulates the project title, specifies the objectives, considers suitable method(s), decides on the mode of presentation, plans for the enquiry and collects feedback from his/her classmates on the project plan. The second stage mainly involves data collection and organization. The third stage is the completion of the product which includes analysis and evaluation of data, conclusions on the results of the enquiry and a reflection on the enquiry process. 3. Marking arrangement 3.1 Marker training The HKDSE LS examination consists of open-ended questions focusing on the enquiry of current social issues in accordance with the nature of the subject. There was a worry that the number of qualified markers may not be sufficient for the subject, as LS is a new core subject for all candidates of HKDSE Examination. Therefore, the Authority conducted three rounds of marker training sessions in the year 2010-2011. During the first round (from October to December 2010), a total of 10 sessions were completed, and 569 teachers participated. The second round comprising 9 sessions, was conducted from January to February 2011 and 538 teachers participated. The third round was between June and October 2011 and 594 teachers participated in 9 training sessions. Each training session comprised a 3-hour markers’ meeting and post-meeting individual marking at the Assessment Centre. The training aimed to: • allow teachers to experience the marking process, including the markers’ meeting and the marking standardization process; • provide opportunities for teachers to better understand the marking criteria and the standards of HKDSE LS; • prepare teachers to be HKDSE LS markers and Assistant Examiners (AEs); • familiarise teachers with the Onscreen Marking (OSM) system; • collect marking statistics of teacher participants to facilitate the selection of markers for the live examination. During the markers’ meeting, participants were briefed of the marking criteria, standards and marking guidelines, illustrated by authentic performance in the sample scripts. Participants trial-marked some sample scripts. The scripts were then discussed in group meetings led by AEs who were experienced LS markers. Through the group discussions, with group size kept at 15 at most, participants aligned their marking standards and further clarified the marking criteria. After the markers’ meeting, participants marked 15 scripts of Papers 1 and 2 respectively on their own at the Assessment Centre. The marks of these scripts had been standardised by experienced markers in a previous exercise. Marking statistics, comparing 4 the characteristics of marks awarded by participants with that by experienced markers, were computed and sent back to participants as feedback. Marking statistics on the following aspects were discerned. • Mean of Mark Discrepancies: This is the average of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers. • Standard Deviation of Mark Discrepancies: This is the variation of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers reflecting the marking consistency; i.e., the lower the figure, the higher the consistency of marking performance. • Difference between the Mark Range of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This shows the degree of discrimination relative to that of experienced markers. • Correlation between Marks of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This indicates the degree of agreement between the marks awarded by the participant and those awarded by experienced markers, in terms of the rank order. In the first round, amongst the 569 participants (681 enrolled) of the training, 383 joined the individual marking after the markers’ meeting. In the second round, out of the 538 participants (606 enrolled), 394 joined the individual marking. During the last round of training, 542 out of the 594 participants (660 enrolled) completed the individual marking. Therefore, a total of 1,319 teachers participated in both the markers’ meeting and individual marking. The following tables show the overall picture of marking statistics for the participants of individual marking in different rounds: Table 1a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 1) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 1.83 1.93 1.91 1.89 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.36 2.39 2.40 2.39 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers -0.37 -0.46 -0.42 -0.42 Correlation between marks of the participant and that of experienced markers 0.84 0.84 0.81 0.83 5 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination Table 1b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 1) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies between 4 marks and -4 marks(a) 97.65 96.95 97.35 97.32 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies less than 2 marks(b) 19.84 18.27 18.71 18.94 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks(c) 94.78 93.65 94.90 94.44 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7(d) 97.13 96.45 96.03 96.54 Notes: (a) 4 marks were determined as the thresholds for mean of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (b) 2 marks were determined as the thresholds for standard deviation of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (c) Provided that the variations of marks assigned are identical between two markers, it can be shown that the difference in mark range being greater than 4 is rare, with chance being equal to some 0.15. (d) As a rule of thumb, in general correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 is regarded as high. Table 2a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 2) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 0.88 0.90 1.15 1.00 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.48 2.47 2.41 2.45 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers 1.37 1.24 1.22 1.27 Correlation between marks of the participants and that of experienced markers 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.73 6 Table 2b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 2) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancy between 4 marks and -4 marks 96.87 96.70 96.98 96.85 Standard deviation of mark discrepancy less than 2 marks 18.54 18.02 20.42 18.99 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks 89.56 88.32 88.66 88.85 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 65.27 69.29 72.21 68.92 For Paper 1, the averages in Table 1a displayed similar patterns in all the three rounds. The means of mark discrepancies were well within the “acceptable” level; i.e., below 4 marks. The mark ranges of the participants were just slightly smaller than that of the experienced markers, with an average for all participants being equal to -0.42 marks. The correlation was high with the overall figure being equal to 0.83. However, the averages of the standard deviations of mark discrepancies throughout these rounds were quite large; i.e., greater than 2 marks. From Table 2a, it was observed that the performance of the participants in Paper 2 was quite similar to that in Paper 1, with good performance on average in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies, mark range and correlation, but slight under-performance for the item of standard deviation of mark discrepancies. The mean of mark discrepancies for Paper 2 was much closer to zero, though the correlation was lower than that in Paper 1. From Tables 1b and 2b, an overwhelming majority performed satisfactorily in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies and mark range. The majority awarded marks that correlated well with that of the experienced markers, though the percentage of participants performing well in this aspect was much higher in Paper 1. For Paper 2, the percentage of participants with acceptable performance in terms of correlation and standard deviation of mark discrepancies had a slight increase from the first to the third Round. Based on these marking statistics, the percentage of discrepancy marking for Papers 1 and Paper 2 was (roughly) estimated to be around 20% for the live examination, which would be taken into consideration for manpower arrangement. In a nutshell, a total of 28 training sessions were conducted in 2011-2012. A total of 1,319 teachers experienced the whole marking process and were familiarised with the OSM system. To facilitate the selection of markers, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been employed to derive an integrated marking performance indicator based on the four marking statistics so as to maximise the discrimination power. In addition 7 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination to the marking statistics, other factors, such as previous marking experiences, would be considered when selecting markers for the live examination of LS. A large majority of these participants performed satisfactorily with reference to a number of marking statistics; especially on the mean of mark discrepancies, difference between the mark ranges and correlation. This indicated that they were able to grasp the marking criteria and adopt the marking standard reasonably close to our experienced markers. On the other hand, there was room for improvement in the consistency of marking performance of these participants. In addition, 23 experienced LS teachers served as facilitators in group meetings and gained experience as AEs. 3.2 Markers’ meeting and onscreen marking Immediately after the completion of the LS public examination, the marking process was started. Markers’ meetings with recruited markers were arranged in order to standardise the marking criteria and standards. Before the markers’ meetings, a representative sample of candidate scripts was selected and marked by the Chief Examiner and a group experienced senior AEs whereby the consensus on marking standards and marking criteria were arrived at through professional discussion. Some of these standardised scripts were used for marking standardization, training and qualifying purposes. After the markers’ meetings, markers then marked another set of standardised scripts which were used for testing whether they could grasp the marking standards and marking criteria properly so as to obtain the markers’ qualification. Only those qualified markers would be allowed to mark scripts of the live examination. In addition to manual procedures for ensuring marking quality, the Authority adopts innovative and advanced technologies to enhance the marking performance. In 2005, the Authority received funding from the government to modernise its information technology infrastructure, and to introduce OSM to improve the security, quality, reliability and efficiency of marking. The marking procedures with the use of OSM are outlined below: • Examinations for candidates conducted; • Examination scripts collected; • Examination scripts scanned and images saved; • Images of answers distributed to markers for viewing and marking via secure intranet system at designated Assessment Centres; • Marks at question level and annotations by markers captured by the onscreen marking system. For security reasons, marking is conducted at designated Assessment Centres. The primary function of these Assessment Centres is to facilitate onscreen marking of public examinations but they will also be used for the delivery and marking of a wide range of examinations and assessments, such as the Territory-wide System Assessment and a 8 variety of computer-based examinations. Moreover, facilities will be available for the training of examiners, markers, teachers and other assessment staff. The advantages of using OSM include the following aspects: • Security: Secure storage of scanned images of scripts, and elimination of the physical movement of massive scripts; • Marking: Real-time monitoring of marking consistency and quality control of marking, and flexible allocation of questions to markers; • Efficiency: More efficient and flexible script management processes, and higher efficiency in mark calculation; • Accuracy: Reduction of errors arising from mark entries, and elimination of errors associated with manual mark calculation and recording processes; • Data Availability: More detailed analysis of candidates’ performance, and more information on responses to individual questions and better feedback regarding candidates’ performance. In view of all the aspects mentioned above, OSM is considered as a better alternative to the conventional paper-based marking (PBM). Concerning marking quality, with the use of OSM a marker’s performance could be continuously monitored by comparing his/her marks awarded on standardised scripts with that of experienced markers. Thus, marking problems identified could be rectified at an early stage. Besides, it also facilitates the sample checking conducted by AEs on certain scripts of each marker. The Authority first introduced OSM in the 2007 HKCEE English writing paper. Afterwards, OSM was being implemented gradually in marking exam scripts for a number of subjects. To ensure that there is no adverse effect of OSM on the marking performance, the Authority has initiated a number of studies with tertiary institutes comparing OSM with PBM. A study (Coniam, 2009a, 2009b) examined English language essay scripts selected from the 2007 HKCEE English Language Paper 1B (Writing). To compare OSM with PBM, 30 markers, who had good rater statistics, were arranged to remark on paper 100 scripts, which they had marked onscreen nine months before. After the remarking, they were requested to complete a questionnaire in order to collect feedback on the exercise. From the questionnaire data, it was suggested that technologically, raters had no problems with OSM. Attitudinal differences surfaced, however, between new raters who had solely rated on screen as against experienced raters who had solely adopted PBM in their previous experiences. New raters felt that having to travel to a special marking centre was less of an inconvenience than did old raters. New raters, additionally, expressed a preference to mark on screen rather than on paper. The statistical analysis of remarking data was conducted from two perspectives. The first involved classical measurement statistics. Correlations between the two forms of rating and the amount of discrepancy scripts (where a third rating was required) suggested 9 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination that no bias existed favouring either form of marking. Secondly, using multi-faceted Rasch measurement (MFRM), a five-faceted design was employed, modeling raters, test takers, input prompt materials, rating scales, and, especially, the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit. For the method of marking - the major facet for investigation, the corresponding logit values of both methods were very close to zero. Therefore the hypothesis that the methods of marking (OSM and PBM) did not interfere scores awarded by markers was accepted. There is another study (Coniam, 2010) which has similar objectives as the first one; but the subject concerned is Advanced Supplementary Level (ASL) Liberal Studies. The study involved 14 markers who had previously marked ASL Liberal Studies scripts on screen in the 2009 Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination. In the study, the 14 markers remarked on paper a number of the scripts that they had marked on screen in the 2009 examination. Using multi-faceted Rasch analysis, a five-faceted design was employed to model markers, test takers, input questions, rating scales and the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit and suggested that the scores from OSM could be considered as reliable as those obtained from PBM. 3.3 Double marking arrangement With regard to marking reliability, one of the public concerns is that there may be a considerable degree of variability when marking open-ended questions of LS. In this regard, the Authority has decided to adopt double marking in LS public examination. Any LS question of a candidate will be primarily marked by two markers. In case that prominent discrepancy occurs between the two markers’ marks, third marking (i.e., discrepancy marking) will be undertaken. The average of the closest pair of marks1 will be taken as the final mark of the question concerned. Fourth marking may be involved, if necessary, to settle down any controversies. Due to the use of OSM, which facilitates immediate distribution of scripts and flexible allocation of questions, double marking could be conducted on question basis. The four questions in Papers 1 and 2 attempted by a candidate in the public examination of LS will be marked by at least eight markers. Such an arrangement eliminates the chance that a candidate’s assessment result will be dominated by a single marker who may be too harsh or too lenient. The Authority had undertaken a study (HKEAA, 2011a) to examine the impact when adopting double marking in the LS questions. In the study, four data-response questions and four extended-response questions, and the corresponding marking guidelines were prepared in both Chinese and English. The full mark of each of these questions was more or less 20. These questions were attempted by some 1,300 students from 15 schools _______________ 1 In OSM, the sum of the closest pair of marks is compiled instead for the sake of computational convenience. This, in fact, implies that the full mark of a question is doubled. 10 covering a wide spectrum of performance levels. The student responses were marked by 18 markers using double marking (with discrepancy marking). Each student attempted one data-response question and one extended-response question, resulting totally 2,530 responses. For these 2,530 student responses, double marking was conducted. The corresponding statistics on marking discrepancies are shown below. Table 3: Distribution of discrepancies in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 413 16% 16% 1 749 30% 46% 2 592 23% 69% 3 368 15% 84% 4 226 9% 93% 5 100 4% 97% 6 51 2% 99% 7 20 1% 100% 8 9 0% 100% 9 1 0% 100% 10 1 0% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - Some 16% of total responses, which had differences greater than three, required discrepancy marking. In general, third marking was already sufficient to ensure that the differences between the closest pairs of marks were less than or equal to three marks. There were only a small proportion of responses that required fourth marking. The corresponding distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking is tabulated below. Table 4: Distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 510 20% 20% 1 911 36% 56% 2 724 29% 85% 3 385 15% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - 11 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination The closest pair of marks of a response was used for calculating the average, which was the final mark of the response. Provided that the “true” performance of a response did fall in between the closest pairs of marks, the difference between the final mark assigned and the “true” performance would be less than 1.5 marks; i.e., less than 10% of the full mark of the question concerned. The correlation between the marks in the closest pairs (retained after conducting double marking with discrepancy marking) was found to be equal to some 0.8. This reflected a high level of marking reliability. In 2012 public examination of LS, it is found that the percentage of responses that requires discrepancy marking further decreases. It may be due to the fact that previous professional development courses and the targeted marker training sessions have familiarised school teachers with the marking criteria and standards of HKDSE LS. 4. SBA Moderation Process 4.1 The reasons of moderation SBA is a salient feature of the HKDSE Examination. SBA refers to assessments administered in schools and marked by the students’ own teachers. SBA in LS requires each student to carry out an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). The IES provides a valuable opportunity for students to independently carry out a focused enquiry into a contemporary issue of interest, and to present their views, ideas, findings, evaluations and personal reflections. After receiving the raw SBA marks from schools, the Authority has to undertake the SBA moderation process. The main reason for carrying out moderation is to ensure the consistency of assessment standards across schools. Teachers know their students well and thus are best placed to judge their students’ relative performance. However, they could not be aware of the standards of performance across all schools. Therefore, teachers in some schools may be harsher or more lenient in their judgment than teachers in other schools. Mark ranges of scores awarded in various schools may also be different from each other. To resolve these problems, the Authority employs appropriate methods for “moderating” the raw SBA scores submitted by different schools to achieve the following: • The comparability of SBA results across schools in order to ensure fairness for individual students and schools; • The quality, reliability and validity of SBA results; • Provision of useful feedback to schools for improving practice; • In LS, the SBA moderation is conducted using statistical moderation based on examination results and supplemented with sample review. 12 4.2 Statistical moderation Statistical moderation is particularly appropriate in situations where there is another measure available that can reflect SBA performance level. Typically this other measure will be students’ performance in the public examination of that subject. An advantage of the method is that it can be carried out efficiently and impartially within a reasonable amount of time and resources. The key assumption is that the overall performance in the public examination of students in a school can properly reflect the SBA performance level of the same group of students. Generally speaking, this is a valid assumption in the context of many academic subjects in public examinations. In the moderation process, the adjustments are applied only to school average and spread of raw SBA scores of students with reference to their public examination scores in the same school. Therefore, the ranking of students within a school remains unchanged after moderation. The school averages of examination scores are used to determine the corresponding performance levels on SBA, taking within-school correlations between students’ raw SBA scores and examination scores into consideration (HKEAA, 2010). 4.3 Sample review Some of the objectives of the SBA cannot be precisely assessed in the public examination due to different requirements. Moreover, students in SBA would possibly gain significant improvement under teachers’ supervision due to the efficacy of assessment for learning. If only schools’ public examination scores are used to adjust students’ raw SBA scores, for some schools the statistical moderated results may not fully reflect the students’ actual performance in the SBA; i.e., there may be some outlier schools whose statistically moderated scores differ greatly from the performance level demonstrated by students’ SBA work. Therefore, for 2012 HKDSE LS, each school was required to submit six samples of students’ work for reassessment which was conducted by a group of external assessors appointed by the Authority. The samples were chosen by the Authority using stratified random sampling. Students in each school were divided into a number of strata based on their raw SBA scores. Therefore, in each stratum the performance level of students on SBA should be similar with each other. Some students’ work was then randomly chosen from each stratum. The stratified sampling method could ensure that a fairly small sample of students’ work could adequately represent the full range of SBA performance of each school. For schools where only a few students were studying a particular subject, the work of all students had to be submitted. All the LS samples were then reassessed with reference to the previous standardised exemplars and a set of stipulated assessment criteria. If prominent discrepancies between external assessors’ scores and raw scores were observed, discrepancy marking would be conducted. It was observed that the discrepancy marking percentage was about 20% in 2012. The correlation between raw scores and results based on external assessment 13 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination amounted to 0.8. This reflected that the marking standards of school teachers were generally in line with that based on external assessment. With regard to possible sampling variations, the ratio of school average of raw SBA scores to sample average of raw SBA scores was examined for each school. The distribution of these ratios of 523 schools is shown below. Figure 1: Distribution of ratios of school means of raw SBA scores to sample means of raw SBA scores The 5% percentile of the distribution was 0.94 and the 95% percentile was 1.06. It implied that sample raw means were very close to school raw means for most schools. In addition, it should be noted that the mean mark of sampled students’ work from external assessment of a school would be adjusted upwards when sample raw mean was less than school raw mean; and vice versa. With such adjustments, it was expected that the sampling variations would be further reduced. To further enhance the reliability of the estimations of means and spreads of SBA scores of schools based on external assessment, Bayesian hierarchical modeling was employed so as to share information across different schools. The model is briefly described below. 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 14 Let Yi (a vector) be the marks based on external assessment of a school i; i.e., Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni. The number of students in the school is ni. The Bayesian hierarchical model is set up as follows: Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni ~ Normal(θi, σi 2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., there are m schools) θi ~ Normal(μ, τ2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all θi are sampled from a super-population) 1/σi 2 ~ Gamma(v0/2, v0σ0 2/2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all σi 2 are sampled from a super-population) The model is graphically displayed in the figure below. Figure 2: The structure of Bayesian hierarchical modeling showing relationship between data observed and parameters involved In Bayesian analysis, the parameters: μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2 are treated as random variables. To conduct the Bayesian estimation, some non-informative priors p(μ), p(τ2), p(v0), p(σ0 2) are set up respectively for μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2. Based on such a model, information could be shared across schools when estimating θi and σi 2. For schools with small sample sizes and/or extreme empirical values, the estimates of θi and σi 2 will be pulled towards the corresponding overall estimates (μ and σ0 2). In general, algorithms using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method are deployed for estimation in Bayesian hierarchical modeling. It is well known that such a hierarchical model could reduce the estimation error (Berger, 1993; Hoff, 2010; Gelman et. al., 2003) in different applications. In addition, a simulation study has been undertaken to gauge the magnitude 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 v0σ0 2 μ, τ2 θ1 θ2 θm-1 θm Y1 Y2 Ym-1 Ym θ1 2 θ2 2 σ 2 m-1 σ 2 m 15 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination of gain in accuracy when applying the model in the specific setting for SBA moderation (Fung, 2011). It is found that the total Mean Squared Error (MSE) in the estimation of school means could be reduced by some 30% using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, as compared with the one simply using sample means. After consolidating the sample review result of a school, it was compared with the corresponding result from statistical moderation. Due to possible variations incurred in the sampling and remarking process, an appropriate tolerance limit was set when comparing the two results. If the difference was within the tolerance limit, the statistical moderation result would be adopted as the school performance level on SBA. If the difference exceeded the tolerance limit, appropriate adjustments would be made to the statistical moderation result with reference to the sample review result in order to determine the school performance level on SBA. It is worth mentioning that in LS, the SBA marks of a student is divided into two parts, namely: (i) Task and (ii) Process. Only marks on the Task of a student will be moderated according to the procedures mentioned above. Marks on Process which includes students’ effort in the IES will not be subject to moderation, as students’ performance in this part may not be prominently associated with the examination results. Schools are expected to award the Process marks in accordance with the stipulated criteria. The Authority imposes quality control measures to ensure the fairness and reliability of the assessment on Process, which include monitoring by District Coordinators (DCs), providing feedback to schools and follow-up of any irregularities identified. In 2012, it is observed that the mean of Process marks submitted by all schools is quite appropriate (i.e., not too high or too low) and the spread is reasonable. The moderated Task marks are then combined with the un-moderated Process marks to form the total SBA score for inclusion in the subject result. For the Task component, in 2012 53.3% of schools fall into the “within the expected range” category2, while the marks of 21.5% of schools are higher than expected, and 25.1% lower than expected. Moreover, among the schools with marks higher or lower than expected, the majority only deviate slightly from the expected3. Thus, in 2012 the majority of schools falls into the “within the expected range” or “slightly higher/lower than expected” categories. It is supposed that teachers in these schools do have a good understanding about the marking standards. _______________ 2 Based on the difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks (D), a school is in the category of “within the expected range” when 0 ≤ D < 3 with full mark = 50. 3 The difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks is greater than or equal to 3 and less than 6 with full mark = 50. 16 5. Grading process based on professional expertise Under SRR, a set of draft descriptors has been developed for each subject to describe how a candidate typically performs at a given level. The main purpose of grading is to determine the minimum score needed for a candidate to attain a given level. This minimum score is known as the cut score. The HKDSE grading procedures include a series of tasks (HKEAA, 2011b) that begins before the actual marking of scripts. For any given subject, a panel of expert judges, which comprises the subject manager(s), the chief examiner(s) and selected assistant examiner(s) or markers from the individual components, is responsible for conducting the series of grading tasks, including: (i) sample script selection, (ii) marking standardization, (iii) post-marking exercise, and (iv) panel of judges grading meeting. After the 2012 public examination of LS, some samples that could illustrate performance particularly well in relation to the level descriptors were selected. After script selection, the panel discussed the scores to be awarded to discrete points in the sample scripts. These marked scripts were used as standardisation scripts for marking. After the completion of marking and moderation of SBA scores, the panel considered the selected written examination exemplars and SBA samples with reference to the level descriptors, and the previous released samples. The objective of the discussion was to make provisional grading recommendations (including preliminary cut score ranges) on each examination paper and SBA component through expert judgment based on samples of performance. In the panel judges grading meeting, panel members re-considered the level descriptors, question requirements, marking guidelines and a number of representative samples as well as a range of recommended cut scores for each level. Panel judges exchanged their views led by the Chief Examiner. With a number of rounds of discussions, they finally agreed on preliminary cut scores for each paper and SBA component, and for the subject. In determining the cut scores, consideration was made to the actual performance of candidates in relation to • the level descriptors; • performance samples from the HKDSE SRR Information Packages (HKEAA, 2009); • marked live scripts selected; • feedback from markers on the level of difficulty of each particular examination paper; • performance statistics of current papers and SBA component. 17 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination During this meeting, the panel of judges investigated the impact of amending the cut scores for each examination paper on subject grade distributions. Finally, the panel of judges decided on their recommendations for the cut scores for LS. A senior management team led by the Secretary General of the Authority reviewed and decided on the cut scores based on the recommendations made by the panel of LS, and submitted the cut scores from the panel of LS to the Public Examinations Board (PEB) for further discussion and endorsement. In 2012, after discussion in PEB it was endorsed that the recommendations made by the panel of LS were strictly followed without any adjustments. The cut scores for Level 5** and Level 5* were set with reference to the percentage in mark distribution so that Level 5** was awarded to the highest-achieving 10% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates and Level 5* was awarded to the next highest- achieving 30% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates. 6. Conclusions In this paper4, it is highlighted that the Authority has taken stringent measures to ensure the quality of marking and grading procedures adopted in HKDSE Examination of LS. Relevant researches were conducted to examine the impacts of the new measures as far as possible. It is expected that after having an overall picture of the marking and grading procedures, the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority. Currently, the Authority is now collecting opinions and feedback from various stakeholders on the assessment framework of LS in order to strive for further improvement in the future. References Berger, J. O. (1993). Statistical decision theory and Bayesian analysis (2nd ed.). Springer. Coniam, D. (2009a). Validating onscreen marking in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(3), 423-431. Coniam, D. (2009b). Examining negative attitudes towards onscreen marking in Hong Kong. CUHK Education Journal, 37(1-2), 71-87. _______________ 4 To facilitate the access to the content by the public, the paper is also available from the website of the Authority. 18 Coniam, D. (2010). Markers’ perceptions regarding the onscreen marking of Liberal Studies in the Hong Kong public examination system. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(3), 249- 271. Fung, T. H. (2011, July). Simulation study on the use of hierarchical Bayesian modeling in expert judgment for SBA Moderation. Paper presented at the 76th Annual and the 17th International Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Hong Kong. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., & Rubin, D. B. (2003). Bayesian data analysis (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Hoff, P. D. (2010). A first course in Bayesian statistical methods (1st ed.). Springer. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2009). Liberal Studies: Standards-referenced reporting information package. Further information available from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/resources/publications/list_of_publications/hkdse_srr_pub/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2010). Moderation of school- based assessment scores in the HKDSE booklet. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu. hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011a). Study in double marking of Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Liberal Studies practice questions’ answer scripts. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/ research/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011b). Grading procedures and standards-referenced reporting in the HKDSE examination. Retrieved from: http:// www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ 19 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination 2012年香港中學文憑通識教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序馮子豪、唐創時香港考試及評核局摘要 2012年香港中學文憑考試的考生必須修讀通識教育科。香港中學文憑考試採用水平參照模式匯報考生的表現，將考生表現分為各等級（1至 5）。部份通識科教師對通識科考試評級結果表示疑慮。有見及此，本文回顧通識科考試的閱卷與評級程序，期望當大眾認識相關的程序後，將對考評局所發的資歷更具信心。關鍵字香港中學文憑考試，通識教育科，水平參照模式匯報，閱卷與評級 21 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong S Y MAK Barley Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract School-based assessment (SBA) is a form of formative assessment involving feedbacks and appraisals to students based on their school-based projects; it enables students to identify and improve on their areas of weakness and teachers to adjust their teaching strategies accordingly (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2005). SBA is still a relatively new concept for most senior secondary school subjects in Hong Kong – yet it is now heavily incorporated into Hong Kong’s New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum since the introduction of the New Academic Structure (NAS) in 2009. SBA has spawned numerous debates on its efficacy in Hong Kong and worldwide. This study gives an overview of the current issues related to SBA in Hong Kong through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders by utilizing territory-wide data of 91 secondary schools in Hong Kong from the most recent NSS Curriculum Study conducted in 2011-12. Keywords school-based assessment (SBA), formative assessment, New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum, curriculum reform, Hong Kong education 22 1. Introduction 1.1 The current Hong Kong education system and school-based assessment In light of the rising competitiveness of the global environment, the Hong Kong’s education sector recognizes its need to strengthen Hong Kong students’ adaptability, creativity, independent thinking and life-long learning capabilities, which were limited by the traditional education system that restrained students from maximizing their potential. As a result, the New Academic Structure (NAS) was introduced in 2009 as one of the most ambitious education reforms in Hong Kong’s education history. The NAS reduced the number of secondary school years from 7 to 6, and increased the number of tertiary education years from 3 to 4: Hong Kong students are now required to study three years in junior secondary school, three years in senior secondary school, and four years in the tertiary education sector – a “3-3-4” education system. Under this configuration, the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum was implemented as the framework for governing the content of the senior secondary school years (Secondary 4 to 6). As opposed to the traditional senior secondary school curriculum, NSS involved a number of major changes, which consisted of designating Liberal Studies as one of the four core subjects, the introduction of the elective subject system, as well as an emphasis on Other Learning Experiences (OLE) – to name but a few. Major changes have also taken place in the assessment environment for senior secondary school students: the current education system has now shifted from a two- fold public examination system – the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) and Advanced Levels (AL) in Secondary 5 and Secondary 7 respectively to a single public examination, the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) in Secondary 6. Meanwhile, as both an assessment and reviewing tool for teachers and students, school-based assessment (SBA) was incorporated and is now playing a pivotal role in giving greater emphasis to formative assessment (as opposed to summative assessment) in the NSS Curriculum. Notwithstanding its great potential in realizing the aims and virtues of the NAS, SBA poses great challenges and complexities in its application. In this paper, the progress of the implementation of SBA in the Hong Kong context will be reviewed and discussed through the eyes of administrators and teaching stakeholders. 1.2 The implementation of SBA in the NSS curriculum In Hong Kong, SBA is an assessment administered in schools as part of the learning and teaching process, with senior secondary students being assessed by their subject teachers (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a). In total, it accounts for 20% of the students’ overall HKDSE Examination result. From 2012, SBA was incorporated in 12 subjects including Chinese Language, English Language, Liberal 23 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Studies, Chinese History, History, Biology, , Physics, Science, Information & Communication Technology, Design & Applied Technology, and Visual Arts. According to the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) (2013b), SBA will be extended gradually to other subjects starting from the 2014 HKDSE Examination, as indicated in Table 1 below: Table 1: Implementation Timetable (HKEAA, 2013b) Year of Exam Subjects - Chinese Language - English Language - Liberal Studies - Chinese History - Design & Applied Technology - History - Information & Communication Technology - Visual Arts - Biology - - Physics - Science - Chinese Literature - Economics - Ethics & Religious Studies - Geography - Health Management & Social Care - Technology & Living - Tourism & Hospitality Studies - Literature in English - Music 2012 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2013 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2014 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2015 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2016 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2017 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2018 Implementation Implementation Optional trial 2019 Implementation Implementation Implementation The intention of HKEAA is to slowly incorporate SBA in most subjects (not implemented in Mathematics and Business, Accounting & Financial Studies while practical examination is implemented for Physical Education instead), in a progressive and gradual manner year on year, while reviews, research and public consultations are simultaneously ongoing as adjustments are expected during the implementation process. Due to the demanding nature of SBA (as explained in the previous section), HKEAA has responded with a list of streamlining measures in order to alleviate the current situation and to provide room for the future implementation of SBA in other subjects. These streamlining measures are as follows: 24 1) The SBA of Chinese Language and Liberal Studies will be “streamlined” (i.e. the reduction of the number of tasks, assessments and mark submissions in the SBA of subjects) in the 2013 HKDSE Examination; 2) For the 9 deferred subjects where SBA was originally scheduled to be implemented between 2014 and 2016, full implementation will be postponed to the 2019 HKDSE Examination, with optional school trials to be conducted in 2018. (HKEAA, 2013b) To better understand the needs of the education sector, HKEAA, the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Education Bureau (EDB) are working in close collaboration to gauge the views of schools, curriculum development and subject experts, as well as independent education institutions in the streamlining proposals since October 2011. These proposals include streamlining the SBA of the 9 subjects that are scheduled in the 2014 HKDSE Examination, advancing SBA streamlining in Chinese Language to the 2013 cohort and adopting interim measures for Liberal Studies, and postponing the implementation of SBA of the 9 deferred subjects to the 2019 HKDSE Examination (HKEAA, 2013b). 1.3 Why school-based assessment? SBA is by no means a new assessment tool; it is widely accepted and comprehensively implemented in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Canada and South Africa. SBA is regarded as a tool to more accurately reveal the true ability of the student, reduce the limiting effects of “exam fright”, and to increase the confidence of students as they have already learnt and brought to practice the examination contents and skills during the conduct of their SBA projects. In addition to this, students can also feel less anxious as they have already achieved a certain percentage of the final mark prior to their final exam (Kerr-Phillips, 2007). SBA is similarly viewed in Hong Kong as an integral component of teaching and learning, which made feedback and comprehensive appraisals possible, thus allowing both teachers and students to identify the latter’s strengths and weaknesses for the purpose of continual improvements and confidence building (HKEAA, 2012b). In addition, SBA is also proven to have positive effects on students’ public oral examination and better absentee rate than students from schools that do not submit SBA marks (Lee, 2009). Yet SBA is not without its problems and controversies. As indicated by a report published by the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU) in 2013, workload brought upon by SBA is overwhelming for both teachers and students. For the student, the demand for SBA is high in terms of its quality and quantity, sometimes exceeding that of a student’s ability (may even include tertiary education level contents). In addition, the heavy workload derived from SBA often incur extra lesson time, therefore limits students 25 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong from partaking in extracurricular activities. On the other hand, teachers are similarly affected by hosting the extra lessons, and marking the vast amount of students’ SBA work. Furthermore, the PTU report suggested that the inadequate proportion of SBA that makes up the final mark will ultimately be “unfairly” adjusted by the public paper examination, regardless of how well the student did in the former. In light of the above, some teachers have even suggested that SBA may negatively affect the quality of learning and teaching as a whole in Hong Kong (Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union, 2013). Echoing these negative views, the sheer amount of workload of SBA has led to another major issue in other countries – plagiarism; it is tempting for students to copy work off the internet in order to save time amidst a tight schedule and demanding workload, thus incurring further workload for teachers in cross-checking references. Not only are the students tempted to play outside the rules, teachers are also reported to have meddled with the grey areas of the SBA grading system in order to achieve better grades for their students. Even without the deliberate intention of providing lenient markings, teachers call for a more standardized grading system for SBA across subjects in view of the “appalling partiality” in this aspect (Kerr-Philips, 2007). On an extreme note, Michael Gove, the Minister of Education in England remarked at the London Festival of Education in 2012, when questioned on the efficacy of SBA, “if education can’t be externally assessed, it’s play”, thus his recent initiatives to downplay the role of SBA enhance summative assessments in the UK (Downs, 2012). In spite of the downside of SBA, it is still, no doubt, a tool to diversify the traditionally summative assessment tools (i.e. public paper examinations); it gives formative assessment a larger role for achieving continuous reviews on teaching practices, and sustainable improvement on the holistic learning and teaching environment. This paper will seek to provide an insight to the voices of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in order to provide an overview of the extent of success and acceptance of the implementation of SBA in Hong Kong’s NSS Curriculum. 2. Background of the study In 2011, the EDB of Hong Kong Special Administration Region commissioned the Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) of the Faculty of Education of The Chinese University of Hong Kong to undertake a major research project entitled New Senior Secondary Curriculum Implementation Study 2011 to reveal the progress made from implementing NSS. The study aimed at investigating various aspects of the NSS in 6 major themes, namely “Curriculum Planning”, “Learning and Teaching”, “Assessment”, “Managing Change”, “the Impact on Senior Secondary School Students”, and “Ongoing Needs and Concerns”. This paper will report on the findings related to SBA, a major theme under “Assessment”. 26 3. Methodology The NSS study selected 105 schools out of a pool of 447 secondary schools in Hong Kong by a stratified random sampling technique based on an objective indicator of student achievement (Group 1 are schools with the highest average student achievement, Group 2 the next highest and Group 3 is the lowest). In the end, 91 out of the 105 schools responded to the request to participate in the survey, thus spawning a high response rate of about 87%. The questionnaires were developed to gauge the views of the implementation of NSS from 6 different stakeholders; including School heads or deputy heads (SH), Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH), Secondary 6, 4 and 3 teachers (T6, T4 and T3), as well as Secondary 6, 4 and 3 students (S6, S4 and S3). The questionnaires were sent to the 91 schools and were administered by the schools’ personnel. The completed questionnaires were then returned by post between December 2011 and February 2012. The distribution of the returned questionnaires among the stakeholders is listed in Table 2 below: Table 2: Number of questionnaires returned from different stakeholders Stakeholders Sampling Number of questionnaires SH The school heads or deputy heads 86 KH All Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads 515 T6 Teachers teaching Secondary 6** 838 T4 Teachers teaching Secondary 4** 527 T3 At least 8 teachers teaching Secondary 3 (one per KLA) 378 S6 All Secondary 6 students 4,614 S4 All Secondary 4 students 5,888 S3 At least two classes of Secondary 3 students from each school 2,751 * For subjects comprising a compulsory part and elective modules, teachers who teach only elective modules are not required to complete the questionnaire. ** Some of the teachers placed themselves as T4 and T6, thus the data were counted for both stakeholders. SBA was a major theme under “Assessment” and since this paper seeks to identify the extent of how well SBA is incorporated into the administrative and teaching processes of the NSS Curriculum, this paper has drawn data only from the administrative and teaching stakeholders’ (SH, KH, T6, T4 and T3) views on SBA therein. The contents of the questions on SBA were similar but tailored to each stakeholder (Appendix).The questions on SBA were grouped into 4 major components designed to answer the research questions presented in the following table: 27 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Table 3: SBA components and research questions SBA research questions: To what extent… SBA component Views derived from: 1) Has SBA been successfully incorporated into the schools? (understanding and knowledge, scheduling and formulating support measures) 1) The implementation of SBA in schools SH, KH, T6 and T4 2) Has the grading of SBA been subjected to fairness and consistency, and the criteria be transparent to students? 2) The grading of SBA T6, T4 and T3 3) How confident were the teachers in implementing SBA? 3) The confidence of teachers in implementing SBA T6, T4 and T3 4) How useful has SBA been as a tool in generating useful feedback for the continual improvement of students’ learning? 4) The effectiveness of SBA T6, T4 and T3 The results and analysis section will be presented by bar charts in order to aid readers in visualizing the obtained data that are attached in the annexes of this study. 4. Results and analysis The incorporation of SBA into the senior high school curriculum is a relatively new one for most subjects and requires understanding and adaptability on the part of the schools and teachers in this period of transition. The procedures adopted by schools to ensure an effective implementation of SBA, knowledge transfer of SBA (i.e. from school to teachers and from teachers to students) and the support provided to the teachers by the schools are inextricable factors determining the success of the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. In this light, this section will look at the perception of the administrative and teaching stakeholders – SH, KH, T6 and T4 – to gauge the extent of assimilation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum in terms of the above aspects. A 6-point Likert scale was used to gauge the attitudes of stakeholders running from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The latter 3 points were used to calculate positive responses i.e. “slightly agree”, “agree”, “strongly agree”. Since the implementation of SBA is a new feature in the NAS, any positive responses are deemed significant, thus “slightly agree” is incorporated in the reporting of positive results. 4.1 Procedures adopted by schools to ensure effective implementation of SBA According to Figure 1 below, SH have responded with very high agreement levels 28 in items (in descending order): “The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (SH: 94.1%), “The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing)” (SH: 92.9%), “The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation” (SH: 88.2%). Figure 1: Procedures to ensure effective implementation of SBA by SH While the majority of the schools have implemented procedures and regulations for the effective implementation of SBA on a wider scale, they have also demonstrated micro management planning by assigning working groups and coordinators to manage smaller items among subjects. 4.2 SBA knowledge transfer The implementation of SBA can never be successful without the proper guidance provided to the teachers by HKEAA and their respective schools. Thus HKEAA has pledged to provide detailed guidelines, assessment criteria and exemplars to schools and teachers to ensure consistency in SBA grading, and as well as the provision of professional training and district coordinators to support schools and teachers to successfully implement SBA in the NSS curriculum (HKEAA, 2013a). In light of this, the acquiring and transferring of SBA information among stakeholders (i.e. from schools to teachers and from teachers to students) will be looked at. In this section, “SBA knowledge transfer” refers to both the acquiring and transferring of SBA information (e.g. assessment criteria, SBA weighting, number of SBA tasks, etc.) among stakeholders. According to the responses from SH, shown in Figure 2 below, the findings provided positive evidence of the schools having enabled the knowledge transfer of SBA information to other stakeholders in secondary schools. High agreement levels were 29 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong found in the items (in descending order): “Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (SH: 100.0%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (SH: 95.3%), “Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (SH: 95.3%), and “The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results” (SH: 89.4%). Figure 2: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by SH Similarly, KH have responded with highly positive feedback on the transfer of SBA knowledge among teachers and students. In descending order: “Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors” (KH: 93.8%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (KH: 91.1%), and “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (KH: 87.7%), as indicated in Figure 3 below: 30 Figure 3: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by KH By the same token, T6 responded with highly positive feedback in the following items, in descending order “I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T6: 93.6%), and “I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T6: 84.7%), as indicated in Figure 4 below: Figure 4: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by T6 According to SH as well as KH, their teachers have demonstrated a clear knowledge in understanding the contents of SBA (e.g. how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools) and have taken up a dual role as both a facilitator and an assessor. With such knowledge, teachers were able to help students in resolving their queries on SBA-related matters, guide them through the assessment requirements and methods in their respective SBA subjects, and explain to them the complementary nature of written 31 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong examinations and SBA in the public assessment. T6 on the other hand, have provided the same positive findings at the teaching level. 4.3 SBA support provided to teachers This section looks at the perceived support implemented and received by the administrative and teaching stakeholders in regard to the implementation of SBA. According to Figure 5 below, SH felt that “the school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (SH: 95.2%) and that “the school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (SH: 88.3%). Meanwhile, KH have responded with similar high levels of agreement to item “My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (KH: 87.1%), but relatively lower in “Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (KH: 68.5%). On the other hand, although more than half of T6 and T4 have responded with positive feedback to item “My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (T6: 61.9%, T4: 63.3%), a significant 40% have responded otherwise. Figure 5: SBA support viewed by SH, KH, T6 and T4 It is noteworthy to highlight the significant differences on the level of perceived school support provided for the teachers among SH and the teaching stakeholders (T6 and T4) – although SH may feel that they have provided enough, the frontline teachers may still feel more support is needed as the workload from SBA is high. The findings reveal 32 that KH should also collaborate more with KH from other subjects so as to devise SBA schedules in avoiding the overloading of work. 4.4 The grading of SBA In light of the autonomy given to teachers in grading their students’ SBA works, standardization is a crucial factor in determining fairness and minimizing discrepancies in students’ marks among both teachers and between schools, thus allowing a more accurate and better reflection on the quality of the students’ works accordingly. The information on the marking requirements of SBA works is essential to students, therefore such knowledge must be readily transferable and transparent. This section will look at the extent to which KH have ensured fairness in SBA grading at their schools and whether they and T6 have made SBA knowledge transferable to students. The findings revealed that the vast majority of Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) have taken into consideration and have ensured that there is reliability and fairness in SBA results. They adopted different measures as follows (in descending order): “My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers” (KH: 95.4%), “My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (KH: 93.9%), “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (KH: 85.6%), and “Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (KH: 81.1%), Figure 6 below: Figure 6: The grading of SBA viewed by KH 33 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong On the other hand, T6 have revealed their efforts in handling SBA queries (in descending order): “I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (T6: 86.3%) and “I have clearly explained to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T6: 81.6%), as indicated in Figure 7 below: Figure 7: The grading of SBA viewed by T6 It is a discernible fact that the grading of SBA is viewed by both KH and T6 to have been ensured in its fairness; mechanisms were in place to ensure objectivity and consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. Meanwhile, schools’ procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results have been clearly explained to the students, suggesting that students were provided with and were knowledgeable about obtaining information on their SBA results. Furthermore, it is noteworthy to mention that the majority of KH perceived their teachers to have understood how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools, and that the majority of T6 have made the marking criteria available to their students at their respective schools. 4.5 The effectiveness of SBA One of the intended functions of SBA is to enable teachers to provide feedback and comprehensive appraisals to students, thus allowing students to understand and improve on their areas of weakness. In addition to this, SBA can allow students to demonstrate their strengths - that are often neglected in traditional public examinations (e.g. presentation skills). This section looks at the extent to which feedback and the demonstration of students’ alternative skills are enabled by the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. As indicated by Figure 8 below, only around 50%-65% of stakeholders (T6, T4 and T3) agreed about the perceived benefits of SBA: “SBA enables students / me to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses” (*T6: 57.0%, T4: 57.9%), “SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations” (*T6: 56.9%, T4: 59.2%), and “I support School-based Assessment 34 (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently” (*T6: 45.7%, T4: 49.7%, T3: 65.5%). Figure 8: SBA feedback for learning viewed by T6, T4, and T3 The opinions of the teachers varied in the use of SBA as a feedback tool for students – while about 65% of T3 felt that SBA enabled them to provide useful feedback for students on a frequent basis, half of T4 and more than half of T6 felt otherwise. The use of SBA in enabling students in better understanding their own strengths and weaknesses and as a means to demonstrate their ability in areas not assessed in public examinations were rated relatively more positively by T6 and T4, despite a significant portion (about 40%) of them feeling that SBA could not do so. Although a significant portion of teachers were able to improve the learning and teaching environment by effectively implementing SBA, the results revealed that there are factors hindering some teachers from doing so. As a preliminary observation, these factors may include the overburdening of workload derived from SBA that prevented teachers from having the needed time to provide feedback for their students. 4.6 The confidence of teachers teaching Secondary 4 and the extent of success in implementing SBA by teachers teaching Secondary 6 Teachers’ confidence in implementing SBA can reveal their knowledge and understanding of SBA in bringing it to fruition; likewise, the lack in such confidence may also suggest their concerns in the implementation process. The scales of T4 (confidence scale) and T6 (agreement scale) are different due to their respective nature - of the lack of 35 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong experience in implementing SBA for T4, as opposed to the experienced T6. The findings suggested that the majority of T4 were comfortable in implementing SBA related tasks, as revealed by the high ratings in the following items (in descending order): “clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T4: 80.4%), “clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T4: 78.5%), “design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning” (T4: 77.4%), and “clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T4: 74.2%). It is noted that the item “handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T4: 59.1%) was rated relatively lower than the above, indicating that about 40% of T4 were not confident with their handling of workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 9 below: Figure 9: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T4 Meanwhile, the majority of T6 agreed to the items (in descending order): “I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning” (T6: 77.8%), and “So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly” (T6: 68.7%). However, less than 50% of T6 agreed with the item “I can handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T6: 45.8%), suggesting they are facing difficulties in handling workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 10 below: 36 Figure 10: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T6 This section has suggested that the majority of T4 have confidence in designing effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning, were able to implement SBA smoothly, and have clearly explained to students the contemporary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment as well as how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in their schools. In addition, T6 have revealed that they have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning and were able to implement SBA smoothly. On the down side, workload derived from SBA was troubling T4, as indicated by their relatively lower confidence in handling this aspect. By the same token, more than half of T6 have revealed their inability in handling workload derived from SBA. 5. Discussion The data reveal that the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum has been a successful endeavor by both Government and the education sector at the administrative and teaching levels; at the administrative level, the majority of the major players - i.e. SH as well as KH of the education sector revealed that they have fully incorporated SBA into their schools; support measures were provided for teachers in the implementation of SBA, whereby working group and coordinators were designated to help teachers coordinate their subjects, and measures were employed to ensure fairness, objectivity and consistency in grading SBA works. Meanwhile on the teaching level (T6, T4 and T3), teachers were well aware of their dual role in SBA (as facilitators of student learning and as assessors), whereby both teachers and students were also well informed of its contents, marking procedures (both by HKEAA and the school), and related information made readily available and transparent 37 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong at times of need. It is encouraging to see that the learning and teaching environment of the students was enhanced through the designing of effective SBA tasks. Notwithstanding the above positive views from the major stakeholders, the implementation of SBA was met by perceptions of its overwhelming workload. Despite the schools’ effort in scheduling subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year, a significant portion of T4 were skeptical of their ability to handle SBA workload whilst more than half of T6 from the sample felt that they were unable to handle the vast amount of work derived from SBA. As a general observation still yet to be tested in future studies, SBA workload might be the cause for the limited use of SBA for producing feedback for identifying strengths and weaknesses in students, thus helping them in their learning progress. To realize the goal of “learning and teaching with assessment” through the implementation of SBA (HKEAA, 2013a), teachers should undergo professional training in understanding the curriculum’s learning goals and related criteria so as to place further emphasis in producing assessment feedbacks for students – as the streamlining of SBA should provide more time for teachers to do so. And as suggested by Harlen (2004), the development of an assessment community is essential for allowing a constructive and positive discussion on SBA, in which different intra- and inter-school stakeholders among various geographical settings can contribute to this community. These discussion topics may include the distribution of resources, intra- and inter-school moderation standardization, teacher assessment, and ongoing professional trainings etc., so as to promote quality assurance for SBA. 6. Conclusion To maximize the benefits derived from the implementation of SBA, both the education sector and the Government bodies must identify the causes for the limited use of SBA in producing feedback and appraisals for the holistic development of students’ learning profiles. The immense amount of SBA workload felt by the teachers cannot be neglected, thus HKEAA, CDC, EDB and as well as the education sector have worked hand in hand in improving this aspect of the NSS Curriculum, as seen by the recent streamlining measures in SBA subjects. The education sector has yet to experience these measures and studies are required in the future to identify the effectiveness therein. As many believe in the high potential of what SBA can bring to the learning and teaching environment, an effective implementation of SBA in terms of its scheduling, standardization in grading, information flow and the overall support for both schools and teachers are inextricable components to the welfare and effective incorporation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum – in all of which the Hong Kong education sector has 38 demonstrated its professionalism in accomplishing these and its commitment to rising to new challenges. Acknowledgements The research reported in this study was supported by a grant from the EDB, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the EDB. References Downs, J. (2012). If it can’t be externally assessed, it’s play, Gove’s message to teachers. Retrieved from http://www.localschoolsnetwork.org.uk/2012/11/if-it-cant-be-externally- assessed-its-play-goves-message-to-teachers/ Harlen, W. (2004). Can assessment by teachers be a dependable option for summative purposes? Paper presented at General Teaching Council for England Conference, 29 November, 2004, London. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012a). Definition of school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/SBA/HKDSE/Eng_ DVD/sba_definition.html Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012b). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education examination: Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013a). Booklet on HKDSE examination - Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www. hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_ pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013b). Subject information on SBA. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/SBA/sba_hkdse/SBA_timetable.html Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union. (2013).〈新高中問卷調查結果發布（2013）〉. Retrieved from http://www.hkptu.org/8896 39 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Kerr-Phillips, F. (2007, August). School-based assessment: The need, the reality, the future: A perspective from the independent examinations board of South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.iaea.info/documents/paper_1162d20227.pdf Lee, W. W. C. (2009). The beneficial wash-back of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 8, 18-29. Retrieved from http://edb.org.hk/HKTC/download/journal/j8/(5)HKTCJ08-Article1-2.pdf Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Retrieved from http://www.oecd. org/education/school/34990905.pdf 40 Questionnaire for School Heads / Deputy Heads (SH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear School Heads / Deputy Heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the school’s internal assessment. 2. The school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. Appendix 41 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 5. Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 6. The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing). 7. The school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 8. The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation. 9. The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results. 42 Questionnaire for Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the internal assessment in my KLA/subject. 2. My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors. 43 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 5. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 6. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 7. Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 8. Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 9. My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. 44 Questionnaire for Teachers Teaching S4 (T4) and S6 (T6) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear teachers, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee School-based Assessment (SBA) [Items 1-4 are applicable to all S4 teachers except for Mathematics teachers] [Items 1-11 are only applicable to S6 teachers who are mainly teaching the subjects that SBA will be implemented in 2012] 1. I support School- based Assessment (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently. 45 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 2. My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations. 4. SBA enables students to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. 5. I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning. 6. I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 46 To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 7. I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 8. I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 9. I have clearly explained to students how the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) moderates the SBA scores in my school. 10. I can handle the workload brought about by SBA. 11. So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly. 47 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong For T4 only When I teach S5 in the coming school year, I am confident that I can… H ig hl y no t c on fid en t N ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly n ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly c on fid en t C on fid en t H ig hl y co nfi de nt 12. design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning. 13. clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 14. clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 15. clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school. 16. handle the workload brought about by SBA. 48 香港新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核麥陳淑賢香港中文大學教育學院　課程與教學學系摘要校本評核為進展性評估模式之一，透過回饋及評估學生專題研習的表現，讓學生了解自己的弱項並加以改善，亦幫助教師調整教學策略（OECD, 2005）。校本評核就大部份高中科目而言仍屬新概念，然而自 2009年推行新學制以來，校本評核已納入新高中課程；其成效在香港、以致世界各地均備受爭議。本研究引用 2011-12年度新高中課程實施調查研究數據（涵蓋 91所香港中學），探討學校管理及教學人員對校本評核的觀點。關鍵詞校本評核，進展性評估，新高中課程，課程改革，香港教育 49 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man Educational Research Sub-committee, Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Abstract Students in Hong Kong show a widening range of learning abilities in secondary school as shown, for instance, by their performance in the Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination which was introduced in 2012 together with the 3-year New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum. This study examines how far their diverse learning needs have been catered for. Information was collected from the heads of core subjects from a large variety of schools through an online questionnaire survey. Findings include that catering for learning diversity is beset by problems such as resource shortage, the infrequent use of enquiry-oriented teaching methods and independent learning strategies as well as weaknesses in assessment arrangements in spite of considerable progress in extending learning opportunities outside the classroom. Concerted efforts must be taken by teachers, school heads and the government to improve the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in such ways that students irrespective of learning ability can benefit. Ways to rectify the situation include the reduction of teacher workload and provision of additional manpower, continuous curriculum review with far more teacher input, production of handy and up-to-date material resources, modification of teaching approaches and reforming of the examination so that it can really help to enhance learning rather than just its measurement. Keywords learning diversity, New Senior Secondary curriculum, Diploma in Secondary Education examination, questionnaire survey, teaching strategies 50 Introduction Primary school graduates in Hong Kong seeking admission to public-sector secondary education are allocated to three academic bands according to their scores in internal examinations and their schools’ overall performance in the preceding three years (Education Bureau [EDB], 2011). Within the same band, however, considerable differences in learning ability do exist. Differences in the mastery of knowledge are likely to widen both within and between groups as more subjects have to be studied in junior secondary school. They are becoming more obvious in the senior secondary from 2009 onwards because of the requirement for all students to complete a 3-year NSS curriculum instead of the 2-year Certificate of Education (CE) course. The more academic nature of senior schooling for all and the implementation of the policies of “catering for diversities” and “integrating disabled and low ability children in an inclusive environment” in a majority of schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005) are the reasons that are responsible. Teachers have to devote more attention to helping the more able develop further and the increasing numbers of below-average students to do well in the DSE examination (e.g. Chan, 2010), which by nature is more demanding than its predecessor in format, subject content and learning skills. Now that the first two cycles of the DSE examination are over and the trend of learning diversity is clear. Only 37.7% and 34.5% of the candidates in 2012 and 2013 could meet the university requirements of level 3 in Chinese and English and level 2 in Mathematics and Liberal Studies (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a, 2013). The respective proportions of students who could attain passes (at level 2) in these core subjects were 79.2%, 79.3%, 79.7% and 90.8% in 2012 and 80.3%, 78.1%, 80.7% and 88.0% in 2013 (HKEAA, 2012a, 2013). Given the substantial variations in performance, finding how far the diverse learning needs of NSS students have been catered for becomes imperative. This study is an attempt to do so with respect to resource provision, teaching and learning strategies and continuous assessment practices. The case with the core subjects is examined because students have to pass in all of them (and at least in one elective subject) before they are considered as having completed their secondary education successfully. Review of literature Diversity in learning ability In the literature, learning diversity is generally taken as the presence of variations in learning ability among students receiving the same type of education (Ackerman, Kyllonen & Roberts, 1999; Wu, Tu, Wu, Le & Reynolds, 2012). Its occurrence in the realm of academic knowledge is considered a function of both innate, inherited traits and everyday educational experience (e.g. Biggs & Moore, 1993; James, 2006; Jonassen & Grabowski, 51 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study 2011). The latter is probably more important than the former as it can be improved through the use of appropriate teaching strategies that are supported by well endowed resources and stimulating learning activities (Means, Chelemer & Knapp, 1991; Tomlinson, 2001). With their extensive classroom experience and understanding of students’ strengths and weaknesses, teachers are in the best position to reduce learning diversity (Chappuis, 2009), for instance, by giving individual attention to the weaker ones and helping students analyse practice papers from the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) two months ahead of the first DSE examination in late March 2012. Coping with learning diversity To begin with, teachers faced with the daunting problems of meeting varying needs and paces of learning in the same classroom do require support from a wide variety of school and community resources (Curriculum Development Council, 2009). Besides the hardware and software resources available in classrooms, schools should have additional manpower and plans to cater for the enrichment needs of higher achievers (such as stargazing and learning the elements of astronomy in physics, and debating in language subjects) and help the less capable ones to catch up (such as in the solution of simultaneous equations in mathematics). Even if resources are readily available, one size cannot fit all. To cater for learning diversity, writers have identified a variety of teaching skills that are required besides those suitable for the average student. For weaker ones, teachers for instance could make significant adaptations to classroom programmes, curriculum content, teaching and learning processes and even provide tailored plans that can help them rekindle their interest and confidence (e.g. Winebrenner, 1996; Westwood, 2008). For the talented and gifted then, a mastery of acceleration (e.g. offering guidance to the most able promoted to a higher class level or more advanced group), curriculum compacting (e.g. cutting out unnecessary drills and organising appropriate extension work instead), expert grouping (e.g. helping the more able ones develop further insights on a research topic), cluster grouping (e.g. providing specialised programmes at a central point for high-ability students from different schools) and mentoring (i.e. enabling capable students to learn after outside experts) and other appropriate methods are useful for helping them to learn faster and at more advanced levels than the average (Biggs & Moore, 1993; Winebrenner, 1992; Goodhew, 2009). Language teachers were called on to understand students’ personal stories before setting out to teach for instance (McDaniel, 2010). In a related context, Roland (2010) invited them to consider differentiated teaching as serving a buffet that could meet the criteria of variety, quality, balance and attractiveness for students at various ability levels. As Tomlinson (2001) has summarised, teachers should plan and teach with respect to student readiness, interest and needs. Even if their learning needs are well catered for, 52 students may obtain widely different scores in tests and examinations of the same scope and format. Although it is neither easy to close this performance gap nor simply to narrow it down, teachers should at least help all to score higher than what they are used to have (c.f. the aim of the United States No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2001) (Wiliam, 2006). Assessment has a key role here for helping the more able maximise their potential and the less able to make up for lost grounds (Chappuis, 2009). The role of assessment on checking learning diversity Testing students on a broad range of aspects (e.g. listening, speaking, reading and writing in language subjects) and at higher frequencies is considered an effective way of helping teachers understand better how much has been learnt by everyone and the improvements that are needed individually and by each ability group (Berry, 2008). Instead of concentrating on written work, teachers can identify with students more aspects or forms for assessment, such as skills in model-making, recording and video production as well as the delivery of oral presentations (Davies, Herbst & Reynolds, 2011). If appropriate feedback is given and due action is taken, assessment of learning that simply measures how much students have learnt can be changed into assessment for learning that helps everyone (Black & Wiliam, 2006a) to improve (albeit not necessarily at the same pace) and the more able to learn beyond the confines of the lesson (c.f. Black & Wiliam, 2006b). The lesson that can be learnt from the literature is that assessing students in a wider range of format not only could measure diverse learning abilities more effectively but also could encourage those who are otherwise lagging in one aspect or another to develop their potential further instead of giving up altogether. Methodology and instruments A multi-stage process was followed to determine how the teachers of core NSS subjects had been coping with learning diversity and preparing students for the public examination. The methodology and instruments used were developed by the researchers in early 2011. The consensus reached thereby about the scope of data needed was used to develop a framework for investigation and focus-group discussions in June with representatives from relevant subject organisations on the membership list of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. Questionnaires for teachers were designed and refined according to the results. Respondents were asked about their personal and school backgrounds, resource provision, use of teaching strategies and the arrangements for helping students to do better in the curriculum and examination. Unlike those for the three other subjects, the one for Mathematics asked how learning would be affected by the absence of school- based assessment (SBA) as stipulated for the foreseeable future. Versions in Chinese and English were administered to the teachers of Mathematics and Liberal Studies because their subjects could be studied and examined in one of the two languages. 53 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Data collection began with a series of pilot tests and further amendments in early 2012. A covering letter was sent in mid-April to secondary schools offering NSS curriculum (N=514) to explain the aim of the study and invite the heads of the core subjects to complete the survey through a hyperlink to the website HYPERLINK “http:// www.my3q.com” www.my3q.com within three weeks. Responses from the six groups of subject heads concerned (including those of Mathematics and Liberal Studies teaching in English or Chinese) were uploaded onto Microsoft Excel files and processed with the Statistics for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program (Stern, 2010; Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner & Barrett, 2011). The specific functions that were run included FREQUENCIES and DESCRIPTIVES for identifying general patterns and the mean, minima, maxima and standard deviation values of responses, CROSSTABS for determining whether pairs of variables were related, and CORRELATE for assessing the strength and direction of relationships (Muijs, 2011). Results School, student and teacher backgrounds Respondents to the questionnaire survey varied substantially in numbers across subjects, from 63 (out of 514) teachers each of English and Chinese to 90 (out of 514) teachers of Mathematics teaching in either language. All of them had long teaching experiences of 11 years or more. Unlike the others, Liberal Studies teachers had fewer than five years in their subject as it was only an elective offered in about 25% of schools at the Advanced Supplementary level before 2009. Training could be considered sufficient overall as the numbers of teachers who had taken the respective curriculum and assessment courses (e.g. 7.7 in Liberal Studies (EMI) on average) were greater than the numbers of student groups concerned (5.6). Most of them were teaching in co-educational aided schools sponsored by a variety of religious, welfare and community organisations (cf. Table 1). Students completing the NSS curriculum in 2011-12 had been allocated to their classes mostly by their performance in Chinese, English and Mathematics in Form 3 in the academic year 2008-09. The majority of schools were running five classes of Form 4 to Form 6 for this first NSS cohort. However, the mean number of groups in each school was about six in the case of Liberal Studies because of the availability of a government grant to employ one additional teacher for facilitating teaching in smaller classes. 54 Table 1: Responses about background information English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. School by type of sponsorship 1 = Aided; 2 = Government; 3 = Direct subsidy scheme Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. School by the sex of students 1 = Boys; 2 = Girls; 3 = Co-educational Mode = 3 N = 59 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode =3 3. Overall teaching experience 1 = 0 – 5 years; 2 = 6 – 10 years 3 = 11 –15 years; 4 = 16 – 20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.2 Mode = 5 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 4. Teaching experience in this subject 1 = 0-5 years; 2 = 6-10 years 3 = 11-15 years; 4 = 16-20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.0 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 1.7 Mode =1 Mean = 0.9 Mode = 1 5. No. of years with Liberal Studies at the Advanced Supplementary Level N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. Mean = 4.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 6. Mean no. of classes (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) Mean =3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.3 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 4 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode =5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 7. Mean no. of groups (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) 4.7 4.7 4.6 N = 59 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.9 4.9 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.6 8. Streaming of F3 students into F4 by 1 = Overall rank; 2 = Performance in Chin., Eng. & Maths.; 3 = other criteria Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 9. Mean no. of Form 6 teachers this year Mean no. of Form 6 students this year Mean no. of Form 6 classes this year Mean no. of Form 6 groups this year 5.1 156 5.0 5.0 N = 59 4.7 157 4.8 5.1 1.8 167 5.0 4.9 1.8 167 4.6 4.8 5.1 153 4.7 5.7 5.1 149 4.5 5.6 10. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic curriculum course in this subject Mean = 8.5 Mode = 4 N = 58 Mean = 8.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 5.7 Mode = 6 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 11. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic assessment course in this subject Mean = 7.5 Mode = 5 N = 57 Mean = 7.8 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 7.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. 55 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Provision of educational resources In spite of the need to minimize learning diversity in the core subjects, most of the schools had provided extra resources on an equal-sharing basis (cf. mode = 1 across row 1; mode = 3 across row 2, Table 2). The use of extra teachers, multimedia or other teaching materials and outside service support was less frequent than the deployment of teaching assistants (as in the cases of Chinese Language, Liberal Studies (CMI) and Liberal Studies (EMI); see row 4(b)) presumably because of funding constraints. Table 2: Responses about the provision of educational resources English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has your school provided extra resources to the subject to cater for learning diversity? 1 = Yes; 2 = No Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. The extra resources are 1 = provided to weaker students only 2 = provided to top students only 3 = equally shared among all students N = 52 Mode = 3 N = 39 Mode = 3 N = 27 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 N = 41 Mode = 3 N = 12 Mode = 3 3. No. of types of other resources provided to the subject Mean = 1.5 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.8 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.1 Mode = 1 4. Types of other resources provided to the subject (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (a) Extra teachers (b) Extra teaching assistants (c) Extra multimedia or other teaching materials (d) Outside service support Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. Teaching and learning strategies The most common activities held recently to enhance teaching quality were drama, opera and movie shows for the two language subjects, writing contests for EMI Liberal Studies and visits for Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies (row 1, Table 3). Liberal Studies teachers and Mathematics teachers had organised study trips or visits since Secondary 5 more often than others (row 2). More students who were weaker in English Language and EMI Liberal Studies had benefitted from these enhancement activities (row 3) than students who were weaker in Mathematics (both through EMI and CMI). 56 Table 3: Responses about enrichment activities in teaching English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Most recent type of activity held to enhance the teaching of the subject Drama / opera / movie N = 31 Drama / opera / movie N = 7 Visit N = 6 Museum visit N = 37 Visit Writing course 2. How often has your panel organised trips or visits since F5 to enhance the teaching of the subject? 1 = Very often; 2 = Often; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Occasionally; 5 = Rarely or none N = 62 Mean = 4.3 N = 57 Mean = 4.0 N = 42 Mean = 1.5 N = 41 Mean = 1.4 N = 62 Mean = 3.6 N = 62 Mean = 1.1 3. Have the trips or visits helped the weaker students to enhance their learning? (5 = Very much so; 1 = Not at all) Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 2.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 3.0 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.3 Mode = 5 The implementation of the NSS curriculum has led to the use of new strategies (row 1, Table 4). CMI Liberal Studies teachers recorded the use of much more strategies than other teachers (e.g. 2.1 vs. 1.1 each by English Language and Chinese Language teachers; row 2). Amongst the range of recommendations by the EDB (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007a, 2007b, 2007c & 2007d), team teaching was the most widely employed one while peer lesson preparation, project learning and small group teaching methods were used at similarly lower frequencies (row 3). All teachers except those of Liberal Studies in EMI schools reported the use of strategies to cope with individual differences within their subjects (row 5). For this purpose, strategies like curriculum tailoring and tutorials were practised at similarly higher frequencies than the others. Cooperative learning was the least widely used overall especially in the case with Chinese Language (row 5). More new strategies (2.2) were employed in CMI Liberal Studies than in other subjects and in EMI Liberal Studies (0.8) in particular (row 6). Meanwhile, the NSS curriculum has succeeded in extending the focus of study from textbooks to other materials in Liberal Studies (CMI and EMI) much more than in other subjects. It had much less effect on Mathematics (CMI and EMI) in this regard (row 7) as well as on time-tabling across all subjects (row 9). Learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered to greater extents in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other core subjects (row 8). 57 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Table 4: Use of new strategies by teachers English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has the NSS curriculum led to new strategies for teaching this subject in the school? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 2. Mean number of new strategies employed 1.1 1.1 0.6 N = 42 0.5 2.1 0.0 3. What are these new strategies? (a) Team teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (b) Peer lesson preparation (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (c) Project learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (d) Small group teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (e) Others (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1.2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 N = 42 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 4. Are there teaching strategies to cope with individual differences in the subject? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 5. What are these strategies for coping with individual differences in the subject? (a) Streaming (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 N = 43 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (b) Tailor-made curricula (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (c) Co-operative learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (d) Tutorials (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 (e) Others Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 6. Mean number of teaching strategies for individual differences 1.7 N = 59 1.4 1.2 N = 43 1.3 2.2 0.8 7. Has the NSS curriculum led to a shift in focus from textbooks to other materials? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 58 English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 8. Has the NSS curriculum encouraged your students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 9. Has the NSS curriculum led to flexible time-tabling arrangements in your subject? (1 = Yes, 2 = No) Mode = 2 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. The following pairs of statistically significant relationships between teaching strategies and resource provision are worthy of investigation (Appendix 1): (a) The frequency of organising trips or visits to enhance the teaching of the subject was significantly related to and even dependent on (i) the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students if Liberal Studies was taught in English (item 1), and (ii) the number of types or resources provided in the case of the students of English, EMI Liberal Studies and EMI Mathematics (item 2). Significant relationships between pairs of variables warranting further analysis were also found in the following (Appendix 2): (b) The number of new strategies for teaching the subject was (i) significantly related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 3), and (ii) significantly related to the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the case of English Language (item 4). (c) The number of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was (i) significantly related to the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 5), and (ii) significantly related to or even dependent on the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and CMI Liberal Studies (item 6). 59 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study (d) In the case of English Language, whether the NSS curriculum could lead to the use of new teaching strategies was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 8). (e) In the case of EMI Liberal Studies, (i) whether the NSS curriculum could bring a shift in focus from textbooks to other forms of learning and teaching materials was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 9), and (ii) whether the NSS curriculum could encourage EMI Liberal Studies students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 10). (f) The use of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (item 11). (g) Whether the NSS curriculum could encourage students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was significantly related to or even dependent on the shift in focus from textbooks to other materials in the cases of English Language, EMI Liberal Studies and CMI Mathematics (item 12). Continuous assessment A hallmark of the first two cycles of the NSS curriculum (2009-12 and 2012-13) is the requirement for students of English, Chinese and Liberal Studies to be assessed six times internally in prescribed areas through their second and final years of senior schooling and their scores sent to HKEAA prior to the start of the written examinations. The two most common forms of this school-based assessment (SBA) exercise were project work and internal tests. Mathematics does not have any SBA requirement although continuous assessment is still encouraged (CDC & HKEAA, 2007e, 2007f). A majority of teachers had taken courses offered by the EDB or other professional training institutes on updating their knowledge of the related assessment frameworks (row 15, Table 5). Their rating about the easiness and fairness of SBA was due to (i) similarity in the difficulty of assessment for all students and (iv) the marking of assignments by different teachers (rows 5 and 6). Teachers of English and CMI Liberal Studies also attributed their ratings to (ii) the dependence of student training on their relative performance, (iii) streaming of students by academic level and (iv) teaching of classes/ students by the same teacher. Teachers except those of EMI Liberal Studies reported a lack of preparation materials for students (row 2). The mean number of supporting items named 60 by teachers ranged from 1.5 in Chinese Language to 2.2 in CMI Liberal Studies only (row 3). Materials provided by the EDB, HKEAA and other organisations were used more often than others. In terms of usefulness then, reference exercises ranked highest among English, EMI Mathematics and EMI Liberal Studies teachers (row 4). Sample papers were regarded as more useful than others for preparing students to take the examinations in Chinese Language, CMI Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies. SBA for English, Chinese and Liberal Studies was generally considered by teachers as a fair but difficult procedure for their students (row 6 and row 5). This trend was especially noticeable in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (with the mean value equal to 3.9). The large amount of time needed was the main reason for making it a problem in Chinese Language and Liberal Studies (row 16). The assessment of listening, reading, writing, speaking and integrated skills in English Language was considered a challenge (row 12) for students. 61 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 1. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f co m pl ex ity to w ar ds th e da ily a ss es sm en t in y ou r s ub je ct a t t he N SS le ve l? 1 = m uc h le ss c om pl ic at ed ; 5 = m uc h m or e co m pl ic at ed M od e = 4 N = 6 0 M od e = 4 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 4 M od e = 4 2. A re th er e en ou gh su pp or t m at er ia ls fo r st ud en ts in p re pa rin g fo r t he ir H K D SE ex am ? (1 = e no ug h; 2 = n ot e no ug h) M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 1 3. W ha t a re th os e su pp or t m at er ia ls ? (1 = us ed ; 2 = n ot u se d) M ea n N = 5 9 M ea n M ea n N = 4 2 M ea n M ea n M ea n Sa m pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 55 0. 6 R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 58 0. 7 Sc ho ol -b as ed m at er ia ls 0. 6 0. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 0. 8 0. 70 0. 8 R ef er en ce b oo ks 0. 6 0. 6 1. 6( N = 4 4) 0. 6 0. 72 1. 0 O th er m at er ia ls su pp lie d by E D B 0. 6 0. 6 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 0. 75 1. 1 M at er ia ls p ro vi de d by o th er b od ie s 0. 8 0. 8 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 1. 04 1. 1 M ea n no . o f t yp es o f s up po rti ng m at er ia ls u se d 1. 6 1. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 1. 6 2. 2 1. 9 4. W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g m at er ia ls o r pr og ra m m es is m os t u se fu l f or p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e H K D SE e xa m ? (“ us ef ul ” in th e qu es tio nn ai re s f or te ac he rs o f C hi ne se L an gu ag e, C M I Li be ra l S tu di es a nd C M I M at he m at ic s) 1 = S am pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 2 = R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 3 = R ef er en ce b oo ks 4 = T ea ch er tr ai ni ng fr om E D B 5 = O th er s M ea n no . o f u se fu l m at er ia ls fo r p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e D SE N = 6 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N = 5 9 1. 0 1. 1 1. 4 1. 5 1. 8 2. 4 N = 4 4 1. 5 1. 6 2. 0 2. 0 2. 0 1. 5 N = 4 3 M ea n = 1. 5 N = 5 3 1. 1 1. 1 1. 4 1. 6 1. 8 2. 3 M ea n = 1. 9 62 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 5. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e ea si ne ss o f im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed a ss es sm en t fo r y ou r s tu de nt s? ( 1 = ve ry e as y; 5 = v er y di ffi cu lt) M ea n = 3. 5 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 6 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 9 M ea n = 2. 4 6. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e fa irn es s o f cu rr en t s ch oo l-b as ed a ss es sm en t pr oc ed ur es fo r s tu de nt s i n yo ur sc ho ol ? ( 1 = ex tre m el y un fa ir; 5 = e xt re m el y fa ir) M ea n = 3. 1 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 5 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M ea n = 3. 2 7. T he re as on s f or th e ab ov e ra tin g ar e (a ) 1= Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s ta ilo r-m ad e. 2 = Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s th e sa m e am on g al l s tu de nt s M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 (b ) 1 = T he tr ai ni ng fo r s tu de nt s i s t he sa m e. 2 = Th e tra in in g fo r s tu de nt s i s de pe nd en t o n th ei r r el at iv e pe rf or m an ce . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 (c ) 1 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y th ei r ac ad em ic le ve l. 2 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y an ot he r cr ite rio n. M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (d ) 1 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y di ffe re nt te ac he rs . 2 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y th e sa m e te ac he rs . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (e ) 1 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by o ne te ac he r. 2 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by di ffe re nt te ac he rs . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 63 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 8. W ha t k in d of c on tin uo us a ss es sm en ts h as yo ur sc ho ol p ro vi de d? (a ) U ni fo rm te st s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) A ss es sm en t o f c la ss w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 4 1. 5 N .A . N .A . (c ) R eg ul ar q ui zz es (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (d ) Pr oj ec t w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 9 N .A . N .A . (e ) O nl in e as se ss m en t ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 8 N .A . N .A . (f ) O th er s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 2. 0 2. 1 N .A . N .A . 9. Is th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k cl ea r en ou gh ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 10 . C an th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k en ha nc e le ar ni ng ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n = 1. 1 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 11 . Th e pu bl ic e xa m in at io n as se ss es a bi lit ie s in L is te ni ng , R ea di ng , W rit in g, S pe ak in g an d In te gr at ed S ki lls . H as y ou r s ch oo l pr ov id ed e xt ra tr ai ni ng o pp or tu ni tie s f or te ac he rs to u pd at e th ei r u nd er st an di ng o f th e ne w a ss es sm en t f ra m ew or k in th es e ar ea s? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 12 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra nk th e di ffi cu lty o f SB A in y ou r s ub je ct ? (1 = m os t d iffi cu lt; 5 = le as t d iffi cu lt) (a ) Li st en in g (b ) R ea di ng (c ) W rit in g (d ) Sp ea ki ng (e ) In te gr at ed S ki lls M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 13 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e pr es su re on te ac he rs fr om th e sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t o f I nd ep en de nt E nq ui ry St ud ie s ( IE S) ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 4. 5 M od e = 5 M ea n = 4. 4 M od e = 5 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 64 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 14 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f di ffi cu lty o f s et tin g in te rn al e xa m in at io n qu es tio ns ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M od e = 3 M ea n = 3. 4 M od e = 3 15 . H ow m an y pe rc en t o f t ea ch er s i n yo ur pa ne l h ad a lre ad y ta ke n th e as se ss m en t- re la te d tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s? 1 = 0 -2 5% ; 2 = 2 6- 50 % ; 3 = 51 -7 5% ; 4 = 7 6- 10 0% M od e = 4 M od e = 4 N .A . N .A . M od e = 3 M od e = 4 16 . W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g is th e m os t im po rta nt re as on fo r m ak in g SB A di ffi cu lt? 1 = La ck o f s up po rt fu nd in g 2 = La ck o f s up pl em en ta ry re fe re nc e fo r te ac he rs 3 = La ck o f t ra in in g fo r t ea ch er s 4 = D iv er si fie d ab ili tie s o f s tu de nt s 5 = H ig h de m an d on st ud en ts 6 = La rg e am ou nt o f t im e ne ed ed M od e = 1 M od e = 6 N .A . N .A . M od e = 6 M od e = 6 17 . W ha t a re th e ad va nt ag es o f n o SB A o n te ac he rs a nd st ud en ts o f t hi s s ub je ct ? (a ) Th er e is m or e fle xi bi lit y in cu rr ic ul um p la nn in g. (1 = Y es , 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n 1. 4 M ea n 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) S tu de nt s’ pr es su re c an b e re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 1 (c ) T ea ch er s h av e m or e tim e to p ro vi de su ita bl e tra in in g fo r d iff er en t st ud en ts . ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) 1. 3 1. 2 (d ) T ea ch er s’ da ily w or kl oa d ca n be re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 2 (e ) T he sc ho ol c an im pl em en t b et te r- fo cu ss ed su pp or t t ow ar ds p re pa ra tio n fo r t he p ub lic e xa m in at io n. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 2 2 1. 3 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 65 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 18 . N o. o f a dv an ta ge s o f n o SB A in th is su bj ec t N .A . N .A . 3. 9 4 N .A . N .A . 19 . M ea n no . o f c om m en ts p er te ac he r ab ou t t he N SS c ur ric ul um a nd D SE ex am in at io n N = 2 6 4. 5 N = 5 9 2. 7 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 2 4 4. 2 N = 6 4. 8 T he n um be r of te ac he rs w ith a v al id r ep ly to e ac h ite m is g iv en b y th e nu m be r N f or th e su bj ec t c on ce rn ed u nl es s st at ed o th er w is e. T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 66 Teachers of Mathematics need not administer SBA in their subject. They could name four advantages for this arrangement, with the reduction in teacher workload and reduction in pressure on students being the two most common (row 18, Table 5). English and EMI Liberal Studies gave far more negative comments about SBA. Statistically significant relationships warranting further investigation were found as follows (Appendix 3): (a) The degree of easiness in implementing school-based assessment was related to and dependent on complexity in daily procedures in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and EMI Liberal Studies. In the case of CMI Liberal Studies, the relationship was significant but the former variable was not dependent on the latter (item 13). (b) The degree of fairness for implementing school-based assessment in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on complexity in the assessment process (item 14). (c) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Listening (item 15) and Speaking (item 18) in English Language was dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (d) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Reading (item 16) and Writing (row 17) in English Language was related to but not dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (e) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Speaking in English Language was related to but not dependent on the proportion of teachers who had taken the assessment-related courses offered by EDB or other professional training institutes (item 28). (f) The pressure on teachers from the SBA of Independent Enquiry Studies projects in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on the proportion of teachers trained in assessment (item 30). Discussion School, student and teacher backgrounds Although no sampling has been made to invite teachers for participation in this study, the profiles of schools and teachers’ experience obtained are generally compatible with official statistics. Similarities can also be found in the mean number of Form 4 and Form 6 teachers, students, classes and groups, the criteria for streaming Form 3 students into Form 4, and the numbers of teachers who had completed the subject-based curriculum and assessment courses. In the light of these trends, the questionnaire replies can be taken as 67 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study representative of the views of NSS teachers although allowance should be taken for those of the non-respondents. Provision of educational resources Teachers’ responses suggest that educational resources are often insufficient especially if additional manpower is concerned and marked learning diversity does exist in the class. The situation is especially critical in the first few years of the NSS curriculum which emphasises the use of new teaching approaches, coverage of academic content at greater depth and breadth and the implementation of school-based assessments in a majority of subjects. The EDB had offered a teacher professional preparation grant and a curriculum migration grant to all schools but they were to be shared by all subjects. Special resources have been provided in Liberal Studies in view of the numerous controversial issues for in-depth analysis and the need for providing guidance on the completion of an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). However, no similar manpower or hardware support is available to other core subjects probably because they have long existed in the curriculum. This situation is hardly satisfactory in view of the intensive preparations needed for SBA in Chinese and English and the higher demands for students in Mathematics when compared with those of the CE examination that has been replaced. More efforts are certainly required for helping students master basic academic skills (e.g. communication, application and computation), more advanced problem-solving techniques and higher-order questions. Teaching and learning strategies Teachers in general have taken steps to cater for learning diversity in the classes through the use of appropriate teaching strategies without sufficient support in spite of the importance given to educational resources by writers in the literature section. Questionnaire responses revealed that drama, opera and movie shows, writing contests and visits were often used for enhancing teaching quality and facilitating in-depth learning. This trend could be beneficial to students who were weaker in writing as well as students who were weaker in oral presentations as both groups were given more opportunities to learn how to express themselves and interact with others in a variety of real-life situations. Whilst team teaching was often used in the classroom, peer lesson preparation was used at much lower frequencies. This finding is surprising in view of the close relationship between these two strategies. However, it might be a reflection of the need to be pragmatic when teachers had little interaction time inside the staff room amidst a heavy workload, or that cooperation among them had long been running smooth. On average, the use of strategies which emphasized class discussion, debate and other forms of collaborative learning in the core subjects with the advent of the NSS curriculum and the DSE examination was still limited. 68 To cope with learning diversity amongst students, teachers were often making more use of curriculum tailoring and tutorials than streaming and cooperative learning procedures possibly because of the lower degree of organisation and monitoring needed. Mathematics teachers (CMI and EMI) were the less frequent users of new strategies overall and for coping with individual differences in particular. The facts that school-based assessment was not required in their subject unlike the cases with English, Chinese and Liberal Studies and that individual differences were less marked here might be the reasons for this trend. Because of its issues-based nature, Liberal Studies is a subject which requires the interpretation and analysis of news and commentaries available in a variety of publications and electronic media (Deng 2009). Many teachers had accordingly changed the focus of study from textbooks to other materials to greater extents than their colleagues. In a similar vein, learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered more in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other subjects probably because of the higher priority accorded to learning directly from other peoples (like visitors from other countries), local community figures (like legislative councillors) and various organisations (such as news firms and environmental groups). Meanwhile, teachers of CMI Liberal Studies were the more frequent users of these new strategies than their colleagues in EMI schools probably because of the need to spend more time on teaching in English and worries about students’ ability to discuss controversial issues with insight in a second language. It is difficult for teachers to organise visits, overseas tours or other out-of-campus activities for their NSS students during school days in view of the disruption to the other classes and difficulties in finding appropriate substitute teachers. The urge to complete the syllabus and allow sufficient time for revision work before the mock examination could make the problem worse. Teachers also need more time to analyse past exam and sample papers with students and assess how far the goals of learning and assessment laid down in the curriculum and assessment guides for the subjects have been achieved. The impact of the NSS curriculum on the flexibility of time-tabling arrangements was minimal after all for these reasons because teachers have to spend more time on identifying the gaps and modifying their teaching and assessment strategies accordingly. Meanwhile, an increasing range of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities has been organised for NSS students in many schools in recent years. To improve their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is a useful step in this direction. Study tours should be also improved so that students can participate in at least one during their senior years and thereby get more diversified learning experiences irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. 69 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Continuous assessment The majority of teachers, especially those of English Language, Chinese Language and Liberal Studies, were concerned about the lack of preparation materials for continuous assessments as well as the written examination. These feelings were understandable given that they were not too familiar with the new curriculum and students who would otherwise be siphoned off by the Certificate of Education system could now proceed to Form 6 and face the more demanding DSE examination. In many cases, the only materials that could be relied upon were the sample questions released in early 2010 and the exercises first available in September 2011. Many teachers could not well estimate the number of marks required for getting a pass or any other specified grade and thereby decide on how and how much to teach and assess. Even after the release of practice papers in January 2012, their worries about marking standards and the amount of preparation needed had not been much allayed, as could be inferred from a press statement issued by the HKEAA (2012b). English, Chinese and Liberal Studies are the subjects which require school-based assessments. The teachers concerned in general felt that the notion of SBA was fair because the validity and reliability of assessment could be enhanced if more aspects of learning (say, oral presentation besides writing skills) were considered and especially if marking and moderation for all classes were done by two or more teachers. They were in agreement with the view in the literature that wider-ranging assessments could encourage weaker students to learn and give due consideration to their overall abilities. However, in spite of holding such a consensus, they considered SBA difficult to implement effectively even after completing the courses run or commissioned by the HKEAA. More focussed training and workshop programmes are surely needed so that teachers can help students of diverse abilities to overcome the challenges presented by overly broad and challenging subject content and skills especially in aspects of assessment in which students have insufficient confidence (such as in the oral section of the English Language examination; cf. HKEAA, 2010). Mathematics teachers were more relaxed in their responses about continuous assessment probably because of the absence of an SBA requirement. However, they still gave many negative comments (about 2.6 per person) such as concern about time shortage, calls for the establishment of modules M1 and M2 as a separate subject and dissent with the introduction of SBA to their subject agenda. Teachers of English Language and Liberal Studies (EMI) were more vociferous. Together they gave an average of 4.5 to 4.8 comments which described SBA as too time-consuming, tedious, dysfunctional for promoting critical and analytical thinking, too demanding on medium- and lower-ability students, and creating too much workload for teachers and panel heads. Teachers overall were not receptive of SBA at least in its present format. Many of their calls were a mix of downscaling and outright abolition, ridiculing the official description of SBA as a normal part of the curriculum rather than an add-on process (CDC & HKEAA, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2007d, 2007e, 2007f) in the course of teaching and learning. 70 Suggestions Student-oriented teaching, independent learning and continuous assessment are the three new features of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination that could help weaker students to perform better and even narrow their gap with the more capable. The first two can facilitate the mastery of enquiry skills while the last can motivate students to study harder at all times and provide a basis for teachers to modify their approaches whenever warranted. Unfortunately, students in face of heavy workload may easily lose sight of what the focus of the curriculum is. The assessment burden may become so great that teachers cannot spend enough time on everyday curriculum planning and the upgrading of teaching quality. This study overall does suggest that learning diversity at the NSS level has not been well catered for hitherto, like what Lam (2008) has observed of three student communities in a mainstream Hong Kong school. A multi-faceted approach is needed for redressing the weaknesses and ensuring the successful implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination. For overburdened teachers, the provision of additional manpower is essential because only by then could they spend more time on catering for learning diversities. To enhance the quality of teaching and student interaction during the lesson, the numbers of students should be reduced to a maximum of 30 in the more capable classes and 20 in the less able. Reducing the size of less able classes can give more opportunities to teachers finding the difficulties which their students are facing and the ways needed for addressing them. Streaming procedures that create a balance of abilities with the more able accounting for a high proportion (say, 40% to 50%) in the class should be practised if its possible benefits on students (Glass, 2002) are found to be greater than strict ability grouping procedures. Unduly difficult subject matter, wide coverage of content and skills and a lack of time for revision and self-reflection may encourage teachers to hang onto didactic approaches, students to follow the steps of others indiscriminately if only to play safe, and continuous assessment to become a means for widening the ability gap instead of otherwise. To prevent these undesirable trends from appearing, on-going reviews for the tailoring of subject content and reshaping of examination procedures are needed especially with dynamic curricula like Liberal Studies. To ensure that all students irrespective of ability can benefit, this exercise should be accompanied by efforts for widening and deepening the extent of teacher inputs and competence than what the EDB and HKEAA (Fung, Tang & Chan, 2011) have been doing so far. Many teachers have attributed resource shortage as an obstacle to the implementation of the NSS curriculum. The EDB should coordinate the production of suitable materials by universities, government departments, Quality Education Fund, Hong Kong Education 71 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study City and relevant subject organisations after conducting school surveys at regular intervals. Instead of providing teachers with CD-ROMs and other items that may become quickly outdated, they should give priority to the establishment and updating of websites especially on new subject content, recommended teaching-learning approaches and the use of assessment procedures for the enhancement of learning. Such materials should focus on independent enquiry so that even students of medium or lower ability can learn to identify subject matter of personal interest and investigate issues in a systematic manner. Offering suggestions for the purchase and production of resources that can meet the learning needs of individual classes and students is another essential step forward. The introduction of an equitable system that cares for lower-ability students and less well-endowed schools is also helpful for minimising learning diversity, as what the case with schools in Victoria, Australia has shown (Beeson, 2013). Teaching approaches that neglect the ability and needs of mixed-ability classes can be stumbling blocks for improving the effectiveness of learning. Teachers can help the more capable ones explore into complicated areas and advanced concepts and master the skills for independent enquiry by using reflective and application-oriented approaches such as brainstorming, report writing, interviews and debates. Encouraging these students to join enrichment programmes offered by the universities and the Academy for Gifted Education is useful in this regard. Such programmes can be made more valuable by listening carefully to teachers’ views and increasing the number of students who are served. As for the weaker ones, priority should be given to approaches which can help them analyse knowledge and clarify misconceptions, such as group tutorials, tailor-made exercises, simulation games and role plays (e.g. Dowson 2007; Hue 2007). Meanwhile, cartoons and other forms of drawing are particular problems since they can be viewed from different angles like the witch and the beauty scenario. Guidance for students here should focus on the interpretation and comparison of alternative views through a variety of interactive teaching-learning activities. Recent years have also seen sharp increases in the organisation of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities for NSS students in many schools. To enhance their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is useful for this purpose. The organisation of study tours should be improved so that everyone can participate and get more diversified learning experiences in at least one of them during senior school irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. Opportunities for giving detailed insights on oral and written responses in exercises, tests and examinations are often seriously limited because of heavy workload and tight 72 teaching schedules. Teachers in every subject need more training on giving feedback and directions for improvement to students at different ability levels with respect to both the compulsory and extension sections in the curriculum. It is the obligation of the EDB to provide more enrichment courses and encourage teachers to conduct action research into learning diversity within their classes. Organisations like the Quality Education Fund and Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre can help by running award schemes and school authorities may reduce the size or number of classes that the teachers concerned have to teach. Staff development programmes which focus on the sharing of experience with mixed ability classes should also be run to enhance collaboration within the same schools and/or with other schools under similar situations. If only for alleviating the problem of time shortage, EDB and HKEAA should also restructure and tailor the curriculum to include only the essential content and cancel one of the compulsory modules in all popular subjects. Incidentally, holding the written examinations for the core and elective subjects in late April from the third cycle onwards instead of in late March in the first two can also provide more time for enquiry-oriented learning and teaching and the preparation of high-quality projects for school-based assessment. Running supplementary lessons in the post-examination periods in Form 4 and Form 5 is another possibility because teachers would be more relaxed then and students could have more time for learning at greater depth and reflect on their own examination performance during the subsequent summer vacation. As highlighted by Berry (2006) about the role of assessment strategies for teaching and learning, continuous assessment is another area of the curriculum where critical review is needed at regular intervals. To strike a balance between breadth and depth, the EDB and HKEAA should consider the inclusion of SBA in the core subjects only as an elective and make it compulsory for students wishing to obtain higher grades and/or gain access to government-subsidised degree courses in local universities. Like the case of offering a higher grade for English Language students who opt for the more difficult paper in Reading than the easier one, this practice can give advanced students more drive to learn as well as appropriate leeway to who are less able or who are only be seeking a pass grade. As for Mathematics, students should be allowed to study module 1 or module 2 as a separate subject (say, called Further Mathematics) instead of just as an extension of the compulsory part. This arrangement is congruent with the views of questionnaire respondents as well as international practice, such as that in England where Level 5 in DSE Mathematics (Extension) is taken as comparable to Grade A in Mathematics at the GCE Advanced Level (HKEAA, 2012c). It gives more motivation to gifted students to study challenging subject matter (if only for enhancing their chances of admission to science and engineering courses at local and overseas universities), and alleviates the 73 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study burden on the less capable ones in studying a module that is far too advanced. It also reduces the workload of teachers, who can then concentrate on helping the more able to achieve even higher and provide a firm basis for realising their potential in the study of the subject. Their colleagues not teaching Further Mathematics can meanwhile devote themselves to remedial and example classes with those who are less prepared. More workshops should be run to enhance the teaching of compulsory topics in view of the great variations in learning ability involved. Conclusion The New Academic Structure along with the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in Hong Kong has been introduced for good purposes, such as enabling more students to learn at depth before leaving for work, vocational training or proceeding to tertiary education. It seeks to reduce the examination orientation of secondary education and promotes more student-centred, enquiry-based and reflective practices of learning and teaching in schools and classrooms (Quong, 2011). Society as a whole can benefit in the long term as the educational level, creativity and critical thinking ability of the younger generation are raised. Unfortunately, the implementation of New Academic Structure has generated a series of controversies and heated debate both in the educational sector and the general public, ranging from its desirability and date of first implementation at the start, to the worth and content of Liberal Studies as a core NSS subject and the acceptability of DSE qualifications to local and overseas universities. Based on the results and discussion above, it can be concluded that the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in the four core subjects has so far not taken sufficient care of the needs of both the more able and less able. Providing adequate resource support, enhancing a paradigm shift about the nature of school learning, improving the quality of teacher training and conducting critical reviews of both subject matter and assessment methods from time to time are all needed for rectifying the situation and thereby raising the standards of all students even if the ability gap cannot be narrowed down substantially. Continuous monitoring and review of the situation for each of the core and elective major subjects are needed so that more definite and insightful conclusions about the catering of learning diversity can be drawn and more effective solutions can be identified. 74 References Ackerman P., Kyllonen, P. C., & Roberts, R. D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and individual differences: Process, trait, and content determinants. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Beeson, G. (2013). Students with additional needs. In P. 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International Journal of Innovative Interdisciplinary Research, 1(2), 142-150. 78 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es A pp en di x 1 79 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 7. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol H el pf ul ne ss o f tri ps /v is its fo r w ea ke r s tu de nt s to e nh an ce le ar ni ng Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 94 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 28 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 10 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 48 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 27 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .2 36 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 13 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 82 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 9 > 0. 05 8. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um le ad in g to th e us e of n ew st ra te gi es fo r t ea ch in g th e su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 80 5* si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 52 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 37 9 si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 39 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 80 8* si g. = 0 .0 5 Ph i / C ra m er ’s V 0. 28 8* m od es t; si g. = 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 14 .4 07 si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 77 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 41 1 si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 16 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 2 0. 15 si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 45 ve ry m uc h st ro ng er ; C ra m er ’s V 0. 88 ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es ( co nt in ue d) 80 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 9. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um br in gi ng a sh ift in fo cu s f ro m te xt bo ok s t o ot he r fo rm s o f l ea rn in g an d te ac hi ng m at er ia ls Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 00 1 si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 04 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 5. 00 8 si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 91 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 97 1 si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 0. 84 2 si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 26 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 17 .4 * si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 77 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 10 . R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 93 2 si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 22 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 27 si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 51 5 si g. 0 .4 73 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 99 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 73 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 16 .0 00 * si g. 0 .0 03 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 33 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 03 < 0 .0 5 11 . R ec ei pt of e xt ra re so ur ce s to c at er fo r le ar ni ng d iv er si ty am on g st ud en ts U se o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 15 9 si g. 0 .2 8 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 37 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 01 si g. 0 .8 2 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 80 7 si g. 0 .0 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 47 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 94 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 67 9 si g. 0 .2 62 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 27 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 04 0* * si g. 0. 00 00 <0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .0 27 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 94 3 si g. 0 .6 84 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .5 13 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 84 > 0 .0 5 12 . N SS cu rr ic ul um le ad in g to a sh ift in fo cu s fr om te xt bo ok s t o ot he r m at er ia ls N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 37 7* si g. 0 .0 2 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 92 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 20 <0 .0 5* Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 62 3 si g. 0 .0 06 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 59 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 10 8* si g. 0 .0 43 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 99 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 12 2 si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .5 63 * si g. 0 .0 04 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 19 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut te ac hi ng a nd le ar ni ng s tr at eg ie s A pp en di x 2 81 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 13 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Ea si ne ss in im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 51 * si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 46 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 41 1* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 78 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 1. 59 3 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 60 5* * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 46 5* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .4 29 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 5. 27 8 si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 53 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 35 5* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 09 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 30 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .0 42 * si g. 0 .0 50 Ph i 1 .1 84 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 56 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 3 < 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .5 1* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 23 < 0 .0 5 14 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Fa irn es s i n im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 78 9 si g. 0 .0 67 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 7 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 92 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 32 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 12 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 6. 80 7 si g. 0 .3 2 > 0. 05 ; Ph i 0 .5 34 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 32 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 19 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 21 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 94 1 si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 05 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 16 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 00 14 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .4 59 * si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .1 96 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 43 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 79 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 27 * w ea k; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 15 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 81 8 si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 29 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 19 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 75 ** m od es t; si g. 0 .0 10 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 10 8 si g. 0 .5 40 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 88 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 08 5 w ea k; si g. 0 .5 19 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t A pp en di x 3 82 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 16 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .9 16 si g. 0 .4 33 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 06 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 33 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 27 8* w ea k; s ig . 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 57 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 17 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .5 10 si g. 0 .3 69 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 32 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 69 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 00 7 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 61 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 06 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 57 > 0. 05 / / 17 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 74 si g. 0 .2 33 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 83 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 25 5* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 16 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .0 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 00 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 41 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 88 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 33 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 63 > 0 .0 5 / / 18 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 20 3 si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 4 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .3 98 ** m od er at e; s ig . 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b -.3 70 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 1 si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 68 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 01 w ea k; s ig . 0. 44 8 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 01 > 0 .0 5 / / 19 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .4 26 si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 18 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 42 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 72 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 26 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .7 12 si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 12 6 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 41 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 17 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 05 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 83 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 20 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .0 49 si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 20 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 75 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 7 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 17 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 92 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .8 31 si g. 0 .6 60 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 19 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 60 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .8 76 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 20 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 / / 21 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .7 76 si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 76 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 2 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 03 8 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .7 4 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 71 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 56 si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 25 2 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 07 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .1 16 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 97 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 / / 22 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .4 30 si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .3 65 si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 52 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 / / 23 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 66 si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 06 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 3 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 84 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 85 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 28 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .9 10 si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 16 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 28 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 26 6* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 31 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 38 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 98 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 32 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 87 > 0 .0 5 / / 29 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .2 61 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 15 m od er at e; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 81 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 57 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 52 6 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 27 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 4 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 69 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 14 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 38 > 0 .0 5 / / 30 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Pr es su re o n te ac he rs du e to th e SB A o f In de pe nd en t E nq ui ry St ud ie s p ro je ct s / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7 .7 67 s ig . 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 83 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 23 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 22 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .9 56 * si g. 0 .0 14 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .0 31 v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 06 7 ve ry w ea k; si g. 0 .8 13 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 05 w ea k; s ig . 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 86 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 87 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te 新高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究楊沛銘、李宏峯、黃金耀、黃炳文香港教師中心教育研究小組摘要香港學生到了中學階段出現不斷擴大的學習能力差異，情況在與三年制新高中課程同時推行的 2012年首屆中學文憑試表現得相當明顯。本研究審視學校如何照顧不同學習能力學生需要的情況，所需資料是透過多間學校的四個核心科目科主任填寫網上問卷獲得。研究發現包括了資源短缺，使用探究性教學法和自發性學習策略的頻率偏低，在學習機會伸延到課室外取得相當進展，以及評核安排上有不少缺點。教師、校長和政府必須協力合作，使用有效方法改善新高中課程和中學文憑試的推行，使不同學習能力的學生都能獲益。改善情況的方法包括減輕教師工作量，提供額外人手，有更多教師投入的持續性課程評估，製作適時的物質資源，改變教學法，以及改革考試以便促進學習而非只是量度。關鍵詞學習差異，新高中課程，中學文憑試，網上問卷，教學策略 89 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻林德成、李子建香港教育學院摘要本文從三種不同課程實施的取向，討論通識教育科的現況和發展。在課程實施的過程中，學校和教師偏向以相互調適取向實施通識教育科課程，並以不同的單元設計和教學方式進行，當中發現種種挑戰。本文建議，未來的課程實施宜邁向創生取向（或稱締造取向）。關鍵詞通識教育，課程實施，課程發展甲丶緣起及研究方法時光飛逝，轉眼間曾掀起香港教育界激烈討論的通識教育科（下稱通識科），已推行了三年，第一屆通識科的公開考試結果也已揭曉，初步衍生了一些成功的經驗，也察覺到一些挑戰，是時候為它把把脈，以檢視其現狀，總結其經驗，思考其未來。作為新生科目的通識科，能否取得持續的成功和發展，達到預期的效果，有賴於課程之實施模式及策略的恰當選擇。因此為通識科「把脈」，是包括釐清其課程實施的理論脈絡，亦同時需要檢視該科現今施行的狀況資料，方可得出具有啓發性的結論，冀有利其將來之課程發展。本文除了筆者之課程理論探討，亦着重引用質化及量化資料及數據之分析。量化資料是參考兩個民間大型通識科之現況調查（其一為 2012年，香港教育專業人員協會（教協）、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查，調查對象 90 包括 647名通識科老師及 2,806名學生，內容主要涉及他 /她們對通識科之教與學的觀感。另一為教協從 2010至 2013連續四年都有做的通識科老師觀感調查，平均每年皆有 800份有效問卷）。至於質化資料方面，主要來自筆者分別訪談兩位資深通識科專家暨老師專業培訓員 ─ 陳岡博士及黃志堅先生。訪談以非結構形式進行，環繞着兩位對現今通識科現況之個人觀感，及探討兩位對通識科前境作專家之闡析及建議。下文首先從課程實施理論層次分析通識科現今之實施狀況，並作出專業之建議，望能導引通識科走上較理想的發展蹊徑。再從量化結合質化之研究分析結果，找出通識科現今推行情況之強弱項，並以專業意見提出強項之鞏固及弱點之修訂建議，目的亦是作出前瞻性之改善建議。乙丶課程實施模式之檢視所謂課程實施，即將課程現狀導向所欲的學習結果，也就是將課程計劃付諸行動的過程。就算再完善的課程設計，若不能得到教師的理解與接納，並將其在課堂中付諸實施，都始終是「文本」而已（黃政傑，1994）。一般而言，課程實施有三種模式（忠實模式、調適模式及創生模式）（李子建、黃顯華，1996；鍾啓泉，2005），以下筆者先對這三種模式作一簡單分析，為通識科的課程實施現狀的剖析提供理論的參照。 (1) 忠實取向（fidelity orientation）的課程實施，是指課程實施為忠實地執行課程計劃的過程。因此，在這種取向下，課程成功與否，其標準在於最終實施之課程與預定課程計劃的落差程度。實施的課程愈接近預定的課程方案，則愈為忠實，也愈成功。反之，若與預定的課程計劃差距愈大，則愈不忠實，效果愈差。這種取向強調的是預定計劃之優越性及重要性，負責實施的教師則被視為教學「技工」，應忠實地執行課程專家所制定的各項細節。可以說，這種取向沒有給予老師任何修訂或彈性調適課程的空間。忠實取向若走到極端的地方，可能變成課程當局為了切實執行一己的課程觀，而設計一種「防老師」（teacher-proof）的課程，要老師鉅細無遺的執行課程指引每項細節，因此損害老師的課程專業地位。另外一種不利學生學習之情況，就是老師礙於形勢，往往把不適當的課程硬套在學生頭上，或是奉行一種「陽奉陰違」式的「表面課程」（surface 91 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 curriculum）（Bussis, Chittenden & Amarel, 1976），俱大大損害學生學習利益。 (2) 相互調適取向（mutual adaptation orientation）是人們認識到「忠實取向」之限制及缺憾而衍生的一種較符合現今教育脈絡及現代思潮的課程實施模式。在這種實施模式下，教師作為課程實施者，會考慮中央頒布下來的課程應如何在其課室裡實踐，或作出調整，以適應其課室情境的特殊需要。這意味着老師身為課堂之課程實施者，總是在因應各種具體實踐情境而調整既定的課程方案，以適應學生的特殊需要。因此，調適模式要求教師充分發揮自己的實踐智慧，對中央課程、學校情境及學生之需要進行綜合考慮，以塑造有效的校本 /班本課程。顯然，這種課程實施模式，對老師的專業要求很高。老師既要能充分理解中央課程之關鍵概念、核心技能及態度，又要清楚其學生之學習能力、需要及特性，才能剪裁一套能平衡中央及校本需要的課程。 (3) 創生取向（或稱締造取向）（curriculum enactment orientation）下的課程實施，則是師生在具體的課堂情境中共同合作、創造新教育經驗的過程。因此，根據這種取向，真正課程並不是在實施之前便預定下來，它是因應情境、人物而衍生出來的，有着解放教育理性之功用。此種課程可能完全脫離中央課程而出現為一種師生共塑的實驗性質的課程。通識科課程作為一門文理綜合的科目，是由「自我與個人成長」、「社會文化」及「科學、科技與環境」三個學習範疇組成，強調跨學科思維技能的「獨立專題探究」（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2007）。其在學校和課堂層面的實施則涉及單元的規劃、教學人員（及團隊）的組構、教師運用各教學方法和評估方式的變化、學生在「獨立專題研究」的參與和學習，以及課程與公開考試的配合等不同環節，情況頗為多元化和複雜。因此有效的實施，必然要求教師作為「課程主人」，因應自己所處的教學情境對課程進行調適。因此，忠實取向的課程實施並不適用。另一方面，現有的通識科中央課程指引在課程目標和內容架構上給出了頗為明確的指引，同時亦為教師詮釋、修訂和剪裁課程提供了空間，即是說，中央的課程政策乃鼓勵教師採取調適的課程實施取向 ─ 也就是鼓勵各學校因應其學校特色、學生程度、通識科老師的課程知能及覺知，設計一個平衡中央通識科要求及個別學校師生需要的調適課程。 92 然而，正如上文所說，課程調適對老師的課程知能及課程覺醒均要求甚高，缺乏相應經驗的教師難免遇到困阻。因此，就較理想的情況而言，部份學者如林德成（Lam, 2007）認為通識科的推行宜以全校課程發展取向（whole-school curriculum development approach）較一個教師合作團隊的 2至 3位教師的組合為佳。這是由於少數教師的協作可能會導致「小圈子」合作，而通識科以外的教師可能會採取「隔岸觀火」的態度看待通識科，學科間將會出現競爭的情況。林德成（Lam, 2007）根據過往目標為本課程和香港躍進學校計劃（Lee, 2006）的經驗，認為若通識科以全校取向推行，能產生校內不同教師在視野上的融合（fusion of horizons）(Gadamer, 1975)，對學生和教師在議題上不同的見解能產生良性的互動和對話，理性地探討對方觀點上可能存在的誤解與偏見。這種不斷互動而衍生話語融合的方式在某種程度上符合創生或締造取向精神。這種全校課程發展取向，要求學校重視「互動」、「溝通」和「決策」，「創造課程發展空間」，令學校成員能「集思廣益」、「建立共享目標和信念」（Lam, 2007, p.52-56）。將這些條件及氛圍轉化成可操作性的學校課程舉措，就是可以看成通識科（尤其是「獨立專題探究」一環）是一師生共同塑造之通識探究旅程，學校是成功形塑為一所「思考的學校」（a thinking school），內裡孕育多元聲音、多元批判、多元視界及多元締造之環境，有締造意識及能力之老師及學生可跨越現今通識科之藩籬，互相支持砥礪下探索一面又一面之新的視界。這種情境氛圍正正是通識科老師從現今之「調適取向」，慢慢邁向真正「創生或締造取向」之必經過程，也標誌着「創生或締造取向」之可欲性（desirability）及可行性（possibility）。朱嘉穎（2009）亦有類似看法。她從教師專業發展理念研究香港某大學開設有關通識教育課程發展與教學的碩士課程學員的看法，部份結果顯示（頁 64-65）：「教師在實踐理念的過程中，需要對所處的教學情境作出分析和判斷，並根據這些判斷對所採用的理念作出適切的調適⋯⋯雖然，來自不同學校的不同教師對同一理念的解讀會因為個人經驗和情境脈絡的不同而出現差異⋯⋯在彼此的分享和交流中，學員們增進了個人對相關理念的認識和理解。更為重要的是，在一個有相同目標的學習共同體中，學員們找到了志同道合的同行者，即使面對困惑，教師情感上的負擔也得到略微的釋放」。因此，無論在校內或校外，如果個別或少數教師能超越校內「學科」藩籬，以開放互動的心態建立校內及校外的「學習社群或共同體」，這有助於締造老師們對通識科的精神更接近理解，就算不能建立完全一致的看法，至少「和而不同」，尊重對方多元的觀點。 93 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻易言之，就通識科的課程實施來說，傳統理論中所強調的相互調適取向是必要的，然而當前更為重要的是鼓勵一種全校課程發展取向，建構師生及師師的學習社群，為學校邁向創生取向的課程實施創造充足的條件和寬鬆的環境。丙丶課程實施的問題與反思探討通識科課程實施這課題，讓我們首先從課程的單元規劃來看，吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠（2009）根據他們所支援的學校經驗，認為單元規劃策略大致可分為三大類型。第一類為六個單元鋪排，獨立地施教，然後以跨單元方式補習，偏向「科目本質」的立場，較強調「獨特專有」的取向。第二類為六個單元鋪排，不過先讓學生認識不同單元的相關概念，假定六個單元有相若的深度，偏向「單元本質」的立場和「兼容等同」的取向。第三類是把六個單元再細分為 7至 12個主題，再按同一單元不同主題的深淺、學生學習的需要作調動，較偏向「順序本質」和多元化的取向（吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠， 2009，頁 71）。這些策略反映出不同學校及教師對通識科課程的單元規劃具有多元化的現象，究竟哪些策略較配合學生的需要和促進學生學習成果，仍有待進一步研究。另一方面，通識科課程及評估指引中強調通識科的教學應達到三方面的效果，即所謂的 ABC，Awareness、Broadening及 Critical / Creative thinking。社會事宜的「察覺」（Awareness）是指學生對社會、國家以至國際大事產生興趣，對自己身為社會公民的身份、權利及義務之覺醒。觀乎現狀，這方面通識科的課程實施，似乎頗有成效，如愈來愈多的中學生參與公共社會活動（如社會示威），且其中個別領頭者的表現令人刮目相看。但這些現象是否確實為通識科學習之結果，尚需實證研究加以證實。許寶強亦有撰文，促各界更謹慎看待通識科之公開考試成績與近年來青年人參與社運激增之微妙關係（許實強，2012）。至於 Broadening所指的「擴闊知識及視界」則似乎並未「到位」，而且遭到教師與學生之批判，認為課程覆蓋面太廣，令教與學均見困難。Critical / Creative thinking，即批判 /創意思考。現階段學生在這方面的表現亦有待加強。有報章報導，網上討論區發現年青人容易墮入簡單「二分法」謬誤，採取非黑即白及「不支持 XXX」等於「反對 XXX」等角度看待事物。總體來說，年青人較前更關注社會政治事宜，但其視野及批判思維，尚有改善空間。當然，這種觀察亦須取得實證證據，立論方能成效。 94 2012年度首屆文憑試結果出爐，通識科考獲二級程度的考生達 90%之高。從數據來看，通識科的課程實施似乎是成功的，然而對課程實施者 ─ 教師的問卷調查卻顯示，當前的通識科課程實施中尚有不少問題，亟需我們關注和回應。有關通識科的實施情況，上文所說共做了兩個大型調查研究。現將兩個調查之重要發現歸納如下： 2012年之教協、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查發現，老師認為通識科發展的首六個主要困難和挑戰，依次是：（1）要照顧太多學生、（2）學生水平不足以應付課程、（3）學生對課程內容不感興趣、（4）教育當局的考評指引不清晰、（5）缺乏好的教材，及（6）教育當局課程指引不清晰等。學生方面，所面對的主要困難和挑戰，包括：（1）課程內容太廣和缺乏焦點、（2）老師的相關知識及支援不足、（3）通識的考核方法令學生難以捉摸其評分標準、（4）學習通識變成了背誦術語等的考試技巧、（5）沉悶、（6）工作量太多，及（7）難度過高等等（頁 14）。另外，一些重要的調查數據亦列舉如下： 1. 超過一半學生（55%）對獨立專題探究最不感興趣，有超過六成教師及五成學生認為需要删除； 2. 有四成教師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時，是馬虎了事；甚至有約三成教師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時，有弄虛作假情況； 3. 約六成教師和接近五成學生認為，通識科內容太多； 4. 接近一半教師不滿負責通識科和考評官員的專業水平，課程指引之清晰度，及教學支援。 2012年教協所做的調查結果則顯示，連續四年通識科老師認為任教該科的最大之四個困難，分別為：（1）照顧學生學習差異、（2）準備 /更新課程教材、（3）處理獨立專題探究、（4）教授學生批判、反思和獨立思考能力，其中「照顧學生學習差異」一項連續四年居於首位。該調查有另一個令人感興趣的發現，有超過三成老師對帶領學生進行「獨立專題探究」的信心在 5分或以下，為第二個最沒信心項目（第一個為教授「現代中國」）。而且平均每位老師須帶領 35.7學生進行「獨立專題探究」，甚至有 18%老師竟是帶領 50 95 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻人之鉅！另外，有關修改課程建議方面，大多老師認為須「減少課程內容」（69%）、「删減單元數目」（60%），或「將部份單元轉為選修」（57%）。上述兩個調查結果跟質化訪談結果有頗大共同點（質化訪談是筆者圍繞着「你認為現今通識科的現況及困難為何？」及「你對你所指出的困難有何改善建議？」兩大課題，向兩位專家作一非結構式訪問）。問卷調查歸納出來的結果大致是（1）每班學生太多，以致學習差異大、（2）學習範圍太深太闊，而且課程及考評的指引不清晰，以致老師被迫「過度教學」（over-teaching）、（3）師生都對「獨立專題探究」感棘手，及（4）老師對提升學生之批判思維及獨立思考能力欠信心。訪談結果也歸納出三點，指出目前通識科教師最關注的問題分別是「過度教學」、課程指引中的目標轉化欠清晰及「獨立專題探究」定位失衡。三者亦互為影響。「學習差異大」問題涉及學校資源及教育局的「小班教學」措施，短期內也未見解決之契機，故此，本文暫不贅言。而對於提升學生之批判思維一項，將於下文闡析。現集中分析其餘三個議題如下：一、「過度教學」及改善建議通識科之所以會導致「過度教學」，是因為六個單元對大多數老師和學生來說太闊太深，老師們都因為憂慮公開考試要求很高、範圍很廣，而選擇多教一些內容，力求寧濫莫缺，以保障考試成績。當然，這也與課程指引不夠具體清晰有關。例如在「科學、科技與公共衛生」單元中，課程指引建議可探討下列課題及副題：公共衛生與社會發展的關係，如： - 用於公共衛生服務的資源及資源分配情況 - 文化、制度及經濟等因素對生活模式的影響 - 教育對公共衛生的影響（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2007，頁 38）上述第一個副題所包含的教學範圍較清晰具體，學生及老師能清楚知道哪些知識概念跟此是相關的。但另外兩個副題所觸及之範圍則過於廣泛而至模糊不清，師生不知從何入手。最近香港通識教育教師聯會做了一個中期通識科課程檢討，針對這「過度教學」 96 問題，作了三個「瘦身方案」建議，同時亦作出一忠告 ─「若删剪太多，則可能有損通識作為必修科所需的闊度，宜小心平衡」（香港通識教育教師聯會，2013），值得各界熱心通識科發展人士深思。二、課程目標轉化不清晰課程目標轉化對教與學的影響，固然與課程目標本身的闡述有關，但現時香港學校教育中的考試的「倒流效應」（washback effect）（Wall, 1997）亦是問題的癥結之一。因為，相對於課程目標指引，公開考試的形式和內容似乎更直接影響着教師對課程的規畫、教學和校內評估的設計。如兩位訪談學者反映，教師希望評分標準能作較長期之穩定化，及現行之「標準參照評核模式」（standard-referencing assessment）能更公開和清晰，並且提供更多的答題範本（sample scripts），以便於他們因應評估標準來準備教學。有關方面應對課程目標的轉化加以更為具體的說明，以幫助教師對教學的重點有更清晰的理解與把握，但另一方面，持份者也應警惕這種「為測驗而教學」（teaching for the test）的課程實施行為，避免通識科老師為了應付公開考核之廣度，而犧性教學上之深度，喪失了通識科獨有之意義及貢獻。（註：根據最新發表的《通識教育科課程與評估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、評估有方》文件（香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評核局，2013），內裡羅列不少各單元的學與教重點及建議探究例子，均切合實際教學目標和學生需要，可消弭上文所批評之「課程目標不清晰」之弊）。三、「獨立專題探究」之落差「獨立專題探究」（Independent Enquiry Study, IES）定位失衡是另一較為突出的問題。根據香港課程發展議會，通識科的獨立專題探究，「容許學生在獨立專題探究部份選擇適合自己的興趣和志向的課題進行探究」（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局， 2007，頁 7）。IES是通識科學習重要的一環，其設計旨在提供一種自主學習的經歷，讓學生負起學習的主要責任，並發揮自我管理能力，以進行自訂主題的探究研習。「而教師的責任是幫助學生達到他們的學習目標，隨着學習者的能力增強，教師的輔助應該逐漸減退，以便將學習的控制權逐步轉移到學生身上」（頁 81）。因此通識科的獨立專題探究，如果實施得宜，可逐步邁向前文所說之創生或締造取向的課程實施理想。然而教協及通識教師聯會的調查卻發現獨立專題探究中的「弄虛作假」情況不少。 97 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻能力不逮的學生做來叫苦連天，教師的教導、監督及批改也吃力不討好。原因是教師很多時候將其視為學術研究，以致會操練學生統計方法、問卷調查及訪談技巧，而非一種自主探究的學習活動，結果令學與教束手縛腳，效果不彰。筆者建議撥亂反正，減低現在因公開考試而要求高度標準化的評估要求。考評局應多下放權力予學校更好設計獨立專題探究，使之與校本評估作無縫式結合，為教師恢復獨立專題探究本來面貌 ─ 探究為主的學習活動 ─ 提供空間。香港通識教育教師聯會的中期報告也有檢討「獨立專題探究」之存廢，亦提出若果取消獨立專題探究，則「學生［會］失去一個甚有學習意義的學習活動」，其言亦堪咀嚼。丁丶課程未來發展之前瞻對於以上問題的解決，通識科教師作為課程實施者亦有自己的觀點和建議。香港教育專業人員協會教育研究部（2012）的調查結果顯示，教師認為下列九項措施是解決通識科問題最有效益的措施（2010及 2011年前九名的排序相同）：（1）小班教學、（2）增加通識常額教席、（3）更多專科資源、（4）增撥學習差異資源、（5）暫緩自評外評、（6）轉為選修選考、（7）只評合格或不合格、（8）評審通識教科書，及（9）提供更多到校支援（頁 34）。除了增撥人手和資源外，教師也期望在「獨立專題研究」和「課程範圍」方面有所改善。需要強調的是外部的資源、環境與評核固然是影響課程實施效果的重要且必要之因素，但通識科要真正邁向「創生或締造」的課程實施取向，更為重要的是教師之間、師生之間應視通識科為一持續性之教與學成效之探索旅程，不可輕言放棄。通識科出現問題的成因頗為複雜，可能是學生之獨立思考及批判思維能力不彰，也可能是老師的教學效能有待強化或批判思維及意識不高。後者構成了重要的教師課程知能及意識需再提升和探究之課題。這兩方面之提升都會有助老師課程績效，不容輕視。要做到這種多元視域交流，以達致「視域的融合」，課程發展處、學校課程領導階層、大學師訓機構及通識科教師學會組織，皆可多舉行全校老師專業對話、同儕對話、學者老師對話、邀請外界講者、及師生對話等活動。藉着這些對話及視界交流才能令老師⋯⋯ 能正視自己的角色與生活，願意從新的觀點、運用新的思維，來重新檢視過往「視為當然」的課程實務與「習焉不察」的教學實踐，才可能有所覺醒 98 （awakening），才可能激發「課程意識」（curricular consciousness）、促進「教學覺知」（pedagogical awareness）⋯⋯（甄曉蘭，2003，頁 72）有了這些「課程意識」及「教學覺知」，老師便會「知道」和「明白」更多，並能建立一個多面向的知識庫，及擁有專業覺知精神，知所批判，及知所捍衛。只有這樣的老師及其產生的多元批判情境脈絡，才能教導出有獨立理性及批判思維的下一代。也只有這樣的學校課程氛圍才能產生真正的「課程共識」，乃至「視域的融合」，實現通識科課程的「創生或締造」課程觀（白雲霞，2003，頁 60；李子建，2010，頁 14；Lam, 2007）。因此日後通識科的發展，除了考慮小班教學及增加常額通識科老師外，大學、教師教育機構、課程發展處及通識科老師學會，應多重視協力挑起提升老師課程知能及意識責任；共同形塑一全港性的專業對話及視界交流平台，俾能讓通識科老師對不同聲音和經驗多見、多聞、多思考、多交流，從以重構其課程觀及教學實踐。至於各學校之領導層及課程領導亦宜配合這一大環境之對話交流氣氛，多做一些相應的教師發展工作。容萬城（2005）指出三種專業教師發展模式皆適合通識科老師，分別為知識與技能發展、自我理解及生態轉變 1（Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992；李子建，2002，2005）。筆者認為其中之「自我理解」模式似適合本文所指之建構校本對話及視界交流氛圍。若能成功建構及持續發展，及過渡至「生態轉變」模式，必能形塑全校學與教之多元化及批判思維模式，令老師及學生得益，也令通識科獨有的學科貢獻得以彰顯。鳴謝本文承蒙資深通識科專才及老師培訓專家黃志堅先生及陳崗博士給予寶貴意見，令內容充實及有實質可貴的論證及啓示，在此謹表謝忱。 _______________ 1 第一種知識與技能發展模式主要是培養老師反思和行動研究、團體學習、溝通和解難能力；第二種自我理解模式多培養教師的反思、鼓勵老師與他人分享知識和收集資訊，藉以建構共同目的、願景；第三種生態轉變模式乃重視團隊工作、教師學習的自主性，並透過建立互信而合作的變化、促進集體學習和學習社群的建立。 99 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻參考文獻白雲霞（2003）。《學校本位課程發展理論、模式》。台北：高等教育出版社。朱嘉穎（2009）。〈教師專業發展理念的剖析 ─ 以香港通識教育科為例〉。《教育學報》，36（1-2），53-75。吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠（2009）。〈從單元規劃看新高中通識教育科的課程詮釋〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 8卷，64-72。李子建（編著）（2002）。《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》。香港：中文大學出版社。李子建（2005）。〈專業發展社群、教師發展與課程發展〉。《香港中文大學教育學院第七屆兩岸三地課程理論研討會論文集》，頁 97-109。李子建（2010）。〈「通識教育支援計劃」的理念〉。載宋兆國、吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠、葉殿恩（合編），《新高中通識教育科學與教資源冊》（頁 10-18）。香港：香港中文大學教育學院課程與教學學系「通識教育支援計劃 ─ 課程銜接與發展」。李子建、黃顯華（1996）。《課程：範式取向和設計》。香港：香港中文大學出版社。香港教育專業人員協會教育研究部（2012）。《新高中通識教育科調查報告》。香港：香港教育專業人員協會。香港通識教育教師聯會（2013）。《中期通識科課程檢討報告》。通識教育研究會。容萬城（2005）。〈香港教育改革與「新高中通識教育」的實踐與挑戰〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 4卷，43-53。教育局、香港考試及評核局（2013）。《通識教育科課程與評估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、評估有方》。香港：香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評核局。許寶強（2012.8.20）。〈考評反映學習成效 ─ 從香港中學文憑試通識科成績談起〉。《明報》，專訊。黃政傑（1994）。《課程教學之變革》。台北：師大書苑。甄曉蘭（2003）。〈教師的課程意識與教學實踐〉。《教育研究集刊》，第 49期，第 1 卷，63-94。課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（2007）。《通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：政府印務局。嶺南大學群芳文化研究及發展部統籌、香港教育專業人員協會、香港通識教育教師聯會、新界西通識專業網絡協辦（2012）。《新高中通識科課程內容研究調查報告》。香港：嶺南大學群芳文化研究及發展部出版。 100 鍾啓泉（編著）（2005）。《現代課程論》，台灣：高等教育出版。 Bussis, A. M., Chittenden, E. A., & Amarel, M. (1976). Beyond surface curriculum: an interview study of teachers’ understanding. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. Gadamer, Hans-George. (1975). Truth and Method. London: Sheed and Ward. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G. (1992). Introduction. In A. Hargreaves & M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding Teacher Development (pp. 1-19). UK/New York: Cassell/Teachers College Press. Lam, J. T. S. (2007). Fusion of horizons: Implications for a hermeneutical learning community approach of implementing liberal studies in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(1), 39-61. Lee, J. C. K. (2006). Hong Kong: Accelerated Schools for Quality Education Project (ASQEP) experiences. In J. C. K. Lee & M. Williams (Eds.), School improvement: International perspectives (pp. 159-174). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Wall, D. (1997). Impact and washback in language testing. In C. Clapham & D. Corson (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education (Vol. 7: Language testing and assessment) (pp. 291-302). Bosten: Kluwer. The present and the future possibilities of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong LAM Tak Shing John & LEE Chi Kin John The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract This paper discusses the status and development of Liberal Studies from three different orientations of curriculum implementation. It is argued that schools and teachers tend to adopt a mutual adaptation orientation to implement the Liberal Studies curriculum with varying modes of module design as well as teaching and learning. Challenges are identified during curriculum implementation. It is proposed that it may be desirable to move towards a curriculum enactment orientation in future implementation. Keywords Liberal Studies, curriculum implementation, curriculum development 101 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響陳國棟播道書院、香港美術教育協會摘要本文嘗試以「考評制度」及所引伸的現象，檢視視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式會否對視覺藝術教育課程帶來影響。當中發現考評制度中四個面向，有可能對課程帶來影響，分別為：（1）作品集呈交方法；（2）藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法；（3）文字在評核中佔據的角色；（4）藝術評賞的考核安排。考評制度成效的關注層面，並非只就學生成績的個人層次作判斷，而是檢視整個「考評制度的機制」，並須瞭解學生學習成果是否達到預期設定的目標。關鍵詞考評制度，成就描述，藝術評賞甲、前言從最新有關「新高中視覺藝術科」（以下簡稱：視藝科）文憑試的教師意見調查顯示，不少教師認為新高中課程推展後，並不認同視藝科於任教的學校發展前景更為理想（視藝教育關注核心小組，2013）。另一方面，在以往七年改革期間，有學者藉課堂觀察、訪問及抽樣調查研究，發現教師及學生基本上認同視藝科改革的方向；學者更指出「改革能重現視覺藝術教育的本質價值」（黃素蘭，2011）。兩者的意見為何出現如此大的分野？及至首屆文憑試視藝科成績揭曉，達至 5級或以上的僅有 6.1%。不少民間團體自 102 發進行研究、發表文章，以及舉行研討會，以不同持份者的角色作出回應。前線教師普遍認為評核的準則、考核範圍及作品集的呈分方式等均是爭議所在。教育作為糾結複雜的場域，要探討教育的現象，必須有一個切入點進行分析（吳毓瑩、吳麗君，2002）。本文嘗試以「評估制度」檢視新高中視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式，對視覺藝術教育本質所帶來潛在的影響。乙、考評改革回應時代轉變全球化資訊泛濫，全世界都在尋找「學習」的新典範。Greeno, Collins & Resnick （1996）將認知與學習的不同觀念整理為三種主要觀點：（1）行為實徵觀點（The Behaviorist / Empiricist View）；（2）認知理性觀點（The Cognitive / Rationalist View）；（3）情境社會歷史觀點（The Situative / Pragmatics-Sociohistoric View）。行為實徵觀點的評量方式傾向以量化的觀點評量學習的成果，貼近傳統的紙筆測驗的方式；認知理性觀點評量學生能否掌握學科的普遍性原則，以及其運用策略解決問題的能力；情境社會歷史觀點強調學生主動的探索及參與的歷程（吳毓瑩，1998）。就當代藝術趨勢以言，後現代藝術重視創作與情境的關聯性。現代學習理論強調學生應作為積極建構意義的參與者，符合藝術創作强調自主性規律的特色。源於世界的知識，應是學生學習與評量的原點（陳素櫻，1997）。學生除了展示知識，更重要是在真實情境中建構知識，並展現創意及解難的能力。傳統考核偏重於知識的陳述，忽略建構知識歷程的重要性（林素微， 1998）。過往，香港高級程度會考仍側重素描等技巧性的評核，未能提升學生文化素養、創意思維及自學能力等，視藝科校本評核採用能展現學生創作情境觀點的「作品集」，作為實作評量的工具，讓人期望能彌補以往的不足。丙、實作評量 ─ 何謂「真實評量」中的「真實」需要？早於 90年代始，檔案評量模式為美國不同州的學校所採用（江雪齡，1998）。從教與學的角度，檔案評量有助教師可定時就學生的表現作出回饋，為學生作出整理、反思及修正，達至持續改進及學習歷程（鄭麗玉，2005）。特別是藝術課程更應讓學生呈現多元性的藝術表現，每個獨立的個體均有機會建構不同審美觀念、創作思維及各種媒材的運用能力（陳育淳，2005）。不同學者以不同專稱表達這些新評量模式，如「卷宗評量」（吳毓瑩，1998）；「學習歷程檔案法」（歐滄和，1998）及「近檔案評量」（李坤崇，1999）等。 103 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響不同持份者對課程中哪些是最需要「真實」評量的內容持不同的觀點。Wiggins （1990）指出教師編排教些甚麼，學生便學習甚麼，最後就只評量甚麼，這是對實作評量錯誤的理解。也有學者指出若教師的教學目標旨在訓練學生應付公開考試，這種評量也有人認為是真實評量的方式（吳毓瑩，1997）。筆者認為這同樣是錯誤的觀念，這種評量方式只能回應「考試情境」的要求，並未重視當今社會情境歷史的因素。另外，有學者指出核心能力可以是學生畢業後所能展現出來的能力（劉維琪，2010）。這種見解較為貼近情境社會歷史觀點。學者強調當代課程改革的成功，必須在社會的脈絡中進行（吳毓瑩，1997）。若評量的目標朝向世界的真實評量方式，「課程」、「評量」與「真實應用」或「真實生活」應互相緊扣，課程內容應可應用於真實世界，或有相關連繫的事物（Linn, 1995），如以往 60年代以現代主義及形式主義的觀念，進行創作及藝術評賞。但當今後現代主流藝術觀如概念藝術、媒體藝術、環境美學、生態美學及視覺文化都講求與創作情境的緊密聯繫，視藝科的「課程與評量」設計必須顧及這些因素。考評局十分強調考評世界的公認性，導致評分準則傾斜於量化及僵化的性質，為了滿足考評「公認性」的「真實」需求，會否成為考評中最核心的目標？會否因而減低視藝科本質的展現？甚麼是新高中文憑試「真實」的評量目標，並導引出正確的考評或課程？這是學者對課程改革的深度觀察及爭論焦點。丁、持份者對考評改革的疑慮台灣高中公開考試被戲稱為「一刀斃命」的高風險評量；而多元評量的教育改革，也被負面地稱為「凌遲致死」（吳毓瑩、吳麗君，2002）。就本土情境而言，學者及教師一方面認同改革的精神，另一方面對考評的方式極為疑慮。產生這種矛盾現象可歸納為四種不同的意見：（1）作品集呈交的方法影響評分；（2）依據「成就描述」的藝術評賞評核方法；（3）文字在評核中佔據過重的角色；（4）藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相連的考核及評分安排。一、作品集呈交方法影響評分效度就視藝科而言，創作的檔案是展現個人藝術能力的最簡易的途徑。Valencia & Calfee提出檔案可以分為三種模式：展示型檔案（showcase portfolio）、文件型檔案 104 （documentation portfolio）及評鑑型檔案（evaluation portfolio）（鄒慧英，2000）。當中評鑑型檔案屬於標準化的型式，主要功能與傳統客觀式測驗有相近的地方，檔案評分的範圍已經事先決定，學生主導權相對較低。考評局採用的屬評鑑型檔案，因學生需回應評分的量度準則，創作的思維受到限制，但學生仍有空間主導整個創作歷程，而爭議點在作品集呈交方法所引伸的問題。 Mehrens（1992）建議在考慮採用實作評量的效度時，應從是否藉評量方法或工具量度正確的領域、測驗內涵取樣是否適切、如何推論等問題方面考慮。大部份老師不介意負擔額外的工作，但「作品集的定義及頁數的爭議」引起極大的討論（黃素蘭， 2011）。有誤傳作品集「越多及越大就越好」。相反，也有學者認為整理作品能有助清晰及簡潔展現作品集表現，如篩選、整理、表達及分享等能力，都值得學習（黃素蘭， 2011）。也有不少教師支持將整件學生作品集呈交給考評局，作為檢驗學生校本評核的證據。在討論有關校本評核評分方法的研討會中，有教育局代表曾提出「不准整理作品集」，以及所有探索應在工作簿內進行的要求。有教師推測，這是為了避免學生有作弊的現象而作出的安排。考評局要求學生每一件作品集選取 12頁作代表（或 24頁縮印為 12頁），作品集要求不可被編輯。最終，每一位學生將超過 100頁以上的作品集濃縮至 12頁，並且以不超過 15 Mb的 PDF檔案呈交。這「並不連貫」的作品集選頁，如 Benjamin所言，作為失去氛圍「壓縮影像」的印刷品（Benjamin，譯 2006），未知能否保持評量的效度。考評局所舉辦的工作坊提出被選取 12頁的作品集，需展示「緊密發展性」的創作意念。有教師認為 12頁的數量並未能反映學生最有價值的歷程，也很難反映彼此之間的關聯性。老師反映「作品集只交數頁，又不能整理，根本不能顯現學生作品的過程」；「完全不認同用以調分的 12+5頁『作品集』無須經過整理，調分員也能審核考生在創作過程中的各種能力表現⋯⋯調分員可能未能全面評核學生的能力，會產生不公平的現象」；「作品集應整本評核，甚至派員到校評審學生作品，如 IB課程一般⋯⋯」（《香港美術教育期刊》，2013a）。盧雪梅（1998）指出「不能為了運用上的方便或簡單的理由，把評量的層面給窄化或偏狹，評量者應配合教學目標選擇和其目的相合的評量方式和工具，以落實多元化的評量」。筆者最擔心為了容易獲取成績，「緊密發展性的創作意念作品集」的呈交要求，無 105 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響形誘導老師以「樣式化」的創作歷程指導學生，影響課程的本意。有老師認為「學習公式化，用套路答題」（童傑，2013.4.29）。學生為了獲取高分數，最終仍是以「應試」的態度去創作。老師只按照評分準則要求的四個重點教學，而學生於作品集中公式地進行記錄及創作。創作思維應該是提升和多元的，並非一定以線性的邏輯推演主題，創造力的意識也可以是擴散性、跳躍性及其他的可能性。學者從大量有關創造力的研究中仍找不出一種必然的定律，只能找出表現創造力的不同特質。筆者擔心學生最終並未享有真正創作的自主權，而自主性正正是創造新事物的創作者必須擁有的條件。筆者也懷疑學生因只能呈交濃縮後的 PDF檔案，對創作中強調色彩、線條或調子細緻性風格的同學不利，因檔案未能重現原貌，影響審核員（moderator）對作品判斷，進而影響分數。課程改革期望學生能提升「後設認知」，進而「終身學習」，如 Dutt-Donter & Gilman （1998）認為「學生能自我反思及有系統的闡述其信念價值」，最終學生能「學會學習」，但現在的安排是否能達到視藝科課程改革的目標及原意？二、藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法實作評量雖能配合當代的教育情境，若運用於升學考試的性質，仍面對不少挑戰。 Mehrens（1992）認為實作評量要達至信度，評分者間的一致性、評分歷程的客觀性、考核內部的一致性，評分者的選擇和訓練、明確的評分規範，以及定期檢視評分者的表現等都是重要的元素。視藝科有別於其他文憑試科目，視藝科較貼近當代文化的動向，學生跟隨當今藝術創作及評賞的模式，形成他們勇於以多樣性的藝術形式以表現他們的想法。課程也同樣趨向多樣化及動態化，並比其他科目為多。現今藝術評賞安排在文憑試中進行，文憑試要求學生在 45分鐘的時限內，從五組（每組兩張）不同時代、國家或風格的相關主題作品中，選出一組進行評賞，這安排引起極大爭議。藝術評賞主要要求學生以「成就描述」中四個評分準則作為評論方向。而四個評分準則是於中小學課程中，採用了 20多年費爾德曼（Feldman）的評賞模式（簡稱費曼模式）為依歸。費曼模式建構於現代主義中形式主義的美學觀，而主張形式主義的學者認為觀者能單以作品所採用的藝術形式，就能詮釋作品所要表現的訊息。此外，在「成就描述」中傾向依據量化性質的評核方法（陳國棟，2012）。筆者及一般前線教師都十分認同藝術評賞在藝術教育的必要性及重要性。爭議點在 106 於現今藝術評賞評核方式，未能回應當代藝術的發展之餘，也錯誤引導學生可隨意解讀作品的態度。當代作品重視創作情境，作品形式或表達手法有可能因應創作情境，表示出簡約及只隱藏單一訊息，而重點在於創作者要藉作品反映或諷刺哪一個社會的面貌，將作品形式與作品相關背景兩者相連，才能學習到當代藝術評賞的精神，當中並不能單單以量化方式評估藝術評賞的質量。此外，筆者認為考評要在 45分鐘內完成過於困難，更嚴重的是在沒有賞評考核範圍及沒有提供任何背景的情況下，學生無從稽考，但為了獲取分數，只好胡亂推敲，最終以看圖作文的方式完成評賞。不少老師也同樣有相同的見解：「學生不可能對每一位藝術家有所認識，如果強迫學生去評賞，最後只會做成一個『吹水』局面。（《香港美術教育期刊》，2013b）。此外，也有老師認為「無明確範圍是其一，古今中外的作品甚至廣告，也可以出題，學生難以準備好古今中外所有藝術家的師承脈絡才去應考。」老師不諱言「學生有時只能看圖作文『吹水』」（童傑，2013.4.29）。學生也認為：「評賞筆試『只能靠估』，猶如『看圖作文』，對自己是否正確解讀創作原意並無把握」（梁子健，2012.1.11）。學者更嚴肅地指出：「更災難的是考生還要根據這個『吹水』的答案，延伸其意念至創作卷中，因此其答題的取向將直接影響考生藝術創作的取態⋯⋯『胡亂虛應』成為高中視藝的創作主流。」（黎明海，2013.5.9）明確的評分準則也可能引導了學生詮釋作品思維的方向，最終只以單一評賞結構方式進行，謝絕了學生運用其他評賞模式的可能性。教師為了針對考試要求，自然同樣依從這種由四個步驟組成的評論結構編寫評賞課程。評賞課程的設計最終難逃單一化的命運，考評雖然能達至信度的要求，但學生評賞寫作的方式，與後現代詮釋藝術的方法發展背道而馳。筆者認為藝術評賞的評核應安排在校本評核中進行，此舉有助學生就被評賞的藝術品，尋找更豐富作品的情境資料，進入更深度的詮釋。新的藝術觀念，應以新的思維作出回應。本人曾參與由考評局舉辦有關評分員的工作坊，老師即場以考評局提供的評分準則為一些學生評賞評論進行評分，目的是看看老師能否掌握以費曼模式為原則的評分規則要求，在場一位老師提出考評局解讀費曼模式的方式，與她從台灣學者所寫的論述及大學時所學習的有所不同。工作坊講員提出評分員必須以考評局提出的評核準則作為依據，經一番議論後，老師最後憤而離場。從上述的事件反映考評局在評分方式的培訓中無形左右了教師對藝術評賞的觀念，教師為了教導學生獲取分數，自然依據評分準則作為課程編制的重點，評賞課程設計呈模式化，最終局限了學生的視野及發揮。 107 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響有關當局未能就考評信度的要求與當代藝術評賞課程發展作出合理的協調，考評信度凌駕當代課程的發展。前國際藝術教育協會會長 Boughton（2005）認為後現代思潮挑戰藝術在教育的觀念。視藝科的評量需顧及質性與量性兩方面，才能明確指出教師對學生表現對藝術評賞的觀念的期待與正確的學習方向（史美瑤，2012；李坤崇，2006）。三、文字在評核中佔據過重的角色藝術評賞是首次安排在視藝科公開評核之中，文字在視藝科從未佔據如此重要的角色。多元評估沿於多元智慧的觀念，旨在證明不同的人擁有不同的智慧，單一智力的測驗未能反映人擁有不同能力的全貌。教育系統應從單一方向，以文字為主導的方向轉向多元性的考核。」Garcia & Pearson（1994）指出：「傳統評量的題目往往代表著主流文化及社會中高階層的價值觀，不利於來自弱勢文化及社會低階層的學生。故在此強調多元文化的時代，這種不公平的傳統評量已受到了強烈的批評」。教協籌委梁德賢認為：「弱勢學生最差是文字描述，他們愛創作但寫作及組織能力不一定強，結果只能有兩種選擇：一是背誦，一是放棄。」（教協報記者，2011）。教育局（2011）強調公開考試應「能有效、公平和客觀反映課程宗旨、構架、本科價值和學生能力」。文字正正並非本科價值的目標，過量的文字要求扼殺有潛質的學生的直覺、創意及想像力的發揮。教師認為：「評考模式對語文能力偏低的學生不公平，評賞部份應接受多元的評核方式，如口頭匯報」（《香港美術教育期刊》，2013a）。 Boughton指出：「評核法的原意是給予學生機會，展示他們（學生）在美術創作途上的歷時性（performance over time）及抒發作品背後的理論架構、哲學或個人反省」（朱穎琪，1999）。若從另一個角度觀察，作品集的歷程是協助學生提升「後設認知」的能力，也是檢視學生在創作層面中「後設認知」的表現能力。筆者認為「後設認知」並非單靠文字表達，若老師或審核員能從學生完整的作品集中，觀察到無論在媒介、創作手法、藝術情境不同方面作為參考，藉視覺性的探索中，瞭解學生如何經歷「接納、變遷、解脫、到超越」的創作過程（蔡明哲，2006），文字只是擔當輔助的角色。筆者發現老師未能將「視覺語言」及「文字」於視藝科課程擔當的角色，作出合理的安排。一方面，老師應以擴展學生「視覺創作能力」、「視覺表達能力」及「視覺素養能力」為己任。不少老師安排時間教導學生如何撰寫作品集及藝術評賞，課程中安排創作能力的訓練相應減少。筆者從文憑試擔當監考員發現，不少學生創作及繪畫能力欠 108 佳。此外，從探討新高中會議中，任教大專的教師也表示現今的學生不懂繪畫。作為以「視覺思維」為核心的科目，若學生將時間過量放在「文字」的要求，因而影響了創作的質量，這是值得進一步的反思。四、藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相連的考核及評分安排以往藝術科的公開考試以技巧為主，學生只以「畫室模式化」的繪畫方式面對考試，而未能反映後現代藝術發展的特色，就是重視情境及社會的意識。「當今『後現代社會學』不再把個人主觀認知和外在的社會群體認知全然二分，藝術的創作和表達成為不全然是個人對社會的反映，也受制於整個社會價值取向。」（陳秋瑾，1999）。文憑試藝術創作部份佔總分 40%，評分準則分為五部份：（1）媒材及技法的選擇和運用，（2）視覺元素及設計原理的選擇和運用，（3）創作與評賞的關係，（4）創意與想像力及（5）主題傳意各佔 18%。新高中視藝考試中藝術創作必須與藝術評賞緊扣相連，評賞在沒有考核的範圍下，學生並不容易確定作品的社會及文化等背景，若創作建基於這不確定的第一因，學生如何延伸評賞作品文化及社會的維度，以及將個人的情感及想像納入為創作的元素？學生只能以猜測的態度進行創作，在不確定的第一因下，如何適當地運用其他評分項目如：視覺元素、設計原理、創意與想像力，而達至主題傳意的效果呢？從分析發現，影響分數的並非單單「創作與評賞的關係」一項，而是不同評分準則之間彼此串聯。當學生於「創作與評賞的關係」掌握得不理想時，其他評分部份也會受到干擾。史美瑤（2012）認為採用評估表格須注意，若相關成就描述的文字過於公式化，學生只會依照所訂出的規格來創作，因而抑制了學生的創造力。曾有學者以「素描」創作為例，探討他們的創作及評賞背後的傾向，結果發現大部份的學生是以「具有共識」（獲取高分的公式）態度及目標去進行創作或鑑賞；只有極少數學生能嘗試挑戰共識，以另一種合理的角度或方式呈現答案（陳秋瑾，1997）。若「創作與評賞的關係」成為他們創作的主要條件，他們將也會按照「具有共識」的態度進行創作，就是學生只能將意念放在被評賞的作品，學生可能瞭解作品的意念，或只能是建基於懷疑之中，而非在情境之上。學生的創意未能獲得自由和自主的思想空間。學生在作品集中要把自己的創作硬性規定與藝術品評賞有聯繫，實在限制了學生的創意及發揮。 109 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響戊、總結一般人認為學生的學習與滿意程度均由老師負起全部的責任。這種歸因的邏輯令教師承受不公平的看法。學者對這現象提出警告和呼籲，實作評量的推展並不能單建立在信念上，而是要建立在實際的證據上（Linn, Bake & Dunbar, 1991）。這次大規模的教育改革，評量成效的關注層面，並非只是學生成績的個人層次；檢視「評量的機制」，檢視學生的學習成果是否達成預期設定的目標？如何進行改善或修正也應作為考量之一（劉維琪，2010）。香港連續三年被選為全球化指數排名榜首，學者提出「情境社會歷史觀點」最能回應當今全球化的社會情境。在當代藝術的觀念中，藝術創作重視創作者個人經驗與情境互動為主，藝術評賞則重視藝術品的客觀情境，然而，文憑試的要求卻剛剛相反。考評制度出現扭曲的現象，但教師為了讓學生獲取分數，只好以「應試模式」編寫校本課程，故考評制度具有對視藝科課程潛在的影響性，干擾教師課程設計方向，以下提出四方面作出回應： 1. Educational Testing Service（1990）的報告指出，重新設計實作評量的方案相對現有測驗模式昂貴十倍以上。以實作評量（作品集）作為考核，必須考慮有否足夠的經費持續運作這系統。考評局應提升運作的經費，來確保調分員能清晰及完整地了解學生作品集的歷程及質量。 2. 依據現代主義費曼模式所建構的「成就描述」已經過時，應建立一種能回應當代藝術文化的藝術評賞評分框架，讓學生能脫離單一的評賞模式，擴展學生的視覺素養，而藝術評賞應安排於校本評核中進行。 3. 文字在評核中應只擔當輔助角色。考評局應提供正確的範例，並釐清視覺表達及創作能力才是中學階段課程的核心。 4. 藝術評賞與創作的必然聯繫，只會扼殺學生的創意及創作的自主性，必須廢除。兆基創意書院校監黃英琦指出，「藝術科目在舊制下雖是冷門，但現時是『令冷門的更冷門』」；「我曾見過有學生很有興趣和天分，也因為考試而放棄藝術，令人感到很殘酷」（童傑，2013.4.29）。視藝科考評及課程的「真實」需要是甚麼？是「以制度為本」的運作考量？還是「以人為本」？還是為「香港創意人才培育」為主要考量？ 2012年台灣舉行的「SGHC全球化人力資本高峰會」，提出兩項重要的觀念：「如何避 110 免扼殺創意的事件發生」及「瞭解如何創造更有創意的人力」（Haren，2012）。「如何避免扼殺創意的事件發生」是兩屆視藝科文憑試後，值得進一步探討的重要議題。參考文獻《香港美術教育期刊》（2013a）。〈前線教師對新高中視藝科文憑試回應〉。2013年第 1期，6-7。《香港美術教育期刊》（2013b）。〈學生李家豪心聲〉。2013年第 1期，8。史美瑤（2012）。〈提升學生學習成效：評估表格（Rubrics）的設計與運用〉，《評鑑雙月刊》，第 40期，39-41。朱穎琪（1999）。〈訪問包頓教授（Professor Doug Boughton）〉。《香港美術教育期刊》， 1999年第 3期，8。江雪齡（1998）。〈檔案評量法〉。《中等教育》，49（4），79-84。吳毓瑩（1997）。〈評量的蛻變與突破 — 從哲學思潮與效度理論思考起〉。《現代教育論壇蛻變與突破：紙筆及另類評量的理念與實務》，2，189-203。吳毓瑩（1998）。〈我看、我畫、我說、我演、我想、我是誰啊？卷宗評量之概念、理論、與應用〉。《教育資料與研究》，20，13-17。吳毓瑩、吳麗君（2002）。〈從比較教育的取向討論測驗評量在教育銜接中之意涵 — 一個可能的研究途徑〉。《國立臺北師範學院學報》。第 15卷，313-316。李坤崇（1999）。《多元化教學評量》。臺北：心理出版社。李坤崇（2006）。《教學評量》。臺北：心理出版社。林素微（1998）。〈實作評量在數學教學上的應用〉。載臺南師院測驗發展中心（彙編），《國小教學評量的反省與前瞻》（頁 89-105）。臺南市：臺南師院。教育局（2011）：〈問與答 — 新高中視覺藝術科課程〉，2012年 11月 13日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/kla/arts-edu/q-and-a/nss-qa.html。教協報記者（2011）。〈新高中視覺藝術科 — 培育創意人才？扼殺學生興趣 — 教育工作者談視藝科課程與考核的嚴重謬誤〉。2012年 11月 13日，取自 http://www. hkptu.org/ptu/director/pubdep/ptunews/590/m01a.htm。梁子健（2012.1.11）。〈文憑試視藝考生要靠估　評賞罕見當代作品　艾未未「兩腳桌」也列題〉。《星島日報》，A06版。 111 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響陳育淳（2005）。〈大家一起寫情書 — 談視覺藝術教育的形成性評量〉。《美育雙月刊》，第 146期，59-69。陳秋瑾（1997）。〈臺北市立師範學院美勞教育系學生「素描」概念的探討〉。《臺北市立師範學院學報》，28，399-418。陳秋瑾（1999）。〈視覺藝術與哲學觀〉。《現代教育論壇：視覺藝術與哲學觀》，5， 203-208。陳素櫻（1997）。〈回歸評量的本質談開放教育中的評量〉。載鄧運林（編），《開放教育多元評量》（頁 19-27）。高雄：高雄復文。陳國棟（2012）。〈以約翰．霍金斯（John Hawkins）「創意生態學」反思藝術教育的生態兩難困境〉。《香港美術教育期刊》，第 2期，27-30。童傑（2013.4.29）。〈視藝科負擔重師生叫苦　連夜趕報告掀起退修潮〉。《星島日報》， A13版。視藝教育關注核心小組（2013）。〈九成視藝科教師對高中視藝科失信心　教育局及考評局必須對課程及考評機制作出具體改革〉。《香港美術教育期刊》，2013年第 1 期，15。黃素蘭（2011）。〈高中視藝科考試改革的風波〉。《香港美術教育期刊》，2011年第 1期，7-10。鄒慧英（2000）。〈多元化的檔案評量〉。《國教之友》，52（1），16-23。劉維琪（2010）。〈推動學生學習成果評量的機制〉。《評鑑雙月刊》，第 26期，6-7。歐滄和（1998）。〈談學習歷程檔案法的點點滴滴〉。《教育資料與研究》，第 4期， 28-30。蔡明哲（2006）。〈全球化與中國文人水墨畫的藝術界域問題 — 民族主義的張大千和沒有主義的高行健〉。《哲學與文化》，第 33卷第 10期，115-132。鄭麗玉（2005）。《教育心理學精要》。臺北：考用出版社。黎明海（2013.5.9）。〈新高中視藝教育喪鐘再響〉。《星島日報》，F05版。盧雪梅（1998）。〈實作評量的應許、難題和挑戰〉。《教育資料與研究》，第 20期， 1-5。 Benjamin, W.（2006）。《機械復制時代的藝術》，李偉、郭東（譯）。重慶：重慶出版社。（原著出版年：1935） Boughton, D.（2005）。〈大夏講壇 20講：美國北伊利諾大學道．柏頓教授談「國際藝術教育評價的現狀及發展趨勢」〉。《大夏人文》，2006年第 1期，44-45。 112 Dutt-Donter, K., & Gilman, D. A. (1998). Students react to portfolio assessment. Contemporary Education, 69, 159-65. Educational Testing Service. (1990). Helping America raise educational standards for the 21st century. Annual report. Princeton, NJ: Author. Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Assessment and diversity. In L. Darling-Hammand (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, 20, 337-391. Greeno, J. G., Collins, A. M., & Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Haren, F.（2012）。〈人才發展也要創意激發〉。SGHC 2012全球化人力資本高峰會議。 Linn, R. L. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice- Hall. Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Dunbar, S. B. (1991). Complex, performance-based assessment: Expectations and validation criteria. Educational Researcher, 20(8), 15-21. Mehren, W. A. (1992). Using performance assessment for accountability purposes. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 11(1), 3-20. Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. (ERIC Digest). Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED328611) 113 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 Potential impact of the assessment structure of the NSS Visual Arts on the curriculum CHAN Kwok Tung Evangel College, Hong Kong Society for Education in Art Abstract This article tries to link up the discussion on the topic of “the assessment structure” and “the outcome phenomenon” to evaluate and reflect the impact caused by NSS Visual Arts public examination. In the process of investigation, there are 4 aspects in the assessment structure of NSS Visual Arts Education public examination which are liable to influence the NSS Visual Arts Curriculum. They are classified as follows: 1. The ways of submitting students’ portfolios 2. The assessment ways of “rubrics” 3. The role of “Statement and Words” in the assessment 4. The assessment arrangement of “Art Appreciation” In summary, the evaluation of the complete assessment structure and the cognition of how students can achieve their learning targets should be the core items of detecting the true effect and result of the NSS Visual Arts Assessment Structure. Keywords assessment structure, rubrics, art appreciation 115 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討梁亦華香港中文大學教育學院博士生摘要應用學習是香港新高中新設的組成部分，修讀學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選擇，透過實際操作來掌握不同技能，其設計體現了「學生中心」、「體驗學習」、「共通能力」等教改目標，然而文獻對有關課程教師之專業感知卻少有探討。為此，本文通過實證研究搜集了第一手資料，彌補相關研究缺口，以助學界檢討與反思。本文屬質性研究，筆者邀得八名應用學習科目教師參與，環繞課程設計、成效評估、推行困難等作深度訪談，結果顯示教師普遍認同應用學習能激發學生學習動機，滿足就業及職業導向的升學需要，而課程局限則在於財政資源、人手調撥及行政安排等三方面。關鍵詞新高中課程，應用學習，職業導向課程甲、背景 2005年，教育統籌局（現教育局）發佈《高中及高等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未來的行動方案》文件，正式確立新高中課程的定位與功能。作為面向未來的教育規劃，文件中提出了不少創新的課程改革，例如通識教育科被列為升讀大學的必修科、各式校本評核、以及開設多達二十門選修科供高中生選讀。選修學科中，應用學習（Applied Learning, ApL）的課程可說是最能體現新高中精神的學科之一。由於應用學習下的學習 116 範疇極為彈性，學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選擇，透過實際操作來掌握不同技能，正正回應了教改提出「學生為中心」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等範式轉移的新教學模式（教育統籌局，2005）。教育局課程文件之設計希望迎合社會與學生所需，然而任何教育政策亦需要前線教育工作者的配合。正如著名學者 Andy Hargreaves所言，任何學校變革政策與實踐中，教師也是改革理念與學生學習改進的關鍵（Hargreaves, 1994, p.7），只有教師認同政策的積極意義，才能發揮政策的效用。故此，如要檢討新高中應用學習之實際功效，了解新高中教師之專業感知必不可少。那麼在政府與公眾的影響下，接觸學生及統籌課程的前線教師對應用學習又抱有甚麼看法？鑑於新高中課程推出時間不多，相關議題的檢討仍未算全面，故此筆者希望通過是次研究，為應用學習的討論提供前線教師之真實意見，以作學界檢討與反思之用。乙、文獻回顧一、應用學習的定位與目標應用學習課程是新高中課程的新設選修科目之一，與其他新高中學科不同的是，其方向並非以升學作唯一目標。應用學習之設立可視為對 2005年的教改文件《高中及高等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未來的行動方案》的回應，其目的是讓學生「透過真實情境，讓學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論，從而培養他們的共通能力。」（教育統籌局，2006，頁 1）。2009年的《應用學習課程及評估指引（高中課程）》則進一步，把課程目標擴展至協助學生「探討和了解就業及終身學習的取向」（課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局，2009，頁 1）。明顯地，應用學習配合着 2005年教改文件所提倡，「學生為中心的教學模式」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等教改目標，亦希望為學生提供主流升學以外的機會。課程設置方面，應用學習共有六個學習範疇，分別為（1）創意學習；（2）媒體及傳意；（3）商業、管理及法律；（4）服務；（5）應用科學；和（6）工程及生產（課程發展處，2010，頁 27）。學生最多可選修兩門，每門課程的總課時為 180小時。截至 2013/14年度，共有三十七門課程獲教育局官方認可（見附錄）。可見，應用學習的學習範疇範圍頗廣泛，與就業市場亦有密切關係。 117 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討教與學方面，考慮到一般學校未必能對職業導向學科有相應支援，教育局建議學校以兩種模式推行應用學習，包括︰ (1) 課程主要於課程提供機構的場地進行，並由該機構的導師教授。學校須按課程提供機構的時間表，主要安排學生於星期三及星期六外出上課； (2) 課程主要於學校進行，並由學校教師聯同課程提供機構的導師一起負責課堂的安排。學校須與課程提供機構訂定施行細節，包括如何分配教學工作量、調配場地及設施、提供課堂支援等。（課程發展處，2010，頁 5、7）《教育局通函第 14/2013號》則對課程提供機構及學校的關係進一步說明︰推行應用學習的學校，可考慮利用課程提供機構提供的指引和支援，先讓校內教師承擔較多的教學工作，繼而演變為由課程提供機構授權學校開辦課程，但授課及評核部分的內部質素保證，則仍然由課程提供機構負責。（教育局，2013，頁 3）評核方面，應用學習的評核由課程提供機構進行，卻不是以五個等級指標顯示學生成績，只設「達標」（Attained）和「達標並表現優異」（Attained with Distinction）兩級。「達標並表現優異」者等同於甲類科目的第 3級或以上（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2009）。評核雖由課程提供機構負責，然而最終評級將由香港考試及評核局參考評核準則和成就標準來調整（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2009）。從上可見，學校與教師在應用學習的角色與傳統學科極為不同。教師雖參與程設計與編排，卻不主導教學與評核事宜，更多是作為聯絡橋樑，擔任協調者，以至行管理者的輔助角色。然而，如何確保教師對課程提供機構的教學成效與評估有足夠信任，讓兩者合作無間？官方文件卻少有提及。二、職業導向課程的不同觀點應用學習雖有升學功能，但它幫助學生銜接勞工市場的目標亦是顯而易見。《應用學習課程及評估指引（高中課程）》中表示，應用學習的前身為職業導向教育，學習內 118 容與「廣闊的專業和職業領域相關連」，以「加深（學生）對各行各業的認識。藉着了解專業領域內的知識、技能和職場要求，學生得以訂立就業的方向」為目標（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2009，1.2-1.4）。一般而言，職業導向課程的學生成本較文法中學的高，可是社會、教育學者及家長對職業導向的畢業生並不特別關注，甚至抱有負面看法。不少教育社會學的學者認為，這是因為職業導向課程的社會地位，以及職業導向社會教化功能與一般課程不同所致。社會地位方面，Fisher（1967）聚焦於職業教育的歷史脈絡，指出它源於中世紀的手工培訓，其時手工培訓經常被視作讓罪犯補救過失和罪過的方法之一，故此手工培訓多與罪犯改造相關聯。澳洲學者 Phillip Hughes則着眼於制度與文化，指出中國自有科舉以來便實施精英教育，教育機會只對少數官僚或富裕階層有限開放。由於教育普及率長期極低，致使中國社會形成鄙薄勞動，輕視實踐的傳統文化觀（Hughes, 2005）；相對而言，美國社會學家 Collins（1998）則聚焦於職業教育的社會地位流動功能。Collins 認為學生不能以手工勞動培訓提高社會地位，融入、以至帶領中產階級文化，是職業教育注定不及文法中學受歡迎的主因。綜上可見，雖然各派學者對職業教育有不同見解，但三者均認同社會對職業教育的偏見一直存在，並延續至今。乃至現時放棄文法中學，接受職業導向課程者，不論就讀甚麼科目，行動本身已有負面標籤（Hughes, 2005），這亦成為中學發展職業教育的一大障礙。除了社會與文化原因外，教育界對職業導向課程的教育及社會教化功能亦頗有異議，如 Rury便指出不少傳統教育領導者對職業教育存在敵意，皆因他們認為職業教育破壞教育的社會化功能及培養公民的理想，忽略傳播社會與道德責任（Rury, 1991）。而更重要的是，以實務而非知識為主的課程會影響他們領導教育發展的地位，故此他們傾向優化傳統教育，或發展共通能力為主的博雅教育（Liberal Art Education），而反對在與傳統課程不相關的科目上進行無用的訓練（Cremin, 1961; Rury, 1991）；前線教師方面，部份教師亦質疑職業教育的教學成效。例如黎萬紅及盧乃桂在 1997至 2000年間於內地進行的質性研究顯示，不少教師認為職業教育畢業生所掌握的技能不足以應付瞬間萬變的社會發展，而基礎能力不足又會影響他們終身學習，故他們對職業教育抱懷疑態度（黎萬紅、盧乃桂，2003）。雖然社會與教育界對職業教育不盡支持，但 Collins（1998）則認為，職業教育在 119 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討僱主心目中始終有其價值存在。一般學校系統強調角色學習、出席紀錄，以及大量教育學生的效率原則，升學是按年齡，而非學習成績為標準，而考試往往抽離現實，未能回應僱主需要，為社會提供合適人才。相對地，職業教育結合理論與實踐，正正能補足這方面主流學制之不足。綜上可見，官方、公眾、僱主、教育界等持份者對職業教育的立場不盡相同。鑑於過去文獻對職業教育多着重宏觀社會分析，少有針對應用學習前線教師的個人感知，為此，筆者希望透過本研究，了解前線應用學習教師對此課程的看法、課程推行的挑戰及建議。丙、研究方法為了令本研究更為聚焦，本研究將環繞以下問題進行討論︰（1）應用學習對修讀學生有何影響？（2）教師如何看待應用學習的升學功能？（3）教師如何看待應用學習的就業功能？（4）教師推行應用學習時面對甚麼困難？本研究屬半結構性訪談（semi-structured interview）。Bogdan & Bilken（2007）指出半結構性題目雖未讓受訪者完全主導過程，卻能讓研究者與受訪者雙方更聚焦於研究議題之上，又能提供空間予受訪者自由地表達個人想法和經驗。為此，本訪談以上述四條問題為引導，並緊隨着與受訪者個人認知及教學經驗相關的開放性問題，用以了解受訪者感受，並在議題聚焦與受訪者主導間作一平衡。此外，本研究亦輔以與應用學習之相關報導作比較分析，以期與訪談結果互相印證，確保資料與研究結果之效度。本研究邀請了八名任教新高中課程，曾帶領應用學習一年或以上的教師作深度訪談，其中任教於第一組別學校者有兩位、第二及第三組別學校者各有三位。由於應用學習由 2010/11學年推行至今仍不滿三年，故本研究未有資深教師作比較。本研究採用便利取樣法（convenience sampling），根據受訪者的可行性和意願來邀請研究對象。部份學者認為選擇便利取樣的研究者無法確保受訪者的代表性，選取對象亦受到研究者個人偏見影響（Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012），然而對比其他取樣方法，便利抽樣能保證研究者和受訪者之間有較佳的關係與信任，有助取得更深層資訊，這對揭露一些涉及個人 120 真實想法、或須對學校政策或措施作批判性建議等的質性研究議題最為合適（Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012; Maxwell, 2005）。基於研究道德之考慮，本文將以代號「教師 A至 H」代替受訪教師的身份，以作闡述。信度方面，本研究的目的並非找出所有教師的共同觀點，而是希望透過新高中教師之質性訪談，為新高中應用學習的議題提供藉得討論的可能性，供未來的課程設計者參考及優化課程之用。基於便利取樣法所限，本研究的發現與討論不能推論至所有教師，而只能反映部份教師根據自身經驗所歸納的個人觀感。丁、結果與討論總體而言，本研究的受訪教師均肯定應用學習的積極作用，然而在不同學校脈絡中，教師對應用學習的看法卻稍有不同，亦提出了前線教師所面對的不同挑戰。綜合而言，教師意見可循（1）學習動機方面；（2）升學方面；以及（3）就業方面以作探討。一、學習動機方面由於選修應用學習的學生根據各自興趣、性向及能力選取與其相符的課程，其學習動機被假設會較一般課程為高（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2009）。本研究的訪談亦印證了這點︰「⋯⋯應用學習的考核不是評分和評級，而是項目能否完成⋯⋯參加 ApL的學生更有滿足感，以往上課漫無目的，現在卻很清楚自己方向，因為能學到「實際的東西」，好像怎樣梳出某種髮型，怎樣因應不同場合來控制化妝深淺（度）等，這些都可以在生活中應用出來。」（教師 B）「⋯⋯有些學生為了自己的（珠寶）設計廢寢忘餐，假期仍經常回到視藝室找參考書。」（教師 D）「⋯⋯修讀了 ApL的學生現在上課沒那麼害羞了。因為他們在校外實習時經常與不同人等合作，也要向客戶展示成果⋯⋯他們的自信和表達能力都增加了，思考更靈活⋯⋯」（教師 F）本研究中，受訪教師普遍認同應用學習能有效激發學生的學習動機，主要原因在於它的學習內容具體而貼近學生生活，在現實中有應用機會；其次則為學習與考核形式的 121 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討改變，培養了學生溝通、協作、解難、自我管理等重要的共通能力，而該些應用學習科目培養出來的能力，亦反過來幫助學生投入學校日常課堂，形成良性循環。應用學習除了提升學生學習動機及共通能力外，某程度上亦能舒緩師生緊張關係。教師 C在訪談中表示︰「⋯⋯以往不喜歡讀書的學生，等到十五歲便能離開學校找工作了。可是自教育局推行十二年免費教育後，這些學生被迫『困』在學校至十七八歲。對他們而言，應用學習既滿足他們的興趣，又能減少教師處理主流課程中學生個別差異的困擾，這是教師與學生的雙贏模式。」（教師 C）教師 C視應用學習為學生提供了非主流學習機會，是解決「課堂學習差異」的方法之一。儘管此觀點以教師為中心，亦非應用學習的設立原意，但它卻從側面證明，應用學習對其他學科學習，以及建立積極的課堂氣氛有着正面作用。二、升學方面課程發展處對應用學習的升學安排着墨不多，只着學校建立「升學及就業輔導支援機制」，以及「為學生提供充足的資訊及指引」（課程發展處，2010，頁 10）。考評局助理總經理（評核發展）傅德華進一步表示，若應用學習的選修科目，與大學選修科或與專門行業有關，如時裝設計等，相信會獲優先考慮（《星島日報》，2010.8.13）。然而，考評局的答覆，似乎未能釋除家長與學界疑慮，畢竟官方文件中學校只擔當提供資訊的輔助角色。社會普遍認為應用學習的評級過於模糊，亦未必有助於升學。例如有家長曾表示，應用學習的評級由舉辦課程機構負責，並無劃一標準，未必公平客觀，更難獲海外機構承認（《東方日報》，2010.8.13）。部份教師更直接把選讀應用學習科目人數不足，歸咎於它的評級無助於升學。例如，教評會副主席許為天便表示應用學習未受學界與社會認可，因現時八大院校大部分只視應用學習成績為額外參考資料，其成績既沒列入資歷架構，亦不算作大學學分，令學生「兩頭不是岸」（《東方日報》，2011.1.17）。相對於社會各界的質疑，本研究的受訪者基本上亦持相似意見，例如，教師 A在訪談中對應用學習的升學效能便不表樂觀︰「⋯⋯既選讀 ApL，就不要太在意是否廣泛認受，因為有能力修讀學術科目 122 的都不會選它，你不會為了興趣，放棄物理去讀美容化妝吧⋯⋯倒是毅進課程把 ApL視作（香港中學文憑）合格科目之一。」（教師 A）教師 E及 F亦認為應用學習對主流升學幫助不大︰「⋯⋯大學是計算等級的。升讀大學的話，以往操練舊試卷主導的傳統學科才是正途。有部份大學甚至說只有考生在其他學科成績相若時才考慮 ApL成績。既是這樣，我怎樣鼓勵學生修讀 ApL呢？」（教師 E）「⋯⋯升大學都是看實力，我比你高一分，ApL零分我也贏了。」（教師 F）雖然不算很明顯，但教師 A對選修應用學習的學生頗有偏見，頗有「職業教育屬能力低下者修讀」的負面標籤，而受訪者亦普遍認為應用學習未必有助學生入讀大學。可是，如果修讀學生的升學目標並非主流大學，教師的態度便較為開放︰「⋯⋯我會鼓勵跟不上主流課程的學生修讀美容、化妝等 ApL課程⋯⋯那邊的升學機會比會考更高。」（教師 A）「⋯⋯ApL有酒店管理等科目，為學生提供基礎理論與實踐經驗，對他們銜接讀毅進及其他專上學院的課程很有幫助。」（教師 E）從上可見，教師們認為選修應用學習課程並非缺少升學機會，如學生以專上學院的副學士、高級文憑等職業導向課程為目標，則其升學機會比修讀傳統學科者更高。此外與一般社會印象不同的是，雖然應用學習課程的成績評估由舉辦課程機構負責，但受訪教師未有質疑校外評估的準確性，亦普遍肯定應用學習的教育效能。三、就業方面應用學習課程之職業導向色彩極為濃厚。誠如課程發展處所言︰「每個應用學習課程均建基於不同行業或工業，以反映香港在社會、經濟和科技需求等方面的發展及環球趨勢」（課程發展處，2010，頁 6）。學校實施時，除了職業相關的導引課程外，課程發展處亦鼓勵學校安排職業講座、探訪活動及與職業相關的學習經歷，以幫助新高中畢業生銜接就業市場。然而，由於新高中學制推行不久，僱主對修讀應用學習課程的學生信心未算充足。例如有酒店業僱主便表示，與修讀職業訓練局酒店課程的學生比較，會優先考慮職訓局 123 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討的學生，因為該些課程較實用，而文憑試的評級制度則顯得混亂，僱主難以從主觀性甚高的評級了解畢業生水平（《明報》，2010.8.13）。可是本研究的訪談發現，不少教師均肯定了修讀應用學習科目的就業價值︰「有曾任教的學生對我說，她往某連鎖化妝品店見工時，一輪面試後便獲聘了。因為她在 ApL中受過美容訓練，面試時比其他未受訓練的求職者更有信心，又具備相關知識基礎。」（教師 B）「⋯⋯我們有修讀珠寶設計的學生⋯⋯她之前讀書是很差的，畢業後不但在藝墟設立攤位，更成立網店售賣自己設計的首飾，總算有一技之長。」（教師 F）由此可見，受訪教師認為曾修讀應用學習課程的學生憑藉在學時期的工作經驗，面試時比其他求職者更有信心，有助他們銜接就業市場或自行創業。不過，部份教師則表示能力稍遜學生選修兩門應用學習科目，課業負擔可能過重，如專注於其中一門，通曉一技之長可能較佳。另外值得注意的是，訪談者亦談及應用學習課程偏重職業導向的隱憂：「大部份（學生選擇的）應用學習課程，不是航空，就是酒店、多媒體⋯⋯ 如果經濟環境一變，他們能不能靠這一技之長生活呢？」（教師 G）儘管應用學習以提供多元化課程為目的（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局， 2009，2.1），可是職業導向課程始終受到市場，即僱主需求與學生興趣所主導而集中於某些項目，如航空工程、酒店服務等。長此下去，確實有可能逐漸集中於單一類別的課程範疇，有違課程多元化的初衷。而本研究中教師的憂慮，亦呼應了文獻回顧部份內地教師對職業教育畢業生的適應能力之懷疑。戊、學校推動應用學習之挑戰儘管本研究的受訪教師在不同程度上均肯定應用學習對學生的正面影響，然而他們亦指出了推行應用學習時學校與教師所面對的困難。如上所言，職業導向的應用學習課程所需資源比一般課程較多，故此學校資源問題一直是社會與教育界的共同關注焦點。 124 財政資源方面，教評會副主席許為天在應用學習推出之初，便指出教育局只資助學校 75%費用並不足夠（《東方日報》，2011.1.17），教育局隨後於〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉承諾給予每校首十名選修生全額資助，其後每名學生津貼額為平均課程費用的 75%（上限 8,330元）。然而學校或因資源所限而限制部份課程人數，令一些學生未能完全根據性向與興趣選科就讀。相對社會人士的關注焦點，教師之着眼點較多聚焦於人力資源及課時運用之上︰「⋯⋯新高中課程又有 IES（獨立專題探究），又有 OLE（其他學習經歷），全都是必修，而我們這些負責應用學習課程的教師都是兼教的，又要準備課程，又要聯絡校外機構，又要商討合作細節。這麼多行政事項，我們哪有時間精力處理？」（教師 E）「⋯⋯我們根本沒有時間完成課程，經常要學生星期六，甚至長假期回來額外補課，可是應用學習的學生卻都在星期六上課，很難為他們安排第二次補課⋯⋯」（教師 D）「⋯⋯大部份（高中）老師都去了操練past paper⋯⋯（新高中）課程時間緊迫，學校會先處理學術科目，其他興趣性的發展，相對容易放手。」（教師 H）從上可見，時間與人力資源是教師發展應用學習的兩大局限。新高中所面對的公開考試壓力和其他課程改革所帶來的工作量，往往令相關教師無力兼顧應用學習課程的統籌發展，而選修學生在核心課程的學習進度亦可能受到影響。至於校方投放多少人力資源於應用學習課程，很大程度上視乎學校領導對課程的重視程度，教師角色頗為被動。己、總結本研究發現，新高中教師普遍認為應用學習有助學生就業及提升學習動機。教師對應用學習的升學功能略有保留，可是如升學目標並非主流大學，而是職業為導向的專上課程，則教師認為應用學習有助學生銜接專上教育。對學校與教師而言，推行應用學習的主要局限在於財政資源、人手調撥及課程安排三方面︰（1）有限的財政資助局限了部份應用學習課程的收生人數；（2）應用學習為新高中教師帶來不少非教學的行政工作，加重高中教師壓力；（3）部份應用課程須與 125 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討校外機構合作，未必能遷就學校的主流課程進度或補課安排，降低了教師調節課程進度的靈活程度。總括而言，本研究的受訪教師均認同應用學習對學生學習動機、升學、就業等方面有正面影響。雖然課程實施時受到資源和人手等方面所局限，然而這些並不影響應用學習通過學生為本學習模式，促進學生性向多元發展的積極意義。然而，為了更好地達成應用學習之目標，減少學校與教師承受的壓力，筆者認為教育局可循四方面優化應用學習之實施︰（1）教育方面，局方宜給予學校更充裕的財政及人力資源，讓教師享有更大的空間專注於應用學習之課程設計，並加強校外聯繫；（2）升學方面，局方宜向大專院校加強推廣，介紹應用學習的課程特色，以及應用學習評核的信效度，以利選修學生將來的升學銜接；（3）社會方面，局方宜加強推廣應用學習課程之宗旨、角色及實施情況，提升課程認受性，釋除學生、家長及社會各界對應用學習的疑慮；（4）局方可扮演學校與企業間的橋樑角色，擴大兩者的合作空間，增加選修的職業導向範疇，以配合學生的多元興趣與學習需要。參考文獻《明報》（2010.8.13）。〈文憑試應用科簡介　家長潑冷水　憂評分主觀影響認受〉。A34版。《東方日報》（2010.8.13）。〈中學文憑試認受性存疑〉。A06版。《東方日報》（2011.1.17）。〈「應用學習」認受性低〉。A25版。《星島日報》（2010.8.13）。〈家長憂「應用學習」海外認受性〉。F02版。教育統籌局（2005）。《高中及高等教育新學制︰第一階段諮詢報告》。香港︰教育統籌局。教育統籌局（2006）。《應用學習（職業導向教育）小冊子》。2012年 11月 26日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_5159/pam_cos_c.pdf。教育局（2013）。〈教育局通函第 14/2013 號〉。2013 年 7 月 28 日，取自 http:// applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf。課程發展處（2010）。《高中應用學習課程》。香港︰教育局課程發展處應用學習組。課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（編）（2009）。《應用學習課程及評估指引（高中課程）》。香港︰政府物流服務署。 126 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History of Education Quarterly, 31(1), 66-76. 127 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 - 6 - 高中應用學習課程（2013-15學年） Senior Secondary Applied Learning Courses (2013-15 Cohort) 課程一覽表 Course List 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 創意學習 Creative Studies 1. 設計學 Design Studies 643 形象設計 Image Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 639 創新產品設計 Innovative Product Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 628 珠寶藝術與設計 Jewellery Arts and Design HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 2. 媒體藝術 Media Arts 649 商業漫畫設計 Commercial Comic Art OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 646 多媒體科藝 Multimedia Entertainment Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 3. 表演藝術 Performing Arts 617 戲劇藝術入門 Introduction to Theatre Arts HKAPA 中文 Chinese 14,300 599 舞出新機－舞蹈藝術 Taking a Chance on Dance HKAPA 中文 Chinese 15,600 媒體及傳意 Media and Communication 4. 電影、電視與廣播學 Films, TV and Broadcasting Studies 609 電影及錄像 Film and Video Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 650 電視資訊節目製作 TV Infotainment Production HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,600 5. 媒體製作與公共關係 Media Production and Public Relations 661 公關及廣告 Public Relations and Advertising CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 651 電台主持與節目製作 Radio Host and Programme Production OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 商業、管理及法律 Business, Management and Law 6. 商業學 Business Studies 663 應用商業研究 Applied Business Research HKIT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 8,500 595 國際商貿市場拓展 Marketing in Global Trade CityU (SCOPE) 中文 Chinese 11,500 664 實用電腦會計 Practical Computerised Accounting HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 597 認識金融服務 Understanding Financial Services OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 7. 顧客服務管理 Clientele Management 652 採購及營銷 Purchasing and Merchandising VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,500 653 零售管理 Retail Management HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,900 8. 法律學 Legal Studies 654 認識香港法律 Understanding Hong Kong Law HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 服務 Services 9. 款待服務 Hospitality Services 611 酒店服務營運# Hospitality Services in Practice# CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 615 酒店營運# Hotel Operations# VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 616 西式食品製作 Western Cuisine VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 10. 項目管理 Event Management 655 項目策劃及運作 Events Planning and Operation HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,100 11. 個人及社區服務 Personal and Community Services 665 幼兒教育 Child Care and Education VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 610 美容學基礎 Fundamental Cosmetology CCHES 中文 Chinese 10,330 附件一附錄　應用學習的六大範疇及其選修課程表列（2013/15） 128 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文（普通話） Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構－授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 香港演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 香港浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 香港專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Technology HKIT 香港科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Technology HKU(SPACE) 香港大學專業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南大學持續進修學院 Lingnan Institute of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生，將獲教育局及學校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文（普通話） Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構－授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Tech ology I 科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Techn logy HKU(SPACE) 大學業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南持續 Lingnan Institut of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生，將獲教育局及學校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 (資料來源 : http://applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf 〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉頁 6-7) 129 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 Review of Applied Learning in NSS curriculum LEUNG Yick Wah Doctoral student of the Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Applied Learning (ApL) is a new component of the NSS curriculum, which responded to the paradigm shift of “student-oriented”, “experiential learning” and “development of generic skills” in the education reform. In ApL, students can choose their elective subjects according to their own interest and equip with different vocational skills through block practice. However, there is no comprehensive study on the teachers’ perception of ApL implementation. This empirical study, therefore, is intended to fill this research gap and can serve as a platform for further discussion. This study adopts a qualitative approach. The data was collected from the in-depth interview with eight ApL teachers, which focused on the teachers’ perception of curriculum design, effectiveness evaluation and challenges faced in ApL implementation. The findings revealed that the teachers agree the ApL curriculum can boost the student motivation and prepare students for further study in vocational training or for future employment. Nevertheless, the three main challenges encountered including insufficient financial resource, lacking manpower deployment and complex curriculum administrative arrangement limited the effectiveness of ApL implementation. Keywords NSS curriculum, Applied Learning, vocational education 131 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 How much can we trust test scores? Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Assessment plays a critical role in students’ lives. Due to the relative nature of educational measures, test results may be highly fallible and cannot be treated as if they are error-free. This paper illustrates several ways in which test scores can be misinterpreted thus leading to no small consequences on students, and how to get around them. Keywords assessment, examination, interpretation of test scores, score transformation, score reliability “The reliability of our national assessments is simply not good enough to warrant the trust that is placed in them. And one day, people are going to find this out.” The above quote from Dylan Wiliam (2000) comments on the British examination systems. Hong Kong and Singapore, both being ex-colonies, have inherited some elements of the British education system with much emphasis on examinations. Added to this is the historical influence of the Chinese imperial selection examination and the culture of valuing education as a mean to social upward mobility. A question that can be asked is whether Wiliam’s comment applies to Hong Kong and Singapore, or even East Asian nations like Japan, Korea, and Taiwan where much emphasis and a lot of premium have been placed on test scores, especially for administrative purposes such as selection, channeling, and certification. Naturally, test scores are taken very seriously by school administrators, teachers, and parents alike because employers and the public are doing the same. The questions arising from this situation are: Are we too serious about test scores? Should we not take them with a pinch of salt? With these questions in mind, this paper tries to put examination and test scores in the 132 current context of teaching and assessment. It also suggests six axioms following which teachers can more appropriately interpret test scores and use them more cautiously to help in guiding students’ learning. Assessment of and for learning In recent years, there has been much discussion on assessment of learning versus assessment for learning. The two approaches to assessment have different purposes, function, and procedures (Australian Education Services, n.d.). The emphasis on assessment for learning is a fairly new phenomenon in education as compared with the traditional focus on assessment of learning. Assessments often yield results test scores or grades which are supposed to indicate students’ learning – both achievement and difficulties. Information encoded in test scores tells about students’ learning after instruction is summative in nature. When scores are used for making decisions which have long-ranging effects on the students’ future educational opportunities, they are said to be high-stakes in nature. In this sense, this is assessment of learning which is by tradition almost the only purpose of examinations. Assessment is summative and retrospective, and is a measure of the product of learning. It can also provide information about the students’ learning as a process. When looked at this way, the information tells where learning has taken place and where corrective instruction by teachers and further efforts by students are needed. Through this latter practice of assessment for learning, assessment outcomes are used diagnostically and dynamically to guide further instruction and learning. Its nature is therefore formative and forward- looking. Although distinction can be made between summative assessment (of learning) and formative assessment (for learning), the fact is that from gathering assessment data to using the data is a long process and its impact can take a long time to actualize (Figure 1). Take for example, students are assessed by teachers using assessment tools such as tests, rubrics, projects, etc. Assessment outcomes are encoded and recorded as scores, marks, ratings, grades, descriptions, and work samples and labeled with descriptors such as excellenct, good, etc. by teachers using some conceptual tools (e.g., average, passing marks, acceptable grades). Some of the decisions are formative and useful for guiding further instruction and learning. Others are summative and associated with high-stakes “standards” for channeling, streaming, or tracking – basically, grouping pupils for further instruction. This long process (Figure 1) may happen within a year, as in school-based examinations for re-organizing students at the next higher class level. It may continue for a few years, as in the cases of the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in Singapore or Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination in Hong Kong. It does 133 How much can we trust test scores? not really matter whether one or more years are needed, as the process and its effects on pupils are similar or even the same. Figure 1: From assessment to consequences Test scores are used for decision-making. First, assessment of learning is high- stakes in nature and has long-term, irreversible consequences. Secondly, assessment for learning is for facilitating learning. In between the gathering of assessment outcomes and decision-making, there are several intervening steps. If the conceptual tools are not available to test score users (i.e. teachers, school administrators, curriculum developers) and the interpretation is improper, decisions will be irrelevant or even misleading. These mean a waste of resources in terms of time and efforts of both teachers and students. Test scores therefore should be cautiously interpreted, and statistical concepts are important assessment tools for this purpose. If learning is seen as a continuous, long journey through the educational highway from primary school to university, then end-of-year school examinations and end-of-stage examinations (such as the PSLE or the DSE examination) are used not only retrospectively to sum up what has taken place but can also act predictors and guides for further learning. In a broader sense, the dual function of assessment can break down the distinction between formative and summative assessments. One can go even further to doubt whether assessment at the end of each school year and each schooling stage is really summative or formative. With these concerns in mind, the six axioms are proposed below for enhancing the proper interpretation and use of assessment outcomes: 1. A score standing alone has no meaning. 2. Same scores may have different meanings. 3. A small difference makes no difference. 4. Weights may be non-functioning. 5. Assessors may be unreliable. 6. When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible. 134 Axiom no. 1: A score standing alone has no meaning When Albert scores 75 for his English assessment, what does this mean? Several interpretations readily come to mind: 1. He is far above the passing mark of 50; he has done well. 2. He is far below the perfect mark of 100; he has done poorly. The same mark leads to two different views because of two different expectations. If more information is available, interpretations will change: 3. The class mean is 75; Albert is average. 4. Albert’s score is 30 marks higher than the class’s lowest score of 45; well done. 5. Albert’s score is 5 marks lower than the class’s highest score of 80; could have done better. If the teacher has set a criterion score of, say, 70 (based on some reasonable grounds or past experience), then: 6. Albert has passed the test. What can we conclude from the above? A score standing alone has no fixed meanings; its meaning is dependent on reference to other relevant information. The first two interpretations made with reference to subjective expectations (of the teacher, Albert himself or his parents) are arbitrary in nature and hence should be avoided. The next three interpretations are made with reference to how his classmates performed in the same test. This is known as norm-referenced interpretation. The sixth interpretation is made with reference to a pre-set cut-score (which preferably has an empirical basis); it is a criterion- referenced interpretation and is the basis for the development of a very large number of standardized tests, especially in the USA. Standardized tests A standardized test (say, of Mathematics) has to go through many steps to develop such as: (1) identifying the instructional objectives, that is, mathematical knowledge and competencies to be assessed; (2) writing items for the identified objectives; (3) trialling the items with a large group of students for whom the test is meant; (4) conducting item- analysis to assess the efficacies of the trialed items; (4) selecting items which have been found to work well; (5) collecting data from another large group of students for whom the test is meant; (6) using the data to compile test norms (tables showing scores and the numbers of students getting each score); (7) releasing the finalised version; and (8) revising the test after, say, five years. These steps are not only time-consuming and labour-intensive but also require the collaboration of content specialists and assessment 135 How much can we trust test scores? experts, and of course teachers and students. No wonder test development has become a gigantic business in the USA dominated by a few organizations (e.g., the Educational Testing Service in Princeton). For a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of standardized testing, see Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? (ProCon.org, n.d.). If Albert has taken a standardized test of Mathematics, his score is compared with the very large group of students whose scores were used to compile the test norm. Then, his score may get him an equivalent T-score (a kind of standard score). And, what does this T-score mean? Why should we use it? Standard scores A T-score is a kind of standardized score peculiar to educational assessment. It is peculiar because of the relative nature of scores obtained by using educational measures as contrasted with physical measures (e.g., weight, height). Take Albert’s score of 75 for example. It is not a fixed quantity of a fixed quality like his weight and height for which there are standard instruments such as a weighing machine or a standard ruler. Albert’s score is relative (to the normation group) although such scores are always mistakenly seen as absolute. For a fuller explanation of what standard scores are, see Transformed scores – Standard scores (Mypage, n.d.). Let’s say the test taken by Albert is a 100-word spelling test. He gets 75 because he can spell three-quarters of the words correctly. This looks fine until he takes another spelling test consisting of 100 easier words. In this case, he may get 85, 95, or even 100. The converse is also true if the words are more difficult. In short, Albert’s score will vary with the tests (words) used to assess his spelling ability. Because of this, a different way of indexing Albert’s spelling ability is to compare him with other students who have taken the same test and interpret his score according to where he stands among the peers. Thus, instead of just saying how good he is in terms of the number of words he spells correctly, we can know how much better or worse his performance is when compared with the norm (documented as the norm table). This is where the T-score becomes helpful. When a standardized test is developed, the norm group of students has different scores, some very low, others very high, and most somewhere in between. For these scores, a mean (average) can be calculated as the “centre”. Since not all students get the same score, there is a need to describe how widely spread from the mean the scores are. For this, standard deviation (SD) is calculated. If the group mean is 67, then, Albert deviates from the mean by +8 and the SD of the scores happens to be 8, then, his score is one SD above the mean. This gives him a z-score of 1.00; z-score is another kind of standard score that will be explained later. Z-scores may take negative values and have decimals and so are inconvenient for 136 recording purposes. How to explain to parents that their children get negative scores (owing the teacher some marks?) is a major challenge. Besides, for different sets of test scores, standard deviations (SDs) are not the same. To overcome these problems, measurement experts come up with the bright idea of T-scores. From z-scores to T-scores The T-scores form a scale with a mean of 50 and a SD of 10. This is a scale universally agreed upon and used by measurement experts and so all tests can then have their original scores converted to it. An added advantage of using T-scores is that all scores from different tests can be considered “comparable”. If the set of English Language scores (including Albert’s 75) has a mean of 67 and a SD of 8, then Albert’s 75 is now converted according to the formula to a T-score of 60 (i.e., T-score = 50+10*(Score - Mean)/SD = 50+10*(75 - 60)/8) = 60). Aha! Have we not short-changed Albert by giving him a T-score of 60 which looks lower than his original raw score of 75? No. The conversion of original scores (those given by the test) to T-scores is like converting SGD or HKD to USD, using the appropriate currency exchange rate. The face value has changed but the buying power remains the same. So, Albert has not been short-changed. In this case, his T-score of 60 has placed him one SD above the mean of 50 and, according to the normal distribution (Figure 2), he is better than 84% of students in his class (i.e., 50% below the mean and 34% between the mean and one SD above it). Another way is to say that he stands at the 84th percentile and belongs to the top 16% of the students. So, by comparing with his peers, Albert has done pretty well (Figure 2). Figure 2: The normal distribution curve Thus, as you must have suspected by now, converting original scores to T-scores in actuality can change the basis of comparison and hence the interpretation of test results. As pointed out above, if Albert’s score of 75 for spelling test represents correctly spelling three-quarters of the 100 words, his score will be different when the words in the test change. But then, we argue. The idea is that Albert’s spelling ability at the time of testing is a fixed quality and should not vary with the test used and the same should go for his 137 How much can we trust test scores? peers – their ability should not change with different tests. However, we know that this is not true when different tests are used. By using T-scores, we can assess Albert in terms of his relative position (percentile) among his peers. When a more difficult spelling list is used, all pupils should get lower scores than previously, but their positions relative to one another should logically remain unchanged. This is an assumed advantage of using T-scores instead of the original raw scores. Axiom no. 2: Same scores may have different meanings The above examples show clearly that the use of raw scores can lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretations for the simple reason that the same raw scores from different tests may not have the same meanings when they are interpreted with different references. A few more fictitious but realistic cases should interest you. Performance comparison Albert has scored 75 in both Social Studies and Science. In which test has he done better? Since the marks are the same for the two subjects, Albert has done equally well in both subjects. Hold on! As pointed out earlier, this will be true if and only if both tests have the same mean and the same SD – a most unlikely situation. Thus, unless the scores are converted to the T-scale, we cannot be so sure; 75 for Social Studies may turn out to be a better score because it has placed Albert on a higher percentile, and the converse is also possible. In short, two scores from two different tests do not necessarily mean the same performance level; they need to be standardized (scaled) before comparison can be made valid. Are you puzzled? Dollars, cents and scores A money example will help to make this clear. The first three columns in Table 1 show the numbers of “dollars” that Albert’s father and uncle have. When we say they are equally rich (or poor) with 100 dollars, we are assuming that the monies in the four pockets are in the same currency. However, if monies in the left pockets are USD and they are converted to SGD (at a rate of 1.35), adding these to the SGD’s in the right pockets shows that Albert’s father is richer than his uncle. The same principle goes for the comparison of scores. Table 1: The values of monies Before conversion After conversion Pocket Father Uncle Currency Father Uncle Left (USD) 80 20 SGD 108 27 Right (SGD) 20 80 SGD 20 80 Total 100 100 Total 128 107 138 This is a reminder that two scores for two different tests cannot be directly compared because they represent different performance levels. Before comparing them, they have to be converted to the same scale (e.g., the T-scale) first. Axiom no. 3: A small difference makes no difference Sometimes (or rather often) we see people insisting that a small difference is a difference. For example, a teacher marking a composition with the mark range of 30 insists that an essay is worth 22.5, not 22 or 23! Another example can be about a student who has failed because he could only get 48, two marks short of the passing mark 50. Yet another example, one school celebrates because it scores half a percent more passes and gets one rank higher than its rival school. Are all these small differences real? All scores have error! We need to realize and keep reminding ourselves that all assessment scores have errors. Such errors are not what we normally called mistakes but are fluctuations due to sampling. They are, technically, measurement errors (Johnson, Dulaney & Banks, 2005). When we set test questions in any subject or any topic within a chosen subject, we are taking a sample of many theoretically possible ones (the universal of possible items). We then use these sampled items to test the students’ knowledge or competencies. If we set another test, students’ scores will change (remember Albert’s spelling test). If we test a group of students using even the same test on different days, their scores will also change. And, if we ask different teachers to mark the same set of compositions, even using the same marking scheme, the scores will also be different. Errors (fluctuation) in assessment are inevitable because of the sampling processes in constructing test questions and marking students’ responses to open-ended questions. There are basically two types of such errors: the random and the systematic (Changing Minds, 2012). Random errors have to do with chance. For example, a set of compositions are marked by one teacher on two days. Because she is in good health on the first and is ill on the second, she is likely to give higher scores to those compositions marked on the first day and lower scores to those on the second day (or, possibly, the other way round). If the teacher is aware of this inconsistency, she can double-mark the compositions a second time. If she then take the average of the two marks for each paper, the inconsistency is likely to cancel out. There are other conditions that lead to fluctuations which will cancel out in the long run. (Unfortunately, she may never do this and so students whose compositions are marked more strictly can only blame themselves for bad luck.). The common practice of double or triple marking and taking the average in large-scale examinations is to minimize such fluctuations which may affect score reliability. It is more appropriate for the marking of open-ended questions which involve students writing 139 How much can we trust test scores? their own answers, such as composition for Languages or essay-type questions in Social Studies, Literature, and even Science. Individual teachers have different expectations and marking habits influenced by their experience and personality. A teacher who has been teaching high-ability students naturally uses her experience with such students as a yardstick when marking compositions. She may also be, at the same time, a strict marker habitually giving lower marks. Thus, when marking a set of compositions, with her experience and personality combined, she will consistently (though unconsciously) give lower marks than what the compositions should deserve. This may give rise to systematic errors. Some of the teachers were so confident about their marking that they awarded half-a-mark! And, how important is the half-mark? Read this: “Do you know what is the importance of half a mark? It determines whether you pass or fail. It determines whether your report book is going to have all blue or a “one” or “two” red marks among the blues. This is called “pass” or “fail”, and how many subjects you pass or fail, it is going to determine whether you get promoted to the next level. This is all the olden days...” (Peace, 2008) For a set of answer sheets to be marked with a computer, one or more errors may occur such as in the coding of answer keys. If “c” is coded for the correct answer when it should be “b”, all students who have answered the miscoded items correctly will earn fewer marks than they deserve. Conversely, those answering wrongly may get a mark higher if they (lucky them) happen to choose “c” (the wrongly coded option). Such errors are also systematic because they do not cancel out in the long run. This type of errors adversely affects the score validity in that the scores do not accurately reflect students’ true ability. Due to such errors, measurement experts consider an observed score (the score a student gets after assessment) as consisting of two parts: the true score (which can truly represent student’s ability which the test is trying to estimate) and error score (the part of the observed score due to random errors as described above). It is not possible to measure students’ true scores directly. Knowing that there are fluctuations contributing to random errors, test developers take pains to minimize them through careful and multiple marking as well as by controlling the testing conditions. The argument is that by minimizing the errors, observed scores will reflect true scores more accurately (Trochim, 2006). There are several ways of evaluating score reliability. American experience shows that teacher-made tests generally have score reliability values of around 0.7 meaning that tests constructed by teachers yield scores which are about 70% trustworthy. This suggests 140 that teachers should not be dogmatic about the marks they give and definitely not about small differences! A score is not a point! In view of the errors which cannot be totally eliminated, measurement experts advise that a score should not be seen as a fixed point on a scale but as one possible point or a number of points within a specified range on the scale. This takes us to the concept of standard error of measurement (SEM). Let us say that the Chinese Language test has a SD=3 (which is rather small) and its score reliability in terms of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.7. The SEM should be 1.6 according to the formula SEM=SD*√(1 – r), where r is the reliability coefficient, alpha. Then, we ask ourselves how much confidence we want to have when reporting a score for this test. Let us be not too ambitious but choose to be 95% confident in making a statement about a student’s performance. Now, according to the normal curve, a 95% confidence level requires that we allow for an error (fluctuation) of 1.96 SEM (or rounded to 2 in SEM). Then, a score on this test will fluctuate with an error of ±2*SEM or ±3.2 (or rounded as 3). In Albert’s case, instead of seeing his score as a fixed point of 75, we should think of his score (for whatever subject) as falling between 72 (=75-3) and 78 (=75+3) in 95% of the times. This so-called band-interpretation of test scores is in contrast with the point- interpretation. Of course, band-interpretation makes administrative decisions (pass/fail, select/reject) more complicated and inconvenient. However, it is desirable for two reasons. First, it takes due cognizance of the fact that tests scores are fallible and hence should not be taken dogmatically. Secondly, when making important decisions on students, test scores should not be the only criterion; other information needs be considered, too. Misplaced confidence of spurious precision In view of the measurement errors (fluctuation) due to the sampling of subject content, student’s testing behaviour, and teacher’s marking habits, a small difference between two scores should not be taken too seriously. For example, a difference between 48 and 50 can well be due to measurement error. In other words, if 48 comes from the same English Language test taken by Albert with a SEM of 3, at the 95% confidence level this score will fall with the range from 45 to 51. Had the student taken the same test again and again, he will get between 45 to 51 marks. Since this mark range includes the passing mark 50, he should be passed. This example shows how confidence may be misplaced in small mark difference leading to erroneous decisions. The emphasis on a small, immaterial mark difference is called spurious precision, that is, a precision which is not really important or meaningful. Spurious precision may seem to be a spurious issue, but the consequences of basing important decisions on spurious difference may have long-lasting undesirable 141 How much can we trust test scores? consequences for students and the nation (in terms of manpower loss). As the author of How to lie with statistics, Huff (1954), says, “A difference is a difference only if it makes a difference.” As a corollary, it is a conceptual sin to make a spurious difference a difference in order to make it a difference. Is banding the solution? Perhaps it is the awareness of such problems of measurement error and spurious precision that has led to the use of banding, that is, grouping students within a specified mark range and giving them the same label (band). This is a partial solution but not a perfect medicine. Table 2 show the bands obtained by two pupils. Combining the bands, Albert has performed better than Bob has. After all, canceling out A-A and B-B, Albert is left with an A but Bob a B. Let’s assume that band B is for scores ranging from 60 to 84, and band A is for score 85 and above. It may just happen that the A’s Albert gets are the beginning scores of band A and his B is from the low end of band B. And, Bob gets the beginning score of band A just like Albert, but his B is from the top end of band B. Then, in terms of actual scores, Bob scores better than Albert and not the other way round. This example is given here only for illustration, but it does not mean this cannot happen. Table 2: Scores and bands of two students Subject Bands Scores Albert Bob Albert Bob EL A A 85 (A) 85(A) MT A B 85 (A) 84(B) Math B B 70 (B) 84(B) Overall (2A+1B) > (1A+2B) 240 < 253 So, is banding the solution? As the assessment expert Wiliam (2000) says, “A cure that is probably worse than the disease.” What can we do, then? Not much. One partial solution is to have more bands each with a shorter mark range. The logical extreme extension of this is to have too many bands and then we are back to square one. So, be cautious. Axiom no. 4: Weights may be non-functioning Every examination paper will consist of more than one part for assessing one specific item of knowledge or competency. A simple example is the case of a Language paper which has a written component and an oral component. Of course, the written component always comprises several different sub-sections such as vocabulary, grammar, 142 comprehension, etc. For the sake of illustration, just say it has only the written and oral parts. Usually, different parts of an examination are given different predetermined weights, for example, 80% for the written components and 20% for the oral component, to reflect their relative importance. The hidden message is, for this example, to let students (and their teachers and parents) know that oral language is important though not as important as the written part; the implication is not to neglect oral language since it is also to be assessed. The message is loud and clear. What is the effect in terms of final results? It is a well-known fact that test scores with a wider spread (SD) have more influence if they are summed for an indication of overall performance. Table 3 is a typical example taken from a Language examination. Table 3: Weights of components and scores in a Language examination Written (80%) Oral (20%) Total Albert 75 (1) 10 (3) 85 (1) Bob 70 (2) 12 (2) 82 (2) Calvin 65 (3) 15 (1) 80 (3) As can be seen, for the writing component, Albert is the best and Calvin is the worst, with Bob in between them. For the oral component, the orders are just the reversed. When the scores for the two components are added, the totals will rank Albert first, Bob second, and Calvin third. Thus, the final ranks are the same as the ranks for the writing component, and the oral component has no influence. This happens because the written component has a much wider range (a larger SD if calculated) than the oral component has. This will happen also when scores for different tests are added. Table 4 shows the performance levels in English and Mathematics of a class and the scores obtained by three pupils. The scores for the two tests are added and the totals are used to rank the students, Albert ranked first and so is better than Bob ranked second who in turn is better than third-ranking Calvin. The rank-orders are the same as those for English. Note that the SD of scores in English is double that of Mathematics. In this case, Mathematics (with a much smaller SD) plays no role in deciding who is better. Table 4: Weights for different subjects Subject Mean (SD) Albert Bob Calvin English 70.0 (4.00) 75 (1) 65 (2) 60 (3) Mathematics 65.0 (2.00) 59 (3) 62 (2) 61 (1) Total - 134 (1) 127 (2) 121 (3) 143 How much can we trust test scores? More complex situations So far, for simple illustration, we have been using examples involving two tests or two components. Things are more complex in reality. In Table 5, the raw scores obtained by Albert and Bob for four subjects suggest that they are equally good, both having a total of 270. If there is a scholarship or other award, they are equally qualified. However, as subjects have different means and SDs, simple summated scores are misleading. The totals for T-scores are different. Now, it is clear that Albert (with Total=199) is a more deserving candidate than Bob (with Total=193), if the difference of four T-scores is considered important enough. Table 5: Raw and T-scores of two students Subject Mean (SD) Original score T-score Albert Bob Albert Bob EL 70.0 (4.00) 75 70 63 50 MT 65.0 (8.00) 70 75 56 63 Math 70.0 (5.00) 65 60 40 30 SC 65.0 (5.00) 60 65 40 50 Total - 270 270 199 193 T-score transformation is employed for the PSLE in Singapore to solve the problem of unequal means and SDs among subject tests. The same problem exists when raw scores for school-based examinations are summed as indicators of the overall performance level. With computing facilities readily available, this problem can be solved by adopting the same approach what is done for the PSLE. Does summing up scores make sense? It is a common practice that different assessments taken throughout a year are given different weights to indicate their relative importance. A typical situation is that shown in the Table 6 where the two term assessments are given a weight of 15% each, the mid-year assessment 30%, and the end-of-year assessment 40%. Table 6: Weights for different assessments Term 1 Mid-year Term 2 End-year Average Marks 72 68 74 78 73.5 Weight 15% 30% 15% 40% 100% The problem of different means and SDs when original scores are summed for an overall performance indicator (total) will still happen. This means, in spite of the different intended weights, components having larger SDs will be more powerful in the final total, 144 rending those with small SDs non-functioning. Besides this persistent problem, there is also a conceptual issue. In this example, the four assessments are not mutually exclusive since some content tested earlier in Term 1 will be tested again later. Those tested for the mid-year may also be tested in year-end examination paper again. Such over-lap means that some content are over-tested or double-counted and getting double weight or more. Is this desirable? Furthermore, the four assessments are conducted at different points of the year and at different points a student has different achievement levels. When scores are added (even after weighting) and an average is derived at, does the average really show where the student is at the end of a year’s learning? If not, where is the more accurate indicator? Imagine that you are driving from Singapore to Penang (or from Hong Kong to Shanghai) and have to stop at three different places. Every time you stop, you record the distance covered. When you reach the destination, you calculate the average of the distances and say “on average, I have driven xyz kilometres from X to Y.” How will this sound to your friend? The message is that average does not always make sense. Stopping at different cities to record the distance covered is analogous to formative assessment, while recording the total distance traveled is analogous to summative assessment. It appears that the practice described above for finding end-of-year averages is a mix-up of these two different approaches to assessment. Things are a little bit more complicated than this. It is readily appreciated that some subjects are developmental in nature while others are cumulative. For cumulative subjects (perhaps, science subjects for which topics are discrete), adding marks obtain from different tests for an overall indication may make sense. On the other hand, for developmental subjects (such as the languages), what a student is able to do at the end of a year indicates the cumulative effect of learning; and, therefore, adding and averaging marks obtain from assessments taken over a year may not make sense. This is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and future research. Axiom no. 5: Assessors may be unreliable So far, our discussion has focused on scores and students, as if these are the only sources of misinterpretation. The fact is, teachers who mark the papers can also be a source of error, especially where open-ended questions are concerned. This is a century- old problem and is still around. If you think that this will only occur in the marking of compositions, you will be surprised that it can happen in the marking of Mathematics paper as well, as early research shows. 145 How much can we trust test scores? A concrete example of this problem is how a group of experienced teachers marked one and the same answer to a question on vitamins (Science!). The question asks candidates to name four vitamins and their common sources and to tell for each whether it can be stored in the body and whether it can be destroyed by heat. An answer to this question was photo-copied and 43 experienced teachers marked this one answer independently. They were to indicate whether it was a poor, weak, average, good or excellent answer. Also, they were to award a mark within the range of zero to 30 with the passing mark of 15 (By Singapore convention, 50% is a passing mark. What about Hong Kong?). The marks and grades given by the teachers are shown in Table 7. Table 7: Grades and marks awarded by teachers to the same answer Marks No. of grades given Pass / Failure given by teachersWeak Average Good 22-22.5 - 3 6 No. of passes = 41 20-21 - 9 6 18-19 - 10 - 15-17 1 6 - 42-14 1 1 - No. of failures = 2 Total 2 29 12 43 Median 14.5 18.5 21.5 - Range 5 10.5 2.5 - No teachers considered the answer as poor or excellent. Two teachers considered it as weak, 29 as average, and 12 as good – all for the one and the same answer to an essay- type question on a factual topic! Even within each grade, for instance “average”, the marks given varied as much as 10.5, again for the one and the same answer. Of the 43 teachers, two teachers failed it and 41 passed it. If this happens with just one answer, imagine what may happen when a paper consists of several open-ended questions. In this case, it may not be an exaggeration that whether a student passes or fails depends more on his luck or rather on who marks his answers. Earlier on, it was suggested that the teacher’s experience, marking habit, and personality play a role in inconsistency in marking. The 43 teachers were asked which schools they came from. There seems to be a relation (correlation) between the school type and the marks awarded. Teachers who came from the so-called good schools tended to give lower marks, and vice versa. This is perfectly understandable since teachers will (unconsciously or subconsciously) use the kind of answers they have been marking as a reference for marking this particular answer. In this example, the teachers’ personalities were not studied. Teachers’ idiosyncrasy in marking is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and research. 146 Perhaps, the awareness of such a problem has led to assessment experts to come up with suggestions such as the use of model answers, marking schemes (the old fashion name for assessment rubrics), product sample scale, post-marking moderation, statistical scaling, etc. These may help to reduce the size of the problem but none is a perfect solution, and one wonders if there ever will be one. Again, the best advice is to be cautious. Axiom no. 6: When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible At this point, it is good to take stock of what has been discussed so far. Traditionally, assessment results in terms of scores and grades are used to sum up student’s learning up to a point in time. This is assessment of learning. In recent years, assessment for learning gets a lot of attention. This is using assessment results to guide and direct further learning of the students. The two approaches have different purposes and different data are required. However, the reality is that, the same assessment results are used for both purposes, retrospectively as well as prospectively. Whichever approach is emphasized, the same process is involved: from collecting data by testing, through analyzing data to gain information about learning, and then to making decisions on instruction and on the students’ future development. Irrespective of the time span, such decisions have long-lasting consequences to the students and all around them – their teachers, school administrators, parents, and even the nation. Hence, assessment is a very serious business and deserves to be done well. Nonetheless, problems arise because of the relative nature of educational assessment which yields data that can be interpreted in a variety of ways, as contrasted with the case physical measurements such as weight and height that fixedly quantify fixed quality. Therefore, assessment results need contexts for them to be meaningfully interpreted. This peculiar nature of educational measurement gives rise to the problems relating to the following conditions: 1. Educational measures are relative and highly fallible. 2. Educational measures are samples which have measurement errors (fluctuations). 3. Weighting to reflect relative importance of sub-tests may or may not work. 4. Summing up scores of subtests or a few tests may be misleading. 5. Marking of open-ended responses are always unreliable. 6. Spurious precision of small difference is more often imagined rather than real. Each of these causes conceptual and technical problems that need be solved but perfect solutions are not available. All that can be done is to minimize the severity of misinterpretation as much as the teachers’ assessment competence allows. Conceptual 147 How much can we trust test scores? and technical problems are separate issues though always related. Technical problems are easier to handle. They can be solved to a large extent by learning relevant statistical techniques to treat the assessment data properly, if there is the will. Conceptual problems are more difficult. They not only call for a will to change but also require re-orientation through the melting of long-held erroneous ideas and crystallization of new shapes. This has been found to be difficult in education. Before the time comes, the only advice that can be given is for assessment data consumers (teachers, counselors, and school administrators) to be flexible and humble when interpreting them and using them. Conclusion There is no denial that test scores play a very important role in teaching and learning. For this one reason, they should be appropriately interpreted and used for the benefits of the teachers and their students. Misinterpretation leads to misinformation which in turn leads to misdirection and wrong actions. Valid interpretation of test scores requires some understanding of the basic statistical concepts involved as illustrated in this paper. Uncertainty in interpretations and the uses of test scores are not totally inherent in scores but, to a large part, in ours. Seen in this light, perhaps the title of this article should have been “How much can we trust our interpretations of test scores?”. As teachers, we assess students and thereby create test scores (and grades), but then as little Alice says in the Wonderland, “An author doesn’t necessarily understand the meaning of his own story better than anyone else.” Notes This paper is application oriented and written for practising teachers in this connection. Instead of following the traditional style of citing articles to support the arguments, readable and interesting websites are listed in the Reference list for those who wish to pursue the issues further in-depth. 148 References Australian Education Services. (n.d.). Key questions: What is assessment for learning? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.assessmentforlearning.edu.au/professional_ learning/intro_to_afl/introduction_key_questions.html Changing Minds. (2012). Measurement error. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// changing minds.org/explanations/research/measurement/measurement_error.htm Huff, D. (1954). How to lie with statistics. London: Norton. Johnson, S., Dulaney, C., & Banks, K. (February 2005). Measurement error. For good measure. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.wcpss.net/evaluation-research/ reports/2000/mment_error.pdf Mypage. (n.d.). Transformed scores – Standard scores. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://mypages.valdosta.edu/mwhatley/3900/standardized.pdf Peace. (2008). Science exam paper. In Kids World. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// totallykidsworld.blogspot.sg/search/label/how reliable is the school teacher ProCon.org. (n.d.). Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://standardizedtests.procon.org/ Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). True score theory. In Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/truescor.php Wiliam, D. (2000). The meanings and consequences of educational assessments. Critical Quarterly, 42(1), 105-127. http://www.aaia.org.uk/pdf/2001DYLANPAPER2.PDF 149 How much can we trust test scores? 測試分數可信程度如何？蘇啟禎新加坡摘要學業測試結果，對學生有重大的影響。由於教育測量的相對性，測試得分可以有高度的變動性，不可當作毫無誤差的資料。本文提出分數可能被錯誤解釋的幾個例子，說明若錯誤解釋分數對學生可能產生的後果及如何避免。關鍵字測試，考試，分數的解釋，分數的換算，分數的信度 151 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制何慧群國立臺中教育大學教育學系永井正武國立臺中教育大學教育測驗統計研究所摘要臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育目標之一是實踐教育正義，但是，後期中等教育適性與分流不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大問題亟待受正視與解決。本文透過對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制，提出發展臺灣 12年國民基本教育的意見，旨在：（1）倡導 12年國民基本教育是保障生存、創造生活幸福與生命意義的基礎工程，適性與分流是教育手段；（2）指出 12年國民基本教育規劃採全納式與結構功能，前者縱向銜接與橫向聯結，後者具階段性與功能化；（3）凸顯國中與國小階段教育是 12年國民基本教育基礎；（4）解釋 12年國民基本教育目標實踐繫於教師教育，與（5）就 2014年臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育提出建議。關鍵詞 12年國民基本教育，適性與分流，教育資源，全納式，教師教育甲、前言在知識經濟與創意經濟的時代，歐美工業發達國家、開發中國家如臺灣、南韓、印 152 度、紐澳，未開發國家如中國大陸、東南亞國家等在總體教育投資與推動教育革新是不遺餘力的。另，在全球經濟競爭氛圍下，學校教育成為國家發展的基礎工具，國民教育（National Education）、國民基本教育（National Basic Education）是打造國家政經發展與社會和諧的基礎工程。國民教育實施年限長短，反映國家綜合實力與社會現代化程度；而國民基本教育實施年限延長採逐漸增加，多非「一步到位」。國民基本教育包含義務階段與非義務階段，非義務階段教育呈現分化（differentiation）與歧異（diversity）態勢，二者合計12至13年，前者年限是 9至 10年，後者年限是 3至 4年，教育結構計有 8+4、6+3、5+4、4+5、 4+2+3、9年一貫等。綜觀臺灣國民教育發展與沿革，自 1968年實施九年義務教育至今，前期與後期中等教育入學率近百分百，就學機會是供大於求，現階段後期中等教育問題是適性與分流不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大，而「透過讀書改變命運」、「披星戴月只為進明星學校」，卻又是莘莘學子寫照。基於教育正義與社會和諧，臺灣將於 2014 年實施後普九之國民基本教育，統稱 12年國民基本教育。「他山之石，可以攻錯」，分析美、德、法國等 12至 13年之國民教育體制，汲取國外經驗，冀以提出規劃 12年國民基本教育參考。乙、12年國民基本教育綜觀全球教育發達國家之總體教育體制規劃，高中職以下教育年限約 12至 13年，佔總教育時間四分之三，小學至後期中等教育具程序結構，包含初等教育與中等教育，中等教育又分前期中等教育與後期中等教育。另，高中職以下教育辦學主體是國家，是謂國民基本教育；分義務與非義務階段，是國家教育體制的基座，在整體教育發展上有其重要性。一、旨趣 12年國民基本教育旨趣，為學習者發展而言，奠基於以資質、性向、興趣、就業、生涯與參與選擇取向之個性與有德行者（Humboldt, 1903）；為社會運作而言，具共同性，但又由多元與歧異個體組合的政治、經濟與文化團體；為全球網絡國家境遇而言，匯聚多元與層級網狀的綜合力與具競爭的實力。 153 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 12年國民基本教育，其中 9至 10年義務教育指政府有義務運用公共資源來保障所有適齡學童接受的教育，具強制、普遍與免費原則；3至 4年後期中等教育不具強制性，旨在提供國民較優適應力、保障社會轉型人資需求與厚實國家競爭力。 1. 提升國民素質在數位科技與傳播科技助益下，對於全球化與多元化新增要素之教育，歐美先進國家由延伸國民教育年限、做為補強之道，期以一則提升國民素質，二則正視世代、年代與時代交替，三則符應世界潮流變換，四則補強主體意識，以及新世紀價值觀，相關內容如態度、溝通、合作、正義、判斷力、表現能力、自律⋯⋯以及跨文化與親近自然之人文素養等。 2. 發展學術理性〈莊子．養生主〉：「吾生也有涯，而知也無涯，以有涯隨無涯，殆已。」經驗、知識、智慧藉教育結構化、目標性與效益性傳遞，以達到積累、傳承與創造新的文化與文明的目的。人特殊性主要彰顯於：「人是理性的動物」、「人是會思考的蘆葦」、「我思，故我在」、「知識即力量」、「存在決定意識」等，Newman（1801-1890）主張教育旨在培育理智人，理智教育（mental cultivation）是真實心智教育（real cultivation of mind）的基礎（Ker, 2011）。發展學術理性，意旨藉經驗描述與理論說明、具體比喻與科學論證、哲學思辨，習得邏輯性、系統性與批判性的理性推理與歸納，並據以運用於學習、工作與生活。自認知科學、情緒智商、統觀悟性獲得重視，人有理性、感性與悟性逐漸形成共識。邏輯理性並非理性的全部，Newman以感覺、情感和行動要素補充其教育理念，完善其自由心智的教育思想（陳小紅、于汝霜，2009）。Hayek（1899-1992）在《自由秩序原理》書中指出，新經濟型態的知識需包涵：（1）理性知識的集合，如學科知識、專家知識、有關特定事實的知識；（2）邏輯理性不及的因素，如文化、制度、集體意識；（3）非理性因素如直觀、領悟等（Hayek，譯 1998）。 3. 培養謀生技能 Spencer（1820-1903）主張，教學是為「完滿生活做準備」，並責付科學知識指導 154 人的活動與訓練人的心智（Spencer，譯 1962）。自 20世紀 90年代以來，數位化資訊與傳播科技催生全球關聯網絡化與國際化，人類文明期由生產取向之農業社會、經濟與服務取向之工商業社會，邁入至今日之科技與創意取向之資訊化社會，對應不同社會之謀生技能各有所重，相關信念與價值體現於思考邏輯、態度與行動、專業與倫理等。二、理論基礎 19世紀末，國民教育旨趣是發展國家意識；20世紀，國民教育旨趣是民主素養與經濟職能發展並重；21世紀初則是主體意識、社會正義與創意取向知識經濟，由啟蒙、文明，以至服務全球化知識經濟發展，教育旨趣逐漸聚焦於資質、創意取向之人力資源開發。 1. 人力資本 21世紀，網路帶動知識快速消長、知識經濟創意發展趨勢與現代化高人力資本需求，投資教育與創造人力資源成為全球各國發展重點。鑑於高等教育社會經濟效益有目共睹與現代高等教育（Modern University）之「海納百川」機能，後期中等教育應規劃學術、專業與職業取向之分化教育。另，觀諸教育發達國家之總體教育規劃涵蓋國民教育與高等教育，12至 13年國民基本教育是高等教育基礎工程，國民教育扎根與深耕程度影響高等教育的發展；相對的，在百輈爭流與百花齊放下，高等教育責付國民教育規劃路徑，致令二者關聯呈雙向互動與回饋。 2. 多元智能 Mill（1806-1873）在《論自由》書中指出，人得到最為多樣化的發展具有絕對且本質的重要性（Mill，譯 2011）。後現代倡導主體性、開放社會多元化與創意經濟發展趨勢，多元主義與多元智能理論從而成為教育多樣態與奇異發展另一支撐依據。 Intelligence，韋氏詞典定義為：「學習，理解，或應付陌生或困難環境的能力」，學者或側重推理思辯能力，或側重行為功能（Sternberg & Detterman, 1986）。1983 年，Gardner提出多元智能理論（multiple intelligence theory），認為智能具領域特殊性（domain-specific），智力是「在某種社會和文化環境的價值標準下，個體用以解決自己遇到的真正難題或生產及創造出某種產品所需要的能力」，智力不是一種能力而是一組能力，智力不是以整合的方式存在，而是以相互獨立的方式存在的（Gardner, 1983, 1999）。 155 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制綜合上述，運用詮釋結構模式（Interpretive Structural Modelling, ISM）（Warfield, 1976, 1982）於各要素關聯構造（見表一），要素以 C表徵之，可得階層結構圖示（見圖一）與關聯結構（見附錄）。表一 12年國民基本教育要素一覽表 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1. 12年國民教育 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2. 義務教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3. 非義務教育 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. 現代化程度 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. 提升國民教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 6. 發展基礎學術 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 7. 培養基礎技能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 8. 夠人力資本 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 9. 多元智能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10. 適性揚才 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 11. 政府權責 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 12. 教育正義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13. 教育品質 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 14. 教育專業 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 15. 後現代 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 16. 主體性 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17. 全球化經濟網絡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. 多元主義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 圖一 12年國民基本教育運用詮釋結構模式 156 丙、美、德、法國家之國民教育美、德、法國家之國民教育涵蓋：國小初等教育旨在啟蒙學習者性向與潛能，採多感官、感知性學習典範，摸索、試探、情境操作、「分享」與「表達」體驗是該階段的學習原則；初中教育賦予試探、定向、興趣培養任務，學習範式加重理性認知、理解比重；繼起高中職教育則定位於銜接高等教育階段之學術與專業教育之前置預備性教育，提供基礎學術、專業或就業發展的「分化」教育，是初中階段「定向」後的進階教育。一、共同性歐美文化共同根基是希羅古文化與基督宗教，差異影響因素是自然地域與人文社會，美國主實用主義與政治哲學，德國與法國則主理性主義與價值哲學。教育共同性如以人為本、兼具目的與工具性。 1. 學生中心 Key（1849-1926）在《兒童的世紀》書中，開啟學童本位的教育理念（Key，譯 1925），她主張以 Rousseau（1712-1778）自然教育原則改革教育，教師為兒童創造適當的環境，讓兒童在活動中自由學習，而自然是喚起美感的天然環境，其中可孕育優美的感情。國民基本教育旨在開發人的理性、情意與悟性，教育理念如學生中心、適性原則、與資質利基，教育實踐由理念意識、個性特質到實質能力，三者關聯結構是整體、個性與能力，今之教育哲學主結果取向表現力、生存力及其素質，學習績效是新生成教育概念。另，開放社會對於天賦能力和天生才能之境遇成就現象，國民教育發展多採由年限延長、量擴充、機會均等，到其後適性適才與質的提升。 2. 存在哲學存在哲學在教育上的意義：（1）正視生命存在、（2）厚實個己存在利基，以及（3）認知共生必要性。12年國民基本教育是普通教育（general education），藉多元情境與多元系統知識，以利（1）啟蒙、（2）扎根多元化個性與智能利基、（3）學習求生、適應與精神滿足、（4）建構共同價值基礎、（5）認知社會發展及其特性，以及（6）養成終身學習習性。 157 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 3. 優勢利基優勢利基理念源自於企業界，視域分宏觀與微觀面，前者指在全球競爭氛圍與知識經濟發展趨勢下，國家優勢生成奠基於與時俱進的經濟產業與優質人資；後者指個人生存之道是培育具達爾文式之優質之操作力與執行力。就現實與實用主義而言，不論是個人職識能發展，抑或是國家型塑綜合力，掌握、創造與善用利基蓄勢以待勢在必行。面對創意取向職識能訴求與多元智能理念，初始教育利基生成是在「天生我才必有用」、「珍惜所擁有的，不看自己沒有的」根基上，責付為期 12年國民基本教育目標性、結構化與系統性開發潛能與能力。二、歧異性今昔教育價值觀變化大，由重文輕理、重理輕工、重理輕文，以至近日理工唯實、人文唯名，前者直接助益國家經濟發展與社會文明，後者是實現前者的基本前提，祇是，前者受到重視遠大於後者。 1. 階級性後期中等教育具階級性，可以德國為代表，「從十九世紀四十年代起，資產階級在政經重要性趨近貴族，兼營工商業的貴族也開始向資產階級轉化⋯⋯文實中學正是適應這一轉化而出現的。」（王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉，1984a）事實上，教育階級性現象屬全球性。 2. 學術性後期中等教育具學術性可以法國為代表，拿破崙設立國立中學（Lycee）與市立中學（College），二者是中等學校主要類型，屬預科教育；1852年，中學課程設計出現文、實分科的做法，具實科性質學校於 1891年改稱現代中學，畢業生在學業程度和升學資格上被視為是不足的（王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉，1984b）。 3. 實用性後期中等教育具實用性可以美國為代表，就讀綜合中學人次比例達 98%（劉怡慧， 2000），屬通才教育與性向興趣取向；課程設計彈性與多元化，教學模式主啟思、參與操作與合作學習。 158 丁、12年國民基本教育 12年國民基本教育既是教育工程，並且是社會工程，前者強調專業性，後者意指功能性；涵蓋國小、初中與高中職三階段，其中國小與初中階段教育屬義務性，高中職階段教育屬非強制性，但負有承上啟下作用，是國民義務教育與高等教育之中介。另，國小教育根基不牢，影響初中教育深耕；初中教育是高中職教育多元定性定向發展之基礎。一、教育哲學為臺灣而言，教育哲學觀虛實併陳，前者反映於教育理念與另類教育方案，後者體現於升明星學校、進一流大學為教育目標。 1994年，「410教改遊行」訴求開啟國內適性教育思維與多元教學模式，美中不足是未能正視學習者天生資質歧異、性向多樣態、學習意願個別差異、家庭與社會之南橘北枳效應，以及不察生存識能發展模組與生變性，致令今昔教育生態與文化氛圍變化不大：（1）教育改革侷限於問題解決、應變之需，權宜性方案、補強方案成為政策性方案；（2）教育形式主義模糊教育本質、教育無脈絡性淡化教育旨趣，進而型塑單向度的社會與單向度的人（Marcuse，譯 1990）；（3）知識應用性、工具性凌駕先驗理性旨趣、理性演繹之意義性價值，以及（4）學習非為厚實人生幸福與探究宇宙真理之益，而成了創造科技文明、滿足物質慾望之器。可見未來，12年國民基本教育哲學亟待建構：首先，化解晉升好學校、最終進好大學是教育唯一化意識；其次，凸顯理論、實務與實踐脫節乃是扭曲的教育；複次，責付教育有厚實就業職識能、預視人生可能變化功能，最後，健全人格教育，倡導自我價值認同與富社會責任感的國民。二、義務教育「求木之長，必固其根；欲流之遠，必浚其源。」根據聯合國教科文組織 1998年《世界教育報告》顯示：義務教育平均年限為 8年，歐美發達國家平均年限為 10至 12年，但免費教育則為 12至 13年（教育部，2003）。另，義務教育實施多分為二階段、三階段，少有是為期 9至 10年一貫制的。 159 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制觀諸臺灣義務教育發展，1939年 10月 18日制定《義務教育實施要綱》，1943年義務教育普及率 71%（維基百科，2012a）；1947年頒訂《臺灣省學齡兒童強迫入學辨法》，1975年國民小學入學率達 99%，1984年國民中學入學率是 99%。1967年 8月 17 日台統（一）義字第五零四零號命令公告：「茲為提高國民智能，充實戡亂建國力量⋯⋯ 國民教育之年限應延長為九年，自五十七學年度起先在臺灣及金門地區實施。」依據教育部統計處 2010年統計資料顯示，15歲以上人口不識字率降低至 2.09%，國小畢業生繼續就讀國中比率，1966年為 59.04%，1971年增至 80.85%，2009年達 99.73%（維基百科，2012b）。義務教育旨趣：國家意識、掃盲、經濟發展與現代化，以及提升國民素質與厚實謀生職識能。三、後期中等教育面對知識經濟與全球化競爭的市場機制，後期中等教育「向上提升」是必然趨勢，後期中等教育與高等教育發展不宜各自為政；相反的，正視二者關聯生成，而高等教育是後期中等教育的「進階教育」，後期中等教育是高等教育先導性「預科教育」，經濟利益是結合二者之利器。依據教育基本法第十一條規定：「國民基本教育應視社會發展需要延長其年限。」（教育部，2011）21世紀初，臺灣總體教育即已進入「普及化」階段，2014年即將實施之 12年國民基本教育似是補正其政治程序罷了。後期中等教育發展狀況：自 1986學年度後，國小學生進入國中比率已達 99%；國中學生進入高中職，1991學年度是 86%、2003學年度是 95%，但是，國中畢業生就學機會率是 107% （教育部，2001）。 12年國民基本教育自準備階段進入「勢在必行」歷程：1983年，教育部提出「試辦延長以職業教育為主的國民教育」；1990年，行政院提出「國中畢業生自願就學高級中等學校方案」；1993年，教育部提出「發展與改進國中技藝教育方案──邁向十年國教目標」，2001年推動高中職社區化，2004年成立「推動 12年國民教育工作圈」， 2007年成立「12年國民基本教育工作小組」，並完成「12年國民基本教育規劃方案」（張文昌，2011.11.17）。2009年 9月 4日，教育部公佈 12年國民基本教育先導計畫《擴大 160 高中職及五專免試入學實施方案》，並將於 2010至 2011學年宣導推動，2012學年擴大辦理（教育部，2009）。 2010年 8月第 8次全國教育會議綜合座談上，行政院宣布「12年國教由坐而言進入起而行階段」，繼而於 2011年元旦文告宣示教育邁入新紀元，並「啟動 12年國民基本教育，分階段逐步實施，先從高職做起，預定 2014年高中職學生全面免學費、大部分免試入學。」（中華民國總統府，2011）《12年國教：超額比序》，凸顯 12年國民基本教育政策待釐清與公諸論證之，臺灣國民教育問題不是時間、財政、政治性，而是教育專業，即後期中等教育未先釐清其在高等教育與前期中等教育之功能，滋生疑慮是可預期的；相對的，其在定位之際，務必面對後期中等教育已存問題，如各縣市「明星學校」外之他校功能不明、校際教育效益良莠不齊、來自政府的教育投資明顯不足，如私中與國立高中比例是 0.79：1，私立職高與公立高職比例是 0.7：1（教育部統計處，2012a），以及長期忽視城鄉教育落差與學習者資質或素質問題等。戊、結論與建議 21世紀，高等教育是推動國家永續發展，提升國家競爭力的關鍵要素。就教育體制而言，高等教育位居金字塔型體制最上層，其下是中等教育之後期中等教育，二者層級關聯不宜切割各自考量。另，為絕大多數學習者而言，後期中等教育需求屬性與學習者資質、興趣與就業考量等因素有密切關係。一、結論「學校要變好，教育要改革；教育要改革，政策要出爐。」教育是促進社會進步的原動力，臺灣將於 2014年實施 12年國民基本教育，就《12年國教 OK，但請別搞掉明星高中》、《論十二年國教隱憂 ─ 有想過會有一個世代被犧牲嗎？》對政策質疑，凸顯下列問題： 1. 系統思維不足綜觀國民教育發展及其沿革，一則相關體制建置具階段性，二則採用專家取向之政 161 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制策評估與分析（Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1987）。12年國民基本教育政策規劃未能：（1）採目標導向思維，針對 21世紀國際競爭態勢，以符應國家需求、社會轉型與學習者生涯發展進行全盤性思考；（2）採既有現況取向思維，檢證數據予以分析與批判，並據以進行實證取向之興革，以及（3）依據理論與實務互為印證關聯思維邏輯，進行與時俱進之層級關聯、點滴累積（piecemeal educational engineering）之政策規劃。 2. 教育資源分配不均一般而言，國民教育普及程度與品質凸顯政府關注教育力度與挹注經費財力，依據教育部統計處（2012b）資料顯示，（1）後期中等教育基礎學術、專業與職業教育結構呈傾斜狀態，其中，基礎學術教育「炙手可熱」；（2）公立學校教育多為升學軌，私立學校教育多為職業軌，公私立學校學生數比例約 1：1；（3）教育資源多集中於都會區與公立高中類別學校；（4）私立高職學生數大於公立高職學生數，前者又多為社會弱勢族群，與（5）公私立學校正式教師生態結構差異大。二、建議德國、法國後期中等教育學校類型有其歷史淵源與對應之意識型態，美國另闢蹊徑創建綜合中學，以消除教育階級分化現象。「他山之石，可以攻錯」，取長補短是原則，專業判斷是準則，以及責付學習者之準參與決定選擇教育。針對上述結論，提出如下應變之道，系統化思維體現於國民教育體制結構化，教育資源問題改善，則以模組課程範式與較適教師教育補強。 1. 12年國民基本教育結構化綜觀歐美總體教育體制包涵初等教育、中等教育與高等教育；現今學制是 6+3+3+4，其中高中職教育扮演承先啟後功能，上承高等教育，下接形式普同、實質多元之基礎教育。21世紀是終身學習與學習型社會的紀元，未來 12年國民基本教育組織呈現多樣態，如 6+6、5+4+3、4+8、4+4+4、4+5+3年制等，小學教育旨趣是基礎扎根、習性養成，可用年限約 4至 5年；綜合中學教育旨趣是試探、定性與發展深耕（Meyer，譯 1999），可用年限約 8/2+3+3年（見表二）。臺灣於 1968年實施九年國民義務教育，至今已逾 40餘年，待實施之 12年國民基 162 本教育不是量的擴增，而是質的提升與效益產出。2014年施行之 12年國民基本教育旨在：（1）解構「考試還是考試」現象，（2）效益地發展新生代潛能與個性，以及（3）落實合時宜的教育本質。表二 12年國民基本教育階段目標與權重一覽表認知情意技能總計類別特色小學 4 3 4 3 10 人境體驗教育前期中教 5 2+3、0+5 4 3 3 10 共性基礎教育後期中教 3 5 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 5 30 分流個殊教育總計 12 12 10 9 11 10 10 8 9 11 90 多元化資料來源：研究者自行設計 2. 實施模組課程範式歐美後期中等教育主全方位，一則符應多元智能理論，二則提供社會發展需多元人力資源，三則構造後現代主體意識與後工業社會多元主義；相對而言，臺灣形式是雙軌制教育，實質是單一性，執行一名符其實的升學教育。依據高級中學法第一條規定：「高級中學以陶冶青年身心，培養健全公民，奠定研究學術或學習專門知能之預備為宗旨。」（教育部，2010a）職業學校法第一條規定：「職業學校，依中華民國憲法第一百五十八條之規定，以教授青年職業智能，培養職業道德，養成健全之基層技術人為宗旨。」（教育部，2010b）另，符應多元需求如學習者資質、性向、興趣、就業與生涯規劃需求，後期中等教育規劃需橫向分化與縱向層級取向的教育。後期中等學校定位呈多樣化，辦學機制彈性化。首先，或就全國 15學區予以橫向校際分工、重點或特色學校發展，或採校內橫向多元化與縱向層級化；其次，規劃菜單式（menu-based）模組課程範式（paradigm of modular curriculum），據以提供學術發展、專業發展、職業發展與就業準備取向之教育；最後，所謂明星學校，實為專長與特色學校，依學區統籌規劃設置，數量有限，責付其成為學區之學習領域燈塔。階段目標與權重年限 163 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制課程設計需兼顧普通教育與技職教育間之橫向轉換與縱向銜接，模組課程範式（見表三）是未來課程典範，其將知識類別分為基礎理論與應用知識二類，5大學習領域與 10個次領域，課程組織依據年級而變化，由單一領域到跨領域、系統知識結構到主題課程；課程難度分基礎、進階、探究與榮譽課程（honors courses）四級。模組課程範式旨在：（1）滿足就近入學而生成之多元需求；（2）因應社會快速變化，同一時間學習與發展多元與多層級職識能成為必要，能力分組教學與開設必選修科目是對應措施；（3）在網際網路社會，學習跨越教室邊界，另類學習成為常態，如自主學習、機動學習、網路學習、群組學習等；（4）特色學校與重點學校 /班級成為少數，多為滿足特殊需求，如數理長才、語文專業、藝術性向、科技設計等，以及（5）整合學區內可用與有限教育資源，統籌規劃與綜合運用之。表三知識類別與領域、層級課程範式一覽表層級知識類別與領域基礎 / 核心課程進階 / 選必修課程高階 / 選修課程理論知識哲學與文學單元 / 冊課程單元 / 冊課程主題課程語言與文學單元 / 冊課程數學與物理數學與自然科學應用知識社會與經濟經濟與政治科技與生態科技與資訊科技藝術與戲劇藝術與文創資料來源：研究者自行設計 3. 正視教師教育文明成就與進展非為事先設定，而是把握箇中機會，是以，執行無排他性的國民基本教育，有一定的難度，但是，適性與原創性國民教育有其根本重要性。國民教育願景實踐高素質教師教育不可或缺，教師素質對學生學習成效發揮關鍵影響（Hanushek & 164 Rivkin, 2004; Heck, 2007），從而高品質與全納式（inclusiveness）之國民教育教師教育需一體規劃之。符應數位化與教育工程複雜性，教師教育範式進行典範轉移：首先，思維邏輯由線性思維模式轉化為層級網狀思維模式；其次，教師教育橫向類別分為小學、中學與技職，縱向層級分為 4至 6年制小學、 2+3年制前期中等學校、3年制學術、3年制科技與 2或 3年制職業；再次，3年制學術取向之教師教育承擔前期與後期中等學校教育，3年制科技取向之教師教育強調其研究設計、探究與分析職識能；複次，2或 3年制職業取向教師教育，一則符應社會產業結構、類別需求，其中 2 年制屬就業取向教育，3年制高職教育是二專與四技之先導性基礎教育；二則採情境認知、操作教學，三則實施就業教育、專業基礎教育；最後，教師教育新典範強調多領域系統知識與主題課程意識、多元化教學模式與統觀探究識能，以及終身學習的行動力。參考文獻中華民國總統府（2011）。〈中華民國 100年開國紀念典禮暨元旦文告〉。2012年 7月 16日，取自 http://www.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=131&itemid=23185&rmid =514。王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉（1984a）。《外國教育史　近代德國教育制度的發展》。北京：北京師範大學出版社。王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉（1984b）。《外國教育史　法國資展階級革命前後教育制度的發展》。北京：北京師範大學出版社。張文昌（2011.11.17）。〈12年國教　難題待解 ─ 政策背景、問題分析與價值澄清〉。《台灣立報》，教育版。2012年 7月 16日，取自 http://www.lihpao.com/?action- 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E.（1999）。《當代教育發展史：20世紀教育發展回顧》。李復新、馬小梅（譯）。台北：桂冠。 Mill, J. S.（2011）。《論自由：兼論天才的產生》。吳文璋（譯）。台南：智仁勇。 Spencer, H.（1962）。《教育論》。胡毅（譯）。北京：人民教育出版社。 Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (1986). What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Warfield, J. N. (1976). Societal systems: Planning, policy and complexity. New York: Wiley. Warfield, J. N. (1982). Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) group planning & problem solving methods in engineering. New York: Wiley. Worthen, B. R., Sanders, J. R., & Fitzpatrick, J. L. (1987). Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. 167 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制附錄 1. C代表概念、 g代表關聯。 2.每一行代表概念與概念之關聯發展或概念與概念之關聯發展路徑。 3. 概念結構圖示整體概念之關聯結構，據以瞭解概念與概念關係性與邏輯性。 4. 圖一，可讀取有關國民教育、12年國民基本教育結構與後中教育關聯結構。國民教育 C1gC2gC11gC13gC17 C1gC2gC11gC13gC18 12年國教結構 C1gC3gC12 C1gC3gC14gC18 C1gC2gC14gC17 C1gC2gC14gC16 12年國教目的關聯構造 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC15gC16 後中教育關聯構造 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC1 168 Study on development of 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan - Referring to national education systems in USA, Germany and France Hui Chung HO Department of Education, National Taichung University of Education Masatake NAGAI Graduate Institute of Educational Measurement and Statistics, National Taichung University of Education Abstract One of the objectives of implementing 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan is to put educational justice into practice. However, actions are urgently needed to address the issues of the lack of adaptability and shunt in post-secondary education and the insufficiency between urban and inter-schools educational resources. This article compares the national education systems in USA, Germany and France with that of Taiwan and gives insight to the planning and development of the 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan. The aims of this article are: (1) to initiate a difference-based adaptive education as basic educational engineering for driving a “good” and “meaningful” life; (2) to acknowledge systematic division of school education and system thinking of 12 years’ coherency and inclusiveness ; (3) to pinpoint that primary schools (including elementary) and junior high schools are the foundation of the 12 years’ national basic education; (4) to explain the importance of teachers’ education, and (5) to give recommendations for the 12 years’ national basic education policy to be implemented in Taiwan in 2014. Keywords 12 years’ national basic education, difference-based adaptive education, educational resources, inclusiveness, teachers’ education 169 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革胡少偉香港教育學院摘要廿一世紀是資訊科技發達和知識爆炸的時代，在全球化情境中，各地政府推出不少教育改革以促進教育的發展；教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月公佈了「香港教育制度改革建議」，對教育發展目標和改革提出建議。這篇文章整理新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革與發展，並就香港教改的成效作整體評論；除了十多年來所推行的教改和課改外，本文亦會分析中小學和幼稚園的發展，以及論述期間香港教育所面對的學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等變化。關鍵詞香港教育，基礎教育，教育改革，教育發展一、前言二十一世紀是知識爆炸的時代，隨着知識生命週期的縮短、世界空間因資訊科技而縮減，越趨頻密的全球一體化經濟，使人類社會產生了很多變化。在這個變革的環境中，各地教育部門紛紛推出教育改革，以促進當地教育的發展和更好地培育下一代。在世紀轉接之間，香港教育界熱烈地進行了教育制度的檢討和教育改革的討論；經過了年多的諮詢，教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月向政府提交了《終身學習．全人學習 ─ 香港教育制度改革建議》（教育統籌委員會，2000），提出了香港的教育改革的方向是「為學校、教師及學生創造空間，讓學生可享有全面而均衡的學習機會，從而奠定終身學習的根基 170 及達致全人發展」（頁 i）。自此，香港教育改革正式啟動；十多年間，教統會先後發表了四份「教育改革進展報告」，闡述教育改革七項重點工作的進展。香港特區政府除推動這份教改報告書的建議外，亦就教育的其他方面發表了不少的政策，涉及中、小學和幼稚園等教育階段，範圍包括學校管理、教師專業、語文教育和資訊科技教育等。可見，香港在新世紀的教育改革是廣泛和全面的；當中，值得香港教育界高興的是「國際權威顧問機構麥肯錫公司 2010年底發表報告，高度評價香港教育體系在國際上的表現，並充分肯定香港教育發展的持續進步」（胡少偉，2012，頁 33）。這篇文章將整理新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革與發展，內容除了分析教改和課改的推行外，同時也會綜合十多年來中小學和幼稚園教育的主要發展，並論述同期相關的教育發展和就香港教改成效作整體的評論。二、新世紀的教改藍圖《學習的革命》指出「世界正飛速地經歷一場革命，這場革命將像以前文字、印刷術和蒸汽機的發明那樣改變我們現在的生活；我們需要一場學習的革命，與技術、知識和通訊爆炸相適應」（Jeannette & Gordon，1998，頁 8）。面對這場人類第三波革命，教統會（2000）提出了教育改革的願景：建立終身學習的社會體系，普遍提升全體學生的素質，建立多元化學校體系，塑造開發型的學習環境，確認德育在教育體系中的重要使命，建設一個具國際性、具民族傳統及相容多元文化的教育體系（頁 4-5），並視這次教改為一項長遠而全面的規劃，以使香港教育能追上時代的需要。在報告書中，教統會批評過往香港的教育只培養少數的優秀人才，削弱了社會的公平，並表明改革方案旨在形成新的競爭理念，塑造新的競爭機制，兼顧擇優與公平。為了避免「標籤效應影響較低組別學生的士氣」（何景安，2009，頁 118），教統會將小學生升中派位組別由 5 個改為 3個，以減少因派位組別多而引起的不公平；其後，小學升中的自行分配學位的比例，從 2007/08年度起提高至 30%，學生申請學校的數目亦由一所增至兩所，且不受各區學校網所限制。這兩項教改措施使小六家長有較大的機會讓子女憑面試及校內成績進入心儀學校；亦可見，香港教育改革的其中一個價值是為家長提供較多的擇校機會。在上世紀末的教育檢討中，不少業界憂慮中小學教師工作繁重，未能有效地推行教育改革；為了讓教師鬆綁，政府於2000年撥款為教師創造空間，讓中小學聘請教學助理、文書人員，或者僱用外間服務，讓教師可專注教學和進行拔尖補底的工作。「有關建議 171 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革於 11月 17日獲立法會財務委員會通過，將預留作教育改革的 8億元中的 5億元發放給中、小學，透過聘請額外人手或購買服務等方法，以減輕教師的工作量，提高教與學的成效」（高國威、葉建源、張國華、黃炳文、梁潔茵，2004，頁 9）。2004年檢討報告認為發展津貼普遍受到學校歡迎；在 2005/06年度，政府將學校發展津貼改為經常性的撥款，並增撥有時限學校發展津貼，以協助教師應付校本評核和全港性系統評估推行初期的工作，進一步減輕教師的工作量。透過新增公共財政以支持學校發展，讓教師可落實教改工作，是香港特區政府推行教改的有效策略之一。三、課改的推展與中期成效 2001年發表的《學會學習 ─ 課程發展路向》報告書（課程發展議會，2001），參考了國際 21世紀教育委員會於 1996年指出，「學會學習既可將其視為一種人生手段，也可將其視為一種人生目的」（聯合國教科文組織總部，2001）；並以「學會學習」為香港課改文件名稱，暗喻學校教育不再是「學會知識」，學習態度和技能比學會內容更為重要。香港當年課改計畫用 10年改革中、小學課程，為學生提供一個均衡的新課程，並將當時所有學科統整為八個學習領域；課程發展議會亦提出在首五年內透過創造更多空間、引發學習動機、落實推行四個關鍵專案、幫助學生掌握中英數基本能力和培養學生共通能力等五方面重點工作去落實課程改革。「制度政策和學校行政管理的改革，假如未能直接或間接促進教師、學校或制度層面的課程教學的設計和發展，這些改革都可算是無的放矢」（黃顯華，2001，頁 21）。為配合課改的推行，《基礎教育課程指引 ─ 各盡所能．發揮所長》於 2002年出版，進一步展示落實課程改革的校本方法；尤其是對四個關鍵專案的推行有詳細說明，使各校能順利推展德育及公民教育、從閱讀中學習、專題研習和運用資訊科技進行互動學習。在推行課改的同時，政府對評核學生的制度亦進行了改革；教育部門於 2001年委託考試及評核局發展與推行中、英、數三科的基本能力評估。經試驗後，於 2004年首次在小三進行全港性系統評估；至 2006年在小三、小六和中三級作全面施行，評估項目分為中、英、數三科，主要是以筆試進行，還包括兩科語文的說話評估和中文視聽資訊評估，以全面評估學生讀寫聽說的能力。這個評估結果和資料可讓公眾瞭解基礎教育階段學生的中、英、數基本能力；學校亦可參考全港性系統評估的校本資料，調整三個主科的教學策略，以改善教師教學的效能。與此同時，正如內地學者景源（2011）指， 172 港府「要求實現『對學習的評估』和『促進學習的評估』兩種評價範式的平衡，變革了學校的評價文化和評價方式」（頁 17）；鼓勵教師注意促進學習的評估，可使課堂教學目標、學教過程和學生學習成果三者有一個更緊密的迴圈，從而優化課堂教學。有關香港課改的成效，課改中期報告顯示「有超過 85%的受訪小學生和 75%的受訪中學生認為老師普遍有『向我們提問、與我們討論、鼓勵我們發表意見』、『耐心聆聽我們的發問及積極回答我們的問題』、『教我們用不同方法尋找資料，完成課業』，以及『鼓勵我們自己尋找答案，解決問題』」（教育局，2008，頁 20）。時任課程發展總監張國華於 2011年指出「學生在溝通能力、創造力及批判性思考能力上有明顯的進步，在國民身份認同和承擔精神等價值觀和態度上均有正面的發展，並正發展成更加獨立的學習者。」（鄭琰，2011，頁 10）。香港課改成效亦受到本地課程專家的肯定，香港教育學院副校長李子建（2012a）認為「超過 90%的中小學校長認為學校能夠促進教師共同備課、建立同伴觀課文化、提升校內的團隊文化和將學校作為一個學習社群」（頁 44）；並指出學校領導層和中層管理人員的素質差別是影響校本課程的關鍵因素。四、幼稚園教育的發展與提高在 2000年的報告書內，教統會期望政府和公眾認識幼稚園教育的重要性，並就有關提高幼稚園教育專業水準方面提出各項明確的建議，反映了當時香港幼師資格相對較低；而提高幼稚園教師和校長的資格是幼稚園教改的一個亮點。同時，教統會建議政府要加強質素保證機制和改善小一入學制度，以防止幼稚園教育揠苗助長的風氣。隨着世界幼稚園教育的發展趨勢，課程發展議會修訂了 1996年學前教育課程指引，新編訂的《學前教育課程指引（2006）》申明幼稚園教育是終身學習和全人發展的基礎，重視以「兒童為中心」的核心價值；在該課程架構下訂有四項幼兒發展目標：「身體」、「認知和語言」、「情意和群性」及「美感」；這份 2006年的學前教育課程指引比舊課程更為全面、具彈性及多元化，可讓幼兒建立良好的學習基礎、正面的價值觀及基本的能力與技巧。「學前教育學券計畫」是由 2007/08學年開始實施，一方面保留私立幼稚園靈活應變的多元化特色，另一方面則推動學前教育界全面提升質素，步入更具效益和更專業化的新紀元。在 2009/10年度參加學券計畫的幼稚園有 820間，幼稚園學生約 117,000名， 173 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革分別約佔總數的 85%。這計畫雖顯示政府對幼稚園教育的承擔有所增加，但政策推出後卻受到不少業界的批評，「新政策推行至今已進入第三個學年，過程中衍生了不少爭駁，除了上述提及的問題外，其他情況諸如教師人手短缺、流動、流失和工作壓力等，均對幼稚園教育專業的整個生態發展造成嚴重影響」（袁慧筠，2010，頁 11）。立法會教育事務委員會（2010）曾召開檢討學前教育學券計畫會議，並通過議案「促請政府即時成立包括業界及家長代表的委員會，立即檢討幼稚園學費津助制度」。在議會和業界的強力關注下，教育局提前檢討這個原定推行五年的計畫；經公開諮詢和檢討工作小組的討論，教育統籌委員會於 2010年底公佈檢討報告，在提出 12個改善學券計畫建議的同時，該小組亦總結了學券計畫的成果。然而，大部份香港幼稚園同工的心願是政府推行十五年免費教育；為回應業界的訴求，政府終於 2013年成立專責委員會研究推行十五年免費教育的可行性。五、香港小學教育的三大發展香港小學教育在這十多年除了推行教改和課改的建議外，在推行全日制、落實小班教學和優化人力資源等三方面也有明顯的發展。在回歸年，特首提出把全日制學生比率提高；1998年的施政報告提出推行小學全日制長遠的目標，計畫於 2007/08學年開始全面推行小學全日制，讓所有小學生都有機會入讀全日制學校。2003年《小學全日制優點研究》指出全日制在多方面比半日制可取，包括：全日制學校可以為學生提供一個更理想的學習環境和更多元化的學習活動；可紓緩緊迫的上課時間，學校能更靈活地安排課程；可提供較充裕的時間去使學生得到較全面的照顧等。「至 2002/03學年，政府已達到了六成的小學生接受全日制教育的中期目標；據政府統計處 2007年的統計報告顯示， 84.4%的受訪者同意或非常同意『由於學生有更多時間和老師、校長和其他同學溝通接觸，因此全日制小學就能夠營造出一個更有生氣的學習環境』」（郭少棠，2008，頁 148）。在新世紀後，香港小學教育的一個爭議課題是小班教學的推行。教育局於 2004/05 學年進行一項追蹤性的研究，目的為評估在香港實施小班教學的好處，及識別發揮小班教學最佳成效的教學策略和支持措施；當年有 37所小學參與研究，並以每班學生人數 25人試行小班教學。其後，教統局於 2005年 9月又在收錄較多清貧學生的學校試行小班教學。隨着因學生人口下降，小學業界要求小班教學訴求不斷增加，行政長官於 2007 174 年施政報告公佈由 2009/10學年起，於公營小學的小一班級開始，分階段實施小班教學，並會逐年推展至 2014/15學年，涵蓋小一至小六所有班級。2009年 9月，小班教學在 65%的香港小學順利實施；當年，教育局撥款 2億 1千 8百萬元，為教師提供在職培訓課程和為學校提供代課教師。隨着「小班教學研究」於 2009年發表，教育局再調撥 1 億元，為正在實施小班教學的學校提供為期一年的額外文憑教師職位。在 2010/11年度，實施小班教學的小學有 318所，佔全港公營小學 69%。香港小學課改得到不少的讚賞，成功原因之一是政府增加小學的人力資源。政府於 2002年 9月在小學增設課程統籌主任的職位，以支持小學制訂課程發展策略和推行課改的工作；有見於小學課程統籌主任的貢獻，政府將這個原定五年的有限期職位轉為常額。而為加強改善中英數三個主科的教學，政府於 2005/06年向小學提供資助專科教學津貼，為期三年；期後考慮到教師不滿以合約形式聘用，教育統籌局由 2006/07學年起為學校提供額外常額教席，取代這個專科教學津貼，這使全日制小學每班的教師比例由 1.4提升至 1.5。於 2008/09學年教育局又在小學開設高級小學學位教師的職級，明確小學副校長要協助校長處理下列四方面的工作：（1）課程發展與管理，學與教及學生評估；（2）全校參與的關顧輔導與學生支持；（3）人力資源管理；（4）學校管理、評估及發展。小學副校長職級編制化，除了吸引人才出任小學副校長外，也提高了小學行政人員的士氣，有助提升小學教育的管理質素。六、中學教育的改革與轉變香港中學教育的一個實踐性發展，是將實施近三十年的九年免費教育延長；特首在 2007年施政報告中宣佈將公營學校提供的免費教育延伸至高中階段，由 2008/09年度起生效。十二年免費教育不單可減少低學歷青少年過早地投入就業市場，亦有利適齡學童取得報讀進修專上教育的資格，有利他們持續進修終身學習。另一方面，因應學生人口減少，教育局在 2006/07學年推出班級結構重整措施，為未達開辦三班要求的中學，提供多項方案供相關學校申請繼續營辦高中，以減輕收生弱勢中學被殺的危機。吸收了早前小學縮班殺校所帶來教師壓力和怨氣的痛苦經驗，教育局於 2010年 11月提出「自願優化班級計畫」，讓部份學生自然地流進收生不足的學校；這不但保障弱勢中學不用殺校，亦避免了能力較強的學生錯配下移。與此同時，政府將世紀初 40名學生的中一班額逐步減少；教育局於 2009/10學年已將中一每班派位人數調低至 36人，在 2010/11及 175 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 2011/12學年再減至 34人。政府於 2012年底更提出二一一方案，使 2016年的中一學生班額可減至 30名學生；這措施不單保留中學教師的人力資源，又可免日後中一學生人數谷底回升時，引來另一次香港中學教育的動盪。香港特區政府在新世紀最為慎重的教改政策是推行新高中學制。2000年教統會未有決定進行高中學制改革，經過 2004年的諮詢後，特區政府於 2005年公佈 2009年推行新高中學制。新高中課程為學生提供一個均衡和有深度的課程，高中生除了修讀四個必修的科目，包括中、英、數及通識教育科外，亦可根據個人興趣、性向和能力，從不同學習領域或應用學習的範疇中選讀兩個或三個科目；同時，高中生還可透過其他學習經歷，獲得德育及公民教育、體藝等的體驗，以廣闊的知識基礎去準備未來升學及就業的需要。「經過三輪諮詢後，2007年 3月，課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局聯合編訂的高中課程 4個核心科目及 20個選修科目的課程及評估指引公佈；2009年 5月，課程發展議會編訂的《高中課程指引：立足現在，創建未來（中四至中六）》，為學校準備和實施新高中課程提供指導」（彭澤平、姚琳，2010，頁 23）。新高中學制的改革經歷數年的諮詢和優化，其改革亦與教改藍圖主張培育學生「終身學習、全人發展」的方向一致，可算是香港改革中一個持續深入又推行成功的政策實例。高中學制改革除影響高中各科課程和教學外，亦使中學公開考試產生了相應的變化；香港中學文憑考試取代了原有的兩個公開考試，並在各科引入校本評核和以水準參照模式彙報學生的成績。「水準參照模式中，考生的表現被分為五個等級，沒有及格或不及格的概念，每個等級附有一套等級描述。為了更準確地反映考生實際的語文水準，考評局由 2007年起改用水準參照模式彙報考生的中國語文科和英國語文科的成績，考生所得的成績，反映出本身的知識和技能水準，不受其他考生的表現影響」（付宜紅， 2011，頁 44）。而對中學教師影響最大的評核轉變是校本評核，校本評核本意是透過多元化課業評核學生在不同方面的表現，讓教師可以作出適時的回饋，從而提高學生的學習成效；但校本評核卻同時引來高中教師大量的評核工作，加上學生的學習時數不足，在第一屆文憑試舉行之後，不少關心中學教師的教育團體，要求政府和考評局即時檢討校本評核及不再按原計劃於 2016年全面在各科內推行校本評核。回歸前，政府訂定一刀切強行母語教學，要求各中學在初中分流為以中文或英文為教學語言，這政策備受各方的批評；當中最為詬病的是其所造成的標籤效應，把中文 176 中學定為二流中學。政府於 2005年曾成立工作小組深入探討這難題，並提出維持師生和學校皆具備條件的情況下，讓中學以上落車機制去強化當時的母語教學政策；但這個不為各方支持的方案，公佈後受到不少抨擊。有見及此，教育局提出微調初中教學語言政策。「賦予學校更大的空間，使母語教學有持續平穩的發展；微調安排由 2010/11學年的中一開始實施，學校會根據『學生為本、因材施教』的原則，採用不同模式的教學語言安排，以加強校內的英語環境，並增加學生運用和接觸英語的機會。」（教育局， 2010，頁 7）。為支持中學落實這個影響深遠的微調措施，教育局於 2009年舉辦了 16 場制定全校語文政策工作坊，同時亦調撥 5億 9千萬元為改變教學語言的非語文科教師提供在職培訓課程及代課老師。初中教學課程微調後，使不少中學在初中階段有一校兩語文授課的情況，增加了初中教師的教學難度，但相信措施有助中學生提高英語能力；然而，其最終成效是否物有所值，則需視乎日後學生表現才可論斷。七、香港基礎教育同期的發展在這十多年教育變革的時期中，除了以上教改、課改和中小幼教育的發展外，香港基礎教育同步亦有三個不能忽視的發展，包括面對學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化；當中，最為震撼的是因學生人口的減少而帶來殺校的現象。政府審計署於 2003年發表的第 41號報告書，批評教統局規劃失當，浪費了十多億港元資源，並倡議減建 18所新校舍；加上學童人口的減少，小學面臨生源不足的困難，教統局於 2003年決定停辦小一收生不足的學校。在小一生源不足的情況下，有不少半日制小學合二為一，；教統局亦於 2005年提出檢討建校計畫，將一些原已公佈的新建校舍停建。而因殺校出現大量的小學超額教師，教統局於 2004年推出小學教師提早退休計畫，並擴展至非殺校的小學教師；於 2005年受惠於特惠補償金計畫的教師有八百多名。據本地學者分析「因收生不足而聯繫到學校關閉，在 2000至 2006年約有 110間小學被政府所關閉」（Mok，2007，頁 201-202）；縮班殺校對香港教育影響之廣，連台灣學者亦有關注，「教師的超額造成教師流失率的升高，顯現少子化大大衝擊香港的教育體系」（黃宗顯、劉健慧，2010，頁 173）。在學校管理方面，新世紀後影響最大的政策是推動學校自評文化。質素保證視學組在 2002年提出學校表現指標，既讓學校瞭解到外評人員評核的要求，也是開展自我評估的參考。在 2003年，教育局推行「透過學校自我評估及校外評核促進學校發展及問 177 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革責」，推行這個新視學制度時正是中小學教師開始感受巨大教改壓力之際，因而引來各方對計畫的質疑和顧慮。為此，教育局騁請國際學者就這機制進行專門的研究，並肯定「外評在核實及支援自評，以促進學校持續改善方面」（教育局質素保證分部，2008，頁 19）。在總結首輪外評經驗後，教育局修訂了表現指標，《2008年學校表現指標》把原有的 14個範圍精簡為 8個，又把表現指標由 29個精簡為 23個，使學校更能聚焦地檢視工作表現；教育局並在每個表現指標內設有一組要點問題，學校同工在撰寫發展計畫、周年計畫和周年報告時可參考這些要點問題。香港這個學校評估制度受到上海專家張民生的讚賞，「在對上一年規劃實施情況的評估報告裡，評價時像一條條列出來，相應地有詳細的評價結果呈現；對一個組織來說就是既要具備規劃能力，還要具備自我評價能力。」（沈祖芸、羅陽佳，2007，頁 17）。香港教育另一個受好評的發展，是教師受訓率和學位率皆有升幅。中學教師的受訓率由 2001/02年度的 87.9%，提高至 2007/08年度的 94.2%。「而小學教師的受訓率由 2001至 2002年度的 90.8%提升至 2006至 2007年度的 94.6%；學位率更由 2001 至 2002年度的 49.6%增至 2006至 2007年度的 80.4%」（胡少偉，2009，頁 201）。下表一顯示出香港中小學和幼稚園的師生比率在過去的改善情況，中小幼師生比例從 2000/01年度的 18.6、22.0和 11.8分別降至 2010/11年度的 15.2、15.2和 9.8；反映政府十多年來積極增加學校教師人手的比例，為各級學生提供更佳的教育服務。2007年 10月特首曾蔭權更宣佈「分兩期增加公營小學及中學的學位教師比例，於 2008/09學年將小學及中學學位教師比例分別增至 45%及 80%，並於 2009/10學年分別增至 50%至 85%」（香港特別行政區政府，2007，頁 45），這個措施改善了中小學教師的就業環境和提高了教師的士氣。表一香港中小幼學校的學生與教師比率學校類別 2000/01 2003/04 2006/07 2010/11 幼稚園 11.8 10.2 9.4 9.8 小學 22.0 19.5 17.6 15.2 中學 18.6 18.0 17.0 15.2 178 八、香港基礎教育改革的評價「麥肯錫公司發表《世界上最進步的學校制度如何做得更好》的報告，該報告考察美國部份地區、英國、智利、香港、加拿大等二十個國家和地區的教育制度，結果發現雖然二十個教育系統有不同的表現，但是卻有六個共同的干預策略：建立教師的教學技能和校長的管理技能；評估學生；改進數據系統；透過政府文件和教育法規輔助改革；修訂標準和課程；保證對教師和校長合適的薪酬結構。」（李子建，2012b，頁 9）。回顧新世紀後香港教改的發展，可發現與上述六個策略相近的例證。從另一個角度剖析，香港教育十多年來除了落實教改建議和有效地推動課改之外，亦在幼稚園教育的課程和資助兩方面有所提高；在小學方面，全日制的推行、小班教學的實施和人力資源的優化是三項較大的發展。至於中學方面，除了落實新高中學制和公開考試變革之外，十二年免費教育和初中教學語言微調也是影響深遠的教育政策；與此同時，面對學生人口下降的挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等環節，亦是香港基礎教育在新世紀後不能忽視的變化。在教育變革的年代，香港教育界雖有不少怨氣，但學生成績進步卻也是公認的； 2006年全球學生閱讀能力進展研究顯示，在 45個參與地區中，香港小學四年級學生的閱讀能力從 2001年排名第 14位躍升至第 2位。在學生能力國際評估亦發現，「與 2007 年比較，香港學生的數學排名保持在第三位，閱讀能力排名第四，科學第三；與前三期研究結果比較，香港學生的三項能力的整體表現有進步，閱讀表現亦明顯比前兩次好」（《星島日報》，2010.12.8）。2009年「香港學生的數碼閱讀能力在 19個國家和地區中排名第五，逾九成港生的基本水準達到第二級或以上水準，高於 16個經濟合作與發展組織成員國的平均百分比」（政府新聞處，2011）。簡言之，香港學生的閱讀能力於教改和課改後在國際評比上有持續的提升。若要分析推動香港基礎教育改革的動力，追求「提升教育質素」是香港教改、課改和眾多相關政策的核心價值。當然優化派位機制、全面實施小學全日制、提供十二年免費教育等政策則有追求「教育公平」的影子。至於增加小六家長擇校機會、進行幼稚園教育學劵和因學生人口減少而帶來的競爭現象，則充滿了「教育市場化」的氣味。可見上述三個核心價值主宰了十多年來香港教育的發展。而因文章篇幅所限，此文並沒有論及香港的資訊科技教育、兩文三語政策、德育及國民教育、直資學校、教師專業發展、 179 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革校長領導、融合教育、非華語學童、跨境學童等環節的變化；這些教育政策的變化或多或少也影響了香港基礎教育在新世紀的發展，並值得有興趣研究香港教育發展的學者去深究。說到香港基礎教育改革的總體評價，教改「三頭馬車」之一程介明（2007）認為：「教育改革是不會自動在民間通過市場運作產生的，是需要政府的強力干預才會出現和成功的；從這個角度看，香港的教育改革，在這個不善於組織自己的社會裡面，能夠度過這些風風雨雨，而基本能夠維持改革的核心價值，繼續向前，也說明香港有着無可估量的生命力」（頁 14）。也就是說，香港新世紀後基礎教育改革有一定的成效，不能忽視的原因是有效的中長規劃和持續地投入資源，這保證了香港教改在這十多年來穩定地沿路前進。參考文獻《星島日報》（2010.12.8）。〈港生數理閱讀續居世界前列〉。取自 http://www.singtao. com/archive/fullstory.asp?andor=or&year1=2010&month1=12&day1=08&year2=2010& month2=12&day2=08&id=20101208g01。付宜紅（2011）。〈攜手共進 ─ 從香港課程改革中我們能學到什麼〉。《基礎教育課程》，第 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C. ( 2007). Quality assurance and school monitoring in Hong Kong. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 6(3), 187-204. 181 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 Educational reform on the basic education of Hong Kong in new century Siu Wai WU The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract The 21st century is the era of advances in information technology and knowledge explosion. Under globalization, countries all over the world are undergoing reform in education system. The HKSAR government released the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong in September 2000 and launched a comprehensive education reform in Hong Kong schools. This article is to review the education reform and curriculum reform in Hong Kong. It also addresses the significant development of kindergarten, primary and secondary education during this period. In the same time, the Government copes with the declining student population challenges, optimizing teachers’ forces and advocates of school self-evaluation. Finally, an overall comment on the effectiveness of the educational reform in Hong Kong will be given. Keywords Hong Kong education, basic education, educational reform, educational development 183 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong LEUNG Lai Sim Creative Teachers Association, EdD student of the University of Bristol Abstract Through a questionnaire survey of 41 Liberal Studies (LS) teachers from 40 secondary schools and interviews with 12 of them, the researcher compared the teaching processes and strategies for nurturing students’ higher-order thinking (HOT). The study seeks to find out whether the LS implementation process is aligning with the aims of the curriculum. Result show that teachers have a strong tendency towards examination-oriented learning while acknowledging the focus on knowledge-based learning as the main difference of LS and its public assessment component from those of the traditional disciplines, the emphasis of the subject on the mastery of basic concepts and thinking skills and the need for the nurturing of HOT. There was widespread agreement with the operation of the public assessment design in the subject. The more experienced ones further agree that examination-oriented strategies are compatible with the development of HOT. Keywords higher-order thinking, Liberal Studies public assessment, mixed method design 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all New Senior Secondary (NSS) students in Hong Kong from 2009 onwards. Its aims are to “broaden students’ knowledge 184 base and enhance their social awareness through the study of a wide range of issues”, “enable students to make connections across different fields of knowledge and to broaden their horizons” and “foster students’ capacity for life-long learning” (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007, p.1). The Education Bureau emphasizes that the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment should be well aligned (p.123-124). However, what are the views of teachers about the LS examinations in Hong Kong? What strategies do they use to help students learn effectively? Can the public assessment paper promote higher-order thinking (HOT) learning in LS? As the chairman of Creative Teachers Association and a researcher, the author conducted a study through a voluntary organization to find out teachers’ perception on the relationship between LS public assessment and the teaching and learning of HOT skills. Based on the findings, we outline the nature of LS and suggest some ideas for further research. 2. Literature review The education assessment system is regarded as important as the invention of the computer, steam engine and wheel (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). Its impact on human society is immense (Brown, Kennedy, Kerry, Fok, Chan & Yu, 2009; Cheng, 2010; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, Chan, Yu & Fok, 2006) as the behaviour of teachers, pupils and policy makers can be significantly affected. It even shapes the choices for human life in future (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). The implementation of assessment, including both formative and summative procedures, can affect students’ performance deeply and how far the purposes of the curriculum are being fulfilled. Studying teachers’ attitude towards LS public examination, guidance of students as well as the teaching and learning pedagogy involved would help us reflect the implementation of aims of the LS curriculum. HOT is a rich concept that has attracted diverse interpretations by local and international academics (Yeung, 2012; Watkins, 2001; Wang & Wang 2011). Different scholars have different interpretations and understanding with different directions and perspectives (Fisher, 2001; Pithers & Soden, 2000; Gardner, 2006). “A basic rule for assessment of HOT skills is to use tasks that require use of knowledge and skill in new or novel situations.” (Nitko & Brookhart, 2011, p.223). “Higher order thinking occurs when a person takes new information and information stored in memory and interrelates and/ or rearranges and extends this information to achieve a purpose or find possible answers in perplexing situations” (Lewis & Smith, 1993, p.136). In general, students are thinking at a higher order if they can put forward a well-reasoned view with reference to relevant concepts, discuss an issue from various perspectives, and demonstrate analytical and argumentative skills in the process. Moreover, HOT is a disposition for a people to pursue the meanings and nature of 185 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong life. Socrates (470-399BC) claimed that, “Wisdom begins in wonder.” (cited Cooper, 2012). Dewey (1897) argued that education should not aim only at gaining content knowledge, but also at learning how to live. The purpose of education is the realization of one’s full potential and the ability to use those skills for the future life. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of LS teachers needs to be investigated (Zhao & Fok, 2012) in this context. For instance, active learning pedagogies play an important role in enhancing higher order cognitive skills among students (Madhuri, Kantamreddi & Prakash Goteti, 2012). While the goal of issue-enquiry in an authentic context is to promote HOT skills (Preus, 2012), learning through enquiry demands that students explain, analyse, give reasons or comment about them by “gap filling” (Bartlett, 1958). Questioning, issue-enquiry, interaction, learning communities and Independent Enquiry Study (IES) are encouraged as a result. Reflective thinking, integrative thinking and deep thinking can be encompassed into HOT too (Wang & Wang, 2011). Compared with memorization and looking for correct answers, HOT seeks to develop the potential of individuality such as critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving skills (Zohar & Dori, 2003). “Liberal Studies plays a unique role in the NSS curriculum by helping students to connect concepts and knowledge across different disciplines, to look at things from more than one single perspective, and to study issues not covered by any single discipline. It is more than just about developing thinking skills and positive values and attitudes. The nature of Liberal Studies is different from that of General Education or Liberal Education in universities. It is a curriculum organization that suits the curriculum contexts of Hong Kong and achieves the learning goals identified for senior secondary education.” (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005, p.6-7) What does HOT mean in LS specifically? According to the CDC & HKEAA (2007), teachers can infuse HOT into the LS curriculum and help student achieve the learning goals identified for senior secondary education such as “to develop multiple perspectives on perennial and contemporary issues in different contexts”, to “become an independent thinker”, “develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving skills, communication skills and information technology skills” (p.5). LS assessment is claimed to adopt authentic assessment with hot issues and news are taken as the basis of questioning (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012). Unlike traditional examinations which emphasize knowledge reproduction abilities and low-level skills, complex thinking, personal opinions, ideas construction, and the elaboration of issues in contemporary contexts are demanded in the LS assessment. 186 The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) LS Seminar on Assessing Student Learning and the Assessment Framework for HKDSE LS 2014 (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2013) highlighted the nature and development of LS assessment procedures and noted the value of using contemporary issues, problems or incidents in assessment questions. By drawing upon personal experiences and conducting issue-based enquiries, candidates can demonstrate their abilities in understanding and the application of knowledge. Based on the definitions of HOT from scholars, the government and the LS teachers’ perceptions of LS learning and meaning in this paper, the author discusses and interprets the research topic during the process. According to the above discussion and analyses, in order to help students meet the aims of the LS curriculum, HOT-based pedagogy is essential. The development of HOT skills is the core purpose of teaching and learning in LS. Teachers need PCK which is the unique knowledge of teachers (Zhao & Fok, 2012). How teachers understand the subject matter and internalise to create an effective mode of teaching will affect the realization of HOT skills learning. And how teachers understand the teaching content and knowledge to internalise individual teaching pedagogy and methodology to let students manage and understand HOT skills is crucial for knowing the implementation quality of the curriculum aims. Research is a process of investigation. With the interpretive approach, this study was carried out to reveal teachers’ perceptions. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and a self-completion questionnaire survey. The implementation of HOT in LS was analysed from teachers’ perspective and discussed with reference to the views of academics, curriculum developers and teachers. 3. Research Design This study aims at (1) identifying teachers’ perception of the use of HOT pedagogy and the public assessment component in LS, (2) explicating the link between the two, and (3) examining the challenge of nurturing HOT in LS after four years of implementation. The questionnaire survey and subsequent semi-structured interviews were designed with the following research questions in mind: 1. What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? 2. How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? 3. What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? 187 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong A single-phase triangulation design based on the Convergence Model of Creswell & Clark (2007, p.64) was used for collecting data (Figure 1). During a meeting1 of markers in a simulation mock examination orgranised by Hok Yau Club (2012) in November, 2012, 48 copies of questionnaires (Appendix 1) without recording teachers’ names were distributed to LS teacher who have attended Education Bureau LS training courses. Quantitative and qualitative methods were given the same degree of importance in seeking the answers to the research questions. Figure 1: Triangulation Design in this study in relation to the Convergence Model 4. Research result and analysis 41 copies were returned and an 85% return rate was achieved. 44% of the participants have taught LS for four years or more, 32% have taught for three years, the other 24% have just taught for one or two years. Qualitative data collection was conducted by inviting 12 randomly selected teachers to a 10-minute semi-structured interview in December 2012 when they returned the marked scripts to the club. 11 interviews could be completed in due course and the responses were transcribed and analyzed2. Information about the questionnaire respondents and interviewees is given in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1: Information about the respondents in the questionnaire survey Total no. of teachers 41 Gender Male: 56% Female: 44% Length of teaching LS 1 yr: 7% 2 yrs: 17% 3 yrs: 32% ≥ 4 yrs: 44% Teaching LS since 2011-12 Yes: 66% No: 34% Teaching LS since 2012-13 Yes: 63% No: 37% _______________ 1 In order to ensure that the LS public assessment exam marking process is fair, objective and reliable, a system of marking is established, where each of the markers only marks one exam question. Every exam question will be marked by two staff. 2 The full interviews recorded documents in Chinese can be accessed from www.cta.org.hk 188 Table 2: Information about the interviewees Interviewees T1 T2 T3 T4 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Gender M M F F F M F M M M M NSS LS teaching experience (year) 4 2 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 Investigative issue 1 - What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? From the statistics of the questionnaires (part 1) shown in Figure 2, except item 1b, the data showed that 92% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with using direct training of answering skills, examination-oriented practices, sample papers and current issues to help students achieve better in the HKDSE LS. Figure 2: Teachers’ views about teaching strategies Statistics from questionnaires (part 2) in Figure 3 also showed that, except for item 2c & 2d, 90% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed that Sixth Form were more likely to use examination papers or sample questions to guide students for public assessment. Moreover, the issue-enquiry approach and current affairs discussion were preferred too. It showed that diversity teaching strategies or approaches were used for helping students obtain better results in public examinations. 189 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 3: Processes in the teaching of LS The strategies named by interviewees were well aligned with those named by the respondents in the questionnaires survey (Appendix 2). For instances, most teachers identified answering techniques as being very important for helping students perform better. Their responses focused on the training of answering techniques, use of sample questions for issue enquiry and application of constructivist concept to stimulate learning motivation and interest. For lower-ability students, one of the teachers would emphasise the memory of basic concepts and the needs for more practice. Authentic assessment is used for LS (Or, 2012). Students are asked to perform real- world tasks that demonstrate a meaningful application of knowledge and skills. Teachers adopt different strategies to help students answer questions about current issues. They are examination-oriented on the whole and have used a wide range of strategies and processes (Appendix 3a) because of the novelty of authentic assessment procedures. Investigative issue 2 - How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? Questionnaires (part 3) in Figure 4 showed that 95% of LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed “LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking.” 92% of them agreed “LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking.” More than 82.5% of teachers agreed, very much agreed or extremely agreed with items 3g, 3j and 3l. Nevertheless, 95% agreed that “It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning.” 190 Figure 4: Teachers’ opinions on LS (1) There were markedly different opinions on items 3b, 3e, 3f, 3h in part 3 between teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience and teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5: Teachers’ opinions on LS (2) A comparison was made between these two groups of teachers. More experienced teachers tended not to agree with statements like “Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other”, “Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results”, “Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result” and “Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation”. It reflected that more experienced teachers were more likely to accept examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy as being compatible with each other as shown in Figure 6. They were also in favour of the accumulation of factual knowledge and memorization of facts. However, almost half of the respondents held different opinions. Further research in these areas is desirable and needed. 191 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 6: Opinions on examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy The interviews revealed three types of opinions on whether LS public assessment teaching strategy is compatible with the nurturing of HOT skills during interviews. Feedback from the first group of teachers reflected that public examinations would hinder the development of HOT. Students were too directed towards tools for examinations and depended on memorisation for exams. Sharing opposite views, some teachers believed that the present examination model was capable of assessing the mastery of analysis, evaluation and creative thinking. Students were required to demonstrate a mastery of thinking skills and present a sound discussion based on evidence. They could not meet the criteria by only remembering facts without conceptual linkage. If examinations focus on the application of thinking skills, students also need to start learning from thinking. Some teachers felt that examinations could help high-ability students to develop HOT abilities but not low-ability students. Others however thought some of the thinking skills questions were too instrumental and could not help to promote independent thinking and encourage students to show their care for their living environment. Backed with confidence and strong rationales, five teachers out of eleven agreed that HKDSE LS could help students develop HOT skills during the process of teaching and learning in the lesson. Four of them considered that there were two sides to a coin. Only two of them considered it was an obstacle to the development of students’ HOT (Appendix 3b). Investigative issue 3 - What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? HOT nurturing in LS can be interpreted as developing multiple perspectives on current issues, to become independent thinkers, and to develop a range of skills for life- long learning (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.5). In order to nurture HOT skills, 90% or more of teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with items 1f, 1g, 2a and 2b shown in Figure 7. The discussion of current issues, issue-enquiry and group enquiry are often used. 78% of teachers agreed with the need to help students learn through activities such as role- 192 play, debate, situational learning. 65.9% of them would use methods for the teaching of thinking skills, such as brain mapping and six thinking hats, etc. Figure 7: Teachers’ pedagogy for developing HOT skills During the process of interview, teachers were asked about strategies, approaches and effective models and methods to develop independent thinking skills, diverse perspectives and life-long learning attitudes. Most of the teachers considered concept learning very important. The processes of discussion, interaction, argumentation or role-play through issues, current affairs or sample questions to promote analytical and critical ability, multiple-dimensional perspectives and individual thinking ability were followed in the lessons. IES was considered to develop independent thinking skills. Moreover, one of the teachers implemented “LS is life”. It is a combination of school curriculum and life experiences that help students to learn. Another recognised that teacher could nurture higher levels of thinking and analytical ability as LS is an integrated subject. Another expressed that different frames of analysis could be applied in different issues for discussion. More teachers would make use of current affairs as the basis for exploring and constructing teaching and learning content. Also they would use the sample questions as the basis for discussion from different perspectives. Teachers’ responses could be roughly divided into three groups, namely the nurturing of life-long learning, development of multiple-dimensional perspectives and scaffolding for independent thinking as shown in Appendix 3c. 5. Discussion 5.1 Examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning Most of the interviewees with more experience in LS were in favour of examination- oriented mode of teaching and learning (Appendix 1: 1c-1f). Investigative issue 1 reflected that teachers still focus on the public examination requirement and assessment-spirited 193 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong strategies to guide students for learning. This trend is compatible with the findings in many studies (Berry, 2011, p.17, cited Morgan, 1996; Preece & Skinner, 1999; Shen, 2002) that summative test requirements tend to dominate the assessment practice of many teachers. It is exactly the same as Broadfoot’s worry that “the assessment tail nearly always wags the curriculum dog” (Broadfoot, 2007, p.8) as curriculum and assessment can never really be separated. The public examination is influential, high-stakes exercise because priority is often given to result (Chapman & Snyder, 2000; Fischer, Bol & Pribesh, 2011; Berry, 2011). As pinpointed in the curriculum and assessment guide, “The most important role of assessment is in promoting learning and monitoring students’ progress. However, in the senior secondary years, the functions of assessment for certification and selection come to the fore. Inevitably, these imply high-stakes uses of assessment, since the results are typically employed to make critical decisions about individuals that affect their future” (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.121). The research findings show that the examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning mode of LS are different from the traditional “pyramid assessment system” which Berry (2011) claimed would encourage students to learn factual content by rote and memorising the model answers. Investigation issue 2 found that experienced teachers such as T9 were more in agreement with the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy. Similar finding of Zhao & Fok’s (2012), the PCK of experienced teachers (such as pedagogy for HOT teaching and learning) is significantly richer than that of novice teachers. Experienced teachers have firm and rational reasons to support the nurturing of HOT. Their views are more compatible with the emphasis of the curriculum reform which recognizes assessment is highlighted as the key for learning (Education Commission, 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 2002). As highlighted in the Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide, “assessment is an integral part of the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle.” (Curriculum Development Council, 2009, 4.2.1) and assessment policies have significant impact on supporting learning process. 5.2 Nature and development of HOT in LS assessment Over 82% of teachers in the questionnaire survey and 5 of the 11 in the interviews thought that the LS examination could help in developing HOT skills (Appendix 1: 3c, 3g, 3j, 3k, 3l and Appendix 3b: T4, T6, T8, T9, T10), and used a variety of strategies for this purpose (Appendix 3c). Most of them had a positive perception on the relationship between HOT nurturing and LS public assessment. They agreed that the LS public examination is greatly different from the traditional examination model in terms of mastery and understanding of concepts, investigation of issues, and perspectives of thinking strategies. Systematic steps on nurturing the learning process or whole school curriculum and the construction of similar thinking modes to stimulate learning were therefore encouraged (Appendix 3a: T7, T8, T9, T10 and Appendix 3c: T4, T6). 194 Actually, the blueprint of educational reform laid out in 2000 by Education Commission (2000) has led to the adoption of the policies of “Learning for life – learning through life” and “Learning to learn” The former emphasizes the building of life- long learning society while the latter (Curriculum Development Council, 2001) foster the development of independent learning (Kennedy, 2011). To realize these two aims, a paradigm shift and pedagogical changes by teachers are essential. However, in an examination-oriented city such as Hong Kong (Brown, et al., 2009; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, et al., 2006), the format and nature of the high-stake public examination seem not conducive to such changes. Nevertheless, the issue-enquiry approach in LS encourages the learning of HOT skills for the 21st century (Pink, 2005). In order to improve assessment literacy, EDB, HKEAA, international and local experts should work together in changing the rules of the assessment game as shown in Figure 8. Double marking can improve the validity and reliability of assessment (Coniam, 2011). However, only by successfully infusing HOT into the learning and teaching process, can the aims of the LS curriculum be achieved in practice. Figure 8: The LS curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle 195 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong The issue-enquiry approach and emphasis on authentic assessment that encourage students to express themselves logically, to assess, discuss and judge various issues (Or, 2012) are the characteristics of the examination design for LS. Students have to master the new features of the assessment framework including IES for school-based assessment, the use of standards-referenced grading (for three data-response questions and one extended- response question) in the written examination. Instilling HOT during the teaching and learning process is essential because it can help them analyse sensitive issues (such as the June 4, 1989 crackdown and the filibuster campaign in the legislature) (South China Morning Post, 2013, April 17) that may appear in the examination. 5.3 Challenge for the implementation of HOT in LS Although changes to the examination can be valuable vehicles for shaping instructional practices, success is not assured (Chapman & Snyder, 2000) and its influence can be largely a perception phenomenon (p.462, cited Madaus & Kellaghan, 1993). Teachers are often unable to make the necessary changes in the classroom to improve students’ performance. Most of them accept drilling with reference to past examination papers and simulated exercises in spite of believing that memorisation of facts is ineffective and realising that teacher can cause a negative impact on candidates. Others have used diverse strategies, skills and processes (Appendix 3a) to nurture HOT abilities. although they were still holding the traditional concept of viewing learning as hierarchical from lower order cognitive skills to more complex ones. Resnick (1987) challenged the concept that “all individuals, not just elite, can become competent thinkers” (Zohar, Degani & Vaaknin, 2001; cited Resnick, 1987). Zohar’s research finds that teachers’ beliefs about low-ability (LA) students and thinking are related to their general theory of instruction. If teachers see their role as transmitting knowledge and covering the curriculum rather than guiding students in thinking and constructing knowledge, or seeing learning as hierarchical in terms of cognitive levels, they may think that HOT is not equally appropriate for LA and high-ability (HA) students. However, any students who can provide an explanation of an authentic issue or describe the key features of new data can be regarded as using HOT skills. Although the curriculum guide has accorded priority to authentic assessment and the issue-enquiry approach to learning aligns with these aims, discrepancies among the intended, the implemented and the assessed curriculum are obvious (Cheng, 2011, p.69). As a new subject, LS has to develop and search for its disciplined knowledge and PCK. There are still lots of unknown and gaps for discovery. Research about teachers’ perceptions on HOT in LS and their opinions on constraints and challenges is helpful for evaluating the implementation of the curriculum in future. 196 6. The limitations of the research Studies on the relationship between public assessment and HOT are rare, especially in regard to LS. This study is a pioneer attempt for learning teachers’ perceptions in these areas. In view of the limited source and number of participants (who might be supportive of the examinations), the reliability of the findings is limited. Broader and more in-depth evidence should have been collected with data about the impact of the examinations on students. The relatively short interviews lasting for 10 minutes each is also a limitation to understanding. All these concerns should be addressed in future studies in this area. 7. Conclusion This study has adopted a triangulation design based on the Convergence Model to identify teachers’ perceptions on public assessment and the use of HOT pedagogy in LS. Most of the teachers are examination-oriented although a wide range of strategies has been used to help students face the high-stake authentic assessment. The more experienced teachers thought that the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategies were compatible with each other. And most of them had positive perception about the relationship between HOT nurturing and authentic assessment in LS. The LS examination is different from traditional examinations. Not knowing much about its requirements, it is natural for teachers to be more examination-oriented and accord high priority to the development of knowledge and the thinking skills. They have adopted different teaching strategies or HOT skills for helping students answer issue- based questions. However, this study has found that there are different interpretations of the meaning of HOT and there may be alternative or misconceptions about it especially in terms of pedagogy. Inquiry is necessary in this regard and the limitations in research design should be addressed in follow-up studies given the fact that LS is a core subject with the aims of enhancing life-long learning, multiple-dimensional perspectives, the scaffolding of knowledge and independent thinking. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to Hok Yau Club for providing a venue for conducting this research study, 41 LS teachers who participated in the questionnaire survey and 12 LS teachers who attended the interviews. 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Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 469-485. 200 LS Questionnaires for teachers 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，本學年，我運用以下教學策略： In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 34% 46% 20% 0% 0% 0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 7% 22% 49% 20% 0% 2% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計教學形式與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 12.2% 56.1% 24.4% 7.3% 0% 0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計形成性評估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 17.1% 56.1% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 37% 41% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 以時事議題作教學，增強學生高階思維能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 17% 49% 34% 0% 0% 0% g. 參考坊間議題，讓學生分組探究討論，以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 10% 46% 39% 5% 0% 0% Appendix 1 201 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，我認同中六學年透過以下教學過程，以提升學生學業水平 : In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 12.2% 48.8% 29.3% 7.3% 2.4% 0% b. 課堂議題探究 Issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 12.2% 68.3% 17.1% 2.4% 0% 0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創意解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 4.9% 31.7% 29.3% 24.4% 7.3% 2.4% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、辯論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 2.4% 34.1% 41.5% 9.8% 9.8% 2.4% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 24% 54% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 32% 51% 17% 0% 0% 0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 34.1% 39.0% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% 202 3. 就通識教育科，我有以下意見： My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時，協助學生應試策略較導引學生探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 30% 35% 30% 5% 0% 0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別，不能相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0% 32.5% 27.5% 27.5% 10.0% 2.5% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5% 33% 54% 5% 3% 0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 2.5% 27.5% 50.0% 20.0% 0% 0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示思考方法的能力，記憶與背誦無助提升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 2.5% 22.5% 47.5% 20.0% 7.5% 0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 5.0% 22.5% 32.5% 27.5% 12.5% 0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 5.0% 30.0% 52.5% 10.0% 2.5% 0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.0% 27.5% 45.0% 20.0% 2.5% 0% 203 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌握，將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 10% 28% 38% 18% 3% 3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 7.5% 37.5% 37.5% 17.5% 0% 0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 10.0% 42.5% 42.5% 5.0% 0% 0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.0% 30.0% 47.5% 12.5% 2.5% 2.5% 204 Experienced and less experienced teachers’ responses comparisons 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，本學年，我運用以下教學策略： In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 38.9%* 30.4%# 50.0% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 11.1% 4.3% 22.2% 21.7% 55.6% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計教學形式與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 16.7% 8.7% 61.1% 52.2% 22.2% 26.1% 0.0% 13.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計形成性評估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 22.2% 13.0% 55.6% 56.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 50.0% 26.1% 33.3% 47.8% 16.7% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 以時事議題作教學，增強學生高階思維能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 16.7% 17.4% 33.3% 60.9% 50.0% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 參考坊間議題，讓學生分組探究討論，以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 11.1% 8.7% 44.4% 47.8% 38.9% 39.1% 5.6% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience Appendix 2 205 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，我認同中六學年透過以下教學過程，以提升學生學業水平： In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 16.7%* 8.7%# 44.4% 52.2% 27.8% 30.4% 11.1% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% b. 課堂議題探究 issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 22.2% 4.3% 55.6% 78.3% 22.2% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創意解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 5.6% 4.3% 38.9% 26.1% 16.7% 39.1% 33.3% 17.4% 5.6% 8.7% 0.0% 4.3% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、辯論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 5.6% 0.0% 38.9% 30.4% 27.8% 52.2% 11.1% 8.7% 11.1% 8.7% 5.6% 0.0% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 33.3% 17.4% 44.4% 60.9% 22.2% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 33.3% 30.4% 55.6% 47.8% 11.1% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 44.4% 26.1% 33.3% 43.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 206 3. 就通識教育科，我有以下意見： My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時，協助學生應試策略較導引學生探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 41.2%* 21.7%# 35.3% 34.8% 23.5% 34.8% 0.0% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別，不能相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0.0% 0.0% 29.4% 34.8% 17.6% 34.8% 47.1% 13.0% 5.9% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5.9% 4.5% 35.3% 31.8% 47.1% 59.1% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 4.5% 0.0% 0.0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 0.0% 4.3% 11.8% 39.1% 70.6% 34.8% 17.6% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示思考方法的能力，記憶與背誦無助提升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 0.0% 4.3% 5.9% 34.8% 47.1% 47.8% 29.4% 13.0% 17.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 11.8% 0.0% 11.8% 30.4% 23.5% 39.1% 35.3% 21.7% 17.6% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 11.8% 0.0% 23.5% 34.8% 47.1% 56.5% 11.8% 8.7% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.9% 4.3% 23.5% 30.4% 35.3% 52.2% 29.4% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 207 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌握，將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 18.8% 4.3% 25.0% 30.4% 31.3% 43.5% 25.0% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 5.9% 8.7% 47.1% 30.4% 29.4% 43.5% 17.6% 17.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 11.8% 8.7% 41.2% 43.5% 35.3% 47.8% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.9% 4.3% 35.3% 26.1% 41.2% 52.2% 11.8% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 208 (a) The responders’ teaching strategies and teaching process Teaching strategies of the LS teachers: to guide students to know how to master the skills of answering issue-based questions, more sample paper questions practices, recitation of basic and crucial concepts, demonstration and reconstruction issue-enquiry approach of hot issues and so on. The following are some of the teachers’ responses. T1. “It is the focus of answering techniques because it is very important in LS.” T4. “It is true to write one time in the white block, to teach them how to write ideas or opinion. To try one time, two times, three times, to teach them how to write arguments. This is two kinds of training. To enhance their knowledge and answering technique need to be done at the same time.” T6. “In teaching, teachers should make use of current affairs to stimulate students’ interest not just teaching knowledge from textbook. To a certain extent, teachers should teach students’ test-taking skills, e.g. compared this year’s questions to previous year’s to find out the difference. Therefore, teaching knowledge is important, teaching answering technique is also important. After the completion of the sixth form’s curriculum, to enable students to do a variety of different kinds of questions to practice is necessary.” T8. “Students need to revise this subject, but students may not apply what they have learnt… In fact, the volume of opportunities students do is not too much. That kind of practice for an exam was not enough. Students should take further steps to quote some materials and to explain based on their understanding ... If you want to be effective in a short period of time, it is necessary for exam-based repetitive exercises and to know more of the criteria of the marking system, to know how to score and how to get higher marks. Or even to memorise some key words which will help in getting higher marks.” T9. “Students expect teachers to give information a little faster, or have digested a good idea to give them. The questions will be more drills in class, even if not practicing the test questions, but also will give students test mode on certain issues due to some of the framework opinions. ... Students’ learning culture is to look up to authority, or look up a credible answer they think. If they believe, they will go back, will repeatedly learn. ... A lot when the concept is difficult to construct, for example, you want the students to grasp M-type society, or inter-generational poverty, such as the concept of the discipline, and I think the teachers explaining to students would be more effective.” Appendix 3 209 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Teachers often use the teaching process: T7. “To establish the foundation of skills will start from Form Four such as what perspective thinking skills are. What the concept of ‘to what extent’ is. More in depth issues, and focus on how to analyze, more discussion of the questions will be on Fifth Form. More examination-oriented training of exercises and practice across different units are in the sixth.” T8. “When I teach in Form Four and Form Five, I will focus on course content and subject matter first. Then I will associate different units together. I have not started to catch all the key words of the exam questions at the beginning. However, I will start to drill students on how to answer the exam questions at the end of Form Five. Both training exam techniques and to grasp the concept advocated by the LS are necessary. T9. “More time can be spent on the process of constructing knowledge in Form Four and Five. There may be a variety of activities to help them to master the issues. Significantly in Form six, more drilling in answering techniques is in class…” On certain issues due to test mode, teachers will give students some framework views for examination.” T10. “In fact, we have slowly infiltrated some skills from Form Four. And then constantly increase and strengthen. We do not deliberately teach skills to test when the exam is coming. Usually we have to teach skills.” T11. “Class seems to do an examination question together with students, but the class content or material is a very informative process. The case constructs the entire scene as in the examination. Students face and deal with all the materials or subject matter in the classroom. They need to think and make decisions during the thinking process. The whole lesson is to repeat or duplicate the exam process, but a higher degree of complexity.” T12. “Using one LS question to associate key concepts is the strategy. Start from the beginning to say the question, (teacher) writes the topic on the blackboard. Throughout the entire class it is around this topic. Even with the introduction of some information, tell the students to talk about some concept, or explain some of the examples it is all around this topic. Usually students can learn LS exam contents and strategies in lessons. Different topics with the most appropriate analytical framework to teach …” 210 (b) The responders’ opinions on whether LS subject’s examination-oriented teaching strategy and nurturing a higher level of thinking skills are both compatible Some teachers believe that the exam will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills, because: T1. “If the teacher puts too much emphasis on test taking skills, it will indeed be a bad influence. Will at least reduce the students’ interest in learning.” T2. “They do not ask how to think, just ask how the high scores will be achieved ... (teachers) made it clear that this test, students will read. ” T3. “There are candidates who recite and memorise exercises of the HKEAA practice volume and sample papers during the simulation exam.” Three teachers to a certain extent believe that the exams will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T3. “I figured Liberal Studies for moderate or more students can improve their independent thinking, but moderate or less students’ learning is more narrowed.” T7. “There is a little paradox. Because I teach Band One students, they are more realistic. Without examination specifications to study and without proper fractions to promote them, their motivation will not be much. The exam really can compel the Band One students to pay attention to current events and to understand the social aspect. The exam can train students in multiple perspectives, but to truly be critical, there remain...” T11. “The exam needs ways of thinking…but it is a little tool in nature. If LS wants to cultivate the kind of independent thinking and hold onto the surrounding environment caring attitude, it is not necessarily encouraging. ... Conversely, exams do not help, if there is discussion of issues in depth during the lesson, it may help students to look at issues from different perspectives and in depth.” T12. “I think it is indeed stressed on exam skills ... they rely heavily on student expression. Indeed, it is not entirely linked to nurturing multiple perspectives and life-long learning ability, but I think it is helpful ...” 211 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Five teachers believe exams will not be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T4. “Students more now than before may be very utilitarian, but the test will still be able to give them a motive. Examination of the LS questions can help them to think about... For example one question with both for and against, they will ask if I only write the FOR side, how many marks can I get? If there is no exam to ask them to look at both sides, they may only answer the FOR side and they will not answer the AGAINST side. In order to fight for higher marks, they will think thoroughly. Therefore, exams can motivate them to learn more and learn in depth.” T6. “Thinking ladder of the Liberal Studies about the analysis, evaluation and creative thinking is higher-order thinking. Unlike the lower level which depends on copying or reciting to get answers. I think the standard of LS criteria is very high, but I think the students after a few years training, should do this.” T8. “Can really train students to think. However, most of the students’ language ability is weak, it needs a lot of time in this regard to improve. Sometimes students’ thinking is correct, but they do not know how to express it.” T9. “Part of the higher thinking skills is answering technique. If students can handle this well, they understand the questions and give answers clearly. Examination can test students’ level of higher thinking skills. They can fully understand thoroughly and give answers carefully. Nowadays, examination is more complicated to demand students’ higher level of thinking skills. It is not easy for them to take the easy route by ‘Catch the Road’ or recite answers. Fortunately, the exam mode is kind of complex, requiring candidates to have the skills of thinking, it is within the capacity, not in a short time you can develop. We do, the exam can reach the target of Liberal Studies.” T10. “When higher order thinking promotes multi-diversity with several angles, exams in LS in fact can obtain this. Because I’ve seen most of the candidates have in many ways analysed, even to the point of different stakeholders to answer. ... Because usually we apply discussion to explore, the public exam is to let you discuss and explore results written out. Taught through a consensus process in class, or with the examination as the strategy, there is not much gap.” 212 (c) Teachers’ experiences to develop students’ HOT skills Nurturing of life- long learning T3. “First, motivate students to read newspapers. There are some lively examples of real life from newspapers. Second, LS can also reflect the attitude of life, for example, a policy is feasible for young people. What impact? If there are such questions during examination, it is to help students to reflect on their own attitude to life, think about, and writing. It is the only way to improve.” T8. “We need to teach the basic concepts of LS. Of course, we need to direct students to discuss current affairs during the lesson to see how they give comments to the issues and associate the issues to the exam.” T2. “It is important to master the concepts. Use concepts to associate all the discussion. Explore different concepts via issue inquiry. Teach higher level of thinking skills from lower secondary form. “The most important is to be flexible. Do not be dragged by the discussion of current affairs, but direct by the conceptual discussion.” T4. “I feel higher level of thinking skills can be trained via discussion in depth during the lesson. We should let the students understand that issue. But how do they discuss? For example, if we know the causes of that issue, what is the impact of that issue? Detailed discussion should be the learning process during the lesson. There is a slogan at my school: LS is life. What they experience is LS. This subject matter may come from our living environment at any minute or even the current affairs from TV. We can get from anywhere and then fit into any single unit. If you can use Mind map, you can write anything which associates to the issue. This may be interesting.” T1. “LS cannot include all the training of how to think at school. It is mainly synthesis of all the subjects’ thinking methods.” 213 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Development of multiple- dimensional perspectives T9. “Basically, I believe the small group discussion, cooperative learning. Good organised cooperative group work will help a lot, but it depends on the effort done by the teacher. If teachers only throw to the students to think about a topic, students may not grasp this. This may be worse than directly taught. I think if the teacher organizes well cooperative learning or group discussions, teachers design the various steps, guide, appropriate materials, I believe it can lead to the construction of knowledge. Students will enjoy the learning.” T7. “There must be debate and discussion during the lesson, but the interactive activities are more important among students. If we want to train thinking in different perspectives, different people should explore the same subject in different perspectives. Guidelines will be given to them to discuss, to question, to criticise different viewpoints in groups. Questioning whether their suggestions or opinions are reasonable. LS curriculum is broad and time is limited in each lesson. There is no need for every subject to issue inquiry. It may depend on the importance of hot issues and time to look for or collect more materials before or after lessons.” T12. “We always stressed to students at different angles to see one thing. The easiest is the same anti-possible angle, and then some other aspects, such as a macro: an economic point of view, the political point of view, the social point of view, the cultural perspective; microscopic: personal basic necessities the angle, the angle of the point of view of different stakeholders, government, individuals, society, or some groups. So if he mastered these analytical frameworks or is thinking on the answer, he would have compared easily rendered to his higher-order thinking ... so that students know the different analytical framework can be used in different issues, or the contrary, the same issues to do with a different analytical framework. If he mastered these analytical frameworks or method of thinking, his ability to think critically, he sees anything that goes with these analytical frameworks.” 214 Scaffolding for independent thinking T11. “Through habits of scaffolding method used to help students or colleagues familiarize the subject, first observed facts, gradually penetrated into the push to higher-order observation. .... If the lesson has started from issue-based discussion of different cases, students may have interest and learn actively. In some cases students may not be interested in hearing, or on their own initiative. If it is introduced by teachers, students may have wider views and think in depth.” T6. “Higher-order thinking skills need to be divided into different stages to achieve. To motivate students’ interest it should start in Form Four and try to stimulate their interest of this LS subject. And then they will be interested in watching news. Independent thinking skills should be learnt and taught through Independent enquiry study in Form Five. To promote students’ analytical and critical ability should happen in Sixth Form.” *All interview transcripts can be seen in Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited website: www.cta.org.hk 215 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 香港教師對通識教育科文憑試與高階思維能力培育關係認知的探求梁麗嬋創意教師協會、布里斯托大學教育博士研究生摘要筆者以一組來自約 40所學校的通識教育科教師為研究對象，收回 41位教師的意見調查問卷，以及透過訪問其中 12位教師，相互引證，從而探究現職通識教育科教師在面對本科文憑試情景下，較多採用什麼教學過程與策略，以培育學生高階思維能力，而課程的實施又是否與其課程目標一致。研究結果發現受訪教師有強烈的考試導引傾向，然而，他們對通識教育科及其公開評核試本質的理解，卻有別於傳統以學科知識為本，相反，教師較多認識到新推行的通識教育科課程評估較重視學生基礎概念的掌握與及思維能力的運用。研究反映受訪教師大體認同通識教育科公開評核試運作與及高階思維能力的培育，愈資深的教師愈認同通識科應試教學策略能與高階思維能力相容。關鍵詞高階思維能力，通識教育科公開評核，混合方法設計 217 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 也要還國民教育一個公道倪紹強香港教育學院摘要香港因推行國民教育科而引起爭議。有反對者結合着中國大陸與香港之間的矛盾，認為這是洗腦科目。儘管在推行國民教育科上有些保留和限制，支持者相信課程既有助學生認識中國國情，也可免於洗腦之嫌。中國幅員廣大，歷史文化深厚，更與香港緊密相連。不再政治冷感的香港人不能因追求民主而「去中國化」，也要還國民教育一個公道。關鍵詞國民教育，洗腦教育，香港的政治生態，去中國化導言香港因推行國民教育科而掀起的風暴，計有於 2012年 7月中旬數萬人聚集，在街頭示威，以及 9月佔領特區政府的總部等。期間特區政府一再作出讓步，最後擱置課程指引。這場風暴可說是暫告一段落，但這並不意味問題已經解決。本文期望對一些現象稍作分析和討論，並且對一些根本的概念予以較深入的考量。遺憾的是，國民教育彷彿被妖魔化了，與洗腦教育差不多劃成等號，也是時候需要還國民教育一個公道了。論爭與民意爆發的背景在應否推行國民教育科的問題上，部分人反對設立國民教育科，認為這是洗腦科 218 目，會毒害香港青少年的思想；也有部分是支持者，因為課程有助學生認識中國國情，還有是沉默的大多數。圍繞着國民教育科大抵有兩項核心的爭議：（1）香港應否設立國民教育科？（2）國民教育是不是洗腦課程？當一些主流報章都以洗腦來形容國民教育科後，這個說法便流行起來，令到不少香港人一聽見這科便與洗腦聯繫起來，以致爭議的理據在輿論的平台上，從未得到清晰的疏理，這是十分可惜的。取而代之的是情緒化的反應，又刺激着不少香港人對共產政權恐懼的潛意識（陳立諾，2012）。香港回歸至今，在一國兩制政策之下，中國大陸與香港漸次融合，香港人的焦慮感卻不斷累積。在陸港融合的大策略中，似乎不能夠有效改善香港人生活質素之餘，更加間接地推高了生活成本。再加上不少人相信普遍存在的所謂地產霸權、貧富懸殊等等因素，進一步開放自由行只令到香港人更加擔憂。就在這背景之下開展國民教育科，使到不少香港人憂慮自身的價值觀和自由會隨之而消失。這些深層次矛盾一直未得以恰當處理，就是這段日子以來民意爆發的背景（馬家豪，2012）。對推行國民教育的保留和限制有學者和前線教育工作者早已指出，要國民教育科獨立成科委實有一定的困難。因為學校的上課日程早已排得滿滿，要騰出空間迎接國民教育科，殊不容易。況且，國民教育科大抵與常識科、通識科、中史科和中文科等的一些內容互相重疊，這是不爭的事實。有學者認為，德育及國民教育科在學理上根本就不行，推行國民教育也只應該在公民教育的框架內進行。特區政府仍然堅持以國民教育命名，不單與國際教育主流的趨勢脫軌，也令人擔心此科目只會聚焦在國家的層面，收窄了學生的視野（梁恩榮、盧恩臨， 2012.7.18）。課程指引其中一個缺失就是假設香港是一個同質的華人社會，對於非華裔人士來說，國民教育根本不能培養他們對中國人身份的認同和歸屬感，似乎他們更需要的是世界公民的視野（梁恩榮、鄧秀貞，2012.7.18）。這些都是成立的。贊同國民教育的聲音有學者認為香港人的公民身份是一個客觀事實，應該予以肯定。如果否定這一身份則是逃避現實。反對國民教育科的人大抵是一種情緒化的反應。香港人有責任了解中國，這樣才能推動中國的進步。根據《亞洲週刊》的報道，曾公開表示支持國民教育科的學者，包括香港大學專業進修學院院長李焯芬、香港大學歷史學者陸人龍、嶺南大學教授 219 也要還國民教育一個公道何𠘙生、中文大學教授郭少棠等（陳立諾，2012）。其他公開贊成國民教育的學者不多，就筆者在報章上所見，計有香港大學的程介明教授和李輝博士兩位、香港教育學院的甘國臻教授等。大抵有不少學者和其他社會人士是表支持的，但礙於敏感的政治形勢，也不願高調的表態。有人指出政府不能讓步，如果讓步，就只會變得寸步難行了，以後簡單如要建造一座橋或修築一條路，也可能會遭遇到絕食抗議，政府只能每次讓步，結果就什麼都做不了（陳立諾，2012）。這也解釋到政府遲遲才作出讓步的原因。有學者指出，不少政治領袖都以提升公民對國家效忠的意識為己任（Dawson, Prewitt & Dawson, 1977; Ngai, 2005）。學者又相信，不少國家每當觸及自身歷史的時候，都會加以美化、光榮化、甚或神話化。學者李輝（2012.9.16）指出，嚴格來說任何國家的國民教育都是某程度的「洗腦」。然而，在傳媒發達和言論自由的香港，若要進行沉悶而死板的學校教育，大抵難以達到洗腦的效果。學者甘國臻（2012.10.30）認為，當局提出的課程指引，已凸顯出討論爭議性課題的重要性，並且告誡老師，不應在課堂上迴避討論這些具爭議的問題。因為這才可於課堂上引發出一個生動及熱烈的討論，這樣又怎算得是「洗腦」呢？若仔細和持平地分析新科目提出的具體課程，新學科着重個人發展，以及建立心繫國家、關懷中國歷史和成就的文化身份，內容亦可結合與《基本法》、民主、人權、法治、國家象徵等有關內容的政治議題。這都與國際一貫做法相符，也不具爭議性。時至今日，很難想像會有一個社會還可以不以積極裝備年輕人為己任，以配合未來社會的發展。學校本身就是培育學生成為良好公民最適合的地方，社會也需要為他們提供這個學習機會（甘國臻，2012.10.30）。對於「會否身為一位中國人而自豪？」這個問題，是主觀和個人化的。然而，中國有五千多年的歷史文化，乃四大文明古國之一。在九百六十多萬平方公里的土地上，共有五十六個民族，豐富多姿。這個國家曾經有過光輝燦爛的文明、輝煌的歷史，乃是很難在地球上其他的角落找到的。當然也有被列強欺凌、軍閥割據、抗戰和內戰等等的苦難歲月。在中國歷史科早已不再是中學階段的必修科之後，我們很難期望年青人對中國悠久的歷史有深入的了解。另一方面，一般香港人對中國的地理實在是一無所知的。在 220 1997年之前，香港作為英國人管治的殖民地，政治上固然與深圳河以北的政權割裂；在教育課程上，殖民地政府刻意將中國的元素減到最少，比如中國歷史科會避開敏感的現代史階段；地理科方面，中學生可能會研讀澳洲、美洲及歐洲的地理，但卻不會研習中國的省份和相關的地理知識。老一輩的香港人每當講述國家民族苦難之時，仍會眼泛淚光。新儒家的幾位大師如錢穆、唐君毅、徐復觀等都曾在香港生活及講學，他們對近代中國的苦難有深刻的認識與感受，對中華民族命運有一種強大的使命感，要肩負中華民族復興的重任，使中華文化不至於花果飄零。香港從來都是中國人認識自己國家民族最有利的地方，因為有言論自由，也不受制於國共兩黨鬥爭導致的扭曲（《亞洲週刊》，2012）。具體來說，香港與中國大陸的關係越來越密切。而正在崛起的中國，其一舉一動時刻影響着全世界，也影響着香港。而香港卻是中國的一部分，既是屬於「兩制」，也屬於「一國」（程介明，2012.9.28）。香港現在的政治生態在九七回歸之前，香港人從來都是政治冷感的。又有人形容香港人是經濟動物（Ngai, 2005；梁恩榮、倪紹強，2011）。由於是殖民地，國民身份模糊，有人形容香港為「借來的地方、借來的時間」。然而，時移世易，香港的政治生態出現了結構性的轉變，香港人很着意尋找和塑造自己的身份，果敢地為着不同的訴求和議題發聲，香港人不再政治冷感了。某程度而言，這是一種進步。然而，不少香港人在尋找自己身份的同時，漸漸對發生於中國的種種現象不滿或質疑起來。兩地的情況不同，價值觀是很有差距的。其實，香港人在回歸前後，在文化上一直是認同中國的；但對不少人而言，回歸後要與由共產黨主領的政權認同，確是有困難的。這當然與已習慣了中共管治的內地人和新來港的同胞，有頗大的落差有關。筆者也對國內不少現象感到失望和憂心。近年來，香港興起一些諸如「來生不做中國人」的論調，更有人認同殖民主義的崇拜，或者在群眾集會時高舉英國的米字旗、殖民地的龍獅旗等。近年似乎有一種奇異的潛臺詞：香港要民主，就要與中國大陸切割開來。將香港和中國大陸對立起來，認為香港的一切都比中國大陸優越（《亞洲週刊》，2012）。這並不是理想的趨勢。 221 也要還國民教育一個公道總結有論者堅持只可以在公民教育的架構下推行國民教育，其實兩者也有相互重叠之處，而兩者也不可偏廢。再者，切實推介國民教育的力度不足，語焉不詳，而整個討論又受到過度政治化的氛圍所騎劫、傾向民粹的傳媒所誘導，實屬不幸。而整個論爭卻凸顯了一系列的問題：香港人對自己身份的矛盾──既有濃厚的本土身份意識，卻要漸次更牢固的體現國民身份的認同。而反對國民教育者要知道，許多沉默而不表態者，大抵與他們對此課題是有不同見解的，更遑論身在國內的人士了。不少人對反對國民教育的抗爭是表示支持的，也相信他們是出於良好意願（李展華，2012.9.28）。但有學者卻認為，為了一本粗劣的國教手冊便抗拒國民教育科，進而踏上疏離國家民族的道路，乃是純真的失誤（楊志剛，2012）。筆者很同意這個觀點：香港要推動民主，但不能夠陷入「去中國化」的窠臼之中，香港不能贏得了民主，卻失去了中國（邱立本，2012）。筆者不會執着定要設立獨立的國民教育科，也認同重振中國歷史教育也可以是可行之法。然而，對中國國情如此陌生的莘莘學子，也實在需要更多和更好的國民教育。其實政黨不等於政府，政府不等於國家。政黨和政府都可以更換，國家卻是永存的。然而，不知怎的，反共輾轉變成了反華，複雜的議題却被簡單化；國民教育就是不好；中國就是落後而腐敗的化身（《亞洲週刊》，2012）。但是，香港不能像倒洗澡水的，把珍貴的祖國丟棄。也需要還國民教育一個公道。參考文獻《亞洲週刊》（2012）。〈香港人要尋回民間中國論述〉。第 26卷 37期，5。甘國臻（2012.10.30）。〈我們應否摒棄國民教育？〉。《明報》，A32版。李展華（2012.9.28）。〈放下敵我以港為家〉。《信報》，A24版。李輝（2012.9.16）。〈不要把孩子和髒水一起潑掉！─ 德育及國民教育科的三方困局及出路〉。《明報》，A29版。邱立本（2012）。〈香港民主拒絕「綠營化」〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 42期，4。馬家豪（2012）。〈香港國民教育風暴背後〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 37期，20-21。 222 梁恩榮、倪紹強（2011）。〈在全球化下的身分競逐〉，載梁恩榮、阮衛華，《公民教育，香港再造！迎向新世代公民社會》（頁 180-191）。香港：印象文字及香港基督徒學會。梁恩榮、鄧秀貞（2012.7.18）。〈國民教育與少數族裔〉。《明報》，A36版。梁恩榮、盧恩臨（2012.7.18）。〈在「公民教育」框架內的「國民教育」〉。《明報》， A30版。陳立諾（2012）。〈反對廢除國民教育的學界聲音〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 37期， 22-23。程介明（2012.9.28）。〈國民教育：宣傳與教育〉。《信報》，A17版。楊志剛（2012）。〈香港人純真的失誤〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 37期，18。 Dawson, R. E., Prewitt, K., & Dawson, K. S. (1977). Political socialization (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Ngai, S. K. G. (2005). What kind of political socialization in secondary schools is needed in Hong Kong in the 21st century? (Doctoral Thesis). Hull: The University of Hull. Be fair to national education NGAI Siu Keung George The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract There has been a great debate concerning the implementation of the national education. Given there are gaps between the mainland and Hong Kong, the opponents claim that it is a kind of brainwashing education. Albeit that there are constraints and reservations for implementing national education, the supporters think that it is good to know more about China, and without being indoctrinated. China is such a great country, with rich historic cultures and being so closely related to Hong Kong. Hong Kong people, who are no longer apolitical now, should never abandon China, when striving for democracy. We should be fair to national education. Keywords national education, brainwashing education, political atmosphere of Hong Kong, desinicization 223 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？朱耀光基督教香港信義會心誠中學摘要近年，口述歷史開始受到香港中學教師的重視，口述歷史的社會意義亦使歷史教育突破學科邊界，成為跨科目的專題研習方法。然而，教師要將口述歷史教學引入既有的校本課程，面對多重的限制。本文將會以兩位嘗試推行口述歷史教學的教師角度，分析學校的課程取向、教師的教育理念、實際的處境如何影響口述歷史教學的實踐。關鍵詞歷史教育，口述歷史，課程取向甲丶研究背景過去十年的課程改革壓縮了歷史科的生存空間，但校本課程發展的空間和彈性亦為歷史教育帶來生氣和活力。就以筆者的經驗為例，從 2005年開始，筆者以「同心圓」模式將學校的初中中國歷史科及歷史科統整為歷史與文化科。2009年開始引入口述歷史研習，與初中學生一起進行粉嶺戲院及粉嶺農村的專題研習（朱耀光，2012）。筆者於 2012年 9月借調到教育局中學校本課程發展組，嘗試推動口述歷史教學，幫助教師將口述歷史加入到校本課程。雖然香港教師開始重視以口述歷史為教學方法，但口述歷史教學和校本課程發展的關係仍在摸索階段。究竟，口述歷史研習只是教學法的創新，還是課程取向的轉變？口述歷史應該以專題研習的形式進行，還是融入課堂教學之中？ 224 乙丶口述歷史作為課程內容的回顧扼要回顧口述歷史與中學歷史課程發展的關係，有助分析口述歷史對課程組織的影響。歷史學一直被視為傳統的學科（discipline），歷史作為中學科目（school subject）的發展亦受著歷史學術發展的影響（Stengel, 1997）。十九世紀以降，德國蘭克學派的興起，令實證研究成為風尚，歷史研究亦務求「客觀」，追尋歷史事件的真實性成為歷史學家皓首窮經的動力，中國史學家傅斯年便說過史學即史料學，史料搜集與考證成為歷史研究的專業印記。經由歷史學者書寫 /生產的「客觀」歷史知識，成中學歷史教育的學科內容。大多數歷史教師的任務，就是將「歷史知識」有效地轉遞給學生（吳翎君， 2004）。然而，隨着教育理論的發展，以學科知識為本的歷史課程已受到嚴重的挑戰。例如，受到皮亞傑的啟發，部份歷史教育學者相信兒童亦能透過故事發展歷史抽象思維，歷史教育應該更強調抽象思維能力而非貌似客觀的歷史知識（吳翎君，2004）。湯普森（Paul Thompson）於 1978年出版的《過去的聲音》（The voice of the past: Oral history）更全面挑戰以文獻研究主導的歷史學術研究。他開宗明義說，「所有歷史最終都視乎其社會目的」。口述歷史，不單是歷史研究法的改變，更是歷史知識論的範式轉移。歷史知識與社會意識密不可分，口述歷史令本來被遺忘的社群、或隱身在主流歷史論述的群體，得到發聲的機會（Thompson, 1978；鍾寶賢，2000）。口述歷史始終以人為歷史的主體，研究者透過提問、對話，以「交談說故事」（conversational narrative）的方法，取得歷史資料，將不同的聲音、特別是文獻中沒有記錄的聲音放回過去的時空脈絡（嚴佳芳， 1995；楊祥銀，2004）。從上可見，歷史已不再是純粹的學術科目，口述歷史的出現，已經預示了歷史學重回人文關懷和社會實踐的進路。或許有人認為，口述歷史只是歷史學術界風波裡的茶杯，對中學歷史課程的影響有限。不過，觀乎美國歷史教育的發展，從湯普森在《過去的聲音》為口述歷史教學打好理論基礎之後，美國中學紛紛推動口述歷史研習開始，鄉村學校更積極以口述歷史推動社區研習。就以狐火計劃（Foxfire）為例，口述歷史活動以燎原之勢，掀起歷史教育的改革，多篇學生作品刊登於狐火學刊之內。美國歷史學者Neuenschwander（1976）預期，口述歷史會在七十年代便會成為歷史教育的主流（頁 7）。雖然 Neuenschwander的預期至今仍未實現，但口述歷史教學已經開始得到教育界的重視。香港歷史教育學者楊秀珠 225 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？（2002）研究 210位中學歷史科（準）教師及小學常識科（準）教師後，發現教師對香港歷史的理解，很接近日常生活的歷史。她指出：「教師的歷史觀及本土史的觀念，直接影響歷史教育的面貌，因為當我們鼓勵教師建立自己對本土歷史的看法時，亦同樣希望學生開拓自己的歷史觀」（頁 41）。她鼓勵學生以口述歷史的方法，訪問自己的家人關於日治時期香港的情況，又或者訪問父母，調查他們對六四的看法，她稱這種歷史教學為學生的「聲音」。而「歷史教育工作者可以在私人與公眾、微觀與宏觀、主流與邊緣、主觀與客觀、口述與文本、主幹與旁枝、常規與異數、平凡與出眾之間，去推展歷史想像力的極限」（頁 55）。從此可見，關於口述歷史教學的討論，已經從學術界延伸至學校的歷史教育中。口述歷史教學不單帶動了歷史科的變革，也促使跨學科的研習。例如，美國社會科（融合課程）便採用口述歷史，讓學生認識社區的地理位置及變遷，台灣的鄉土教育及社區學習課程紛紛運用口述歷史方法進行教學活動（Dunaway & Baum, 1984；吳翎君， 2004；林慈淑，2007）。類似的口述歷史專題研習亦在香港出現，香港中華文化促進中心從 2002年開始，便為教師及學生舉辦口述歷史工作坊，亦有以大澳、屏山和灣仔社區為研究對象的口述歷史教育計劃。香港大學亞洲研究中心亦從 2001年開始推動「香港口述歷史檔案計劃」，至 2006年開展「香港記憶」，其延伸部份即「記憶校園」，協助師生以口述歷史方法整理學校歷史（王惠玲，2010；陳潔華，2004）。丙丶研究目的關於口述歷史的優點和重要性，坊間已有大量文獻討論。不過，當教師接觸有別於慣常使用的教學法時，若能展開課程的對話，尋找口述歷史教學與學校課程的關係，最終不論教師是接受還是拒絕，都能體現校本課程的民主精神（鄭鈞傑、林智中， 2006）。對中學教師而言，口述歷史教學是教學法的創新，還是更根本的課程取向的轉變？在學術理性（academic rationalism）為主流的學校課程中，教師又如何調適口述歷史教學的社會取向，以配合校本課程的要求（Cheung, 2000；Cheung & Wong, 2002）？為了探討以上的問題，筆者邀請了兩位即將開展口述歷史教學的教師參與是次研究。兩位受訪教師，都是教育局中學校本課程發展組歷史科教師網絡成員，他們曾參與該網絡舉辦的口述歷史教學分享和工作坊，並表示會在學校推行口述歷史教學。1 226 是次研究主要以半結構性訪談（semi-structured interview）了解兩位教師如何因應校情將口述歷史教學加入校本課程。筆者於 2012年 10月開始就口述歷史的教學問題與兩位教師討論，並分析與口述歷史相關的課程組織原則，兩位教師亦於 2012年 11月底擬定口述歷史的教學安排。於是，筆者於 2012年 12月中分別訪問了兩位教師，訪談時間約四十五分鐘，訪談錄音後由筆者轉譯為文字，再由兩位教師檢視訪談譯稿，給予回饋。教師甲是高中歷史科科主任，是一位未足三十歲的年青教師，在調景嶺一所直資中學任教，學生多來自中等收入的家庭。他在外國的大學主修歷史，回港後以兼讀方式修讀教育文憑，亦主修歷史。他有五年的教學年資，在這所學校任教第五年，他主要任教高中歷史科及初中通識科。去年教育局課程發展處曾到訪他任教的學校，建議學校可增加初中的歷史元素，所以他未來要負責將更多歷史科的課程內容加進初中通識科。近年，他亦積極參與歷史教學的交流活動，先後參加了教育局資優教育組的人文教師網絡及中學校本課程發展組的歷史教師網絡。教師乙是資深教師，大學時主修體育，副修哲學，1999年入職時在小學任教中文、數學、常識和體育科，亦曾於中學任教中文科和體育科。他曾修讀中文科的教育文憑、中文系碩士和文化研究碩士課程。在 2009至 2011年期間，他辭去教席，參與土地保育工作。2012年 9月得到天水圍一所津貼中學校長的邀請，成為半職教師，教授高中通識科及初中歷史與文化科。由於該校的學生大部份屬於第三組別，教師透過不同的教學形式提升學生的學習動機，包括成立耕種小組，讓學生在校園的農圃中實踐農務。丁丶發現與討論一丶教師普遍認同口述歷史教學的社會意義 Cheung & Wong（2002）的研究發現，香港教師的課程取向多元化，甚至出現強大的張力，其中學術理性、思維過程、社會重構、人本主義及科技取向交替影響教師的課程設計（頁 242）。在訪談過程中，筆者發現兩位教師對口述歷史都有充份的理解。教 _______________ 1 承蒙高級課程發展主任梁寶芬女士提供網絡活動資料及聯絡受訪教師。 227 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？師甲閱讀了很多外國、尤其是台灣的口述歷史文獻 2，而教師乙也讀過大量口述歷史著作 3。他們並不會將口述歷史單單視為訓練學生歷史思維能力的方法，還很認同口述歷史的社會意義。他們對口述歷史的理解，很接近 Cheung & Wong（2002）所指的社會重構（social reconstruction）取向。教師甲希望學生藉著口述歷史研習了解調景嶺的過去，並關注都市化對社區與社群的影響。他說：「口述歷史有其對象，就是讓同學訪問當時人，那些是真真正正曾經發生在社區的事情，在我們這個社會中發生，那些事情也可能是一些轉變。我們周遭發生的生活，就是歷史。」教師乙也希望學生藉着口述歷史研習，關注香港的農地及農業問題，並質疑政府為發展而扼殺農業的政策。然而，在深入的訪談中，筆者發現教師甲和教師乙的後設課程取向（meta- orientation）還有些微差異（Cheung & Wong, 2002）。雖然兩位教師都希望借助口述歷史研習將學生的學習連繫到社會生活，但教師甲坦言，高中的歷史課程很着重考試和思維能力，但歷史教育真正感動他的，是「讓學生在歷史科認識這個世界⋯⋯發現人類的厲害之處。」台灣歷史學者林慈淑（2010）的《歷史，要教什麼？》說明了歷史教育在學科知識、歷史思維能力和人文向度之間的張力，在公開考試、課程要求和時間限制之下教師在課程內容上都必須有所取捨。所以，為了調解「思維能力」和「人文關懷」的張力，教師甲只好在高中歷史課程的校本評核部份加入口述歷史教學，這種處理方式，一方面可以配合課程要求，訓練學生搜集史料、整理史料的能力，又能在過程中培養學生對社會的關懷。教師乙的後設課程取向則較純粹，這與教師乙的背景息息相關。首先，教師乙具備中、小學的教學經驗。Yeung & Lam（2007）指出，香港小學教師比中學更願意嘗試統整不同的學科，他也直言： _______________ 2 教師甲在閒談間也時常分享台灣歷史學者張元老師對歷史教學的看法。 3 教師乙認為《又喊又笑：阿婆口述歷史》是口述歷史研究的典範。 228 「我並非歷史出身，我欠缺的只是知識，但我很清楚歷史的意義。⋯⋯其實我並不關心學生是否在公開試取得好成績，我只想讓學生認識社區和自身的關係。」非歷史專科出身，令他免去不少學術的包袱。另外，他的學術背景亦很摻雜，語文教育出身，後來兼讀文化研究碩士課程。根據 Shriner, Schlee & Libler（2010）對不同學科教師的研究，發現語文教師比較願意與其他學科的教師合作統整課程。這或許解釋了為何主修中國語言及文學的教師乙，能夠專注於口述歷史的社會取向。他表示，在參加土地保育工作的時候，已進行兩次口述歷史的研究，他認為「小歷史」也是一種文學修辭方法，以彌補「大歷史」的不足。因此，不論任何科目，他都會在任教的高中的通識科和初中歷史與文化科加入口述歷史研習，帶學生到上水的農村考察、與村民訪談，讓學生了解都市發展對香港農地帶來的影響。從上可見，口述歷史的課程取向充滿彈性，教師既可將口述歷史研習視為歷史能力的培訓，亦可將口述歷史變為跨科的專題研習。歷史出身以及學科的要求，令教師甲不斷在學術要求和社會取向之間摸索，而非歷史主修的教師乙則較無拘束地在不同的課程推行口述歷史教學。不過，正如 Cheung（2000）所言，課程取向與課程實施之間仍有一定的落差，教師甲和教師乙能否真正落實口述歷史的歷史思維培訓和社會關懷，仍有待研究。二丶從口述歷史教學開始摸索跨學科合作的可能性雖然筆者沒有以強度抽樣方式選擇訪談對象，但本研究的兩位參與教師都具有代表性，教師甲的學校開辦初中通識科，而教師乙的學校開辦初中歷史與文化科，這些安排大致參考了課程發展議會（2002）的建議： 1. 將個人、社會及人文學習領域內的學科，統整成綜合人文科 4，中國歷史科保持獨立； _______________ 4 雖然教育局並不建議學校將初中的統整課程命名為「通識科」，但有部份學校為了與高中的課程銜接，仍把初中的統整課程稱為通識科。 229 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ 2. 以中國歷史為主軸，統整中國歷史科及歷史科為歷史與文化科，其他學科統整為綜合人文科。根據外國推行口述歷史的經驗，如果教師甲在初中通識科加入口述歷史教學，應更能發揮口述歷史的社會實踐意義。另外，教師乙除了在高中通識科外，如何將初中的歷史與文化科開展口述歷史課程？教師甲雖然認同口述歷史的社會向度，但他認為在初中通識科中推行口述歷史比較困難。他說：「創校時初中通識科只為了銜接高中通識科，所以沒有很多人文學科的課程內容，直至新高中開辦人文學科為選修科，才滲入人文學科的元素，我現在負責將歷史的教材加入初中通識科。」他更表示，初中通識科實際上是在不同的時段學習不同的學科內容，學科內容之間並沒有連繫。運用 Tyler對課程統整的定義，這種組織方式只算是廣域課程，不同的學科內容並未在共同的課程組織原則和關係（林智中、陳健生、張爽，2006）。教師甲表示，初中通識科的香港單元是經濟科的同事負責，所以他未能在香港的單元加入口述歷史教學。至於他負責編排的歷史內容，則是以順時序方式組織課程內容，主要教授古代文明至工業革命的部份，也是口述歷史無法處理的時段。至於教師乙任教學校的初中歷史與文化科，亦以順時序方式編排課程，但課程以中國歷史為軸心，並以「思維能力」組織學科內容。這種課程組織大致參考了教育局課程發展處（2007）提供歷史與文化科的課程綱要，「以中國歷史為主線，整合中國與世界歷史與文化」。不過，這種強調思維能力的比較歷史課程，忽略了香港史內容，與教師乙的社會重構課程取向有明顯的不同。教師乙如何處理在校本歷史與文化科加入口述歷史教學呢？他說：「我在每一個課題都會引入農業和食物議題，例如我在四大文明和中西方帝國的課題中，都加入農業和食物的內容，從而建立學生的生活和知識的連繫，而我在香港農村做的口述歷史便和農業和食物有關。」 230 雖然課程以思維能力作為組織學校內容，但教師乙卻以農業和食物重新演繹課程內容，令課堂連繫至學生的日常生活，亦因此找到加入口述歷史教學的課程切入點。本來，校本課程統整應能給予教師引入口述歷史教學的課程空間，不過，從兩位教師的訪談得知，校本課程統整仍以學科主導（discipline-oriented）、思維能力和學術理性取向，教師並不容易在課程規劃（planned curriculum）的層面參與統整工作，所以，他們只能在課堂和個人層面將口述歷史加到課程之中，這亦限制了口述歷史的教學成效。三丶以務實方式推動口述歷史教學雖然課程統整未能即時為兩位教師提供實踐口述歷史的空間，但只要教師認同課程理念，總能務實而漸進地帶來改變，正如 Park（2008）所言，關於課程統整的研究太集中分析統整理想與現實的落差，卻未能肯定教師以務實方式（pragmatic approach）取得統整的最大成效。由於教師甲是歷史科主任，他可以自主編排歷史課程，將口述歷史研習用作校本評核課業，增加口述歷史課程的認受性，他亦尋找教育局中學校本課程發展組的支援，以取得外來的助力。至於初中通識科方面，他說：「有歷史科訓練的同工較少，他們亦沒有接觸過口述歷史，我亦要自己去體驗，及去思考課程發展配合在哪一個範疇。我不知道科組同事是否願意共同開發。所以，我會以高中學生的口述歷史研習成果及專業支援換取同事的認同。」這種務實取向有別於由上而下的課程發展，教師先從實踐層面取得學習成果，然後再以「調景嶺口述歷史研習」的成果建立同事間的課程對話，然後再探討「調景嶺社區」能否成為初中課程的主題，這種由學習者開展的課程對話，才能落實課程統整的精神，將由不同科目集合而成的廣域課程轉變為跨科課程（interdisciplinary curriculum）。身為半職教師，教師乙明白自己在學校體制中的限制。教師乙一直表示會在高中通識科引入口述歷史的研究方法，指導學生以香港農村與農業為題進行中學文憑試獨立專題探究（Independent Enquiry Study）。然而，在本研究進行期間，教師乙告訴筆者，學 231 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？校已規定學生獨立專題探究的主題必須與「傳媒」和「教育」有關，所以他只能在任教的通識學生中，挑選有修讀歷史科的學生進行口述歷史研習。那麼，原任的高中歷史科教師會有何反應？教師乙表示：「（歷史科同事）只關心做出來的功課能否用作歷史科校本評核，我其實不介意工作量增多了，我帶學生到古洞進行口述歷史研習，只希望學生明白香港農民的真實情感。」他甚至取得校長的支持，邀請農夫到學校教授種植方法，並在學校開闢農圃，讓學生比對口述歷史實習與農圃經驗的學習成果。其實，據筆者觀察，教師乙正以時間換取課程空間，先改變學生對社區農業的看法和態度，落實社會實踐和關懷，再以學生的學習經驗推課程變革，這是他以半職教師換回來的「優點」（即教擔及工作量較少）。兩位教師的務實方式未必會以白紙黑字的方式記錄在（學校）課程文件，但學生的學習成果卻成為了校本課程發展的關鍵，令校本課程改革不再停留於教學法的改變。戊丶結論及反思過去關於口述歷史的教學研究呈現兩極化的走向，歷史學者雖然肯定口述歷史的社會意義，但他們仍視中學歷史課程為歷史學術研究的從屬，只從歷史思維的角度，將口述歷史組織到中學歷史課程之中，忽視了口述歷史的社會向度課程取向（Stengel, 1997；林慈淑，2007）；另一方面，鄉土學習和社區研習只將口述歷史教學視為帶有社會向度的「課外活動」，卻忽視了學校課程的學術取向與口述歷史教學之間的張力。其實，從是次的研究所見，從理解口述歷史的教學理念到課堂實踐，教師需要兼顧不同的課程取向，有些是外在的，有些則是個人信念的，他們都希望取得更多同事及學生的認同下，持續推動口述歷史教學。無視實際環境的限制可能為有心推動課程改革的教師帶來更大的挫敗感，務實地因應學校處境而引入新的教學嘗試，反能帶來課程的對話，體現校本課程發展的精神。 Marsh指出，「學校本位課程發展，是一種強調『參與』、『草根式民主』的課程發展口號；是一種重視師生共享決定，共同建構學習經驗的教育哲學；也是一項需要課程領導與組織變革的技巧」（李子建，2002，頁 113）可惜香港的校本課程改革仍是 232 單向的發展過程，由學校中層及管理層設計、再由分科討論執行，「中央 ─ 邊陲」的課程發展模式並沒有改變。是次參與研究的教師從個人信念開始，因應教學進度、學生回饋、同事的反應和社會變化修改口述歷史的課程設計，希望由學生的經驗課程（experienced curriculum）找到突破點，帶動校本課程變革，這樣的校本課程發展才能體現理念課程、計劃課程、執行課程和經驗課程之間的動態關係，亦會釋放更大的空間，讓教師將口述歷史教學的社會取向融入校本課程。參考文獻王惠玲（2010）。〈補白、發聲、批判、傳承：香港口述歷史的實踐〉。《鄭洲大學學報》，第 43卷第 4期。朱耀光（2012）。〈口述歷史作為教學行動：尋找共同建構的初中香港歷史課程〉。論文發表於台北、香港、廣州歷史教學研討會。台北：東吳大學歷史學系。吳翎君（2004）。《歷史教學理論與實務》。台北：五南圖書。林智中、陳健生、張爽（2006）。《課程組織》。北京：教育科學出版社。李子建（2002）。《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》。香港：中文大學出版社。林慈淑（2007）。〈口述歷史在歷史教學上的應用？─ 一位大學教師的疑慮〉。台北：發表於中研院台史所「第十一屆全國口述歷史工作會議」。林慈淑（2010）。《歷史，要教什麼？─ 英美歷史教育的爭議》。台北：學生書局。香港課程發展議會（2002）。《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引（小一至中三）》。香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2007）。《歷史科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：政府印務局。教育局課程發展處（2007）。《歷史與文化科（中一至中三年級）》。取自 http://cd1. edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/tc/history/New_History/about/about.html。陳潔華（編）（2004）。《批判思考　創意教學：技巧和考察例子》。香港：香港大學亞洲研究中心。楊秀珠（2002）。〈尋找本土的故事：香港教師的歷史觀〉。《教育學報》，第30卷第二期， 41-62。 233 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？楊祥銀（2004）。《口述史學》。台北：揚智出版。鄭鈞傑、林智中（2006）。〈評「香港課程改革二○○一 ─《學會學習》」〉。載曾榮光（編著），《廿一世紀教育藍圖？香港特區教育改革議論》（頁207-235）。香港：香港中文大學。鍾寶賢（2000）。〈「口述歷史」的社會意義〉。《當代史學》。取自 http://histweb. hkbu.edu.hk/contemporary/Jourvol3_3/jourvol3_3main.htm#3。嚴佳芳（1995）。〈談「口述歷史」在高中歷史教學的運用〉。《建中學報》，第 1期， 99-103。 Cheung, D. (2000). Measuring teachers’ meta-orientations to curriculum: application of hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 68(2), 149-165. Cheung, D., & Wong, H. W. (2002). Measuring teacher beliefs about alternative curriculum designs. The Curriculum Journal, 13(2), 225-248. Dunaway, K., & Baum, W. K. (Eds.). (1984). Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology. Nashville, Tennessee: American Association for State and Local History. Neuenschwander, J. A. (1976). Oral history: As a teaching approach. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Park, M. (2008). Implementing curriculum integration: The experiences of Korean elementary teachers. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(3), 308-319. Shriner, M., Schlee, B. M., & Libler, R. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and beliefs regarding curriculum integration. Australian Education Researcher, 37(1), 51-62. Stengel, B. S. (1997). “Academic discipline” and “school subject”: Contestable curricular concepts. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 29(5), 585-602. Thompson, P. (1978). The voice of the past: Oral history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yeung, S. S. Y., & Lam, C. C. (2007). Teachers’ conception of curriculum integration: A problem hindering its implementation in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(2), 109-144. 234 Between teaching method and social practice: How do teachers accommodate oral history to school-based curriculum? CHU Yiu Kwong Fanling Lutheran Secondary School Abstract Recently oral history has been widely accepted and adopted by secondary school teachers. Its social meaning also makes it easier for teachers to adopt oral history as an interdisciplinary method of project-based learning. However, teachers are confronted with many practical problems while accommodating oral history to school-based curriculum. In the perspectives of two secondary school teachers who intend to promote oral history in their own schools as examples, this article will analyze how teachers’ curriculum orientations, educational beliefs, and practical concerns influence the way of teaching oral history. Keywords History education, oral history, curriculum orientation

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 15 (2016)

Category: DocumentsHong Kong Teachers Centre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十五卷 Volume Fifteen 第十五卷 V olum e Fifteen 2016 V olum e Fifteen 2016 PMS2602C12mm PMS2602 Hong Kong Teachers C ntre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十五卷 Volume Fifteen 第十五卷 V olum e Fifteen 2016 V olum e Fifteen 2016 PMS2602C12mm PMS2602 第十五卷 Volume 15 出版：香港教師中心地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室出版年份：2016 年 Publisher ：Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ：W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing ：2016 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal i 香港教師中心香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議，由 1987 年開始籌備，至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步提升服務質素及切合發展需要，教師中心已於2006年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。教師中心致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。常委會之下設有工作小組，負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業的活動，並會因應需要，贊助這些團體舉辦活動，以及為有關活動提供所需的場地和器材。教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等，為教師提供所需的服務。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years’ preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-tier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total of 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well- equipped premises. HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc for teachers’ use. iii 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/ hktc/journal）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁　鋼華東師範大學李兆璋香港浸會大學李沙崙教育局李榮安香港公開大學侯傑泰香港中文大學唐創時香港考試及評核局張國華香港公開大學梁湘明香港中文大學 iv 許添明國家教育研究院傅浩堅香港浸會大學潘慧玲淡江大學鄭燕祥香港教育大學鍾秉林中國教育學會編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editor）黃少玲香港中學語文教育研究會副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育大學楊沛銘香港地理學會趙淑媚香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學委員（Members）甘志強港澳兒童教育國際協會何瑞珠香港中文大學教育學院余綺華香港道教聯合會圓玄學院石圍角小學李子建香港教育大學李少鶴香港初等教育研究學會林偉業香港大學教育學院胡志偉香港通識教育會張慧真香港浸會大學 v 主編序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「學生成長與生涯規劃」，除了得到不少學者和教師就這個主題應邀投稿外，也有其他熱心的教育同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。經過嚴謹的評審後，共有十篇文章獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有四篇，內容包括：從家庭、學校與社區協作看青少年的生涯規劃、以幼兒教育專業為例探討生涯規劃的迷思、香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示及以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究。內容主要探索現行生涯規劃教育的問題，作者們透過不同角度檢視生涯規劃教育的實況，並提出精闢的分析、意見及建議。第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章，合共兩篇，內容包括：香港學校內課堂觀課的回顧與前瞻及香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習。內容圍繞着與前線教師息息相關的課堂觀課和與小學校長有關的專業培訓。作者透過政策及理論的分析，同樣從現況作出了客觀的評論，提出了適切及具參考性的建議。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，有四篇文章。內容包括：中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估、以剪影法作校長培訓課程的專業支援、研究小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文的浸入式教學個案及如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力。透過作者們的分析，我們可以了解不同教育理論在實踐上的成果，並提出過程中值得反思的地方，為教育同工提供了寶貴的參考資料。最後，要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工，當中包括：王偉倫博士、甘志強先生、何玉芬博士、何景安先生、何瑞珠教授、李子建教授、李展華先生、李隆盛教授、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、英汝興先生、袁國明先生、高寶玉博士、張慧真博士、梁佩雲博士、梁雪梅女士、梁湘明教授、梁頌康博士、許玉麟先生、麥謝巧玲博士、楊沛銘博士、趙淑媚博士、劉瑞珍女士、鄭婉玲女士、蕭錫錡教授、羅嘉怡博士、關譽綱教授和嚴宇樂博士。學報能順利出版，實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中抽空幫助，以專業的態度評審各篇文章。《香港教師中心學報》主編黃少玲二零一六年十二月目錄 Contents 香港教育中心 ....................................................................................................................i 香港教師中心學報 ..........................................................................................................iii 主編序 ...............................................................................................................................v 一、主題：學生成長與生涯規劃 1. 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作 .........................................................1 何瑞珠 2. 探討生涯規劃的迷思：以幼兒教育專業為例 .......................................................17 區耀輝 3. 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 ...................................................27 李子建、秦偉燊 4. 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究 ...........................................................45 梁麗嬋、潘晨健、簡永東、婁聖軻二、理論及政策評論 1. Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects .........................67 Stephen Pui Ming YEUNG 2. 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習 ...................................................................85 胡少偉、張勇邦、林碧珠、馮文正三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估 .........................................................101 譚繼鏞、王婷婷 2. 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法 ......................................................................................123 黃炳文、倪紹強 3. 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文 .....................137 廖佩莉 4. 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力 .................................................................155 何潔瑩徵集論文稿例徵募審稿員 1 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作何瑞珠香港中文大學教育學院摘要本文嘗試分析政府近年有關生涯規劃的主要政策及措施，再根據筆者近年三個有關的實證研究，梳理出青年人在生涯規劃上具影響力的因素和分析可行的生涯介入措施。研究指出不同家庭背景的學生在生涯規劃的裝備上條件十分懸殊，政府在協助青年人作出生涯規劃上，尚未有充分照顧來自不同背景學生的差異。本文最後提出對協助青少年作出適切的生涯規劃，尤其是來自弱勢社群者，家庭學校與社區協作及由大學協調的商校合作是可行的出路。關鍵詞生涯規劃，家庭學校與社區協作，商校合作引言生涯規劃是一個探索及計劃人生的過程，生涯（career）是指各個連續發展的生命階段的不同任務和角色。整全地規劃一生不同階段在不同空間（家庭、社區、學校及工作場所）扮演不同角色（如兒童、學生、休閒者、公民、工作者、夫婦、持家者、父母以及養老者）（Super, 1980, 1990）。就青少年階段的重要範疇，主要是學習、工作、閒暇及課外活動、探索學習的目的及了解學習與就業的關係等。這規劃過程要求人在其社會環境中按步驟積極實施所定的計劃（梁湘明，2005）。 2 世界各地採用很多不同的措施，以識別學生的性向及興趣，當中更常用各種性向測試（例如香港採用的生涯地圖以評估學生的學習及事業興趣），作為探索自我及計劃人生的起點。可是，在急促轉變的時代，學生的興趣、能力及社會上工作類型，受到所在地的文化及經濟影響甚大。行業及個人亦隨時間而改變，個人的職業或生涯發展受父母社經地位、個人能力及人格特質和際遇的影響極大。為彌補這種性向測試的不足和缺陷，有學者提出學生在做生涯規劃時必須讓學生樹立生涯意識（career awareness）以及擁有生涯探索（career exploration）經歷（Arrington, 2000）。這些都能夠幫助學生在不同人生階段，瞭解自身能力與興趣，以及根據社會經濟環境，了解職業所需的知識與技能，才能協助學生根據自身條件做出適切的生涯規劃。青少年在生涯探索及發展中，相對於「內在」條件如能力、興趣、價值觀，「外在」的先賦條件如性別及社會階層等同樣具決定性。原因是早於兒童階段，個體便會按照其「性別角色」及「社經地位」，把與之不相稱的角色選擇排除在考慮之外。如 Gottfredson（1996, 2002, 2005）的「限制及妥協理論（Theory of circumscription and compromise）」研究在生涯探索過程中，個人的先賦條件如何影響其「限制（circumscription）」及「妥協（compromise）」的抉擇。這個理論提醒我們：踏入青少年階段，個體更開始注視及展現其「內在」素質，從而在早前設限的角色範圍內尋求最理想的選擇。然而，當經濟狀況、就業市場需求及社會文化氛圍等現實環境因素與個人志向產生矛盾時，個體便會在理智上進行調整，逐漸將一個「可接受的選擇」看成為一個「不錯的選擇」，亦即 Gottfredson所稱為「妥協」的過程。但值得關注的是不同家庭背景的學生在生涯規劃的裝備上條件十分懸殊，從學生的角度而言，怎樣的生涯規劃內涵才是受用的呢？政府在協助青年人作出生涯規劃的政策上，有否照顧來自不同背景的學生的差異呢？為此本文嘗試以多元的取向處理下列三個問題：一、根據政府協助青年人作生涯規劃的教育政策為切入點，分析政府近年來有關生涯規劃的重要措施。二、根據筆者近年幾個有關的實證研究，梳理出青年人在生涯規劃上具影響力的因素和分析可行的生涯介入。 3 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作三、最後提出家庭學校與社區協作的可行方法，以裝備青少年作出適切的生涯規劃。研究方法除了政策文獻分析之外，本研究以「香港青少年之追蹤研究（HKLSA）」的 2013年完成第一期及 2014年完成第二期的問卷調查數據，嘗試從 2,600多位受訪的中學生的教育期望及背景資料，研究他們對升學和就業的準備及選擇，分析來自不同社經背景的青少年在期望升讀專上教育課程的差異。有關社區協作研究方面，筆者的研究團隊於 2013-2014年開展了另一項商校協作計劃，從香港一項名為「學校起動計劃（Project WeCan）」的參與者中，收集了 3,800多位高中學生的數據，探討參與升學就業活動與其掌握升學就業技巧的關係，相關背景資料詳見「結果及討論」部分。所有問卷題項均以中文編寫。問卷編製的流程如下：部份問題源自 PISA 2009 及 PISA 2012經由研究小組的會議討論研究的焦點和題目，然後邀請中學生對問卷初稿進行預試，刪除提問內容不清或鑑別度不佳的題項。在從研究對象學生身上取得數據後，以因素分析（factor analysis）測量各量表的建構效度（construct validity）1。唯本文回應的三個主要問題的分析方法以描述分析為本。圖一研究架構 _______________ 1 分析各量表的建構效度（construct validity）：經因素轉軸分析，從因素分數矩陣中依據量表中不同題項在某一特定因素之負荷量大小來判斷題項歸屬的層面 4 結果及討論 1. 香港政府協助青年人作出生涯規劃政策及評析 2014年，香港政府首次於施政報告明確提出「協助青年人作出生涯規劃」（梁振英，2014年 1月 15日，第 104條），「以更全面支援學校提供升學及就業輔導服務，以及拓展生涯規劃」，提供「額外經常津貼，加強生涯規劃教育元素」，並透過「商校合作計劃」以「加強對中學生籌劃未來升學與就業的輔導。」（同上，第 105條）。其後政府發表的財政預算案進一步指出：「必須針對性地增強青少年的生涯規劃、職業教育和培訓。」（曾俊華，2014年 2月 26日，第 104條）及「職業訓練局⋯⋯以先導形式推行職業教育和就業支援計劃，結合有系統的學徒培訓和清晰的晉升階梯⋯⋯。教育局會加強支援學校，深化和擴闊生涯規劃教育，讓學生發揮所長。」（同上，第 106條）究竟這些津貼及計劃有何實質的成效？學生又有否得益呢？ 2015年，政府再次於施政報告提出：「教育局會在 2015/16學年起的 3年，強化、深化和檢視該計劃（商校合作計劃）。」（梁振英，2015年 1月 14日，第 156條）並將「成立 3億元的『青年發展基金』，資助現有計劃未能涵蓋的創新青年發展活動。」（同上，第 160條）同年財政預算案進一步指出，政府正為零售界別「籌備『零售業推廣計劃』，提升業界形象，吸引新人入行。」（曾俊華，2015年 2月 25日，第 106條）並「會為青年人提供更多實習和交流機會，加深他們對實際工作環境的體會和認識，擴闊視野，為投身職場作好準備。」（同上，第 111條），包括提供各一億元給建造業（同上，第 107條）及金融業中的保險和資產財富管理兩個界別（同上，第 109條）。雖然商校合作計劃備受重視而大量擴張，並已有超過 170個機構曾參與「商校合作計劃」（同上，第 156條），但企業對學生及學習了解不足，以致一般職場推介及參觀往往流於表面，商校合作中的學習元素，需要教育專業人員仔細調適才能起教育作用。 2016年，政府最新一期的施政報告提出：「政府⋯⋯為優化高中課程的推行，以及加強生涯規劃教育與相關輔導服務，由 2016/17學年起，學校可將現行的『高中課程支援津貼』及『生涯規劃津貼』轉為常額教席，預計可提供額外約 1,000個學位教師職位。」（梁振英，2016年 1月 13日，第 191條）。其中「生涯規劃津貼」 5 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作轉為常額教席是可取的，長遠來說有助增加更為穩定的生涯規劃的輔導人員。短期而言，可能有助舒緩部份中學教席的收縮，但卻使有關津貼的靈活性減少，影響學校資源調配，更重要的問題是對優化學生的生涯規劃又有何作用呢？由上述三份近年的施政報告所見，政府已察覺在新高中學制實施後，生涯規劃教育與相關輔導服務的重要性，亦在資源調配、活動推廣、教師培訓及企業合作上展開不同的措施。現時絕大部份學生均能夠完成中學教育，但面對未來要為升讀大專或就業作抉擇時，不少學生會為此感到徬徨。究竟甚麼措施才真正令學生對生涯規劃有適切的裝備？實際上現時中學生是如何為生涯規劃作準備，怎樣的升就經歷才真正令學生受用？究竟甚麼因素對生涯規劃具影響力呢？尤其是 Gottfredson所謂具決定性的「外在」條件—家庭背景如何影響學生的生涯規劃呢？ 2. 學生了解升學就業的途徑：實踐與受用「香港青少年之追蹤研究（HKLSA）」的第二期研究於 2014年完成，調查訪問了超過 100間學校，約 2,634位曾參加 PISA 2012的中學生，研究他們對升學和就業的準備及選擇。結果顯示（表一），學生欲了解升學和就業的選擇，最主要的途徑是與「重要他者（significant others）」傾談，當中包括朋友或同學（90%）、家人或親戚（82%）、學校老師（72%）及自己有興趣從事的工作的人士（49%）。此外，不少學生透過互聯網（85%）、大眾傳媒（65%）及參加升學及就業講座（77% 和 50%）獲取資訊，亦有六成學生曾參加大專院校的開放日。然而，只有約三成學生曾參觀工作場所，原因可能是學校與企業的聯繫不足，以致少有參觀活動提供。只有約一成學生曾參加與工作體驗有關的計劃，例如「學校－企業夥伴計劃」（13%）及工作影子計劃（14%）等。也許主因是現時企業提供的實習職位不多，造成只有極少數學生有機會體驗工作。問卷亦要求學生從廿一項了解升學就業的途徑中，選出最有助於他們決策的三項。表一結果顯示，學生視為最有用的首三項途徑分別是：「與學校老師個別或分組傾談」（49%）、「與家人或親戚傾談」（42%）及「搜尋互聯網」（37%）。與職業相關的體驗和企業參觀，一般被視為對學生準備升就有幫助，但問卷結果發現，只有很少學生認為這些體驗和參觀是「最有幫助的三項」之一。原因會是與職業相關的 6 體驗局限在個別行業和職業，未必能配合所有學生的能力和興趣？還是實習機會不足，學生難以期望從體驗、參觀中獲取資訊？其實認識不同行業能擴闊學生的眼界，有助學生的生涯規劃更為全面。為此，企業、培訓機構及學校的協作及商校合作等措施顯得更為重要。可是，來自不同背景的家長有不同條件，尤其是社經地位較低的家長又如何影響學生升學就業的取向呢？現時尚未有具體的政策照顧這方面的差異，以下需作深入探討。表一　學生了解升學就業使用的途徑學生了解升學就業曾使用的途徑學生曾使用的途徑對學生最有幫助的三項途徑與朋友或同學傾談 90% 36% 搜尋互聯網 85% 37% 與家人或親戚傾談 82% 42% 參加升學講座 77% 35% 與學校老師個別或分組傾談 72% 49% 大眾傳媒（例如：報紙／電視／電台） 65% 12% 參加大專院校的開放日／導覽行程 60% 19% 進行學習及事業興趣評估（如生涯地圖） 52% 6% 參加就業講座 50% 10% 與自己有興趣從事的工作的人士傾談 49% 18% 參加入學面試工作坊 33% 8% 參觀工作場所 27% 3% 參加生涯規劃營 23% 2% 參加求職面試工作坊 22% 5% 參加大學課程體驗班／體驗營 20% 5% 參加「應用學習課程」（ApL）導引課程 20% 2% 使用「青年就業起點」等政府服務 16% 1% 參加工作影子計劃（工作體驗） 14% 4% 參加「學校－企業夥伴計劃」 13% 1% 參加學校與僱主合辦的課程 13% 2% 參加招聘會 12% 3% 7 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作 2.1 家庭背景對學生升學的影響筆者採用「香港青少年之追蹤研究」於 2013年完成第一期的問卷調查數據，嘗試從 2,741位受訪的中學生的教育期望及背景資料，分析來自不同社經背景的青少年在期望升讀專上教育課程的差異。以下從個人背景、父母教育程度及職業地位方面，分析這些因素對青少年教育期望構成的影響。表二顯示：超過 66%的受訪青少年期望升讀學士或以上的課程，其次為副學位課程（14.7%），另有 6.2%期望升讀文憑或證書課程，由此可見香港有 88%高中生（中四及中五）期望升讀專上教育課程，當中期望升讀學士或以上的課程由 2012 年的 51%升至 2013年的 66%，是明顯的升溫效應（heat-up）（王杰，2013）；更值得注意的是，有一成多（12.7%）的青少年在高中畢業後沒有升讀任何專上教育課程的期望。此外，期望升讀學士或以上課程的男生與女生差異並不顯著；但女生傾向期望升讀副學位課程，其比例較男生高出 4.2%，在統計上有顯著差異。期望升讀學士或以上課程的新移民（包括第一代及第二代移民）稍微比本地生多，但此差異在統計上並不顯著。與來自雙親家庭的學生相比，期望升讀學士或以上課程的單親家庭學童少了 7.1%，在統計上有顯著差異。由此可見，女生及來自單親家庭的學生在教育期望上處於劣勢。表二　受訪青少年的個人及家庭背景與青少年教育期望的分布中六或以下文憑 / 證書高級文憑 / 副學士學士或以上整體受訪青少年 12.7% 6.2% 14.7% 66.3% 性別女生 10.7% 7.7% 16.9% 64.7% 男生 14.6% 4.9% 12.7% 67.8% 移民身分本地人 12.5% 6.0% 15.6% 65.9% 第二代移民 12.0% 5.5% 14.2% 68.3% 第一代移民 13.6% 8.9% 11.3% 66.2% 8 中六或以下文憑 / 證書高級文憑 / 副學士學士或以上家庭結構單親家庭 14.0% 8.0% 17.3% 60.7% 雙親家庭 12.1% 5.8% 14.3% 67.8% 其他家庭類別 20.5% 2.3% 20.5% 56.8% 此外，分析亦發現父母教育程度及職業的影響亦十分顯著。就父母教育程度而言，表三的數據顯示如果父母擁有學士或以上教育程度，其子女中約有九成期望升讀學士或以上課程，與其他學歷父母比較，在統計上存有顯著差異。其次為具大專學歷的父母，其子女中也有 80%期望升讀學士或以上課程。而具中三程度或以下學歷的父母，其子女中只有約一半期望升讀學士或以上課程。在父母職業地位方面，如父母具較高職業地位，其子女較期望升讀學士或以上課程；相反，父母從事較基層行業，其子女的教育期望也較低，兩者在統計上亦存有顯著差異。整體來看，父母擁有的教育程度及職業地位愈高，他們的子女追求較高教育程度的傾向較明顯。表三　受訪青少年的父母教育程度及職業與青少年教育期望的分布中六或以下文憑 / 證書高級文憑 / 副學士學士或以上父親教育程度中三或以下 17.0% 8.7% 16.7% 57.6% 職業訓練 11.5% 6.5% 16.5% 65.5% 中五、中七、文憑 / 證書 10.4% 4.6% 13.1% 71.9% 大專（非學位） 9.5% 2.6% 6.0% 81.9% 學士或以上 2.9% 0.4% 5.8% 91.0% 母親教育程度中三或以下 17.5% 8.3% 16.3% 57.9% 職業訓練 10.0% 6.9% 14.6% 68.4% 中五、中七、文憑 / 證書 10.3% 2.5% 13.2% 74.0% 大專（非學位） 4.1% 3.1% 12.2% 80.6% 學士或以上 3.0% 0.6% 6.5% 89.9% 父母職業地位 # 36.65 38.65 41.05 48.73 # 以平均數據顯示。表二　受訪青少年的個人及家庭背景與青少年教育期望的分布（續） 9 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作 2.2 家庭社經地位對優秀學生升學就業的影響此外，分析亦發現父母教育程度及職業對學生職業期望的影響亦十分顯著，尤其值得關注的是高能力的學生。若因為家境貧窮，使學習能力高的學生不敢期望將來會從事各種專業工作，這對社會而言是人才的浪費。PISA 2009的研究中提供了這方面的跨國數據，經濟合作與發展組織界定「高能力」學生為基礎能力達 4級或以上。在 PISA 2009，香港共有 2,147名在閱讀方面高能力的學生，佔香港整體樣本學生 44%。結果顯示，在參與 PISA的國家或地區中，韓國的高能力學生有 94%期望升讀大學，而新加坡、紐西蘭和波蘭分別為 88%、74%和 72%，但香港高能力學生中只有 64%期望升讀大學。至於職業期望方面，在 PISA 2009及 2012，來自最上階層的香港學生分別有 60%及 66%期望從事專業工作，來自草根階層的只有 33%及 43%（圖二）。而進一步分析 PISA 2012，香港高能力學生當中，來自最上階層的有 62%期望從事專業工作，來自草根階層的只有 43%。由此可見在香港貧窮家庭成長的學生，儘管學習能力高，但經濟上以至心理上的阻力，會影響他們對未來的期盼，甚至對將來升學及就業的夢想與規劃。圖二學生期望從事專業職業與社經地位的關係既然研究顯示家庭條件影響香港中學生的生涯規劃，那麼有甚麼途徑、方法或措施可以協助不同背景的學生在升學就業規劃中作出明智抉擇，乃至幫助草根階層 10 擺脫背景因素所帶來的梗塞呢？政府近年重視的商校協作計劃又能否有效地幫助不同背景的學生作出理想的升就抉擇呢？ 3. 企業承擔對學生升學就業的影響在商校合作的措施方面，教育局於 2014年 12月推出新的商校合作計劃網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/bspp），為學校及商界伙伴提供新資訊及網上報名系統。在加強商校合作計劃，邀請更多及不同類型的工商機構參與，目標是把商界伙伴的數目，由 2014/15學年的 120個，增至 2017/18學年的 165個。（教育局，2015年 2月 9 日，第 18項）同時，研究在商校合作計劃下不同形式的活動，例如職場影子計劃、導引課程、導師計劃及與校同行計劃等，並鼓勵學校將合作計劃活動融入學校課程內⋯⋯又計劃把活動擴展至校長、教師和家長。（同上，第 19項）究竟不同的商校合作計劃是否有效？成功個案當中的重要元素為何？商校合作研究：成功個案筆者的研究團隊於 2013-2014年開展了另一項商校協作計劃的調查研究，從香港一項名為「學校起動計劃（Project WeCan）」的參與者中，收集了 3,800多位高中學生的數據，探討參與升學就業活動與其掌握升學就業技巧的關係。結果顯示這些來自不同家庭背景（包括出生地、家庭結構及社經地位等）的學生，從參與這項由九倉集團轄下的商界機構提供的升就活動中，在掌握升學及就業技巧方面具有顯著的進步。此項商校協作計劃由2011年開展，實證研究首次顯示這計劃提供的商界— 學校—大學三方協作活動，在短短三年已對學生的升就歷程和能力具正面的成效（何瑞珠、姜培芝、楊鎮偉、李文浩，2015）。是項研究把「學校起動計劃」所籌辦及提供的活動分為六大類：「參觀業務集團旗下商業單位」、「出席各商業單位舉辦的公司活動」、「職業資訊或諮詢服務」、「於各商業單位舉辦的活動中表演」、「升學資訊或諮詢服務」及「學長或導師計劃」。 11 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作圖三　受訪學生參與「學校起動計劃」升就活動的情況就總參與人數而言，在「學校起動計劃」中三成以上的學生曾參與「升學資訊或諮詢服務」（32.7%）、「職業資訊或諮詢服務」（31.1%）、「參觀業務集團旗下商業單位」（30.4%）的活動。若以參與次數來看（三次或以上），受訪學生傾向重覆參與「升學資訊或諮詢服務」（4.9%），其次為「職業資訊或諮詢服務」（4.2%）及「於各商業單位舉辦的活動中表演」（4.2%）（圖三）。值得注意的是，這些由「學校起動計劃」所提供的升學或職業諮詢服務，有別於一般校內提供的輔導資訊，它的特點在於提供多元的社會網絡及資源，由大學專業支援單位提供意見，設計更能針對草根階層的弱勢學生的生涯發展需要，例如分享環節會邀請與學生成長背景相似的現職員工，以其經驗分享有關如何面對求職申請、規劃個人事業發展、評估工作市場的要求等，這些模範角色（role model）的經驗之談能對參與學生起示範或啟發作用。至於「參觀業務集團旗下商業單位」更是運用「集團」的資源及在商界的網絡優勢，針對在不同行業的職業環境實況，設計有關的學習活動，參與學生獲派到「集團」屬下不同業務單位進行觀摩學習，所涵蓋的行業包括物流、廣播、酒店、零售及物業管理等。這些活動讓學生認識該行業的運作狀況及發展前景，從而擴闊學生對不同行業的眼界，有助他們及早規劃未來人生。 12 此外，大學專業支援單位的參與能促進商校之間的溝通，調適雙方在合作過程中可能出現的矛盾，例如學生的進步是經年累月的，不能如商業機構般每年結算業績，商校合作的成效評估及歸因亦要審慎共商，因此「商業—大學—學校」協作模式（Business-University-School BUS）有助調配資源及設計活動，尤其是照顧弱勢群體的學校需要。在商業單位、大學及學校的共同努力下，應該可以令現行的「商校合作」更為有效。總結與啟示：「家校社區協作」與生涯規劃今天互聯網資訊發達，要找尋升學及就業資訊十分方便。學校老師的輔導，再加上政府、大專院校和企業的努力，為中學生提供豐富的升學及就業資訊和體驗機會，期望令中學生找到理想的出路。然而，從學生或家長的角度出發，所有提供的資訊、體驗和輔導，是否有實質的幫助呢？本文嘗試綜合筆者近年的三個實證研究，探討家庭及個人因素對青少年升就期望的影響。從學生的角度而言，本文提出家庭成員及校內師友是學生商討最多的對象，亦是感到最受用的重要途徑。由此可見，家校合作在中學生的生涯規劃上十分重要，雖然教育局指出：「在 2014年 5至 7月期間分別為公營中學逾 1,000名校長及教師舉辦了 3場簡介會，以及跟家庭與學校合作事宜委員會、家長教師會聯會及家長教師會委員會晤，向持份者解釋生涯規劃教育的政策目標及推行細節，並鼓勵家長支持子女訂立個人及升學就業目標。」（教育局，2015年 2月 9日，第 16項）可是，這些委員會及聯會的會晤，對前線老師及家長有何實質幫助呢？筆者現正進行的跟進訪談顯示，弱勢學生的家庭雖然十分關心子女的前途，但學生多表示家長未能給予適切的升學就業資訊，大部份均需要老師的個別支援及輔導。儘管政府於 2016年提出：將「全數資助中學提供應用學習課程；延長『職業教育和就業支援先導計劃』，以惠及多兩屆共 2,000名學生；以及支持主要的職業專才教育機構舉辦大型技能比賽，選拔香港代表參與世界技能大賽等。」（梁振英， 2016年 1月 13日，第 196條）然而，這些措施顯然未能讓家庭及學校掌握職業導向課程的定位。在升學導向的華人社會，以及政府所提倡的多元學習及多元出路的真實前景下，家長與老師均需了解職業導向課程在升學上的銜接及就業上的對口數據，以輔助學生作適切的選擇。 13 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作本文的數據更顯示：來自父母教育程度、職業階層及家庭結構等家庭因素及學生性別，與學生升學就業期望或就業能力有顯著關係。父母教育程度偏低，職業階層偏低，來自單親家庭及身為女生等因素，讓學生升就期望或升就能力更易處於弱勢。這個現象反映了因缺乏家庭資源的弱勢學生，其父母背景和家庭資源可能未必能提供適切的指導和支援，以致他們在掌握升就的能力較低。為此教育局宜加強家校社區協作，仔細分析社區資源、教師培訓及家長教育上怎樣協調，以回應不同背景的青少年在生涯規劃上的多元需要。從研究的角度而言，本文發現的家長背景和家庭資源對青少年的升就前途的影響，與中外不少相關研究相近，正如 Lareau（2003）在《不平等的童年》（Unequal Childhoods）一書中提出一個十年的追蹤研究結果：家長社經背景透過兩種不同的親職模式—協商培育（concerted cultivation）及自然成長（natural growth），影響到孩子最終達至不同社經階層的成人（adulthood），本文研究所及可見當前中學畢業生升就期望的社經分隔，在現時種種生涯規劃的措施下，若能開展一個追蹤研究，結合量化與質化的證據，便可進一步了解家庭學校及社區是如何塑造不同背景的青少年的生涯面貌。研究也對學生在「商校協作」活動的參與作出分析，研究發現父母的社經地位偏低者，在協助子女的升就決定和部署上有顯著的限制，可是弱勢的學生若能參與仔細規劃的商界 /社區學習活動，將能豐富其升就資訊和體驗。由此可見，「商校協作」的活動對提升弱勢學生的升就能力明顯發揮重要的影響力，而弱勢學生可透過參與職業相關的活動，加強他們在升就路向的規劃和準備。可是，商協合作計劃的成功必須根據學生的背景設計具學習經歷的活動，透過大學的協調，這些商界的交流及體驗活動，才能配合學生的需要，讓學生能進一步確立對職業的興趣、認識工作範疇和具備的資歷條件等，從而協助他們在升就選擇階段作出適切的過渡。一般而言，教育體系可以通過正規和非正規的生涯介入（career intervention）幫助學生進行生涯規劃。正規的生涯介入主要是以生涯規劃課程形式開展生涯教育，生涯規劃課程以諮詢和指導的方法幫助學生實現自我察覺、生涯察覺，進行生涯規劃和決策，如李子建、江浩民（2015）提出生涯規劃課程或計劃的實施方式，可包括獨立的課節（例如班主任課 /輔導成長課）、校本課程 /計劃、跨科目及活動滲透方式等；可是，在升學導向的華人社會，非正規模式生涯介入，包含校外的社區活動及工作間經驗，可能是更適合的切入點，其中香港政策特別重視「商校協作」， 14 借助企業的資源開展工場參觀、實習等活動，能幫助學生進行生涯探索，形成升學就業技能，為學生做出明智的生涯規劃和生涯決策提供前提條件。最後，哪些項目切實有利於青年人作出就業的準備，仍有待持續多元的評估，其中學生的聲音尤其重要。學生不能被規劃，學生必須是規劃自身人生的主體。鳴謝本文作者特此分別感謝香港研究資助局優配研究金（General Research Fund, GRF）資助「香港青少年追蹤研究」（A Longitudinal Study of Adolescents in Hong Kong: Transition from Secondary School, HKLSA）（編號：444412），以及「PISA 為本學校改進計劃」研究（PISA-based School Improvement Project, PSIP）的支持。此外，還要感謝 HKLSA 研究團隊對本文初稿提出的寶貴意見。本文內容只反映作者意見，並不代表資助機構立場。參考文獻王杰（2013）。〈影響日本青少年學歷期待縱向變化的原因分析—東北地區某小城市的調查結果〉。《中日教育論壇》，第 3期，46-55。何瑞珠、姜培芝、楊鎮偉、李文浩（2015）。〈「商界—學校」協作：裝備香港弱勢學生升學就業技能〉。《教育學報》，第 43（1）期，153-177。李子建、江浩民（2015）。〈生涯規劃教育理論與實踐：邁向優質教育〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 14卷，89-106。教育局（2015年 2月 9日）。〈推行生涯規劃教育的進展報告〉［立法會 CB（4） 457/14-15（04）號文件］。香港：立法會。梁振英（2014年 1月 15日）。《二零一四年施政報告：讓有需要的得到支援，讓年青的各展所長，讓香港得以發揮》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。梁振英（2015年 1月 14日）。《二零一五年施政報告：重法治，掌機遇，作抉擇，推進民主，發展經濟，改善民生》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。梁振英（2016年 1月 13日）。《二零一六年施政報告：創新經濟，改善民生，促進和諧，繁榮共享》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。 15 青少年的生涯規劃：家庭、學校與社區協作梁湘明（2005）。〈生涯規劃：跨理論假設與實施策略〉。《亞洲輔導學報》，第 12（1 及 2）卷，79-93。曾俊華（2014年2月26日）。《二零一四至一五財政年度—政府財政預算案》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。曾俊華（2015年2月25日）。《二零一五至一六財政年度—政府財政預算案》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。 Arrington, K. (2000). Middle grades career planning programs. Journal of Career Development, 27(2), 103-109. Gottfredson, L. S. (1996). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development: Applying contemporary approaches to practice (3rd ed., pp. 179-232). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gottfredson, L. S. (2002). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self- creation. In D. Brown & Associate (Eds.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp. 85-148). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Applying Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise in career guidance and counseling. In S. D. Brown & R. T. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 71- 100). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: class, race, and family life. London, England: University of California Press Limited. Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282-298. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development (2nd ed., pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 16 Career and life planning: Home, school and community collaboration HO Sui Chu Esther Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract This paper attempts to analyze the major policies and initiatives related to career and life planning implemented by the Government in recent years. Based on the findings of three related empirical studies conducted by the author, the significant factors affecting adolescents’ career and life planning are delineated and the feasible career intervention measures are examined. These studies have indicated that there is a wide gap in the capabilities of career and life planning among students from different family backgrounds; this is the variable that has not been catered adequately for by the Government. This paper concludes by suggesting that home-school-community collaboration, and business-school partnership coordinated by university professionals may be the promising gateways to assist adolescents, especially those from underprivileged families, to make appropriate career and life plans. Keywords career and life planning, home-school-community collaboration, business-school partnership 17 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 探討生涯規劃的迷思：以幼兒教育專業為例區耀輝香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院摘要近年幼稚園教師成為香港年青人趨之若鶩的職業，大學的職前幼兒教育課程成為聯招辦法中競爭最激烈的課程。然而修讀此科目的學生普遍對幼兒教育專業缺乏認識，對選擇幼師作為終身職業並沒經過認真和審慎的考慮。本港幼稚園教師流失率一直高企，教師團隊不穩定，直接影響幼兒教育的質素。教育當局近年積極推動在高中階段推行生涯規劃教育，並調撥資源配合計劃的推行。生涯規劃教育是否能改變年輕人對個人學業和事業發展的態度？本文將以幼兒教育專業為例作出探討。關鍵詞生涯規劃，幼兒教育，幼稚園教師一、前言隨著本地出生率回升，社會對學前教育越來越重視，政府亦加強對幼兒教育的資源投放。學前教育工作成為現今不少年輕人的理想職業，近年「幼兒教育」一直是大學聯合招生辦法中競爭最激烈的學科之一（劉家莉，2015；陳建平，2015）。另一方面，統計數據卻顯示幼稚園教師的流失率一直偏高。根據教育局提供的數字， 18 2014/15年度幼稚園教師整體流失率達 9.2% 1。比較 2009/10和 2013/14年度的幼師流失率，更發現數字是連年上升（見表一）（教育局，2015）。筆者在工作上與幼稚園校長、職前幼師培訓課程在讀學生等有親身接觸。無論是投身幼兒教育行業的新教師，還是接受幼師培訓的學生，他們中有不少人在作出選擇幼兒教育工作之前，對幼兒教育專業只有片面和零碎的認識。當中較大問題是缺乏對幼兒教育工作的具體體驗，以致在實習和實際工作中顯得無所適從，未能積極面對幼教工作的壓力和困難，最終放棄學業或工作，造成人才流失和資源浪費。這種情況實非社會所樂見。表一本地幼稚園教師流失率（%） 2009/10 學年 2013/14 學年 2014/15 學年幼兒教育證書課程或同等訓練（或以上） 4.8% 6.6% 7.2% 合格幼稚園教師或同等訓練 6.9% 13.4% 18.5% 合格助理幼稚園教師訓練 41.7% 30.8% 13.3% 未受訓練教師 29.7% 22.5% 31.5% 整體 6.8% 8.0% 9.2% 取自教育局〈統計資料：幼稚園教育〉（2015年 12月 22日）出現以上的情況，當中頗大的原因是學生在進修和擇業上掌握的資料不足，未能深入分析個人狀況和相關專業是否配合。行政長官在 2014年施政報告中提出「加強生涯規劃」的新措施，並調撥資源落實政策，有關做法是否能改變時下年輕人對個人學業和事業發展的態度？現時推行的生涯規劃課程能否對症下藥，推動家庭、學校以至整個社會的參與？本文將以幼兒教育專業為例作出探討。二、「生涯規劃」與「生涯規劃」教育 1. 「生涯規劃」的意涵根據教育局提供的定義，生涯規劃是指「一個深思熟慮的過程，讓人能整全地規劃一生，包括生命中重要的範疇，如工作、學習、人際關係和閒暇。這過程也要求人在其社會環境中按步驟積極地實施所定的計劃。」（教育局學校發展分部升學 _______________ 1 「流失教師」是指截至上一學年九月中，曾在本地幼稚園任教，但在截至有關學年九月中已不再在任何一所幼稚園任教的教師（教育局〈統計資料：幼稚園教育〉）。 19 探討生涯規劃的迷思：以幼兒教育專業為例及就業輔導組，2014，頁 5）。梁湘明綜合不同學者對「生涯規劃」的看法，指出生涯規劃（Life and career planning）和就業輔導（Employment counselling）及事業輔導（Career counselling）不同。「當事人問的首要問題，是與人生意義和目的有關的問題。輔導員要幫助當事人探索人生和事業目標，建立職業志向，並在不同的生活場所（例如辦公室、家庭、社區）和活動（例如工作、學習、休閒）中實踐這些目標。」（梁湘明，2005，頁 81）（見圖一）。圖一生涯規劃的目標取自梁湘明（2005），〈生涯規劃：跨理論假設與實施策略〉，頁 82。由此可見，生涯規劃比一般學業、職業及事業輔導，有更寬闊和深入的關注層面，對當事人的主動參與也有更高的要求。假設學生選擇以「幼稚園教師」為職業，過去升學就業觀強調學生須了解幼稚園教師的工作性質、薪酬福利和發展空間等層面，學生或須檢視個人性格與幼教工作的共同點，也須了解成為專業幼稚園教師的學歷要求，從而選擇修讀合適的課程以取得認可資歷。然而，學生從「生涯規 20 劃」角度出發，更需要考慮自己的人生目標、如何分配和善用自己的時間，以致通過學習和工作實現個人信念和理想，追求豐盛和有意義的人生。從這角度分析，學生須思考自己對教育的信念，建立幼兒為本、尊重個體差異等的理念，下定決心從事幼兒教育工作，不單視之為一份職業，更須具有強烈的使命感，把培育幼兒成長作為實踐人生目標的終身事業。這樣便有更大動力投入相關的學習和工作，面對逆境時也有信心克服困難和挑戰，達致成功。 2 「生涯規劃」教育從 2014/15學年開始，教育局向每所合資格學校發放「生涯規劃津貼」，以常規撥款方式進行。局方強調「有效的生涯規劃教育的要素是教師必須意識到作為『具影響力的成年人』，他們扮演著指導學生認識自我的角色，以及隨時支援學生從認識自我中肯定自我及發揮潛能。」，並期望計劃能通過一組教師的共同推動，鼓勵「全校參與」（教育局，2014，頁 2）。此外，民政事務局亦推出「青年生涯規劃活動資助計劃」，贊助非政府機構與中學合作，推行活動以提升學生及家長 /教師對生涯規劃及多元出路的了解和認知（民政事務局，2014）。在具體內容方面，教育局「生涯規劃」教育框架，包括三大元素，分別是「自我認識及發展」、「職業探索」和「生涯規劃與管理」三部分（香港輔導教師協會， 2013）。「自我認識及發展」部分主要讓學生反思個人背景、特質、興趣、理想專業等方面，通過全面分析找到個人學業和事業發展的方向和目標。「職業探索」是指通過具體的學習活動，在新學制「工作有關的體驗」的學習中，讓學生加強對各行各業的認識，拉近學生對學習生活和職業生涯在認知和經驗上的距離。「生涯規劃與管理」涉及具體的升學就業知識和技能，包括撰寫求職信、改善面試技巧和尋找升學就業資料等能力（香港輔導教師協會，2013）。三、政府推行「生涯規劃」的迷思上面概述生涯規劃的意涵及生涯規劃教育的內容，筆者認為「生涯規劃」教育，大致能涵蓋各個重要範疇，讓學生更認真和深入考慮個人性向和未來事業的關係， 21 探討生涯規劃的迷思：以幼兒教育專業為例有助他們建立清晰發展目標。然而有幾方面仍須進一步思考，界定生涯規劃教育的目標和內容，才能真正發揮「生涯規劃」教育的效果。有關分析如下： 1. 迷思一教育局指出「生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導應涵蓋所有學生，不論其能力、志向和就讀年級。」（教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組，2014，頁 11）。為什麼當局只撥款予高中班級推行「生涯規劃」教育？ 2. 迷思二教育局提出「生涯規劃是一個深思熟慮的過程，讓人能整全地規劃一生，包括生命中重要的範疇，如工作、學習、人際關係和閒暇。這過程也要求人在其社會環境中按步驟積極地實施所定的計劃。」（教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組， 2014，頁 5）。「生涯規劃」教育的具體內容為什麼仍局限在升學就業層面，而非考慮生命中各重要的範疇，如工作、學習、人際關係和閒暇等方面？ 3. 迷思三「為促進學生的生涯規劃 /事業發展，我們倡議學校全面策劃並推行生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務。因此，生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務不單是升學就業輔導組的責任，服務應由學校領導帶領，升學就業輔導人員統籌和監察，並需要班主任、科任教師和其他學校人員的支援。」（教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組，2014，頁 12）。在生涯規劃教育中，教育及升學既然是主要範疇，相關的持分者，如大專院校、各行各業的僱主等是否應有更大程度的參與，而非只是擔任支援和合作的角色？筆者從三方面提出了官方在推行生涯規劃教育上的迷思，下面會作更深入的探討，並嘗試提出改善的建議。 22 四、問題討論和建議 1. 加強對不同級別「生涯規劃教育」的指引和支援在教育局建議學校使用的六項切合本地中學情況的生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導原則中，其中一項是「生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導應涵蓋所有學生，不論其能力、志向和就讀年級」（教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組，2014，頁 11）。政府對學校推行「生涯規劃」教育的財政支持，卻只聚焦於高中班級（《教育局通告第 6/2014號—生涯規劃津貼》：「由 2014/15學年起，為每所開辦高中班級的公營學校提供一項額外的經常現金津貼，用以加強為學生提供的生涯規劃教育元素。」。既然「生涯規劃教育」應涵蓋所有學生，在資源配套上便應該作出配合，加強支援不同班級學生在生涯規劃上的學習，而非側重高中學生的需要。以認識幼兒教育專業為例，除了高中學生，學校也可為初中學生安排參觀學前機構、邀請專業幼兒教育工作者主持講座、安排初中學生擔任幼兒教育活動的義工等。讓學生早些了解幼兒教育專業的性質和內涵，有足夠時間醞釀對幼教工作的興趣，並在往後的學習階段中進一步認識幼教專業不同範疇的知識。 2. 強化「生涯規劃教育」的學習內容教育局指出，「生涯規劃」並非單純的職業及升學輔導，而是「一個深思熟慮的過程，讓人能整全地規劃一生，包括生命中重要的範疇⋯⋯」（教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組，2014）但觀乎局方提供的「生涯規劃」學習框架，學習內容仍是頗側重於學生對升學、就業知識和技能方面的掌握，未能真正觸及生命中的不同範疇。（如教育局提出「生涯規劃」教育的三個元素：「自我認識及發展」、「職業探索」和「生涯規劃與管理」三部分仍是強調配合高中學生在升學和就業上的需要）筆者認為，既然政府對「生涯規劃教育」的定位包括生命中的不同範疇，在學習內容上便不應局限在升學就業方面的相關資訊和技能。以幼兒教育專業為例，學生須思考個人對教育信念的選擇，認同和擁護兒童為本的幼教價值觀等，相關的 23 探討生涯規劃的迷思：以幼兒教育專業為例反思和理念形成非一促而蹴，更重要是由富幼教經驗的專業人士帶領討論和思考，讓學生逐步形成堅實的教育信念，即使面對挑戰也能堅強面對而不輕言放棄。學者靳艷玲、劉朝華認為，生涯規劃教學中應「滲透理想、信念的教育。使學生明確自己的理想和信念⋯⋯滲透價值觀、人生觀教育，引導學生樹立正確的價值觀和人生觀。」（靳艷玲、劉朝華，2012，頁 114）他們的意見很值得我們借鏡和參考。 3. 加強社會人士，特別是僱主和相關專業人士在「生涯規劃教育」上的角色教育局指出「生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導不可能只是一位或少數教師的責任，而是需要一組教師，能全校參與則更為理想。」（教育局，2014，頁2），又強調「在規劃和提供生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務 /計劃方面，應與家長、教師、功能小組、科組、學校領導、其他學校人員，以及非政府機構、工商界的僱主、進修機構聯繫 /建立緊密的合作關係」（教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組，2014，頁 14），顯示有關當局已意識到社會的參與對推行生涯規劃教育的重要性。然而筆者認為，社會人士，尤其是僱主和業內人士的參與，不應被動的停留在受學校邀請而給予支援或配合的層次，在籌劃及推行的階段，學校更應與相關社會人士及組織合作，共同商議推行針對不同專業的「生涯規劃教育」方案計劃。以幼兒教育專業為例，一般中學教師對幼教生態系統缺乏認識，如能與幼兒教育專業人士，如幼稚園校監、校董、校長和教師共同籌劃針對幼教專業的「生涯規劃教育」學習活動，引入「案例教學」2等方法（郭鳳玲，2012，頁 178），學生對幼兒教育專業便可望有更深入的了解和認識，有助他們建立正確的教育信念，踏出成為專業幼教工作者的第一步。五、總結社會對學前教育越來越關注，幼兒教育工作者的地位亦有所提高。隨着學券計劃、免費幼稚園教育等政策的發展，政府亦增加資源推動學前教育，將有助進一步 _______________ 2 「案例教學」是一種通過模擬或重現現實生活中的一些場景，讓學生把自己納入案例場景，通過討論或研討來進行學習的一種教學方法。案例教學法是職業生涯規劃常用的一種教學方法。教材每課都配置案例，這些案例具有高度的模擬性、是學生理論聯繫實際的有效教學方法之一，是將書本理論知識轉化為現實能力的有效途徑（郭鳳玲，2012，頁 178）。 24 提升幼兒教育工作者的專業地位，吸引更多年輕人從事幼教工作。教育是神聖的工作，教師的操守和專業素養，對幼兒有直接的影響。近年大專院校的幼師培訓課程炙手可熱，但幼師流失率卻連年上升，年輕人有否同時了解幼兒教育工作者面對的困難，如資源不足、人手緊張、工作壓力沉重和發展機會不足等問題（〈人手改善不大　監管工作增加　幼師工作量有望改善？〉，2015）才作出決定？「生涯規劃」讓青年人有機會深入認識自己的性格和特質，從而在升學就業上作出最適當的選擇，然而，生涯規劃實不只限於職業和就業輔導，而是「一個人或組織的人生觀、價值觀和方法論，在個人或員工職業發展上的集中體現。」（齊振彪，2011，頁 28）。「生涯規劃」也不只適合於某些年級的學生。筆者認為，政府應在財政上支援學校不同年級的學生，並須加強生涯規劃教育框架的內容，令生涯規劃「成為一項富有意義的工作，為學生帶來不一樣的人生。」（吳克儉，2014）。時下年青人多從功利和現實的角度計劃個人的前途，較少考慮自己的性格、個人興趣和理想等因素而作決定，因此在升學和就業的取態上亦較為短視。「生涯規劃」教育能引導年青人深入地自我反思，從而在規劃個人前途上作出客觀和理性的決定，因此我們在提出批評的同時，也必須充分肯定其正面積極的意義。參考文獻〈人手改善不大　監管工作增加　幼師工作量有望改善？〉（2015，10月26日）。《教協報》幼教版，650期，頁 1。民政事務局（2014）。《青年生涯資助計劃》。香港：民政事務局。吳克儉（2014，5月 11日）。〈局中人語：生涯規劃　掌握機遇〉。取自 http://www. edb.gov.hk/tc/about-edb/press/insiderperspective/insiderperspective20140511.html。香港特別行政區政府（2014）。《二零一四年施政報告：讓有需要的得到支援，讓年青的各展所長，讓香港得以發揮》，第 105段：加強生涯規劃。取自 http:// www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2014/chi/p105.html。香港輔導教師協會（2013）。《新學制@生涯地圖》。香港：香港輔導教師協會。 25 探討生涯規劃的迷思：以幼兒教育專業為例教育局（2014 ， 5 月 9 日）。《教育局通告第 6/2014號—生涯規劃津貼》。香港：教育局。教育局（2015）。〈統計資料：幼稚園教育〉。2015年 12月 22日，取自 http://www. edb.gov.hk/tc/about-edb/publications-stat/figures/kg.html。教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組（2014）。《中學生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導指引》。香港：教育局。梁湘明（2005）。〈生涯規劃：跨理論假設與實施策略〉。《亞洲輔導學報》，第12卷，第 1及 2期，頁 79-93。郭鳳玲（2012）。〈淺談職業生涯規劃課程教學〉。《新課程學習（社會綜合）》，第 12卷，頁 178。陳建平（2015，12月 4日）。〈教院幼兒教育　聯招 118人爭 1學位〉。《蘋果日報》。取自 http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/20151204/19398883。靳艷玲、劉朝華（2012）。〈淺談如何發揮「職業生涯規劃」課程的德育功能〉。《教育教學論壇》，第 9卷，頁 114。齊振彪（2011）。〈生涯規劃為何「失靈」—論職業生涯的理論假設〉。《人力資源管理》，第 6卷，頁 28-30。劉家莉（2015，5月 22日）。〈聯招改選結束　教院幼教受捧〉。《大公報》，A13 教育版。取自 http://news.takungpao.com.hk/paper/q/2015/0522/3006773.html。 26 Explore the myth of life and career planning: Becoming an early childhood practitioner as an example AU Yiu Fai James Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong Abstract In recent years, many young people in Hong Kong long for becoming kindergarten teachers. Pre-service training courses for kindergarten teachers is one of the most popular programmes in the JUPAS system. However, most of the students lack understanding of early childhood education and they have not given serious consideration before choosing teaching as their lifelong career. Over the years, the wastage rate of teachers in pre-primary institutions stays high, and the quality of early childhood education has been afflicted by the instability of the teaching force. The government has been actively promoting the implementation of “Life and Career Planning” education at the senior secondary level through the provision of enormous supporting resources. Can such measures successfully change young people’s attitude towards their personal and career development? This is the issue that this article attempts to explore and examine with respect to early childhood education. Keywords Life and career planning, early childhood education, kindergarten teachers 27 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示李子建、秦偉燊香港教育大學摘要自從施政報告於 2014 提倡全面推行生涯規劃教育，生涯規劃教育成為高中教育的一個嶄新領域。政府建議生涯規劃教育應以全校參與模式推行，老師則可以由升學及就業輔導老師逐步過渡至生涯規劃教育老師，扮演協調者、指導者和輔導者的角色。本文嘗試引用一項香港國際比較研究的部份數據，探討老師在生涯規劃教育的角色，以及未來香港生涯規劃教育的發展方向。關鍵詞生涯規劃教育，生涯規劃教育老師，全校參與模式香港生涯規劃教育推行的背景面對全球化及社會日益複雜的環境，新一代的青年需要應對前所未有快速的資訊科技發展及知識增長。加上香港是一個國際大都會，擁有優秀表現的教育系統，可見是一個追求創新的自由經濟城市（Marsh & Lee, 2014）。在這種脈絡下，全球化及知識型經濟下青年需要迎接不同的挑戰，生涯規劃教育的發展將有助培養香港的青年成為創新型人才，提升個人競爭力（李子建、江浩民，2015，頁 94-95）。有見及此，2014年施政報告中首次提及有意全面拓展生涯規劃教育，支援現時學校提供的升學及就業輔導服務。政府建議在 2014/15學年增撥約 50萬的額外經常津貼， 28 _______________ 1 政府同時支援「商校合作計劃」的發展，鼓勵不同的社區組織和工商機構加強合作，協助學生從實習中吸收更多職場經驗，加強中學生理解個人生涯的發展（香港特別行政區政府，2014）。2015年施政報告則提出持續性的支援，推動社區組織和工商機構與學校建立完善的協作系統，驅使不同工商機構和組織及學校參與（香港特別行政區政府，2015，頁 156）。2016年的施政報告中，甚至進一步投放資源，鼓勵更多合約教師變為常額教師職位，兩年後再檢討學校的做法，支援生涯規劃教育與其他有關輔導服務的發展（香港特別行政區政府， 2016，頁 190-191）。 2 教育局的最新指引對生涯規劃教育有以下定義：「生涯規劃不但是一項持續和終身的過程，還可協助學生達成人生不同階段目標。⋯⋯透過生涯規劃教育，培養學生獲得所需知識、技能及態度，連繫學生個人的學業 /事業抱負發展，促成學生全人發展及終身學習的需要，為學生在需要時能夠作出正確的升學和就業選擇。」（教育局，2014a，頁 4-5）。大概相約於一名學位教師職級薪金予學校支援生涯規劃教育的發展，並在繼後的兩年的施政報告中持續加強支援 1，顯示政府對生涯規劃教育的重視，有意將生涯規劃教育成為未來教育發展的重心之一。香港生涯規劃教育的源起，可追溯至《香港教育制度改革建議》中提倡學生應該獲取更多與工作有關的經歷，為未來就業作好準備（教育統籌委員會，2000，頁 17-18）。繼後則進一步將生涯規劃的理念初步提及於新高中課程之中（教育統籌局， 2006，頁 16）。直至 2015年，生涯規劃教育更進一步與職業教育結合，推動香港職業專才教育的發展（推廣職業教育專責小組，2015，頁 12）。教育改革無疑為生涯規劃的推行提供重要基礎，一方面希望學生認識自己的興趣和能力，另一方面可以瞭解未來的職場世界，當中老師仍然最能影響學生的生涯規劃（香港大學民意研究計劃，2015，頁 9）。簡而言之，生涯規劃教育 2不能與事業發展完全切割，兩者是相輔相成。生涯規劃除了觸及個人事業的發展路徑，當中亦包括了不同的生命範疇，例如人際網絡、家庭、學習和工作等。生涯規劃強調生涯抉擇應該深思熟慮，方可令學生從整全（holistic）的角度規劃自己的生涯方向（梁湘明，2005，頁 81）。從教育局最新的文件顯示，現時生涯規劃教育整體成效令人滿意（立法會， 2015，頁 2-3）。超過八成的學校已融入生涯規劃教育的元素，顯示生涯規劃教育已出現範式轉變。學校將採用全面的模式，推動生涯規劃教育，而並非再只屬於發放升學就業資訊的場所（立法會，2015，頁 2-3）。在政府的支援下，生涯規劃教育發展基礎漸趨穩固，局方並承諾會定期檢視業界需要，令香港的生涯規劃教育得以成功。 29 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示生涯規劃教育的演變香港推行生涯規劃教育之前，大多由升學及就業輔導組負責學生的生涯規劃，但傳統上仍側重於升學歷程，對工作歷程的著墨及重視不多（楊家正、鄭立德， 2003，頁 41-42）。一般而言，升學及就業輔導主任的主要職責包括為學生安排個人 / 小組輔導和籌備不同有關升學及就業的活動等（教育署升學及輔導服務組，2002，頁 4）。不過，在全新的生涯規劃教育發展中，需要與升學就業輔導服務互相配合，提供不同類型的服務。有關服務除了提升學生的能力，協助他們作出知情和負責任生涯選擇外，還應加強技能的裝備，使學生能夠在職場中充份發揮個人的潛能，協助學生適應從學校到職場的過渡，促使學生邁向豐盛人生（教育局，2014a，頁 11）。在最新的架構下，升學及就業輔導服務將與生涯規劃教育融合，升學及就業輔導組的角色將變成由整體學校策動。在校本原則下，整體架構將會由學校管理層統籌，升學就業輔導老師、輔導老師，科任老師、班主任、其他學校人員和家長將會擔當其餘諮詢和教育職責。學校需為升學就業輔導人員提供靈活度，鼓勵他們嘗試作出角色或職責上的範式轉變，在此基礎下安排與工作經驗相關的活動，提供與之前不同的全面生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務（教育局，2014a，頁 15）。因此，生涯規劃教育適宜考慮採用「全校參與」的模式，讓不同角色人士包括學校管理層、班主任、科任老師和輔導老師等通力合作。「全校參與」模式是指從不同範疇的互相配合，在校園政策、措施和文化三方面提升整體的教學效能（教育局，2014b，頁 11）。這種模式不但有助加強教師之間的合作，也帶動學生得到廣闊的學習空間，支援不同學生的實際需要（馮育意，2006）。生涯規劃教育在「全校參與」模式推動下，輔導老師主要負責與班主任和其他校內人士協調，關注學生成長路途上的起跌和轉折，協助規劃人生未來的路向，全面發展自己的潛能（香港輔導教師協會， 2014，頁 2-3）。生涯規劃教育老師的角色學生畢業後不論持續升學還是進入職場，兩者均屬於青少年人生的轉捩點（Crites, 1969; Heinz, 2003）。可是有許多的學生未必有妥善的規劃，甚至並不瞭解自己歷程需要作出甚麼決定。教師此時就要適當的引導學生，參與這方面的討論 30 _______________ 3 五大角色分別為升學及職業資訊主任（Career information officer）、教育者（Career educator）、輔導者（Career counsellor）、顧問（Career consultant）和協調者（Career coordinator）。與規劃，作出個人生涯的抉擇。根據 Li（2007, p.7）的研究，香港的職業輔導老師（Career teacher）可分為五大角色 3，但在生涯規劃教育推行之下，一位教師未必能完全發揮所有功能。經作者重新整理，老師在生涯規劃教育中的角色亦出現範式轉變，新的角色將變成協調者（Career coordinator）、指導者（Career facilitator）、和輔導者（Career counsellor），老師理應不會只單一地扮演某一類角色。協調者（Career coordinators）—提升學生參與生涯規劃教育的機會和個人能力若要支援老師建立優良的校園環境，便應採取「全校參與方式」（whole school approach），建立屬於香港模式的學校輔導人員的專業分工和合作（鄭之灝，2006，頁 121）。鑑於生涯規劃需要與各方協調，包括家長、老師、校長、僱主和其他公眾人士，協調者的角色舉足輕重，因為一切制訂生涯規劃教育內容的安排，將全由協調者一手包辦（徐光興，2006，頁 96-97）。身為經常與學生接觸的對象，老師需要更新的升學和就業活動，以其專業的知識和學術經驗，協助學生對其生涯有進一步的理解和規劃外，還要教授應用於職場的實務技能，務求學生的生涯規劃能夠滿足整全的條件（周明蒨，2006，頁 216-218）。老師之間亦可安排不同的專業分享時段，令所有老師最終對生涯規劃概念有基本的瞭解，共同幫助學生規劃人生。指導者（Career facilitators）—經觀察後協助學生找出適合的自我特質與環境需求指導者的角色是需要細心觀察每位學生的不同特質，發掘出學生的自我特質，繼而提供適合學生的歷程方向，以便學生能夠將個人的生涯規劃逐步實踐（劉玉玲， 2007，頁 125-129）。在生涯規劃教育中，老師身為指導者便不應再只是教授知識。老師應透過日常觀察學生所得，致力協助處於生涯探索階段的學生找出各自的人生目標和取向。若要推動學生的生涯發展，老師便需引導學生察覺個人價值觀的不足，擴闊學生的個人的眼界，拓展更寬闊的個人發展空間（吳芝儀，2000，頁 249）。 Super（1990）的事業發展理論中，青少年是從自我概念（self-concept）判斷個人的事業選擇和發展，故每位青少年需要視乎個別的獨特質素以勝任不同類別的工作和職業。既然個人事業探索需要在不同時段實踐，務必借助老師的協助建構自我概念， 31 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示故老師的指導角色不可或缺且非常關鍵，因為學生需要借老師的指導和分析不同的生涯抉擇，從而作出關乎個人生涯的最終決定（葉至誠，2013，頁 154-163）。輔導者（Career counsellors）—協助學生規劃自己的生涯老師輔導工作一貫集中於處理學生個人性格、品德和情緒問題，較少觸及學生個人生涯的發展。生涯規劃教育無疑使老師的輔導工作增添額外功夫，卻是一教學相長的過程。透過與學生進行個人和小組輔導，不但提供機會讓老師與學生交流各自對生涯的觀點，老師亦可從中分享個人過往的生涯經驗，啟導學生對生涯規劃的視野（金樹人，2006，頁 79-82）。進一步而論，老師能夠在輔導的過程中，辨認出學生的性格特徵及學生的職場興趣，引導學生嘗試發掘個人的優劣，尋找適合自己的職業方向。因此，這個角色是眾多角色中最不可或缺，因為學生的生涯規劃可能因時制宜變化，定期的輔導將有助老師緊貼學生的需要，發展出最適合學生的生涯規劃（Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2012）。研究方法回顧香港生涯規劃教育的發展，生涯規劃教育始終處於起步階段，政府推行的方針主要倚賴學校依據校本形式實踐。不過，有關做法是否最為恰當，教育界有不同見解（〈誰明老師心：雞肋的生涯規劃津貼〉，2014；蔡若蓮，2016）。有見及此，本研究團隊正在進行一項城市青年國際研究（International Study of City Youth）。作為一項國際比較研究，城市青年國際研究致力了解世界上不同地方年輕人於學校及學校以外地方的不同人生旅程、不同學校和課程會如何影響他們的人生體驗，特別是了解世界不同城市的中四（或同等）學生有關他們完成中學課程後，對升學、就業及畢業後生活的看法。是次研究於 2013年 12月開始，為期 3年。總共訪問了超過 50所中學，超過 5,000名 15歲的本地中四學生有關他們對其個人畢業之後的選擇方向，以及其擇業條件。之後，再邀請所有中學安排學生和老師參與焦點小組訪問，最終有 11間學校答允參與，接受訪問邀請共有 22名老師（香港教育學院，2016）。本文從中再揀選適合的 2間學校，9位老師的訪談意見作比較個案探討。在 2015年 3月起，研究團隊到訪中學向老師進行焦點小組訪談。每所學校會邀請四至五位老師參與訪談， 32 其中包括一位副校長（專責學生發展）、一位升學及就業輔導（或生涯規劃教育）主任、最少兩位升學及就業輔導（或生涯規劃教育）老師及一位專門處理生涯規劃教育的導師（或助理）。透過與生涯規劃老師進行訪談，部份內容涉及理解現時學校支援生涯規劃教育的情況，探討老師在生涯規劃教育的角色與對生涯規劃教育現況的意見，以及前線老師安排和設計生涯規劃教育課程和活動時遇到的困難和挑戰。寄望藉此建議老師在生涯規劃教育中可以扮演的角色，推動香港未來生涯規劃教育的發展（訪談大綱請見附錄）。每次焦點小組訪談完成後，研究人員會將訪談錄音謄寫成逐字稿。根據內容分析法，將上述老師在生涯規劃教育中角色的三大範疇進行分類及分析，得出老師在現時教學實踐情況下的角色。以下的闡述將根據其中兩間學校的實況作個案探討。研究結果和討論學校一是一所歷史悠久的學校，教學理念是針對貧苦失學的青少年提供接受教育的機會。根據學校文件資料，2014-15學年共開設超過 20班，學生人數約 800人，屬於第一批直接資助學校。學校二是一所成立大約 20年的學校，初期是一所職業先修學校，及後才轉型為文法中學，以提供多元化學習機會為主要教學理念。根據學校文件資料，2014-15學年共開設 20餘班，學生人數約 700人。表一總結了兩所學校 9位老師數據經整理後結果：表一　生涯規劃老師在生涯規劃教育中角色的三大範疇實踐內容生涯規劃老師的角色學校一學校二協調者（Career coordinators） • 生涯規劃教育主任會與生涯規劃老師協調，擬定不同生涯規劃的課程和活動內容。 • 生涯規劃主任邀請家長與學生一同參與考察外國大學，生涯規劃老師會負責與家長聯絡解釋活動的細節安排。 • 生涯規劃主任及老師主責協調如何融合生涯規劃教育概念至日常課程中。 • 生涯規劃組老師經協調後一致同意在高中的課程加入職業導向和課程選擇的內容和更新升學及就業資訊，讓學生認識不同的行業。 33 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示表一　生涯規劃老師在生涯規劃教育中角色的三大範疇實踐內容（續）生涯規劃老師的角色學校一學校二 • 生涯規劃老師會共同負責安排與工作有關的經驗（CRE）的課節，是一門與職業有關的課程。 • 生涯規劃老師安排和鼓勵學生參與不同活動，共同監督學生的營商體驗，提升學生自信。指導者（Career facilitators） • 班主任與生涯規劃師一同處理學生在生涯規劃的疑難，具有互補作用。 • 高中學科老師會分享個人經歷引導及鼓勵學生尋找適合他們自己人生範疇的目標，學生亦會因較為熟絡而主動求助。 • 班主任在學生參加職場考察後，會向學生指導其可行的生涯規劃方向。 • 考察外國大學之後，班主任和生涯規劃老師與家長和學生共同商討學生的未來生涯發展。 • 生涯規劃老師會提醒學生要選讀一些自己有興趣的科目，或從事自己有興趣的工作。 • 高中學科老師致力發掘及維持學生的學習興趣和科目興趣。 • 生涯規劃老師會從不同的行業人員分享中，鼓勵學生應該對有興趣的行業多作清晰瞭解，以及參與不同的職場體驗活動和行業講座分享。輔導者（Career counsellors） • 經班主任建議和鼓勵，學生會願意找生涯規劃師尋求輔導。 • 學生向生涯規劃師要求協助向家長解釋有關他們的生涯抉擇。 • 高中學科老師、班主任及生涯規劃師在學生有需要時，會提供生涯輔導。 • 設立中六級學生個別輔導計劃（face-to-face counselling），高中學科老師可以近距離圍繞升學和就業問題和學生進行輔導，每次 15 分鐘。 • 生涯規劃教育主任會為進行輔導的老師提供指引，方便高中和科任老師輔導學生。 • 高中學科老師因應學生的選擇，在每個月各自進行一次輔導，協助學生訂立生涯目標，指引學生的實踐方向。從訪談結果所得，兩間學校的老師在協調者角色的演繹上有所不同。學校一協調的重任將落在生涯規劃主任及老師身上。生涯規劃主任會與生涯規劃老師協調， 34 擬定不同生涯規劃的課程和活動內容。主任亦會保持與家長聯絡和溝通，以家校合作的模式推動生涯規劃，因為家長對於學生出國升學的抉擇影響力較大。生涯規劃老師則提供支援，負責與家長聯絡解釋活動的細節安排。生涯規劃老師亦會共同負責與工作有關的經驗（Career-related Experience, CRE）的課節，有系統地展示不同的升學途徑，當中有本地和外國的升學資料，亦有分自資院校和資助院校。學校二的生涯規劃主任及老師主責協調如何融合生涯規劃教育概念至日常課程中。生涯規劃教育融入德育課程後，初中的課程內容會集中個人成長、面對前路如何作出抉擇和認識自我優劣，高中的課程會加入職業導向和課程選擇方面，讓學生認識不同的行業。一切生涯規劃的活動安排，均交由生涯規劃老師負責，監督學生的參與成效。從中可見，學校一注重家長與學生之間的互動對學生生涯發展的關係，學校二則將生涯規劃概念融入在課程和活動中，期望學生能夠觸類旁通。根據訪談資料，學校一將由高中老師擔當學科前途的指導者，負責指導學生的學業和就業前景發展，班主任則負責學生的自我成長發展階段。受訪老師表示，學生的規劃方向採取務實角度，中四的時候對自己的前途較為模糊，中六時由於臨近公開試，抉擇方向愈趨清晰。高中老師和班主任的作用，就是從旁觀察後，引導學生在四方八面的資訊中，為自己的生涯抉擇訂下目標。在家校合作模式中，亦會由生涯規劃老師、生涯規劃師和班主任一同為家長分憂，分析學生面對不同生涯抉擇的影響，顯示生涯規劃老師、生涯規劃師和班主任除了需要面對學生的生涯疑問，還有家長方面的疑問。學校二則由高中老師和生涯規劃老師擔當指導者，從發掘學生的個人興趣為主要目標，指導學生作出最適合的抉擇。生涯規劃老師會提醒學生要選讀一些自己有興趣的科目，或從事自己有興趣的工作。知識傳授方面，學校最近一年曾邀請婚禮統籌師、寵物美容師、領犬員等社會上不同行業的從業員分享行業背景和資訊，期望讓學生知道社會上的職業十分多元化。從不同的行業人員分享中，生涯規劃老師和班主任會鼓勵學生應該對有興趣的行業多作清晰瞭解，以及參與不同的職場體驗活動和行業講座分享，在生涯規劃老師和班主任的協助下規劃及制訂最後的生涯抉擇。受訪老師表示，參加「學校起動計劃」後，整體學生的發展漸趨成熟，生涯規劃老師和班主任能夠指導予參與學生需要注意地方，作為一寶貴的工作和人生體驗。生涯規劃老師和班主任的指導者角色已不再局限於指導學生有關職場的技能的重要性，還包括監察學生的身心得以健康發展。 35 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示從學校一的老師訪談中，透視了生涯規劃師擔當和家長學生之間的橋樑。在班主任的建議和鼓勵下，學生會願意找生涯規劃師尋求輔導，甚至向生涯規劃師要求協助向家長解釋有關他們的生涯抉擇，故師生之間的信任度對生涯輔導的成效和推行有關鍵影響。學校的生涯規劃的課程方向是以達致學生全人發展為目標，全校參與模式下老師一同擔當輔導者角色。這種全人發展的框架，全體老師的輔導角色非常重要，因為將陪伴學生最重要的生涯發展階段。學校二的生涯輔導特色，是設立中六級學生個別輔導計劃（face-to-face counselling），高中學科、生涯規劃主任和老師可以近距離圍繞升學和就業問題和學生進行輔導，每次 15分鐘。老師輔導前，生涯規劃主任會為進行輔導的老師提供指引，方便高中學科老師、生涯規劃主任和老師輔導學生。高中學科老師因應學生的選擇，在每個月各自進行一次輔導，協助學生訂立生涯目標，指引學生的實踐方向。受訪老師認為，每一位老師在學生的生涯規劃中都擔當重任，故此生涯規劃不應只針對中六學生。除了生涯規劃老師，班主任由於在中一至中六都負責同一班學生，在六年過程中不斷啓導學生成長和思考人生，在他們不同的選擇中提供意見，儘管班主任的角色並不明顯，卻是不可或缺。綜合訪談所得，老師在生涯規劃角色的最大挑戰，除了取消了 50萬的額外津貼，主要是輔導者與協調者的角色難以有效執行。受訪老師明確指出，生涯輔導成效其實需要多方面的配合才可成功。首先學生要願意尋求協助，其次老師要有額外的時間為學生進行輔導，還要老師和學生的時間能夠互相遷就。然而，事與願違的情況較為明顯，因為學生普遍積極性不足，減少學生接受輔導的機會，加上學生為應付公開試需要溫習和補課，難以強迫學生接受輔導，使輔導成果可能事倍功半。老師的工作量繁多，大多同時兼任不同的行政職位和工作，加上本身的教學工作，對老師工作量而言是百上加斤，令老師分身不暇。由於各自時間未必能互相吻合，老師只能在其餘閑時間主動多與學生交流，一同商討其生涯發展，對生涯輔導的實踐及發展帶來負面影響。老師有心擔當學生的生涯輔導者，卻心有餘而力不足，故專責處理生涯規劃的老師便顯得十分關鍵，因為專責的老師有助減輕其他老師於生涯規劃教育中的工作量。在協調者的角色當中，當中最大困難是要協調與事各方以全校參與的模式推動生涯規劃教育。有生涯規劃主任表示，倘若想推行全新的生涯規劃項目，除了資源 36 上的限制，老師的配合是較為困難。由於現時老師的工作量已經非常繁重，往往不願花太多時間推動新項目，亦不願意因應項目製訂相應的教材和工具。譬如推行個別輔導時，有生涯輔導老師明言不熟悉具體的執行細節，生涯規劃主任便要為有關老師準備輔導問題及範圍外，亦需要制訂生涯輔導指引和最新升學就業概覽的補充資料供輔導老師參考，對生涯規劃主任是一種莫大的負擔。另外，生涯規劃老師往往面對學生和家長對生涯抉擇意見分歧時，均處於一尷尬的狀態，有時難以達致面面俱圓的效果。這時候，生涯規劃主任擔當協調角色時，便需盡力平衡各方面對生涯規劃教育內容的期望，卻未必每次能達致雙贏的效果。同時，老師對於生涯規劃教育內的分工可能持有不同的意見時，生涯規劃主任便擔當斡旋者的角色，令生涯規劃主任有時出現「左右做人難」的狀況。總結與啟示從上述的研究和討論中，不但呈現職業輔導老師角色的範式轉變將如何有效推動生涯規劃教育的發展，亦闡述學校支援生涯規劃教育的現況。因應現時的發展方向，老師除需要協助學生開始個人的生涯規劃，還要致力與其專業發展融合而促使生涯規劃教育邁向多元化和推動社區與學校的協作，老師的橋樑角色應是未來生涯規劃教育發展的重點（何瑞珠、姜培芝、楊鎮偉、李文浩，2015）。隨著生涯規劃教育鼓勵以校本的形式運作，容許學校彈性處理是否最明智的做法？綜合老師訪談結果，本文嘗試建議老師於生涯規劃教育角色上的範式轉變，應用於現時的教學實踐情況： 1. 生涯規劃主任和老師可加強協調者的角色：由於生涯規劃老師較為熟悉生涯規劃教育的概念，他們亦是主要負責安排生涯規劃的課程和活動，因此，生涯規劃主任和老師可嘗試協調各方的要求，調整各方的合理期望和工作內容。譬如針對學生的需要提供升學和就業資訊外，亦能安排相關的工作實習和「就業影子計劃」，增加學生接觸職場的體驗。生涯規劃主任和老師亦需要就生涯規劃的課程和內容深入討論，制訂不同的工作計劃，達致合理的分工，協調非生涯規劃組的老師的工作量，才有效達致全校參與的目標，吸引非生涯規劃組的老師參與推行生涯規劃教育。當家長對學生生涯規劃有疑問，生涯 37 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示規劃主任和老師亦應嘗試擔當家長和學生之間的溝通橋樑，處理家長與學生對生涯目標的分歧。 2. 高中學科和班主任可加強指導者的角色：由於班主任班務繁重，未必可全面兼顧學生的生涯發展需要，故高中學科老師便能夠彌補當中不足。高中老師由於熟悉學生的學科表現，在幫助學生選取合適的就讀科目將較為適當，可為學生的個人生涯奠定良好基礎。並就其長期觀察所得，對學生的生涯進展提供意見，甚至運用個人在個別學科的經驗，回應學生於升學或就業的提問。譬如語文科的老師，可考慮教授撰寫履歷和求職信的技巧；歷史或地理科的老師，則可從課程內容出發，透過介紹歷史的痕跡或現時全球化的發展，協助學生發掘對個人生涯發展的觀點。相反，班主任的主要職責是觀察其所屬班別學生的個人成長情況，在有需要時擔任勸說及關心的前線人員角色。因此，推行生涯規劃教育後，班主任需要協力推行生涯輔導計劃，與負責升學及就業輔導老師合作與學生一同籌備生涯規劃。 3. 全體老師可加強輔導者的角色：在全校參與的原則下，生涯規劃就不再局限於由升學及就業輔導組和輔導組負責。故除繼續由升學及就業輔導組和輔導組攜手籌辦綜合性的升學就業輔導計劃，協助學生瞭解個人於升學及就業發展的需要外，全體老師均應考慮定期參與學生的生涯輔導，協助學生在個人的生涯規劃中，滲透相關的元素，讓學生的生涯成長得到充份的指導。學校亦可舉辦幫助學生了解個人生涯發展和生涯規劃技巧的活動，期望學生得以認識自我優劣，在升學或就業方面作出正確的生涯抉擇。參考英國經驗 4，香港以校本形式推行生涯規劃教育，應優先處理高中老師及升學就業輔導老師的裝備，確保生涯規劃教育得以持續拓展。在生涯規劃教育的新範式下，老師將會有多重的角色，而非再單一地引導學生學習及規劃。故此，老師對生涯規劃概念的理解是否充份於教學，將與其專業發展息息相關。回顧現時的專 _______________ 4 英國於 2012年推行改革，將生涯教育和輔導重新納入於校本課程管理的範疇後，研究顯示成效亦遠較改革之前欠佳。學校因預算、時間限制和人手不足，根本未能有效推行新模式的生涯教育和輔導（Youth Employment UK, 2015）；僱主亦同意並非正規課程下，老師往往缺乏足夠支援與商界合作安排學生接受職場技巧的培訓和實習機會，削弱學生個人的競爭力（Career Development Institute, 2015）。 38 業支援措施。除了 50萬的額外津貼及增加生涯規劃教育的培訓名額至 240名外，其他的配套支援相應缺乏，加上培訓對老師帶來壓力，這將成生涯規劃教育未來發展的一大挑戰（余卓希、李晉榮，2015）。長遠而言，如何嚮應政府要求由專業人員主要處理生涯規劃的教育工作，達成分擔老師工作量的目標，將成未來討論重點（香港輔導教師協會，2014）。因應現時推行生涯規劃的情況，未來生涯規劃教育的發展方向應該集中深入探討生涯規劃教育的理念，發揮「全校參與方式」和校本形式的優勢。加上大多數老師未曾接受專門的生涯規劃教育的訓練，職業輔導老師的壓力也比一般老師嚴重（袁文得、陳子康、劉兆瑛、于璐、陳茂釗、Gyshers、佘文基，2010；Yagi, 2008）。故此，採用「全校參與方式」有助增加各人在有關方面的交流，達致融合式生涯規劃教育的目標，推動校本生涯規劃教育方向。校方管理層和老師需要協商如何平衡生涯規劃教育和日常教學帶來的工作量失衡的問題，以推動老師成立校本生涯規劃教育的「專業學習社群」，支援老師的持續專業發展方向，提升老師於生涯規劃教育的專業水平（陳茂釗，2012，頁 10-12）。長遠而言，與事各方需探討老師如何與專業人員合作，一同發展生涯規劃教育，甚至長遠考慮是否將生涯規劃教育獨立成科，以及參考美國的做法培訓專業的生涯輔導教師，化解現時老師專業水平的不足和工作量繁重未能兼顧生涯規劃教育的死結，促使學生從生涯規劃教育啟迪個人的全人發展（吳芝儀，2005，頁 7-8）。鳴謝本文為「城市青年國際研究：香港部份」（International study of city youth）及香港研究資助局優配研究金（General Research Fund）資助「為都市青年持續進修及就業做好準備：一個涉及香港的國際研究」」（Preparing urban youth for further study and careers: an international study involving Hong Kong）（編號：HKIEd 843212）項目的部分成果。同時，亦要鳴謝參與研究的所有學校，及當中 9位老師寶貴的經驗分享，以及專業評審的意見反饋。 39 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示參考文獻〈誰明老師心：雞肋的生涯規劃津貼〉（2014，6月 24日）。《太陽報》。取自 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Young people’s experience of careers education: A youth employment UK report. Retrieved from www.yeuk.org.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2015/01/YEUK-Careers-Education-Report-2015.pdf 42 附錄教師焦點小組訪談問題（節錄與本文相關的問題） 1. 在甚麼程度上，學校 /校內老師 /就業輔導老師 /父母 /同學或同輩，曾幫助 /曾給建議 /曾協助你的學生為中學畢業後的升學和工作做準備？ A. 在這方面，你曾做些甚麼？ B. 貴校現有甚麼相關支援 /輔導 /課程 /活動？ C. 還有甚麼額外的支援會對同學有所幫助？請列舉一些示例。 2. 學生在中四至中六級選擇『選修科目』時，受甚麼因素影響 ? 請具體解釋這些因素為甚麼對他們尤其重要？ 3. 你的學生有甚麼願望 /志趣？ 4. 你認為你的學生會考慮 /喜歡甚麼樣的工作或受訓的機會？為甚麼？你覺得你大部分的學生獲得專上教育的機會如何？ 43 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 Teachers’ perspective on the role of career and life planning teachers: Implications for career and life planning education in Hong Kong LEE Chi Kin John & CHUN Wai Sun Derek The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract The recent introduction of Career and Life Planning Education (CLPE) around 2014 in Hong Kong has become an educational agenda in senior secondary schools. There are calls for the implementation of a whole-school approach and the gradual change of career teachers to career planning teachers who can assume the roles of career coordinators, career facilitators and career counsellors. In this paper, the roles of teachers in career and life planning education are explored with reference to data from an international project conducted in Hong Kong. The implications for future CLPE are also discussed. Keywords Career and life planning education, Career and life planning education teachers, whole- school approach 44 45 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究梁麗嬋、潘晨健、簡永東、婁聖軻創意教師協會摘要本研究採用了個體—環境配合（P-E fit）及生態系統理論，為高中生涯規劃設計了跨科議題教材，並於通識科正規課堂試行。經歷了兩所中學四班高中學生的實踐，研究結果顯示這套教材能有效提升學生對生涯規劃的認知，同時改善學生的情意態度。學生能在互動參與的議題探究中掌握個人與社會生態系統的聯繫，有效讓他們知己知彼，掌握個人能力、興趣與方向，並認知香港、中國與國際社會等全球化因素對青少年職場發展的影響，為生涯規劃作反思性的準備。關鍵詞生涯規劃，議題為本探究，跨科思考，通識教育甲、前言為回應近年社會發展的需要，本港政府自 2014-2015學年起資助中學推行生涯規劃教育，旨在鼓勵中學生為未來發展作出思考及規劃（香港特別行政區政府， 2014，頁105）。過去，坊間所推行的生涯規劃普遍著重以輔導、諮商心理學（Juntunen & Even, 2012）等領域導引學生掌握個人能力、興趣與方向，而較少從職場環境、多元系統關係等互動方面作探討（Kang & Gottfredson, 2015）。學校多以非正規課程的輔導方式向學生傳達生涯規劃的概念，學生未必能完整和靈活性地運用跨系統知識 46 為生涯的規劃作反思準備。基於上述的觀察，2014年本會研究和設計了一系列結合生涯規劃及跨系統議題探究教材，於通識科正規課堂上試行。下文將以 2014-2015 年度於兩所中學四班高中學生的實踐及量化與質性的行動研究數據結果為基礎，反思以跨系統議題作生涯規劃能否有助其生涯規劃的探求。乙、文獻回顧從議題探究到跨科思考 Nelson（1996）指出議題探究的教學模式始於二十世紀二十年代的美國。議題探究早期主要應用在社會學的課程上，旨在透過選取一些具爭議性的社會議題為課程的教學探究內容，要求學生分析及評論有關議題。教學的過程並不著重學生的最終答案，反而學生如何處理及分析議題才是箇中的關鍵。議題探究重視學生自主建構的推論過程，一改過往囫圇吞棗、不重批判思考的教學模式，從而培育具深思熟慮及批判思考的公民。Nelson亦指出議題探究很大程度上建基於活動為本的教學模式，因為議題往往與個人、人文、社會科學的世界密不可分，當中的知識總是存有一定的模糊性（fuzziness）、視野性（perspectives）及建構性（constructionist）。Hahn （1996）指出議題探究是假設了知識並不是恆久不變，由於社會上的議題日新月異，所以在建構知識的教學過程中，教師需要建立有利於學生探究的真實情境任務及問題為本的設計（Audet & Jordan, 2005）。假如欠缺了這個學習情境，不管教學步驟有多仔細，學習成效都會事倍功半。要有效實踐議題探究，需要一個具探究性、開放討論和意見表達的班房環境。議題探究必須建基於師生間互動的基礎（Acedo & Hughes, 2014），由教師規劃搭建鷹架，讓學生從活動、交流、探究中掌握基本技能及知識，引發學生自主建構學習的動機、信心與情緒。而且，實踐議題探究亦需要真實的議題情境，而情境本身往往涉及不同的層面或系統，所以學生必須運用跨系統思考，才能宏觀地審視整個社會生態環境，多角度地掌握議題的核心或爭議點。的確，世界與事物可視為由不同系統組成，系統與系統之間存在相互依存與相互作用的多元關係（Senge, 1990）。跨科思考是指由一個宏觀的角度出發，了解不同系統之間互為影響的關係及概念，並掌握當中事物轉變與模型建構的過程與規律，以梳理和解決社會各項爭議（陶兆 47 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究輝、劉遠章，2011）。個體—環境配合（Person-Environment [P-E] fit）理論（French, Rodgers, & Cobb, 1974）假設人們尋求或營造適合個人發揮的環境，人與環境越協調便越有成就。那是雙向互動與不斷發展的個人塑造環境，環境亦同時塑建個人（Rounds & Tracy, 1990）的歷程。個體與環境的吻合協調能提升滿足感、效能感、熱誠等正面效果。布朗芬布倫納（Bronfenbrenner, 1979）的生態系統理論便認為個體成長過程受著五個系統（微系統、中間系統、外系統、宏觀系統及時間系統）關聯套疊所影響。那可理解為個體被家庭、朋輩、學校、社區、大眾傳播媒體、法律、多元文化等方面包圍，互動感染，朋輩、社會、國家與國際社會等之不同系統與系統之間互相依存與作用，長遠地影響個體於社會生態環境發展。生態系統理論展示學生個體直接與間接地受生態環境強弱大小、短期與長期所影響。因此，個體的生涯規劃內在受個人的體質與心態、能力、個性傾向、興趣、動機與價值觀等所影響，外在則受上述由近至遠的家庭、學校、地區性與全球化等社會生態環境所影響。何謂生涯規劃？隨著不同年代社會的變化，生涯規劃的概念亦不斷更新。生涯規劃可以理解為一個深思熟慮的過程，讓人能整全規劃一生，包括生命中一些重要範疇，如工作、學習、人際關係（梁湘明、黃美微、李淑賢、林建榮，2002）。有效的生涯規劃是一個刻意的過程，要求當事人反省和思考，了解自己，清楚自己處身的環境和限制，排列優次，訂出目標，並以行動實踐（梁湘明，2005）。杜威主張從體驗中學習，提供群組學習與自主學習的機會以助個人成長。維高斯基主張鷹架學習過程，拉近學習者個人能力與潛在發展區的距離，以助學生生涯規劃。波普（Pope, 2015）更指出當今已發達地區數碼時代的青年學生已進入追求自身自主生命設計需求的時代，導師若能從旁透過小故事建構導入，敘事模式的角色認同重構，與及群組互動共構心目中的生命場景，更能導引學子有效生涯的發展。時任輔導教師協會主席徐恩祖（星島日報，2014）也指生涯規劃不僅是傳統上輔導學生升學及就業，更重要是引領他們規劃人生。李子建和江浩民（2015）以立體圖展示學校生涯規劃教育的模式可分三個度向及六個維度，並建議成為下一階段學校教育變革的重心之一。教育局生涯規劃網頁提供自我認識與發展、事業探索、生涯規劃與管理三個元素，並提出 V PASS理念，強調價值觀、技能、態度、自我了解與多元途徑的規劃路徑（教育局， 2015）。 48 基於文獻閱讀與分析，本研究教材便以上述意念設計，並作研究試行。生涯規劃的教學不單只是教授學生具體知識，認知自己所需，更包括學生對身處現今社會、以至國家、世界的一種洞察力掌握。丙、課程理念及構建《通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》以三大範疇與六大單元內容所組成，涵蓋生態環境理論的五個系統，與個體生涯規劃的需要息息相關，其學習模式採用議題探究，以此作為通識教育科課程內容及教學法的主要取向（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2007）。當中，課程指引內文提及「議題」之詞更多達 209 次，可謂本科的核心所在。基於通識教育科的教學法、P-E fit理論與及生態系統理論，本課程教材結合生涯規劃與議題探究，並運用宏觀的個人、社會、國家與世界系統關聯概念，以及微觀的個人及人際關係單元，作為本教材的學理基礎（附錄一圖）。課程強調議題只是一個導引學生深化思考，從多角度考慮問題的平台，導引性建構學習過程才是關鍵。所以，課程著重學生如何由自身個人特質與周遭不同系統動態發展，產生職業種類的要求與變化，預測與理解人力資源於 21世紀全球化、訊息化、多元化的影響下，如何更有效建構其生涯規劃（Kolb, 1984）。由於學生生活在香港當下獨特的地理、經濟、文化與政治環境，課程規劃者與導師需要探究處身高素質、高開放、高競爭的多元職場系統環境下，其價值意識當如何調適配合。例如行行出狀元、自我潛能發揮、生命意義探求、終身學習等動力追求。當中掌握個人與集體、微觀與宏觀、小格局與大格局、歷史文化與脈絡等多元系統思維向度與素養將有助構建有效的生涯規劃步驟，導引學生認識個人特質（知己）、客觀掌握外在世界與職場發展變化（知彼）、懂得反思與抉擇，從而訂立目標與作出行動，追求自主人生。學生是社會的未來，課程的目標在提昇學生的學習動機與趣味，同時提昇其思維素質。生涯規劃重視個人成長、生活探求、認知境況、職業定向與價值追求（見圖一）。透過認識理解、探索發現、想像創造、感覺評價與實踐應用的建構過程，令學生達致學會生活、學會思考、學會應用與學會尊重，知己知彼，最終成為具理性與方向、社會觸覺與識見的生涯規劃決策者。 49 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究圖一生涯規劃建構學習概念圖教學策略上，本研究設計五個以生涯規劃為主題的議題（附錄一：教學設計大綱），配合導引問題，建構活動包涵具體豐富的教材內容，利用自我反思活動表、群組議題探究、角色扮演、故事實例、數據訊息分析、遊戲與模擬活動過程等，加深學生對自身的認識及影響其職業發展的因素的理解，從而梳理自身職業志趣與發展的取向。課程規劃圍繞自我了解與外在社會、國家、全球人力資源與行業變化為學習重點。甲校以「掌握個人生涯規劃是避免成為隱蔽青年的最佳良方？」；乙校以「掌握個人生涯規劃有助社會上流的機會？」主導議題作為探究主軸，並配合五個支軸議題。第一教節提供周哈里窗（Luft & Ingham, 1955）作自我反思及同學互評、個性特質測試（Holland, 1997）以理解個人六大職業型格傾向、職業價值標購活動反思自身價值傾向、以短片及簡報展示馬斯洛個人成長需要（Maslow, 1954），讓學生思考個人能力、興趣與職業價值取向（知己）。第二至四教節透過生態系統理論鷹架僱員與僱主求職角色扮演、資歷架構層階探究、內地升學論壇與模擬全球化下企業代表爭議利潤份額分配討論等活動。第五教節則以一個冒險尋寶藏的題材作結，旨在協助學生開始探索出路的不同可能，並作出抉擇及行動計劃，以完善整個生涯規劃。 50 課程應用與拓展了廣為使用的 Holland生涯類型基本理論（1959, 1973），並將本港的資歷架構（教育局，2016）具體概念與示例，緊扣思維能力發展 Bloom Taxonomy學理（Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001）的應用，加入與擴充了「通達」的人才最高階次，以吻合 21世紀社會發展人才培育與發揮的需要。人力資源傾向與生涯規劃價值標構設計上則參考麥肯錫的 T型管理人力資源概念，提出專才型、通才型、務實型及消遙型的類別。課程的深度與廣度互為引證，要求施教者對課程的深度掌握與靈活應用。課程採用的人力資源特質與思維層階參考應用布魯姆教育目標修訂分類表（Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001）的理論再加以變化，以顯示職場客觀規律的特點與變化（圖二）。圖二　人力資源概念圖丁、研究過程與方法本研究採用量性與質性混合模式，利用學生前後測問卷作比對，輔以最終問卷調查作學生學習觀感分析（附錄二）。在質性方面，研究員從旁觀察與訪問不同持分者意見（包括學生、課程施教者、課程設計者、科任教師等），並加以整理分析，作課程成效的驗證。七級通達六級創新五級：判斷四級：分析三級：應用二級：理解一級：記憶表現能力及稀缺度 Bloom’s Taxonomy (Revised) Anderson & Krathwohl (2011) Modified by LEUNG Lai-sim (2014) (A)通才：通達人事的規率變化，靈活承擔與決策 (B)專才：把握某領域高深模型規律，原創性發揮 (C)務實拼搏者：樂於接受指導，完成指標任務 (D)消遙人：沒有能力/意願/需要從事職場工作中介者大量及容易替代稀缺及不容易替代 51 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究研究問題：以議題探究為本的生涯規劃能否有效導引學生作跨系統思考？焦點問題： 1）學生能否掌握與生涯規劃相關的基本概念？ 2）課程活動有助學生對生涯規劃課程有正面的回應？ 3）參與設計與施教者對課程作有效反思與回應？研究對象：兩所本地中學共四班中四及中五級同學（可用問卷數量 n=116）參與本次研究。學校以第三組別收生為主體，同屬一區邀請下自願參與。參與學生主要來自精英班。其中中四級有 101人，中五級有 25人。平均年齡 16歲（SD=1.34）。於香港和內地出生者各佔一半。評估方式、指標與預期成效：預期成效評估指標評估方式學生能夠掌握生涯規劃相關的基本概念學生前後測有（p<.01）數據上的進步前測及後測問卷參與學生對整體課程有正面的回應學生總結性評估問卷平均值（M>3）學生總結性回饋問卷參與師生對課程有正面的回應正面口頭或文字回饋訪問或問題回應戊、研究結果及分析前後測問卷分別在活動前和完成後填寫（見附錄三）。問卷分三部分（認知6條、情意態度 8條、行為表現 3條）。問題評分以很不同意、略不同意、無意見、略為同意和非常同意劃分，並以 1至 5分表示。Cronbach alpha信度測試顯示三部分有良好信度（認知α=.79，情意態度α=.75，行為表現α=.82）。另外，總結性問卷有 10條問題，讓學生對課程作 1至 5分的評分。下文將以SPSS（見表一及表二）及百分率（見附錄四）數據作相關分析的佐證，藉以論證生涯規劃議題探究能否有效導引學生作跨系統思考。 52 表一　活動前後整體學生三大類型（認知、情感態度和行為）的自評轉變 N=116 前測 M(SD) 後測 M(SD) t p 認知 1. 我認識自己的職業取向。 2. 我認識個人的特點與素質。 3. 我了解本港社會職場流動的現況。 4. 我認識國家發展帶給青少年的機遇與挑戰。 5. 我認識全球化帶來升學與就業的影響。 6. 我認識本港現行生涯規劃的路徑認知總分情意態度 7. 我樂於與別人溝通。 8. 我願意從多角度思考未來的出路。 9. 我能體會與接納不同價值觀所帶來的差異。 10. 職業無分貴賤，行行出狀元。 11. 我認為個人的素質決定自己的前路。 12. 自己的前途由自己來創造。 13. 青年人對社會是有承擔的。 14. 機會是留給有準備的人的。情意態度總分行為表現 15. 我能靈活變通地思考與處理問題。 16. 我能承擔責任，為未來作好準備。 17. 我能尊重客觀事實，作出合理推論與抉擇。行為表現總分 3.69 (1.01) 3.84 (1.01) 3.08 (1.02) 3.55 (1.06) 3.73 (1.00) 3.07 (0.98) 3.49 (0.71) 3.99 (1.00) 4.15 (0.90) 4.09 (0.86) 4.20 (0.99) 3.96 (0.92) 4.40 (0.86) 4.16 (0.81) 4.42 (0.91) 4.16 (0.56) 3.78 (0.84) 3.80 (0.90) 4.04 (0.83) 3.87 (0.73) 3.87 (1.06) 3.97 (0.96) 3.64 (1.00) 3.74 (1.05) 3.92 (0.88) 3.64 (0.97) 3.80 (0.72) 4.16 (0.85) 4.09 (0.86) 4.21 (0.84) 4.33 (0.91) 4.38 (0.70) 4.40 (0.83) 4.13 (0.91) 4.46 (0.80) 4.28 (0.60) 3.92 (0.84) 3.93 (0.96) 4.08 (0.84) 3.94 (0.76) 1.22 1.01 4.21 1.35 1.43 4.49 3.10 1.37 1.02 1.01 1.02 3.72 0.00 0.33 0.40 1.64 1.27 0.21 0.40 0.72 ns ns <.001 ns ns <.001 0.002 ns ns ns ns <.001 ns ns ns 0.105 ns ns ns 0.48 表一結果發現，不論學生的認知層面，還是情意態度的層面，除了 8, 12和 13 項之外，後測同意與非常同意的百分率都較前測呈上升的趨勢，後測的非常同意百份率除了 12和 13之外，都有上升（附錄四表一），當中認知層面比情意態度的層面呈較大的升幅。表一數據分析，在認知層面上，結果顯示「我了解本港社會職場流動的現況」的前測分數為 3.08（SD=1.02），課程後自評提升至 3.64（SD=1.00）（t=4.21, p<.001）；「我認識本港現行生涯規劃的路徑」的前後測分數依次為 3.07 53 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究（SD=0.98）及 3.64（SD=0.97）（t=4.49, p<.001）。整體認知部分前後測問題的數據，都有顯著的提升（t=3.10, p<.01）。結果發現兩所中學的學生都認同課程令其更掌握與生涯規劃相關的知識概念，引證透過本教材的議題探究，學生對與生涯規劃相關的基礎知識概念有所提升。施教者亦對議題探究深化學生的知識概念作肯定，其中一名施教者稱：課程在很大程度上有助深化學生的通識概念。例如學生需要引用自尊五感、社會流動性、隱蔽青年的概念分析單元一的課題。大多數學生都能在課堂上以口述形式回應自尊五感，並以社會流動性來量度及分析自身在生涯規劃上的路徑。研究結果正如 Nelson（1996）所指，議題能發揮建構學生知識基礎的作用，促進學生自主建構的推論過程。在情意態度的層面上，如表二所示，各項評分平均都接近 4分（5分為滿分），其中最高分的為「我理解機會留給有準備的人」（M=4.26, SD=.85）。另外，「我認為個人的素質決定自己的前路」有顯著的提升，由 3.96（SD=0.92）上升至 4.38 （SD=0.7）（t=3.72, p<.001），其餘項目並沒有明顯轉變。研究結果發現即使大部分的項目並沒有明顯轉變，但學生比以往更深信個人的素質決定自己的前路。這反映教材中個體與環境的吻合協調能提升學生對自己個人素質的敏覺力（French, Rodgers, & Cobb, 1974），令他們更能梳理個人與系統之間的多元變化關係，以個人素質適應社會的轉變，掌握自己的前路。另一方面，由於態度或品德情意方面的培育是細水長流的過程，所以即使學生在其餘情意態度的項目上沒有數據上明顯轉變，都是可以理解的。 54 表二　總體學生整體課程的認同程度 Mean (SD) (1-5) 1. 課程有助我認知個人職業的取向 2. 個人職業取向取決於自身的興趣、能力與態度 3. 全球化下國家進一步開放加劇本港橋型工種的現象 4. 我掌握橋型工種帶給青年人上流抉擇的影響 5. 課程啟發我知己知彼的重要性 6. 我理解機會留給有準備的人 7. 課程串通社會、國家、世界與個人發展的關係 8. 課程有助我學習通識科各單元議題的動力 9. 課程給與我不少反思與探究的機會 10. 我推介本課程及下學年同學 3.93 (0.91) 4.10 (0.86) 3.84 (0.89) 3.83 (0.94) 3.96 (0.86) 4.26 (0.85) 3.97 (0.83) 3.85 (0.90) 3.94 (0.88) 3.76 (1.18) 在跨系統思考方面，綜觀學生的整體反應及回饋（見表二），學生大多認為生涯規劃議題探究能有效導引他們跨系統思考。例如大部分學生均同意「課程串通社會、國家、世界與個人發展的關係」（M=3.97, SD=.83）及「課程給與我不少反思與探究的機會」（M=3.94, SD=.88）。而且，透過課堂錄映及研究員從旁觀察，結果反映教師與學生在議題探究時經常以提問、小組活動或探究問題為主導，學生經常參與活動及反思（見附錄五）。例如，透過個性測量及價值標購活動，學生對自身及社會不同的角色作深入的瞭解；內地升學論壇鼓勵學生掌握內地的升學資訊；模擬面試令學生了解不同職業的資歷架構；構思「我的藏寶圖」令學生以探險人生情景啟發思考與綜合運用課程所得，規劃未來發展方向（見附錄六）。所有活動以認識與理解知識內容為基礎，讓學生想像個體與環境結合，鷹架探索發現、反思評價及實踐應用的學習過程，從而掌握與理解個人處身於多元的外在環境內如何作出反應與抉擇。課程完結，其中一位受訪學生表示：「教學內容與通識科有直接的關係，都是探討社會的問題……最終都與個人有關。」；「（課程）幫助清晰個人未來的路向。對尋寶藏圖活動最深刻。……應該準備不同的方法才能找到自己要的寶藏……。」另一位學生說：「只要 DSE 考取 17 分，擁有一定的表演技能便可申請演藝學院。如果不能入，可申請藝員訓練班。…… 55 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究這五節課令我更明確目標，知道自己要走的方向。」當詢問課程對他們有何得著時，一位學生說：「知道自己要成為專才，要作好準備。」一名施教者反思時也稱：「不少學生都在課堂上指出現今的職場狀況受全球影響，而本港商家的定位亦同時影響自己的職業取向，所以我覺得學生的視野很廣闊，能看懂事物在全球化下的變化及規律。」由此可見，研究結果與跨系統思考的目標吻合，學生比以往更關注系統與系統之間互為影響的關係（陶兆輝、劉遠章，2011）。以生態系統理念鷹架生涯規劃議題探究，有助學生將跨學科領域內容融會貫通，並啟發學生將通識科環環相扣的各單元所學與個人生涯規劃連結。全球化下人力資源結構受發展中國家進一步經濟開放、發達地區金融、物流、品牌、專利、管理、科技與生產分工等影響。本港作為高度開放的世界三大金融貿易中心之一，物流商貿發展與世界及國家發展息息相關，獨特環境下的跨系統充滿機遇與挑戰。教材用以作為串通與轉移運用跨系統知識、態度與能力，構建相互關聯、欣賞與尊重多元發展的概念。認識自己之餘，更能反思各系統特質與變化，有助建構今後的事業探索、職業志趣、階段性目標、生命探求及個人發展取向與定位。已、研究局限 Kang, 和 Gottfredson（2015）指出環境理論不如個人職業生涯理論和實踐一般的受到重視，相對有關方面的課程研究缺乏。因此，教材設計試行有其局限性與試驗性，課程設計理念頗為嶄新，學術理論基礎卻相對薄弱。再者，基於兩所學校的校本情況，本教材只能以五節各約七十分鐘課節的方式施教，任教時間相對緊拙，因而過程作了不少刪減調整。是次計劃只是一個起始，課程的設計及實踐、以至課程在何等程度上影響學生在認知、技能及態度等方面的發展，只是初步獲得的正面回響。更確切的理論與實踐結合還待進一步研究，建議將現有教材結合不同學生能力水平、班級水平及校情作實證研究與優化。沿著課程理念大綱作生涯規劃教育與通識科課程的關係整合期望是一個啟發與開始，以獲得進一步深化與嘗試。 56 庚、反思及建議正如 Lewin（1936）的主張，每一件心理事件取決於人的狀態以及同一時間環境賦予的影響。全球化下，社會急速轉變，尤其個體身處在香港這個國際大都會，同時受著朋輩、家庭、學校、社區、國家以至全球所影響，要實現理想的生涯規劃，學生除了需要清楚理解自身的特質之外，更重要的是需要具備審時度勢、認知環境、靈活變通的能力。Kang和 Gottfredson（2015）將七位學者人格理論的觀點跟環境的作用作比較，指出變化中的環境如何對個人生涯規劃產生多元的影響，主張過去較忽略的環境互動因素當重新受到重視，以提供具新鮮感及另類的途徑供生涯規劃輔導。因此，本教材大膽嘗試結合生涯規劃與通識教育科的跨單元議題探究，並作推廣（創意教師協會，2015）。期望課程試行能引發學界思考關注，為學生建構能貫通個人與外在環境關係的學習，讓學生洞悉影響職場環境的因素，結合個人特質發展，以能作出理性的抉擇。參考文獻李子建、江浩民 (2015)。〈生涯規劃教育理論與實踐：邁向優質教育〉，《香港教師中心學報》，第十四卷，頁 89-106。星島日報（2014，5月 26日）。《助學生及早籌劃多元出路》。香港特別行政區政府（2014）。《施政報告：讓有需要的得到支援，讓年青的各展所長，讓香港得以發揮》。取自 http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2014/chi/pdf/ PA2014.pdf。香港特別行政區教育局（2015）。生涯規劃。取自 https://careerguidance.edb. hkedcity.net/edb/opencms/lifeplanning/home/?__locale=zh_HK。香港特別行政區教育局（2016）。資歷架構。取自 http://www.hkqf.gov.hk/guic/home. asp。陶兆輝、劉遠章（2011）。《合整思維學》，香港，匯智出版有限公司。梁湘明、黃美微、李淑賢、林建榮（2002）。〈生涯規劃：青少年的事業發展與輔導〉。《青年研究學報》，第 5卷第 2期，頁 38-49。 57 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究梁湘明（2005）。〈生涯規劃：跨理論假設與實施策略〉，《亞洲輔導學報》，12（1&2），頁 79-93。創意教師協會（2015）。〈生涯規劃彈、途、漁之識者生存課程特色〉。取自 http:// www.cta.org.hk/showca.aspx？ clid=148&atid=213&lan=1。課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（2007）。《通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：政府印務局。嶺南大學社會學及社會政策系（2012）。《香港青年發展指標》。嶺南大學：社會學及社會政策系。 Acedo, A., & Hughes, C. (2014). Principles for learning and competencies in the 21st- century curriculum. Prospects (2014) 44:503–525. DOI 10.1007/s11125-014-9330-1. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl D. R. (Eds.) (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Audet, R. H., & Jordan, L. K. (Eds.). (2005). Integrating inquiry across the curriculum. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. French, J. R. P., Jr., Rodgers, W. L., & Cobb, S. (1974). Adjustment as person- environment fit. In G. Coelho, D. Hamburg, & J. Adams (Eds.), Coping and adaptation (pp. 316-333). New York: Basic Books. Hahn, C. (1996). Research on issues-centered social studies. In R.W. Evans & D.W. Saxe, (Eds.), Handbook on Teaching Social Issues (pp. 25-40). Wahington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies. Holland, J. L. (1959). A theory of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 6, 35–45. doi:10.1037/h0040767 Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments. Lutz, Fla.: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. Juntunen, C. L., & Even, C. E. (2012). Theories of vocational psychology. APA. Handbook of Counseling Psychology, 1, 237-262. Kang, Z. & Gottfredson, G. D. (2015). Environments: Diversity in theoretical foundations of career intervention. In Hartung, P. J., Savickas, M. L. & Walsh B. W. (Eds.) APA handbook of career intervention. Volume 1, Foundations (pp. 159-185)]. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. 58 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York, McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1037/10019-000 Luft, J., & Ingham, H. (1955). The Johari window, a graphic model of interpersonal awareness. Proceedings of the western training laboratory in group development. Los Angeles. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. Nelson, J.L. (1996). The historical imperative for issue-centered education. In W. Evans & D.W. Saxe, (Eds), Handbook on Teaching Social Issues (pp. 14-23). Washington, D.S.: National Council for the Social Studies. Pope, M. (2015). Career intervention: From the industrial to the digital age in Hartung, P. J., Savickas, M. L. and Walsh B. W. (Eds.) APA handbook of career intervention. Volume 1, Foundations (pp. 3-19)]. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Rounds, J. B., & Tracey, T. J. (1990). From trait-and factor to person-environment fit counseling: Theory and process. Career Counseling: Contemporary Topics in Vocational Psychology, 1-44. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday/Currency. 59 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究附錄一：課程規劃綱要課程名稱：生涯規劃彈、途、漁之「識」者生存學校與班別： __ __ __ __ __ _ 中四及中五適用範疇：通識教育、學生輔導、班主任課、綜合課等課程規劃概念圖導引問題 1. 個人有何能力、性向、興趣與價值觀？ 2. 個人有何職業取向？ 3. 青少年需具備何等素質以提升社會流動性？ 4. 本港經濟有何特點與模式，因而產生「橋型工種」的現象？ 5. 個人有何特質，擁有何等類型工種的傾向？ 6. 個人具備的素質能否回應社會發展的訴求？ 7. 中港關係有何影響個人未來發展的因素？ 8. 到內地升學或就業對青少年利多於弊？ 9. 全球化如何促使本港「橋型工種」的變化？ 10 . 全球化下本港青少年生涯規劃的機遇大於挑戰？ 11 . 掌握個人生涯規劃，有助確立人生方向？ 60 附錄二：教學設計大綱 ( 五節各八十分鐘課堂學習 ) 課節議題導引問題建構活動知識 /概念共通能力態度 /價值觀 1. 青少年需具備何等素質以提升社會流動性？ 1. 個人有何能力、性向、興趣與價值觀？ 2. 個人有何職業取向？ 3. 青少年需具備何等素質以提升社會流動性？完成前測問卷；派發學生學習紀錄卡；簡介課程重點；訂立獎勵機制；訂立學習目標及重點學習議題：「掌握生涯規劃有助青少年在社會的流動力 /抗逆力？」以個性測量（ W S1 ）及價值標購活動（ W S2 ）對自身及社會不同的角色作深入的瞭解，探究個人素質與本港社會流動的關係（知己）認識自己個人素質社會流動協作、溝通反思自尊、自信、角色、身份認同、願景 2. 個人具備的素質能否回應社會發展的訴求？ 4. 本港經濟有何特點與模式，因而產生「橋型工種」的現象？ 5. 個人有何特質，擁有何等類型工種的傾向？ 6. 個人具備的素質能否回應社會發展的訴求？以短片反映本港青少年面對出路與就業問題。出現四類人力資源與價值追求透過生活價值追求我有 SA Y （ W S3 ）遊戲掌握所處境況，個人抉擇影響社會的流動以僱員僱主角色扮演（ W S4 ），拓展多元視域；透過議題探究個人與社會有何發展訴求（知彼）認識本港、國家與全球化、系統、資歷架構、社會競爭力、人力資源類別、生活價值追求、流動、機遇、挑戰、專才、通才、勞動力、隱蔽青年協作、溝通創造、抉擇解決困難、批判性思考資訊科技運用、關聯、變通、面對衝突專注、彈性、變、尊重、多樣性、規律、國民身分認同、責任承擔、抱負 3. 全球化下本港青少年生涯規劃的機遇大於挑戰？ 7. 全球化如何促使本港人力資源與價值追求的變化？ 8. 全球化下本港青少年生涯規劃的機遇大於挑戰？全球化知多少小測試（ W S5 ）進出口業工種排序（ W S6 ）競技活動，以掌握全球化工種與資歷架構的關係模擬全球化 i-p ho ne 生產（ W S7 ）境況，以了解工種的特質與人才的需求 4. 國家進一步改革開放有多大程度影響本港青少年生涯規劃？ 9. 中港關係有何影響個人未來發展的因素？ 10 . 到內地升學或就業對青少年利多於弊？以中港關係遊戲卡（ W S8 ）探究以了解兩地政治、經濟、基建、文化及社會的關係以論壇（ W S9 ）形式，提供個案示例，辯論青少年應否到內地升學或就業 5. 掌握個人生涯規劃，有助確立人生方向？ 11 . 個人具備何等條件，成功探險人生？ 12 . 掌握個人生涯規劃，有助確立人生方向？透過探險人生情景（ W S1 0）討論，啟發思考與綜合運用課程所得，初步構思我的藏寶圖（ W S1 1）；生涯規劃審視與反思（ W S1 2），確立人生方向？（抉擇）生涯規劃、內因與外因、探究與規劃人生批判性思考解決困難、綜合、反思、應用、規劃自強不息、變通、抗逆力、社會承擔、潛能發揮、 61 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究附錄三：前後測問卷請根據個人意見，把適當的「 ○ 」填滿。評量項目評量選項非常同意略為同意無意見略不同意很不同意認知 1. 我認識自己的職業取向。 2. 我認識個人的特點素質。 3. 我瞭解本港社會的流動現況。 4. 我認識國家發展帶給青少年就業的機遇與挑戰。 5. 我認識全球化帶來升學與就業的影響。 6. 我認識本港現行生涯規劃的路徑。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 情意態度 7. 我樂於與別人溝通。 8. 我願意從多角度思考未來的出路。 9. 我能體會與接納不同價值觀所帶來的差異。 10 . 職業無分貴賤，行行出狀元 11 . 我認為個人的素質決定自己的前路。 12 . 自己的前途由自己來創造。 13 . 青年人對社會是有承擔的。 14 . 機會是留給有準備的人的。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 行為表現 15 . 我能靈活變通地思考與處理問題。 16 . 我能承擔責任，為未來作好準備。 17 . 我能尊重客觀事實，作出合理推論與抉擇。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 整體課程評估項目非常同意略為同意無意見略不同意很不同意 1. 課程有助我認知個人職業的取向 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 2. 個人職業取向取決於自身的興趣、能力與態度 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 3. 全球化下國家進一步開放加劇本港橋型工種的現象 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 4. 我掌握橋型工種帶給青年人上流抉擇的影響 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 5. 課程啟發我知己知彼的重要性 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 6. 我理解機會留給有準備的人 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 7. 課程串通社會、國家、世界與個人發展的關係 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 8. 課程有助我學習通識科各單元議題的動力 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 9. 課程給與我不少反思與探究的機會 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 10 . 我推介本課程給下學年同學 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 第一部份：請根據個人意見，把適當的「 ○ 」填滿。評量項目評量選項非常同意略為同意無意見略不同意很不同意認知 1. 我認識自己的職業取向。 2. 我認識個人的特點素質。 3. 我瞭解本港社會的流動現況。 4. 我認識國家發展帶給青少年就業的機遇與挑戰。 5. 我認識全球化帶來升學與就業的影響。 6. 我認識本港現行生涯規劃的路徑。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 情意態度 7. 我樂於與別人溝通。 8. 我願意從多角度思考未來的出路。 9. 我能體會與接納不同價值觀所帶來的差異。 10 . 職業無分貴賤，行行出狀元 11 . 我認為個人的素質決定自己的前路。 12 . 自己的前途由自己來創造。 13 . 青年人對社會是有承擔的。 14 . 機會是留給有準備的人的。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 行為表現 15 . 我能靈活變通地思考與處理問題。 16 . 我能承擔責任，為未來作好準備。 17 . 我能尊重客觀事實，作出合理推論與抉擇。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 第二部份：對學習主題的期望。 __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ 第三部份背景資料性別：男 ○ 女 ○ 級別： 4 ○ 日期： __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ 5 ○ 6 ○ 出生地：香港中國澳門台灣其他 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 過去一年前往大陸的次數： 0 1 2 3 4 5 或以上 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 過去五年曾往外地 (不含內地 )的次數： 0 1 2 3 4 或以上 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 年齡： 1 ○ 1 ○ 2 ○ 3 ○ 4 ○ 5 ○ 6 ○ 7 ○ 8 ○ 9 ○ 62 附錄四：前後測結果百份比對照表整體課程評估項目表二：項目非常同意略為同意無意見略不同意很不同意總體 1. 課程有助我認知個人職業的取向 27 .8 3% 44 .3 5% 23 .4 8% 1. 74 % 2. 61 % 1 0 0. 00 % 2. 個人職業取向取決於自身的興趣、能力與態度 35 .6 5% 44 .3 5% 16 .5 2% 1. 74 % 1. 74 % 1 0 0. 00 % 3. 全球化下國家進一步開放加劇本港橋型工種的現象 27 .8 3% 33 .0 4% 35 .6 5% 2. 61 % 0. 87 % 1 0 0. 00 % 4. 我掌握橋型工種帶給青年人上流抉擇的影響 27 .8 3% 34 .7 8% 32 .1 7% 3. 48 % 1. 74 % 1 0 0. 00 % 5. 課程啟發我知己知彼的重要性 28 .7 0% 43 .4 8% 23 .4 8% 3. 48 % 0. 87 % 1 0 0. 00 % 6. 我理解機會留給有準備的人 48 .7 0% 31 .3 0% 18 .2 6% 0. 87 % 0. 87 % 1 0 0. 00 % 7. 課程串通社會、國家、世界與個人發展的關係 27 .8 3% 44 .3 5% 25 .2 2% 1. 74 % 0. 87 % 1 0 0. 00 % 8. 課程有助我學習通識科各單元議題的動力 25 .2 2% 41 .7 4% 27 .8 3% 3. 48 % 1. 74 % 1 0 0. 00 % 9. 課程給與我不少反思與探究的機會 26 .9 6% 46 .9 6% 20 .8 7% 3. 48 % 1. 74 % 1 0 0. 00 % 10 . 我推介本課程給下學年同學 35 .6 5% 21 .7 4% 32 .1 7% 3. 48 % 6. 96 % 1 0 0. 00 % 情意態度 7 . 我樂於與別人溝通。 3 3 .9 3% 41 .9 6% 75 .8 9% 41 .7 4% 36 .5 2% 78 .2 6% ↑2 .3 7 8. 我願意從多角度思考未來的出路。 3 7 .5 0% 35 .7 1% 73 .2 1% 40 .8 7% 39 .1 3% 80 .0 0% ↑6 .7 9 9. 我能體會與接納不同價值觀所帶來的差異。 33 .0 4% 50 .0 0% 8 3 .0 4% 41 .7 4% 40 .0 0% 8 1 .7 4% ↓1 .3 10 . 職業無分貴賤，行行出狀元。 48 .2 1% 33 .9 3% 8 2 .1 4% 53 .0 4% 32 .1 7% 8 5 .2 2% ↑3 .0 8 11 . 我認為個人的素質決定自己的前路。 28 .5 7% 47 .3 2% 7 5 .8 9% 49 .5 7% 39 .1 3% 88 .7 0% ↑1 2. 81 12 . 自己的前途由自己來創造。 56 .2 5% 33 .9 3% 90 .1 8% 55 .6 5% 33 .9 1% 89 .5 7% ↓0 .6 1 13 . 青年人對社會是有承擔的。 3 6 .6 1% 47 .3 2% 83 .9 3% 41 .7 4% 33 .0 4% 74 .7 8% ↓9 .1 5 14 . 機會是留給有準備的人的。 60 .3 6% 30 .6 3% 90 .9 9% 59 .1 3% 33 .0 4% 92 .1 7% ↑1 .1 8 行為表現 15 . 我能靈活變通地思考與處理問題。 17 .8 6% 49 .1 1% 66 .9 6% 22 .6 1% 52 .1 7% 74 .7 8% ↑7 .8 2 16 . 我能承擔責任，為未來作好準備。 2 3 .2 1% 41 .9 6% 65 .1 8% 24 .3 5% 43 .4 8% 67 .8 3% ↑2 .6 5 17 . 我能尊重客觀事實，作出合理推論與抉擇。 3 3 .0 4% 41 .9 6% 75 .0 0% 33 .9 1% 43 .4 8% 7 7 .3 9% ↑2 .3 9 前測後測升或降幅非常同意略為同意整體同意率非常同意略為同意整體同意率認知 1 . 我認識自己的職業取向。 18 .7 5% 48 .2 1% 66 .9 6 29 .8 2% 42 .9 8% 7 2 .8 ↑5 .8 4 2. 我認識個人的特點與素質。 25 .0 0% 48 .2 1% 73 .2 1 31 .5 8% 44 .7 4% 7 6 .3 2 ↑3 .1 1 3. 我了解本港社會職場流動的現況。 3. 57 % 34 .8 2% 38 .3 9 21 .9 3% 33 .3 3% 55 .2 6 ↑1 6. 87 4. 我認識國家發展帶給青少年的機遇與挑戰。 17 .8 6% 41 .0 7% 58 .9 3 2 6 .0 9% 37 .3 9% 65 .4 8 ↑6 .5 5 5. 我認識全球化帶來升學與就業的影響。 21 .4 3% 45 .5 4% 66 .9 7 2 7 .8 3% 42 .6 1% 70 .4 4 ↑3 .4 7 6. 我認識本港現行生涯規劃的路徑。 5 . 36 % 27 .6 8% 3 3 .0 4 20 .0 0% 37 .3 9% 5 7 .3 9 ↑2 4. 35 表一：前後測非常同意與略為同意百份比對照 63 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究附錄五：學生參與活動及反思 64 附錄六：學生規劃未來調始寫意 - r 耐兩句喇京J馴. 叫，京味耐心川叫樹川嗯嗯、忍辱峙f m w 對吋心眼前中苦耐偉目性 J V d d d 吟，軍 - 、 F F J 4 h叮嚀. 叫一字司M O V 芝呵， w e r 廿啦de d d t j F - w 萃， 6 4 d J F J h o 押的肉、只需品 I\t'~， \" 港舉 s詳細( f安愉( 1 m d惜你叭 '閩、。通 H F想卓圈圈，陳 r- y h M F 達 3 1藹可 γ 運訓叫八刊 ( 間 F ~' 紗，唱、甜法 \.1 佇今喝i略可』抖叫陳抖，可壘，“1\" ~I~~ ~ 品 65 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究 Action research on interdisciplinary issued-based enquiry for career planning LEUNG Lai Sim, POON Sen Kin, KAN Wing Tung, LAU Shing Oh Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited Abstract This study applied the P-E fit theory and ecology theory in the design of an interdisciplinary career planning programme in Liberal Studies for senior secondary students. The programme was implemented in 4 classes from 2 secondary schools. Result showed that it could improve students’ cognitive understanding and attitude on career and life planning. By expository discovery on an issue-based framework, students could learn about the interaction between individuals and environments. They could have a better understanding of their own abilities, interests and prospect. They could also learn how different related interacting systems and globalization affect their career development. Thus, they may get themselves prepared for career and life planning through introspection. Keywords Career planning, Issue-based enquiry, Interdisciplinary thinking, Liberal Studies 66 67 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 15 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2016 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects Stephen Pui Ming YEUNG Formerly Head of Geography, SKH Kei Hau Secondary School Abstract Lesson observation is often seen as serving different purposes by education officials, principals, teachers, researchers and the public. This paper discusses these diverse views, the merits and shortcomings of observation alongside its impact on student behaviour, teaching creativity, fairness, reliability and teacher perception in an educational system which is undergoing major reforms. Suggestions are given for improving the development of observers’ expertise as well as teachers’ professional ability and attitudes. Alternative approaches like lesson study, ‘unseen’ observations and the use of video technology are analysed in relation to the understanding of lessons and teachers’ classroom practices, and then discussed with respect to the implications for research into their value and the training of observers. In conclusion, while observation can be a useful monitoring tool, observers should be eclectic and select approaches according to their effectiveness in the enhancement of staff collaboration and reflection, teachers’ professional development and student characteristics. Keywords evaluation of lesson observation, external school review, principals as role models, enhancement of teaching effectiveness, alternative observation approaches Educational reforms worldwide (like the “Education Reform Act 1988” in the United Kingdom and the “No Child Left Behind Act of 2001” in the United States) are often a response of governments to public dissatisfaction about the “productivity” of their school systems. Hong Kong is no exception to this trend. The Educational Reform for instance was implemented in 2001 following a series of complaints from the business sector about 68 the language standards and workplace performance of school and university graduates (Evans, 2000; Lin, 1996) and other increasingly vocal calls for enhancing the effectiveness of education professionals in helping students prepare for life and work (Cheng, 2009). As a part of this reform, external school reviews (ESR) were introduced with respect to learning and teaching quality, student performance, ethos and student support, as well as administration and organisation in many ways similar to those taken by the Office for Standards in Education in the United Kingdom (Haynes, Wragg, & Wikely, 2002; Beere, 2012; Education Bureau, 2013; O’Leary, 2014). Lesson observations in Hong Kong schools were hitherto confined to student teachers and in-service teachers enrolled in professional degree courses, teachers of under-performing classes and teachers seeking promotion. Following the introduction of ESR, continuous observations are introduced in the hope that teachers can help students achieve more if they are conscious of the strengths and weaknesess in their own practices and can follow the advice of the reviewers closely. This paper analyses the merits and shortcomings of the approaches widely used so far. It also examines the alternatives which might bring improvements, identifies the implications for research and discusses how lesson observation can be implemented with good effects. Nature of lesson observation Lesson observation literally means that teaching and learning in the classroom are monitored closely by on-site observers (e.g. Marriott, 2001; Good & Brophy, 2008; O’Leary, 2014). It is often conducted in the context of in-sevice training and continuous professional development, study of student performance, curriculum development and evaluation, job analysis and teacher appraisal exercises (Wragg, 2012), and may be taken under an evaluation, development or peer review model as what Gosling (2002) has recognised. Attention, where appropriate, can be directed to the understanding of teacher and student interaction, assessment of the cost-effectiveness of the education efforts delivered, identification of a basis for professional development and/or analysis of how lessons are conducted. Although the first aim is likely to be the focus of all observers, each of the other areas may be given greater importance by different stakeholders. Government officials are likely to emphasize the second and consider observation as a means of measuring the worthiness of teachers’ work according to a value-for-money approach. Principals may think similarly because of their accountability to their school management committees and the need to promote publicity to current and prospective parents (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006). Subject heads as middle managers would take observation as part of their everyday duties for overseeing colleagues’ teaching quality, enhancing their professional development and helping students achieve higher in internal and public examinations (Troen, Boles, Pinnolis, & Scheur, 2014). Teachers on their part are expected to use the observation feedback for self-reflection and improvement, and even 69 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects for conducting action research about the effectiveness of their teaching approaches and evaluating how they can help students learn better during the lesson (Skinner, 2010). Lesson observation on its own is valuable to stakeholders in at least three ways. At the macro- or system level, education officials could have a firm basis for monitoring and maintaining school performance in the territory and checking how far their policies have been effectively implemented. At the meso- or local level, going into classrooms gives principals first-hand opportunities to learn about the overall teaching and learning quality in their schools, the patterns of resource usage as well as the class-based improvement policies that are needed. With the knowledge thus gained, they can serve as more capable instructional leaders with insight and foresight (DuFour, 2002; Zepeda, 2013) and identify more accurately teachers who are worthy of promotion to senior posts or selection as role models for colleagues to follow or reflect upon. At the micro or individual level, teachers can benefit substantially from observation by getting independent advice about their own strengths and weaknesses in the use of strategies and in catering for learning diversity within their classes. They could also decide with greater certainty how far they have achieved their objectives in the lesson (e.g. Good & Brophy, 2008). As suggested by Sullivan and Glanz (2013), the “judicious use of reliable and easy-to-use observation techniques can increase teachers’ awareness of classroom behaviour and thereby become instrumental in improving the quality of the teaching and learning process” (pp. 56-57). Unfortunately, notwithstanding its potentially positive impact on teaching, observation is often taken and seen in recent years by the local educational sector as a process for weeding out “the less capable” from the staff list following the ‘voluntary optimisation of class structure’ initiative introduced by the government to publicly funded schools. In spite of its perceived merits, lesson observation is often fraught with worries. As Wragg’s (2012: vii) well-known remark that “we often ‘observe’ what we want to see” indicates, the information that is collected is limited in representativeness and coverage since many changes that do crop up during the lesson are rapid and unexpected (Black & Wiliam, 1998) and cannot be fully understood by observers from the outside. Seeing the same teacher or the same class time and again can increase reliability and reduce distortions due to Hawthorne effects. However, this practice may exert extra pressure on teachers and students (Education Bureau, 2008) and lead to concerns about discrimination. It can at best give a few more snapshot views of classrooms (Haynes, Wragg, & Wikely, 2002; O’Leary, 2014) but the reliability of the overall picture is still questionable because pre-observation and/or even observed lessons are likely to degenerate into rehearsals or shows if teachers feel that they ought to impress observers by using more strategies or resources or requiring students to behave differently from normal. The reminder by Waxman (2000) that “teachers have also been known to dramatically alter their instruction (patterns) when observers are present …” (p. 6) is pertinent in this regard. 70 Developing a recording sheet for all aspects of behaviour that need assessment is a difficult task for external reviewers and the school management alike because of variations in teacher and student culture across classes and year levels. Reaching agreement between observers and observees on what aspects to look for is often a significant issue although within a school this can often be resolved by staff themselves after considering prevailing teacher and student characteristics. Controversy also revolves around the weight that should be given to different teaching skills such as those for conducting analytical group discussions and those for the comparison of alternative solutions. Further divergence in views may arise because the skills that require observation often vary substantially across subjects (such as helping students learn how to draw a cross-section during a geography lesson and determine the molarity of a solution in a experiment) and even from one theme to another within the same subject (such as those for facilitating concept learning and the conduct of experiments in the study of gravity and sound in physics lessons). In general, reliable and valid classroom data can only be obtained if observers are working meticulously to minimise the halo effect (i.e. giving recognition to only those teaching and learning strategies they prefer) and if teachers and students are behaving just like what they are used to be. To most teachers, the fairness of observations is questionable because students’ behaviour and learning quality during the lesson are often taken as a direct and leading measure of their professional ability and yet can be easily affected by extraneous variables beyond their control. The anxiety felt by teachers is growing sharply in Hong Kong because of ever-increasing workload (Lai, 2011), rises of staff redundancies as student populations rapidly shrink (Ho, 2009), as well as the widening diversity in ability and motivation levels even within the same class (Forlin & Sin, 2010). Students themselves could feel apathetic, unduly pressured or bothered if they are observed frequently (say, in more than a few periods taught by different teachers within a month) or by senior staff who may not be teaching them or not understanding enough. Their learning outcomes and behaviour may not accurately reflect the value of the effort put into the lesson by their teachers when an observer is present. Moreover, students might not be able to learn subject content in detail or seek for the clarification of concepts which have been taught earlier because of their teacher’s urge to cover a pre-determined set of objectives during the observed lesson. Alternative observation procedures Given the wide range of shortcomings with conventional procedures, there is a rising need for the use of low-interference alternatives that can lead to the fair and reliable assessments of lessons and enhance the continuous professional development of teachers. Lesson study is one of these widely used options in Japan primarily for the purpose of improving teaching expertise on a collaborative basis, and is becoming popular in 71 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects many Western countries (O’Leary, 2014). The arrangement entails that teachers of the same subject and/or a given year level work together to study the curriculum, formulate teaching goals for an agreed topic, plan for the lesson, conduct research, share observation comments and reflect on key issues (e.g. Lewis, Perry, & Murata, 2006) while one of them teaches in the classroom and others observe and provide feedback. Compared to top-down observations, this approach can be more useful for arousing creativity and the openness of mind amongst colleagues (Lieberman, 2009) besides enhancing their professionalism in helping students learn deeply and broadly during the lesson. As Lee (2008) has reported, it is more capable of helping teachers improve their lesson strategies than conventional approaches. Teacher rounds, which is a more refined and participation-oriented group approach than lesson study, requires teachers to take up the roles of observers and observees in rotation (Troen et al., 2014). Instead of relying mostly on collaborative work and sharing among a group of teachers, the subject head or another veteran colleague who is conversant with the content knowledge, pedagogy and/or the class concerned serves as the facilitator. He/she can contribute significantly by helping teachers develop and use the skills needed for overcoming complications in the lesson and engage students at various motivation or ability levels in learning tasks to good effect, as well as providing suggestions and comments before and after the lesson. Facilitators in return may gain insights about how lessons can be better analysed and reflect about how teaching and learning in their own classes can be improved. The common problems they may face lie in developing rapport with teachers, catering to teachers’ views and offering insight that is directly relevant to coping with students of different learning styles. A possible way out for them is to observe the classes concerned prior to the lesson during which their suggestions are tried out, and to discuss with teachers afterwards so as to identify areas that need improvement and propose more effective alternatives. Another approach is for teachers to be invited to a lesson taught by the observer and then encouraged to raise their observations during the discussion before setting out to develop viable strategies for the lessons when they are to be observed. Teachers and students are likely to behave as usual and their performance can be evaluated more accurately if lessons are conducted in ‘unobserved’, naturalistic settings. ‘Unseen’ observation is one of such non-intrusive approaches, and is a variant of teacher rounds with observees working together before and after the lesson while ‘observers’ stay away from the classroom. Teaching is done in the first place according to an action plan based on the consensus between the teacher and the ‘observers’. Follow-up discussion is then conducted and the teacher writes up the action plan for a subsequent lesson based on the feedback from colleagues. ‘Observers’ are therfore supportive colleagues and well- informed guides in the process rather than apathetic, unwitting and fault-finding superiors (e.g. Cogan, 1995). Teachers on the other hand are recognised as not only knowledgeable 72 about pedagogy and their students but are fully capable of perceptive self-reflection and pursuing professional development on their own (O’Leary, 2014). The procedure is not unlike that of a counsellor listening to a client about significant life events and offering advice according to what is heard (Rinvolucri, 1988). With advancements in video camera technology, ‘unseen’ observation can be taken a step further by capturing the ‘live’ images of classroom reality and analysing the recordings in depth afterwards (Dyke, Harding, & Liddon, 2008) for a peer training or professional development purpose. Teachers wearing wireless earpiece devices may in fact get instant advice from colleagues who are monitoring the lesson away from the classroom (O’Leary, 2014). At the same time, Hawthorne effects and the time and physical cost incurred by observers in visiting classrooms can be substantially reduced. Suggestions for implementing effective observation Compared to conventional sit-in observation methods, participatory and non-intrusive approaches like those discussed above are more capable of capturing lesson realities and fostering teachers’ improvements individually and the development of collaborative learning communities (Ofsted, 2010) by promoting self-reflection, peer discussion and frank dialogue. At the territory-wide level, the Government as the overall authority for the implementation of policies should promote their use and increase the ability of observers in enhancing lesson quality with a high level of effectiveness and efficiency. Education officials should take the initiative in preparing recording forms together with teachers’ representatives and according to the overall consensus about the aspects for consideration and the weight to be attached to each because collective wisdom is a better guarantee of quality and respect for the diversity of views and of greater acceptance by observees. At the local level then, teachers should be given more opportunities in the first place for the identification of students’ learning needs, development of viable proposals, trialling and implementation of teaching methods, monitoring of progress and on-going consultation for seeking improvements. They must be allowed to add their own items because only they are fully aware of students’ strengths and weaknesses in learning their subjects. After every cycle of external review or internal observation, the recording form should be revised according to general classroom conditions and the performance of teachers and students concerned. With local circumstances being considered, it can be amended for use in peer observations as well. Meanwhile, students should be consulted through their representatives about the sections on their behaviour and learning outcomes because as the ‘consumers’ of teaching how far they can benefit from the lesson is often strongly affected by the way and quality of teaching. The form prepared after considering the views of all stakeholders can then be used by reviewers and principals to help teachers improve on a continuous basis. 73 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects Borich (2011) had identified eight generic aspects worthy of emphasis when observing classrooms, namely the dimensions of learning climate such as warmth and control, teachers’ use of management skills, clarity in giving directions and the use of examples, variety in the use of media, rewards and students’ ideas, use of appropriate teaching strategies, ability to engage students in differentiated activities, provision of feedback to extend and enhance learning, and the skills for promoting higher-order thinking and project work. In a similar vein, O’Leary (2014) recognised other good practices that should be looked for, namely a sound knowledge of subject matter and suitable pedagogy, the contextualisation of learning to foster students’ assimilation and relating content to the wider world, stimulation of students’ engagement, promotion of students’ ownership of learning content and approach, catering for learning diversity, the continuous management and monitoring of learning experience, maximisation of learning potential, enhancement of interaction and collaboration, as well as resilience and continuous self-reflection on the part of teachers. Whether one is designing a territory- wide, school-based or subject-specific form for use in observations, it is worth paying attention to these and similar criteria described in the literature. Defining them clearly for use in the lesson is necessary for observers and observees to understand specifically about the kind of teacher and student performance that is desired (e.g. Stuhlman, Hamre, Downer, & Pianta, 2010). Teachers’ heavy workload must be taken into account in the design process as well because of its significant impact on their lesson preparation work and choice of teaching methods. Observers for their part should be open-minded and give due consideration to the overall ability levels of the classes as well as teachers’ usual patterns of behaviour. Owing to the rapid pace and immediacy of classroom interactions and activities, however, it is not realistic to expect teachers and students to meet all or even most of the criteria in the recording form during any one lesson. To enhance teachers’ professional development, the setting of specific items for observation should be based on the key variables for shaping teaching practices, including the prevalent learning culture in the class, resource and time availability as well as teachers’ professional strengths and weaknesses. Lessons taught by novice teachers may be assessed primarily with respect to their mastery of basic pedagogic skills (like questioning techniques) together with their ability to motivate students in achieving desired learning outcomes. When observing veteran teachers in the classroom, observers should consider these aspects as well as the patterns of behaviour that are typical of master teachers. According to the analysis by Bright (2013), the list could include the making of adequate lesson preparation, enthusiasm and effectiveness in the creation of a positive and encouraging learning climate in the classroom as well as the payment of attention to students’ learning needs and ability. The basic purpose of assessing veteran teachers on a larger variety of criteria is to encourage the deepening and broadening of professional expertise as their experience in teaching students of different academic ability and motivation levels grows through the years. 74 When it comes to the development of expertise in lesson observation, contributions from quality assurance officials and educational researchers are crucial. Backed up by their previous teaching experience in schools, knowledge about a wide range of lessons they have visited and their role in policy-making, they should take the lead in developing an observer training programme that can cater for the diversity of situations in a variety of classrooms and schools. Observers should also help in anticipating problems and proposing viable preventive and remedial measures rather than just keeping themselves abreast of the latest classroom reality or asking teachers to trial with their suggestions afterwards. In Hong Kong, well-grounded foresight in these areas is especially important because the education sector often has to compete with others for tight government funding and manpower to improve existing services and provide new ones, such as those for the offer of complementary tuition support after school to students with special educational needs, talents or academic potential. Implementing an exchange programme between education officials and external reviewers on one side and principals and teachers on the other is a useful measure in this regard. Doing so can give both parties much needed direct experience of others’ working conditions and help them share their views with substance, understand the rationale and procedures of observation from a wider range of perspectives and find viable measures for achieving the underlying aims. Akin to what doctors and other professionals in administrative positions are doing, successful participation in a continuous development programme and a prescribed period of teaching in classrooms at the front-line should be required of external reviewers because a wealth of up-to-date first- hand working experience with students is essential to the making of evidence-based and ‘situated’ suggestions for improving teaching quality in the classes they have observed. The chance to teach and reflect about their own lessons at least once in a few years can also help officials develop, with a high degree of efficiency, policies that are more useful for enhancing teaching and learning quality than those currently in use. Principals as the chief observers in their schools should reflect the needs and nature of teachers and students to the government with high fidelity and seek for the manpower, financial resources and services that can support effective teaching and learning rather than merely following official directives as such. To do this task well and serve as role models for colleagues, they ought to develop themselves continuously in both the theory and practice of lesson observation and school improvement procedures. Adopting a reflective critical supervision approach (Goldhammer, Anderson, & Krajewski, 1993; Sullivan & Glanz, 2013) which enhances collegiate working relationships, mutual trust with teachers as well as a balance with reality is crucial here because of its positive effects on arousing empathy and promoting frank dialogue about how teachers can effectively enhance learning within their classes. Principals should also do more in creating the conditions needed for collaboration and development among teachers in this regard instead of just sharpening their minds and skills for observation during the lesson (e.g. Troen et al., 2014). 75 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects Because of their duty in enhancing learning at school and the authority they are holding, principals need to become effective instructional leaders as well (DuFour, 2002) and plan for the on-going improvement of teachers and students under their supervision. Whenever their administrative schedules permit, at least once in a few years they should teach one full class which is preferably the one that is having the highest proportion(s) of less motivated and/or less able students. Equipped with up-to-date understanding of teaching and learning in their schools and teaching experience of their own, they are better placed to evaluate teachers’ decisions and behaviour during the lesson. To be fair and really helpful to teachers, at least two experienced and well-trained observers should be present in any single observation. One could attend to teachers’ subject knowledge and use of strategies, while the other would concentrate on students’ participation and learning processes in general. Teachers meanwhile should continuously reflect on the value of observation and how their practices can be improved according to the pecularities of their classes. Teachers by nature are mindful of their professional images and wary of being observed in the presence of students. Feelings of resentment may even flare up amongst those who feel that their professional strengths or personal theories of teaching and learning are not duly recognised by observers. Promoting respect for their pedagogical ability is therefore a crucial way for arousing their acceptance of observation as a positive step for professional development. Because of their discerning knowledge about how students can learn better, they should be free to name the date, time and class for observation and the areas to which more attention is needed. The observation form should allow for the grading of performance on a 4-point scale (say, ‘outstanding’, ‘good’, ‘satisfactory’ and ‘needs improvement’) as well as the recording of learning activities, sudents’ responses to key questions and how far the teacher has helped them pursue the subject matter further. By taking a mixed quantitative-qualitative approach like this one (O’Leary, 2014), the chance of obtaining a comprehensive and accurate understanding of teaching and learning during the lesson can also be significantly raised. After the observation period, the completed form should be copied to the teacher for comment and follow-up discussion. Observers should give the overall grade and remarks only after a careful reconsideration of the views which have been raised. If the teacher happens to find them unacceptable, a second observation has to be conducted by two other members of the senior management a few weeks later. Through this appeal and review mechanism, which is similar to that of seeking the opinion of a third reviewer about whether to accept a paper for publication in an academic journal after rejection by one of the first two, the chance that merits or flaws in the lesson have gone unnoticed in the initial observation can be substantially reduced. Teachers can also feel greater respect for their professional autonomy and classroom decisions in the process. After all, collaboration based on equality is essential for building mutual trust between observers and observees 76 (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2003), and the value of a lesson observation should be measured primarily in terms of its ability to promote the development of teaching expertise and student learning rather than the finding of faults. Implications for research Exploration into the effectiveness of conventional observation practices, the alternatives discussed above and other approaches (such as peer coaching and portfolio assessment; Sullivan & Glanz, 2013) and the mode of using them can certainly shed light on how they could be employed optimally for enhancing lesson quality under a variety of conditions. Teacher education institutions and subject organisations could take the lead in this enquiry task because of the substantial research resources and expertise they have. Their contributions alone however may be limited by their insufficient understanding of local school and class conditions. Collaboration between them and school teachers here is beneficial to both as it can help the former to describe and account for trends and patterns more accurately and deeply and the latter to develop well-focussed measures for improving the quality of learning in the classes they teach. Teachers should in fact be encouraged to conduct action research themselves whenever possible because of their more thorough understanding of those aspects of their strategies and students’ behaviour that have to be studied and the changes that are manageable and needed. They are also the ones who are going to trial with and implement the new measures in their classrooms in any case. Teachers may experience difficulties in conducting action research of their own classrooms and maintaining a proper balance between objectivitiy and engagement, even though this is an important means of their own professional learning (Skinner, 2010). In view of teachers’ lack of experience in researching about their own work (Wragg, 2012), they and other investigators can follow a description-correlation-experiment approach instead of a more rigorous hypothesis-testing mode of study. The process can begin with the reporting of teacher and student behaviour in detail, then proceed to look for statistical relationships between such behaviour and relevant variables and finally examine how such variables could affect behaviour and learning outcomes. A quasi-experimental research design has to be used because students within a class or classes cannot be randomly assigned into groups for comparison under controlled conditions due to ethical and practical reasons. Observing a teacher of a class in two periods using different methods and seeing a teacher teaching the same topic in different classes at the same form level are just two of the many possibilities forward. Questions that are worthy of study about lesson observation are well-known by their diversity and numbers (e.g. Skinner, 2010; Wragg, 2012). Enquiry can start with those which are of more immediate interest to observers (like principals or subject heads) and 77 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects observees (classroom teachers) such as the following: 1. What observation approaches (whether conventional or alternative) are more capable of finding out what is going on in the classroom accurately without being distorted by Hawthorne effects? 2. Which of the approaches (c.f. Q.1) are more likely to be accepted by teachers and students? 3. Which of the approaches (according to the answers for Q.1 and Q.2) can generate more thorough information that is useful for the professional development of teachers? 4. How should pre-observation meetings be conducted so that observers and observees can agree about the aspects to emphasize during the lesson? 5. How would observees view the feedback given by the observers? 6. How far would observers’ feedback affect teachers’ practices and students’ learning outcomes in subsequent lessons, and why? Apart from the above questions, teachers as researchers can also study video records of their own lessons and write about what students have done and why they have taught and managed the lessons in the ways they did. This kind of self-assessment, done perhaps once in a month, can form the basis of a year-long action research study and encourage teachers to develop and use teaching strategies that are better suited to their students as time goes on. If they so wish, they could share their experience here with colleagues individually or collectively in departmental meetings and staff development days as well. Conclusion The use of classroom observation to obtain first-hand information for a range of appraisal, development, training and lesson improvement purposes is indispensable because of the need to enhance teaching quality and the growing calls for accountability and transparency from parents, the mass media and the public. In a recent comparison about the implementation of educational innovations amongst twenty more advanced economies (Organisation for Economic Co-operation (OECD), 2014), Hong Kong had fared well in ten areas including the frequencies of peer evaluation in primary schools, teacher observations in secondary schools and external teacher evaluation in both groups of schools. With higher levels of innovation than the OECD mean, these records have been positively correlated with “higher (and improving) 8th grade mathematics performance, more equitable learning outcomes across ability levels and more satisfied teachers” (p. 78 2). Although achievements are found only in some aspects of schooling, they do suggest that observation can bring along substantial positive impact. Professional development programmes should aim at arousing teachers’ empathy about the value of observation and helping them teach more effectively whenever they are in the classroom. Lesson observations are promising innovations for improving teaching quality and learning outcomes. The discussion above however suggests that they are not free from problems. What the administrators of the education system and schools need is to find ways to enlarge the benefits of observation practices and minimise their shortcomings after taking teachers’ usual classroom practices and students’ behaviour into account. While teachers’ overall teaching competence can be improved through school-based experiences, pre-service education and continuous professional development, their classroom practices are less changeable as many studies (Zimmerman, 2006; Heick, 2014) have reported. On-going reflection by teachers about their professional duties and teaching paradigms can help them appreciate the worth of observation and put the suggested measures into practice (e.g. Fullan, 1993). In this connection, principals should create a pro-active environment which is favourable for staff professional development, and give greater autonomy to colleagues in lesson planning, peer observations and follow-up discussions. Observing lessons without intrusion into the classroom is a promising way forward although its effects, effectiveness and efficiency would still require in-depth research in various classroom settings. One possibility for enquiry is to use one conventional approach and one alternative approach with the same class and the same teacher in the first term and the second term respectively. Alternatively, the two approaches may be used in different classes taught and selected by the same teacher in the school year. A third way forward could be to use a conventional approach in a peer observation session in the first term and an alternative approach in the second, or vice versa. Researchers and teacher education institutions could help to enhance the value of observation by finding which of the conventional or alternative approach(es) is/are more effective in monitoring classroom performance and its/their impact on student learning and the development of teaching expertise. This could be done in various key learning areas and across year levels in view of teacher, student and subject characteristics. Principals should encourage the conduct of such studies before selecting the most suitable approach for use in their schools. Reviews about the effectiveness of the chosen approach and its effects are needed every few years because of changes in classroom reality and curriculum demands with time. In any case, teachers should be free to give details about their classes before the observation lesson and explain their preferred classroom strategies afterwards. Adopting a collaboration-oriented and research-based paradigm in selecting an effective observation approach is a new experience for principals and teachers. Because of its novelty alone, the approach is already likely to encounter a host of problems 79 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects including those which have not been anticipated. However, it can be improved through continuous professional workshops, trialling and in-house reviews in a variety of class and school settings. Imperfections can be rectified if schools and teachers are encouraged to implement it according to local circumstances. After all, and in line with the familiar dictum that “weighing a baby does not make it grow”, observation should be considered as a process of improving teaching and learning through dialogue and collaboration (Sullivan & Glanz, 2013) but not just for teacher appraisal purposes and the evaluation of overall teaching quality in schools. This view is especially valuable for enhancing professionalism, teaching expertise and democratic school management in an educational system where participatory classroom processes are much needed for helping students at widely different levels of ability and motivation to improve their quality of learning. 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Retrieved from http://bul.sagepub.com/ content/90/3/238. 83 Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects 香港學校內的課堂觀課—回顧與前瞻楊沛銘前任聖公會基孝中學地理科主任摘要對教育當局、校長、老師、研究學者和公眾而言，課堂觀課往往被視為有不同目的。本論文以一個正在進行改革的教育制度為背景，討論了這些不同觀點，觀課的優點與缺失，及它對學生行為、教育的創意性、公平性、可信度和教師觀感等各方面的影響。就着改進觀察者能力的發展與教師的專業能力和態度，本文亦作出一些建議，它對其他方法（例如：課堂研究、「不在場」觀察及視像科技的應用）亦有所分析。進行分析時，作者顧及了對課堂及教師做法的理解，隨後亦討論研究帶來的啟示及觀課者的訓練。總括而言，雖然觀課可以是有用的監察工具，觀課者亦應有靈活性，在選擇做法時需要根據學生特色及它們對促進教師合作、反省和專業發展的能力。關鍵詞觀課評核，校外評核，校長作為模範者，促進教學效能，另類觀課方式 84 85 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習胡少偉香港初等教育研究學會張勇邦津貼小學議會林碧珠香港資助小學校長會馮文正香港小學教育領導學會摘要香港政府於 2002年提出校長持續專業發展的要求，其後又委託專家進行研究，並於 2007 年發表《在職校長持續專業發展計劃報告》。近年，香港小學面臨多重挑戰，小學校長當下的工作難點是什麼？他們認為有哪些進修需要呢？為了深入了解香港小學校長面對的挑戰，香港初等教育研究學會等四個教育團體於 2015年合辦「小學校長面對的挑戰」研究。本文結合文獻和運用該研究結果，分析香港小學校長當前的工作現況、校長領導力、人事管理困難和專業培訓需要，並探討香港小學校長學習的發展趨勢。關鍵詞香港小學校長的工作，小學校長的領導力，小學校長培訓需要，香港小學校長的專業學習 86 香港政府早於世紀初便公布了對中小學校長的要求：「由 2002年 9月起，新入職校長在入職後首兩年必須修畢特定專業發展課程、參加持續專業發展活動，及每年向辦學團體 /董事會提交個人持續專業發展資料冊。由 2004/05學年起，所有擬任校長必須獲得校長資格認證。校長資格認證包含三部分，就是專業發展需要分析、完成特定課程及提交個人專業發展資料冊。而在職校長方面，由 2002年 9月起，在入職後第三年起每年須參加 50小時的持續專業發展活動。在三年間，在職校長應至少參加 150小時的活動，內容包括：有系統的學習、實踐學習及為教育界和社會服務的模式。這個政策是香港政府首次列明對中小學校長的要求，並促進了本地中小學校長的持續進修；與此同時，政府在文件中亦提示各在職校長須因應個人培訓、學校發展、社區和教育發展等方面的需要，並根據下列六個主要領導才能範疇去訂定自己的持續專業發展計劃：（i）策略方向及政策環境；（ii）學與教及課程；（iii）教師專業成長及發展；（iv）員工及資源管理；（v）質素保證及問責；及（vi）對外溝通及聯繫（教育局，2007）為了知悉業界對校長持續專業發展的意見，香港政府委託專家進行了相關的研究，並於 2007年發表《在職校長持續專業發展計劃報告》。在這報告中顯示「絕大部分在職校長參與持續專業發展活動均超越政策的目標時數。同時，從在職校長表達的意見得知，參加持續專業發展活動對個人及學校的發展均有正面影響」（教育局，2007，4.1段）。這引證了香港校長於當年已達到上述政策要求的同時，亦肯定了當時校長亦認同持續專業發展的益處。在累積多年校長培訓課程的經驗後，香港政府調整了新入職校長專業發展課程的要求，明確表示各新入職校長在入職後首三年必須修讀一個特定專業發展課程。有關培訓內容包括： • 入職課程（出任校長第一年）：內容以學校行政及發展為中心； • 有系統支援課程（出任校長第二年）：提供導師支援及協助建立校長網絡； 87 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習 • 校長領導研習班（出任校長第三年）：透過內地參觀考察等活動，擴闊校長的視野。（教育局，2013）關注小學校長的專業成長在政府政策的推動下，香港越來越多學者和專業團體關注校長專業發展。除了上述提及的《在職校長持續專業發展計劃報告》外，有專業學會於 2008年進行「小學校長看教育政策」的研究。香港初等教育研究學會在該研究指出有 95.4%受訪小學校長「期望所屬的校長團體在將來對教育政策的制定有更多發言的機會」；而認為「對制定教育政策發表意見是校長持續專業發展的重要組成部份」的受訪校長則佔 90.8%。在校長能力方面，該研究亦發現有 88.3%的受訪校長表示自己是「經常按校情因時制宜地推行政府的教育政策」，同時亦有 82.6%的校長認為自己「有能力按校情因時制宜地推行政府的教育政策」。這研究發現香港小學校長既重視政策的參與，亦自信有能力按校情落實政策。近年，一位本地學者亦提出「理想的校長不只是解決校務問題和被動配合官方改革措施，確保辦學質素達標，更要前瞻未來，為追求卓越質素而主動迎接挑戰」（梁亦華，2014，頁 75）。可見，校長追求卓越質素及其專業發展的重要性。自從教育改革、課程改革、推行全日制、成立法團校董會、設立小學副校長、準備學生應付兩個公開考試和管理 24班或以上的人手等新教育措施和學校變革後，小學校長工作越來越多，難度越來越大。香港小學校長正面臨多重挑戰，香港小學校長現況究竟是怎樣的？小學校長工作難點是什麼？他們認為有哪些進修需要呢？這需要進行一個實證研究去了解。為了深入剖析香港小學校長面對的挑戰，香港初等教育研究學會、香港小學教育領導學會、津貼小學議會和香港資助小學校長會等四會合作，派出代表組成「小學校長面對的挑戰」研究小組，於 2015年就小學校長的領導、面對困難、人手管理、工作表現、持續進修、對教育政策的看法和其他與小學校長相關環節進行調查，以讓公眾和政府正視小學校長面臨的危機和挑戰。為了從多角度了解與小學校長工作相關的挑戰，研究小組分別向小學校長、副校長和資深主任等三方面開展調查；該小組經焦點訪談和參考本地相關研究後，設計了一份「小學校長面對的挑戰」問卷，並透過試查和修定後，於 2015年 5月向全港小學發出問卷，共收回 164份校長問卷、154份副校長問卷及 160份資深主任問卷； 88 按每校一校長計算，是次調查校長回收率為 31.2%（526間小學）。本文除回顧香港小學校長培訓的發展外，亦徵得該研究小組同意，運用該研究的相關數據，去分析香港小學校長當前工作現況、管理人事困難、專業培訓需要和小學校長領導力；同時，下文也將結合國際和本地相關文獻，去探討香港小學校長發展學習的未來趨勢。香港小學校長的工作香港有學者於幾年前研究副校長時發現有不少副校長無意申請升任為校長；「這個研究總結香港學校校長短缺的問題潛在申請人無意尋求升職，因為擔當校長的崗位有可能與其個人的價值有所違背」（Kwan & Walker，2012，頁16）。而這個「小學校長面對的挑戰」研究亦有相近發現，據四會於 2015年 10月記者會後報章報導，這研究「發現六成八的小學校長將於 10年內退休，其中約一半更是 5年內退下火線；學校領導層即將交接，但有意升任校長的副校長不足一成半，高達五成半人更表明無興趣升職，而資深主任無意更上一層樓比例更近七成之多，兩者均以校長職責太重及個人性格不合為主要理由。」（〈小學校長退休潮、逾半副校無意升正〉， 2015）。可見，香港傳媒十分關注小學校長面臨斷層的情況。而令情況惡化的原因之一是近年小學校長工作增加，這研究發現有過半的小學校長、副校長和資深主任皆認同小學校長六方面工作增加：管理不稱職教師、融合生人數上升、提昇學生公開試表現、處理家長及校友的投訴、校內人事糾紛和面對縮班殺校。從表一中，三類受訪者皆在管理不稱職教師項目有最高的認同率。要有效減少校內不稱職教師，有國際學者曾指出「一個組織要想成功，就需要讓勞動力不斷地成長、發展和成熟過程，就是為員工的持續發展提供支持的一種方式，是改進人和組織績效的強而有力工具」（Kouzes, Posner, & Biech，2013，頁 193-194）；因此，香港小學校長若要改善學校組織的話，便需要關心員工的在職專業發展，尤其是表現不稱職的同工更需透過發展而提高工作表現。 89 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習表一三類持份者認為小學校長增加的工作小學校長增加的工作校長認同率副校長認同率資深主任認同率 1 管理不稱職教師 84.1% 74.7% 73.1% 2 融合生人數上升 64.6% 59.7% 61.9% 3 提昇學生公開試表現 62.8% 58.4% 65.6% 4 處理家長及校友的投訴 57.9% 57.8% 58.1% 5 校內人事糾紛 55.5% 63.0% 58.1% 6 面對縮班殺校 54.3% 55.2% 59.4% 7 管理學校財務 52.4% * 53.8% 8 滿足外評視學的要求 * * 58.8% *回應比率少於一半有關小學校長對教育政策和校本執行的看法，四會研究小組參考了香港初等教育研究學會於 2008年「小學校長看教育政策」的研究問卷，讓是次受訪校長回應該問卷內 13題相關描述。從表二中，發現 2015年有超過八成的小學校長認同下列四項：「我經常是按校情推行政府的教育政策」（92.0%）、「我有能力按校情推行政府的教育政策」（89.0%）、「我期望我所屬的校長團體在將來對教育政策制定有更多發言的機會」（87.8%）和「我認為對教育政策發表意見是校長持續專業發展的重要組成部份」（82.3%）。這四點與當年小學校長研究結果相近，2015年大部份的小學校長也認同參與教育政策和有能力按校情推行政策。另一方面，這研究亦發現小學校長對「我滿意特區政府在制定教育政策時對校長們有充份的諮詢」（31.1%）、「礙於我能力不足，我很少在教育政策制定時參與」（26.2%）和「我在政府制定教育政策時經常用個人名義發表意見」（23.2%）等三項有過半的不認同；這反映出有不少香港小學校長認為政府在制定教育政策時諮詢不足，亦看到小學校長自認以個人名義參與政策討論不多。因此，香港教育的決策者需思考加強與小學校長的政策對話，以凝聚推行教育政策的共識和力量。 90 表二小學校長對教育政策與校本執行的看法教育政策與校本執行的項目認同率不認同率 1 我經常是按校情推行政府的教育政策 92.0% 6.1% 2 我有能力按校情推行政府的教育政策 89.0% 9.1% 3 我期望我所屬的校長團體在將來對教育政策制定有更多發言的機會 87.8% 9.8% 4 我認為對教育政策發表意見是校長持續專業發展的重要組成部份 82.3% 15.2% 5 我滿意特區政府在制定教育政策時對校長們有充份的諮詢 31.1% 67.1% 6 礙於我能力不足，我很少在教育政策制定時參與 26.2% 70.8% 7 我在政府制定教育政策時經常用個人名義發表意見 23.2% 73.8% 小學校長的人事困難「組織內部的人力資源，被認為是有關學校系統的持續可行性和最終成功方面最需要考慮的事情」（Webb & Norton，2005，頁 432）。香港初等教育研究學會於 2013年進行的「香港小學副校長人事管理」研究，發現有過半數受訪小學校長、副校長與資深中層人員均選出人事管理的工作難處，包括：小學副校長要兼顧的工作太多、個別同工太重個人利益、個別同工自控能力欠佳、協調中層同工的工作、協調中層同工的工作、家長的投訴增加以及處理情緒失控的投訴者等。同時，在教育局（2007）「在職校長持續專業發展檢討報告」亦發現「大多數在職校長認為在持續專業發展活動中，策略方向及政策環境、對外溝通及聯繫、學與教及課程均較有成效；而只有 40%在職校長認為有關員工及資源管理的活動有用，顯示這方面培訓活動的質素及專業適切性需進一步改善」（4.3段）。在這個 2015年四會小學校長研究內，發現三類持份者皆有過半認同小學校長的人事管理困難包括：個別同工太重個人利益、家長的投訴增加、協調中層同工的工作和工作太多，跟進人事工作時間不足；當中，最多小學校長、副校長和資深主任認為個別同工太重個人利益是最大的人事管理困難（見表三）。 91 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習表三三類持份者看小學校長人事管理的困難人事管理的困難校長認同率副校長認同率資深主任認同率 1 個別同工太重個人利益 68.3% 52.6% 54.4% 2 家長的投訴增加 57.9% 50.6% 52.5% 3 處理情緒失控的投訴者 54.9% * * 4 協調中層同工的工作 54.3% 53.2% 52.5% 5 工作太多，跟進人事工作時間不足 51.8% 51.3% 51.3% 6 部份同工提升意願不足 51.8% * * *回應比率少於一半面對學校人事管理的困難，內地學者賈書建（2014）指出：「若領導班子不團結，不和諧，內耗嚴重的話，用不了多久，人氣就沒了，人心就散了，到頭來必然會使學校的發展遲滯」（頁 19）。看來，香港小學校長也要重視領導層對學校發展的共識，協調和統籌各領導層同工同心推動校務；在處理人事管理工作時，「我們常說的將心比心，其實就是要我們在某些特定的時候進行換位思考，尤其是作為團隊領導者在教導、批判團隊成員時，一定要注意分寸，不可太重，重了別人承受不了」（崔志東、郭志亮（編），2013，頁 107）；香港小學校長要多些學習和運用軟性技巧處理人事。正如蔡少恒（2013）在《清華管理課》一書內指出「倘若沒有激勵，員工僅僅能夠發揮工作能力的 20%-30%；而受到激勵之後，員工的工作能力能夠提升到 80%-90%」（頁 232）。香港小學校長可參考上文的論述，與同工相處時多作激勵，以便提升同工的工作能力。小學校長領導力的自評在〈個人職業生涯為本的校長培訓與學校領導力發展〉一文中，鄭玉蓮、盧乃桂（2011）認為「依據個人職業劃分，注重校長個人能力提升的培訓模式已經不能滿足實踐對學校領導力的需求。校長培訓急需轉變為學校領導力發展」（頁 70）。在是次研究中，四會小組其中一個研究課題是香港小學校長的領導力，小組在參考 Ulrich、Smallwood & Sweetman著的《領袖力密碼》，建立了一個香港小學校長五方面領導力的自評框架；經本地化修定和試查後，研究小組向小學校長提供 5類 25 92 個領導力項目作自評。在分類比較，受訪小學校長自評以領導者質素平均分最高，有 8.33（5分為及格；10分為滿分）；其次各分類領導力得分按序分別是戰略家（8.28）、人才管理者（8.06）、執行者（7.87）及人力資本開發者（7.86）。正如一份香港中學領導力的研究發現「受訪校長相信個人內部質素比外部質素較為重要」（Wong, 2010, p.151）；小學校長的個人內部質素是領導力重要組成部份。與此同時，這研究亦發現小學校長在自評領導力時人力資本開發者方面表現較遜，香港小學校長往後在發展個人領導力時，可參考是次研究結果，加強開發校內人力潛質，以優化學校的人力資源和提升同工的專業能力。表四　小學校長自評領導力的平均分分類項目平均分領導者質素（分類平均：8.33） 1.1 我了解自己 8.55 1.2 我能承受住壓力 8.48 1.3 我有清晰思維 8.47 1.4 我善於學習 8.43 1.5 我精力充沛 7.71 戰略家（分類平均：8.28） 2.1 我信校董會的辦學理念 8.97 2.2 我對學校發展有構想 8.80 2.3 我確立了學校的發展策略 8.52 2.4 我會激勵同工執行戰略 7.73 2.5 我在組織內部創造了戰略凝聚力 7.34 人才管理者（分類平均：8.06） 3.1 我善於溝通 8.26 3.2 我營造積極的工作氛圍 8.09 3.3 我使眾人協同 8.00 3.4 我提升組織的整體效能 7.99 3.5 我提供資源滿足員工的要求 7.98 執行者（分類平均：7.87） 4.1 我主動變革 8.63 4.2 我能設計恰當的架構 7.91 4.3 我掌握管理技巧 7.74 4.4 我遵循決策流程 7.69 4.5 我確保問責到位 7.60 93 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習分類項目平均分人力資本開發者（分類平均：7.86） 5.1 我發現並培養下一代員工 8.21 5.2 我合理規劃員工 8.10 5.3 我將同工與學校利益聯繫起來 7.85 5.4 我鼓勵校內建立社交網絡 7.59 5.5 我幫助他人管理自己 7.55 教育是一個人影響人的事業，作為學校的領袖，小學校長要深入研究和反思自己的領導能力和風格，從而更有效地帶領自己學校的發展。有關領導力的研究，市面上有不少由商業或管理學者撰寫的專書都值得關注領導力成長的小學校長作參考，其一是由麥肯錫喬安娜・巴斯吸收十多年培訓卓越領導者的經驗而撰寫的《正念領導：麥肯錫領導方法》。圖一是該書的中文譯本提及正念領導力五大元素，包括：發現意義、調整視角、建立關係、積極參與和管理能量。這個正念領導力以領導者為本，全面論述了領導者在各方面要關注的環節，十分值得新任或銳意提升領導力的小學校長作參考。再者，香港小學校長提高領導力除了修讀相關課程的同時，也可透過自學或小組伴讀去提高和反思自己的領導力。圖一正念領導力的五個元素（Barsh & Lavoie，2014，頁 4）調整視角自我覺察在當下暫停建立關係建立信任互相連接支持他人積極參與活在當下主人翁精神承擔風險，採取行動管理能量能量平衡恢復能量持續實踐發現意義幸福感核心優勢人生使命表四　小學校長自評領導力的平均分（續） 94 小學校長的培訓需要「世界各國校長培訓的實踐呈現以下趨勢：由以學科課程為中心轉向以學習者為中心；由以知識教學為中心轉向以能力培養為中心；由以知識擴展為中心轉向以人格形成訓練為中心」（田漢族，2012，頁 23）。經濟合作與發展組織教育研究報告則指出，「在職進修能夠應對學校領導的特殊需要。因此，它應該周期性地提供給學校領導者和領導團隊，使他們能夠不斷地更新其能力或分享其新經驗。各國還提供基於課程的培訓、集體培訓、自主學習以及其他的項目」（郭婧和高光譯， 2013，頁 24）。上述這些國際校長培訓趨勢，可供香港政府、辦學團體及培訓校長機構作參考。四會小組在研究中向受訪小學校長提供了 21個需進修課題作選擇，表五內 8個課題皆被過半以上受訪小學校長認為需進修的，各持份者當下應優先提供下列相關課題供小學校長進修和學習：領導團隊的能力、了解教育法例、應付學校危機、處理學校財務、策劃學校發展、管理和監督下屬、處理家長投訴和管理情緒與調解等。其次較多小學校長認為需要進修的課題包括：促進學校變革（49.4%）、了解最新教育政策（45.1%）、指導同工領導科組（43.9%）、優化教師考績（42.7%）和推動評課文化（39.0%）等。表五　小學校長認為較需專業進修的八大課題課題校長需要率 1 領導團隊的能力 60.4% 2 了解教育法例 58.5% 3 應付學校危機 56.7% 4 處理學校財務 55.5% 5 策劃學校發展 54.9% 6 管理和監督下屬 54.9% 7 處理家長投訴 54.9% 8 管理情緒與調解 51.8% 在培訓責任方面，香港小學校長認為負責培訓和支援機構依次為：政府部門（68.9%）、專業組織（62.8%）、大專院校（61.0%）、校長團體（53.7%）、辦學團體（40.9%）及校長個人（23.8%），這研究結果值得各持份者關注及供培訓機構參 95 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習考。再者，有關小學校長的專業培訓，內地學者鄭玉蓮（2015）指出「各國的研究和實踐均證明，培訓的有效性不是去情境，而是依賴於其對學校實際情境的關注；脫離學校改進的實踐來談校長培訓的有效性與品質是不現實的」（頁 79）。因此在設計香港小學校長培訓課程或課題時要注意其實踐性。而孫超、陳岩（2011）在〈中小學校長培訓課程的知識解讀〉一文則指出「除了利用已有知識，還需要加強新的實踐性知識的生產，將一線校長所長期積累的管理經驗和辦學思想加以提煉、總結，形成培訓課程」（頁 84）。這個重視校長內隱知識的忠告，亦值得設計和提供香港小學校長培訓課程機構作參考。香港小學校長的專業學習田愛麗（2009）在分析香港與內地校長專業發展時指出「在組織專業發展活動時，除了重視外來者專家的講授之外，兩地也都重視校長之間的經驗分享、小組討論、案例分析等。從專業發展理念而言，校長的專業發展既需要外界的支援和指導，又需要內因的驅動，需要校長本人進行積極的專業反思和自我反思」（頁 56）。各地的校長培訓越來越重視校長個人的專業反思。其中，能力本位的校長培訓理念強調在「課程體系中的人本取向重點關注校長問題解決意識和自主學習水準的提升，注重校長個體的自我發展和潛能開發，以充分發揮校長的主體意識，進而提升校長對教師和學生主體性的尊重意識」（陳禹、龔玲，2014，頁 99）。這種重視校長在專業學習的自主趨勢，值得有意提高專業能力的小學校長了解。與此同時，新近的培訓領導理念是提倡高效管理者應同時是一個導師，「優秀的領導者也是一位導師；再次強調，指導是領導者職責的一部份，其首要任務是幫助他人成長」（Bell & Goldsmith，2014，頁 5）。事實上，不少校長知道一個成熟領導者不只關心自己的專業發展，同時亦要關注發展校內同工的專業成長；再者，校長學習做一個導師型的管理者，不單可推動學校成為學習型組織，亦可促進同工在實踐中得到更佳的成長，這個管理與培訓合一的新理念值得香港小學校長學習。最後，這個香港小學校長研究一個令人驚喜的結果是，雖然表內副校長和資深主任所評價的校長與表內自評的校長並不相同，但整體而言小學副校長和資深主任對小學校長的表現評分，比小學校長自評還要高。根據表六的資料，有過半小學校長（57.6%）自認表現良好，自評表現為優異的佔 15.2%；而小學副校長和資深主 96 任卻較多認為小學校長表現良好，回應分別是佔 40.0%和 41.4%，認為小學校長表現優異的亦分別有 36.0%和 35.5%。正如本地學者 Hallinger, Lee & Ko（2014）有關香港教師專業社群的論文指出「校長質素直接和間接影響教師專業社群；同時亦對校長領導和機構信任有正面的作用」（頁 245）；小學校長在這研究中能獲大部份副校長和資深主任的欣賞，這對香港小學校長帶領學校發展和建構教師專業社群甚有裨益。表六　三類持份者對小學校長表現的評分評分校長自評率副校長評分率資深主任評分率 1 優異（9 分或超過 9 分） 15.2% 36.0% 35.5% 2 良好（8 分或以上，而低於 9 分） 57.6% 40.0% 41.4% 3 滿意（5 至 8 分） 19.0% 20.0% 21.1% 4 及格（5 分） 1.3% 2.0% 0.0% 5 不及格（5 分以下） 0.6% 2.0% 1.9% 回應人數 158 150 152 結語為了促進香港小學校長的發展，筆者四人作為四會「小學校長面對的挑戰」研究小組成員，運用是次 2015年研究結果，讓關心香港小學校長專業發展者可從多方面理解和運用是次研究發現，共同推動和支持香港小學校長的專業發展。歸納上文，香港小學校長近年工作增多，加上接近和有意退休者不少，很多小學副校長和資深主任卻無意升任，這將令香港小學領導會出現斷層現象，值得各方關注。與此同時，這研究亦發現小學校長認同按校情推行教育政策，並願意積極參與相關討論；但官民在教育政策諮詢方面皆需改善。在人事管理方面，三類持份者皆認同小學校長面對多個困難；有意改善校內員工協調的小學校長，要多運用軟性技巧處理人事。在領導力方面，受查小學校長整體自評高，有充足自信去領導同工；在五分類領導力中，小學校長們相對地在人力資本開發者的自評分數較低，值得留意和改善。在培訓需要和專業學習方面，筆者四人認為應多參考國際發展趨勢，進一步優化小學校長的培訓和專業學習。最後，正如學者 Easton（2008）指出「發展意味著發展某 97 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習人或某物（develop somebody or something）；被別人發展是不夠的，教師必須能夠自我發展。為了變革，他們必須知道得足夠多；為了獲得不同的結果，他們必須改變自我─變成學習者」（頁 756）。小學校長作為教師們的領導者，更加不能等待被發展，而應主動學習領導力，以解決學校日常的管理工作和人事困難，從而促進香港小學教育的發展，造福香港的小學生和學校同工的成長。參考文獻〈小學校長退休潮、逾半副校無意升正〉（2015，10月5日）。《星島日報》，教育版。田愛麗（2009）。〈中國內地與香港校長專業發展機制比較〉。《教育發展研究》， 2009年 12期，53-56。田漢族（2012）。〈從任務驅動到個體成長中小學校長培訓模式的反思與重構〉。《教育科學研究》，2012年 1期，18-23。孫超、陳岩（2011）。〈中小學校長培訓課程的知識解讀〉。《持續教育研究》，2011 年 7期，頁 82-84。香港初等教育研究學會（2008）。〈校長在教育政策中的角色〉。2016年 7月 25日，取自 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R., & Goldsmith, M.（2014）。《成為導師型經理人：如何幫助員工學習成長》，周迪、郭心蕊（譯）。北京：電子工業出版社。（原著出版年：1996） Easton, L. B. (2008). From professional development to professional learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(10), 755-761. Hallinger, P., Lee, M., & Ko, J. (2014). Exploring the impact of school principals on Teacher Professional Communities in Hong Kong. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 13(3), 229-259. Kouzes, J. M., Posner, B. Z., & Biech, E.（2013）。《培養卓越領導者的教練指南：領越領導力教練模型、工具和流程》，黃學焦、胡丹、李鵬（譯）。北京：電子工業出版社，頁 193-194。 Kwan, P., & Walker, A. (2012). Linking vice-principals’ perceptions of responsibilities, job satisfaction and career aspirations. ISEA, 40(1), 3-17. Schleicher, A (Eds.)（2013）。《為21世紀培育教師和學校領導者：來自世界的經驗》，郭婧、高光（譯），北京：北京大學出版社。 Ulrich, D., Smallwood, N., & Sweetman, K.（2011）。《領導力密碼》，陶娟（譯）。北京：中國人民大學出版社，頁 15-27。 Webb, L. D., & Norton, M. S.（2005）。《教育中的人力資源管理—人事問題與需求》，徐富明等（譯）。北京，中國輕工業出版社，頁 68，432。 Wong, R. M. H. (2010). Education challenge: The meaning of leadership in Hong Kong schools. International Education Studies, 3(2), 148-157. 99 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習 Training needs and professional learning of primary school principals in Hong Kong WU Siu Wai Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association CHEUNG Yung Pong Subsidized Primary Schools Council LAM Pik Chu Hong Kong Aided Primary School Heads Association FUNG Man Ching Hong Kong Primary School Leaders Association Abstract In 2002, the Hong Kong Government proposed the requirements for continuing professional development of school principals. Subsequently, the government delegated experts to carry out a research and issued a “Report on Continuing Professional Development Program for Serving Principals” in 2007. In recent years, primary schools in Hong Kong are facing various challenges. What are the difficulties in working as a primary school principal at present? What do they need in their training? In order to understand the challenges that a primary school principal in Hong Kong has to face, the Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association collaborated with three other education organizations conduct a study the “challenges facing primary school principals” in 2015. With literature reviews and discussion in the research results, this article tries to analyse the current working conditions, leadership, difficulties in personnel management and the professional training needs of primary school principals. Finally, we also look into the developing trend in learning of primary school principals in Hong Kong. Keywords primary school principals’ work in Hong Kong, leadership of principals in primary school, training needs of primary school principals, professional learning of principals in Hong Kong primary school. 101 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估譚繼鏞廈門理工學院王婷婷廈門大學教育研究院摘要本文探討小學教師如何看待職前教師教育培訓的效果。研究採用 Darling-Hammond （2006a）開發的「教師職前培訓準備」問卷形式，調查了中國東南沿海某市 285 名小學教師。調查結果顯示：（1）小學教師認為其在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其現在的教學影響比較顯著；（2）相比於畢業三年以上的，畢業三年及以內的小學教師更認為在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其教學有幫助；（3）師範生比非師範生更認同在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其教學有幫助。關鍵詞中國學校教師，教師教育課程，教師準備一、引言任何教育體系的成功都取決於教師的能力（Evertson & Emmer, 2012; Hoy & Miskel, 2012）。Rothstein（1990）和 Aypay（2009）認為教師專業能力特點可以分為 102 四個方面： 1、學科知識：教師在各自專業領域和課程的知識。 2、教學能力：規劃、課程準備、教學方法的使用、溝通技巧、課堂管理、與學生發展健康的關係、學生的發展和學習情況評價的記錄。 3、學生輔導服務：教師幫助學生培養健康平衡的人格。 4、個人和職業特點：有效的時間管理，與其他教師建立專業的關係以及專業發展的需求。幾位學者（Aypay, 2009; Abbott-Chapman, Hughes, & Williamson, 2001）認為：教師培訓機構的任務是培養合格的教師，這是最基本的也是最重要的任務。那麼如何培養合格的教師，什麼樣的教師培訓課程才能稱為有效培養教師的課程呢？在教師教育實踐中，任何培訓課程都需要接受評估，評判培訓工作的好壞。迄今為止，國內還沒有一套系統具有效的方法來評估現有的教師教育課程，沒有研究資料作為教師教育發展和改革的依據，本研究將通過實地調查，評估小學教師在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其當前教學的影響。希望借實地調查資料，能發展出一套與基礎教育對接的教師教育課程體系。二、研究背景（一）國外對以研究資料支撐的教師培訓課程的強調國外一些學者（Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002; Harris & Sass, 2007）對教師培訓是否會對教師的職業生涯產生影響以及如何產生影響兩方面進行了研究，促成了世界範圍內的教師培訓計畫的改革（Aypay, 2009）。國外教師發展的最大特點是：用資料支援教師培訓政策和課程內容，就是通過對中小學實地考察來驗證培訓方向和課程，這不但使現有的教師培訓任務有的放矢，同時有利於加強教師培訓機構與當地學校的合作，從而幫助教師培訓跳出象牙 103 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估塔，幫助學校解決其本身在行政、教學和課程編排上的問題，最終使學生學習能力得以受益提高。在西方國家，現代教育政策的制定也必須以研究資料為基礎，每一次的教育宣導都會重新評估師資水準。2001年，美國總統布希簽署了「帶好每一個兒童」法案（no child left behind），要求 21世紀初美國的中小學生能夠達到他們應有的語文閱讀水準和數學計算能力，在這個法案中，美國教育部要求學校和老師對學生的成績負完全責任（accountability），學生每年要參加水準考試，學生的成績好壞是政府資助力度的依據。例如，一個社區裡，如果學生在水準考試中的通過率高，那麼從政府那裡得到的經費就多。在同一時期，教育部要求那些被授權教師培訓的大學機構，要重新評估他們的教師培訓課程、重新核定崗前培訓和在職教師的資格水準，並要求他們通過當地州政府舉辦的教師資格考試，這種機制使很多大學教師培訓機構制定出系統的評估方法，及時收集資料，努力使他們的培訓課程達到教育部的要求，從而得到教育部和州政府的經費資助。與此同時，進行崗前培訓和在職教師培訓，教育部希望他們的培訓內容均有資料支援（evidence base），如傳授一些有資料支援的教學方法。聯邦政府教育部也支持大學老師去中小學做嚴謹的實地調研，調查探究教學方法的有效性。2009年美國總統奧巴馬政府斥資 43.5億美元，成立「角逐卓越基金」（Race to the Top Fund），目的是鼓勵教學改革，其中最重要的一點是要求每個學區和學校負責提升學生的學習成效。如果他們能夠提供資料證明學生學習水準有明顯的進步，聯邦政府將增加對他們的教育撥款。因此，利用資料來指導學生的學習，利用資料來評估學區、學校的教育成效，就成了美國地方政府和學校普遍使用的方法。（二）國內教師教育課程評估相關研究隨著教師教育改革的不斷深化，近年來國內學校雖然在課程設置和內容選取上做了較大的調整和改革，但是，我國現行的教師教育課程與發達國家相比仍然存在一定的差距。特別是國內目前還沒有一套系統具有效的方法來評估現有的教師教育課程，導致沒有研究資料作為教師教育發展和改革的依據，這更會拉大與發達國家的距離。 104 關於對我國教師教育課程的研究，代表性觀點有：滕明蘭（2004）認為我國現行的教師教育「課程結構比例不合理、課程類型單一、課程內容殘缺陳舊、教育實踐機會短缺、實踐環節鬆散、低效」；杜靜（2007）認為課程問題是「基礎課程相對薄弱、教育類課程比例偏低、實踐課程明顯不足、學科課程有待精化等」；《教師教育課程標準》專家組、鐘啟泉、崔允漷、胡惠閔、汪賢澤（2008）的研究發現當前教師教育課程滿意度偏低，被調查者判斷教師教育課程對教師專業素養的形成價值不大，教師教育課程存在的突出問題是：理念陳舊、結構失衡、功能低效。以上關於我國教師教育課程的研究只是籠統的說明課程的問題所在以及簡單評估課程滿意度，關於具體課程內容評估的實證研究幾乎沒有。因此，本研究引進國外成熟的教師教育課程評估工具，為我國教師教育課程的改進提供資料支撐。（三）我國及東南沿海地區的教師教育課程結構目前我國高師院校教師教育課程結構包括：（1）為學生學習綜合性文化知識而開設的公共基礎課程；（2）為從事專門學科教學的專業知識而開設的學科專業課程；（3）為從事教師職業所必需的教育理論與技能而開設的教育專業課程。（艾述華， 2010）。童順平和李建輝（2013）以福建省為例調查發現儘管福建省內各校教師教育課程具體設置並不完全相同，但從課程類型上看，均可分為通識教育課程、學科專業教育課程、教師專業教育課程、實踐課程（實踐性教學）四大類，大致代表了東南沿海地區師範生主要的教師教育課程結構。相比較，非師範生的課程一般包括通識教育課程、學科專業教育課程、實踐課程及其他。也就是說，比起師範生，非師範生缺少教師專業教育課程和實踐性教學課程。對於想從事教師行業的非師範生，他們需要自己去自學這方面課程，或者到社會上參加相關培訓。（四）教學準備性與教學效果的聯繫教師接受的培訓類型多種多樣，要獲取這方面的詳細資料很難，而更難的是將教師培訓與其所教的學生的成績聯繫起來（Harris & Sass, 2007）。某些國家（如美國）要求在可測量資料基礎上對教師培訓課程以及其是否有助於學生的學習進行評 105 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估估。對於畢業生在教師培訓機構中的培訓表現，美國的高等教育法還提供了評估的法律依據（Darling-Hammond, 2006b）。在全世界範圍內，致力於教師效能評估的研究數量一直在不斷增加（Aypay, 2009）。已有研究發現教師的教學效能感與某些能影響學生學習的行為有關，例如教師嘗試新的教學技術的意願（Allinder, 1994; Subban, 2006）、教師對學生的態度（Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Geake & Gross, 2008; Gibson & Dembo, 1984）、教師試圖解決學習問題的毅力（Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Soodak & Podell, 1996）、教師教學積極性 /教學熱情（Guskey, 1984, 2002; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy, & Hoy, 1998）以及教學承諾（Coladarci, 1992; Ware & Kitsantas, 2007）等。國內研究也發現教學效能水準不同的教師會採取不同的教學行為和教學方式，從而產生不同的教學效果，學生相應的會有不同的自我效能感，出現學習動機和學習成績的差異（李素真， 2008；李志鴻、任旭明、林琳、時勘，2008）。因此，教師教學效能感不僅直接影響教師自己的行為，而且也對學生的學業產生影響。另外有研究發現教師效能感與其對自己準備性的察覺相關（Raudenbush, Rowen, & Cheong, 1992; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007）、教師對自己準備性的覺察與其教學有效性相關（Darling-Hammond, 2006a, 2006b; Darling-Hammond, Chung & Frelow, 2002; Wenglinsky, 2000）。 Darling-Hammond的研究考察的就是教師對其準備性的覺察，而不是直接測量其教學效果。雖然這些資料不能直接用於考察教師的教學效果，但卻可以用於探究教師對其準備性的自我覺察和其教學能力感之間的關係。教師對其準備性的覺察已被發現是一種和教師效能有關的變數。Darling-Hammond的研究發現，教師對自己總體上的準備性的評估與他們能否對學生學習產生有效影響的感覺顯著相關。感覺準備良好的教師顯然更相信他們能處理好課堂問題、教好所有學生、並對學生的生活有所影響。而感覺沒準備好的教師明顯更不確定該如何對部分學生進行教學，轉而認為學生同伴及家庭環境比老師更能影響學生的學習。綜合已有研究可推論：教師對自己準備性的覺察影響其教學效能感，教學效能感影響其教學行為，後者進一步影響教學效果。可見，教師對自己準備性的覺察與其教學效果相關。 106 本研究主要測的也是教師對自己準備性的覺察，確切來說測的是教師認為大學教師教育課程對自己教學準備的影響度，以此評估大學教師教育課程的培訓效果。三、研究方法（一）研究對象本研究採用方便抽樣調查方法，以中國東南沿海一經濟特區當前任教小學教師為對象，根據所能接觸到的對象發放紙質或電子版問卷。共發放 330份問卷，回收 297份，有效問卷 285份。具體對象特點見下表一。表一研究對象特點組別人數（百分比）組別人數（百分比）是否師範生是 173（60.7%）性別男 35（12.3%）否 94（33.0%）女 249（87.4%）現任教學校所在地城市 142（49.8%) 畢業年數三年及以內 92（32.3%）農村 140（48.4%) 三年以上 187（65.6%) 年齡（歲） 20~29 158（53.2%） 30~39 92（30.6%） 40~49 28（ 9.4%）（二）研究工具本研究所採用的問卷源自於美國斯坦福大學教育研究院給美國加利福尼亞州教育署評估大學教師培訓課程時所使用的測量工具，即 Darling-Hammond（2006a）開發的「教師職前培訓準備」量表。原量表整體的克倫巴赫α內部一致性係數是 0.96，量表各維度係數分別是因素一（0.92）、因素二（0.89）、因素三（0.81）、因素四（0.87）和因素五（0.75）（Aypay, 2009）。 107 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估本研究首先翻譯原量表，然後邀請了五個從事師範教育的大學教師對量表進行修訂，原量表共有 29道題，修改後去掉與中國背景不符的「英語語言學習者」以及「在學校中承擔領導者的責任」兩題，最後設定為 27道題。 27道題分為五個因素，問題皆以「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你⋯⋯」形式呈現，回答採用五點計分形式。具体如下表。表二因素內涵及包含題目因素因素內涵因素包含題目因素一課程與教學方案設計（組織好給學生學習的主要課程內容，準備好教學方案，為全體學生設計學習體驗）包含 1、5、6、7、8、 9、11、14、19 共 9 道題因素二支持學生多樣性（鼓勵並支持所有類型的學生學習）包含題 2、10、15、 17、18、20 共 6 道題因素三用評估法來指導教學和學生的學習（評估學生知識）包含 21、22、23、24 共 4 道題因素四營造一種多產的課堂環境（創造並控制對學生學習有幫助的環境）包含 3、4、12、16、 26 共 5 道題因素五專業上的發展（以一名職業教育者的身份發展）包含 13、25、27 共 3 道題四、結果與分析（一）五因素總體得分情況從五個因素平均得分來看，從高到低依次是因素五（M=3.25）、因素二（M=3.22）、因素一（M=3.15）、因素四（M=3.146）、因素三（M=3.09）。也就是說總的來看，被試認為大學教師教育課程對於自己當前在「專業上的發展」、「支持學生多樣性」兩方面上產生的影響相對較大，而在「用評估法來指導教學和學生學習」方面所起的作用相對較小。 108 （二）各小題總體得分情況從各小題平均分來看，92.6%的題目平均得分都超過 3.00，所有題目得分都超過 2.90，由此可見被試認為在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其現在的教學影響還是比較積極的。尤其是「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地運用多媒體進行教學？」一題平均得分相對較高（M=3.49），是唯一一題分數達到 3.40以上的。原因可能是「運用多媒體」是程式性知識，練習過後不容易遺忘，因此如果教師以前在大學課程中學會運用多媒體，再次在教學中應用到時會覺得當時的練習起到很大作用。另外，得分相對較低的有「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你更好地和學生家長合作，以求更好地瞭解學生，幫助他們的學業？」（M=2.91）以及「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好的幫助你合理解釋學生、家長或同事對教學計畫的疑問？」（M=2.90）兩題。這兩道題的內容都包含了和學生家長的合作，可見被試認為大學教師教育課程在促進家校合作方面有所欠缺。（三）五因素差異性檢驗通過對五因素的性別、城鄉、師範生與否的T檢驗與畢業年份的ANOVA檢驗，結果發現男女小學教師、城市與農村小學教師在五個因素上都沒有顯著性差異。但不同畢業年份在每個因素上都有顯著性差異，而師範生與非師範生在因素一、二、五上則有顯著性差異。 1、不同畢業年份差異性檢驗 Darling-Hammond等人研究了關於教師職前培訓對教師準備的影響，他們認為從事教學三年以內的教師受到原來培訓課程的影響比較深，因為教師的表現以及觀念會受到其職業發展的影響，而且從事教學的時間越長受到職業發展的影響越深，因此他們的研究對象限定為從事教學三年以內的新教師（Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002）。 109 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估本研究以此為依據將教師根據畢業年份分為畢業三年及以下、畢業三年以上（雖然這不等於教齡，但也有一定參照意義）兩組進行 T檢驗，結果發現這兩組在五個因素上都有很顯著的差異性，其中因素一、二、四、五差異非常顯著（P≤0.001）。具體特點見下表三。表三不同畢業年份差異性檢驗已畢業時間人數均值標準差 T 值 P 值因素一三年及以內 90 3.33 0.58 3.24 0.001*** 三年以上 187 3.06 0.60 因素二三年及以內 91 3.41 0.63 3.24 0.001*** 三年以上 184 3.12 0.82 因素三三年及以內 90 3.29 0.72 3.21 0.002** 三年以上 184 2.97 0.89 因素四三年及以內 90 3.37 0.65 3.32 0.001*** 三年以上 186 3.05 0.80 因素五三年及以內 90 3.62 0.81 5.04 0.000*** 三年以上 183 3.07 0.85 進一步分析可知畢業三年及以內的教師在每一個因素上的均值都比畢業三年以上的教師的得分高，可見大學所接受課程培訓對教師在「課程與教學方案設計」、「支持學生多樣性」、「用評估法來指導教學和學生的學習」、「營造一種多產的課堂環境」、「專業上的發展」這些方面的影響會因畢業時間長短而不同。對於以上結果，原因可能是：畢業時間短的學生一方面對原來大學的課程知識記憶仍較清晰，另一方面本身教學經驗還不夠，因此教學受原來大學課程的影響會較深；而畢業三年以上的教師，其長期教學經驗的積累以及畢業後所接受的其他培訓可能帶給自己教學更大的影響。基於此，若要評估大學教師教育課程的效果，以畢業三年及三年以內的畢業生為評估對象為最佳。但是也有可能是近年來的教師教育課程設置較之以往有所改善，使得近三年來畢業的學生受益更大。 110 2、師範生與非師範生的差異性檢驗由於師範生與非師範生所接受的大學課程培訓差別比較大，師範生所接受的課程會更明確教授教學相關技能。因此，本文將對師範生與非師範生做個比較。首先，從五因素平均得分來看，師範生與非師範生在因素三、四上沒有顯著差異（P>0.05），而因素一、二、五有顯著性差異（P≤0.05），從均值上看可知在有顯著性差異的三個因素上師範生平均得分都比非師範生高，因素一師範生平均得分為 3.22，非師範生為 3.01；因素二師範生平均得分為 3.31，非師範生為 3.05；因素五師範生平均得分為 3.33，非師範生為 3.09。也就是說，師範生比非師範生更認為在大學所接受的課程培訓對於他們現在的「課程與教學方案設計」、「支援學生多樣性」、「專業上的發展」上有幫助。表四師範生與非師範生五因素差異性檢驗本科是否是師範生人數均值標準差 T 值 P 值因素一是 173 3.22 .75 2.163 .031* 否 94 3.01 .75 因素二是 173 3.31 .76 2.563 .011* 否 94 3.05 .80 因素三是 172 3.15 .85 1.421 .157 否 94 2.99 .89 因素四是 173 3.20 .75 1.725 .086 否 94 3.03 .82 因素五是 173 3.33 .86 2.099 .037* 否 94 3.09 .93 總分是 164 86.70 19.23 1.589 .113 否 89 82.57 20.56 其次，這三個有顯著性差異的因素裡具體是什麼導致的差異呢？對此我們又對三個因素下的各小題做了 T檢驗，並列出有顯著性差異的題目，結果如下表。 111 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估表五師範生與非師範生具體有差異題目所屬因素具體題目師範生人數均值標準差 T 值 P 值因素一你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能使你以學生更容易接受的方式教授本學科的概念、知識以及技能？是 173 3.34 1.00 2.013 .045* 否 94 3.07 1.04 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你從學習規律、學科基本知識、課程大綱及學生發展等方面來設計教學計畫？是 173 3.43 .95 3.681 .000*** 否 94 2.98 .99 因素二你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你瞭解不同學生學習（方式、程度）的個別差異？是 173 3.17 1.01 2.006 .046* 否 94 2.91 1.00 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你注重從多種不同文化的角度來教學生？是 173 3.49 1.02 3.186 .002** 否 93 3.06 1.04 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能在教學過程中更注重鼓勵學生從多角度理解、質疑、解釋問題（辯證地看問題，理解問題，思考問題）？是 172 3.45 .97 2.534 .012** 否 93 3.12 1.07 因素五你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地運用多媒體進行教學？是 173 3.68 1.14 3.275 .001*** 否 94 3.20 1.15 112 因素一中師範生與非師範生得分有顯著差異的是「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能使你以學生更容易接受的方式教授本學科的概念、知識以及技能？」（M 師範生=3.34，M非師範生=3.07，P≤0.05）以及「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你從學習規律、學科基本知識、課程大綱及學生發展等方面來設計教學計畫？」（M師範生=3.43，M非師範生=2.98，P≤0.001）兩題。師範生比非師範生更認為在大學接受的教師教育課程有助於自己以學生更容易接受的方式教授本學科的概念、知識以及技能，也更能幫助自己從學習規律、學科基本知識、課程大綱及學生發展等方面來設計教學計畫。因素二中得分有顯著差異的是「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你瞭解不同學生學習（方式、程度）的個別差異？」（M師範生=3.17，M非師範生 =2.91，P≤0.05）、「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你注重從多種不同文化的角度來教學生？」（M師範生=3.49，M非師範生=3.06，P≤0.01）、「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能在教學過程中更注重鼓勵學生從多角度理解、質疑和解釋問題（辯證地看問題，理解問題，思考問題）？」（M師範生=3.45，M非師範生=3.12， P≤0.01）三題。師範生比非師範生更認為在大學接受的教師教育課程能幫助其瞭解不同學生學習的個別差異、能幫助其注重從多種不同文化的角度來教學生、能使其在教學過程中注重鼓勵學生從多角度理解、質疑、解釋問題。因素五中有顯著差異的是「你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地運用多媒體進行教學？」一題（M師範生=3.68，M非師範生=3.20，P≤0.001），師範生得分顯著高於非師範生得分，可見師範生比非師範生更認為大學教師教育課程有助於自己更好地運用多媒體進行教學。由以上可知師範生在大學所接受的教師教育課程比起一般的大學課程來說更能促進新教師的教學。五、調查結果小結（一）總的來看，小學教師認為其在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其現在的教學影響比較積極。影響度從高到低依次是「專業上的發展」、「支持學生多樣性」、 113 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估「課程與教學方案設計」、「營造一多產的課堂環境」、「用評估法來指導教學和學生學習」。（二）小學教師認為在大學接受的教師教育課程對其更好地運用多媒體進行教學所起的作用相對其他方面更大，而在促進家校合作方面則有所欠缺。（三）比起畢業三年以上的，畢業三年及以內的小學教師更加認為其在大學所接受的教師教育課程對其在「課程與教學方案設計」、「支持學生多樣性」、「用評估法來指導教學和學生的學習」、「營造一種多產的課堂環境」、「專業上的發展」這些方面有影響。（四）師範生比非師範生更認為在大學所接受的教師教育課程對於他們現在的「課程與教學方案設計」、「支援學生多樣性」、「專業上的發展」上有幫助。六、討論與建議（一）加強對非師範生教師的正規培訓本研究結果發現，總體上師範生在大學所接受的教師教育課程的影響比非師範生更大，原因之一是非師範生在大學裡面沒有教育專業課程及教學實踐環節。 Darling-Hammond等人的研究表明，接受過教師教育課程的教師比沒有接受過這方面培訓的教師在大多數教學方面感覺準備性更好（Darling-Hammond, Chung & Frelow, 2002）。並且，至始至終在同一機構接受正式培訓的老師比那些前後受過不同機構培訓的教師的準備情緒更好，而後者又比那些職前受培訓少、只參加了替代課程的教師們的準備情緒好。對於在大學裡面沒有教育專業課程及教學實踐環節的非師範生來說，他們必須通過自學或者社會培訓的方式提高自己這方面能力，這樣的方式不如大學的課程來的系統，學習效果欠佳。因此如何加強對非師範生教師這方面的正規培訓，關係到他們今後的教學效果。 114 （二）加強教師的在職進修當前，在我國的素質教育、新課程改革和重視教師專業成長的背景下，加強中小學教師的在職培訓對提高教師的整體素質和基礎教育品質具有重大的意義。然而，由於中小學教師接受在職教育的主觀意願不強和各種客觀條件的限制，我國的教師在職培訓存在著諸多問題。對此，可以借鑒國外相關做法。比如許多國家都採取多種措施激勵教師進修，通常做法是把進修取得證書與加薪晉級緊密聯結起來。如美國教師通過進修獲得學分證明、研究證明以至學位後，即可領取相應的工資，並可作為教師今後換證或考核升遷的依據；又如日本教師待遇豐厚，通過進修，如取得高一級任教許可證，即可提薪（吳名，2001）。（三）促進家校合作蘇聯教育家蘇霍姆林斯基說過「最完備的社會教育是學校教育與家庭教育的結合。」家庭因素對學生成長所產生的影響，已然成為學校教育不容忽視的力量（朱清，2012）。研究指出「家長的參與和學生的學業成績及學校的教育品質之間有著密切的聯繫」（王維，2009）。在美國，聯邦政府和各州政府在鼓勵和推進家長參與教育方面都做了大量的工作，其家校合作的發展經歷了從不重視、引起關注、加強研究、完善立法、逐步規範的過程。《2000年的目標：美國教育法案》和新修訂的《初中等教育法案》都強調了家長參與教育的重要性，將家長參與放到了優先的地位（王維，2009）。然而在我國，家長作為學校教育的有力合作者的身份尚未得到很好的認識和利用，在孩子的學習當中家長更多的只是被動地服從和配合學校。學生家長參與學校教育的形式主要包括兩種：一是傳統的「家長會」，二是近年來興起的「家長學校」，這兩種形式能給到學生的支持實際上是很少的（王維，2009）。與美國相對比，我國在「家長參與」方面顯然做得不足，從本文調查結果來看，大學教師教育課程在這方面強調的少是一個重要原因。為了使「家長參與」進一步發揮其效果，促進學生的學業的提升，高校在教師教育課程設置中應該增加關於家校合作的內容，提高教師與學生家長合作的意願。 115 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估（四）加強高校與小學的合作高校與小學的合作關係可以創造一個相互信任、互惠互利、共用資源的環境（Bullough Jr., Draper, Smith, & Birrell, 2004; Calabrese, 2006）。在這樣的環境下，可以深入小學，瞭解小學教育教學的實然困境，一是對剛畢業的小學教師進行訪談瞭解他們在大學所學的哪些東西有用，哪些方面需要加強等；二是訪談小學校長對剛畢業教師的評價，探討哪些方面做得好，哪些方面有待改進。通過這些途徑瞭解了小學教師有待加強的地方，再回到大學課堂探討教學困境的解決辦法，進一步完善教師教育課程，以培養出更優秀的教師。另外加強高校與小學和合作還有助於師範生的見習、實習與理論知識學習相結合。（五）用數據支持教師培訓政策和課程內容國外教師發展最大特點是用數據支持教師培訓政策和課程內容。相對比，我國在教師教育評估方面的實證研究並不多，缺乏數據支撐。為了使我國教師教育課程改革往更好的方向發展，應該借鑒國外在評估教師教育成果方面所採用的方法，進一步完善國內的評估方法。此外，對於高校教師教育課程的編排設計改進，還可以參照其他教師教育學院的做法，例如香港和臺灣地區的大學。七、研究局限本研究採用方便抽樣的方法僅抽取了 285名被試，樣本代表性有所不足。鳴謝本研究是福建省教育科學“十一五”規劃重點課題：詢證教育模式與基礎教育的對接 (項目號 FJH10-022)。本研究經費得到張麗英女仕贊助，特此致謝。 116 參考文獻《教師教育課程標準》專家組、鐘啟泉、崔允漷、胡惠閔、汪賢澤（2008）。〈關於我國教師教育課程現狀的研究〉。《全球教育展望》，2008年 09期。王維（2009）。〈「家長參與教育」的國際經驗及啟示〉。《基礎教育》，2009年03期。朱清（2012）。〈關於基礎教育中家校合作的文獻綜述〉。《青年文學家》，2012年18期。艾述華（2010）。〈我國教師教育課程結構存在的問題及對策〉。《中國電力教育》， 2010年 04期。吳名（2001）。〈發達國家中小學教師在職進修的特點及其啟示〉。《上海教育》， 2001年 18期。李志鴻、任旭明、林琳、時勘（2008）。〈教學效能感與教師工作壓力及工作倦怠的關係〉。《心理科學》，2008年 01期。李素真（2008）。〈教師教學效能感對學生自我效能感的影響〉。《黑龍江教育學院學報》，2008年 03期。杜靜（2007）。〈我國教師教育課程存在的問題與改革路向〉。《教育研究》，2007年 09期。童順平、李建輝（2013）。〈教師教育課程結構的現狀、問題及其改進—以福建省為例〉。《中國高等教育評估》，2013年 04期。滕明蘭（2004）。〈對我國教師教育課程體系改革的構想〉。《教育理論與實踐「學科版」》，2004年 10期。 Abbott-Chapman, J., Hughes, P., & Williamson, J. 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C., & Podell, D. M. (1996). Teacher efficacy: Toward the understanding of multi-faceted construct. Teacher and Teacher Education, 12(4), 401-411. Subban, P. (2006). Differentiated instruction: A research basis. International Education Journal, 7(7), 935-947. Tschannen-Moran, & Hoy, A. W. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(6), 944-956. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk-Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202-248. Ware, H., & Kitsantas, A. (2007). Teacher and collective efficacy beliefs as predictors of professional commitment. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(5), 303-310. Wenglinsky, H. (2000). How teaching matters: Bringing the classroom back into discussions of teacher quality. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. 119 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估附錄：教師考察因素問卷您好！首先感謝您抽出時間參與此次問卷調查。本問卷旨在瞭解大學課程對您畢業後工作的作用。調查結果可能影響未來大學課程改革，望您能積極參與，認真填寫，謝謝！首先，請您填寫個人資訊。性別：男 [ ] 女 [ ] 年齡：畢業年份：專業：職稱：本科是否是師範生：是 [ ] 否 [ ] 工作單位所在地：城市 [ ] 農村 [ ] 下面是正式調查。請根據所提供的評分標準在每一個題目後填入相應得分。 1. 幫助非常大，請評為“5”分 2. 幫助大，請評為“4”分 3. 幫助一般，請評為“3”分 4. 幫助不大，請評為“2”分 5. 幾乎沒有幫助，請評為“1”分。 Q 1. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能使你以學生更容易接受的方式教授本學科的概念、知識以及技能？ [____] Q 2. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你瞭解不同學生學習（方式、程度）的個別差異？ [____] Q 3. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地幫助學生樹立富有挑戰又合適可行的預期目標？ [____] Q 4. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地幫助所有學生達到應有的學業水準？ [____] Q 5. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能使你更好地以學生的閱歷、興趣和能力水準為基礎開展教學活動？ [____] 120 Q 6. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能使你更好地對教師用書包括教材和教參進行有效性和合理性的評估？ [____] Q 7. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你更好地開展跨學科的教學活動？ [____] Q 8. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地幫助你選擇可以促進學生主動學習的教學策略？ [____] Q 9. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你把課堂教學和實際生活聯繫起來？ [____] Q 10. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你瞭解學生在社交、情感、生理和認知方面的發展是如何影響他們的學習的？ [____] Q 11. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你合理解釋學生、家長或同事對教學計畫的疑問？ [____] Q 12. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地幫助學生提高自我激勵和自我指引的能力？ [____] Q 13. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地運用多媒體進行教學？ [____] Q 14. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你提高學生的提問和討論技巧？ [____] Q 15. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能在教學過程中既強調學生的團隊合作，同時也要求學生的自主學習？ [____] Q 16. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能用有效的語言和非語言的溝通策略引導學生的學習、表現？ [____] Q 17. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你注重從多種不同文化的角度來教學生？ [____] Q 18. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能在教學過程中更注重鼓勵學生從多角度理解、質疑、解釋問題（辨證地看問題，理解問題，思考問題）？ [____] Q 19. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能更好地幫助你從學習規律、學科基本知識、課程大綱及學生發展等方面來設計教學計畫？ [____] 121 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估 Q 20. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你更好地瞭解校外環境中的哪些因素會影響學生的生活、學習？ [____] Q 21. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你更好地和學生家長合作，以求更好地瞭解學生，幫助他們的學業？ [____] Q 22. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能幫助你更好地運用多重評價方式（如觀察、成長記錄、考試）考核學生？ [____] Q 23. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使能你對學生的學習情況給予積極有效的回饋，以更好地指導他們的學習？ [____] Q 24. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否能使你更好地幫助學生學會怎麼評估自己的學習？ [____] Q 25. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地解決人際衝突？ [____] Q 26. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地讓學生瞭解教學安排及目的，同時提供有秩序的學習環境？ [____] Q 27. 你在大學接受的教師教育課程是否使你能更好地和同事共同制定計劃、解決問題？ [____] 感謝您的參與！ 122 The evaluation of primary school teachers on teacher education curriculum in a Chinese city TAM Kai Yung Brian Xiamen University of Technology WANG Tingting Institute of Education, Xiamen University Abstract This study investigates the view of primary school teachers on their pre-service teacher training. 285 primary school teachers in one south-eastern coastal city in China responded to a survey entitled “Pre-Service Preparation of Teachers to Teaching” which was developed by Darling-Hammond (2006a). Results show that: (1) Teachers who received pre-service training felt more prepared for their job duties. (2) More teachers who graduated from their teacher education programs with less than 3 years rated themselves well prepared by their training than those who graduated with more than 3 years. (3) Teachers who attended teacher education programs felt better prepared than those who did not attend. Keywords school teachers in China, teacher education curriculum, teacher preparation, 123 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法黃炳文澳門大學教育學院倪紹強香港教育大學教育政策與領導學系摘要有效的校長領導，有助學校提升。香港現時的校長支援系統鮮有從個人出發，未盡滿足個別校長所需。「剪影法」乃支援校長領導的新方向，本文檢視其背景、緣起、設計、發展、實踐，並對校長專業產生的影響。訪談的過程中，採用「個人」、「朋輩」、「私隱」三原則，訪者和受訪者在暢所欲言後，整理出個人的「剪影」以作參照。這可補充現時香港校長培訓課程的不足，有助解決校長人才短缺、繼承等問題，值得進一步探究。關鍵詞剪影法，校長培訓，專業支援校長領導對學校發展的重要，已獲多方面的文獻和研究支持，學者普遍認為，有效的校長領導，有助學校提升行政效能和教學質素（Slater, 2011; Lee, Hallinger, & Walker, 2010)。所以，有關校長的培訓和專業成長，也備受關注（Wong, 2013) 。現時香港在支援校長、領導學校發展，達致學校效能等方面，亦已配合潮流，在廿世 124 紀已經開展，並透過不同的模式進行。這些模式主要包括針對不同身份對象如經驗校長、新任校長、擬任校長而提供的培訓課程；在校長培訓課程中給與學員考察、觀摩、交流的經歷；另有由經驗校長與新任校長結成伙伴，由經驗校長指導新任校長；亦有由教育局安排支援遇上困難或不稱職的校長等。但這些支援方式，由於個別都存在著一定的局限，既未能全面涵蓋所有需要接受支援的校長，亦未盡滿足個別校長所需要的支援。譬如說，正規而結構性强的培訓課程，不容易配合部份校長學員出席的時間，也較難吸引經驗和資深的校長；以「舊」帶「新」或其他指導式的模式，在配對方面也不容易。此外，現時以上各種支援的模式，主要還是以學校、學校效能為主體，鮮有從校長個人作出發點的。所以，這個被筆者命名為「剪影法」、針對校長個人的支援方法，正好補足了現時培訓模式不足的地方。而且，在「以人為本」的同時，「剪影法」也不失達致提升學校發展或學校效能的效果。本文旨在介紹這個支援校長領導的新方向，並報導其從背景、緣起、設計、發展、實踐至對校長專業產生影響的整個過程。一、「剪影法」的背景、緣起與設計 1. 支援校長的背景上世紀自 1990年代開始，全球世界各地，在學校管治方面逐步由中央集權走向校本管理，傾向不同程度的權力下放（Caldwell & Spink, 1988）。權力下放的同時，意味著對學校效能和校長專業問責的要求。而學校管治的擔子、教育領導的角色，也漸漸從中央政府的教育當局，轉移由學校所屬的辦學團體及校內的領導層，包括校長和教師所分擔和取代。校本管理的主要概念，是教育當局將決策權力下放，使到學校可以透過自我管理的過程，達到既定的教育目標。這個自我管理的過程，除目標制定（Goal setting）外，還包括三個步驟，也就是策劃（Planning）、推行（Implementing）和評估（Evaluating）。不過，要成功落實校本管理，傳統由上而下的層級性領導模式，已顯得不合時宜。只有透過適切的專業培訓，提升學校的校長和中層老師的管理能力，擴大和分散學校的「領導層」和「領導權」，再装備前線老師相關的認識，予以配合，使學校無論在組織層面、小組層面和老師個人層面，都熟識和靈活運用這個包含目 125 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法標制定和策劃、推行和評估的管理過程，才能奏效。近期有關學習型組織、分散領導、教師領導等方面的研究說明，如學校行政領導者掌握和運用得宜，再配合傳統管理學的智慧，應該有助提升校本管理管治模式下的學校效能。可惜的是，由於校長和老師在這方面的裝備不足，或培訓的內容和模式不到位，不少文獻和報告都指出，面對教育改革和嶄新的學校管治模式，校長和教師都感到困難重重，校長方面出現了倦怠、提早退休、流失問題（Kwan & Walker 2010; Penqilly, 2010; Sachs, 2004）；教師方面則對學校要求的行政工作感到厭煩、焦躁不安和缺乏晉升的意欲（Wong & Wong, 2005; Wong, 2009a, 2009b, 2010a；Wong, Wong & Peng, 2010）。這種情況，在香港也不例外。近年，不少校長因年齡和其他問題相繼離職，所屬的辦學團體，都遇上接班的問題，在找尋合適人選方面，相當困難。事實上，為了順應全球的校本管理和教育改革浪潮，香港教育當局早在 1997 年教育統籌委員會第七號報告書已表示，將全面以校長 /教師專業發展作為配套，使這些政策和改動得以順利推行。在眾多有關教育改革的諮詢文件或政策文獻中，和校長有關的包括了：校本管理諮詢委員會（2000）、教育統籌委員會（1997）、教育署（1999, 2002），和教師有關的包括了：教育統籌委員會（1997）和師訓與師資諮詢委員會（2003, 2006）等。此外，政府又撥款與公營和津貼學校，容許安排不同形式的專業培訓，使用學校正常的上課日，為學校校長和老師提升管理和領導的能力。這些形式，包括了由教育局，或委託大專院校舉辦的培訓課程、安排講座、訪談、遊學交流、研討會等等，至於費用方面，從免費、津貼和自費的都有，不一而足。香港政府以上的努力，大致上已取得一定的成果（Tang 2007; Wong & Wong, 2003; Wong, 2004; Wong, 2009b; Wong, 2010a)。在校長的專業發展方面，1999年 6月，為了為香港的教育改革作好準備，教育署（1999) 提出了《領導培訓課程建議》，特別意識到「校長是推動優質教育的關鍵人物」，整個培訓課程的建議旨在使校長具備所需的知識、技能及態度，成為稱職的領導者，帶領學校邁向香港教育改革。在 2002年 2月，教育署又進一步制訂了「校長持續專業發展的理念架構」，為在職校長、新入職校長和擬任校長訂定不同的進修要求。為了確保新入職校長的質素，由 2004年 9月開始，政府規定有志成為校長的人士，必須獲得校長資格認證，才可出任校長。在新入職校長仍未獲得認證的 126 過渡期間，亦即從 2000年至 2005年期間，新入職校長需要修畢特定的專業發展課程，並參加持續的專業發展活動。所有在職校長，從 2002年開始，需要每年參加約 50小時的持續專業發展活動，以擴闊視野。《建議》也使培訓校長的單位，由教統局轉移至大專。從 2000年至 2005年，大專院校可以透過競投或接受教統局委托開辦各類型的培訓課程。現時對提供校長培訓課程有興趣的院校，包括香港中文大學、香港大學、香港浸會大學和香港教育大學等。某程度而言，這樣的發展趨勢，有利於借助教育理論的新思維，謀求進一步的突破。這也間接引發了香港學者對校長專業發展和培訓模式的探索和反思。現時主流的校長培訓，仍依賴為在職或擬任校長提供正規的培訓課程，而由於教育局委託了大專院校籌辦，課程除了較為專業之外，不同的大專院校，也能各自辦出了特色。但現時的情況是：大部份的校長培訓課程，重點只在應付學校的管治效能、管理與領導的理論和實踐方面，卻沒有關注校長的「個人」、「自助」和「自我反思」的需要。校長的個人問題，包括本身的性格、情緒、健康、教育理想、家庭生活的平衡等，而自助和自我反思的需要，包括了校長對學校所處的獨特情境中，過往及現時所行使，以回應教育政策、持分者及學生需要的校政，其理據、成敗經驗、修正過程等等的檢視、反思及自我評估等。所以無論校長培訓課程有多好，它可以提供到的，只能是一般而廣泛的經驗，不可能滿足到學員個別的、較深層次的需要，或切合所服務學校的特殊情境。此外，有固定上課時間表的校長培訓課程更不能照顧到因種種原因不能出席上課的學員，因為不少的校長，處理學校工作及突發事件之餘，還承擔著教育局、辦學團體及教育團體的公職，基本上已分身乏術，更遑論可輕易以固定上課形式完成整個培訓課程。因此對部份校長而言，他們需要的，是另類的支援。現以下圖，在 2000至 2010年某院校的校長領導培訓模式作一些說明，顯示「剪影法」所處的位置。經過多年提供培訓課程的經驗、反覆的領導研究、和課程評估驗證等，該院校的領導培訓，已總結出一個香港校長培訓課程在內容上應有的元素。這些元素，包括了（1）面對環境和政策的轉變、（2）與副校長的工作關係、（3）教師的專業發展、（4）學生領導、（5）校長的自我提升和價值觀、（6）對外關係等。這個培訓課程的特色，也在它結合了理論、研究和實踐三方面，圖中每個元素下標示的小題和年份，顯示參考的文獻主題和發表的年份。這個培訓領導的模式，被反 127 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法覆驗證，雖顯示行之有效，也深受參與培訓學員的認同（黃炳文、李榮安、陳斐， 2007；黃炳文，2009），但對著處於學校特殊情境、而又不能或不願出席上課的學員而言，再有效的正規培訓課程，始終還是無能為力，愛莫能助的。所以，對這些學員而言，「剪影法」以較靈活而富彈性的支援方式，恰好給了他們另一類的選擇。事實上，現時也有一些「協作制」或「導師制」等校長專業培訓的模式，但它們絕對取代不了「剪影法」。原因有二：（1）這類「協作制」或「導師制」的支援模式，多以經驗校長作為導師，照顧校長學員的個別需要，所以較適合新任的校長學員。對資深而有經驗的校長學員來說，這類支援，並不一定合適；（2）就新任校長的學員來說，據經驗所及，也有部份學員，基於不同的原因，不願意與友校朋輩或導師分享個人及學校的問題；（3）亦有些初任的校長學員，甚至不認同他們校長導師的領導風格或學校的管理模式。這也是「剪影法」的取向，將學校的領導和管理，交回與校長本人作專業反思的意思和理據。圖一「剪影法」在校長培訓及支援上的角色： 128 2.「剪影法」的緣起與設計「剪影法」是香港和英國學者，在共同研究英國和香港兩地校長，如何面對和回應教育改革時，觸類旁通，獲得啟示，從而提出支援校長的一個建議（Bottery, Wong, Wright, & Ngai, 2009; Wong, 2010b）。這個港英兩地的比較研究，研究方法是質性的，數據主要來自訪談。參與訪談的港英校長全屬自願性質，須透過接受半結構性的訪談，描述他們在學校的工作，如何受到以下的影响： a. 有關法例； b. 政府教育當局的視學； c. 學校市場化的發展趨勢、家長選擇、競爭氛圍； d. 個人的限制和困擾 : 時間上的、體力上的⋯ 等等； e. 與任職學校情境有關的獨特壓力這個研究的過程讓筆者發現注意學校的發展和效能與校長的個人困擾，其實是一體兩面。透過提供校長一個專業支援的反思機會，其實就是校長個人很好的專業發展經歷（Bottery, Wong, Wright, & Ngai, 2009）。於是，筆者在完成了這個港英校長研究之後，開始就著「剪影法」的意念，作進一步的探索。也因此，「剪影法」與其他支援模式不同的地方，在於它對焦的對象，不是學校，而是校長個人。不過，在「以人為本」、以校長為出發點的同時，又不失於忽略了學校或學校效能，因為困擾校長個人的問題，與其任職的學校、學校的效能，根本就關係密切，總是連在一起的。「剪影法」具體的運作，就是透過與校長的訪談對話，以文字描繪校長的管理和領導風格，讓校長有機會在專家輔助下，作專業的反思，從而提升領導的能力。「剪影」是給予「portrait」一辭的翻譯。以下是採用「剪影法」支援校長的具體步驟： a. 專業支援者與校長進行訪談對話。支援者以具備訪談對話及教育行政經驗的學者或人士擔任較為合適，特別是當接受訪談對話的校長在這方面的能力表現稍弱，因為這有助提升接受支援者的澄清及反思能力。支援者透過訪談的方式和技巧，引發受支援的校長思考或分享工作上的焦慮、壓力和 129 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法困擾個人的問題。訪談對話採用開放和半結構的形式進行，分享的內容反映了校長經反思後對個人焦慮、壓力和困擾的看法。 b. 訪談對話的內容由錄音記錄、逐字稿、再整理成「剪影」（portrait）。「剪影」就是將校長提供的議題和關注點，提綱挈領地整理出來，以顯示該受訪校長當下面對著什麼問題、如何面對和如何處理等。 c. 當完成「剪影」的寫作後，整篇「剪影」會交由另一學者過目、審視，以比對「剪影」內容的論說，是否得到來自「逐字稿」的堅實支持，並就「剪影」的內容，在定稿前作最後的補充和修正。 d. 在相隔一段時間後，接受支援的校長會接受第二次訪談對話。訪談對話前，受訪校長有機會先閱讀個人的「逐字稿」和「剪影」。第二次訪談對話的形式同樣屬半結構性，而在訪談對話中分享的問題，包括：（i）對剪影內容的意見；（ii）自上次訪談對話以後，有什麼地方、想法和做法改變了，為什麼會有這些改變；（iii）有那些地方沒有轉變等等。 e. 在整個「剪影」訪談對話的過程中，訪者和受訪者，都同意採用一個 3-P 原則： P1個人（Personal）、P2朋輩（Peer-based）、P3私隱（Privacy）；也就是說，在整個過程當中，受訪者是中心所在、訪者和受訪者沒有從屬和高下的分別、訪談不涉及對校長的考績，而且內容保密，於是受訪者受到尊重和保護，可以暢所欲言。 f. 在整個剪影法支援的過程中，支援者給與受訪者兩個訪談對話和自我反思的機會，讓受訪者從中獲得啟示，有所得著，並付諸行動。二、「剪影法」的驗證與發展為了進一步探索「剪影法」的有效性和可行性，筆者在 2009至 2010年先後在英國和香港進行了兩個試驗計劃。兩地分別舉行了一個為期四天的工作坊，邀請代表不同年資、性別和辦學團體約十名校長，另有培訓校長經驗的學者參加，理解何謂「剪影法」。每一位參加者都有機會在訪談對話中先後扮演支援者和受支援者的 130 角色。在完成所有撰寫「剪影」和訪談對話之後，所有參加者都集合一起，總結和分享對「剪影法」的意見和經驗。筆者從兩個工作坊的試驗，在參與訪談的校長和學者的總結之中，得出了以下的建議： a. 剪影法有助校長從反思中提升專業發展； b. 3P的原則很重要； c. 香港校長一致傾向以學者為支援者，認為較為中立；英國校長則除學者外，亦可接納資深校長為支援者； d. 剪影法可適用於不同年資的校長群。這次驗證，肯定了剪影法對支援校長方面的幫助。剪影法的特色，在於以校長的「個人」、「自助」和「自我反思」促進校長的專業成長。此外，剪影法又可以寓實踐於研究，所以，在日後的支援實踐當中，仍可透過進一步的研究而逐步完善，以驗證： a. 誰是最適當的訪問員，同儕校長？熟知校長的同事？學者？ b. 剪影是詳盡的還是較簡短的好？ c. 在校長的專業發展過程中，那一階段較適合做剪影訪談？相隔多久需要重做？ d. 訪談工具中，那些應該是核心的問題？三、「剪影法」的實踐與對校長做成的影響 2012年，藉著一個成功獲取教育基金的機會，筆者將「剪影法」納入在某校長培訓計劃之內，並收集參與校長提供的資料，作進一步的研究。是次的研究，在以往的基礎上，再肯定了以下幾個變項：（a）支援校長的訪問員由具培訓校長經驗的學者擔任；（b）剪影報告屬於詳盡的類別，每份報告的長度，都在 3,000至 4,000 字之間；（c）參與是次研究的校長，由初任至資深的都有，而兩次的剪影訪談對話，相隔約四至六個月。基於 3P的原則，校長在訪談對話中所提供的個人資料和數據，全部都需要保密。不過，綜合他們、及之前參與試驗計劃的十位香港校長對自我反思的意見，除 131 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法不少涉及個人、具獨特性之外，也可以概括地看到剪影法對他們專業發展的影響，有以下幾點。當中，除第 6項「作出抉擇」，出現的頻率（frequency）在總數中是 4 份 1之外，其他各點出現的頻率，都全在半數以上，具有一定的普遍性： 1. 分享感受 : 大多校長都表示，他們享受整個「剪影」的過程，因為他們有機會閱讀個人的剪影報告，也可以與訪者分享個人的感受。「我只想說出我的感受和困擾。很好，剪影法讓我有了分享的對象。」 2. 反思對錯：這裏包括了兩方面，受訪者反思了在什麼情境下，做對了什麼和做錯了什麼。無論校長在反思後認為是做對了或做錯了，兩者對校長的專業成長，都同樣重要。因為校長表示：當他們覺得做對了，他們會繼續堅持；相反來說，如認為做錯了，或做得不好、不夠的，他們也會以此作日後的參考。所以，無論他們覺得是對是錯，心情上總有了釋放的感覺。「我已盡所能。」此外，亦有情況是校長感到懊悔的。「我不想再提此事了。」「如果事件可以從頭再來一次，我應該可以處理得好一點吧！」 3. 自我認識：由於剪影法是透過學者作為第三者訪談校長，並透過訪談資料及個人的觀察、判斷，為受訪的校長撰寫剪影報告，所以，校長可以從第三者的觀察、判斷，增加對自我的認識和了解。不少的校長，都表示他們曾將自己個人的剪影報告，給予可信賴的親人和朋友觀看，肯定一些有關他們的特質和作風，所得到的回應是「對！這就是你！你就是這樣子的。」所以，很多校長在接受第二次訪談時會說：「謝謝你！你讓我了解自己多了。」 132 4. 持續發展：有校長表示，剪影法令他們感覺不足，需要進一步學習、發展和提升。「我要提升自己。」「我要求我的老師和學生學習，我自己也要不斷學習才可以。如果我的老師和學生知道我還在不斷學習，我相信他們就會學習得更起勁！」 5. 發現價值：有校長表示，透過剪影法的訪談，讓他們反思了過往他們為教育曾作出過的努力和貢獻，也使他們肯定自己的價值，從而更有勇氣和決心，會繼續留在教育界，作出貢獻。「我不會離去，我會留下來。」 6. 作出抉擇：也有校長表示，透過剪影法，加速了他們辭職、退休的意念，因為他們感覺到他們的動力和熱誠正在消退。「我想，是時候我要想想，是不是需要轉換我的工作環境了。」四、總結以上，筆者介紹了一個有關支援校長專業成長的新方向。我們將它命名為剪影法，以表示校長當下對自我專業發展的反思，並報導了它從產生的背景、緣起、設計、發展、實踐至對校長反思做成影響的整個過程。當然，剪影法仍有空間，繼續在發展和驗證中進一步完善，作為補充現時依賴校長培訓課程不足的地方。我們相信，循著這個思維和發展，剪影法會同樣地適用於幫助副校長、中層教師、前線教師的專業成長，亦有助解決校長人才短缺、流失、繼承等問題。其重點在於讓學校每一層次的教師，都有機會與專業同行，在 3P的情況下，定期分享個人問題經驗、以持續反思的機會，面對所處的困難，促進個人的專業成長。剪影法的潛在貢獻，甚或可以在校長層次或教育範疇以外、延展至其他行業領導人員的專業發展，成為屬於整個人力資源管理的議題。所以，我們相信，剪影法值得再作進一步的探索和研究。 133 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法參考文獻校本管理諮詢委員會（2000）。《日新求進，問責承擔：為學校創建專業新文化》，香港：校本管理諮詢委員會。師訓與師資諮詢委員會（2003）。《學習的專業專業的學習：「教師專業能力理念架構」及「教師持續專業發展」》，香港：政府印務局。師訓與師資諮詢委員會（2006）。《學習的專業專業的學習：教師持續專業發展之中期報告》，香港：政府印務局。教育署（2002）。《持續發展，以臻卓越：校長持續專業發展諮詢文件》，香港：政府印務局。教育統籌委員會（1997）。《教育統籌委員會第七號報告書：優質學校教育》，香港：政府印務局。黃炳文（2009）。〈校長的專業領導與學校文化〉。載黃炳文、吳迅榮、許明輝（2009）。《校長專業發展：理論與探索》，頁 15-27。中國，廣東，翁源縣科技教育局。黃炳文、李榮安、陳斐（2007）。〈教育改革與校長之行政、教學及品德領導：香港小學校長研修班報告 2003-2007〉。香港教育局、津貼小學議會、國家教育部小學校長培訓中心暨北京師範大學教育管理學院、香港教育學院教育政策與行政學系合辦。香港：香港教育學院。 Bottery, M., Wong, P. M., Wright, N., & Ngai, G. (2009). Portrait methodology and educational leadership: putting the person first. International Studies in Educational Administration, 37(3), 82-96. Caldwell, B. J., & Spinks, J. M. (1988). The self-managing school. London, New York: Falmer Press. Kwan, Y. K. P., & Walker, A. (2010). Secondary school vice-principals: Commitment, challenges, efficacy and synchrony. British Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 531-548. Lee, M., Hallinger, P., & Walker, A. (2010). A distributed perspective on instructional leadership in international baccalaureate (IB) schools. Educational Administration Quarterly. Penqilly, M. M. (2010). An examination of principal job satisfaction. ProQuest LLC. EdD Dissertation, University of California, Davis. Sachs, J (2004). The problem of principalship: Attracting people to difficult jobs. Principalship and School Management. Kuala Lumpur. Principal Institute, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. 134 Slater, C. L. (2011). 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S. (2005). Promotion criteria and satisfaction of school teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Management, Administration and Leadership, 33(4), 423-447. Wong, P. M. (2009a). A conceptual framework for understanding the working relationship between school principals and vice-principals. School Leadership and Management, 29(2), 157-179. Wong, P. M. (2009b). Principals’ training programmes in Hong Kong. Asian Journal of Educational Research and Synergy, 1(1), 142-155. Wong, P. M. (2010a). The impact of centralized reform-oriented initiatives on teachers’ professional development in Hong Kong. Asian Journal of Educational Research and Synergy, 2(2), 33-51. Wong, P. M. (2010b). Hong Kong’s principal training programmes and the development of a “portrait methodology” approach to facilitate principal support. 載國立臺南大學教育經營與管理研究所第九屆教育經營與管理學術研討會會議手冊暨論文集， 2010年 11月 27日。 Wong, P. M. (2013). The development of principals’ training programmes and the evolution of a “portrait methodology approach” to facilitate principal support in Hong Kong. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 8(4), 415-430. 135 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援：剪影法 The professional support beyond principal training courses: portrait methodology WONG Ping Man Faculty of Education, Macau University NGAI Siu Keung George Department of Education Policy and Leadership, Education University of Hong Kong Abstract Effective principal leadership is helpful in improving the school. The existing supporting mechanism for principals in Hong Kong could rarely satisfy the needs of principals as individuals. The portrait method is innovative in supporting principals: its background, origin, design, development, practice and impacts on principals’ professional development are examined in the article. Based on the principles of ‘personal’, ‘peer-based’ and ‘privacy’, interviewers and interviewees can share freely while portraits are generated for reference. This can supplement the inadequacies of the existing training courses in Hong Kong which might be helpful in solving problems of shortage and succession of principals. The method worths further explorations. Keywords Portrait method, principal training, professional support 136 137 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文廖佩莉香港教育大學摘要本研究旨在分享兩位小學教師試行「浸入式」教學策略的經驗，探討他們運用「浸入式」教學策略對非華語學生學習中文的成效，並了解教師和學生對「浸入式」教學的意見。這是個案研究，研究對象是香港一所小學兩班小學一年級（共四十七位）非華語學生和兩位中文科教師。本研究採用「定質」和「定量」的研究方法，包括：問卷、訪談、前測和後測。研究發現教師運用了「浸入式」教學策略有助提升學生的中文的成績。教師認為有效的浸入式教學策略是：「善用實用的主題單元」、「教師語言的妙用」及「浸入式的閱讀」。學生則喜愛實用的主題、從遊戲中學習中文和組織學習檔案等學生活動。關鍵詞浸入式教學，非華語學生，第二語言學習，中國語文教學一、前言香港是一個國際大都會，居住在香港的南亞裔人也不少，無論是暫居或定居香港，他們的子女都需要學習中文，以適應香港的生活。現時香港南亞裔非華語學生有巴基斯坦人、菲律賓人、尼泊爾人、印度人，還有泰國人、越南人和印尼人等。 138 非華語學生的民族文化、生活習慣、家庭教育，與香港學生不同，他們面對最大的難題是語言不通。他們要跨越多重障礙才可運用中文進行聽、說、讀、寫日常生活的社交活動。學校的中文課是幫助他們學習中文的好機會。中文科教師要運用多種教學方法，引起他們對學習中文的興趣。有了興趣，他們便能樂於學習中文。本研究旨在分享兩位教師試行「浸入式」教學策略的經驗，探討他們運用「浸入式」教學策略對學生學習中文的成效。同時也希望瞭解教師和非華語學生對「浸入式」教學的看法。本研究希望供任教小學非華語學童學習中文為第二語言的教師作參考，啟發中文科教師對這課題的思考。二、文獻探討 2.1 「浸入式」教學的理念與社會化語言習得論一般來說，要學習第二語言，是要靠仲介語（本文是指英文）的轉譯。例如菲律賓人學中文，他們要利用英文作仲介語，轉譯後才能理解中文的字詞。但「浸入式」（immersion）教學是指教師沒有運用仲介語來幫助學生學習。「浸入式」，又稱為沉浸式。根據強海燕，趙琳（2001）的解說，「浸入式」的教學是指「直接學習，類似習得」。「直接學習」即是學習不用母語做仲介；「類似習得」是指用類似習得母語方式來讓兒童學習第二語言，即是用第二語言作為直接教學用語的一種教學模式。趙微（2001）認為要有足夠的第二語言資訊的輸入，而輸入的過程要直觀化、情境化、形象化、活動化，才能提升兒童學習第二語言的趣味性和理解性，那麼學生是不需要用仲介語來學習的。根據分析，「浸入式」的理念是源自加拿大魁北克省第二語言教學（關之瑛， 2008）。第二語言是指人們獲得第一語言（人出生後首先接觸及獲得的語言）後再學習和使用的另一種語言（劉珣，2002）。當地人的母語是法語，但當地卻有很多英裔加拿大人居住，他們必須學好法語，才有機會在當地謀生。由於法語被視為在當地謀生的一項工具，家長都很緊張他們子女學習法語的情況，蒙特利爾的聖．蘭伯特（St. Lambert）學區的家長便聯合起來，要求母語是英語的兒童全部用法語學習，希望能提升兒童學習法語的能力。兒童被浸泡在第二語言環境中，教師純以第二語言教導學生，只用第二語言組織各項學習活動，從而希望他們學好法語。他們 139 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文提出的，名為「浸入式」教學模式。換言之，「浸入式」教學是用第二語言作為教學語言的教學模式。其實「浸入式」教學與社會化語言論是有關係的。維谷斯基（Vygotsky）強調語言的學習是社會化或文化的行為，兒童在社交中的語言接觸是語言發展的必要條件，兒童必須和其他人互相交流，否則便無法發展語言（張春興，1997）。維谷斯基認為兒童學習語言，必須有和其他人互相交流的機會，社交中的語言接觸是語言發展的必要條件，假如沒有社交，語言便無法發展。所以語言的學習主要有賴於浸淫在一個語言環境中，不斷地與別人溝通。因此，教師應以學生為本，營造良好的學習情境，透過師生的互動與交互作用，鼓勵學生提出不同的意見和想法，學生之間或師生間展開交流和討論，激發學生主動、積極地參與學習的活動，並能自發性地探索和建構語言知識（桂詩春，1985）。而「浸入式」教學特別強調用第二語言作為直接教學用語的一種教學模式。無論教師和學生交流，學生和學生之間互動的過程都是運用第二語言。學生必須以第二語言作溝通，加上教師佈置四周環境也是以第二語言為主，學生便能在不知不覺中學習第二語言。教師運用類似習得母語方式來讓兒童學習第二語言，目的是讓他們沉浸在第二語言學習的環境中，在社交中多接觸、學習和運用第二語言。 2.2 「浸入式」教學的策略在美國，針對少數民族兒童，Garcia（1980）提出了兩種不同取向的語言教育方案：一是浸入方案（immersion programs），在正式教育課程中，只使用兒童的第二語言，即浸入式教學；二是非浸入方案（non-immersion programs），在課程中使用兒童的母語和第二語言。臺灣的黃瑞琴（2008）指出這兩種方案對兒童運用語言和認知發展的成效，尚待進一步的研究。究竟浸入式教學有什麼特點呢？浸入式教學是學習第二語言的模式，教師要將學生浸淫在如母語般情境中學習（葉德明，2002），不須用仲介語。強海燕，趙琳（2001，頁 72）認為「浸入式」教學包括：兒童以下意識吸收為主，充分利用內隱學習和外顯學習的機制；忽略語法規則的順序排列，為後期語法學習提供了基礎；兒童關注的是有趣的內容和交流，提高了實際的語用能力；兒童在輕鬆愉快學習中， 140 消除畏難的情緒；較自然地達到了第二語言教學中從知到行的轉變。強海燕，趙琳（2001）提供了一些「浸入式」教學原則性的依據。廖佩莉（2012）根據這些原則，進一步從學校環境的佈置、教學的設計、教師語言的運用和教學的評估各方面，擴闊了「浸入式」的理念，提出一些多樣化「浸入式」教學策略的建議，以下是一些摘要： 1. 從「小環境，大氣候」中學習，營造語言學習環境教師必須以第二語言（中文）和學生溝通，將語言學習和認知過程緊密相連，突出第二語言的工具作用。例如教師在日常學校和課室環境中運用中文來營造語言學習環境。 2. 善用生活化的單元，浸入實用性的學習教師應多設計與生活有關的單元，特別強調其實用性和應用性。 3. 多樣化活動：浸入遊戲的學習教師必須採取多樣化活動，學生便能從活動中學習。 4. 浸入式的閱讀：線索閱讀教師在日常教學中浸入大量閱讀，即是給予學生很多閱讀故事的機會，鼓勵他們多閱讀。所選的圖書最好提供圖畫或重複的詞語和句式，讓學生從線索中閱讀和討論。 5. 打破單一規範的教學目的，強化互動中的隨機教學所謂「單一規範的教學目的」是指教師通常在教學前計劃每課的教學目的，然後設計教學活動，但在教學過程中會出現一些突發性的機會，也可以幫助學生學習，這是隨機教學的好時機。教師應善用師生的互動和環境來進行隨機教學，讓非華語兒童在自然和輕鬆的情境下學習中文。例如課室突然飛來了一隻蝴蝶，學生非常感興趣，於是教師隨機教授「蝴蝶」一詞的讀音和寫法，和學生說一些有關蝴蝶的故事。 141 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文 6. 教師語言的妙用「浸入式」教學是教師以學生的第二語言面對學生，只用第二語言組織各項學習活動，教師表達時應儘量避免語言的轉換或夾雜仲介詞。 7. 「浸入式」的評估「浸入式」的評估，是指學童在日常學習活動中的進展性評估，例如請學生組織學習檔案，教師對學生平日的觀察等。三、研究目的近年來，隨著非華語學童人數不斷增加，對「非華語學童學習中文為第二語言」這課題的探討是必要的。上述的七項建議的策略，可惜尚未得到研究的證實。因此，本研究主要是探討一所收生以非華語學童為對象的小學，但也有少數本地學生就讀。研究員和該校的兩名教師，根據廖佩莉（2012）提出的「浸入式」教學策略作試教，研究的問題是： 1. 教師運用浸入式教學策略，非華語學童的中文科有沒有進步？ 2. 教師對運用浸入式教學策略的有什麼意見？ 3. 非華語學童對中文課有什麼意見？本研究是從教師和非華語學童兩方面的角度，探討他們運用浸入式教學策略成效的意見。本研究期望能啟發任教非華語學童的教師的思考，為他們開拓一個新視野，教師可不必用仲介語教學，也能令學生學習中文。四、研究對象與方法本研究屬個案研究，研究的學校是一所香港小學，該校有很多非華語學生。研究對象是其中兩班就讀小學一年級的非華語學生和兩位任教該兩班的中文科教師，他們參與為期一學年的研究，時間是由 2013年 9月至 2014年 6月。該校共有兩班一年級學生，其中一班有 25人，另一班人有 22人，共 47人，32名學生為巴基斯坦籍，10名為菲律賓籍，5名為印度籍。選擇以一年級學生為研究對象是因為李丹 142 青（2014）指出七歲左右的兒童其母語已經基本成型，同時又處於接受第二語言的最佳年齡。本研究採用「定質的研究」（qualitative research）和「定量的研究」（quantitative research）方式。定質的研究方法包括：在學期結束後，分別與六位學生，每班各抽取低、中、高程度的學生（下文以 S1、S2、S3、S4、S5和 S6為代號）和任教的兩位教師（下文以 T1和 T2為代號）作個別訪談。訪談學生和教師的目的是探討他們對浸入式教學策略成效的意見。訪談內容全部錄音，並轉化為文字檔，然後由研究員將資料分類和進行分析。至於「定量的研究」是在學期結束後，派發問卷給學生填寫，收回 47份，回收率達 100%。問卷內共有 23題，設計大部份採用五欄式選項。由於學生所認識的中文字有限，教師要讀出題目，學生才可以填寫問卷，收回問卷後將資料輸入電腦，並進行整理和分析。至於派發給兩位教師的問卷則較簡單，只請他們填上有效的教學策略。此外，本研究也採用前測和後測方法，在試行「浸入式」教學前，給予學生前測；在試行「浸入式」教學後，再給予學生後測。前測和後測試卷的程度是相若，考核內容包括日常運用的字詞和口頭造句。五、試行的背景 5.1 學校的背景由於本研究的兩班小一學生，共 47人，是同屬一所津貼小學。學校共有六級，小一至小三共有六班，每級各有兩班；小四至小六有九班，每級各有三班。近年學校大部份的學生是南亞裔，他們大多數來自菲律賓，尼泊爾和巴基斯坦。全校學生共有 401人，華裔學生只有 187人，其餘 214人是南亞裔的學生。非華語學生程度很參差，有的完全不懂中文字和不會說粵語，有的曾就讀香港幼稚園，中文程度較好，但也只認識一些中文簡單的字詞，部分學生能說粵語，一般中文成績偏低。 143 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文 5.2 試行的準備 5.2.1. 教師培訓為了使教師明白「浸入式」的理念，參與試行學校的教師參加了兩次研究員為他們舉辦的教師培訓，一是在 2013年 5月舉行，內容是介紹「浸入式」理念；二是在 2013年 7月舉行，研究員到校和他們討論「浸入式」理念的可行性。 5.2.2. 教師設計單元在 2013年 8月初，該校教師決定選用小一兩班學生進行「浸入式」教學，根據廖佩莉（2012）提出的原則，設計的單元主題，包括學校、家庭、動物、節日、交通及社區；經研究員給予意見及經教師修訂後，9月便在該校正式試行，為期一年。六、研究結果與討論 6.1 學生中文成績有進步研究發現學生在中文科後測的表現比前測有進步。表一中顯示全班前測平均分為 30.13，後測平均分為 59.79，在統計學上， t值是 p<0.01，即是學生進步的表現是非常明顯的。這說明了教師運用了「浸入式」策略有助提升學生的中文科的成績。表一　學生在中文科前測和後測成績的比較人數（N）前測平均分後測平均分 t 47 30.13 59.79 3.193** **p<0.01 值得注意的是，其中學生在識讀字詞認讀方面能力是有極大的進步。在前測中，只有三成多學生（16位學生，34%）在十個常用字詞中，能讀出多於五個，但在後測中，八成學生（38位學生，80%）能讀出多於五個常用字詞。但學生在口頭造句方面，進步是較小的。在前測中，只有約兩成學生能口頭造句；在後測中，也有約三成學生能口頭造句。 144 6.2 教師意見表二是教師依次序排列最有效的浸入式教學策略。兩位受訪教師認為首三個最有效的浸入式教學策略是：「善用生活化的單元，浸入實用性的學習」、「教師語言的妙用」和「浸入式的閱讀」，對學生的學習很有幫助。教師認為較沒成效的策略是：「打破單一規範的教學目的，強化互動中的隨機教學」和「營造第一語言學習環境」。表二　教師對各樣教學策略成效的意見浸入式教學策略教師一（T1）教師二（T2）營造第一語言學習環境 6 6 善用生活化的單元，浸入實用性的學習 1 2 多樣化活動：浸入遊戲的學習 5 4 浸入式的閱讀：線索閱讀 3 3 打破單一規範的教學目的，強化互動中的隨機教學 7 7 教師語言的妙用 2 1 「浸入式」的評估 4 5 （註：教師要跟據上列的專案，依次排列最有效的策略， 1是最有效⋯7最無效）以下是從受訪教師所得的資料，歸納所得的結果： 6.2.1 實用主題單元能幫助學生學習中文，應付生活兩位受訪教師都認為生活化的主題單元最能幫助非華語學生學習中文。所謂實用主題單元是指與生活相關的課題，例如有家庭、動物、節日、交通及社區等，其中有教師舉例：他們（非華語學生）最喜歡「交通」這個單元，他們認識了很多港鐵站的名稱，各類型的交通工具，有助他們多認識香港。他們在上學和放學後乘搭交通工具，也會特別留意這些字詞……他們現在大都能認出和讀出這些字詞。（T2） 145 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文學生能認出和讀出這些字詞的原因是他們覺得單元的課題很實用，學生學到的字詞，在日常生活中能應用，可以幫助他們應付生活，他們更可從周遭的環境，鞏固所學。受訪教師亦特別推薦「社區」這單元，因為教師可說明學生認識一些實用的字詞，例如街道牌和店鋪名稱等，非華語學生是學得特別快和有效率的。 6.2.2 教師語言的妙用，有助學生用粵語與人溝通，加強他們的聆聽和說粵語的能力。兩位受訪教師均表示他們在整個學年也堅持用粵語上課，不用英文作仲介語，這做法很明顯幫助學生提升聽和講粵語的能力。其中有教師說：最初我（教師）和學生是不習慣不用英文作仲介語，但我很堅持用粵語作解說，當他們（非華語學生）令聽不明白的時候，我（教師）會用表情、動作、身體語言，甚至是畫圖說明，幫助他們（非華語學生）理解。事實證明，假以時日，他們（非華語學生）習慣了，到了學期末，他們明顯地能與教師用粵語溝通。雖然他們說得不甚準確，但也願意說（粵語），聆聽（粵語）也沒有問題呢！（T1）教師堅持在課堂上用粵語和學生溝通，是希望他們能適應香港社會所用的語言，雖然在實行的初期，學生是有困難的，但後來學生聽和說粵語的能力有明顯改善。本研究發現與學期結束時所做的學生問卷的結果相若，學生喜歡老師和他們用粵語交談（見表三，題 11，平均值是 4.37），較學生喜歡老師和他們用英文交談（見表三，題 6，平均值只是 3.89）的人數為多。 6.2.3 線索閱讀能增加學生的成功感兩位受訪教師也認為線索閱讀可增加學生學習中文的成功感，本研究採用的閱讀材料，大多是用了重複的字詞和句式，使學生容易記得。有教師舉例說明在「動物」單元中，教學目的是要求學生認識一些動物的名稱和擬聲詞。學生可以從圖片中推測文中的動物的名稱，叫聲和動作。這種線索閱讀，能幫助非華語學生從愉快地閱讀中學習，消除他們害怕閱讀中文的心態。有教師表示： 146 他們（學生）從線索閱讀所得的成功感是來自兩方面，一是他們能從圖畫和文句推測故事的發展；二是我們（教師）會為學生特別編寫一些閱讀理解練習，幫助他們（學生）在線索閱讀中不知不覺中學到字詞和句式……但我覺得只是靠線索閱讀是不足夠，必須再設計一些練習來鞏固所學。（T2）兩位受訪教師更極力推薦將他們學到的字詞和句式，重新編寫一篇簡易的短文（見附錄），讓學生作為閱讀理解練習，附錄短文中的字詞，是學生從之前線索閱讀中認識的，他們較容易閱讀，從而增加他們閱讀中文的成功感。兩位受訪教師表示一向以來，他們也不會給小一學生做閱讀理解練習，原因是他們沒有能力應付，但這次試行的效果很好，附錄共有三條題目，有接近五成的學生（47.9%）能答對兩條，這是教師喜出望外的學習成果。 6.2.4 浸入式教學策略的限制在問卷中，兩位教師認為較無效的教學策略是：「隨機教學」和「營造第一語言學習環境」。有教師指出，教師未能打破單一規範的教學目的，在師生互動中進行隨機教學是因為：隨機教學是即興的，但我們編訂的進度表是很緊密的，教學時間有限，所以進行隨機教學並不多，我（教師）認為收效不大……可能是未能充分掌握隨機教學的理念。（T2）這位教師正好說明進行隨機教學的難處，大家對此理念認識並不多，加上課程緊迫，又未能放膽嘗試，因而影響成效。至於營造語言學習環境也有不少限制，未能達到預期的效果。就研究員所見，課室雖然貼滿了用中文寫的通告、天氣報告、課室秩序的標語等，但是在課堂上，教師較少和學生討論陳列的環境文字，漸漸地學生便習以為常，不以為意。再者，雖然教師堅持用粵語上課，學校環境也多用中文，但基於文化差異，教師會遇到困難的。有教師解釋：非華語學童常常告假不上課……他們的家長認為上學並不重要……非華語學童的家長常因家中有事而不讓子女回校上課，他們在家的時間較多，常用家鄉語和家人交談。加上家中也不收看香港的電視節目，他們在家中很 147 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文難有機會學習中文……雖然我們（教師）在課室內盡量用中文營造第一語言學習環境，但是收效也不大。（T1） 6.3 學生的意見 6.3.1 學生大都喜歡浸入式教學策略，他們最喜愛實用的單元、從遊戲中學中文和組織學習檔案。表三顯示了學生喜歡的課堂活動，大多數學生都喜歡浸入式教學策略，除了「中文考試」（平均值為 3.05）、「中文默書」（平均值為 3.19）及「老師和我用英文交談」（平均值為 3.89）外，其他的都是浸入式的教學策略，平均值都是超過 4。這正好表示學生是喜歡教師運用浸入式教學策略。表三　學生喜歡的課堂項目平均均方差 1. 教室內貼滿中文字壁布 4.07 0.98 2. 教室內放滿中文的圖畫書 4.23 0.78 3. 閱讀中文的圖畫書 4.31 0.70 4. 實用的單元 4.72 0.85 5. 從遊戲中學習中文 4.41 0.90 6. 老師和我用英文交談 3.89 0.94 7. 老師用中文上課 4.14 0.93 8. 中文考試 3.05 1.16 9. 中文默書 3.19 1.08 10. 學習檔案 4.36 0.73 11. 老師和我用粵語交談 4.37 0.75 （註： 1代表非常不喜歡，2代表不喜歡，3代表無意見，4代表喜歡，5代表非常喜歡）表三顯示學生最喜歡實用的單元（平均值 4.72），其次是從遊戲中學中文（平均值 4.41）和建立學習檔案（平均值 4.36）。下列是受訪學生的解說： 148 我乘港鐵回家，看見列車門上的指示牌，我能讀出很多站的名稱，例如將軍澳、寶琳、調景調……我學過這些詞語呢！（S5）在中文課，我很喜歡老師和我們進行比賽，誰較快讀出中文詞語的一組，便有獎賞。（S2）值得注意是，學生較不喜歡中文考試（見表三，題8，平均值3.05）和默書（題9，平均值 3.19 ），但較喜歡組織學習檔案（題 10，平均 4.36）。可見非華語學生是很怕寫中文字。故此，一般的傳統評估，例如默書和測考，都是他們的弱項，他們是較不喜歡的。但是要他們組織學習檔案，他們是很樂意的。有受訪學生說：老師要我們搜集很多用中文寫的零食名稱和罐頭招紙，然後跟老師的指示分類，放在學習檔案，然後，老師教我認識和朗讀招紙上的詞語，並在檔案寫上（相關的）中文字。（S4）這位學生中文默書的分數是很低的，但他對搜集招紙很有興趣，所以他的學習檔案內容很豐富，能獲取高分。學生喜歡組織學習檔案，是因為他們對收集的資料感到有趣。若檔案只是收集學生的工作紙和抄書的樣本，學生是不會喜歡的。學生是否喜歡組織學習檔案，則要視乎教師怎樣要求學生建立學習檔案，收集的資料是否合乎學生的興趣。 6.3.2 大部分學生有信心聆聽粵語和能夠用粵語說話，他們亦有信心閱讀校內環境中佈置的中文字，但學生對寫中文仍欠信心。表四顯示了學生對學習中文的信心。他們最有信心是聆聽粵語（見表四，題 5，平均值 4.58）和說粵語（題 6，平均值 4.15）。他們閱讀中文的信心也不錯，例如閱讀中文的壁布板（見表四，題 1，平均值 4.14）、閱讀課室設置的中文字（題 2，平均值 4.03）、閱讀教師給我的篇章（題 4，平均值 4.24）。至於應付中文默書（題 4，平均值 3.44 ）和閱讀中文圖畫書的信心則較小（題 8，平均值 3.44 ）。學生最沒信心的，是寫中文字（題 9，平均值 3.09 ）。 149 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文表四　學生對學習中文的信心項目平均均方差 1. 閱讀中文壁佈板 4.14 0.93 2. 閱讀課室設置的中文字 4.03 0.87 3. 閱讀中文圖畫書 3.44 1.01 4. 閱讀教師給我的篇章 4.24 0.85 5. 聆聽粵語 4.58 0.67 6. 說粵語 4.15 0.84 7. 應付中文考試 3.97 0.91 8. 應付中文默書 3.44 1.01 9. 能寫中文 3.09 1.17 10. 組織學習檔案 4.13 0.89 （註： 1代表非常沒信心，2代表沒信心，3代表無意見，4代表有信心，5代表非常有信心）其中一位受訪學生表示：我有信心閱讀教師給我的篇章，原因是文中大部分的字詞是我認識的。但是在圖書館找到的書，很多文字我也不懂，我只好看圖畫。（S1）教師給學生閱讀的篇章，是教師從學生在線索閱讀習得的詞語，重新創作一篇短文，學生自然有能力閱讀，閱讀信心增加不少。所有受訪學生均認為他們沒信心寫好中文字，其中一位說：中文字筆劃多，很複雜，很難記得……老師給我們寫字的時間並不多。（S5）這次浸入式教學法的研究偏重聆聽、說話和閱讀能力的訓練，較忽略了培養學生書寫中文的能力。若教師以後進行浸入式教學，可以考慮多給學生書寫中文的機會。 150 七、結論本研究根據「浸入式」教學策略，從學校環境的佈置、教學的設計、教師語言的運用和教學的評估等，試行「浸入式」的理念。從學習的角度而言，「浸入式」教學能助學生學習，他們中文科成績是有進步的。這發現與近年彭建玲，彭志鈞（2015）的研究所得，都證明「浸入式」教學模式，在對外漢語教學取得良好效果相近。從教師的角度而言，試行的教學法效果不錯，「浸入式」教學策略，適合小一的學生，實用的單元能幫助學生學習中文，應付生活。本研究又發現教師語言的妙用，有助學生用粵語與人溝通，加強他們的聆聽和說粵語的能力。學生閱讀中文的能力也不錯，尤其是教師因應學生的能力和學生從線索閱讀中所學過的字詞，設計一些短文給他們閱讀，學生便能理解文中的大意。從非華語學生的角度而言，他們是喜歡教師運用「浸入式」的教學策略。大部份學生對學習中文是有信心的，但在書寫中文的信心仍有所不足，這正好反映這次試行「浸入式」教學策略的不足之處，是較忽略培養學生書寫中文的能力。本研究也有其限制，研究對象只是 47位非華語學生和 2位任教的教師，屬於個案研究，只能代表一所學校的研究結果，證明浸入式教學策略適合小一的非華語學生學習中文。隨著非華語學生長大，他們應該要認識更多艱深的字詞，詞意也較抽象和複雜，他們更要懂得書寫中文，甚至運用中文來表達自己思想。教師純粹用浸入式的教學策略來教授非華語學生是否足夠呢？未來的研究，希望能擴大研究樣本至高小階段，繼續探討浸入式教學策略是否適合小學高年級的非華語學生。參考文獻李丹青（2014）。〈美國明尼蘇達州光明漢語學校沉浸式教學項目評述〉。《國際漢語教學研究》，3期，72-77。桂詩春（1985）。《心理語言學》。上海：上海外語教育。張春興（1997）。《教育心理學》。臺北：臺灣華東書局。 151 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文強海燕，趙琳（2001）。〈兒童早期第二語言浸入式教學與課程建構〉，載趙琳，強海燕（合編），《中外第二語言浸入式教學研究》，（頁 69-79），西安：西安交通大學出版社。彭建玲，彭志鈞（2015）。〈浸入式教學模式的實踐研究—以昆明理工大學教育以例〉。《雲南民族大學學報》，3期 32卷，156-160。黃瑞琴（2008）。《幼兒的語文經驗》。臺北：五南圖書出版公司。葉德明（2002）。《雙語教學之理論與實踐》。臺北：師大書苑。廖佩莉（2012）。〈「浸入式」教學：香港小學非華語學童學習中文為第二語言的策略〉。《華文學刊》，10期 2卷，76-85。趙微（2001）。〈英語浸入式教學的基本原則〉。載強海燕，趙琳（合編），《中外第二語言浸入式教學研究》（頁 80-88）。西安：西安交通大學出版社。劉珣（2002）。《漢語作為第二語言教學簡論》。北京：北京語言文化大學出版社。關之瑛（2008）。〈香港非華語學童學中文校本課程之行動研究〉，《華語文教學研究》，5期 2卷，121-156。 Garcia, E. (1980). Bilingualism in early childhood, Young Children, 35(4), 52-66. 152 附錄　閱讀練習細閱下文，然後回答下列問題：今天早上，小鳥吱吱叫，小蜜蜂嗡嗡叫，小羊咩咩叫，小貓咪咪叫，小狗汪汪叫。小烏龜爬來爬去，小白兔跳來跳去。原來貓頭鷹來了。 1 今天早上，誰在嗡嗡叫？ A.小羊 B. 小鳥 C. 小蜜蜂 D. 小烏龜答案：（） 2. 今天早上，誰來了？ A.小狗 B. 貓頭鷹 C. 小烏龜 D. 小蜜蜂答案：（） 3. 填充小狗（）（）叫。（）（）咪咪叫。小烏龜（）來（）去，（）（）（）跳來跳去。 153 浸入式教學的個案研究：小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文 Case study of the Immersion Teaching: The learning of Chinese as their second language by the non-Chinese speaking primary students in Hong Kong LIU Pui Lee The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract This case study aims at sharing two teachers’ experience in using Immersion Teaching strategies when they were teaching non-Chinese speaking students to learn Chinese as their second language in a primary school in Hong Kong. Altogether 47 non-Chinese speaking students from two primary one classes were chosen as the subjects of the study. The study employs a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, with data collected through questionnaires, interviews, pre-tests and post-test. Findings indicate that using Immersion Teaching strategies can help students to learn the Chinese language and get better results in the subject. The teachers realize that efficient strategies include making good use of practical thematic approach, maximizing the use of Chinese as the teaching medium and immersion reading. The students enjoy learning through the practical thematic approach, learning by playing games and organizing their learning portfolios. Keywords Immersion Teaching, non-Chinese speaking students, second language learning, Chinese language teaching 154 155 《香港教師中心學報》，第十五卷 © 香港教師中心，2016 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力何潔瑩拔萃男書院附屬小學摘要本文旨在運用合作學習的拼圖法作為高小學生聽說訓練的教學策略，透過課堂觀察、訪問、教師評估、學生同儕評估及自我評估來分析成效。試行後，發現這個策略能提升學生的學習動機，同時也增加了學生參與聽說訓練的機會。這類小組討論的聽說訓練，轉變了從前的教學模式，讓學生想聽、能聽、敢說，並增強了學生的學習責任感，培養學生的自主學習能力。關鍵詞拼圖法，合作學習，小組討論甲、研究背景中國語文教育以讀、寫、聽、說為主導，閱讀和聆聽是輸入，寫作和說話就是輸出（葉聖陶，1992），然而傳統的教學一般側重讀寫教學；但現實是，我們接收的資訊大部分來自聽，而所發送的資訊說的亦比寫的較多。在教學實踐中，聽說教學通常沒有得到應有的重視，有些老師認為聽說能力是與生俱來的。又或甚，有些老師認為平日在課堂上的朗讀、答問等已是聽說教學的一環，不是已經足夠嗎？朗讀是說話教學的最基本，至少學生的發音要正確無誤，但是日常生活中的對話是流於朗讀這個層次嗎？我們聆聽別人的說話，當中包括了理解、組織、綜合、分析、評鑑等，要提升學生在聽說的能力就要有一定的學習策略。 156 如何在僅有的課時內有效地進行聽說能力訓練，對老師來說是一個富有挑戰性的任務。首先，高效率的聽說訓練須邊說邊聽，而非單一能力的訓練，因此教師可透過小組討論、角式扮演、訪問、辯論等去營造學習氣氛，激發學生的興趣。可是，在進行課堂教學時也遇上不少困難，就筆者班而言，由於學生的程度不一，不是所有學生都積極參與小組討論，加上課時有限，一節三十五分鐘的課只可安排兩組同學（約六位學生）討論，然後是老師評講及同儕互評。活動進行期間，教師發現除參與討論的學生外，只有一半的學生會留心聽同學的討論，但他們的專注力會逐漸下降，而其他學生更是閒坐着；未能確保全體學生參與課堂活動，並從活動中有所得着是最大的問題。其次，學生只能按題目作簡單的討論，組織混亂，詞彙缺乏，亦未能從多角度思考。因此，本研究以合作學習的拼圖法作聽說訓練的教學策略，在編寫教學目標及重點時則以《小學中國語文建議學習重點》（香港課程發展議會，2008）及全港性系統評估的評審準則為基礎，藉此探討它的成效，包括學生的參與率、自我監控及專注力等，來分析它是否一個高效能的教學策略，並適用於聽說訓練。乙、文獻回顧合作學習的理念早於千多年前已出現於我國，孔子曾說 :「三人行必有我師焉。」；合作學習，顧名思義，就是通過合作去獲取知識。合作學習是一種有系統、有結構的教學策略。在合作學習中教師將不同能力、性別、種族的學生分配於小組中一起學習。各小組成員通過討論、辯論等活動，互相支援、批判或分享大家的觀點，最後共享成果。在整個學習過程中，教師只扮演小組學習的促進者，是一個以學生為本的教學模式（Slavin, 1985；Parker, 1985）。拼圖法是合作學習的其中一個學習方法。在拼圖法第二代中，將學生分派到異質小組中，並分配每人一小單元進行研究，然後不同小組中研究相同主題者，再組成一個專家小組討論共同主題，經討論後，每個專家回到原小組中介紹自己研究所得。最後於原小組內，集合各專家的意見，作總結報告，其內容須涵蓋各主題。在整個討論過程中，學生均有機會在原小組及專家小組中表達個人意見，這樣不但能培養學生說話的正確態度，學會積極與討論，並尊重他人，更能訓練他們的記憶力、篩選力、思維力、理解力及反應力。 157 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力香港中文大學教育學院區婉儀女士（2014）於《由聽說能力至話語能力》一文中建議，運用合作學習的教學策略進行小組討論形式的聽說訓練，營造課堂情境，讓學生成為主動的學習者、參與者和實踐者。區婉儀女士指出現時教師在訓練聆聽能力時，大多使用指定教材，讓學生聽取內容濃縮的精細素材。雖然這種訓練有助提升學生的注意力及思考力，但局限於一定的聆聽範圍內，學習興趣或因此減少，學習變得被動，而且現實環境中所聽取的資訊很廣泛，話語內容亦複雜多變。區女士認為聽說訓練在於強調邊聽邊說，不限於單一聆聽或說話能力的專項訓練，宏觀的聽說能力訓練，能讓注意力、反應力、記憶力、聯想力等都得到鍛鍊。她又認為討論是一種廣泛的學習方法，既能發展學生的思維能力，又可提高學生的口語表達能力。在討論過程中，學生以說帶聽，以聽促說，感知自己的思想、能力、並及時回饋，完善自我。區女士建議教師運用拼圖法的組合，變換教學模式，讓學生想聽、能聽、敢說，並把學習的責任從教師轉到學生本身，培養他們的自主學習能力。運用拼圖法於說聽教學中，可增加學生對學習的責任感、促進思考力、語言表達力。在討論過程中，各人聽取事實的部分，並經合作把事情全貌顯示出來，當中他們需以聽和說去獲取資料。總的來說，教師可運用合作學習的策略來訓練學生如何「分工合作，主動學習，互相激勵，進而建構知識。」（王財印，2004）還有，合作學習增加了學生互動的機會，促進他們語言的發展，加強表達、溝通的能力。本研究會嘗試運用合作學習的策略，尤其是拼圖法，在高小的中文課程中培養學生的聽說能力。丙、教學構想本課程設計以針對高小學生為主，在編寫教學目標及重點時則以《小學中國語文建議學習重點》（香港課程發展議會，2008）及全港性系統評估的評審準則為基礎。本課程設計是透過合作學習的形式進行小組討論，加強學生聽說訓練的機會，以說帶聽，以聽促說，藉此鼓勵學生從多角度思考，培養學生的自主學習能力，提高課堂的學習氣氛。而且所選用的教材均以社會時事為主，務求營真實的情境，激發學習興趣。 158 由於教學進度緊迫，教師只能於一個學期內進行兩次的聽說訓練，每次為三十五分鐘（一個教節）。教學流程如下 : 任務教學目標步驟一教師按所討論的題目，通過「影片播放」、「尋找關鍵字」等活動來協助學生了解題目。讓學生初步掌握與題目有關的背景資料步驟二學生以 4-5 人一組，在原小組作內初步討論。學生學會審題，理清討論方向。步驟三每一組的專家成立「專家小組」，共同研討。學生緊扣主題發言，突出重點。步驟四所有專家返回原組作報告。學生學會篩選資料，加以分析，或複述，或綜合，最後發表自己意見。步驟五教師總結及評鑑、同儕互評。讓學生得到即時的回饋。教師在設計小組討論的題目時，特意選取了題材相近的，它們均以環保與人類生活為主題，題目如下 : 題目一：有人建議所有已下班的商業大廈八點後，均需要熄滅外牆燈，以減少光污染及節省能源。對於這個建議，你支持還是反對 ?你有甚麼看法及建議？題目二：旺角西洋菜南街是香港的特色街道，每天有不少街頭表演者都會在此表演，聚集了不少市民和遊客駐足觀看。然而，附近的居民一直投訴這些表演和展覽不但阻礙通道，亦會發出噪音，嚴重影響他們的生活。去年十一月中，油尖旺區議會交通運輸委員通過旺角西洋菜街行人專用區只在星期六、日及公眾假期開放，你是否支持此新政策？你有甚麼看法及建議 ? 題目的形式參考了全港系統性評估小六中文科小組討論的題目而設計，先以一個情境作開端，然後有一個建議的提出，並要求學生就此意見作討論。原小組的討論時間為 3至 4分鐘，專家小組的討論時間為 5至 6分鐘，專家小組討論完結後，再回原小組以 8分鐘時來討論及總結；每位學生於每次討論中均有至少 1分鐘的發言時間。在分組方面，不論是原小組或專家小組，老師都刻意把不同能力的同學混合在一組，即每組都有高、中、低程度的學生，希望學生之間能互相扶持，彼此學習。 159 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力以下是一個三十五分鐘的課堂教案示例教學活動時間教學目標教師任務學生任務 2\" 引起學生對題目的興趣（一）引起動機：提問學生「東方之珠」這個稱號是怎樣得來的？藉此帶出光污染及節能的問題。教師播放簡報及影片，讓學生初步掌握有關的背景資料。學生觀看影片，及回應教師的提問。 3\" 學習審題，並透過初步討論掌握了方向。（二）着學生分組（4-5 人一組），老師引導學生先就題目進行審題，理清題目後才進行初步討論。學生圈出題目的關鍵字，然後進行討論，理清題目的要求。 5\" 在設計的身份和場景下進行討論，讓學生更能緊扣題目去思考，並學會尊重他人意見。另外，透過筆錄訓練學生的記憶力及篩選力。（三）發展：老師把原小組的組員分成為專家：環保人士、旅遊業從業員、天文愛好者、商戶老闆、生態專家等，並着學生以專家的身份去進行討論。討論時學生需要筆錄，記下重點。期間，老師會給予每個專家小組一個小錦囊，目的在於引導他們思考。（例如：旅遊業從業員會思考若政策實施後，對業界帶來的利弊）學生按老師指示，組成專家小組，進行討論，並記下重點。 8\" 在交流中，訓練學生複述說話的能力、理解力、分析力、自我監控及綜合能力。（四）老師從從旁觀察學生的表現，並會因其情況而介入。學生回到原小組，把剛才在專家小組內討論的與組員分享，整合各員組的意見，總結報告。 3\" 學生透過自評及同儕互評，學會反省，取長補短。（五）老師着學生進行自評及互評。學生進行自評及同儕互評。 11\" 學生要有條理、並清晰地表達意見。學生要專心地聆聽別人的意見，並就其內容作出適切的回饋。（六）老師邀請一位組代表匯報。最後，給予意見。每組派一位代表作一分鐘報告，然後由其他組別給意見、打分。 160 教學活動時間教學目標教師任務學生任務 3\" 總結所學（七）總結：老師評講學生從老師的意見中反省，並得到即時回饋。丁、研究設計研究對象是一班小六學生，共十七人。由於本校是一所英文小學，而部分學生更來自英語家庭，學生慣以英語來溝通，中文詞彙缺乏，說話時常有中英夾雜的情況，表達能力不強，但學習態度認真。教師透過在課堂觀察、教師評估、學生同儕評估及自我評估、訪問等收集研究數據，分析學生自我監控及綜合能力，評估成效。在學生討論期間，老師會進行課堂錄影，同時也會入組，從旁觀察及筆錄，記下學生的表現，包括學生能否按題目表達個人意見、學生的立場是否清晰、學生在表述個人意見時，理由是否充份、學生有否回應組員的意見等來評估成效。1（見附錄一）老師在總結時，會逐一評講學生的表現，讓他們得到即時的回饋。另一方面，學生亦會進行自我評估及同儕互評，以達自我完善的果效。自我評估及同儕互評包括個人或他人的參與程度、能否給予意見、能否聆聽對方的發言等。（見附錄二）2 至於在訪問學生方面，老師安排了四至五位，能力不同的學生於活動後進行訪問。問題的內容包括他們對是次聽說訓練會否感興趣、是次聽說訓練能否令他們敢於表達、專家小組的討論對他們的幫助等。 _______________ 1 六年級中文科説話練習—小組討論（老師評估表） 2 學生自評表、同儕互評表 161 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力戊、實施效果每次小組討論後，學生都會作自我評估，以檢討自己的表現。數據中顯示，大部分學生都給予較高的分數，他們的自我形象較高，對自己很信心。各項的分析如下： 1. 學生的參與程度 Q.1旨在探討學生的參與程度，而大部分學生（超過 94%）都積極參與，說明運用合作學習來進行聽說訓練能促使學生主動學習。有學生表示專家小組能讓他們投入角色，從設定的身份中去思考。從教師的觀察中，學生無論在原小組或專家小組的討論都相當投入。 2. 學生的專注力 Q.2及 Q.6旨在探討學生的專注力。在 Q.2中，就數據顯示、教師觀察及學生的摘記，這項有些微的進步。在第一次的討論訓練，學生未能寫下說話中的關鍵字，甚至很多學生都未能記錄；但經老師再次提醒後，在第二次訓練中，便懂得以簡單的字句、字詞、圖表方式記錄要點，有些更運用自己的方法，或以圖案，或以拼音來記錄。邊聽邊寫，有助提升學生的專注力。 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 10 8 6 4 2 0 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 Q.1我在專家小組中積極參與討論第一次 Q.1我在專家小組中積極參與討論第二次 162 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 10 8 6 4 2 0 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 在 Q.6顯示，兩次的練習中，94%的學生都能專心聆聽，並作出適當的回應。有不少學生都表示能細心聆聽別人的意見，而其中一位學生更寫出 : 我能夠聽出同學意見中的矛盾，並作出回應。第一次練習後，持 4分者有 76%；第二次練習後，持 4分者卻下降至 58%，反映出高小的專注力仍相當反覆，這個推論是基於學生在返回原小組討論前已進行過兩次討論，包括原小組初步討論及專家小組討論，有可能令他們感到疲累，慢慢對話題失去興趣，以致專注力下降。 3. 學生篩選力及綜合力 Q.3旨在探討學生的篩選力及綜合力。學生需要把在專家小組收取的資料向組員匯報。在兩次的練習中，學生自評的分數都較高；而在第二次的訓練後，選4分（最高分數）的學生更增至 64%，增長達 12%，反映出學生能分析、概括、歸納出聆聽內容的要點，同時，這類訓練有助提升他們自我監控的能力。 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 Q.2我在專家小組中用心聆聽，並記下重點第一次 Q.2我在專家小組中用心聆聽，並記下重點第二次 Q.6我在組內專心聆聽，並作出適當的回應第一次 Q.6我在組內專心聆聽，並作出適當的回應第二次 163 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力 4. 專家小組對學生的效用 Q.4-5這兩題旨在探討專家小組對學生的效用。大部分學生（超過 88%）都認同在原小組內的不同專家可豐富他們對題目的認識。而學生在專家小組後，返回原小組討論則表示更積極和有信心的佔九成以上；在第一次練習後，選最高分者有 58%，第二次練習後，選最高分者雖有 47%，但持 3分者則有 17%的增長，而 1分和 2分則沒有人，可見整體學生都認同專家小組能擴大他們的接觸面，幫助他們更有信心地討論。在訪問中，有一位能力較弱的學生表示，由於在專家小組中聽取了同學的意見，故此他回到原小組後，便有話可說。 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 10 8 6 4 2 0 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 10 8 6 4 2 0 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 Q.3我把在專家小姐所討論的，帶回我組分享第一次 Q.3我把在專家小姐所討論的，帶回我組分享第二次 Q.4組內不同專家可豐富我對題目的認識第一次 Q.4組內不同專家可豐富我對題目的認識第二次 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 10 8 6 4 2 0 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1分 2分 3分 4分 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 Q.5在專家小組後，我在原小組的討論中，表現積極、更有信心第一次 Q.5在專家小組後，我在原小組的討論中，表現積極、更有信心第二次 164 己、教師評估及檢討從課堂觀察及課堂錄影中，可見以合作教學策略來進行的小組討論訓練，有效地讓每位學生在短短三十五分鐘課節內進行兩次模式相若的小組討論，這不但能提高學生的參與率，增加他們練習聽說的機會，更能透過彼此的交流促進思維發展。如 Slavin（1996）所言合作學習能讓學生主動學習、鼓勵組員學習及幫助組員學習，這對語文能力較弱的學生有一定的幫助，舉例來說，這類學生在專家小組時可收集其他同學的意見，集思廣益，回到原小組時便有話可說。過往，部分同學因中文詞彙缺乏，即使有些點子，也不易表達，現在他們可在專家小組中得到支援，同學間互補不足。然而，偶有一兩位聽說能力較高的學生會在小組內支配大局，佔用了其他同學的發言時間，所以教師必須清楚說明每位學生在組內的發言時間，並嚴格監控，這樣每人練習的機會才平等。另外，由於教師賦予他們各人一個身份，每位同學就有責任向組員匯報，他們都能認真地聽、說，提升學生們的專注力。可是，同學們討論的內容太豐富，他們未懂得篩選合適的材料作最後報告，故常有超時的情況出現。有效的課堂秩序管理是這類小組討論的基礎，因為學生先要在原小組作初步討論，再到專家小組，最後返回原小組；學生往來不同的小組時，必須行動迅速，且安靜，並聽從教師的指示，否則就會造成混亂，故教師事前的組織亦相當重要。在選材上，教師宜選取一些時事新聞、或貼近學生生活的事物為題材，提起學生對討論的興趣。高小學生開始留心社會時事，然而亦有少部份學生對周遭事物漠不關心，因此教師在準備課題時，必先給予學生一些背景資料，如觀看短片、閱讀報章等，讓學生對討論的話題有基本的認識。讀、寫、聽、說環環緊扣，雖然是聽說訓練，但若得到讀寫的輔助，更能事半功倍。最後，在專家身份設計上亦要深思熟慮。就每個話題上必須有三至四個專家身份（如示例一），若少於這個數目，便不能達到多角度思考這個目的。還有，所設計的專家必須與話題有直接的關係，否則無話可說。 165 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力庚、總結和建議研究發現，教師運用拼圖法進行小組討論形式的聽說訓練，確實能增加學生參與的機會，學生比從前更積極學習，學生能設身處地從多角度思考，同時，也能照顧能力稍遜的學生。整個課程設計的核心在於，以說帶聽，以聽促說，是一個全面又務實的訓練。在討論中，學生要邊聽邊想、邊篩選、歸納和摘下重點，掌握並消化話語內容，再作出適當的回應。運用拼圖法教學能提升學生以口語溝通的能力，增加彼此間的互動。唯時間不足，教師可在課程設計上有所調適，建議如下 : 1. 跨學科合作：例如學生在常識科已學了的光污染這個課題，這樣在小組討論前，語文教師就可減省交代背景資料的時間；而透過拼圖法式的小組討論，學生又擴闊了思考的層面，藉此深化課題。 2. 目標為本：每次訓練，教師都應有一至兩個清晰的目標，例如學生要邊聽邊速記，這樣便能集中評估學生的表現，並給予適切的回饋。此外，向學生展示在討論時所拍下的錄影，讓他們可互相觀摩、學習，改善不足之處，如每位同學的發言時間等。然而，如區婉儀女士（2014）所言，合作教學並非唯一的教學策略，當學生對學習活動失去新鮮感後，學習成效就隨之褪去。故此，教師應因材施教，採用靈活的教學策略，善用生活化的教材，讓學生將語言形式與相應的語言情景結合起來，使課堂更豐富、活潑。參考文獻孔偉成（2001）。〈從聆聽教學的目標到聆聽教學的進行〉。《聽聽說說：小學聽說教學—理論與實踐》。香港：香港教育署中文組。 166 王財印、吳百祿、周新富（2004）。《教學原理》，台北，心理出版社股份有限公司。香港課程發展議會（2008）。《小學中國語文建議學習重點》。香港：香港特別行政區政府教育局。區婉儀（2014）。〈由聽說能力至話語能力〉。2015年 9月 10日，取自 http://www. edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/kla/chi-edu/resources/secondary-edu/lang/ listenSpeak.html。張鴻苓（2000）。《中國當代聽說理論與聽說教學》。四川：四川教育出版社。葉聖陶（1992）。《語文學習的基礎》。北京：語文出版社。 Parker, R. E. (1985). Small-group cooperative learning - Improving academic, social gains in the classroom. Nass Bulletin, 69(479), 48-57. Slavin, R. E. (1996). Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we know, what we need to know. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 43-69. Slavin, R. E. (1985). Cooperative learning: Applying contact theory in desegregated schools. Journal of Social Issues, 41(3), 43-62. 167 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力附錄一拔萃男書院附屬小學六年級中文科說話練習—小組討論（老師評估）題目：______________________________________________________________ 日期：______________________________________________________________ 學生姓名：______________________________________________________________ 等級評審準則能就日常生活的話題和別人討論能運用略有變化的詞語表情達意一等在討論過程中，不作回應或未能根據題目要求進行討論。詞不達意。二等在討論過程中，能按題目作簡單的回應，但甚少表達意見和與組員討論。尚能運用簡單的詞語表情達意。三等在討論過程中，大致能根據題目與組員作簡單的討論，並能表達個人的意見。大致能運用略有變化的詞語表情達意，意思尚算清晰。四等在討論過程中，能根據題目主動與組員討論，清晰地表達個人意見，並能說出簡單理由表明自己的立場。能運用略有變化的詞語表情達意，意思較清晰。五等在討論過程中，能根據題目主動與組員討論，清晰地表達個人意見，並能說出簡單理由表明自己的立場，理由充份。能運用略有變化的詞語表情達意，意思完整、準確。 168 附錄二拔萃男書院附屬小學六年級中文科說話練習—小組討論姓名：_______________________（）班別：_______________________ 日期：_______________________ 題目：有人建議所有已下班的商業大廈八點後，均需要熄滅外牆燈，以減少光污染及節省能源。對於這個建議，你支持還是反對？你有甚麼看法及建議 ? （一）專家小組摘要 A B C D （二）原小組摘要環保人士天文愛好者商戶老闆旅遊從業員（三）原小組總結 A. 支持 /反對  原因：__________________________________________________ B. 其他建議： ___________________________________________________________________ 169 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力（四）同儕互評（請圈出分數：1分為最低分，4分為最高分）項目環保人士天文愛好者商戶老闆旅遊從業員 1. 能說出至少兩個重點 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 2. 解說清晰 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 3. 專心聆聽 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 4. 能給予有建設性的意見 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 （五）自我評估（請圈出分數：1分為最低分，4分為最高分）項目我在專家小組中積極參與討論。 1 2 3 4 我在專家小組中用心聆聽，並記下重點。 1 2 3 4 我把在專家小組所討論的，帶回我組分享。 1 2 3 4 組內不同的專家可豐富我對題目的認識。 1 2 3 4 在專家小組後，我在原小組的討論中，表現更積極、更有信心。 1 2 3 4 我在組內專心聆聽，並作出適當的回應。 1 2 3 4 在整個討論過程中，我認為我做得最好的是： ________________________________________________________________________ 我認為我仍須改善的是： ________________________________________________________________________ 170 Using cooperative learning to promote students’ abilities of speaking and listening HO Kit Ying Nelly Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This study aims to explore how the use of co-operative strategies such as the Jigsaw method can develop upper primary school students’ Chinese language - mainly referring to speaking and listening skills. Various research methods are adopted to collect data, such as class observations, interviews, teacher’s evaluation, student’s peer evaluation and self- evaluation. Findings suggested that using cooperative strategies could motivate students and increase their opportunities of participating in speaking and listening tasks. It also helps to change the mode of teaching and learning, which makes students eager to listen, able to listen and dare to speak. Students learn how to take responsibility for their own learning. Keywords Jigsaw method, cooperative learning, group discussion 徵集論文我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括：．課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法．創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法．創意教學．家長教育．校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導．校本管理．學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢．學生培訓．教育改革評議．比較教育．高等教育．幼兒教育．特殊教育．美術教育．音樂教育．教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: ． Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation ． Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy ． Creative teaching ． Parent education ． School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring ． School-based management ． Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling ． Student development ． Critique on education reform ． Comparative education ． Higher education ． Early childhood education ． Special education ． Fine arts education ． Music education ． History of education 稿例（修訂於 2016年 12月） ( 一）中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 5,000 字及不超過 8,000 字為限。 ( 二 ) 文稿請附以下資料之中英文版本，包括題目、作者姓名、所屬機構、摘要及關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。中文摘要以 200 字為限，英文摘要則約 150 字。作者通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵）請另頁列明。 ( 三 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 ( 四 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 ( 五 ) 英文來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2009 年，第 6 版）指引。中文來稿之格式請參考「投稿《香港教師中心學報》的格式指引」（http://www.edb.org.hk/hktc/ download/doc/j_guide.pdf）。 ( 六 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。請將稿件及作者通訊資料電郵至 info@hktc.edb.gov.hk《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。 ( 七 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 ( 八 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2016) 1. Manuscripts can be written in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be between 5,000 and 8,000 words. 2. All manuscripts should be accompanied with the following information in both English and Chinese: title, author’s name, affiliation, abstract and 3 to 5 keywords. The English abstract should be around 150 words, and the Chinese abstract should be not more than 200 words. Author’s correspondence (i.e. postal address, telephone number, email) should be provided on a separate page. 3. All submissions will go through an anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the manuscripts, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the manuscripts submitted. Once the final version of manuscripts has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 4. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 5. English manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2009). Chinese manuscripts should conform the style laid down in the “Style Guide for Submitting Papers to HKTC Journal” (http://www.edb.org.hk/hktc/download/doc/j_guide. pdf). 6. Deadline for manuscript submission is on January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and author’s correspondence should be email to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal (email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) . 7. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 8. Once the review process of this Journal begins, contributors shall not send the submitted manuscript to other journals for review or publication. 徵募審稿員我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工，請以電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（(852) 2565 0741）提交下列資料，以供聯絡。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電（(852) 3698 3698）與本中心職員聯絡。姓名： ( 博士 / 先生 / 女士 ) 任職學校 / 機構：聯絡電話：電郵地址：興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax ((852) 2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at ((852) 3698 3698). Name: (Dr / Mr / Ms) School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: 香港教師中心 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室 Address: Room W106, 1/F, West Block Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon Hong Kong 電話 / Telephone： (852) 3698 3698 傳真 / Fax： (852) 2565 0741 電郵 / Email： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址 / Website： www.edb.gov.hk/hktc Hong Kong Teachers Centre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十五卷 Volume Fifteen 第十五卷 V olum e Fifteen 2016 V olum e Fifteen 2016 PMS2602C12mm PMS2602

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