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Category: Documents。 目錦 續者的話 ......................................................................................4 申學 推廣從閱讀中學習 .........................................................................5 勞工子弟中學 黃晶榕(主要研究員) 且多嘉慧、蔡麗如、 金卓麟 、 李麗彩 、 李韻儀 、黃思慧(其他研究員) Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation ......... 26 Concord ia Lutheran School - North Point LEE Ch i Shing The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination ......................................... 54 TWGHs Mrs Fung Wong Fung Ting College LAM Kang Mei 小學 探討應用「合作學習J 教學黨時於小二及小三中、英、數科目 對改善學生的學習態度和成績..... ........ ..... ........ ..... ........ ..... ........ .. 80 聖怕多祿天主教小學 馮停珍 學習單位分數的概念以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 .........109 鳳漢第一小學 黃鳳珠、陳巧帥、洗文標、楊詠盈 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with 。ther activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment......... 124 YLPMSAA Ying Yip Pri mary School LAM Nga Kit, Rachel 幼種固 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力............ ............. ........142 善一堂安逸幼稚圍 溫志倫 四至五萬見童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念轉變 ........ ............. ........168 國際英文幼稚圓 黃晨芸 。。 3 。。 。 編者的話 香港教師中心教育研究小組收到參與「教育研究獎勵計劃 2011 /12J 的研 究報告超過十篇。編輯委員會從中選出八篇刊登於《教育研究報告匯編》。本 年度的研究範圍相當廣泛,包括中學校長就觀課對改進教學質素的行動研究、 小學生從合作學習中獲得的學習成果 ,以至幼兒對地心吸力的理解。研究內容 涵蓋了中文、英文、數學 、 科學多個學習領域,以及教師發展與觀課的關係。 整體來說 , 參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題,先進行文獻探 究, 再提出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分析, 再作出結 論和建議,最後以系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來 。 研究報告反映他們在文 獻比較和數據分析方面 ,都有相當深入和精闢的見解 , 對學生的學習問題 , 以 及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的討論,並提出具體可行的建議 。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與 「教育研究獎勵計劃J 的同工,在有限的時 間及經驗下,仍然全力以赴 ,成功完成整項研究計劃 。他們為提升教育質素所 付出的努力,值得讚賞 。 我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品,均能夠為課堂學習提供 實際而深入的分析基礎 ,並闡釋當中行之有效的方法。讀者可以多參考研究報 告的建議,應用在日常教學工作,進一步僵化教學的效能。我們更希望這些報 告能敢發同工就相闊的課題,展開更多、更全面的研究 。本人亦謹此向《教育 研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致意,感謝他們在百忙中抽空審閱各篇研究報告 。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持, 本會定能持續推動教育研究,鼓勵 教師進行更深入和持續性的教育研究, 不斷提升教學效能和質豪。他山之石 , 可以攻玉 。 期望各位讀者對此 《教育研究報告匯編》內容能提出書面意見,相 互交流,集思廣益。 4 1 教育研究報告匯編 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 20 1 3 年 1 2 月 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 推廣從閱讀申學習 黃晶榕博士(主要研究員) 學嘉慧 、 蔡麗如 、 金卓麟 、 李麗彩 、 李韻儀 、 黃思慧(其他研究員 ) 勞工子弟中學 摘要 本行動研究旨在從三個不同的層面 , 包括 , 第一課堂一一課程與教學層面、 第三課堂一一校內環境與活動層面 , 以及第三課堂一一校判、環境與活動層面 , 探討培養本校中一級學生閱讀習慣,及提升其閱讀能力的方法和成效。研究結 果發現 , 經歷過上述三個層面洗禮的中一級學生 ,在短短的一個學期內 , 其閱 讀習慣及閱讀能力均有明顯的改善 。 引言 課程發展議會於 2001 年正式公布了 《學會學習 . 課程發展路向> ' 把 「推 廣從閱讀中學習J 9ì]為課改的四個關鍵項目之一。 由此可見 , 閱讀是擴闊學生 知識、增加智慧的關鍵。然而, 本校雖然有六十多年的歷史 , 但在閱讀環境 、 閱讀風氣,以至部份學生的閱讀能力都未如理想,亟待改善。因此,藉著是決 「教育研究獎勵計劃J ' 本研究小組 (成員包括六位中文科教師和一位圖書館 主任)建基於謝錫金教授事前的指導,嘗試從三個不同的層面一一校內課程與 教學層面、校內環境與活動層面,以及校外環境與活動層面,逐級來推動閱讀, 以培養學生的閱讀習慣並提升其閱讀能力。不過 , 由於受到人力及時間資源所 限 , 本行動研究現階段只聽焦於探討中一級的校本經驗。 研究小組希望是項研究 , 有助本校教師更了解與掌握這些來自基層家庭 (大 多數學生都是居住在九龍東和九龍中的公屋和唐樓) ,學習能力稍遜的中一級學 生之閱讀習慣與閱讀能力,從而制定出更適切的發展計劃,並加以實施、擴展, 最終把本校發展成為一所人人愛閱讀 , 人人懂閱讀的閱讀學校。 此外 , 相信有關 的經驗亦可為其他學校提供參照與借鏡,以達至共同進步的願望。此乃本研究的 目的 。基於以上的想法, 本研究定立了以下一道探究問題 . 本校中一級學生受到 上述三個不同層面的影響 , 其閱讀習慣與閱讀能力出現了甚麼轉變 ? 文獻研評 前蘇聯著名文學家高爾基(年份不詳)曾經這樣說 「熱愛書吧,這是知 識的泉源|要熱愛書 , 它會使你的生活輕鬆,它會友愛地幫助你了解紛繁複雜 的思想、情感和事件,它會教導你尊重別人和你自己,它以熱愛世界、熱愛人 類的情感來鼓勵智能和心靈。 j 這段引吉,道出了 閱讀的重要性,闡明了閱讀 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 / 1 2 I 5 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 能夠幫助人類智性和心靈的發展。 其宜, 持有類似觀點的古今中外人士多的 是,唐朝著名詩人杜甫 ( 767) 曾經講過 「男兒須讀五車書 。」因為他相信 看書可以擇升人品 。英國大文豪莎士比亞(年份不詳)也這樣說 ﹒「人的美醜 是先天帶來的命運,有沒有素養則是書籍造就的命運。 j 而韓國著名作家南美 英 ( Nam, 1997)貝1]認為 : I閱讀 ,是我們終身學習的基礎 , 基礎教育的靈魂 , 人生成功的基石。 J 由此可見 , 古今中外的名人雅士都非常推崇閱讀 。 綜合不同學者的分析 , 閱讀的好處離不開以下幾點 : ( 1 )閱讀能夠帶來 持久的樂趣 ; ( 2 ) 閱讀能夠提高思考能力 ; ( 3 ) 閱讀能夠加強新舊知識的聯結, (4 ) 閱讀能夠提升情感智商 ; ( 5) 閱讀能夠塑造良好的價值觀 ( 6 ) 閱讀 能夠淨化人的心靈世界(黃晶樁 , 2012 ; Nam , 1997 ; Routman, 2003) 。至 於推廣閱讀的策略 , 不外乎就是要解決指導方法的問題、書籍的問題和閱讀時 間的問題 ( Krashen , 2004) 這正是本校從三個不同的層面,包括 課程 與教學層面、校內環境與活動層面、校外環境與活動層面來推廣閱讀的依據 。 至於閱讀能力方面 , 本研究小組根據祝新華 (2005) 的分析,把要學生發 展的閱讀認知能力依次分為複述 、 解釋、重整、伸展、評鑑和創意。 而教與學 的模式,大致是採用謝錫金、羅嘉怡、林偉業和李黛娜 (2011 ) 提倡的 自 主學 習循環模式,即目標設定與策略規劃一策略的實行與監控一學習過程中進行調節 一自我學習評價與回饋。 以此循環模式來設計教學活動、 創設自學經歷及重覆演 練行為(有關此方面的能力培養及具體的教學策略示例, 可參閱附件四) 研究后法 本研究本質上是教育行動研究 。 研究小組基於 Lewin ( 1946, 1948 ) 和 Kemmis ( 1981 , 1982) 規劃、 行動 、觀察和反思的行動研究精神 , 及參照 Sagor (2006 ) 所提倡的「選擇一個焦點一明確理論一確定研究問題一收集數 據一分析數據一報告結果一採取明智的行動J 之行動研究模式來開展的。 不過 ,由於受到人力資源及時間所限 , 是決的研究對象只聚焦於中一級四 班共 135位學生 。至於搜集資料的方法 ,則是採取質性與量性相結合的研究法 , 包括 , 透過問卷調查,了解學生在本行動研究前後,閱讀習慣及閱讀能力的轉 變 ; 透過師生的個別訪談,深入了解上述三個層面的措施對學生的閱讀習慣所 帶來的影響 , 透過測卷分析(例如行動研究前後學生的課業質棄) ,了解上述 三個層面的措施對學生閱讀能力的影響 , 透過教師及/或家長的觀察 , 以互相 印證從 (學生) 問卷調查、 (師生)訪談及(學生)文件分析所得的研究資料 。 為了確保研究的信度與效度 , 除了在研究方法(問卷調查、訪談、文件分 析和觀察等)及資料來源(教師、學生 、家長等)方面採取三角校正外, 在整理 和分析資料階段,研究小組亦邀請了小組以外的教師和學生代表 , 共同審視研究 資料與研究報告 ; 與此同時 ,並曾透過私人關係 ,尋求大學專家的專業意見。 基於本校的校曆安排 ,並配合是項獎勵計劃的時間表 , 本研究小組按照以 下的進程推行本行動研究。 大致而言, 2011 年 11 月至 2012 年 1 月是研究的 計劃期; 2012 年 2 月至 5 月是實施期,過程中有系統地收集評估數據,並持 6 1 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 續地作出檢討、改進,而自 2012 年 6 月至 8 月,研究小組整體地總結與反思 是項教育行動研究的得失, 並撰寫成書面報告 , 呈交教師中心。基於行動研究 的精神 , 本校在等待教師中心評審本研究報告的同時,已逐步把是項行動研究 擴展至中三級賓施。 階段 時間 研究事項 中一級四位中文科老師、科主任 、圖書館主任和 2011 年 11 - 1 2 月 副校長共同討論是否參與本計畫IJ; 其後, 正式成 立本研究小組,並遁表申請參加本獎勵計劃 。 計劃 教師中心審批本研究計劃的同時 ,研究小組己著手 2011 年 12 月- 探討落實本研究計劃的可行性 ,並初擬好調查問 2012 年 1 月 卷(參閱附件一) ,及對個別師生作出先導訪談, 以取得初步的資料 ,進一步完善本研究計劃 。 實施 研究小組根據上述的研究計劃 , 正式開展本行動 研究,過程中並根據上文所提及的研究方法,有 與 2012 年 2-5 月 系統地搜集各類研究數據,以冀發揮進展性評估 評估 的效益。 總結 2012 年 6 月 研究小組整體地總結、 反思整個研究計劃的得失 , 以助將來進一步完善相闊的策略與措施。 與 研究小組依據本獎勵計劃的要求,撰寫書面報告, 反思 2012 年 7-8 月 並於 8 月內呈交教師中心。 等待評審結果的同時, 本校將基於首輪行動研究 的經驗及其後檢討、反思的結果,逐年把是項研 下一輪 2012 年 9-12 月 究成果擴展至中三級各班 。 如果時間與人力資源 研究 許司, 本校亦將持續地參與未來的獎勵計劃,以 冀透過循環不息的教育行動研究 ,推動本校教與 學的改善與發展。 基於上述的學校和學生背景,以及本研究所定下的研究目的和研究問題, 研究小組從以下三個層面來推動中一級學生閱讀(三者同時進行 ,並沒有先後 次序)。第一課堂 , 校內課程與教學層面 。本研究小組選取原著/名著教學 , 以 《小王子> (短篇小說) 和《三國演義> (白話版,短篇小說)兩書作為教 材,於課堂上教授學生相闊的閱讀策略 。 例如教師透過《三國演義》之〈走馬 薦諸葛〉一文教授學生如何評價小說中的人物時 , 課堂上會指導學生選擇一個 適切的角度去評價小說中的人物,過程中學生須重整資料,加以證明,以支持 自 己的見解(具體課堂教學示例可參閱附件四)。而本研究小組選擇上述作品 作為教材 , 是由於這些小說題材健康、文字優美、篇幅適中 ,且穿越古今中外, 故選作中一級的語文科教材一一此乃回應了 Krashen ( 2004 ) 的觀點, 透過第 一課堂指導學生閱讀方法 ,是推動閱讀的重要一環。 第二課堂 校內環境與活動層面 。本研究小組一方面透過社會網絡,徵集 到大量的固書(約 1 0,000 本 ) , 擺放在全校課室及其他學生常聚會的地方 , 務求讓大家隨時隨地、川頁丰拈來、有書可讀, 另一方面 , 研究小組亦透過舉辦 不同的閱讀活動,如名著電影欣賞、午問講故事活動等 ,以推動學生多閱讀 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 7 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 此乃回應了 Krashen ( 2004 ) 的觀點, 透過第二課堂為學生解決書籍的問 題,有助推動閱讀 。 第三課堂 校外環境與活動層面。本研究小組了解到學生喜歡上網及閱讀 圖文並茂的電子書,故於校內圖書館增設電子終端機,讓學生隨意瀏覽電子圖 書,又推出網上圖書閱讀計畫IJ ' 鼓勵學生透過互聯網閱讀電子圖書一一此等措 施 , 可擴闊學生的閱讀空間,回應了 Krashe n ( 2004 ) 的觀點, 透過第三課堂 增加學生的閱讀時間, 是培養學生閱讀習慣的關鍵。 簡括而吉, 有關第一課堂至第三課堂的措施與進程如下表所示 策略 措施 進程 2011 -2012 第一課堂 選取原著/名著教學 . 以 《小王子) (短篇小 (中 一) 說) 1 和《三國演義) (白話版, 短篇小說) 2012-2013 校內課程與 2 兩書作為教材。因其題材健康 、文字優美、 (中一 、三) 教學層面 篇幅適中 ,且穿越古今中夕|、 2013-201 4 (中一 、 二 、 二) 發動學生、家長、校友及社會人士捐贈圖書, 於各課室增設圖書閣 於圖書館加設電子閱讀平台 於天井開設午問故事天地 於自修室播放名著電影 鼓勵學生撰寫讀後感 , 然後投稿至報刊 教師和學生於早會時分享閱讀心得 是年已開展 (參閱附件三 ) 第二課堂. 透過圖書館推動各種閱讀計劃 校內環境與 舉辦書展等文化活動 活動層面 對中一級進行閱讀調查 (即本報告附件一所示) 參加教育研究獎勵計劃(即本研究) 組建圖書館家長義工隊 舉辦親子閱讀活動 舉辦作家分享活動 來年開展 出版優秀作品文集 改良圖書館及自修室閱讀環境 第=課堂 . 校外環境與 增設電子書並推出網上圖書館閱讀計劃 持續進行中 活動層面 1 聖埃克蘇佩里著 ﹒ 馬振騁 (20 10 ) 0 (小王子》。香港 三聯書店(香港)有限公司。 2 羅貫中茗 , 王征編寫 ( 201 1 ) 0 {三國演義》。香港 中攀書局。 8 1 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 研究結果及分昕 本研究小組經過一學期的工作與研究,並基於問卷調查結果,得知中一級 學生在閱讀習慣方面出現7以下的轉變 . 前測時,有 67.4%中一級學生表示,自 己閱讀課外書的原因是由於 「閱 讀是個人興趣,自己喜歡閱讀J '抱持這種態度的學生,於後測時上升至超過 71 . 1% 。 前測時,有 1 6 . 3% 的中一級學生因為 「感到無聊,沒事可做J 而閱 讀,於後測時上升至 1 8.1 % 。由此顯示更多學生把閱讀視為其中一種消遣活動 (見表一 ) 0 Krashen ( 2004 ) 指出,這種想閱讀而閱讀的自由自主閱讀 ( Free Voluntary Read ing ) ,有大好機會提升語文能力。 你ashen 這種見解 , 也曾得 到多個宣證研究(如 日ley, 1998 ; Greaney, 1970) 的支持。不過, 一部份學 生因為「感到無聊,沒事可做J 而閱讀,出於這種動機而閱讀顯示學生的態度 消極。故學校及教師宜多鼓勵學生,從閱讀中尋找自己的興趣 , 並豐富相關方 面的知識,這樣將漸漸改變和培養出學生積極的閱讀態度。 表- 中一級學生閱讀的原因和動植 學生百分比(%) 個人興趣,老師佈置為 7 豐富作為與他我感到無 自己喜歡 的作業或自己的 知人交流 的 聊, 沒甚 爸媽叫我識 , 提高題材 麼事可做 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 67.4 後測 (5/201 2) 71 .1 看的 語文水平 3.3 2.4 6.5 4.8 6.5 3.6 16.3 18.1 不論前測和後測,都有超過士成的學生表示 ,沒有固定的時間進行閱讀。 這顯示大部份學生未能把閱讀視為日常活動 ,沒有規劃好閱讀時間 。可幸的是, 前測時只有 3.4%的學生會在晚上做完功課後閱讀 , 至後測時則上升至 8.5% 。 由此顯示出更多學生願意在完成課業後 , 繼續花時間進行閱讀(見表三)。故 學校宜更好地規劃 「午間讀報節J '並鼓勵各科教師盡量地在正規課程中引入 課外閱讀 ,更有系統、更廣泛且持續地培養學生的閱讀習慣。 表二 中一級學生一般看書的時段 學生百分比(%) 沒有固定 晚上完成 上課時 午膳 通常 時間 作業後 大息時 在假日 前測 (1/2012 ) 71 .3 3.4 2.3 2.3 20.7 後測 (5/2012) 74.4 8.5 3.7 。 。 13.4 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 9 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 前測時,有接近三成的中一級學生表示, 他們的父母從不閱讀圖書 , 至後 測時,這項數字下降至 17 .8% 。另一方面 ,表示父母間中會閱讀圖書的學生由 34. 1% 升至 41 .7% 。 由此顯示出更多學生帶動了父母共同閱讀 (見表三)。據 部份家長解釋,當他們發現自己的子女閱讀圖書,自己或多或少受到影響,減 少7看電視的時間,偶然更會翻翻子女的課外書, 或以讀報的方式陪讀 。 據最近的 「新地喜閱指數 2012J 問卷調查 ,發現來自勞工階層的家長只 有 32. 3% 有閱讀習慣(宰翠時 '2012 ) ,此乃與本校家長的情況相近 ,故若 能透過學生推動家長共同閱讀 ,將帶來良性的循環 。 是故, 學校來年可更善意 舉辦親子閱讀活動,或以圖書館義工服務的形式, 吸引家長到校參加各顯型的 閱讀活動和閱讀服務 ,最終達至親子共閱讀的 目標 。 有不少文化界及教育界的 人士(如天衛文化編輯部, 2010 ; Nam, 1997 ) 持有類似的觀點,他們指出父 母是否具備良好的閱讀習慣,是影響孩子是否閱讀的關鍵 。換吉之,推動學生 閱讀的同時別忽略家長。 表三 中一級學生的父母閱讀圖書的習慣 學生百分比(%) 從不 甚少 間中 經常 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 28.4 30.7 34.1 6.8 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 17.8 34.5 41.7 6.0 前測時 ,有 6 .7% 的中一級學生表示, 他們沒有擁有一本屬於自己的課外 圖書 , 至後測時已降至 3 .5% ;而擁有 26 至 100 本圖書的中一級學生,由之前 的 1 5 .9%上升至 24 .7% 。 由此顯示學生擁有少量課外書的人數漸漸增多。然而 , 擁有 25 本以下課外書的學生,大約有t成 , 顯示大部份學生所持的圖書量仍 然不足(見表四) oKrashen ( 2004) 指出,要推動閱讀首先要解決書籍的問題 。 故學校可從不同方面求取贊助支持,以豐富學校的閱讀環境,協助學生解決書 籍的問題。在過往一學期, 本校曾透過不同的途徑,從不同的出版集團、書局 、 校友、教師及其他社會人士身上, 募集到超過一萬本中英文課外圖書 , 擺放在 各課室讓學生自由取書閱讀。當然 , 學校日後亦可更多地以獎品的形式逮贈學 生圖書 , 教師亦可鼓勵學生更多地借用學校或公共圖書館的圖書回家閱讀,以 補足個人藏書量的不足。 表四 屬於中一級學生個人的韓外圖書 (本) 學生百分比 (%) 。 1-10 11 -25 26-100 101 -200 201-500 其他 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 6.7 40.0 25.0 15.9 3.4 4.5 4.5 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 3.5 43.5 23.5 24.7 1.2 1.2 2.4 10 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 其一 , 支持 「原著/ 名著教學j 。 中一級學生普遍贊同 「學校把更多的課 外讀物引入課程/課堂教學中,以幫助同學培養閱讀習慣J .由前測的 55 .2% 上升至 62.4% 。 在課後訪談中 , 不少學生都指出原著/ 名著的故事性是吸引他 們追讀的主因,其次 ,原著/ 名著教學讓他們有更多想像空間, 有更多表達自 己想法的機會。 由此顯示學生對學校運用 「以書為本J 的閱讀教學 ,反應積極 (見表五 ) 表五 中一級學生對器外讀物引入課程 l 語堂教學的意見 學生百分比 (% ) 極不贊同 不贊同 贊同 極贊同 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 5.8 1.2 8.0 5.8 55.2 62.4 31 .0 30.6 其三 ,支持擺放圖書於學校不同位置。 前測時,有 13 .8% 的中一級學生十 分贊同「學校擺放更多的固書在校園不同的地方 ,讓學生隨時隨地可自由閱讀, 將有助養成學生的閱讀習慣J . 至後測時上升至 17. 7% ; 而表示贊同的學生由 48.3% 上升至 54 . 1 % 。事宜上,從觀察所見 ,愈來愈多學生會在小息時拿取課 室書架上的圖書閱讀,由此顯示大部份中一級學生以行動支持學校在不同位置 擺放圖書的安排 (見表六 ) 表六 中一級學生對學校擺敢圖書於按國不同地方的意見 學生百分比 (%) 前測 ( 1 /20 12 ) 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 極不贊同 不贊同 11 .5 9.4 26.4 18.8 贊同 48.3 54.1 極贊同 13.8 17.7 其三 , 支持同學問互相交換課外圖書閱讀。不論前測或後測, 均有超過六 成學生, 支持 「學校鼓勵同學帶備一本課外圖書, 擺放在所屬的課室中 , 以互 相交換閱讀J (見表-t) 表七 中一級學生對學校數勵同學間交換圖書閱饋的意見 學生百分比 (%) 極不贊同 不贊同 贊同 極贊同 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 13.8 20.7 50.6 14.9 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 7.1 29.4 50.6 12.9 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 竹 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 其四 ,支持午間讀報節加入圖書閱讀。計劃開始時,有 26 . 1 % 中 一級學 生十分贊同「午間讀報節除了可以閱讀報紙外, 亦可以閱讀其他中文 /英文圖 書J . 至後測時增加至 37.6% :而極不贊同本項措施的學生,由前測的 11 .4% 下降至 2.4% 。 由此顯示大部份學生贊同午間讀報節加入閱讀其他中文 /英文圖 書 (見表八) 義八 中一級學生對午間讀報即加入中文/英文圖書閱饋的意見 學生百分比(%) 極不贊同 不贊同 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 贊同 51 .1 26.1 37.6 極贊同 11 .4 2.4 11 .4 12.9 47.1 其五, 支持學校增設電子閱讀平台 。 前測時,有 35.2% 的中一級學生十分 贊同 「學校在不同的地點增設電子網絡平台,讓你有更多機會接觸電子圖書、 原著/名著電影J . 至後測時上升至 37 .6% :而表示贊同的學生也由 45.5% 上 升至 51 .8% 。 由此顯示大部份中一級學生支持學校增設電子網絡平台,讓學生 接觸電子圖書及名著電影的安排 (見表九) 表九 中一級學生對學校增設電子閱績平台的意見 學生百分比(% ) 極不贊同 不贊同 贊同 極贊同 前測( 1/2012 ) 5.7 13.6 45.5 35.2 後測 (5/2012 ) 2.4 8.2 51 .8 37.6 惟大多數學生依然未能建立網上閱讀的習慣。 前測時 , 有兩成中一級學生 表示甚少閱讀網上文章或小說 , 至後測時增加至 34 . 1% :而經常閱讀網上材 料的學生則由 5.7% 升至 11 . 8% 。 由此顯示學生一般未習慣網上閱讀 ,只有少 數學生經常會閱讀網上材料(見表十)。這與上文所提及的 「新地喜閱指數 2012J 的問卷調查結果一致 , 該調查發現 87 .2% 的讀者依然習慣閱讀印刷本 的書籍 , 網上閱讀或閱讀電子書仍未算普及(宰翠時 . 2012 ) 。故學校宜安排 不同的學習活動 ,例如要求不同學科作出配合 , 鼓勵學生閱讀網上指定及非指 定的材料, 以輔助學習。與此同時 , 教師亦宜引導學生使用互聯網搜尋適切的 閱讀材料 , 以擴闊知識字買域 , 應付將來在職場和生活上的需求。 義十 中一級學生閱續網上文章/綱土小說的習慣 學生百分比(%) 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 後測 (5/2012 ) 昕 一m-m 中 - o -1 司 叫 一 2 - 4 偉 - 4 - 3 帥 一 切一川 uu- m一叫 12 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 推廣從閱讀中學習 可幸的是,不論前測或後測,均有超過六成學生支持 「學校通過電郵或其 他網絡平台 , 定期向學生發怖一些合適閱讀的電子圖書/篇章/閱讀心得J (見 表十一)。由此可見,學生仍然期望學校透過互聯網向他們發放閱讀資料,故 學校可匯集學生常用的電郵地址(除本校為學生提供的 e-class 戶 口外 ) ,並 加強網上資源的開發 ,以便可以定期且有效地向學生發送一些有價值的學習材 料或閱讀資訊 。 表十一 中-級學生對學校通過網絡向學生體放開續資料的意見 學生百分比(%) 極不贊同 不贊同 前測 (1/201 2) 後測 ( 5/2012) 10.2 9.4 17.0 17.6 閉 - w-m 極贊同 17.0 15.3 前測時 , 有 17% 學生要用一個月 才能夠看完一本書,至後測時增加至 25.7% ; 而從不閱讀的學生人數也由 5.7% 下降至 2.4%。 由此可見 , 中一級學 生閱讀一本圖書的時間 , 較計劃開始時縮短 , 顯示出整體學生的閱讀速度有所 提升(見表十二) 表十二 中一級學生看完一本課外圖書所需的時間 學生百分比(%) 幾天/ 約一季 半年或 約一個月 ( 二至 從不閱讀 一星期 三個月 ) 以上 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 70.5 17.0 2.3 4.5 5.7 後測 (5/2012 ) 67.1 25.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 有研究小組成員表示[\"從課堂所見,學生處理大篇幅的資訊性文章之能 力有明顯的提升。 j 或許,這是由於課堂上教師經常使用篇幅甚長的名著小說 作為教材,並要求學生要在特定的時間內閱讀並作口頭匯報 ,故學生已習慣7 要快速地閱讀長篇章,或許,教師常常選用篇幅較長的文章作為測考題,故學 生有很多快速閱讀的訓練 ,閱讀的速度在不知不覺間得到提升。 從中一級學生在「閱讀理解評估J 問卷(參閱附件三)的表現來看 , 學生 在複迪、 解釋題型問題的後測答對率有 72.5% '相比前測答對率高出 11 .7% 。 由此可見學生對於資料的認知提升J ' 對篇章的理解也加深7 。或許 , 這是由 於課程中引入原著/名著教學 ,教師往往很善意透過課堂上的提問與追間 ,鼓 勵學生作出多角度的思考並作口頭回答,故整體學生的複述、解釋閱讀能力因 而有顯著的提升。 此外,在推動原著/名著教學過程中,教師常常會運用分組 合作學習的技巧,故幾乎每一位學生於每一節課都有複述、解釋特定章節的故 事內容之機會 ,結果他們此方面的語言表達能力有明顯的提升 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 13 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 從中一級學生在 「閱讀理解評估j 問卷的表現來看,創意閱讀能力題型答 對率高達 81% .而相比前測成績 ,進步了 19 .7% 。由此顯示學生喜歡在此想題 型上下功夫。或許 , 這是由於在整個原著/名著教學推行時 ,大部份教材都沒 有預設的參考答案,答案往往是在師生的對話間形成,所以答案的靈活性自然 大增。此外 ,教材的設計也很有意識地引入學生推測的題目,如 r你會如何 為該篇章定題目? J 、 「如果你是故事中的主角,你會作出這種選擇嗎?為甚 麼? J 、「你認為故事中的主角,與現宜生活中的哪一個人物很相似?為甚麼 你有這種看法? J 類似的提問鼓勵了學生發揮創意,久而久之,便形成能力。 在本研究中,尤其是在原著/名著教學環節,學生在開始時往往會被告知 此一閱讀課的閱讀目的、 學習 目標,故學生在閱讀歷程中須不斷檢視自己是否 已掌握文旬的意思,是否能夠回應閱讀課的目的或目標。例如教師在教《三國 演義》之〈走馬薦諸葛〉 一課的開始環節,會告知學生該節課的學習目標是 「學 習如何評價小說中的人物J .其學習重點則包括下表各項(參閱表十三)。這 樣做的好處,讓學生能夠根據預設的閱讀目標,持續檢視自己的學習進程 , 這 是培養閱讀監控能力的有效方法之一(余建萃. 2002) 表十三 〈走馬蘭諸葛〉一文的學習重點 學習範疇 內 容 語文基礎知議 學習重點 摘錄要點, 概括內容 聽 策略 學生聆聽匯報,並於工作紙上摘錄要點 學生概括說話者的內容 學習重點 回應別人觀點, 並加以評價 說 策略 學生分組討論及匯報 其他學生評價說話者的匯報內容 學習重點 重整能力、評價能力 讀 策略 學生從不同角度評價徐庶,並能從文中找出證據作支持 (完成工作紙) 學習重點 人物描寫 寫 策略 寫作一位我敬佩的英雄人物 宣用文尋人敢事 思維 批判性思維 情意品德 通過評價人物,學習徐庶忠君愛國 ,劉備禮賢下士、寬宏仁 厚的高尚情操 自學能力 如何訂立「目標J 、 「規劃J 、 「監控j 和 「檢視J 14 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 事宜上, 從觀察所見,本行動研究前後,多數學生的書冊上都是由雪白變 成五彩繽紛 ,多7很多閱讀的痕跡 ,多7很多文字或符號以標示出內容重點或 疑難,此外, 遇到難題, 亦有更多學生會主動查察網上資料或向師友發間,以 解答教師預設的閱讀問題。這印證了余建華 (2002 ) 的觀點 , 要提高學生的閱 讀理解監控能力,可以從培養他們良好的閱讀習慣,傳授必要閱讀策略和培養 他們自 主閱讀意識等方面著手一一這正是本研究所要推動與發展的重點內容之 重整能力題型答對率僅得 45.6% '前測和後測結果比較未見有改變 ,反映 學生的閱讀重整能力在學期內都沒有應有的進步。或許 , 使用篇幅較長的原著 /名著作為教材 , 原意是希望學生閱讀故事性的圖書 , 能有持續性 ,從而培養 出學生的自學動機與習慣。然而,也有其不足之處,對著一部篇幅不短的小說 , 要中一級學生釐清篇章內容的關係,並從篇章某處或多處撮取信息,概括段意, 歸納內容及總結主旨 ,實際上並不容易。因為教師帳本不可能在課堂上引導學 生閱讀整鄧小說 ,只能截取書中某些章節或片段作為課堂教學示例 (參閱附件 四)。換吉之, 學生須具備自主學習的精神與態度 ,並要把課堂所學遷移至其 他頗似的學習情境 , 這樣,閱讀重整能力才有可能提升。牟懷松 (2011 )提醒 我們, 閱讀重整能力是需要經過不斷的訓練,成績才會提高的,其中 「思維導 圓 j 就是幫助學生快速理清文章的思路,把握行文的順序 、 詳略鋪排的良方。 反思、總結與建議 誠如課程發展議會 (2001) 所吉,閱讀是學會學習的關鍵,而學會學習則 是終身學習的根源 (Nam, 1997)。故本校銳意藉著本教育研究獎勵計劃的契 機 , 逐步開展全校閱讀。 綜上所見,本校從三個不同的層面來推廣中一級學生閱讀,成效是顯著的, 既幫助更多學生培養出良好的閱讀習慣,也有效地擇升了學生的閱讀速度 , 及 複述、解釋、創意及監控的閱讀能力。不過,本研究欲透過第三課堂一一校外 環境與活動層面來擴竟學生的閱讀空間,這方面的努力雖然得到學生的支持 , 但仍未見具體的成效 , 仍須堅持、改進。此外, 學生的閱讀重整能力也未見明 顯的改善,仍有待研究小組進一步探討筒中的原因及改善措施。 回顧整個行動研究歷程, 本研究小組從確定研究焦點,至IJ撰寫研究計劃, 然後執行主施,並在行動過程中持續收集數據 ,以作為檢討改善的依據,此一 過程有效地促進了教與學的發展。就學生學習的角度而言,透過是決研究實踐, 大大擴闊了他們的閱讀空間 ,最終幫助了相當部份的學生培養出良好的閱讀習 慣及提升其閱讀能力。正所謂教學相長也。當本研究小組基於校本發展的需要, 建立起專業的學習社群,並聚焦於閱讀問題,及透過系統化的行動研究來探討 教學問題之同時, 亦發展出探究教學的態度、習慣與能力。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 15 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 當然,在整個研究過程中, 本研究小組亦曾面對過不少的挑戰,包括 (1) 本研究小組需要在百忙之中抽時間收集及整理研究數據、撰寫研究報告,這是 相當奢侈的行為 ,故建議學校盡可能在人力資源方面作出支援 ,例如調動教學 助理協助收集研究資料及處理研究數據 (2 ) 在推展本行動研究的過程中, 本研究小組發現跨學科的配合對推動全校閱讀是至關重要的 ,故建議學校把閱 讀定為學校重點發展的項目之一 ,並要求各科把課外閱讀融匯至正規課程中 , 且要建立機制, 監督 、檢討其實施成效 ( 3 ) 上文曾提及大部份學生均未能 培養出閱讀網上資源的習慣,普遍學生的個人藏書量也不足,大多數學生的閱 讀重整能力都未如理想,此等問題都有賴研究小組進一步研究,探求良方 ,而 在資源許可的情況下 ,亦宜邀請大學專家提供專業意見,促使理論與實踐互相 碰撞 ,進一步推動從閱讀中學習的發展。 總的來說 ,對於是次研究的成果,本研究小組感到滿意而不滿足。基於行 動研究的精神,本研究小組將在來年繼續研究,探求更有效的方法來推動學生 閱讀並提升其閱讀能力。此外 , 本研究小組亦希望以此回饋社會 ,為其他有意 推廣全校閱讀的學校創設經驗,以買現本獎勵計劃的精神及兌現我們在本研究 計劃中的承諾。 最後, 本研究小組要特別感謝香港大學中文教育研究中心的謝錫金教授 、 林偉業博士、許守仁先生和吳鴻偉先生,正因為得到他們的指導與協助,本教 育行動研究才得以順利開展,並按計劃實施。 16 I 教育研究報告匯緝 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 參考文獻 天衛文化編輯部 (201 0 ) 0 {孩子一生的閱讀計畫。。台北-天衛文化圖書股份有限公司 。 牟懷松 (201 1) 0 {閱讀有法一一提升閱讀重整能力》。香港 中華書局有限公司 。 余建華 (2002) 0 <初中生閱讀理解監控能力的研究> 0 2012 年 8 月 2 日擷取自網頁 www.lw23.com/lunwen 765166957/ 杜甫 (767) 0 <題柏學士茅屋> '裁於 《全唐詩》。北京 北京銀冠電子出版有限公司 。 辛翠時 (201 2-7-26 ) 0 <新地喜閱讀> 0 {星島日報} 'B2 頁 。 祝新華 (2005 ) 0 {閱讀認知能力層次 測試題型系統的進一步發展》﹒發表於新 加坡教育部在職老師培訓課程-語文測試中的效度與信度 (2003-2005) 高爾基( 年 份不詳) 0 {名 人名 吉} 0 201 2 年 8 月 3 日擷取 自 網 頁 。 http:// hk, knowledge.yahoo.com/question/question?q id=7006102602615 莎士比亞(年份不詳) 0 {名人名吉} 0 201 2 年 8 月 3 日擷取自 網頁 : http://blog yam .com/mistyfang/a前ic le/11816967 黃晶榕 (2012 ) 0 <為甚麼要閱讀7) 0 {勞校家庭通訊} '2012 年 7 月 。 香港。 勞 工子弟中學 。 課程發展議會 (200 1) 0 {學會學習 課程發展路向》。香港 政府印務局。 謝錫金、羅嘉怡 、 林偉業、李黛娜 (201 1) 0 {培養學生自 主學習資源套(中小學適 用) }。 香港 香港大學、優質教育基金 。 日ley , W, (1998) . Raising /iteracy /θve/s in third wor/d countries: A method that works Culver City, CA.: Language Education Associates Greaney, V, (1970). A comparison of individualized and basal reader approaches to reading instruction , Irish Journa/ of Education, 1, 19-29 Kemm侶, S. (1 981). The action research p!anner. (1st Ed.). Geelong , Australia: Deakin University Press. Kemm侶 , S, (1982) , The action in retrospect and prospect. In S. Kemmis & R McTagga此 (Eds) , The action research reader, (pp, 27-46). Geelong , Austra lia: Deakin University Press Krashen, S, D. (2004). The power of reading: !nsights from the research. (2nd Ed.) , Westpo肘, CT: Libraries Unlimited; Portsmouth , England : Heinemann Lew叭 , K. (1946) , Action research and minority problems , Journa! ofSocia!!ssues, 2 , 34-46 Lewin, K, (1948). Reso/ving socia! conf!icts: Se!ected papers on grouρ dynamics New York, NY Harper & Brothers Nam , M. Y. (1997). How to /ead your chi/d to read. Seoul , South Korea Daekyo Publishing Co., Ltd Routman, R. (2003) , Reading essentia/s: The 5ρeCI丹'cs you need to teach (iθading we//. Portsmouth, England Heinemann Sagor, R, (2006). Guiding schoo! improvement with action research. Alexandria, Egypt: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 17 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 附件一:勞工于弟中學中一級學生閱讀習慣問卷圖畫( 2011-2012) 填寫日期 : 2012 年一另一臼 各位同學 : 請你細閱下列的問題 , 並寫出你自己真實的意見和戚受 , 以便我們能夠更了解大家的閱讀 狀況 ,並在課程與教學 、 學校環境方面作出配合 。 你只需根據個人的想法 ,在以下每題中圈出 或寫出你的看法即可 。 所有資料只用作研究分析之用,絕對保密 ,多謝合作 ! 20 1 2 年 l 月 甲部:基本資料 學生姓名 : 性別 : 男口 女口 勞工子弟中學遴歐 ( ) 年級:中一 口 中二 口 中三 口 中四日 中五口 班別 A 口 B 口 C 口 D 口 你最常用的電郵戶口是 (請小心填寫 , 以便將來可透過此電郵寄發相關的閱讀資訊/資料給你) : | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 乙部:每題只圈出最重要的一項選擇 1. 你平均多長時間會看完一本課外國書? A.幾天/一星期 B 約一個月 C 約一季(二至三個月) 2. 你為甚麼要閱讀? A.個人興趣,自己喜歡 B.老師佈宜的作業或爸媽叫我看的 C 為7豐富自己的知識,提高語文水平 3. 你平時關績的國書通常從哪哀來? A.買的 B.送的 C倍的 18 I 教育研究報告匯編 D半年或以上 E 從不閱讀 D.作為與他人交流的題材 E.我無聊 , 沒甚麼事做 D煥的 E 其他(請填寫) : 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 4. 你喜歡看哪一類國書? D.歷史 、 地理類A 卡通、漫畫類 B 宗教哲學類 C科學 、 科技類 E 語文類(詩詞 、 散文、小說、劇本等) F.其他(請填寫) : 5. 你一般在甚麼時候看書? A.沒有固定時間 B晚上完成作業後 C 上課間 6. 平日你的父母閱讀園書嗎? D.午膳大息時 E.通常在假日 A.從不 c.偶爾(間中) B.甚少 D.經常 7. 屬於你個人的課外國書約有多少本? 一一一一一一本 8. 如果要你向同學推介一本好書,你會選擇哪一本?請寫出你推介此書的其中一個主要原因 。 書名 : 原因 : 9. 除了傳統的因書外,你有閱讀網上文章/網上小說的習慣嗎? A.從不 B.甚少 C.偶爾(間中) D.經常 10. 你贊同學校把更多的課外讀物引人課程/課堂教學中,以幫助同學培養出閱讀的習慣嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 C 贊同 D.極贊同 11 擺放更多圖書在校園不同的地方(如課室 、 兩天操場 、 飯堂 、 小貿部、更衣室) ,讓同學隨 時隨地可自由閱讀,將有助你養成閱嶺的習慣? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 C.贊同 D.極贊同 1 2 你贊同班主任鼓勵同學帶備一本課外國霄 ,擺放在所屬的課室中 , 以便互相交換閱讀嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 C 贊同 D.極贊同 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 19 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 1 3. 你贊同學校在不同的地點(如圖書館 、 自修室、小賣部、飯堂等)增設電子網絡平台,讓你 有更多機會接觸電子間吉 、 原著/名著電影嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 c.贊同 D.極贊同 1 4. 你贊同學校通過電郵或其他網絡平台 , 定期向你發布一些合適你閱讀的電子回書/篇章/閱 鑽心得嗎? A.極不贊同 c.贊同 B.不贊同 D 1 5. 本校圖書館目前所推廣的閱讀活動非常吸引你參加? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 c.贊同 D極贊同 1 6. 你認為本校當前的午間讀報節是否有效地被運用 , 以協助同學培養出閱讀的習慣? A.完全沒有效 B沒有效 c.有能 D.十分有效 1 7. 你贊同目前的午間讀報節除了可以閱讀報紙外,亦可以閱讀其他中文/英文圖書嗎? A極不贊同 B.不贊同 1 8. 你平日會帶同學校派發的報紙回家閱讀嗎? A 從不 B.甚少 C 贊同 D.極贊同 C傌爾(間中) D.經常 1 9. 你期望有更多的機會分享 、 欣賞到老師和其他同學的損害心得嗎? A.極不期望 B不期望 c.期望 D.極期望 20. 你贊同本校組織 「誼書會J ' 總同學有更多機會定期分享交流設苦心得嗎? A.極不贊同 c.贊同 B.不贊同 D.極贊同 2 1. 你贊同各科老師經常向你推介不同種類的好書,幫助你對課外圖書有更廣 、 更深的認誡嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 20 I 教育研究報告匯編 c.贊同 D.極贊同 一問卷完 ,謝謝 !一 。 。。 推廣從閱讀中學習 附件二:勞工于弟中學 閱讀活動剪影 (2012) 第二,.盒:絞肉零纜典語﹒槽面-)守教室增設厲害\" B守自侮宣摘設各著電,早 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 /12 I 21 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 22 I 教育研究報告匯編 7 第三課堂:校外環境與活動層面 一增設電子書並推出網上圖書館閱讀計劃 Q ﹒龜 . • .. :人間闢輯 , (瓣〉 五... :墓,也眼紅 : 叉.->,*,iII舍10\"'\" :剛通貨府 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 附件三:勞工于弟中學 閱讀理解評估 (2011-2012) 本問卷源自本校與香港大學中文教育研究中心夥伴協作 , 有關 「 自學計創」的測卷 。 基於版權的緣故 , 此處不宜刊登該問卷內容 , 惟設者可直接向該中心查閱 。 閱言實理解指引 (一) 本評估汲IJ卷總分共 42 分 。 (二) 學生須用黑色或深藍色原子筆作答本評估卷 。 (三) 學生須作答全部問題,題目按有關文章回答問題 。 (四) 全卷共有四篇文章 ,共 23 題問題 。 (五) 學生須把答案填寫在本卷指定的橫線或空格內 。 在綴線或空格以外的答案 ,將不予 評改 。 第一篇 、 運動鞋 第二篇、 一位公正的法官 第三篇 、 禮物 第四竊、家長缺乏對校園欺凌的認鐵 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 23 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 附件四 : 原著 l 名著數學設計示例 〈三國演義〉 之〈走馬薦諸葛〉 一 、基本資料 級別 : 一甲班 課題 : {三國演義} 之〈走馬薦諸葛〉 課節 : 兩課節 任教老師 : 勞工子弟中學本嘉慧老師 日期 : 20 1 2 年 3 月 8 日 指導 : 香港大學中文教育研究中心林偉業博士 、 許守仁先生 二、學習目標 學習如何評位小說中的人物。 三 、預期學習成果 學生能夠選擇一個過切的角度去評價,小說中的人物 , 並自主重整資料加以證明 。 四 、 已有知誠 1. 學生對(走馬薦諸葛 〉 的故事內容有初步的認知 。 2. 學生對人物評論的角度有基本的認識 。 五、學習重點 學習範疇 內 甘哼, 語文基礎知識 學習重點 摘錄要點,概括內容 聽 策略 學生聆聽匯報 , 並於工作紙上摘錄要點 學生概括說話者的內容 學習重點 回應別人觀點,並加以評價 說 策略 學生分組討論及匯報 其他學生評價說話者的匯報內容 學習重點 重整能力 、 評價能力 頭 策略 學生從不同角度評價徐民主 , 並能從文中找出證據作支持 (完成工作紙) 學習重點 人物描寫 寫 策略 寫作 :一位我敬佩的英雄人物 質用文 : 尋人做事 思維 批判性思維 情意品德 通過評價人物 , 學習徐庶忠君愛國 , 劉備禮賢下士 、 寬 宏仁厚的高尚情操 自學能力 如何訂立「 目標」 、 「 規直到」 、 「監控」 和 「檢視」 24 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 推廣從閱讀中學習 六、學習材料 {三國演義)(國文普及本)、工作紙 、 電腦簡報 t 、評估方式 1. 教師觀察 2. 學生涯報 3. 工作紙 八、教學流程 流程 學習重點 學習活動 要求學生課前閱讀小 l 留意故事的情節發展 。 課前預 說內容,以便課堂上討 2.留意故事中不同的人物描寫手法 。 習 論交流 。 (在家完成) 引人 明確學習目標 : 1. 學生重申評論人物的角度 。 人物評論 2 學生複述故事內容 。 被習故事內容 ( 10 分鐘) 1.教師簡述工作紙。 2 教師引導學生如何j匯報及評價 。 3學生分成五組 。 4學生各就一個角度評價徐庶 。 ( 10 分鐘) 5 小組同學分別向組員灌報 。 6.聆聽灌報的同學需摘錄筆記,並就以下幾方面向組 閱讀 : 重整資料,評價 內同學發表意見 人物 。 一你是否同意其評價與分析? 一同學的評價與分析是否合理客觀?所選取的證據 展開 聆聽 : 摘錄筆記,概括 是否佮當? 內容,提出評 一你有沒有其他補充資料? {頁 。 7.老師到各組參與討論,並給予過切的指導和回韻 。 ( 15 分錢) 說話 : 有條理地j匯報 。 8.每組完成j匯報後,選出一位表現較佳(評價角度清 晰 、 引證要充份)的同學向全班j匯報 。 9 老師邀請同組同學解釋推舉該位同學j匯報的原因 。 (同 6 ) 1 0.聆聽灌報的學生需摘錄筆記 ,並就以上幾方面向全 班同學發表意見 。(同 6 ) 11 .老師就同學的意見給予回餒 。 ( 1 5 分鐘) 學生靜心思考,並就以下幾方面反思自己的學習成 果 。 ( 5 分鐘) 總結 檢視自己的學習成果 1. 你是否學習到如何評傲。人物? 2. 如做到,有甚麼證明?能否在其他方面運用所學? 3 如做不到 ,你不明白甚麼?用甚麼方法解決? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 25 。。 。 Imp roving Teac hing through Classroom Observation Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Abstract Lee Chi Shing Concordia Lutheran School - North Point Improving teaching and learning is always of paramount importance to a good school and the key to excellence in teaching lies in teacher e仔ectiveness. The major task of a school head is to ensure a continuous improvement in the quality of teaching and learning in his/her school. Indeed, the term instructional leadership has always been used to mean almost the same thing as principalship This study examines the possibility of adopting action research-Iesson observation 1 as an alternative approach to traditional appraisal lesson observation2 for improving the quality and effectiveness of teaching. It explores and tests the appropriateness of such an approach by inviting 20% of the teacher population to participate in two rounds of lesson observation and follow-up measures, such as: self-reflection, exchange of professional ideas and wa lk-through observations. Questionnaires were given out and interviews were conducted periodically so as to collect opinions from participating teachers about the action research project. Working hand in hand , the parti cipating teachers concluded that action research-Iesson observation could work as an alternative means to the traditional appraisal lesson observation to improve teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers. They evaluated the usefulness of action research lesson observation and agreed that it was a good mechanism and a more suitab le tool that helped teachers further improve their teaching quality and effectiveness. Measures to ensure the successful adoption of the action research-Iesson observation as an alternative to traditional lesson observation were also examined in the conclusion. For simplicity's sake, lesson observation in action research is sometimes termed as the action research lesson observation , There is no difference in meaning between classroom observation and lesson observation in this article The writer uses the two terms just lor the sake 01 stylistic variation 26 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation Introduction This study was conducted in a school 45 years of age; the very same school I have been serving as Principal since 2007. More than half of the teachers have been teaching in the school for more than 15 years, and there have been three principals so far in its history. The school used to be a band 2 school (out of 5 bands) decades ago. Many of the teachers are well qualified with 38% of them holding master's degrees. The staff turnover rate is low, and most of the new staff has been hired as replacements for retiring teachers. There is a strong sense of camaraderie and their strength lies in working as a team to support one another's teaching and meet student needs W ith the succession of principals and changes in students' demographics and academic ability, we are now considered a Band 2-3 school. Teachers remain very professional and are willing to understand how to change their teaching methods for meeting the different levels of readiness and interests of students. Many students involved in this study are low achievers with poor background knowledge. On the whole they are willing to learn and cooperate and are always willing to participate in classroom learning. Teachers ' good classroom management allows for orderly classrooms. The school has been striving for improvement and excellence since I became Principa l. In 2010 , the Education Bureau (EDB) conducted an External School Review (ESR) with our school and the report released in 201 1 agreed that we had made some fruitful progress in all four domains, namely, Management and Organisati on, Learn ing and Teaching, Student Support and School Ethos, and Student Performance. Our performance was so impressive that we were invited by EDB to a school-based experience sharing session on \"Enhancing the Effectiveness of Learn ing and Teaching through the Using of Diversified Strategies\" in June the same year In spite of sign ifi can t improvements in teach ing and learning, we still need to work hard towards excellence. So far we have been following a trad itional appraisal-oriented lesson observati on schedule w ith an administrator observing lessons at an assigned time and examining teachers' strategies and skills (such as planning and organisation, communication skil峙 , class interaction and knowledge and attitude) and students' learning attitude, strateg ies and use of generic skill s . These observati ons are conducted annually in the hope that we can improve year by year and give useful feedback to teachers. However, there are limitations to the impact of lesson observation on changing teachers' practices that are worthy of study The appra isal nature of our schedule simply mininises the openness and willingness of the teachers to truly accept suggestions and comments, and is thus a hindrance for progress towards improvement 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 27 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation In this research , we chose to study our lessons with an action research approach because of its power for professional development and enhancing self-reflection. Basically it is a well-ordered inquiry for teachers to discover what works best in their own classrooms, and can help us to improve. By understanding their teaching more thoroughly and systematically, teachers can make their lessons more effective and gather meaningful feedback for improvement Literature Review Long ago, Lewin (1946) defined the characteristics of action research as \"using a spiral of steps , each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action. Its participatory nature is well suited to work in the school and can equip teachers with the power of systematic reflection on their everyday practice. \" As an interacti ve inquiry process, it \"can balance problem-solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis and thereby enhances the understanding of underlying causes and the making of predictions about personal and organisational change\" (Reason & Bradbury, 2002). “It is a challenge to traditional social science by moving beyond reflective knowledge created by outside expe前s and sampling variables to an active moment-to-moment theorizing , data collecting and inquiry occurring in the midst of emergent structure\" (Torbe肘, 1991). Knowledge is always gained through action and for action. Lesson observations based on action research is a systematic inqui ry with the goal of informing practice in a particu lar situation. It is a way for teachers to discover what works best in their own classroom situat ion , occupying a midpoint on a continuum from teacher reflection on one end to traditional appra isal lesson observation on the other. It is more data-based and systematic than mere self-reflection but less formal and controlled than traditional lesson observation. Teachers use data readily available from their classes in order to answer practical questions about teaching and learning in their classrooms. Lesson observation based on action research integrates the two roles of teaching and action research. “Teachers are the most suitable people to conduct action research in school because of their thorough understanding of student needs, classroom contexts and the instructional issues\" (Stenhouse, 1975). Through school based action research , teachers can learn to be more reflective about their practice and how to make improvements. To enhance student learning , teachers need to \"observe and gather evidence for planning. In doing so, teachers can understand how students learn in a naturalistic environment and the improvements that are needed\" (Johnson, 1993). They can also become “more aware of and sensitive to plann ing, reviewing and self-reflection on conducting our lessons for betterment in our classroom teaching\" (Elliot, 28 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation 1991; Au , 2004). As Lan (2001) stated, “classroom observation as a means to improve teaching quality among teachers is widely recognized \", and this is no exception to our school. By means of lesson observation, professional dialogue and sharing, we could benefit as teachers and deliver lessons of better quality. Methodology Keeping in mind our goal of finding an effective alternative method to improve teaching and learning, our study here investigates the following questions 1. Can action research-Iesson observation be an additional or alternative means for improving the teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers? 2. How do teachers evaluate action re search-Iesson observation in comparison with traditionallesson observation? We adopted the action research approach for studying our lessons because of its ability to initiate a reflective process of progressive problem solving among individuals working with others in teams. Following the release of the ESR report, we decided that it would be timely to examine other ways of evaluating teachers' pe付Ormance and how to help them more effectively We therefore launched a pilot study to improve our teaching quality through a series of classroom observations and found a system of evaluation that could be used as replacement or supplement by the school when necessary and follow-up measures to ESR recommendations. The objectives and targets of this study were clearly stated and explained to all teachers in the first staff meeting in late August I recruited some middle managers who wanted to enhance their teaching effectiveness and invited some teachers w ho, based on their appra isal reports and my records of walk-through observation, needed to improve. They were not at all incompetent, but were invited mainly because they represented the teaching characteristi cs and styles that were most common in our school. They came from a variety of subject backgrounds including English Language, Chinese Language, Mathematics, Travel and Tourism, BAFS and Science. Among them, there were experts, veterans and the less experienced. Some of them were used to asking questions or keen on maintaining an orderly classroom and supportive learning atmosphere Others were good at providing opportunities for students to partici pate while some were eager to demonstrate their practices. AII of them were professionals in the sense that they were willing to try new measures for continuous development and do their best in their duties. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 29 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Nine teachers agreed to participate in the pilot scheme after discussion in various staff meetings. An orientation meeting was held with them on 10th October. As Principal , my role was to act as a catalyst, conductor of the study and observer in the classroom. Details of the schedule, procedures, means of data collection and how different forms would be used were explicitly explained (Appendices 1 to 6). There were three main stages in the process: 1. pre-observation including teachers' written self-reflections and individual interviews; 2. a series of classroom observations including an observation of 5-minute time segments and two rounds of a whole-Iesson observation w ith teacher's self-evaluation, and professional dialogues, plus a classroom walk-through observation3 to collect some quantitative and qualitative data of the teacher teaching; and 3. post-observation follow-up including professional dialogues and teacher self-reflections To get the most from this study, all participants completed a worksheet for self-reflection (Appendix 2) which was based on the Common Core of Teaching (CCT) form revised by Connecticut State Department of Education in 2010. The CCT was used because it was in line with the quality of effective lessons that the school had been trying to achieve so fa r. Each teacher first selected a rating that could best describe his/her practice so that he/she could understand his/her teaching and himself/herself as a teacher more. The worksheets were given to me for getting a deeper understanding of them and comparing their own perceptions with my observations later. In summary, a spiral approach was applied in this study to ensure that, through a cycle of planning, action, fact-finding, sharing and evaluation and development, the knowledge acquired could help us progress and improve. 3 The classroom walk-through observation is a classroom visit where the research conductor here is present to look for predetermined evidence of specific practices. Its aim is to provide direct and specific feedback to teachers based on the snapshot observed. Feedback can then be given to teachers for improvement (Downey. et.al.. 2004) 30 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Findings As a compass to lead us through the right way to move forward , the Teacher Self-reflection Worksheet revealed the directions for improvement and indicated major concerns for lesson observation. Replies informed me of the norm of teaching in the school , helped teachers identify their own areas of competence and mastery and showed the areas where they could act as leaders or mentors. As shown in Tables 1 and 2, the areas to target for self improvement, growth or professional learning were mainly about Instruction for Active Learning (Domain 4), Planning for Active Planning (Domain 3) and Assessment for Learning (Domain 5). I integrated these domains with our recent developmental focus in teaching and learning concentrated on four aspects that the school had been striving to improve, namely: teacher engagement, student engagement, grouping strategy and using instructional time effectively. In the subsequent interviews , I invited teachers to name a domain which they would like to pay more attention to and describe their strengths and weaknesses in detai l. During the class observations that followed, I recorded what happened in the lesson in 5-minute segments especially in the areas of teacher engagement, student engagement , grouping strategy and the use of instructional time (Appendix 3) The records about the general picture of lessons in the school (Table 3) were subsequently returned to participants. In the second interviews that followed, we discussed their teaching practices more thoroughly and figured out their major concerns on which they wanted to get more professional training and improvement. Questioning and catering for learner diversity were what teachers wanted to deal with most (Table 4). The first concern might have been due to the recent trend in our school in response to the ESR report's criticising us for not asking higher-order questions in the lesson The second was the response to the increase in the variations of student ability within the classroom in recent years. To cope with it, teachers might use whatever methods they could think of, organise group work or promote cooperative learning (Table 5) 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 31 。。 。。。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation i 且 -J'PH CD,U ?- 因H 扁 E豆 H 但~ 已 tH。 ,且且c已~去4 b 。CuaU 在~ 斗ci C且站苟B cm通uv話~ 口 • 口 這 言 t- t- g t- t- E 這 熹 言 •- 戶- •- 言 •- •- •- t- •- 言 t- •- •- •- t- •- s 一 •- •- r- •- 一 t- •- 一 Ei iii iijiiii iii iiii iii i i ii i j i i iji i iisij;i i i j j ijiiijj s jii a tjji i ijj 且 i i iii iii izi i;zi 量 S10re:J]1Jl在 lJJ ] 。 E Z Z E h h H E O E a 。 - O〉 O O -伺 已 。 一ωω O 』 。 』 已 苟Z 呵 。 s z o ω - 呵 。 。 』 。 ω 呵 。 』 《O Z H H 2。 a 伺 已 。 一 個ω O Z O』 - E O ω - E O Z ω 呵 。 L F F O - a何 iF 教育研究報告匯編32 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation Table 2 Summary of Teacher Self-reflection Worksheet (Domains and indicators showing where teachers wanted to get improvement, growth and professionallearning most) Areas to Target for self- improvement, growth and professional learning in Teacher Self-Reflection CCT Indicators Worksheet NO. of Percentage of Teachers' Teachers' Choice Choice Domain 1.: Content and Essential Skills I am proficient in discipline-specific knowledge 。 0% and skills I am an e仔ective communicator and use a variety 11 .1% of communication strategies I am proficient in using technology resources to 2 22.2% enhance instruction Doma in 2. Class room En vironm ent , Student En gagement , and Commitment to Learning My classroom is responsive to the learnin g needs of all students including those with special 11 .1% needs and those with a varying of learning styles My classroom is safe, orderly, and conducive to 。 0% learning I provide exp licit modeling and instruction in appropriate routines, transitions, and personal 2 22.2% interactions I use proactive and positive behavior intervention 3 33.3% strategies Domain 3.: Planning for Active Learning I routinely assess and build on students' prior 2 22.2% knowledge I routinely share an objective or learning target 。 0% for each lesson I routinely build in a vari ety of strateg ies and resources in order to d iffe rentiate instru ction 4 44 .4% e仟ectively I routinely look for interdisciplinary connections 4 44 .4% to make learning authentic and relevant 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 33 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Areas to Target for self- improvement, growth and professional learning in Teacher Self-Reflection CCT Indicators Worksheet NO.of Percentage of Teachers' Teachers' Choice Choice Domain 4. : Instruction for Active Learning I use technology resources when possible to 4 44.4% enhance instruction and engage students I routinely monitor and adjust instruction based 。 0% on formative assessment I routinely use discourse, inquiry-based learning, 4 44.4% and higher order thinking in activities Domain 5.: Assessment for Learning I routinel y u se a va riet y of assessment techniques to allow students to demonstrate 4 44.4% mastery I use both formati ve and summative 3 33.3% assessments to give students feedback I collect data on student performance to inform 3 33.3% decision making Domain 6.: Professional Responsibilities and Teacher Leadership I partic ipate in collaboration w ith co lleagues 2 22.2% around sharinÇ) best practice and data I app l y new knowledge lea rn ed thro ug h professional development and discourse in my 3 33.3% classes I am aware of and consistently implement 11.1 % Concordia Lutheran School-NP Initiatives I create a positive and respectful environment w ith s tud en t , f am il y , a nd communi t y through maintaining regular and proacti ve 2 22.2% comm unica ti on and seek in g t o build relationships 34 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation Table 3 Normal Lessons Recorded in 5-minute Segments during Classroom Observations Time Segments in minutes 5 I W l u I W I H I ~ l u l ~ I ~ I ~I~ 1 肉,時n個ge I Rank (No. 叫。ccurrence in each time segment) 01 Occurrence Grouping Strategy 1. Independe nt work 1 3 3 2 2 。 。 。 1 1 1 15.22% 3 2. Pairs of students 。 。 。 。 。 1 1 。 。 。 。 2 .17 % 7 3. $ma ll groups 。 1 1 。 。 2 1 1 2 。 。 8.70% 6 4. Mixed groupl index 。 。 。 。 1 2 3 。 1 1 1 9 .78 % 5 5. Whole class a. Attn. to teacher 6 5 6 6 6 3 2 4 3 4 3 52.17% 1 b. Attn. to student(s) 1 1 。 3 。 1 2 5 1 2 。 17.39% 2 C. Attn. to media 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。% 6. Transition 2 1 1 。 。 3 。 3 1 1 。 13.04% 4 Teacher Engagement 1. Active with students a. lecturing 7 3 4 2 5 4 2 1 2 1 2 35.87% 2 b. Oiscussion 1 2 4 6 3 4 2 4 4 5 3 4 1.30% 1 c. Indiv/Group help 。 2 1 2 3 3 5 1 3 1 l 23.91% 5 2. Observing studen阻 1 5 2 2 3 5 6 2 3 。 1 32.61% 3 3. Transition 5 1 5 1 4 2 2 1 2 1 。 26.09% 4 4.0ther 1 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1.09% 6 Student Engagen、ent 1. 0 student off task 8 8 6 8 4 9 4 5 4 3 2 66.30% 1 2. 1-3 students off task 。 1 3 1 4 。 5 4 4 1 2 27.17% 2 3. 4-6 students off task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1 。 1 .09% 3 4. 7-10 students off task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1 1.09% 3 5. >10 students off task 。 。 。 。 l 。 。 。 。 。 。 1.09% 3 U釗ng Instructional Time Effectively 1. Content teaching 6 5 6 7 4 6 3 2 2 5 2 52.17% 2 2. Routines & procedures 9 5 6 6 4 6 7 8 3 4 2 6 5.22% 1 3. Digr回到。n (。仟 topic) 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1 。 。 。 1.09% 4 4.0the r 2 4 3 Z 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 42.39% 3 Table 4 Major Concerns Identified by Teachers for Lesson Observation Major concern of 。bservation Number of teachers selectin9 it Percentage Questlonlng 4(out of 9) 44.4% 55.6% Catering for Learner Diversity 5 (out of 9) Table 5 Methods to be Chosen to Cater for Learner Diversity “Catering for Learner Diversity\" as the major concern of No. of teachers selected Percentage 。bservation a) Whatever Methods Teachers 1 (out of 5) 20% Could Think of b) Grouping and Group Work 2 (out of 5) 40% c) Cooperative Learning 2 (out of 5) 40% 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 35 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation I set out to observe lessons with respect to the major areas of concern identified by teachers , followed by teacher 's self-reflection, professional dialogue and walk-through observation. Teachers also invited me into the classroom to observe when they were ready. In each lesson , evidence of good practice and the areas for improvement were recorded. The lesson observation form was completed by me accordingly (Appendix 3) wh ile each teacher filled in the self-eva luation form (Appendix 4) to reflect on his/her teaching. Every teacher and I then met to share our ideas. Having identified their strengths for further development, teachers also named their weaknesses and thought of ways to avoid or remedy them in later lessons The priority of the professional dialogue was how the researcher and the participating teacher could work together to make his/her teaching more effective and efficient. In the final stage of data gathering, walk-through observations were conducted to make sure both the researcher and the participating teachers knew they were on the right track. More chances for professional sharing and discussions could also be provided , and these were ve叩 important for our teachers , especially those who always wanted to improve further. Discussion To answer the two research questions “Can the action research-Iesson observation be an additional or alternative means for the school to adopt so as to improve teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers?\" and \"How do teachers evaluate the action research-Iesson observation in comparison with the traditional lesson observation?\", I requested all the participants to complete the evaluation form in written form (Appendix 6) after the first round and in spoken form after the second round. At the end of the post-observation professional dialogues, they shared their feelings and thoughts about the action-research lesson observation they had undergone and compared it with the traditional appra isal-Iesson observation system they had experienced previously. AII of them also gave an account of the merits and demerits of the two systems in written form in the first and verbally in an individual interview the second time (Appendix 6). Their comments are summarised in Table 6: 36 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Table 6 Merits and Demerits of Traditional versus Action Research Observation Action Research-Iesson Traditional Appraisal Lesson 。bservation 。bservation Merits Demerits Merits Demerits Comprehensive Time-consuming Time-saving Lack of continuous study of teaching follow-up and feedback Systematic Exert greater Less pressure for Assessment investigations to pressure on usually there is one purpose instead enhance teaching teachers lesson observation of seeking qualityand only improvement in e仟ectiveness teaching Help to develop Demanding as An e仟ectlve means Tense atmosphere habits of reflective teachers' workload of teacher appraisal as appraisal takes teaching among is high system of teaching place teachers Focus on the A complicated A quick and simpler Straight-forward process and process to get way to complete the but incomplete in outcome of teaching Improve昨lent task of the lesson nature and learning, observation bringing along insights to improve teaching quality and e仟ectiveness Cooperative Time is needed to Authority to conduct Emphasis on and seeking for create trust and the appraisal the grading improvement respect among lesson observation and conclusion teachers and the is stipulated in the of teachers' conductor school hierarchy performance, neglecting the opportunity to seek for teaching improvement. Act as a formative Norm referenced Criterion- Act as a summative assessment of referenced assessment of teaching and teachers and evaluation for evaluation of Improvement pe斤ormance 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 37 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation The comments given by teachers in the two rounds were similar and consistent with their sharing about the action research-Iesson observation with the traditional appraisal lesson observation system in professional dialogues. Seven of the nine teachers for instance regarded the former as more helpful than the latter for improving their teaching quality and effectiveness and agreed that it was a suitable tool to be chosen as an addition or alternative to that used nearly in all schools including ours. The other two thought that both observation systems were acceptable. The consensus of them and the seven others was that the former could enhance teaching quality and effectiveness, promote the development of reflective teaching among teachers , and work as a formative assessment of teaching and evaluation for improvement (Table 6). From their responses, I also learned they had agreed that action research was an effective means for professional development. Their responses in depth are discussed as follows Analysis of strengths and weaknesses Teachers felt that action research could help them to analyse their strengths and weaknesses. One teacher commented,“As compared with the traditiona l lesson observation, the action research-Iesson observation could give a broad and an in-depth analysis of my strengths and weaknesses in my teaching techniques and behavioral pattern.\" Another said \"it was a kind of in-depth lesson obse川ation\" and “it could help to make me become more familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of my teaching and guide me to a better delivery of lessons with good quality and effectiveness.\" Setting Clear Objectives with Teacher's Major Concerns This characteristic of action research could serve as a guiding principle for seeking improvement. AII teachers for instance told me in their individual interviews that the observation record helped them to figure out their major concerns and where they wanted to learn further. They valued the data collected from the classroom observations and ranked it as the third most helpful element among all the different parts of the action research. As one of the teachers sa肘,“Action research-Iesson observation helped me to analyse my lesson in various dimensions. It gave me a full picture of what went on and hence indirectly improved my teaching effectiveness.\" Another teacher added, “The action research-Iesson observation, with a series of lesson observations, reflections, walk-through observations and professional exchanges of ideas, was a continuous process of lesson study with a sharp and clear objective to improve teaching quality and teachers' effectiveness.\" 38 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Effect of follow-up measures 一 professional dialogue and self-reflection Although lesson observation was an integral part of our study, whether it could function was largely dependent on the self-evaluation and the professional dialogue afterwards. Teachers in general considered these two processes valuable because they helped them understand their lessons better and consequently to know how to improve. Thus they all gave high ranks to self-evaluation afterwards, self-evaluation before and professional dialogue after observation as helpful parts of action research (Table 7). Table 7 Ranking of Different Helpful Mechanism of the Action Research that can Improve Teaching Helpful Mechanism of the Action Research Ranking Teacher Self-reflection before the action research 5 Quantitative data gathered to gain a general picture of the lesson 3 The teacher can decide which domain and areas he or she wants 6 to focus on Actual lesson observation 4 Teacher self-evaluation to do reflection after the conduct of the 2 lesson observation Profess iona l dialogues to exchange ideas after the lesson observations Walk-through observations 6 Professional Dialogue AII teachers ag reed that the profess ional dialogue after lesson observations was inspiring and cou ld give them insights on how to plan and teach their subsequent lessons. They felt that observation had helped them analyse their teaching more deeply and lots of useful ideas could be exchanged in the professional dialogues. One teacher said, “The professional dialogues after the observations gave me some understanding on how to better plan my lesson.\" Another added \"Plenty of ideas were exchanged in the professional dialogues. The evaluations and observations allowed us and the researcher to look at teaching from di仔érent perspectives. \" 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 39 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Self-reflection Teachers ranked self-reflection before the study and self-reflection afterwards the fifth and second respectively in terms of usefulness. Their feelings were positive overall as indicated in the following statements they gave, such as \"The evaluations and observations allowed the participating teachers and the conductor to look at their teaching from different perspectives\" and \"It has given me a lead on what 1 have to improve.\" Walk-through Observation as a Follow-up Measure Teachers also viewed walk-through observation afterwards as useful for ensuring what they had learnt could be put into practice in subsequent lessons. To take one teacher's statement as an example,“1 think the previous traditional appraisal lesson observation did not have any follow-up measures but the walk-through observation of the action research-Iesson observation did help us to examine whether we have improved our teaching or not.\" Reflections and Recommendations Following an action research approach can allow teachers to improve their teach ing practices and effectiveness. As participants in this study expressed, the quantitative data collected from the detailed observations, actual lesson observations, self-reflection and professional dialogue were all essential to making this possible. By requiring a consistent, prolonged period of observation and receiving continuous feedback, teachers could understand their own teaching more thoroughly and systematically and therefore teach more e仔ectively. The professional dialogues after the lesson observations and walk-through observations could also provide chances of continuous learning through professional sharing among colleagues. Without focusing on or discussing what has happened in the classroom, teachers may jump to conclusions about why things are happening. They may only notice reactions of the more noisy and outspoken students, without trying to gain a deeper understanding of what are really going on. Lesson observation, reflection and professional sharing in an action research context are useful for the collection, recording and analysis teachers' thoughts about students' performance of the students and identifying ways for pos iti ve change 40 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation It is difficult for teachers to form the habit of doing self-reflections after lessons as they are really busy and their jobs are demanding if they want to survive in the school setting. The action research process can help them to see more of the objective reality of their classrooms through the collection of quantitative data, professional exchange and self-reflections. The more familiar teachers are with their lessons, the more easily they can understand their effectiveness and the more likely they can make improvements. As we can see from the data, teachers valued the action research as a more efficient way for them to understand their teaching better and help them to seek improvement. They thus agreed that it could be an additional or alternative means for improving teaching quality, perfecting their practice, trying new ideas and activities and seeking continuous improvement. Self-reflection by itself may be too subjective and biased and cannot produce a reali stic and satisfactory improvement. Ideas and comments from a third person can make the evaluation of lessons and reflection on teaching performance more objective, comprehensive and fruitfu l. Seeing the importance of this third person (the researcher in this study) , the teachers in this study gave high ranking to lesson observation and professional dialogue as the means for teachers to seek improvements in their work in the classroom Mutual trust and respect between the researcher and participating teachers are vital to the identification of good practices and weaknesses Without trust and respect, lesson observations might cause fear, anxiety and reluctance to participate. Teachers may be suspicious of the researcher's intention and the exchange of ideas can become a superficial process and a waste of time. Developing a trustful and respectful atmosphere between the principal and teachers is needed before the present study can be conducted meaningfully in the school. Open-mindedness is important as no two persons are the same. To promote useful dialogue, both the researcher and teachers shou ld be open to new ways of teaching and its assessment and be prepared to work collaboratively. Teachers in this study certainly experienced more continuous pressure than what the traditional appraisal-oriented lesson observation would bring Nevertheless, they all agreed that the action research lesson observation approach was more useful for the improvement of teach ing quality and effectiveness, especially in the analysis of strengths and weaknesses and the setting of 0叫ectives . Frequent self-reflection , professional dialogue, sharing and walk-through observation are the measures that are helpful in this regard 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 141 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation References Au , Y. S. (2004)。 “Raising teachers' com.ρetence in action research \" (in Chinese) downloaded from http ://content.edu . tw/primary/soc iety/ks一ck/nine/n4.htm on 25 August 2004. Connecticut State Department of Educat ion (2009) . The Connecticut Plan for Secondary School Reform: Academic and Personal Success for Every Middle and High School Student. Hartford , CT: Connecticut State Department of Education Connecticut State Department o f Education (2010) . Common Core of Teaching Foundational S.比i//s. Hartford , CT Connecticut State Department of Education Cross , P & Steadman , M. (1996) . Classroofη Research: 1mρlementing the Scholarship of TIθaching , San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Downey, C., Stef旬, B. , English, F. Fra詞, L. & Poston, W (2004). The three minute C的ssroom walk-through: Changing school supervβory practice one t,θ'achθr at a time. Thousand Oaks Corwin Press Duckworth, E. (1986) . Teaching as Research. Harvard education Review, 56(4), 481 - 495. Ellio仇, J. Action Research for Educational Change . Philad elphia: Open Univers ity Press, 1991 . Goswami, D. & Stil lman , P. (1987). Reclaiming the Classroom: Teacher Research as the Agency for Change. Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook. (EDRS No. ED 277 022) Johnson, B. (1993) . Teacher-as-researcher. ERIC Digest. Retrieved on August 25th, 2004 at http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed355205.html Lan, S. F. (2001). \"Educators opinions on classroom observation as a practice of staff development and appraisal \" Teaching and Teacher Education 2001, n.2, pp. 161-173 . Paper presented at the Twelfth Annual Conference of the International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement in San Antonio, the United States, January 3rd to 6th , 1999 Lewin, K . (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues 2(4) 34-46 Reason , P & Bradbury, H (2007). Handbook of Action Research , 2nd Edition London: Sage Short , K . (2002) . Research Proposal for Action research/ T,θacher Research Retrieved on September 20th 2011 at www.pdfartic les.com/topic/proposal+of+e xperimental+research .html Stenhouse, L. (1975). An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Develo.ρment London: Heinemann Stringer, Ernest T. (1996) Action Research: A Handbook for Practitioners. Thousand Oaks, California. Torbert , W (1991 ) The Power of 8alance: Transforming Selt, Society, and Scientific Inquiry. Sage Publication . 42 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Appendix 1 Details of Programme Implementation Action Research 一 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Details of Programme Implementation 1. Invite teachers to take part in the action research. Teachers who want to improve their teaching and who need to improve their teaching are recruited 2. Hold a meeting with all the participating teachers , discuss with them the details of the action research and reach an agreement of the actual run down of the programme. 3. Help the pa此icipating teacher to understand more about his/her teaching and himself/herself as a teacher more by giving each teacher a worksheet of teacher self-reflection (Form A). Teachers return the worksheet after completion 4. Go into the classroom and observe the lesson of the pa吋cipating teacher to collect some quantitative data of the teacher (Form B), letting both the teacher and observer understand his/her teaching more 5. Interview individually w ith the participating teacher to find out which domain and areas he or she wants to pay more attention. 6. Conduct the lesson observati on of the action research. Complete the lesson observation form (Form C). The teacher has to fill in the self evaluation form to do teaching reflection (Form D). 7. Have a professional dialogue to exchange ideas w ith the teacher and agree on a plan for his/her future development in improving teaching effectiveness. 8. Conduct walk-through observations to monitor and address the progress of the participating teachers (Form E) 9. Start the second round of the lesson observations and repeat steps 6 to 8 agaln 10.lnterview the participating teachers. 11.lf needed. another round of lesson observation will be launched 12.Share findings of the action research. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 43 。。 。。 。 Imp roving Teac hing throug h Classroom Observation Appendix 2 Teacher Self-Relfletion Worksheet CLSNP Teacher Self-Re flection Worksheet (Form A) Please complete the rating scale to review the Common Core ofTeaching (CCT) that is borrowed and revised from Connecticut State Depan ment of E冠ucation (20 I 0). This information wi ll help you to understand your teaching and yoursel f as a teacher more. It wíll help 10 guíde goaJ setting and professional developmcnt planning. SCICCl the rating that best describes your practice in each indicator. Give the completed worksheet 10 the principal 叩 that he can use it during the action research ....... .._.~.‘呻 . .. _.幫....c- ....v...Jn c-..v.. ..\".. , ...0'10:-.... VJ J V' ''' IV P' v\".v. c. .II>J . .........VH ...... U\"P' v...,...\"'\".. CCT Indicators Domain 1.: Contcnt a nd Esscntial Skills 1 am proficient in discipli ne-speci日c knowledge and skills I am an cITcct ive communicator and usc a varicty of communication strategics I am proficicnt in using technology resources 10 enhance instruction Domain 2. : Cla串串room Environment, Student Engagement, and Commitment to Learnine My classroom is responsive to the learning needs ofall students inc1 uding those with special needs and those with a varying of learnin且 styles My classroom is sa鳥, orderly, and conducive to learning pl eprrsoovn1dal e explicit modeling and mstructionmappmprtate routln白, transitions, and Interactlons I use proactive and positive behavior intervention strategies Oomain 3.: Planning for Active Learning I routinely assess and bui ld on students' prior kno、vledge 1 routinely share an objective or learning target for each lesson 1 routinely build in a variety ofstratcgies and resources in order to d i fTere川late instruction efTectiveJy I routinely look for interdisciplinary c-onnections to make learn ing authentic and relevant Dom制的 4.: Instruction for Activc Lcarning I use technology resou閃閃 when possiblc 10 enhancc ins truclion and cngagc students 1 routinely 1110nitor and adjust ins truction based on formative assessment I routinely use discourse, inquiry.based learning, and higher order thinking in actlvltles Domain 5.: Asscssmcnt for Learning I routinely use a variety of assessment techniques to allow s tudents to demonst'fate mastery I use both formative and sUllllllative 目seSSlllents to give s tudents feedback I collcct data on studcnt performancc 10 inform dec isiol1 making Domain 6.: Professiona l Responsibilitics and Teachcr Leadership I participate in collaboration with colleagues around sharing best practice and data 1 apply new knowledge learned through professional development and discourse in my classes I am awarc of and ωnsistcntly implement Concordia L叫he悶n School - NP Initiatives I create a positive and respectful environment with student, family, and community through maintaining regular and proaclive communication and seeking to build relationships Tlle ,alillg scale: 1= a,ea 10 la啥叫fo, self-illlpro間l1Ienι g,oWIII. 0' p,ofessiollallearni幣 2=a,eu ofcoIIψelence 3={I,ea of lIIaslery. abilily 10 m elllo, 0' acl 的 leaclle, leade, ill IIIis domaill Teacher s ignature (Name Principal si且nature (Namι L.ce Chi Shin~ ) 44 I 教育研究報告匯編 The ratin2 scale 2 Date reviewed Date received 3 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation 。VERVIEW The Common Core of Teaching articulates the art and science of teaching as essential knowledge, skills and qualities. These foundational skills and competencies are grouped by domains but, in practice, are to be viewed as integrated parts of the complex and dynamic process of effective teaching The CCT should be used to help guide and build teacher competence continuing throughout a teacher's career. Domains of Teacher Peñormance Domain 1 Domain 2 Domain 3 Domain 4 Domain 5 Domain 6 Content and Essential Skills Teachers understand and apply essential skills , central concepts and tools of inquiry in their subject matter or field. Classroom Env ironment , Student Engagement and Commitment to Learning Teachers promote student engagement, independence and interdependence in learning by facilitating a positive learning community Planning for Active Learning: Teachers plan instruction in order to engage students in rigorous and relevant learning and to promote their curiosity about the world at large Instruction for Active Learning: Teachers implement instruction in order to engage students in rigorous and relevant learning and to promote their curiosity about the world at large Assessment for Learning: Teachers use multiple meas ures to a nalyze student pe rform ance and to inform subsequent planning and instruction Professional Responsibilities and Teacher Leadership: Teachers maximize support for stud ent learning by developing and demonstrating professionalism, collaboration with others, and leadership 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 45 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Appendix 3 Classroom Observation Form CLSNP Classroom Observation Form to Gain a General Picture of the Lesson (Form B) Name of teacher IPeriod: IRoom ISubject: Date: IClass level ITOpiC: Time Segments in 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Remarks minutes Grouping Strategy 1. Independent work 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. Pairs of students 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 3. Small groups 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4. Mixed group/ indep 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 5. Whole class a. Attn. to teacher 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 b. Attn. to student(s) 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 c. Attn. to media 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 6. Transition 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 Teacher Engagement 1. Active with students a. Lecturing 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 b. Discussion 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 c. Indiv/Group help 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. Observing students 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 3. Transition 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4.0ther 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 Student Engagement 1. 0 student 0仟 task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. 1-3 students 0仟 task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 3. 4-6 students off t ask 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4. 7-10 students oft t ask 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 5. >10 students off task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 Using Instructional Time Effectively 1. Content teaching 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. Routines & 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 procedures 3. Digression (oft topic) 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4. Other 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 46 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Definitions Grouping Strategy 一 Indicate how students are working at the time of the Observations. Choose only one category that is indicated and best fits the definition of what is going on in the classroom. 1. Independent work - when ALL students are working on an assignment or project that is to be completed independently by the student. NOT if the student is working independently on part of a group project 2. Pairs of students - when students are working together in pairs on an assignment that is to be completed jointly. NOT if the students are working in pairs as part of a group project. 3. Small groups - when students are working in groups larger than two to complete an assignment or project. AII students should be involved in a group. If some are working independently on behalf of the group, then it would not be considered small groups 4. Mixed groups - This category should be scored when the students are in a mixture of different groupings. For examp悟, if some students are working in small groups while others are working individually, this category should be scored. 5. Whole class - when the entire class is focused on one person or media. a. Attn. to teacher - when the class is listen ing to the teacher giving instructi ons, lecturing , or engag ing in some activity that requires the attention of the class b. Attn. to student(s) - when students are presenting work to the class or taking part in a discussion with the teacher. This should only be scored when the students are actually talking. For examp峙 , if the students are presenting information and the teacher begins talking during the scoring interval, the attention to teacher should be scored. Also, if the teacher is engaging in discussion and a student is talking, this category should also be scored. c. Attn. to media - when the students are watching a video or engaging in any activity that requires them to focus on a media object as the primary activity. If a teacher is using the technology as part of a lesson and they are talking or leading the class discussion, “AUention to Teacher\" should be indicated even if the students appear to be paying attention to the media or technology. “Attention to media\" should be indicated if the students are primarily paying attention to media to receive information about the lesson and the teacher has minimal involvement. Teacher Engagement 一 Indicate what activity in w hich the teacher is engaged in each interval 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 47 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation 1. Active with students - they are actively engaged with students in one of the following manners a. Lecturing - the teacher is talking to the class and is either presenting material to be learned or giving instructions about a task. b. Discussion - the teacher is actively engaged in a discussion where students are contributing substantially to the task or lesson. In order for this to be scored when the teacher is talking , the teacher must be responding directly to a student's response during the moment the interval is scored. This interval is also scored if the teacher is silent and is listening to a student respond to a question c. Individual/group help - the teacher is actively engaged in assisting a group or individual on a task they are completing. For this category they must either be actively listening to a question from a student or talking to the student/group 2. Observing students - when the teacher is walking around the class and observing the class as a whole while they are engaged in an activi句. They should NOT be engaged with any particular student or group in order to score this interval 3. Transition - the teacher organizing or helping students organize for the next task 4. Unrelated activity - the teacher is doing something that is not related to the task at hand, such as sitting at their desk, talking on the phone, or out of the room. This category shou ld also be checked when a teacher is not visible during video observations. Student Engagement - At the beginning of the interval, count the number of students who appear to be off-task, or are not engaged in the activity. This can be done by quickly glancing over the room and seeing if students are obviously not involved in the activity 0仔 task behavior is defined as: a) not oriented toward teacher or task while li stening to instructions, b) not following instructions appropriately, c) not oriented toward the task It should be fairly obvious that the student is not engaged in the classroom activity in order for this to be scored. For example, if the teacher is lecturing and a student is not looking directly at the teacher, but also not engaged in any other activities, thi s would still be considered on-task. Off-task behavior needs to be quite obvious in order for a student to be considered off-task. Using Instructional Time Effectively 一 Indicate what activity in which the teacher is engaged in each intervaL This can be done by quickly paying attention to what the teacher is doing about. Digression means 0仟-topic and nothing related to the teaching objectives and content. 48 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 Improv ing Teaching th rough C lassroom Observation Appendix 4 Self Evaluation Form CLSNP Self- evaluation Form - Teaching Reflection (Form D) Name of teache r: IPeriod: IRo om : ISubject: Date: IClass level: ITopic: Stimulatin g Questions for Self-evalua tio n Comme nts Lesson Objcctives *Were Ihc objcclives displaycd on b申ard or clearly art iculatcd? *Did studenls understand what 1 did in the lesson? * Was what wc did too easy Or too difficult? * What problems did the sludents have (if any)? * Was there a clear Olllcome for the sludents。 * What did Ihey learn or practise in Ihe lessons? Was it lIseful for Ihem? Acfivifies and Maferials *Whal dif他renl malerials and aClivities did 1 use? Were Ihey appropriale (i.e. to carry oUllhe teaching objectives; 10 Sll il lhe standard ofthe sludents)? *Did Ihe matcrials and activities keep Ihc stlldenlS interested? *Could 1 have donc any parts ofthe Icsson ditTerently? 叫Nhal could bc done if the malerialsl activities planned did not work? Motivation and Sludcnts *How might this I.sson bc rclalcd to previous class \Vork, future class work or to areas of importance in the studenlS' lives? *Was thc lesson designed 10 appeal to the studenls' interests and developmental tasks? *Werc all thc students on task ( i.e. doing what thcy were supposcd to bc doing)? *1 f not, when was thal and why did it happen? *Which parts of the lesson did Ihe sludents seem to enjoy most? And least? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 49 。。 。 Imp roving Teac hing throug h Cla s sroom Obs ervation Lesson Management and Strategies *Did activitics last the right length of timc? *Was the pace ofthe lesson right? * Did I usc wholc c1ass work, group work, pair work or individual work appropriatcly? *Wcrc thcrc sufficicnt cxamples bcing includcd to demonstrate the idea, contcnt or p閃閃dure? What did I use thcm for? Did thcy work? *Were my instructions clear? * Did students undcrstand what to do in thc lesson。 *Did I providc opportunities for all the students to participatc? *Was I aware ofhow all thc students wcre progressing? *I-Iow qucstions wcrc used in thc Icsson? Sufficicnt and cffcctive? *Was cnough work planned to kecp students cngagcd in productive tasks suitcd to their capacitics? *I-Iad provisions bccn made for individual differences (catcring for learncr diversi ty)? Were they suitablc? *Was feedback immediate and adequatc? *Could I regard my students as active learners? What evidcnce could I find? What measurcs did I use to encouragc them to Icam activcly? Overall *Did any discipline problem(s) occur? How could these problems be prcvcntcd? *Was thc assignment c1ear and concise? Did thc students know what they wcrc to do? * ).)ad time been a llocated to do the conclusion and consolidation。 *What scemcd to be the most important things happcning Or missing in the lesson。 *What was the emotional/affi凶tive atmosphere in the )esson (e.g. energy, excitement, engagement, boredom, irritation, Îndiffcrcnce .. .)。 *Did it appear that the students experienced learning? 50 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 Improv ing T eaching th rough C lassroom Observation Appendix 5 Observation Feedback Form nv U A U 瓜 吋 W A U 叫 “ ru V O S 仆 , a l 問 時 叮 巾 P 伯 H V 恥 U L U 叫 他 趴 峙 叭 訓 J 叫 g A w m 汰 的 前 mr w e 叫 d 副 L m I L X 洛 訓 W 泡 S 1 c t h n v d h ( 缸 M J 阻 n 岫 m k < EnAHNS K W 巾 S O P U 叫 ‘ h m u e 叫 什 e b 叫 叩 如 加 m 尸 m w 附 圳 州 間 」 凹 叫 m M 吋 r - - 叫 m b m ι m 叫 叫 叫 你 悄 恥 t u 叫 自 ιm M Bm n E - t E N r 、 2 叫 別 S l 汀 h n l r I A 咒 。 巴 r h WH b - m g 出 h k m 叫 侈 品 M I -- w I AM M ﹒ 仙 肘 。 切 m R 紅 - m E 蚓 . 珊 , 叫 叫 叫 “ 叫 師 叫 叩 白 蚓 仙 恥 叫 m w b 巴山 ( \"他 一 叫 a g m M 吋 叮 川 d a 由 巴 扭 扭 M m 1 - a E E e w n m v h s 刊 b k w H W M ! 叫 & H m j 山 川 一一 此 - S C B 訓 , 叫 m b l o o m g 叫 V j j 啥 叫 叮 p m h m =恥 -一 州,叫 m m m 呵 叭 向 u州 州 白呵 白 峙 仙 一岫 恍 呵 M M = 1 - 肉 , 川 H 旭 U u n g g a 此 間 心 甘 G A I ( 、 I H Y 呵 。 = u - u 川 M K RM 仙 。耐 仙 n 一 戶 叭 \" 。 侃 侃 叫 ι 閻 明 恥 法 叫 叫 = x - 心 叫 H V I 叫 他 已 江 戶 u n d n h K EN - 而 F = 帥 - m 叫 一仙 一 仙 似 附 翩 翩 必 U W M M M m M 岫 川 叫 : = 帥 一 句 以 i G i Q j t ul 札n n mj k i k i u j M M m u h h 川 α j FM j h j 加 - - T a- - 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 b x- e- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - ω - 惘, - m一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 e E 帆U FI l l - - FI l l - - I l - - I l l - - - I l l - - l l l I l l - - I l l - - - I l l - - l l l I l l - - I l - - I l l - - l l l I l l - - l l l I l l - - l l l I l l - - l I l l - - I l l F I U 「 | → l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l - n S 一 一 份 立 一… 開 b s 一 - o U C 句 話 - - 創 叫 “ 亂 !怎 o s - - 則 由 - u 4 a - - I A L K 巴H BEE - - k ucv 到 C 一 - M K O B -U M -- - w 〈 峙 的 H U 創 口 一一 一 啥 叫 K 叮 祖 叫 m 肘 w n = - Bm 白 M m m 趴 『 一- - 0 。 \" 、 法 制 , 白 K M 汀 間 , - i 一一 - a u d I A 由 肥 到 l g 割 拙 ,、 一- - E a 此 X U 仇 d ' \" 、 C 心 - 划 一一 - b E 叭 呵 s r 叫 們 恥 帥 的 心 m v d w i - -W E 叫 - 州 州 削 - M m 由 叫 一晰 的 問 甘 心 川 p m 一 一- 啊 叭巴阻 叭 ,呻 伽 叫 叫 m 雌 叫 叫 吋 仙 叫 e N U - - -M EM 叩 圳 揖 心 U J A 心M m 叫 “ m ﹒ 叩 叫 你 ,m J -- i -u側 目 叫 恥 州 叫 叫 峙 的 勵 帆 心 叩開J m M 枷 巾 , 酬 。 = 侃 一- m m 吼 叫 p h b m 叭 叭 h u…W M 叫 巾 巾 叫 叫 阿 = 凹 - u r e 間 \" u u s g h K E J h u h = w - B H O 叫 l h 』 - c g n s 咒 n 一 帆 B W A C = 山 - k g y 叫 山 間 M W 。 但 m B m - m i 叫 -m m 圳 。 -附I E M C 向 = 叫 一 站 -n 一 間 , 叫 叭 叭 仙 g m M 叫 純 白 圳 副 缸 時 側 , 叫訓 的 = n - 眩 目 h U BM 巴 U 內 凡 』 n u m e v w v g 、 副 n l n a M IH - - 戶、 - 1 且 可E f 、 v ' \" “ n u 鳴 \" - \" “ 呻 d g a a J U U 隨 叫 i p ι ' ‘ PUV M U P - - 的 - M一伽 - U mE M - b E 臼 - 臼- L mE b - 凶 , 的 - M - M 限 制 , 臼 - h 叫E H 卅 日- ﹒ 恥 以 一 心 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 -OLv - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - tn - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - T - 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 - - 一 一 - 一 一 一 一 一 一一一Olhers( ) I __Olhers ( EEvid伽e叩nc叫閃洽叫ofC臼01叫帥lCOω叫or叫di咱a Lu叫咐1伽h祖eran S伽o叫l-N附P 1圳nt川1刊岫t 一一一一Ob均~e叫凶Ives臼 dis叩play戶ed on board I _一一Procedures in pμla臼 and being used 一一一一一Lμearn川'1111川n咚1泡皂 Ihrough a叫凶l川川V叫叫I IJ附e的s I 一一一一一Appropria時圳denl praise 一一一_ Working 叫nd川dually/in pairslin gro叫ps I 一一一_Instruclion appropria旭 10 sludents 一一一_ Dealing wilh sludent learning diversily I 一一一_SlUdenl work displayed 一一_Aclive learning alm的phere I 一一 Respe叫心1 behavior I positive regard 一一_Class ro山間: Sll的nts SltlJng prope句 and sti ll I 一一_Speci日c co悶tructl間的eedback Class routine: textbooks on the desk Room 、vas wilhout clutter, including walls 一_ Class rouline:* nOlebooks on the des岫eing used I 一_Effective time managemenl 一_Class routine: _ sleeping! _ off.斗的k students 一一一* Reading!wriling!lislening!speaking 一一一_ Presenling in 仕onl of classmales 一一一_Applying learning skills 一一一_Asking a wide range of queslions Effic ienl use of malerials Formative assessment 一__Personal , posilive inleraClions wilh sludenl 一一一_Conneclions wilh pr ior learning 一一一一Equilable, consistent application ofrules Real-world connections/sludent intereSIS -一一_Assessment oflearning (rubric, selιassessment) 一一一_Re-Ieaching l relearning material Consolidalion oflhe lesson Notes * Delete as necessary 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 51 。。。 Imp roving Teac hing through Cla ssroom Obs ervation Appendix 6 Evaluation Evaluation after the imolementation of the First round Action research - tmorovin!! Teachin!! throu!!h Classroom Observation 1. Did lhe 1\" round of lhe aclion research-Iesson observalion help you 10 unders land your leaching more and syslematically? Ifyes, in what way? Ifnol, why couldn'l il help? Which part oflhe aClion research could help you 10 improve your leaching? Rank lhem from 1 10 7 ( 1 represents it can help you most and 7 represents il can help you least) ))))))) a) Teacher Self三Reftecl ion before lhe aclion research 一----……一一一一……一 ( b) Quanlilalive dala galhered 10 gain a general picture of lhe lesson 一一一一一- ( c) The leacher can decide which domain and areas he or she wants 10 foc l1s on 一一 ( d) Act l1al lesson observalion 一一一一一一一一一一一一一一-------------------- ( e) Teacher selιevalualion 10 do refteclion after lhe conducl oflhe lesson observalion- ( f) Professional dialogues 10 exchange ideas after lhe lesson observalions 一一一- ( g) Walk-lhrough observations 一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一- ( 2. 3. Compare lhe aClion research-Iesson observalion wilh lhe previous/ lradilionallesson observalion. Which one could help you 10 improve your leaching qualily and e仟eCliveness? Why? 4. Please give an aCCOl1nt of lhe merils and demerils of lhe 2 syslems of lesson observalion Aclion Research-Iesson Observalion Previous/ lradilional Lesson Observation Merits Demerils Merils Demerils 教育研究報告匯編52 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Action Research-Iesson Observation Previousl trad itional Lesson Observation Merits Del1leri ts Merits Del1leri ts 5. The 2nd round of act ion research will begin soon. What 11l0difications or recol1ll1lendat ions would yOll l ike to sllggest? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 53 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination TWGHs Mrs Fung Wong Fung Ting Col lege Abstract This study investigates the effectiveness of using the process writing approach to motivate New Senior Secondary 2 students for writing tasks and assist them in improving writing competence. Twenty eight students, who have learnt writing under the process writing approach for half a year, were asked to complete a questionnaire survey, interviews and assessments to evaluate the e仔ectiveness of this approach. Results showed that process writing could motivate students to write to a certain degree and help them improve their skills although this was not as obvious as their change in attitude. In sp ite of limitations , 的e process writing approach could be implemented in the New Senior Secondary (NSS) English Language curriculum to prepare students for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) examination Introduction Having taught English for eight years , I find that 'writing ' is the most difficult part for our students. Many students lack ideas and cannot elaborate on their thoughts. They do not have enough vocabulary to express themselves in correct sentence patterns and grammar. Students often consider the writing process exhausting and unpleasant. According to journals in the field, process writing is the best way for teaching writing skills because it promotes active and supportive learning. This paper focuses on whether the approach could help and motivate my Senior Secondary 2 students to write In the NSS English Language Curriculum implemented since 2009, process writing is recommended by the Curriculum Development Council as 54 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion an approach for maximising teaching effectiveness. Thus, another purpose of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of this process approach for teaching students to write in depth (of around 400 words) on one of the elective areas with appropriate language, content and organisation. Process writing is a teaching methodology. According to the Elementary English Language Arts Curriculum page (Washington Country Public Schools , 2002), it is \"writing instruction in which a teacher guides pupils through certain stages, or steps, to complete their writing pieces\" and is viewed as “a recursive, nonlinear cognitive process in which the writer moves back and forth\" (Tang, 2006). Writing under this approach is divided into the stages of pre-writing , drafting, revising , editing and publishing. What the teacher has to do is to act as a facilitator and organiser of learning activities (Iike brainstorming, group discussion and peer response) and to support students in developing knowledge and skills at different stages. Normally, marks will not be given before the end of the publishing stage Process writing has been introduced into Hong Kong since the 1990s However, it faces constraints which are well documented in re search papers. Many teachers have returned to a product based approach or are implementing it on occasion. Three local research papers are discussed below in relation to the study of its implementation in the local context. Literature review Ng (1999) has implemented the process writing approach with her top Secondary 2 students to promote creativity and a sense of collaboration , using activities such as peer conferencing and peer eva luation. In the first tri訓 , students' writings were rich in ideas but contained many grammatical mistakes. In the second tri訓 , grammatical mistakes were underlined for peer evaluation before students submiUed their fair copies. Unfortunately, most of her students failed to correct the mistakes for their peers. AII the English teachers in her school acknowledged the above phenomenon and agreed to teach with the approach in the following year but without peer conferencing due to limited teaching time. Lam (2000), a local teacher-researcher, conducted a systematic study of process writing with respect to whether it could help his low-banding students improve and raise their motivation and confidence in writing After two trials , eight Band 3 Secondary 1 students in his school wrote on the topics 'How to spend their coming Easter holiday?' and 'How to spend their coming summer holidays'. In each trial, the teacher brainstormed with students together, gave them some words to use and corrected their errors Students were asked to provide as many ideas as they could. In the following lesson, they put their ideas into organised text and help their peers to proof- 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 55 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination read with reference to a guided worksheet. They then gave a presentation in front of the class. The teacher and other students offered suggestions for improvement, and everyone had to make revisions according句. Finally, the teacher marked their written work and students did the corrections. AII were asked to complete a questionnaire survey about attitude towards writing. A comparison of the work done in Lam's study showed significant improvements in content, since 75% of students could write more in the second draft and perform better in capitalisation and tenses. Many mistakes were still found in the use of singular and plural forms of nouns and verbs, spelling and punctuation, so there was no significant improvement in terms of accuracy overall. Questionnaire results , however, indicated that 93.8% of students were in favour of learning through the process writing approach rather than the conventional one. 81.3% of them were interested in pre writing activities because of its usefulness for generating ideas and helping them get the right words and expressions. The reaction was mixed as 43.8% of them contended that pre-writing activities were not useful in organising thoughts and only 56.3% of them thought that their classmates' suggestions were useful for improving accuracy in expression. Two-thirds (68.8%) even thought that the suggestions could not help to improve the content of writing To conclude, Lam noted that pre-writing activities could help to raise interest and confidence and that the division of the writing process into small bits could enable low achievers to maintain interest and confidence through the receipt of instant feedback. Unfortunately, Lam's study involved only eight subjects and was not carried out in a naturalistic setting. Asking students simply to choose 'yes' 。r 'no' in his questionnaire instead of using a Likert scale also means that more precise data about attitude could not be drawn. A follow-up interview should be conducted so that implications need not been drawn all directly from numerical data. Instead of examining written work on two occasions, a systematic pre-test, post-test design should be used to facilitate comparison While pre-writing activities are important for arousing interest , peer reviews are considered by many as more effective for helping students learn (e.g. Ho, 2004) because readers can more easily learn how to revise their own drafts and understand what others need to improve on. In his study of Secondary 4 students in a 8and Two CMI school , interviews and questionnaires were used for getting information about the challenges faced by teachers and their students. Two teachers out of three felt frustrated by students' low level of English proficiency, failure to understand the terms used in the peer review worksheet and inabilities in identifying grammatical mistakes and expressing ideas clear旬. Weaker students also could not get sufficient attention in spite of their special needs and their inability to explain thoughts clearly 56 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Ho's study (2004) after all revealed that peer response in process writing could not cater for the needs of weaker students well. This was in contrast to the finding of Lam that process writing with both pre-writing activities and peer review were helpful. The discrepancy between these two studies is worthy of further examination in Hong Kong because the approach has been recommended for use in the senior secondary curriculum implemented since 2009 Research questions The present study of feasibility and effectiveness seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. 00 NSS students like process writing more than the traditional way of learning? 2. 00 they think that process writing can help them prepare for the HKOSE examination? 3. Ooes process writing help to improve their quality of writing in the HKOSE examination? To answer the second and third questions , we have to look at whether process writing can help students to generate more ideas, organise thoughts systematical旬, master proof-reading skills and use appropriate language in writing. The subjects involved were 28 Secondary 5 students from a band two class which also included some band one and band three students. Procedure Specifica l旬, students had to write a short story based on the NSS elective modules 'Learning English through Orama' and 'Learning English through Short Stories' and a drama topic (Appendix 1). Three students from the top, middle and bottom levels of English proficiency were then invited to an informal pre-test group interview when they were asked to express their views on writing and were informed about the nature of the writing process approach AII students had already had dictations on the words and expressions related to drama and short stories so as to familiarise themselves with the necessary language. They were divided into groups of four and asked to complete the pre-test questionnaire survey (Appendix 11 ) about writing. They also wrote a composition based on the NSS electi ve modules 'Learn ing English through Orama ' and 'Learn ing English through Short Stories' (Appendix 1) and read it aloud to their group members. Group leaders jotted down the main points (Table 1) and made a presentation 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 57 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination In the lesson thereafter, students in pairs spent around 20 minutes to study the assignments from two others w ith the help of a task sheet (Appendix 111). First, they had to evaluate the content, organisation and language which were used by ticking the right boxes ('Done', 'Partly done' and 'Forgot to do') Second旬, they put stickers next to the paragraphs or words they appreciated and correct the mistakes which had been underlined. They also rewrote the part(s) they did not like and give suggestions for improvement. In the writing and editing lesson, the teacher commended on some of their good works and gave a list of the paragraphs which students liked (Appendix IV). Students were given 70 minutes to rev ise their w riting , ask the teacher and peers for assistance and complete the editing. They did the corrections at home according to the teacher's comments. Table 1 The collective plan Para 1: -When andwhere I watched it -Why I wantto seetheperformance -Mentiontheperformancewasoutstandir港, &make one leël\"n manyth ingsa以XJtdrama -I wou細 liketo share myexperiencewithyou. Para 2: -Tell thenameoftheplay -Thepur防范eoftheperfαmance -What isthe plët( a切凶手 Para 3: -Talkaboutwhat made itou目前ldir道 -e.g. plots, props,當tingskill5, what thedirector did Para 4: -Conclusion: the performancewasremarkaωe -feeli r穹 -What l'Ve learnt -Recommerld ittothestuden臼 Finally, students completed a post-test survey (Appendix V) about the application of the approach to the writing of short stories and drama scrip峙 , and were classified into three groups according to the quality of language they had used. Three of th em were then interv iewed about the ir writing experiences and other related v iews for enriching the data collected from the questionnaire. By adopting a pre-test post-test design, their performance in the examination writing papers could be compared w ith that in the test writing papers for assessing how far the quality and length of their writing had improved 58 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Findings Table 2 shows the length of writing by the three interviewees produced in the test and examination. Two subjects had written more on their ideas than before for better elaboration and organisation. However, there is no significant evidence showing that the process approach could help them to write in depth Table 2 Length of writing by the three subjects No ofwords No ofwords Change in the examination in the test Student W 276 229 + Student S 351 390 + StudentA 511 490 *W-the weak student, S-the strong student, and A-the average student Tables 3, 4 and 5 analysed the variations in students' performance in the test and examination. Although all had improved in their use of tenses , whether process writing could lead to improvements in the command of English and proof-reading skills is not clear. This finding is similar to that of Lam (2000), which was that students had made fewer mistakes in tenses but not in other aspects of grammar. The implication is that the use of tenses is easier to master and proof-read Table 3 The writing performance of the weak student in examinations and tests 5tudent W Error % Error % in test Change in the examination Subject-verb 5.3% 0.0% + Agreement Singular/Plural 24.4% 6.9% + Tense 。 .0% 96.3% Spelling 5.1 % 0.4% + 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 59 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination Table 4 The writing pe叫。rmance of the average student in the examination and test Student A Error % Error % in test Change in the examination Su叫ect-verb 4.8% 5.0% Agreement Singular/Plural 6.7% 11.8% Tense 4.4% 12.9% Spelling 1.1 % 0.5% + Table 5 The writing pe斤。rmance of the strong student in the exan可 ination and test Student 5 Error % Error % in test Change in the examination Su叫ect-verb 13.6% 12.5% + Agreement Singular/Plural 0.0% 1.8% Tense 3.4% 12.1 % Spelling 1.6% 0.2% + Meanwhi峙 , some improvements cou ld be noted in the test and examination papers (Table 6). The weaker, average and strong students scored 1.5, 2.5 and 2.5 marks for instance. These mark increases could be indicators of improvement in writing quality following the use of the process approach although there is no evidence to show that students could write more, had done better in proof-reading skills or changed in their attitude towards writing. Instead, they might have been influenced by the topic chosen as only one and two students chose to write on 'Learning English through Drama' and 'Learning English through Sports Communication' respectively in the examination. 60 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Table 6 Marks obtained by students Content Grammar 。rganisation Total W's test writing 1.5 3.5 W's exam writing 2 1.5 1.5 5 A's test writing 3 2 2.5 7.5 A's exam writing 4 3.5 3.5 11 8's test writing 3.5 3 3.5 10 8 's exam writing 4.5 4 4 12.5 Table 7 shows the attitudes towards process writing. In the pre-test survey, the mean mark for each item was 2.8 only as there was a lack in ideas, words and expressions for short story/drama writing. 8 tudents seldom made a draft or had the ability to proof-read especially with respect to grammatical mistakes. The increase in the mean mark to 3.6 in the post test survey implies that with the use of the process approach, students were becoming more positive towards writing. Even the weaker ones improved a lot (to 56.3%). The mean mark given by the medium-ability group (3.8%) was higher than those of the other groups Table 7 Students' attitude towards writing Attitude towards Attitude towards Mean writing shown in the writing shown % increase in the post-test pre-test questionnaire questionnaire Overall 2.8 3.6 26.3% Weak 2.0 3.1 56.3% Middle 2.7 3.8 38.0% High 3.0 3.7 24.0% 5 -- 8 trongly agree, 3 -- Neutral, 1 -- 8 trongly disagree In the post-test study, students showed slightly positive attitudes towards process writing with no item less than 3 (Table 8) and the mean mark being 3.7. 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 61 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination Table 8 Students' attitudes in the post-test questionnaire survey 01 You now like short stories/drama writing more. 3.4 02 1 feel it easier to do short stories/drama writing. 3.4 03 You have more ideas for short stories/drama writing. 3.6 04 It is easier to think of short sto叩Idrama words and expressions 3.6 for writing. 05 It feels easier to make a draft for short stories/drama writing 3.5 06 It is easier to find and correct your own grammatical mistakes. 3.3 07 You have tried your best in the drafting activities 3.5 08 You enjoyed the drafting with your students together 3.5 09a 0 0 you find the drafting activities useful for (a) getting ideas? 3.0 09b 00 you find the drafting activities useful for (b) organising 3.7 ideas? 09c 0 0 you find the drafting activities useful for (c) finding the right 3.2 words and expressions? 09d 00 you find the drafting activities useful for (d) learning how to 3.6 write a draft? 010 You enjoyed reading your classmates' writing. 3.7 011 You have tried your best in helping your classmate to improve 3.7 his/her writing quality 0 12a You have learnt the following things from your classmates' 3.7 writing : Ideas 012b You have learnt the follow ing things from your classmates' 3.5 writing: Grammar 0 12c You learn the following things from your classmates' writing: 3.7 Organisation. 013a Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing 3.7 in ideas 013b Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing 3.6 In grammar. 0 13c Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing 3.5 in organization 014 You have a better idea on how to do proof-reading 3.5 015 It is easier to rewrite than writing the first composition. 3.6 0 16a You find your rewritten compos ition better than the first 3.6 composition in terms of language 016b You find your rewritten compos ition better than the first 3.8 composition in terms of content 016c You find your rewritten compos ition better than the first 3.7 composition in terms of organisation 62 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Table 9 shows the attitudes towards the learning of ideas in process writing. Students slightly agreed (mean = 3.7) that process writing could help them get more ideas. They agreed a bit that they could get more ideas from the drafting activities, reading of their peer's writing and peer review in both the short and long terms Table 9 Students' view on using process writing to learn more about ideas Area Question Mean 16) You find your rewritten composition better than the first 3.8 composition in terms of content 12) You learn the following things (ideas, grammar and 3.7 organisation) from your classmates' writing of ideas Ideas 13) Your classmates' suggestions help you improve your 3.7 writing of ideas 3) You have more ideas for short stories/drama writing. 3.7 9) Do you find the drafting activities useful in 一 3.5 getting ideas? Mean = 3.7 Students agreed that these activities had helped to improve their writing quality in the short term . In the interviews, both the average and weak students expressed that drafting could help them write in greater depth (Table 10). Drafting was widely reported as useful for the gathering of ideas for writing (Ng, 1999; Lam, 2000 and Ho, 2004) just like reading their peers' writings and peer review, although 68.8% of the students in Lam's study thought otherwi峙, Table 10 Responses of two interviewees about drafting activities Teacher : What is your opinion towards the drafting activities? Student W : Those activities were quite good! W hen I was doing my writing , I could write more Student A : Agreed! My writing cοuld include more ideas. These activities enriched my content. * W-the weak student; A-the average student 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 63 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination With respect to organisation , students slightly felt that (mean = 3.6) process writing was useful (Table 11). They agreed that to some extent they could learn to organise ideas well from drafting activities, reading their peers' writing and peers' review. In the interviews (Table 12), both the strong and average-ability students said that drafting activities amongst others were effective. The mean mark of 3.7 侶 , however, different from Lam's study where 43.8% of students felt that pre-writing activities were not useful in organising thoughts. Table 句 1 Views on using process writing to learn about the 。rganisation of ideas Area Question Mean 9) 00 you find the drafting activities useful in: 3.7 b. organizing your ideas? 12) You have learnt the following things from your classmates' writing 3.7 。 organisation 16) You find your rewritten composition better than 3.7 the first composition in terms of organisation Organisation 9) 00 you find the drafting activities useful in: 3.7 d. learning how to write a draft? 13) Your classmates' suggestions help you improve your writing in 3.5 。 organisation 5) It feels easier to make a draft for short stories/ 3.5 drama writing . 8) You enjoyed the drafting with your classmates 3.5 together Mean = 3.6 Table 12 Responses of two interviewees about drafting activities Student S : When 1 wrote my draft, apart from considering the content, 1 discovered 1 needed to pay attention to contextual factors, format and writing purpose. Orafting was not easy at all Student A : 1 could learn how to organize the information from my peer's writing. This was fantast肥, *S-the strong student, A-the average student 64 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Students somewhat agreed (mean: 3.5) that process writing helped improve their English skills (Table 13). They found peer review more useful than the others in helping them improve their writing. This finding is similar to Lam's, where 56.3% of students thought peer review was beneficial and found their partners' suggestions useful for improving language accuracy Table 13 Views on using process writing to learn the use of language Area Question Mean 13) Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing in 3.6 b. grammar 4) It is easier to think of short story/drama vocabula可 3.6 and expressions for writing. 16) You find your rewritten composition better than the 3.6 first composition as far as: a. language Language 14) You have a better idea on how to do proof- 3.5 reading. 12) You have learnt the following things from your classmates' writing 3.5 b. grammar 6) It is easier to find out and correct your own 3.3 grammatical mistakes. 9) Do you find the drafting activities useful in: 3.2 c. getting the right words and expressions? Mean = 3.5 The average mark for learning grammar (3.5) was lower than those for learning ideas (3.7) and organisation (3.6). In her interview, the strong student explained that she had to use her grammatical knowledge to help her peers so it was hard for her to learn grammar from her peers at the same time 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 65 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination Attitudes changed after the process writing project Some questions in the post-test were the same as those in the pre-test and so differences in the scores for these items could reflect their changes in attitude toward writing. As shown in Table 14, students rated these identical statements more highly in the post-test than in the pre-test. Process writing thus could make students feel easier with the writing of short stories or drama writing , gathering the necessary vocabulary and expressions, making a draft and figuring out their own mistakes in their own work. It appeared to be more useful than the traditional way of teaching in catering for the writing needs of students at di仟erent ability levels. Table 14 Responses to some questions in the pre-test and post-test Questions Post-test Pre-test results results 01 You like short stories/drama writing. 3.3 3.1 02 It is easy to do short stories/drama writing. 3.3 2.8 04 It is easy to think of the right short story/drama 3.6 2.7 vocabulary and expressions for writing. 06 It is easy to make a draft for short stories/drama 3.5 2.6 writing. 09 It is easy to find out and correct grammatical 3.5 2.5 mistakes when you do proof-reading. Overall speaking, students had a slight positive attitude towards the process writing and agreed that it could help them improve on 'grammar', 已organisation ' and 'content' . Students at average proficiency levels were more in fa vour w ith the approach. The change in attitude was greater amongst the weaker students because they cou ld get more support here than from the traditional approach. Irrespective of proficiency lev訓 , students generally agreed that process writing could help them improve on 'content' , 已organ isation ' and 'ideas' Among the various activities involved , peer review and the reading of peer writings were considered more useful than the others for the generation of ideas. They also thought the pre-writing activities could help them make proper drafts and improve organisation whi le peer review could help them improve their grammar. However, even the more able students found the task challenging as they had to activate their grammatical knowledge and proof-reading skills. In general , students in the present study found it slightly useful for helping them how to write although they could only make slight Improvemen峙, 66 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Discussion The above findings are similar to those of the three studies mentioned in the literature review in spite of differences A ttitude towards the effectiveness of process writing Attitude is important to the success of process writing. The post-test survey in this study showed that students liked process writing more than the conventional method. This finding echoes Lam's in which seven out of his eight subjects expressed in favour. Contrary to Lam's study in which 43.8% did not find the pre-writing activities useful in organising their thoughts, the students in the present study generally found pre-writing activities useful for organising thoughts and gave a mark of 3.7 to the question '00 you find the drafting activities useful in: b. organizing your ideas?' in the post-study questionnaire. This trend could be due to the greater attention of this study to organisation as well as contextual and genre information while Lam's study was more concerned with the generation of ideas for writing Students in the present study agreed that reading their peers' writings and peer review were useful in helping them learn ideas. In the post-test survey, they gave 3.7 marks to both items 'You learn the following things from your classmates' writing: a. idea' and ‘Your classmate's suggestions help you improve your writing in: a. ideas'. But this is not the case in Lam's study where nearly 70% of students considered peer review incapable of helping them improve their content. This difference in finding could be due to peer review design - Lam's peer review worksheets only required students to evaluate peers in term of grammar, while the present study required them to comment on their peers in terms of grammar as well as content and organisation. This is why Huang (2004, p.18) stated that how the writing process instruction was implemented played an important role in whether it would be likely for the students to acquire basic writing sk il 帖. Moreover, unlike his Form 1 students, the Form 6 students in the present study were more mature when giving constructive and useful feedback to their peers and so would be slight more positive towards peer review and reading peers' writing. The adoption of process writing could encourage students (especially the weaker ones) become slightly more positive . This change in attitude may be due to the short-term effect produced by process writing , particularly its pre-writing activities. In the post-test interview, the weak student clearly pointed out that the pre-test activities had given him more ideas to write. This is the immediate positive effect he was exposed to , and is compatible with Lam who expressed that weak students could get more ideas in the pre-test activities. 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 67 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination But even though the weak students' attitude had changed, they were not as positive as the students of medium to higher ability because of the lack in competence to comprehend and evaluate their peers' writing. That is why Ho (2004) stated that peer review could not benefit the weaker ones as two thirds of his subjects were frustrated by their low English standard and could not understand the peer review task sheet, identify grammatical mistakes and express their thoughts clearly. Similarly, only 56.3% of the Form 1 students in Lam's study thought peer review was useful. In the present study, students liked process writing the most. Process writing provides a supportive yet competitive environment for learning how to write according to the three interviewees who had expressed a wish to compare themselves with one another. Average-ability and strong students did not mind reading those writings which were better or worse than theirs because they could either learn from their peer's writing or help their peers by giving comments with their linguistic and cognitive knowledge. This positive feeling had not been mentioned in the previous three studies Improvement in English proficiency Gaining students' empathy is important but whether process writing is effective for teaching them how to write is another question. The present study shows that students' writing quality improved in grammar, content as well as organisation. Their increase in scores may indicate that process writing could in general help students at different proficiency levels to prepare for their short story/drama writing secti on in the HKDSE examination This generalisation is, however, not applicable to performances in some grammatica l items and proof-read ing skills in sp ite of improvements in the usage of tenses and proof-reading. Incidentally, Lam also found fewer mistakes with tenses when comparing his su叫ects' drafts and fair copies in spite of the need for further proofs. Conclusion The present study finds that process writing motivates the students to write to a certain degree and helps them to improve in terms of the organisation and content of writing. However, since the student participants at different proficiency levels had different needs and wishes, their overall attitude towards process writing was only slightly positive. The marks they got in the examination shows that they had made improvements but not in the skills of proof-read ing. Further research is needed to see whether the increase in scores is due to improved proficiency or the nature of the writing task. In general, improvements in writing are not as obvious as the change in attitude 68 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion The present study has some implications on teaching. The extensive implementation of process writing in the average and strong English classes could create a positive and supportive learning environment for language developmer況 , since they already have sufficient competence to complete a variety of process writing tasks. The approach could also be applied to weaker class provided that more attention is given to pre-test writing activities and peer review. Instead of asking students to evaluate their peers' writings , it would be better for the teacher to share a piece of writing in front of the class. This would eliminate the feeling of failure and a more positive learning experience could be promoted. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 69 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination References Education and Manpower Bureau (2007). English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6). Hong Kong Ho, C. H. (2004). Implementation of Peer Response in Secondary 4 Englis力 的衍ting Classes in Hong Kong: A Case Study Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press Huang , M. C. (2004) . The Use of Process W.卅ing and 的的rnet Technology in a Taiwanese College English Writing Class: A Focus on Peer Rθviews. The Pennsylvania State University Press Lam , L. M. (2000). Process Approach To Teaching Writing: A Case Study Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist University Press Ng , P. (1999) . Ado,ρting Process Writing, 的 G. T Sachs (200.勾 Action Research in English Language T,θaching. Hong Kong: The City University of Hong Kong Press. Tang, X. F. (2006) . Principles in Teaching Process Writing in a Learner-centered Classroom. Sino-US English Teaching 3:2. Washington Public Schools: Elementary English Language Arts. (2002) The Writing Process. Retrieved 0叭 June 3, 2002, from www.wcboe.k12md .us/mainfold/curric/elemela/DevWrtgPcs. htm 7 0 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Appendix 1: Topics for the present study One drama question and one short story question were chosen for the present study. The questions are shown as below. The former one was used for process writing project 1 and the latter one was used for the project 11. Learning English through Short Stories (EP-DSE-ENG LANG 2-4) You are a repo口er for the school ma也azme. You recently attended some even的 at the Hong Kong Book Fair. Your favourite one was a talk by three di fferent authors on what makes a good short story. You are now writing an article about the event, expla ining why you found it interesting and what you learn t. .-.-._._. Contextual information: . Draft Who are you? To whom you are writing to? Relationship: (formal/informal /semi-formal) Aim(s)/purpose(s) ofyour writing? Format: _. _._._._. You are a member ofthe Drama Society. You recently went to see the opening performance ofa play. The performance was outstanding. Write a review ofthe per formance for the school newspape巳 describing what the play was about and explaining what made it outstanding. • 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 71 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDS E Writing Examination Appendix 11: Pre-test questionnaire Name:一一一一一 Class:一一一一一 ( Strong Agree Neutra l Disagree You like short stories/drama writing. 5 4 3 2 2. lt is easy to do short stories/drama writing. 5 4 3 2 3. You always have sufficient/enough ideas for short 5 4 3 2 stories/drama writing. 4. It is easy to think of the right short story/drama 5 4 3 2 vocabulary and expressions for writing. 5 You always lllake a draft before you write for short 5 4 3 2 stories/drallla. 6. It is easy to lllake a draft for short stories/drallla 5 4 3 2 wntmg. 7. You always do proo什eading after writing. 5 4 3 2 8 You know how to do proo仕eading after writing. 5 4 3 2 9 It is easy to find out and coηect your grallllllatical 5 4 3 2 lllistakes when you do proofreading. 10. What do you want to learn most when you write for short story/drallla questions? 1 1. What do you want your English teacher do to help you do short stories/ drallla writing? (include dra庇ing, proofreading...) 72 1 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Appendix 111: Task sheets used for two topics Evaluator: Writer: 3 Expositive article Well I OK I Could Done I I have wntten better Forgot to do 1. Has indicated the question she/he attend吋 clearl 2 -1 -4 6. 7. Has told what was learnt 8. Has told his/her fee lin Task 2: a) Highlight and put stickers next to the ideasl paragraphsl words that you like. b) Put a ‘?' if you want him/her to write more. c) Correct the underlined mistakes. Task 3 (optional) Find other mistakes and correct them. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 73 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination 74 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Task 4 Rewnte a part I . Thepa此 which I think could be rewritte明 better was How? Rewrite it here , , {…………~-一一………一…………………暉,一,一一……一, An Example ofTask 2 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 75 。。 。。 。 T he Use of Process Wri ting to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDS E Writing Examination Appendix IV: Worksheets for appreciation 、,vorksheet fo r Sho rt St or Apprecia tio n I Readn可ore Ma問arel Atwood shared her secretto us. She lold b吾吾面面而云面吾吾as small, she liked reading books s。 she could write a good sl旭ry. She thoughl reading books could lel us learr、 from the books and ~ could Improve our w耐ng skills.(Canman) sQttOI:!..... _ ( ~ ~ , c. ..- ....-1. 些~J Attitude towards writing a sh。吋 story -ptiLtt;trrtt晶晶晶宮ng story makes -them feel creatin也 their own world. 中heir rõle was like a God who∞ntro悔 everything. When I hea叫 thaf. 1-- ﹒ ∞uldn't burn outto laugh. I :- ,堅‘ 自 discover that writi甸的ort -‘盔, 回 到ories is a閥V~。用du個 且直反 「宮、, I pressu間 (moélified from E曲, …伽g) 76 I 教育研究報告匯編 為 Use of adjectives • I learnt that the story wi ll be lively if you have good writing skills, like adding more adjectives to the story to let readers image the scene. (Kwok) I learnt how to use the words such as 'clever' . 'naïve' , 'cruel' and evil to describe the characters in my story (modified from Kwong's writing) Write with heart SOHOT\" G 50rr、e students blamed that they couldn't write a good 5tOry, but in fact, they didn' t u5e their heart 個 write a 5tOry 50 they may havea m陷under5tanding for writing. (Ng) Fa ith • I have learntwe must havefaith In our life. JR Jowllng commented that It washardforherto be a gooda叫hor. Shewrote 。n recelpts when she .r-、\"\"- was free. We have to J L.._ J_ 、 spend many !lmes to be a 戶口-^^-\./ \ goodwriter. Butif we Ql~ ) keep golng, frlends and 恥于一 r I parent5wlll supportus 蒜、抖咱也/\"'\" (modifiedfrom Kwong's writing) 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Characterization One of them said ‘Let the storv wrile itself . Diffe rent cha racters had different persona lities. Let them d。 the things they want in the story. And what you could control was the context and way to report their things. (modified from Lee's writing) worksheet for Drama Script Writing Plot Encourage the others to write • -The aulhors encourage us try 10 write and don'l feel s cared to fail (Ng) 1 shared this play to all of you because the storyline seemed amusing and inspiring. You ∞uldn 't imagine that a teddy bear can have a dream like this. (Heidi) 1 think the content was creative and interesting . (Yuki) Moral Lesson This drama had one message to te ll us. That is the more countries you visit, the more you can learn about life . (Zhang) ln the play, in order to save her friend ‘Angel May ',‘Angel Mary' killed May's lover ‘Evil '. May blamed Mary but Mary didn 't feel regret at a ll. She thought that was friends were for. However, nowadays, there is no 什iendship among Hong Kong people . (modified from Cheng's writing because it was too long) Acting skills They had enough practice before their performance. ln the performance, they did make any mistake. Next, their performanc括 can make the audience got into characte r and understand the ir emotion . (Ng) Actors in the play used facial expression correctly and hence the audience knew what the feelings of actors were. (Zam) Theme 1 love this performance because the theme o f the perfo rmance is re lated to environment. A fter watching this theme , 1 think more people will have the responsibility to do something to help our environment. (modified 什om Kristy 's writing) Light The thought of the character was vividly c心nveyed by the actor with the he lp/assistance of spotlight. For instance/example, in the scene which the male leading role failed to find his love, the lighting changed from the floodlight to the spotlight. This drew the attention of the audience to the male leading role. (modified from Toby's writing) Props The props were fascinating. 1 appreciated the final scene. The stage was fill ed with dried flowers. lt conveyed the romantic feeling vividly. (modified 什om Toby 's writing) The ir make up was so good. Their costumes show which characters are rich and poor clearly. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 77 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDS E Writing Examination (什om Carman) Director How did the director of this play make this play become outstanding? The di rector Mr Mak used the sad ending to close the play since he wanted to make the audience became more shocked with the play. (Kwok) The director of this play wanted to trick the audience by some special twists. In scene two of th is play, a role called ‘Miss Chan, the dancing teacher ofthe team was acted by a boy. This made all the audience laugh. (Law) M usic Moreover, they also added singing elements to the performance. This made the drama more interesting and funnv 78 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Appendix V Post-study Questionnaire on Writing Lessons Name:_一一一一一一_ Class:一一一一一一-( Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly agree disagree Now, you like short stories/drama writing more. 5 4 3 2 2 You feel easier to do short stories/drama writing 5 4 3 2 3 You have more ideas for short stories/drama 5 4 3 2 wntmg. 4 It is easier to think of short story/drama 5 4 3 2 vocabulary and expressions for writing 5 It feels easier to make a draft for short stories/ 5 4 3 2 drama writing. 6 It is easier to fínd out and coπect your own 5 4 3 2 grammatical mistakes. 7. You have tried your best in the drafting 5 4 3 2 actIvltIes. 8 You enjoyed writing the draft together you' re 5 4 3 2 your c lassmates. 9 Do you fínd the drafting activities useful in: a. getting ideas? 5 4 3 2 b. organising your ideas? 5 4 3 2 c. getting the right words and expressions? 5 4 3 2 d. leaming how to write a draft? 5 4 3 2 10. You enjoyed reading your classmates' writing . 5 4 3 2 11. You have tried your best in helping your 5 4 3 2 classmate to improve his/her writing. 12. You learn the following things you' re your classmates' writing. a. Ideas 5 4 3 2 b. Grammar 5 4 3 2 c. orgamsat lOn 5 4 3 2 13. Your classmate's suggestions helped you Improve your wntmg m: a. ideas 5 4 3 2 b. grammar 5 4 3 2 c. orgamsat lOn 5 4 3 2 14. You have a better idea on how to do 5 4 3 2 proo仁reading. 15. It is easier to rewrite than writing the fírst 5 4 3 2 composltlon 16. You fínd your rewritten composition better than the fi rst composition as far as ___ is concemed: 5 4 3 2 a. language 5 4 3 2 b. content 5 4 3 2 c. orgamsallon 17. Any other comments: 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 79 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 提討應用 I告作學習j 教學策略 於IJ\二及小三申、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度間成績 摘要 馮停珍 聖伯多樣天主教小學 為配合的擴展,聖伯多祿天主教小學本學年於小二及小三,以 「探 討應用合作學習教學策略對改善學生中文、英文和數學科的學習態度和成績j 為研究題目,並與過去兩年的研究結果作比較,希望從中獲得歐示,以強化 的成效。研究結果顯示 ,應用 「合作學習J 教學策略能提升學生的學習 態度,而學生的學業成績亦有上升的趨勢。此外,以教師學習圈方式來推行課 堂研究 , 能有效提升教師的專業技巧 。 引言 不少有關合作學習的研究顯示,應用合作學習教學策略能幫助兒童掌握社 會技巧、改善人際關係、增進課堂學習氣氛與及有效提升學生的學習興趣(劉 秀擾. 1998 ; 周立勳. 1998 ; 陳俐煙. 2012 ; Hsiu呵. 2012 ; Drakeford. 2012 ; Tsay & Bra旬. 2010 ) .因此,大部份學校為提升教學效能,都積極鼓 勵老師應用合作學習教學策略。 聖伯多祿天主教小學於 2009 至 2010 年度開始 ,為改善學生的學習態度 和提升老師的教學技巧,以 「合作學習J 教學策略進行教學行動研究,為期三 年 。過往兩年,學校聘請校外專業人士先後分別帶領小四中、英、數、常科目 老師 ( 2009/2010 年度) .及小三中、英、數科目老師 (201 0/20 11 年度)以「合 作學習j 教學策略規劃課題,進行教學 , 希望藉此提升學與教的效能。 為配合學校的擴展,學校本學年參與了 由香港教育學院 研中心舉辦的 「促進主踐社群以優化j 校本支援計畫IJ. 為小三數學科 老師提供支援,而行動研究的對象亦改為小三及小三學生,研究科目為中文、 英文和數學科,繼續以 「探討應用合作學習教學策略,對提升教師的教學技巧 , 以及改善學生的學習態度和成績j 為研究題目 , 研究結果除反映學生本年度的 表現外,亦與以往研究結果作比較,希望能從中獲得敵示以強化 「合作學習j 的教學成效。 80 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用 「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 文獻;單詞 教育局於 2004/05 學年開始進行香港 「的研究報告J . 2008/09 學年完成 ,根據研究結果 ,為教師建議以下六個 「J 的設計和教學原 則 ﹒ 學習 目標 . 以學習過程為重點,向學生閻明學習目標, ﹒ 提問技巧 提問時讓學生有更多時間思考, ﹒ 學生參與 鼓勵學生參與課堂討論, ﹒ 學生協作透過三人/小組活動 ,促進學生互相合作, ﹒ 提供回饋 協助學生自己找出錯處, ﹒ 評 估善用評核結果,改善日後的教授方式。 為促使教師改變有關教學策略的觀念 , 研究報告建議推廣 「學習圈J 的支 援模式 (國一) .以便學校與學校間 ,以及學校內的不同科組分享教學經驗, 每次共同探討某一特定教學課題 ,讓教師互相觀摩和評鑑課堂教學和策略運 用 ,以提升參與教師的專業水平 (教育局 . 201 0 ) 固一教師學習團 共罔備課 • C 同儕觀課 >評課 並非一套特定的教學方法,它只是把老師從大班教學的國局中釋 放出來,令教學更靈活。並不等於合作學習 , 事實上, 無論大班小 班,課堂襄個人學習、小組學習、全班學習三種形態也會交替出現(葉建源, 2009 ) 。香港的老師常以合作學習為小組學習的主要策略 , 原因是老師們希望 可以透過合作學習的理念以強化小組學習的成效(葉娟卿 、蘇詠梅、黎敏兒, 201 0 ) 。學校本學年把推行至小三年級,因此研究亦川頁應以小三及小 三學生為對象 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 /12 I 81 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 研究目的及后法 教研進入第三年, 學校繼續探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略對學生的學習 態度和成績的影響 。學習態度包括 學習興趣 、 對課堂的投入程度 、 參與程度 和互助文化。研究結果將與過去兩年研究結果相比較 ,期望獲得更多歐示 。 研究採用行動研究法 ,分別由課程主任帶頭小三中文 、 英文和數學科及小 四中文和英文科共五個不同的學習圈 ,以及由香港教育學院發展研 究中心古學俊導師帶領小三數學科老師進行此項研究 。 2011 年 11 月開始至 2012 年 6 月期間,同級科任老師組成不同的教師學習圈 ,共同設計應用合作 學習的教學計劃,並由該級科任老師輪流試教 , 同一學習圈的科任老師一問參 與觀課評課,並修訂教學設計,接著由下一位科任老師試教已修訂的教學計畫~ , 科任老師又再次參與觀課、評課及優化教學計畫IJ' 如是者直至同級所有班別完 成為止。小三數學科以此模式共進行兩個課題的規畫IJ' 古學俊導師共參與五次 觀課和評課會議,而課程主任則參與全部會議, 協助或帶領討論環節 。 此外, 教研計劃內所有課堂均進行錄影,並交回科任老師作個人專業發展之用,學校 亦可徵求老師同意後引用部分片段作教學分享用途。 基於學校時間表的規範以及人丰問題,安排代課會較為困難, 小三中 、 英 、 數及小三中 、 英文科教師學習圈簡化為 同級科任老師共同備課 、 於一班進行 問儕觀課 、評課 ,並在修訂教學計劃後,其餘科任老師於所屬班別進行教學 , 最後於同儕備課時段進行課後檢討 , 分享教學心得。校方於6 月進行資料收集 、 分析及反思 。 三年級有三班 '2A ( 1 4 人 ) 、 28 ( 21 人 ) 、 2C ( 27 人 ) 共 62 人 。 三年級有四班 3A ( 18 人 ) 、 3 8 ( 17 人 ) 、 3C ( 26 人)及 3D ( 28 人)共的人 。 當中 28 、 2C 、 3C 及 3D 以普通話作為中文科的授課語吉,其餘班別則以廣東 話為授課語吉 。 士班皆以混合能力分班 ,老師會採用異質分組以觀察合作學習 的成效。此夕|、,為照顧有特殊教育需要的學生,學生於中文和英文課堂時 ' A 、 B 班學生會混合再分為大、小兩組 ' A 班人數較少,多數為有特殊教育需要學 生,而 B 班人數較多,當中並沒有特殊教育需要學生 。 在外援人員古先生及課程主任帶頭下 ,所有參與研究的教師透過問儕觀 課 , 記錄學生的反應(附件一) ,並於課後評課會議交流心得,以及對教學設 計進行反思和修訂。參與教研的老師與其他科任老師於分科會議及評課會議上 分享心得 。 參與班別以問卷進行前測和後測,比較學生對中文、英文和數學科 的學習態度以評估研究的成效。問卷共 15題,以四點量表法(非常喜歡、喜歡、 不喜歡、非常不喜歡)方式填答, 主要調查學生學習態度的三個因素(對學科 的學習興趣、對學科的投入程度和參與程度) ,以及課堂合作互助文化(表一 及附件三) 研究比較三年級三班及三年級四班上學期測驗(貫驗前) 和下學期大考(實 驗後)研究科目的成績是否有進步 。 82 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用 「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 裹一學生學習態度問卷分析 題號 題目 範疇 我對中文科的喜歡程度是 2 我對英文科的喜歡程度是 學習興趣 3 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 4a 在中文的課堂 , 我專心上課 4b 在英文的課堂 , 我專心上課 4c 在數學的課堂 , 我專心上課 投入程度 5a 在中文課堂內 , 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5b 在英文課堂內 , 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5c 在數學課堂內 , 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 6a 我積極參與中文課堂內的學習活動 (例如 : 常舉丰發問及 答間 、 積極參與小組討論等) 6b 我積極參與英文課堂內的學習活動 (例如 , 常舉丰發問及 參與程度答間 、 積極參與小組討論等) 6c 我積極參與數學課堂內的學習活動 (例如 : 常舉手發問及 答間、積極參與小組討論等) 整體而吉 7 在課堂內 ,我會協助我班的同學學習 8 在課堂內 , 我班同學會協助我學習 互助文化 9 我班同學能互相幫助, 互相勉勵 為使川頁利推行 , 學校制定J I校本政策J 文件 , 當中腫 列各項相關措施 , 包括教師培訓、 環境 、 校本課程及評估等。 此外 , 學校更把 「合作學習j 列為策略之一 ,把各班的座位編排 、分組方式 、 組別命名及各項分組常規等詳細描述 ,務求統一學生分組的常規 , 令全體老師 使用同一準則, 以提高合作學習的成效。文件於 8 月公佈,並於 9 月及 1 0 月 由班主任及科任老師合作推行(表三)。學生於 11 月 份己能初步掌握分組常 規 ,有利各科推行合作學習的教學活動。 此外 , 課程主任亦於 9 月初為三、 三 年級進行學生學習態度問卷調查 , 作為自後研究比較之用 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 83 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、 英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 義二研究進程 日期 進行事項 2011 年 8 月 舉辦 「促進貫踐社群以優化j 工作坊 派發 í 11-12 年度較本J 政策文件 9 月 於小三及小三班別進行前測問卷 9 至 1 0 月 班主任於班內進行分組,科任老師於課堂協助建立小組技巧訓 練 , 包括 分組、組形、認識暫停訊號、基本社交及溝通技巧 訓練 11 月至 中、英、數科目選定課題進行共同備課 2012 年 5 月 中、英、數教師學習圈進行同儕觀謀和評課 2012 年 6 月 小=數學科於各班課堂中應用第三次合作學習教學策略 6 月至 7 月 資料搜集、分析 2011 年 11 月至 2012 年 5 月期間,各學習圈已完成首輪以「合作學習 J 為重點規劃課題 ,並透共同備課、觀謀和評課及修訂教學計劃 。 2012 年 6 月, 三年級數學科參與老師再以學習圈模式進行第二輪互相觀摩及進行教學交流。 課堂研究活動至此結束 ,共設計及完成試教t個教學計劃(表三)。當各項合 作學習活動完成後,課程主任隨即於三、三年級進行學生學習態度問卷調查 , 收集教師意見和訪問學生以檢視研究的成效。 義三教學計I1J大綱 年級 科目 課題 中文 三上 12 . 一一 吹泡泡 英文 Book 2B (Chapter 3) 一一- Free time 數學 2 上 A 冊 12 一一盤體 中文 =上的- 跳高,擬人法 英文 Book 3B (Chapter 1 ) 一一- Meet my class 數學 3 下 A 冊 10 一一 三角形 (一) 數學 3 下 B 冊 19 一一 毫升 研究發現個分昕 總結參與老師的 「問儕觀課紀錄J ' 於應用合作學習教學策略的課堂表現評分 為 3 分或以上的結果如下 ﹒ 學生參與課堂的機會 ( 100% ) . 課堂的學習氣氛( 100%) ﹒ 照顧學習差異 ( 96 .2%) ﹒ 提升學習的效能 (96 .2% ) 84 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 參與教研計劃的老師於評課會議及分科會議上, 一致認同環境有 利應用合作學習教學策略。教師更能照顧學生個別差異並給予適切指導,尤其 是當進行分組活動時 ,由於學生活動空間較大,有助分組活動的進行。此外 , 大部份老師認同透過學習圈的模式進行教學交流, 更能觀察學生的反應與及促 進同儕互相交流和學習。雖然每班學生的背景及棄質不同 ,修訂後的教學計劃 未必能符合所教的班別 , 科任老師需因應其學生的特質再自行調節 ,但老師在 觀謀和評課的過程中, 確賞能促進同儕互相學習與及提升個人專業技巧。從老 師觀察所得 ,大部分課堂學生表現投入、學習氣氛濃厚、 在互動互補的情況下 能激發學生的創作能力和增加生生互動的機會。老師更反映透過訓練學生分組 常規的同時能提升學生的課堂紀律 。 學生學習態度問卷調查結果(附件四) , 學生對學科的學習興趣及投入程 度選擇喜歡及非常喜歡的答案結果見下: 投入程度 級別 科目 學習興趣 4 專心上課 5 愛動腦筋解決 學習上的疑難 三年級 中文 +3.18% +1.62% +1 .61% 英文 +4.84% +1.61% +1 9.44% 數學 +1.61 % +8.07% +1 .61% 平均 +3.21 % +5.66% 投入程度 級別 科目 學習興趣 4. 專心上課 5 愛動腦筋解決 學習上的疑難 中文 +2.25% +2.25% +2.25% 英文 +5.56% +1.12% +13.48% 年級 數學 +4.5% +4.5% +2.25% 平均 +3.94% +4.31% 三 、 三年級學生於中文、英文和數學三科學習興趣和投入程度均有不同 的升幅 。學習興趣方面 ﹒ 三年級 +3 .21 %、三年級 +3.94% '當中,無論三、 三年級,學生對英文科的學習興趣均有較大的提升 ( +4 .84%, +5 .56%) 。 投 入程度方面,兩級升幅分別為 +5.66% 及 +4 .31% '相差不大,較明顯的升 幅是在英文科課堂,學生較研究前更喜愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難(三年級 +1 9.44% ' 三年級 +13 .48%) 學生的參與程度結果比較 , 兩級差異較大, 三年級平均上升 1 0. 76% '三 年級則只上升 了 2.62% ; 當中 , 三年級英文科 (+1 4 .52%) 及三年級數學科 ( +6 .74% ) 為升幅最大的科目 。 課堂互助文化方面, 三年級較三年級的平均 升幅顯著,分別是 +12.9% 及 +1 .87% ' 當中三年級以 「在課堂內 ,我班同學 會協助我學習j 的升幅最大 ,有 +24 .3% 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 85 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 綜合問卷調查結果,可見於課堂應用 「合作學習J 教學策略有助提升學生 的學習興趣和投入程度 ,當中,以英文科的改變最為突出。原因可能是老師在 設計應用 「合作學習J 的教學活動時 , 能打破一般課堂以老師為主導的教學模 式, 轉而以學生為中心的教學模式, 讓學生透過互動進行學習。此舉不但為學 生提供較生動的學習情景,同學亦可透過以 「互賴達標J 原則設計的課堂活動 , 激發同學主動學習,間接提升學生的學習興趣和投入感,而學生於不同科目表 現差異的原因有許多,但相信除學習模式的轉變外,教學活動的設計亦是主要 關鍵。 問卷調查結果顯示, 三、三年級在互助文化方面的升幅差異亦較大, 究其 原因 ,相信是三年級學生於去年的課堂已習慣了老師應用 「合作學習J 進行教 學 , 他們對分組學習已有一定程度的掌握,而學生的前測數據已很高 (平均 87.27% ) .因此,升幅較小 ,相反, 小三學生由於是初次參與應用 「合作學習J 教學策略的課堂活動,學生自然感覺與傳統教學的上課模式分別較大, 升幅亦 較明顯 。總結學生態度問卷調查結果,見下列表五 。 蠢五學生學習態度總結 級別 範曙 前測 (%) 後測 (%) 平均上升 /下降 百分比 (%) 學習興趣 81 .73% 84.94% +3.21% 三年級 投入程度 12.27% 18.03% +5.66% 參與程度 67.2% 77.96% +10.76% 互助文化 68.28% 81 .18% +12.9% 學習興趣 81 .65% 85.75% +4.10% 三年級 投入程度 82.77% 87.08% +4.31% 參與程度 80.9% 83.52% +2.62% 互助文化 87.27 89.14% +1 .87% 圖二:應用「合作學習J 學生態度問卷調查結果 (2011-12) 20 11-2012年廣學生學習庸置慮問蕪湖進 14.00駕 12.00駕 1 0.00認 £ ~ 8. 00萬 t恤 s 酬 4. OO~ 2.00駕 o. Oo~ 學習興趣 拉入忽皮 喜與忽皮 一 級 級 一 一 年 年 一 一 - - = 一一 一• • 一 互助文化 86 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 比較全級學生 (共的人)於上學期測驗及大考成績 ,有以下發現 (表六)。 表六 學生學黨成績的比較 級別 科目 進步人數 (人) 百分比 (%) 平均進步人數百合 tt (%) 中文 50 80.65% 三年級 英文 28 45.16% 59.67% 數學 33 53.21 % 中文 49 55.06% 三年級 英文 55 61 .80% 63.05% 數學 67 75.28% 小三學生於中文、 英文和數學科有進步的人數百分比分別為 80 .65% 、 45 . 16% 、 53 .21% ' 三科平均進步百分比為 59. 67% '約半數學生成績有進步 , 當中文科的進步較明顯 。小三學生於中文、英文和數學科有進步的人數百分比 分別為 55 .06% 、 61 .80% 、 75 .28% '三科平均進步百分比是 63.05% '與三 年級的結果相若 。 大考後 , 課程主任於二年級三班以隨機抽樣形式對六名學生進行訪問,讓 他們就課堂應用合作學習教學策略的觀感發表意見 , 參與學生包括 2A 秋盈、 歐駿、 28 嘉慧 、 阿正 、 2C)翠詠、金堂 。 訪問內容如下 , 1 老師在課堂教學加入小組合作學習 ,你喜歡這種學習方式嗎 ?為甚麼 ? 2 你覺得採用這種方式學習 , 會否增加你的學習興趣? 3. 同學之間能否互相幫助完成任務? 4 你的同學有幫助你嗎? 5 你有否幫助你的同學? 6 你覺得課堂學習氣氛濃厚嗎? (是否所有同學皆進行學習活動?) 7 有否增加你對學科的投入程度 ? 8 同學之間是否有更多溝通、協作的機會? 9. 你最喜歡哪一科採用 「合作學習j 教學? 中文、英文、數學? 受訪學生一致贊成老師多採用 「合作學習 J 於課堂教學 , 原因是同學們覺 得活動有新鮮感 、有趣和可以在課室中走動, 透過小組活動不但增強了個人的 學習自信 , 還增加了彼此溝通的機會。 此外,同學亦反映「合作學習j 的課堂 學習氣氛較傳統教學的學習氣氛為佳 。最後, 學生最希望老師應用「合作學習J 的科 目 是常識科, 其次是英文科和數學科。另一方面,學生表示不喜歡與欠自 律 、晶行差同學合作 , 因為最終多要獨自完成工作,亦有一名學生表示,雖然 分組時沒有搬動柏椅的必要,但仍覺得很麻煩。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 87 。。 。。 。 探討應用 「合作學習」 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 常識科不是本研究的重點科目,但在訪問過程中發現,不少常識科老師已 在各班應用「合作學習J 策略進行教學,同學們反應正面,相信對提升學生的 學習興趣很有幫助。調查同時發現,一些學生對較陌生和難掌握的科目(例如 英文科和數學科)課堂設計如包含 「合作學習j 的活動,學生明顯會有較高的 參與感和投入感,原因可能是學生在活動的過程中常常被要求完成一些個人任 務 , 因而迫使其提升學習的主動性;加上 「合作學習J 的課堂較活潑,為同學 提供大量生生互動的機會,故學生的學習態度較傳統教學為佳。比較二年級 2009 至 2012 年三年的研究結果如下 (表六) 表六 2009-2012 研究結果比較 平均上升 / 下降百分比 項目 2009/10 ( 小四 ) 2010/竹 (小二) 2011 /2012 ( 小二) 1 . 學習興趣 +11 .36% +7.31% +3.21% 2 . 投入程度 +12.38% +9.36% +5.66% 3 . 參與程度 +12.50% +8.11% +10.76% 4 . 互助班風 +11 .36% +4.74% +12.9% 5 . 學業成績 65.94% 67.27% 59.67% 綜合三年研究結果,應用 「合作學習J 教學策略後 , 小三至小四學生對中、 英 、 數科目的學習興趣、投入程度、參與程度及互助班風等皆有不同程度的上 升 ,正好印證J í合作學習j 的設計理念 以互動合作為動力資源的一種教 學活動 , 強調學生的參與、溝通和合作以提升學生的學習動機 ,使其樂於學習 (王坦. 2002 ) 。學業成績方面 ,雖然連續三年研究結果顯示約有六成學生的 學業成績有上升,但這現象是教師應用了 「合作學習j 教學策略的直接結果或 是間接結果?又或當中並無因果關係?基於研究缺乏控制組和限於研究時較短 暫, 其可信性有待進一步研究 。 整體而言 , 學生普遍喜歡老師於課堂應用 「合作學習J 教學策略 ,大部份 學生表現合作和積極 。 此教學策略亦能配合的理念 , 有助強化 的成效 ,值得繼續推行。 總結三年研究經驗 ,教師實踐合作學習教學時必須注意以下各項(洗玉珍 、 何明生. 2008) 1 擬定切合學生的學習目標和學習材料, 2 選擇合適的 「合作學習j 活動形式, 3. 引入合作要素的活動, 4 注意課室管理的安排 , 包括 , 座位 、秩序管理 、進程控制等 ; 5 決定評估的方法和, 6固 定期檢討教學成效。 88 I 教育研究報告匯編 反思及建議 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 校本行動研究持續了三年,學生不但在學習態度上有改變,連帶課堂紀律 亦有改善 。學校成功地應用 「合作學習J 作為小班學策略之一 ,並配合 的發展把策略逐年擴展。校內大部份老師對此教學策略亦已有一定認識,部 份參與教研老師對筒中技巧更掌握純熟,可擔任教師學習圈的領導角色。 以教師學習圈的模式進行教研 , 能提供機會讓老師作專業的交流和分享。 在學校此模式已具雛形,要進一步使之成為學校文化與及提升學習圈的質素和 成效,有賴課程主任仔細策劃和推行 ,相信透過分享與及校長的支持 , 可令老 師較容易接受並認同學習圈的價值。學校日後如需推行新措施 , 亦可鼓勵較積 極的老師先參與,期望能產生鱗魚效應 1 以帶動改革。 個蝕 I1lfea.,,,u 歷時三年的研究,結果成績美滿,應用合作學習教學策略能提升學生於課 堂的學習興趣、投入程度、參與程度和互助文化等 ,同時亦令學生的學業成績 有增長趨勢。此外, 合作學習能配合的優勢,促進教學的效能 ; 而教 師學習圈的課研模式 ,貝IJ讓老師得以互相交流和觀摩,有助促進教師專業的發 展。基於時間和人力資源的限制 ,是次研究未能確實應用合作學習對提升學生 學業成績的影響 ,有興趣者可深入探究以增加研究的可用性。 1 車主魚效應、 (Catfish Effect) 。鈴魚效應是指新加入的競爭者參與可以激勵整個國隊的士氣 , 此 方法用於現代人力資源管理 , 用以喚醒員工的危機意識從而促使他們改進自己的工作 。在挪威 , 生猛的沙甸魚比急凍的要貴好幾倍 。 有說﹒在當地長期以來只有一艘漁船能做到將生猛的沙甸 魚帶上岸 , 而筒中祕訣 ﹒只有船長一人知 , 旦始終沒透露半句 。 他離世後 ﹒ 漁民在他的漁獲盛 器中發現 條給魚東游西竄,原來裝入魚槽後,由於環境陌生 ,便四處游動 , 沙甸魚為閃遨牠 而改變其一貴的惰性 , 加速游動﹒以求保命 , 終得以存活下來 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 89 。。 。。 。 探討應用 「合作學習」 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 書考,目 王坦 (2002) 0 {合作學習的理念與實施》。 北京 中國人事出版社。 周立勳 ( 1998 ) 0 <分組合作學習中兒童的情意表現〉﹒ 《嘉義師院學報> ' 12' 39- 72 。 林建平 ( 1997) 0 {學習輔連理論與實務》。台北 五南圖書出版有限公司 。 ;先玉珍、 何明生 (2008 ) 0 {合作學習教學手冊一一理論和教學實踐》。香港 . 香港 合作學習協會 。 教育局 (201 0 ) 0 {研究報告> 0 2011 年 7 月 21 日 ,取白 。 www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_ 4228/ed0513cb2- 1484-6-c.pdf 葉娟卿、蘇詠梅、黎敏兒 (201 0 ) 0 {策略:促進思維及小組學習》。香港 學術專業固書中心 。 葉建源 (2009) 0 {邁向》。香港 教育出版社有限公司。 陳俐烽 (201 2 ) 0 {合作學習教學法與一般教學法於園小五年級音樂科教學之比較研 究》。 國立屏東教育大學博碩士論文全文系統, etd-0501107-162449-846? 劉秀媛 ( 1998) 0 {合作學習的教學策略》。 公民訓育學報, 7 ' 285-294 。 Hsiung , C . M. (2012) . The Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning. Journalof Engineering Educati凹, 101(1), 119-137. Drakeford , W. (2012). The Effects o f Cooperative Learning on the Classroom Part ic ipation of Students Placed at Risk fo r Societal Failure . Psychology Research, 2(4), 239-246 Tsay , M ., & Brady , M . (2010). A Case Study of Cooperative Learning and Communication Pedagogy: Does Working in Teams Make a Di fference? Journal ofthe Scho的rship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 78-89. 90 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件一 聖伯多祿天主教小學 「合作學習」同儕交流觀諜表 觀諜日期 : I B等問 : | 科目 . * 中文 / English /數學 \"王別 . |授課老師 : 備課老師 : 教學語言 : 廣東話 口 普通話 口 英語 口 課題 : 表現指標 優點/建議/備誰 一. 學習 目 標 口學習目標具體清晰 口學習 目標建基於學生已有知識 口 課堂完結前,能與學生總結學習重點 二.教學組織 口 教學內容能配合教學目標 口教學活動能切合教學目標 口 教學活動編排有序 三. 教學策略 口能提供有層次的提問 口 能照顧學習差異 口 足夠的師生/生生互動 四.應用「合作學習」策略 口活動能應用合作學習策略 口所有學生有參與學習的機會 口組員的個人任務明確通切 口 小組的集體任務明確 口活動能達到Ji.賴達標的目的 口 活動能促進組員闊的相互學習 口 小組活動時間分配恰當 口活動能反映學生對學科的認識 五.其他 口善用資源促進學習 口已建立良好的諜室常規 口提出適時/正面/具體的回饋 配合學校關注事項 「 合作學習」總評 整體評分 (4 分為最佳 ) 4 3 2 l 學生參與課堂的機會 2 課堂的學習氣氛 3. 照顧學習差異 4回 應用「合作學習 」 教學策略提升學習的效能 5 其他 (例如 : 學生的學習興趣、投入程度等) 觀諜及吉乎課教師簽署 ﹒ 日期 : 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 91 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件二 聖伯多祿天主教小學 J)l 問卷調查 各位同學 : 言青根據個人情況,誠實地回答下列題目,在適當 的方格內加上J 。 我對中文斜的喜歡程度是 2 我對英文斜的喜歡程度是 3 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 4a 在主主益的課堂,我專心上課 4b 在主主益的課堂,我專心上課 4c 在主笠盟的課堂,我專心上課 5a 在主主課堂內,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5b 在莖三三課堂內,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5c 在主笙課堂內 ,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 6a 我積極參與中文課堂內的學習活動(例如 : 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6b 我積極參與主主課堂內的學習活動(例如: 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6c 我積極參與蓋全課堂內的學習活動(例如: 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 整體而言: 7 在課堂內 , 我會協助我班的同學學習 8 在課堂內,我班同學會協助我學習 9 我班同學能互相幫助,互相勉勵 92 I 教育研究報告匯編 喜歡程度 ( 4 分為最高) 4 3 2 非常 喜歡 不喜歡 非常不 喜歡 喜歡 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件三 負責老師:陳老師 聖伯多祿天主教小學 課堂活動設計 | 年級:二年級 單元及課題:單元六第十二課 吹泡泡 學生已有知識: 1. 已理解課文內容 2. 理解課文詞語的意思 學習目標 : 1. 學習句式 r 像.. .... J 2. 垮養學生的想像力 教學重終點: | 教學節數: I 節(35 分鐘) 教學時,宜引導學生說也被描述事物和用來描述的事物之間相像的地方,並著重垮養學生的 想像力 。 第三教節 教學流程: 1. 讀課文 2. 老師說出教學目標,並請學生在課文中找出 r 傢.. .... J 句子 3. 老師舉出例子:泡泡又圈又大,像一個個氣球 。說明原本的事物、周作比喻的事物,相像 的地方 4. 小組活動:找出相像的事物 (工作紙 :9 題) , 匯報 5 . 小組活動:完成工作紙第一題第一小題 。每人進一個句子 a. 用簡報于'1ti1 4 種事物 ,要學生找出和它們相像的事物,相像的地方 b. 每人口頭造句 c. 匯報 6. 個人工作 : 重組句子 7. 分是且造句 8. 繼續第一題 :找出相應的事物 , 造句 9 總結 備注 : 1. 學生活動需時,建議教學節教改為 2 節 2. 有學生未能找出事物相像的地方 , 可增加一個找事物相像的地方的練習 3. 如學生能力弱,可以在圖片上附加詞語說明 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 93 。。 。 。 。滿 叫 斗 回 嘯 適 「 吭 W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 J M n寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別 向聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且為 海 Level: P.2 Topic: Bk 2B Ch.3 Free time Leamingo峙ectives: 1. To review previously leamt weekly activities with pupils 2. To talk about weekly activities 3. To ask and answer about weekly activities T - Teacher P - Pupils Procedures: Time Interaction Learning activities Questioning / Exposition / Introduction Teaching HW / Aids Classwork 3' T -P Revision - P read aloud the weekly activities on textbook P.23 - textbook - P read aloud the weekly activities again with the words being covered P.23 5' T-P Match the weekly - P do the matching on the activity worksheet - visualizer -Activity activities with the - T checks the answers with the whole class worksheet suitable p ictures - P look at the pictures and read a loud the weekly activities partA 10' P-P Talk about weekly - P choose five weekly activities and put the appropriate stickers on the table - visualizer - Activity (pair work) actlvltles “My notebook\" worksheet - P tell the ir weekly activities to the whole class part B - P take turn to tell his / her weekly activities to the pa閃ner “ l (gotochurch)ona(ySsu)nadnad ys()F .\" “ I'm free on (Tuesdays) and (Fridays).\" 17 ' P -P Ask and answer - Pupil A asks Pupil B about his / her weekly activities - visualizer - Activity (pair work, about weekly and puts the appropriate stickers on the table “ 's notebook\" worksheet group work) actlvltles - Pupil B answers the questions according to the table “My notebook\" part C - Pupil A writes about Pupi l B's weekly activities ac∞rding to the table “ 's notebook - P take turn to tell their classmat郎, weekly activities to the other group members “ what do you do oonn((SSuunnddaayyss)).。l\" “ 1 (go to church) on (Sundays). I'm free on (Mondays).\" <D .þ. t單 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 - lt's difficult to remove the back sheet ofthe stickers. So it is suggested to use glue to stick the pictures - For Part C, Round table is recommended after the pupils have taken turn to present their weekly activities in their group. - Double lessons are recommended. Rema r ks 聖伯多祿天主教小學 數學科教案 範疇 : 圓形與空間 日期: 2011 年 1 1 月 9 日 f&.別 : 2B 時間: 35 分鐘 負責老師 : 馮老師 課題 :2 上 A 冊 第 12 諜錐體(第一教節) 學生已有知識: 1.能辨別柱體和錐體 2.能辨別角錐和圓錐 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻博 3 個 腦 嗨 ,柵 欄 目 迅 部 本節教學目標: 1. 讓學生認識錐體的各個面 2. 學生能分辨各種錐體 教具:柱體、錐體 、 紙圓錐體 、 「柱體和錐體」的動書投影片、匯報卡 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 一.分辨柱體和錐體 導入 1.教師出示不同的立體,著學生從中找出錐體 。 提問 立體圖形有: 3' 柱體、錐體和球體 二.複習錐體的概念 1. 鼓勵學生說出錐體的特點。 (它們都有一個尖頂,底是平的 。) 初步概念 2. 教師播放 「柱體和錐體」的動畫加深學生的認識 。 言才吉侖 錐體的概念 5' 3. 著學生分組,把每組不同的立體分為柱體和錐體 4. 看各小組 1 號同學到鄰組輸查答案。 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N <D (]1 。 。 。滿 叫 斗 回 嘯 適 「 吭 W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 J M n寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 三.認識不同的錐體 1.說故事: r 小明和小芬參加了一項比賽,小明要找尋角錐 (老師出示) ,小芬要找尋圓錐(老師出示) , 現請各組同 學把小組內的角錐和圓錐分為兩姐 。 2 .老師總結,角錐和國錐都有一個尖頂,底是平的 , 而圓錐 辨別 錐體的特點 6' 的底是一個圓形。 3.堂課研習 提問課文 (P.7 1 )中的物件像甚麼立體? (角錐/圓錐) ﹒鼓勵同學說出一些與角錐和圓錐相似的物件。 (雪糕、筒/告示牌) 四.認識錐體的特點 發展 1. 教師展示不同的錐體,將尖頂向上 ,並拈每個錐體只有一 個底,其餘的稱為側面 。 2 . 教師引領學生發現錐體的側面都是三角形 。 3 . 教師出示四角錐體並指出,錐體以底命名,因此,這是一 個四角錐體,並說出: r這是一個四角錐體 , 共有 5 個面, 它的底是一個四邊形 」。 觀察 雄體的特點 12' 4. 教師提問 : r 圓錐體的倒面是甚麼形狀?J 讓學讀想。 5. 教師剪開一個紙圓錐體,與學生一起找答案 。( 曲面) 6. 分組活動: - 學生分組找出不同錐體的底(以貼紙貼上以識別)。 - 學生於每人取一個錐體 , 觀察後依指示於組內輪流介 紹 。「 這是一個 x 錐體,共有 x 個面,它的底是一個 x 形 」。 學生輪流到鄰組介紹 。 <D σ〉 草草 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 時間 總結 1. 老師看某一小組派組員匯報結果 匯報 6' 鞏固 1. 家課 : 書 ( P.72-73 ) ,活動冊 : Ex12 ( P.25) 練習 3' 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H 桐 川 、」 J 仙 n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻 博3個 腦 嗨 ,柵 欄 目 迅 部 備註 : 1. 教學活動有意義,能達到課堂教學目的 。 2. 能力較弱的學生可以二人一組進行活動。 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N <D --.J 。。 。 探討應用 「合作學習」 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 科目: 中文 年級: 三年級(上學期) 盡早次: 第十三諜跳高 擬人法教學設計 教具: 電腦 、 投影機、實物投影機 、 簡報 、工作紙(一)、 工作紙(二) 、 工作紙(三) 教節.-教節 時限: 35 分鐘 已有知織: 1.學生 已掌握課文的字詞反能朗請課文 2.在九 、 十課中,學生對擬人法已有初步認織 教學目的: 1.為看課堂的互動,把聆聽 、 說話、閔坡和寫作結合 。 2.1t擬人法有進一步m1哎,並能用擬人法創作句子 。 教學計畫: 時間 教學內容 綻開技巧 教具 3 分鐘 一. 引起動機 1. 提問: ﹒ 「 可憐的風兒沒有家,跑來跑西也找不到一個休息的地方;飄 思考 電腦 流的霎沒有家,天一陰就急得不住地流眼淚。 J 分析 投影機 詩歌衷的風真的會跑嗎? (不會) 雲兒真的會流眼淚嗎? ( 不會) 'lt物投影機 ﹒ 「 大海輕輕歌唱,唱給船兒聽'。昌給海鷗聽,。昌給夕陽聽 。 」 持司主衷的大海真的會唱歌嗎? ( 不會) 簡報 作者為甚麼說風兒有家,雲流眼淚? 大海會歌唱? (待學生思考一下 ) 他逢周 7 甚麼修辭手法來寫這首持?為甚麼? (因為海浪的聲音好像人們的歌聲,作者運用擬人法寫作, 把文章中的日月星辰 、 花草樹木等事物當作人來描寫,被它 們有人類的居民情 、 思想、動作,這種寫作方法,幫助我們把 事物寫得史加生動和有趣 ﹒ ) .現在,就讓我們史深入地學習擬人法 。 (教書課題:擬人法) 10 分鐘 二. 閱讀短詩 , 分析詩中哪些內容運用了擬人法 ﹒ 1. 老師分派工作紙 ( 一 ) ,每組-張,各有一首不同的短持 。 分析 電腦 2. 兩人一組討論 ( la 、 Ib 組做工作紙一 a; 2a 、 2b ~且做工作紙一 思考 投影機 b. . . . . .如此類4ft) ,用鉛筆在詩中圈出這用了擬人法的字詞,然 討論 實物投影機 後 la 、 Ib ~且互吉于大家的工作紙,找出 共識,由四位同學選出 交流 簡報 一人匯報, ,11.峙 4 分鐘 。 工作紙(一) 3. 分組匯報 。 98 I 教育研究報告匯編 時間 20 分錶 2 分鐘 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 教學內容 提間技巧 教具 三.運用擬人法創作句子 。 1. 老師舉例說明運用擬人法的好處 。 長。3截 電腦 .例 1 : 在微雨下,燈柱默默地守護看來往的行人,為他們 理解 引路 。 投影機 (能為事物添上鮮明的成情色彩,加強成染力 。) 實物投影機 例 2 : 青山含笑歡迎客人至1) 來 。 (能化青爭為動,令事物顯得具體生動。) 簡報 利用對話使動物、物件變成有人的思想 。 句子: 工作紙(二) a.一排水彩筆躺在文具金衷,好像在說 : í我會給國畫盎 上美麗的色彩。 /畫上美麗的圖案 。 l b.'J、樹在春風中搖擺,好像在說 : í 多舒服啊 ! /風姐姐, 謝謝你送給益的禮物。 l 2. 眉己對活動 : 隨機叫學生出來西己對句子。 分析 蝴蝶穿起漂亮的衣裳 , 在花開展現美妙的舞姿。 「 老爺車 」 喘著烏氣 , 艱難地爬上斜坡 。 堅強的樹幹雖被風吹彎了腰, 仍咬緊牙關挺下去 。 S雷射唱機放闕,候。籠, 快樂地高歌。 3. 老師引 導學生創作擬人法句子 。 現象 聯想到的某種 想要補充說明的事 行為或成受 應用 風很大 生氣 屋外的風生氣 7' 他不但「呼呼呼」 創作 地叫 若,還是生情地掀起屋頂,拔起 合作 樹木。 兩很大 嚎句大哭 兩姐姐像是受到刺激一樣,喙。句大 哭,眼淚像是闖不緊的水龍頭一 樣,都停不下來 。 見不章,)太 躲起來 膽小的太陽和月亮躲起來了。 陽月亮 ﹒颱風天的情景 : 4. 老師分派工作紙(二) ,每位且一張 。 5. 要求學生分組討論 , 根據圖片內容 ,用擬人法完成句子(先 四人一組合寫,然後與其他組Jl1) 交換批改 )0(限時 5 分鐘)。 6. 分組匯報,老師用實物投影機展示學生作品,並作出評構 。 四. 總結 電腦 1.老師重申利用擬人法創作可令事物描寫得更加生動和有 投影機 趣。 實物投影機 2.完成書第 53 頁和作業 ( 十三) 簡報 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 99 。。 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 」J M n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 Primarv 3 Book3B Ch.l Meet mv class Language focus: Use prepositions to talk about positions Lesson objectives: Students are able to • distinguish di旺erent prepositions about positions- in front of, behind, on the right of, on the left of, next to, between • cooperate in a small group and make a seating plan with the use ofprepositions to ta lk about positions • present the work to other students Teaching procedures Time Tasks I Activities Teaching Resources I Materials 1 min Revise the prepositions about positions: -Word cards (6) in front of, behind, on the right of, on the left of, next to, between 3 mins Warm IIp exercise-body movement to show positions -Letter cards A I B (15 sets) -students work in pair (student A and B), each of them ho1ding a card AlB -teacher g ives instruction with the use of prepositions to ta1k about positions e.g. A is in front ofB. - students use their body movements to show their understanding 8 mins Pairwork -Instruction card 1, 2 and a -students work in pair set of name cards (Mike, -student A reads the sentences on the instruction card 1 to B Tom, Ben, Gigi and Mary) -student B uses the name cards to make the seating plan on the desk (13 sets) (vice versa) -Power point 8 mins Grollp work -Large papers (8) -students work in groups of 4 -Markers (8) -students cooperate to make a seating p1an with the use ofpreposit ions about positions -A blank seating plan (8) -students in tums write the sentences to show where the students (Mike, Tom, Ben, Gigi o o t專 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻博 3 個 腦 嗨 ,柵 欄 目 迅 部 and Mary) sit -They have to draw a simple seating plan while they are writing the sentences IOmins Presentation -student presents their seating plan to other group. -students have to arrange the seating plan while they are listening to the presenter. -Presenter gives 1 mark to the group ifthe seating plan is correct. (Tíme may only be availablefor the presentation ofround 1 only ifit is α single 1間on) (Presentation ofround 2 to 4 will continue in the ne,耳t lesson) Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 No. 1 presents No. 2 presents No. 3 presents No. 4 presents Group 1 - Group 2 Group 1 - Group 3 Group 1 - Group 4 Group 1 - Group 5 Group 2 - Group 3 Group 2 - Group 4 Group 2 - Group 5 Group 2 - Group 6 Group 3 - Group 4 Group 3 - Group 5 Group 3 - Group 6 Group 3 - Group 1 Group 4 - Group 5 Group 4 - Group 6 Group 4 - Group 1 Group 4 - Group 2 Group 5-Group 6 Group 于一Group 1 Group 5-Group 2 Group 5-Group 3 Group 6 - Group 1 Group 6 - Group 2 Group 6 - Group 3 Group 6 - Group 4 3 mins Conclusion -Read aloud the prepositions about positions -Homework (worksheet) Remarks: 1. lt is suggested that for students of lower abilities, teacher should revise the concept of ‘left' and 'right' . 2. Most of students are interested in the activities and able to do the ‘warm up exercise' and ‘pair work' . 3. 3A can't do group work, so they do the activity in class 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N o 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 」J M n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 範疇:圓形與空間 日期 : A T ) - - -一 汁 某 一 ti - - s q f 、 市 內 一 一 情 -如 祿 廿 一 E ? i f 一 的 學 一 聖 i - 負責老師 : 余、蕭、何、章 課題 :3 下 A 冊 10.三角形( 一 ) 112 o N t專 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 本節教學目標: 1.複習三角形的特徵 2.認識等邊三角形及不等邊三角形的特徵 3.學生能夠按三角形的特徵作出分類 教其: 圓丹 、 powe巾。int 、工作紙 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 1.各位同學,你們能否分辨出下列圓形? 利用 powerpoi nt 5' (圓形 、正方形、長方形、平行四邊形、三角形 ) 展示一些 已學過 的圓形 2.觀察一些三角形的實物, 著學生說出其特性 。 利用 powe叩oint 導入 展示一些三角形 的生活例子帶入 課堂主題 :三角 形 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻博 3 個 腦 嗨 ,柵 欄 目 迅 部 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 1.老師利用簡報與學生重溫三角形的特性 。 利用 powerpo int 三角形特性: 8' (其中一些三角形是有缺陷的) 展示一些真正及 1.三條邊 (直線和 初步概念 2.展示一些真正及疑似的三角形實物,給予學生一些時間思 疑似的三角形實 閉合 ) 考,讓學生自行說出它們是否三角形及說出原因 。 物 2.三隻角 3.畫角時要畫上 弧度 1.老師派發工作紙,內有等邊二角形及不等邊三角形,學生 利用學生發現兩 等i是三角彤的特性 : 16' 利用直尺進行量度,然後自行發現不同三角形的特性,最 種三角形的特性 l 三條邊的長度相 :等 2.三隻角大小相同 後作分組報告 。 (2 人/4 人一組) 帶出 r.等邊三角 不等邊三角形的特性 深究 2.老師總結學生量度的結果,分別帶出等邊三角形和不等進 形 」 和「不等進三 1.三條邊的長度都互 三角形的特性,因而稱為 「 等邊三角形」和「不等邊三角 角形」這兩個名字 不相等 形 J' 並解釋 「等邊」 是「相等邊長」 的意思。 2.三隻角的大小都不 相同 1.今天我們已對三角形的特性作複習 。 3' 總結 2.看學生說出等邊三角形和不等邊三角形的特性。 1.請回家完成書本 P.58 及 60 讓學生利用所學 鞏固 的重點完成書本 練習 。 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N o w 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 個 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H桐 州 、」JN n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 聖伯多祿天主教小學 數學科教案 範疇 : 容量 日期: 級別 :三年級負責老師:余、蕭、何、章 課題 : 3 下 B 冊 19.毫升 o A t專 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 畫面 本教節教學目標: 複習公認的容量單位「升 J ( L ) 、「 毫升 J (ml ) 利用自製量杯進行量度活動,加強對容量單位的認識2. 學生能估量日常器血的容量3. 教具: 圖片 、紙條、容量 > 1 升的膠樽 6 個、紙條、鉛筆、量杯 6 個、工作紙、水杯 (6 ) 、水壺 ( 6 ) 、 益力多樽 (6) 、碗 (6) 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 導入 1. 提問學生知否捐血的血容量=? 一複習「升」、 「毫升」 的 一 l 升= 1000 毫升 5' 毫升( 350-450 毫升 ) 換算 。 2. 提問學生?毫升= 1 升 一板書: 3. 各位同學, 你們能否分辨出下列 l 升= 1000 毫升 哪些器血,容量少於 1 升(水桶 、 一展示不同器血的圖片讓 7](杯 、 汽水罐 、油桶) 學生判斷 。 初步概念 1. 提問學生有何方法可準確量度一 一展示一個水杯讓學生思 一可利用量林量度較小 2' 。 。。 濟 叫 斗 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 憐 總 目 申 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 , 叫 阱 , 蹲 鞏固 FX m時 喇 喇 個博 3 個 腦 嗨 ,柵 欄 目 迅 部 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 個水杯的容量。(量杯) 考。 器血的容量 。 2 . 展示一個 l 升的量杯 深究 1. 學生用自製量杯量度下列器血的 一讓學生先行估量各器血 一可自製量杯量度不同 15' 容量: 的容量。 器血。 7](杯、 7](壺、益力多樽、碗 2. 引導學生在一個直身的透明容器 一讓學生思考加上刻度的 上貼上紙條,把 1 00 毫升的水注 不同方法 。(將紙條對摺 入透明容器,每注入 1 00 毫升水 出現 4 個刻度,每度= 力。一刻度,共注入 10 次記上 1000 250 毫升) 毫升11 升。(四人一組) 展示輔助工具 量杯 3. 比較以上不同容器大小 。 (每注入 1 00 毫升 ,使 加上 l 刻度 ) 一讓學生利用剛量度的結 果,完成工作紙 應用 1.計算一天飲水量? 一完成工作紙 一一天要飲 6心杯水 5' 總結 1. 1 升 = 1000 毫升 2. 1 升的量杯可量度較小的器Jl且 3 . 可憑觀察對一些較小的器且進行 冒雪 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N o ()l 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 」J M n 寸 , 料 , 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 估量 鞏固 1. 完成課堂學習冊 P.12 o σ3 草草 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 備言主 : 一個諜節時間不足,連堂較佳 ; 可考慮學生只製作 500 毫升,對一些能力較弱的班別可派發每組 100 毫升的容器 , 例如 ; 益力多樽及一小桶清水,可減省傾倒水的時間 。 2. 可羞學生把各組完成刻度的作品放在一起作比較,深究結果不同的原因。 3. 深究活動:著學生加畫 50 毫升刻度,容器則更準確。 4. 學生對活動的興趣很大,教師指示必須清晰 。 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件四 聖伯多祿天主教小學 二年級 問卷調查前測、後測結果比較 全級人數 : 62 人 各位同學. 喜歡程度 ( 4 分為最高) 吉青根據個人情況,誠實地回答下列題目,在適當的 前測 f皇親'1 上升或 方格內加上J 。 (非常喜歡且喜歡) (非常喜歡且喜缸) 下降百 總 百分比 叫£也 百分比 分比 車走 數 我對中文斜的喜歡程度是 51 82 .3% 53 的 48% +3. 18% 2 我對英文斜的喜歡程度是 49 79.03% 52 83.87% +4.84% 3 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 52 的 87% 53 的 48% + 1.61 % 平均 . +3.21% 4a 在土豆豆土的課堂,我專心上課 46 74.19% 47 75.81% + 1.62% 4b 在蓋率益的課堂,我專心上課 44 70.97% 45 72.58% + 1.61 % 4c 在主笙益的課堂,我專心上課 45 72.58% 50 80.65% +8.07% 平均. +3.77% 5a 在主主課堂內, 才是愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 44 70.97% 45 72.58% + 1.61% 5b 在革主課堂內 , 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 38 61.21% 50 80.65% +19.44% 5c 在主笙課堂內,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 50 80.65% 51 82.26% + 1.61% 平均 ﹒ +7.55% 6a 我罪責極參與土豆課堂內的學習活動(例如: 43 的 35% 48 77.42% +8.07% 常舉手發問及答悶、積校參與小組討論等) 6b 我發極參與基主課堂內的學習活動(例如 39 62.90% 48 77.42% +14.52% 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6c 我殺極參與主笙課堂內的學習活動(例如 : 43 69.35% 49 79.03% +9.68% 常拿手發問及答問、積槌參與小組討論等) 平均 : +10.76% 7 在課堂內,單是會協助我班的同學學習 44 70.97% 52 的 87% +12.9% 8 在課堂內,我班同學會協助我學習 39 62.90% 54 87.10% +24.2% 9 我班同學能互相幫助,互相勉勵 44 70.97% 45 72.58% + 1.61% 平均. +12.9% 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 107 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 聖伯多祿天主教小學 三年級 問卷調查前測、後測結果比較 全級人數 : 共 89 人 各位同學 . 喜歡程度 ( 4 分為最高 ) 2青根據個人情況,誠實地回答下列題目 ,在適當的 前測 後淇'1 方格內力。上J 。 (非常喜歡且喜歡) ( 非常喜獸且喜歡) 總數 百分比 總數 百分比 我對中文斜的喜歡程度是 70 78.65% 66 80.90% 2 我對英文斜的喜歡程度是 64 71.91% 69 77.53% 主'、 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 84 94.38% 88 98.88% 平均: 4a 在主主盟的課堂,我專心上課 76 的 39% 78 87.64% 4b 在基主益的課堂,我專心上課 72 80.90% 73 82.02% 4c 在盈盈益的課堂,我專心上課 84 94.38% 88 98.88% 平均: 5a 在主主課堂內,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 70 78.65% 70 80.90% 5b 在英文課堂內,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 58 的 17% 70 78.65% 5c 在主笙課堂內,我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 82 92.13% 84 94.38% 平均 : 6a 我積槌參與土豆課堂內的學習活動( 11'j-!(曰 : 68 77.53% 68 77.53% 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6b 我積極參與主主課堂內的學習活動(例如 : 70 78.65% 71 79.78% 常正學手發問及答悶 、 積拯參與小組討論等) 6c 我手貴極參與皇笙課堂內的學習活動(例如: 77 86.52% 82 92.13% 常~手發問及答問 、 積極參與小組討論等) 平均 : 7 在課堂內 ,我會協助我班的同學學習 76 的 39% 77 86.52% 8 在課堂內,我班同學會協助我學習 77 86.52% 79 88.76% 9 我班同學能互相幫助,互相勉勵 80 的 89% 82 92. 13% 平均 : 108 I 教育研究報告匯編 上升或 下降百 分比 +2.25% +5.56% +4.5% +4.10% +2.25% + 1.12% +4.5% +2.62% +2.25% +13.48% +2.25% +5.99% 土0% + 1. 13% +6.74% +2.62% + 1.13% +2.24% +2.24% + 1.87% 學習單位分數的1時 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 以~!ft分數tlU念及分數大JJ\tt較的研究 摘要 楊詠盈 、 洗文標 、 黃鳳珠 、 陳巧卿 鳳漢第一小學 在小學數學學習領域中,分數的課題以螺旋式學習的模式出現,分數所涉 及的概念是環環相扣 , 所以我們更加要重視分數認識的單元。在本研究中,教 師嘗試把單位分數作為教學重點,藉此探討以單位分數為整套分數學習的基礎 時,學生對於分數的認識 ,以及在分數大小比較的概念上是否能掌握得更好 。 研究顯示若教師在教學上, 重視單位分數的概念和數學語吉的培養,學生的學 習成效更高,對分數能有更透徹的理解。 研究背累 在教育工作中 , I教學相長J 是每位教育工作者都渴望得到的成果。教育 除了希望學生學會學習,還希望教師在教學過程中不斷反思 , 積極改進,優化 課堂。課堂研究是指教師採取的一種行動 ,其目的是提高教學水平,並在實踐 中檢驗教育理論 ( David Hopkins , 2009 ) 。 同時,香港課程發展議會 (2002) 提出的《基礎教育課程指引 一各盡所能 ﹒ 發揮所長》建議以協作行動研究模 式,作為教師專業發展及校本課程發展的轉變策略 。行動研究、教師發展及校 本課程發展之間有密切的關係。 很據課程指引的安排,由小三開始,分數的課題以螺旋式學習的模式出現, 學生在分數學習的能力強與弱 ,取決於小三對分數概念的學習情況 ,我們希望 透過教學研究更準確地評估學生對分數的理解程度,以及學習上的難點, 再進 行共同備課和互相觀摩 ,以改善教學策略及優化課堂 ,藉此強化學生在分數概 念和數學方面的理解及解說能力 ,為日後更高階的分數課題莫下重要的基石 。 我們在研究小三分數教學的單元中 ,既積極推動教師互相合作及交流,又提升 學生在分數概念的理解能力 ,切實做到 「教學相長J 的目標 。 在第一學習階段 「數 J 的學習範疇中,整數學習皆以實物輔助,以具體 的物件配合數數活動,使學生在整數學習及運算方面得到完整的發展 。 很多 研究者認為學習分數的難處在於學生不能把舊知識過渡至新知識 (鄭振初, 2006) , I分數J ~R整數雖然皆是有理數 ,但分數學習的起點較為抽象,分數 (真分數)所表示的為非自然數 , 學生要清楚知道真分數是比 0大而又比 1 小 , 但卻難以如整數般以數數活動道出,學生有點無所適從 。 以我校過往的經驗為 例,小三學生在分數的認識紙筆評估中, 成績尚算滿意 ,但是當老師提問學生 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 109 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 甚麼是三分之一時,大部份學生只能說出三份中的一份, 甚少學生提及等分的 重要概念,情況叫人失望 。另外,當提問學生如何得知分數值的大小時 , 發現 學生都有如機械式般說出 「分母的數值較小 , 所以分數值愈大J 等口訣,但老 師再追問當中的原因時,學生便啞口無吉。 在課程發展議會 ( 2002 ) 編訂的數學教育學習領域課程指引中 , 數學科的 課程宗旨首要是培養學生的批判性思考 、創意、構思 、 探究及數學推理的能力, 以及利用數學來解決日常生活的問題 。 如果學生只集中於背誦結果 , 那麼便會 妨礙了數學上推理及思考的發展。鄭振初 (2006 ) 指出學生覺得分數難學 , 其 中一個原因是分數教學中有太多口訣,並且經常以口訣代替概念。三年級的口 訣例子有 「如果分母相同 ,分子愈大,分數值則愈大.如果分子相間 , 分母愈 小 , 分數值則愈大j 。 這麼兩句如此相似的句子 ,如非真正理解分數的本質 , 確實一點也不好記 。經過反思,我們認為學習分數時,不應只是流於表面背誦, 因此,我們在本學年三年級的分數認識教學設計上, 會更加強調「單位分數J 以強化學生在等分概念及分數比較上的7解。並且我們深信單位分數是整套學 習分數的共通概念,所以嘗試在三年級引入及為此作研究。 文獻提討 分子是 1 '分母大於 1 的自然數的分數叫做單位分數(柯召 、孫琦 , 2002 ) 。劉秋木( 1996 ) 指出兒童假如有7單位分數的概念 ,很容易就可以 導入真分數的概念。以單位分數開始 , 一個整體等分為四份 ,當中的一份稱為 四分之一(頁384 ) ; 四分之三就可說成個整體等分為四份,當中的一份的兩倍 , 四分之三就是成個整體等分為四份 ,當中的一份的三倍 。 林碧珍 (2006 ) 指出 單位分數教學的重要概念「整體一是甚麼J '教師要求學生指出整體一在哪裡? 接著是平分成幾等份,教師也需要要求學生指出等份份數在哪 ?一份在哪裡 ? 江慧 (2008 ) 提出分數單位是作為分數的計數單位 , 是所有後績知識、技 能的基礎 ,包括分數的意義 、分數的基本性質、分數的大小比較、約分、過分、 分數的加減法、分數的乘除法以及有關分數的實際問題的解決 。 他強調要學習 分數 ,首先是認識分數單位 。 林碧珍 (2006 ) 指出學生在比較兩個分數時,學 生能用語吉說出 「分的比較少,格于就愈大J '即相對同一個整體 ,分的分數 愈少 , 每一份就佔得愈多 , 但是學生是無法配合著分數的符號說出1比1大, 4 -- 6 他們即使能口黃理論,但解釋卻未能完整配合 。 楊德清、洪素敏 ( 2008 ) 引 述 Cramer et al. (2002 ) 'Hart ( 1988) Post, Cramer, Behr, Lesh & Harel ( 1992 ) 指出許多學生由於不了解分數的意 義 ,受整數基棋影響 ,將分數的分母都份和分子都份視為兩個獨立的數 , 因而 1 \".~ 1 在進行比較分數大小時,產生7一些迷息。 例如比較一和一時 ,由於整數學習 -~'-' \" \". -- '\" 2 , . 3 時 3>2 '所以學生得出結論J_> 止。 游政雄、呂玉琴 (2002 ) 指出中年級學童 3 2 普遍地運用整數知識來處理分數問題,學童直接拿分子作比較來解同分母分數 大小比較問題,即可正確回答問題;但學童在處理異分母的分數大小比較問題 時,將分子和分母分開作整數大小比較,以決定分數的大小 ,卻造成錯誤的回 110 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 答。鄭振初 (2006) 指出強記計算次序不僅沒有生成概念,還加重學生的記憶 負擔和心理負擔, 而且經常要求學生記口訣 ,容易養成學生不求甚解的態度。 綜合上述參考資料,學生在分數大小比較中所遇到的困難,是在學習概念時知 識不夠清晰及牢固 ,若在分數認識時出現了誤解,將影響日後整套分數學習。 因此 ,我們認為在小三分數的認識時 , 可先強調學習單位分數 , 再運用單位分 數中倍的概念認識真分數。 而一般的教科書只是先說明分母是等分的意思,分 子就是所估的份數。我們認為這只是一個結果,教師是有必要向學生說明結果 的由來一一單位分數的倍。 研究問題,后法 本研究主要問題如下 . ( a ) 在教授小三分數時引入 「單位分數J ' 能否提升學生在解答分數大小比 較類型題目的成績? ( b ) 運用 「單位分數」 為基礎 ,在課堂中強調單位量 ,並要求學生運用數學 語吉解釋 , 能否提升學生對分數概念及分數大小比較的認識? 是次研究的對象是四班三年級學生,共 104 人。兩班為實驗組,另外兩班 為控制組。 而兩組中各分成高、中及低能力三組 ,每個能力組別皆選出兩位學 生作訪談。收集數據的方法包括 前測(附件一)、 後測 (附件二) 、前後測 訪談及同儕觀課。先以前測成績將研究對象分組,按成績分出高、中及低能力 三組學生, 再按班別分成實驗組與控制組。研究者會在課堂前進行多次共同備 課及課後檢討 。 在主驗班上宣行研究者設計的課堂,在教學過程中強調以 「單 位分數J 理解分數的基本概念,並要求學生運用數學語吉解說如何比較分數的 大小 。 兩組所花的教節相同,課堂教學重點如下 , 教學重點 控制組 以下教學重點是參考教科書列 11 . 出 12 1 認識分數作為整體的部分, 2 認識分數的各部分名稱 1 3 . 3 認識在分數中, r 1 J 表示全 1 4 部或整體 15 4 . 明白分數可用作表示一組事 物的部分 16 5 能夠從 「整體中的一部分J 17 找出實際數量 18. 實驗組 認識分數作為整體的部分, 說出運用分數可用作表示整體的部份 (連續量/離散量*) 正確地讀出一個分數及辨別各組成部份, 認識單位分數, 並能正確地分份, 認識單位分數倍的概念,以此說明分數 的分份及取份, 認識在分數中, r 1 J 表示全部或整體, 將全部物件的數量作為分母, 認識以單位分數倍的概念比較同分母分 數的大小,6 能夠比較問分母分數的大小, 7 能夠比較問分子分數的大小 。 9. 認識以單位分數倍的概念比較問分子分 數的大小 。 * 整個流程會分別應用於連續量及離散量 上各一次 。 * 第 4,5 , 7 及 8 項為本研究就教科書上的 教學重點加以修改及更詳細地列出 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 111 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 以3血為例子 一般只會強刊整體向成的取去 2 份就是 三分之三。而在宣驗組中 , 我們不僅要求學生能說出這點,學生要知道三分之 三就是將一個整體平均分成 3 份 ,其中一份佔全圓的三分之一 ,而分子是 2 ' 則是取去三分之一的 2 倍。我們希望在開始認識分數時把這重要的關係展示給 學生,令學生在分數大小比較時進行得更容易。 以比較主及生為例子, 三是指5 -_ -5 2 個 j_ ,而且是指 4 個 土, 學生要清楚明白 2 個比 4 個少,所以不論分母是甚5 - - 5 -- - ~ -~ 5 2 _ 4 . T7 ,,/ 2 T'2. 2 麼,這麼看似複雜的比較又回歸整數比較上, 所以一<一。 又以一及一為例子 , 5 5 ---3--- 5 學生應能說明由於 11固1比 1 1固立大, 所以即使 2 個土也是比 2 個工大。而在3 .......u ' ''\"'\"\"''' 5 '''' 111 ' /'''''' 1...0\"-.. - 11-'-\"\"1 3 課堂上 ,施教者要多引導學生討論,鼓勵解釋答案。 由於四班課堂不是由同一施教者進行 ,雖然已經進行多次共同備課 , 統一 教學內容 ,但畢竟各班的施教者(科任老師)不是同一人 ,難免因而出現誤差 。 研究結果及分昕 在量性的評量方法中,我們透過比對前、後測的測驗分數,可分別得知各 組高 、 中 、 低能力學生在分數大小比較的能力上有否提升 ,實驗組與控制組之 間的成績差異及進步比率 。 而質性的訪談中,由學生親自說出在前測及後測時 如何解答開放題題目,從而得知學生的概念是否正確,教師亦可以檢討教學設 計 。 前測卷的首八題的題目為計分題,答對得 1 分,答錯 0 分, 再將得分按比 例倍大 。 按前測首八題的成績把學生分成高中低能力三組 , 高能力組別學生得 分為 70 分以上, 中能力學生為 50 分至 70 分之間 , 而 50 分以下的學生為低 能力組另IJ 。 固一為實驗組中各組別的前後測平均成績 ,明顯地 , 三個組別的學生成績 均有提升 。 當中以低能力組別的學生升幅為最大,由平均分少於 40 分提升至 接近 90 分;而中能力組別的學生成績平均分也有接近 30 分的上升,高能力組 別的學生成績平均分也有約 1 0 分的上升 。 圖二為控制組中各組別的前後測平均成績 ,同樣地, 三個組別的學生成績 均有提升 。 而低能力組別的學生升幅亦為最大,約有 50 分提升 ,而中能力組 別的學生成績平均分約有 20 分提升 。 高能力組別的學生成績平均分亦也有約 10 分的上升 。 11 2 I 教育研究報告匯編 100 80 60 ~ 40 主F 侍 20 l∞ 80 令 ω 宿、 有← 40 20 。 圖一:責接組 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 各能力組別的前後測平均分 你 4且 中 高 組別 圖二:控制組 各能力是且別的前後測平均分 中 組別 íii 表一及表二分別說明兩個不同能力組別學生的平均成績進步百分比。從數 據上可見兩個組別的學生均有進步 ,而且兩組的低能力組別學生皆有最明顯的 進步。而兩個組別中以實驗組的進步較多,可見引入 「單位分數J 是有助中低 能力學生的學習。表三的數據顯示了,宣驗組與控制組各能力組別學生後測的 t 檢驗 ,從兩組高能力學生的 p 值得知兩組之間的成績沒有顯著差異 。 而兩組的 中能力及低能力組別學生的後測分數均有顯著差異,拒絕接受虛無假設, t!D實 驗組的中、低能力學生的平均成績比控制組的中、低能力學生的平均成績高。 雖然不是三個組別學生的成績一致說明兩組學生成績間有差異,估計是因為兩 個組別的高能力學生水平相約及本身在前測時的成績己得不錯,所以進步的空 間比中、低能力的學生較少,以至不能從 t- 檢測中得到顯著差異。而取中、低 兩個組另1]學生的成績對比 ,可見引入「單位分數J 更能擇升學生在解答分數大 小比較類型題目的成績 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 11 3 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 圖一:責接組 圖二:控制組 --------- 平均成績進步百分比 --------- 平均成績進步百分比 問3 8.9% 同 6.9% 中 54.0% 中 38.4% 1ft 128.5% 低 11 9.3% 表三實驗組與控制組各能力組別學生後瀾的 t- 擒驗 t (觀測值) P﹒值 (單尾 ) 顯著水平 α 結果 局能力 0.964 0.825 0.05 接受 Ho 中能力 2.363 0.011 0.05 拒絕接受 Ho 低能力 。. 242 0.405 0.05 拒絕接受 Ho 假設 μ x 為控制組同學後測的平均成績, μ y 為宣驗組同學後測的平均成績 Ho : μ x - μ y H1μx <μ y 檢測 Ho μ x - μ y 及 H1 μ x <μ y 從收集的數據中得出,中 、 低能力各組別學生的成績皆有進步,實驗組的 進步較多,可見引入「單位分數j 更能提升此類學生在解答分數大小比較類型 題目的成績。兩組高能力學生的學習成績及進步百分比差別不大 。 在前測時, 我們在實驗組與控制組中隨機在各個能力選出兩位學生,共十二位學生作追蹤 性研究 ,前測及後;則後這十二位學生亦會接受一次訪談 , 科任老師亦會定時紀 錄及留意他們的課堂表現 。 這部份我們每組各選取三位在半開放式題目答案中 有明顯改變,及能寫出數學語吉的學生討論 。 題目一 : r間分母分數的大小tt較j 參閱表囚,在前測的訪談時,宣驗組的學生都盡力去解釋小盈比小明吃得 較多 。然而在組織上仍欠條理 , 未能準確解釋哪個分數比較大 。 在上表展示的 後測卷中,顯示經過學習單位分數後,各能力組別的學生也能寫多一些 , 盡力 將分數的意義用文字紀錄,可見他們的表現均有改善 。 當中以 S1 及 S3 的表現 較佳 。 以下為 S1 訪談時的部份內容 . 老師 你能說明為什麼你認為小明比小盈吃得較少 ? S1 因為蛋糕一個平均分成 1 0 份,每份就是一樣,一份叫做 1 個蛋糕 , 10 小明吃了一份的 3 倍,小盈就吃 5倍,我們比較倍數就知哪個吃得多 , 5 比 3 大 , 即小盈吃得較多 , 所以小明吃得較少 。 114 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 凹 的回答表現出她的思路很清晰 , 充分了解題目中的單位量 , 她亦運用倍 A-- 3 _ 1 1 , 1 TI 5 1 1 1 1 1 的概念去解釋。以及她帶出重要概「一一一←+一 及一=一+一+一+一+一, 心、1 0 - 1 0 '10 ' 1 0 /X. 1 0 - 1 0 ' 1 0 ' 10 ' 10 ' 1 0 明確知道本身的單位量並不安分子的影響 。 同樣地, 83 在訪談時的對話內容 跟 81 亦類間,此處不贅 。 而 82在解說時則未能全面運用單位分數的概念表述 , 最後亦只急於集中說出結果 「當分的份數一樣時 , 取的份愈多 , 表示分數數值 愈大J 0 82 所說的話沒有錯 ,她對分數大小比較的內涵亦有保存 , 亦同樣達 到解題的效果。總結三位在主驗組學生的後測訪談中,我們看見學生能解釋得 這麼全面 , 這絕對是對同分母大小比較有深入認識的表現 。 表四 實驗組同學作答眉目一 一個蛋糕平均分成 1 0 件,半盟吃了三個 , 半盈吃了三個 , 半盟比半盈吃得較 10 多/少/ 一樣多?請說明 。 前測 | 後測 壘,φ -ualllll. \ 吃 訴 那 位 叫 ‘ l 川 壘 的 代 玉 U U之 吟 ) 川 討 d m峙 。 小 7 q 力 得J 別 高 2| S2 ;~ I 中 組 \ S3 低 \" (!Y -. J?\"'\". r-1IP只有-何制主 平的 施展句俏J'.NIl\ 時Zτ 肉 i得 &PO'l.]令{嘻嘻h零星中必3色, -J‘聶 z 毛主主 俏的 ep吃叫神童 車制甸的,旬, AJ戶巾… J斜立品編輯士主嘴 愉角萃,山山幽 \_ - :土皇cWJ令發 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 11 5 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 義五 控制組同學作答眉目一 3 ,_ ,~_~_ 5 一個蛋糕平均分成 1 0 件, 企盟吃7一個,企盈吃7一個,坐盟比企盈吃得較 10 ~- 10 多/少/ 一樣多?請說明。 前測 後測 S4 /r闕i--t,旦旦旦吃 1時U坐'z,!I.i)?_S,Iß 1,(生EEr~ 三個i'!羊肉分居民l'f持社旱情,e= 9唔,研以主空r01b 高 ,p-. 矗立嗯?﹒ 控 S5 望這 2迅州屯國駐;2制 中 ó~~ 組 i盟叫主屯悔恨 / 聶τ品 :;性怖的星lh1個為啞的品岱 S6 =有立 J t Æ< of.拘 4J DZ 低 'J- eA 'IM':,t ·乞 t!~)>J因為t忌諱 =2to 于所以州Eq乞 ff卓在衍。 司lth.. J, 8~蚓、生墊''ÏJ句辜的、 參閱表五,比較實驗組與控制組的學生,明顯看到控制組的學生在用文字 方面的解釋較弱 。 此組的教學沒有特別被要求多作口語作答的訓練 , 亦沒有特 定的介入策略,所以可見兩組學生在紙筆作這類開放題目作答之間的差異 。 但 是這組學生並不是不能解題 。 在訪談中, 三位學生亦能正確地比較出哪個分數 較大或較小 。 老師 . 你能說明為什麼你認為小明比小盈吃得較少? S5 : 一個蛋糕有 1 0 份,小明吃得 3 份,小盈就吃了 5 份, 所以小明吃得 比小盈少 。 S5也能用比較分子的方法去解釋哪個分數較大或小 。而 S4 的答案也要頁同 。 S6 貝IJ用了分數相減的概念即十分之三減十分之五, 明顯他對分數理解有點模 糊不清 。 這三位控制組的學生,雖然在紙筆評估中也能答對,但對於這種貫作 評量表現稍遜,因此我們未能因此而評價出他們對間分母大小比較有多深入的 認識 。 11 6 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 題目二 : r間分子分數的大小tt較j 從表六,我們可見在前測時,三位實驗組的學生都沒有清楚說明如何比較 這兩個分數 ,甚至答案是不正確的。 而經過學習後 , 他們可以詳盡地解釋哪個 分數較大或小。訪談時他們的解釋亦多能說出當分子相同 ,因為分份愈大, 分 數值就愈小。面對同分子比較時 , 學生沒有選擇以單位量去解釋,即未有指出 因為什固立比 1 個立的數值大,所以即使 2 個工也會比 2 個立大 。這可能是用 3 -~' '~5\"'~\"~\" \"\"\"\" \" ~ - '~3 單位分數去解釋同分子分數比較時較困難,所以學生亦未能就此完整解釋。同 樣地,表t的控制組學生面對此題時亦未能清楚解釋。 表六 賣軍金組同學作答眉目二 媽媽買了啦啦一樣的朱的送給盟和峙 '!b盟吃掉了;餘的,而 三l堂吃掉了 :餘的 '!b盟比過吃得較多/少/一樣多?請說明 。 前測 後測 SI 局 刊盪口tr手令之三 ,這偽、Et之三, d、胡吃1二 佇之三J還能三1J'ι 通圈圈刊叫\"有 d、θ且 宜帥JGHb1 醫D~!4嘻t嘲,~,嘻e乞;盒?的民兮何l巷, hv建l葫閉獄看眼壘E均。?adH草tF t質 S2 自主J札驗 中 關n~1在且 +且全 v'í傷秒。 ~ J力也學愈占咐會:數也愈大e 世部電&f@ 伊 6 \3\"惜t你包給恆4、 - 的~~ lt. in .... • ~ '\ S3 qt zh 切干,自色 ä 向:品旦 司學韋古巴份年所起會以主小司矢 低 ~b .}.主呢?手牽挂宇久豈知 '竺U2tJ鐘時 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 112 I 117 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 義七 控制組同學作答眉目二 媽棚媽買釘了兩酷盒數鰱量一卅樣的蛛朱古的力送齡給.1半姐b且江盟盟和!b且之 4鐘b溫1壘盈吃盼掠了哼;盒蛛朱古的力' ~姐b旭三週盟比!b立郵得轍較多扣/少/ 一樣多?語說明 。 前測 | 後測 td冉O喝L它E包例裝如F 抖! '1'!ß. t'1啥時訓-\.1 S 陌司~ I (;1 6寸;.!V~化,一,、, 一 的將JEob bb i的. 也且tt. ,}益叫~ ~ , 園的和盆地 |舖 ':ld:'~ 心T嘲石靠比社錯)~.蠱了 i| 2 | 回咱 主 - R 叫 主 弓 可叫U S P、 r h' ,a ql ;1;說:;可于11 )囡圳特4峙 - 臼可書李~,旬'1/.i、811 糾且屯 恃斗志勻。 主驗組學生在後測時都能說出分數重要的概念 均分 ,而且能詳細地解釋 如何對兩個分數作出比較 。實驗組學生在同分母分數比較上能更清楚地解釋分 數值較大的原因,在同分子分數比較上的解釋能力跟控制組相若,教師可在下 一教學循環時再加強此部份的教學。 在整個分數單元教學過程中 , 三年級的科 任老師進行了t決問儕觀課 , 並就每課節作檢討及提出優化方案。 在學習分數 的認識過程中,學習均分及以 1 作分子的單位分數的課堂時,實驗組與控制組 的學習氣氛相差不大, 但在之後分數大小比較的課堂上, 兩個組別的學習情況 就有所不同 。 11 8 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 宣驗組的學生展示了一種積極討論的氣氛,而且他們運用不少正確的數學 語吉作討論 ,當有同學提出相反意見時或解釋未能完整時,另外一些同學會積 極表達意見或再以別的觀點去說明以作補充 ,在討論過程中,完整且充滿數學 意義的答案便出現了 。 以下便是其中一位任教主驗組的科任老師認為學生在課 堂中表現良好的片段. 4 l 司 / 』 q d A 『 pb n o 師 生 師 生 師 生 師 生 生 這道題目的答案是甚麼 ? 三〉土 。 5 5 為什麼 ? 三 ( > I 三/〈 ) t 2 _ 1 將一樣東西分做 5 份 , 一個拿 2 份 , 另一個只拿 1 份 , 所以一>一 。 5 5 東西要平均分 。 將一個東西平均分成 5 份後 , 那麼每一份是多少 ? 東西平均分成 5份後每一份是吉 。 東西平均分成 5 份後 每一份是這個整體的吉 。 拿 2 份即是有 2 個吉 。 所以就是拿 2 個比 1 個多啊| 這麼一來一固的討論 , 真叫科任老師滿足 ,對話問充滿了意義 , 整個討論 中學生能運用單位分數的概念 , 去說明問分母分數的大小比較 ,當中涉及的不 只是師生互動,還有生生互動,這正是教師希望見到的學生學習態度。四位科 任老師亦表示在課堂上, 深深感受學生對分份與取份有了良好的基礎 ,而且對 單位量的掌握很牢固 , 才能有就樣認真的討論 。 控制組的科任老師表示控制組 的課堂討論氣氛沒有這麼熱烈, 學生的答案多是簡短的,在運用數學語吉討論 的過程表現稍遜。 反思及建議 我們深感以單位分數為基礎建構分數概念 ,比只運用分份與取份的概念 , 所花的課時較長, 學生初學運用一個單位分數,去說明一個真分數的意思時也 感到疑惑 , 經歷了幾節講解後,大部分學生亦能用單位分數的倍這個概念 , 去 說明一個分數的意思。 這正正是教師所希望見到的 , 學生的學習不再只是流於 表面的背誦,數學學習的意思不只重於學生能解決一道題目,而是明白題目背 後的學理。學習數學的能力不再只是能解題, 要求多一點, 我們期望學生能解 釋,語吉是思維的載體,採取以訓練學生 「說J 來促進他們「想J 的方法進行 教學,逐步培養學生的邏輯思維能力。久而久之,學生會 「想 j 會 「說 j 既培養了 學生的語吉表達能力 ,又發展 7 學生的邏輯思維能力(馮克誠 , 1999) 。 此單元後,我們看見學生多了討論數學 , 學習變得更加互動 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 11 9 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 我們深信學生這樣認識了分數後,對他們在四年級學習分數加減法會起一 1 . 2 n + 1::'3 LJ_~ J.rn~~ ..4 Jr:o 1 ~n r'\ Jr:o 1 -= 定的幫助 。例如計算一+一時,學生會知道 1 個一加 2 個一就是 3 個一 ,就造5 5 - - - - . . .- .~ 5 樣又能把不熟悉的分數目歸至整數加的概念。同樣 ,在之後的分數除法亦是同 2 . 1\"'\",I3~/r.I:1 1 一概念 , 一一 一就是 2 個一除以 1 個 就是 2 。單位分數就是這麼重要的一個3 3 n w '_ - '~ 3 概念, 貫穿整個分數學習領域 , 很值得我們在課堂上引入 。 同時 , 亦鼓勵同工 設計教學時多引導學生多說數學語言,重視學生的學習過程,教學就能更相得 益彰。 基於是決研究 ,在量性訪談時發現學生在運用單位分數解釋同分子分數比 較時的表現有待改善,期望日後及下一教學循環時 , 科任老師能把這部分的演 練加強,強化學生的數學語盲 。建議老師在此部分可做更多額外課堂例子,讓 學生邊做邊說,以加深記憶 。而在整套教學設計上 ,建議下次可加入一些學習 日誌,期望學生能把自己每天學到的知識整理 , 這樣就能使其數學概念及數學 語吉更鞏固。對於未來就此課題的研究發展 ,由於本港的數學課程,分數是以 螺旋式學習的模式出現,建議研究者可繼續追蹤貫驗班的學生在學習分數的表 現 ,以本學年學習單位分數為基礎 , 再設計日後的分數課堂 ,在高小分數的課 題以單位分數解釋 , 一則能再為本研究題目作更強的顯誼 , 三則使學生的學習 更連貴 。 作為教育工作者, 應常檢討教學策略 , 往往在教學研究的過程中, 同工會 有很多意想不到的收獲, 透過問儕之間的討論方知自己的課堂成效。在教學研 究的歷程中 , 受惠的除了學生 ,更是教學者 , í教學相長J 的目標是值得我們 堅持及繼續。 120 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 參考書目 David Hopkins 著﹒ 楊曉琮譯 (2009) 0 <教師課堂研究指南〉。 上海,華東師範大學 出版社 。 江華 (2008) 0 {分數概念教學體系三種版本的比較研究》。 福建師範大學 。 楊德清、洪素敏 (2008 ) 0 <分數摘救教學之歷程的研究> . (教育研究與發展期刊》。 4(2) .頁 85- 1 吧 。 林碧珍 (2006 ) 0 {數學教學案例一分數篇》 。 台北,師大書苑有限公司 。 鄭擴初 (2006 ) 0 (分數教學分析 ﹒ 概念和運算》。 香港 ,九拿出版社。 香港課程發展議會 (2002 ) 0 <.基礎教育課程指哥|一各盡所能 ﹒ 發揮所長》。 香港, 政府印務局 。 課程發展議會 (2002) 0 <數學教育學習領域一數學課程指引 (小一至小六) )。 香港, 政府印務局 。 ;當政雄‘呂玉琴 (2002) 0 < 台灣北部地區國小中年級學童分數概念之研究> . <固 立台北師範學院學報) 0 15 ' 頁 37-68 。 馮克誠主編 ( 1999 ) 0 <.小學數學課堂教學方法實用全書〉。 呼和浩特市,內蒙古大 學出版社。 劉秋木 ( 1 996 ) 0 {園小數學科教學研究〉。台北,五南圍魯出版有限公司 。 教育研究獎勵計到 11 /12 I 121 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 附件一 : 前測 姓名: ( 請在橫線上填上適當的答案 班別: 一一一- 1 _~ 5 l 比較 一和 一 , 分數值較大的是一一一一 。 6 6 2 _~ 2 2 . 比較 一 和 一 , 分數值較大的是 一一一一 。 8 6 3 在 ;'?'?這三個分數中 , 分數值最小的是 一一 。 5 5 5 在- , 一 , 這三個分數中, 分數值最小的是一一一一 。 9 6 10 8 6 10 5 把 一一,一一,一一 由小至大排列 。 1 3 13 1 3 44 4 6 把一,一 , 一由小至大排列。 9 65 )-H7 -u / ak-- > < -1/ 8 - 1 7 一 號 - 1 號 一( 括 < 括 〉 其 - l 其 = U 3-L UU 7 -8 9 一個蛋糕平均分成 10 件 ,半盟吃7三個,半盈吃了三個,半盟tt.12盈吃得較多/少/ 一 10 -- - 10 樣多?話說明 。 lωO 媽棚媽買財7兩酷盒數掘量一樣枷的朱姑古力她送給己企t岫三 把她的;盒朱古力吃掉,已l動.12盈吃得較多/少/ 一樣多 ? 請說明 。 122 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 間件三 : 後到 姓名: ( ) 班別: 一一一- 2月在橫線上填上適當的答案 3 __ 5 1. 比較一 和一分數值較大的是 一一一一 。 8 8 3 __ 3 2 比較- 5 和了,分數值較大的是 一一一一 。 在 2 6 古'?了, 1了這三個分數中, 分數值最小的是一一一一 。 7 77 4. 在一 , 一, 一這三個分數中 , 分數值最小的是一一一一 . 13 9 11 7 39 5 . 把一, 一 , 一由小至大排列 20 20 20 5 5 5 6. 把一 , 一 ,一由小至大排列 9 6 14 U一切 格 <瞇7 一切 8. 斌空格 5 已 5 5 一 ,一,一 9 (__) 11 9. 一個蛋糕平均分成 1 0 件 ,企盟吃了三個,企盈吃7三個,心盟比企盈吃得較多/少/一10 '- ~. - - - 10 樣多?說說明 。 lωO 媽棚媽買釘了兩酷盒數啦量一樣棚的朱古的力送臨給L企姐b旭立週盟和4企b且2 了哼;盒餘朱古的力,岫t瞌鐘吃蜘得較盼多/少/一份?詞說明 ﹒ 教育研究獎勵計到 11 /12 I 123 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Abstract YLPMSAA Ying Yip Primary School Success grows out of strugg/es to overcome dlfficu/ties How can 1 increase my students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an Engli sh as a Foreign Language (EFL) env ironment? This action research study shows the effectiveness of using songs incorporated w ith other activities such as body movements, dance and mini-drama to motivate students and deve lop the ir confidence in speaking. Students sang w ith some body movements in the first cycl e . In the second cyc怡 , they sang with a dance and a mini-drama. The data collection tools 1 used were questionnaires , interviews, students' diaries and observation sheets As a result of this research proje仗, 1 found that students had acquired new vocabulary and become motivated and ga ined more confidence to speak both inside and outside their English lessons through participating in di仟erent activities like singing, dancing and acting. 1 view action research as a way to improve my skills in order to become a more effective teacher. 1 believe that the better learner 1 am, the better teacher 1 will be. 124 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Background This research study was conducted at YLPMSAA Ying Yip Primary School, a subsidised mainstream school located in Tin Shui Wai. The vast majority of students do not have the oppo內unity to communicate in English because of their predominantly Cantonese-speaking environments at home and in school. They have very limited chances to use English in their everyday lives and so the language is not very meaningful and authentic to them. Most students only rely on their teachers and seldom take the initiative to speak even during English lessons. Genuine interest in using the language is missing. 1 identified this problem and tried to find ways out by conducting an action research study with thirty-two Primary 3 students in an elite class. 1 was their class teacher and so had more time to communicate with them and create a more authentic English learning environment. They loved singing in Putonghua and could recite the Iyrics quickly. This inspired me to investigate the effectiveness of using English songs as a main source (incorporated with other activities such as body movements, dance and mini-drama) to increase their motivation and confidence to use the language in a Cantonese dominated environment. Literature Review Brown (2000, p.17) points out that “motivation is one of the most Imp。此ant factors in your success in English\". 1 believe 1 need to use different activities to develop students' intrinsic motivation to learn and speak English As students loved singing, 1 inferred that songs could be used to arouse their interest in learn ing. Studies, in fact, identify songs as useful pedagogical tools to learn and speak English. Morales (2008) , for instance, considers that students can improve their speaking skills and pronunciation when they sing. They can discuss different topics in the Iyrics like love, revenge and hate, and also express their opinions and reflect on the content of the songs Using songs in class also provides more chances for students to practise the rhythm, stress and intonation patterns of the language and to use Iyrics as a stimulus for class discourse (Orlova, 2003). According to Shumin (1997) , \"L2 or foreign language learn ing is a complex task that is susceptible to human anxiety (and is often) associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration , self-doubt, and apprehension\" Schoepp (2001 ) suggests that \"the enjoyment aspect of learn ing language through songs is directly related to affective factors\", which include things such as feelings, emotions, anxiety, frustration , motivation and confidence (Lin , 2000). Understanding them would enable us to know how and why songs can help students learn and speak English 教育研究獎勵計到 11 112 I 125 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The affective filter is mentioned in the hypotheses of Krashen (cited in Schoepp, 2001), which explains why a positive attitude in learning exists when the affective filter is weak. Schoepp suggests that singing is a method to achieve a weak affective filter and can be used to present topics and stimulate discussions about attitudes and feelings. It provides a comfortable atmosphere and brings variety and fun to learning. Domoney & Harris (1993) & Little (1983) also find that pop music is a major source of English outside the classroom. Exposure to authentic English is an important factor in promoting learning in an EFL environment, so teachers can consider using songs as part of the speaking activities In the literature, drama is also considered a means for learning to speak. According to Barbu (2007), using drama as a teaching technique can result in real communication such as involving ideas, emotions, feelings , appropriateness and adaptability. Maley & Duff (2005) also state that drama is an enjoyable experience and motivation is fostered and sustained through the variety and sense of expectancy generated by the activities. Similar research studies (Maley & Du仟, 2001 ; Phillips, 2003) suggest that drama can be an interesting way of motivating language learners and teachers. Students can play, move, act and learn at the same time (Phillips, 2003). Drama activities \"give the students an opportunity to use his own personality in creating the material in which part of the language class is to be based\" (Marley & Du符, 2001 ). This was why a script based on the story of a classmate who was going to leave this school had been written by a group of my students and then revised by me in the second cyc怡, Drama activities are useful for the development of oral communication sk il 峙 , as well as reading and writing. They help students communicate in English including those with limited vocabula可 (Aldavero , 2008). The benefits of using drama in language lessons have been summarised by Desiatova (2009) as follows Drama gives learners an experience (dry-run) of using language for genuine communication and real life purposes by generating a need to speak. It encourages guessing the meaning of unknown language in context. Learners need to use a mixture of language structures and functions (“chunks\") if they want to communicate successfully . Drama makes language learning an active, motivating experience Drama helps learners gain the confidence and self-esteem needed to use the language spontaneously. By taking on a role , students can escape from their everyday identity and “hide behind\" another character. Giving students special roles encourages them to be that character and abandon their shyness. . Drama emulates the way of acquiring language through play, makes the aud ience believe and enhances meaningful interaction . Drama makes what is learned memorable through direct experience and affect (emotions) for learners with different learning styles. 126 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment • When students dramatize, all communication channels (sight, hearing and physical exercise) are used and each student will be drawn to the one that suits them best. This means that they will be actively involved in the activity and the language will \"enter\" through the channel most appropriate for them. Drama can develop students' ability to empathize with others and thus become better communicators. . Drama can help learners acquire language by focusing on the message they are conveying but not the form of utterance. Drama after all can improve oral communication methodology and provide students with an opportunity to use English meaningfully, authentically and purposefully with targeted audiences. Vernon (2009) supports the view that students potentially read and then repeat their lines over a period of time By repeating the words and phrases, they become familiar with them and can say them with increasing fluency by encouraging self-expression; drama motivates students to use language confidently and creatively. Goodwin (2001) states that drama is a particularly effective tool for teaching pronunciation because various components of communicative competence are practised in an integrated way. Desiatova (2009) also agrees that using drama can encourage students to speak and communicate with others through non verbal communication channels , such as: body movements and facial expressions, and even with limited vocabulary. Involvement in the negotiation and construction of meaning during a drama performance can give insights into the relationship between context and language, and encourage students to link the language they are learning to the world around them (Maley & Du汗, 1978). In a similar vein, Kao & O'Neill (1998) contend that confidence levels would increase when students have something to talk about and, most Impo付antly, when they know how to express their ideas Research aims and methodology Apart from teaching course-book materials in the lesson, I investigated the effectiveness of using activities like singing , body movement, dancing and acting to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak out in an enriched EFL environment whereby they had more opportunities to use and speak in the language. The research questions are as follows 1. How can I motivate my students and make them feel confident to speak English in an EFL environment? 2. Should songs be considered useful pedagogical tools to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English? 3. What other activities can be used with singing to further increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English? 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 127 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Action research is \"any systematic inquiry conducted by a teacher in the teaching/learning environment to gather information about how their pa忱的ular schools operate, how they teach, and how well their students learn\" (Mills, 2003 , ρ5). Its most important function \"is to facilitate the 'reflective cycle' , thereby providing an effective method for improving profess ional action\" (Walla凹, 1998, p.18). 1 used an action research approach to investigate the effectiveness of using songs incorporated w ith other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak in English following a reflective cyclic pattern. It is a four-step process: identifying an area of focus, collecting data, analysing and interpreting the data, and developing an action plan (Mil峙 , 2003) which is evaluated continuously in order to improve teaching. There are two cycles in my study (Figure 1): Figure 1 The research cycles in this study Singing contest in December 20 11 (At the end ofthe first term) /8~ [ / 13. Analyz弓 English Carnival in late June, 2012 (At the end ofthe se∞nd term) 方回\ 巨至立 The first cycle of the study began w ith an introduction to “W hat a Wonderful World\", “Top of the World\", \"Last Christmas\", \"Lemon Tree\" , 唱hining Friends\" and \" B旬 , Big World\" for the school contest in Oecember 20 11. Students voted “B旬 , Big World\" 的 the first English song they would ever sing in the contest just because the melody and Iyrics were simple. Some students could not recite the Iyrics at first. 1 showed the video a few times to stimulate their v isual senses first. Students worked in pairs to fill in the blanks while they were listening to the song. The first ten pairs (out of sixteen in the whole class) to finish the worksheet would get stickers as positive reinforces. 1 also explained the theme of the song and meaning of the words to them. They sang it during recess and lunch break for two weeks. They performed quite well in the s inging contest and won a prize. A few students suggested that body movements could have been incorporated when they sang. 128 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Oata collection was done with questionnaire surveys, interviews and observations. AII students were asked to fill in the questionnaires after the singing contest as I wanted to find out the effectiveness of using songs to increase their motivation and confidence to speak English. Two more capable students and two less capable students were interviewed. They shared their opinions in learning (i.e. speaking) English in these two weeks, and their w illingness to participate in different activities was observed. Follow up interviews were conducted for collecting further information about the effectiveness of using songs with respect to the following questions: 1. Oid you have fun in the singing contest? 2. Are songs useful for motivating you to speak in English? If yes, how? If no, why? 3. 00 you speak more in English now than in September? Have you gained more confidence when you speak in English to your classmates now? 4. Other than singing with some body movements, what other activities would you like to incorporate if you have a chance to sing on the stage again? There would be another chance for my class to pe斤orm on the stage My students would like to sing in English during the English Carnival at the end of the second term. After reflecting on what we had done in the first cycle , I made some changes in the second and gave them more time to prepare. I chose a song about friendship, which was more closely related to their real life experiences and should therefore be more motivating. “We're AII in This Together\" was sung because it was an inspirational and lively song about school life. Students sang it together with a dance and a mini-drama. The script (Appendix) was written by students and revised by me. A girl was about to leave the school and so the class decided to dedicate the drama script to her and perform it on stage. They hoped to encourage her to study hard, strive for her dreams and never give up. What they did this time was more meaningful and purposeful compared to the one in the first cycle Fir哎, I showed the music video (with Iyrics) and explained the theme of the song and meaning of its Iyrics in the lesson. Second旬, I divided students into groups of four. They listened to the song three times and finished the worksheet together. Thirdly, we sang the song in recess time and lunch break. A week l at前, they learnt to dance while singing and I asked for eight volunteers to write the drama scri 阱. I revised the script in the final stage When the script was ready, students worked in groups of fi ve (a narrator and four characters) and performed the mini-drama. They chose the best group to perform it during the English Carnival by voting. Meanwhi怡 , I included mini drama in the second cycle after receiving students' feedback because of its funny and entertaining nature and ability to maintain students' motivation to speak out. 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 129 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The data collection tools 1 used this time were surveys, students ' diaries and observation records. Students were also asked to fill in the questionnaires and write their reflection in their diaries after the performance so that 1 could find out how far singing together with a dance and a mini drama had increased their motivation and confidence to speak English Data Analysis and Results The first cycle The questionnaire results collected in the first cycle were positive. In September, 75% of students spoke in English to their classmates and teachers during the English classes, with 3.1 %, 12.5%, 31.3%, 28.1 % and 25% stating \"all the time\",“always\",“sometimes\" , “seldom\" and “never\" respectively Table 1 Changes in the habit and frequency of speaking in English In the beginning of the school year (Early September, 2011 ) 1 a. Oid you speak English to your classmates Yes 24 and teachers Q虹坦9 English classes? No 8 1 b. Refer to 0.1 a 一 If yes, how often did you AII the time speak in English to your classmates and Always 4 teachers during English classes? Sometimes 10 Seldom 9 Never 8 2a. Oid you speak in English outside classes? Yes 6 No 26 2b. Refer to 0.2a 一 If yes, when did you speak in Recess , lunch break English outside the classes? At the end of the first term (after the singing contest) 3a. 00 you speak English to your classmates Yes 28 and teachers 也血9 English classes now? No 4 3b. Refer to 0.3a 一 If yes, how often do you AII the time 5 speak English to your classmates and Always 8 teachers during the English classes now? So行leti口les 11 Seldom 4 Never 4 4a. 00 you speak English outside classes now? Yes 22 No 10 4b. Refer to O.4a 一 If yes, when do you speak Recess , lunch break, in English outside classes now? the park, at home * There are 32 students in this class. 130 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The population of students who spoke in English to their classmates and teachers during the lesson increased from 75% to 87.5%, with 15.6%, 25%, 34.4%, 12.5% and 12.5% of them stating “all the time\",“always\", “sometimes\", “seldom\" and \"never\" respectively. Students spoke in English more often after choosing to sing an English song in the singing contest Only 18.8% of students spoke in English outside the lesson in September However, this proportion rose sharply to 68.8% at the end of the first term after the singing contest. Students spoke in English not only during recess and lunch breaks but also outside the school , such as: in the park and at home. The findings were encouraging, showing that their attitude towards speaking in English was positive. Three out of four students enjoyed themselves in the performance They all told me that they had never thought of having the courage to sing in English in front of their schoolmates. Three students sa id that songs could motivate them to speak more English because they could learn more vocabulary from the Iyrics. Three others also reported that they spoke more English when they discussed something about the song. As one student said,“The learning atmosphere was less threatening , so I was more willing to express my ideas in English. \" Four of them told me that they had gained slightly more confidence in speaking in English now There was a student, however, who had not enjoyed himself in the performance and even felt a bit embarrassed during the interview. He told me that he disliked this song because its theme was about love and the mood was sad, and wanted me to choose a song with a happy mood and closer connection to his daily experiences. Furthermore, four other students suggested that I should include a mini-drama and dance instead of just having some body movements. Their suggestions were all very constructive. Curti s (2001 , p.75) contend that teachers could learn “a great deal about themselves, their students and their teach ing and learn ing environments through action research\". I really did after going through the first cycle. At fir訟, most of them, especially the boys, were shy and sang very softly. However, after understanding the meaning of the words and listen ing to the song several times, they found it easier to remember the pronunciation of some difficult words with the rhythm. I heard them singing not only in my lessons, but also during the recess and lunch break. They even requested me to sing as a motivator before sta此ing the lesson. As Brown (2002, p.17) points out,“Motivation is one of the most important factors in your success in English\". I believe that my students were motivated to speak as a result of my introducing this English song to them. I was glad to hear them speaking in English not only to me, but also to their friends and other teachers. I realized that it was a “good start\" 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 131 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The atmosphere is also a major factor for learning (Baird , 2001). As students felt more relaxed and found it easier to recite the Iyrics through singing, they became more confident in speaking out too. Some students rewrote part of the Iyrics in their weekly diary as follows: 勻'm a sma/l sma/l boy in a big big school it's not a big big thing if you can 't see me\" “It's a sma/l sma/l bird in the blue blue sky it's not a big big thing if you can 't see 缸, “It's a fierce fierce dog in the big big house it is dangerous Ifyou go in\" I displayed the three Iyrics on the board as encouragement and designed some activities based on them. I divided the class into groups of four. Each group chose one piece of work, made up a story and chose a leader to tell it to the whole class. They also tried to sing with the new Iyrics. The level of anxiety was lowered even for the passive students after participating in these activities The interview feedback was valuable too. I should have selected the songs more carefully. The theme of 唱旬 , Big Wor肘, was about love and my students did not have such experience. Morales (2008) states clearly that teacher should choose a song that has the right characteristics to fulfil students' needs and interest and can introduce new elements of the language that are wanted. In the next cycle, I should also choose songs and incorporate them with other activities like mini-drama and dance to further increase students' motivation and confidence to speak in English 132 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The second cycle Table 2 The results of the questionnaires about the changes in students' attitudes towards speaking in English Rating scale 4: very high (greatest) 3: high (great) 2: low (Iess) 1: ve叩 low (Ieast) 0: no In September 2011 (The beginning of this academic year) Items - How would you rate your 4 3 2 可 。 1. Motivation for speaking English 4 7 15 2 4 2. Confidence in speaking English 2 13 8 8 3. The enjoyment of speaking English 7 7 2 6 10 4. Anxiety about speaking English 6 5 7 4 10 In December 2011 (After the singing contest) Items - How would you rate your 4 3 2 可 。 1. Motivation for speaking English 5 15 8 2 2 2. Confidence in speaking English 4 8 13 4 3 3. The enjoyment of speaking English 8 8 3 8 5 4. Anxiety about speaking English 5 5 8 3 11 In late June 2012 (After the English Carnival) Items - How would you rate your 4 3 2 。 1. Motivation for speaking English 17 12 2 。 2. Confidence in speaking English 13 11 3 3 2 3. The enjoyment of speaking English 16 6 6 3 4. Anxiety about speaking English 。 4 4 3 21 As shown in Figure 2, students' motivation level for speaking English in September 20竹 , December 2011 (after the singing contest) and late June 2012 (after the English Carnival ) was rising throughout the school year. 1 n the beginning, 12.5% of students had \"no\" motivation and only 12.5% had “very high\" motivation for speaking English. However, the propo內ions dropped to 0% with “no\" motivation and rose to 53 .1 % with \"very high\" motivation after the English Carnival. 教育研究獎勵計到 1 1112 I 133 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Figure 2 Changes in students' motivation for speaking in English 18 16 14 12 安 10 品 8 6 4 2 。 Very High High Motivation Low Very Low No Level The results concerning the confidence in speaking in English throughout the school year were positive as shown in Figure 3. There were only 9.4% of students w ith high or very high levels of confidence in September 2011. This percentage rose sharply to 75% with high or very high levels after the English Carnival. Figure 3 Changes in students' level of confidence in sp倒king in English 14 12 10 ~ 8 b5 6 4 2 。 Very High High Confidence Low VeryLow No Level Students' enjoyment in speaking also kept on increasing throughout the year (Figure 4). The percentage of students w ith the \"greatest\" level of enjoyment of speaking English rose to 50% after the English Carnival. At the same time , the proportion of students w ith no anxiety in speaking rose from 31.3% in the beginning of the first cycle to 65.7% at the end of the second (Figure 5) 134 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Figure 4 Changes in students' level of enjoyment for speaking in English Enjoyment 20 15 U也832 lO 5 。 Gre泌的 Great Less Least No Level Figure 5 Changes in students' level of anxiety about speaking in English Anxiety 25 20 UE8 f 3 l5 10 5 。 Very High 而且h Low Very Low No Level According to their own diaries, the changes in enjoyment and motivation are also encourag ing and more students enjoyed learning and speaking English through a variety of activities. Some of their reflections were quite inspiring and impressive “I was an actress in this drama. At the beginning, I was afraid because I had to speak a lot of Eng/ish in front of my schoo/mates in the hal!. Candy and Tina always said, 'You can do 仗 , We read the script in recess and after lunch. / read it to my dad, tOO. I am quite confident in speaking English now and I am not afraid of speaking English in front of people. \" “I am very happy. I know some difficult words in the song, e.g celebration, dreams come true and we 're al! stars. When I sing and dance, English is not so difficu/t. I speak more English now I taught my mum how to sing the song. She is happy. \" 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 135 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment “I can speak in English to my friends now Jerry, Marco and Lily taught me how to sing and dance so I could do it on the stage. I started to have an interest in learning and speaking English. I want to have many English lessons. I love singing English songs and dancing. Dancing helps me understand the meaning of some difficult words. I often listen to English songs on YouTube now. \" “I am the narrator and need to present a long paragraph to my schoolmates on the stage. I have gained more confidence in speaking now. I think I can do it. I like speaking in English at school and outside the classroom. Although the practice was harsh, it gave me a lot of fun. I have learnt that team spirit and helping each other are very important for a good show. \" “Last year, I had no confidence to speak English. Thi s year, I have some confidence because I have spoken English in front of many people on the stage in the school hal l. Ms. Lam is very friendly to me and always says , 寸ina , you can do it! ' 80 I know I can do it. \" “I am confident in speaking now. I was frightened but happy on the stage. I was an actor, singer and dancer. I didn't like English before but I like it now. I think I am a star. I feel a little bit proud of myself because I could do something that was impossib悟. If we always learn English like this, I can learn more.\" “I have not had the experience of learning English in such a fun way before! I sang and danced at the same time. I sang the song to Ms. Lam. Ms. Lam was happy. I sang the song with my classmates. We sang the song very loudly and happily. Many teachers said we were ve叩 good . \" A few of them were quite shy and dependent on their peers at first but they felt confident afte附ards . I was happy to see them teaching each other to read the Iyrics and scripts. I heard them speaking in English more often The motivation and confidence to speak in English have increased obviously in this class. The classroom was filled with fun and laughter. Body movements had been incorporated in the fi rst cyc怡. 8tudents' feedback from the interviews suggested that dance could be incorporated with singing just like drama. Both body movements and dance belong to the bodily/kinesthetic area of intelligence in Gardner's (1993) Multiple Intelligence Theory. Teaching through it could increase motivation and achievement in classroom assessment (Greenhawk, 1997). 8 tudents sang and had some body movements in the first cycle but they sang and danced in the second Teachers used a wide range of techniques and methods to cater for learning diversity. The development of bodily/kinesthetic intelligence can certainly help to enhance motivation to speak in English in a fun-filled way 136 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Discussion On the basis of the findings in this study, 1 strongly believe that songs are useful tools for learning English. The use of songs incorporated with other activities like a dance and a drama not only helps them develop speaking skil峙, but also help them internalize new vocabulary, improve pronunciation , intonation and fluency in a language-rich environment. Their anxiety level can be markedly lowered in such an encouraging and non-threatening atmosphere In the second cycle, 1 chose a song which was related to my students' experiences and interests. They told me that the experience was more challenging, enjoyable and fun. They helped and learned from each other Their attitudes to speaking in English had changed too. Even the ve叩 quiet and unmotivated ones were willing to participate in the activities this time Enjoyment and enthusiasm could motivate them, and they have a positive attitude now. Edge (1993, p.106) also supports this idea, saying “The more they enjoy the language skills , the more language ability they are likely to acquire. \" Most of my students could also realise the value of interaction in English. Using songs incorporated with a dance and a mini-drama can help in vocabulary learning too. Drama with dialogue provides students w ith communication skills by placing them in a context that seems real. It makes the language easier to internalise and remember and can therefore support the learning of English as a foreign language. It was a valuable experience for my students to write a tailor-made drama script which was related to their real experiences. They were motivated to use English creatively. As a result, they were emphatic and gained a lot of sati sfaction after the performance As a teacher, 1 have gained valuable experience too. When students work together cooperatively, they are capable of doing something that look impossible to achieve, such as: singing with difficult vocabulary and dancing at the same time. It was amazing that junior primary school students could perform such a good show. 80th the peers' and teachers' encouragements had boosted their confidence in speaking. Dornyei (2001) also agrees that confidence can be promoted throug h experience with success and the reduction of anxiety 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 137 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Conclusion The action research in this study involved inquiring into actual practices through a process of planning, acting, observing, reflecting and modifying on an issue in order to modify and enhance my teaching skills. Students' motivation and confidence to speak in English have increased as a result The study allowed me to implicate, reflect , improve and innovate, and provided a stepping stone for me to further examine how to motivate students to speak English in Hong Kong. Apart from teaching the materials in the course books, teachers should also use a va riety of activities to nurture a language-rich environment for students to use and speak English with pleasure and joy. The data collected from students suppo此ed my assumption that using songs incorporated with other activities like body movements, dance and / or drama are e仔éctive in increasing their motivation and confidence to speak. Teachers should choose songs that students are interested in and familiar with, while bearing in mind that their own patience is also very important. Students are like babies who fall many times before they can walk. Teachers should accept that their students do make mistakes but students can find joy in speaking activities and thereby develop a positive attitude toward learning if all preparations are done. This view on the pa此 of teachers would ce付ainly help to increase students' motivation and confidence to acquire language ability and improve their speaking skills 138 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment References Aldave巾 , Vanesa, & Alonso. (2008) . Drama in the development of oral s,ρontaneous communication. Encuentro 17. Retrieved on 1/8/2010 from http ://www encuentrojournal. org/textosl Alonso. pd Baird , A (2002). More speaking please! Guidelines, 24(2), p.29-33 Barbu , L. (2007). Using drama techniques for teach的gEnglish. Retrieved on 17-7- 2010 from http://forum.famouswhy.com/index.php? Show topic= 1150 Brown , H. D. (2002). Strategies for success: A ρractical guide to learning English . New York: Longman Curt侶, A (2001 ). Hong Kong secondary school teachers ' first experiences of action research. The PAC Journal (The journal of the Pan Asia Consortium of Language Teaching Associations), 1(1) , ρ65-78 . Desialova , L. (2009). Using different forms of Drama in EFL. Classroom. Hurnanizing language teaching Magazine , issue 4. Retrieved on 1717/2010 from http://www. hltmag.co.uk/aug09/sart07.htm Domoney, L. & Harris, S. (1993). Justified and ancient: Pop music in EFL c lassrooms. EL T Journal. 47. 234-241 Edge, J (1993) . Essentials of English Language Teaching - Longman K,θys to Language Teaching Series , NY: Longman Gardner, H. (1993). Multiplθ IntθlIigence: The theory in practice . New York Basic Books Goodwil l, J (2001). Teaching Pronunciation in M. Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a second or foreign language , 3rd edition . Heinle & Heinle Greenhawk, J (1997) . Multiple Intel ligences meets standard s. Educati onal Leadershi戶, 55(1 ) , 62-64 Kao , S. M. & O'Neill , C. (1998) . Words into Worlds: Learning a second language through process drama. Stanford, London : Abbex. Lin , P. Y. (2000). Multip侶的telligence theory and English Language teaching http:highschool. eng.nccu.edu.tw/paper/ying.doc. Date of assess , 22-02-2002. Little , J (1983). Pop and rock music in the ESL classroom. TESL Ta伙, 14, 40-44 Maley, A & Duff, A (1978). Drama Techniques in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Maley, A & Duff, A (2001). Drama techniques in language learn的g: a resource book for communication activities for languagθ 的achers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Maley, A. & Duff, A. (2005). Drama Techniques in language learning: A resource book for communication activi ties for的nguage teachθrs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mills, G. E. (2003). Action research: A guide for the teacher research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril l/Prentice Hall 教育研究獎勵計到 11 112 I 139 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Morales, N. C. (2008). Using Rock Music as a Teaching-Learn ing Tool. Profi/e , June 2008, nO.9, p .163-180 。rlova , N. F. (2003) . Help ing prospective EFL teachers learn how to use songs in conversation c lassroom . The 的ternet TESL Journa/, 9.3. http://ites/j. org/ Techniques/Orlova-Song . htm I (1-8-2011). Phillip, S. C. (2003) . Drama with chi/dren . Oxford : Oxford University Press Schoepp, K. (2011) . Reasons for using songs in the ESL/EFL c/assroom . Retrieved on 17-2-2006 from http://iteslj.org/Aritcls/Schoepp-Songs .html Shumin, K. (1997) . Factors to consider: Developing ad ult EFL students' speaking abilities . Eng/ish Teaching Forum, 25(3) . Retrieved on 29-11-2005 from http :// exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/voI35/n03/p8.htm Vernon , S. A (2009). Bθnefits of using games in the c/assroom. Retrieved on March 20, 2009, from www.teachingenglishgames.com Wal lace , M. J (1998) . Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge Cambridge University Press 140 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Appendix - Drama script (We're Friends Forever) Narrator: This story takes place in a P.3 class. Kelly comes from a broken family. Her parents left her since she was a baby. So, her grandmother took care of her. Until the day, her grandmother was in the hospital and was about going to die. Kelly's mother came from Canada and promised that she w ill take care of Kelly Candy Damien Candy Tina Candy Tina Candy Kelly Tina Kelly Candy Kelly Candy Kelly Tina Candy Kelly Tina I'm going to leave this schooL My grandmother is going to die and... (crying) Yeah! Candy. Come and play together. It's fun! (shout loudly and happily) No. Damien Candy, you look unhappy. What happened? My grandmother is going to die... and I will have to leave my friends and teachers in this school... Why? I have lived w ith my grandmother since I was a baby. I don 't know anything about my mother. She is a stranger to me. What I know is she lives in Canada. And... I need to leave my friends and teachers in this schooL Hi. What happened? Her grandmother is going to die and so she will leave us and live with her mother in Canada soon Sorry, Candy. It's ok. My grandmother wants me to be a good teacher. I want to be a teacher in Tin Shui Wai. I grew up in Tin Shui Wai. Many of my friends do not have parents to take good care of them and so I know a good teacher is very important for them. If I go to Canada, my dream can never come true. No, Candy. Even if you go to Canada, there are always children who need help. My uncle lives in Canada too and he told me that it was difficult to find a good English teacher in the China town So No matter what happens, if we strive for our dreams, they will come true. Yes. Even if you are going to leave this school, we w ill still be friends. We should work hard together and our dreams will come true one day Really? Yes! Of course 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 141 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 透過情晏教學法提升幼見運用代 名詞的能力 摘要 之囚士Æb IlID. ,心 l悶 善一堂安逸幼稚園 研究員在任教幼兒班 (3-4 歲的幼兒)過程中,發現他們在談話及分組活 動中,不清晰地運用代名詞 。有時,幼兒會告訴教師 í我是我的老師 。 j 其 實幼兒是想表達 「你是我的老師 。 j 卻不懂得運用 「你 J 字 。 幼兒在語吉學 習上有 「 自我J 的傾向 , 一方面可反映幼兒在人稱代詞掌握與應用上, 另一 方面則可見於其在語吉習得之上,如何受生活背景與已有知識影響(黃翼, 1 959 ) 。以本研究員任教的地域為例, 社區資源缺乏 , 照顧者甚少帶兒童出 外,所以幼兒的生活經驗甚少。謝錫金 (2006 ) 曾引用 Huxley ( 1970) 的研 究 ,指出兩名實驗兒童的話語中,以「我j 開頭的形式最為普遍 ( Lee ,Wong & Leung, et a l., 1996 ) 對兒童在閱讀理解及運用 「你j 、 「我 J 這些人稱代詞 作出研究,發現兒童最先運用人稱代詞先是與 「我j 有闊的。不僅是外國的兒 童 ,就是中國兒童也有這種傾向。 Tse ( 1990) 以 60 名 3 歲至 5 歲 11 個月 大 的粵語兒童為研究對象,並按年齡及性別劃分為 3 個組別,結果發現所有組另IJ 兒童均會使用 「我j 、「你J '而 「他/她j 及 「他們 / 她們j 貝IJ出現得稍晚, 且在 3 個年齡組別中亦不多用 。 陳個眉(1995 ) 指出兒童習得人稱代詞的次序 為 「我j 、 「你 J '最後為距離自身最遠的 「他J 。反映兒童以自我中心之傾向。 皮亞傑的實驗表明 , 學前兒童的大部分談話 , 是屬於自我中心的 。 他亦指 出,愈年幼的兒童愈會有自我中心的趨勢 (Vygotsky , 2007) 。 研究員在任教 期間觀察幼兒的語法 , 都屬於自我中心,而且有點混亂 ,例如自吉自語以 「我j 為中心 ,並不有效地進行交流 , 亦不期望任何回答 。有鑒於此,研究員選擇透 過不同的情景及語文活動為研究的重點, 透過活動從中幫助幼兒掌握口語表達 的能力及運用代名詞的技巧。 再者現時香港亦較少人探討及研究學齡前的兒童 語文發展 ,期望給予幼兒教育的工作者一套新的語文發展體系以作參考 。 研究目的、問題、高法 本研究期望能透過情景教學法 , 認識幼兒如何運用不同的代名詞 , 提升他 們運用代名詞的能力 ,以及在不同情景下應用, 提升幼兒正確使用人稱代詞的 能力。 142 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 研究問題包括 1 . 情景教學法能否有效提升幼兒運用不同的代名詞的能力? 2 情景教學法如何擇升幼兒運用代名詞的能力? 3 在哪一種情景下,幼兒能更有效運用代名詞? 本研究將全敬的人平均分為三組 , 每組 20 人 。研究者以三個月時間進行 相關的教學計劃,為宜驗組 (一)及(二)進行教學 , 包括前測和後測 ,並以 觀察記錄分析兩組幼兒對運用代名詞的能力。 研究假設透過以角色扮演 (情景)教學的幼兒運用代名詞的能力比較強, 以語文活動教學的幼兒運用代名詞的能力較為弱,假設教師所設計的情景教學 法 , 是提升幼兒運用代名詞的重要元素 ,而幼兒學習代名詞是可以透過互動去 掌握。 文獻回顧 謝錫金 (2006 ) 認為在學習或工作等活動上, 我們都離不開語吉,所以從 小培養和發展幼兒的語吉 ,讓幼兒正確地掌握語言是十分重要的。幼兒學會了 語吉 , 可以進行比較複雜的思維活動。語吉可輔助幼兒學習 ,在幼兒教育的過 程中具有重大的意義 。 不論向幼兒進行思想品德教育,或是教幼兒學習歌唱、 繪畫、遊戲等 , 都必須運用語吉。此外, 只有幼兒具備一定的語吉水平, 才能 聽懂老師和同伴的說話 , 接受教育和進行社交活動。因此不少學者提出幼兒的 語吉發展過程為社會化過程之體現(陳個眉. 1995 ;周兢﹒ 1 997 ; 黃瑞琴, 1998 ) 季池( 1981)更深入地把代名詞 「我j 、 「你j 、 「他J 、 「這 j 、 「那 j 這五個詞分為兩頓 「我j 、 「你」、 「他J 是一頸、說語的人自稱為 「我J 說話的人把聽話的人稱為「你J 說話的人向聽話的人說及另一個人,稱為 「他j 。邵敬敏( 1999) 認為這些詞不但出現的頻率特別高,用途特別大 ,個 性特別強,而且用法也豐富多彩,如果不加以仔細的辨析,就會犯 「錯誤J 其中代詞,主要起替代、指示、 疑問三種作用 , 因此大體上可以分為三類 人 類代詞,即是人稱代詞有 ﹒ 自己(我) 、別人(你) 、人家(他) 、 大家(我 們)等 。 要注意的是「您J 表示單數尊稱,至於表示複數的尊桶,以前常用「您 三位J 、 「您幾位J 等 ,近來「您們j 已經在書面語上比較普遍地使用 j. 口 語也偶爾可以聽到。 幼兒對語吉的掌握均有一致性,就是從自我開始。黃翼認為幼兒最初掌 握的語言是單字旬,旨在表現嬰兒一己的需要、利益、情緒等。 與其說是描 述事實, 倒不如說是熱切表示自己對事物的願望和態度有密切關係(黃翼 , 1 959 ) 。因此,陳個眉指出兒童習得人稱代詞的決序為 「我J 、 「你 J .最 後為距離自身最遠的「他J (陳惘眉. 1995) 。另外在 1970-90 年代的一些 本地研究中 , 均發現兒童以本名代替「我J 是頗常見的現象 (Chan & M戳, 1992 ) .亦反映兒童以自我中心之傾向。 呂叔湘( 1 998 ) 主張學習語吉的一般過程是 「模仿一變化一創造j 。 幼兒 學語吉的第一步是模仿。 在語吉教學中要注意模仿的重要性。學習語吉不是學 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 143 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 一套知識,而是學一種技能。 大人說 「給我一杯茶J ' 小孩子跟著說 「給我一 杯茶J '是模仿 。說 「給我一塊糖J ' 就是加以變化。把已經熟悉的語吉材料 下加入新的組織 ,也屬於變化 , 例如 「把它吃了 J 和「吃得乾乾淨淨J 組織成 「把 它吃得乾乾淨淨j 。這些都是三四歲的兒童就能做到的。 幼兒能在不同的故事情景下 ,更有效地學習代名詞。 Richards & Rodgers ( 1997 ) 認為 「情境語言教學法J 主張口語為語言根基,而結構為口說能力的 中心。它採用對文化教學的歸納式方法。單字或結構的含意 , 不是經由所教語 吉或當地語吉的解釋而獲得 ,而是經由某種情景下所用形式的方法歸納出來。 因此,這種教學法期望學習者, 能透過某種情景下運用相關的字詞 , 引伸文法 結構與字彙到新的情況中 ,是由歸納所產生的。研究員預期幼兒能應用其在課 堂上所學語言於日常生活當中。 Richards & Rodgers ( 1997) 引用 Pittman ( 1963) ,指出在學習初期 , 學習者被要求只聽與重複教師所說的,並且嘗試回答問題與命令。 例如教師會 由一些故事中,選擇一些適當的情景予學生聆聽。其後,教師鼓勵幼兒主動參 與情景 ,在互動中運用相閥的詞語。教師擔任三個主要的角色 。在課程陳述 (演 譯情景)的階段,教師擔任模範, 建立學習的語文結構所需的情況 ,請幼兒重 複被仿效的新結構 。教師要運用問題、命令及其他從學習者引出正確句子的提 示 。下一步 ,在課程實施的階段,教師在較少受控制的情況下, 給予幼兒更多 使用語吉的機會。 最後, 教師要觀察幼兒的表現來整合課程 , 讓幼兒有修正及 複習的機會。 研究后法 幼兒的口語發展,由字至詞 ,由詞至旬,加上許政緩等( 1996 ) 指出兒 童的語吉發展對心理發展亦具備促進作用 。 以是決研究的代名詞為例,促使兒 童間的互動和自我意識的發生,故此兒童在代名詞之習得亦是以「我J 為先, 「你j 次之,與自身距離最遠的 「他j 貝IJ較後習得。因此,是決研究集中在幼 兒運用代名詞的發展及概念的掌握。 本研究將透過對話錄音 、 筆記和整理,分析幼兒運用代名詞的各項表現。 研究的實驗組(一) 將會進行十四次教學活動,其中刺用t份教學計量IJ' 每個 活動重複教學兩次 ,並且由「我J 開始延展至 「你j 、 「他/她(佢) J 和日 常生活環境。研究的責驗組(二) 將會進行十五次教學活動 ,其中利用五份教 學計劃 ,每個活動重複教學三次。然後,比較兩組幼兒的學習成果。 研究對象為三至四歲的幼見 (K1) ,研究員把全級幼兒共 60 人平均分為 三組,每組三十人 (不分男女及年齡 ,以隨機方式進行)。第一組(全日幼兒 A班 ) 利用情景教學法進行教學 ,並且重調幼兒以第三身的身份進行角色扮演 , 為宣驗組(一) (假設幼兒是故事或情況中的一個角色 ,以該角色的身份回答 相關問題) 。第三組(全日幼兒 B 班)是透過語文活動進行教學,並且重調幼 兒以第一身的身份進行互動學習 ,為實驗組 (三) (即是 ,在幼兒回答問題時 , 以自己的身份來作答)。最後一組(上午幼兒班)為控制組,只會進行前測和 後測, 並且按校方編排的課程進行學習。 144 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 研究者會為宜驗組(一) 、 (二)及控制組進行前測和後測。研究者以兩 個月的教學計劃為實驗組(一)及實驗組(三)進行教學,計劃前後都會進行 前測和後測,以觀察記錄分析兩組幼兒對運用代名詞的能力。本研究是採用行 動研究法 , 行動研究是指研究員(教師)本身作為一個參與研究工作者,並且 透過應用研究方法技巧,對個人的教育實務工作進行系統反思的過程 。此研究 是依從本人在教學經驗發現 ,剛入學的幼兒運用人稱代名詞表達及溝通感到困 難 , 故此以幼兒班(三至四歲的幼兒)為主 。 目的在於透過活動提升幼兒運用 代名詞的能力。研究者借助了觀察法和評量表來了解幼兒運用代名詞的能力。 研究者主要採用觀察法 ,對於幼兒運用代名詞的掌握,觀察幼兒的表現並 做出觀察紀錄 。研究工具是採用多元資料搜集法 ,主要是多角度收集資料, 豐 富分析素材。整個研究過程中主要以錄音進行 , 然後配以文字以紀錄內容及分 析。對於幼兒使用代名詞表現能力的評估 ,研究者會運用參與性觀察,以降低 幼兒的心理防衛和了解其真貫的表現 。 由於要清楚個別幼兒對概念的認知,所 以會透過焦點觀察進行事件取樣。目的在有系統地即時記錄幼兒的反應 。而且, 研究員會運用評量表作為測試工具。鋒音筆會記錄整個活動過程 。 在活動後, 研究者聆聽片段,並採用紙筆記錄及評量,測試在不同情景下幼兒對運用代名 詞的能力。鑑於個人私隱的關{萃 , 故此上述數據在研究前已獲取校方及家長的 同意,並承諾資料只作研究用途 。 本研究步聽分為 1 教學活動設計 ;2 擬訂代名詞前測評量表; 3 . 教學活 動的推行 ; 4 . 活動的觀察及記錄 ; 5 . 後測評量表 ;6 資料整理分析與詮釋 ; 7 研 究結果與討論 ; 8 . 因應研究結果進行反思 , 以分析教學活動的成效及深入討論 。 本計劃包括質與量的研究 , 所以會用評量表為三組幼兒進行前測和後測,分析 三組幼兒在計劃前和計劃後對於代名詞的掌握, 亦會用觀察法和戰事記錄來觀 察幼兒在活動中表現。研究員會把整個教學過程錄音 ,以便分析使用。目的是 了解在語文活動中有否促進幼兒對代名詞的掌握 。 教學方面, 會選擇在幼兒平日上課的課室進行 , 減低幼兒陌生的感覺 , 給 予幼兒開放、安全及可以自由表達自己的環境下進行研究 。 在觀察方面 ,研究 員會運用非掩飾觀察法,與幼兒一邊玩耍,一邊觀察。 對於質化的資料,研究員會比較及分析不同教學活動 , 對幼兒的學習表現 的影響,以探討教學的成效和學習代名詞的成功原因。對於量化的資料,會以 圖表方式 ,顯示研究結果 ,利用幼兒前測和後測的結果進行對比分析, 了解情 景教學對幼兒運用代名詞的成效。 研究結果 很據表一 ,研究結果的標準差,最常用作統計分怖程度 。 這些結果為非負 數值 , 與數據資料具有相同單位。由於結果屬正數,而且數值亦少於 2' 顯示 這幾組數,都較為集中 。 即代表這些幼兒的個別差異較低 ,而且在學習後的標 準差更有所下降 。因此,在教學活動後有平均的增長,差異亦更進一步減少。 這代表兩組幼兒的學習能力相當接近,同時反映活動的效果。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 145 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 義一:控制組及實驗組在前後瀾的標準差 *標準差(表現項目) 前測 後j貝IJ 控制組 1.15 1.02 質驗組 (一) 1.14 0.91 實驗組 (二) 1.09 0.94 (*標準差是比較兩組數的趨向性集中 ,例如 控制組與實驗組 (一) 作比較, 以了解每組幼兒的整體表現 。) 計劃推行的結果 研究結果顯示這兩種教法 , 均能提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 。 從觀察紀錄 中分析及觀察到兩組貫驗組的兒童在經過教學活動後,能運用代名詞能力有不 同程度的提升 。 參考表三 ,實驗組(一) 在前測和後測的平均值有八倍多的增 長 ,實驗組(三) 在前測和後測的平均值有t倍多的增長 ,控制組在同樣的計 算下則只有一倍多的增長。 義二:控制組及實聽組在前後瀾的平均數 * 平均數(表現項目 ) 前測 j表現IJ 控制組 1.45 1.75 實驗組(一) 1.4 11 .75 實驗組(三) 2.05 8.95 (* 將一組兒童的表現總水平相加起來, 再除以該組兒童的人數 。 ) 這顯示兩個宣驗組相對控制組都有增長 。造反映兩個宣驗組的教學活動具 一定的成效 。 其中,兩個宣驗組,都存在一定的差異 。 主驗組(一)對比宣驗 組 (二) 的增長較大 。這顯示透過情景教學的成效較佳 , 形成實驗組(一)的 幼兒在後測的表現項目有所提升(參考區一) 圖一: '膚景教學東芥有茗詞的寵7J 回 回 品 掛 ( 前測與後測的增長率) 146 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 在表三中,研究員運用 T檢定法來比較三組數據,若在 P值大於 0 . 1 以上, 即反映控制組數據是有所差異 。 由於 ,控制組的幼兒並沒有經驗過相閥的教學 活動,所以這些差異是幼兒生活經驗的累積而成 。兩組實驗組的 P值少於 0. 01 以下,顯示著有非常明顯的差異 。 結果反映出是決研究能達至一定的效果 。 不 過,研究員認為還有不足的地方,例如評量表的表現項目較少,未能全面及客 觀地檢查幼兒的能力,建議增加表現項目。 表三:以下擒定法比較三組數攝 分數 P 值 控制組的平均增長 0.3 。 11 * (後測.前j~IJ ) 實驗組 (一) 的平均增長 10.35 0.00** (後測-前;貝IJ) (2.4 7833E-18 ) 成對 質驗組 (二)的平均增長 6.9 0.00** (後測-前;貝IJ) ( 3 .76521 巳 15 ) 成對 實驗組 (一) 與控制組比較 9.5 0.00** (實驗組 (一) 一控制組) ( 1 .91809巳29 ) 不成對 實驗組 (三)與控制組比較 6.7 0.00** (實驗組 (三 ) 一控制組) ( 5 . 11542巳24 ) 不成對 *差異達到 0 . 1 以上有所差異 H 差異達到 0. 01 以下有顯著的差異 綜合上述,幾個表的數據都顯示兩種教學法都是有效的 。 若要知道哪一種 較為有效,就必須再深入比較實驗組(一)與賞驗組(二)的數據。首先 ,由 平均增長率來看,可以得知實驗組(一)相對實驗組(三)有較大的增長 。整 體幼兒的學習表現較佳。在表三中,實驗組(一)與控制組的比較是 9.5 .相 對實驗組(二)的 6.7 高 2 . 8 。這反映實驗組 (一)的情景教學法更為有效 。 討論 本港有關如何幫助兒童學習人稱代名詞的研究仍很缺乏,相關文獻甚少 。 本研究只可就有關課題作初步建議及分析。本研究發現 ,幼兒透過情景教學的 課程後,對有關故事或情景中的人物十分好奇。 他們亦會經常向研究員問及 , 書中的說話是由誰講述或表達 。 他們在情景中,不知不覺地明白人與人之間的 關{系。特別是相對實驗組 (三)運用語文教學的幼兒,更表現出深感興趣。研 究員觀察認為是有情景的代入,使幼兒能置身當中,投入活動 。 黃翼 (1 959 ) 指出幼兒在語吉學習上有 「 自我J 的傾向, 一方面可反映幼 兒在人稱代詞的掌握與應用,另一方面則可見於其在語吉習得之上,如何受生 活背景與已有知識影響 。 由於情景教學法的活動內容 , 均為具生活化背景的素 材,例如《有禮貌》及《良好的行為》等。所以當教材與幼兒的已有知識相關時, 幼兒是較為容易掌握和應用。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 147 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 在後測中,相對宣驗組(二)的幼兒學習表現上 ,可以觀察到情景教學法 的幼兒表現較佳。其中 ,研究員發現他們在運用「他J 的能力上更為明顯。與 呂叔湘( 1998 ) 所主張的接近 , 學習語吉的一般過程是 「模仿一變化一創造J 因此,在教學活動中,研究員會給予幼兒機會模仿情景中人物的對話。經過模 仿後 ,幼兒可以互相交換人物角色 , 產生變化形成新的經驗。幼兒並能在生活 中按實際需要來創造及使用代名詞。 由於上述的因素及在有系統的情景下 , 這 種教學法的成效較切合幼兒的需要。 在實驗組(三)的語文活動中 ,後測結果顯示幼兒在掌握 「我J 和 「你J 的能力有明顯的提升。研究員在檢視課程中,可以得知原因。在第一個活動中, 以認識自己,對「我J 產生概念為開始 。 在活動中給予兒童照鏡子 , 教師從旁 說出兒童的名字 , 讓兒童增加對自我的認識。教師告訴兒童鏡子中的人 ,就是 「我j 。活動中,幼兒開始運用 「我j 來代替自己的名字。活動三,就是在活 動一的基礎上設計 ,並深化相關概念。例如教師刺用四至五件日常物品,請兒 童辨別自己的物件並說出這是屬於誰的 ,以學習運用句式 「這是我的 。 J 來表 達屬於自己的物品。然後,研究員與兒童以電話對話及互相傳球的遊戲,來學 習 「你J 和 「我J 。最後, 活動四及五才涉及 「他J 的概念。雖然. I我J 、 「你J 和 「他J 的概念 , 按陳個眉 (1 995)指出 , 兒童習得人稱代詞的決序為 「我J 「你J .最後為距離自身最遠的 「他j 的理念來設計,但是兒童在掌握 「他J 的概念上,卻未如理想。研究員認為是活動內容的概念不具體 ,有改善的空間, 例如在玩滾球遊戲中 , 兒童不明白 由 「你J 傳向 「他J 的概念。 這兩種教學活動除了能提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力外 ,研究員更發現活動 對幼兒有其他的得益。 在情景教學法中,教材的情景包括《有禮貌》及《良好 的行為》 等德育故事。幼兒在運用禮貌語方面亦有所提升。雖然,禮貌語並非 本研究的項目,但是幼兒更明白如何與人相處,例如當兒童接受別人的幫忙後, 會主動說「謝謝你J 總結及建議 本研究目的是透過情景教學法 ,讓幼兒明白如何正確運用代名詞,並且促 進幼兒同儕之間的互動,亦期望幼兒能正確地表達自己。研究員在兩種教學法 當中,歸納出情景教學對幼兒相對較為有效 。這些期望及目的,都透過是次研 究來達到,也能提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力. &D驗證研究的成效。 研究員在進行研究時 ,是根據不同文獻資料, 再自行設計情景活動,也是 行動研究之一 ,目的在於提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 。 王文科 ( 1991 )提出 行動研究的目標是把研究方法應用於教室情境中的教育問題,以提升學生的能 力。所以,情景活動的目標十分明確,就是解決小朋友自我表達的需要。 研究員運用全級幼兒班來進行是次研究。 由於研究員主要在推行計劃的班 別中試教,所以無法準確深入地分析每組幼兒之間的分別,亦未能準確分析幼 兒班兒童平日的學習情況及生活經驗 。 因此,研究員建議下決可以利用上午及 下午班,由研究員負責擔任教師,就更能觀察幼兒的學習情況。 再者,全級幼 兒的人數眾多,研究員需花很多時間進行評估及教學,建議增加研究人員的數 量,以更有效地收集數據 , 同時透過共同備課及反思 ,了解兒童的能力及不同 148 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學法的成效,並且有系統地進行研究。 此外, 透過是次研究 ,研究者建議可以把整個相關的教學活動推行到全校 主施,讓每一位兒童都能透過語文活動,提升他們運用代名詞的能力。研究員 有關透過是次研究 , 能與從事幼兒教育的同工分享、互相學習 。 過程中更讓研 究員明白到研究的意義 , 嘗試更多不同的教學方法以提升兒童的能力 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 149 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 書考,目 李池 ( 1 981 ) 0 {常用詞使用法》。 香港, 上海書局有限公司。 協康會 ( 1988 ) 0 {兒童訓練指南活動指引 語吉》。 香港,協康會 。 王文科 ( 1991) 0 {教育研究法》。台北,五南圖書出版有限公司 。 王明仁 ( 1993 ) 0 {語法學習和教學》。 北京 ,北京語吉學院出版社 。 完昭尤(主編) 0 ( 1993 ) {幼兒語吉教案 100 例》。 廣西 ,廣西師範大學出版社 。 欒平 、劉希朋、田善繼(主編) ( 1995) 0 {現代漢語進修教程,語法篇》。 北京, 北京語吉學院出版社。 易杏英、王金貴、齊敏、石筠強 ( 1 996) 0 {幼兒園教育活動一教師參考周書 語言 領域》。 北京 , 人民教育出版社。 jack C. 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The foundation for critical thinking 150 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 附件一 教學計創一包括實驗組(一) 和實驗組(二) 情境教學(一) 活動日期 : 20 1 1 年 11 月 29 日一 1 2 月 l 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒A班(實驗姐一) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節 , 以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 : 1. 學習以情景形式 , 運用代名詞(主要是 「我J) 。 2. 透過愣竄來學習代名詞 。 3. 培華書幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 60mins 教師展示囝卡 , 給幼兒欣賞 。 2. 教師提問幼兒園卡的內容 , 並且引導幼兒說出俏嶺中角 色在{故甚麼? 3. 教師透過 〈好品德、} 的故事情致-來引導幼兒說出代名 詞 。 4. 教師說出故事的內容 , 並示範如何在適當的俏索下正確 地運用代名詞如 : J 青菜 、 肉 、 蛋我都吃,不挑食營養才會均衡 。 J 弟弟 、 妹妹年紀小 , 我會幫忙照顧他們 。 J 洗完手記得關7.)(龍頭,才不會浪贊水資源。 J 早睡早起,瞪眼充足,我每天都很有精神啊 ! 5. 教師說幼兒讀述一次情殼中的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情景中所運用的代名詞,例如 : 我 。 7. 諂幼兒進行模擬遊戲,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8. 在棋擬遊戲中 , 教師說幼兒向對象說話時要用手指向老 他,以帶出第二身或第三身代名詞 。 9. 重溫一次活動的情境 。 10 鼓勵幼兒作句,表達自己 . 我會 。 教具/教材 注解 故事盤及 圖卡 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 151 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(二 ) 活動日期 201 1 年 12 月 6 日 一 1 2 月 8 日 地點 . 課室 任教老師 ﹒ 溫志倫主任 班別 . 全自幼兒 A班(實驗組一) 人數 : 20 位兒童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節 , 以分組形式進行扮演。 教學目標 ﹒ 1. 學習以情景形式,還用代名詞(主要是「我」和「你J) 。 2. 透過情景來學習代名詞。 3. 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 60mÎns 教師展示國卡 , 給幼兒欣賞。 故事書及 2. 教師提問幼兒園卡的內容,並且引導幼兒說出倩 國卡 索中角色在做甚麼? 3. 教師透過{好品德}的故事情景來引導幼兒說出 代名詞 。 4. 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒 , 並且示範如何在過 當的情景下正確地運用代名詞,如: J 我會把髒衣服放進洗衣籃,不會到處亂丟, 製造髒亂。 J 哎喲 ! 不小心跌倒了 ! 沒關係 !我會自己 爬起來 。 J 吃完東西後,我會把紙盒丟進垃圾桶襄 。 J 朱古力蛋糕看起來很好吃呀 ! 我會和妹妹 一起分享。 J 我會愛情玩具,不玩時就放進玩具箱。 J 爺爺、娜娜最疼我了 ,我應該尊敬孝順他們 。 J 媽媽煮飯很辛苦,我會幫忙擺碗筷 。 J 我最勇敢,不怕看牙醫,定期檢查,才不會 蛙牙。 J 我不會隨便採摘花朵,漂亮的花應該讓大家 欣賞 。 5. 教師請幼兒覆述一次情崇的對話。 6. 教師重調及介紹情索中 ,所運用的代名詞,例如 我和你 。 7. 教師提問幼兒上述的情景是否正確 。 8. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲 ,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 9. 在模擬遊戲中,教師詣幼兒向對象說話時要用手 指向若他,以帶出第二身或第三身代名詞 。 10. 重溫一次活動的情境 。 1 1. 鼓勵幼兒作句,褻遙自己:我會 。 152 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(三) 活動日期 : 20 1 1 年 12 月 1 3 日一 1 2 月 1 5 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼見 A班(實驗組一) 人數 : 20位見童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節,以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 . 1. 學習以情景形式,運用代名詞(主要是「我」 、 「你」和「他J ) 。 2. 聆聽情景內容說出相關的代名詞 。 3. 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 60mins 教師展木圖卡,給幼兒欣賞 。 故事書及 2 教師提問幼兒固卡的內容 , 並且引導幼兒說出情景中角色在做甚麼? 國卡 3 教師透過 {有禮貌}的故事情景來引導幼兒說出代名詞 。 4 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒,並且請幼兒用心聆聽情景內容 , 指出相 關的代名詞,如 : J 需要別人幫忙的時候 , 我會說﹒ 「請你幫我,好嗎? J J 走路不小心撞到人時 , 我會很有禮貌地說聲 : r對不起! J J 東東把心愛的玩具借給我玩,我會對他說 : r謝謝你 ! J J 看到行動不便的人,我會蓋起座,並小心扶持他。 J 在街上 ,遇到朋友真開心, 我會跟他打招呼,問聲 ﹒ 「你好嗎? J J 早上 , 爸爸準備出門上班,我會到門口送他,並揮手說: r再見 ! J J 到公園溜滑梯,我會排隊輪流玩,這樣大家又能玩得開心 。 J 看見行動不便的老公公要過馬路時,我會幫忙抉他安全過馬路。 J 我會排隊等候巴士 ,也會遵守秩序上下車 , 絕不爭先恐後 。 5 教師請幼兒覆述一次情景的對話。 6 教師重調及介紹情景中,所運用的代名詞。 7 講幼見進行模擬遊戲,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8 教師抽取學生 , 進行與教學情景相關的提問。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 112 I 153 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(四) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 1 0 日 一 l 月 12 日 地點 : 諜室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 全日幼見 A班(實驗組一) 人數 : 20位見童 形式 :每二十分鐘為一節 ,以分組形式進行扮演。 教學目標 : l 學習以情景形式,運用代名詞(主要是 「我」 、 「你 」 和 「他J) 。 2 為不同的情景內容配上,惘關的代名詞 。 3 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 60mins 教師展木固卡,給幼見欣賞 。 故事書及 2 教師提問幼兒圓卡的內容 , 並且引導幼兒說出情景中角色在做甚 圓卡 麼? 3. 教師透過 《有禮貌〉的故事情景來引導幼兒說出代名詞 。 4 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒 ,並且請幼見用心聆聽情景內容,指 出相關的代名詞,如: J 吃完飯要離開座位時,我會將椅子歸位,並說 ﹒ 「請慢用 ! J J 上完廁所,我不但會洗手,還會將衣服整理好再離開 。 J 進人別人的房間前 ,我一定記得先敲門,絕不會冒冒失失闖 進去。 J 爸爸媽媽工作很辛苦 , 當他們休息時 ,我一定會輕聲走路才 不會吵醒他們 。 J 吃飯的時候 , 我會細嚼慢嘸 , 不會敲打碗筷 , 以免造成別人 的困擾 。 J 打噴瞻的時候,我會用手遮住口鼻,這樣才有禮貌 。 5 教師請幼兒覆述一次情景的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情景中所運用的代名詞 。 7. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8. 教師抽取學生,進行與教學情景相關的提問 。 9. 教師會展示新的圖片,請幼兒為圖片配上適合的情景。 154 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(五) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 1 7 日一 l 月 1 9 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 . 溫志倫主任 班別 . 全日幼兒 A班(實驗姐一) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節 , 以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 l 學習以價實形式 , 還用代名詞(主要是 「我」 、 「你」和 「他J) 。 2. 為不同的情};l內容配上相關的代名詞 。 3 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 60mins 教師展71τ國卡,給幼兒欣賞 。 2. 教師提問幼兒園卡的內容,並且引導幼兒說出情景中角色在做甚麼? 3. 教師透過 {衛生與保健} 的故事俏致來引導幼兒說出代名詞 。 4. 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒 ,並且請幼兒用心聆聽情景內容,指出相關 的代名詞,如 ﹒ J 我不會撿地上的東西吃 。 J 我會注意口腔衛生,經常保持口腔清潔 。 J 弟弟最愛哭了 , 我更要和他玩呢 ! J 我和明明是好朋友 。 J 吃飯的時候 ,我會細嚼慢瞧 ,否則會肚子痛 。 J 打噴暖的時候,我會用手遮住口缸,這樣才有讀貌 。 5. 教師請幼兒讀述一次情景的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情直是中所運用的代名詞 ﹒ 7. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8 教師抽取學生,進行與教學情至是相關的提悶 。 9 教師會展示新的圖片,請幼兒為國片配上適合的情殼 。 教具/教材 故事會及 國卡 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 155 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(六) 活動日期 ﹒ 20 1 2 年 2 月 14 日 一 16 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 5.且志倫主任 班別 . 全日幼兒 A班(質驗過一) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 . 每二十分鐘為一節 , 以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 l 學習以故事形式,運用代名詞。 2. 透過聆聽故事來學習代名詞。 3 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞。 時間 教學內容 60mins 1. 故事講述 2. 教師請幼兒先觀察間片後,再說出故事情景 。 3. 《毛蟲家族去購物〉 這一天 , 毛蟲爸爸和毛蟲媽媽帶著小毛蟲來到7城裡最大的購物中心。 小毛蟲好喜歡跟著爸爸媽媽去購物 ! 他們東看看 、 西瞧瞧,挑選自己最 喜歡的東西。 J 班班他還7一盒玉米片,艾見則挑7一罐軟糖,小布藍尼拿7 一盒巧克力夾心餅。 J 毛蟲姆媽把要買的東西放進手推車裡,毛蟲爸爸推著車子跟著 走 。 J 他們準備要去收銀處結帳時 ,遇見7松鼠太太史庫琪 。 史庫琪 太太也來買東西 。 她買了許多許多,手推車裡的東西多到都掉 出來了 。 J 班班 、 艾兒和小布藍尼趕緊幫史庫琪太太把東西撿起來,小心 地放回手推車裡去 。 J 小毛蟲合力幫忙史庫琪太太把沉重的手推車推到收銀處前 。 史 庫琪太太對小毛蟲說 : r太謝謝你們了 1 你們真是個好孩子 ! J J 毛蟲爸爸和毛蟲媽媽看見小毛蟲能主動幫助別人,心裡很高 興。毛蟲爸爸選為他們各人買了一個冰淇淋甜筒作為獎勵呢 ! 4. 分組扮演及提問一些情景下如何使用代名詞 。 5. 教師請幼兒覆述一次情景的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情景中 , 所運用的代名詞 。 7. 請幼見進行模擬遊戲,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8. 教師抽取學生 , 進行與教學情景相關的提問 。 156 I 教育研究報告匯編 教具/教 材 故事書 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(t: ) 活動日期 ﹒ 20 1 2 年 2 月 21 日 - 23 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 . 全日幼兒 A班(實驗告且一 ) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 ﹒ 每二十分鐘為一節,以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 : 1. 學習在日常生活中運用代名詞 。 2. 邁過模擬遊戲來學習代名詞 。 3. 培養幼見在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教 材 60mins 教師展示之前所學習的情境,請幼兒講述內容 。 固卡 2 分組扮演及提問一些情景下如何使用代名詞 。 3. 教師講幼兒覆述一次情景的對話 。 4 教師重調及介紹情景中所運用的代名詞。 5. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲,教師從中觀察是否正確 。 6. 教師抽取學生,進行與教學情景相關的提問 。 7. 教師製作模擬日常生活的環境,請幼兒運用正確的代名詞來褻 達 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 157 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 實驗組(二)語文活動(一 ) 活動日期 : 20 1 1 年 1 1 月 28 日 一 12 月 2 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒 B班(實驗組二) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每十五分鐘為一節 , 以分組形式進行,每組五位幼兒 。 教學目標 : l 初步認識自己 , 對 「我」產生概念 。 2. 能作自我稱呼 。 3 學習運用句式 : f我叫(兒童的名字) 0 J 時間 教學內容 15mins 給兒童照鏡子或欣賞自己的照片 , 教師從旁說出 兒童的名字 , 攘見童增加對自我的認識。 2 教師告訴見童鏡子中的人,就是 「我」。 3 教師展示自己的名牌,告訴兒童這是我的 。 4 教師利用貼有兒童照片的名牌 , 教他讀自己的名 字 ,然後問 : f你叫也名? J 鼓勵他說出自己的 名字,我叫 。 5 分組時 ,請兒童選擇不同的名牌,逐一到教師面 前,先說出自己的名牌,然後說出句式 「這是我 的名牌」。 158 I 教育研究報告匯編 教具/教材 一照片 一鏡子 一名牌 一 自製名牌 注解 個人方式 , 單 對學進行 小組教學 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(三)語文活動( 三) 活動日期: 20 11 年 12 月 5 日 - 9 日 地點 :課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒 B班(買驗告且二 ) 人數 : 20位見童 形式 : 每十五分鐘為一節,以分組形式進行 , 每組五位幼兒。 教學目標 : l 初步認識 「你」 和 「我」 的概念。 2. 在互動的情況下 , 運用「你」 和 「我」。 3. 學習運用句式 : r我想耍 , , J 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 15mins 教師展示不同見童的物品 。 日常物品 小姐教學 2 利用四至五件日常物品 ,請見童辨別自己的物件 並說出這是屬於誰的。如 : r條手巾邊個呀 ? I這 是我的。 J r個書包邊個呀? J r這是你的。 」 3. 跟兒童開茶會 , 教師詢問兒童。如 : r邊個想食 蛋糕? J r邊個想飲汽水? J 4 鼓勵兒童以 「我」來代替自己的名字來表示需 耍 , 並且學習句式 ﹒ 「我想要, 。 l 5 教師展示兒童的看國認字卡片 ,把它們分成兩 認字卡片 份,兒童和教師各持一份 。 6. 教師拿出一張卡片 , 向見童 : r我有一尾魚 , 你 有甚麼?請你給我看一看。」 7 教師請兒童拿出一張卡片說 : r我有一輛小汽 車,你有甚麼?請你給我看一看。」 8. 遊戲可反複進行,或請兩位兒童自己進行小組互 動。 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 159 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(二)語文活動 (三) 活動日期 : 20 11 年 1 2 月 12 日 一 16 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒 B班(官驗組二) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 . 每二十分鐘為主題活動 , 以分組形式進行 , 每組五位幼兒 。 教學目標 . 1. 在互動的情況下,迎用 「你」 和 「我」 的能力 。 2 學習使用電話的方法 。 3 培養兒童使用代名詞的能力 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 60mins 教師展木電話,並且提問幼兒如何使用它 。 電話 全班 2 教師請幾位學生嘗試使用電話 ﹒ (主題教 3. 教師說其中一位兒童跟他玩打電話遊戲,以對答 學) 式來進行,如 「你好 ! J r我是老師 。」 「你條邊個? J r明仔? J 「條邊個極佢? J r陳小明」等 4回 教師未能後 , 再說幾位學生嘗試使用電話,並且 從中觀察 。 5 教師請兒童在分組活動中,譜兒童使用電話進行 兩人一組 互動 。 160 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(二)語文活動(四) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 9 日 1 3 日 地點 : 大肌肉室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 全日幼兒 B班(實驗組二) 人數 : 20 位兒童 形式 :每十五分鐘為一節,以分組形式進行 ,每組五位幼兒 。 教學目標 : l 初步認識 「你J 、 「我」和 「他」 的概念 。 2 在互動的情況下,運用 「你」 、 「我 」 和「他」。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 60mins l 與兒童坐在地上玩滾球遊戲 , 一面玩, 一面說: r碌俾你J 0 (以小組形 波 式進行 ,教師強調「俾盔」 的代名詞) 2 兩位教師 ( A 、 B) 與兒童一起吃果仁 . A將果仁給 B ' 並說 : r俾你 J ' 果仁 然後 B將果仁交予兒童,並說 : r俾你J ' 請兒童將果仁交予 A. 並棋仿 以上說話。(可以利用以上三人組合,進行其他活動並教導其他代名詞) 3 教師分辨出示屬於自己的東西 , 並說 「我釀。」及分辨屬兒童的東西, 並說 : r你嗽 。」 然後請兒童做 。 4 教師問 ﹒ 「邊個有手巾? J r 邊,個若睦鞋? J 要求兒童舉手並答 ﹒ 「我慨/ 你嗽 。」 5 教師與兒童各有數件不同的食物 , 教師問 : r邊個有百力滋 ? J 並示範 食物 答 ﹒ 「我有J' 然後間一樣的兒童有而教師無的食物,如﹒ 「邊個有糖果? J 示範答 : r你有」然後輪到兒童作答 。 (可增加人數帶出「他」的代名詞) 圖片 6 利用有關人物圖片,教師問 「佢你邊個? J r佢做緊包野? J 等要求兒 童亦使用 「佢」 的代名詞作答,如 「佢你媽媽 ! J 或 「佢食野」等。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 161 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(二)語文活動(五) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 16 日 - 20 日 地點 : 音樂室 任教老師 ﹒ 溫志倫主任 班別 ﹒ 全日幼兒 B班(質驗在且二) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每三十分鐘為一節 , 以小組教學形式進行 , 每組十位幼兒。 教學目標 ﹒ 1. 認識 「你」 、 「我」 和「他」 的概念 。 2. 明臼在互動下 , 非參與及距離自身最遠的是 「他」 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 60mins 教師介紹見歌{老師喜愛一 } 手指棒 音樂 2. 請見童聆聽教師朗誼示範。 活動 3. 教師請學生以固形的方式坐下 , 教師站在固的中心 。 4. (見歌)老師喜愛我我我 (請幼兒用手指指向自己) , 老師 喜愛你你你 (請幼見用手指指向教師 , 以回應互動者) , 老 師喜愛他他他 (請幼兒用手指指向身邊的一位小朋友) 5. 教師利用手指棒與個別兒童對唱 。 6. 教師利用手指棒與小姐兒童對唱 。 7. 教師利用手指棒與全班兒童對唱 。 8. 教師請輪流兒童出來圓的中心 , 來帶領其他兒童唱歌。 162 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 附件二 評量表 表現項目 表現水平 能達到 未能達到 掌猩姓名外 , 運用 「我 」 知道相片內的小朋友是自己 , 能 知道相片內的小朋友是自 的能力 。 說出句式 「這是我的相片」 、 或 己,卻未能正確地表達相片 r(兒童的姓名)是我」 。 中的內容 。 2. 知道「我」 是有意義 , 代 知道這些物品,都是屬於自己 , 知道這些物品, 都是屬於自 表屬於自己的東西。 並且能說出「全部(物品的名稱) 己 , 卻未能正確地褻遠有關 都是我的。 」 的內容。 3. 初步分辨「你」 和 「我」 明臼一條毛巾是屬於成人, 另一 明白兩條毛巾分別是屬於 的所代表的用途 。 條毛巾是屬於自己,能正確地說 誰,但未能正確地表遂有關 出 「一條毛巾是你。 」 及 「一條 的內容。 毛巾是我。 」 4. 分辨「你」 和「我」的意 會分辨兩類不同的物品是屬於 知道這些物品 , 都是屬於 義。 誰 , 能說出 「這是我的 。」 或「這 誰 , 卻未能正確地表達有關 是你的 。」 等句式來表達。 的內容 。 5. 運用「你」 的能力,進行 明白在互動對話下 , 還用 「你」 未知道如何運用適合的代 提悶 。 來提問同學相關的問題 。 名詞進行提間 。 6. 初步運用「他」 的能力。 在第一條提問後,懂得正確地運 經過兩條問題後 , 只能說出 用 「他」 來表達課室中的其他小 班中其中一位幼兒的名稱 。 朋友。 7. 在適當的情覺下 , 運用 明臼成人與幼兒互動下 , 為距離 不能掌握正確地運用 「他」 「他」的能力 。 自身最遁的 「他J ' 並且以「他」 的能力 。 作為回答 。 8. 在逍遙,的倩景下,運用 明白成人與幼見互動下,明白國 不能掌握正確地適用 「他J 「他」 的能力 。 中的小朋友卻不在其中,並且以 的能力 。 r {-也 」 作為回答 。 9. 運用 「他」的能力 。 明白教師與幼兒互動下 , 另一位 不能掌握正確地運用 「他」 幼兒為 「他J ' 並且以 「他」作為 的能力 。 句子的開始 。 10 在適當的情景下,運用 在對話中能正確地理解及運用 不能掌握正確地運用 「你」 、 「我 」 、 「他」的能 「你」 、 「我」 、 「他」來配合情景。 「你」 、 「我」 、 「他 」的能力 。 力。 11 在適當的情景下 , 運用 明白運用 「我」來,表達自己的 不懂得運用 「我」來,表達 「我」 的能力 。 需要 。 自己的需要 。 12 . 在適當的情景下 , 還用 懂得運用 「你」 來,向同儕進行 不懂得運用 「你」 來溝通 。 「你」的能力 。 互動 。 1 3 . 在適當的情景下 , 運用 透過情景理解人物的關條 , 並且 未能理解情景人物的關 「他」 的能力 。 利用 「他」 來表達 。 餘,不會利用 「他」來表達 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 163 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 附件三 前測、後測的問題 教師以個別形式向兒童進行以下提間 '7解兒童對運用代名詞的各項目能力 : 教師在事前提示幼兒在整個活動中,除7幼兒自己的姓名外 , 更應當試運用其他詞彙。 T: 代衰教師的提問內容 : 項目一 : 草根性名外,盜用 「我 l 自可能力。 展示一套全班幼見的個人相片集 , 教師並指出相關幼見的相片給幼見看 T: 小朋友 , 這幅相片內的人是誰? 答案 : 我i自己(要運周代名詞,不接受幼兒用自己的姓名) 。 項目二 : 知道 「我 ,.患有煮義,代表屬於自r,的東西。 T: 教師拿出幼兒的個人物品 , 包括 . 個人學生證 、 書包 、 親子週記及個人相片集(這些物 品皆有幼見的相片及姓名),教師把每一件物品提問見童這是什麼?請兒童說出來,這些物品 是誰的? 答案 : 我(的) /自己(的)(不接受幼兒用自己的姓名)。 項目三 : 初珍分辨「你 l 和 「我 l 的所代表的用途 。 教師展示兩條毛巾, 一條為紅色; 一條為藍色 。 T : 教師讓兒童自己選擇其中一條毛巾,先提問幼兒手上的毛巾是誰,再提問幼兒邊個有他 手上相反顏色的毛巾,例如 : 教師手上的毛巾是誰? 答案 : 我(的)/你(的)(不接受幼兒自己本身的姓名及教師的名稱) 。 項目四 : 分辨 「你 l 和 「我 l 的煮義 。 兒童己能分辨四件物品 , 其中兩件是學生的個人物品;兩件是教師專用的物品是屬於誰? T: 小朋友 ! 請你把物品分類,並告訴我它是屬於誰的? 164 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 答案 :這是你的 , 這是我的(不接受幼兒用自己的姓名及教師的名稱) 。 項目五 : 運用「你 1 的能力, 進行提間 。 T: 你想問同學 x , 誰是他的好朋友呢?應該說甚麼呢 ? 答案 : 請問你的好!JIi友是誰呀 ? (不接受有同學X的名稱) 。 項目六 : 初步運用 「你 1 的能jJ。 T: 小朋友 ! 課室內還有甚麼人呢?請幼兒選擇其中一位同學的名稱 ,再問幼兒可以用甚麼 詞語來表示? 答案 : 他(不接受有同學的名稱) 。 項目t : 在適當的情景下,運用 「他 1 的能力 。 T: 教師與幼見互動期間, 提問幼兒你的校服和誰一樣 , 再問幼見可以用甚麼詞語來表示? 答案 : 也(他)(不接受有同學的名稱) 。 項目八 : 在適當的情景下 ,運用 「他 1 的能力 。 T: 請觀察以下圖片,這位小朋友在做甚麼呢? 答案 : 佢(他)在做功課。 項目九: 運用 「他 l 的能力 。 T: 教師讚賞幼兒 X今天樂於助人 , 你又會說甚麼呢? 答案 : 佢(他)好幸 。 項目十 : 在適當的情景下,運用 「你 1 、 r ,我 l' r他 l 的能力 。 T: 教師出示對話機,告訢幼見 ﹒ 「你好 ! 我是老師,請問你是誰 ? J 及「你想請哪一位小朋 友聽電話(請指出來) ? J 答案 : 我是X泣 ,我想找他(佢) 。 項目十一 : 有滴當的情景下, i軍用 「我 l 的會長 1J 。 T: 你想向教師表達 , 要去洗手間 , 應該說甚麼呢? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 165 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 答案:我想去洗手筒 。 項目十二 : 在適當的情景下 ,運用 「你!的能7了 。 T: 園中這位小朋友未清潔雙手 , 就想進食蛋糕 。 你會說甚麼使他洗手呢? 答案 : 讀者T、法手 。 項目+三 : 在適當的情景下 , 運用 「他 1 的能7了 。 T: 翼翼告訴你,園中這位小朋友幫她找到她的小狗 。 你認為是誰的行為正確呢? 答案:佢{他) 。 166 I 教育研究報告匯緝 自 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 例証 T: 代表教師 C: 代表兒童 在語文活動中兒童的表現 : 因証二 T: 你在鏡中看到甚麼呀? (教師指著鏡子) C: 達明囉! T: 你呀 ! 遺有呢? C : 有鼻 , 有口 , T: 你呀!個鼻同口保邊個嫁? C: 達明嫁 ! T: 對啦~你可以講這是我的鼻和口 。 T: (教師請幼兒指著鏡子)教師請幼兒說出這是我 盟証L T: 小閉友 ! 這條毛巾是邊個嫁? (教師手中拿看) C: 你老師 ! T: 除了叫老師還可以叫甚麼呢? C: 五知道 ! T: 這條毛巾你五像你手上呀? C: 無呀 ! T: 像老師手上 , 不是你你手上 , 你可以說不在我手上 C: 條呀 ! 我無呀 ! 因為,像你手上喂 ! 且証三 T: 如果有人需要別人幫忙的時候 , 你會說甚麼? C: 我會說 : ,-請你幫我 ,好嗎? J T: 如果有人把心愛的玩具借給你玩的時候,你會說甚麼? C: 我會對他說 : ,- 謝謝你! J 創証旦 T: 如果在街上 , 遇到朋友的時候 , 你會說甚麼? C: 我會對他說 : ,-你好嗎? J 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 167 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 四至五接見童對地兢地心吸力 避恩的棚急轉變 斗:t- ~ -++ 頁展云 國際英文幼稚園 摘要 關於兒童對地球的知識學習 , 兒童的樸棄理論( na\"1問 theory)有兩種看 法,分別是一致的 (coherent ) 或分散的 ( fragmented ) ( Mart惘, Han & Brenda, 2008 ) 。透過 「指向概念轉變教學J 的教學策略 , 結果顯示能有效地 改變 4-5 歲兒童對地球(地心引力)的概念轉變。也發現兒童對地球知識的學 習是一致的 ,即能夠回答 「為甚麼j 問題(鄧賜平等 , 2002) 引言 在台北市的國科會目標導向計劃成果報告中指出,科學教育常以小學中高 年級以上學生為對象,較不重視低年級階段,更忽略了幼稚圍階段,錯失培養 科學和態度的重要時期 。科學知識抽象難明,包括物理(地球)一向被認為不 適合學前兒童應當深入探討的科目,故此關於兒童對地球的迷思,特別是在香 港,相閥的研究很少 。 這也帶出了一些問題 「兒童在甚麼時候才適合學習科 學 7 J 17 世紀的洛克, 在反對 「天賦觀念j 的同時,提出了一個有名的論點, 即「白紙說j 。他指出 「我們可以假定人心如白紙, 沒有一切標記, 沒有一切 觀念 J (洛克 , 1981 ' 第 68 頁)。所以我們應反省是否低估了兒童的能力 , 從而一口咬定地球的科學概念與學前兒童完全無關? 研究目的及問題 本研究希望透過7解兒童對地球的迷思 ,從而制定一套關於地心吸力的有 效教學策略。而研究問題則包括 - 1 兒童對地球(形狀)的迷思是甚麼? 2 兒童對地球(地心吸力)的迷思是甚麼? 3 比較 「指向概念轉變的教學j 與 「教導式教學J '哪一種的教學策略更為有 效? 168 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 文獻;單詞 關鍵字的定義 迷思概念兒童進入課堂前就已在日常生活及以往的學習中形成了大量的經驗 。 這些經驗中有些與科學的解釋基本一致 ,有些與科學的解釋相違背,我們把這 些違背科學解釋的概念稱為迷思概念(徐傑、張俊、李青、馬柳新 , 2009) 概念轉變 是兒童對日常生活中已經形成的迷思概念,進行修正和改變的的過 程 ( Posner, 1982) 學者對見重地就知謎學習的不同觀點 關於兒童對地球的知識學習,兒童的樸棄理論有兩種看法 , 分別是一致的 (coherent) 或分散的 (fragmented ) 0 Marthe , Han & 8renda ( 2008 ) 的 研究透過紙筆測試 (paper-and-pencil test) ,收集大量數據,研究結果顯示 兒童對地球的知識會隨著年齡的增長而慢慢了解 , 這亦支持了兒童對地球的樸 素知識是分散的 。 所謂兒童的認識是零散的,是指兒童認識與知識之間是有關係的,不具內 哥哥|生(內在一致性) ,兒童之前和之後的說法可以是互相矛盾的, 認識沒有連 續性 。兒童的認識具有零散性,是不內眾的、不連貴的, 因而這額的研究並不 多見 。 DiSessa (參見 Reiner, et al., 2000 ) 曾指出,兒童的知識僅僅是一些 「碎 片J (knowledge in pieces ) , 是一些片段的搜集 ,鬆散地聯摟在一起的知識點 。 除此之外, 亦有學者持有不同的見解。近期關於兒童樸棄理論的研究表明, 兒童對周圍世界的認識有獨特的模式 。這些樸棄理論認為 「一個理論包含一系 列關於某一頭域實體 ,以及這些實體間關係的信念。理論尤其不同於其他類型 的心理表徵,理論是解釋性的,能夠回答為甚麼的問題J (鄧賜平等 , 2002 ' 第 23 頁)。也就是說 , 兒童關於物理 、心理 、生物的認識並不是零散的。相反, 兒童在各領域的知識,是相互聯繫地使用一系列概念 ,並根據這些「關係J 解 釋和預測周圍的各種現象 。因此本研究將會研究兒童對地球知識的習得 , 是分 散的或一致的 , 如果結果顯示兒童司透過一些教學策略能有概念上的轉變 , 亦 即證明兒童地球知識的獲得是一致的或不是零散的 。 教學策略 「指向概念轉變的教學J 乃相對於「教導式教學J '前者以兒童為中心, 教學活動是針對兒童的迷思概念設計的, 在教學過程中 , 教師尊重兒童並給予 充分展現其迷思概念的機會 ,既重視兒童與物的互動 ,也重視人際的互動 ,使 兒童通過與同伴和教師的交流,協調自己已有的信念 ,觀察多方面的事實證據 (徐傑、張俊、 李青 、 馬柳新 , 2009) 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 169 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 皮亞傑的觀點指出,兒童是通過與環境的相互作用而建構知識的。他 們不是等待命令 ,而是不停試圖弄清楚所面對的一切 ( Rosa li nd & Kar凹, 2003 ) 。 卡密 (Constance Kam ii) 也認同皮亞傑對兒童獲取知識的觀點, 他 認為孩子通過遊戲和不同的活動解決了他們思想構成挑戰的問題時,應該受到 獎勵,但過程中,孩子必須運用具體的材料去主動解決真正的問題 ( Rosalind & Karen, 2003) 另一方面 , 著名的教育學家布魯納亦提出 ,科學學習的策略一一發現學習, 其特徵是教師與學習者在探棄學習過程中的協助關係 , 學習者從探蒙中主動學 習活動。當學習者遇到學習的分歧點,他們要作出選擇思維,決定解決問題之 假設 , 總結所搜集之各種資料,繼而解決問題(陳峰津 , 1982 ) 總結以上的學習策略理論,這與研究中所運用的 「指向概念轉變的教學j 理念是一致的 , 兩者均著重兒童與人或環境之間的互動和交流,讓兒童主動觀 察 ,有完份探棄的機會 ,當中必須要有實物的操弄和探棄。 研究后法 一 . 研究對象 學校 國際英文幼稚圍 (九龍塘) 班級 .低班 年齡 4-5 歲 人數 4 人(貫驗組) 女 2 人 男 2 人 4 人 (對照組) 女 :2 人 男 2 人 二.研究過程 7解見童的迷思過程 首先透過半結構式的問題(附件三) ,以歸納兒童對地球形狀和地心吸 力的迷思,為彌補 4-5 歲兒童語吉表達上的不足,老師請兒童繪畫出地球的形 狀,人住的位置和天空的位置等(附件一)。另外, Georg旬, Gavin & Robin, 2006) 發現使用預設選擇題和立體模型選擇方法所得出的結果顯示,兒童對於 地球知識的理解更傾向科學性。所以,老師請兒童選擇預設選擇題(附件三) 和最接近對地球想法的立體圓形(附件四) ,從而了解他們對地球形狀的迷思 。 針對兒童對地球(地心吸力)迷恩的數學黨時 教學為期兩個星期 ,每星期兩堂 ,每堂半小時 。 研究員將研究對象分為實 驗組和對照組,兩組學生均進行 「問題訪談J 前測(附件三) 。 每組四人,性 別和組另IJ均以隨機抽籤形式決定。宣驗組的學生接受 「指向概念轉變的教學J 將其相對的教學稱為「教導式教學J 。 完成四堂後兩組學生均進行「問題選擇 和問題訪談J 的後測 。(附件五) 教學設計分四堂 ,每堂都會針對一個科學概念 , 逐步讓兒童達至對地心吸 力的概念轉變 。 當中教師會注重提問技巧和材料的準備,以增加兒童與教師、 兒童與兒童、以及兒童與物料之間的互動。四堂的目的如下 (1 )讓兒童親身感受地心吸力的影響 , (2 )透過光碟讓兒童了解地心吸力來自地球,地心吸力將地球上的所有事物 170 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 吸向地球, ( 3 ) 和 ( 4 ) 透過磁石實驗 ,讓兒童明白即使人居住在地球的下方亦不會跌下 的原因是地心吸力 (詳細教學內容請閱附件六)。其模型解釋如下圍所示 ‘三刻﹒ ~ J;j<.面姑 且為與i也f車 上不 同物件相吸 的磁石 。 真實的磁石實驗模型製作過程如下 在發泡膠球上貼滿 國釘,將報紙條用白 膠漿貼在球上,最後 塗上水彩 。 以硬卡紙繪 畫人形後剪 出,在底部貼 上磁石 。 -戶 一/ 人、屋和樹核型等的底部貼 上喝石 , 模型所用的物料不 能太重 。 (磁石之間的力代表地球的 .學乏, , 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 171 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 三.評量與分析芳法 違恩的評量方法 透過半結構式的問題訪談與繪畫後,從兒童的對話中歸納他們對地球的形 狀和地心吸力有那些迷思,然後初步統計不同迷恩的種類和人數。與形狀有關 的迷思歸納見表一 ,而與地心吸力有關的迷思歸納見表三。 地心曠力教學實峙的評量芳:垂 進行前測和後測,以分析和比較哪種教學策略有助兒童對地心吸力的概念 轉變。測試的工具分別會以 「問題選擇和問題訪談J 選擇進行 。 而測試問題會 在了解兒童地心吸力迷思的種類再歸納後才設立。若果宣驗組的兒童在進行 「指向概念轉變教學J 後,回答問題一(表三的實驗組)的答案為 8 (她不會 掉下來 , 因為地球有地心引力)的人數有明顯增加,另判、回答問題三的答案為 7 (球會掉到地球的中心)的人數亦有明顯增加,即表示 「指向概念轉變教學J 能幫助兒童對地心吸力的概念轉變。 研究結果 一 、 見童對地球(形狀)的迷恩 義一:以預設選擇117解兒童對地球形狀迷恩統計固 模式 間 中空的圓 扁平的地球 兩個地球 義二: 偏見畫選擇暈接近地球形狀的立體圓形統計固 選擇球體 .人數 人數 4 4 。 。 結果 此統計圖表示所有兒童在立體圓形的選擇中都選擇7球體,他們認為球 體是最接近地球的立體形狀 。 172 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 表三:以前蜂進一步7解兒童對地球形妝的迷恩統計圖 ﹒人在文 111 中立的因 兩個3也時已 二、見童對地球(地心明力)的遮恩 表四:兒童對地心引力的迷恩(在7解兒童地心吸力迷恩的種麵後歸納出的測 試問題) 實驗組 , 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面,她會不會掉下來? 前測(人數) 後淇IJ (人數) a . 她會掉下來, 掉到太空去 。 2 。 b 她不會掉下來 ,因為地球有電會吸住他。 。 c . 她不會掉下來, 因為人會 「黏j 住地球。 。 d 她不會掉下來 ,因為地球有地心引力 。 (正 。 4 確的地心引力概念) 問題 2 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩 ,丰持一個球。 如果她把球丟下 , 球 會到那兒? a . 球會掉到太空 。 。 b 球會掉到海襄 。 (兒童畫了一個國圈代表地 。球 ,在地球下畫7海) c . 球會掉到下面 。 (兒童畫了個圓形代表地球 , 。在圓形的下方畫7一條線代表地下。) d 球會掉到地球的中心 。(正確的地心引力概 4 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 173 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 對照組 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面 , 她會不會掉下來? 前測 (人數 ) 後測 (人數) a. 他不可以站在地球下面 ,因為如果這樣人的 。頭會朝下, 整個人反轉7 。 b 他會掉到金星,因為地球下一個星球是金星。 。 C. 他會掉到地上 。(兒童畫了 一個圓圈代表地 。 2 球 ,在地球下畫了一條線代表地上) d 他不會掉下來 , 因為他住在國家裊面 。 。 8 . 他不會掉下來,因為他住在屋襄。 。 f 他不會掉下來 (正確的地心引力概念) 問題 2 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩,丰持一個球。如果她把球丟下,球 會到那兒? a. 球會掉到太空 3 。 b 球會掉進屋裊 。 。 C . 他會掉到金星,因為地球下一個星球是金星 。 。 d 球會掉到地上 。(兒童畫了 一個國圈代表地 。 2 球 ,在地球下畫了一條線代表地上) 8 . 球會掉向地球的中心 。(正確的地心引力概 。 三、比較『指向攝念轉變的教學」輿「教導it教學J '哪一種的教學黨時更能 對見重地心咽力的概念轉變更為有數? 表五:比較實驗組和對照組對地心曙力概念轉變統計圖 5 4 高峰 S -< 2 1 。 地心吸力概念轉變統計圖 ---對!貝寧、組 ---實驗生且 結果 統計區中 , 對比實驗組和對照組的兒童概念轉變情況 ,實驗組中的四位 兒童在進行 「指向概念轉變教學j 後均能答出球會跌向地球中心(正確的地心 眼力概念)。相對於對照組的 「教導式教學j 只有一個兒童能達至地心吸力的 概念轉變。 由此可見, í指向概念轉變教學J 較 「教導式教學J 能更有效達至 地心吸力的概念轉變 , 意即是前者教學更為有效 。 174 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 討論與建議 一、兒童對地球(形妝)的迷恩 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 方法一 方法二 ﹒選擇正侈的地球形狀 方法三 方法一 . 預設選擇題, 方法三 立體圓形選擇,方法三 . 問題訪談 比較三種了解見童對地球形狀迷恩的方法,結果顯示方法一和三兒童選擇 的地球形狀更接近現宜。正如 Geo凹陷, Gavin & Rob i n 發現使用預設選擇題和 立體模型選擇方法,令兒童對於地球知識的理解更傾向科學性,同時亦發現兒 童對地球科學的認知較我們認為的更多。 在立體圖形選擇中 ,所有兒童均選擇最接近地球的形狀是球體。意即他們 認知到地球的形狀,可能是周遭的大人告訴他們的 。但與生活中他們所見的地 面是平坦的,推測地球應該是平的,這些的生活經驗與科學概念相違背時,造 成了他們對地球形狀的迷思。接看他們會合理化和意義化在認知上的衝突 ,而 產生他們心目中的地球的形狀與人的關係。 訪談內容, 老師.人住原地球邊度? {韋{韋.我住係香港。(兒童在地球上點出香港的位置) 老師.人可唔可以住但堪球下面? {韋{韋.可以 , 因為呢個襄邊有個國家。 老師.人如果住係呢{盟國家 , 人會唔會跌? 偉偉.唔會,因為垃球會包住佢。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 175 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 固一:地球是中宜的圍,人居住在下半球體的橫切面平坦盧 偉偉在合理化他對地球形狀的認知衝突 , 他畫了圓代表地球的形狀是圓 的 ,又將人畫在地球中心的平地上,以意義化生活經驗與認知的矛盾。 二、兒童對地球(地心吸力)的迷恩 兒童對人與地球關係的迷思 ì.原於他們缺乏對地心吸引力的認知,所以他 們會認為人是住在地球襄面 ,因為若地球是球體 ,人不能站立於地球的下方 , 在他們的生活經驗中 , 任何東西在球的下方是會跌下的。 由以上的研究所得,有 50% 的兒童認為人是住在地球襄面(參閱表一) 兒童有此一迷思 . Glynn & Yeany(1996) 解釋為兒童相信地球是空心球體 , 因 為他們不能理解人們如何能生活在球體底端而不掉落下去 ,和他們無法克服他 們先有概念地球是平的與地球是圓理念問矛盾。另一個造成迷恩的原因 , 是由 於他們暫時未能理解甚麼是地心引力 。 基於缺乏對地心吸力的認知, 然後透過 不同的教學活動再配合 「指向概念轉變的教學j 後,看看是否能讓兒童理解地 球的地心吸力。 了解地心吸力的訪談記錄. 老師. 人 可唔可以生活原地球下面? 頓頓 - 可以,茵為有問屋。 老師.咱揉揉場度有無屋。 頓頓.無。 老師 . 無屋都唔會跌,點解呢? 頤頤 ; 因為有平地就唔會跌。 老師.如果有個女仔企原地球下面 , 佢會唔會跌落黎? 頓頓 - 唔會,茵為有屋。 老師.如果個女仔手持個球 , 佢一放芋 , 球會點樣? 頓頓.個波波會跌落間屋度。 176 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 )....~、 、 主; \ 固二:見畫認為人住在屋聾,就可以住在地球的下方 三、比較『指向攝念轉變的教學j 輿『教導it教學 J '哪一種的教學實時更能 對見重地心吸力的攝念轉變更為有數 表五:比較實驗組和對照組對地心吸力攝念轉變統計圖 地心吸力概念轉變統計圓 5 4 緝 令 -< - 2 1 。 -H且也組 -一貸給他 由表五所得的結果, I教導式教學j 能更有效違至地心吸力的概念轉變, 即是此教學方法更為有效。正如布魯納 (Brune r, 1 96 1 ) 曾說過 「學生不是一 個被綁於椅條上的傾聽者,他應該是活躍地涉入學習過程中。 j 這視于我們有 否給予他們發現概念的機會 ,他認為任何時間先許之下 ,兒童應該給予機會讓 他們自己發現概念,容許學習者發現訊息與組織訊息是學習解決問題技巧所必 須的 (Cliatt & Shaw, 1992) 。這與 「指向概念轉變的教學j 的教學原則是一 致的。教學過程中的第一堂,我們已讓兒童感受地心吸力和其方向,再加上不 同的書籍、光碟和實驗,讓兒童有充分展現迷思概念的機會。 環境的配合也是教學有效的其中一個因素 ,正如皮亞傑的觀點指出,兒童 是通過與環境的相互作用而建構知識的 ( Rosali nd & Karen, 2003) 。兒童透 過地球儀、放大鏡和圖畫書等的環境刺激和互動,以建構地心吸力的知識。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 177 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 固三:見童正在標索地球儷上的不同國家,並在過程中討前曾經圭過的國家 四 、 對研究的融示和建讀 研究員在本學年有更多的時間與研究對象進行訪談,能更深入地了解兒童 對於地球形狀和地心引力的迷思,進一步制定有效的教學策略 ,所以足夠的研 究時間是相當重要的。 由於每一個地方的兒童認知有所差異 ,在應用其他研究 者的訪談問題時, 也要因應兒童的反應做調整, 例如大部份兒童不明白甚麼是 終點,即使回答也與問題完成無閥,也就是說即使開了也對該研究沒有幫助, 最後此問題應取消 。 實驗組 : 圖四 : 教學前所繪畫的地球 國五 : 學後所繪畫的地球 對照組 戶_-一 .、\" \" b \B 。能「 刊 國六 : 教學前所繪畫的地球 圓仁 : 教學後所繪畫的地球 178 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 比較國四和圓五, 見童在經歷 「指向概念轉變的教學J 之後, 對地球有更 多的了解 ,兒童能表達地球會發生的不同事情,例如有龍捲風和火山爆發 ,而 兒童所繪畫的方向都是符合地心吸力的方向和概念。 相較於 「教導式教學J 兒童對於地心吸力迷思仍然存在。另外,在教學的第一天讓兒童親身感受地心 吸力 ,有助兒童7解這項概念。兒童在訪談的過程中亦會運用先前所做的實驗 , 例子如下 , 兒童對地心吸力的訪談記錄 老師-人可唔可以生活原地球下面? 泰泰 : 可以。 老師.如果有個女仔企種堪球下面,佢會唔會跌落黎? 泰泰.唔會 , 因為有地心眼力。 老師.陣德地心吸力? 泰泰 : /1ß.豆子i以我堪跳起,就會被埋心眼力吸落黎。 五、對數學的融示和建鵬 在教學過程中,改善教學的第一步 , 便是老師必須明白 , 兒童對老師要教 授的東西會有不同的理解,於是老師的首要任務 , 便是要找出兒童對學習內容 不同的理解 , 然後再思考如何建構教學 ,讓兒童掌握新的知識。在是決研究中 , 老師首先透過繪畫、訪談問題、立體圓形選擇和選擇性問題,以了解兒童對地 球的形狀和地心吸力的迷思,從而制定有效的教學策略。其次,老師要放下對 兒童的框框 , 運用有效的提問引導他們思考。尤其是較為抽象的概念一一地心 吸力 , 老師就更需要有充足的耐性。老師本身除了要掌握所要教授知識的關鍵 屬性,也要明白兒童對於理解關鍵屬性存在的困難,這才能將地心吸力的概念 凸顯出來,再配合 「指向概念轉變的教學J 研究結果顯示這能有效達致地球地心吸力的概念轉變。如果有更寬足的資 源,可讓兒童有更多的親身經驗,例如帶他們到太空館,與幼兒一問閱讀更多 與地球有闊的圖書。或與他們一同觀看和討論地球光碟,進行更多地心吸力的 宣驗,亦有助兒童建構知識。 個蝕 11苟且且,,,U 透過 「指向概念轉變教學j 的教學策略 ,結果顯示能有效地改變 4-5 歲兒 童對地球(地心吸力)的概念轉變。也發現兒童對地球知識的學習是一致的 , 即能夠回答 「為甚麼J 的問題(鄧賜平等, 2002 ) 。這次的研究更進一步證宜 了,不應小看兒童對科學的熱愛和能力。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 179 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 書考,目 洛克 ( 1 981 ) 0 {人類理解論(上冊) }。 北京 , 商務印書館 。 徐傑 1割愛 、 李青、 馬柳新 (2009) <大班幼兒沉浮概念轉變的教學研究> . {幼稚教責﹒ 教育科學版} 0 2009 年第 01 期 。 險峰津 ( 1982 ) 0 {布魯納教育思想之研究》。畫灣商務印書館股份有限公司, 台北市 。 鄧賜平 、劉明 (2002 ) 0 <兒童認知發展研究的沿革與新發> .載弗拉維爾等 《認 知發展} (序第 5-32 頁 ) 。 上海 , 華東師範大學出版社。 Brewer, W. F., Hendrich , D. J. , & Vosniadou, S. (1987, January) . Alternate knowledge systems: A cross-cultural study of cosmological schemata. Paper presented at the second meeting of the International Society on Cross-Cultural Cognition , Honolulu. Bruner, J (1961). The act of discovery. HalVard Education Review, 31, 21-32 Clia哎, M. J P , & Shaw, J. M. (1992). He仰的9 children explore science. New York Macmillan Panag iotaki G., Nobes G, & Bane門ee R. (2006) Children' s representations of the earth: A methodological comparison , 8ritish Journal of Oevelopmental Psychology, 24, 353-372 Straatemeier M ,van der Maas H.L.J. & Jansen B.RJ. (2008): Children' s knowledge of the earth: A new methodological and statistical approach . Exp. Child Psychol Glynn, S.M., &Yeany, RH. (1996) 0 {科學學習心理學》。 台北市 ,心理出版社。 Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A. , Hewson P. W., et al.(1982) Accommodaton of a scienti fic conception : Toward a theory of conceptual change . Science Education, 1982, 66:211 -277 Reiner, M., Slotta , J. D. , Chi , M. T. H., & Resnick , L. B. (2000). Naïve Physics Reasoning : A commitment to substance-based concept ions, Cognition and Instructio月, 18, pp.1-34. Charlesworth R. & Lind K.(2003) 0 {兒童的數學與科學》。 新加坡,新加坡商亞洲湯 姆生國際出版有限公司 。 180 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 附件一 繪畫地球形狀 | 性別 ; 男/女 | 年齡 : 一一-歲一一個月 | 訪問者 : 1. 地球是甚麼形狀的?人住在地球的哪裡? 2 你能不能蓋一個地球,然後畫出人住在地球的哪裡? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 181 。。 。。 。 四至五鐵兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念、轉變 耐件二 訪談 : 有關地球形狀和地心吸力的迷恩 了解地球形狀主li恩的訪談問題 :. 地球是甚麼形狀呢?. 人們住在地球的甚麼地方呢?. 人們可住在地球的底部嗎? (如果兒童答可以,應繼續追問其原因。) • 如果你挖一個洞,貫穿地球,你會看到什麼?. 從這些棋型中逛一個與地球形狀相同模型(附件五的立體圖型) 。. 人們住在地球的哪邊?用你的模型指給我石﹒ 。 7解地球地心吸力迷恩的訪談問題 :. 人可以生活在地球的底部嗎?. 現在記著這是地球(展示地球儀) ,假設有一位女生站在地球底端,她會掉下去嗎?. 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩,手持者一個球 。 如果她鬆開手,球會到哪呢? (問題參考資料來源 : Brewer, Hendrich, & Vosniadou, 1987 ) 182 I 教育研究報告匯緝 。 。。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 附件三 選擇題 : 這裡有幾幅圖,你覺得哪一幅最接近地球的形狀? 1.地球是方的,人住在上面 2. 地球是碟子的形狀,人住在平面上 3. 地球是天上的球,人住在地上 4. 地球是為的球,人住在表面上 會 5. 地球是個球,人住在球的裡面 6. 地球是個球,人住在地球的表面 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 183 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 附件四 對地球想法的立體圖形 不同立體模型(請兒童選擇最接近地球的立體模型) (由上至下 、 左至右說明立體模型 : 長方體 、 上面和下面是平的立體 、 球體、 只 有上面是平的立體 、 像碟般的圓形模型 ) 184 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 附件五 見童對地心吸力的逃恩(在了解兒童地心吸力迷恩的種類後歸納出的測試問題) 實驗組 : 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面,她會不會摔下來? 前測(人數) 後測(人數) a 她會掉下來,掉到太空去。 2 。 b 她不會掉下來 ,因為地球有電會吸住他 。 。 c 她不會掉下來,因為人會 「黏」住地球 。 。 d 她不會掉下來,因為地球有地心引力 。(正確的地心引力概念) 。 4 問題 2: 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩,手持一個球。如果她把球丟下 ,球會到那兒? a 球會掉到太空 。 。 b 球會掉到海襄 。 (兒童畫了一個圓圓代表地球,在地球下蓋了 。 海) C. I求會掉到下面。(兒童畫7個圓形代表地球,在圓形的下方宣 。 7一條線代表地下。) d. 1求會掉到地球的中心 。 (正臨的地心引力概念) 4 對照組: 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面, 她會不會摔下來? 前測(人數) 後測(人數) a 他不可以站在地球下面,因為如果這樣人的頭會朝下,整個人 。 反轉了。 b 他會掉到金星,因為地球下一個星球是金星。 。 c 他會掉到地上 。 (兒童畫了一個圓圓代表地球,在地球下畫了 。 2 一條線代表地上) d 他不會掉下來,因為他住在國家里面。 。 e 他不會掉下來,因為他住在屋里 。 。 f 他不會摔下來(正碌的地心引力概念) 問題 2: 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩,手持一個球 。 如果她把球丟下,球會到那兒? a 球會掉到太空 3 。 b 球會掉進屋里 。 。 c 他會掉到金星,因為地球下一個星球是金星。 。 d. I求會摔到地上 。 (兒童畫7一個囡囡代表地球,在地球下畫了 。 2 一條線代表地上) e 球會綽向地球的中心 。 (正稚的地心引力概念) 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 185 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 附件六 教課 班級 ﹒ 低班 年齡 : 4-5 歲 人數 ﹒ 10 人 (實驗組) 10 人(對照組) 教學步膝 | 教學材料 第一堂 I 球 、 石頭 、 筆等 目的 . 撥兒童親身戚受地心吸力的影響和方向 1. 老師準備一個球 ,提問兒童當老師放手後, 球會怎樣?為甚麼? I 紙和筆 2. 老師可嘗試不同的物件做同樣的提問。是否在課室內物件才會向下跌 ? 在其他地方 , 會有同樣的結果嗎? (向兒童戚受地心吸力是無所不在) 3 . 老師請見童自行操弄此質驗。地點轉換為課室、操場和音樂室等 。 4. 待實驗後 , 老前提問 : f物件跌的方向是 ? J 5. 老師讓見童跳高後 , 最後會怎樣 ? (跌下)為甚麼? (再一次讓見童戚 受地心吸力亦影響人 , 同時戚受地心吸力的方向。當然兒童此時並不知 道 「地心吸力」的專有名詞。) 6. 老師請見童將實驗的結果繪畫出來。當中請兒童同時記錄物件跌下的方 向。 第二堂 I 光碟 目的 . 透過光碟撥兒童了解地心吸力來自地球 , 地心吸力將地球上的所有事 物吸向地球。 教學步路 : 1. 重浪兒童第一堂所戚受的地心吸力,提問兒童為甚麼物件總是向下跌 H尼? 2 . 老師繼續提問 : 如果不想令物件跌下有甚麼方法?將物件的重量提升後 提問同一問題。課室中的各樣物件均貼近地下 ,如何改變其方向 。 兒童 有機會需合力將桌子搬起。(讓兒童再一次戚受地心吸力和其方向,亦讓 見童戚受所有物件均受地心吸力的影響) 3 . 說兒童觀看光碟,光際內會提及所有人和物件都會受地球的地心吸力吸 5 1 。 第三/四堂 : 目的 . 透過磁石實驗,讓見童明白即使人居住在地球的下方亦不會跌下的原 因是地心吸力。 教學步膝 1. 老師展示地球棋型,將兩個人形紙板, 一個有貼磁石, 一個則沒有貼磁 石,分別放於地球棋型的下方,請見童觀察有甚麼不同 。 2 . 請見童親身{故此質驗,提問為甚麼其中一個人形紙恨不會跌下 。 3 . 請兒童親身戚受兩個磁石之間產生的磁力 。 (從而明白地心吸力如磁石 186 I 教育研究報告匯編 於人型和屋的 紙板棋型底部 貼磁石 地球棋型(巴貼 滿磁石) 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 般, 雖然看不見,但力仍存在。而且地心吸力比磁石的力大得多) ※準備物料時需留意人型的磁石面要與地球的磁石面相吸。(磁石兩面分別 會有相吸與排斥的力) ※間告角會放宜相關閏苦,讓兒堂可隨時閱讀。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 187 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 附件七 地心吸力的訪談記錄 前測 後浪。 對照組 學生一 地心吸力 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面 ? 翹翹 : 可以 。 要盡翹 : n宮會。 老師:如果有個女仔企徐地球下面,佢會唔會跌落 老師:如果有個女仔企像地球下面,佢會 黎? 唔會跌落黎? 翹翹:唔會,因為地球有地心吸力。 翹翹:唔會,因為有地心吸力 。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手,球會點樣? 老師: 11判奈地心吸力? 翹翹:跌落下面,外邊條太空。 翹翹:即f急地球會吸住個人,不會跌。 老師 : 老師在諜室示範放手後球會跌落遠? 老師:請畫出。 翹翹 : 地下 。 翹翹:地球地下有D吸力。 老師: 點解地球無跌去太空? 老師: 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手 , 翹翹 : 唔知。 球會點樣? 翹翹 : 波波會跌落地球既地下 。 (畫出地 老師 : 人可唔可以住條地球衰退? 球的地下 ,在國的線上 ) 擱翹 : 日吾可以 。 老師 : 地球有無海洋 ? 老師 : 點解唔可以? 翹翹 : 有。 翹翹 : 因為地球裳邊有火 。 老師 : 地球有無雲 ? 老師 : 人如果住條里邊會點? 翹翹除了地球的下方 , 其他地球的上方 要過翹 : 會燒死 。 都有雲。 老師 : 地球下面住了人, 抬頭見到甚麼 ? 翹翹 : 見到太空。 老師 : 如果下雨 , 商會落去邊 ? 如翹 : 落去地下 。 老師 : 點解金部部落去地 ? 翹翹 : 因為佢向住方向嘛。 老師 : 點解全部都向住地下 ? 翹摺 : 停了一會兒。 老師 :人住你地下 , 海、樹都{奈地球地下 條因為峰 ? 翹翹:地心吸力 。 188 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生二 老師 ﹒ 人可11吾可以生活條地球下面? 偉(章 , 可以,因為呢到有國家 。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面,佢會H吾會跌落 黎? (韋偉 : 日吾會 。 老師 :如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手 ,球會點樣? 偉偉 : 就有跌左地球下邊 , 如果一方手就會跌落呢 度(下邊)。 老師 :咐下邊停、時? 偉偉: 太空 ,一放手就會跌落去太空。 老師 ﹒ 點解人可以住條地球里面 ? 偉偉 ﹒ 地E求你天空上邊,所以人就可以住條主黨邊 。 偉(章 , 人住係地球地下的屋 。 老師 : 佢真條住你呢度會點?之前人可以住你人既 下面,依家人點解唔可以住f奈地球上面? 偉偉 : 因為佢m包住野,佢咐撥就會昀11低 。佢條腳 你下邊,頭條上遍 。 (繪畫畫了頭頂看地 E求) I頁個地球上去。 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 偉偉 ﹒ l事會。 老師 , 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ,佢會 唔會跌落黎? 偉偉 : 唔會,因為佢條地球人遍。 老師 : 人單既意思、既條呼? {剝奪 地球里邊 。 老師 , 如果女仔企條里邊就唔會跌 ? 偉偉 . 像。 老師 : U甘如果女仔條地球下邊會唔會跌? 偉偉 ﹒ 啊(表現奇怪的眼神) ,唔會。 老師 ﹒ 點解H吾會 ? 偉偉 ﹒ 即f寄:似呢個咐。 老師 , 即條佢企企餘, 反轉 ? 偉偉 : 像。 老師 : 佢企企條點綴皮串串? 偉偉 ﹒ 咐就會跌落去 。 老師如果佢企條地球下遷就會跌落去。 偉偉 , 像。 老師 ; 如果個女仔手持個球, 佢一放手, 球會點樣? 偉偉 . 會跌,跟住會上返。 老師 點樣上返? {韋偉 ﹒ 沒有回應 。 老師:咱如果女仔放手,個波波會點? 偉偉:會跌左落去 。 老師:跌去邊? 偉偉:地球下一個星球條峰? 老師:好似像火星。 偉偉:會彈落火星 , 又彈落水星 , 彈黎彈 去。 老師:如果像個曙彈既j皮波 , 咐個波渡會 跌去邊? {韋偉:會跌去火星,跟住就停左像度。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 189 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 學生三 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 頓頓 :可以, 因為有間置。 老師:明你操場度有無屋? 頤頤 : 無。 老師:無屋都唔會跌,點解呢? 頤頤:因為有平地就唔會跌? 老師:如果有個女仔企{奈地球下面,佢會唔會跌落 黎? 頤頤 : 唔會,因為有屋。 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手,球會點樣? 頤頤 : 個波波會跌落間屋度 。 (在科學性的選擇題中,頤頤避了地球的形狀似波 波,而人住在地球里邊。) 190 I 教育研究報告匯編 老師 :人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 頤頤 : (遲疑 。 ) 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 , 佢會 唔會跌落黎? 頤頤 : 你間屋里邊就得 。 老師:如果你地球下邊,人會唔會跌落 去? (老師繪盡了一個人在地球的底端) 頤頤 : 如果有地下就可以 。 老師﹒哦,如果呢到有地下 ,佢可唔可以 企f涂地下? (兒童表示在園形(地 球)的下方有條線代表地下) 頤頤 :佢就跌地下 ,跟住企返起身。 老師 .餅、哦,佢跌落地下 , 跟住企返起身 就無事l啦? 老師 : 呢個地球, 下面就有個地下。 頤頤 : 係啊 。 老師 :如果策,個地下,佢會跌去邊呢? 頤頤 :會跌去好危險既地方。 老師 : {象嘩地方咐危險? 頤頤 : 唔知道 。 老師:咱可唔可以企像上面? 頤頤 : 會碌走左 。 老師:咐企條則邊得唔得? 頤頤 : 會(滑)在落去。 老師:會(滑〕去遠? 頤頤 :跌去好危險既地下。如果下邊有地 下 ,佢就會(清〕左地下 ,跟住企 返起身就無事 。 老師. 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手 , 球會點樣? 頤頤 :球會跌落地下。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生四 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面中 元元 : 唔可以,人會反峙 。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 , 佢會日吾會跌落 黎 ? 元元 : 唔會。 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手,球會點樣? 元元 : 地下(畫了在圓形面 , 畫了一條線代表地下 ) 老師 : 除了地下 ,地球上有無海洋 、 有無樹、有無 屋? 元元 : 有。 老師 : 屋會唔會跌 ? 元元 : 唔會 , 因為地球會黏穗 , 黏穩樹 、 海。 老師 : U甘會唔會黏住元元? 元元 : 會 。 老師 : 點解選第 67 元元 : 因為人住你上邊 。 老師 : 會唔會住條里邊? 元元 : 因為你見到地球個肚胸好大 , 跟住你就會走 開。 老師 : 你住條真邊,見1I吾到地球肚惘,咐仲會l嘻會 驚肚胸? 元元 : 因為你見到路 , 就會跌落天空。 老師 : 天空條邊 7 (老師蓋在地球的周固有天空, 兒童點頭)周圍都有天空。 元元 : (點頭) 老師 : 噹樣成個天空包住地球? 老師 : 咐條、可唔可以站在地球的另一方,他會見到 天宣嗎 ? 元元 : U甘樣就會跌落地下,就會撞到暈左啦 ! 老師 : 咽地下係遠 ? (元元在地球的下方畫了一條線代表地下 ) 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 元元 , 唔可以。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 , 佢會 H吾會跌落黎? 元元 : 會跌 , 跌落地下(在表示地球的下 方 , 畫了一條線代表地下) 老師 . 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手, 球會點樣? 元元 ; 呢度。 老師 固 地球下方你睜地方? 元元 ﹒ H吾知。 老師 ﹒ 可唔可以企條呢度? 元元 , 因為坐條到可以好舒服。 老師 : 如果呢到你人,雲會條邊度?請你 畫出黎 . . .. 老師 :人可唔可以企條呢度 7(地球上方) 元元可以。 老師 . 咐可唔可以企條則退 。 元元 - 可以。 老師 : 點解可以? 元元 - 因為地球會黏住 。 老師 ﹒ 咱可11吾可以企你呢到 ? 元元 ﹒ 唔可以。 老師 - 點解唔可以?呃個成個都條地球, u尼個可以黏住,點解H吾可以黏住呢 個人 7 (地球底端的人) 元元 : 因為你蹲在頭 , 你個頭{奈地下呢 度。 老師 . 條唔像個頭會跌落地下? 元元 - 像啊。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 191 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 實驗組: 學生五 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 穎穎 : 唔會。 穎穎:唔可以,因為會跌落去 。 老師:如果有個女仔企條地球下面,佢會 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面,佢會唔會跌落 唔會跌落黎? 黎? 穎穎: 0吾會 , 因為有地心吸力。 穎穎:會跌落去 SPÞI白 。 老師:地心吸力條點,點樣吸住? 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手,球會點樣? 穎穎:會吸住我地腳。 穎穎 : 球會跌落去下邊 , 會碌落下邊,跟住跌落 老師 . 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手, SPACE 度。 球會點樣? 老師 . 有無見過 SPACE? 穎穎 : 會跌去太空。(畫了圈以外的地方 穎穎 : 像黑,有地球,像圓形,有邊圍住 。 是太空) 老師 - 你可唔可以畫出黎。 老師 :咐地心吸力吸唔吸到波波? 穎穎 : (畫7個士星。 ) 穎穎 : 吸H吾到。 老師 : (指苦地球儀)呃個條地球,藍色條代表時? 老師 : 咱之前我地做過實驗 , 手拿若波波 綠色代表峰 ? 一放手,波波會跌去邊? 穎穎 . 藍色代表海,綠色代表士地。 穎穎 : 跌去地下。 老師 : 人可唔可以站在土地上面? 老師 : 地球個地下你還 ? 請你畫出黎。 穎穎 : 可以 。 老師 : 咐仲會日吾會跌落太空? 老師 ﹒老師指君:地球上邊的土地間 ,人可11吾可以住 穎穎、 : 0吾會, 因為. ..... f和尼個土地 。 老師 : 咱人口吾會跌落太空,條因為呼? 穎穎 ; 可以。 穎穎 : 因為地心吸力 。 老師 , 指智地球不同位宜的綠色部份(問兒童)人 老師 : 咐波波跌落地下你因為暐? 可唔可以站立? 穎穎部條因為地心吸力 。 穎穎 ; 可以。 老師 . 咐建築物會l事會跌落太空? 老師 , 形容呢個條地球 , 周國仿:你先前形容的 穎穎 : 0吾會,因為地心吸力。 SPACE' 人可唔可以站立在地球的下方? 老師 : 咐樹/海洋/火山? 穎穎 : 唔可以 。 穎穎 : 因為地心吸力 。 老師 : 地心吸力可以吸住所有野? 穎穎 : 你啊。 老師 ﹒ 咐如果個女仔放手,個波波會l嘻會 跌蒞太空 。 穎穎 : 0吾會,因為地心吸力。 192 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生六 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 明明 : 可以。 老師:如果有個女仔企{奈地球下面 , 佢會唔會跌落 黎? 明明 : 唔會,會 。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球 ,佢一放手 ,球會點樣? 明明 : 波波會跌落海 , 因為無人住,就會聽落去海 。 老師 : 人點解可以黏住地球,有無膠水? 明明 : 因為佢既腳會黏住地球 。 老師:人站在下邊時,人一放手,球會跌去邊? 調研 : 球會跌落海度 。 (明明繪畫 : 圓圓代表地球 , 人在地球下方 , 圓圓 下方有海 , 球會跌落海度 。 當問及先前兒童說地球上的藍色部份代表海洋 , 而 此時又將海洋蓋在地球的下方峙,兒童不懂得回 答 。 ) 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 明明:唔可以 。 老師:如果有個女仔企f余地球下面,佢會 唔會跌落黎? 明明:唔會,因為有地心吸力。 老師 : 峰條地心吸力? 明明 : 吸住人。 老師:峰都可以吸? 明明:水、建築物、山。 老師 : 所有野? 明2月:你。 老師 . 如果個女仔手持個球, 佢一放手, 球會點樣? 明明 ﹒ 地下。 老師 ﹒ 地下你遠? 明明 ﹒ 呢度1奈地下(在代表地球的圈遷 , 蓋了紋代表地下。即女孩站立的位 置) 老師 : 會唔會飛出去 ? 明明 ﹒ 唔會 。 老師 點解唔會? 明明 : 因為有地心吸力。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 193 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 學生t 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 撤銷:唔可以,因為會跌。 老師:如果有個女仔企條地球下面,佢會唔會跌落 黎? 錦姆:會 , 跌落地下。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球 ,佢一放手,球會點樣? 鐵鉤 : 會跌落地下。(指著課室的地下,然後解釋 球一方手 , 是會跌落地下) 194 I 教育研究報告匯編 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 織餓 : 唔會。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 , 佢會 唔會跌落黎? 磁鐵 : 唔會 , 因為有地心吸力。 老師 ﹒ 峰f余地心吸力? 錦姆 : 就像有野吸住。 老師 : 地心吸力黎自邊度? 姆姆 : 黎自入邊的地方 。 老師 : 邊度地方?地球入邊? 鐵鐵 : 唔(點頭)。 老師 . 咐除左人仲. . . .. . 餓餓 : 羊 、 牛. .. ... 老師 : 所有動物? 甜甜 : 樹 、 屋 、 小既動物、食物、車 、給 老師 : 咐紙呢? 餓餓 : 都會吸住 。 老師 : 所有野都可以? 站站 ﹒ 唔(點頭) 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球, 佢一放手 , 球會點綴? 餓做 ﹒ 會跌落地下 。 老師 ﹒ 點解可以跌落地下? 蹦蹦 : 因為有地心吸力吸住 。 老師 : 如果手上拿住蘋果,放手會點樣? 餓餓 . 會跌落地下 ,因為地心吸力 。 老師:如果手上拿若杯水,放手會點樣? 蹦蹦跌落地下 。 老師 . 地心吸力過水都可以吸住? 餓餓:唔。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生八 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 泰泰:唔得 。 老師 :如果有個女仔企條地球下面 , 佢會唔會跌落 黎? 泰泰:會跌落去太空 。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球 ,佢一放手,球會點樣? 泰泰:波波會跌落太空度。 老師 : 太空f寄:邊? 泰泰 : 地球的周圍條太宜。 老師人可唔可以住條太空 ? 泰泰 : 唔得,太窒無床無玩具,~電腦 。 老師 : (老師在諜室示範放手後球會跌落地下 , 沒 有跌向太室。) 泰泰人一放手, 一放手就會中。個直跌去太空 , 人(主{奈地球里邊,有個臣就會跌去太室。 老師 : 條線代表呼? 泰泰 : 條線代表陸地,放手就會跌去陸地。(繪畫 : 圓閻代表地球,人在地球里邊 , 在自己的腳 下查7一條線代表陸地。) 老師 ﹒ 地球里邊有時~? 泰泰 : 地球里邊有削I~以L ' 同埋樹 。 老師 :人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 泰泰 : 可以。 老師 ﹒如果有個女仔企f奈地球下面,佢會 曙會跌落黎? 泰泰 : 唔會 , 因為有地心吸力 。 老師 : [洋條地心吸力? 泰泰 ﹒ 即好似我地跳起,就會被地心吸力 吸落黎。 老師 : 地心吸力仲會吸住呼? 泰泰 : 例如車 , 全部野會被吸住。 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球,佢一放手, 球會點樣? 泰泰 : 會跌去太空。 老師 : 咱如果條課室 , 一放手波會跌落 邊? 泰泰 : 地下。 老師 : 咐地球既地下1年遊? 泰泰 : (在地球的圍上宣7一條線代表地 下 。 ) 老師 : 今次波波會跌去追 ? 泰泰:地球既地下。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 195 。。 。。 196 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 香港教師中心教育研究小組於 200 1 年開始推行教育研究獎 勵計劃(獎勵計劃) ,目的在於鼓勵和支持前線教師進行教學行 動研究及教育研究 , 加強自我反思能力和創造力 。獎勵計劃既鼓 勵中 、小學教師積極研究外,更希望幼兒教育的教師主動參與, 推動幼兒教育 。 為鼓勵更多教師進行行動研究,獎勵計劃鼓勵教師自定研究 主題,成功申請並在指定時間內完成的研究計畫1] ,經教育研究小 組審批研究報告,可獲獎勵金以資鼓勵。此外,獲教育研究小組 選為優秀的作品,將輯錄於《教育研究報告匯編} ,作為教育界 同工的交流與分享之用。 有關研究獎勵計劃的詳情,教師可參閱香港教師中心網頁 Chttp://www.edb.gov.hk/hktc ) ,或致電 3698 3698 向本中心職 員查詢。 香港教師申,已諮詢管理委員會 (2012-2014 年度) 教育研究小組 召集人 : 楊沛銘博士 小組成員 : 鄭敵然先生 張佩嫻女士 招祥麒博士 賴炳華先生 李少鶴先生 李宏宰先生 梁秀婷女士 李志霖先生 徐國棟博士 徐慧旋女士 黃金耀博士 。 。。 197 。o () 198 香港教師申,已諮詢管理委員會 (2010-2012 年度) 教育研究小組 召集人 : 楊沛銘博士 小組成員 : 朱國強先生 張佩嫻女士 趙丹琳女士 趙淑媚女士 莊聖謙先生 莊月華女士 何頌賢先生 李少鶴先生 李宏宰先生 利耀雄先生 洗儉恆先生 黃炳文博士 黃金耀博士 徐慧旋女士 編輯委員會 主編 : 楊沛銘博士 委員 : 張佩柵女士 鄭傲然先生 梁秀婷女士 李宏宰先生 李少鶴先生 李志霖先生 徐慧旋女士 徐國棟博士 黃金耀博士 。 。。 199
Category: Documents3 目錄 編者的話 ...............................................................................................................................5 中學 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 ..........................................6 勞工子弟中學 鄧耀南(主要研究員) 黃麗燕、岑嘉慧、盧顯珺、廖穎茹、黃潔萍(其他研究員) 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 ..........................................................................41 五育中學 吳善揮 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong..............................................................63 Caritas Tuen Mun Marden Foundation Secondary School Kwun-hung Li To know is not to use: the gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing .................................................81 S.K.H. St. Simon' s Lui Ming Choi Secondary School Bronson Hui University of Oxford Daniel Fung Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students ............................................................................105 HHCKLA Buddhist Leung Chik Wai College Selena T. C. Tam & Dr. Eva Chiu 小學 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 ..........................................131 鳳溪第一小學 吳麗琴、李佩霞、陳小敏、馬望寧 香港教育大學 何志恆博士 幼稚園 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 .........................149 香港教育大學滙豐幼兒發展中心 張曄(主要研究員)、黎培莉、關珊(其他研究員) 5教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 編者的話 編者的話 香港教師中心教育研究小組收到參與「教育研究獎勵計劃2014/15」 的研究報告超過十篇。編輯委員會從中選出七篇刊登於《教育研究報告 匯編》。本年度的研究範圍相當廣泛,包括透過合作學習提升學生的課 堂參與、把朗讀劇場融入文言文教學,以至透過電子教學平台提升學生 辨析修辭手法的能力等。 整體來說,參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題,先進行 文獻探究,再提出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分 析,再作出結論和建議,最後以系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來。研 究報告反映他們在文獻比較和數據分析方面,都有相當深入和精闢的見 解,對學生的學習問題,以及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的討論, 並提出具體可行的建議。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與「教育研究獎勵計劃」的同工,在有 限的時間及經驗下,仍然全力以赴,成功完成整項研究計劃。他們為提 升教育質素所付出的努力,值得讚賞。我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品,均 能夠為課堂學習提供實際而深入的分析基礎,並闡釋當中行之有效的方 法。讀者可以多參考研究報告的建議,應用在日常教學工作,進一步優 化教學的效能。我們更希望這些報告能啟發同工就相關的課題,展開更 多、更全面的研究。本人亦謹此向《教育研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致 意,感謝他們在百忙中抽空審閱各篇研究報告。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持,本小組定能持續推動教育研 究,鼓勵教師進行更深入和持續性的教育研究,不斷提升教學效能和質 素。他山之石,可以攻玉。期望各位讀者對《教育研究報告匯編》內的 文章提出意見,相互交流,集思廣益。 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 2016 年 12 月 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 6 教育研究報告匯編 透過合作學習提升 中一級學生課堂參與的 教育行動研究 鄧耀南 ( 主要研究員 ) 黃麗燕、岑嘉慧、盧顯珺、 廖穎茹、黃潔萍 ( 其他研究員 ) 勞工子弟中學 摘要 不少學術研究都發現,合作學習不單能有效提升學習動機,使學 生積極參與課堂討論,亦能提升學生的學業成績 (Arends, 2004;Jacob, 1992, 1999;Johnson 及 Johnson 等,2000;Slavin, 1990, 1995, 1999;黃政 傑及吳俊憲等 , 2006)。本行動研究目的是探討合作學能否有效促進學生 的學習動機和課堂參與,並進而提升學生的學業成績。研究小組透過質 化與量化相結合的混合研究策略,除了有系統地運用問卷調查、訪談、 文件分析及課堂觀察等多元化方法來進行本行動研究之外,更在資料來 源(教師、學生等)方面採取三角校正,以進一步提升研究的信度和效 度。研究結果發現中一級學生透過合作學習,在短短四個月,其學習動 機和課堂參與都得到明顯的提升,而學生在通識、中文、數學及英文科 的學業成績亦得到不同程度的提升。 研究背景和目的 課程發展議會於 2002 年公布了《基礎教育課程指引-各盡所能 ‧ 發揮所長(小一至中三)》,而課程改革在過去十年取得不少成就、優 勢和經驗,而學校在這十多年課改中的主要進展,包括學與教範式的轉 移,即教師更注重提供機會讓學生參與學習,並體現了從教師主導轉移 向以學生為本的學與教範式(課程發展議會,2014)。然而,本校雖然 有七十年的歷史,但在教學上仍以教師主導為主,學生在課堂上的學習 動機和課堂參與都偏低,亟待改善。從 2014 年持分者問卷數據反映不 同持分者包括教師、家長和學生本身都認同學生對學習的觀感偏低。在 數據為本的基礎下,本校《2014-2017 三年發展計劃》的其中一個重要 關注事項便是推動教學範式轉移,即推動各科的課堂教學模式由講授式 (老師主講學生多聽)轉移至體驗式(老師少講學生多做);並透過合 作學習策略的運用將學生的學習逐步由被動式學習轉移至參與式學習。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 7教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 我們相信合作學習只是衆多教學策略的其中一種,它絕不是最好, 更不是唯一的教學策略。鄧耀南曾明確指出在設計任何課堂教學時,首 要考慮的是適當教學目標的釐定 ( 包括學習及過程目標 ),而不單只是 教學策略的考慮。我們應根據不同的教學目標去設計相應的教學策略, 而絕不應該片面地及機械地運用某一類教學策略 ( 例如合作學習 ),否 則就容易出現誤用及濫用的情況 ( 鄧,2012)。 我們深信前綫老師能明白學生的學習需要,亦最瞭解學生的已有知 識基礎和最能拿揑適切的教學目標。故任何人在未充份考慮學校文化脈 絡、課室實際環境、老師的專業發展配套、學生的教育需要及具體的課 程和教學目標下,便聲稱某一個教學策略是最好的,「鼓勵」甚至由上 而下地「指令」老師在課堂中「必須採用」某個教學策略的話,這不單 違反教師發揮教學專業判斷的重要原則,亦對促進學生的有效學習未必 有實質的幫助。 然而,我們為什麽決定要推行合作學習呢 ? 這個決定主要是建基於 學生學習需要的考慮。事實上,2014 年 11 月初的先導訪談結果顯示, 本校中一級學生的課堂參與並不理想,這和老師常用的講授式教學策略 及課堂上缺乏參與機會有關。因此,藉著今次教育研究獎勵計劃,我們 成立「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」行動研究小組,在中一 級中文、英文、數學及通識課堂引入合作學習,並在「教學策略」、「小 組常規」和「課堂環境」三方面作出調整,希望透過合作學習,首先改 善學生的學習動機和課堂參與,再進而提升學業成績。此乃本行動研究 的目的。基於以上的構思,本行動研究訂立了一道探究問題 : 本校中一 級學生能否透過合作學習,提升其學習動機、課堂參與和學業成績 ? 文獻析評 很多研究都證明合作學習能提升學習成效 (Slavin,1990,1995)。 Jacob 在 1992 年的研究結果顯示,教師和學生在合作學習過程中變得 更為主動、有創造力、理解、探究、具冒險精神及喜愛上課 (Jacob, 1992)。Slavin 的研究亦指出教師在教學過程中善用合作學習的結果,不 單使學生在讀、寫及語文等方面的學習出現明顯的進步,也促使家長和 教師們均十分支持這樣的教學方式,其中最顯著的情況是大多數學生 能培育出熱愛學習的態度,並獲致具體的學業成就 (Slavin,1999)。合 作學習成為課堂教學中經常使用的學習策略,尤其深受中、小學教師 所喜愛,同時被公認為教育改革中最成功的項目 (Jacob,1999;Slavin, 1999)。Arends 亦認為合作學習能完成小組共同的學習目標,包括:提 升學習成就、學會包容及接納的態度及發展良好的社交技巧 (Arends, 2004)。事實上,Arends 在 2004 年曾綜合分析 45 篇有關於合作學的研究, 發現其中有 37 篇都是明顯地指出,運用合作學習比一般學習方式更能 有效提升學生的學業成就,另外 8 篇則發現與一般的學習方式沒有太大 的差別,但沒有任何一篇相關研究顯示合作學習會為學生的學習帶來負 面影響 (Arends,2004)。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 8 教育研究報告匯編 黃政傑及吳俊憲 (2006) 曾就台灣有關合作學習的不同研究成果作出 了綜合分析 (meta-analysis),指出運用合作學習確能提升學生學習成效, 並表示合作學習是可行的一種教學 ( 或學習 ) 策略或方法,值得推廣和 落實。實施合作學習帶來的其中一些成果包括能提升學業成績,例如相 關學科或學習領域知識和技能的掌握;增進弱勢學生學習成效及促進正 面的學習態度,即能有效提升學習動機,使學生喜愛上課,並願意積極 及主動參與課堂討論 ( 黃政傑及吳俊憲,2006)。由此可見,「合作學 習」不單具有實證研究基礎,更是經實踐驗證的有效教學策略 (Johnson 及 Johnson 等,2000)。 研究方法 本研究是教育行動研究。研究小組基於 Lewin(1946,1948)和 Kemmis(1981,1982)規劃、行動、觀察和反思的行動研究精神,及參 照 Sagor(2006)所提倡的選擇一個焦點明確理論確定研究問題 收集數據分析數據報告結果採取明智的行動之行動研究模 式來開展的。 由於受到人力資源及時間所限,是次的研究對象只聚焦於中一級三 班共 113 位學生,年齡為 12 至 13 歲。至於搜集資料的方法,則是採取 質化與量化相結合的研究方法,包括:1. 透過量化問卷調查,了解學生 在本行動研究前後,在課堂參與及學習動機上的轉變;2. 對學生的個別 質化訪談,深入了解實施合作學對學生的課堂參與及學習動機所帶來的 影響;3. 將中一級學生在中文、英文、數學及通識科在上學期考試成績 與下學期考試成績作出比較,以了解實施合作學對學生學業成績的影響 和變化;4. 教師量化問卷調查和質化訪談,了解教師對實施合作學的評 價、觀感、觀察及意見; 5. 共同備課、同儕觀課及發展性評課的參與和 課堂實地觀察,以互相印證從學生問卷調查、老師意見調查、老師訪談、 學生訪談及文件分析 ( 包括教案、教材及考試成績 ) 所得的研究資料。 為了確保研究的信度和效度,除了在研究方法(問卷調查、訪談、 文件分析和觀察等)及資料來源(教師、學生等)方面採取三角校正外, 在整理和分析資料階段,研究小組亦邀請了小組以外的教師和學生代 表,共同審視研究資料與研究報告。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 9教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 行動研究計劃進度 基於校本情況,並配合是項獎勵計劃的時間表,行動研究小組按照 以下的工作進程來推展本行動研究。大致而言,2014 年 11 月至 2015 年 1 月是研究的計劃期;2015 年 2 月至 5 月是實施期,過程中會有系統地 收集評估數據,並持續地作出檢討和改進;而由 2015 年 6 月至 8 月,研 究小組總結與反思是項教育行動研究的得失,並撰寫成書面報告,呈交 教師中心。基於行動研究的精神,本校在等待教師中心評審本研究報告 的同時,已逐步把是項行動研究擴展至中二級實施。 表 1 行動研究進程及時間表 階段 時間 研究事項 先導訪談 2014 年 11 月 了解中一級同學在課堂參與及學習動機的情 況。 計劃 2014 年 11-12 月 中一級四個核心科的科任老師、教務組成 員、副校長共同討論是否參與本計劃;其後, 正式成立研究小組,著手分析中一級學生先 導訪談結果,以取得初步的基線資料,並遞 交申請表格參加研究獎勵計劃。 2014 年 12 月 - 2015 年 1 月 待教師中心審批的同時,研究小組進一步探 討落實本研究計劃的可行方法,並初步擬訂 相關「學生問卷」,期望有助完善本研究計 劃(參閱附件一)。 實施與 評估 2015 年 2-5 月 研究小組根據上述的研究計劃,正式開展本 行動研究;研究計劃正式在改善「教學策 略」、「小組常規」和「課堂環境」三個方 面進行調整;過程中根據上文所提及的研究 方法,有系統地搜集各類研究數據,藉此得 以持續地評估計劃並作改善實踐之用。以冀 發揮進展性評估的效益。 總結與 反思 2015 年 6 月 研究小組總結及反思整個研究計劃的得失, 以助將來進一步完善相關的策略與措施。 2015 年 7-8 月 研究小組依據本獎勵計劃的要求,撰寫書面 報告,並於 8 月底呈交教師中心。 下一輪 研究 2015 年 9-12 月 等待評審研究結果的同時,本校將基於行動 研究的精神及首輪行動研究的經驗及其後檢 討、反思的結果,逐步把合作學習擴展至中 二級實施。如果時間與人力資源許可,本校 亦將持續地參與未來的獎勵計劃,以冀透過 循環不息的教育行動研究,達至持續改善, 並擴大教育成果的目的。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 10 教育研究報告匯編 基於上述的校本情況和學生背景,以及本研究所定下的研究目的和 研究問題,研究小組從以下三個層面(「教學策略」、「小組常規」和 「課堂環境」來推動中一級合作學習先導計劃。 在教學策略方面,主要研究員在校內前後舉行了三次有關合作學習 的校本工作坊,除了介紹合作學習的定義、優點、限制,並重點介紹了 合作學習最常用的六個教學策略 : 包括「數字頭」 (Numbered Head)、「閱 讀及相互解釋二人組」(Read and Explain Pair)、「獨思、配對、分享」 (Think- Pair- Share)、「圓桌輪流寫」(Round table)、「三步採訪」(Three-step interview) 及「拼圖法第二代」(Jigsaw II)。研究小組與中一級老師合作, 就著教師在中一級日常教學中所面對的問題,先進行共同備課,然後由 其中一位教師進行第一輪教學,其他教師則共同參與觀課,並於課後進 行同儕式發展性評課,除了肯定教師的良好教學實踐之外,亦力求改善 課程內容和教學的安排及合作學習教學策略的運用,以便實施第二輪教 學。如此循環往復地進行了三輪的備課、觀課和評課活動,中一級四個 科目在四個月內前後總共進行了八個學習圈。 圖 1: 中一合作學習計劃學習圈的運作流程 在訓練學生小組常規方面,我們於 2014 年 7 月中的新中一英語學 習銜接課程按同學在中一入學試中、英、數的平均分,進行排序,再按 性別進行異質分組,並將 4 人小組組員的角色分配為組長、總書記、匯 報員及大總管。在 8 月尾進行的中一迎新課程,除了教授合作學習基本 常規,例如「開始手號」及「停止手號」之外,並透過教師講解、片段 展示和個別示範去教導中一學生如何在 4 秒內由 2 人小組轉變為 4 人小 組的座位安排,能夠快而靜地達標的小組獲 1 個「小組學習龍虎榜」的 積點。我們透過組名和學習歷程案檔的設計來促進合作學習小組的形 成,並透過「反思咭」、「讚賞咭」及「小組承諾書」的運用來促進「小 組反思及展望」。此外,所有學習活動都以合作學習的形式來進行,讓 中一學生能熟習合作學習的教學策略及常規之餘,亦同時培養學生的小 組社交技巧和匯報能力。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 11教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 在課室環境方面,我們從新規劃中一級課室的硬件安排,以方便合 作學習的實施。除了設計了小組座位安排之外,亦購置了小組文具、 計時器和設計了「反思咭」、「讚賞咭」、「小組學習龍虎榜」(Bonus Point)、「小組承諾書」及「合作學習守則」等(參閱附件二)。 研究分析及結果 本研究小組經過四個月的實踐和研究,並基於問卷調查、訪談、文 件分析及課堂觀察的結果,得知中一級學生在學習動機和課堂參與方面 出現了以下的轉變。在學習動機方面,實施了合作學習之後,中一級學 生對「我覺得上課是一件有趣的事」及「我樂意參與老師要我進行的課 堂活動」的認同感大幅提升。在「我覺得上課是一件有趣的事」的意見 上,同意的百分比 ( 即完全同意 + 大部分同意,下同 ) 由前測的 21.9% 大幅上升至後測的 67.2%,不同意的百分比 ( 即完全不同意 + 大部分不 同意,下同 ) 則由 34.1% 大幅下降至 8.9% ( 見表二 )。在「我樂意參與 老師要我進行的課堂活動」的意見上,同意的百分比由 33.8% 大幅上升 至 73.4%,不同意的百分比則由 43% 大幅下降至 5.4% ( 見表三 )。由此 可見,在實施合作學習之後,大部分中一級學生都認為上課是一件有趣 的事,並進而樂意參與老師要同學進行的課堂活動。學生問卷的分析結 果與學生訪談的結果脗合,合作學習能有效地提升學生的學習動機。 表二 中一級學生對「我覺得上課是一件有趣的事」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 0.0% 21.9% 44.0% 18.4% 15.7% 後測 (6/2015) 31.7% 35.5% 23.9% 5.4% 3.5% 表三 中一級學生對「我樂意參與老師要我進行的課堂活動」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 6.7% 27.1% 23.2% 16.2% 26.8% 後測 (6/2015) 32.9% 40.5% 21.2% 3.0% 2.4% 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 12 教育研究報告匯編 在課堂參與方面,在實施了合作學習之後,中一級學生對「我會主 動投入時間參與學習」及「我能專心上課」的認同感大幅提升。在「我 會主動投入時間參與學習」的意見上,同意的百分比由前測的 22.7% 大 幅上升至後測的 69.2%,不同意的百分比則由 43.9% 大幅下降至 5.5% ( 見 表四 )。在「我能專心上課」的意見上,同意的百分比由 22.8% 大幅上 升至 67.4%,不同意的百分比則由 42.9% 大幅下降至 5.5% ( 見表五 )。由 此可見,在實施合作學習之後,大部分中一級學生都認同自己會主動投 入時間參與學習,並能專心上課。學生問卷的分析結果與學生訪談的結 果一致,合作學習能有效地促進學生的課堂參與。 表四 中一級學生對「我會主動投入時間參與學習」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 1.8% 20.9% 33.4% 21.9% 22.0% 後測 (6/2015) 28.0% 41.2% 25.2% 3.2% 2.3% 表五 中一級學生對「我能專心上課」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 0.9% 21.9% 34.3% 12.4% 30.5% 後測 (6/2015) 29.1% 38.3% 27.2% 3.6% 1.9% 在學習成效方面,在實施了合作學習之後,中一級學生對「我覺得 我的學習成績在進步中」、「我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進步中」及 「我對自己在這個學科的學習能力有信心」的認同感大幅提升。在「我 覺得我的學習成績在進步中」的意見上,同意的百分比由前測的 25.7% 大幅上升至後測的 66.2%,不同意的百分比則由 47% 大幅下降至 7.2% ( 表六 )。在「我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進步中」的意見上,同意的 百分比由前測的 20.1% 大幅上升至後測的 63.1%,不同意的百分比則由 44.8% 大幅下降至 9% ( 表七 )。在「我對自己在這個學科的學習能力有 信心」的意見上,同意的百分比由前測的 23.8% 大幅上升至 65%,不同 意的百分比則由 39.2% 大幅下降至 8.5% ( 表八 )。由此可見,在實施合 作學習之後,大部分中一級學生不單認為自己的學習成績在進步中和感 到對自己在學科的學習能力上具有信心,亦認同班上整體的學習成績都 在進步中。學生問卷調查的研究結果顯示,在實施了合作學習之後,能 有效地提升學生對課堂學習的信心及成效。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 13教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 表六 中一級學生對「我覺得我的學習成績在進步中」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 3.7% 22.0% 27.4% 15.4% 31.6% 後測 (6/2015) 29.0% 37.2% 26.6% 4.6% 2.6% 表七 中一級學生對「我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進步中」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 2.9% 17.2% 35.1% 18.8% 26.0% 後測 (6/2015) 25.2% 37.9% 27.9% 5.5% 3.5% 表八 中一級學生對「我對自己在這個學科的學習能力有信心」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 1.8% 22.0% 37.0% 12.4% 26.8% 後測 (6/2015) 27.0% 38.0% 26.6% 5.0% 3.5% 從 2014 年 11 月初向三班中一,每班抽取高、中及低學業成績水平 學生各一名,共九名學生所進行的先導訪談(參閱附件三)中,學生表 示在實施合作學習先導計劃之前,教學較為「傳統」及以教師主導為主, 「多數依據教科書教學」,而「每科都以抄筆記及直接講授為主」。學 生甚少有課堂參與的機會,「未有太多小組學習的經驗」。更有三位同 學表示由於「對老師及學校都欠歸屬感,以致降低學習動機和課堂參與 意欲」,即使有課堂參與的機會都「不想參與」。簡而言之,學生的課 堂參與很低,亦缺乏學習動機。 在 2015 年 6 月初再訪談同一批學生,在後續訪談中發現,教師在 實施合作學習之後,教學轉變為以學生為本,受訪學生表示在通識和英 文課堂中「分組是常態」,同學亦已「習慣小組教學」。在課堂參與方 面,同學認為合作學習能促使組員「更重視完成學習任務,組長和組員 之間會互相支援,以鼓勵全組參與及順利達成任務」,亦認為這種學習 模式「較適合自己」,並引用例子指出「覺得學習英文時有機會多與同 學交談是較好的,同學亦己經習慣互相支援」。在學習動機方面,同學 表示「很喜歡中文科一起寫作的教學活動」,並對通識科角色扮演的討 論活動留下深刻印象,認為「角色扮演很有趣味」,因為與同學一起參 與學習時既有「小組之間的競爭和小組之內的合作」。在學習成效方面, 同學表示經歷合作學習活動之外,「對活動學習內容有更深刻的印象」, 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 14 教育研究報告匯編 亦有同學表示對英文科一個關於健康食物的活動留下深刻的印象,因為 「在小組活動中一次過運用 ( 遷移和應用 ) 了之前在同一單元中所學的 很多英文生字」。正如馮停珍 (2013) 的研究發現,合作學習能提升學習 興趣,亦令學生的學業成績有增長的趨勢。 從學生訪談結果分析,合作學習能鼓勵教師推動教學範式的轉移, 令學生角色由 「被動的聆聽者」轉化為「主動的學習者」。受訪同學 亦認為合作學習能促進課堂參與和提升學習動機,並對提升學習有一定 的成效。 由於很多研究都證明合作學習能提升學生學習成效 (Slavin, 1990, 1995),故當本行動研究發現合作學習能有效促進學生的學習動機和課堂 參與之後,亦想進一步檢視合作學習能否提升學生的學業成績。研究小 組將中一級上學期考試成績平均分與下學期考試成績平均分作出比較, 發現通識科的升幅最大,上升了 9.2 分 ( 見表九 )。這可能與師生互動和 生生互動的增加,促進了通識科的知識和概念建構有關。而中文科和數 學科增加了 1.4 分,英文科則增加了 1.1 分。由於實施時間只有短短的 四個月,對基礎知識要求較高的學科而言,時間可能並不太充裕。從本 校 2014 年中一生入學前香港學科測驗的成績數據得知,當年中一級新 生在語文和數學的知識基礎一般較薄弱,合作學習對該些學科的成效相 對較一般。黃政傑及吳俊憲 (2006) 的綜合研究發現合作學習在中文、英 文、數學及社會科能有效提升學生的學業成就。雖然研究小組相信合作 學習的實施,對學生的學業成績有正面的影響,但在中文、英文及數學 科的成效只屬一般,這值得進一步的探討和研究。 表九 中一級學生在中文、英文、數學及通識科上學期與下學期考試 分數的比較 (N=113) 上學期平均分 下學期平均分 平均分的變化 中文科 46.17 47.57 增加 1.4 分 英文科 39.1 40.2 增加 1.1 分 數學科 55.7 57.1 增加 1.4 分 通識科 44.8 53.5 增加 9.2 分 研究小組總共觀察了 8 個連堂課節,透過課堂觀察 ( 附件四及五 ) 所得,教師所採用的合作學習策略主要是「獨思、配對、分享」、「閱 讀及相互解釋二人組」 、「數字頭」、「圓桌輪流寫」、「三步採訪」 及「拼圖法第二代」等。小組人數由 2 人、4 人至 6 人都有,主要視乎 教學目標和策略的配合而靈活調配。在課堂裡,教師的角色由以往的「知 識直接倒灌者」逐漸改變為「輔助學習的促導員」(facilitator),而學生 的角色亦漸由被動的接受者 (passive learner) 逐漸改變為主動學習參與者 (active learner)。整體而言,課堂的教學效果良佳,教師的教學設計大都 能提供充足的課堂參與、師生互動和生生互動的機會。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 15教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 據課堂觀察所得,學生的學習動機良佳,能積極參與教師所設計的 課堂活動。學生的課堂表現與學生訪談、學生問卷及教師問卷的結果脗 合。自實施合作學習之後,學生在上課時「魂遊四海」、「打瞌睡」及 「無所事事」的偏離學習行為 (off-task behaviour) 的現象顯著地減少,而 「課前預習」、「小組討論」和「回答問題」,甚至「主動提出問題」 的行為則大幅提升。此外,所有學生全部能於 4 秒之內將坐位面向黑板 的傳統課室安排轉變為小組坐位安排,並迅速組成 2 人、4 人或 6 人小 組。教師在課堂上亦能善用「開始手號」及「停止手號」協助課堂管理 及小組活動的進行。教師將同學以數字頭方式分派角色,並以正面獎勵 的方式來運用「小組學習龍虎榜」(bonus point),以提升小組組員的學習 動機和課堂參與。整體而言,學生的學習動機和態度有明顯的改善。 據課堂觀察所得,全部被觀察的課堂都以小組形式安排座位,以方 便合作學習活動的實施,讓同學進行互動,交流意見,補充說明、指出 建議和疑問。在進行小組合作學習活動時,全部教師都會巡視各個小組 進行學習活動的情況,主動識別學生的學習需要和給予適時的支援。而 大部分學生除了關心自己的學習,亦積極上課發言願意主動和小組組員 分享學習成果。整體而言,課堂的學習氣氛變得更和諧、更積極。 教師問卷 ( 參考附件七 ) 以不記名方式進行,共派出 10 份問卷,收 回 9 份有效問卷。所有受訪老師都認同合作學習能提升學生的學習動機 和課堂參與,他們認為「能提高學生參與課堂的程度,使學生較以往主 動投入課堂」、「學生上課參與增加,課堂學習氣氛亦提高」、「能提 高學生參與課堂的程度,使學生較以往主動投入課堂」及「學生的課堂 參與提升了,師生關係更好,學生學習動機得到提升,專業成長令人感 到開心」。在提升學習成效方面,88.9% 的受訪老師認同採用合作學習 之後,學生的整體學習成效有所提升 ( 見表十 ),然而亦有教師指出「課 堂學習氣氛提高,對數學概念的理解有幫助,但學生在準確地表達及運 用相關概念上,尚需改善。」 表十 中一級合作學習教師意見調查 (N=9) 項目 同意 不同意 1 採用合作學習後,我覺得學生的課堂參與有 提升。 100.0% 0.0% 2 採用合作學習後,我覺得能提升學生的學習 動機。 100.0% 0.0% 3 採用合作學習後,我覺得學生的整體學習成 效有提升。 88.9% 11.1% 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 16 教育研究報告匯編 另一方面,有教師表示因為實施合作學習,「教師工作量增加」了, 並表示因為「課前預備所花的時間較多」,故「希望在共同備課的工作 上,能得到更多的專業指導」。在 2015 年 6 月 18 日舉行的中一合作學 習先導計劃分享會中,教師明確表示為實施合作學習先導計劃而付出了 精神和時間。然而,當觀察到學生在課堂參與及學習效能的提升時,教 師取得了成功感。正如資深的黃老師說 :「辛苦是一時,學生和教師的 獲益卻是終生的」。 總結、反思和建議 綜合以上的研究分析,本校透過實施合作學習先導計劃,發現中一 級學生在短短四個月,其學習動機和課堂參與都得到顯著的提升。總結 而言,合作學習對學生的學業成績產生了正面的影響,而學生在通識、 中文、數學及英文科的學業成績亦得到不同程度的提升。回顧整個行動 研究歷程,本研究小組從確定研究焦點,到撰寫研究計劃,然後執行實 施,並在行動過程中持續收集數據,以作為檢討改善的依據,此一過程 有效地促進了教與學的發展。當本研究小組基於校本發展的需要,建立 起學習圈,並聚焦於學習動機和課堂參與的問題,及透過系統化的行動 研究來探討教學問題之同時,亦發展出探究教學的專業習慣、能力與態 度,此乃教學相長之謂也。 當然,在整個研究過程中,本研究小組亦面對不少的困難和挑戰, 包括:(1) 研究小組需要在學校忙碌的工作之中抽時間收集、整理及分 析研究數據和撰寫研究報告,這是相當奢侈的行為,故建議學校盡可能 在人力資源方面作出支援,例如調動教學助理協助收集研究資料及處理 研究數據;(2) 在推展本行動研究的過程中,研究小組發現計劃對提升 學生的學習動機和課堂參與具卓越成效,相信只要持之以恆,將可優化 課堂教學,擴大學術成果,故建議學校把合作學習定為學校重點發展的 教學策略之一;(3) 共同備課、同儕觀課及發展性評課的配合對推動合 作學習至關重要,故除建議學校邀請學者專家為教師提供專業指導之 外,亦會要求相關科長參與計劃,收以身作則之效。來年將實施第二階 段計劃,故需要建立機制,監督、檢討實施成效;(4) 上文曾提及學生 的學習動機及課堂參與雖然得到大幅提升,但語文及數學科的學業成績 卻仍未見顯著的提升,這問題有賴研究小組進一步研究,探求良方;而 在資源許可的情況下,亦和邀請大學專家提供專業意見和支援,促使理 論與實踐互相結合,進一步推動合作學習。 基於行動研究的精神,本研究小組將在來年繼續研究,將合作學習 先導計劃推展至中二級,期望能進一步提升學生的學習動機和課堂參 與。此外,本研究小組亦希望以此回饋社會,為其他有意推廣合作學習 的學校分享相關經驗,以實現本獎勵計劃的精神及兌現我們在本研究計 劃中的承諾。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 17教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 參考文獻 王坦 (2001)。合作學習 -- 原理與策略。北京:學苑出版社。 王凱 (2004)。論合作學習的局限性。《香港教師中心學報》,2004(2)。 香港合作學習協會 (2004)。合作學習完全手冊。香港:香港合作學習協會。 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Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 10 (2): 78–89. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 20 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之前測及後測 問卷調查 (2015 年 2 月及 2015 年 6 月 ) 勞工子弟中學中一學生學習經驗問卷調查(前測) 親愛的中一同學: 這份問卷可以讓我們瞭解你的學習情形。請先細閱每句句子, 然後想一想您自己的內心感受。請用鉛筆將選項空格填滿 ( 只選一 項 ),它們並沒有絕對正確答案,請依您自己的經驗選取不同程度的 選項,研究結果可作教師改進教學之用,個人填答結果絕對不會被 公開,也不會影響你的成績,請放心。 「透過合作學習提升中一級別學生課堂參與」行動研究小組 謹啓 2014-15 年度中一級 ____ 班,學號:____________,性別:□男生 □女生 一、課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於整體科目而言 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4 我樂意參與老師要我們進行 的課堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5 我覺得我的學習成績在進步 中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6 我覺得班上整體的學習成績 在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7 我對自己在這個學科的學習 能力有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 21教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 勞工子弟中學中一學生學習經驗問卷調查(後測) 親愛的中一同學: 這份問卷可以讓我們瞭解你的學習情形。請先細閱每句句子, 然後想一想您自己的內心感受。請用鉛筆將選項空格填滿 ( 只選一 項 ),它們並沒有絕對正確答案,請依您自己的經驗選取不同程度 的選項,研究結果可作教師改進教學之用,個人填答結果絕對不會 被公開,也不會影響你的成績,請放心。 「透過合作學習提升中一級別學生課堂參與」行動研究小組 謹啓 2014-15 年度中一級 ____ 班,學號:____________,性別:□男生 □女生 一、中文科的課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於中文科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行的課 堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進 步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習能力 有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 二、英文科的課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於英文科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行的課 堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進 步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習能力 有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 22 教育研究報告匯編 三、數學科的課堂參與和學習動機 四、通識科的課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於數學科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行的 課堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步 中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績在 進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習能 力有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 題 號 對於通識科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行 的課堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步 中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績 在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習 能力有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 23教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 附件二 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之課室環境剪影 (2015) 合作學習小組座位安排 合作學習小組文具匣 合作學習守則 小組活動聲量管理 小組學習龍虎榜 小組學習歷程檔案 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 24 教育研究報告匯編 附件三 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之學生訪談 先導及計劃後訪談:焦點訪談小組 目的 : 了解中一級同學在核心科目及通識科的學習現況 ( 重點了解課堂 參與情況 ) 訪問安排: 中一級三班各 3 名同學 ( 高、中、低能力各一位 ),分班進 行小組訪談。 計劃前的訪問日期: 1A 2014 年 11 月 5 日,1B 11 月 4 日,1C 11 月 5 日 計劃後的訪問日期: 1A 2015 年 6 月 9 日,1B 6 月 8 日,1C 6 月 8 日 1. 現時中、英、數及通識課堂的上課情況是怎麼樣的 ? 同學的座位編排 ( 課堂環境 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 老師通常是怎樣進行教學的呢 ?( 教學策略 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 有沒有讓你們坐在一起討論 ? ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 有沒有讓你們每個人都參與課堂活動 ( 怎樣參與 )? ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ 印象最深刻的活動 ( 每人 1-2 個 )? ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 25教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 2. 比較現時 ( 中學 ) 和小學在課堂上的分別 ( 先導 ) / 比較計劃前和計劃 後在課堂上的分別 ( 計劃後 ) 上課模式 ( 小組常規、課堂環境 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 教學方式 ( 教學策略 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 參與方式 ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 3. 對現時各科學習的觀感 (1 - 5 分 ) 以 5 分為最高 有多喜歡 ? 為什麼 ? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 有多大的盼望想參與課堂活動 ? 為什麼 ? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 4. 有什麼具體活動建議給老師去改善你們的課堂參與 ? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 26 教育研究報告匯編 附件四 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之觀課表 勞工子弟中學「小組合作學習」觀察表 教師姓名:______ 科目、任教單元:__________ 公開課日期:2015 年 月 日 層 面 評鑑標準 評鑑項目 文字敘述 評量 傑 出 優 良 滿 意 待 改 進 A 教 學 前 的 準 備 A-1 選用適當教 學策略來配 合單元 A-1-1 教學目標及主題能與選用 的合作學習策略配合 : 使用的合作學習策略是: _________ A-2 小組人數 適切 A-2-1 小 組 人 數 合 宜 (2-6 人 ), 能兼顧學生的參與機會與 小組意見的多樣性 A-3 課室空間安 排合宜 A-3-1 班級座位能合理地採用小 組形式 A-3-2 小組與小組的距離合宜 A-3-3 學 生 進 行 分 組 合 作 學 習 時,彼此採用面對面良性 生互動 B 教 學 中 的 實 施 方 式 B-1 教師講解合 作學習策略 和配合事宜 B-1-1 說明學習目標 ( 小組任務 ) B-1-2 強調積極互賴 B-1-3 提醒個別的績效責任 B-1-4 解釋成功標準或獎勵標準 B-1-5 說明期望的合作社交及行 為表現 B-2 教師隨時掌 握並適時介 入 B-2-1 教師能巡視各小組的學習 情况 B-2-2 教師能為小組適時提供協 助 ( 介入 ) B-2-3 教師能指導 / 提醒學生與 人合作的技巧 B-3 學生積極 參與 B-3-1 所有學生都積極與組員互動 □ 用心聆聽 □ 幫助同學 □ 鼓勵同學 □ 發言討論 □ 認真參與 □ _______ □ _______ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 27教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 層面 評鑑標準 評鑑項目 文字敘述 評 量 傑 出 優 良 滿 意 待 改 進 C 完 成 合 作 學 習 後 的 評估 C-1 評 估 小 組 合 作 學 習 的成果 C-1-1 小組進行滙 報 / 總 結 / 測 驗 或考試達標的人 數 C-1-2 給予小組表 揚及鼓勵 C-1-3 評估小組運 作效能:在課堂 最後,預留時間 給學生進行自我 反省 課堂軼事紀錄表 時間 學習活動或小組事件紀錄 備註 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 28 教育研究報告匯編 附件五 「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之教師工作坊 及觀課活動剪影 (2015) 教師分配小組角色及運用 「開始手號」 教師即時介入小組及促進小組 課堂參與 學生運用「拼圖法第二代」 進行合作學習 同學展示小組學習成果 教師進行同儕觀課 合作學習教師工作坊 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 29教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 附件六 : 教學設計及教材示例 1. 中文科教案 《一家九口的支柱》 分 析 文 章 如 何 運 用 借事抒發情感 辨識直接及 間接抒情 引入:何謂「支柱」? 開展: 1. 同學朗讀第一段。 2. 老師請學生刪去第一段中不重要的句子。 刪除準則:(補充、舉例、解釋說明) 3. 兩人一組,分甲同學、乙同學 4. 甲同學先向乙同學分享自己刪減及保留的原因; 然後乙同學向甲同學分享。(每人約 1 分鐘) (合作學習策略:Think Pair hare) 滙報指引: 你好,我刪去了……,保留了甚麼……因為……。 謝謝你聆聽我的分享。 5. 老師選取 2-3 位同學向全班分享(最好是選取 有差異的,便於比較)。 6. 老師引導學生歸納第一段段意及作用,可先請 同學自行於筆記簿或工作紙上擬寫,再作評 講。 7. 同學朗讀第二段。 8. 老師以提問方式引導學生找出該段的主要事 件。(運用時、地、人、事) i. 記敍六十年代暴動時,建築系畢業的父親到 紡織廠工作,養活一家九口。 ii. 記敍父親為子女織毛衣 9. 同學填寫工作紙。 10. 老師引領學生歸納第一件事 11. 學生仿照第一件事,歸納第二件事 12. 老師總結 1/1-2 段(總寫 [ 符號 ] 分寫、襯 托),並著同學仿作:____的支柱。 13. 如時間許可,請同學分享,老師即時回饋。 總結:學生反思 1. 在這一堂學會了甚麼? 2. 我是否做到 ( 學到 ) 我所訂的目標? 3. 如果我做到,我究竟用了甚麼方法?哪個方法 是最好,我下次也繼續用? 4. 如果我未能做到,究竟是甚麼原因? 5. 我在學習的過程中,我曾經遇到甚麼困難?我 用了甚麼方法解決這個困難? 撮寫 綜合 時間線 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 30 教育研究報告匯編 引入:重溫上節課所學 開展: 分析 3-6 段 1. 分四人小組 A 總隊長 B 大總管 C 秘書 D 滙報員 每位同學獲分配一段(不同顏色) A 總隊長(第 3 段) B 大總管(第 4 段) C 秘書(第 5 段) D 滙報員(第 6 段) 指引: (1) 每位同學閱讀各段,並運用曾學過的方法(如刪除 法、時地人事)找出該段所記敍的事情及所反映的父 親形象。(約 3 分鐘) (2)形式專家小組,各專家分享自己的分析,並互相給予 意見。(約 5 分鐘) (3)各專家回到自己的小組,輪流滙報自己的分析,秘書 負責摘錄筆記及完成工作紙上的時間線。 (4)同學滙報時要控制聲量 同學必須細心聆聽 同學必須投入 同學必須尊重他人 3. 老師檢視同學是否已完成工作紙,並邀請 1-2 組滙報, 請同學評價,老師回饋。 4. 老師引導同學分析各事的共通點(父親為家庭默默 [ 符 號 ][ 符號 ] 犧牲了甚麼?付出了甚麼?刻畫了父親甚麼 形象?) 5. 老師引導同學分析文章鋪排的策略。 6. 老師引導同學分析全文的情感及表達手法。(總寫 [ 符號 ] 敍事 [ 符號 ] 抒情) 7. 全文表達作者對父親的感情的詞句不多,但我們卻能感 受到作者所抒之情,為甚麼? 總結:學生反思 1. 合作學習跟以往的學習模式有甚麼不同? 2. 合作學習對你的學習有甚麼幫助? 3. 在這一堂學會了甚麼? 4. 我是否做到 ( 學到 ) 我所訂的目標? 5. 如果我做到,我究竟用了甚麼方法?哪個方法是最好, 我下次也繼續用? 6. 如果我未能做到,究竟是甚麼原因? 7. 我在學習的過程中,我曾經遇到甚麼困難?我用了甚麼 方法解決這個困難? 分析文章如何 運用借事抒發 情感 辨識直接及間 接抒情 時間線 綜合 時地人事 綜合 A B D C 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 31教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 2. 英文科教材 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 1 for Treasurers Schools should offer students’ nutritious, well-rounded lunch at a lower price. School meals should be lower in fat and higher in nutrients that a growing child needs. The average school lunch should cost about $20, as suggested the Education Department. Take a look of the following two menus provided by a school tuck shop and a fast food shop close to school. Hamburger Meal School Tuck Shop A Fast Food Shop A Contents Price Contents Price 7 oz. fresh beef burger Mixed Vegetable Salad 10 oz. Fresh Fruit Juice $20 3.5 oz. frozen beef burger French Fries 8 oz. Coca Cola $40 Pizza Meal School Tuck Shop A Fast Food Shop A Contents Price Contents Price Low-Fat Cheese Pizza Slice Tossed Green Salad Fresh Whole Orange 8 oz. Skimmed (Fat free) Milk $20 Special Pepperoni Pizza Slice 8oz Chocolate Sundae 8 oz. Soda $40 In your group, 1. compare the prices of school canteen lunch meals provided; 2. discuss if our school canteen provides reasonably priced meals. Support your points with evidences. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 32 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, everyone! I am the treasurer. (b) Idea 1 Explanation examples (c) Idea 2 Explanation examples (d) Ending I think the price of our school lunch is ____________ (adjective) because _________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ I suggest that ______________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ I think the portion of our school lunch is __________ (adjective) because _________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ I suggest that ______________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 33教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 2 – For the Chairpersons of the Student Union Before deciding on the lunch menu, schools should Does our school do that? ( Yes / No) 1. Interview students and teachers 2. Give out questionnaires 3. Ask dietitians 4. Meet the service providers who can provide healthy, nutritious and environmentally friendly meals 5. Examine / check the new menu and take out foods which have a lot of fat, salt and sugar. 6. Run activities for students 7. Offer students a clean and pleasant place for students staying in for lunch. 8. Give students enough time for lunch 9. Encourage parents to prepare healthy lunch boxes for students 10.Give lessons on health education In your group, discuss if your school has done the above. (a) Do all people get involved? (b) Is there anything which can be better? 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 34 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, every one! I am the Chairperson of the Student Union. (b) Idea 1 Explanation examples I think all people do / don’t get involved because ____ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ I suggest that ________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ (c) Idea 2 Explanation examples I think ______________________can be better because ____________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ I suggest that ________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ (d) Ending Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 35教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 3 for Green Officers Schools should use environmentally friendly lunch service and go with the rule of ‘Reducing Waste and Minimizing Wastage’ promoted by the Environmental Protection Department. The following green practices are strongly encouraged at school. Has our school canteen done that? ( Yes / No) 1.On-site portioned meal service is preferred. 2. Polystyrene boxes should be avoided. 3. Reusable lunch containers and cutlery should be used. 4. If disposable lunch containers have to be used, schools should find an environmentally friendly way to recycle to products. 5. Portion food in a flexible manner to avoid wastage. 6. Provide students with reheating facilities like microwave ovens for students. In your group, discuss if your school canteen is a green canteen. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 36 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, every one! I am the Green Officer. (b) Idea 1 Explanation examples (c) Idea 2 Explanation examples (d) Ending Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 37教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 4 for Health Officers The quality of school lunch depends very much on the choice of ingredients and the cooking methods used. An ideal and healthy lunch should provide for one third of the daily nutritional needs of a school child. The following are rules of a healthy lunch. A healthy school canteen should Has our school canteen done that?( Yes / No) 1. Provide grains and cereals such as rice or noodles, vegetables and meat in the ratio of 3:2:1 by volume; 2. Contain fresh vegetables and fruits; 3. Provide whole grains, fat reduced dairy products and other calcium-rich food items; 4. Use lean meat, fish or skinned poultry; 5. Use low fat cooking methods such as steaming, boiling, minimal oil stir-frying or baking; 6. Use only vegetable oils, such as olive oil, in limited amount for cooking; and 7. Limit the use of foods with added fat or oil, poultry with skin, whole fat dairy products, preserved food and sauce of high fat or salt content. 8. Keep hot dishes above 60℃ and cold dishes at 4℃ or below. In groups, discuss if your school canteen provides proper lunch meals. Support your points with evidences. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 38 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, every one! I am the Health Officer. (b) Idea 1 Explanation examples (c) Idea 2 Explanation examples (d) Ending Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 39教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 附件七 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之教師意見調查 一、教學成效評估 二、對合作學習的觀感 題目 同意 不同意 1. 採用合作學習後,我覺得學生的課堂參與有提升 □ □ 2. 採用合作學習後,我覺得能提升學生的學習動機 □ □ 3. 採用合作學習後,我覺得學生的整體學習成效有提升 □ □ 實施合作學習後,我的觀感是 : 經過實施合作學習,我覺得有困難 / 需要學校支援的是: 41教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文 教學之研究 吳善揮 五育中學 摘要 香港學生一向視文言文學習為畏途。當中的主要原因除了是因為他 們認為文言文過於艱深之外,還因為文言文作為中文科考試必考的材 料,使他們在學習的時候倍感壓力。在久而久之的情況下,學生自然失 去學習興趣,部分學生更選擇放棄學習。在這樣的背景下,本研究立足 於學生的學習興趣,以 40 名初中一年級學生為研究對象,探討朗讀劇 場如何提升中一學生學習文言篇章的興趣,進而影響他們的文言文學習 效能。研究結果發現,朗讀劇場能夠提升中一學生學習文言文的動機, 並有助改善他們理解文言篇章的能力。 關鍵字:文言文教學、閱讀能力、朗讀劇場、學習興趣 前言 香港學生失去學習文言文的興趣,不願意學習。學生因為學習困難 而逃避文言文的學習,致使他們不願意接觸文言作品,在這樣的情況 下,他們連最基本的文言字義和句式也不懂,最終使到他們的文言理解 水平每況愈下(吳善揮,2014)。同時,大部分教師在教授文言篇章之 時,只強調背誦當中的名句、思想重點、寫作特色等,結果使到學生之 學習目標失去焦點,而且更沖淡了他們的學習興趣(莊豐石,2009)。 其實,文言文學習既與學生的生活經驗脫節,而學生也不明白學習文言 文的作用為何。再者,在現今的教育制度下,他們學習文言文的唯一目 的,就是為了應付公開考試中文言篇章理解的部分,這本已大大增加了 他們的學習壓力,再加上沉悶死板的教學方法,這更使到他們對文言文 學習不感興趣,乃至產生厭惡感。由是觀之,若要提升文言篇章的學與 教成效,教師便必須要由學習興趣著手。 42 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 教師宜運用創新的文言文教學方法,一洗文言文古板沉悶的形象, 培養學生之學習興趣,進而提升文言篇章的學與教效能。例如:有研究 者以多媒體動畫配以白話解說來施行文言文教學,結果發現大部分研究 對象學習文言篇章的興趣都得以提升,並且成為了主動的學習者,促進 了整體的學習成效(羅綸新、齊瑮琛,2012)。有研究亦指出教師可以 借助圖畫、音樂、遊戲等不同的手段,誘發學生學習文言篇章的興趣, 以有效地加深他們對文本的深入理解(李迎春,2012)。教師在教學實 踐的時候,可以引入故事性較強的篇章,並將之改編為小話劇、小品, 讓學生表演後再進入教學的環節,當中的視聽效果可以加強學生領悟篇 章內容的能力(嚴春香,2010)。由此可見,只要教師能夠活化教學方 法,學生的學習興趣便能夠得以激發出來,而他們理解文言篇章的水平 也得以提升。 由是之故,本文旨在透過實徵性研究,以朗讀劇場為文言篇章主要 的教學法,探討朗讀劇場如何提升初中學生學習文言篇章的興趣,以及 能否藉此提升他們閱讀文言篇章的基礎能力。 文獻回顧 文言篇章教學能夠提升學生對中國文化的認知水平。文言篇章作品 是中國歷史及文明重要的組成部分,當中蘊含著極為豐富的文化內涵、 以及人文精神價值 (安傳芳,2011);文言作品是中國古代傳統精英 文化的象徵,大部分作品皆出自於古代優秀的才子之手,蘊含中國古 代文化精神重要的精髓。因此學習文言作品,不但能夠加深學生對文 化發展脈絡及其價值之了解,而且亦能夠提升他們的文化及人文素養 (梁義勇,2013)。文言文知識是學習中國傳統文化的重要基礎,只有 學生能夠培養出一定程度的文言文閱讀能力,便能夠有效學習中國傳統 的文化,並且讓中國寶貴而優秀的傳統文化得以傳承下去(呂筱晶, 2008)。由此可見,文言篇章蘊含著豐富的文化知識,亦是中國文化精 神傳承下一代的重要媒界,因此只要教師能夠提升學生的理解能力,那 麼他們定必可以藉此掌握中國文化的知識,並且讓中華民族的優良傳統 精神得以繼續傳揚下去。 文言篇章學習能培養學生的品德情意。文言文不但是古代文章的精 華,而且更承載了中華民族優秀之傳統文化,具有極為重要的人文教育 功能(呂小平,2013)。文言篇章包含著多樣性的道德教育價值,例如: 愛國精神、仁愛思想、孝親美德、天人合一的精神、自強不息的態度等, 這都有助促進青少年的心理健康和道德成長(李平,2011)。中學時期 階段正是個體身心發展之重要階段,亦是青少年內在的人生觀、價值 觀、道德觀漸漸形成的關鍵時期,文言文教學正好滿足了青少年的成長 需要,讓他們藉此學習傳統的優良品德,使人格得以變得更完備,進而 促進身心健康的發展(晉春,2008)。由是觀之,作者在創作文言作品 43教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 之時,往往在字裡行間寄寓了德育思想,體現了「文以載道」的精神。 只要教師按著學生之需要而選取適合的文言作品作為教學材料,那麼他 們的道德情操便可以得以培養,並成為社會的良好公民。 文言篇章學習能夠加強學生的審美能力。中國語文科課程的主要宗 旨,在於培養學生的審美能力及情趣,即能夠透過美文的欣賞過程,領 略語言文字及思想內容之美 (香港課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局, 2007);教師應藉著文言文教學引導學生發展自主的審美意識,即透過 歷代美文的鑑賞去培養學生賞析藝術的能力,最終達至陶冶學生性情、 提升個體品位、昇華內在思想的最終目標 (文娟,2008);文言文具有 多樣化的教學美,包括形式美 (文體及語言)、人物美 (主角的人格 美)、情感美 (作者抒發的感情)、哲思美 (正確的思想及價值觀)、 意境美 (作者建構的意象氣氛) (陳靜嬋,2005)。由此可見,文言 文篇章既能夠作為審美教育的工具,也能藉之提升學生的語文能力,實 在是語文教師不能夠忽略的學習瑰寶。 朗讀劇場,顧名思義就是戲劇的一種,當中包含了朗讀及戲劇兩個 主要元素。朗讀劇場與一般戲劇表演的最大分別,就是朗讀劇場不需要 學生設計道具、服裝、化妝、背景音樂、舞台走位等。演員既不需要背 誦台詞,也不需要在舞台上頻繁走動,只需要在舞台上坐下或站立,以 富於感情、抑揚頓挫的聲線去把劇本的一字一句朗讀出來,即以聲線打 動觀眾的心,進而使觀眾從中有所領悟 (何洵怡,2004)。當然,演員 也可以配以簡單的動作及表情,以加強朗讀劇場表演的傳情達意。在朗 讀劇場裡,一般由敍事者 (介紹背景或總結)、數名演員 (透過朗讀 劇本以互相對答) 所組成。在劇場落幕後,擔任主持的同學便會提問 觀眾問題,以確保他們對劇場內容有所掌握,接著教師可以因應不同的 學習目標而進行延展活動。例如說話方面,教師可以要求觀眾向演員提 問交流。寫作方面,教師可以要求觀眾撰寫信件給特定的演員;文學方 面,教師可以引領同學分析朗讀劇場裡不同人物的性格或內容主題 (何 洵怡,2005)。 朗讀劇場能夠提升學生學習文言篇章的學習動機。學習動機的多寡 對於語言學習能否取得最終的成功具有極為關鍵的作用 (Kimura, Nakata & Okumura, 2001)。有研究顯示,以戲劇融入寫作教學,不但能夠提升 學生的學習動機、提升他們的課堂參與度,而且更能夠藉此提升他們 的寫作能力,即對語文學習具有正面效益 (Cremin, Goouch, Blakemore, Goff & Macdonald, 2006)。實徵性研究亦發現以戲劇融入幼兒的美感教 育之中,不但能夠提升他們的想像力、創造力及表達能力,而且更能夠 大大提升他們的學習動機及興趣 (鄧詠之,2011)。由是觀之,學習 興趣及動機是學生學習的首要前提。戲劇既然能夠提升學習者的學習興 趣及動機,將之應用於文言篇章的教學之中,相信亦可以具有同等的成 效。 44 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 朗讀劇場能夠有助學生深刻地掌握文言讀本的內容。有研究發現以 戲劇教學法融入通識教育科的學習之中,能夠加強學生對學習議題的思 考深度(Chan & Law, 2012)。以戲劇手法教授文學作品,既能夠讓學 生有效而有趣地去探索這個世界,也能夠讓他們更深入地檢視所閱讀的 故事,促進了他們綜合及理解之能力(李瑞媛,2012)。研究發現,以 朗讀劇場融入國中融合班之中文教學,學生能夠藉此加深對文本內容及 感情的掌握,並且獲得一定的效益(吳善揮,2015)。由此可見,戲劇 教育能夠提升學習興趣。在這樣的基礎上,學生的自發性學習行為便能 夠得以誘發出來,使他們更願意在相關的議題進行自主學習,乃至因發 掘到更多的樂趣而不能自已。同時,學習不再是走馬看花,而是刻在他 們的心板上,使他們的學習體會可以變得更深刻。 朗讀劇場能夠拉近學生與文言篇章的距離。研究顯示戲劇表演能夠 為課堂營造輕鬆的學習環境及氣氛,為聽障孩子的學習帶來很大的樂 趣 (陳晞如,2014)。在課外閱讀活動中,讀者劇場能夠有效提高不同 學生之閱讀興趣,並且為增進閱讀理解能力及技巧,建構了一個娛樂性 與實用性兼備的平台,使他們變得更願意學習(梅明玉,2007)。在教 授文言文的時候,教師可以引入課本劇,讓學生根據原著作品的版本, 發揮自身的創造力—加入現代的元素,以改編原有的故事情節,這項 作法能夠有效地拉近文言文與學生之間的距離(馮素琴,2011)。簡言 之,朗讀劇場不但使課堂變得輕鬆,而且更能夠照顧到不同學生的學習 需要,大大增加了他們的學習意願,拉近了學生與文言文的時代距離, 為提升文言篇章理解能力建立了良好的前設基礎。 研究方法與程序 本文的研究假設是: 1. 朗讀劇場能夠提升初中學生學習文言篇章的興趣。 2. 朗讀劇場能夠提升初中學生理解文言篇章的能力。 本研究以筆者任教學校的 40 名初中一年級學生為研究對象,並將 之分為「實驗組」及「控制組」,並盡量確保兩組學生之能力相若,以 提升本研究的信度。前置測試(下稱前測)的成績顯示兩組學生的文言 篇章理解能力大致相約。兩組學生對文言篇章的學習興趣不大,並且出 現逃避學習的情況,不願意認真學習文言文作品,而考試成績亦自然不 理想(文言篇章理解部分)。研究對象的人數分佈如下: 表 1 研究樣本的分組 組別 實驗組 控制組 人數 18 22 45教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 本研究把研究對象分為兩個組別:「實驗組」與「控制組」,教師 皆對兩組學生實施合共二十節(每節課為 35 分鐘)之文言篇章教學, 研究歷時四個月;當中的教學內容、方法和程序如下: 筆者於「實驗組」的班別施行以朗讀劇場為本的文言篇章教學,教 學材料為四篇故事性較強的文言短文,包括:〈濫竽充數〉、〈刻舟求 劍〉、〈狐假虎威〉、〈紙上談兵〉,以讓語文能力較薄弱的研究對象 可以更易掌握當中的內容,並對相關的文言文學習產生更大的學習興 趣,同時此舉亦能夠配合朗讀劇場的實施,這是因為朗讀劇場是由人物 角色、情節等基本要素所組成,而文言文故事正好具有此等基本要素。 當中的教學過程側重於提升學生理解文言篇章內容的能力。當中的作法 和程序如下:(1) 學生參與前測,以讓筆者在開展研究之前,初步掌 握學生的文言篇章理解問題及水平,進而設計更切合學生需要的教學計 劃;(2) 教師直接教授閱讀文言篇章的基本方法,包括:常用文言字詞、 文言句式等,以使他們能夠具備閱讀文言文的基礎知識;(3) 教師與 學生重溫六何法,以提醒學生記敍文的基本要素,以利他們擷取文言文 故事內容的重點,而在往後的文言篇章學習,教師也會要求學生以六何 法擷取文章中的要點;(4) 教師教授學生朗讀劇場的理念、元素及實 施方法,並以上年度學生創作的劇本為例,教授學生如何撰寫劇本;(5) 教師邀請學生一起表演預先設計的朗讀劇場,以為同學作朗讀劇場的示 範,並使他們可以更具體地掌握朗讀劇場的實際流程;(6) 教師播放 相關的文言篇章動畫,以使學生對文言篇章的內容具有基本的理解,並 作為引起他們學習動機的工具;(7) 教師與學生討論相關的文言篇章 內容,並一起完成學習工作紙;(8) 在教師引導學生完成簡短的劇本 後,便收集劇本進行批改;(9) 教師向學生發還劇本,讓他們自行分 組及練習朗讀劇場表演;(10) 教師於課堂實施朗讀劇場,當中的流程 包括:學生表演、敍事者提問觀眾劇場的基本內容(答對者可獲教師獎 勵朱古力乙枚)、同學向表演者作出深度提問、教師給予口頭回饋及評 語;(11) 學生參與後置測試 (下稱後測) 及半結構式訪談,以讓筆 者量度是次研究的真實成效。由於筆者合共教授學生四篇文章,故步驟 (6)至(10)會重複四次。 至於「控制組」方面,其教學程序與「實驗組」之主要分別,在於 「控制組」沒有實施朗讀劇場的教學法,當中的教學程序為:(1) 學 生參與前測;(2) 教師直接教授學生閱讀文言篇章的基本方法,包括: 常用文言字詞、文言句式等,以使他們能夠具備閱讀文言文的基礎知識; (3) 教師教授學生指定四篇的文言篇章(與「實驗組」相同),並一 起討論及完成學習工作紙;(4) 學生參與後測。 46 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 本研究透過紙筆評估(前測和後測)、學生訪談,量度是次研究的 真實成效。筆者對「實驗組」實施前測、後測(附件一及附件二),並 透過 SPSS23.0(統計產品與服務解決方案)的 Independent Samples T-Test 及 Paired Samples T-test,量度研究對象在前測、後測中所取得之平均得 分,並對所取得的結果進行分析,以瞭解研究對象在參加是次以朗讀劇 場為本的文言篇章教學後,能否提升自身的文言文理解能力。同時,本 研究亦會對「控制組」實施前測、後測,以確保研究的信實度。前測、 後測的設計模式如下: (1) 以故事性較強、篇幅較短的文言篇章作為兩次測試之閱讀材料; (2) 兩次測試的題型皆相同,以免學生因為測試模式不同而影響到作 答的表現,進而影響到研究的信度; (3) 為保持評閱的準確度,在批改開始前,筆者先從所有答卷中抽取 三份試卷作為樣本,之後邀請了具豐富教學經驗的中文科教師一 起進行試改,然後再就評分標準進行討論,最後由筆者按照共同 制訂的評分標準評閱所有答卷。 學生訪談方面,筆者將就以下問題與受訪對象進行討論: (1) 學生如何看待朗讀劇場對提升他們學習文言文的興趣之作用? (2) 學生如何看待朗讀劇場對於提升他們的文言文理解能力之作 用? (3) 學生如何評價這次研究的成效? 是次研究將實施半結構式訪談,即是由研究者先按著研究的核心問 題,設計相關的訪談問題,以引導受訪者環繞研究所關注的核心議題表 達看法。其後研究者會按照訪談的實際情況而提出開放式的問題,一方 面可以避免訪談內容偏離研究所關注的問題,另一方面亦可以提供一定 的自由空間讓受訪者表達內心的看法。本研究邀請了五名「實驗組」學 生 (三男、兩女) 參與訪談,以讓筆者了解是次教學的真實成效;筆 者採用了便利取樣法,即按照受訪者的意願邀請受訪對象,雖然這個取 樣方法的限制就是未必能夠確保受訪者之代表性,可是由於筆者與受訪 者之間存有高度的信任,使他們更願意說明最真實的看法,這有助提升 本研究的信度。本研究的結果雖然未必能夠推論至全香港的學生身上, 可是對於前線中文科教師在文言篇章教學設計及實施方面,仍然具有一 定的參考價值;基於研究倫理的關係,本文將以「學生 A 至 E」來代替 學生的真實身分,以利本文的分析。 在研究信實度方面,筆者在徵得受訪學生之同意後,採用了錄音機 作為工具,以保留原始的訪談資料。之後,筆者再將之化為文字稿,並 整理成一份摘要,邀請受訪學生檢核當中的內容,以確保筆者沒有誤解 他們的看法;接著,筆者便對錄音稿的內容進行篩選、分類,並邀請了 擁有質性研究經驗的大學研究助理共同參與資料分析的工作,以增進彼 47教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 此的思考,以及避免筆者的主觀看法影響到研究結果的客觀性。同時, 本研究亦採用了多角檢核法,透過收集、結合和分析多元化的資料,包 括:學生訪談、學生課業、教師反思日誌,以相互印證筆者所發現的研 究成果。以上作法都有助維持資料分析過程的客觀度,進而提升整項研 究的信實度。研究流程如下 (圖 1) : 圖 1 研究流程圖 研究結果與討論 整體而言,參與是次研究的學生之文言篇章理解能力均得到明顯的 提升,當中紙筆評估的測試結果如下: 表 2 實驗組、控制組之前測成績比較 (Independent Samples T-Test) 測試滿 分:25 分 學生數目 平均差 顯著性 顯著性(雙尾 ) A–B 40 -0.747 0.611 0.367 注:A為實驗組,B為控制組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。 根據 Independent Samples T-Test,「實驗組」(M=3.3889、SD=2.58705) 與「控制組」(M=4.1364、SD=2.56896) 在前測之成績並沒有顯著分別, 而 p>.0 5(p = 0.367);可見「實驗組」與「控制組」學生之文言篇章理解 能力相約。 表 3 實驗組、控制組之前測及後測成績比較 (Paired Samples T-Test) 測試 滿分:25 分 平均數 學生數目 標準差 平均數的 標準誤 t 值 A ( 前測 – 後測 ) 8.91667 18 5.90675 1.39223 6.405*** B ( 前測 – 後測 ) 0.50000 22 2.70361 0.57641 0.867 注:A為實驗組,B為控制組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。 根據 Paired Samples T-test,「實驗組」學生的得分平均數有著極為 顯著之上升,而 p < .001 (p = 0.000);「控制組」學生的得分平均數 則沒有任何顯著的改變,而 p > .05(p = 0.396);簡言之,以朗讀劇場 提升學生閱讀文言篇章之理解能力是具有一定的成效。 48 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 整體而言,受訪學生均認同本次研究之成效,並指出朗讀劇場能夠 引起他們學習文言文的興趣之原因,包括:提供活動機會、課堂氣氛輕 鬆、表演有趣、減少理解的阻礙。由此可見,朗讀劇場拉近了文言文學 習與學生的距離,誘發出他們對文言文的學習興趣,化被動學習為主動 學習,開啟了文言文學習的首要一步。 「我沒有想過可以把文言文的故事表演出來,而比較老師以 往在教授文言文時,自己只顧自己不斷說,我比較喜歡這樣 有趣的上課形式。」(同學A) 「朗讀劇場的教學方法很輕鬆,既不用死記硬背劇本,也不 用像真的戲劇一樣準備道具和服裝,只要看一看劇本便可以 了,沒有很大的壓力,我很喜歡這樣的學習方式。」(同學 B) 「有些同學在朗讀劇場的表演很好笑,他們扮演得很神似, 所以讓你很留心地看他們表演。」(同學 C) 「朗讀劇場不是用文言文表達,所以會較有興趣,至少你聽 得明白,不會感到想睡覺。」(同學D) 受訪同學認為精彩的朗讀劇場表演,不但有助提升他們的學習專注 度,而且更使到他們的學習過程可以變得更深刻,進而提升當中的學習 成效。 「有一組同學的表演很好笑,表情誇張、動作生動、聲線洪 量,使我至今還記得那篇文章的內容。」(同學 B) 「雖然不是所有同學的表演都很精彩,可是有一組同學扮演 的狐狸真的很奸,而那個老虎亦真的扮得很蠢,令人發笑, 記憶很深刻。」(同學 E) 朗讀劇場的環節及流程設計,包括提問角色問題、角色回答問題、 給予獎勵分數、給予小禮物等,對於學生而言都具有一定的趣味性,也 能使他們專注於課堂學習之上,這對於文言篇章學習而言,具有誘發學 生積極學習的作用。 「作為觀眾的我可以向同學提問問題,這個真的很好玩,因 為我可以藉此機會挑戰表演的同學,又可以取得老師的獎勵 分數。」(同學 C) 「同學需要以表演角色的身分,在限時內回答同學指定的問 題,真的是很刺激,因為有些問題很尖銳。」(同學D) 49教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 「朗讀劇場很好玩,既可以看表演,回答問題又可以有糖 吃……我們又可以學習到文言文的內容,完全不會覺得沉 悶。」(同學 E) 從以下受訪同學之意見中,我們可以知道朗讀劇場劇本的編撰模 式,讓學生建立解讀文言篇章的常規模式,即學會了從何入手解構文章 的內容重點,包括先以六何法找出文章內容的關鍵、思考文章背後所帶 出的道理,這都有助學生更有效地解讀故事性較強的文言篇章。 「老師教授我們以六何法找出文言篇章的重點內容,以讓我 們可以得以掌握故事當中的重要人物、情節、過程等,以便 編寫劇本……這使我學會閱讀文言篇章的時候,都會先以六 何法去分辨當中的內容,我發覺這會比較容易理解當中的要 點。」(同學A) 「朗讀劇場要求我們在結尾的時候,由敍事者總結出劇場所 帶出的道理及教訓,這讓我每次看文言篇章的時候,都會思 考一下作者想藉故事說明什麼道理。」(同學 C) 受訪同學都認為是次朗讀劇場教學的活動,為他們介紹了自學文言 篇章的工具,讓他們在遇到文言篇章理解的困難時,可以嘗試自行解決 當中的問題,這為他們自我提升文言篇章之理解能力建立了一定的基 礎。 「老師會要求我們在撰寫劇本的時候,自己上網尋找語譯, 又或者查網上文言文字典,若下次不明白的時候,也可以自 己上網找。」(同學 B) 「老師曾在課堂播放那些文言故事的動畫片段,而影片所展 示的情節都是故事的重點內容,幫助我們理解文言篇章故事 的內容……下次遇有不明白的地方,我也可以嘗試從 youtube 上看看有沒有相關的影片。」(同學 C) 部分受訪同學指出雖然朗讀劇場能夠提升他們學習文言篇章的興 趣,可是若教師沒有重點教授他們閱讀文言文的方法,那麼對於提升解 讀文言篇章的能力之效用則不大,可見本研究在文言文閱讀方法之教學 方面仍然有所缺乏。 「雖然朗讀劇場很有趣,但是我覺得未必可以因此而明白文 言文的內容,因為我覺得自己仍然未看得懂那些字句。」(同 學D) 「我覺得若不明白那些解讀文言文的方法,縱使老師用了朗 讀劇場的方法教導我們學習文言文,也是沒有什麼用。」(同 學 E) 50 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 受訪同學 C認為朗讀劇場為他提供了思考的空間,即其在撰寫或演 出劇本之時候,需要扣連文意,思考角色的感情,使他對於文章內容有 更深入的理解;受訪同學D則認為朗讀劇場的角色扮演環節能夠讓他深 刻地體會角色的感受,進而產生較深刻的感悟。 「在寫台詞和代入角色演出的時候,我需要揣摩角色的感 情……這使我更加明白文章作者想透過文言文表達什麼感情 思想。」(同學 C) 「在演出過後,我依然未能夠忘記我扮演〈濫竽充數〉南郭 先生的情節 ...... 因為我在扮他害怕被拆穿的時候的心情,我 覺得自己扮得很神似,也真的能夠明白騙人那種極為恐懼的 心情,所以感受較深。」(同學D) 從以下的訪談結果中,我們可以得知以朗讀劇場融入文言篇章教學 取得一定的教學成效,包括培養學生的學習興趣、提升學生之專注力、 推進學習之深度。這就是說朗讀劇場可以作為教師教授文言篇章的導入 工具,以有效地引起學生學習文言篇章的動機及興趣。 「我覺得朗讀劇場的確使文言文課堂變得有趣,亦會使我較 專心觀賞同學的表演。」(同學A) 「朗讀劇場使我對所學的文言篇章有更深入的了解,這大概 可能是因為我們要編寫和熟讀劇本才可以演出吧!」(同學 C) 「老師用朗讀劇場教導我們學習文言篇章,的確讓同學們變 得比較專心,也使我們更願意聆聽老師的教導。」(同學D) 由於學校中文課堂的時數有限,再加上實施朗讀劇場需要耗費不少 的時間,包括監察學生撰寫劇本、修訂學生的劇本、讓每組同學表演等。 筆者只能於班級內實施為數四次的朗讀劇場;所謂「熟能生巧」,實 施短短四次的朗讀劇場,未必能夠完全有效、全面地提升學生閱讀文言 篇章能力,故有受訪同學表示朗讀劇場未能夠提升他閱讀文言篇章的信 心。 「我覺得學習興趣是能夠得到提升的,可是我覺得四次的劇 場完結後,我還是沒有信心可以解讀文言篇章的內容。」(同 學 E) 51教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 受訪同學 D表示他仍然未能夠掌握很多不同的文言字詞之意思,這 反映了在施行朗讀劇場融入文言篇章教學的模式時,筆者在文言字詞及 句式的基本教學方面仍然有所不足。 「遇有較深奧的文言篇章,我還是未必能夠掌握其內容大意, 因為我不會解釋很多的字詞。」(同學D) 受訪同學 B認為若教師一起參與朗讀劇場的表演,定必可以提升課 堂的氣氛,筆者亦相信此舉能夠促進學生與教師的關係,進而有助提升 課堂教學之成效。 「如果老師可以經常與我們一起組成朗讀劇場表演,我想我 們都會更開心。」(同學 B) 總結 透過朗讀劇場的實施,學生學習文言篇章的興趣得以提升。學習興 趣是有效學習的前提,若個體對於學習欠缺興趣,那麼他們便會視學習 為苦事,學習成效亦自然變得低下;相反,當個體對於所學習之事產生 濃厚的興趣,那麼興趣便會化為他們努力追求的推動力,使他們更願意 自發自主地學習。事實上,是次研究站立在學生的興趣之上,以戲劇之 方式作為文言篇章之教學工具,既不要求學生背誦台詞,也不用他們製 作繁複的道具,他們只需要嘗試以帶有感情的聲線讀出台詞,並配以簡 單的動作即可,這對於能力稍弱、學習動機低的學生而言,尤見成效。 因此,本研究能夠有效提升學生學習文言篇章之興趣。 經過朗讀劇場的實施後,學生閱讀文言篇章的能力得到一定的提 升。本研究施行之時,著重學生運用六何法去理解篇章內容和編寫劇 本,這為學生建立了閱讀故事性文言篇章之常規,使他們可以掌握解構 文言篇章內容的切入點,在經過四次的訓練後,他們自然可以六何法從 文言讀本中擷取重要的資訊,並由此發掘重要的文章脈絡及線索,進而 對內容大意作出更準確的推敲。可見,以朗讀劇場為本的文言篇章教學 有助提升學生閱讀故事性較強的文言篇章之能力。 朗讀劇場融入文言篇章教學能夠強化學生對篇章的感悟。閱讀文學 作品的最終目的,就是讓學生產生個人的感悟,進而反思自己的生命問 題;本研究讓學生扮演文言故事裡的不同角色,使學生透過代入角色, 思考角色背後的感情思想,以使他們在演出時可以掌握到適當的語氣及 聲線。經過這樣的思考過程,學生自然能夠產生更深刻的內在感受,並 從文本內容中得到更大的啟發,進而提升他們的文言篇章理解能力。可 見,本研究能有助學生對文本內容產生更深刻的感受。 52 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 建議 香港中學文憑考試經過改革及檢討後,香港教育局於高中重新實施 範文教學及考核,學校可以藉此機會重整校本的文言篇章課程,例如: 學校可以提升學生學習文言篇章興趣為初中級別中文科課程之教學目 標,並以故事性較強之文言篇章為主要的教學材料,同時把故事性較強 的指定文言範文〈廉頗藺相如列傳〉劃分至初中教授,那麼教師便可以 更具空間及彈性實施朗讀劇場,以建立初中學生學習文言篇章之興趣, 為他們於高中階段學習指定文言範文建立厚實之基礎,同時減少了他們 學習文言篇章的焦慮感。 為配合於文言篇章教學裡實施朗讀劇場,故筆者選取了四篇文言故 事為教學材料;筆者發現學生普遍喜歡閱讀具故事情節的文言篇章作 品,也比較喜愛聽別人說故事;因此筆者認為中文科教師可以在日常教 學裡,多說文言故事,以引起學生對之的學習興趣。當然教師亦可以考 慮設置讀書會,於午休或放學的時間,為學生講解文言故事,這既可以 增加他們的學習興趣,亦可以在日積月累的情況下提升他們的文言文理 解水平。 本研究只以文言故事作為朗讀劇場的主軸,故此筆者建議後續研究 者可以朗讀劇場教授其他類別的文言文,如:說理、議論等,以驗證朗 讀劇場能否提升其他類別文言文之教學成效;另外,礙於課堂時數所限, 本研究只能於班級裡實施為數四次的朗讀劇場,而研究時間亦只有四個 月,因此筆者建議後續研究者可以增加研究的時間,以驗證實施朗讀劇 場的時間長短會否影響學生的文言理解水平之提升。 參考文獻 文娟 (2008)。中學文言文教學中對學生古典情懷的培養。成都大學學報(教 育科學版),22(8),108-110。 安傳芳 (2011)。關於高中文言文教學的幾點思考。南昌教育學院學報,26 (9),105。 吳善揮 (2014)。香港高中學生的中文閱讀能力問題研究。臺灣教育評論月刊, 3(8),55-62。 吳善揮 (2015)。「朗讀劇場」教學應用於國中融合班之初究。特教園丁,30 (3),23-38。 李迎春 (2012)。高中文言文教學方法創新研究。湖南師範大學教育碩士論文, 未出版,長沙市。 李平 (2011)。高中文言文教學中的道德教育滲透。河北師範大學教育碩士論 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Jalt Journal, 23(1), 47-68. 54 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件一:〈濫竽充數〉工作紙 55教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 56 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件二:〈刻舟求劍〉工作紙 57教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 58 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件三:〈狐假虎威〉工作紙 59教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 60 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件四:〈紙上談兵〉工作紙 61教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 63教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Kwun-hung Li Caritas Tuen Mun Marden Foundation Secondary School Abstract Key themes in Applied English Linguistics include ESL writing and the quest for suitable instructional approaches. This article investigates the practicability of implementing a learner-centered approach in teaching argumentative writing to senior secondary ESL learners in Hong Kong. This article presents a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest classroom-based research study conducted by a front-line English teacher documenting the effects of utilizing a learner- centered approach on teaching argumentative essay-writing based on the learning needs stated in the initial needs analysis questionnaire filled by the experimental group. Subjects were 60 Secondary Five ESL students in a secondary school with mainly Non-Chinese Speakers in Hong Kong. By collecting quantitative data including the pretest and posttest scores and running descriptive statistical analysis, it was found that a learner-centered teaching approach enhanced learners’ motivation and performance in ESL writing. Pedagogical implications are then discussed from the point of view of extending the learner-centered approach to teaching other ESL skills including reading, listening and speaking skills because a learner-centered approach seems to be beneficial to learners with low motivation and lower ability. 64 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Introduction (A) Background Learner-centered curriculum is a large area of investigation developed by various professional educators. However, according to the English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (2007), the main focus of curriculum development is on ‘School based curriculum’, of which schools are free to design their own approaches of teaching based on the general guidelines of the Education Bureau (EDB). Since this approach is still fresh and at the testing stage in education sector in Hong Kong, there is a need to test its validity in a practical manner before including other areas of ESL teaching and learning. Also, as most of the subjects are working adults who want to improve themselves and get good results in the public examinations, this learner-centered approach of learning may best suit them. As they are more mature, they could be able to identify their learning needs clearly and they can provide feedback to the teacher using this approach. This can facilitate the research in this area and hence provide possible suggestions for improvement of this program which can pave the way for further implementation of this program in other aspects of English language learning. (B) Area of investigation Therefore, this research only applies on the writing part of ESL teaching. In this research, Several aspects on the implementation of learner-centered curriculum to local secondary school ESL students would be investigated, including: 1. Students’ interest in ways of learning writing skills; 2. The impact of implementing a learner-centered approach of teaching on students’ learning outcomes; 3. The impact of implementing learner-centered approach of teaching on students’ motivation of learning. Literature review The main focus for this research would be the implementation of a ‘learner-centered curriculum’. The word ‘implementation’ refers to ‘realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model, design or specification, etc.’ (Ellis, 1994, p.11), and this research study was to ‘plan and design’ as well as evaluate the learner-centered curriculum. According to Burton (1987), there are three main foci in a learner-centered curriculum. First, it focuses on the individual learner. Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 65教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Second, the materials should be selected from various sources since the teaching methodology may not suitable for every student. Third, it focuses on how to train students to deal with practical needs in the society. The same view is shared by Nunan (1997, p.5) who views that this curriculum involves ‘collaborative effort between teachers and learners since learners are closely involved in the decision-making process on the content of the curriculum’. But before implementing such a curriculum, a needs analysis should be conducted in order to identify the ‘language proficiency and literacy’ of students (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005). Needs analysis is common for teachers who teach English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as a tool to assess the needs and ability of students in different settings (Dudley-Evans, 1998). In a needs analysis questionnaire, there are mainly two parts—current situation and expected situation, assisted by some questions on how the students would like the teachers to conduct the course (Dudley-Evans, 1998). In this research, the types of questions will be set according to secondary school setting and focus on the writing part of English. Only the concepts of a needs analysis will be used but not the format of it because the questions should be set according to the junior students’ level and so the language and format cannot be too sophisticated. The questions in the needs analysis were set according to the content that was to be covered in the writing lessons and different methods of assessments and course design with reference to various journal articles. For example, in the needs analysis for this research, the first part of the interview was adopted from Dudley-Evans (1998)’s sample ‘Pre-course information questionnaire’ on the background information of participation in the course. Question 5 on students’ knowledge on writing an essay is to check their understanding towards ESL writing skills. This is essential as suggested by Ferris & Hedgcock (2005), before the design of the course, teachers must know their understanding towards the target knowledge so that the teachers can develop the teaching materials accordingly. As for the expected situation part in the needs analysis, the questions on how the students like to learn writing skills was based on several concepts adopted from McGarrell and Verbeem (2007) and Reid (1993). McGarrell and Verbeem (2007) suggest that asking students to hand in drafts and provide instant feedback can draw the motivation for instant and ‘substantive revision’ so as to allow students to have chances to express their opinions quickly which enhance their learning and motivation to learn. The same view is shared by Reid (1993) that students would be more interested in revising their drafts in order to 66 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong present their better piece of work to the others and students would be more confident in their works if they are given chances to revise their work under suitable instructions. According to Dudley-Evans (1998), every learner-centered course needs to have feedback and assessment in order to check if the course is conducted according to the needs analysis and whether it achieved the expected outcome of participants. Course evaluation for motivation change and understanding checking will be conducted at the end of the course, as suggested by Shin (2003), a ‘reflective teacher’ should not only keep a journal as a lesson record, but conduct course evaluation so as to evaluate on the lessons conducted and make improvement. Here, the authors of the article disagree with the concept of writing an entry at the end of course evaluation. This is not applicable to the current research as this research focus on learner-centered teaching, the teachers’ own assumption may not help to improve the quality of the course and to evaluate the overall performance of students (Shin, 2003). Therefore, in the research, the end of course questionnaire has been set, apart from the end-of-unit writing. Research questions Set against the background that has been examined, the present study aimed to investigate the practicability of implementing a learner-centered approach in teaching argumentative writing to senior secondary ESL learners in Hong Kong. The specific research questions are: 1. What were the preferred ways of students in learning writing skills? 2. Would students be highly motivated if they can learn according to their own preference and needs? 3. Would students have a better understanding towards the subject matter and improve their academic results if they can learn according to their own preference and needs? Research design and methodology (a) Subjects Students included 60 students from two Form 5 classes from a secondary school that mainly admits Non-Chinese Students (an Affordable International School) in Hong Kong. This school was selected on the basis of convenience and the writers’ sufficient Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 67教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 knowledge and understanding with the students as the teacher- researchers have had nearly 5 years of contact with them. One class received the learner-centered approach of instruction while the other class received the teacher-centered approach. Both courses lasted for 4 lessons in 4 weeks. Each lesson comprised one hour. (b) Procedures The analysis started with students’ essay writing. The two groups of students would write up one piece of essay with a given topic closely related to their life: the negative effects of playing computer games. The writing time was limited to 50 minutes and they were informed that this was part of a research study of educational purpose, but not to mention the pieces of writing would have no effect to their examination results in order to maintain their motivation. This test served the initial test for the research. Questionnaires (Needs analysis) were then given at the beginning of the course as the foundation for further analysis. A set of questionnaires were distributed and the students were given 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire which included their learning behavior on English writing and the advice on their preferred way of learning. The questionnaire aims at collecting information of 1) Students’ own ways of handling writing questions; 2) Students’ preferred mode of learning; 3) Preferred content of learning materials. The questions are used to finding out the desired ways of learning to fulfill the needs of the students. Sets of teaching material were developed according to the students’ responses collected from the questionnaires. It is believed that a more learner-centered design for the materials would better arouse students’ learning interest on writing. The two groups of students were then divided into two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group was given instructions according to the materials with emphasis on students’ opinions and preferences stated in the needs analysis questionnaires. To be exact, the material chosen were also ‘suggestive’ rather than ‘definitive’ (see appendix), acting as a model for teachers to develop their own variations, which is the nature of the learner- centred curriculum (Nunan, 1989); the other group would be taught in a more traditional or conventional chalk-and-board method without the implementation of a learner-centered approach. It is thought that the students’ performances can be compared by using this format. 68 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Initial test Needs Analysis Implementation of Learner- Centered Curriculum (Experimental group) No intervention or board and chalk talk (Control Group) Evaluation and end-of- unit Test Yet, the school authority did not allow the video-taping of lessons in class. Therefore, in order to look at the situation of lessons, teacher’s observation was used to serve this function. It is believed that since the first author of the article was the one who delivered the course, he would be more sensitive towards the understanding of students and their learning needs as well as their abilities. Furthermore, 4 sets of interviews were conducted. There were 2 sets of individual interviews and 2 sets of focus group interviews, and all of them were based on the questions at the end of evaluation questionnaire (see Appendix 3). Participants of the focus groups were selected from the experimental group in order to have a better understanding on students’ attitude towards the course. On the other hand, the participants of individual interviews were selected in a random basis from both the control group as well as the experimental group in order to gather feedback from both groups. Interviewing was selected as the research method because it was the appropriate method to understand students’ thoughts in a greater detail. Further analysis would be taken by transcribing the recorded data. Evaluation sheets were given to all students participating in the research study to obtain the feedback opinion of the students. It was designed in a questionnaire format with questions covering different aspects of teaching and learning in the implementation of learner- centered curriculum. This questionnaire aimed at obtaining a more comprehensive understanding of students’ own personal reflection towards the introduced way of teaching. After that, an end-of-unit test was taken. The teacher asked the students from both groups to complete another piece of writing which shared a same topic with the one before the research study. This procedure was believed to be able to provide evidence of students’ progress after the implementation of learner-centered approach of teaching. To sum up, the flow of the study could be expressed in a flow chart as follows: Table 1.1 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 69教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 (c) Data analysis In the post-course analysis, 4 sets of materials were used for the complete analysis in this project, namely: 1) Needs Analysis questionnaires, 2) teacher observation form, 3) initial and final test paper and 4) end-of-unit evaluation form. The results of the needs analysis questionnaires would be processed right after data collection. The questionnaires were grouped and analyzed carefully. This would prevent the potential setbacks of qualitative analysis of being subjective in the process of analysis. The initial and final test papers were used to identify students’ abilities and performance before and after the course. Teacher observation forms were used to analyze student’s motivation throughout the lessons in both the experimental and control groups. Teacher noted the class atmosphere as well as students’ responses when delivering lessons with sets of materials that were suggested by the students in the questionnaire. Students’ writings were analyzed and evaluated with the marking scheme of HKDSE writing rubrics. The results were analyzed from the following aspects, including the structure of writing, the organization of writing and forming ideas. The rubric was important to assess students’ performance as well as the impact of implementing the learner-centered curriculum to the experimental group. The end-of-unit evaluation forms were used to cross-check students’ motivation and learning atmosphere as stated in the teacher observation form. Questions consisted of their perception on writing after receiving the learner-centered approach of teaching and their knowledge on writing argumentative essays after the course. These kinds of knowledge testing could also cross-check the validity of the improvement or performance in the initial and post course writing test. Results and discussion (a) Needs Analysis The aim of this analysis was to identify students’ needs and their learning behaviour in English. The format of this needs analysis was modified from the needs analysis form in Teaching ESL Writing (Reid, 1993) because of its comprehensiveness. This kind of needs analysis also serves the function of knowing what we did not know, 70 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong not wasting our students’ time, appearing much more professional and knowing how we should analyse the data (Reid, 1993). On the other hand, other than these, another crucial point of using this analysis is that whenever data is being collected, is to know beforehand what will happen to the raw data and to the information derived from it. Therefore, a further discussion can be facilitated in the later part of this research to serve this purpose. There were altogether 60 forms received (30 from control group and 30 from experimental group). Here are some of the important questions stated in the questionnaire and their results: From the above results, it is suggested that students had more anxiety in writing in English than other aspects in learning English. They had very limited chances to learn English apart from the English lessons. They also regarded English as a tool only for their career and many of them did not truly want to learn English for interest. Moreover, most of the students wanted to improve their forming ideas in writing essays as well as organization. They may have already realized that it would be hard to improve their language within a short period of time. Judging from their learning behavior, it is suggested that students in general had very limited exposure in learning English through visual Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 71教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 aids and they seldom had the chance to develop ideas with teachers directly. (b) Initial test (Without giving grades) After the needs analysis questionnaires, students were given the initial test. The assessment rubric was Grammar, Organization and forming ideas. The topic was ‘Physical Education should be made compulsory in schools’. After the extensive marking of the test, both groups were proven to have similar abilities. Students had weak understanding on the structure of an argumentative essay and they lacked language abilities and ideas to express themselves in the essay. (c) Teacher Observation (Delivery of the course) Instruction for the control group with teacher-centered approach: Students in this group were quite shy in answering questions asked by the teacher, like what the model essay was about. Some students lacked motivation as they were just given structured notes, a draft paper and model essays. Some of them gave up the lesson and did something else in the lesson which may cause behavioural problems at the same time. Instruction for the experimental group with learner-centered approach: Students were attracted by the PowerPoint slides possibly because of the visual impact. Also, students were more willing to answer questions. Some students even copied down the points that the first author of the article made in analyzing the model essays. Moreover, they took the initiative to ask questions in Cantonese like repeating the main points that the first author had advised to seek confirmation. It is obvious that students were more motivated in attend the experiential lessons. (d) End-of-unit test The aim of this test was to test the effectiveness of the approach and compare the results of students receiving different teaching approaches. A question with the same format as the initial test was given to students as the End-of-unit test. It is because the results could hopefully be easier to compare if the format (elements) of both tests are the same. Experimental Group: Most of them did improve when compared with the initial test. But those that under-performed in the initial test 72 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1. Do you like writing now? Do you feel that you have achieved something? Yes 30% Yes 80% No 70% No 20% Q1c Q1e attained greater improvement and the quality of their pieces kept up with the rest of the class. It may be because the teacher provided face-to-face support in forming ideas and drafting essays so that they were motivated to write something for the sake of the public exam later on. For those students who performed better in the first test, probably because they lacked grammatical accuracy and sentence forming skills and this course mainly focused on the organization and forming ideas in writing essays, according to the needs analysis. Control Group: Students’ performance was as expected. Students improved in terms of organization and forming ideas, but for the low achievers in the first test, it seemed that they did not have improvement, probably because they lacked motivation or the lessons were too boring for them, such as examining the model essays with lecturing and some planning. (e) End-of-unit evaluation The aim of this evaluation was to evaluate and cross-check the effectiveness of different teaching approaches through receiving written feedback from students apart from the test. There were altogether 60 forms received (30 from control group and 30 from experimental group). Here are some of the results: Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 73教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2. What areas of writing would you like to know more about after completing the unit of lessons? Sentence forming 70% Sentence forming 50% Grammar 30% Grammar 50% CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 3. Do you find the teaching methods and content used by the teacher help you to understand more on writing an essay? Why or why not? Yes, provide good model and they are useful 60% Yes, because it is interesting 70% No, it is boring 40% Yes, it is useful 30% Q3c Q2c Q3e Q2e 74 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 4. Please write down your understanding of argumentative essay again at the best of your knowledge. A. Discuss things on two sides 20% A. Talk about things on both sides 40% B. Can you tell me once more 20% B. Persuade the others 40% C. Introduction, body and conclusion 20% C. Don’t know 20% D. I don’t know 40% CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 5. Do you want to have the similar teaching methods applied to other areas of English like reading, speaking and listening? Yes, it is similar to what we learnt before 80% Yes 100% Leave it blank 20% Q4c Q5c Q4e Q5e Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 75教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 6. Can you suggest some ways to improve the course? No 100% More model essays 20% More vocabulary items 40% No 40% Q6c Q6e Experimental group: Students viewed that the new (learner- centered) approach of teaching writing was quite successful although they did not show a sheer ‘passion’ in writing right after the lesson. The PowerPoint slides grabbed their attention and they were more confident in writing the piece of essay with teacher guidance in essay planning and forming ideas. Control group: Students viewed that the conventional (teacher- centered) approach was generally okay and the approach was similar to what they faced when they were in the daytime secondary schools. However this approach was quite boring and some of the students were playing cards at the back of the classroom. They did not think their interest in writing would be enhanced after that writing lesson. Both groups had a rough idea on what an argumentative essay was and they deemed that they could handle the next piece of essay with what they have learnt in the lesson. Conclusion The results show the success of the implementation of a learner-centered approach in helping students improve the writing performance in argumentative essays. The first author developed materials with reference to students’ preference in the needs analysis. 76 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong The teacher-researcher then delivered the materials and jotted down his observation in class. Later, the teacher-researcher evaluated the effectiveness of this course through an end-of-unit test and evaluation forms. Generally speaking, students had greater improvement in both learning motivation and performance after receiving the learner- centered instructional approach, as shown in the evaluation forms and end-of-unit test scores. Therefore, the pedagogical implications will be to extend the learner-centered approach to teaching other ESL skills including reading, listening and speaking skills because a learner-centered approach seems to be beneficial to learners with low motivation and lower ability. Yet, it should be noted that the dynamics and culture of the two classes may affect the validity of this test. The experimental group students were generally more willing to learn and the atmosphere was more welcoming while the control group students were more susceptible to the lack of learning interest and they tended to be more reticent. Therefore, when implementing this approach, the teacher may need to take into consideration of the classroom dynamics whether this approach will be suitable for different learners. This needs further research by frontline ESL teachers and teacher-educators. Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 77教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 References Br i nd l ey , G . ( 1989 ) . As s e s s i ng a ch i evemen t i n t h e l e a r n e r - c en t e r ed curriculum. National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research: Macquarie University. Burton, J. (1987). Implementing the Learner-centered Curriculum. National Cen t r e f o r Eng l i s h Language Teach i ng and Re s ea r ch : Macqua r i e University. Curriculum Development Council (2002). English Language Curriculum: Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (P1-S3). Hong Kong: The Government Printer. Dudley-Evans, R. (1998). Development in English for Specific Purpose: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ferris, D., & Hedgcock, J.S. (2005). Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process and Practice. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Harmer, J . (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Pearson Education. McGarrell, H., & Verbeem, J. (2007). Motivating revision of drafts through formative feedback. ELT Journal, 61(3), 228-236. Nunan, D. (1988) . The learner-Centered Curr iculum: A study in second language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olson, C. B., & Land, R. (2007). A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing instruction for English language learners in secondary school. Research in the Teaching of English, 41(3), 269-303. Reid, J, M. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing. Prentice Hall Regents. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Rollinson, P. (2005). Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class. ELT Journal, 59(1), 23-30. Seliger, H. W., & Shohamy, E. (1999). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shin, S. J. (2003). The reflective L2 writing teacher. ELT Journal, 57(1), 3-9. Walker, R. & Perez Riu, C. (2008). Coherence in the assessment of writing skills. ELT Journal, 62(1), 18-28. 78 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Appendix 1 Initial Test: Writing task Time limit: 1 hour Situation: You are Chris Wong, a student of Happy Secondary School. Since you are one of the top students in the school, your teacher asks you to write an essay on ‘Physical Education should be made compulsory in schools’ and you essay will be posted on the main notice board at school in order to let other students see how clever you are. Write an essay on that topic with no more than 250 words Appendix 2 Need Analysis on writing an essay in junior secondary level Part 1 Current Situation (A)Background knowledge 1. How much time do you spend on English every day? Please circle the answer. A.0-2 hours B. <2-4 hours C. More than 4 hours 2. Do you like English? Please circle the answer. I-------------------------I---------------------------I-----------------------------I Love Like Fair Hate 3. Do you like writing in English? Why or why not? _____________________________________________________ 4. To you, what is the difficulty of writing comparing with reading, speaking and listening in your English learning experience? A. It is already very easy B. B. I think it is just the same with the others C. It is slightly more difficult than the others D. It is the hardest one among the others (B) Operational questions 5. Do you know what any essay is? What is the structure of it? Please write down your understanding at the best of your knowledge. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 79教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 6. What is your handling procedure when faced with writing questions? A. Write immediately (just write what you think instantly) B. Draw a mind map and then write accordingly C. Write a draft on another paper and then copy it into the answer book D. Write up a structure of the essay on another paper first and then write a full text on the Answer book with complete sentences and ideas. Part II Expected situation: 7. Which part of writing do you want to improve more? A. Organization B. Language structure and usage C. Ideas forming 8. How would you like to learn writing skills? A. Lecturing Demonstration of how to handle a question Writing B. Lecturing Discussion Group writing C. Lecturing Model essay Writing D. Lecturing Writing Draft and correction E. Others: (Please specify) ______________________________________________________ 9. Mode of instruction that you preferred: you can circle more than one A. Chalk and board B. PowerPoint slides C. Games D. Video Clip on how to learn writing skills Appendix 3 End of unit evaluation 1. Do you like writing now? Do you feel that you have achieved something? _____________________________________________________ 2. What areas of writing would you like to know more about after completing the unit of lessons? _____________________________________________________ 80 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Appendix 4 Teacher Observation Form Control Group Experimental Group Attentiveness I n t h e s e 4 l e s s o n s , students were not very attentive. Some of them ignored the instruction of the teacher and did their own things. Maybe the lessons are too boring, some mature students w e r e t o o t i r e d t o b e a t t e n t i v e t h r o u g h o u t the lesson. Sleeping is common among them. Since Visual Aids were used, students were quite attentive. Some of them sit straight throughout the lesson. When they were asked to participate in in-class activity, they were more willing to do it. Some students from other c lasses even jo in our lessons and become sit-in students. Taking initiative to learn Students in general are quite shy. They simply did not take initiative to learn actively and simply wait the teacher to spoon-feed knowledge to them. Students were more active in answering questions raised by the teacher. S o m e o f t h e m e v e n take the chance to ask questions and jot down important points that were made by the teachers. 3. Do you find the teaching methods and content used by the teacher help you to understand more on writing an essay? Why or why not? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 4. Please write down your understanding of argumentative essay again at the best of your knowledge. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 5. Do you want to have the similar teaching methods applied to other areas of English like reading, speaking and listening? _____________________________________________________ 6. Can you suggest some ways to improve the course? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 81教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing Bronson Hui S.K.H. St. Simon' s Lui Ming Choi Secondary School Daniel Fung University of Oxford Abstract One major goal of vocabulary learning is to empower learners to use selected words whenever they need. However, there seems to be a phenomenon that some learners possess the necessary productive word knowledge, such as spelling and grammatical features of the target words, but still find it difficult to use the words correctly. This piece of research reports the process of identifying the potential developmental gap between knowing a word and using it in writing. It involved 12 Form 6 students from a local secondary school using English as the medium of instruction. They completed the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test which measured their productive word knowledge, and the results were adjusted and compared with the lexical profiling of their four pieces of writing for investigating if the words used by the learners belong to: (1) high frequency K2 words (i.e., the second most frequent 1,000 words in English); (2) mid frequency K3 words (i.e., the third most frequent 1,000 words); or (3) low frequency K4-K5 words (i.e., the fourth and fifth most frequent 1,000 words). In order to find out whether these two measures revealed a difference between knowledge and usage, a correlation test was first performed. Results confirmed that knowledge and usage were two different concepts. A follow-up t-test comparing the expected and actual proportion of use showed a significant difference with 82 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing high frequency K2 words, but not K3 and K4-K5 words. We argued that there was a gap between knowing and using a word as well as students’ strategy to opt for lower frequency words. Pedagogical implications are discussed in relation to how teachers can assist learners in bridging this gap. Introduction Vocabulary is an essential part of language learning. In the case of receptive skills (i.e., reading and listening), studies have demonstrated that a foreign language user needs to know a high percentage of the words within a piece of text in order to gain adequate comprehension (e.g., Hu & Nation, 2000; Laufer, 1998; van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2012). This percentage of words known by foreign language users out of the total number of words in the text is termed lexical coverage (Adolphs & Schmitt, 2003). For example, when the lexical coverage for a learner is 80%, it means that s/he knows 80% of the words in the text. Hu and Nation (2000) used non-words (i.e., words that do not exist) to replace real words in fiction texts in order to mimic language learners’ encounter of unknown words. The researchers created four levels of lexical coverage (i.e., 80%, 90%, 95% and 100%). That is, in the case of the 80% lexical coverage, 20% of the real words were replaced by non-words (e.g., ‘rane’). In other words, it was expected that out of all the words of the text, 20% were unknown to the participants prior to the study. Participants were asked to read the text and complete a 14-item comprehension test in the format of multiple choice questions. Adequate comprehension was defined as being correct in at least 12 items (i.e., 86% of 14). Results showed that none could attain adequate comprehension at 80% lexical coverage; and only 4 out of 16 (25%) and 6 out of 17 (35%) passed the comprehension threshold at 90% and 95% coverage respectively. It was only when the coverage reached 100% that the majority (15 out of 17) showed adequate comprehension in the test. From these figures, the authors suggested that the lexical coverage threshold for adequate comprehension should be between 95-100%, and hence proposed the figure of 98%. One of the key implications about this figure is that researchers can enumerate the number of words a learner needs to understand authentic texts and set a pedagogical goal for vocabulary learning. For example, van Zeeland and Schmitt (2012) suggested that a learner To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 83教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 needs to know 2,000 to 3,000 words based on a 95% coverage figure in order to understand spoken text. When the calculation was based on a 98% coverage figure, an understanding of 6,000 to 7,000 words was required. For language teachers in Hong Kong, the question is whether or not this target is achievable as most of their students learn English as a foreign language. One problem is that the goal of language learning is not confined to comprehension. Helping them to use the language (i.e., to speak and write to express meaning) with proper vocabulary is also an important target. Vocabulary knowledge can be receptive (or passive) and productive (or active) in nature (Pignot-Shahov, 2012). This distinction is closely related to the question of what it means to know a word. To address the issue, Nation (2013) identified three aspects in this connection. The first aspect is knowledge of a word’s form such as its written form (i.e., spelling), spoken form (i.e., pronunciation), and its word parts (e.g., prefixes like pre-). The second aspect is the understanding of its meaning, including the concepts and/or referents that the word refers to, as well as its associations with other words, such as ‘good’ being an antonym of ‘bad’. The last one is the knowledge of its usage, namely its grammatical features (e.g., parts of speech), collocations and other constraints on use. The mastery of the first two aspects (i.e., form and meaning) would suffice for comprehension purpose. An understanding of the third aspect (i.e., use) is essential when one needs to produce language in a sensible manner. As a result, there appears to be a gap between receptive and productive knowledge. Indeed, using their Computer Adaptive Test of Size and Strength (CATSS), Laufer and Goldstein (2004) confirmed that receptive vocabulary is generally larger than productive vocabulary of an individual, and that the gap is likely to be a difficulty hierarchy. The logical question in practical and pedagogical terms is how a teacher could bridge this receptive-productive gap. Lee and Muncie (2006) asked their participants to read a text on Titanic, the British passenger liner that sank in the Atlantic in 1917. The text contained 42 words or lexical phrases that were explicitly taught as novel vocabulary items. After that, the participants completed a writing task in which they had to describe a hypothetical experience on Titanic. The participants used only as few as 18.4-20.9% of those target vocabulary items in this piece of writing. This result is taken as evidence that reading and explicit vocabulary instruction alone cannot lead to satisfactory vocabulary use. In another attempt, the researchers asked students to 84 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing write on the same topic again. This time, the author provided students with scaffolds of a composition structure frame which helped the students focus on the target vocabulary. More than that, the target items were listed for the students, and the students were explicitly encouraged to use the target items in their writing. In this writing, the use of target vocabulary augmented to 67.5-68.7%. In the third attempt after two weeks, the scaffold was still the writing frame. Students were asked to recall the items and write them down before they started to write (instead of being able to refer to the items listed for them). This time, students produced 50.5-63% of the target items. In a similar vein, Lee (2003) asked her participants to write about cruel sports after reading a passage on bull fighting and receiving explicit instruction on the target vocabulary items. The participants were able to produce 63.2% of the target vocabulary items in the passage that they had learnt. This percentage was compared with 13.2% of use before the vocabulary instruction. From these two studies, it may be concluded that post-reading vocabulary instruction, explicit scaffold, provision of the items as well as encouragement to use the target items could encourage students to use newly learnt vocabulary items in their production. These studies have brought about two issues. First, two reasons could account for failure to use the target items in writing -- (1) the learners had not actually learnt the items; and (2) the learners have learnt the items but did not use them. The existence of these two possibilities makes the case obscure in the sense that teachers/ researchers may find it difficult to pinpoint specifically what caused students’ failure to produce the target items. Another issue that requires attention is that in both studies, the participants were asked to write on a topic that was very closely related to the vocabulary instruction that they had received. In the case of Lee and Muncie (2006), both the reading text and the writing task were about Titanic. Similarly, Lee (2003) had bull fighting as the topic of the reading, and cruel sports as the writing theme. On one hand, using a similar theme may offer a better context for the learners to try out with the newly learnt vocabulary items. On the other, it is not entirely clear if the learners could produce those target items in another novel context. This uncertainty is particularly important because, after all, one major goal of vocabulary learning is to empower students to use the items freely so that they are able to use the words to express themselves as they wish. In other words, these items should be readily available whenever they need them. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 85教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 If the ability to produce the newly learnt vocabulary across various contexts is an important goal of teaching vocabulary for production’s sake, it implies that there might be multiple levels of productive vocabulary. This notion may address a key problem which affects language teachers in Hong Kong who are used to assessing their students through different formats of vocabulary tests. Students may excel in vocabulary tests in the formats of dictation, fill-in-the- blanks and so on, showing all Nation’s (2013) aspects of vocabulary knowledge of a word, such as spelling and grammatical features. However, they may still find it difficult to demonstrate a wide range of vocabulary use when they speak. It is, in fact, likely that many language teachers have been asked by students how newly learnt vocabulary could be used in everyday life. To answer such a question, it is essential to first empirically identify such a gap between general productive knowledge and the ability to use these vocabulary items. It is only after such a gap is identified that teachers and researchers could look for ways to bridge this gap. Some may comment that this gap is commonly known, implying that teachers should notice students’ problems of not being able to produce newly learnt lexical items. While we feel reluctant to agree totally, we acknowledge that some teachers may have a subjective impression from their experience, that knowing a word does not mean using a word. At the same time, we maintain that empirical identification is necessary. As far as we know, no study has specifically documented this final stage of vocabulary development. One of the many reasons why such a gap is merely taken for granted by many is that the measures of general productive knowledge and actual use are often two separate vocabulary measures that researchers employ as dependent variables. For example, looking at the vocabulary size of students in Chinese- and English-medium schools, Lo & Murphy (2010) used both measures without comparing them directly. The present study aims exactly at this comparison, and argues for the importance of bridging the gap between knowing and using vocabulary, once it is identified. Methodology and Procedures The participants in the present study included 12 Form 6 students in a local secondary school using English as the medium of instruction in most content subjects, such as Geography and History. These students were recruited from the same Form 6 class whose teacher the researchers of this study had personal contact with. All participants 86 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing were native speakers of Cantonese, and had learnt English as a foreign language for at least 11 years (6 years of primary and 5 years of secondary school at the time of participating in this study). These students were expected to sit for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. The Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT) (Laufer & Nation, 1999) was used to measure the general productive vocabulary knowledge of the participants. It requires test-takers to provide a vocabulary item in a given context presented in a sentence. Therefore, it is a test of controlled productive vocabulary knowledge in that test- takers are prompted to offer a word that fits into the context provided. This format of testing also echoes with the assessment practice of some local teachers who give fill-in-the-blanks exercise to students. Therefore, the findings of this test may be of particular relevance to local teachers in Hong Kong. There are two versions of the PVLT, but only Version 1 was used in this study lest doubts might be cast on any potential differences between the two versions. Two examples are given to illustrate the format of the test. They are used to elicit the target words 'hungry' and 'usual'. 1.They sat down to eat even though they were not hu___________. 2.This work is not up to your usu________standard. Note that the initial letters of the target words are always given so that test-takers could not insert a word other than the target word that might also be semantically appropriate in the context. The way in which this test could determine one’s productive vocabulary size is based on the frequency of occurrence of the target words in English as represented by the British National Corpus. This corpus contains a huge collection of authentic English texts, from which the frequency of occurrence is determined. The most frequently occurring 1,000 words in English are known as K1 words; K2 words are the next 1,000 words in the line of frequency; and K3 words the next 1,000 words and so on. In the examples above, 'hungry' and 'usual' are K2 words. For each level, there are 18 questions in the PVLT. Three levels were used in this study, K2, K3 and K4-K5. Laufer and Nation (1999) combined K4 and K5 into one level (i.e., K4-K5) for easier and more practical assessment of knowledge about these relatively low frequency words. With three levels used, the total score for the test in this study was 54. The items were pseudo-randomised using Microsoft Excel’s RAND function which assigns a random To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 87教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 number to each item (one could type ‘=RAND( )’ in any cell). The random numbers were sorted in ascending order to determine the order of the item presented in the actual test taken by the participants. The test was administered by the teacher of the class. Within a month after the administration of the PVLT, four writing samples were collected from each student. The task requirement and the format resembled those in the questions in the HKDSE. The themes and genres are tabulated below (Table 1). Writings 1 and 2 were assigned as homework for students, and Writings 3 and 4 were parts of the students’ formal assessment at school, which were timed. Participants could choose to write on one of the questions in Writings 3 and 4. Table 1: The themes and genres of the writing tasks Theme Genre Writing 1 Walkathon Expository in a poster Writing 2 An artist and her exhibition Feature article in a school newspaper Writing 3 (participants are asked to choose one) An ou ts tand ing student award Nomination H i p - p o p d a n c e performance Promotional leaflet Teenagers fighting for a girlfriend Recount in a school newspaper article Writing 4 (participants are asked to choose one) Goal setting Speech Popular culture Magazine article Social harmony Letter to the Editor Results and Discussion In this section, results obtained from the PVLT are first presented, followed by those of the free writing tasks. Recalling that the former is a measure of general productive knowledge and the latter one of actual productive use, this paper seeks to compare the findings from these two measures to shed light on the hypothesized discrepancies of the two levels of productive knowledge. 88 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing The PVLT consisted of 18 questions at each level of K2, K3, and K4-K5 words. One mark was given for every correct item. The marking of the test did not take grammatical accuracy into consideration. For example, when the word ‘attached’ was required, members in the same word family such as ‘attach’ and ‘attaches’ were also accepted. In other words, all inflected forms of the words belonging to the same word family were counted as correct. Although grammatical features of a word are part of word knowledge, the PVLT was treated purely as a test of vocabulary instead of a test of grammar in this study. Another rationale is related to the validity of comparison between the PVLT and free writing tasks in that grammaticality was also discounted in the corresponding measure of the students’ free production. As Table 2 indicates, the 12 students who took the PVLT showed a huge variation in their productive vocabulary knowledge. Students showed a decreasing score from K2 through to level K4-K5. This was not surprising because the higher the level, the lower the frequency of the words used in everyday language and hence the more unlikely that students would have got exposed to them. Table 2: Results of PVLT N=12 K2 (max= 18) K3 (max= 18) K4-K5 (max= 18) Total (max= 54) Mean (SD) 12.75 (2.56) 8.92 (3.48) 4.58 (3.09) 26.25 (8.31) Students were also asked to write four essays of 200-500 words each. Their work was then typed onto the computer. Some of the content words which had been given as prompts were removed so that the remaining words were only those given by the students instead of being copied from the questions. Incidentally, quite a number of students started their essays with a large number of words copied from the questions. The processed text was input to the Vocabulary Profilers (available on www.lextutor.ca/vp) for their analysis of their lexical frequency profiles (LFP). Table 3 shows the total number of words in the students’ four writings, in their respective frequency levels of K2, K3, and K4-K5. Again, it was not surprising to find a decreasing number of words used by students as the frequency levels went up. In fact, it is normal for low frequency K4-K5 words to appear less frequently in a text given that it is their low frequency of existence in English that defines them as words at the K4-K5 level. Although this trend does echo with the results of the PVLT, we still need a valid comparison to identify the potential differences between the two measures. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 89教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Table 3: Lexical frequency profiles of the free writing tasks N=12 K2 words K3 words K4-K5 words Total number of words Mean (SD) 107.08 (29.60) 45.67 (22.45) 17.83 (11.27) 1500.17 (237.00) This paper compares students’ PVLT scores and their free writing in order to identify whether there is a difference between general productive knowledge and the actual productive use of vocabulary. To this end, the PVLT score was computed according to the following formula so that it could be compared directly with the corresponding measures in free production. PVLT score X Adjustment factor = Expected production An expected proportion of production was thereby obtained for each participant and for each lexical frequency level. For example, a student (S1) knew 16 K2 words. The knowledge of these 16 K2 words represented 50% of the total of 32 marks he scored in the PVLT (i.e., all K2-K5 words that he knew). Then, this 50% was multiplied by the adjustment factor for K2 words, which is 1.4 (the calculation of the adjustment factor is described below). As a result, the expected production rate of K2 words in his free writing would be 50% X 1.4 = 70%. In other words, for every 100 K2-K5 words that he used, 70 K2 words were expected. This expected production could then be compared with his actual production in free writing as reported in the previous section. The following explains how the adjustment factors were obtained for each level. First, the production of native speakers was considered to be a useful reference point. Corpus data (i.e., data from a huge collection of authentic texts written by native speakers) are of use here. According to Nation (1990: 17; 2001: 15), K2 words have a natural occurrence of 7.7%; K3 words 4.3%; K4-K5 words 4.6%. To put it in another way, there are on average 7.7 K2 words in every 100 words in any authentic texts. Note that these three percentages do not add up to 100% because there are also K1 words as well as K5+ words in a corpus. Rather, K2-K5 words account for only 16.6% of words in a corpus (see Figure 1 for a visual representation of these numbers). Out of this 16.6% of natural occurrence (i.e., K2-K5 words 90 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing only), K2 words have a proportion of 46.4% (7.7%/16.6%); K3 words 25.9% (4.3%/16.6%); and K4-K5 words 27.7% (4.6%/16.6%) (see Figure 2 for a visual representation). Given that a native speaker would have a full PVLT score of 100% (33.3% of the items from K2 words, 33.3% from K3 words, and 33.3% from K4-K5 words), an adjustment factor for K2 words would then be 1.4 (i.e., 46.4/33.3). It means that if a learner knows a proportion of 33.3% K2 words out of all K2-K5 words that s/he knows in the PVLT (e.g., knowing 10 K2 words and 30 K2-K5 words in total, or knowing 8 K2 words and 24 K2-K5 words in total), we expect 33.3% X 1.4 = 46.4% of his free writing production to be K2 words. By the same logic. The adjustment factors for K3 and K4-K5 words are 0.78 (i.e., 25.9/33.3) and 0.83 (i.e., 27.7/33.3) respectively (Table 4). However, this calculation was only valid if we could assume that native speakers know all of the K2-K5 words in the PVLT. Such an assumption should be valid because when Laufer and Nation (1999) designed the PVLT, native speakers were first asked to validate the test and the results indicated that all the items of the PVLT were retrieved accurately by at least six out of seven of them. Figure 1 Proportion of natural occurrence of words at different levels based on Nation (1990: 17; 2001: 15) To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 91教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Figure 2 Proportion of natural occurrence of K2-K5 words Table 4 Calculation of adjustment factors for all levels based on native speakers’ production Levels Natural occurrence with K2-K5 (%) PVLT by native speakers (proportions of words known in each level out of K2-K5 levels) Adjustment factor K2 46.4 33.3 = 46.3/33.3 =1.4 K3 25.9 33.3 =25.9/33.3= 0.78 K4-K5 27.7 33.3 =25.9/33.3=0.83 The computation of the PVLT score with the use of the adjustment factor has a number of advantages. First, as mentioned earlier, the low frequency words should be, logically, more unlikely to appear in an essay. In other words, because low frequency words are by definition less likely to appear in any texts, expecting students to use them may be problematic. For example, ‘abolish’ is a K5 word. It has a frequency of 545 occurrences in a million-word corpus. Therefore, it would be erroneous to assume that ‘abolish’ should appear (at least once) in a student’s writing containing fewer than 500 words. In a similar vein, one cannot claim that students knowing 92 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing a certain proportion of low frequency words would produce the same proportion of such words actual writing. Therefore, it was considered appropriate to use an adjustment factor to ensure that the rareness of low frequency words is taken into account in the present comparison. Furthermore, the calculation of the adjustment factors also considered how native speakers actually use language. This was important because to some, at the very least, using English in a similar way to the native speakers may be one of the goals of learning the language. Finally, this way of calculation has also taken into account the ‘imperfect’ vocabulary knowledge of our learners at different frequency levels of K2-K5. In sum, an adjustment factor helps to translate the PVLT scores (i.e., general productive knowledge) to an expected proportion of occurrence in free writing. For high frequency K2 words, the adjustment factor is 1.40 (46.4/33.3), with the proportion of 33.3% of the PVLT score translating into 46.4% of expected occurrence in free production. For mid frequency K3 words, the factor is 0.78 (25.9/33.3); for low frequency K4-K5 words, the factor is 0.83 (27.7/33.3). Turning to our participants in this study, we can now calculate the expected percentage of words in the respective K2-K5 levels in a piece of free writing, which can then compared with their actual production as reported in the previous section (Table 5). Table 5: Comparison of expected and actual production of word families in different levels N=12 K2 (%) K3 (%) K4-K5 (%) Expected (PVLT X 1.4) Actual Expected (PVLT X 0.78) Actual Expected ( P V LT X 0.83) Actual Mean 70.45% 61.59% 26.28% 27.66% 13.27% 10.75% Meanwhile, a similar trend between expected and actual production was observed in that students were expected to produce mostly K2 words, followed by K3 and finally least K4-K5 words, and they have seemingly done so in the free writing tasks. Therefore, it appeared that students’ knowledge of words could be well put to actual use. This might seem contrary to the notion that there are differences between knowing a word and using a word. However, it would be too soon to arrive at a conclusion before conducting statistical tests, which could help us identify potential statistical relationships between the data. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 93教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 First, we wanted to look more closely into the relationship between expected and actual use of vocabulary and identify any potential correlation. Pearson’s correlation test can help us find out whether these two variables were so closely related to each other that they might be considered one single concept. If a positive and significant correlation is found, it would mean that the expected and actual use of vocabulary generally increase and decrease together. If this is the case, it will suggest that general productive vocabulary knowledge and actual use are likely to be very similar concepts and follow the same developmental pattern. In contrast, if knowledge and use are two different concepts, and hence follow different developmental patterns, negative or no correlation would be expected, meaning that the data increase and decrease in opposite direction, or that they have no linear statistical relationship at all. Shapiro-Wilk tests confirmed that the data fulfilled the normality requirement for the performance of the Pearson’s correlation test (all p-values n.s.). The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Pearson’s correlation test results N=12 K2 words K3 words K4-K5 words Correlationn between expected and actual production r = .098 r = -.332 r = .181 Significance value p = .763 (n.s.) p = .292 (n.s.) p = .574 (n.s.) All the correlations were non-significant in statistical terms. This lack of correlation can be explained by the arguments presented above that knowing and using vocabulary are two different concepts, and hence there was no statistical linear relationship between general productive vocabulary knowledge and actual use. In other words, we could reject the notion that knowledge is the same as use as some might suggest based on the descriptive data. To put it in a more specific way, the lack of significant correlation showed knowing more K2 (or K3 or K4-K5) words as reflected by the PVLT does not necessarily mean that learners would produce more of those words in free writing. 94 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing While the correlation tests suggested that knowing and using vocabulary were indeed different concepts, the picture of the students’ use of vocabulary was still very obscure. For example, one logical question to ask was why there were such differences. To seek a clearer picture, a direct comparison of the differences in proportion between the expected and actual use of vocabulary might be revealing. As such, a statistical test of difference was required. Given that normality was met according to the results of Shapiro-Wilk tests (all p-values n.s.), a dependent-samples t-test for each frequency level was carried out. This dependent-samples t-test can identify the potential mean differences between students’ expected and their actual production. If there are significant differences found, it can give indications to the existence of a gap between the two concepts. The results are tabulated in Table 7 and presented graphically in Figure 3. Table 7: Comparison of expected and actual production of word families in different levels N=12 K2 (%) K3 (%) K4-K5 (%) Expected (PVLT X 1.4) Actual Expected (PVLT X 0.78) Actual Expected (PVLT X 0.83) Actual Mean 70.45% 61.59% 26.28% 27.66% 13.27% 10.75% Difference ( A c t u a l - Expected) -8.86% 1.38% -2.52% t ( 11 ) = 2 . 5 8 6 , p=.025*, r=.615 t (11 ) = -0 .588 , p=.568, r=.175 t ( 11 ) = 1 . 4 5 3 , p=.174, r=.401 Figure 3 Mean expected and actual proportions of vocabulary at different frequency levels To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 95教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 In the light of the results, with high frequency K2 words, the actual percentage was significantly lower than the expected percentage of production (p<.05) with a large effect size (r=.615). It means that our participants used fewer K2 words in their free writing than what had been predicted by their knowledge in the PVLT. As for K3 and K4-K5 words, there was no significant difference. In other words, while descriptively students used more K3 words and fewer K4-K5 words than expected, these differences were not statistically significant. Two explanations are proposed here for to account for this pattern. First, students might have given up high frequency K2 words and opt for those with lower frequency (e.g., K3 and K4-K5). Second, there might be a developmental gap between general productive knowledge and actual production. The reasons for each of these proposals are detailed in the following. First, students could be opting for lower frequency words. There was indeed good motivation for the students to do that because two of the four writings were formal assessments which resembled the public examination format. In the HKDSE writing paper, as in the formal assessments, a good piece of writing (e.g., scoring 5 or above out of a total of 7 in the Language domain) needs to demonstrate a ‘wide’ vocabulary ‘with many examples of more sophisticated lexis’ (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012: 9). In order to demonstrate their vocabulary knowledge and score higher, they could be trying to avoid the high frequency words (i.e., K2 words) and produce words of lower frequency (i.e., K3 and/or K4-K5 words). However, whether or not this strategy to opt for lower frequency words alone could account for the data fully is reserved for discussion later. Second, there might be a developmental gap between knowing and actually using vocabulary items. To illustrate, we can focus on the K2 level. The students appeared to have acquired general productive knowledge of the K2 level given an overall attainment of 70% in the PVLT at this level. However, their failure to use the words at this K2 level as much as expected could imply a developmental gap between general productive knowledge and actual production. In fact, the correlation results presented earlier also tended to support the existence of such a gap between knowledge and use. Given that the correlation figures were all non-significant, knowing and using vocabulary items were indeed two different concepts. At this point of discussion, one could logically doubt whether or not either one of the 96 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing explanations (either a developmental gap or opting for lower frequency words) alone could account for the data fully. It is argued that both factors could have a role to play here. To explore how both explanations are playing a role in accounting for the t-test results, three hypotheses are proposed here for testing – (1) opting for lower frequency words alone explains our results fully, (2) existence of a developmental gap explains our results fully, and (3) both together explain our results fully. Hypothesis 1: Opting for lower frequency words as the sole explanation This hypothesis is that students opting for lower frequency words is the sole explanation for the t-test results. In other words, there was no developmental gap between knowledge and use. With the K2 level, the explanation seemed to hold that students might be opting for lower frequency words (i.e., K3 and K4-K5) and hence we found K2 words being produced significantly less than expected. The use of fewer K2 words, then, would logically contribute to the use of more K3 and/or K4-K5words because a decrease in proportion of actual use at one level should cause an increase at other levels. However, there was no significant difference between the expected and actual use of K3 and K4-K5 words. With respect to the K3 level, there might still be a chance that hypothesis 1 was correct. One could argue that while students might have replaced some K2 words with K3 ones, they might at the same time have replaced some other K3 words and opted for low frequency K4-K5 ones. In other words, the effect of discarding high frequency K2 words for mid frequency K3 words might have been counter-balanced by the trend of opting for low frequency K4-K5 words. This counter- balancing might explain why we found no significant result for the K3 level and why hypothesis 1 could continue to hold. However, when the K4-K5 level is considered, it becomes clearer that hypothesis 1 in fact could not be valid. This is because if students opted for lower frequency words to replace K2 and K3 words in a similar fashion, we would see more actual production of K4-K5 words than expected. However, the t-test revealed no such difference. In fact, the actual use of K4-K5 words was even less than expected descriptively. Taken together, while the decreased proportion of use at K2 level should logically lead to an increase in proportion at one or To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 97教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 more levels (K3 and/or K4-K5), this was not the case and therefore, the hypothesis of students opting for lower frequency words as the sole explanation could not hold in light of the results. Although one might suggest that the students could opt for words of even lower frequency (e.g., K5+), readers are reminded that the calculation of proportion in this study was only based on the range of K2 to K5 words. Figure 4 summarises the arguments towards such a conclusion. True (K2 words used statistically significantly less than expected) Poss ib l y t rue ( the effects might have been counterbalanced a n d h e n c e n o significant difference) False (no significant difference revealed, and K4-K5 words actually used descriptively less than expected) Figure 4: Summary of arguments related to hypothesis 1: Opting for lower frequency words as the sole explanation Hypothesis 2: Existence of a developmental gap as the sole explanation The second hypothesis contends that the existence of a developmental gap was the sole explanation for the observed pattern. First, there were significantly fewer K2 words being produced than expected in free writing, which appeared to conform to hypothesis 2. Specifically, this could have resulted from the fact that students were not able to put the words that they knew productively into actual use in free writing. 98 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing If hypothesis 2 was also true for K3 and K4-K5 production, we might as well find a similar trend of these words being used less than expected. However, this was not the case since no significant difference at these levels was found as mentioned above. In fact, students even used more K3 words than expected descriptively, counter-arguing that a developmental gap could account for the observed pattern fully. Taken together, while the pattern for K2 production might be explained by hypothesis 2, the findings with K3 and K4-K5 words did not conform to this hypothesis, which, therefore, needed to be also rejected. Hypothesis 3: Both explanations contributed to the results together Hypothesis 3 holds that the two explanations (i.e., opting for lower frequency words and the existence of a developmental gap) together contributed to the t-test results. First, for high frequency K2 words, the two explanations could both contribute to the observed less proportion of K2 production, that is the students would use fewer K2 words than expected. If there was an effect of students opting for lower frequency words, more actual production of mid frequency K3 words would be observed together with the less use of fewer higher frequency K2 words (as mentioned above when discussing hypothesis 1). At the same time, this expected increase might be counter-balanced by two opposite effects – that some other K3 words were replaced by low frequency K4-K5 words, and that there was a developmental gap making students not able to produce the K3 words that they had knowledge of. Indeed, there was no significant difference between expected and actual use of K3 words and this result could be accounted for by this counter-balancing of different effects. As a result, hypothesis 3 appeared to hold. Finally, for K4-K5 words, there was also no statistical difference between the expected and actual production in free writing tasks. Such finding can again be possibly due to the balancing of the increase of the use of K4-K5 words related to students being motivated to replace the K2 and K3 words and the effect of the existence of a developmental gap which brings about an observed less use of low frequency K4-K5 words in free writing. Hypothesis 3 still holds for this frequency level of vocabulary. Figure 5 summarises all these arguments related to hypothesis 3. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 99教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 True (K2 words used statistically significantly less than expected) Poss ib l y t rue ( the effects might have been counterbalanced a n d h e n c e n o significant difference) Poss ib l y t rue ( the effects might have been counterbalanced a n d h e n c e n o significant difference) Figure 5: Summary of arguments related to hypothesis 3: both explanations contributed to the results together So far, the validity of three hypotheses for explaining the t-test results has been discussed. The first one is that students have opted for lower frequency items because they wanted to show off their vocabulary. However, it has to be rejected because K3 and particularly K4-K5 words were not being used more often than expected. Second, the existence of a developmental gap between general productive knowledge and actual use could not be the only explanation either. This hypothesis was rejected because of the non- significant differences between the expected and actual use of K3 and K4-K5 words. Hypothesis 3, that both explanations were playing a role together, appears to be the only logical explanation for the findings. Although findings have been deliberated and considered through their limits, these potential explanations are merely speculative. Further research is needed if the discrepancies between knowledge and use are to be understood. The use of such methods as interviews and think-aloud protocols might shed some light, for instance, on the 100 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing issue about whether writing with more lower frequency words than expected was a conscious choice or not. Meanwhile, one thing is clear, and that is the existence of a discrepancy between expected production as deduced from the PVLT scores and the actual use of vocabulary in free writing. Just as the title of this paper has suggested -- knowing a vocabulary item is different from using it in free writing. As far as the developmental gap is concerned, there appeared to be multiple levels of productive vocabulary. A student knowing all of Nation’s (2001, 2013) aspects of vocabulary knowledge of a word, even up to the aspect of use, may not be able to produce the word freely in their writing. Indeed, as Nation (2013) has indicated, there is usually a big gap of how ‘vocabulary shown to be known on tests like the Vocabulary Levels Test is actually being used in meaning- focused performance’ (p 562). This identified gap also points to the need to look at the comprehensiveness of Nation’s (2001, 2013) aspects of lexical knowledge. The present study is one of the first to identify the discrepancies between knowing and using vocabulary, and it is believed that understanding more about this issue can produce important pedagogical implications for second language learning. Pedagogical implications One of the most important implications here is the recognition of the insufficiency for students to possess only general productive knowledge of vocabulary. In other words, that students are able to excel in fill-in-the-blanks exercise and assessment tasks does not automatically guarantee that they will be able to use the relevant vocabulary items in an unguided context. Therefore, one key aim for these learners is to be able to use the words appropriately in writing, rather than simply knowing the spelling and grammatical features of the lexical items. Teachers should not stop pushing students to their limits until the latter demonstrate correct use of the lexical items in writing and speaking. With this goal in mind, there could be a couple of strategies that teachers may consider using. It must be acknowledged, however, that the effectiveness of the proposed teaching strategies may still be subject to further empirical research. First, teachers should consider assigning more writing tasks with relatively less guidance, such as free writing tasks. For weak learners, the scaffolding may be crucial assistance for them to complete a To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 101教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 writing task. However, especially with the more proficient learners, guidance, or even the provision of a particular context, could promote the use of certain vocabulary items and at the same time possibly posing constraint to the use of others. This constraint could deprive students of the opportunities to formulate and test their hypotheses regarding the use of vocabulary in a trial-and-error manner. In a similar vein, teachers should encourage students to use newly learnt vocabulary items in their writing, again, allowing them to formulate and test hypotheses regarding actual use. Teachers, for example, could ask students to highlight the items that they would attempt to use so that the teacher could pay special attention to these when marking. These attempts may deserve more feedback and encouragement because they are evidence of students’ putting efforts into actually using the words that they have recently learnt. Second, teachers could teach vocabulary in semantically-related sets. For example, ‘vital’, ‘crucial’, and ‘significant’ may be taught together with ‘important’. Presenting items in this fashion could help students assimilate new knowledge to their existing store and enhance their lexical richness through opting for another word, which is exactly what has been observed in the present study and should be further encouraged. For example, students could replace ‘important’ with ‘vital’ in writing and thereby enhancing their lexical richness. However, it is also worth noting that, in a strict sense, no two words are absolute synonyms, meaning that no two words are totally interchangeable across all contexts. Therefore, a simple substitution may not always work. At the same time, to a certain extent, trying to use the new lexical items albeit possibly making mistakes is an important, if not inevitable, step in language learning. Teachers should not discourage the use of items during classroom exercise simply because of the mistakes that might be made. On the contrary, if teachers are able to identify potential confusion, they could provide even more information about the words to make the case clearer for students. Indeed, the confusion arising from the use of semantically-related sets has been reported in and supported by some studies (e.g., Papathanasiou, 2009). However, we note that Papathanasiou (2009) used vocabulary recall (i.e., asking students to recall the target items when given their meanings) as her learning outcome measure. Recall involved students’ general productive knowledge of the vocabulary, while the focus of our study is at the level of free productive use. Importantly, more recent studies (e.g., Ishii, 2015) questioned whether the source of confusion was in fact the semantically-relatedness, or the visual features of the experimental materials. Until more evidence emerges, teaching semantically-related sets is still worth trying. 102 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing Another key, but perhaps indirect, aspect of pedagogical implication of this study is the demonstration of potential use of research tools by in-service teachers. While language teachers may still rely heavily on such assessment forms as dictation and fill-in- the-blanks exercise, teachers can make the best of some of the tools used in this study. These tools are useful and reliable as they are already commonly used in research (e.g., Lo & Murphy, 2010). The PVLT is useful for testing the size of one’s productive vocabulary. The Vocabulary Profiler could not only be used by teachers to analyse students’ vocabulary range in actual production. It could also be introduced to students who may use it as a self-assessment tool. It is unfortunate that these useful tools are yet to be fully utilised in the daily process of teaching and learning by teachers. It is hoped that the present study could inspire readers to give it a go. Conclusion This study has identified the discrepancy between knowing and using vocabulary in free writing. This discrepancy was attributed to a hypothetical developmental gap and students opting for lower frequency words in order to show off their lexical range. If we agree that one major goal of vocabulary learning is to produce a range of vocabulary learnt in free writing, then we as education practitioners should put in more effort in teaching vocabulary beyond the level of general productive knowledge. We suggested two examples of what we could do to bridge the gap of vocabulary knowledge and use, although the effectiveness of these suggestions still has to be tested by further empirical research. At this point, we would also like to call for more studies about the use of vocabulary in free writing. After all, to know is not to use. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 103教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 References Adolphs, S., & Schmitt, N. (2003). Lexical coverage of spoken discourse. Applied Linguistics, 24(4), 425-438. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination: English Language (Practice Paper) Marking Schemes and Tapescript . Hong Kong: HKEAA. Hu, H. M. & Nation, P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language , 13(1), 403-430. Ishii, T. (2015). Semantic connection or visual connection: Investigating the true source of confusion. Language Teaching Research , 19(6), 712-722. Laufer , B. , & Goldste in , Z. (2004) . Test ing vocabulary knowledge: Size , s t r e ng t h , a nd compu t e r a d ap t i v ene s s . Language Lea rn i ng , 54 (3 ) , 399-436. Laufe r , B . , & Nat ion , P . (1999) . A vocabu la ry - s ize t e s t o f con t ro l l ed productive ability. Language Testing , 16(1), 33-51. Laufer, B. (1998). The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language: same or different. Applied Linguistics , 19(2), 255-271. Lee, S. H. (2003). ESL learners’ vocabulary use in writing and the effects of explicit vocabulary instruction. System, 31 (4), 537-561. Lee, S. H., & Muncie, J. (2006). From receptive to productive: Improving ESL learners' use of vocabulary in a postreading composition task. TESOL Quarterly, 40 (2), 295-320. Lo, Y. Y. , & Murphy, V. (2010) . Vocabulary knowledge and growth in immersion and regular language-learning programmes in Hong Kong. Language and Education, 24, 215-238. Na t ion , I .S .P . (1990) . Teach ing and Learn ing Vocabu la ry . New York : Newbury House. Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nation, I.S.P. (2013). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Papathanasiou, E. (2009) . An Invest igat ion of Two Ways of Present ing Vocabulary. ELT Journal, 63 (4), 313-322. Pignot-Shahov, V. (2012). Measuring L2 receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Language Studies Working Papers, 4 , 37-45. Van Zee l and , H . , & Schmi t t , N . ( 2013 ) . Lex i ca l cove r age i n L1 and L2 l i s t en ing comprehens i on : The s ame o r d i f f e r en t f r om r e ad ing comprehension? Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 457-479. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 105教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Selena T. C. Tam & Dr. Eva Chiu HHCKLA Buddhist Leung Chik Wai College Abstract Written corrective feedback (WCF) has long been considered effective in improving students’ writing accuracy. However, it is still uncommon in writing classes in secondary schools in Hong Kong (Lee, 2011, 2013). In this study, a Planning, Experimentation and Reflection (PER) model of change was adopted to investigate the individual responses to the focused feedback and the peer feedback as well as the individual factors affecting their responses. Findings of the study show that the numbers of mistakes students had made reduced while the numbers of errors corrected increased. More able students were also able to mark their peers’ writing. It was found that language abilities might be a factor affecting students’ uptake of WCF. Introduction Two types of WCF namely selective marking and peer feedback, have long been promoted in the Curriculum Guide since 1999 (CDC, 1999) and believed to be effective in improving students’ writing accuracy. However, they are still uncommon in writing classes in secondary schools in Hong Kong (Lee, 2011, 2013). Teachers usually have to mark all aspects of students’ writing and students sometimes find it uneasy to make improvements in all these aspects. In fact, a lot of research has revealed that selective marking and peer feedback are more effective than their traditional counterparts (which are unfocused marking and teacher feedback) in improving students’ accuracy as well as their long-term language development in the western contexts 106 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students and even the local context (Ferris, 1999, 2006; Lee, 2005, 2013). Focused marking may help learners pay attention to fewer types of error so that they can understand the errors more (Ellis et al., 2008). Peer feedback can let students understand more about their strengths and weaknesses (CDC, 2002). Overall, it is worth trying out these WCF in the secondary writing class. This study aims at helping students improve their writing accuracy through the use of these WCF. In this study, a Planning, Experimentation and Reflection (PER) model of change was adopted to investigate the individual responses to the focused feedback and the peer feedback as well as the individual factors affecting their responses. Literature Review Theoretical Perspectives of Written Corrective Feedback Written Corrective Feedback (WCF), which is also called error correction or grammar correction, refers to the “correction of grammatical errors for the purpose of improving a student’s ability to write accurately” (Truscott, 1996, p. 329). WCF has been regarded as a normal way of improving students’ writing accuracy and a necessary part of the writing curriculum (Hendrickson, 1978, 1980; Truscott, 1996). It originated from the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Before 1960, language experts who believe in the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claim that learners make errors in the second language because they are affected by their first language. In other words, their errors can be avoided if they realize the differences between the two languages. Error correction is needed for this reason (Hendrickson, 1978; Selinker, 1969). Also, the audiolingual approach in 1960s encourages the teaching of a second language by memorizing dialogues, studying all the grammatical rules, and avoiding the making of errors (Hendrickson, 1978). In the late 1960s, SLA scholars found that even first language (L1) students would make a lot of errors during their first language acquisition. Therefore, they believed that students’ errors were just a natural part of their language learning process. It means that teachers should tolerate some of students’ errors so as to help them become more confident in expressing themselves using the second language. Also, errors are just as a signal which shows students’ progress in the language learning process (Corder, 1967; Hendrickson, 1978; Lantolf, 1977). Different learning theories have different views on WCF. For the subscribers to SLA theories, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis informs them of the importance of comprehensive marking. However, Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 107教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Krashen’s (1985) Monitor Model implies that WCF is ineffective because learning is different from acquisition, which is a subconscious process. In addition, learners acquire the linguistic features of the second language in a predictable order which is not affected by the teaching order. Thus, corrective feedback, which is a conscious process that requires teaching, does not have any role in developing students’ acquired knowledge. However, interaction theories by Long (1996) and Swain (1985, 1995) support the positive role of WCF. These theories state that L2 input must be pushed to give modified output in interactions. That is, learners need to pay attention to the form in the input and the output in order to incorporate the explicit linguistic knowledge into their L2 system as L2 intake, and internalise the knowledge into their long-term memory. The internalisation process is affected by mediating factors such as learners’ amount of attention, motivation, individual cognition and affection. Other learning theories tend to advocate the positive role of WCF. The skill acquisition models developed by McLaughlin (1990) in the 1980s claim that language learning is just like the learning of cognitive skills and simple processes that can eventually lead to the development of complex behaviour. The socio-cultural theory by Vygotsky’s (1987) states that cognitive development is a result of social interactions between people. Learning happens when a less knowledgeable person interacts with someone more knowledgeable. Lantolf and Thorne (2007) think that if scaffolding occurs in the zone of proximal development in the learner, it can successfully help him or her develop his L2 abilities and become more ‘self-regulated’. As WCF is a way of interaction that is based on students’ levels, it can foster the mastery of the second language. Types of Written Corrective Feedback WCF can be categorised into three types. The first type is about who should give feedback, i.e. teacher feedback or peer feedback. The second type is related to how to give feedback, i.e. indirect feedback or direct feedback. The third type is about the extent to which feedback is given, i.e. focused feedback or unfocused feedback as well as treatable or untreatable errors. Teacher feedback means that teachers are responsible for providing WCF to students in L2 writing classes while peer feedback refers to the comments provided by learners’ peers. Direct WCF is defined as that “provides some form of explicit correction of linguistic form or structure above or near the linguistic error. It may consist of the crossing out of an unnecessary 108 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students word/phase/morpheme, the insertion of a missing word/phrase/ morpheme, and the provision of the correct form or structure”. Indirect WCF refers to that “indicates that in some way an error has been made but it does not provide a correction” (Bitchener & Knoch, 2010, p. 209). According to Ellis et al. (2008), focused WCF refers to “(the selection of) specific errors to be corrected and ignores other errors” (p. 356). The extent to which it is focused is dependent upon the number of errors selected. Unfocused WCF refers to the extensive correction of all the errors in students’ written work. It responds to multiple errors and is believed to be a common practice in foreign language writing classrooms (Furneaux et al., 2007). For treatable and untreatable errors, Ferris (1999) explained that errors occur in a patterned and rule-governed way. Students can use a grammar book or set of rules to handle the error. Untreatable errors are the problems with missing words, unnecessary words and word order. They are idiosyncratic and so students need to use their acquired knowledge of the language to correct the error. Thus, according to Ferris (2006), indirect feedback could be given to treatable errors while direct feedback can handle untreatable errors. Empirical Evidence on Written Corrective Feedback A lot of research has been conducted in Western contexts to show the efficacy of WCF. For the role of WCF, Truscott (1996) argued that error correction did not have a role in writing courses, as proved by his study and the SLA insights. However, Ferris (1999) found that the empirical evidence presented in Truscott’s study was limited and the methodologies of the previous studies were problematic. Short-term studies revealed that WCF helped students improve their accuracy in their text revision. Also, students believed it is useful. Her belief is that effective grammar correction is selective, prioritized and clear. Regarding different types of WCF, Bitchener and Knoch (2010) found that indirect WCF succeeded in engaging L2 learners in guided learning and problem-solving. It allowed students to reflect on the existing knowledge and foster long-term written accuracy and acquisition. Ellis et al. (2008) claimed that focused CF was theoretically more effective because students could pay attention to a limited number of types of errors and they might understand the nature of errors and the correction more. Empirical studies showed that focused WCF was more effective than unfocused WCF for improving accuracy in text revision as well as immediate and delayed post-tests (Bitchener & Knoach, 2009, 2010; Ellis et al., 2008; Sheen, 2007; van Beuningan et al., 2012). In terms of the Asian context, Lee (2005, 2011) investigated Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 109教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 the current feedback practices in the L2 writing classrooms in Hong Kong secondary schools using case studies approach. The results revealed that the majority of teachers used unfocused, direct and comprehensive WCF which was extremely time-consuming and ineffective. However, it was perceived to be useful and it was the panel policy. Another study (Lee, 2008) pointed out that more proficient students preferred more WCF strategies while less proficient students benefited more from the focused WCF. For peer feedback, research by different scholars found that trained peer’s responses could enhance the quality of students’ revision (Berge, 1999; Harmer, 2004). Hedgcock and Lefkowitz (1992) observed that students appreciated the peer WCF because they could understand how teachers think and have a new conception of what writing involved. Empirical Evidence on Individual Factors Bitchener (2012) stated that individual and contextual factors were the mediating factors affecting the extent to which students engage with WCF. They resulted in learning in terms of uptake, internalization and consolidation. Sheen (2007) found that two individual factors might affect students’ retention and uptake from WCF, which were analytic ability and learners’ attitudes. She reported that direct CF was more effective for students with higher analytic ability with or without the meta-linguistic explanation. Also, high- aptitude students benefit more from meta-linguistic explanation (Sheen, 2007). Storch and Wigglesworth (2010) found that three affective factors mediated the process of WCF uptake, which were beliefs, goals and attitudes. Findings of research on how learners’ attitudes affect peer responses vary (Hu, 2005; Srichanyachon, 2012). Methodology Background of the Study As mentioned above, this study used the PER design to examine how students respond to the focused WCF and peer feedback as well as the possible factors affecting this. The participants were an average-ability class of Form One students in a Band Two CMI (Chinese as the medium of instruction) school in the New Territories. Most of them did not live in an English-rich environment because they were from the less well-off districts and they studied nearly all the subjects in Chinese. They usually could not write error-free sentences in English. About one-third of them joined tutorial classes after school. 110 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students It was a normal practice for teachers to use unfocused and direct feedback in marking students’ writings. All the 21 students in this class completed the study. Most of them were weak at writing, especially in the areas of idea elaboration and grammatical accuracy. For the sake of in-depth case study, six of them were selected according to their results of the Usage Paper and the Writing Paper in English Language examinations in the first term as well as their motivation to learn English. Two of them were of higher ability. Two of them were of average ability while the remaining two were of weaker ability. Their motivation to learn English, as observed by the main researcher, varied. The Usage Paper, the full mark of which was 50, involved eight marks for explicit tense questions and 24 marks for implicit tense questions (e.g. forming questions, cloze passages). The Writing Paper was based on a descriptive passage in the past tense. The backgrounds of the students were as follows (Table 1), Table 1 The examination results and background of the participants Name Usage Writing Total Background 50 marks 70 marks 300 marks Mary 27 50 201.5 motivated to learn English but not good at wr i t ing accuracy Ann 32 33 180.8 not very motivated but the English foundation is fairly good Peter 17.5 46 162.3 motivated to learn English, but espec ia l ly weak at writing accuracy Lucy 22.5 28 151.0 motivated to learn English, g o o d a t s u b j e c t - v e r b agreement but not good at sentence structures Paul 21 22 137.5 not very mot ivated but willing to try when being encouraged Kate 6.5 13 61.6 lower IQ, unable to write accurate sentences, but motivated to learn The numbers in italics mean that they are below the passing marks. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 111教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 This study covered four writing cycles. In each writing cycle, students were first taught the target grammar item and asked to use it to write a text of about 150 words. The teacher then marked their texts using the focused WCF and students were asked to do the corrections. For peer feedback, it was the students who marked their peers’ texts instead of the teacher. The writing cycles were conducted by the main researcher, who was the subject teacher of the class. The co-researcher supervised the implementation of the study, analysed the data and evaluated the whole project. Research Questions The study aims to investigate the following questions, 1. How do Form 1 students respond to focused marking and peer feedback and how do the two types of WCF affect students’ writing accuracy? 2. What are the individual factors affecting students’ responses of these feedback? Research Design The three-stage PER model of change was adopted in this study (Taylor et al., 2005). During the planning stage, the aim was to identify goals and design strategies for improving students’ writing accuracy. Students were expected to use the target grammar items to write personal letters and descriptive texts. The experimentation stage consisted of implementation, observation and evaluation. The use of WCF strategies and target grammar items was emphasized during the pre-writing lessons while students were asked to finish their work during the writing lesson. They were required to revise their texts within the class time during the post-writing lesson. The reflection stage was about reviewing the actions and planning for future actions by asking students to respond to a questionnaire and conducting semi-structural interviews with them. According to Law et al. (2010), there were advantages of using the PER model in action research. By using a problem-solving and critical approach in learning and teaching, changes in pedagogy, which become an open venture, can be located and shared. It is expected that focused WCF and/or peer WCF can become part of the regular curriculum in our junior form English Language classes after this study. 112 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Planning Data were collected with two tense tests, four texts with focused marking and revisions, bilingual student questionnaires as well as semi-structural interviews. A pre-tense test and a post-tense test were used to see if there was any improvement in the acquisition of the target linguistic items (see Appendix 1). The four writing cycles were all videotaped and conducted in timed settings. Two writing cycles focused on the present tense (pre-present tense assessment and post- present tense assessment) while the other two focused on the past tense (pre-past tense assessment and post-past tense assessment). Four writing topics with which students were familiar were used as prompts for students to write up to the word limit (150 words). As the simple present tense and the simple past tense are the key grammar items in the Form one English Language Curriculum and the major verb forms used in different text types, they would be set as the target grammar items in all the writing cycles. Indirect feedback was given since tenses were the linguistic items that occurred in a systemic way and students were able to use the set of rules to handle their tense errors. Only the errors relating to the main verb would be marked as students were used to making grammatical mistakes relating to sentence structures and other grammatical rules which made their writing difficult to understand. In addition, the main researcher would use direct WCF to correct a few of their major errors to make their writing comprehensible. Each cycle consisted of three steps. The first step was to explain the target grammar items explicitly. Students were given a focused marking sample and the main researcher explained what focused marking was and how they could correct the underlined errors (Appendix 2). They were asked to write the topic in about 30 minutes (Appendix 3) with relevant key words given as an aid. The researcher then underlined their errors selectively. The second step was to ask students to revise their texts within 20 minutes. They had to correct the underlined errors by themselves. The third step was to ask them to fill out a questionnaire to express how far they could understand the focus of the tasks, the type of teacher feedback they preferred and their views on the focused WCF (see Appendix 4). The third writing cycle, which was about peer assessment, had a different second step. The main researcher allocated copies of students’ writings to their classmates and asked them to underline the errors regarding Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 113教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 the past tense in the main verbs. Students then corrected their errors based on their peers’ marking and their own judgment. Later on, the main researcher marked the photocopies of the writing and asked students to correct their own work once more. The two sets of text plus revisions were compared. Students had to fill out a questionnaire about how far they could understand the focus of the tasks, what they could learn from their peer assessment, and what they could learn from assessing their peers’ writing (see Appendix 5). At the end of the four writing cycles, six students participated in the semi-structural interviews (Appendix 6) about how far they had understood focused WCF and peer feedback when compared with the normal marking practice of the teacher and how they felt about these. A post-tense test was administered after the study to investigate their performances of using the present tense and past tense (Appendix 7). Experimentation A pre-tense test was given to students before the start of the project to assess their ability to use the correct verb forms. The results showed that students’ performance in using the simple present tense was more stable while that in using the simple past tense varied. Also, their pre-tense test results generally aligned with their First Term English Language Examination results, except for Peter and Lucy (see Table 2). Table 2 Students' results of the pre-tense test Name Present Tense Past Tense % of correct items % of correct items Mary 75% 76.9% Ann 75% 92.3% Peter 25% 0.0% Lucy 75% 84.6% Paul 75% 46.1% Kate 25% 15.4% 114 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students The first writing cycle is about writing a 150-word description of a friend using the simple present tense. The uses of the present tense and the forms of ‘be’ and other verbs were taught explicitly. Results showed that only Peter was able to write about the word limit while others wrote about 100 words, except Kate who had difficulties in writing. The number of mistakes they made in the use of present tense ranged from four to seven. Students who made more mistakes were more able to correct their errors. Paul and Peter, who was not good at English and not very motivated, corrected nearly all of the errors. Kate, who had a lower IQ, was also able to correct 71% of the errors. Lucy, who was an average student, was willing to try to correct her errors, although she could not use the correct verb forms (see Table 3). Table 3 Students’ results in the first writing cycle (Pre-present tense assessment) Name No. of words No. of mistakes No. of errors corrected % corrected Mary 99 4 2 50% Ann 104 4 1 25% Peter 146 6 5 83% Lucy 94 4 0 0% Paul 113 6 6 100% Kate 53 7 5 71% Data from the first questionnaire revealed that all students except Kate realised the focus of the task was on present tense. The majority of them wanted the English teacher to highlight some of their errors. Only Lucy preferred comprehensive marking. All of them believed that selective marking was useful because they knew their errors about the present tense. The second writing cycle focused on the simple past tense the task required asking students to write a descriptive text of a trip to Ocean Park in 150 words. After delivering the past tense lesson, students were given some key words about the park to prompt them to write more (e.g. names of the places). Three of them could reach the word limit. The number of mistakes regarding the past tense ranged from one to six. Mary and Ann, who were more able students, Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 115教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 corrected nearly all the past tense errors and realized that they needed to use the past tense. However, Mary made mistakes in the verb forms (i.e. spelling) whereas Ann failed to locate the main verbs. Kate was willing to do the corrections but could not correct most of her errors (see Table 4). Table 4 Students’ results in the second writing cycle (Pre-past tense assessment) Name No. of words No. of mistakes No. of errors corrected % corrected Mary 152 6 5 83% Ann 130 5 5 100% Peter 143 2 1 50% Lucy 75 5 1 20% Paul 97 1 1 100% Kate 65 6 1 17% Results from the second questionnaire were similar to those from the first. Kate still misunderstood the focus of the task. This time, it was Peter who preferred comprehensive marking. Again, all of them showed their positive attitude towards focused marking. Lucy said it helped her memorize the verb forms better. Mary thought that it could give her more practices on tenses. Paul expressed that it focused on the tenses and so he could correct them by checking the tense table. The third writing cycle was about peer assessment (the past tense). Students were asked to write a personal letter about teenage problems using. The main researcher then distributed their writings and to their peers based on their abilities. Two pieces of writing were marked by more able students. Two were marked by average students while the other two were marked by less able students. As the topic was something new, none of them were able to write up to 150 words. Results indicated that average and more able peers tended to identify and correct more corrected mistakes while the less able students failed to locate them. Also, the percentages of the number of errors corrected based on teacher assessment were higher than those based on peer assessment. From the perspective of post-past tense assessment, the percentages of errors corrected were obviously higher than that in pre-past tense assessment, especially for the weaker ones namely Peter, Lucy and Kate (Table 5). 116 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Table 5 Students’ results in the third writing cycle (Past tense/peer Assessment) Name No. of words No. of corrected mistakes marked by peers No. of mistakes marked by teacher Marked by student who was No. of errors corrected based on peers No. of errors corrected based on Teacher % corrected based on peers % corrected based on Teacher Mary 98 1 1 less able 1 1 100% 100% Ann 102 4 6 average 3 6 75% 100% Peter 116 1 5 less able 0 4 0% 80% Lucy 120 7 10 average 4 8 57.1% 80% Paul 84 2 2 more able 1 2 50% 100% Kate 91 5 6 more able 0 3 0% 50% The results of the third questionnaire survey indicated that less able students tended to misunderstand the focus of the task. They, except Paul, believed they could learn from marking their peers’ writing. Mary stated in the interview that she could learn from marking her peers’ writing. Paul and Lucy did not think they could learn from their peer’s feedback. The fourth writing cycle served as a post-present tense assessment. Students were asked to describe a member in their families in the present tense. As the cycle was conducted right after the second term test, students were not very motivated and they, except Mary, wrote only about 100 words. The percentages of error corrected were also higher than those in the pre-present tense assessment. Lucy was the only one who did not show any improvement (see Table 6). Table 6 Students’ results in the fourth writing cycle (Post-present tense assessment) Name No. of words No. of mistakes No. of errors corrected % corrected Mary 141 5 4 80% Ann 103 2 2 100% Peter 81 4 4 100% Lucy 85 6 0 0% Paul 60 2 2 100% Kate 70 6 4 67% Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 117教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 A test on tenses was administered after the writing cycles. Results revealed that students generally showed improvements in their use of the present tense. However, they performed worse with regard to the past tense. The weaker ones even got no marks in past tense items (Table7). Table 7 Students’ results in the final test Name Present Tense Past Tense % of corrected items % of corrected items Mary 50% 20% Ann 88% 20% Peter 88% 40% Lucy 88% 0% Paul 88% 0% Kate 25% 0% Semi-structural interviews were conducted after the post- tense test. The results showed that all students found focused WCF useful because they could focus on a few errors only. However, as the focused WCF was indirect, Paul and Kate expressed that they preferred “direct answers from the teacher”. Lucy found indirect WCF difficult but she still liked it. All of the writing cycles were observed by the two researchers. During the WCF lessons, students were found to be more focused when they revised the texts when compared with their regular writing lessons. They were more aware of the importance of subject-verb agreement, as proven by the fact that they asked the teacher what verb forms they should use after different subjects. Also they were more willing to correct the errors by themselves. 118 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Reflections Despite the growth of WCF research studies showing its effectiveness, the adoption of WCF strategies in Hong Kong is still under-investigated. The present study provides empirical evidence on how students responded to the focused and peer feedback and how WCF strategies affected their writing accuracy. The majority of students responded to focused WCF on the present tense positively. They understood the focus of the task and claimed that they liked focused marking. When the pre-present tense assessment was compared with the post-present tense assessment, students showed improvements in reducing the numbers of mistakes made and also increasing the numbers of errors corrected. Students,except Kate and Lucy, performed obviously better in the post-tense test than the pre- tense test. Kate was a very weak student and tended to misunderstand the focus of the task. Lucy, who was weak in writing, failed to benefit from focused WCF in terms of accuracy. She still made a lot of present tense mistakes in her writing and could not correct them. However, she had shown some improvements in tense tests. Students believed that focused WCF on the past tense was useful and commented very positively about it despite making quite a lot of mistakes in the post-past tense assessment. They said that it helped them memorise the verb forms better. Paul, who was weak and not motivated to learn, even pointed out that focused and indirect WCF helped him focus on the verb forms in the main verbs and so he could correct them by checking the tense table on his own. As conended by Ellis et al. (2008), focused WCF might help learners pay attention to fewer types of error so they understand the errors more. Also, the increase in the percentages of error corrected in the post- past tense assessment was obvious, especially in the cases of weaker students. These conformed to previous studies that less proficient students could correct treatable errors by themselves and benefit from focused and indirect feedback (Ferris, 2006, Lee, 2008). Students did not perform well in the post-tense test probably because it was more difficult than the pre-tense test. The results of the peer assessment depicted that more able students were able to mark their peers’ writing. Mary even expressed that she could learn from the process. The possible reason was that peer feedback let students understand more about their strengths and weaknesses (CDC, 2002). The weaker ones, however, did not believe in their peers’ assessment, as shown by the lower percentages of the number of errors corrected. Lucy, Paul and Peter were concerned Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 119教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 that their peers might not be able to mark their errors. Their worry was in line with Harmer’ findings (2004) that peers had to be trained in order to provide useful feedback. Nevertheless, most of the students claimed that peer assessment was useful because it could help them check their writing one more time. With respect to individual factors, learners’ language abilities might have an effect on students’ uptake of WCF. Mary and Ann, who are more able students, showed improvements in the percentages of numbers of errors corrected in post assessments. They might have better metalinguistic knowledge and so could use grammar rules to handle focused and “treatable” errors. For the weaker students, the main researcher observed that the focused WCF successfully helped them focus on the errors, but they failed to correct them because they did not know the correct verb forms, as proven by the fact that they kept asking the researcher the spelling of the verb forms. The second possible factor was students’ beliefs. The weaker ones did not believe in their peer’s judgement on their writing and so they did not respond to their WCF even though some of them were correct. After all, the effect of learners’ attitudes was not very obvious as less motivated students were still able to benefit from the WCF. There are some limitations in the present study. All the writing tasks in this study were low-stakes. Students knew that these were for research purpose only so they became less and less motivated towards the end of the study. They were not very willing to respond to the indirect WCF because it required problem-solving and was different from their feedback they received in regular lessons. In terms of research design, the levels of difficulty of the two tense tests were different and so it might slightly affect the reliability of the study. Due to time-frame limitations, peer assessment and the post-past tense assessment needed to be done in one writing cycle. Training can be provided to students on how to use selective mark before the study. In terms of future actions, the writing cycles could become part of the regular curriculum or even daily assessment in order to encourage students’ active use of the language. Also, indirect feedback should be used in some of the writing lessons to familiarise them with feedback. Further research could be conducted with more than one class of students in quasi-experimental settings to determine the efficacy of WCF in between-subject groups. Contextual factors such as social relationships between teachers and learners as well as learners’ educational background can also be investigated. 120 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Conclusion This study has adopted a PER model of change to examine students’ responses to the focused and peer WCF and the individual factors affecting the responses. Students found focused WCF useful in helping them acquiring the present and past tenses. The weaker ones had also benefitted from focused and indirect feedback as they could focus on a few errors and use the grammar rules to handle errors. The more able students could mark their peers’ writing selectively, but the weaker students did not believe in their peers’ feedback. Learners’ language abilities and students’ beliefs might be the factors affecting the uptake of WCF. It is obvious that students overall responded to the focused WCF and peer assessment positively. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 121教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 References Berge, Z.L., (1999). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendation from the field. Educational Tecnology, 35(1), 22-30. Bitchener, J . (2008). Evidence in support of writ ten corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(2), 102-118. Bitchener, J. (2012). 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Springer. 124 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Appendix 1 Pre-Tense test Fill in the blanks with the correct tense of verbs. One day Leonado da Vinci came (come) to an old man. He 1. _____________(want) the old man to 2. ___________ (teach) him to draw. The old man 3. _________________ (welcome) him, then 4. ____________ (give) him an egg and 5. ______________ (tell) him to draw it. Leonado 6. _______________ (work) quickly and 7. _____________ (show) his drawing to the old man. “8. ________________ (draw) it again!” 9. _________________ (say) the old man. Soon after, Leondao 10. ________________ (draw) another egg. His picture 11. ________________(look) good but the old man 12. ________________(make) him do it again and again. Then Leonado 13. ______________ (become) angry. He 14. ________________ (say), ‘I can 15. _______________ (draw) an egg in two minutes. Why 16. ______________ you ____________ (keep) me waiting? Please 17. ______________ (teach) me how to draw now.” The old man 18. ________________(smile) and said, ‘Yes, you 19. _____________(be) right. You can draw an egg quickly, but it 20. __________________(take) you many years to draw on very well.’ (Items 2 and 16 are excluded) Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 125教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Appendix 2 Focused Marking Sample to Students Sandy is my classmates. She is 12 years old. She wear a long ponytail. She was energetic and intelligent. She like sports and she always get good marks in exam. She likes tell jokes. We think she is always funny. She is sporty. She hobby are dancing. She in many place join dance club. She joins many competitions and was won many prizes. She teach me how to dance. play ( ) She have other hobby. She like play guitar. Every Sunday, I shows the guitar with her. I very like her! She is my best friend! Appendix 3 Topics of the Writing Tasks Writing Cycle Topic Focus of the Cycle 1 Describing a friend Pre-present tense assessment 2 A trip to Ocean Park Pre-past tense assessment 3 A personal letter Post-past tense assessment Peer assessment 4 Describing a family member Post-present tense assessment 126 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Appendix 4 Questionnaire for the First and Second Writing Cycles Form 1 English Language WCF Study Questionnaire This study aims to find out your views about the use of selective marking and peer feedback. Circle the answer that suits you most. All your answers will be treated confidentially. 此研究的目的是找出你對選擇性修改文章及學生互評的意見。請選擇最 適合你的答案。所有答案均會保密。 1. What is the target grammar item in this writing practice? 是次寫作練習是著重於哪一種文法 ? A. Present tense B. Past tense C. Future tense D. Prepositions 2. Which of the following do you like best? 以下哪一種你最喜歡? A. My English teacher highlights all of my errors. 我的英文老師指出我的作文中的所有錯誤。 B. My English teacher highlights some of my errors. 我的英文老師指出我的作文的某些錯誤。 C. My English teacher does not highlight any of my errors. 我的英文老師沒有指出我的作文中的任何錯誤。 3. Do you think selective marking (e.g. only marking the tense in your compositions) can help you learn tense better? Why or why not? 你認為選擇性改修改文章 ( 例如只修改文章中的時態 ) 能幫你學習時 態學得更好嗎?為什麼? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 127教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Appendix 5 Questionnaire for the Third Writing Cycle This study aims to find out your views about the use of selective marking and peer feedback. Circle the answer that suits you most. All your answers will be treated confidentially. 此研究的目的是找出你對選擇性修改文章及學生互評的意見。請選擇最 適合你的答案。所有答案均會保密。 1. What is the target grammar item in this writing practice? 是次寫作練習是著重於哪一種文法 ? A. Present tense B. Past tense C. Future tense D. Prepositions 2. Do you think you can learn tense better through peer assessment (e.g. helping your classmates mark their writing) Why or why not? 透過學生互評 ( 例如幫助同學改文 ),你認為你能從中學習時態學得 更好嗎?為什麼? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3. Do you think you can learn tense better from your classmates’ feedback (e.g. letting your classmates mark your writing) Why or why not? 你認為你是否能從同學的反饋中 ( 例如讓同學改你的文章 ) 能幫你學 習時態學得更好嗎?為什麼? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 128 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Appendix 6 Semi-structural Interview Questions 1. 你知道選擇性修改文章和綜合性修改文章 ( 即平時老師的改文方式 ) 的分別嗎 ? 2. 就第一篇作文而言,這是一篇個人檔案,要形容一個人,你知道要用 什麼時態嗎 ? 3. 你知道為什麼要把某些字劃下橫線嗎 ? 4. 你認為這種方法能提點你用正確的時態嗎 ? 5. 就第二篇作文而言,這是一篇記叙文,你知道要用什麼時態嗎 ? 6. 就第三篇作文而言,你認為如果同學先幫你修改文章,你能更容易發 現自己的錯誤嗎 ? Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 129教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Appendix 7 Post Tense Test Complete each blank using the correct form of the given verb. The first one has been done for you as an example. Sasha’s Blog First Day 1 September 2013 I (e.g.) am (be) really nervous about the more difficult work for this year. I (1)_____________________(not do) very well last year, but I (2)_________________(hope) I can (3)______________________ (do) better this year. In addition, I (4)__________________(be) a Form 1 student this year, so the school (5)__________________(be) new to me. I (6)_____________________(try) to cope with the new environment. I’m afraid I am not at the same level as my classmates. I am so glad Michelle and I are in the same class. My class teacher (7)__________________(be) Miss Ho, and she (8)___________________(seem) to be a very nice teacher. This morning she (9)___________________(talk) to us patiently about the school, and the things we (10)___________________(do) in the next two months. I (11)_______________(feel) so happy when she (12)___________________(tell) us she would also be our English teacher. I (13)____________________(hope) I can do well this year, and I (14)_____________________(want) to make as many new friends as possible. How (15)___________________(be) your first day at school, Janet? Posted: 1 Sep 9.45 p.m. (Item 10 is excluded) 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 131教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 透過電子教學平台提升學生 辨析修辭手法的能力研究 吳麗琴、李佩霞、陳小敏、馬望寧(鳳溪第一小學) 何志恆博士(香港教育大學) 摘要 本行動研究旨在探討透過電子教學平台能否有效提升學生辨析修辭 手法的能力,研究對象為四班小學六年級學生。研究員運用電子教學平 台作為媒介,設計了三節有關明喻、暗喻、排比的電子課堂。研究結果 顯示,透過電子教學平台既能有效提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力和興 趣,也能提高教學效能。 研究背景 學習修辭手法是小學中國語文科教學其中一個必備環節,學生能正 確認識和分辨不同修辭手法,才可以在寫作時應用出來,從而提高表達 效果。《小學中國語文建議學習重點,2008》也指出,學生在寫作範疇, 要學習「運用合適修辭手法以提高表達效果」(頁 12)。 本校教師在中國語文科課堂,一向都會利用課文,以螺旋式教授修 辭手法,因應學生的年級遞升而增加深度,讓學生學得更深入。然而, 本學年四位六年級中文科教師發現,隨課文教授修辭手法,學生的課堂 表現雖然令人滿意,可是考試表現卻顯示學生辨析修辭手法的能力還有 待提升。 香港在世紀之交推動課程改革,「運用資訊科技進行互動學習」 是 其 中 一 個 重 要 的 課 程 改 革 項 目。 江 紹 祥(2010) 引 用 Nuutinen、 Sutinen、Botha 及 Kommers 等學者的研究成果,指出「電子通訊介入的 學習為學生營造一個自主探究、合作學習的環境,能讓學生專心投入課 堂學習,從多角度反覆討論學習課題,從而使他們有更多機會深入學習 相關課題」。江紹祥(2011)進一步指出,電子學習環境可以為教師節 省教學的時間,提高教學效率。即使教師只是應用簡單的電子簡報進行 教學,已能夠節省在黑板重複板書的時間。再者,電子教學對學生的 認知發展也有不少好處:可以強化學生的認知過程(Coffey, 2005; Ware, 2004)、減少認知負荷(Sweller & Chandler, 1994)、幫助學生理解抽象 的概念(Wheeler, Yeomans & Wheeler, 2008)。 132 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 為了掌握電子學習的教學效能,我們訪問了曾獲 eClass 港澳區中小 學教學設計比賽 2014 個人組別(小學組)冠軍的冼文標老師。冼老師 表示,使用電子教學平台(power lesson),可以按校本需要設計課業內 容,又可即時評估學生表現,即時知道學生的答對率等。然而,電子 教學也有其缺點,例如教師需要更多時間設計課業。而且進行教學時, 也可能會出現網絡系統不穩定的情況,影響教學,故此需要技術人員支 援。綜合以上研究及教學實踐,電子學習可以發揮以下的作用: •加強學生對科目知識的認知; •促進教學的評估; •貼合校本教學需要; •提升教學效果。 過去相關研究實踐已經證實電子學習可以提升學生對科目知識的認 知,而運用修辭手法的能力需要提升。故此,是次研究將透過電子教學 平台教授辨析修辭手法,從而探究運用電子教學平台在提升學生辨析修 辭手法的效能。我們預期是次研究的結果,可以作為面對同樣困難的教 育工作者的參考,有利香港語文教育工作的發展。 根據《小學中國語文建議學習重點》(2008),學生需運用合適修 辭手法以提高表達效果(頁 12)。無論在寫作、閱讀的學習領域範疇, 學生均需要辨析不同的修辭技巧,例如:明喻、暗喻、襯托、對比等。 在應用的時候,學生有混淆不清及未能準確判斷的情況。故我們希望藉 着是次研究,探討電子教學平台在提升學生辨析修辭手法的效能,強化 學生辨析修辭手法的能力,為日後語文學習奠下重要基礎。 研究方法 是次研究的對象是六年級學生,四班合共 120 人。其中一班是尖子 學生(6A),另外三班(6B,6C,6D)的學業表現平均。各班學生人 數分佈如下: 班別 學生人數 6A 36 6B 28 6C 28 6D 28 表 1:實驗班別的學生人數 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 133教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 本研究兼用質性及量性方法探究運用電子教學平台在提升學生辨析 修辭手法的效能。研究主要利用「前測——後測」的實驗方式,結合課 堂教學活動觀察及學生訪談,收集數據,以作研究之用。研究員先採用 一份前測卷(附件一)評估學生辨析寫作修辭手法的能力,以了解學生 在相關領域的程度。前測卷分為三個部分:測卷甲部 10 題,要求學生 辨別句子運用的修辭手法。10 道題目涵括明喻、暗喻、擬人、排比、誇 張等修辭技巧,各佔 2 題,全面而均衡的反映學生辨別修辭手法的能力。 測卷乙部共有 2 題,要求學生辨別段落中所使用的修辭手法,用線間出 來,並圈出有關句子運用的修辭手法,以反映學生辨析寫作片段運用修 辭手法的能力。這部分涵括的修辭手法,跟甲部一致。綜合甲部及乙部 數據,可以反映學生辨析句子及段落的修辭手法的能力高下。測試卷丙 部收集學生對修辭學習的看法,請學生圈出對一些句子,例如「我喜歡 平日的中文科課堂學習」的同意程度。 完成前測後,研究員根據學生的前測表現,選取其中三項表現能力 較弱的修辭手法 --「明喻」、「暗喻」及「排比」進行課堂教學活動, 通過電子教學平台(power lesson)讓學生掌握有關能力。是次研究,運 用電子教學平台的方式主要如下: • 學生從觀察教學簡報、瀏覽影片片段、通過「拖拉遊戲」等途徑找出 修辭手法; • 學生透過電子學習平台展示他們選擇、辨析、分類的成果; • 研究員利用「即時投票方式」展示學生辨析修辭手法的成果,引發討 論,提供回饋; 在進行電子教學後,研究員以相應的後測卷(附件二)評估學生的 相關能力有否提升。後測卷的題型、題目數目、題目涵括的修辭手法, 以及題目的深淺程度,跟前測卷一致。比較前測卷及後測卷有關「明 喻」、「暗喻」及「排比」項目的數據,可以反映學生在電子教學嘗試 前後的能力變化。後測卷跟前測卷一致,也設置「擬人」、「誇張」兩 種修辭手法的題目,以測試學生在沒有電子教學下,相關修辭手法辨析 能力變化,以作研究參照。後測卷也有收集學生對修辭學習的看法,還 加上「丁項」,邀請學生圈出對老師運用電子學習平台的評價。 為了進一步探究學生在是次教學研究的經驗與感受,研究者從前後 測結果對比學生的表現,每班選出三位(四班共 12 位)在前後測成績 對比「較大」、「一般」、「較小」的學生進行訪談,蒐集學生對是次 研究的改善策略的意見(附件三)。結合「前測——後測」的數據,特 別是測試卷丙部的意見調查,從學生意見的角度,探究是次研究對學生 學習的成效,發揮「三角交叉檢視法」(triangulation)的作用。 134 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 研究結果及分析 比較前測卷及後測卷甲部(辨析句子的不同修辭手法)的平均答對 人數,發現四班實驗組的學生在進行電子教學(powerlesson)實驗後, 除了「誇張」手法,其他 4 類修辭手法(明喻、暗喻、擬人、排比)辨 析的答對率均有提升,詳見表 2: 前測/ 後測 (升降 變化) 明喻 (%) 暗喻 (%) 擬人 (%) 排比 (%) 誇張 (%) 6A 94.44/97.22 (+2.78) 77.78/91.67 (+13.89) 100/100 (0) 100/100 (0) 98.61/100 (+1.39) 6B 62.5/82.14 (+19.64) 46.43/69.64 (+23.21) 87.5/89.29 (+1.79) 89.29/94.64 (+5.35) 92.86/83.93 (-8.93) 6C 73.21/87.5 (+14.29) 67.86/69.64 (+1.78) 87.5/96.43 (+8.93) 89.29/98.21 (+8.92) 94.64/85.71 (-8.93) 6D 82.14/89.29 (+7.15) 60.71/76.79 (+16.08) 94.64/94.64 (0) 94.64/94.64 (0) 96.43/87.5 (-8.93) 各班 平均 答對率 78.07/89.04 (+10.97) 63.19/76.94 (+13.75) 92.41/95.09 (+2.68) 93.31/96.87 (+3.56) 95.64/89.29 (-6.35) 表 2:比較前測卷及後測卷(甲部)辨析修辭手法答對率 四班受試學生辨析 5 類修辭手法的答對率的上升幅度,依次為暗喻 (+13.75%)、明喻 (+10.97%) 及排比 (+3.56%)。值得注意的是,上述學生 表現最為理想的修辭手法,均與電子課堂內容(明喻、暗喻、排比)有 關。相反地,沒有進行電子課堂的擬人、誇張法,情況完全不同:擬人 法雖仍見進步 2.68%,而學生在誇張法的表現,出現倒退 (-6.35%)。從 學生的實作表現,可以清楚反映電子課堂對學生辨析有關修辭手法的幫 助。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 135教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 在暗喻修辭辨析方面,根據前後測資料分析,6A ,6B 及 6D 班學 生較有顯著進步(見圖 2)。 根據前測卷及後測卷(甲部)辨析修辭手法的表現,四班受試學生 的變化幅度明顯不同。在明喻修辭辨析方面,根據前後測資料分析, 6B,6C,6D 較 6A 班學生進步得更顯著。(見圖 1) 97% 100% 100% 89% 89% 89% 89% 79% 71% 82% 82% 96% 93% 93% 96% 96% 136 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 在段落中找出修辭手法方面,分析前後測資料,同樣發現學生有顯 著進步:四班受試學生在前測兩道題目的平均答對率為 72.03%;到了後 測,受試學生在兩道題目的平均答對率為 82.89%,上升了 10.86%。反 觀四班受試學生在「乙部(辨析段落中的不同修辭手法)」的表現,也 可發現班級的個別表現變化差異: 6A (%) 6B (%) 6C (%) 6D (%) 受試學生 平均答對率 (%) 前測 91.67 67.86 62.5 62.5 72.03 後測 95.83 (+4.16) 78.58 (+10.72) 78.58 (+16.08) 78.57 (+16.07) 82.89 (+10.86) 表 3:比較前測卷及後測卷乙部(辨析段落中的不同修辭手法)答對率 1 本校 6A 精英班為全級成績排名首 36 名的學生,中、英、數科成績必須合格。而其餘 學生則按隨機分配編入 6B、6C 及 6D 班,成績相若。 比較四班受試學生的前後測表現,6A 進步幅度相對較小 (+4.16), 6B,6C 及 6D 三班的增幅較大(大於 10%)。究其原因,本校 6A 班為 精英班 1,學生能力較其他班學生強。其他班學生個別差異較大,部分 學生起初未能掌握相關的知識,然而透過電子課堂,學生得以鞏固修辭 知識,進步較大。 前後測卷丙部關於學生辨析修辭手法興趣的數據改變輕微,前後測 卷丙部四個句子的同意率,由增加 2.5% 至減少 1.7%,顯示學生對平日 上課形式和電子課堂的觀感沒有因為經歷這一次電子學習而大幅改變。 值得注意的是超過七成學生一直喜歡平日的中文課堂(前測 72.5%;後 測 75%),感到「平日的中文科課堂學習比較沉悶」的學生低於一半 (前測 44.2%;後測 46.7%)。在未進行電子課堂學習前,相信「利用 電子教學平台學習修辭手法,較由老師解說更為有趣。」的有 77.5%; 進行電子課堂學習後,同意率略降至 75.8%。至於「我認為老師使用電 子教學平台教授修辭手法,使我學習得更好。」這句子,前測同意的有 76.7%,後測同意率輕微減少(75.8%)。上述情況反映學生認為老師使 用電子教學平台教授修辭手法,是使他們學習得更好的原因。學生認同 通過運用電子教學平台(power lesson)的學習效能之餘,肯定了教師能 善用電子課堂學習的重要性(見表 4)。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 137教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 項目 ( 全級人數:120 人 ) 同意程度(5 分為最高) 上升或 下降百 分比 前測 ( 十 分 同 意 及同意) 後測 (十分同意及 同意) 人數 百分比 人數 百分比 1 我喜歡平日的中文科課堂學 習。 87 72.5% 90 75% +2.5% 2 平日的中文科課堂學習比較 沉悶。 53 44.2% 56 46.7% +2.5% 3 利用電子教學平台學習修辭 手法,較由老師解說,更為 有趣。 93 77.5% 91 75.8% -1.7% 4 我認為老師使用電子教學平 台教授修辭手法,使我學習 得更好。 92 76.7% 91 75.8% -0.9% 表 4:學生對中文科課堂觀感 表 5:學生對不同電子學習活動的態度 根據後測卷丁部(學習活動)的數據發現,超過七成學生喜歡是次 老師使用的教學平台的不同電子教學活動(見表 5)。明顯地,學生喜 歡這些活動,提高了學習動機,因此在修辭辨析的能力也有所改善。 項目 ( 全級人數:120 人 ) 喜歡程度(4 分為最高) 後測(十分喜歡及喜歡) 人數 百分比 1 播放影片 104 86.7% 2 拖拉遊戲 107 89.2% 3 選擇題 107 89.2% 4 是非題 107 89.2% 5 在排比句下間線 91 75.8% 138 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 回應研究問題,為更深入了解在前後測成績對比較大、一般及較小 的學生對於運用電子教學平台學習修辭手法的看法,我們於 2015 年 6 月 19 日分別訪問了六年級四班共 12 位學生。歸納以上三類學生的意見, 發現三類學生均表示喜歡運用電子教學平台學習修辭手法,主要原因包 括: • 活動有新意,能吸引同學; • 互動性強; • 更專心上課; • 即時練習、運用、提問、作答及訂正; • 可隨時翻查題目; • 多思考、多動腦筋。 受訪學生也指出了電子課堂能幫助他們學習修辭的原因,包括: • 練習有挑戰性、有成功感; • 如果答錯,老師會先顯示答案,再逐一提問原因; • 不用等老師也可完成筆記; • 電子學習活動的吸引力很大。 受訪學生認同老師運用電子教學平台教授修辭手法,原因包括: • 有趣、有新意; • 能吸引平日不專心的同學; • 不像口述教學,如聽漏不能追,電子學習會一步一步同做,可以 專心去學,真正了解學習內容。 綜合以上訪談結果,我們發現學生即使存在學習表現差異,但均認 為運用電子學習平台來學習辨析修辭手法較平日課堂更有趣、吸引,能 令他們更專心上課。更重要的是,電子課堂讓他們可以即時了解自己的 學習表現。學生可按需要自行調校學習的進度,例如:可隨時翻查題目, 重看內容。此外,電子教學平台提供即時顯示答案的功能,學生能馬上 得到回饋,提升學與教的效能,解釋了是次教學設計能有效強化學生辨 析修辭手法能力的原因。 反思及建議 是次研究的實驗,證明了透過電子教學平台教授學生辨析修辭手法 的成效,也反映了電子教學的強項與不足之處。是次研究的電子課堂嘗 試,引證了電子教學以下的作用: • 有趣、吸引,能令學生更專心上課; • 讓學生可以儘快得到回饋,提升學與教的效能; • 讓學生可以即時了解自己的學習表現,從而按需要自行調校學習 進度。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 139教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 學生在電子課堂的過程中的熱烈反應,投入學習,也可以見諸課堂活動 (圖 3-5): 圖 3:學生課堂表現(一) 圖 4:學生課堂表現(二) 140 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 是次研究,從學生的意見調查,也反映教師才是電子教學平台 (power lesson)的主人,何志恆(2013)在一個以香港教育大學中國語 文教育榮譽學士課程學員為對象的研究,發現準教師在「電子學習設計 較傳統面授教學更能促進學生的學習成果?」的議題上,反應分歧:選 擇「非常同意」或「同意」的共有 17 人(54.84%),但是表示「不同意」 的也有四成以上(45.16%),可見問題在受訪者眼中極富爭議性。是次 研究的對象,雖然是小六學生,但是他們從學習過程也體會到電子課堂 成功與否,教師才是主要的關鍵。以是次研究為例,教師能否善用「即 時投票方式」展示學生辨析修辭手法的成果,引發討論,提供回饋,是 活動能否發揮教學效能的關鍵。 進行教研能提供機會讓老師作專業的交流和分享。經過共同備課及 同儕觀課,同事可集思廣益,交流和分享學習心得。還有,本教學設計 可保存於電子教學平台資料庫,方便老師日後可取用及按學生的需要作 出修訂。此外,可把教學設計承傳下去,讓新老師較易享用前人的成果。 從學生訪談得知,部分學生指出活動設計較重複,因而感到沈悶,因此 我們建議活動設計可更多元化,避免重複。 圖 5:學生課堂表現(三) 總結 總括而言,我們透過教學實踐,證實電子教學方式在修辭手法教學上能 強化學生對修辭手法的認知、有效提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力,還可 以提升學生學習語文的興趣。另一方面,這次電子教學嘗試,也可以證 實在引導程度一般的學生理解較為抽象的概念起了正面的作用,甚至學 習能力強的學生效果更為顯著。透過比較學生辨析不同修辭的表現,更 可以確定電子課堂的教學作用,教師日後也可以將有關教學策略應用於 其他修辭技巧,或其他語文教育項目,以促進教學的效能。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 141教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 參考參考文獻: 江紹祥(2011)。《電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇》。《香港教師中心學報》, Vol.10, 頁 1-8。 何志恆(2013,12 月)《電子學習的可行性研究 : 以文學教學為例》「漢語文 教育及國際漢語教育的建設與發展」國際研討會論文」,香港教育大學、 四川師範大學(成都、中國)合辦。」頁 1-10。 課程發展議會(2008):《小學中國語文建議學習重點(試用):語文學習基 礎知識聽說讀寫》,香港:政府物流服務署。 Coffey,J .(2005).LEO: A concept map based course visualizat ion tool for instructors and students. 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British Journal of Educational Technology , 39(6), 987-995. 142 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 (附件一) 2014 – 2015 年度 中文科六年級行動研究 前測卷 姓名: ________________ ﹙ ﹚ 班別:六﹙ ﹚ 成績:_________ 性別:男 / 女 年齡: ______________ 日期:_________ 甲、辨別下列句子所用的修辭手法,把代表答案的英文字母填在( ) 內。每題 1 分,選項可重覆使用。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 1. 年紀小小的弟弟,哭聲比雷聲還要響亮。 ( ) 2. 鬧鐘又在大吵大嚷了,快點想辦法讓它安靜下來吧﹗ ( ) 3. 我喜歡到郊野公園,欣賞蔚藍的天空,腳踏青翠的草 地,觸摸碧綠的小溪。 ( ) 4. 初生小老虎外形好像小貓一樣。 ( ) 5. 近年的天氣越來越熱,夏日的高温幾乎要把人融掉。 ( ) 6. 春天是一個魔術師,悄悄給大地換上了新裝。 ( ) 7. 大雁在天空飛翔,是多麼的逍遙自在,是多麼的無拘 無束,是多麼的輕鬆寫意啊﹗ ( ) 8. 電腦突然罷工,令明天快要交報告的哥哥非常無奈。 ( ) 9. 木棉花盛開的時候,仿如一團熊熊的火焰,在樹上熾 熱地燃燒。 ( ) 10. 從山頂往下看,厚厚的雲層變成了波濤洶湧的海洋。 ( ) 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 143教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 乙、 辨別下列段落中所使用的修辭手法,用線間出來,並圈出正確答 案,提示:每段只有一種修辭手法。 1. 2. 外婆走得突然,留下的就只有幾件物品作紀念,其中有這雙親手為 我沖洗乾淨的塑膠拖鞋,一直留在我的身邊,捨不得丟掉。直到現 在,每次我接觸到那灰舊的鞋面時,彷彿輕撫着外婆温暖而多皺的 手。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 我把死去的小麻雀埋在老槐樹下。我呆呆地看着牠長眠的地方, 自覺對不起牠。我聽見老麻雀在哀鳴,牠們似乎在為牠唱輓歌*。 *輓歌:哀悼死者的歌 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 丙、 請閱畢下列各項後,在最合 適的選項下加 。 十 分 同 意 同 意 不 同 意 十 分 不 同 意 無 意 見 1 我喜歡平日的中文科課堂學 習。 2 平日的中文科課堂學習比較 沉悶。 3 利用電子教學平台學習修辭 手法,比起由老師解說,更 為有趣。 4 我認為老師使用電子教學平 台教授修辭手法,使我學習 得更好。 144 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 (附件二) 姓名: ________________ ﹙ ﹚ 班別:六﹙ ﹚ 成績:_________ 性別:男 / 女 年齡: ______________ 日期:_________ 甲、辨別下列句子所用的修辭手法,把代表答案的英文字母填在( ) 內。每題 1 分,選項可重覆使用。 2014 – 2015 年度 中文科六年級行動研究 後測卷 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 1. 在寧靜的角落裏,沒有吵雜的人聲,沒有擠迫的人 潮,沒有喧鬧的叫賣聲。 ( ) 2. 蟋蟀是大自然的演奏家,鳴叫聲響徹草叢每個角落。 ( ) 3. 那一串串燦爛的花兒,猶如一串串爆竹,熱烈地燃 燒。 ( ) 4. 柏基曬得黑黝黝的,膚色比木炭還要黑。 ( ) 5. 天空中的太陽好像一個大火球。 ( ) 6. 香港雖然不下雪,可是北風還是會令人們冷得全身 都結冰。 ( ) 7. 鉛筆乖乖地躺卧在文具盒裏,等候主人的差遣。 ( ) 8. 從觀景台眺望,宏偉的建築物變成了小小的積木。 ( ) 9. 每當我使用這台電腦時,它總會拒絕聽從我的指令。 ( ) 10. 公園裏的植物,紅的火紅,白的雪白,青的靛青, 綠的碧綠。 ( ) 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 145教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 乙、 辨別下列段落中所使用的修辭手法,用線間出來,並圈出正確答 案,提示:每段只有一種修辭手法。 1. 2. 有人說,十歲的孩子崇拜父親,二十歲的青年人鄙視父親,四十歲 的中年人憐憫父親。然而,對我來說,父親是值得我一輩子崇拜的 人。我們的作業父親每天都要一道道地檢查,詳細地寫上家長意 見,他被老師稱為「最稱職的家長」。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 這一天,牠又蜷縮在角落裹。忽然,窗外的老麻雀又叫了起來, 牠立刻眼睛睜得大大的,張開翅膀騰空而起。牠在屋裏盤旋了一 圈,就衝向玻璃窗。只聽「嘭」的一聲,撞在玻璃上,牠像一塊 石頭似的墜落在地上。我衝過去,雙手托起小麻雀,無數次地呼 喚牠,但牠再也沒有醒來。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 丙、 請閱畢下列各項後,在最合適 的選項下加 。 十 分 同 意 同 意 不 同 意 十 分 不 同 意 無 意 見 1 我喜歡平日的中文科課堂學 習。 2 平日的中文科課堂學習比較沉 悶。 3 利用電子教學平台學習修辭手 法,比起由老師解說,更為有 趣。 4 我認為老師使用電子教學平台 教授修辭手法,使我學習得更 好。 146 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 丁、試選出你對老師使用電子學習平台教授「修辭」的喜歡程度: (在適當的內加 ) 喜歡程度 方法 十分喜歡 喜歡 不喜歡 十分不喜歡 播放影片 拖拉遊戲 選擇題 是非題 在排比句下 間線 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 147教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 (附件三) 2014 – 2015 年度 中文科六年級行動研究 修辭辨析:訪談 姓名: ________________ ﹙ ﹚ 班別:六﹙ ﹚ 日期:__________ 1. 在過去上中文課,你學過修辭嗎?老師用甚麼方法教修辭 ? 你喜歡嗎 ? 為甚麼 ? 2a. 你們喜歡運用電子教學平台學習修辭手法嗎?為甚麼? 2b. 你認為最大的得著是甚麼?(試舉一個例子) 3. 電子教學方式,能幫助你學習修辭手法嗎?為甚麼? 4a. 學習修辭辨析後,對你的寫作有幫助嗎? 4b. 承上題,有甚麼幫助?(如 4a 答沒有,請跳到第 5 題。) 5. 你對於這次老師運用電子教學平台進行修辭有甚麼看法? 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 149教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題 建構活動中對空間概念的 認知與迷思 張曄(主要研究員) 黎培莉、關珊(其他研究員) 香港教育大學滙豐幼兒發展中心 摘要 在幼兒教育階段的學習過程中,教具或實物的應用有助幼兒更好地 理解及建立數學概念,而在眾多用於教學的教具或實物中,積木有著無 法取代的地位。建構積木有助於促進幼兒於不同範疇的能力發展,其開 放性和可再造性的特徵尤其能為幼兒建構數學概念及經驗提供充裕的發 展空間和機會。就此,本研究透過讓三至四歲幼兒進行積木主題建構活 動,探討其在空間概念發展過程中所顯現出的認知表現與迷思,並為教 師瞭解幼兒在積木建構活動中的行為表現提供參考。研究結果顯示,在 積木主題建構活動之後,幼兒對二維和三維空間的認知水準有所提升, 在積木建構過程中,幼兒會對空間關係和空間利用方式這兩個方面產生 迷思。 研究背景與問題 在幼兒教育階段,積木是幼兒不可或缺的遊戲,建構積木有助促進 幼兒各方面能力的發展。但由於積木所佔的空間較大,且需保證充足的 建構時間,故教師往往只在教室中設置一個區域讓幼兒自由建構,(在 教學過程中則較少用到),在積木區中常常會出現以下狀況:(1)積 木擺放混亂,閒置於狹小的角落中;(2)積木區環境佈置單一,未能 為幼兒的建構行為,提供適切的環境刺激;(3)積木遊戲被視為「自 由活動」,教師未有產生重視此建構活動,並較少將幼兒的積木建構行 為作為評估幼兒學習的憑證;(4)成人認為木質積木具有一定危險性, 因此限制幼兒操作的機會(馬祖琳等,2009)。就此,若能在日常教學 中引入積木作為教具,並對其運作過程和結果進行分析,則能有效提高 積木的使用率及學習效能。 150 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 在早期數學方面,建構主義學習理論中有關數學教學,強調在遊戲 中學習,以實物操作的學習方式為主(魏美惠,2005)。有研究指出, 在幼兒教育的數學教學中,教材教具的使用,應配合幼兒的心智發展, 使幼兒對數學更加容易理解 (劉秋木,1996)。還有多個研究表明, 在數學教學中教具或實物的應用,有助於幼兒建立數學概念(劉蘊如, 1993;黎佳欣,2007;張麗芬,2009)。由此可見,在幼兒階段的數學 教學及學習過程中,利用教具或實物有助於幼兒數學概念的形成與發 展,而由不同立體幾何圖形構成的積木則十分適合扮演這一角色。此 外,以往的文獻中較少涉及教具或實物的應用對幼兒數學概念中空間概 念的影響。在幼兒空間概念學習的相關研究中,也甚少針對三至四歲幼 兒的發展與表現。因此,本研究可為前人的研究作出補充及擴展。 本研究旨在透過讓三至四歲幼兒進行積木建構活動,探討在教學中 協助幼兒利用積木進行探索學習的方法,分析幼兒在二維平面空間轉換 為三維立體空間過程中對空間概念的認知與迷思。主要研究問題有: 1. 積木建構活動的形式與內容 2. 三至四歲幼兒在積木建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 文獻探討 在幼兒教育階段,積木被公認為有助幼兒發展的玩具或教具,其種 類繁多,且具開放性,能滿足不同年齡階段及幼兒不同範疇的發展需 求,積木建構活動對幼兒數學概念的學習和認知功用更是顯而易見。 幼兒在積木遊戲中可發展比較、測量、加減法、型式對稱、部分 與整體及等積關係等數學概念(Adams & Nesmith, 1996; Casey, Bobb, Sarama & Clements, 2003;Leeb-Lundberg, 1996; 吳 雅 玲 & 許 慧 欣, 2008)。同時,積木遊戲還有助於發展位置和方向的空間關係(Andrews, 1999)。其中在數學範疇的發展概念有:形狀、大小、配對、測量、體積、 面積、深、寬、高、長、排列、數字、分數、分類、比較、空間等。 在積木建構活動中,幼兒積木建構表現與作品的複雜程度、年齡及 幼兒發展相關。Johnson(1996)在對幼兒建構單位積木進行研究之後, 認為幼兒積木建構水準的發展主要有: 階段一 對積木之間的空間關係的理解和操作。 階段二 對各建築模型之間的空間組合的理解和構成。 階段三 在主題和情節背景下對建築物之間關係的再現和表達。 在此基礎上,幼兒積木遊戲的發展及表現特徵可闡述為以下七個階段 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 151教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 ( 表一 ): 表一 Johnson(1996)之積木建構發展階段 階段 建構範例 表現特徵 第一階段 攜帶 抱著或拿著積木到處走, 或在地上隨意擺放 第二階段 堆疊 水準並排 垂直造塔 寬邊造塔 長邊造塔 第三階段 架橋 簡單架橋 多重式架橋 第四階段 圍牆 簡單圍牆 連接式多元表現圍牆 第五階段 型式與對稱 部分對稱 整體對稱 第六階段 早期表徵 部分命名 整體命名 第七階段 晚期表徵 先命名再建構 資料來源:修改自 Wellhousen & Kieff (2001);吳雅玲(2007) 152 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 首先,建構主義學習觀認為,幼兒的學習動機來自對新知識的衝 突,個體會相應提出質疑及問題,從現有的知識體系為當前的衝突找出 適當的概念知識作連繫,試圖想出可行的假設去學習,並透過實際行動 進行探索,把新的事物建構成新的概念知識,形成概念的改變,重整為 個體的知識體系,在此建構學習觀點基礎上帶出的學習循環,便成為實 踐「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式的理論依據(鄭美蓮、陳 聲珮,2013)。而本研究基於建構主義學習理論的積木主題建構活動, 正是以「問題 - 探索 - 經驗」自主建構學習模式為框架,教師與幼兒共 同商議感興趣的建構主題,再在操作中發現問題,憑藉幼兒的已有經驗 探索解決問題的方法,最終透過討論、建構、互動等過程獲得符合個人 發展層次和需求的經驗。 其次,建構主義認為知識具有適應性,並會作為概念系統存儲在個 人的知識體系中,知識的學習是一個自主和主動的過程,透過自我調節 及抽象思考,原有的知識概念系統會作出改變,從而建立或重整新的知 識體系(陳聲珮、鄭美蓮,2006)。在此基礎上所產生的「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式可應用於不同範疇的活動中,過程中幼兒在已 有經驗感興趣的問題引導下,透過親自操作和探索而獲得第一身經驗。 本研究中的積木建構活動以「問題」、「探索」、「經驗」為活動設計 及實施元素,並透過操作積木來探索建構建築的奧秘,是以建構主義為 導向的教學活動。而與傳統教學相比,以建構主義為導向的教學活動有 許多不同之處 ( 表二 )(朱湘吉,1992): 表二 傳統教學與建構主義教學設計的比較 比較項目 傳統教學設計 建構主義教學設計 哲學基礎 •客觀論 •知識本身有恆真價值 •建構論 •意義是經由社會協調而來 學習內容 •適合學習動作技能、語文 資訊及具體概念 •簡化現實世界 •適合學習解決問題及認知策 略等進階知識 •呈現現實世界的真實面貌 學習者 •可在教學過程中調整個別 差異 •重視學習者的起點行為 •被動接受知識 •學習者的先前知識影響學習 結果 •強調學習者有自我管理的能力 •主動參與學習 學習情境 •正式教學 •情境學習 學習項目 •人造的 •真實的 成果評量 •重視教學與成效 •以學習目標為評量標準 •重視學習的過程本身 •目標中立(goal-free)導向 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 153教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 再次,在建構主義教學方面,社會建構論認為,學校是幼兒汲取知 識及形成概念的一個重要場所,教師在幼兒學習的過程中扮演著重要的 角色。周淑惠(1999)提出,尤其是三至五歲幼兒在遊戲建構中,應比 其他年齡層幼兒需要更多的鷹架支援與引導。因此,教師身為鷹架者, 藉由各種活動和時間的調配,輔以不同的教學方式,達到顧及到每一位 幼兒的需求,可透過團體討論促進幼兒思維,透過小組教學讓幼兒與小 組成員有更密切的互動機會(陳惠敏,2007)。 另外,一個適性發展的教學方案,應當以幼兒為中心,教師鷹架, 協助幼兒探索學習,在課程設計上採用跨多個領域,統整課程,而幼兒 的空間概念教學,應可採用方式來協助他們獲得空間概念(周淑惠, 2000)。就此,本研究中進行的積木主題建構活動是以建構主義學習理 論為框架,把幼兒提出的問題作為出發點,在教師的鷹架之下,讓他們 透過不同階段和程度的探索來確立符合其學習興趣和發展能力的主題, 從而在建構積木的過程中,循序漸進地獲得相應的概念和經驗,形成有 主題的探索式積木建構活動。 空間概念是個體最早發展的物理知識之一,亦是後續高階科數概念 發展的基礎(洪文東、楊志強、張琪,2009)。幼兒空間概念的學習對 其相關概念發展會產生重要影響,在許多有關幼兒空間概念的研究中, 不同研究者對幼兒空間概念之定義亦作出了探討 ( 表三 )。 表三 幼兒空間概念之定義 研究員 研究年份 空間概念的定義 吳貞祥 1978 累積各項的空間經驗,發展成空間知覺後,經過思考 與協調,方能慢慢形成抽象的概念,稱為空間概念 NCTM 1989 空間概念包括空間關係——位置、方向、距離以及利 用空間的方式——組織佔用空間和空間形狀與空間建 造等子概念。 周啟、 洪木利 1993 空間概念主要包括為:方向、大小、形狀、長度、面積、 體積等六個基本概念。 NCTM 2000 在兒童認知發展中,能運用上下、左右、前後、內外 等方位語詞描述兩物的相對位置。 陳埩淑 2005 空間概念包含空間關係含有位置 ( 在上、在下、在前、 在後、在裡、在外…)、方向 ( 朝上、朝下、往前、往 後、往旁、往右 )、距離 ( 靠近、遠離 ) 及空間定位概 念(在一定空間中安排、組織、或建構周圍的物體)。 P o o l e , Miller & Church 2006 藉由空間知覺發展出有關方向、距離和位置概念之理 解,建立在位置、距離、與位移的空間概念知覺的發 展基礎上。 邱淑亞 2006 空間概念包括瞭解位置、方向、距離等空間關係和相 關語言,以及空間運用的活動。 154 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 由上述定義可見,空間概念主要體現於對位置、方向、距離這三個 方面的知覺,以及對空間利用關係的理解。因此,結合本研究中所進行 的積木主題建構活動,研究中所提及的空間概念,則以上述空間概念之 定義為基礎,具體講空間概念闡述為在積木主題建構活動中幼兒對空間 關係(位置、方向、距離)以及空間利用方式的理解及表現。 傳統幼兒數學活動對空間感應學習的描述並不多,然而空間能力是 決定人在科學進展的關鍵,也是用來輔助思考,獲取資料、設計問題或 解決問題的手段。科學的進步跟空間智能的發展有緊密的關係(Gardner, 1983)。學齡前階段的幼兒,正處於視覺空間發展的「空間期」,對於 周遭環境事物的認知與學習會愈來愈敏銳,是幼童學習空間概念最恰 當的時間(洪文東,2011)。(空間具體來說是指物質本身的廣延性, 表現為物質的位置、規模和體積,與此相關的研究主要通過幼兒對物質 空間方位關係及數形關係的認識,來揭示幼兒空間概念發展規律(趙新 華,1993)。) 幼兒空間概念指在幼兒認知發展中,能運用上下、左右、前後、內 在等方位詞語描述兩物的相對位置(NCTM, 2000)。空間概念包含空間 關係含有位置(在上、在下、在前、在後、在裡、在外、在中間、在旁 邊)、方向(朝上、朝下、往前、往後、往旁、往右)、距離(靠近、 遠離)及空間定位概念(在一定空間中安排、組織、或建構周圍的物體) (陳埩淑,2005)。若以幼兒空間概念發展階段作為劃分依據,進一步 細化空間概念發展階段與幼兒年齡及發展特徵之間的關係,有研究者綜 合文獻資料,將 Piaget 的幼兒空間概念發展依據年齡階段分為拓撲階段、 投影空間和歐氏幾何空間,並綜合為「Piaget 幼兒空間概念發展表」(表 四)( 陳奕翰,2013): 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 155教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 表四 Piaget 幼兒空間概念發展表 年齡 階段 特徵 特徵說明 1 約 3-4 歲 前運思期 (Preope ra t iona l period) 自我中心傾向 不可逆性 符號代表實物 知覺集中傾向 幼兒已發展出有關接 近、分離、次序、包 圍、連續的概念。 2 約 4-8 歲 前運思期至 具 體 運 思 期 之 間 (Preoperational period to period o f c o n c r e t e operations) 自我中心傾向 不可逆性 符號代表實物 知覺集中傾向 序列化 去集中化 守恆 類包含 幼兒逐漸理解物體位 置與物體間的相對關 係,並漸漸形成二維 和三維空間轉換已有 幾何學的概念,但這 種概念仍然無法擺脫 視覺影像。 3 約 9 歲 以上 形式運思期 (Period of formal operations) 假設演繹推理 命題推理 組合推理 幼兒之空間理解已成 熟,他們能從視覺迷惑 中找到解決方案,將所 有物體間的空間關係 統整為個體所具有的 概念。 資料來源:整理自 ( 陳奕翰,2013) 空間概念是學習幾何之前的必備階段,幼兒教育時期是幼兒學習空 間概念最恰當的時間,如果幼兒錯失空間概念的學習,則其進階幾何學 習的效果會受到影響(Clements, Sarama, & DiBiase, 2002)。由此可見, 在幼兒教育階段,對幼兒空間概念進行培養與發展則顯得十分必要。依 據幼兒空間概念發展特徵,幼兒由四歲開始,便逐漸形成二維和三維空 間轉換的幾何學概念,而積木有不同形狀的,有助幼兒建構三維空間, 因此,若在積木建構活動中,以二維和三維空間轉換為線索,探討幼兒 對空間概念的認知和迷思則十分有意義。 研究方法 在香港教育學院滙豐幼兒發展中心隨機抽取全日幼兒班進行研究, 班級總人數為 15 人,其中男生 7 人,女生 8 人,平均年齡為 3 歲 11 個月。 積木建構區是幼稚園課室中必備的學習區之一。為了讓幼兒熟悉積 木,使他們對積木建構活動產生興趣,並配合課題的探索進程,在開展 「小小藝術家」的主題教學之前,便在課室內創設了積木建構區,並透 過多次現場觀察幼兒的遊戲情況之後,依據幼兒的需求持續完善積木建 構區的設計。積木區在設置時主要依循以下原則(馬祖琳等,2009): 156 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 一. 空間:避開動線 二. 積木櫃:每一層格儘量置放一種形狀的積木,將不同形狀分開放置, 方便幼兒拿取。教師將每一種形狀的積木按尺寸在紙上描 畫下來,再剪貼在每一層格前,方便幼兒自行收拾。 三. 預留取放積木之走道。 四. 牆面:可適當在牆上張貼展示、記錄,以作引導。 五. 配件:視乎幼兒遊戲需要,適時加入。 研究採用「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式來設計積木建 構活動的教學內容。「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」學習是以建構學習理論為 依據,主要透過問題、探索、經驗三個學習階段,刺激幼兒在學習新事 物時,把原來的概念作出適當的轉換,建構新的概念,培養良好的學習 能力(陳聲珮、鄭美蓮,2013)。 學校每學年均開展七大課題。本研究利用幼兒在每年三月至四月中 旬進行「小小藝術家」課題,於全日幼兒班(三至四歲)加入積木建構 活動,讓幼兒有充足的時間利用積木進行探索。在此課題探索焦點問題 訂立過程中,幼兒延續上一個課題「快樂的中國人」中的探索興趣, 繼續對「戲曲藝術」展開探索。期間由於幼兒對「戲曲表演場地」這一 問題產生濃厚興趣,教師便與幼兒共同確立新階段探索焦點 --「搭建戲 院」,同時利用積木作教具與幼兒共同展開以「搭建戲院」為主題的活 動。 透過「問題 - 探索 - 經驗」自主建構學習模式來進行建構活動,教 師將搭建鷹架引導幼兒以「搭建戲院」為探索焦點,利用積木將二維空 間(平面設計圖)轉換三維空間(利用積木建構平面設計圖所表的內 容),並從空間概念中的空間關係(位置、方向、距離)以及空間利用 方式這兩個方面出發,獲得幼兒空間概念表現的證據。在此基礎上,研 究在「小小藝術家」課題探索期間,進行為期三週的積木主題建構活動, 每週進行四次,每次持續 40 分鐘,共計十二次教學活動,藉此瞭解過 程中,幼兒對空間概念的認知與產生的迷思。 有關概念的研究或評測工具往往不是讓幼兒回答對或不對的情況, 研究員需要深入瞭解幼兒回答的理由(楊志強,2011)。由於幼兒表達 能力有限,部分概念表達技巧對其學習可能有難度,因此一般幼兒概念 的評測多以現象觀察、動作實作方式及簡單的紙筆測驗輔以口頭或實體 詢問方式來進行(洪文東,2011)。本研究所採用的研究工具分為幼兒 在積木建構活動中的表現與迷思,以及空間概念的評量與分析兩個部 分。 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 157教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 在分析幼兒積木主題建構活動的表現與迷思方面,使用研究者編制 的「積木主題建構活動記錄表」記錄每次活動的內容,從空間關係(位 置、方向、距離)以及空間利用方式兩方面分析幼兒於每次活動中空間 概念的迷思。在幼兒空間概念的評量與分析方面,主要使用「幼兒園教 育質量評價手冊 -- 工具七 -- 幼兒發展評測 - 測查圖卡」,在研究開展前 期及後期,分別對幼兒空間概念的認知發展狀況進行測評,透過比較結 果獲知幼兒在積木主題建構活動前後空間概念認知差異。該評量工具主 要對幼兒空間認知中三維空間和二維空間的認知發展狀況進行比較和分 析,各測查項目均涉及空間概念中空間關係(位置、方向、距離)以及 空間利用方式兩方面內容。 研究結果及分析 「積木主題建構活動記錄表」重點記錄在「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」 自主建構學習模式下,幼兒於積木主題建構活動中的探索建構過程,以 及產生的空間概念迷思 ( 表五 )。 表五 積木主題建構活動記錄表 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 (空間概念的 認知) 活 動 一 1. 在什麼地 方看戲? 2. 戲院有什 麼功能? 3. 戲院裡有 什麼? 1. 初建舞臺 2. 門的位置(1) 3. 門的位置(2) 4. 門的位置(3) 1. 幼兒用平面 建構的方式 表示戲院內 部的樓梯。 2. 幼兒選用條 形積木組合 成長方形舞 臺。 3. 幼兒選用方 形積木排列 為座椅。 4. 幼兒選用條 形積木,調 整積木間距 離,縱向建 構為門。 1. 空間關係 幼兒對戲院門的位 置和方向產生分歧 及討論,主要有以 下建議: a. 舞臺後面 b. 座椅與樓梯之間 c. 樓梯旁邊 158 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 ( 空 間 概 念 的 認知) 活 動 二 1. 戲院的門在 哪裡? 2. 如何從門進 入戲院? 3. 戲台有什麼 特點? 4. 戲院的座椅 有 什 麼 特 點? 1. 再建舞臺 2. 確定門的位置 3. 搭建幕布,示範 如何進入戲院 4. 加高舞臺 5. 增加椅背 1. 幼兒合理編排 舞臺、座椅、 樓 梯 和 門 的 位 置, 各 部 分 保 持 有 一 定空間距離。 2. 幼兒利用「玩 具 公 仔 」 示 範 進 入 積 木 搭 建 的 戲 院 空間的順序。 3. 幼兒選用長條 形 積 木 表 示 幕布。 4. 幼兒以座椅為 參 照 物, 產 生 並 實 踐 加 高 舞 臺 的 概 念。 5. 幼兒表現對座 椅 結 構 的 認 識, 包 括 椅 面和椅背。 1. 空間關係 幼兒對幕布的位 置及形態產生分 歧,主要有以下 建議: a. 直放 b. 橫放 2. 空間利用方式 a. 幼兒對如何安 排及建構幕布 產生疑問 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 159教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 (空間概念的認 知) 活 動 三 1. 戲院的幕 布是怎樣 的? 2. 真實的戲 院是怎樣 的? 1. 觀察樓梯及座椅 2. 以身高為參照量 度舞臺高度 3. 觀察幕布 4. 觀察舞臺 1. 發 現 樓 梯 和 座 椅的層級空間 分佈特點。 2. 從 高 處 觀 察 並 用形狀詞彙描 述舞臺形狀。 3.參照自身身高, 描述舞臺的高 度。 4. 從 向 上 的 角 度 觀 察 舞 臺 特 色。 5. 舞 臺 左 右 兩 邊 各有樓梯。 6. 知 道 幕 布 有 橫 向 開 合 的 特 點。 1. 空間關係 a. 戲院各設施 的位置 b. 舞臺與地面 的距離 c. 門、座椅、 樓梯、舞臺 的方向 2. 空間利用方 式 a. 戲院中各個 設施的組織 安排方式 160 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 (空間概念的認 知) 活 動 四 1. 正式搭建 戲院有何 預 備 工 作? 2. 什麼是設 計圖? 3. 如何畫設 計圖? 1. 商討畫設計圖的 方法 2. 幼兒用不同形狀 代表戲院不同部 分 3. 戲院設計圖完稿 1. 用 大 長 方 形 代 表舞臺。 2. 用 正 方 形 代 表 座椅。 3. 用 小 長 方 形 代 表樓梯。 4.分辨前後位置。 5. 於 畫 紙 的 不 同 位 置 畫 舞 臺、 座 椅、 樓 梯、 門。 6. 戲 院 不 同 部 分 的空間分佈。 1. 空間關係 a. 戲院各設施 的位置 b. 舞臺與地面 的距離 c. 門、座椅、 樓梯、舞臺 的方向 2. 空間利用方 式 a. 在二維平面 圖紙上組織 戲院中各個 設施的方式 b. 戲院各部分 的陳列方法 和建構先後 次序 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 161教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 ( 空 間 概 念 的 認知) 活 動 五 1. 在哪裡搭建 全日幼兒班 的戲院? 2. 如何搭建戲 院的舞臺? 3. 如何搭建舞 臺左右兩邊 的樓梯? 4. 如何搭建戲 院的座椅? 1. 幼 兒 商 討 搭 建 戲院的位置 2. 確 定 在 積 木 區 搭建戲院 3. 搭 建 舞 臺 及 舞 臺旁樓梯 4. 搭建座椅 1. 預 測 搭 建 戲 院 的 空 間 大 小。 2. 以 身 體 為 參 照 物,「 感 知 」 舞 臺 大 小。 3. 在 舞 臺 左 右 兩 邊 縱 向 搭 建樓梯。 4. 在 與 舞 臺 相 隔 一 段 距 離 內 縱 向 排 列 座椅。 5. 以 直 角 的 形 式 搭 建 座 椅。 1. 空間關係 a. 門的方向、位 置、以及與其 他設施的距離 b. 座 椅 的 方 向 (前面、後面) c. 座椅的位置和 方向,座椅之 間的距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 選擇並安排建 構戲院的空間 b. 舞臺、舞臺旁 樓梯和座椅的 空間分佈 c. 舞臺、舞臺旁 樓梯和座椅的 建構方法 162 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 (空間概念 的認知) 活 動 六 1. 門的位置 在哪裡? 2. 從門的位 置可以看 到什麼? 3. 如何搭建 門? 1. 參照設計圖,選用適切形狀 和數量的積木搭建門,有幼 兒認為門的位置在座椅後面 2. 有幼兒認為門應該設於座椅 旁邊的位置 3. 有幼兒認為門的位置在座椅 和舞臺之間 4. 再次參看設計圖及觀察真實 座椅後,幼兒指出從門的位 置可以看到椅背 5. 幼兒決定將門設於座椅後面 1. 前面、後 面、旁邊 的空間概 念。 2. 二維平面 圖轉換為 三維立體 積 木 建 築。 3. 從門的角 度看戲院 內部的空 間結構。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞臺的位置 b. 舞臺旁樓梯 的方向,舞 臺旁樓梯與 舞臺的距離 c. 座椅的位置 和方向,座 椅之間的距 離 2. 空間利用方 式 a. 門的建構方 法,調適門 柱間距的方 法 b. 組織、安排 門與戲院其 他部分的位 置 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 163教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 ( 空 間 概 念 的 認知) 活 動 七 1. 真實戲院門 的位置在哪 裡? 2. 真實戲院的 樓梯是如何 分佈的? 1. 從門的位置觀察 座椅和樓梯。 2. 從門的位置觀察 舞臺。 3. 嘗試觀察和行走 不 同 位 置 的 樓 梯。 4. 從 座 椅 之 間 穿 行。 1. 空 間 概 念: 門 前 面、 座 椅 後 面( 椅 背 )、 座 椅 旁 邊、 舞 臺 旁 邊、 舞 臺 前 面、 座 椅 之間。 2. 幼 兒 觀 察 到 從 門 的 位 置 可 以 看 到 座 椅 的 椅 背, 同 時 有 條 樓 梯 直 通 舞 臺。 3. 從 門 的 位 置 至 舞 臺 之 間 有 條 樓 梯。 座 椅 兩 旁 各 有 一 條 樓 梯。 4. 樓 梯 有 一 級 比 一 級 高 的 特點。 5. 舞 臺 兩 旁 各 有 一 條 樓 梯, 每 條 樓 梯 都 有 四 級 階梯。 6. 座 椅 之 間 有 空 間 可 以 穿 行。 1. 空間關係 a. 從 門 的 角 度 看 座 椅、 舞 臺、 樓 梯 的 方向及位置 b. 戲 院 各 部 分 之間的距離 2. 空 間 利 用 方 式 a. 戲 院 不 同 部 分 的 組 織、 安排方式 164 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 ( 空 間 概 念 的 認 知) 活 動 八 1. 在參觀戲 院之後, 如何用積 木搭建出 更符合真 實戲院的 模型? 2. 舞臺兩邊 的樓梯是 怎樣的? 1. 第一種樓梯搭 建方案 2. 第二種樓梯搭 建方案 1. 透過加高基底來 縱 向 加 高 積 木 模型。 2. 橫向擴展積木模 型, 形 成 左 右 對稱。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞 臺 旁 樓 梯 的 方向 2. 空間利用方式 a. 舞 臺 旁 樓 梯 的 組 織、 建 構 方 法( 方 形 或 長 條形) 活 動 九 1. 舞臺的高 度是怎樣 的? 2. 舞臺的形 狀是怎樣 的? 3. 如何將舞 臺調整為 長方形? 4. 如何將舞 臺與樓梯 拼接? 1. 加高舞臺,平 衡舞臺和樓梯 的高度 2. 幼兒調整積木 形狀和位置, 使舞臺成為一 個長方形 3. 將兩種不同形 態的樓梯與舞 臺拼接 1. 增加舞臺積木層 數, 縱 向 提 升 舞臺的高度。 2. 舞臺的形狀為長 方 形, 且 左 右 對稱。 3. 樓梯的高度與舞 臺的高度一樣, 舞 臺 兩 邊 的 樓 梯等高。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞 臺 的 方 向, 以 及 與 地 面 的 距離 b. 舞 臺 旁 樓 梯 的 位 置 和 方 向, 以 及 與 舞 臺 的 距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 組 織 安 排 樓 梯 與 舞 臺 之 間 的 位置關係 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 165教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 ( 空 間 概 念 的認知) 活 動 十 1. 舞臺兩邊 的樓梯是 一 樣 的 嗎? 2. 如何將兩 邊樓梯變 得一樣? 3. 舞臺前面 的座椅如 何排列? 4. 舞臺前面 有多少排 座椅? 1. 選擇一種樓梯 搭建方案,重 新搭建拆除的 一邊樓梯。 2. 搭建舞臺前方 的座椅部分 1. 樓梯的高度 和 大 小 須 配 合 舞 臺 的 高 度 和 大小。 2. 座椅以「一 排 排 」 的 形式排列。 3. 座椅位於舞 臺前方。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞臺旁樓梯的位置和 方向,以及與地面的 距離 b. 座椅的位置、方向, 以及與舞臺的距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 建構舞臺旁樓梯 b. 安排座椅的數量 c. 組織並建構座椅的位 置 活 動 十 一 1. 座椅之間 有 空 間 嗎? 2. 如何排列 座椅? 3. 樓梯的位 置 在 哪 裡? 1. 調整座椅之間 的空間。 2. 調 整 座 椅 位 置,使之分為 兩個區域 3. 於兩個座椅區 域之間搭建樓 梯 1. 座椅之間有 可 供 穿 行 的空間。 2. 座椅之間有 樓梯穿過。 3. 樓梯呈長條 形排列。 1. 空間關係 a. 座椅之間的距離 b. 座椅與地面之間的距 離 c. 座椅間樓梯的方向和 位置 d. 座椅間樓梯與座椅和 地面的距離 e. 座椅間樓梯頂部與地 面的距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 組織安排座椅的分佈 形式 b. 安排不同區域座椅之 間的距離 c. 建構座椅間樓梯的方 法 d. 座椅間樓梯的頂部位 置出現懸崖式結構, 如何建構才能使「觀 眾」順利進場? 166 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 ( 空 間 概 念 的 認 知) 活 動 十 二 1. 座椅應該 建多高? 2. 如何調整 進入戲院 的樓梯? 1. 增加座椅高度。 2. 調整樓梯外形。 3. 利用公仔模擬進 入戲院看戲。 1. 座椅間樓梯的不 同 梯 級 對 應 不 同行的座椅。 2. 從底部向上搭建 樓梯。 3. 模 擬 看 戲 過 程 中,依據公仔的 寬度和高度,調 整 門 的 寬 度 和 高度。 1. 空間關係 a. 座椅間樓梯各 梯 級 與 座 椅 的距離 b. 門的位置 c. 門的橫向距離 與縱向距離 d. 座椅間樓梯頂 部 與 地 面 的 距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 組織建構座椅 間樓梯 b. 安排座椅間樓 梯的數量 c. 組織建構門的 高度和寬度 在空間概念的評量與分析方面,主要使用「幼兒園教育質量評價手 冊 - 工具七 - 幼兒發展評測 - 測查圖卡」來瞭解幼兒二維及三維空間概 念的認知狀況。其中,對二維空間的認知測查是透過讓幼兒通過指認圖 片來回答有關空間概念的 17 道問題,對三維空間的認知測查是讓幼兒 透過身體動作來做出有關空間概念的回答,共 11 道問題(劉佔蘭等, 2011)。在計分方法上,幼兒回答正確得 1 分,回答錯誤得 0 分,二維 空間的認知總分為 17 分,三維空間的認知總分為 11 分。最後,再依據 幼兒的最終得分,統計分析幼兒空間概念的認知水準、幼兒空間概念認 知的性別差異、幼兒空間概念認知的年齡差異。具體結果及分析如下: 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 167教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 圖一 幼兒空間概念的認知水準 由圖二可見,透過積木主題建構活動,幼兒對二維空間中以物為參照 的靜態空間之認知水準由 86.7% 提升至 90%,對三維空間中以物為參 照的靜態空間之認知水準由 84.4% 提升至 85.56%,對以自我為參照 的動態空間由 73.3% 提升至 80%,對以他人為參照的動態空間之認知 水準由 63.3% 提升至 86.67%。 圖二 幼兒空間概念的認知水準(細項) 1. 幼兒空間概念認知水準 由圖一可見,在積木主題建構活動開展前後,幼兒對二維空間概念的 認知正確率由 80.78% 提升至 81.96%,對三維空間概念的認知正確率 由 77.57% 提升至 84.24%。對三維空間概念的認知正確率提升程度略 大於對二維空間概念的認知正確率提升程度。 168 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 2. 幼兒空間概念認知的性別差異 由圖三可見,在積木主題建構活動開展之前,男生和女生對二維空間 概念的認知水準並無明顯差異,男生對三維空間概念的認知水準為 77.3%,女生對三維空間概念的認知水準為 76.1%,男生對三維空間 概念的認知水準略高於女生。在積木主題建構活動開展之後,男生對 二維空間概念的認知水準為 82.35%,女生對三維空間概念的認知水 準為 81.61%,男生對二維空間概念的認知水準略高於女生,而男生 和女生對三維空間概念的認知水準並無明顯差異。 圖三 幼兒空間概念認知的性別差異 3. 幼兒空間概念認知的年齡差異 由圖四可見,積木主題建構活動開展之前及之後,幼兒空間概念認知 水準隨月齡的增長基本呈上升趨勢。 圖四 幼兒空間概念認知的年齡差異 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 169教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 結論與建議 綜合上述,本研究結果表明教師能在教學中利用積木作為教具,並 因應幼兒的學習興趣與幼兒共同訂定建構主題,透過「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式進行主題建構活動。在鷹架教學下,積木主題 建構活動的進行有助於提升幼兒在二維空間和三維空間認知上的表現, 且男生和女生對二維及三維空間概念的認知水準並無明顯差異,幼兒空 間概念認知水準隨年齡的增長基本呈上升趨勢。於本研究過程中,幼兒 對空間概念主要產生以下迷思:1. 空間內物體的位置;2. 空間內物體的 方向;3. 空間內物體之間的距離;4. 利用空間安排、組織或建構物體位 置、方向或距離的方式。就此結果,可供教師在同類型教學和評估中作 參考資料,藉以提升教學質素。 有部分因素會對研究結果產生影響,若再進行深入探究,可將以下 建議作為借鑒。其中,由於本研究僅取用一個班級(15 人)作為樣本, 因此建議在多個班級或不同幼稚園開展研究。一方面可擴大樣本,減少 因不足所造成的差異性影響,另一方面可獲得更多數據,繼而對研究結 果的差異性再進行深入分析。另外,由於本研究課室空間和地理位置限 制,在教學過程中幼兒僅能圍坐一邊,造成部分幼兒視線阻礙,因此建 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K., & Nesmith, J. (1996). Blockbusters: Ideas for the block center . Early Childhood Education Journal, 24, 87–92. Andrews, A. G. (1999). Solving geometric problems by using unit blocks. Teaching Children Mathematics , 5(6), 318-323. Casey, B., Bobb, B., Sarama, J., & Clements, D. ( 2003). The power of block building. Teaching Children Mathematics, 10 (2), 98-102. Charlotte & Milton Brody ( 2008). The block Book . Published by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. C l e m e n t s , D . H . , S a r a m a , J . , & D i B i a s e , A . ( 2 0 0 2 ) . P r e s c h o o l a n d Kindergarten Mathematics: A National Conference. Teaching Children Mathematics , 8(9), 510-515. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind . New York: Basic Book Inc. Johnson, H. M. (1996). The art of block building. In E. S. Hirsch (Ed.), The block book (3rd ed.)(pp.9-25). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Leeb-Lundberg, K. (1996). 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Early Childhood Today , 20(6), 25-30. 172 教育研究獎勵計劃 香港教師中心教育研究小組於 2001 年開始推行教育研究獎勵 計劃(獎勵計劃),目的在於鼓勵和支持前線教師進行教學行動 研究及教育研究,加強自我反思能力和創造力。獎勵計劃既鼓勵 中、小學教師積極研究外,更希望幼兒教育的教師主動參與,推 動幼兒教育。 為鼓勵更多教師進行行動研究,獎勵計劃鼓勵教師自定研究 主題,成功申請並在指定時間內完成的研究計劃,經教育研究小 組審批研究報告,可獲獎勵金以資鼓勵。此外,獲教育研究小組 選為優秀的作品,將輯錄於《教育研究報告匯編》,作為教育界 同工的交流與分享之用。 有關研究獎勵計劃的詳情,教師可參閱香港教師中心網頁 (http://www.edb.gov.hk/hktc),或致電 3698 3698 向本中心職員查 詢。 173 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 (2016-2018 年度) 教育研究小組 召集人 : 李少鶴先生 小組成員: 張佩姍女士 張慧真博士 方耀輝先生 劉餘權先生 梁永鴻博士 盧巧藍女士 彭耀鈞先生 潘步釗博士 鄧怡勳博士 曾偉漢先生 楊沛銘博士 174 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 (2014-2016 年度) 教育研究小組 召集人 : 楊沛銘博士 小組成員: 張佩姍女士 張慧真博士 趙淑媚博士 賴炳華先生 劉餘權先生 李少鶴先生 李宏峯先生(2014 年 4 月 1 日至 2015 年 8 月 31 日) 梁永鴻博士 曾偉漢先生 徐國棟博士 徐慧旋女士 黃金耀博士 175 編輯委員會 主編: 楊沛銘博士 委員: 張佩姍女士 劉餘權先生 鄧怡勳博士 曾偉漢先生 胡少偉博士
Category: Documents教育研究報告匯編 教育研究獎勵計劃 17/18 香港教師中心 地址: 九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 電話: 3698 3698 傳真: 2565 0741 電郵: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址: www.edb.gov.hk/hktc 香港教師中心 教 育 研 究 報 告 匯 編 教 育 研 究 獎 勵 計 劃17/18 香 港 教 師 中 心 香港中文大學教育學院校友會 3 目錄 編者的話 5 中學 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing ............ 6 Gertrude Simon Lutheran College Chan Yiu Fai Fred, Chan Ka Man Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? ....................... 23 HKUGA College Yu Ka Kit Steven 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 .................. 55 東華三院郭一葦中學 黃家慧 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 .......81 路德會西門英才中學 周志聰、何家豪、翁志明 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 ......... 95 聖公會聖馬利亞堂莫慶堯中學 陳志堅、蔡仁桂、莊繞蔓、曾笥湲、蔡淑榕 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式” 課題教學的成效探究) .......................................... 119 順德聯誼總會翁祐中學 阮啟崙、楊明揚、孫福濤、黃俊邦 小學 Pied Pipers: A Gamified Non-formal Curriculum Design Intended To Enhance Student Learning Motivation for the Recorder ................... 141 Po Leung Kuk Hong Kong Taoist Association Yuen Yuen Primary School Li Yun Xuan Merak 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 .......... 159 沙田崇真學校 劉佩義、易理斯 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 ..............175 青松侯寶垣小學 麥桂英、徐智強、黃錦杏、戴英傑 劉珈瑗、何諾衡、何澤華 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 ............................... 209 仁德天主教小學 林偉倫 4 幼稚園 透過體驗及操作式教學,提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 ............... 221 保良局瀝源幼稚園暨幼兒園 溫志倫、陸矜兒、韓詠恩 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 ........................ 255 鳳溪幼稚園 李杰雯、嚴淑霞、劉嘉敏、江佩珊 香港教育大學 何志恆 特殊學校 教師專業發展:探討溝通 (C)、關係 (R) 及結構 (S) 的教學策略對 不同能力之中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 ................... 279 明愛樂進學校 李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲 5 教育研究報告匯編 編者的話 編者的話 香港教師中心教育研究小組收到參與「教育研究獎勵計劃 2017/18」的研究報告超 過二十篇。編輯委員會從中選出十三篇刊登於《教育研究報告匯編》。本年度的研究範 圍相當廣泛,包括翻轉教室、電子學習、自主學習、創意教學、有效教學策略等與最近 課程與教學發展相關的課題。 整體來說,參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題,先進行文獻探究,再提 出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分析,再作出結論和建議,最後以 系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來。研究報告反映他們在文獻比較和數據分析方面,都 有相當深入和精闢的見解,對學生的學習問題,以及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的 討論,並提出具體可行的建議。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與「教育研究獎勵計劃」的同工,在有限的時間及經驗 下,仍然全力以赴,成功完成整項研究計劃。他們為提升教育質素所付出的努力,值得 讚賞。我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品,均能夠為課堂學習提供實際而深入的分析基礎,並 闡釋當中行之有效的方法。讀者可以多參考研究報告的建議,應用在日常教學工作,進 一步優化教學的效能。我們更希望這些報告能啟發同工就相關的課題,展開更多、更全 面的研究。本人亦謹此向《教育研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致意,感謝他們在百忙中抽 空審閱各篇研究報告。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持,本小組定能持續推動教育研究,鼓勵教師進 行更深入和持續性的教育研究,不斷提升教學效能和質素。他山之石,可以攻玉。期望 各位讀者對《教育研究報告匯編》內的文章提出意見,相互交流,集思廣益。 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 2019 年 11 月 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 6 教育研究報告匯編 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing Chan Yiu Fai Fred, Chan Ka Man Gertrude Simon Lutheran College Abstract With writing proficiency viewed as an important aspect of language instruction for teachers, there is increasing interest in how instruction could be improved to better accommodate the needs of multilingual learners. Procure is a method of teaching writing without paying attention to grammatical errors. Instead, teachers using this approach encourage students to write as much as possible. To evaluate how the Procure approach could motivate students to express more comprehensively in writing, a systematic action research study was conducted on innovations in English- as-a-foreign-language writing instruction in a Hong Kong secondary school. Positive empirical evidence was found in support of the following hypotheses: (1) the Procure approach is useful in helping students express their own ideas; (2) students' motivation in learning English is enhanced by the Procure approach; (3) instant and meaningful feedback on composition is made possible after following the Procure approach in writing lessons; and (4) students' critical thinking ability can be promoted by putting less emphasis on grammatical mistakes. This definitely encourages students to write more. By trial and error, they can finally write better. Introduction In an interview for a summer job of a bank, two candidates shared their views according to the questions asked. Candidate A, from an international school, made multiple grammatical mistakes in his sharing, but he contributed a number of ideas. Candidate B, who is from a local band one school, made no grammatical mistakes in his presentation but contributed nothing impressive in the discussion since he did not dare to make even an error. At the end, A won the job and B lost. What is the reason behind? Coverage! Some students with a satisfactory mastery of English may become highly anxious when they try to express themselves orally without making Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 7 教育研究報告匯編 mistakes. However, why does not candidate B have the same level of self-confidence as candidate A? Procure can give the answer in this situation. Learning a second language (L2) is never an easy task for most of the students in Hong Kong. Conveying meaning and expressing ideas fluently in the second language could be very challenging in the first place. A significant proportion of DSE candidates in fact have found it difficult to handle writing tasks according to content and language requirements. What Leki et al. (2008) took up in their synthesis was to identify the variables involved and find out their impact on writing performance in a second language. These inter-related variables are related to the characteristics of (a) second language writers, (b) their writing processes, and (c) the writing quality required. Generating enough creative ideas and expressing them in grammatically correct sentences within a short time can be very challenging. Students at lower language competency levels can only write with a limited numbers of words and a narrow range of ideas. There is always a discrepancy in expectation between teachers and students. Teachers tend to blame students on the lack of length and ideas, while students often argue that they have ideas but cannot express them enough. If this problem persists, harmony in the classroom as well as learning efficiency and efficacy can be harmed. The Procure strategy, which can take care of both process and product at the same time, is often adopted to facilitate the development of writing ability as a whole. For process writing, teachers usually give more guidance on the discovery and formulation of ideas via social discourse. Product writing focusses more on the development of linguistic ability. The Procure is a strategy designed to reap the benefits of both approaches in enhancing writing motivation at the beginning stage and facilitating the improvement of linguistic ability at the second. Students are hereby encouraged to express and expand their ideas at the first stage and refine their grammar at the second in the hope that their writing work can be substantially improved in terms of the content given and language competency. Good writing ability is important for students to further their study. A significant amount of work has focused on academic genres, particularly on generic structure and features in this connection. Research findings show that the structural and textual features of genres vary both within and across academic disciplines, and that such variations have embodied different social relationships between the reader and the writer as well as different values and beliefs underlying discursive practices in various discourse communities (Chang & Swales, 1999; Conrad, 1996; Hyland, 1997; Hyland, 1999a; Hyland, 1999b). For a long time, teachers have found it difficult to motivate students to write longer pieces of work and express more ideas in assignments. As a Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 8 教育研究報告匯編 result, attempts to promote second language acquisition often end in failure. Procure can be one of the possible solutions to this problem. Literature Review Self-expression is an important element in second language acquisition. Dai (2010) reported about a creative writing course for university sophomores, which incorporated methods widely adopted in the West (such as writing workshops). Students were encouraged to write about things that interested them and in ways that facilitated their self-expression. The course was found to be effective in promoting critical thinking skills because writing was no longer presented as a tool for language learning but also a creative enterprise for students to explore the various aspects of their lives. Unfortunately, grammatical mistakes can undermine students’ interest and motivation to write. Teachers need to find a way to encourage them to write more. Conceptualising writing tasks \"as a social/cognitive act of entering a discourse emphasizes both the problem-solving effort of a student learning to negotiate a new situation and the role the situation will play in what is learned” (Flower, 1990, p. 222). The view that writing is typically a socially situated, communicative act is later incorporated into Flower’s (1994) socio-cognitive theory of writing. In a social cognitive curriculum, students are taught as apprentices in negotiating an academic community and developing a mastery of strategic knowledge. Writing skills are acquired and used through negotiated interaction with real audience expectations, such as in peer group responses. Instruction should, then, afford students the opportunity to participate in transactions with their own words and the writings of others (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). By concentrating on the conscious awareness of how people will interpret their work, students are encouraged to write with a greater sensitivity to readability (Kern, 2000). Valuable insights from research in second language acquisition and writing development can assist in developing instructional techniques that seek to link the two processes -- acquiring a second language and developing writing skills, especially for academic purposes. Both Flower (1994) and Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) have stressed the benefits of process approaches to writing instruction and the need for more knowledge-transforming tasks. Taking the concept of “knowledge transformation” further, Wells (2000, p. 77) argues that writing approached in this way can also be seen as an opportunity for knowledge building, “as the writer both tries to anticipate the likely response of the envisaged audience and carries on a dialogue with the text being composed”. However, if students have not developed learning strategies to monitor their writing errors, and if they cannot receive enough conceptual feedback at the Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 9 教育研究報告匯編 discourse level, the positive effects of instruction may backfire. Approaches that can be used effectively in second language classrooms show us what is at stake for instructors and students alike. Focussing on error correction could be highly desirable, but problematic. In addition, there are many contradictory findings in the literature. The initial impulse for many teachers when reading L2 students' work is to edit it, that is, focus on the structural aspects so that the writing can better resembles target language discourse. Teachers can correct errors; code errors; locate errors, and indicate the number of errors. To its benefit, attention to errors “provides the negative evidence students often need to reject or modify their hypotheses about how the target language is formed or functions” (Larsen-Freeman, 1991, p. 293). However, if this focus on error becomes the totality of the response, then language discourse, and text are equated with structure. It is then assumed that the instructor has the authority to change the student’s text and correct it (Rodby, 1992). In addition, some feel it may not be worth the time and effort to provide detailed feedback on sentence-level grammar and syntax, since improvement can be gained by writing practice alone (Robb, Ross, & Shortreed, 1986). Practice alone may improve fluency, but if errors are not pointed out and corrected, they can become ingrained or fossilised in writing as mentioned earlier. Researchers into learning English as the first language (L1) are often in favour of or focussing on conception and organisation, and not on mechanical errors, except for a “note reminding the student that the final copy needs to be edited” (White, 1994, p. 109). However, survey reports about L2 have indicated that students both attend to and appreciate their teachers’ comments on grammar problems (Brice, 1995; Cohen, 1987; Ferris, 1995, 1997; Leki, 1991; Radecki & Swales, 1988). In support of this claim, Fathman and Whalley (1990) concluded from their research on feedback and revision in an ESL context, that grammar and content feedback, whether given separately or together, has a positive effect on rewriting. However, grammatical feedback often has more effects on error correction than content feedback has on the improvement of content. Grammatical and rhetorical feedback should thus be attentive to the writers’ level of proficiency and degree of readiness (Ferris, 1995, Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1996; Lee, 1997; Leki, 1991). Overly detailed responses may overwhelm L2 writers and discourage substantive revision, whereas minimal feedback may result in only surface modifications to the text. Furthermore, learners may be uncertain about what to do with various suggestions and how to incorporate them into their own revision processes. More research on the effectiveness of responses on the revision of writing should be examined. Recently, the role of teachers as the key to the success of language learning is increasingly recognised by both Chinese education administrators and teachers Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 10 教育研究報告匯編 themselves. Motivated by this recognition, there is a surge in the amount of research into Chinese writing teachers surges for the purpose of improving their professional practices. Findings obtained by Lee (2010, 2011b) suggested that professional practices could be developed through teacher education, which was previously perceived by many as making little difference to the quality of teaching. The positive impact of teacher education include changes to teachers' beliefs (Yang & Gao, 2013) of their existing practices, the development of professional knowledge and skills, as well as the enhancement of readiness for teaching students how to write better (Lee, 2011b; Lee, 2013). Educators also need to be mindful of pedagogical policies or practices that can impact negatively on learning opportunities (e.g., teachers’ excessive error correction), to evaluate the affordances for second language writing development and assessment provided by new technologies and multimedia, and to determine whether and how abilities taught in writing courses for language learners actually transfer to writing practices in other contexts (James, 2009). For instructional practices, teachers should foster students’ writing through assigning extensive writing tasks, as well as purposeful, judicious responses to students' work (Hyland & Hyland, 2006), through extensive reading and vocabulary development in the second language (Albrechtsen, Haastrup, & Henriksen, 2008). They can do so by modelling relevant text types and discourse interactions (Schleppegrell & Colombi, 2002; Hyland, 2004), enhancing students’ self- control over their composing and learning processes (Cumming, 2006), and organising curricula and assessments that are appropriate to learners’ abilities, purposes, and interests (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). Montgomery and Baker (2007) further pointed out that students tended to value their teachers’ comments and feedback a lot and regard them as effective medicine for improvement. Feedback is commonly found in writing assignments. Both teachers and students believe that feedback provides opportunities for students to improve their writing (Montgomery and Baker, 2007). No matter whether teachers are using direct feedback or indirect feedback, these two methods do focus on how to improve students’ writing quality. Chandler (2003) was concerned with the length of time it takes for teachers to provide different kinds of written feedback: correction, underline, describe and outline. Obviously, to give detailed feedback whether directly or otherwise can cost a lot of marking time. Providing written feedback to students can be very stressful for teachers because they are afraid of destroying students’ confidence by giving negative comments. If students feel that their teacher likes their essay, they will gain more confidence and make more effort in future. If they feel that their teacher does not like their essay, however, they may develop negative attitudes which will affect the rest of Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 11 教育研究報告匯編 their assignments. Therefore, when teachers provide written feedback to their students, it is important that they point out the positive features as well as the errors. Research Design Action Research was conducted in a Form 5 classroom to see if ‘Procure’ does mean ‘acquire’ in reality. 'Procure' is a kind of writing strategy that could help students improve their performance in English writing by encouraging them to write more without paying much attention to grammatical errors. Action research can be initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a \"community of practice\" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Learning writing should be a continual process and the amount of inputs from teachers should be accumulative. In the present study, the strategy was to divide a writing task into 2 stages. At the first stage, students were assigned to groups and discussed the topic with the classmates. After exchanging ideas among their peers, students were asked to produce that piece of writing according to the required format and the ideas that they had gained in their discussion. The teacher then collected their work and gave credits to relevant ideas expressed in the writing piece. Some irrelevant ideas would be pinpointed and feedback was given in relation to the content. Before proceeding to the next stage, the teacher jotted notes on the common grammar mistakes in students’ work. At the second stage of the Procure writing strategy, students received their marked writing pieces and the teacher gave general feedback on the content of the writing. Their attention was then drawn to some of the more common mistakes that appeared and how to correct the related grammar structures. At last, students were asked to produce the second piece of writing based on the feedback on the first writing and the instructions given by their teacher. The number of words and range of ideas in a passage of the same genre were counted and compared with the works in the first semester. A questionnaire was given to students about the changes in learning attitudes. This was followed up by interviews with students at different levels of English proficiency. A focus group was selected for this purpose to have an in-depth understanding of the effectiveness of recasting. Collection of Data A class of 32 students participated in the research without knowing about the research setting in advance. The questionnaire based on 5-point Likert scale items was given out to test for the change in their attitude towards the learning of English. The focus group interview was then conducted to get more in-depth understanding about Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 12 教育研究報告匯編 the students’ views on the use of the 'Procure' approach in writing lessons. Three boys and three girls were randomly selected from the class to participate in the interview in order to avoid gender bias. Analysis of Data The 5-point Likert scale items used‘5’ to indicate ‘strongly agree’ and ‘1’ to indicate ‘strongly disagree’. Ten questions were included in the questionnaire to ask how the use of procure in writing lesson has affected the attitude of students towards learning English. In general, students agreed that the Procure could increase their motivation to express their ideas in writing. The mean values for the questions of ‘I am more willing to submit the writing assignment.’ and ‘I am more eager to express my views on issues mentioned in the question.’ were 4.03 and 3.07 respectively. These show that the approach had helped students build up their confidence in expressing their ideas. Scale Number 5 7 4 10 3 13 2 2 1 0 Table 1: Students are more willing to submit the writing assignment in English. The average for the question of 'I am more willing to submit the writing assignment' is 4.03 out of 5. Procure can increase the level of satisfaction of students in attending English lessons. The mean values for the questions of ‘I find the writing lessons more enjoyable.’ and ‘I find that learning English is easier than before’ are ‘3.97’ and ‘4.03’ respectively. These showed that Procure can offer students more pleasurable experience in learning English. Meanwhile, Procure can facilitate the feedback more effectively. The mean value for the question of ‘I find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to me.’ is 4.09. This proves that the students are in general satisfied with instant feedback from teachers. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 13 教育研究報告匯編 Scale Number 5 14 4 8 3 9 2 1 1 0 Table 2: Students find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to them. The average for the question of 'I find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to me.' is 4.09 out of 5. Procure could help students develop the ability to solve problems and generate new ideas to tackle issues encountered. The mean values for the questions of ‘I find that my ability to think about ideas has been enhanced.’ is ‘4.09’. This shows that the students became more confident in providing solutions to the problems instead to avoiding them. Scale Number 5 12 4 12 3 7 2 1 1 0 Table 3: Students find their ability to think about ideas has been enhanced. The average for the question of 'I find that my ability to think about ideas has been enhanced.' is 4.09 out of 5. Most importantly, Procure did provide incentives to students to master a second language more effectively. The mean values for the questions of ‘I find that learning grammar is more important.’ and ‘I spent more time on reading books and newspapers Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 14 教育研究報告匯編 Scale Number 5 13 4 11 3 7 2 1 1 0 Table 4: Students reported that they would spend more time on reading books and newspapers in English. The average for the question of 'I spent more time on reading books and newspapers to develop my own ideas in English.' is 4.12 out of 5. Discussion Students became more motivated to express their own ideas. Since teachers always pinpointed their grammatical errors and thereby reduce incentives to share their views, students were more passive when writing. As a result, the length of writings was so short that teachers could not find out concretely what students' ideas were. By using Procure, however, greater attention was paid to the sharing of ideas. Students were now more used to expressing their views on issues of personal interest. Their grammatical mistakes were scaled down at the preliminary stage. This would definitely encourage students to write in greater length and convey their messages more freely. Students became more eager to find the meanings of words and phrases and express their ideas since they were now less anxious about making grammatical mistakes. In order to express their views, they will focus on finding new words and phrases. As a result, they were more eager to look up words and phrases from the dictionary. They would indirectly enhance their word power and increase their vocabulary bank so that their language proficiency could be strengthened gradually. This contributes to the increase in self-confidence in using English. to develop my own ideas in English.’ are 4.06 and 4.12 respectively. This proves that students had not put lesser emphasis on grammar and reading. Instead, they had spent more time on reading and better understood that learning grammar was undoubtedly important when they wanted to elaborate on their ideas. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 15 教育研究報告匯編 More effective and efficient assessment methods can be introduced. Marking compositions is demanding for teachers since they have to put diverse focuses on students’ content, language and organisation. It takes a long time for marking assignments. Students need to wait for a long period of time before they can get back their assignment. Unfortunately, they might forget what they had written since they had many different kinds of assignment to do. As a result, the effectiveness and efficiency of teacher’s written feedback are undermined. By using Procure, teachers need not focus on language usage but the content and organisation of composition. The time spent on marking is reduced. Instant feedback is now possible. More assignments can be given to students to promote the habit of writing. Teachers’ workload is greatly reduced but the learning outcomes can be enhanced. Students’ errors can be meaningful resources for teaching grammar. Their writings provide abundant resources of common errors for others to learn and improve grammar usage. In the past, students tended to write as little as possible in order to avoid making mistakes. Teachers could hardly find out the critical weaknesses of students since these were hidden. However, students are now more willing to express their own ideas. Longer passages are produced and more mistakes can be found from their writings. Teachers could easily collect the data about what the weaknesses of students were. Such information will provide valuable resources for the formulation of teaching strategies to help students improve their language ability accordingly. Conclusion and suggestions As a result of the advancement in information technology, knowledge is easily accessible and skills become more readily obtainable. The teacher’s role has changed from information provider to learning facilitator. The key to success of teaching and learning is the motivation of students to learn and acquire new knowledge. If teachers can give enough incentive for students to express themselves, their eagerness to learn will be enhanced. As a result, the learning outcome will become more fruitful. In the context of second language acquisition, students face dual challenges in terms of grammar and content. It is not easy for them to overcome these two challenges at the same time. Many L2 students lost confidence in language learning since they were given many crosses to indicate how many mistakes they had made. Finally, they dared not express their ideas and the whole process of second language acquisition ended in failure. In order to solve the problem, the teacher needs to find ways to help students build up their confidence to overcome the anxiety. For the dual challenges, it is better for L2 students to deal with content first since this can provide resources to tackle the grammar problems. Learning grammar is important, but the Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 16 教育研究報告匯編 rules are better learnt in context. Without the contribution of students, grammar teaching is not easy. By using Procure, students became more motivated to learn and write a longer piece of work so that teachers could have resources in designing their teaching strategies. When students want to express their ideas, they will find ways to do so. Learning grammar can be quite self-regulated. Feedback is of utmost importance to students in the writing process. Without individual attention and sufficient feedback on errors, improvement may simply not take place. We must accept the fact that L2 writing contains errors. It is our responsibility to help learners develop strategies for self-correction and regulation. Indeed, L2 writers require and expect specific overt feedback from teachers not only on content, but also on the form and structure of writing. If feedback is not part of the instructional process, then students will be disadvantaged in improving both writing and language skills. In order to learn more about L2 writers’ use of language in the process of writing, we need to apply to L2 writing the research methods utilised in exploring the composing process in L1 writing, such as think-aloud protocols. We also need to understand how students compose in both their native languages and in English to understand more about their learning strategies (especially in monitoring errors), the role of translation, and transfer of skills. Certainly, ethnographic research in L2 writing that examines the writing process, along with the acquisition of communicative competence, will help to create a more comprehensive theory of L2 writing. References Albrechtsen, D., Haastrup, K., & Henriksen, B. (2008). Vocabulary and writing in first and second languages: Processes and development. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brice, C. (1995). ESL writers’ reactions to teacher commentary: A case study. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 394 312). Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12(3), 267-296. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 17 教育研究報告匯編 Chang, Y. Y. & Swales, J. (1999). 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Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 330-345. Leki, I. (1990). Coaching from the margins: Issues in written response. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom (pp. 57-67). New York: Cambridge University Press. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 19 教育研究報告匯編 Leki, I. (1991). The preferences of ESL students for error correction in college-level writing classes. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 203-217. Leki, I. (1993). Twenty-five years of contrastive rhetoric: Text analysis and writing pedagogies. In S. Silberstein (Ed.), State of the art TESOL essays (pp. 350-370). Virginia: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Leki, I. (1997). Cross-talk: ESL issues and contrastive rhetoric. In C. Severino, J. Guerra, and J. Butler (Eds.), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 234-244). New York: Modern Language Association of America. Leki, I., Cumming, A., & Silva, T. (2008). 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(2002). Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Wells, G. (2000). Dialogic inquiry in education: Building on the legacy of Vygotsky. In C. Lee & P. Smagorinsky (Eds.), Vygotskian perspectives on literary research (pp. 51- 85). New York: Cambridge University Press. White, E. (1994). Teaching and assessing writing. (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers. Yang, L., & Gao, S. (2013). Beliefs and practices of Chinese university teachers in EFL writing instruction. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 26(2), 128-145. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 20 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 1 Student Questionnaire 1. I am more encouraged to express myself in the writings. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 2. I am more willing to submit the writing assignment. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 3. I am more eager to express my views on issues mentioned in the question. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 4. I am more willing to look up the meaning of words and phrases from the dictionary. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 5. I find the writing lessons more enjoyable. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 6. I find that learning English is easier than before. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 21 教育研究報告匯編 7. I find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to me. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 8. I find that learning grammar is more important. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 9. I find that my ability to think about ideas has been enhanced. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 10. I spent more time on reading books and newspapers to develop my own ideas in English. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 22 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 2 Focus Group Interview Questions 1. When you think about writing, what is the first thing that comes to mind? 2. What are the obstacles in learning English? 3. Can you notice the changes in marking style of teachers in recent assignments? If yes, what are they? Please give me example(s). 4. Did you spend more time on developing your own ideas in writing assignments in the second semester? 5. Can you notice the changes in your performance in recent assignments? If yes, what are they? Please give me example(s). 23 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? Yu Ka Kit Steven HKUGA College Abstract This quasi-experimental study investigates whether instruction at the submicroscopic level supports students’ understanding of the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level under the contexts of translocation and dissolution. Two instructional groups in a secondary school in Hong Kong (aged 12/13, n = 26 and n= 29) were taught with one of the two interventional focuses. One group associated with particle ideas learnt about the explanation for the contexts of mass conservation. The other group involved students in practical work without reference to the particle ideas. Data were collected by means of pre- and post- assessments using a diagnostic instrument called the Conservation of Mass Test (CMT). Results suggest that understanding about mass conservation was comparable between the two instructional groups. Implications for the junior secondary science curriculum are discussed. Introduction The conduct of the current study is motivated by the recently revised junior science curriculum in Hong Kong (CDC, 2017) on the one hand and the scarcity of comparisons about teaching interventions in the literature for improving conceptual understanding about the conversation of mass at the macro level on the other. A number of learning objectives have been delineated in the revised curriculum. For example, students should be able to recognise that mass is conserved when a solute is dissolved. The suggested learning and teaching activity is the measurement of the change in volume and mass when a small amount of table salt is stirred in water. Students are expected to understand the conservation of mass of the solution despite its contraction in volume, as well as a similar experimental result in a translocation 24 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 process when alcohol is mixed with water, although the conservation of mass in this context has not been clearly stated in the curriculum. Literature review Literature in science education has consistently indicated that developing a conceptual understanding about the conservation of mass is challenging to secondary school students from intuitive to counter-intuitive scenarios in different types of context and educational background (Driver, 1985; Stavy, 1988, 1990; BouJaoude, 1991; Barker, 1995; Galili & Bar, 1997; Barker & Millar, 1999; Valanides, 2000; Özmen & Alipaşa, 2003; Agung & Schwartz, 2007; Parker et al, 2012; Meerman & Brown, 2014). Teaching interventions about the conservation of mass tend to focus on explaining the phenomenon by using particle ideas (Cheng, 2016) or involving students in practical work with assigned sequences (Taylor & Coll, 1997). There is general support for the implementation of multiple representation in teaching and learning chemical concepts (Indriyanti & Barke 2017; Cheng & Gilbert, 2014; Johnson, 2010; Treagust and Chandrasegarana, 2009). Little research however has been conducted to evaluate the impact of teaching at the submicroscopic level on learning at the macroscopic level (Papageorgiou & Johnson, 2005). As suggested by Johnstone (1982; 1991), Chemistry is difficult to learn because of its multi-level of thoughts associated in a triplet relationship, namely at the descriptive and functional level, representational level and explanatory level. At the descriptive and functional level or macroscopic level, chemists sense and experience properties and phenomena which are perceptible and measurable in daily life or inside the laboratory. At the explanatory level or submicroscopic level, they also make use of particulate models to explain and predict chemical phenomena. Equations and signs are used to communicate concepts and ideas at the representational level or symbolic level. Chemists can jump freely across these three levels, but not so students. When a phenomenon is presented, students could only operate at the macroscopic level and describe what they observe. It can be difficult for them to jump to the submicroscopic and symbolic levels. In addition to the inability to manouvre within this conceptual triplet, Gilbert and Treagust (2009) accounted for the difficulties in studying chemistry in terms of the lack of macro-level experience, misconceptions at the submicroscopic level and misunderstanding of conventions at the symbolic level. The intrinsic nature of Chemistry has made it a challenging subject to learn. It is important for teachers to be familiar with the triplet relationship and present chemical concepts effectively at the macroscopic level to start with. Johnstone (2000) emphasized the importance of introducing ideas at this level because students could find chemical changes more tangible and therefore easier for the development of 25 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 long-term memory and understanding. Nelson (2002) reviewed chemistry teaching before and after 1960s, and suggested a progressive teaching approach starting from something observable at the macro-level before interpreting it at the submicroscopic level. Taber (2011) argued that learners often misunderstood the key role of models for explanation purpose. All these studies revealed that understanding at the macroscopic level should be highlighted prior to any further study at the other two levels. The macroscopic, submicroscopic and symbolic levels of understanding are considered equally important in the field of chemistry education. For example, Johnson (2010) proposed a substance-based framework for teaching about the particulate nature of matter. It started with the teacher introducing physical properties such as melting and boiling points, solubility as well as evaporation and condensation rates before developing a particle model with students to explain changes at the submicroscopic level. Treagust and Chandrasegarana (2009) reported that emphasizing the triplet relationship in teaching helps students understand chemical changes such as the combustion of reactive metals, reactions between metals and dilute acids, neutralisation as well as precipitation processes. Their study noted that the experimental group who had learnt relationships in the triplet format could achieve significantly better results on the Representational Systems and Chemical Reactions Diagnostic Instrument than the traditional group who had only been taught at the macroscopic and symbolic levels. Similar results reported by Indriyanti & Barke (2017) indicated that learning at the submicroscopic level would help students develop a deeper understanding of the mole concept. Cheng and Gilbert (2014) meanwhile recommended a teaching sequence at the submicroscopic level to explain the conservation of mass during the combustion of magnesium in oxygen. Researchers agree that it is necessary to link up the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels when teaching about chemical concepts. Students often have difficulties in understanding about the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level and in predicting the exact weights of reactants after certain physical or chemical changes. Some 15-year-old students could explain the conservation of mass when sugar is dissolved in water in terms of the concept that “Not one of the two substances would have gone anywhere else except in the pan ... even though sugar cannot be seen it is still present.\" (Driver, 1985, pp.154). Any explanation linked to the particulate level was not expected for understanding the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level. The difficulties associated with learning about the conservation of mass are not limited to primary, secondary or university students. Many science teachers, doctors and even dietitians (Driver, 1985; Stavy, 1988, 1990; BouJaoude, 1991; Barker, 1995; Galili & Bar, 1997; Barker & Millar, 1999; Valanides, 2000; Özmen & Alipaşa, 2003; 26 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Agung & Schwartz, 2007; Parker et al, 2012; Meerman & Brown, 2014) also find it hard to understand the conservation of mass. Some of them often failed to predict the weights of reactants accurately under different situations. The triplet relationship of chemical knowledge is taken as the norm for lesson design in the current study. With reference to the concept of conservation of mass, the effectiveness of an approach focusing on the macroscopic level only and another focusing on the macroscopic level supported by the submicroscopic level is compared. Results could offer insights for curriculum development in the junior science curriculum. In view of the findings obtained by earlier researchers, six types of processes involving the conservation were studied here by students at the at the macro level, namely 1. translocation, 2. solution, 3. thermal expansion or compression, 4. change of state of solids and liquids, 5. gas release or absorption, and 6. energy release or absorption (Figure 1). These six changes were derived from a study of relevant scenarios in the literature, and could be grouped as physical changes or chemical changes. They are not mutually exclusive because each of them is dependent on the focus of the question. For example, photosynthesis is a process for green plants to produce food by absorbing sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. When the focus is put on how carbon dioxide would contribute to the weight of green plant, photosynthesis can be considered as a Type 5 process. When the focus is put on how light absorption would contribute to the weight of a green plant, it becomes a Type 6 process. Figure 1: Six types of context in learning about the conservation of mass 27 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Type 1: Translocation Translocation is a process by which an object is moved from one place to another. It can also be the movement of certain parts of the object resulting in physical separation or a change in shape. Galili & Bar (1997) interviewed children aged 5 to 11 about whether the weight of a non-deformed plasticine ball would be the same as the same ball after being deformed into one of three possible shapes: disc, cylinder or division. 80% of them had not referred to the conservation of mass when talking about translocation. Some students indicated that the weight of the ball would increase as it touches the hand many times. Performance improved gradually as students became older. Unfortunately, when pre-service primary school teachers were asked to compare the weight before and after mixing water and alcohol, a significant proportion (5 out of 20) of them believed that weight could not be conserved (Valanides, 2000). Type 2: Solution Students also encounter difficulties when learning about a solid substance dissolving in a liquid. Piaget and Inhelder (1974) reported that students' ability to reason about the solution process is dependent on an awareness of observable features. When students saw that sugar disappeared after dissolving into water, they predicted that there would not be any change in weight. Driver (1985) reported that more than a half of the students aged from 9 to 14 thought that the weight of a sugar solution would be less than the sum of the original weights of sugar and water. They thought that since the sugar solution is in liquid form it would weigh less than the solid form of water, or that sugar disappears when they are dissolved. A similar result was noted by Barker (1995). 250 students were asked to predict the weight of a sodium chloride solution compared to the weights of the sodium chloride crystals and water involved. Only half of them believed that mass was conserved. Type 3: Thermal expansion or compression Students misinterpreted the weight of hot water being greater than that of cold water as a result of expansion upon heating. A majority of them failed to judge the equality of weight between samples of hot water and cold water of the same mass (Stavy, 1990). Type 4: Changes of state of solid and liquids Literature often reports about students’ belief that liquids weigh less than solids. Stavy (1990) suggested that students aged 6 to 15 thought that the masses of 28 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 reactants would increase during a precipitation reaction in which solids are produced. According to Özmen & Alipaşa (2003), about 20% of Turkish students aged 15-16 predicted that the mass of barium sulphate would increase because of the formation of solid precipitates. Agung & Schwartz (2007) reported a similar result, as more than a third of Indonesian students aged 17-19 claimed that the formation of precipitates would lead to an increase in the total mass of the chemical system. Type 5: Gas release or absorption Many students misunderstood that gas has less weight than solid and liquid. They may even perceive gas as a weightless entity. In this connection, BouJaoude (1991) interviewed 20 Grade 8 American students aged 13–14. Some of them replied that the decrease of mass in burning wood was due to the destruction of matter during combustion. In another study (Özmen & Alipaşa, 2003), students' responses about the decrease in mass after the combustion of phosphorus under sunlight in a sealed flask also suggest that phosphorus was used up and so the mass of reactants would decrease. Type 6: Energy release or absorption Some students believe that energy carries mass. A common misunderstanding regarding the autotrophic feeding habit of plants in this connection can be found in the study by Stavy (1988). Some biology undergraduates thought that sunlight is a material that is added to the mass of plants instead of offering activation energy to drive photosynthetic reactions. Similar findings can be found in the answers to multiple- choice, true/ false questions and essay questions (Parker, et al., 2012). Some students considered sunlight but not water and carbon dioxide as the source of mass gain in plants. More than 50% of family doctors, dieticians and physical fitness trainers believed that the weight loss in humans was due to the conversion of fats into energy (Meerman & Brown, 2014). This conception is in contradiction with the scientific finding that respiration would turn fat into water and carbon dioxide which would be released primarily from our skin and lungs respectively. Difficulties about the understanding of mass conservation are thus independent of learners’ age and educational background and the context of study. Even thinking with respect to the same context, the outcome could be diverse as well. Stavy and Triosh (2000) attempted to account for such misconceptions with an intuitive rule theory. Students were found to have reacted in similar ways with respect to a wide variety of scientifically unrelated situations. Their responses given with respect to the same context can be correct if they fit in to their intuitive thoughts. Two of the rules 29 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 concerned, namely more A – more B and same A – same B, are discussed in the following. Intuitive rule: More A – More B In the Type 1 context about translocation, Valanides (2000) interviewed 20 female primary student teachers from different science backgrounds. All interviewees expressed that volume was not conserved when alcohol was mixed with water. Five of them further believed that the mass was not conserved. They mentioned that “we do not have conservation of volume\" and that \"mass would not be conserved as well.” The reduction in mass in this context led them to think of the reduction in volume. They considered that larger volumes mean more mass. This explanation is also in line with the intuitive line of thought: More A – More B. In the Type 2 context about the process of solution, students reasoned about the weight of the sugar solution by referring to the rise in water level. They confused volume with weight and thought that greater volume would lead to more weight (Driver, 1985). With respect to the Type 3 context about thermal expansion then, Stavy (1990) studied children's understanding of mass conservation during the thermal expansion of water. Many children aged 6 to 10 believed that water after heating was heavier because its volume was greater. Intuitive rule: Same A – Same B This intuitive rule was identified after referring to students’ response to comparison tasks. One of the well-known experiments about the conservation of liquids conducted by Piaget (1965) was also linked to this intuitive rule. A majority of children aged 7 to 11 in his study agreed that after water was transferred from one container to another, its volume would remain unchanged because it was the same kind of matter. They would also believe that the weight of water would remain the same. However, this intuitive rule of same A - same B does not always lead to correct responses. When some Grades 10 to 12 biology students were asked to compare the volume of a cube before and after dividing into four boxes, they all indicated that the volume was the same. 30% of them believed the surface area remain the same because of no change in volume (Livne, 1996). The theory of intuitive rules is thus helpful for explaining learners’ poor achievements in mass conservation questions across various contexts and scenarios. It also gives insights about how misconception can be corrected to support the development of the conceptual prevalence model which is more appropriate to the design of the teaching intervention. Meanwhile, students have developed certain intuitive rules to predict the outcome of mass conservation before the lesson. 30 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Conceptual change however is a learning pathway from intuitive thinking towards scientific understanding. The introduction of the desired scientific concepts which is universal in counter-intuitive scenarios often has to start with changes in students’ existing ideas. To help students explain macroscopic phenomena, Cheng (2016) reported about a 40-minute lesson design in which practical work was performed in orchestration with the procedures in assessment for learning. The lessons started with a puzzling phenomenon of volume contraction without changes in mass during the mixing of water and alcohol. The mixing of beans and sago was used as an analogy before the introduction of the particle model. Papageorgiou and Johnnson (2005) conducted an intervention study about how the introduction of the particle model could help students’ description and explanation of solution processes and changes in the physical state of matter. Nearly all students aged 10 or 11 in their study described phenomena according to the scientific view, and gave explanations by referring to particle ideas. Although the ideas they developed were not perfect, the 12-hour intervention for the experimental group still led to encouraging results. Last but not least, Taylor and Coll (1997) also arranged a sequence of practical work starting with the solution of potassium permanganate crystals, followed by the placing of sugar in water. A more significant improvement for the experimental group was recorded over the control group who studied only the solution of sugar. The finding showed that carefully arranged practical work sequences could offer visual support to learners and that giving more scenarios for exploration could reinforce their mastery of concepts. However, in the literature, there was no interventional comparison between instruction at the macroscopic level only and instruction at the macroscopic level supported by the submicroscopic representation in the context of mass conservation. Research Questions Referring to earlier studies, Johnstone (1982) argued that the triplet relationship was an important concept in Chemistry and yet it would not be necessary to cover all the three levels at the same time during the teaching and learning process. Learning at the macroscopic level only could not provide meaningful experience to students. Researchers are in favour of exploring at the macroscopic level at first and at the submicroscopic level next when teachers are seeking to help students master the whole concept (Johnstone, 2000; Nelson, 2002; Taber, 2011). Little work however has been done about how far learning at the submicroscopic level would improve understanding at the macro level. As a result, a quasi-experimental study was conducted hereby to investigate the impact of intervention at the submicroscopic level on understanding about the conservation of mass at the macro level. The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of two types of instructional interventions, 31 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 namely instruction at the submicroscopic level and instruction at the macroscopic level in supporting the development of Secondary 1 students’ scientific understanding of the conservation of mass. The following research questions were examined in this connection: (a) How do the two instructional groups compare in terms of their understanding of the conservation of mass after participating in an intervention program? (b) How would Secondary 1 students’ understanding of the conservation of mass in different contexts, namely Type 1: translocation process and Type 2: the solution of substances in water, change after instruction at the submicroscopic and macroscopic levels respectively? Methodology Science is a compulsory subject for Grades 7 to 9 in Hong Kong. The science curriculum was updated recently (CDC, 2017). Changes to be noted in Grade 7 about the understanding of mass conservation are summarised in terms of the context type in Table 1. Physical changes Type 1: Translocation (e.g. mixing water and alcohol) Type 2: Dissolving (e.g. dissolving sugar) Type 3: Thermal expansion or compression (e.g. measure weight and volume of coloured liquid under heating or cooling) Type 4: Change of states between solid and liquid (e.g. melting of ice) Type 5: Gas release and absorption (e.g. boiling of water) Table 1: Expected understanding about the conservation of mass at the Grade 7 level Physical changes Unit 6.3 of the junior science curriculum (CDC, 2017) states that students should be able to recognise that mass is conserved when a solid is dissolved. The suggested learning and teaching activities in this connection involve the measurement of changes in volume and mass after a small amount of table salt is placed in water. Students need to recognise that mass is still conserved even if volume decreases in due course. The logic here is similar to that adopted by them with respect to the case mixing alcohol and water as stated in unit 6.1, where students are expected to recognise a contraction in volume. To further extend the concept that an increase in the volume of an object would not necessarily lead to greater weights, they are also asked to judge the equality of weight in the context of thermal expansion. After learning the contents 32 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 of unit 6.2, students should be able to compare the properties of matter in different physical states correctly. The conservation of mass during a change of state can also provide a good opportunity to help students deepen their understanding of the context at the macroscopic level. Grade 7 students meanwhile are expected to understand the conservation of mass under contexts 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Table 1). In the current intervention study, attention is given to understanding the conservation of mass under contexts 1 and 2. The participants in this study were 54 Grade 7 students coming from two classes taught by the same teacher in a direct-subsidy EMI school. One of the two classes was taught at the submicroscopic level (N=25). The other class was taught at the macroscopic level (N=28). The intervention program was composed of three 40-minute lessons targeting on contexts 1 and 2 (translocation and the solution process respectively). During the first lesson, both classes were given an introduction to the notion of mass conservation using daily-life examples supplemented by the demonstration of practical work (refer to Appendix 1 for the handouts). The second and third lessons were designed differently for the two groups (Appendices B and C). Students in the submicroscopic-level group were asked to use the particle model to explain the puzzling phenomenon of volume contraction but mass conservation (a) during the mixing of water and alcohol and (b) the solution of sugar in water (Cheng, 2016). Students in the macroscopic-level class performed practical work about different types of (a) mixing and (b) dissolving in accordance with the teaching plan suggested by Taylor and Coll (1997). Given that both groups had not been introduced to the particle theory before, their score in the diagnostic instrument could reflect differences in teaching effectiveness of the two instructional interventions. To collect data about the effectiveness of the two teaching interventions, a multiple-choice diagnostic instrument called the Conservation of Mass Test (CMT) (Appendix 4) was used. Scores for gauging the changes in understanding about the conversation of mass were collected by using an online survey tool called Qualtrics®. This instrument contained 21 multiple-choice items about translocation and solution concepts. The questions used for this purpose were based on daily life scenarios such as eating, drinking, cutting of pizza slices and the solution of honey in water. With respect to the context type 1 about translocation, intuitive understanding about immersing metal balls into water is based on the more volume, more weight rule. This rule however cannot hold for scenarios like the formation of soapy foam or the mixing of water with alcohol. The converse intuitive same volume, same weight concept is represented by separating a pizza into slices or folding a paper crane. This rule however cannot be used for predicting the weight of a man after eating a donut or urinating. Under the same context of translocation, it was divided into four intuitive rule quadrants as shown in Table 2. 33 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Type 1: Translocation More A, More B Same A, Same B Intuitive •weight after adding metal balls into water •weight after the mixing of water •weight after the mixing water with oil •weight after the same amount of water is poured into containers of different shapes and sizes •weight of a pizza after being cut into four slices •weight after model clay is pressed into various disc shapes •weight after a piece of paper is folded into a crane •weight after a glass cup is broken Counter- intuitive •weight after mixing water and alcohol •weight after the discolouration of a solution by activated charcoal •weight after the formation of foam in a soapy solution •weight after a man has just eaten a piece of doughnut •weight of a man just after urination •weight after water is removed by a sponge •weight after a piece of dried fish maw is placed into water Table 2: Intuitive rule quadrants of type 1 about translocation Regarding the context type of type 2 about dissolving, weight is conserved although the sum of the volume of the solute and the solvent is more than that of the solution. This phenomenon is only in line with the counter-intuitive thinking of more volume, more weight. The contraction in volume here is not followed by weight reduction as what students are used to predict. Six scenarios are given below to illustrate the counter-intuitive quadrant (Table 3). Type 2: Dissolving More A, More B Same A, Same B Intuitive not applicable not applicable Counter- intuitive •weight after white sugar is completely dissolved in water •weight after brown sugar is completely dissolved in water •weight after coffee powder is completely dissolved in water •weight after some table salt remains undissolved in water •weight after a tea bag is immersed in water •weight after honey is added to water not applicable Table 3: Intuitive rule quadrants of type 2 about the solution process The 21 items were content validated by a science education expert and an experienced chemistry teacher. A pilot test was given to a group of 25 Grade 8 students. The CMT had an excellent internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha α = 0.93. The mean item difficulty value was found to be 0.60, and the discriminating power was equal to 0.76. Values of the difficulty index and discriminating index could be found in Appendix 5. The difficulty index was calculated by using the percentage of students with correct answers while the discrimination index was calculated by the differences in the number of correct responses between students in the top and bottom quartiles divided by the number of responses in each quartile. The wordings and visual 34 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Table 4: Intervention timeline of the study Instruction at the submicroscopic level (N=25) Instruction at the macroscopiclevel (N = 28) 12/3/2018 Pre-test 13/3/2018 Teacher’s demonstration of mass conservation in translocation and dissolving 15/3/2018 Post-test I 26/3/2018 Discussion of demonstration work using submicroscopic representation about mass conservation in translocation Students ’ pract ical act iv i ty about macroscopic phenomena of mass conservation in translocation 27/3/2018 Discussion of practical demonstration using submicroscopic representation about mass conservation during the solution process Students ’ pract ical act iv i ty about macroscopic phenomena of mass conservation during the solution process 28/3/2018 Post-test II Data analysis in this study was centred on students’ performance within the two groups and between the two groups in terms of the overall CMT result and that in the intuitive quadrants of different context types respectively. Response collected from the pre-test and post-tests would be graded. A correct choice would bring one mark. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the mean score of the pre- test performance between two groups. If the result indicated a significant difference between the mean score of the two groups, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed to compare the mean scores in post-test 2 between two groups while controlling the pre-test result. Pair-samples t-tests were conducted to analyse the changes in performance within the groups from the pre-test to post-test 1 and from post-test 1 to post-test 2. representation in the questions were improved according to the suggestions from the same science education expert and experienced chemistry teacher. For example, the diagram used in each question gave the values of volume and weight so as to reduce reading time needed by students. The CMT had a high internal consistency coefficient of α = 0.79 (pre-test), α = 0.85 (post-test 1) and α = 0.91 (post-test 2) which was greater than the threshold value of 0.5 for multiple-choice items (Nunally & Bernstein, 1994). Students were told clearly about the purpose of the study, and all their parents signed the consent form needed. Two instructional strategies were evaluated in a pretest-posttest design using quantitative data. The intervention timeline is summarised in Table 4. Both the 40-minute pre-test and post-tests were based on the 21 multiple- choice questions in the CMT. Participants were encouraged to select the choice which best represented their own thinking. They were assured that assessment results would not be counted as school examination grades. 35 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Results and discussion A paired samples t-test was conducted to evaluate students’ achievements in the CMT as follows. (a) Overall performance In response to the first research question about the overall students’ performance in mass conservation, there was a significant increase in scores for the submicroscopic class from the pre-test (M = 12.54, SD = 4.62) to post-test 1 (M = 17.35, SD = 4.56), t(25) = -4.88, p < .001 (two-tailed). The mean increase in scores was 4.81 (p = 0.05, with the 95% confidence interval ranging from -6.84 to -2.78. However, there was no significant difference between post-test 1 scores (M = 17.35, SD = 4.56) and post-test 2 scores (M = 17.85, SD = 4.55), t(25) = -0.504, p > 0.05 (two-tailed). The mean increase in the scores was 0.5 (p = 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -2.54 to 1.54). As for the achievement of students in the macroscopic class, there was a significant increase from the pre-test (M = 8.48, SD = 3.39) to post-test 1 (M = 15.17, SD = 4.39), t(28) = -8.08, p < .001, two-tailed). The mean increase in scores was 6.69 (p = 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -8.39 to -5.00). Similar to the case with the submicroscopic group, there was no significant increase in mean scores from post-test 1 (M = 15.17, SD = 4.39) to post-test 2 (M = 16.31, SD = 6.00), t(28) = -1.52, p > 0.05, two-tailed). The mean increase in the identity scores was 1.14 (p = 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -2.67 to 0.39). The results obtained above thus indicated that both intervention programs could improve students' understanding of mass conservation. On the basis of the teacher's introduction about the concept, students should could develop their own scientific conceptual models. There was no regression for the mean score for both learning at the submicroscopic level or performing hands-on activities. In other words, teaching based on the macroscopic level only or on the submicroscopic level could enhance the scientific thinking mode among learners. (b) Students performance in Context types 1 and 2 in both groups Students' performance under context 1 (about the translocation process) showed significant improvements from the pre-test to post-test 1. However, there was no considerable difference from post-test 1 to post-test 2. Significant improvements appeared in context 2 responses about from the pre-test to post-test 1 but not from post-test 1 to post-test 2. 36 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Performance by the macroscopic class in the CMT With respect to context 1 (about translocation), the results of both groups indicated a significant improvement from the pre-test to post-test 1. However, there was no significant difference from post-test 1 to post-test 2. As for context type 2 (about the solution process; an example of the more A, more B counter-intuitive rule), there was a significant improvement for the macroscopic group from the pre-test to the post-test 1 (M = 3.03, SD = 2.04) and to post-test 2 (M = 4.03, SD = 2.24), t(28) = -2.23, p < 0.05 (two-tailed). Nevertheless, there was a significant improvement for the submicroscopic class from the pre-test to the post-test 1 but no significant difference from post-test 1 to post-test 2. The result thus indicated that more exposure to hands-on activities could help students understand the conservation of mass when a solid is dissolved. Unlike translocation that covers different quadrants of the intuitive rules, the macroscopic understanding of dissolving only belongs to the quadrant of more A, more B counter- intuitive scenarios. Practical work conducted by students could help them generalise the conservation of mass and the process of solution. However, this gain could not be found in the scores of the submicroscopic class, suggesting that the submicroscopic explanation of mass conservation was less effective than the repeated practical work in this context. Is the performance of CMT of the submicroscopic class better than that of the macroscopic class? In response to the second research question, an independent samples t-test was performed to compare the pre-instructional ability between the two classes. There was a significant difference in the mean pre-test scores of the submicroscopic class (M=12.54, SD = 4.62) and the macroscopic class (M=8.48, SD=3.39) [t(53)=3.74, p=0.000]. The pre-test score of the submicroscopic class was significantly greater than that of the microscopic class. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error of the difference 95% Confidence Interval of the difference Lower Upper Pretest Equal variance assumed 3.603 .063 3.742 53 .000 4.056 1.084 1.882 6.230 Equal variance not assumed 3.680 45.503 .001 4.056 1.102 1.836 6.275 Table 5: Independent samples t-test for the pre-test results of both groups. 37 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 ANCOVA was conducted to compare the effectiveness of the two instructional interventions whilst controlling for the pre-test score. Levene’s test for equality of variances was performed. It was found to be not significant, [F(1, 53) = 1.337, p > 0.05], indicating no violation of the homogeneity of variance assumption. There was no significant difference in mean score [F(1,52)=0.021, p = 0.886, p > 0.05] between the two classes. When the performance of the two classes under contexts 1 and 2 was compared, no significant difference could be found. Table 6: ANCOVA table for post-test 2 result while controlling pre-test result between both groups Dependent Variable: Posttest2 Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Corrected Model 194.268a 2 97.134 3.470 .039 Intercept 1058.418 1 1058.418 37.809 .000 Pretest 161.932 1 161.932 5.785 .020 Treatment .576 1 .576 .021 .886 Error 1455.659 52 27.993 Total 17613.000 55 Corrected Total 1649.927 54 a. R Squared = .118 (Adjusted R Squared = .084) ANCOVA was also performed to compare achievements with respect to translocation and the solution process under different intuitive-rule quadrants. Results indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean score [F(1,52)=0.839, p = 0.364, p > 0.05] between the two groups for both types of mass conservation in all the quadrants. Both groups were thus comparable in terms of understanding about the conservation of mass. Teaching at the submicroscopic representation would not hinder the understanding of the macroscopic phenomena. It is consistent with the result in the study of Papageorgiou and Johnson (2005). Limitation of the study Only two classes participated in this study. They cannot be assumed the same in terms of ability. Students would have different levels of prior knowledge, cognitive growth and preference to certain pedagogical activities. The teacher would have taught them in different ways and students' level of understanding would therefore vary substantially. Conclusion and Implication The impact of Secondary 1 students’ learning at the submicroscopic level on the understanding of the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level has been studied. 38 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Based on the answers in the diagnostic instrument, the Conservation of Mass Test (CMT), there was no significant difference between the instructional group taught at the macroscopic level only and the instructional group taught at both the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels. Both instructional approaches could thus improve students’ understanding of the conservation of mass. Data collected in this study suggested that learning at the submicroscopic level has not hindered the development of scientific conceptual thinking about the conservation of mass at the macro level. Introducing the particulate level of understanding can be appropriate to students aged 12 or 13 in their early secondary school life. In accordance with the ideas of Papageorgiou and Johnsone (2005), effectiveness in the teaching of particle ideas depends on aim and strategy. This study aims to call for the attention from researchers in curriculum studies, especially for those in Hong Kong. In the latest junior science curriculum (CDC, 2017), the placement of the conservation of mass as a macroscopic phenomenon was arranged into the unit about submicroscopic behaviour which was highly abstract. Although students in the submicroscopic group were required to learn the particulate nature of matter which was absent in the macroscopic group, they could also achieve a comparable result as that of students in the macroscopic group. This macroscopic understanding of mass conservation at the submicroscopic level can still be successful if classroom teaching is following the lesson design in this intervention study as recommended by Cheng (2016)’s report. First, it is important to admit that the concept of mass conservation is challenging for learners and so a classification of mass conservation contexts is necessary for facilitating understanding. Some context types (e.g. translocation) are composed of intuitive and counter-intuitive scenarios that make the conservation of mass complicated to master. People can conserve some contexts but not all. The proposed framework of contexts in mass conservation and the diagnostic test can help understand the progress of students’ learning of the phenomenon. Explicit linkage of different context types of the mass conservation into the curriculum design is needed to progressively develop a scientific conceptual model among learners. Second, it is important to highlight the teaching sequence of lesson design at the macroscopic or submicroscopic level. In general, the lesson design focusses on intuitive scenarios of mass conservation in the first place, such as predicting the weight after stacking wooden blocks or mixing water from two containers. The counter- intuitive scenarios such as weight after drinking water were utilised to activate the scientific mental model. For students in the submicroscopic group, it would be strange and uncomfortable when particle ideas were transferred without explicit linkage to 39 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 more familiar scenarios. The beans and sago activity with extensive teacher-guided discussion was therefore set prior to the introduction of the particle model as suggested by Cheng (2016). Similarly, for students in the macroscopic group, hands-on activities in the solution of sugar by itself could help to develop durable understanding of mass conservation. The solution of copper (II) sulphate and brown sugar in water does not only provide visual (Talyor & Coll, 1997) but also conceptual support to learners when seeking to understand the phenomenon of mass conservation. Hence, learners would not treat the mass conservation as error but an authentic law in nature. As a result, this study cannot simply conclude that the impact of teaching at macroscopic level supported by submicroscopic level was comparable with that of teaching at the macroscopic level only. Third, the result of the study could be interpreted as meaning that learning at the macroscopic level supported by the submicroscopic level is not superior to learning at the macroscopic level. This is consistent with the argument made by Johnstone (1982) that it is not necessary to go through the submicroscopic level when planning for the study of chemistry in the curriculum. If learning at the macroscopic level only is already sufficient to achieve a comparable achievement in mass conservation with teaching at both macroscopic level and submicroscopic level, why do we bother to teach at the submicroscopic level? Could teaching at the macroscopic level only also lead to comprehensive and meaningful learning that is helpful in the solution of problems in daily science problems? This study can offer some insights to the curriculum planner about the teaching and learning of concepts at the macroscopic level. Further research is needed to address related issues such as those about the learning attitude of the macroscopic group and submicroscopic group and the impact of learning at the submicroscopic level in other contexts of conservation of mass. 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Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 1(2), 249-262. 43 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 1 Worksheet used in the first intervention lesson 44 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 2 Worksheet used in the second and third intervention lesson of the submicro group 45 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 46 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 3 Worksheet used in the second and third intervention lesson of the macro group 47 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 48 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 4 Conservation of Mass Test (CMT) 49 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 50 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 51 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 52 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 53 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 54 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 5 Difficulty index and discrimination index of individual items in pilot test 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 55 教育研究報告匯編 摘要 非華語學生在主流學校學習中文的情況,備受社會和教育界關注。本研究計劃以閱 讀教學為試點,透過行動研究探索繪本教學法對非華語學生運用閱讀策略的成效。研究 發現,繪本教學有助初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」,在閱讀能力測試展示了不同 程度的進步,而且對閱讀中文的觀感有正面轉變。在 2001 年,教育局提倡「從閱讀中學 習」。學生從「學會閱讀」發展到「從閱讀中學習」,是課程改革的四個關鍵項目之一。 研究者希望以上的學習方式,可以成為非華語學生「學會閱讀」中文的其中一個切入點。 研究背景和目的 研究者任教的中學屬於非華語學生人數「低濃度」的學校,初中年級的非華語學生 與華裔學生比例是「1:21」。非華語學生與華裔學生一起上課,鼓勵他們融入主流。研 究者所見非華語學生來港的時間不一,在入讀香港學校之前的學術水平不同,要他們追 上同年級、同年齡的本地學生中文水平,是教師和學生同樣面對的難題。此外,非華語 學生的家庭支援各不一樣,父母可能不熟習中文,族語或英語是母語,他們學習和運用 中文這種第二語言的主要地方就是學校。 在中文閱讀方面,非華語學生普遍會遇到很多困難。原因是認識的漢字不多,缺乏 漢語詞彙。中文語法與他們的母語不同,加上識字困難等種種因素,對閱讀大量中文字 卻步(許守仁,2013)。要幫助非華語學生進行閱讀理解,教師先要教導學生運用適合 他們中文水平的閱讀策略,為「學會閱讀」開拓切入點。 《中國語文課程補充指引(非華語學生)》指出,如果學生年齡較大才開始學中文, 教師應該配合他們心智發展較成熟的特點,啟發思考,協助他們建構知識。對初接觸中 文的學生而言,閱讀材料以簡易、詞彙少而貼近生活者為佳(課程發展議會,2008)。 研究者嘗試透過繪本教學的方法,並選取詞彙較少,多以日常生活為題材的繪本故事作 為閱讀材料,啟發非華語學生運用其中一個基本的閱讀策略 –「故事線策略」,掌握故 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握 「故事線策略」的成效 黃家慧 東華三院郭一葦中學 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 56 教育研究報告匯編 事脈絡,理解內容。研究者希望非華語學生在掌握「故事線策略」後,能漸漸減低對閱 讀大量中文字的抗拒感,享受「從閱讀中學習」的樂趣。 研究問題 本研究計劃探討以下問題: 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」有什麼成效? 文獻綜述 繪本,即 picture book,是通過一連串連貫的圖畫與相對較少的文字,互相結合來 傳遞信息或講故事的書。繪本是依靠文字語言和視覺語言,即圖文的互相關係共同產生 敍述故事的內容,書中的圖片是作為書的內容在每一頁都出現,並且對故事的完整敍述, 以及作者意圖的完整表達有著不可或缺的作用(Nikolajeva,2001)。 繪本教學法的重點,在於事前做詳細的計劃並依循原則,包括要有明確和具體的學 習目標,需兼顧文本和圖像的閱讀,能正確引導學生享受閱讀的樂趣,並能引發學生不 同的思考而非要求既存的答案(李玉貴,2001)。開展繪本閱讀教學時,教師首先要對學 生有閱讀方法上的指導,幫助他們掌握閱讀繪本的技能,從單幅圖片開始,引導學生學 習把握畫面整體內容。其次是因應繪本所講述的內容,針對性地檢視學生閱讀(盧萍, 2011)。學生可以從繪本的封面或故事標題預測故事情節,依據繪本的插圖、重覆的語 句在情節上作預測的掌握(賴瑋珍,2005)。繪本作為文句脈絡的教學效果顯著,從上下 文意中加強學生對詞彙的瞭解,於閱讀中理解詞彙的用法(邱小芳、詹士宜,2009)。由 是觀之,教師善用繪本圖文合一的特點引導學生閱讀,可促進閱讀教學的效果。 「故事線策略」是一種閱讀理解的基本策略,文章的走勢一般稱之為「起」、「承」、 「轉」、「合」。「故事線策略」是指學生掌握出現在全篇文章裡,這種既定模式形成 的主軸,故事線的呈現包含「跨越(開始)[ 起 ]」、「事件(衝突)[ 承 ]」、「解決 [轉 ]」、「結束(過渡)[合]」(陳純純,2012)。既然故事線是構成文章的重要框架, 教師訓練學生運用「故事線策略」,使學生對內容有基本的理解,才能進一步整合和分 析內容。 本研究參考學者祝新華(2005)提出的閱讀認知能力理論,設計評估非華語學生閱 讀能力的前、後測試。閱讀認知能力有六個層次,包括「複述」、「解釋」、「重整」、「伸 展」、「評鑑」和「創新」。其中第三層次「重整」是分析綜合的能力,包括能分析或 理清篇章內容,抽取篇章的重要資訊,以及概括段篇主要意義。測試「重整」能力的題 型有六種,包括理清篇章內容的關係,根據篇章內容分段分層,從篇章某處撮取特定信 息,從篇章多處撮取特定信息,概括段意或層意,以及概括全篇內容(岑紹基、羅燕琴、 林偉業、鍾嶺崇,2001)。本研究參考上述理論,設計前測和後測,配合相關題型進行 評估。學生在繪本教學的模式下,在其「重整」能力方面出現的變化,反映他們對「故 事線策略」的掌握。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 57 教育研究報告匯編 本研究參照教育局「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構」,評量非華語學生閱讀能力 的表現。「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構閱讀能力學習成果(一至八階)」之中,「NLR (1.1)3」(能理解短小段落的大意)至「NLR(2.1)3」(能簡單指出閱讀材料的寓意) 均為對內容理解、分析和綜合的基礎評估級別(課程發展議會,2014)。本研究依據以 上架構,對照非華語學生「重整」能力的變化,從而探討他們掌握「故事線策略」的成效。 研究方法和工具 本計劃以行動研究的方式進行。行動研究是實踐本身的改進,是一種革新的過程, 是在於某個人或某個團體自己的,而不是其他人的實踐之改善。教師應該身兼行動者和 研究者兩種角色(楊小微,2002)。由此可見,這種研究的方式鼓勵自我反省,有利在 研究的基礎上不斷改進。 參與本研究的初中非華語學生有 6 人,包括中一級 4 人,中二級 2 人,平均年齡 12 歲(巴基斯坦裔 5 人,泰國裔 1 人)。本校按非華語學生的年齡和學習需要編排課後增 潤班,以照顧學習多樣性,支援他們學習中文,鞏固或增補其所學。6 位非華語學生屬 於同一組增潤班,他們的共通點是學習動機相若,對自己的中文學習表現有期望。該組 增潤班每星期上課 3次,每堂 45 分鐘。 本研究由「規劃」、「行動」,以及「歸納和檢討結果」三個階段組成(表一)。 表一:研究設計與流程 階段 日期 實施項目 一、規劃 2018 年 2 月 •按「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構 閱讀能力學習成果 (一至八階)」劃分學生的中文水平。 •劃分本研究的對照指標 (控制組) 及實驗組。 •擬訂「前測」和「後測」的評估卷及評分標準。 •擬訂「前訪談」和「後訪談」的問題。 二、行動 2018 年 3 月至 5月 •進行共同閱讀小組,向學生講解「故事線策略」的概念,以及本行 動研究的目的和其參與的重要性。 •為學生分別進行「前訪談」。 •進行「前測」,時限 45 分鐘。 •於 6 次接續的課堂,研究者將實驗組抽出原本課堂,以繪本教學法 為他們進行閱讀教學;控制組則保留在原有增潤班,不改變其學習模 式進行閱讀課。 •進行「後測」,時限 45 分鐘。 •為學生分別進行「後訪談」。 三、歸納和 檢討結果 2018 年 6 月至 7月 •對照「前測」與「後測」結果。 •檢視「前訪談」和「後訪談」的內容。 •歸納本研究結果及進行檢討、反思。 資料搜集和數據分析會同步進行。在第一階段,研究者根據 6 位非華語學生在二月 份,於增潤班進行的閱讀理解測驗之答題表現,參照「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構 閱讀能力學習成果(一至八階)」劃分他們的中文水平(表二)。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 58 教育研究報告匯編 實驗組 控制組 學生 閱讀理解 測驗成績 達到之 評級表現 中文水平 比較 學生 閱讀理解 測驗成績 達到之 評級表現 中文水平 比較 A (中一) 20/50 NLR(2.1)2 較高 Y (中二) 27/50 NLR(2.1) 3 最高 (相對較接 近一般華裔 學生水平) B (中一) 18/50 NLR(2.1)2 較高 C (中一) 12/50 NLR(1.1)4 較低 D (中一) 8.5/50 NLR(1.1)3 最低 E (中二) 13/50 NLR(1.1)4 較低 表二:學生在行動研究前的中文閱讀水平參考(2018 年 2 月) 6 位非華語學生在該次測驗相對分數最高的 1 人(學生 Y),將會保留在增潤班如 常上課,其學習表現是本研究的對照指標(控制組)。另外 5位非華語學生(學生 A, B, C, D, E),是本研究的實驗組。研究者將其抽出進行繪本教學,擬訂「前測」和「後測」 的評估卷,以及「前訪談」和「後訪談」的問題。按照學生的閱讀水平,選定合適他們 的前、後測閱讀材料和具體考核的閱讀能力範圍。前測、後測的閱讀材料選自兩本深淺 程度相若的繪本,將內容編製成純文字的形式供學生閱讀。兩份測試卷各有 7 題(附件 一),題型和分數比例相同(表三)。 表三:「前測」與「後測」題型列表 題號 答題方式 佔分 考核能力項目 1 填空 30 分 NLR(2.1)2 能理解閱讀材料的內容 2 判斷 4分 NLR(2.1)2 能理解閱讀材料的內容 3 簡答 3分 NLR(2.1)1 能對閱讀材料中的具體事件提出簡單的看法 4 選擇 2分 NLR(2.1)1 能理解閱讀材料的時地人關係 5 填充 2分 NLR(2.1)2 能理解閱讀材料的內容 6 詳答 4分 NLR(2.1)2 能對閱讀材料中人物的性格、行為提出簡單的看法 7 詳答 5分 NLR(2.1)3 能指出閱讀材料的寓意 前、後訪談(附件二)採用「半結構式」(謝錫金,2013)進行,首先在訪談開始 之前設計幾個問題,根據繪本閱讀這個主題設定訪談範圍,再按照實際情況向研究對象 作追問。 研究者先為 6 位非華語學生進行一次共同閱讀小組,向他們講解「故事線策略」的 概念(附件三),以及是次行動研究的目的和其參與的重要性。實驗組和控制組將會在 這個階段進行前、後測,以及前、後訪談。至於教學行動方面,研究者在 6 次接續的增 潤班課堂,將實驗組從原有課堂抽出,以繪本教學法為他們進行閱讀教學,內容的深淺 程度相若(附件四)。控制組保留在原有增潤班,其上課和學習模式不變,由原有科任 老師如常以平日的篇章講授方式,教導學生理解內容、段意和主旨。 在第三階段,研究者對照實驗組和控制組的前、後測數據,分析學生在各個考核能 力項目中的分數變化,檢視學生前、後訪談的內容,歸納繪本教學對非華語學生「重整」 能力的影響,從而探討繪本教學能否幫助非華語學生掌握和運用「故事線策略」。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 59 教育研究報告匯編 研究結果 本研究計劃在2018年 7月 10日完成,研究結果從兩方面進行分析,包括量化的前、 後測評估成績,以及質化的前、後訪談內容,從而歸納研究結果。 繪本教學對中文水平愈低的非華語學生有愈顯著影響。在量化的數據分析方面,首 先對照學生在前、後測的全卷總得分(表四)(圖一)。 表四:學生在「前測」與「後測」各項考核能力的得分及分數變化百分率 考核能力項目 題號 佔數 測試 實驗組 控制組 學生 A 學生 B 學生 C 學生 D 學生 E 學生 Y NLR(2.1)1 3,4 5 分 前 4 3 0 0 0 4 後 3 4 0 0 0 4 NLR(2.1)2 1,2,5,6 40 分 前 22 25.5 8.5 6 10 29.5 後 21 27.5 15 15.5 16 32 NLR(2.1)3 7 5 分 前 2 2.5 0 0 0 2.5 後 1 3 0 1.5 0 3 總分 (50 分) 前 28 31 8.5 6 10 36 後 25 34.5 15 17 16 39 分數變化 % -10.7% 11.3% 76.5% 183.3% 60% 8.3% 圖一:前、後測分數比較 學生 A 和 B 在實驗組中文水平相對較高,學生 A 的後測成績沒有正增長,而學生 B 略有進步。中文水平相對較低的學生 C 和 E 在後測成績有明顯進步,分數皆增長超過 50%。中文水平相對最低的學生 D,後測增加 11 分,所得分數仍然相對最低,但其增長 超過 100%。控制組學生 Y 是中文水平相對最高的非華語學生,後測增加 3 分,分數增長 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 60 教育研究報告匯編 圖二 在理解內容,以及對人物的性格、行為提出簡單的看法方面,實驗組學生 B、C、D 和 E 都有進步。他們的答題表現雖然未達到控制組的水平,但學生中文水平愈低,進步 愈大;其中,學生 C、D和 E分數變化的正增長比控制組大(圖三)。 圖三 8.3%,表現與前測成績相若。實驗組學生的成績尚未能追上控制組的指標,但學生B、C、 D、E 都能展示不同程度的進步。比較實驗組及控制組的全卷總得分變化。實驗組學生的 分數正增長較為明顯,學生中文水平愈低,繪本教學對其影響愈大。 另外,有關於學生在前、後測的各個考核能力的項目得分,在理解時地人關係,及 對事件提出簡單的看法方面,實驗組只有學生 B 的答題表現有正增長,達到控制組水平 (圖二)。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 61 教育研究報告匯編 圖四 在指出閱讀材料的寓意方面,實驗組只有學生 B 和 D 有進步,學生 B 達到控制組的 水平;而學生 D 在前測完全沒有答題,後測能用自己文字寫出帶有因果關係,略能回應 問題的完整句子,有明顯進步(圖四)。 研究者運用學生 t 檢驗(Student's t-test)檢定實驗組學生在前、後測的數據 差異程度作為參考,透過 T-test 程式運算,p value 為 0.052,對照期望值 p value (p < 0.05)的標準,結果顯示實驗組學生在前、後測的總體表現接近具有顯著差別 (statistical difference)。由此觀之,中文水平較低的非華語學生在繪本教學的模 式中學習,對故事的起因、經過、發展和結局這條故事線有所掌握,感受到故事的感情 色彩,開始能夠針對人物的性格、行為,或故事的寓意提出一些簡單的看法。總括來說, 上述數據呈現繪本教學法有助訓練非華語學生的「重整」能力,對學生掌握「故事線策 略」有正面影響,中文水平愈低,成效愈顯著。 至於,質化分析方面,從學生訪談獲得的資料,總述如下。 在「前訪談」方面,關於閱讀中文時會遇到的困難,實驗組 5 位學生都遇到理解句 子、段落大意的困難。學生 A 表示篇章漢字太多,讀了也不太明白。學生 B 無法理解篇 幅長的文章內容。學生 C 和 E 表示縱使認得文章裡有學過的字詞,卻無法明白文章的內 容。學生 D 認為辨別中文字詞困難,例如會將寫法近似的漢字混淆,解讀錯誤。另外, 控制組學生Y表示,尚有信心閱讀白話文,但當要辨識修辭或理解成語,便感到有難度。 為了解決在中文閱讀時遇到的困難,6 人主要都是問老師、問同學,或使用線上翻 譯工具。其中,實驗組學生 C 會嘗試查中文字典;學生 D 和 E 認為書很厚、字很多,但 知道不看不學就不會懂,於是死記硬背。控制組學生 Y 則會從互聯網搜尋相關資料或答 案。關於平日閱讀中文的習慣,實驗組主要靠自己能認得的字詞去猜測文章內容;控制 組學生 Y表示會嘗試找出關鍵詞,或根據覺得重要的句子來思考內容。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 62 教育研究報告匯編 由是觀之,控制組對中文閱讀的觀感和方法較接近一般華裔學生。相反,實驗組學 生的識字量存在很大的差異,因此對閱讀大量中文字無從入手,要理解內容顯然是艱澀 的過程,於是訓練他們掌握基本的閱讀策略具有意義。歸納「後訪談」所得意見,實驗 組學生大多認為閱讀繪本的學習模式,對學習中文有幫助,能反映繪本教學對掌握「故 事線策略」有效果。 學生 A 認為閱讀整個故事後,最深刻的是每個人物角色的經歷,開始能夠找到哪些 文字可以協助自己表達看法。學生 B 表示昔日無法從純文字篇章中找到答案的線索,現 在習慣要留意故事的起因、經過和結果,對思考人物行為或所發生的事件有幫助,於是 在閱讀後想表達的意念也增加。學生 C 認為圖像能協助扣連文字的意思,閱讀的心情也 變得輕鬆。學生現在明白找出文章的起因、經過和結果的重要,可以完成課業,覺得閱 讀中文也有樂趣。學生 D 表示閱讀繪本不但有文字可讀,且有圖畫可看,對人物行為或 所遇上的事件產生共鳴。他反思自己的生活,也曾經有故事人物的想法,或做過類似的 行為,於是能較自如地表達感想。不過,學生E覺得仍未完全明白情節之間的前因後果。 總括來說,學生 A、B、C和 D覺得繪本教學對掌握故事的情節和發展有幫助。 對於和老師一起閱讀繪本最深刻的地方,實驗組大多學生表達的觀感正面,認為這 是饒有趣味的學習過程,感到自己的閱讀習慣也隨之產生變化。學生 A 和 C 表示現在會 到圖書館借閱感興趣的中文課外書。學生 B 表示以前完全不會看中文書,現在懂得閱讀 繪本,認識的中文字多了,會出現「今日要看完」的目標,開始覺得自己也可以做到中 文閱讀理解。學生 D 認為自從接觸繪本之後,昔日見到中文字就反感的情況減少,現在 縱使遇到閱讀困難,也認為自己應該繼續嘗試。至於,學生 E 仍認為背誦是可以解決中 文難題的最快方法。 結論 根據量化和質化的研究結果,研究者認為故事線正正能幫助面對文章篇幅較長的初 學者理清閱讀內容。學生開始掌握「故事線策略」,漸漸由只能運用詞語或短句表述不 完整的故事片段,發展至略能連繫情節的因果,反映學生已建構重整故事的習慣。學生 學會了閱讀大量中文字的方法,對閱讀中文的抗拒感減低,對故事的結局產生興趣,完 成閱讀任務,獲得的成功感和滿足感也隨之提升。 反思及建議 研究者在進行繪本教學的 6 次觀察中,發現學生在閱讀繪本後,於課堂以廣東話描 述故事的起因、經過、結果,各個情節之間的關係,以及掌握整個故事的脈絡,其口語 表達漸見清楚而詳細。研究者認同學生付出的努力,學生 D和 E在第 1、2次繪本閱讀課 中,明顯不習慣複述及總括故事內容,但2人在課堂上回答問題或主動發言的次數漸多, 表現用心。同時,學生透過聆聽其他同學的看法,同儕學習,有助拓展彼此的思維。總 括來說,大部分實驗組學生的課堂表現與教學目標相符。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 63 教育研究報告匯編 參與本研究的非華語學生人數和族裔的數目,對獲取的數據有局限性,因此研究樣 本的代表性亦難以全面;但是,本教學計劃對非華語學生閱讀中文有著鼓舞的作用。研 究者認為結果反映非華語學生,尤其是年紀愈小,愈接近剛起步學習中文,其成效愈顯 著。台灣學者指出在已有的研究顯示,運用繪本教學對小一受試者在口語理解和閱讀理 解的立即成效表現上比對照組優(張妙君,2004)。本研究實驗組學生 A、B、C 和 D 都 是中一級學生,他們開始運用和掌握閱讀「故事線策略」,並且略能提升閱讀層次–不 局限於識字層面,而是掌握脈絡、重整內容的技巧。 此外,值得關注的,是學生的閱讀動機無疑有所提升,同時其閱讀習慣也獲得正面 的沖擊。研究者期望是次教學經驗分享,尚能顯示繪本教學為初中非華語學生帶來的正 向影響,並為其他教師提供教學設計的參考資料。非華語學生在香港學習中文,教師採 用的教材和教學方法,對學生的學習動機和成效之影響,都是值得探討的主題。 參考文獻 岑紹基、羅燕琴、林偉業、鍾嶺崇(2001)。《香港中國語文課程新路向:學習與評估》。 香港:香港大學出版社。 李玉貴(2001)。〈以「圖書」「故事」「書」培養寫作能力〉。《研習資訊》,18(5),5-23。 李慧琼(2015)。《回歸童心的繪本閱讀教學策略研究》。寧波大學碩士專業學位論文, 3,1-52。 林偉業、張明慧、許守仁(編)(2013)。《飛越困難,一起成功:教授非華語學生中 文的良方》。香港:香港大學出版社。 邱小芳、詹士宜(2009)。〈詞彙導向之繪本教學對國小學習障礙學生閱讀表現之研究〉。 《特殊教育與復健學報》,20,75-117。 邱皓政、林碧芳(2017)。《統計學:原理與應用》。台灣:五南圖書出版股份有限公司。 祝新華(2012)。〈閱讀能力層次及其在評估中的運用〉。《香港教育局課程發展處: 小學中國語文評估系列之一:「促進學生閱讀能力評估:提問與回饋」研討會(修 訂)》。取自:http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/ kla/chi-edu/resources/primary/lang/2012.5.5_dr_zhu_level.pdf 張妙君(2004)。《以圖畫故事書進行國小一年級提早寫作教學歷程之研究(未出版之 碩士論文)》。新竹:國立新竹教育大學台灣語與語文教育研究所。 陳純純(2012)。《閱讀理解策略教學對小學生閱讀理解能力及后設認知之影響》。華 東師范大學,學科教育,博士學位論文。 楊小微(編)(2002)。《教育研究的原理與方法》。上海:華東師範大學出版社。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 64 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New York: Garland Pub. 參考繪本 阿濃(2015)。《漢堡包和叉燒包》。香港:新雅文化事業有限公司。 車寶金(2016)。《伊索寓言繪本(陳馨祈譯)》。新台北:風車圖書出版有限公司。 達妮拉.庫洛特(2016)。《好忙好忙的聖誕節(林硯芬譯)》。台北:采實文化事業 股份有限公司。 馬克斯.維特惠思(2016)。《怪獸發電廠(陳立妍譯)》。香港:新雅文化事業有限公司。 彭懿(2017)。《不要和青蛙跳繩》。香港:新雅文化事業有限公司。 雪倫.任塔(2016)。《跟着動物消防員過一天(侯秋玲譯)》。臺北:小魯文化事業 股份有限公司。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 65 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 前測評估卷 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 66 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 67 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 68 教育研究報告匯編 前測評分準則 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 69 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 70 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 71 教育研究報告匯編 後測評估卷 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 72 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 73 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 74 教育研究報告匯編 後測評分準則 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 75 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 76 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 77 教育研究報告匯編 附件二 學生訪談問題 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 78 教育研究報告匯編 附件三 「故事線策略」教案 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 79 教育研究報告匯編 附件四 繪本教學教案 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 80 教育研究報告匯編 附件五 6位非華語學生的中文閱讀水平參考(行動研究前) 81 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、 學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 周志聰、何家豪、翁志明 路德會西門英才中學 摘要 香港長久以來的數學課都是用傳統模式上課,形式不外乎聽寫及操練,在課堂中讓 學生討論數學,甚至研究數學的機會不多,高中情況更甚,主因都是由於老師需要就公 開試內容趕課,他們希望盡早完成課程內容,盡早操練,可惜的是很多時因為這種教學 方式,學生在寶貴的課堂時間中失卻深入了解數學的機會,最終造成一個高分低能的局 面。他們在公開試獲得良好成績,但往往對學習內容只是工多藝熟,欠缺理解。在這種 情況下,本研究重點研究能否有一個兩全其美的教學模式,一方面學生學得深入,同時 又可以學得好(成績好、進度快)。本研究以 29 名高中學生為研究對象,透過在課堂中 改用自主學習模式,探討如何提升學生在課堂中的參與度,繼而改善其學習效能。研究 結果發現,自主學習模式能有效提升學生的學習興趣及學習動機,並有助學生對數學的 理解,提升學業成績。 文獻回顧 「智慧的思想」是通過「通用編碼系統,允許超越數據到新的和可能富有成效的 預測」的經驗創造出來的(Bruner, 1957, p.234)。教師需要為學生提供「循序漸 進」的學習環境。經常性的規律可以幫助那些積極的學習者建立自己的知識(Bruner, 1960)。「建構」意味著的是」解構」(解釋)而不是「建立」(組裝內部知識)。組 織和更新自己的協作(模式)是一個新的經驗,並且過程中會遇到新的演譯。學習者根 據目前的理解,適應和吸收新信息。此外,Bruner 同意 Piaget,孩子們適應學習及有天 生的好奇心(當他們看到新的東西,他們會嘗試了解它是如何自動運作的),兒童的認 知結構隨著時間的推移而發展,孩子們是活躍學習過程中的參與者(他們非常不願意放 棄其既定的模式或想法,並且可能會拒絕對先驗知識提出的新挑戰)。學習者需要學習 或如何改變自己的思維或學習風格。 元認知一詞是指對認知,思考和認知知識的認知。 Flavell(1976, p.232)將元 認知定義為認知和控制知識。例如,如果一個學習者注意到他比B學習 A有更多的麻煩, 或者如果他在接受 C 作為事實之前刺激他,他應該仔細檢查 C。Flavell(1979)將元認 知分為三個組成部分: 82 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 1. 元認知知識就是把孩子當作一個認知處理者來了解自己和別人。 2. 元認知調節是對認知的調節和一系列有助於人們控制學習經驗的活動。 3. 元認知經驗是與當前正在進行的認知工作有關的經驗。 一個自我調節的學習者的共同概念,在他或她自己的學習中是元認知的、動機的 和行為上的主動(Zimmerman, 1986, 1989b, 1990)。似乎齊默爾曼和布魯納的觀點 也是一樣的,他們同意學習者積極參與學習。從元認知上來說,他們會計劃、設定目 標、自我檢查和自我評估他們的學習。在動機上,他們正在積極參與自己的教育。基於 Flavell 已經告訴孩子們認識自己和他人作為認知處理器的定義,自我調節的學習者開 始並指導自己的努力來獲取知識和技能(Zimmerman,1989a)。 根據齊默爾曼(Zimmerman,2011)的分析,自主學習是一個過程模型,自主學習 不僅是改變教學模式,而且正在改變「什麼是學習」的認知。齊默曼將自主學習模型分 為三個階段: 1. 預想階段是強調學生自動學習的階段,他們可以規劃、設定目標、自我檢查和自我評 估學習。 2. 績效階段是強調自我控制與同行和社會合作的階段。 3. 自我反思階段是強調自我評價的階段,反映出完美的目標。 林崇德(1995)提出學習動機是指推動個體進行學習活動的內部原因或內在動力。 朱敬先(2000)認為學習動機是個體追求成功的一種心理需要,即是學習者發現學習動 機的意義與價值,而嘗試驅策自己追求成長之傾向。鄭采玉(2008)認為在學習過程中, 引起、維持學習活動的內在動力;並且在學習活動中,促使其自發的投入心力、朝向所 預定的學習目標的心理歷程。吳鴻松(2009)認為引發學習者認真學習的動力,追求預 訂目標的需求,是驅策個體持續學習、引發行為並期待成果的一種心理歷程。綜合以上 學者的看法,學習動機的定義是學生在學習的過程中,學生會因心理需要而進行學習活 動,並在活動中自發投入心力及產生學習的動力,本研究比較傾向使用鄭采玉(2008) 的定義。 中國大陸近 10 年興起以「導學案」代替「教案」的自主學習模式,「導學案」源 於山東杜郎口中學,該校進行了課堂改革,把課堂由以教師為主導的「教」走向引導學 生主動學習的「學」,藉此還課堂給學生,從而提高課堂的教與學效能(張暘、蒙澤察, 2013)。「導學案」教學模式是先學後教,讓學生先在家中預習並自學一些基礎知識, 從而釋放課堂時間集中處理深層問題。 另一方面,與內地相鄰的台灣近年有翻轉教室(flipped classroom)的興起,有 由大學研究學者推動的(呂冠緯,2015;葉丙成,2015),也有個別老師自發使用(潘 玉龍,2017;盧胡彬、陳雅青,2015)。2007 年美國中學科學教師 J.Bergmann 與 A. Sams 創立翻轉教室教學模式,他們為了解決學生缺課的情況,在上課前預先錄製好教學 影片並上載到網站,讓學生先在家看影片講解自學,再於課堂上以學習活動做跟進。 83 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 香港課程發展議會在 2002 年編定的《基礎教育課程指引—各盡所能•發揮所長(小 一至中三)》,制定了七項的學習宗旨,其中一項是期望學生在 10 年內能夠發展創意思 維及掌握獨立學習的能力(課程發展議會,2002)。在 2014 年,香港課程發展議會修訂 《基礎教育課程指引—聚焦•深化•持續(小一至小六)》,明確指出自主學習應是學 校未來重點發展的項目之一,期望學生在完成小學後,擁有獨立的學習能力,特別是自 我管理能力及協作能力(課程發展議會,2014)。趙志成(2014)分析香港學校於自主 學習大致可分為三個取向:(一)「導學案模式」:源於中國大陸「還課堂給學生」的 觀念,以「預習」及「導學案」來配合課堂上不同形式的學生學習活動;(二)「元認 知取向」:源於西方認知發展理論,強調學習者在學習過程中自我調適(self-regulated process)的角色;(三)「翻轉教室」:運用網絡資訊及電子科技(e-learn),增潤 (reinforce)學生學習。 近年,香港有不少學校開始以自主學習的學與教模式進行授課,當中大部分學校都 是參照杜郎口中學的教學模式,加上各校安排教師到中國內地不同地區(如:廣州、山 東等)作跨區訪校交流以及在香港建立自主學習的學習圈,從而建立校本的自主學習教 學模式。現時已有不同的中學開始嘗試以自主學習教學模式進行教學,例如:粉嶺救恩 書院、東華三院馮黃鳳亭中學、潮陽百欣小學、中華基督教會扶輪中學等。由於自主學 習著重學生課前備課、課內展示、課後反思。學生需要透過自學、互學、共學等過程, 培養主動學習和探究精神。老師在整個過程中的角色是一個學習促進者,課堂內老師只 是指出學習重點及難點,給予學生適時的回饋,提升教學效能。課堂內學生能主導課堂、 主理所學、建構及內化知識,成為學習的主人。由於香港的學校均是參照杜郎口中學的 教學模式而再在此基礎上發展,例如「導學案」教學模式配以電子學習或融合翻轉教室 在其中。 在網路如此發達的現在,不難在網上搜尋到有關自主學習的研究報告,例如:崔其 升(2013)的《杜郎口中學:取消導學案》、東華三院馮黃鳳亭中學(2016)《「專題 研習」的課程規劃與實踐––讓學生成為自主學習者》、高寶玉(2018)研究《香港自 主學習的探索:融合東西方理念的嘗試》等,這些文獻都有不同的記載及研究分析自主 學習。在廣闊的網絡位世界中,教師難以找到分析自主學習在數學課堂應用的文獻記載, 多數的文獻都是以語文或電子學習為主。 研究背景 在 2002 年課程發展議會發表了《基礎教育課程指引一各盡所能·發揮所長(小一至 中三)》,過去十多年課程改革讓學校教學上進步了不少,尤其在學與教的模式上改進 了不少,由傳統的講授形式開始慢慢加入學生參與這一環,讓課堂由教師中心(Teacher center)轉移至學生中心(Student center)。本校已有 40 年歷史,可是在教學上仍 然是以教師為中心,學生在課堂中的參與度頗少,以致學生的學習動機偏低。有見及 此,本校在《2014-2017 三年發展計劃》中的關注事項加入了自主學習(Self-Regulated Learning)。由於自主學習是以學生為課堂中心,課堂中大部分時間都需要學生參與, 84 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 而課堂中的所有活動,均需要學生有高度參與,於是清晰的課堂目標及常規成為必要的 一環。 本校所採用的自主學習模式,主要有三個向度,名為課堂教學「二三三」「二元素」: 設導學案、老師少講(前提);「三步驟」:預習、展示、評點(過程);「三檢視」: 角色、參與、達標(總結)。自主學習是培訓學生與同學合作,制定學習目標和診斷他 們的學習需求(Knowles, M.S., 1975),學校所訂立的課堂教學「二三三」框架亦是以 此為基礎。 備 課 說 課 上 課 評 課 議課、磨課、定 課 …… 是 過 程 (個人或集體) 教研四部曲 課堂教學 「二三三」 原則 「二」 「二元素」:設導學案、老師少講 導學案:老師必須在課前為學生擬一份導學案(預習) 老師少講:注意上課時間分配 「三」 「三」 年級 教師佔用比例 大約講授時間 中一 1/4 10 分鐘 「三步驟」:預習、展示、評點 預習:- 課前導學案(預習 /老師安排時間給學生完成) - 導學案的內容和次序必須與老師教的一致 展示:- 課堂中必須有環節讓學生展示所學成果(課室的小黑板) - 老師主動邀請同工觀課,展示學生成果,建立同學自信 評點:- 老師須扣緊課堂目標,評點(補漏)及提升學生 「三檢視」:角色、參與、達標 根據學習金字塔的理論作以下檢視 檢視角色:小組討論,同學是否進入角色 檢視參與:實際演練(邊做邊學),是否所有同學都有機會參與 檢視達標:應用及指導別人,同學是否都能達標 本校初中學生已在兩年前進行自主學習模式上課,上課前學生要完成導學案內的預 習題目,而課堂中老師會先提醒同學該課節內的課堂目標(ASK,A:態度、S:技巧、 K:知識)及重點。老師多以提問方式讓同學了解課堂重點及內容,這部分不會多於 10 分鐘。接著,老師會給予隨堂練習協助同學鞏固所學,同學會進行小組討論並會用大或 85 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 小黑板進行展示,老師會隨時進行點評,同學亦會進行互評。在座位安排方面是基於其 學習能力,每組會由四至五人組成,其中包括一位能力較強同學,兩位能力一般同學及 一名能力稍遜同學,藉此加強同學間互動並照顧學習差異(Blatchford, 2003; Finn, Pannozzo, & Achilles, 2003; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; zerk, 2001; Yeomans, 1987)。教師增加不同的小組活動,亦可減少教學的時間(Blatchford, Goldstein, & Mortimore, 1998; Bascia & Faubert, 2012)。 高中方面,本校暫時仍以傳統教學模式進行教學,為了解自主學習模式的效用。本 校選擇了一班同學在數學課中進行嘗試,從而了解同學在學習過程中的得著。教師亦透 過收集數據以及學生回應,再作出分析,探究學生在成績及學習動機上是否有改善。 研究目的 透過自主學習模式提升中五級學生課堂參與的教學行動研究.這方法只是在眾多教 學策略的其中一種,不一定是最好或最有效,更不是唯一的方法。本校抱持開放及「摸 著石頭過河」的態度進行嘗試,目的只是為了讓老師上好每一課,讓同學的學習更有效。 參與此教育研究獎勵計劃前,本校已成立了自主學習研究小組,當中由負責學與教的副 校長以及中、英、數三位科主任帶領整個小組,為了讓課堂教學「二三三」的框架得以 順利進行,並從備課節中了解同事遇到的困難,透過共同備課、說課、評課等,優化課 堂教學。 研究問題 1. 自主學習模式能否提升學生的學習動機、課堂參與? 2. 自主學習模式能否提升學生的學習成績? 研究設計 本研究是教育行動研究,由於人力資源有限,所以研究對象會聚焦於一班中五學生 共29位學生,年齡為16至17歲。學生的學習及數學成績只是一般,在同級中屬於中下, 同時學生的家庭並不富裕,家庭支援不多。選取他們的主因是由於該班學生長久以來家 庭支援較少,只靠在校學習,沒有學生出外補習,這樣可減少外在因素影響研究結果, 讓研究變得更直接及單純。搜集資料方法會是採取質化與量化結合的研究方法,包括:1. 透過問卷調查,了解學生在研究過程中,在課堂參與及學習動機上是否有改善﹔ 2. 對 個別學生進行訪談,深入了解使用自主學習對學生的課堂參與、學習動機、成績、學習 進度等所帶來的影響﹔ 3. 比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績,了解自主學習模式的教 學法對學生成績的影響。 86 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 階段 日期 研究事項 申請 及 預備 2017 年 11-12 月 數學科主任、科任老師、數據回饋組共同討論是否參與本計劃;成立研究 小組,著手分析中五學生先導訪談結果,以取得初步資料,並遞交申請表 格參加研究獎勵計劃。 2017 年 12 月至 2018 年 1 月 待教師中心審批申請的同時,研究小組進一步探討落實本研究計劃的可行 方法,並初步擬訂相關持分者「問卷」。 實施 與 評估 2018 年 2-5 月 根據上述的計劃,正式展開研究;研究計劃正式在改善「學生參與」、「學 習動機」和「學習成績」三個方面進行探究;過程會根據上文所提及的研 究方法及設計,有系統地搜集各類研究數據,並交予數據回饋組分析。 總結 與 反思 2018 年 6 月 研究小組總結及反思整個研究計劃的得失,以助將來進一步完善相關的策 略與措施。 2018 年 7-8 月 研究小組依據本獎勵計劃的要求,撰寫書面報告,並於8月底呈交教師中心。 計劃進度 數據分析 數據分析部分主要由問卷調查及比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績兩部分組成。問 卷調查會以平均值輔以標準差作分析,從而了解學生對改用自主學習模式上課的意見。 另外,比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績部分,會用學生 t 檢驗方式比較兩班學生在前 測及後測的成績。研究者採用學生 t 檢驗方式,是會抽取了兩組能力相約的學生。一組 使用原本的教法,稱為控制組,另一組使用新的教法,稱為實驗組。學生學習課程結束 後,比較新的教法是否比原本的教法來的有顯著的分別。 研究結果與討論 問卷調查結果主要是透過網上問卷收集班中 29 位同學(16 男,13 女)對實施自主 學習於數學課堂中的想法,問卷調查中會有 15 題問題,其中 1代表非常不同意,而 4是 非常同意: 表一:問卷調查結果(n=30) 題目 平均值 標準差 (1) 自主學習有助老師知道我是否明白所教的內容 3.13 0.52 (2) 自主學習有助解決我的學習數學的困難 3.37 0.59 (3) 自主學習能讓我更專心上數學課 3.13 0.58 (4) 自主學習能使我主動學習 3.33 0.62 (5) 自主學習能幫助我提升學習數學的興趣 3.1 0.6 (6) 自主學習讓我不懼怕學習數學 3.23 0.66 (7) 自主學習有助我提升數學成績 3.27 0.54 (8) 自主學習有啟發我的創造力 3.33 0.58 (9) 自主學習讓我認真預備數學預習 3.17 0.56 (10) 自主學習讓我更有自信提出數學問題 3.17 0.67 (11) 自主學習讓我有更多與同學討論的機會 3.57 0.55 (12) 自主學習讓我明白老師的講解 3.2 0.48 (13) 自主學習能提升學習數學課題的進度 3.43 0.57 (14) 自主學習讓我有更多展示機會(例如:做示範、學生講解) 3.47 0.53 (15) 我喜歡用自主學習模式上數學課 3.43 0.64 87 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 表二:問卷調查結果棒形圖 根據表一及二,很容易發現所有題目的平均值都高於 3,這表明學生喜歡在數學課 中使用自主學習模式。對問題 3-6, 8, 10, 15 的回應表明學生認為自主學習模式可以使 他們更加專注、主動學習、不怕學習數學。他們更有信心提出數學問題、激發他們的創 造力及提升學習數學的興趣。這些項目顯示自主學習模式幫助學生營造舒適和積極的學 習氛圍。 另外,有關問題 1, 2, 7, 9, 11, 12-14 的結果,自主學習模式可以幫助教師檢查 視學生的學習、幫助學生解決學習數學的困難、幫助學生提高數學成績,讓學生認真準 備課堂預習、給學生更多機會與同學討論,可以增強學習進度,讓學生更多展示機會。 這些項目顯示自主學習模式幫助教師和學生有更多的互動和提升學生的學習成績。 比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績 為了解學生在數學學習中成績的變化,研究者在進行自主學習前先取得實驗組最近 的考試成績與校內能力相近班別(控制組)的成績作比較,他們並於實驗進行後再作一 次比較,從而了解學生在運用不同的學習模式會否有顯著分別。 表三:前測成績 N 平均值 標準差 標準誤平均值 實驗組(A) 29 57.3034 17.51557 3.25256 控制組(B) 30 75.2533 12.48858 2.28009 88 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 表四:前測成績比較(註:*p<0.05、**p<0.01、***p<0.001) F 顯著性 t值 自由度 顯著性(雙尾) 平均值差異 標準誤差異 A-B 3.082 .085 -4.544 57 .000 -17.94989 3.94988 根據表三及表四的資料所得,利用獨立樣本t檢定比較實驗組、控制組之前測成績, 實驗組(M=57.3034、SD=17.51557)與控制組(M=75.2533、SD=12.48858)在前測成績 並沒有顯著分別,而 p>0.05(p=0.085),可見實驗組與控制組學生的數學能力相約。 表五:後測成績比較(註:*p<0.05、**p<0.01、***p<0.001) 平均值 學生數目 標準差 標準誤 平均值 t值 顯著性 (雙尾) A(前測 -後測) 63.0172 29 8.84795 1.64302 3.478 0.002 B(前測 -後測) 59.0967 30 18.93715 3.45743 4.673 0.000 表六:後測成績比較(平均值) 根據表五,研究者利用成對樣本 t 檢定比較實驗組、控制組之後測成績,實驗組學 生的數學成績有顯著上升,而 p<0.01(p=0.002)﹔相反,控制組學生的數學成績顯著 下降,而 p<0.01 (p=0.000)﹔從以上結果可得知,運用自主學習模式在數學課中,能 有效提升學生的數學成績。根據表六,可見實驗組的學生後測成績比前測高,而控制組 的學生後測成績比前測低,可見能力相近的學生在兩種不同的教學模式,成績有顯著的 分別及不同趨勢。 89 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 表七:5位學生的訪談結果 問題 學生 回應 1. 你喜歡在數 學課堂上用 自主學習模 式上課嗎 ? A 喜歡,自主學習模式可以幫助我更集中上課,因為小組內的組員會經常提醒我。 此外,與 4名學生一起組成小組並與小組成員合作,可以幫助我更快地學習。 B 使用自主學習模式上課可以讓我們有更多的機會成為演講者,這樣我們不僅可 以聽老師,還可以和同學一起學習,這樣可以使學習過程變得愉快及快速學習。 C 自主學習模式使我學習比以前更快(1 個月學習 3 個課題),同時亦使我可以 趕上主題的概念。這給了我們愉快學習和展示的機會。 D 這讓我們的班上課愉快。不過,我在課上有點迷糊,但我可以請同學幫助我。 E 我喜歡自主學習。我相信這可以讓我更加專注於課堂。 2. 在數學課堂 上用自主學 習模式上課 後,對你的 數學成績有 何影響 ? A 自主學習模式可以幫助我提高學習成績,因為當我遇到困難時,我可以問同學。 B 整班的學習成績都在提高,因為我會請教同學來教我如何做習題。老師需要我 們在課前做預習,讓我們在上課前已對準備教的課題有印象。 C 我們的學術成績保持在中文班的第一。自主學習模式可以改善整個班成績,不 僅僅是一些學生。 D 在我的中學學習中,今年我的數學成績是最好的一年。 E 我的數學考試成績很好,因為我可以有不明白的地方可以與同學討論。 個別訪談 個別訪談是在班中挑選了五位同學參與,其中學生 A在數學成績比較優異,學生 B、 C、D數學成績比較一般,而學生 E數學成績稍遜。訪談問題如下: A. 你喜歡在數學課堂上用自主學習模式上課嗎 ? B. 在數學課堂上用自主學習模式上課後,對你的數學成績有何影響 ? 從表七中,可見接受訪的五名學生喜歡在數學課中使用自主學習模式,他們喜歡 與同學一起工作,因為老師允許他們在課程中詢問同學問題,從而在討論過程中加深 了解課堂內容。這一發現表明學生單獨實現的努力並不能保證成功(Nicholls, 1978, 1984)此外,學生們認為數學課的氣氛很愉快,他們有更多機會展示他們所學到的知識。 再者,一些學生認為在自主學習模式下,他們的學習進度可能比使用傳統學習模式更快。 另外亦可以看出,由於同學與同學合作,所有學生都認為在數學課上使用自主學習模式 可以提升他們的學業成績。 總結 在問卷調查中,可見大部分學生都十分認同自主學習模式可以使他們更加專注、主 動學習、不怕學習數學、更有信心提出數學問題、激發他們的創造力。自主學習有助培 養在上課前的預習習慣、提升學習數學的興趣、幫助學生營造舒適和積極的學習氛圍、 同時亦幫助教師和學生有更多的互動及提升學生的學習成績。 在量化分析中,實驗組學生與控制組學生的基礎能力沒有太大異同。實驗組學生經 過一段時間改用自主學習模式上課後,兩組學生前測與後測成績均有明顯不同,在數據 90 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 綜合研究所得,學生無論是在課堂參與、學習動機、成績、學習進度等均有所提升, 而且提升的效果亦非常明顯。可是此結果受制於時間及資源所限,未能取得更多研究樣 本及作更深入研究。 建議 明顯地,自主學習模式可以增強學生的學習動機並提高他們的學業成績,因表現出 主動、有學習動機和個人責任的學生能取得特定的學業成功(Zimmerman & Martinez- Pons, 1988)。本研究通過在數學課中使用自主學習模式展示了一個成功的例子;但是, 這只是使用自主學習模式的結果,而不是過程。如要成功使用自主學習模式,教師需要 幫助學生自我調節,並幫助他們在課堂上建立課堂常規,而有自我調節能力的學生,可 中可見實驗組學生的後測平均分比前測高,而成對樣本 t 檢定結果亦顯示學生前測與後 測成績有顯著分別。反觀,控制組學生的後測平均分比前測低,而成對樣本 t 檢定結果 亦顯示學生前測與後測成績有顯著分別。綜合以上兩個情況,實驗組學生的數學成績有 顯著進步,而同時控制組學生的數學成績有顯著退步,這是一個值得進深探討的情況。 在質性訪談中,無論是成績優異或成績稍遜的學生,他們都喜歡使用自主學習模 式在數學課中。因為在課堂中,學生可以與同學討論從而加深了解課堂內容。此外,學 生們認為數學課的氣氛很愉快,因為他們可以有機會展示學習成果(透過互評或學生說 課),學生認為課堂中與同學互動,除了加深了解課堂內容,同時亦可讓他們更快掌握 所學,加快進度,亦有助提升學業成績。 91 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 以通過使用元認知來區分(Zimmerman, 1990)。之後,老師應該教學生如何在課前做好 準備。這兩件事是影響使用自主學習模式結果的主要因素。 在這項研究中,只是比較個別班別的學業成績,並從在香港使用自主學習模式的學 生中獲得一些意見。為了獲得更有說服力的證據,應該從更多學生和教師中獲取更多樣 本數據。可是,如果要從更多班別中取得樣本,必需要有更多老師願意嘗運用自主學習 模式上課。 本研究如再續研究,可以更多收集樣本,同時擴闊研究的教學課題,屆時可以更全 面了解自主學習模式的應用是否在不同課題上均有效,以及不同能力的學生是否均可受 惠於新的教學模式。 參考文獻 朱敬先(2000)。《教育心理學》。臺北:五南。 吳鴻松(2008)。《科技大學成人學生學習動機與學習滿意度關係之研究─以南部某科 技大學為例(未出版碩士論文)》。高學師範大學。高雄市。 鄭采玉(2008)。《國小學生社會領域學習動機與學習滿意度關係之研究(未出版碩士 論文)》。國立屏東教育大學。屏東縣。 呂冠緯(2015)。〈跨越翻轉教學的鴻溝〉。《教育脈動》,1,65–75。 東華三院馮黃鳳亭中學(2016)。〈「專題研習」的課程規劃與實踐––讓學生成為自 主學習者〉。 林崇德(1995)。《高中生心理學》。臺北:五南。 粉嶺救恩書院(2014)。《自主學習–教學錦囊》,頁 4。 高寶玉(2018)。《香港自主學習的探索:融合東西方理念的嘗試》。 崔其升(2013)。《杜郎口中學:取消導學案》。 張暘、蒙澤察(2013)。〈「導學案教學」與「翻轉教室」的價值、限度與共生〉。《全 球教育展望》,42(7),10-17。 葉丙成(2015)。《為未來而教:葉丙成的 BTS 教育新思維》。臺北市:親子天下。 葉炳煙(2013)。〈學習動機定義與相關理論之研究〉。《屏東教大體育》,第 16 期, 285-293. 趙志成(2014)。《香港推行自主學習的探索》。第 42 卷第 2期,143–153。 92 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 潘玉龍(2017)。(翻轉教室導入體育教學之應用)。《中華體育季刊》,31(2), 87-99。 課程發展議會(2002)。《基礎教育課程指引–各盡所能發揮所長(小一至中三)》。 課程發展議會(2014)。《基礎教育課程指引–聚焦•深化•持續(小一至小六)》。 盧胡彬、陳雅青(2015)。〈翻轉課堂〉。《歷史科電子報》,2。 Bascia, N., & Faubert, B. 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New York: Routledge. 95 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生 學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 陳志堅、蔡仁桂、莊繞蔓、曾笥湲、蔡淑榕 聖公會聖馬利亞堂莫慶堯中學 摘要 香港中學生在寫作時,往往描寫粗疏,情感單薄,立意欠深刻。問題癥結在於學生 日常生活體驗不足,觀察欠具體仔細﹔而語文課堂的教學模式較單向,較少互動機會, 未能全面照顧學習需要。為了加強學生的寫作能力,本校中文科團隊在三年前引入虛擬 實境,盼能豐富學生生活經驗,讓學生投入寫作課堂,並從中學會仔細觀察。是次研究 共 38 名中三學生參與,結合質化及量化分析,旨在進一步探討虛擬實境對提升寫作教學 的效能。 關鍵詞 虛擬實境,電子教學,教學模式,學習動機,寫作能力 緒論 社會普遍期望學生具備良好的語文能力,以應付各項生活任務(不同情景和處境)。 學生如果能夠達到有效溝通和解難的水平,並且成為「終生學習者」(課程發展議會, 2002),便可以回應「學會學習,具備終身學習的能力」的目標 (課程發展議會、香港 考試及評核局,2007 & 2015)。由此可見,語文學習當中寫作和說話是輸出,自然是絕 不能忽視的過程。教育局曾就中國語文教育的發展與規劃制定多份課程文件(包括《中 國語文教育學習領域課程指引(小一至中六)》(香港課程發展議會,2017)、《中國 語文課程及評估指引(中四至中六)》(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2015)和《中 學中國語文建議學習重點(試用)》(課程發展議會,2007)等),提到對學生寫作能 力的期望,其中包括選材,運用寫作策略(如想像、聯想)、組織結構、整合材料和意 念等。然而,從近年公開考試報告(包括全港性系統評估和香港中學文憑試可見,學生 的寫作表現較期望的標準遜色。 上述的落差難免令語文老師疑惑:學生在語文學習上遇到甚麼困難?教學上又應採 用甚麼策略以促進學生的語文學習,從而加強整體學與教的效能?教師正積極尋求方法 96 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 以改善學生的語文問題。近年教育界積極推動電子學習,並鼓勵教師運用科技以提升學 習效能。為了提升學生寫作能力,我校中文科團隊於三年前引入電子教學,結合虛擬實 境和語文學習,並在初中寫作課堂上應用。本校研究團隊曾於中三級開設「地景文學」 單元,以今昔北角為例,製作一系列讀寫教材,旨在讓學生於體驗虛擬實境的過程中。 學生透過對照文本和虛擬實境相片中所觀察到的景物,以個人視點切入,發掘寫作素材, 通過眼前景物以引發深刻反思。就校本經驗,本校積極與各間大學和中學進行交流,亦 曾在學界分享過一些研究成果。 是次研究建基於過去的研究基礎,以塔門為學習情境,讓學生有機會走出鬧市、遠 離繁喧,認識香港的另一面向。塔門近年成為「旅遊勝地」,許多自然風光也漸受破壞, 因此我們亦希望藉虛擬實境為這個「消失中的隱世天堂」記錄一時一地的景色,為下一 代保留較完整的地景素材,亦讓學生從中反思城市發展如何影響人與自然的關係。通過 課堂體驗,學生應對細節有更深入的觀察,並通過寫作展現個人的觀察和反思。 綜合而言,本次研究共有兩大意義: (1) 將科技元素融入語文教學,結合有系統的讀寫教學,建構「具學習意義」、「以 學生為本」的寫作課堂,為教學效能增值。 (2) 讓學生觀察社區真實面貌,從具體情境中觀察細節,發掘個人感興趣的寫作素材。 文獻探討 《中學中國語文建議學習重點(試用)》(課程發展議會,2007)建議學生在寫作 能力上掌握「直接描寫、間接描寫、人物描寫、景物描寫、場面描寫等方法」,這與如 何透過運用寫作手法以呈現個人所觀察的事物有關。文件亦提到學生適宜運用寫作策略, 包括「聯繫生活經驗及已有知識以構思寫作內容」、「多讀多聽、多觀察,運用聯想和 想像,豐富寫作內容」,這些都涉及日常生活中的體驗和觀察,並由此延伸出多元、獨 特的寫作意念。以上各種策略可反映教育局對中學生寫作能力的關注,亦期望學生能達 到基本的寫作水平。 2017 年全港性系統評估(香港考試及評核局,2017)的中學三年級中文科報告,對 「達到基本能力水平的中三學生表現」有以下描述:「大部分的作品對人物的描寫略嫌 粗疏」﹔而表現良好的作品「往往能以小見大,從日常生活,引出個人體會及感受」、「描 寫細緻、情感真摯」。相近的描述亦見於 2017 年香港中學文憑試寫作能力卷的閱卷員報 告(香港考試及評核局,2017),其中指出學生「觀察粗疏」、「對場景、人物的描寫 較為粗疏」、「抒發的感情又較為浮泛,致未能寄託真摯細膩的情感」。歷年的公開考 試報告均指出考生在寫作表現的不足,與「選材」、「內容立意」和「情感」有關。(詳 細描述見附件 1及附件 2) 由此可見,「觀察」對學生的寫作非常重要。學生在觀察過程中可以捕捉細節,不 論是人物、景物的動態或靜態。當學生掌握相當細節後,才能誘發對人事、景物的情感, 再將這些意念轉化成內容。長遠而言,學生的寫作能力才能得到提升,寫出仔細具體、 97 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 真情實感的作品。因此,我們希望在中三級嘗試引入虛擬實境,希望為學生有機會在寫 作過程時,結合具體的體驗。從中觀察更多細節,學生關於人物及場景的描寫便可以更 立體,抒發更真實的情感。 祝新華(2011)提到「傳統的作文評估以教師為主體,學生只是被評估的對象。由 於現代教學強調學生的自主學習,學生須對自己的學習負責」。但是學生在傳統寫作課 堂中的角色較被動,主要透過老師講授內容作為輸入,較難實踐「自主學習」。虛擬實 境結合寫作教學的模式正好提供平台,讓學生在任務中探索不同情景,綜合運用各種知 識和能力,成為自主學習者和問題解決者。學生從中能夠開拓知識,通過整理的過程, 轉化成個人的學習成果。同時,電子平台配合科技元素,讓老師施教時享有更大的靈活 度,並提高互動性。 虛擬實境寫作教學讓學生更有效學習,既可強化與刺激學生學習意願與表現 (Nehme, 2010 ; 蔡政宏、謝文惠,2011),亦讓學生通過協作和互動,增加學 習 效 能。 平 台 體 現 了 SAMR 模 型 中 的「Redefinition」(SAMR 模 型 由 Dr. Ruben Puentedura 提出,以檢視電子教學在傳統教學上的應用。模型共分四層,第一層為 「替代」(Substitution),科技成為替代工具,但沒有改變功能;第二層為「擴充」 (Augmentation),科技成為替代工具,並提供功能性的改善;第三層為「重新設計」 (Modification),運用科技重新設計重大任務;第四層為「重新創造」(Redefinition), 科技與形式有機結合,突破傳統的框架)。學生置身於不同場境中,自主選擇所觀察的 對象/事物。這種學習模式打破傳統教學的限制,為學生提供互動的寫作體驗,增加學 生的參與度,提升學生語文學習效能。 虛擬實境寫作教學亦體現了教學創新。科技元素有助優化教學活動,提升學習過 程的層次,亦提升了電子教學的應用性。這套教學模式印證了 TPACK 理論(Shulman, 1987)(TPACK 強調學科知識、教學知識和科技知識三者的互動。三者不能分割,有機 結合有助促進學習效能),強調教學法、科技元素和學科知識的配合,通過科技形式 和互動的教學法以提升學生學習中文的動機。老師可調整教學策略(Broko & Putnam, 1995;Nehme, 2010),讓學生更投入課堂。因此,本科團隊希望虛擬實境能成為一個「增 加價值」的工具,以促進教學效能。 研究設計 就著研究問題「虛擬實境教學多大程度有助學生描寫文的寫作?」,本研究安排了 本校3A班學生參與研究,共38位,年齡介乎14至 16歲。運用工具為塔門地景VR相片、 EduVenture VR 教件(EduVenture VR 系統由香港中文大學學習科學與科技中心研發,系 統提供簡易教材編輯器(Composer)讓教師編寫校本教件。配合手機及應用程式,學生 可以在室內參加「戶外學習旅程」。研究員會在 EduVenture VR 擬定任務流程,學生須 細心觀察,並回答所附問題。任務就全景照片、影片設計問題,提問方向包括辨析環境 的感官刺激、人物活動、地景位置、個人感受。學生在教師引導下,於課堂工作紙上摘 錄觀察所得,最後組織成寫作大綱。)、寫作工作紙(見附件 3)。 98 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 在資料分析過程中,蒐集方法分為質性與量性。質性研究包括學生作品分析,量性 研究則包括學習動機問卷(見附件 4)及寫作評量表(見附件 5)。 質化分析 本次研究就著學生的寫作成果進行質性分析,其中包括作品中所呈現的立意深度和 描寫手法運用,從而評估學生的寫作表現。研究分三個階段進行,詳情可見下表。 項目 日期 參與對象 階段一﹕ 課堂前 準備 1、擬定語文學習重點 (如細節描寫、場景描寫、情與景的關係等) 2018 年 1 月 計劃負責老師 2、選取地點(如塔門)及合適地景篇章。(可參附件6) 2018 年 1 月至 3月 3、選定重要地景(如鄉公所、青年會和龍景亭等)。 (可參附件 6) 4、實地考察,拍攝 360 全景照片和影片,並上載至 EduVenture VR。(可參附件 7) 5、製作 EduVenture VR 教件 利用平台設題功能,在所選的 14 張圖片中嵌入導引題目 和設定作答指示。 *題目的設定主要分為兩大類,一類是與閱讀篇章內容 互涉和呼應,另一類是學生的即時觀察和觀感。 (題目見附件 8) 6、教材製作﹕(1)擬定閱讀篇章題目、 (2)寫作指引工作紙 7、製定具體教學流程(見表 2) 8、修訂寫作能力評估量表 9、共備會議﹕閱讀能力教學 2018 年 4 月 計劃負責老師、 中三級任老師 階段二﹕ 課堂教學 10、閱讀教學課堂﹕教授所選篇章及討論 2018 年 5 月 中三級任老師、 實驗組學生 11、虛擬實境寫作課堂﹕虛擬實境體驗 (結合 EduVenture VR 平台)、課堂討論(師生互動、 同學交流) 階段三﹕ 課堂後 跟進 12、著學生完成學習動機問卷 計劃負責老師、 中三級任老師 13、寫作實踐﹕學生回家完成寫作課業 14、老師批改寫作課業(配合評量表) 15、教學回饋 16、數據輸入及分析(質化、量化) 2018 年 6 月至 8月17、總結、檢討 表 1:研究流程 量化分析 本研究的量化分析,包括寫作能力評量和動機問卷數據。老師採用了寫作評量表作 為批改工具,以評估學生的寫作表現。研究者按照學生取材立意的深刻程度及對描寫手 法的掌握程度,細分成七項評量準則。教師批改時按各項準則給予 1 至 4 分,給分與學 生水平成正比關係。寫作評估的批改老師並沒有任教研究對象,以保證研究成果的客觀 99 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 性和信度。完成寫作課堂後,學生會填寫學習動機問卷,問卷參照 ARCS 動機設計模式 (John Keller,1983)設計,他將心理學的動機理論與教學設計模式結合,提出學習動 機、教學設計與學習成果間相互影響,旨在優化課程設計,以促進教學。本問卷共設 20 道題,題目均為正向題,記分範圍為1至4分。問卷共設20題,主要是針對「引起注意」 (Attention)、「切身相關」(Relevance)、「建立信心」(Confidence)、「獲得滿足」 (Satisfaction) 四方面(見附件 4),各題得分愈高,表示學生學習動機愈強。 研究以 8個課節進行,詳見表 2。 節數 教學活動 教學目標 4節 閱讀教學﹕ 老師指導學生閱讀文本,通過提問引導學生 理解作品中的內容和寫作手法,並思考當中 內容和情意。 (1)學生能掌握細節和場景描寫。 (2)學生對塔門面貌建立基本認知。 (3)學生能理解作者的感受和作品中的情懷。 任課老師在寫作課堂前向學生講解課堂流程,並著學生預先下載 EduVentureVR 及教材套(《塔門 之旅》)。寫作課堂開始時,學生需戴上一副 VR 眼鏡,。 2節 寫作課堂﹕ -學生透過 EduVenture VR 觀察塔門的社區 環境,並根據預設指示按次序經歷一連串的 地景,回答不同問題。 (觀看不同場景時,畫面會出現導引問題。 學生可藉調整觀察的角度,觀察環境四周的 不同人事、景物,以發掘不同素材。) -學生在觀察不同地景面貌的同時,可同步 在寫作工作紙上作紀錄。 -虛擬實境體驗後,會隨即展開課堂討論。 老師會向學生提問,引導學生思考不同片段 和情景﹔亦會安排分組討論,交流所見所感 和個人習得,共同組織意念。 (1)學生通過對讀(文本中的地景與個人觀 察到的影像),以豐富寫作素材。 (2)學生能通過虛擬實境發掘出不同的細節, 並將不同片段整理成具體的寫作意念。 (3)學生可通過即時觀察以加強觀察力和敏 感度,引發對景物的情感。 / 寫作實踐﹕ 學生需回家完成寫作任務,題目為「遊歷一 個地方,看到眼前景象,往往會興起一番感 受。試「_________ 漫遊」為題,描寫你對一 個地景的觀察,並就個人體會,抒發你的感 受」。(可選塔門/感興趣深刻的地方) (1)學生可通過寫作實踐時運用各種描寫手 法,展示描寫作力。 (2)學生能體味社區情味,培養個人對社區 的人文關懷。 2節 寫作回饋﹕ 教師會因應學生寫作表現(寫作立意和運用 描寫手法的能力等),給予學生回饋。 (1)老師有意識地結合本單元的學習重點, 以引導學生了解個人寫作上的不足,從而對症 下藥,改善問題。 (2)老師能引導學生反思城市與人的關係。 表 2:教節內容重點 由於是次研究希望進一步了解虛擬實境如何有助學生提升寫作能力,故寫作題目並 不限於塔門的描寫。若學生選擇以塔門作為寫作主題,通過閱讀篇章的輸入、老師的讀 寫指導,以及寫作課堂上的親身觀察和同儕討論,理應可以在作品中呈現相關的細節, 並抒發個人感受。 100 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 3:學習評量表結果(詳見附件 3) 平均值 1. 學生能選取不同的場景加以描寫。 3.24 2. 學生能選取獨特的角度加以描寫。 3.18 3. 學生能做到情景交融。 3.00 4. 學生能運用細節描寫呈現城市風景。 3.13 5. 學生能運用多角度描寫呈現城市風景。 2.95 6. 學生能運用感官描寫呈現城市風景。 3.29 7. 學生能運用人物描寫呈現城市中的人物。 3.00 註﹕每項以 4分為滿分 學生在接近所有題目的平均得分皆為 3 或高於 3 分,反映這種學習模式讓學生得到 理想的學習體驗,在立意和寫作手法方面,均有不錯的表現,能掌握學習重點。(可見 附件 10)實驗組表現最好的三項為「能運用感官描寫呈現城市風景」、「選取不同的場 景加以描寫」和「學生能選取獨特的角度加以描寫」,平均分數分別為 3.29、3.24 和 3.18。表現最弱的一項同為「運用多角度描寫呈現城市風景」,平均分數分別為 2.95。 數據顯示,實驗組學生在參與虛擬實境寫作活動後,能運用感官描寫呈現城市風景、選 取不同的場景加以描寫和選取獨特的角度加以描寫。 就著以上幾項的評量標準,研究團隊選取了較典型的例子,就其中的內容和技巧等 稍作分析作品如何符合相關的描述。現分析如下﹕ 感官描寫 虛擬實境讓學生更具體掌握外在環境的細節,因此在不同場景中也能運用感官描寫 以呈現有關地方的特色,避免概念化的描寫。 另一方面,虛擬實境作能夠提升學生對細節的敏感度,讓學生在日常觀察中可以發 掘更多細節作為寫作素材,因此若學生選擇以其他地方作為寫作重心,亦可遷移有關描 寫能力,由此觸發個人情思,思考情與景的關係。 結果與討論 虛擬實境對學生寫作能力的影響 寫作能力測驗成績設七項評量準則,第一至三項評量學生取材立意能力,第四至七 項評量學生運用描寫手法的能力。所收集的 38 份學生作品均以此量表評改,學生整體成 績如下: 101 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 作品示例 從示例 1A 見,學生有 意識運用聽覺及觸覺 描寫,豐富文章內容。 示例 1A 學生透過虛擬實境獲 得多元的感官經驗, 並透過感官描寫呈現 大自然的美。 示例 1B 示例 1B 和 1C 反映學 生充份掌握感官描 寫, 例 如 起 伏 有 節 的浪潮聲、海風和海 浪的聲音等,運用了 聽覺描寫﹔而小草在 風中和陽光中的擺 動、彈起的海浪等, 運用了視覺描寫﹔ 光腳踏在沙上的感 受,則是觸覺描寫。 可見,學生在虛擬實 境體驗中獲得感官的 刺激,並轉化成具體 仔細的文字。 示例 1C 表 4﹕學生感官描寫示例及說明 示例 1D 可見,學生留 意到牛吃草的聲音和 牛的活動等,並能靈 活運用視覺和聽覺描 寫,以呈現畫面。 示例 1D 102 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 場景描寫 虛擬實境讓學生有機會接觸不同場境(地點),並在不同情景中具體仔細觀察當中 的面貌。以下三個示例,分別來自三位學生的作品,當中的幾個段落反映出他們取材豐 富,有意識選取不同的場景加以描寫,文章能細緻呈現地區的多元面貌。 描述及說明 學生示例 示例 2A ﹕塔門書寫學 生在塔門碼頭外留意 到破舊的信箱、特產 攤檔之設計等,突出 塔門這漁鄉與城市隔 絕,並流露個人感受。 場景﹕碼頭外的風景 示例 2B ﹕學生描寫沿 途所見的風光(居民 休閒的衣著、公廁設 計等),藉此對照塔 門與市區的不同。除 此,塔門居民和設施 也成了「塔門風景」 的一部份。 場景﹕沿途所見的風景 103 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 5﹕學生場景描寫示例及說明 描述及說明 學生示例 示例 2D ﹕學生具體描 寫在穿過市集後所觀 察到的場景,並能仔 細描寫人物老的衣著 和事物特色。 場景﹕穿過市集外的人 示例 2E ﹕學生能具體 描寫在草地上所見的 自然風景並由此作出 聯想,可見學生有意 識描寫細節,配合想 像,豐富立意。 大草地的風景 示例 2C ﹕學生集中 描寫塔門市集的人, 包括衣著較隨意的遊 客和只顧玩手機的店 主。學生留意到兩旁 建築物、建築廢料和 失修的牆,反映學生 有意識在描寫場景時 加入各種人事、景物 的細節。 場景﹕市集風景 104 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 是次寫作課堂運用虛擬實境,目的不只在於讓學生認識塔門這地方。因此在寫作任 務的設定上,採用了半開放題型,學生可選擇個人感興趣、深刻的地方作書寫的對象。 在其他並非以塔門為書寫對象的作品中,學生亦有意識運用場景描寫以呈現地區面貌。 是次研究希望了解結合虛擬實境的寫作體驗,是否能夠讓學生在寫作實踐時運用不同的 描寫手法以深化文章的立意,並做到能力上的遷移。以下示例可以成參照(見表 6)。 描述及說明 學生示例 學生通過虛擬實境的 觀察體驗,提升了個 人對事物的敏感度, 並培養出真情實感, 引起反思。 示例可見,學生能發 掘出場景中的事物, 並在觀察的過程中, 引發出個人的感受或 反思。例如學生從小 朋友玩耍,想起童真 的美好和長大後的煩 惱﹔從老婆婆漫步, 想起人老去後,一切 會變慢。從滑板場上 練習者的堅持,他們 想到背後代表著不同 夢想、不同故事,未 來可能成就出一個傳 奇﹔從足球員的表情 反應引起個人對成敗 的反思等。 表 6﹕學生場景描寫示例及說明(荔枝角公園書寫) 105 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 學生示例 有別於一般人會描寫的酒 家外在設計,學生留意到 「酒家的海鮮銷售量」﹔ 另外,即使瓊林學校並不 起眼,學生仍留意到校舍 被雜草掩蓋,只有綠色鐵 閘相伴的情景。 示例 3A 在示例中,學生留意到在 同一時空,大家進行不同 的活動,心情有所不同。 故此,學生描寫在城市 一隅不同人物的活動和 情態,並選取野餐者、照 顧寵物的工人姐姐、躺在 草地休息的人作為描寫對 象,選取的角度獨特。 示例 3B 獨特的描寫角度 虛擬實境的其中一大特點在於學生能以個人視點切入,選取個人感興趣的角度,轉 化成寫作意念,融入作品中。學生在虛擬實境教材中,經歷不同場景,故可自行調整個 人視點,發掘有趣的描寫角度。虛擬實境比傳統寫作教學所運用的圖片及影片更貼近真 實,有助學生具體仔細地掌握地景面貌,避免千篇一律的選材和抽象空泛的描寫。它亦 能開拓學生對外在環境的感知有機會接觸更多細節,捕捉個人化的場景描寫。以下是一 些學生示例(見表 7)﹕ 虛擬實境記錄了一時一 地的情景,讓學生可隨 時捕捉不同角度的事物。 在示例中,學生在登上 觀光船後,選取了上和 下兩個視點進行觀察,並 透過文字呈現﹕「船邊低 頭向下望,有不少細碎的 岩石」、「向上看,見到 一條彩虹在頭上,水氣滿 佈」,視點亦相當獨特。 示例 3C 106 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 學生示例 虛擬實境較能開拓學 生對外在環境的感知。 示例 3D 中,學生選取 了由草地望上天空的 角度,描寫自己「一 伸手就能觸到似的」, 可見其中距離之近﹔ 又選了望向大海的角 度,描寫波浪形態和 海上的船。 示例 3D 示例 3E 中所描寫的對 象是一位「與眾不同」 的遊客,學生留意他 的 行 為 非 常 特 別, 「肆意踢在厚實的玻 璃板上」,又「來往 踩踏行走」,令玻璃 出現「斑駁的刮紋」。 而學生亦因為這獨特 的角度而生出特別的 感受﹕「以往只能仰 望的高樓大廈現在卻 如孩子的玩具任由踐 踏。」 示例 3D 107 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 學生示例 在示例 3F 中,學生留 意到「海浪侵蝕作用」 對岩石的影響,亦注 意到「奇形怪狀的岩 石聳立在懸崖峭壁」 的畫面,角度非常獨 到。 示例 3F 在示例 3G 中,學生 留意到蟲對嫩草的喜 愛,又留意到蟲消失 後所留下的痕跡,「葉 子的邊位缺了一個 角」。 另外,學生留到老牛 們吃草之際,「眼睛 是看著我們(遊人) 的」,觀察角度非常 特別,並由此生出「是 我們的到來打破了這 裡的寧靜嗎」的反思。 示例 3G 表 7﹕學生示例及說明 由以上學生寫作示例可見,學生的選材和觀察角度亦相當獨特,並能運用多元的描 寫手法呈現。在學生的寫作學習經驗中,虛擬實境並非純粹的電子工具或科技元素,亦 是能夠提升對外在環境感知的媒介。學生可以結合虛擬實境的觀察,配合寫作教學工作 紙和各種課堂活動,逐漸累積寫作素材。 108 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 相關 元素 題目 平均分 相關 元素 題目 平均分 引起 注意 平均 3.4 1. 我認為 VR 寫作課有趣、新 鮮。 3.32 切身 相關 平均 3.39 2. 我認為能在 VR 寫作課完成 學習任務很重要。 3.37 5. 我認為 VR 寫作課所運用的 學習材料具吸引力。 3.5 6. 我認為 VR 寫作課的學習內 容切合我的興趣。 3.42 9. 我認為 VR 寫作課引發了我 的求知欲。 3.42 10. 我認為 VR 寫作課讓我覺得 描寫技巧是值得學習的。 3.5 13. 我認為在 VR 寫作課中,我 得到意外的收穫。 3.34 14. 我能將 VR 寫作課堂上所學 的內容聯繫日常生活。 3.29 17. 我認為 VR 寫作課堂有助我 維持專注力。 3.42 18. 我認為 VR 寫作課堂的學習 內容實用。 3.37 建立 信心 平均 3.42 3. 我有信心學會 VR 寫作課上 所教授的知識。 3.37 獲得 滿足 平均 3.42 4. 我認為參與 VR 寫作課能獲 得滿足感。 3.37 7. 我認為 VR 寫作課所運用的 學習材料難度適中。 3.37 8. 我享受 VR 寫作課,並希望 了解更多有關此主題的內容。 3.37 11. 我認為 VR 寫作課的學習內 容容易理解。 3.61 12. 我非常享受參與 VR 寫作 課。 3.39 15. 我認為在參與 VR 寫作課 後,我有信心能在描寫文創作 中取得及格成績。 3.29 16. 我認為能在 VR 寫作課內完 成學習任務,讓我感覺良好。 3.5 19. 我認為 VR 寫作課堂有助提 升我學習寫作描寫文的自信。 3.45 20. 我認為運用 VR 學習寫作讓 我感到很愉快。 3.47 表 8:ARCS 動機問卷分類結果(詳見附件 4) 註:每項以 4分為滿分 虛擬實境對於學生學習動機的影響 本研究共收集問卷 38 份,問卷結果及分析內容見表 8: 綜合以上數據,四項範疇的平均得分均高於 3.4 分,可見參與課堂的學生對虛擬實 境寫作課堂都持正面態度,並認同問卷的描述,反映有關課堂有效提升學生學習寫作的 動機和自信(可見附件 9)。在「引起注意」(attention)方面,各題得分均高於 3.3 分,可見虛擬實境寫作教學有助引起學生參與課堂的興趣。其中「學習材料具吸引力」 獲最 3.5 分,足見課堂教材及設計能引發學生對學習的動機,鼓勵學生積極參與,提高 學生主動性。 在「切身相關」方面,各題得分均高於 3.2 分,可見學生認同所學習的事物與生活 息息相關,關係密切,其中「學習內容切合興趣」獲 3.42 分,可見這種學習模式配合學 生的興趣,學生亦願意投入學習過程。在「建立信心」方面,接近每題得分均高於3.3分, 反映學生能掌握課堂學習重點,明白當中內容,從而建立個人學習信心。當中「學習內 容容易理解」得分為 3.61 分,反映出學生能理解課堂學習內容,有助學建立自信,強化 內在學習動機,促成良性循環。在「獲得滿足」方面,各題得分均高於3.3分,當中「感 覺良好」一項得分 3.5 分,可見學生對課堂有正面評價,從中產生持續學習的興趣。 109 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 總結與建議 是次研究結果反映了:虛擬實境寫作教學有助提升學生的描寫能力和學習動機。就 描寫能力而言,學生可以透過虛擬實境的親身觀察,以及當中的細節,配合地景篇章、 導引題目和課堂交流等。學生能清楚了解社區面貌的不同面向,對社區有更立體的認識 和更深刻的體會,從而引發對社區的情思,並遷移到寫作上。這種教學模式亦強調學習 自主性和學生課堂參與,故此可以提升了學生的學習動機。 傳統寫作教學多要求學生憑個人想像建構文章,即使老師在課堂上有為學生安排學 習材料以作輸入,但這些教材往往較零碎,且多由老師單向講授以「灌輸」寫作概念, 學生相對被動,沒有親身經歷,故未能通過觀察過程以發掘細節。加上一般課堂運作受 限於各種因素,如課時、資源安排、地域限制等,無法安排學生到不同社區親身體驗。 而受到現今社會文化影響,學生較少機會接觸外在事物。以上原因令到學生未能在日常 生活中仔細觀察,難以在作品中呈現具體細節和抒發深刻感受。這亦印證了公開考試報 告對學生寫作能力的描述。教師可以見到學生寫作立意不足,未有充份反思,與缺乏生 活體驗和觀察有很大關係。 結合虛擬實境的教學模式正好補足以上不足,能為學生提供更多經歷不同情境的機 會。這種方式有助學生獲取細節,從而對所觀察的事物產生真情實感,進一步建構文章。 過程中,學生有機會觀察社區面貌,結合閱讀名家名篇,有助深化學生思考。 語文學習重視積累,學生透過虛擬實境深入觀察社區,從而豐富寫作意涵,提升寫 作深度。整體而言,學生的學習動機得以提高,寫作取材更多元深刻獨特,他們藉着對 場境的仔細描寫,抒發所思所感,豐富立意。本校團隊亦期望學生能反思城市的變遷和 人文價值,有助提升學生的人文關懷。 建議 是次行動研究希望進一步了解虛擬實境和學生的學習動機及寫作能力之關係,在目 標和操作上與過去的經驗不盡相同。在操作上難免有不少可進步、優化的地方。為了方 便往後的研究者繼續在這研究基礎上進行更深入討論,以下會就各限制因素略作說明。 是次研究只設八個課節(每課節為三十五分鐘),或許未能照顧到各種因素,例如 學生的學習能力和老師的教學模式等。本研究團隊建議往後的研究者可延長研究的時間, 一來可讓學生有充足時間消化和吸收所學,並將所學遷移到寫作上,二來可照顧班內學 習多樣性。是次參與研究人數只有 38 人,研究結果難免有其限制。因此,本研究團隊建 議往後安排更多學生參與有關研究,例如以全級、所有初中學生作為單位,以收集更多 作品樣本,提升信度。 研究員共選用 14 張 VR 相片,展示了塔門不同地景和特色景物。正如引言提及,塔 門景貌漸漸受到人為因素影響,加上季節性因素,故未必能夠將所有特色的景物通過虛 110 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 擬實境拍攝下來。若能拍攝更多不同的景物,相信能讓學生對塔門有更深入和全面的認 識。另外,教材未能展示塔門民居的情況,我們建議往後可嘗試拍攝更多有關的虛擬實 境影像,讓學生對塔門居民的生活面貌有更多的理解。 本研究以社區地景為重心,從而了解虛擬實境結合寫作教學對學生寫作能力的成 效。由於涉及課程規劃的考慮,故現階段先集中描寫能力。本研究團隊建議往後可考慮 研究虛擬實境能否提升學生其他寫作能力,例如說明、記敘和論說能力等,以進一步探 討虛擬實境的效能。本研究集中探討一班學生的學習情況。若能加入對照組別,相信效 果會更明顯。建議其他學校在實踐時可引入對照組別,以進一步加強研究信度。 參考文獻 香港考試及評核局(2017)。《2017全港性系統評估報告》。香港:香港考試及評核局。 香港考試及評核局(2017)。《2017 香港中學文憑考試考試:中國語文科考試報告及試 題專輯》。香港:香港考試及評核局。 香港課程發展議會(2007)。《中學中國語文建議學習重點(試用)》。香港︰香港政 府印務局。 香港課程發展議會(2017)。《中國語文教育學習領域課程指引(小一至中六)》。香港︰ 香港政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局(2015)。《中國語文課程及評估指引(中四至 中六)》。香港︰香港政府印務局。 祝新華(2011)。〈促進學習的寫作評估的重要策略之一:建立多元的評估主體系統〉。《涓 活清泉—小學中國語文課程的探索與實踐》。頁315。香港:香港教育局課程發展處。 蔡政宏、謝文惠(2011)。〈科技內容教學知識(TPACK)理論架構對教師專業發展之啟 示〉。《新竹縣教育研究集刊》,第 11 期,43-76。 Broko, H., & Putnam, R. 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Review, 57, 1-22. 111 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 年份 描述 2017 大多數作品能圍繞主題寫作,然而內容略嫌平淡,鮮有新意。 2016 大多數作品內容平淡,選材狹窄。 2015 不少學生立意不清,內容平淡,鮮有新意。 2014 不少學生立意不清,內容平淡,鮮有新意。 2013 不少學生審題立意不清,內容平板,鮮有新意。 2012 學生選材狹窄,內容千篇一律,有些立意不清,結構鬆散,沒有深刻的感 情和細緻的觀察。 附件 1﹕近年全港性系統評估報告對學生寫作表現的描述 年份 描述 2017 .「對人物和場景的描寫較為粗疏,也因此未能寄托較為真摯和細膩的感情」 .「觀察力一般,寫人、物較為表面,思考尚欠嚴謹」 .「能運用不同描寫手法渲染氣氛的也不多」 .「對事物的特點掌握不清,所抒發的情感亦較虛浮」 .「描寫粗疏,主因之一是欠觀察和想像力」 .「生活經驗不足,自然難以選取合適的素材下筆」 .「對生活欠缺體會和反思,故不易寫得獨特和細緻動人」 .「平日若沒有用心觀察和思考,自然難以從中勾選合適的事物下筆」 2016 .「對人物和場景的描寫較為粗疏,也因此未能寄托較為真摯和細膩的感情」 .「觀察較粗疏、浮泛」、「觀察力一般,寫人、物較為表面,思考尚欠嚴謹」 .「對事物的特點掌握不清,所抒發的情感亦較虛浮」 2015 .「胡亂寫景的情況較為明顯」 .「選材相若,或因生活經驗有限」 .「疏於細緻的描述,輕重不均,詳略失衡」 .「最後抒發感受、反思亦只能簡單提及,未有深刻體會」 2014 .「胡亂寫景的情況較為明顯」、「胡亂加插大量的景物描寫,干擾文章的 主題發展」 .「未能充份發揮想像,構思較為單一」 .「平日的觀察能力不足,對於事物的描寫、刻劃和想像有待改善」 2013 .「取材平淡」 .「部分取材天馬行空,嚴重脫離現實」 2012 .「不少考生對日常生活欠缺觀察、感悟和反思」 .「對平素學習材料未能消化、體會和提煉」 .「描述膚淺平凡,甚或抽離現實,毫無說服力」 附件 2﹕近年考評局對考生卷二(寫作能力)表現之描述、一般評論和建議 112 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 3﹕寫作工作紙 113 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 4﹕ ARCS 動機問卷 114 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 5﹕寫作能力評量表 附件 6﹕研究所運用的閱讀篇章和涉及的地景 (單元設計及 EduVenture VR 教件) 塔門景物/地景 閱讀篇章 1、塔門碼頭 2、塔門信箱 3、新漢記海鮮酒家 4、內街 5、塔門鄉公所 6、海傍街 7、塔門海傍 8、塔門青年會 9、草原 10、塔門的牛 11、龍景亭 12、石灘公園 13、營地 14、黃昏的碼頭 散文﹕ 1、可洛《末日絮語》(節錄) 2、陳志堅《來去塔門》 3、方麗霞《塔門、我們》 新詩﹕ 4、劉偉成《牛》 5、麥樹堅《塔門》 115 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 7 ﹕ EduVenture 教件設計中的影像(共 14 張地景相片) 塔門碼頭 塔門信箱 新漢記海鮮酒家 塔門民居 塔門天后廟 塔門鄉公所 塔門海傍街 塔門海傍 塔門草地 116 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 塔門青年會 塔門的牛 塔門石灘 公園營地 龍景亭 黃昏時份的塔門碼頭 附件 8﹕ EduVenture 教件設計中的題目(配合地景) 117 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 9﹕學生動機問卷調查結果 附件 10 ﹕寫作評量表的評分結果 118 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 11 ﹕學生作品示例(寫作課堂) 119 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 數學實驗教學 (實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方 公式”課題教學的成效探究) 阮啟崙、楊明揚、孫福濤、黃俊邦 順德聯誼總會翁祐中學 摘要 傳統單向式的數學教學模式對於成長在資訊科技發達年代的當下香港中學生而言稍 欠趣味和吸引力。部分學生將數學學習片面地概括為背公式、按計數機,達不到學習成 效之餘,也在逐步消耗學習熱情。本次行動研究希望通過將「數學實驗活動(Mathematics Experimental Activity)」融入課堂,以提高學生學習動機與課堂參與度。學生的角色 由過往的「知識吸收者」轉為「知識建構者」。老師的角色則由過往的「知識傳授者」 轉為「知識引導者」,最終使教學效能得到提升。 緒論 在應試壓力的影響下,本港數學教學模式或多或少地傾向於以操練為主的教學模 式,使得學生往往看不到數學知識的全貌。舉例來說:部分學生重視公式定理的內容與 應用,而忽視其證明。這種「投機取巧」的心態使學生逐漸失去對數學應有的思維能力 與思考模式。 同時,本校作為「一條龍」中學,既有能力較佳的學生,亦有能力一般及能力稍遜 的學生,對照顧學生學習差異需求殷切。本校曾與香港大學教育學院合作,將「豐富任 務 (Rich Tasks)」的教學理念融入課堂,我們同樣會將「豐富任務」的元素融入到這次 實驗教學的實踐中,透過分層教學活動,充分照顧學生學習差異。 在本次行動研究中,我們以中二級「恆等式 (Identities)」課題為實踐課題,經驗 告訴我們,不同屆、不同能力的學生都會在這基礎課題上犯上類似的錯誤。針對此課題, 我們將三款實驗教具(附錄 2)及三份配套工作紙(附錄 4)整合成一多元實驗教材套, 照顧學習差異,探討實驗教學模式是如何影響教學效能。實現實驗教學模式與電子教學 模式的有機結合,目的是幫助學生從「演繹」走向「歸納」、從「結果」走向「過程」。 同時,我們亦希望能將實踐經驗及有價值的發現與教育界同工分享。 120 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 文獻探討 「從做中學」也就是「從活動中學」、「從經驗中學」。它使得學校內知識的獲得 與生活過程中的活動聯繫了起來。兒童能從那些真正有教育意義和有興趣的活動中學習, 從而有助於兒童的成長和發展(Dewey,1916 著 / 2001 譯)。 在數學實驗課中,學生由於親自動手操作,從一個旁觀者和聽眾變成一個參與者, 因此更容易對實驗結果、產生結果的原因、新的知識以及新的方法等產生強烈的好奇 心,在很大程度上能夠使學生的好奇、好玩、好動的天性得到滿足,進而激發學生的數 學學習興趣,從而主動參與到學習活動中,有助學生深刻理解所學的知識(董林偉, 2012)。建構主義認為,數學知識並不能簡單地由教師或其他人傳授給學生,而只能由 每個學生根據自身已有的知識和經驗主動地加以構建(舒亞非,2006)。情景認知理論 強調知識存在於外部環境,主張在具體學習任務中進行鍛煉,數學的學習應該在“真實 的情景”中發生 (李開惠,2005)。 作為課程內容的數學實驗,應體現活動化、操作化特徵,重視學生在數學實驗活動 中的主體地位,使學生處於積極自主地動腦動手、探索驗證、討論交流實踐活動中。數 學實驗應為抽象的數學思維提供直觀的思維背景,使靜態的數學結構表現為時空的動態 過程,使抽象的內容直觀化、具體化,為學生進行數學論證提供感性的、直覺的材料(邵 光華、卞忠運,2007)。本次行動研究所安排的三個實驗活動均體現活動化、操作化特徵, 也以動態過程為學生提供直觀化材料。 全部教育都離不開經驗。教育是在經驗中,由於經驗,為著經驗的一種發展過程 (Dewey,1938 著 / 1991 譯)。數學有經驗與演繹二重性。現在的數學教育(從中小學 數學教育到大學數學教育),確實都比較片面地強調數學演繹性,忽略數學經驗性(馮 偉貞,2016)。早於 1912 年的國際數學教育大會上,學者就曾討論過「中學數學教學中 的直覺與實驗」,數學實驗教學早已在數學教育界受到關注與研究。以當時英國為例, 英國對於實驗幾何的重視,始於斯賓塞(Herbert Spencer)所提倡的發明幾何,再到後 來貝利(John Perry)所強調的數學實用性價值,聯繫實際對學習數學的重要性。會議 當時在劍橋舉行,英國的中學開始對實驗幾何重視起來。對於幾何分為 3 個階段:1. 注 重實驗歸納;2. 注重演繹,但是實驗歸納並非全部取消;3. 注重嚴格推理。 如果單純運用代數方法進行教學,學生理解平方差公式時就沒有表象作支撐,容易 引發學生死記硬背、機械記憶的現象。讓學生在剪拼過程中經歷知識的形成過程,有助 培養他們的創造性思維品質和積極的數學情感。學生能在短時間內用這麼多方法解決問 題,顯示了他們的巨大潛力(王擁軍,2009)。課例創設的四個實驗活動,均順應學生 已有的知識經驗和認知水平。學生經歷這樣遞進式思維的層層洗練,既獲得對算理的理 解,也積累實驗經驗,為後續的學力發展做了不可或缺的鋪陳。 所查閱的文獻反映數學實驗教學獲得到一致肯定。其中也有在初中代數恆等式課題 進行類似的實驗教學的實踐案例。在設計的初衷上與此次行動研究一致,均是為了讓學 121 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 生探索代數恆等式的幾何意義。但是,我們對能用多種方法解決問題的學生所佔百分比 和對執行四個實驗活動的時間控制存在疑問。有見及此,本次行動將根據授課班級的整 體水平,從三個實驗活動中挑選兩個進行。我們除了考慮時間的因素,更重要的是照顧 學生學習差異;有別於一般數學實驗活動,所實踐的是「分層數學實驗活動」。 研究方法 本研究採用行動研究方式進行,以探討「數學實驗教學 (Mathematics Experiment Teaching and Learning)」的成效為核心。研究者將三個實驗活動融入到教學內容,每 個實驗活動有相應的實驗教具及配套工作紙,幫助學生從多角度感知與理解「平方差公 式 (Difference of two squares)」、「完全平方公式 (The perfect square)」,並透 過數學教學軟件「Desmos」(附錄 3)鞏固所學。「Desmos」作為互動教學平台,能將 學生配對任務的答題情況實時反映予老師頁面,方便老師監察各個學生的答題情況與答 題進度。從中探討數學實驗教學: 1. 能否深化學生對「平方差公式」與「完全平方公式」的理解並改善公式誤用的情況? 2. 能否提高課堂上學生的學習積極性? 「恆等式」課題為數學科必修部分中二階段的課題,而掌握並正確運用「平方差 公式」與「完全平方公式」為該課題的核心,亦是學生數學素養上的基本要求。經驗告 訴我們,各屆中二學生,不論能力高低,都容易出現類似的公式誤用情況,即是將兩條 代數恆等式與「乘法分配律(Distributive law of multiplication)」、「指數定律 (Indices law)」混淆。研究者就此課題為學生安排了三個實驗活動(「摺疊布塊」、 「拼接膠片」、「拼砌積木」),考慮到課堂時間上的限制及學生能力上的差異,學生 於課堂上(三連堂,1.5 小時)只需進行當中的兩個實驗活動,不同能力組別的學生對 應不同的實驗活動組合,詳情如下: 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 摺疊布塊實驗 摺疊布塊實驗 拼接積木實驗 拼接膠板實驗 拼接積木實驗 拼接膠板實驗 根據學生的學習表現進行質性和量性分析,以檢視於此課題運用數學實驗教學所得 之成效。 兩個學年不同能力組別學生人數如下(按中一階段數學科年度總評成績劃分): 人數 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2016-2017 16 25 16 2017-2018 16 24 17 122 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 實驗名稱 實驗難點分析 摺疊布塊 實驗 學生需根據工作紙上的指示摺疊實驗布塊,並完成有關問題。要求學生有較強的圖像及 文字解讀能力,難點在於如何理解布塊「重疊部分」,是三個實驗活動中難度較大的一個。 拼接膠板 實驗 學生需根據工作紙上指示拼接膠板,對學生圖像解讀能力較布塊實驗低,但也正因提示 較少的緣故,學生易感到無從入手,難點在於需通過手動比較確定未知邊長度且不能使 用其他量度工具。 拼接積木 實驗 學生需根據工作紙指引拼接積木部件,相比實驗布塊與膠板,學生對積木部件感覺較為 熟悉,難度相對較低,但同樣有積木部件「重疊部分」作為難點。 在實驗活動的分配上,我們讓能力較佳組別的學生進行兩個難度較大的實驗,同 時也希望能力一般組別的學生也能體驗「摺疊」,故為其安排摺疊布塊實驗,能力稍遜 組別的學生則無需進行摺疊布塊實驗。 表一:「數學實驗教學」模式和「傳統教學」模式教學設計上的對比 (詳細內容請參閱附錄 1) 數學實驗教學 傳統教學 回顧舊知識 多項式運算與面積計算 (工作紙,15 分鐘) 多項式運算與面積計算 (工作紙,15 分鐘) 理解新知識 學生分組自主根據工作紙上的指引操作兩個實驗 活動並完成工作紙上相應內容(工作紙,55分鐘) 直接教學 (工作紙,40 分鐘) 應用新知識 運用 Desmos 軟件完成恆等式配對練習 (電子白板,15 分鐘) 完成並講評工作紙上相應練習 (工作紙,30 分鐘) 總結課堂 重溫三條代數恆等式並作常見誤用舉例(5分鐘) 重溫三條代數恆等式並作常見 誤用舉例(5分鐘) 教學模式 學習環節 階段 日期 研究內容 構思與規劃 2017 年 12 月 至 2018 年 1 月 構思適宜作「數學實驗教學」的實踐課題 分析同級不同屆的學生成績數據 選定課題 前期準備 與 教學實踐 2018 年 2 月 至 2018 年 4 月 向學生介紹「數學實驗教學」的理念、運作、行動研究的意義及學生 參與的重要性 準備三套實驗教具(一套教具能直接購得,其餘教具需訂造或老師自 行製作)及配套工作紙 於中二級全級進行該課題的教學實際,並安排至少一名老師作課堂觀 察員 安排「後置測試」檢視「數學實驗教學」下的教學成效 觀察與分析 2018 年 5 月 至 2018 年 7 月 進行「延遲後側」,分析所得數據,評估教學成效是否具持續性 進行教師面談和學生問卷調查 撰寫教研報告 反思與檢討 2018 年 8 月 修訂並遞交教研報告 研究者將本次行動研究分為四個階段進行,程序如下: 表二:計劃中不同階段的劃分與工作重點 123 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 本學年中二級各組別學生的在中一階段數學科總評成績,與上學年中二級各組別學 生(即本學年中三級學生)的中一階段數學科總評成績相若,我們將兩批學生近似看作 與就讀中二級前數學水平相若。本研究以「後置測試」和「延遲後測」作總結性評估。「後 置測試」(附錄 5)為本校數學科的持續評估測試,不同學年相同級別的持續評估內容 難度相若。「後置測試」讓能力起點相若的兩屆中二級學生,在過往傳統教學模式下和 本學年數學實驗教學模式下所得的評估成績具較強可比性。 「延遲後測」主要為評估學生對恆等式的正確運用會否具持續性。完結此課題教學 並脫離較集中的專題作業操練下,檢視全體中二級學生後續對三條代數恆等式的掌握與 運用情況。本研究亦會為全體中二級學生作問卷調查,了解學生對數學實驗課堂的意見 與看法,並進行教師訪談,了解任教老師的教學體會與感悟。 研究結果 表三:2017-2018 學年中二級學生及 2016-2017 學年中二級學生於中一階段期末總評成 績(滿分:300) 學年 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆 181.27 121.47 98.24 2016-2017 屆 182.13 124.76 101.43 表四:後置測試(本課題持續評估測試 1)成績分析 學年 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆平均得分率 92% 69% 41% 2016-2017 屆平均得分率 86% 55% 40% 得分率百分變化 + 6% + 14% + 1% α= 0.05 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 t值 1.58 2.22 2.80 自由度 30 47 31 t 界值 2.042 2.012 2.040 上表數據反映出兩屆中二級學生在三個不同能力組別層面的中一期末評估數據對 比。我們可見兩屆學生在完成中一階段學習時整體數學水平是相若的,這也是選擇中二 級作為研究對象的原因之一。 表五:後置測試(本課題持續評估測試 2)成績分析 學年 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆平均得分率 86% 58% 39% 2016-2017 屆平均得分率 82% 54% 37% 得分率百分變化 + 4% + 4% + 2% α= 0.05 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 t值 2.00 4.45 0.70 自由度 30 47 31 t 界值 2.042 2.012 2.040 124 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 兩屆中二學生所使用的兩份持續評估測試卷是一樣的,持續評估測試 1 和 2 分別考 查了學生對恆等式的運用與逆運用。根據表四,各組別學生的平均得分率均較上屆同學 的平均得分率高,其中能力一般組別的學生得分率升幅最高,超過 10%。t 檢驗的結果顯 示,能力一般組別和能力稍遜組別的 t 值均高於臨界值,反映實驗教學對這兩組學生的 成績產生顯著性差異。根據表五,各組別學生的平均得分率同樣均較上屆同學的平均得 分率高,但整體升幅情況沒持續評估 1 所呈現的顯著。t 檢驗的結果顯示,能力一般組 別的 t值高於臨界值,反映實驗教學對該組學生的成績產生顯著性差異。 綜合兩次後置測試的成績數據,可以說「數學實驗教學」對中二學生學習「恆等式」 課題有著明顯的積極影響。能力一般組別的學生在持續評估 1 的成績升幅和其在持續評 估 2 的成績升幅以及 t 檢驗的結果更說明:「數學實驗教學」對於中等數學能力的學生 而言幫助最大。表五所呈現的升幅放緩情況,一方面由於考查內容為因式分解,要求學 生能對三條代數恆等式作逆運用,難度上略微較持續評估 1 大。另一反面,持續評估 1 的考核日期為數學實驗課堂結束後不久,而持續評估 2 則發生在數學實驗課堂結束後的 稍後日期,可能受學生學習積極性變化所影響。 級測與持續評估測試同為本校數學科綜合評核學生的方式,其中級測難度較持續評 估測試大,題量更多,測試時間也更長。本次研究所使用的級測試卷與上屆中二所使用 的不同,但難度相若,同為恆等式課題的專題測試。 根據表六,本屆中二學生於該課題的整體級測表現優於上屆中二學生。能力一般組 別的學生成績升幅達到 6%,學生平均分合格。我們進一步發現,本屆能力一般組別的學 生的中一期末成績雖較上屆同組別學生的中一期末成績低,但無論是在兩次持續評估測 試中還是專題級測中。本屆能力一般組別學生的平均得分率升幅都領先全級,組別的平 均分亦達到合格水平。t檢驗反映,能力較佳組別和能力一般組別的t值均高於臨界值, 實驗教學對這兩組學生的成績產生顯著性差異。能力一般組別的學生為「數學實驗教學」 模式下學習「恆等式」課題的最大受益群體。 表六:延遲後測(本課題專題級測)成績分析 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆平均得分率 70% 51% 32% 2016-2017 屆平均得分率 66% 45% 33% 得分率百分變化 + 4% + 6% - 1% α= 0.05 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 t值 3.16 2.79 1.30 自由度 30 47 31 t 界值 2.042 2.012 2.040 表七問卷調查結果所示,受訪學生大致肯定「數學實驗教學」之成效。不同組別學 生在學習能力及學科表現上差異較大,但他們對「數學實驗」課堂的評價大致相同。學 生普遍認為以動手做實驗的模式學習數學,能夠幫助他們掌握知識、提升學習興趣與學 習自信心。 125 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 自我評價(能力較佳組別) 非常 不同意 不同意 普通 同意 非常 同意 1 2 3 4 5 1. 在動手做實驗過程中,更能掌握所學。 0% 0% 0% 37% 63% 2. 我很投入「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 6% 38% 56% 3. 我對於「數學實驗」課堂感到有好奇心。 0% 0% 19% 81% 0% 4. 我認為動手做實驗讓我提升學習動機。 0% 0% 0% 31% 69% 5. 我認為動手做實驗提升我對數學的興趣。 0% 0% 0% 25% 75% 6. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂讓我提升課堂自信心。 0% 0% 37% 50% 13% 7. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂有助我提升本科成績。 0% 0% 25% 63% 12% 8. 我期待未來的「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 25% 63% 12% 表七:「數學實驗教學」之效能調查問卷結果 自我評價(能力一般組別) 非常 不同意 不同意 普通 同意 非常 同意 1 2 3 4 5 1. 在動手做實驗過程中,更能掌握所學。 0% 0% 12% 21% 67% 2. 我很投入「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 8% 13% 63% 16% 3. 我對於「數學實驗」課堂感到有好奇心。 0% 0% 25% 25% 50% 4. 我認為動手做實驗讓我提升學習動機。 0% 0% 33% 50% 17% 5. 我認為動手做實驗提升我對數學的興趣。 0% 17% 42% 37% 4% 6. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂讓我提升課堂自信心。 0% 8% 50% 34% 8% 7. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂有助我提升本科成績。 0% 8% 29% 50% 13% 8. 我期待未來的「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 25% 67% 8% 自我評價(能力稍遜組別) 非常 不同意 不同意 普通 同意 非常 同意 1 2 3 4 5 1. 在動手做實驗過程中,更能掌握所學。 0% 0% 47% 47% 6% 2. 我很投入「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 18% 41% 41% 0% 3. 我對於「數學實驗」課堂感到有好奇心。 0% 0% 17% 71% 12% 4. 我認為動手做實驗讓我提升學習動機。 0% 18% 18% 59% 5% 5. 我認為動手做實驗提升我對數學的興趣。 0% 12% 29% 47% 12% 6. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂讓我提升課堂自信心。 0% 6% 41% 41% 12% 7. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂有助我提升本科成績。 0% 5% 59% 24% 12% 8. 我期待未來的「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 29% 65% 6% 研究者亦從三個不同能力組別的學生中分層抽樣進行面談,希望能更深入地了解到 學生對「數學實驗」課堂的評價。受訪者一致覺得「數學實驗活動」具新鮮感,期待更 多的「數學實驗」課堂。其中一位能力較高的學生表示,除了實驗活動讓他印象深刻以 外,於電子白板利用「Desmos」做配對練習同樣讓他感到新鮮。研究者也發現當學生得 知有機會在同學面前借助電子白板做配對練習時,顯得格外專注。即便祇是在座位上觀 看組員在台上的作答情況,亦顯得非常投入,讓課堂氣氛變得積極、踴躍。另外,受訪 的能力稍遜學生一致認為「數學實驗」課堂具趣味,相比單向地聽老師講課,他們更願 126 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 意自己動手操作。能力稍遜組別的學生,很難因為一次實驗課堂而在成績上取得顯著進 步,現階段而言,相比他們學科成績,我們更欣然看到該組別學生數學學習興趣的提升、 學習態度的端正,從觀察員的觀課匯報、問卷調查及學生面談中均能反映這點。 讓學生自主建構數學知識是本次行動研究的核心價值。老師則充當知識「引導者」 的角色,學生以小組形式進行實驗活動,老師適時提供指引,保證了「生生互動」及「師 生互動」。我們的三個實驗活動同時也滿足照顧學生學習差異的需求。能力稍遜的學生 能完成一些簡單的證明,部分能力較高的學生更能做到「一式多證」。我們也鼓勵學生 上台講解自己的證明方法,增強學習自信心。正如學生所說,使用這三條代數恆等式時 更加「心安理得」。 結論與反思 經過質性和量性分析,本研究肯定了在中二課程「恆等式」課題上採用「數學實驗 教學模式(Mathematics experiment teaching mode)」較「傳統教學模式(Traditional teaching mode)」更有利於教與學。後置測試和延遲後測的結果反映出,學生對「平方 差公式」和「完全平方公式」的掌握更扎實,公式誤用情況也較以往有了明顯改善。不 同班級的學生於實驗課堂也整體表現積極,絕大多數學生均能投入到實驗活動中。 本次行動研究中其中一個限制,是本學年任教中二數學的人員安排較上學年有輕微 變動。部分班級的評估數據受到教學模式和任教老師影響。在未來進一步的行動研究中, 或可增加「同課異授」環節,即相同老師分別按實驗模式和傳統模式為能力相近的兩個 班級授課,既分析同一學年的兩組具可比性數據,亦分析不同學年的兩組具可比性數據, 豐富數據分析上的維度。此外,若在延遲後測(即專題級測)上選用與上屆學生相同的 試卷,會讓所得數據更具參考價值。在實踐過程中,我們發現不同能力組別的課堂上, 均有個別學生更專注於獨立完成實驗工作紙,較少參與動手做實驗。教師在課堂上需作 清晰指示,在今後實驗工作紙的設計上,也需下更多心思,才可以避免學生能跳過實驗 過程直接作答題目,導致有違實驗課堂的本意。 在實踐過程中,我們發現電子白板與教學應用「Desmos」的結合在課堂中實驗活動 結束後持續保持學生學習專注度上發揮著積極作用,普遍學生樂於接觸電子工具,也對 以觸屏方式答題感到新鮮,使濃厚的學習氛圍得以延續。 在本次行動研究以後,我們對今後相關主題的行動研究有了更多的想法。上述提到 的電子白板與「Desmos」的結合讓我們有意後續探討「實驗教學模式」與「電子教學模 式」的疊加可以如何影響教與學。教學雙方對數學實驗有著諸多誤解,大量文獻把數學 實驗定位在「基於計數機的實驗(computer experiment)」,恐怕這是中學數學實驗教 學沒能得到該有的重視和普及的重要原因(馮偉貞,2016)。我們希望今後能發掘出更 多讓學生動手做實驗的課題,強調「觸覺」在學生學習過程中的地位,並通過經改良的 行動研究計劃作進一步研究。無論是這次行動研究的發現或是直覺判斷,大家都會趨向 127 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 王擁軍(2009)。〈情境實驗創新——《平方差公式》教學片斷與反思〉。《湖北教育(教 育教學)》,第二期,58-59。 李開惠(2005)。〈20 世紀最有影响的數學教育家費賴登塔爾〉。《中學數學研究》, 第 5期,F003-F004。 邵光華、卞忠運(2007)。《數學實驗的理論研究與實踐》。《課程 . 教材 . 教法》, 第三期,39-43。 舒亞非(2006)。〈數學實驗的歷史考察與理論研究〉。Doctoral dissertation,廣州 大學。 馮偉(2016)。《高中數學實驗活動選編》。北京:科學出版社。 董林偉(2012)。〈數學實驗:促進初中生數學學習的一種有效方式〉。《中國數學教育: 初中版》,第 5期,2-5。 Dewey, J. 著,王承緒主譯(1916)。《民主主義與教育》。中國:人民教育出版社。 Dewey, J. 著,姜文閔主譯(1938)。《我們怎樣思維:經驗與教育》。中國:人民教 育出版社。 於認為「實驗教學模式」優於「傳統教學模式」,我們沒有摒棄「傳統教學模式」的想法, 甚至有意探討會否存在某些課題基於兩種教學模式下所得教學成效是相近的,或者是傳 統模式下教學成效更佳。學生看待「數學實驗」教學的態度會否在曾經歷過數學實驗課 堂後有所改變?這些均為我們未來行動研究的潛在研究方向。 128 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 1 129 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 2(實驗教具) 130 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 3(Desmos 教學應用) 131 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 4(中英實驗工作紙) 132 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 133 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 134 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 135 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 136 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 137 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 138 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 139 數學實驗教學(實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究) 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 5(後置測試 1及 2) 141 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder Li Yun Xuan Merak Po Leung Kuk Hong Kong Taoist Association Yuen Yuen Primary School Abstract Pied Pipers, a gamified non-formal music curriculum, was designed to enhance students' motivation in learning to play the recorder and develop self-learning skills. This case study report depicts the implementation of the program. Changes in program participation, its effectiveness and student perception about this musical instrument throughout its course of implementation were evaluated and discussed. Results showed that although participation was diminishing over time, the program had motivated students to learn and play the recorder. Factors attributing to the success of the program were examined. Background The benefits of learning to play the recorder has long been established in music education literature. The recorder can act as an extension of the voice, provide another medium for students (especially to those who do not enjoy singing) for producing and creating melodies, and thereby help them obtain a more satisfying experience in music (Burton and Reynolds, 2018). It is also an accessible and inexpensive instrument that provides motivation for learning music notations. Many children, having developed finger dexterity and breath control through learning the recorder, can take up the study of orchestral wind instruments easily as well (Carroll, 1968). The recorder can be an important stepping stone for stimulating interest in music and enhancing young students' mastery of fundamental instrumental techniques (Sloboda & Howe, 1992). Like the case in many schools, playing the recorder is a compulsory task in our school-based music curriculum at Po Leung Kuk Hong Kong Taoist Association Yuen 142 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Yuen Primary School (YYPS). All Primary 3 to 6 students are required to play the recorder during music lessons. Unfortunately, many of them are little motivated and not well prepared. They are used to leaving or misplacing their instruments at home or somewhere in their classroom drawers. Playing the recorder is seen as a chore. Students are only seen practising the recorder when assessments or examinations are approaching. This indifference for playing the recorder is discouraging given that they generally have positive attitudes towards music. A majority of them have already been learning at least one instrument through in-school or private training. Many are participating in the activities of music-based groups such as the choir or orchestra as well. The music teacher was in recognition of the benefits to students of learning the recorder and their reasons for not learning it wholeheartedly. A gamified non-formal curriculum called Pied Pipers was therefore designed to address this problem. This paper reports the implementation of this. Changes in program participation and its effectiveness as well as student perception about the instrument are evaluated and discussed. Literature Review Gamification is a hot topic of discussion especially about its capabilities in supporting user engagement, enhancing positive patterns, increasing user activity, social interaction and the quality or productivity of actions in various fields of learning (Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014). Deterding et al. (2011) defines gamification as the use of game design elements in non-game contexts. It is often taken as a teaching approach that uses game design principles and can be used to promote interest and motivation in students (Kocadere and Çağlar, 2018). While gamification is still a growing phenomenon, Dichev and Dicheva (2017) argue that the practice of gamified learning has outpaced researchers’ understanding of its mechanisms and methods. Contrasting theoretical foundations behind different studies and limitations to experimental designs produces inconsistent findings on the effectiveness of gamification as a tool for motivating or engaging users (Seaborn and Fels, 2015). Some studies have reported that gamification could increase learning motivation (Yapıcı and Karakoyun, 2017), promote attention and engagement in class (Khalil, Ebner and Admiraal, 2017) and enhance learning performance (Ortiz-Rojas, Chiluiza and Valcke, 2017) and motivation. Other empirical studies however report that gamification has little positive effect on student participation or motivation as a whole (Lauberheimer and Ryan, 2016; Hanus and Fox, 2015). This inconsistence of findings about the effectiveness of gamification could be due to the over-simplification and over- generalisation of the intervention. Sailer et al. (2017) argues that since gamification 143 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 can take many forms and can combine game design elements in many different ways, the impact of different design elements within a given context should be the focus of enquiry instead of the effects of gamification as a general construct. Dicheva, Dichev, Agre & Angelova (2015) suggest that more substantial empirical research is required for generalizing the reasons for the strength and weakness of gamified designs. Below are some of the commonly implemented mechanics and dynamics identified by Thiebes, Lins and Basten (2014) (Table 1). Table 1: Common Gamification Mechanics and Dynamics; excerpts from Gamification M&D (Thiebes et al., 2014) Mechanics and dynamics Description Immediate feedback Allowing players to be aware of progress or failure in real time Goals Underlying activity adapted as challenge for the users Badges Rewards and goals whose fulfillment is outside the scope of core activities of a service Leaderboards Display used to illustrate competition to drive competition behavior User levels Indication of player proficiency in the overall gaming experience over time Social facilitation Individual users achieve better results in presence of other users In the context of music education, the benefits of gaming as a pedagogical method have long been acknowledged by teachers. Niland (2009) argues that games can be an engaging medium for children to explore musical elements and concepts. Perlmutter (2015) suggests that games are capable of motivating students to master the content on one hand and promote social skills like patience and teamwork on the other. Singing and movement games commonly used in music lessons can help students develop location coordination and awareness of free space as well (Hart, Burts and Charlesworth, 1997). There is increasing interest for research on the application and effectiveness of video games as a teaching medium for music (Margoudi et al., 2017; Chow et al., 2013; Gower and McDowall, 2012). Pied Pipers is a school-wide game-based non-formal music curriculum model which aims at enhancing motivation for learning to play the recorder, creating a musically engaging environment at school and helping students develop self-learning skills through gamification mechanisms. It uses badges and a flipped classroom model to motivate and assist students. Students are invited to “challenge” music teachers or trained student-examiners stationed in the music rooms during recesses by performing set pieces. When a student successfully performs a set piece, he or she will obtain a badge in the form of a collectable Pied Piper Card. This program targets students between Primary 3 to 6 as recorder performance is a compulsory element of the music curriculum. 144 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Grade proficiency level Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 Repertoire *Piano Sonata No.11 *Autumn Scene *The Celebrated Chopped Waltz *Old Jeremiah *Crescent Pair *Suteki Da Ne *William Tell Overture *Hallelujah Chorus *Spagnoletta *Symphony No. 1, Movement III *Ode to Joy *Girl with the Flaxen Hair *Pilgrim *He’s a Pirate *Spring *Walking in the Air *Arirang *PLK School Song *Mute City *Endless Love *Habanera *Saria’s Song *String Serenade No.13 *The Entertainer *Colonel Bogey March *1812 Overture *Gavotte *Morning Wood Required technique and subject knowledge for performance (accumulative throughout progression of scope and sequence) Fingerings: E4, G4, A4, B4, C5, D5 Rhythms: quavers, crotchets, minums, dotted minums, semibreves Fingerings: D4, F#4 Rhythms: dotted rhythms, anacrusis, tied notes Performing pieces in canonic motion Fingerings: C4, E5, F5 Rhythms: semiquavers, syncopated rhythms Performing pieces with accidentals Fingerings: C#4, Eb4, G#4, Bb4, C#5 Performing pieces with key changes Performing pieces with chromatic movement Performing pieces with disjunct melodic contours Table 2: Repertoire corresponding to grade proficiency levels of school-based scope and sequence The flipped classroom is a teaching model where the learning of subject content is shifted outside of the class, to be followed up by the teacher in class (Bäcklund and Hugo, 2018). Although not intended as a part of the formal music curriculum, the learning process initiated by Pied Pipers is comparable to the flipped classroom model. None of the recorder set pieces have been taught to students during regular music lessons. Instead, students are expected to learn the pieces on their own before making an attempt to “challenge for levels”. These set pieces are posted on walls and bulletins all around the school. Students are invited to practise playing their recorders in front of any Pied Piper Poster during recess, class periods and after school. To facilitate The pieces set for students are transcriptions of popular music coming from a variety of genres including classical repertoire, folk songs, film music and video games etc.. Several of the teacher's original compositions were adapted for use as well. All set pieces (Table 2) are specifically arranged or composed so that the techniques (such as fingerings and tonguing) and subject knowledge (such as notation literacy) required to perform each piece correspond to the scope and sequence of different grade proficiency levels in the school-based recorder curriculum. 145 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 1: The YYPSPiedPipers YouTube channel At the challenge booths, if a student fails to perform a set piece adequately, the music teacher or trained student-examiners will help him or her play the piece again by modelling or vocalising proper fingerings, pitches and rhythms or by using other proper techniques. Students are free to visit the music rooms and approach the examiners for extra tutoring even when the challenge booths are closed. The dynamics of students learning set pieces on their own with resources provided out of class and receiving individualised assistance from a tutor resemble those of a flipped classroom. Children possess a natural motive for collection (Baker and Gentry, 1996). Pied Piper Cards are designed to appeal to this natural desire in attempt to motivate them to participate. The aesthetic composition of Pied Piper cards resembles that of the collectable cards in popular trading card games. Each level is associated with the artwork of an original creature presented on the face of each card as well as the posters of set pieces. A minimalistic design was used, composed with simple strokes using only the associated colours for its respective levels. The level-specific colours are intended for helping students identify related materials for each level at a distance. Each card is named after a term commonly found in classical music scores, and shows the name for each level on its faces. The back of the cards allows students to write their names, class and class numbers on their personal collections. effective self-learning, fingering charts are displayed at the bottom of the posters to help students identify correct fingerings for notes in the set pieces. At home, students may also visit the YYPSPiedpiper YouTube channel and practise their skills with the aid of play-along video demonstrations. 146 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 2: A card and a set piece design Methodology The Pied Pipers Program has been operational in three phases at YYPS since March 2017, with each featuring different game mechanics. The present action research study started at the same time with the following questions in mind: (a) How did student participation in Pied Pipers change over time? (b) How effective was the Pied Pipers as a non-formal curriculum in enhancing students’ ability to play the recorder? (c) How did students' perception of playing the recorder change after the implementation of Pied Pipers? Phase 1 (March 10th 2017 – July 7th 2017) featured ten set pieces and Pied Piper cards. Set pieces were arranged into levels. Participants had to make challenge attempts starting from level 1 and progress towards level 10 sequentially. Each student was restricted to only one challenge attempt per day. The level achievements of all students were displayed on a leaderboard mounted in the music room after daily updating by the music teacher. Students attaining level 10 by the end of phase 1 were awarded a new recorder. Details regarding rewards for various levels of achievement were disclosed to students in the beginning of the program. The release of set pieces was arranged to favour sustained engagement and participation. During the initial launch of phase 1, only levels 1 and 2 were available for challenge. Subsequent levels were released in 1-2 week intervals. As a final attempt to attract new participants, an extra level (Level EX) with no level prerequisites or restrictions was introduced two weeks before the cut-off date of the program. Throughout phase 1, students were only allowed to obtain one copy of each card. This measure was intended to boost the novelty of Pied Piper Cards, prevent the lowering 147 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 3 Pied Piper cards released in phase 1 Slight modifications were made to the game mechanics of the program during phase 2 (September 29th 2017 – March 2nd 2018). First of all, the leaderboard system was removed. All cards released in Phase 1 were made available. Students were free to challenge any levels without level pre-requisite restrictions and obtain multiple copies of each card. In addition, new cards with designs based on festivals celebrated in Hong Kong were released monthly throughout the period of the program. Students were only allowed to make one challenge attempt per day, like the case in phase 1. of participation rates caused by students trading or giving cards to their peers, and help students develop an awareness of the need to take care of their own belongings. Figure 4: Pied Piper Cards released in phase 2 Essentially, the game mechanics for Phase 3 (March 14th 2018 – June 29th 2018) were identical to those for phase 1. Students were no longer allowed to challenge for previously released cards. Instead, a completely new series of levels comprising 11 new set pieces and Pied Piper Cards was released, and the leaderboard was reinstalled. Students were expected to progress sequentially from level 1 to level 10 once again. Those who could attain level 10 by the end of phase 1 were awarded with a new recorder. At the onset of phase 3, only levels 1 and 2 were made available (Figure 5). Subsequent levels were released once in 1 to 2 weeks. A newly designed extra level (Level EX) with no prerequisites was released two weeks before the cut-off date of phase 3. Like the case in phase 1, students could only obtain one copy of each card and make one challenge attempt on any day. 148 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 5: Pied Piper cards released in phase 3 Throughout the course of the program, any student who was capable of performing a set piece had to sign in a registry which gave his or her name, class and the Pied Piper Card that had just been obtained. Recorded information was uploaded to a database for analysis. Changes in student participation throughout the different phases of the program were then examined. The effectiveness of the Pied Pipers program was evaluated by analysing the card acquirement record of each student. Since each set piece was corresponding to a grade proficiency level in the school- based recorder curriculum, card acquisition records could show clearly whether students had been prompted by Pied Pipers to perform pieces that were well above their grade proficiency levels. Perceived changes in students' mastery of recorder techniques in relation to the grade proficiency level and scope were then investigated. A questionnaire regarding impressions for the program was administered to participating students (n=189) and non-participants (n=245). The teacher's observations throughout the program were also recorded to provide additional qualitative data about the implementation of Pied Pipers. Findings The study revealed that 55.2% of the 507 Primary 3 to 6 students at YYPS participated in phase 1 of Pied Pipers (n=280). In phase 2, 41.7% (n =213) of 511 students participated in the program. The participation rate of the same student population in phase 3 was 31.7% (n=162), and the player base shrank throughout the three phases (Table 3). Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 Phase 1 72 52 82 84 Phase 2 79 49 56 29 Phase 3 61 40 47 14 Mean 70.67 47.00 61.66 42.33 RSD 12.84% 13.28% 29.47% 87.06% Table 3: Distribution of participants across grade levels 149 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 The grade level with the most drastic decline in playing rate over time was Primary 6. In Phase 1, they had the most number of participants (n=84). However, their participation had dropped significantly in phase 2 (n=29) and remained at lower levels in phase 3 (n=14). The relative standard deviation (RSD) of participation rates across the three phases of Pied Pipers was calculated. The grade level with the most consistent player base was Primary 3. The proportion of Primary 3 students was the largest throughout the program (μ=70.67) with the lowest RSD of 12.84%. In phase 1, an average of 86.4 challenge attempts were made by students weekly. An 7.3% increase in weekly participation rate was made by students in phase 2, when the number of attempts totalled 92.7. The average number of weekly challenge attempts made for phase 3 decreased by 13.7% to 80. Overall, the weekly participation was highest over the course of phase 2. The trend in weekly participation for Pied Pipers is illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 6: Change in weekly participation over time. A high rate of inconsistency in weekly participation could also be noted. The relative standard deviation in overall weekly participation of the program was high (59.04%). When the three phases were compared, participation during phase 2 appeared the most stable with a standard deviation of 42.86% only. The respective values for participation during phase 1 and phase 3 were 80.05% and 53.06% respectively. Primary 3 students were the keenest challengers of all, making an average of 34.41 attempts per week. Primary 6 students were the least active participants and had only 11.88 weekly attempts on average. The rates of participation by Primary 4 and 5 students were more consistent, as shown by their lower relative standard deviation values of 66.55% and 68.27% respectively. 150 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Table 5: Average number of copies a participant owns for cards in their collection in Phase 2 Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 All participants 1.34 1.25 1.16 1.11 1.21 To examine the effectiveness of the Pied Pipers program, students' participation was investigated with cross-reference to their grade proficiency level in the formal recorder curriculum. 40.71%, 63.38% and 45.58% of them were found to have performed at least one piece above their grade proficiency level. Phase 2 allowed students to challenge for any number of copies of Pied Piper cards without level pre-requisites. 40.85% of the participants (n=87) collected extra copies to add to their existing collections. Students at lower grade levels tended to collect more than students at higher grade levels (Table 5). There were five cases with students collecting 7 or more copies of the same card. Table 6: Number of students who had obtained cards above the grade level during each phase Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Total % out of all participants Phase 1 72 27 15 114 40.71% Phase 2 77 39 19 135 63.38% Phase 3 53 27 18 98 45.58% Meanwhile, 434 students in Primary 3 to 6 were given a questionnaire regarding participation in Pied Pipers (Tables 7 and 8). 189 participants and 245 non-participants responded. Results showed that the desire to obtain a full collection, the aesthetics of the cards, enjoyment for the program, interest in music or recorder playing, the wish to challenge oneself and the influence of peers were all major determinants of participation. 90% of the respondents (n=171) expressed that participation in Pied Pipers had led to the improvement of their recorder skills. The obstacles for students' participation in the program included their obligations to other school activities, their feeling that the program was too difficult, as well as a lack of interest. 42% of non- participants who had responded to the questionnaire (n=103) expressed that they would like to join the program next year if time is available. Table 4: Average weekly number of challenge attempts made by students Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 Phase 1 24.13 17 25 20.27 Phase 2 45.15 19.05 19.05 9.4 Phase 3 29.77 21.15 23.08 6.0 Mean 34.41 18.98 22 11.88 RSD 70.67 66.55 68.27 136.35 151 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Table 7: Responses by participants to question 2 in the questionnaire Reasons for participating in Pied Pipers Number of students I want to collect the cards 178 (94.1%) I like the card designs 176 (93.1%) The program is fun 171 (90.5%) I enjoy playing the recorder/music 169 (89.4%) I want to challenge yourself 154 (81.5%) My friends are also participating 134 (70.8%) Table 8: Responses by non-participants to question 8 in the questionnaire Reasons for not participating in Pied Pipers: Number of students Too busy with duties or other activities 96 (39.2%) Too difficult 61 (20.8%) No interest 45 (18.4%) Prefer other activities during recess 24 (9.8%) Dislike recorder 19 (7.8%) Long queues 12 (4.9%) Others 13 (5.3%) Discussion and analysis A steady decline in the proportion of participants in the Pied Pipers program could be expected as the situational interest of students would decay over time (Palmer, Dixon, and Archer, 2016). The high percentage deviation of weekly participation over the course of the program could be due to a myriad of causes. One of these factors was the large number of other functions, activities and field trips organised throughout the school year. Students might have participated in these events at the expense of Pied Pipers. Another factor contributing to the large variations in participation was the release of new musical pieces from time to time -- there were instant surges in participation by keen collectors who already had good sight reading skills and were therefore capable of performing set pieces almost immediately. Other students might require more time to practise, and thus were less able to participate at once. There was also a wish to wait until after long queues had disappeared. A combination of many factors of course could lead to the fluctuations in overall motivation for participation. Further research is required for identifying these factors and understanding better how these factors interact with each other. The relatively consistent participation during phase 2 could be due to its altered game mechanics. During this phase, students were allowed to challenge for any Pied Piper cards without pre-requisites as well as to collect multiple copies of each card. This relaxation of requirements might have motivated them to participate in the 152 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 program more regularly (Sailer et al., 2013). It is also interesting to note that many students were attracted to get extra copies of the Crescent Pair during this phase. This was the only card in the program that had a set piece arranged as a duet (a piece that required two players). The popularity of this card might be connected to the chance which it gave to students for more interaction among themselves (Shi et al., 2014). Results showed that Primary 3 students had the highest and most consistent participation rates. As the youngest learners of the recorder in school, their transient motivation for mastering a new instrument could have boosted their willingness to participate. This assumption was supported by the spike in their weekly participation rates phase 2, which was the time when they first received recorders of their own. According to the questionnaire results, the lower participation rates of students at higher grade levels was largely attributable to the more numerous obligations they had during recess. As community duties were often given to senior students at these times, so it was natural for them to be unable to participate. One solution to this issue could be to make additional manpower arrangements so that students with duties could challenge for Pied Piper cards outside recess time. 61 students voiced out about the difficulty of the set pieces. The reduction of the overall difficulty of set pieces could encourage weaker recorder players to participate. However, this change should be handled with caution as it might disengage the better ones (Hamari et al., 2016). Without changing the overall difficulty of the program, more set pieces with lower requirements in recorder performance competencies can be released to motivate students who are frightened off by the difficulties. There are limitations to the research model of this study. First of all, students who had failed to obtain Pied Piper cards were not taken account of. The same was true with students who had learnt to play the set pieces as levels were being released but who could not visit challenge booths within the assigned times. The data collected for the study could not fully express the effect of Pied Pipers on student motivation in playing the recorder. The attempt to quantify the effectiveness of the program by comparing participants’ grade levels and the difficulty of pieces that they had to perform had their limitations as well. The results of students being able to perform set pieces above their grade proficiency could be affected by external causes such as whether a participant has received private tutoring outside of school for instrumental techniques or musicianship. Meanwhile, although the evaluation of the overall effectiveness of the program through quantitative means could be somewhat biased, the research method had at least demonstrated that the implementation of Pied Pipers could encourage students to perform above their grade proficiency level. The positive effects of the program is 153 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 evident when looking at results of the questionnaire answered by participants. Almost all questionnaire respondents (90%) agreed that participation in the program had helped them improve their recorder skills. Overall, Pied Pipers has encouraged students to learn more about playing the recorder. Whenever the recess-time bell rang, the school immediately resonated with the sounds of recorders. Huge lines of students were formed outside the music room daily hoping to take part in the challenge. Holders and albums of Pied Piper cards could be seen in the hands of students everywhere. When challenge booths were closed, students gathered in the music room to do their own practice. Many parents commented that the program had motivated their children to practise playing regularly at home as well. The view count of over 26,000 on the YYPSPiedPipers YouTube channel was strong evidence for this observation. Interestingly, the program had also inspired some students to design their own Pied Piper cards and compose their own recorder pieces. A group of Primary 4 students shared with me their YouTube Channel with video demonstrations of their own recorder compositions, in a fashion similar to that of the official channel. Students with very weak fine-motor skills have also approached the music teachers or student- examiners for tutoring on recorder playing techniques due to enhanced interest in Pied Pipers. With the help of extra tutoring and motivation to practise for the program, many of them have become skilful recorder players. There were even alumni who came back for a visit to challenge for the newest Pied Piper cards. The implementation of the program has certainly helped students develop positive attitudes towards recorder playing. Its success can be attributed to the following elements of the program: Figure 8: Pied Piper cards designed by students Figure 7: Students queuing for the Pied Pipers challenge 154 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 9: Students showing off their card collection 1. The use of Pied Piper cards The aesthetic and original designs of the cards definitely played a pivotal role in motivating student participation in Pied Pipers. This is confirmed by the survey results where “card designs” and “desire for collection” were selected by students as the primary factors for their participation. A portion of students might have taken interest because they knew that the cards had been designed by the teacher. Pied Piper cards were taken as more than just a symbol. They had become icons around which the entire program revolved (Figure 9). The aesthetics of the design had helped to get students into the experience of the game (Kapp 2012). 2. Accessibility Posters of Pied Pipers set pieces were placed everywhere inside the campus. Whether students were in the playground, outside the school hall, in the corridor or inside classrooms, they could catch glimpses of the program materials. With little effort, they could already access the set pieces. The permission given to them to roam around the school for the posters has helped to engage students' attention to the program as well (Figure 10). Figure 10: Students learning to play their recorders during recess 3. Support of teachers Colleagues showed much support for the implementation of the programs. Despite the noise, teachers on duty welcomed recorder practices during class periods and recesses. Some colleagues, including the social worker, had even taken up the challenge to collect Pied Piper cards themselves. In Phase 1, a Primary 6 class achieved 100% participation as a result of their class teacher’s direct participation. With non-music teachers showing enthusiasm as well, many students had become more engaged in the program. 4. Synergy with the formal curriculum Just the Pied Pipers program alone is not enough to help students develop into competent recorder players. This informal curriculum was designed to stimulate students to play and practise. Fundamental recorder techniques however can only be mastered through learning experiences in regular music lessons. The basic techniques 155 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 established in music lessons provided students with the necessary skills to approach Pied Pipers. In this connection, increased frequency instrument could lower skill discrepancies within the class. Synergy between the formal music curriculum and Pied Pipers has surely helped to expedite learning in the classroom. 5. Student examiners Before the initial launch of Pied Pipers, the plan was to have five music teachers including the researcher to act as examiners for all challengers throughout the program. However, the overwhelming number of participants had made it very quickly that manpower was not enough. Several Primary 5 and Primary 6 students were therefore trained as helpers. Their duties were to act as examiners, but these soon extended to data collection, management of card inventories, the maintenance of discipline in the music rooms during recess, and tutoring younger students on recorder techniques. By the end of phase 2, a team of 14 student examiners was formed. Their work had become an integral element of success in the program. Many student examiners also took on the role as mentors and receptionists for younger students. When a younger one was unable to perform a set piece adequately, a student examiner would model for him or her and teach the proper recorder techniques. Unsuccessful challengers were given words of consolation, which was considered as a motivational game-based learning by Plass, Homer & Kinzer (2015) for example. The affective support which student examiners provided for their juniors might be an encouraging factor as well. Many of the latter were seen lining up for assistance from the examiners from time to time. In the questionnaire replies, two students had in fact expressed that their wish to become student examiners in the future as their primary reason for participation in the program. Figure 11: Student examiners at work 6. Careful implementation of the program An intricate series of tasks had to be handled from time to time to ensure the successful operation of Pied Pipers. Colleagues' efforts in the coordination of graphic design, composition and arrangement of set pieces, printing of materials, recording and editing and uploading of video demonstrations for each set piece, publication of Pied Piper set pieces, training and organisation of student examiners and communication with other teachers had also contributed greatly to the implementation of program design as a whole and enhanced the quality of program delivery. After all, a well planned and monitored program alignment is essential to the development of gaming experiences for effective learning (Caponetto, Earp and Ott, 2014). 156 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Conclusion The purpose of this action research study was to investigate the effectiveness of Pied Pipers for enhancing student motivation in learning to play the recorder. Results showed that though participation had diminished over time, the program was able to motivate students in learning and playing regularly. It could help students improve their techniques and develop positive attitudes towards the instrument. The success of Pied Pipers could be attributed to the use of aesthetic physical badges in the form of collectable cards, a high level of accessibility to participants, the support of teachers, the synergy of the program to the school-based formal music curriculum, the work of student helpers and the careful implementation of the program. To better understand the capacity of Pied Pipers as a non-formal curriculum model for learning the recorder, further research on how different game mechanics affect the participation and learning effectiveness of students should be conducted. Gaming mechanics that can promote motivation through increased social interaction between participants may be investigated in future for example. 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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, 8(4), 396–414. 159 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生 高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 劉佩義、易理斯 沙田崇真學校 摘要 本次教學研究的主要目的,是希望透過群文教學去提升學生的高層次思維閱讀和自 主閱讀的態度。研究對象是小學四年級學生,透過課堂上教師對學生多層次提問,並逐 一分析學生在此群文教學中完成的課業,去探究群文閱讀是否能幫助學生提高概括分析 能力,掌握閱讀策略。研究者期望能夠達到以下結果 : 群文閱讀教學能提升學生的高層 次思維閱讀以及促進學生自主閱讀的態度。研究結果顯示配以認知策略的群文教學,能 令學生拓寬閱讀面、提升閱讀深度及提高閱讀興趣。最後本研究也會針對研究結果提出 管理實務建議及說明研究限制。 文獻回顧 教改下閱讀教學的位置 教育局自 2002 年開始提倡「從閱讀中學習」的教育理念(課程發展局,2002), 但在其閱讀領域的目標並不聚焦。直至在 2014 年,教育局於「從閱讀中學習」的範疇中 描述了學習成果,強調學生透過閱讀聯繫文本以及個人生活經驗,從而反思感悟,建構 對世界的認知。課程文件提到:「學生在閱讀時,可連繫個人知識、學習經歷,以至整 個世界的事務,從而深入理解文本的內涵,建構意義」。基於以上課程發展議會以及教 育局於 2014 年對「從閱讀中學習」這課程理念的闡釋,反映從閱讀語文閱讀逐漸形成以 文學經驗為基礎,資訊經驗為延伸的閱讀過程(謝錫金等,2005)。「從閱讀中學習」 的文件內容,也反映出閱讀涵義是一種功能性語文能力(functional literacy)的概念 (劉潔玲,2009)。 閱讀教學的自主性 在更新的課程文件中(課程發展局,2015)進一步豐富有關語文閱讀的課程目標。 第一,透過運用不同閱讀策略去閱讀,並且著重閱讀素養及深度「拓寬閱讀面,增加閱 讀量,提升閱讀深度」,銳意令學生能發展高階閱讀思維能力,促進對文本作更深入的 思考,得出新的見解。第二, 當局著重學生均能在閱讀的量與質層面上取得學習成果, 並且能運用不同的閱讀策略去閱讀課文以外的閱讀材料。它將閱讀視為是促進自主學習 160 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 的重要因素:「學生具備這種閱讀能力和習慣,將有利於自主地從閱讀中汲取各類新知 識」。如同內地教育學者葉聖陶先生對於語文的閱讀教學的目標同樣是:「期望學生具 有獨立閱讀的能力,同時強調學生的學習自主性」。劉潔玲教授(2009)進一步闡釋不 同層次認知的閱讀教學能促進發展自主閱讀的元素:「轉變為更重視不同層次認知能力 的訓練,通過策略教學幫助學生成為靈活和自主的閱讀者」。 單元教學的流弊 何文勝(2002)指出單元教學的理念是一個有系統而且配合學生認知結構發展的教 學體系,各篇之間的篇章應該要有緊密的聯繫,以體現教學過程的階段性及連續性。然 而,反觀現今的單元設計模式存有不少流弊,尤其是因為閱讀教材之間的排序大多以技 能取向為主,只選取某些語文技法去授課,容易讓學生的閱讀經驗變得零碎。內地學者 洪鎮濤(1993)曾指出內地八十年代盛行的單元教學存有流弊,他提到當時語文教學實 際上是「以指導學生研究語言取代組織學生學習語言,以對語言材料(包括內容和形式) 的詳盡分析取代對語言材料的感受和積累」,他亦提到單元教學容易流於著重語文的工 具性,而忽略人文性。 另外,曹順祥、過常寶(2002)提出由於單元結構本身的連續性和遞進性,以文體 和語文為單元主題,勢必會導致對文體知識和語法知識進行瑣碎的切割,形成一些煩瑣 的知識。單元教學較常見以文體教學模式出現,教師習以為常地將文體劃分成記敘文、 說明文、議論文三類,這種結構分析也只出現在語文教學當中,一旦走出這一領域,這 些基礎知識變得毫無意義。 群文閱讀教學的啟示 群文閱讀教學是老師在一個單位時間內指導學生閱讀一組相關聯的文章,結合教材 及課外讀物,針對相同的議題,進行多文本的閱讀教學(徐秀春,2015)。繼而讓學生 從互動學習中,包括比較、討論等同儕協作學習方式,提升其閱讀數量、速度,及關注 其在多種多樣文章閱讀過程中的意義建構。這種教學令學生集得不同的閱讀策略,再往 後的單篇文章閱讀,或是整本書閱讀中能使用內化的閱讀策略,提升積極主動性。 研究目的 /問題 綜上所述,本研究的目的是鑑於現時教育政策上對閱讀層面的重視、閱讀教學模式 上的轉變、單元教學對長遠語文學習的流弊,另闢蹊徑去進行新的閱讀教學模式。群文 閱讀教學則能彌補單元教學的不足,助於解決當前問題的及教學模式,群文教學能幫助 學生提高概括分析能力,掌握閱讀策略,將理論及實踐相結合,最終使學生拓寬閱讀面, 增加閱讀量,提升閱讀深度,並且令學生能發展高階閱讀思維能力。 1. 群文閱讀教學能否提升學生的高層次思維閱讀? 2. 群文閱讀教學能否促進學生自主閱讀的態度? 161 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 研究設計(方法與工具) 研究對象 本研究對象是四年級學生,本校四年級在中文科分為六班,其中五班的各班人數約 25 至 27 人,是按成績平均分班。他們的學習能力、成績等較平均,而學習進度亦是經 五班的中文科任老師共備決定,教學模式亦相約。還有一班為IRTP(抽離式課堂班別), 這班學生人數較少,只有 8 人。這班的學生各有不同的學習需要,他們的學習能力及成 績較弱,故被抽取出來進行。這班的教材及上課進度需要進行適量調節,為免 影響該班學生學習進度,故將以另外五班作為研究班別。 本研究會以「人與自然的關係」作為群文閱讀教學的主題去設計校本單元,選取不 同文體及作品作為閱讀教材。針對研究問題一,筆者將會以學生的課業作質性研究。在 進行研究期間,為學生設計不同類型的教學活動及札記工作紙(進展性評估),老師憑 著專業觀察及根據學生的札記內容,去檢視學生的學習進展及高思維閱讀能力的提升情 況。 針對研究問題二, 筆者將會因應學生的閱讀興趣進行前後測。在進行研究前會先 讓學生完成問卷及訪談,了解學生在閱讀興趣上的取向。待完成研究計劃後再進行後測 訪談。 計劃進度 階段 時間 研究內容 訪談(前測) 2017 年 12 月 進行初期訪談,了解學生對閱讀興趣的程度,並取得數據。 數據分析 2017 年 12 月 - 2018 年 1 月 分析先導訪談結果,以取得基線資料,初步了解四年級學 生的閱讀興趣及態度。 計劃執行 2018 年 4 月 正式啟動行動研究計劃。 課堂研習、課堂觀察及教師訪談。 中期訪談,了解學生對閱讀興趣的程度改變,以調整教學 模式。 訪談(後測) 2018 年 5 月 進行後期訪談,以取得數據分析研究結果。 總結及反思 2018 年 6 月 研究員總結整個研究結果,反思研究內容,分析學生於計 劃中的學習效能。 2018 年 7 月 -8 月 撰寫書面報告,並於 8月 31 日前呈交教師中心。 預期成果(只適用於教學行動研究計劃) 1. 透過群文閱讀教學,能提升學生的高層次閱讀思維能力。 2. 透過群文閱讀教學,能提升學生的自主閱讀的態度。 162 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 教學設計闡釋 本次教學設計會透過有系統的策略教學結合閱讀的階段,目的是讓學生學習不同的 認知策略,並能有意識及靈活運用,以培養閱讀的自主能力。 本教學設計的主題是「環境與我」,分別以地球(母親)及種子(子女)敘事視角 來感悟大地與人們之間的聯繫。配合主題的探討,本設計以群文閱讀組織閱讀教材的方 式配合學習目標,希望讓學生透過不同性質、題材的閱讀材料,進行不同階段的整合閱 讀,結合不同視角去探討環境與個人之間的情感。 教材的編排理念則是沿用群文閱讀組織教材的理念:整合形取向,從不同的角度去 探討主題,讓學生在其後第三節至第五節進行不同整合對讀的階段:目的是幫助學生從 多元角度去思考閱讀主題。除了饒有趣味的課文及新詩外,還會以繪本《沉睡的種子》 與不同的的文本在不同的閱讀階段進行對讀。外國學者 Hassett 以及 Curwood(2009) 認為繪本是多模態的閱讀材料,能幫助學生拓展建構意義的途徑。Martens(2013)指出 繪本是一種揉合多元模式的讀物,包括:語言、視覺、圖像空間及圖像姿態(Gestural, 指插圖位置的移動),認為繪本的故事性質是圖文相互交織而成的。繪本是適合不同 年齡的學生閱讀的,即使是中年級學生也能將繪本的內容詮釋較為複雜的意義,展現 出洞悉能力(Pantaleo, 2014)。同時,現今的繪本蘊含較為抽象的概念、複雜的主 題,能促進學生在閱讀過程中展現出鑑賞能力以及能詮釋文本的多元意義(Pantaleo, 2014)。繪本能作為蘊含批判閱讀素養的教學。蘊含的這個特質正好與認知取向的閱讀 策略重視讀者展現批判思考的能力遙呼相應(Dole, et al.,1991)。 除了教材上的設計與編排,整個教學設計同時基於進展性評估的理念,以真實性及 多元化的形式去評估學生的理解程度。在感悟作品的階段,則是課堂上的進展性評估課 業,並運用以批判思維為基礎的揣摩評點法。研究者根據每節課的認知策略的教學重點, 設計相關的標準,讓學生去分析作品的內容及作法。當每節課完畢後,學生回家完成的 札記亦是進展性評估之一。目的是讓學生敘寫每節課後閱讀不同材料後的感悟,每次札 記反映學生對大地的形象及種子的視角去體會主題的積累,並反思人類與地球的關係。 課堂研習內容 有關研習內容的編排,本研究結合了書本教材及各種不同類型的課外讀物,在針對 相同的主題上,進行多元的閱讀教學。縱觀以下教材,包含各種類型,如說明文、繪本、 新詩及歌曲,圍繞「環保」這個議題,學生在閱讀篇章時會面對相同的思考、討論、發現, 從而逐步加深對主題的了解。 163 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 課節 篇章 /教學內容 認知閱讀策略 進展性評估課業 主題的面向 第一至 三節 課文(單元四) 《地球媽媽生病了》 (附件一) 說明文智略 摘要策略 擬人法智略 延伸閱讀篇章 《老鷹看世界》 母親(地球)的視野 -地球的現況 -人類與大地的關係 第四至 五節 繪本 《沉睡的種子》 (附件二) 繪本智略 (圖文互讀 分析法) 對種子的聯想 手工製作: 我的大自然萬花筒 孩子(種子)的視野 -生命的起源 第六至 八節 新詩 《愚公外傳》(附件三) 《樹》〈倒下的櫟樹〉 (附件四) 新詩智略 (意象分析) -意象 情感 對樹木的聯想 人類與大地的關係 -環保 -人類對地球的影響 第九節 歌曲 《還地球幸福的笑臉》 (附件五) 聆聽理解能力 學生想法分享 總結性課業 反思人類能為地球做的事 結果與討論 提升學生高層次閱讀思維能力 回應第一項研究預期成果,透過群文閱讀教學,能提升學生的高層次閱讀思維能力, 尤其是外國學者 Anderson 等人(Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D.R., 2001) 修訂了 Bloom 的閱讀能力層次提倡的認知歷程向度(cognitive process dimension)裏的分析 (analyzing)及評鑑(evaluating)兩個較高層次的思維能力。以下會從不同階段的教 學及學生的課業去闡述學生這兩方面閱讀思維能力的提升。 在分析層次的思維能力方面,在這研究中,筆者利用課本文章《地球媽媽生病了》, 從地球的視角與學生分析地球現在面臨的情況,讓學生了解整個地球現在處於危難之中。 教師先運用說明文及摘要策略(「總 - 分 - 總」說明文文體圖式)教導學生閱讀文章, 讓學生掌握應用能力(applying)後,以延伸閱讀篇章《老鷹看世界》去檢視學生掌握 摘要策略的情況(此為應用能力),繼而需要讓學生從動物的角度去分析人類活動(城 市發展)對大地造成的影響。 學生了解地球的狀況後,教師帶領學生從種子的視覺看生命的起源,感悟種子和 地球的關係。透過閱讀繪本《沉睡的種子》,以圖文閱讀分析法讓學生掌握閱讀繪本的 策略。根據學生在課後的進展性評估(附件六)表現可以得知,學生普遍能聯繫繪本細 節,歸納及分析種子的特點,並且能體會種子的生命及生存對地球的正面影響,更從中 學習種子對生存的執著的品德情意。學生運用「勇敢」、「聰明」、「獨立」等詞語形 容種子,可見學生的分析能力提升,他們能了解繪本中帶出種子生存意志的頑強,並反 思種子對地球的生存意義。 在評鑑層次的思維能力方面,筆者設計的新詩課業中(附件三及四《愚公外傳》和 《樹》<倒下的櫟樹 >),以意象分析與學生探討人類與大地的關係,從而反思環保的議 題,評鑑人類對地球的影響。經過老師在課堂中以六層次提問問題(附件七)引導學生 逐層推展理解新詩內容及意像,為學生提供具體的方法歸納篇章的重點。在理解新詩內 164 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 容後,學生分組討論地球環境過去及現在的狀況,並分析人類對地球的影響。從圖片中 (附件八)可見,學生能從廣度及深度歸納出地球的轉變,以匯報的形式向班上同學展 示所思所想,把地球面臨的危機訴說出來。另外,在進展性評估(附件七)亦能從改寫 櫟樹的命運這問題中,引發學生反思人類對地球的作為,思考人類該如何幫助地球。 在最後一節課,教師以一首討論環保議題的歌曲《還地球幸福的笑臉》作為總結。 歌曲傳播環保的概念,希望為海洋環保增添力量,同時以這首歌曲帶出即使我們個人的 力量微小,但集腋成裘能為地球帶來正面的改變。學生在聆聽歌曲後完成最後一份進展 性評估課業(附件九),反思本主題教學單元學習到的閱讀策略及品德情意。從學生課 業中可得知學生均能整合整個群文閱讀的主題(大自然、環保與珍惜等關鍵字詞),並 且能連結自己的日常生活,反思有何生活例子可以回應主題(環保)。 提升學生自主閱讀態度 回應第二項研究預期成果,透過群文閱讀教學,能部分提升學生的自主閱讀態度。 在前期訪談(附件十),與學生進行了一項問卷調查。數據所得發現在單元教學的學習 模式下,對閱讀產生興趣的學生並不多。在研究對象五班四年級學生 132 人當中只有 10 人對閱讀有興趣,普遍認為現行的教學模式(單元教學)課程沉悶,閱讀篇章未能引起 閱讀興趣。直至中期(計劃執行期間),再次進行問卷調查。在同一問卷題目中,學生 經過五節群文教學模式下學習閱讀策略後,對閱讀產生興趣的學生增加至 70 人,升幅高 達七倍,原因一般為篇章體裁不同,增加閱讀新鮮感。至整個群文教學完結,對閱讀產 生興趣的學生人數升至 126 人,達致預期成果。 學生除了對閱讀提升興趣,更喜歡以群文教學模式學習,附件十一的圖表顯示全級 百分之九十六的學生也喜歡群文教學學習模式。在最後的訪談中,許同學認為群文教學 圍繞同一主題,但文章體裁不同,讓她更有興趣閱讀,期待下一篇篇章的出現。及後班 中更有學生自行找了有關本研究主題(環保)的新聞報導與老師、同學分享,這種學習 精神正正是自主學習的態度提升。 研究限制和改善之處 是次研究的方法較集中於學生的課業作質化研究,雖然能分析學生在分析以及評鑑 題目上的表現,但忽略了其他影響發展高層次閱讀能力的因素,比如是學生的閱讀習慣 以及閱讀書籍的數量等。 因此,這個研究可以改善之處是將學生分為不同的組別並進行 前後測,蒐集學生在進行研究前後在高層次思維閱讀的表現作對比,以及分析其他影響 因素,並進行 T- 檢測(T-test)或 inferential statistical test,蒐集更多客觀的 數據,為日後的優化群文組織的框架作參考。 另外,是次研究實踐時間較短,未能針對學生的學習情況作緊密追縱。閱讀素養及 能力非短期能培養,本次研究員在兼顧教學、行政、活動等事務,只能將是次研究模式 165 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 實踐於一個單元上。雖然這九節課也能初步發現學生透過主題式的群文閱讀教學模式可 以提升自主閱讀興趣,惟未能進一步追縱不同學習程度學生的學習情況。如學校有時間 及空間,可以將群文教學應用於整個校本課程上,並組成一隊核心小組編排相關課程。 長期進行群文閱讀教學,對培養學生高層次閱讀思維及自主閱讀能力更有幫助。 結論與建議 群文閱讀與主題統整 本次研究圍繞環保的人文議題,群文閱讀教學對發掘人文主題有正面的影響。尤其 是透過不同面向的閱讀材料幫助學生建構對主題的認識,代入不同的視角去反思篇章中 不同人物的立場,從而批判人類對環境的態度以及行為,最後幫助學生有意識地整合整 個教學中的閱讀篇章。群文閱讀教學的確能在閱讀的廣度讓學生接觸不同切入點去了解 學習主題,避免了單元教學以能力為組織的主題割裂的流弊,同時也能兼顧學習語文的 人文性(對主題的感悟與反思)以及工具性(閱讀思維策略)。 老師設計了一項手工製作的教學任務,讓學生把大自然中不起眼的種子、花朵等帶 回校製作萬花筒,融合繪本中種子與地球關係在生活中。這項教學設計進一步強化學生 的概念知識(conceptual knowledge)(Bloom, 2001),能有效協助他們聯繫生活知識, 發掘主題。除此之外,在進行行動研究期間,學生在課堂中投入討論、積極分享的態度 更是令人鼓舞。群文閱讀教學模式鼓勵學生透過閱讀不同題材的文章來學習,當中提供 不少討論、匯報的學習時間。學生在課堂中越來越投入,更能主動發言,清楚表達自己 的意見,亦能根據組員的意見給予適當的回饋。學生在愉快、輕鬆的環境下學習,課堂 學習氣氛濃厚,使學生更能吸收學習內容,參與課堂的機會大大增加。然而,本教學研 究歷時不長,對於學生提高自主閱讀態度的影響不明顯,而群文閱讀教學對教師選材及 自設課程的要求較高,因而有以下的建議: 群文閱讀的選材編排 閱讀篇章對閱讀教學十分重要,選材優秀則能對理解主題點石成精,否則無法打動 學生。筆者建議前線教師可以圍繞主題選取不同文體的閱讀教材,並且以不同的作者視 野讓學生接觸閱讀的廣度,並且配以不同文體(genre),讓學生最後能建構文體智略 (schema)。在此需要注意的是教師在選材時,要重視一些典型突出的文體特點,才能 讓學生透過這些策略去處理較深層次的閱讀。 加強運用電子平台 群文閱讀教學的一個特點是著重學生理解主題的過程。隨著不同篇章的輸入,學生 能根據這些篇章的不同角度視野的切入,作出多角度(以這次研究為例,可以從城市發 展、萬物生命的價值以及對大自然的獲取與回饋這些方面)思考,並且對主題理解有所 166 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 不同。因此,前線教師若運用電子平台讓學生在不同的閱讀階段進行分享,加強學生之 間的互動,則能加深學生個人與群體間的品讀與感悟。 跨學科閱讀課程與資源 群文閱讀與範文教學模式往往容易混淆。筆者認為兩者的差異是在於拓展閱讀廣度 後有否加深學生對主題的發掘。那麼,教師可以如何透過群文閱讀教學來增加閱讀的深 度呢?更新的課程文件(課程發展議會,2015)中強調學校需要建立圍繞同一主題的跨 科閱讀課程,設立跨學科閱讀課程的目的同樣也是圍繞培養學生高階思維能力。當局推 動的跨學科閱讀課程與當中的資源(時間),是將語文科習得的閱讀策略作為支點,作 為閱讀其他科目材料的共通能力,若如能夠長期推行,也能幫助學生建立自主閱讀的態 度。更重要的是這樣的跨學科課程及資源,可以讓群文閱讀教學發揮最大的教學效益。 同時,教師著重不同篇章之間的比較與整合,會有助學生發掘主題的深度。 參考文獻 何文勝(2002):建構語文單元教學設計的理論依據:兼論語文單元教學的組元方法, 載何文勝、編、何國祥及譚邦和(合編)《新世紀的中國語文教育》,頁 91-112, 香港,香港教育學院。 洪鎮濤(1993)。〈是學習語言,還是研究語言——淺論語文教學的一個誤區〉。《中 學語文》,第 5卷。 徐秀春(2015)。〈當前小學群文閱讀教學研究綜述〉。《小學教學參考》,第11卷,1-4。 曹順祥、過常寶(2002)。〈談談中國語文科的單元教學設計 〉。《啟思教學通訊》, 第 2卷,7-11。 劉潔玲(2009)。〈香港中學生在國際學生評估計畫的閱讀表現對語文課程改革的啟示〉。 《教育科學研究期刊》,第 54 卷,第 2期,85-104。 課程發展局(2002)。《從閱讀中學習。基礎教育課程指引 – 各盡所能 ‧ 發揮所長 (小一至中三)》。取自 https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum- development/doc-reports/guide-basic-edu-curriculum/be_chi_cover.pdf. 課程發展局(2015)。《學校課程持續更新︰聚焦、深化、持續:更新中國語文教育 學 習 領 域 課 程 》。 取 自 https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum- development/renewal/CLE/ppt_CLE%20KLA.pdf. 謝錫金,林偉業,林裕康,羅嘉怡(2005)。《兒童閱讀能力進展:香港與國際比較》。 香港:香港大學出版社。 167 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 Anderson, L. 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Journal of Children’s Literature, 40(1), 15–26. 168 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件一:課文(單元四)《地球媽媽生病了》 169 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件二:《沉睡的種子》進展性工作紙 170 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件三:新詩《愚公外傳》 附件四:《樹》<倒下的櫟樹 > 171 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件五:《還地球幸福笑臉》歌曲 172 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件六:繪本《沉睡的種子》-進展性評估表現 附件七: 173 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件八:學生匯報及分享 附件九:進展性評估課業學生作品 174 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件十:學生在不同階段對閱讀產生興趣的人數統計 附件十一:喜歡群文學習教學模式人數統計(後測) 175 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 探討運用電子學習資源來提升 學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 麥桂英、徐智強、黃錦杏、戴英傑、劉珈瑗、何諾衡、何澤華 青松侯寶垣小學 摘要 在第一學習階段中,學生在三年級開始接觸分數。學生要學好分數,老師須在教學 設計上花心思,再配合教具的應用或實物操作,才能讓學生建立鞏固的分數概念。本行 動研究旨在探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能,研究對象為三、四年級 共九班學生。研究員運用了各種電子學習資源包括電子分享平台、電子即時評估軟件及 分數應用軟件來幫助學生建構分數概念。從前測、後測及學生問卷的結果顯示,運用電 子學習資源既能幫助學生有效學習分數外,亦能提升學生的學習動機。 研究背景 分數是小三學生首次接觸的課題,分數概念較整數概念更為抽象。他們要經歷從學 習整數過渡到學習分數,當中會遇上學習困難。整數概念對於初小學生是比較容易理解 的,因為他們在生活中是經常接觸到整數。例如:小明有兩粒糖,這件事對他們很容易 理解,因為他們曾有親身看見及觸摸過兩粒糖的經驗。當學生開始學習分數時,他們要 明白到分數作為一個物件(整體)的部分及分數作為一組物件(整體)的部分,加上要 掌握比較分數的大小,如果沒有實體操作及圖像的協助下,他們往往會墮入分數的迷思 中。例如:比較同分子異分母的分數時,會得出 1/5>1/3 的結果。這是因為學生受整數 的概念及運算所影響,導致學習分數時出現的錯誤。課程發展議會(2014,分章 3D,頁 4)提及「資訊科技能強而有力地激發學習動機,亦能照顧不同學習需要的學生。透過設 置饒富趣味的學習環境,因應不同學生的學習特性,能促使他們運用相關的資訊科技技 能,獲取及建構知識。」江紹祥(2007)亦指出運用電子資源作為認知工具能夠有效提 昇學生學習分數的效能。有見及此,本校於三及四年級教授分數時,引入各種電子資源, 包括:促進學習分享交流的軟件 Nearpod,促進進展性評估的軟件 Plickers 及 Kahoot, 及幫助學生建構分數的認知軟件。 176 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究目的 是次行動研究旨在探討三、四年級學生使用電子學習資源能提升學生對學習「分數」 概念的效能。其中包括以下兩個目的: 1. 使用電子學習資源能提升學生學習分數的效能。 2. 使用電子學習資源能幫助學生理解及掌握各種分數比較的策略。 文獻探討 分數概念學習的研究及建議 不少學者都一直對有關學生的分數能力進行研究,希望找出數值學習和分數學習之 間的關係。鄭振初(2006)引述Kieren於1988年把有理數的學習分為為整體和分部關係、 比例、分數、量度和運算這五個範疇。Kieren 認為學生分數學得不好的原因,是分數和 整數各有不同心理領域,學生要用不同的心像圖、操作過程和語言來學習分數概念。鄭 振初(2006)亦引述 Behr And Post 於 1988 年指出要學好分數必須要先多做整數運算, 和多學習量度和面積概念。很多研究者認為學習分數的難處在於學生不能把舊知識過渡 到新知識,學生無法用「數學」的計算方法或概念來認識分數。鄭振初(2006)提出教 授分數概念其中的一個建議是「用圖形解釋分數問題」,以加深對分數概念的認識。因 此本研究選取一些以用圖形解釋分數概念的認知軟件,讓學生能夠建構分數概念。 電子學習環境促進學習 隨著資訊科技在教育領域的廣泛應用,由電子資源和電子通訊衍生的電子學習環境, 已為學校教育帶來的種種機遇。江紹祥(2011)指出研究顯示認知工具能透過具體可操 控的教學設計輔助認知過程(Coffey, 2005; Ware, 2004),減少認知負荷(Sweller & Chandler, 1994),幫助學生理解抽象的概念(Wheeler, Yeomans, & Wheeler, 2008)。例如:學生可親手操控專門為學習分數設計的認知工具,藉著具體的圖形來理解 抽象的分數概念。正如梁玉麟、勞傅燕華和江巧妍(2011)所言,「分數的概念則較為抽 象,涉及把整數均分後再取份,是學生學習的一個難點。」江紹祥(2011)指出教師透過 電子學習不但可更具效率地向全班學生派發及開啟工作紙,更可隨時轉播投射某項教學內 容及學生學習成果(Bottge, Rueda, Kwon, Grant, & Laroque, 2009)。教師若能配合 良好的教學設計,則可進一步運用電子通訊環境把高效教室經營成為利於互動學習的環 境。故此,我們期望藉此行動研究,探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能, 協助學生理解這個抽象的學習難點。以下為是次研究中運用的各項電子學習資源的特色: 177 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 1: 各項電子學習資源的特色 電子學習資源 特 色 Plickers 作為促進學習的進展性評估軟件之一,老師透過 Plickers 網站製作題目庫,可在 課堂開始及完結時即時收集學生數據。它的好處是學生只需手持獨有的圖咭便能 回答選擇題,除了提昇老師檢視學生學習成效的效率外,也能大大降低對資訊科 技硬件的要求。 Kahoot 作為促進學習的進展性評估軟件之一,學生利用平板電腦進行學習。除了能讓老 師檢視和收集學生學習數據外,它的好處是富有精美的畫面和吸引的聲效,能大 大提昇學生的學習動機。 Nearpod 學習及分享交流的軟件,除了能提供一個平台讓學生即時展示學習成果外,也能讓 老師作出即時回饋及讓學生之間作出分享和交流,大大提昇師生及生生互動的機會。 分數應用軟件 作為學習分數的認知工具,軟件中運用圖像及重疊功能幫助學生建構分數概念、 增強分數的數字感,及有助學生發展各種分數比較策略。 研究設計及過程 是次行動研究我們以「老師作為研究者」的觀點來推展,以前測、後測及學生問卷 調查來收集資料,然後進行分析和反思,並以 Spss 軟件(Paired Samples T-Test)瞭 解本次研究的真實成效。參與是次研究分別為三年級共五班及四年級共四班。三年級共 有五班:一班為挑選班(學生能力最高)、一班為次挑選班(學生能力稍高),另外三 班為普通班(學生能力一般)。四年級共有四班:一班為挑選班(學生能力最高)、一 班為次挑選班(學生能力稍高),另外兩班為普通班(學生能力一般)。是次研究沒有 設立對照組,所有班別都引入電子資源教授分數,以前測及後測成績作對照,來監定學 生在電子學習模式下能否提升學習分數的效能。 是次研究共分為三個階段,分別是預備階段、執行階段及總結階段。下表為有關各 階段的日程: 階段 進行項目 三年級 四年級 預備階段 擬訂研究計劃目的 2017 年 10 月至 2018 年 2 月設計研究方法和工具 文獻探討 執行階段 前測 2018 年 4 月至 2018 年 5 月 2018 年 3 月至 2018 年 4 月 分析前測資料 擬訂教學流程和活動 實施教學 總結階段 進行後測 問卷調查 分析後測資料 資料整理 2018 年 6 月至 2018 年 7 月 2018 年 5 月至 2018 年 7 月撰寫報告 表 2: 研究計劃實施階段 178 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 預備階段於 2017 年 10 月至 2018 年 2 月期間進行,我們在預備階段中主要是擬定 是次研究計劃的問題及目的、設計研究方法和工具,以及作文獻回顧。 執行階段於 2018 年 3 月至 2018 年 5 月期間進行,我們在此階段進行前測,收集學 生對此課題的認識程度及找出學習難點。我們亦藉著所收集前測數據,按每班學生學習 差異設計每節學習目標,以便提升學習效能。下表分別為三、四年級的教學流程及教學 目標: 表 3:三、四年級的教學流程及教學目標 年級 施行時段 學習單元 教學目標 電子學習資源 四 年 級 2018 年 3 月至 2018 年 4 月 4N7 分數二 分數比較 運用 作為中間人來比較異分母分數的大小。 Plickers、分數應用軟件 運用「分子分母之差」來比較異分母分數的 大小。 Plickers、Nearpod 運用「通分母」來比較異分母分數的大小。 Plickers、Nearpod 運用「通分子」來比較異分母分數的大小。 Plickers、Nearpod 三 年 級 2018 年 4 月至 2018 年 5 月 3N6 分數一 分數的 認識(一) (二)及 分數的 比較 認識分數作為整體的部分。 Plickers、Nearpod、 分數應用軟件認識分數與 1的關係。 認識分數作為一組物件的部分。 Plickers、Nearpod、 Kahoot、分數應用軟件依總數和分數找出一組物件的部分是多少。 比較同分子分數的大小。 Plickers、Nearpod、 Kahoot、分數應用軟件比較同分母分數的大小。 老師在教授各教學目標時,均會按需要而運用不同的電子學習資源,包括有:協 助學生建構分數概念的分數應用軟件(圖 1-3)、促進生生互動及培養學生辨別能力的 Nearpod、及促進學習的評估工具 --Plickers 和 Kahoot。老師每完成一個學習目標,均 會運用 Plickers 即時收集學生在課堂上的數據,以便課後老師就著數據來分析學生對該 課節學習目標的掌握程度。如發現整班學生對該課節的學習目標掌握未如理想,老師即 時調整下一節的教學內容及策略,以加強學生對此目標的掌握程度。如老師發現某些學 生學習表現未如理想,會於下一節課堂對他們進行個別指導。 (圖 1) (圖 2) (圖 3) 179 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 當完成整個教學單元後,老師便會進行後測及問卷調查。老師運用這些結果分析學 生對分數概念的學習效能。老師亦藉此檢討整個單元的教學策略,並針對教學難點作出 優化,供來年科任老師參考。此外,老師從數據中找出學習未如理想的學生,並作出個 別指導。最後,老師把搜集所得的資料作分析及整理,然後撰寫報告。 研究結果及分析 三年級研究結果: 老師在教授「分數的認識」及「分數的比較」此兩個課題,分別各進行了一次前測 及一次後測(附件一及附件二)。前測目的是了解學生的已有知識及將會學習的內容的 掌握程度,以便老師找出學生的不足之處及學習難點,以編定教案設計、選取合適電子 學習軟件、編排 Nearpod 互動教學活動、擬定及編排 Plickers 小測題目及 Kahoot 問答 遊戲題目。 根據前測1各班答對率(附件五)顯示,我們發現學生對分數的各部分名稱(第1題)、 認識「分數作為一組物件的部分的認識」(第 5 題)及認識「依總數和分數找出一組物件 的部分是多少」(第 7-9 題)的概念表現稍遜。對於小學生首次接觸分數來說,實在有點 抽象。完成前測 1後,我們利用 Nearpod 設計互動教學活動,活動中以圖形或圖案為主, 配合生活化情境,讓學生更具體掌握分數的概念。 Nearpod 互動教學活動(分數的認識一、二) 1. 以下是按前測 1第 1題所擬的題目: 請在下圖的分數中,標示出「分子」和「分母」。 學生於 Nearpod 上回答: 透過學生在Nearpod上寫出「分子」和「分母」,加強對分數的各部分名稱的掌握。 180 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 (b)承上題,1 隻比卡超從樹後跳出來,現在比卡超佔全部寵物小精靈的幾分 之幾? 學生於 Nearpod 上回答: 透過學生在 Nearpod 上寫出添加比卡超數量後(1 隻比卡超從樹後跳出來),學生 能掌握比卡超的數量(分子)增加時,而寵物小精靈的總數量(分母)也同時增加。 3. 以下是按前測 1第 8題所擬的題目: 明輝有 12 個蘋果,他把蘋果平均分成 6 份,每天吃掉 1 份。請在下圖圈出 6 份蘋 果的分組方法。 問:明輝共吃掉了所有蘋果的 1/6,他共吃了蘋果多少個? 學生於 Nearpod 上回答: 2. 以下是按前測 1第 7題所擬的題目: (a)比卡超佔全部寵物小精靈的幾分之幾? 學生於 Nearpod 上回答: 181 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 透過學生在 Nearpod 上把蘋果的總數均分為 6 等分,具體地顯示均分的份數,再找 出其中一個等份的數量,即 12 的 1/6 是 2,加強學生對這個概念的掌握。 表 4:三年級前測 1及後測 1(分數的認識一、二)全級答對率分析 全級人數為 103 人 題號 測試目標 前測 1 平均答對率 後測 1 平均答對率 平均進步 百分率 Q1 對分數的各部分名稱的認識:寫出分子和分母 52% 95% +43% Q2a 對分數作為整體部分的認識:把全個蛋糕的 填色 91% 98% +7% Q2b 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識:把 4 件蛋糕中的 (吃去的部分)圈出 86% 94% +8% Q3 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識:找出部分物件(足 球)佔全部物件(球)的幾分之幾。 63% 92% +29% Q4 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識:找出部分物件(沒 有着色的星星)佔全部物件(星星)的幾分之幾。 64% 87% +23% Q5 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識:添加物件數量後 (多一粒草莓放進水果禮盒),部分物件的數量(分子) 增加了,而物件的總數量(分母)也同時增加。 41% 73% +32% Q6 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識:找出部分物件(黃 色波子)佔全部物件(波子)的幾分之幾。 69% 91% +22% Q7 測試學生對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識:添加物 件數量後(再送給3粒黃色波子),部分物件的數量(分 子)增加了,而物件的總數量(分母)也同時增加。 19% 60% +41% Q8a 依總數和分數找出一組物件的部分是多少:(先把橙 分成 5等份,圈出 2份,找出 10 的 是 4) 16% 75% +59% Q8b 依總數和分數找出一組物件的部分是多少:(先把橙 分成 5等份,圈出 2份) 17% 64% +47% 平均分(滿分 10) 5.1 8.3 +3.2 表 5:三年級前測 1及後測 1成績比較 注:*P<0.05 測試滿分:10 分 平均值 標準差 t 顯著性(雙尾) 前測 1 -後測 1 -3.1400 .8620 -8.146 .001* 從前測 1 及後測 1 的結果(表 4)顯示,三年級學生的第一次前後測成績有顯著的 進步,以10分為滿分,成績由前測的平均5.1分提升到後測的8.3分,平均進步了3.2分。 再者,題目1、7及8是全級平均進步百分率最高的三道題目,各平均進步達40%或以上。 以成對樣本 T檢定(Paired Sample T-Test)比較三年級學生第一次前測和後測的 差異,數據顯示前測(M = 5.14,Sd = 1.44)和後測(M = 8.28,Sd = 1.32)的得分 存在顯著的差異 ; T(4)= -8.15,P = 0.001。從結果顯示,運用電子學習軟件有助提 升學生學習分數的效能。除了提升學生的學習興趣外,還能夠協助他們掌握概念,並且 能增加課堂的互動性。 182 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 (圖 7) (圖 4) (圖 5) (圖 6) 表 6:三年級前測 2及後測 2(分數的比較)全級答對率分析 全級人數為 103 人 題號 測試目標 前測 2 平均答對率 後測 2 平均答對率 平均進步 百分率 Q1 圖像題:比較同分母分數的大小的掌握。 (涉及兩個、三個分數) 58% 84% +26% Q2 46% 56% +10% Q3 算式題:比較同分母分數的大小的掌握。 (涉及三個分數) 80% 87% +7% Q4 63% 86% +23% Q5 算式題:比較同分母分數的大小及同分子分數的大小 的掌握,從而比較三個分數的大小。 27% 69% +42% Q6 開放題:比較同分子分數或同分母分數大小 的掌握。(涉及兩個分數) 73% 87% +14% Q7 47% 84% +37% 平均分(滿分 7) 3.9 5.5 +1.6 學生完成「分數的認識」這課題後,跟著學習「分數的比較」。根據前測 2 各班答 對率(附件七)顯示,我們發現學生在比較三個分數的大小方面(第5題),表現明顯稍遜。 於是,我們利用分數應用軟件於課堂活動中,學生使用這個軟件來比較同分子分數的大 小 ( 例如:比較 與 的大小)(圖 4及圖 5),確實很有幫助,尤其圖形的重疊展示功能 (圖 6及圖 7),在提升學生學習分數的效能方面,比起以往的單向式簡報更為有效。 表 7:三年級前測 2及後測 2成績比較 注:*P<0.05 測試滿分:7分 平均值 標準差 t 顯著性(雙尾) 前測 2 -後測 2 -1.5600 .4506 -7.742 .001* 前測2及後測2的結果(表6)顯示,三年級學生的第二次前後測成績有明顯的進步, 以7分為滿分,成績由前測的平均3.9分提升到後測的5.5分,平均進步了1.6分。再者, 題目 5是全級平均進步百分率最高的題目,平均進步達 42%。 183 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 以成對樣本 T檢定(Paired Sample T-Test)比較三年級學生第二次前測和後測的 差異,數據顯示前測(M = 3.94,Sd = 0.74)和後測(M = 5.5,Sd = 0.94)的得分存 在顯著的差異 ; T(4)= -7.74,P = 0.001。從結果顯示,運用分數應用軟件協助學生 掌握分數比較的概念具有一定的成效。 四年級研究結果: 老師在教授「分數比較」這單元前進行了一次前測。前測目的是了解學生對已有知 識及對將會學習的知識的掌握程度,以便老師找出學生的不足之處及學習難點,對於稍 後的教案設計有著很大的幫助。四年級前測共有 11 題(附件三),我們設計了第 1 至 8 題來評估學生對於三年級時已學會的「基本分數認識」的掌握程度。而第 9至 12 題則用 作評估學生對將會學習的「分數比較」的掌握程度。附件九為各題目的評估目標及結果。 前測 從這次前測結果中,我們發現學生對於部份已有知識的掌握程度不太理想,例如第 1 題和第 6 題。在第 1 題中,只有 62% 的同學完全答對。完全答對的是指同學能選出正 確答案 C 和 E。25% 學生只選了答案 C 或答案 E。大部份答錯的同學都是多選了答案 A 或 答案 D。由此可見,部分學生對於「均分」概念還未鞏固,所以我們應加強學生對均分 概念的掌握。由第 6 題的結果顯示,只有大約六成學生能完全答對 6B 及 6C 的問題。答 錯的同學錯誤認為 大過一半,亦有部份同學錯誤認為 少過一半。由此可見當分母是一 個奇數時,學生便較難於辨別這個分數的一半是多少。因此在是次的教學設計中,我們 加強了學生對 的掌握,從而懂得利用以 作為中間人進行分數的比較。 學生對於將會學習的「分數比較」的掌握程度不高,只有 47% 的同學答對第 10題, 部份學生錯誤認為 > > 。我們期望在稍後的課節中,透過探究活動讓同學能發現「分 子分母相差一」的分數比較當中的規律。此外,只有 32% 的同學答對第 12 題,有部份同 學將答案錯誤地寫為 >2> > 。由此反映當學生面對多個分數比較時,未能掌握同時 運用多於 1項的策略來處理這類題目。 歸納以上前測的結果及分析,我們有以下結論: 1. 同學對於分數的已有知識基本上已掌握,但仍需加強鞏固「均分」概念; 2. 需加強鞏固以 作為中間人來比較分數的大小; 3. 只有 47% 同學答對「分子分母相差 1」的分數比較題目,我們希望能藉着探究活動讓 學生發現「分子分母相差 1」的分數比較的規律和意義。 4. 同學比較多個分數時表現較差,部份同學未能適當運用各種策略來比較多個分數。 就着這次前測的結果和分析,四年級老師設計了以下的教學策略及運用各項電子資 源來達至本研究的兩項目的。當分母是一個奇數時(例如 ),學生難以辨別這個分數是 否大於一半。因此,教師要加強 概念及教授「 作為中間人來比較分數策略」。於是, 184 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 我們運用了以下這個分數認知工具幫助學生鞏固 的概念。首先著學生在軟件中按出 和 的分數圖像(圖 8),然後利用軟件的重疊功能把 和 的圖像重疊一起(圖 9),於是 學生便能清楚看見兩個分數圖像的大小是相同的(圖 10),從而明白兩者分數的數值是 相等。透過幾次的實際操作,學生「看見」以下結果: = = = ,再而自行發現出「當 分數值是 時,分子x 2= 分母或分母是分子的 2倍。」(圖 11) (圖 10) (圖 11) (圖 8) (圖 9) (圖 12) (圖 13) (圖 14) 當學生掌握 分數概念後,透過軟件的協助下能進一步鞏固以「 作為中間人」來比 較異分子分母分數的大小。首先,著學生在軟件上按出 的分數圖像(圖 12),然後利 用軟件的重疊功能把 和 的圖像重疊(圖 13),學生便能清楚看見 比 小(圖 14)。 跟著,學生依照工作紙上的步驟進行估計、驗證及計算(圖 15),更能發現出「當分數 值大於 時,分子x 2 是比分母大。」及「當分數值小於 時,分子x 2 是比分母小。」 這兩項的關係。 185 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 (圖 15) 在教授「分子分母相差一」、「通分母」及「通分子」此三個分數比較的策略時, 四年級老師除了用工作紙去引導學生建構分數比較策略的概念外,還運用了 Nearpod 此 電子平台讓學生互相分享他們發現的結果(圖 16)。正如以上文獻探討部分中,江紹祥 博士及一些學者指出,電子資源大大提高了學生交流分享的效率,使課室成為一個互動 學習的地方。自運用了Nearpod作為分享學生作品的平台後,不但提高學生的學習動機, 亦使學生們更加投入和主動去發現各種分數比較策略的概念。老師透過 Nearpod 亦可即 時檢視學生的工作紙,並能有效率地挑選出學生佳作或學習難點作展示,讓全班同學一 起學習和討論,從中使他們培養出互相欣賞、評鑑及學習的能力。課堂完結後,老師更 可運用 Nearpod 的紀錄,去檢視學生的學習進度及成效,藉此找出學習未如理想的學生 作出跟進,及調整下一課節的教學目標及策略。 (圖 16) 後測 教授「分數比較」整個單元後,我們進行了一次後測(附件四),目的是了解學生 對已會學習的知識的掌握程度,及評估我們的教學策略是否有效。此外,這些寶貴資料 亦會用作明年教授此單元時參考之用。在這次後測中,第 1、2、3A、3B、3C 和 4 題是和 前測卷(附件三)中的第 6、10 至 12 題相同或十分類似,目的是評估學生經過這次學習 186 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 8:四年級前測及後測全級答對率分析 前測 題號 後測 題號 評估目標 前測 平均答對率 後測 平均答對率 上升 幅度 Q6 Q1 認識大於、小於、等於 的概念 66% 81% 15% Q10 Q2 懂得分子分母相差一的分數比較 47% 84% 37% Q11a Q3a 懂得以擴分或約分來比較分數 50% 87% 37% Q11b Q3b 懂得利用帶分數及假分數互化來比較分數 50% 92% 42% Q12 Q4 懂得利用各種策略比較假分數、帶分數、真分數的大小 32% 85% 53% 表 9:四年級前測及後測成績比較 注:*P<0.05 測試滿分:10 分 平均值 標準差 t 顯著性(雙尾) 前測-後測 -1.44000 .11776 -24.457 .000 整體而言,四年級學生的前後測成績有顯著進步。以 10 為滿分,他們的成績由前 測的平均 7.1 分提升到後測的 8.5 分,平均進步了 1.4 分(附件九及附件十)。以成對 樣本 T 檢定(Paired Sample T-Test)比較四年級學生前測和後測的差異,數據顯示前 測(M = 7.0,Sd = 0.84)和後測(M = 8.5,Sd = 0.73)的得分存在顯著的差異; T(3) = -24.46,P = 0.001。從結果顯示,運用電子學習軟件有助提升學生學習分數的效能。 此外,從後測結果得知,約 80-90%(第 1 至 5 題數據)的同學都能懂得運用以下策 略來比較分數: 1. 為中間人 2. 分子分母相差一 3. 通分母; 4. 通分子; 5. 懂得先以整數部分來比較分數大小,再用通分母來比較。 當同學面對四個或以上的分數比較(第6題)時,就只有約75%的同學能完全答對。 由此可見,當要同時運用多個分數比較策略時,少部份同學仍未能完全掌握或靈活運用 不同策略來作分數比較。 單元後是否有進步。第 3D、3E、5、6、7 題則用作評估在學生是否懂得運用通分母、通 分子及各種策略來比較分數。後測結果可參閱附件十。 後測分析及前後測比較 我們把前測和後測的結果來作比較,發現學生在後測第1、2、3A、3B、3C和4題(即 前測中的第 6、9 至 12 題)中的表現都有進步。從以下數據(表 8)顯示,學生經過這 次學習單元後,對於某些學習重點掌握程度有著明顯的進步,尤其以後測第 4 題最為顯 著,由前測的平均 32% 提升到後測的 85%,平均上升了 53%。 187 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 10:四年級學生運用各種分數比較的策略統計 *總人次為 69 人,即所有答對第 7題的人數。 分數比較的策略 人次 通分子 16 通分母 43 先用大於 、然後通分子 2 先用大於 、然後通分母 4 先運用通分母比較( 和 ),再運用通分子比較( 和 ) 3 先運用通分子比較( 和 ),再運用通分母比較( 和 ) 1 我們特別設計了第 7 題(解難題),目的是想看看同學在解難過程中運用了甚麼策 略,以下是同學運用了各種策略的統計數字: 從以上數據(表 10)得知,86% 同學(59 人)都只懂得運用單一策略來解決這條分 數比較難題,而只有 14%(10 人)的同學會採用多於一種的分數比較策略。由此可見, 當同學面對分母的數字是比較小(不大於 12)的多個分數比較時,同學偏向只用通分母 或通分子來將全部分數的分母或分子統一,然後再作比較。原因是通分母或通分子是一 個「萬試萬靈」的方法,同學只要懂得「通分母」或「通分子」,便能比較多個分數。 最令我們意外的是雖然有超過 80% 同學已掌握 1/2 「作中間人」的策略,但只有 6 位(7%)同學懂得或願意先運用大於 1/2 作標準,然後再運用通分母或通分子來比較餘 下的分數。其實這個方法是最快捷簡單的,但卻只有少數的同學懂得或願意運用。原因 可能是同學對分數的數字感仍然不強,未能很快找出大於或小於一半的分數。再者,他 們可能是執意著只使用一招殺手鐧—「通分子」或「通分母」來比較分數。這點很值得 我們明年在教授「分數比較」時再作深入探討。 學生的觀感 完成整個單元教學後,三、四年級老師與學生進行了一次問卷調查,藉此收集學生 對運用電子資源學習分數的一些主觀感受。調查結果(表 11)顯示,大部分三年級及四 年級學生均認為電子學習資源有助他們理解分數的概念。此外,84% 三年級學生及 79% 四年級學生十分同意電子學習資源有助他們掌握如何比較分數的大小。由此可見,學生 都認同電子學習資源對他們學習分數是具有效能的。 表 11:三、四年級學生問卷調查結果 年級 十分同意 同意 不同意 十分不同意 透過電子學習資源, 有助我理解分數的概念。 P.3 90.9% 6.9% 1.1% 1.1% P.4 82.4% 17.6% 0% 0% 透過電子學習資源,有助我掌握如何比較同分母分數 的大小及同分子分數的大小。 P.3 84.1% 10.2% 3.4% 2.3% 透過電子學習資源,有助我掌握如何比較分數。 P.4 78.8% 21.2% 0% 0% 188 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 反思與結論 是次研究利用成對樣本 T 檢定及各項數據表述工具作分析,報告顯示三、四年級學 生在使用電子學習資源下,在課堂前後有顯著的差異。學生運用分數認知軟件協助建構 分數的概念、以 Nearpod 來進行分享和互動交流,並利用 Plickers 和 Kahoot 作為即時 的進展性評估,確實能夠提升他們學習分數的效能及幫助他們理解和掌握各種分數比較 的策略。學生對分數學習不再感到艱深及抽象,反之,逐漸地增強他們學習分數的信心 及興趣。 從參與老師的意見中,他們認為運用電子學習資源後,學生的學習動機提升了不少, 課室亦變為高效互動的學習環境。正如江紹祥(2011)所言,「教師若能配合良好的教 學設計,可進一步運用電子通訊環境把高效教室經營成為一個利於互動學習的環境」。 為提升學與教效能,在未來的教學中,我們仍會繼續運用電子學習資源進行教學,並加 強校內專業交流文化。總結而言,這是一次成功的行動研究,效果非常理想,不但能提 升學生學習分數的效能,亦加強了學校的團隊協作文化及增進教師的專業知識和能力。 參考文獻 江紹祥(2007)。《數碼教室與教學效能的提升》。2017 年 10 月 7 日,取自 http:// www.hkedcity.net/article/teacher_tv_seminar/120727001/Dr._KONG_Siu_ Cheung.pdf。 江紹祥(2011)。〈電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇〉。《香港教師中心學報》,第10卷, 1-8。 梁玉麟、勞傅燕華和江巧妍(2011)。《數學課堂學習研究實踐與數學基本概念的教學》。 中國:安徽教育出版社。 郭永賢(2011)。《課堂學習研究概論》。中國:安徽教育出版社。 鄭振初(2006)。《分