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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 1 (2002)

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創利a Inaugurallssue ISSN 1682-8984 i 香港教師 ㆗ 心香港教師㆗心(㆗心)是根據1984年教育統籌委員會第㆒號報告書的建議而於1987年成立的，㆗心的總部位於北角百福道㆕號，由前身為㆒所小㈻的建築物改建而成，於1989年6㈪開幕，是㆒所多元化和多用途的㆗心。 ㆗心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供㆒個富鼓勵性、㆗立的及沒㈲階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結㆒致，發揮專業精神。㆗心的目的包括為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動教㈻專業發展、發放教育㈾訊和宣傳教育意念。 ㆗心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過教師㆗心的㆔層管理架構參與教師㆗心的管理工作。這管理架構包括㆒個諮詢管理委員會、㆒個常務委員會和數個工作小組，負責㆗心的決策，㈼察和執行㆗心的不同工作及活動。諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）的工作主要是決定㆗心的策略和㈼察㆗心的運作。諮管會由71㈴委員組成，其 ㆗34位由教育團體提㈴及選出；34位由教師提㈴及選出，另外㆔位由教育署署長委任。常務委員會（常委會）是諮管會的行政架構，與㆗心的㈰常運作和活動㈲著密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任；其他成員包括㆔位㈹表教育署的諮管會委員及㈨位由諮管會提㈴及選出的諮管會委員。各工作小組負責㆗心內不同範疇的工作，其工作性質可顧㈴思義。它們是出版小組、圖書館及教㈻㈾源小組、活動推廣小組、章程小組、教育研究小組及專業發展小組。各小組的成員是諮管會的委員或增聘委員。目前，㈲130個教育團體登記為㆗心會員。㆗心除了單獨主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港的教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業的活動，㆗心亦贊助這些團體的活動。由2001年㉃2002年度，㆗心已經與40多個教育團體，合辦了超過200㊠各類教師專業發展和康樂活動，參加㆟數超過㆕萬㆟次。香港教師㆗心（北角會所）位於香港北角百福道㆕號的香港教師㆗心（北角會所）佔㆞約㈨百平方公尺，設㈲㆒間大型演講室/展覽室、 ㆒個會議室、㆔間講堂、㆒間㈾訊科技教育室、㆒間教育團體綜合辦事處、㆒間教育專業圖書館和㆒間㉁息室，歡迎㈻校、教育團體預訂借用。香港教師㆗心（㈨龍會所）香港教師㆗心在㈨龍紅磡鶴園街㈩㈨號，設㈲另㆒會所，㈴為香港教師㆗心 (㈨龍會所)，於 2000 年 1 ㈪開始供㈻校、教育團體預訂使用。此㆗心佔㆞約㆒千㈥百平方公尺，各㊠研習、會議設施與北角會所的相若。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Centre) was established in 1987 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. Its base or headquarters, a multi-facet and multi-purpose Centre housed in a former primary school building at 4 Pak Fuk Road, North Point, was opened in June 1989. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of in-service education; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the provision of resources; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and several Sub-committees. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 71. These include 34 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations or teaching-related organisations; 34 members nominated by and elected from teachers; and 3 members appointed by the Director of Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to-day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairman and 2 Vice Chairmen, the 3 ED representatives, and 9 other members elected by and from the AMC. The various sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. The names of the sub-committees, such as Publication, Library and Teaching Resources, Activities Promotion, Constitution, Educational Research and Professional Development, reflect the work of the sub-committees. Members of the sub-committees are either members of the AMC or co-opted members. At present, 130 educational bodies are registered members of the Centre. The Centre organises activities either by itself or jointly with non profit-making educational organisations for teachers in Hong Kong. It also sponsors activities organised by these organisations. During the financial year of 2001 to 2002, the Centre has organised, jointly with more than 40 educational organisations, over 200 professional development and cultural activities for teachers, with a total attendance frequency of more than 40000. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point) The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point), with a total area of about 900 square metres, has a large exhibition / seminar hall, a conference room, three lecture rooms, an information technology education room, a composite office for educational organisations, a multi-media professional library and a lounge, which schools and educational organisations are welcome to use on a booking basis. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Kowloon) The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre has a branch at 19 Hok Yuen Street, Hung Hom, Kowloon, known as the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Kowloon). It was opened in January 2000 for use by schools and educational organisations on a booking basis. This branch has a total area of about 1600 square metres, with facilities for conducting seminars and conferences similar to those at the North Point Centre. v 署長序二十一世紀是一個知識爆炸、變化急劇的時代。因此，社會及教育均須作出相應的改革。香港政府遂於二零零零年，定下「終身學習、全人發展」的長遠教育目標。學校教育的重點亦由灌輸知識轉為培養學生善於批判、敢於創新的學習態度，以迎接知識型社會的挑戰。站在學校教育最前線的教師，當然亦要不斷自我充實，與時俱進，才能適應社會對教育工作者的專業要求。我們若要幫助學生養成終身學習的態度，首先必須以身作則，持續提升本身的專業修養和能力。自我提升的其中一個途徑，就是多參考有關的資訊，多與同工分享經驗，以及汲取教學方面的最新訊息。「開卷有益」這句話，確實是至理名言。《香港教師中心學報》 (《學報》 )的文稿分為兩大部分，包括「專題研究」和「學術研討與經驗交流」。「專題研究」部分的作品，著重從學術角度對教育專題進行探討和分析，並且反映教育的時代現況和發展軌跡。「學術研討與經驗交流」部分的文章，則是業內學者及教師的實際經驗和體會。作者會提出現有的問題及建議改進的策略或方法。儘管這兩類文稿論題不一、篇幅長短有別，但都觀點明確，思維縝密；內容更是豐富而廣泛，所涉及的範疇包括教育思想、教育改革、師資培訓、高等教育、特殊教育、語文教育、科學教育、比較教育、價值教育、環境教育、性教育、思維教育、創意學習和全方位學習等等，對教育界同工當有一定的參考價值和借鑑意義。《學報》的出版，實有賴教育界各位學者和同工的協作和努力。我相信理論可指導實踐，而實踐又有助建立理論；兩者互相結合，定可使教學成效事半功倍。我希望《學報》日後充分發揮橋樑作用，幫助教育界同工把教學理論和實踐有效地結合，提升教育成效。本人謹祝《學報》邁出成功的第一步，為教師的專業發展和教育改革作出貢獻﹗ 教育署署長張建宗二零零二年二月 vi 主席序《香港教師中心學報》面世了！我懷著由衷的喜悅，興奮地向全港教師同工報告這個大喜的訊息。雖然前來參加我們教師中心工作的教師同工全部都是義務性質，他們在應付繁忙的教學工作之餘，仍然不辭勞苦，撥出寶貴的時間，為香港自己的教師中心效力；為全香港的教師服務，今次出版了《香港教師中心學報》 (《學報》 )的創刊號，更是負責《學報》編輯和出版的教師和學者，經過長時間的努力，克服了多方面的困難，辛勤擘劃的成果。在此，我謹衷心祝賀《香港教師中心學報》創刊成功！香港教師中心成立的主要目標是透過本港教師自己的團結和互助，豐富教師的專業知識，提高教師的專業精神，促進我們的專業發展。因此，除了舉辦各個教學範疇的專業發展活動、推動和輔助教師同工持續學習和教學研究之外，我們還需要有一本屬於全港教師自己的《學報》；《學報》園地向全港教師開放，服務的讀者對象亦涵蓋全港每一位教育專業的工作者。《學報》的作用在於分享知識和經驗、促進理論和實踐的結合，提升教師的教學效能。我們期望這份《學報》能夠肩負這個責任，向全港教師提供一個教學知識和經驗交流的園地；亦可以方便教師將他們寶貴的教學經驗作出歸納或演繹，使這些寶貴的前線經驗得到研究分析和總結；更進一步，《學報》十分歡迎所有教師發表他們的論文，將他們的教學實踐，提升為「假說」，甚至通過驗證而成為理論。《學報》也歡迎大專教育同工，將他們的教育理論或研究發現投稿，好使教師獲得前衛的知識，用以參考和改善實務工作。我衷心期望這本《學報》會對香港教師中心和教師的專業發展產生積極的和正面的作用。最後，我謹代表教師中心誠意地多謝各位投稿的教育工作者，多謝本期學報編委會各委員及執行編輯、本屆出版小組等的努力協作，同時多謝教師中心各位職員的鼎力襄助。我更要多謝香港多間師訓機構的院長和其他大專界的教授和講師，擔任《學報》的榮譽顧問和編輯顧問，給我們的寶貴學術意見，使《學報》能夠成功踏出第一步。謹此祝願《香港教師中心學報》不斷成長，為香港教育界作出積極貢獻！香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會主席譚秉源二零零二年二月 vii 主編序香港教師中心是一個教師專業的中心，目標是促進教師的專業發展，與及加強教師之間的團結。當前教育改革浪潮之中，香港教師中心將發揮中流砥柱的作用，促進教師積極參與教育改革。資訊及思想交流是教育創新及改革的重要泉源，香港教師中心擬出版《香港教師中心學報》(以下簡稱《學報》)，以作為教師專業學術研究及經驗交流的苗圃。《學報》主要內容圍繞教師作為中心的教育理論與實踐問題，來稿可分兩大類：(一) 專題研究，由專門學者隱名評審；(二) 學術研討與經驗交流文章，由編委評審。目標是對普及與專門兩方面的文章兼容並包，教師可從廣博和精專兩層次去探討教育更新問題，希望集腋成裘，集思廣益，能為未來教育改革找出發揮最佳教育效益及效能的對策。在沒有大量增加特別資源前題下，《學報》能夠面世，是香港教師中心諮管委員會委員上下通力合作的成果，沒有教育署方面周修裕先生、雷其昌先生、黃沛滿先生及廖成波先生等任勞任怨，悉力以赴，協助聯絡及校訂，《學報》是難以趕製出版的。《學報》編輯李子建教授，容萬城先生及顏龍先生等戮力編輯審校文稿，更是勞苦功高，為《學報》發展奠定良好基磐。本期由於草創維艱，雖無主題，然而本期大多數文章均對教育改革浪潮中理論或實踐方面細致問題針砭時弊，洞若觀火，甚有參考價值，讀者不妨仔細玩味，歡迎略加回應，以助推廣切磋學問風氣，為教育改革浪潮增添源頭活水。論文格式方面，由於作者應用美國心理學會(APA)格式及芝加哥大學(社會、歷史科)格式，各有千秋，《學報》本期重內容神髓多於外型格式，且尊重作者原意，故不便強行統一，唯望讀者見諒。《香港教師中心學報》園地絕對公開，任何仝仁有一得之見，敬希賜稿以饗讀者，我們期望您的熱心支持！讓我們並肩攜手將《學報》耕耘成為教師分享經驗，交流心得，辯論真理的青蔥園地。《香港教師中心學報》主編葉國洪二零零二年二月目錄 Contents ㆒. 專題研究 1 New Conceptions of Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Education in the New Century CHENG Yin-cheong, TAM Wai-ming, TSUI Kwok-tung 1 2 Hong Kong Preservice Teachers' Achievement Goal Orientations - are they related to their gender and electives? CHAN Kwok-wai, LAI Po-yin, LEUNG Man-tak, MOORE Phillip 20 3 Community College: A new born baby of the Hong Kong education system for the new millennium YUNG Man-sing 32 4 Critically appraise the proposals for a post-modern curriculum outlined by Doll (1993) in his “ A Post-modern Perspective on Curriculum” YUEN Wai-wa, Timothy 45 5 Quality Education through a Post-modern Curriculum KOO Hok-chun, Dennis 56 6 The Diversified Development of Private Schooling in Basic Education in China: A Comparison between Shanghai, Guangdong, Wenzhou and Tianjin ZHU Yihua, IP Kin-yuen 74 7 教育改革背後的東方道德理念王殿卿 89 8 培養應付逆境的能力錢遜 96 9 價值理想的失落與高等教育的德育危機葉富貴 101 10 儒家倫理在公民道德教育㆗的㆞位與作用邵龍寶 107 11 北京大㈻生環境意識調查分析黃觀貴、郭志剛 114 12 殖民㆞㈳會㆗的民族意識：香港回歸前後的公民教育葉國洪 125 13 以「可持續發展」為路向的㈻校環境教育：挑戰與機遇李子建 131 14 澳門小㈻課程的發展：法令㆔㈧／㈨㆕／M 古鼎儀 138 15 孔子與陶行知教育思想的比較胡少偉 144 16 從成本效益角度看直接㈾助計劃對㊝質㈻校教育發展的影響王常錦意 150 ㆓. ㈻術研討與經驗交流 1 Education Reform and Language Selection in Hong Kong: Brief Remarks by a Linguist on the “Medium of Instruction” and “Mix” Issues B. Jernudd 159 2 Catering for the Needs of Gifted and Talented Students by Defining an Appropriate Curriculum WONG Kam-kuen, Doris 166 3 The Use of Literary Texts in Primary Level Language Teaching in Hong Kong Gladus LAU 172 4 ㆗㈻㆗國語文科新修訂課程(2002)的考索周國正 180 5 對當前香港教育改革的㆒些哲㈻反思劉國強 185 6 環境教育與綠色㈻校 ─「可持續發展」課程的實踐何建㊪ 190 7 創意㊢作教㈻黃潔貞 195 8 價值教育與教育改革湯恩佳 204 9 從「香港㆗㈻教師思維技巧工作坊」淺談「思維」教㈻胡飄、關綺雲 207 10 從專題研習實例㆗探討推行全㆟教育的可行性張偉菁 209 11 談製作教㈻網頁的苦與樂陳志華 212 12 「理想教育」― 從古今㆔位㆗國教育思想家看香港的教育目標劉鳳鸞 214 13 發問、問答與起來答話香港㆗文大㈻「小㈻生在㆗﹑英﹑數㆔科㈻習動機與模式」發展與研究計劃數㈻組 223 14 玩具 ― 在科㈻㈻習的功能梁家猷 227 15 新界鄉村小㈻：落後抑理想賀國強 232 16 美國「設計活動教育」新趨勢孔美琪 234 17 江蘇、台北和新加坡小㈻教育的綜合李傑江、鄧兆鴻、胡少偉、冼偉林 237 18 課堂教㈻基本法李㈻銘 242 19 從「黑箱作業」看教育理念林碧霞 248 1 New Conceptions of Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Education in the New Century CHENG Yin-cheong The Hong Kong Institute of Education TAM Wai-ming The Chinese University of Hong Kong TSUI Kwok-tung The Hong Kong Institute of Education INTRODUCTION In the last two decades, policy-makers, teacher education institutions and schools had implemented numerous initiatives in teacher education and development with aims to improve teacher performance. Although a lot of efforts have been made in this aspect, people, if not disappointed, still doubt very much whether the competence and performance of teachers can meet the challenges and needs in the new century. They begin to be aware of the limitations of the traditional paradigms and efforts on improving teacher performance and educational quality in schools (Cheng, 1998). Traditionally, teaching process is often assumed to happen only at the individual level and only in classroom. That is, individual teachers perform teaching and individual students receive teacher’s instruction and learn. This simplistic approach is reflected in the approaches to teacher education and development but also in most studies on teacher effectiveness which examine teacher effectiveness mainly at individual level. However, the narrow conception of teacher effectiveness is changing owing to the induction of broader concepts of educational process (Cheng, 1996b; Cheng & Tsui, 1996). School education is usually planned and implemented at the program level or the whole school level. Currently school management reforms and effective school movements emphasize whole school approach to improvement of school performance and student learning outcomes. Students are often taught not only by individual teachers but also by groups of teachers or by whole school teachers. In order to maximize school effectiveness, more attention should be given to the overall teacher effectiveness at the group level and school level. Therefore, teacher education and development should not focus solely on the individual level but also at the group, program and school levels. The new century is an era of globalization, high technology and transformation in nearly every aspect of each society and the whole world. Schools and teachers have to face numerous new changes, uncertainties, and challenges rising from their internal and external environments. They are expected to perform a wide range of new functions to support the rapid developments in individuals, local communities, societies, and international relations (Cheng, 1996a; Tsui & Cheng, 2000). Teachers are often required to take up expanded roles and responsibilities including curriculum developer, new teacher mentor, staff development facilitator, action researcher, pre-service teacher educator, team leader, member of management board and etc. (Boles & Troven, 1996; Fessler & Ungaretti, 1994; Murphy, 1995). Also, they Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 2 are expected to be responsible for providing education quality in seven different models including the process model, the goals and specification model, the resource-input model, the satisfaction model, the legitimacy model, the absence of problems model, and the organizational learning model (Cheng & Tam, 1997). In order to understand the changing and complex nature of teacher effectiveness and develop relevant and effective approaches to teacher education and development in a new era of globalization and information technology, this paper aims to propose that teacher education as a field of inquiry, practice and development in the new millennium should include the new conceptions of total teacher effectiveness, multiple models of education quality and multiple school functions at different levels and draw implications from them. TOTAL TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS AND TEACHER EDUCATION The Framework of Total Teacher Effectiveness Based on Cheng (1996a) and Cheng & Tsui (1996), the framework of total teacher effectiveness is proposed, as follows: Levels of Teacher Effectiveness: As teachers work as teams or groups may not only use their energy effectively but also create new energy. It is obvious that when teachers act as a whole, they may have a better chance to influence and change the constraints given by the external and internal teaching contexts. Therefore, the consideration of teacher effectiveness should include not only the individual level but also the group and school levels. Domains of Effectiveness: The consideration of teacher effectiveness should include the quality of teacher competence and performance in various domains such as the behavioral domain, the affective domain, and the cognitive domain; and that this teacher quality may exert effects on students in various domains accordingly. Total Teacher Effectiveness. Taking the three domains ( affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains) and the three levels ( individual, group, and school levels) into consideration, the nature and characteristics of teacher effectiveness should be studied at multi-levels and multi-domains. The conceptual framework of total teacher effectiveness for describing the complicated nature of teacher effectiveness is illustrated as shown in Figure 1. (Cheng & Tsui, 1996). 3 External Teaching Context Internal Teaching Context Pre-existing Student Characteristics Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Total Teacher Effectiveness (Adapted from Cheng & Tsui,1996) The conception of total teacher effectiveness involves two important categories of actors (teachers and students) at three different levels (individual, group, and school). The processes and effects of teaching and learning may happen in the behavior, affective, and cognitive domains of different actors at different levels. Specifically, teacher effectiveness should involve the behavioral, affective, and cognitive performance of all teachers and students at individual, group, and school levels. As shown in Figure 1, it is related to the teaching and learning process involving teacher competence layer, teacher performance layer, student experience layer, and student learning outcome layer. The teacher competence layer is the total behavioral, affective, and cognitive competence of teachers at the individual, group, and school levels. This layer represents the total static quality of teachers. The teacher performance layer is the total performance of teachers in the three domains at the three levels. It represents the total dynamic quality of teachers in teaching process. In general, the quality of teacher performance layer is positively associated with the quality of teacher competence layer. In addition, the relationship between these two layers can be moderated by the influence of external teaching context (e.g. organizational factors, leadership, and school environment, etc.). The student experience layer represents the total learning experience of students in the three domains at the individual, group, and school levels. And the student learning outcomes layer represents the total learning outcomes of students in the three domains at the three levels. In general, the quality of teacher performance layer as a whole has a Cognitive domain Affective domain Behavioral domain Group level Individual level School level Teacher competence layer Teacher performance layer Student experience Student learning outcomes Teaching Learning Teacher Student 4 positive impact on the quality of student learning experience layer and the latter has a positive relationship with the quality of student learning outcomes layer. Again, these relationships may be affected by the characteristics of internal teaching context ( including student subculture, classroom climate, student ability grouping, learning environment, etc.). Implications for Teacher Education and Development. In order to maximize teacher effectiveness, teacher education should aim to develop whole teacher competence layer and whole teacher performance layer in addition to individual teacher competence or performance. In other words, teacher education or staff development should cover the affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains at the individual, groups, and school levels. According to the concept of congruence in system (Cheng, 1996a), whether teacher competence is congruent across the affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains and across the individual, group, and school levels (i.e. congruence within the teacher competence layer) can affect the contribution of the teacher competence layer to the teacher performance layer. The more the congruence of teacher competence across domains and across levels, the more the contribution of teacher competence layer to teacher performance layer. The congruence across domains represents the extent to which affective competence, behavioral competence, and cognitive competence of teachers are mutually supported and reinforced in contributing to teachers’ action and performance. The congruence across levels represents the extent to which the competence of individual teachers, groups of teachers, and whole school teachers is mutually supported and reinforced in contributing to teachers’ action and performance. Similarly, the more the congruence of teacher performance across domains and across levels (i.e. congruence within the teacher performance layer), the more the contribution of the teacher performance layer to the student learning experience layer. Also the more the congruence of student learning experience across domains and across levels (i.e. congruence within the student learning outcomes layer), the more the contribution of the student learning experience layer to the student learning outcomes layer. Based on the concept of congruence within layer, the approach to developing teachers and their effectiveness should include assurance of congruence within the teacher competence layer and within the teacher performance layer. This holistic approach is very different from the traditional thinking of teacher development that focuses only on fragmentary and overt aspect of teacher performance without taking totality and congruence into consideration. According to Cheng and Tam (1994) and Cheng (1996a, b), development cycle can be used to strengthen the quality of teacher layers and ensure congruence within teacher layers. Specifically, a long-term program of teacher education and development may be established at the individual, group, and school levels to facilitate their reflection on the congruence between values and beliefs of education and management in school and the congruence of performance in their affective, behavioral or technical, and cognitive domains. And the development program supports them to make a continuous self learning cycle for their own development and improvement. This is in line with literature in the field of teacher development and school changes (Cheng, 2001; Fullan, 1992; Hargreaves, 1994; Mok & Cheng, 2001; Rosenholtz, 1989; Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1990; Whitaker, 1993). The development cycle may start at individual teacher level and focus on overt performance, mastering teaching and classroom management techniques. Then, teachers should be supported to have opportunities at the individual, group, and school levels to reflect on their values, beliefs and meanings of education and school management. From the 5 reflection by themselves or among themselves, they can reorganize their cognitive structure, re-shape their teaching styles and re-establish their professional confidence and commitment. Through self-learning as an individual or as a group, they are more willing to cooperate and capable to achieve better teaching performance (Fullan, 1992; Mok & Cheng, 2001; Sergiovanni and Starratt, 1993). A substantial literature supports that no matter whether at individual level, the group level, or the whole school level, teachers’ performance is linked with their beliefs, attitudes, satisfaction, commitment, sense of achievement (Cheng, 1996c). Therefore, the development cycle should include a strong component on the affective and cognitive domains in addition to the behavioral or technical component for teachers at multi-levels. Various forms of activities for teacher education and development can be designed to achieve different development objectives for teachers as well as administrators at different levels. Table 1 summarizes some examples of activities and objectives (Cheng and Tam, 1994). In sum, from the implications of total teacher effectiveness, teacher education and development should be conceptualized as a continuous life-long process involving not only pre-service but also in-service education; not only individual teachers but also groups of teachers and the whole school; and developing not only skills or behavioral competence but also affective and cognitive domains as a community of teaching professionals. 6 Table 1. Activities and Objectives for Teacher Education and Development (examples) For teachers For administrators Behavioral • Increase knowledge, techniques and specialty of teaching and learning • Find out the factors hindering the full play of teacher's competence • Improve teaching performance • Encourage participation and development • Assist the work of colleagues • Enhance administrative effeciency • Improve leadership • Master technigues of planning and management • Improve supervision style • Encourage open mind and learning • Assist the development of colleagues Affective • Reinforce confidence as a teaching professional • Enhance satisfaction in teaching • Increase personal commitment to education • Reinforce confidence as an administrative leader • Enhance satisfaction in administration • Increase the concern and support for colleagues • Increase personal commitment to education and administrative work I N D I V I D U A L Cognitive • Understand current educational trends • Understand current school policies and objectives of school functions • Recognize the values of teaching and establish personal beliefs about education • Provide teachers with opportunities for role clarification • Identify with the school mission • Self-evaluate and reflect on educational work • Responsible for outcomes of teaching • Understand current educational trends • Reflection on current school policies and objectives of school functions • Recognize ethical and moral issues on administration • Recognize the values of administration • Establish personal beliefs about leadership • Clarify the role of administration • Self-evaluate and reflect on administration • Responsible for colleagues' performance and administrative results • Behavioral • Provide opportunities for members to learn from each other • Work together to teach and develop curriculum • Inter-class visit • Learn to share and participate • Solve internal conflicts and improve communication • Lead group/team work • Learn to delegate and distribute work Affective • Establish team spirit • Encourage mutual trust of members • Foster friendship • Establish team spirit • Encourage mutual trust of members • Foster friendship G R O U P Cognitive • Discuss and understand the relationship between group work and school policies • Evaluate the effectiveness of group work • Analyze strengths, weaknesses and development of the group • Ensure the role and value of group work • Commitment to group effectiveness • Discuss and ensure the relationship between groups and school policies • Recognize the values of collaborative management and participative decision-making • Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of each policy • Ensure the role and value of the administrative group • Commitment to policy effectiveness Behavioral • Provide opportunities for whole-school teaching collaboration • Improve the use of whole school resources • Find out whole school factors unfavorable for teaching • Provide opportunities for whole school collaboration for teaching and management • Improve the management of whole-school resources • Find out and prevent factors unfavorable for the full development of staff • Develop the whole school image Affective • Foster a sense of belonging to the school • Establish whole school collaborative climate among teachers • Develop a homely atmosphere in the school • Establish whole school climate and a sense of belonging • Establish close relationship between administrators and teachers • Develop a homely atmosphere in the school S C H O O L Cognitive • Evaluate school effectiveness • Participate in developing school mission and goals • Ensure the values of school education • Identify with the unique mission and vision of the school • Lead the discussion and reflection on school policies • Lead the staff to develop school mission and goals • Lead and ensure the values of school education • Lead and ensure the unique mission and vision of the school 7 Multi-models of Education Quality and Teacher Education As discussed above, teachers work not only in classrooms but also in a context of school organization. Responding to the worldwide movements of quality assurance in education, inevitably there is an urgent need to understand the complex nature of teacher performance and teacher education from a broader perspective of education quality. According to Cheng & Tam (1997), there are seven models of education quality which researchers and practitioners often use in understanding the quality of school education. Table 2 summarizes the meanings, conditions of usefulness, and key areas of identification of these models. Each of the seven models of education quality has its own characteristics, and yet they are inherently linked to each other. School goals can reflect the expectations, needs, and specifications of school constituencies. Ensuring smooth and healthy internal school process and fruitful learning experiences (i.e. the process model) is critical to achieve the school goals and produce high quality educational outcomes. The achievement of stated school goals and conformance to given specifications (i.e. the goals and specifications model) can bring satisfaction to the school constituencies ( i.e. the satisfaction model). Also, by establishing relationship with the community, building up school image, and showing accountability, the school can achieve its legitimate position (i.e. the legitimacy model) for school survival and quality reputation. Then, by carefully monitoring its programs and checking signs of ineffectiveness, the school can ensure that no endemic problem is threatening the quality of school program (i.e. the absence of problems model). Finally, the school continues to improve and develop itself in all important aspects through learning from its errors and its environment (i.e. the organizational learning model). Then it can achieve all around education quality for students, parents and the community. These seven models highlight different aspects of education quality. For different models of education quality, the types of teacher quality and competence for achieving education quality are often different. If teacher education aims to develop teachers to have the necessary professional quality, competence and commitment to provide education quality in school, then these models of education quality should have important implications for teacher education and development. Each model of education quality demands teachers as well as administrators to have a specific set of knowledge, skills, behaviors, attitudes, values, and beliefs to enhance and ensure education quality. Some of these are related to the school context, some are pertained to group functioning, and some have relevancy to the individual performance. In other words, the functions of teacher education and development should serve the needs of the models of school education quality. The relationship between models of school education quality and the purpose of teacher education and development is summarized in Table 3. The implications of multi-models for teacher education are explained as follows ( Tam & Cheng, 1996): Implications of The Goal and Specification Model This model assumes that school education quality is determined by the extent to which the stated school goals have been achieved and the given specifications have been conformed to. Therefore, teacher education and staff development should help teachers as well as education leaders: 8 • to understand the importance of school goals and specifications to school functioning and education quality; • to have the competence to set clear, meaningful, long-term and short-term goals and standards for the school, work groups and individual staff to pursue; • to communicate these goals and standards to all school constituencies and form collective forces to achieve them ; • to have the knowledge, skills, and commitment to achieve these school goals and standards; and • to have competence to monitor and assess whether the school, groups, and individual members have achieved stated goals or conformed to given standards or specifications. 9 Table 2. Models of School Education Quality Models of education quality Conception of School Education Quality Conditions for Model Usefulness Indicators / Key Areas for Quality Evaluation (example) Goal and Specification Model • Achievement of stated school goals and conformance to given specifications • When school goals and specifications are clear, consensual, time-bound, and measurable; • When resources are sufficient to achieve the goals and conform to the specifications • School objectives, standards, and specifications listed in the school/program plans, e.g. academic achievements, attendance rate, dropout rate, etc. Resource-Input Model • Achievement of needed quality resources & inputs for school • When there is a clear relationship between school inputs and outputs; • When quality resources for school are scarce. • Resources procured for school functioning, e.g. quality of student intake, facilities, financial support, etc. Process Model • Smooth internal process and fruitful learning experiences • When there is a clear relationship between school process and educational outcomes • Leadership, participation, social interactions, classroom climate, learning activities and experiences, etc. Satisfaction Model • Satisfaction of all powerful school constituencies • When the demands of the constituencies are compatible and cannot be ignored • Satisfaction of education authorities, management board, administrators, teachers, parents, students, etc. Legitimacy Model • Achievement of School’s legitimate position and reputation • When the survival & demise among schools must be assessed • When the environment is very competitive and demanding • Public relations, marketing, public image, reputation, status in the community, evidence of accountability, etc. Absence of Problems Model • Absence of problems and troubles in school • When there is no consensual criteria of quality but strategies for school improvement are needed • Absence of conflicts, dysfunctions, difficulties, defects, weaknesses, troubles, etc. Organizational Learning Model • Adaptation to environmental changes & internal barriers • Continuous improvement • When schools are new or changing; • When the environmental change cannot be ignored • Awareness of external needs and changes, internal process monitoring, program evaluation, development planning, staff development, etc. Adapted from Cheng & Tam (1997) 10 Implications of The Resource-input Model This model emphasizes the importance of procuring resource-input to school education quality. It assumes that the high quality the resource-input, the high quality the school education. Therefore, teacher education aims at helping teachers: • to recognize and understand the critical impacts of quality resource-input on the whole school functioning, educational outcomes, and education quality; • to have the necessary competence to conduct environmental analysis and develop effective strategies to identify and attract scarce resource input to the school; • to have sufficient knowledge and competence to use resource efficiently to achieve school goals; • to design effective induction or orientation programs for new school members and help them become competent because they are the scarce human resources for school education quality; and • to have social power and skills to win the support and resources from alumni, parents or the community for the school. Implications of The Process Model This model assumes that smooth and healthy internal process and fruitful learning experiences are necessary conditions for school education quality. Inevitably, teacher education and development aim at helping teachers: • to understand the meaning and contribution of school process to school education quality; • to have the competence and commitment to ensure the quality of school process and learning process; • to have the relevant knowledge and skills to design and strengthen the school’s internal process which encourages participation, team work, staff collaboration, and trusting relationship; • to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the school operation; • to monitor and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of internal activities of managing, teaching, and learning; and • to develop a positive school culture and a high quality work life for school members. Implications of The Satisfaction Model This model emphasizes the satisfaction of powerful school constituencies as the major criterion of school education quality. Teacher education should help teachers to have competence to perform those school activities that can increase the satisfaction of school constituencies. Particularly, teacher education programs teachers: • to identify who are the school’s important constituencies and understand how these constituencies can influence school goals, inputs, processes, and outcomes; • to identify and understand what are the major expectations and needs of powerful school constituencies; • to have knowledge and skills to perform tasks that can meet the needs and expectations of major constituencies effectively; 11 • to have professional commitment and positive attitudes to serve the needs of major constituencies particularly students, parents, and the community; • to have sufficient competence to influence the perceptions of power constituencies and win their support to the school; • to have knowledge and skills to encourage participation of important constituencies and involve them in making decisions and developing school goals. • to be aware of the changes in needs and expectations of different constituencies particularly students and parents and have the ability to adapt to these changes; • to monitor and evaluate whether the school activities can satisfy the needs of major constituencies; and • to have sufficient social skills to work with different school constituencies. Implications of The Legitimacy Model This model assumes that achievement of school’s legitimate position and reputation in the community as the critical indicator of school education quality. The assurance of school education quality is closely related to the activities of public relations, community services, marketing, promotion of school image, status, reputation, and evidence of accountability. Therefore, teacher education should inevitably have strong contribution to these activities. Specifically, it helps teachers: • to understand the significance of community services, public relations, school image and accountability to perceptions of the public on the school education quality; • to have positive attitudes towards promotion of school images and public relations and establishment of clear accountability system for school performance; • to have the necessary knowledge and skills to build up school image and reputation and ensure accountability at the individual, group and the school levels; • to be aware of the needs of the community and provide appropriate services to meet their needs; • to foresee the environmental changes and policy changes in the community and make strategic plan to prepare these changes; • to have competence to develop internal and external social networks to support the status of the school; and • to maintain a good relationship with different types of bodies and organizations in the community. Implications of The Absence of Problems Model This model emphasizes the absence of problems as the main criterion of school education quality. It is often assumed that the major role of teacher education and development to help teacher to avoid or prevent problems, defects, dysfunctions, and weaknesses in process of management, teaching and learning. Specifically, teacher education should help teachers: 12 • to be aware of the existing or potential problems and defects that may post as threats to school education quality; • to have the knowledge and skills to monitor, identify, evaluate, and prevent different types of problems existing in processes of management, teaching, and learning; • to have positive attitudes towards problem identification and solving; • to form a constructive climate among staff for staff appraisal and program evaluation; • to have competence to establish an effective mechanism for monitoring and evaluating performance of members at the individual level, the group level, and the school level; and • to establish a clear reporting system that can provide systematic information for school improvement and quality control. Table 3. Teacher Education for Multi-Models of School Education Quality. Models of Education Quality Teacher Education for Teachers…….. Goal and Specification Model • to understand and develop school goals and standards and have the competence and commitment to achieve them. Resource-Input Model • to recognize the importance of resources to school education quality and have the competence to procure, manage, and use scarce resource input effectively and efficiently Process Model • to understand the contribution of school process and learning experience to education quality, have the competence to improve them, and develop healthy school culture and high quality work life Satisfaction Model • to identify needs and expectations of important constituencies and have competence and commitment to satisfy them Legitimacy Model • to recognize the significance of community services, public relations, school image and accountability to perceptions of the public on school education quality and make contribution to the related activities Absence of Problems Model • to have ability to identify and avoid potential problems, defects, dysfunctions, troubles, and weaknesses in school Organizational Learning Model • to foresee and analyze environmental changes and internal difficulties and develop appropriate strategies to make continuous improvement and development Adapted from Tam & Cheng (1996) 13 Implications of The Organizational Learning Model Since the education environment is changing quickly and producing a great impact on school functioning, schools have to adapt to the changes and face up to challenges from the environment. The organizational learning model assumes that school’s adaptation to environmental changes and internal barriers and continuous improvement are critical elements for assurance of school education quality. Therefore, teacher education should help teachers: • to be aware of environmental changes, society developments, policy trends, and community needs; • to have techniques to collect relevant information and perform the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis of school’s situation; • to have the competence to plan actions for school development and educational improvement according to the results of environmental analysis; • to create opportunities and school climate for learning from each other among staff; • to reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of existing beliefs, values, attitudes, and practices shared at the individual level, group level, and the school level; • to identify the gaps between espoused theory and theory-in-action and change school operations or governing values of individuals and groups of staff (Arygris & Schon, 1974, 1978); and • to establish monitoring and evaluation system at different levels to provide feedback information for improvement and development of individuals, groups, and the whole school. To a great extent, different models of education quality need different teacher quality, competence, and performance and correspondingly different aims and content of teacher education and development. Traditionally, teacher training programs often emphasize subject content knowledge, learning theories, and pedagogical techniques as the most important components for ensuring quality of school process. Yet, from the perspective of multi-models of education quality, there are so many important and necessary areas in teacher education that have been ignored if education quality has to be pursued and ensured. Of course, it is impossible to prepare a teacher, particularly a new teacher in a short time to be ready in providing all aspects of education quality. It seems to be a life long process for teacher education and development to meet the needs of multi-models on teacher quality and competence because the education environment is changing so quickly and schools as well as teachers at different stages of life cycle may have different needs in development (Cheng, 2001). Generally, in order to pursue total education quality in the seven models, the needs and characteristics of multi-models should be taken into consideration in designing teacher education and development. Multiple School Functions and Teacher Education In the new century, schools have different functions such as technical-economic, human-social, political, cultural, and educational at individual, institutional, community, society, and international levels as shown in Table 4 (Cheng, 1996a). To a great extent, teacher effectiveness and education quality should be intimately linked with the achievement of these school functions. If teachers can help their schools to perform and achieve these school functions, they can be perceived as effective and their quality as high. Therefore the development of teacher education and development programs should aim at enhancing teacher effectiveness to achieve these school functions ( Cheng & Walker, 1997; Cheng, 1998). 14 Implications from Technical-economic Functions Technical-economic functions refer to a school’s contribution to the technical or economic developments and needs at each of the five levels. At the individual level, teachers help students acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to survive and compete in a modern society. At the institutional level, schools provide quality service for clients, employers and others connected with the organization. At community and societal levels, schools aid the economic and instrumental needs of their local community and economy, modify or shape economic behaviors and contribute to the development and stability of the broader society. These then feed the international level through teachers and schools providing economically, technologically and environmentally sensitive adults to the constantly shrinking world community. Teacher education programs should be relevant to the development of technical-economic school functions. Through these programs teachers can further understand the economic and technical functions of school education and develop sufficient competence to help perform these functions. Implications from Human-social Functions Human-social functions refer to the contribution of schools to human development and social relationships at different levels of the society. At the individual level, teachers help students to develop as fully as possible psychologically, socially and physically. At the institutional level, teachers help invent and reinforce the quality human relationships which frame organizational behavior. From a Functionalist perspective, teachers serve certain social functions in their local community. These functions include social integration of diverse constituencies, facilitation of social mobility within existing class structures and reinforcement of social equality. From the alternative viewpoint of Conflict Theory, teachers reproduce the existing social class structure and perpetuate social inequality (Cheng, 1995a; Blackledge & Hunt, 1985). Due to the growing global consciousness (Beare & Slaughter, 1993), teachers need to prepare students for international harmony, social co-operation, global human relationships, and work toward the elimination of national, regional, racial, and gender biases at the international level. As a whole, a new set of knowledge about the human-social school functions at multi-levels is needed to develop teacher education programs that can help teachers to understand the nature and significance of human development and how cater for this in schools. Implications from Political Functions Political functions refer to the contribution of schools to the political developments at different levels of society. At the individual level, teachers help students to develop positive civic attitudes and skills and to exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. At the institutional level, teachers support their schools to act as places for encouraging critical discussion of political issues. At the community and societal levels, schools and teachers play an important role in promoting awareness of democracy and facilitating political developments and changes. The growing awareness of international dependence reinforces the need for school education to contribute to international understanding and elimination of international conflict. In areas such as these, few teachers possess the appropriate knowledge, attitudes or competence to help their schools to perform the political functions. This appears particularly true in the rapidly developing political environment of Hong Kong or other Asia-Pacific areas. Teacher education, therefore, may be one important way to empower teachers to face this challenge from the political developments. 15 Implications from Cultural Functions Cultural functions refer to the contribution of schools to the cultural transmission and development at different levels of society. Teacher education and development programs can provide opportunities for teachers to understand and reflect on these cultural functions and build the skills necessary for their transmission. At the individual level, teachers help students to develop creativity and aesthetic awareness, and to become familiar with the dominant values underpinning their society. At an institutional level, teachers and schools act as agents for systematic cultural transmission, cultural integration among their multiple and diverse constituencies, and cultural re-vitalization. At the community and society levels, schools often serve as a cultural unit carrying the explicit norms and expectations of the local community. Again, Conflict Theory provides an alternative view. It suggests that schools and teachers socialize students from different levels of society with different sets of values and beliefs and, in the process, benefit some groups more than others. At the international level, schools and teachers can encourage appreciation of cultural diversity and acceptance of different norms, traditions, values, and beliefs in different countries and regions. Implications from Education Functions Education functions of schools refer to the contribution of schools to the development and maintenance of education at different levels. Traditionally, education has been perceived as a means for achieving the economic, social, political, and cultural values only. Rapid and widespread change, however, has prompted now an acceptance that education in and of itself is a crucial goal. The content, system, and structure of education, then, need to be developed and maintained. At the individual level, teachers help students to learn how to learn, and colleagues to learn how to teach. At the institutional level, teachers work together to improve learning and teaching through mutual support and shared innovation. At the community and society levels, teachers provide service for different educational needs within their communities, facilitate developments of education as a profession, disseminate knowledge and information to the next generation, and contribute to the formation of a learning society. In order to encourage mutual understanding among nations, teachers can contribute to the development of global education and international education exchange and co-operation. Teacher education is an important means not only for teachers to learn and develop themselves, but also to understand this increasingly recognized need in school’s education functions at multi-levels. As a whole, the knowledge of above functions and accompanying levels is crucial for teacher education and development on two interrelated fronts. First, they provide a frame for teacher educators to understand and operationalize teacher education programs. And, second, the framework is useful for increased theoretical understanding of teacher education and development and may form the basis for research in this important area. Clearly, as the functions of schools become more complex, administrators and teachers need to be better prepared to face their changing roles. At present, it is unlikely that teachers have the appropriate knowledge, attitude, commitment and competence to support the multiple functions in their schools and carry out tasks effectively. Therefore, strengthening the relevance of teacher education and development to the changes in the school’s role and of the multiplicity of her functions in the new century should be an important direction for educational reforms. 16 CONCLUSION The framework of total teacher effectiveness in school expects teachers effectiveness not only at the individual level but also at the group and whole school levels; not only in the behavioral domain but also in the affective and cognitive domain. The multiple models of education quality have different sets of internal and external criteria for quality that require different sets of teacher competence and knowledge to achieve them and ensure education quality. The pursuit of multiple school functions in the new century such as technical, human, political, cultural and educational functions at different levels demands different teacher roles and performance. All these new conceptions and expectations related to teacher effectiveness inevitably generates new paradigms and implications for teacher educators and policy makers to reconceptualize and redesign the policy and practice of teacher education and development. If teachers are expected to be effective in such a complex and changing environment, the aims, content, process, methodology, as well as the culture of teacher education should be changed towards a new paradigm, particularly there is an urgent need to have globalization, localization and individualization in education for the new century (Cheng, 2000). Within the constraints of time framework and resources, it is unrealistic to expect teachers to be prepared totally effective in terms of performance in the affective, cognitive, and behavioral domains at all individual, group and school levels; or in terms of contribution to the seven models of education quality or the five school functions at different levels, through certain one off pre-service or in-service training. But, from the new conceptions of teacher effectiveness, we can identify the missing areas and linkages in our existing frameworks and programs of teacher education and development and redesign them. Also, it is clear that teacher education and development should be a life-long self learning process during which teachers can learn to become totally effective in a rapidly changing new century (Cheng, 2001). 17 Table 4. Implications from Multiple School Functions at Multi-levels Technical-Econo mic Functions Human-Social Functions Political Functions Cultural Functions Educational Functions Individual • Knowledge & skills training • Career training • Psychological developments • Social developments • Potential developments • Development of civic attitudes and skills • Acculturation • Socialization with values, norms, & beliefs • Learning how to learn & develop • Learning how to teach & help • Professional development Institutional • As a life place • As a work place • As a service organization • As a social entity/system • As a human relationship • As a place for political socialization • As a political coalition • As a place for political discourse or criticism • As a centre for cultural transmission & reproduction • As a place for cultural re-vitalization & integration • As a place for learning & teaching • As a centre for disseminating knowledge • As a centre for educational changes & developments Community • Serving the economic or instrumental needs of the community • Serving the social needs of the community • Serving the political needs of the community • Serving the cultural needs of the community • Serving the educational needs of the community Society • Provision of quality labor forces • Modification of economic behavior • Contribution to the manpower structure • Social integration • Social mobility/ social class perpetuation • Social equality • Selection & allocation of human resources • Social development & change • Political legitimization • Political structure maintenance & continuity • Democracy promotion • Facilitating political developments & reforms • Cultural integration & continuity • Cultural reproduction • Production of cultural capital • Cultural revitalization • Development of the education professions • Development of education structures • Dissemination of knowledge & information • Learning society International • International competition • Economic co-operation • International trade • Technology exchange • Earth protection • Sharing information • Global village • International friendship • Social co-operation • International exchanges • Elimination of national /regional /racial /gender biases • International coalition • International understanding • Peace/ against war • Common interests • Elimination of conflicts • Appreciation of cultural diversity • Cultural acceptance across countries/regions • Development of global culture • Development of global education • International education exchanges & co-operation • Education for the whole world Adopted from Cheng (1996a) 18 References Argyris, C., & Schon, D. 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School effectiveness and school-based improvement: A mechanism for development. London: Falmer Press. Cheng, Y. C. (1996b). The pursuit of school effectiveness: Research, management and policy. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Institute of Educational Research. Cheng, Y. C. (1996c). Relation between teachers' professionalism and job attitudes, educational outcomes, and organizational factors. Journal of Educational Research, 89(3), 163-171. Cheng, Y. C. (1998). The pursuit of a new knowledge base for teacher education and development in the new century. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education and Development,1(1), 1-16. Cheng, Y. C. (2000). New education and new teacher education: A paradigm shift for the future. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education & Development, 3(1), 1-34. Cheng, Y. C. (2001). New education and total life-long teacher education: Relevance, quality, and effectiveness. In C. Lertchalolarn, P. Sinlarat, A. Praitrakul, P. Srivardhana, (Eds.), Reforming teacher education for the new millennium: Searching for the new dimensions (pp. 33-64). Bangkok, Thailand: Chulalongkorn University , Faculty of Education. Cheng, Y. C., & Tam, W. M. (1994). A theory of school-based staff development: Development matrix. Education Journal, 22(2), 221-236. Cheng, Y. C., & Tam, W. M. (1997). Multi-models of quality in education. Quality Assurance in Education, 5(1), 22-31. (UK). Cheng, Y. C., & Walker, A. D. (1997). Multi-functions of school-based teacher education. International Journal of Educational Management. 11(2), 80-88. ( UK) Fessler, R., & Ungaretti, A. (1994). Expanding opportunities for teacher leadership. In D.R. Walling (Ed.), Teachers as leaders: Perspectives on the professional development of teachers. Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Fullan, M. (1992). Successful school improvement: The implementation perspective and beyond. Buckingham: Open University Press. 19 Hargreves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times: Teachers’ work and culture in the postmodern age. London: Cassell. Mok, M. M. C., & Cheng, Y. C. (2001). Teacher self learning in a networked environment. In Y.C. Cheng, K.W. Chow & K.T. Tsui (Eds.), New teacher education for the future: International perspectives (pp. 109-144). Hong Kong & The Netherlands: Hong Kong Institute of Education & Kluwer Academic Publishers. Murphy, J. (1995). Changing role of the teacher. In M. J. O’Hair & S. J. Odell (Eds.), Educating Teachers for Leadership and Change, Teacher Education Yearbook III. Thousand Oak, CA: Corwin Press. Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, P. (1991). Megatrends 2000. New York: Avon. Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Workplace conditions that affect teacher quality and commitment: Implications for teacher induction programs. The Elementary School Journal, 89(4), 421-439. Rosenholtz, S. J. & Simpson, C. (1990). Workplace conditions and the rise and fall of teachers’ commitment. Sociology of Education, 63, 241-257. Sergiovanni, T. J., & Starratt, R. J. (1993). Supervision: A redefinition (5th ed.). NY: McGraw-Hill. Tam, W. M., & Cheng, Y. C. (1996). Staff development for school education quality: implications from multi-models. Training for Quality, 4(4), 16-24. (UK) Tam, W. M., Cheng, Y. C., & Cheung, W. M. (1997). A reengineering framework for total home-school partnership. International Journal of Educational Management. 11(6), 274-285. (UK) Tsui, K.T., & Cheng, Y.C. (2000). Multi-dimensional teacher performance: An organizational perspective. Paper presented at the 14th International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement “ Global Networking for Quality Education”, 4-8 January 2000, Hong Kong. Whitaker, P. (1993). Managing changes in schools. Buckingham: Open University Press. 20 Hong Kong Preservice Teachers' Achievement Goal Orientations - are they related to their gender and electives? CHAN Kwok-wai LAI Po-yin LEUNG Man-tak MOORE Phillip The Hong Kong Institute of Education Survey study by means of a questionnaire on achievement goal orientations was conducted with four hundred and seventy-three pre-service student teachers of the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Two contrasting goals were identified, namely: learning goals and performance goals. Psychometric properties of the questionnaire gave support to its applicability in the local context. Statistical analyses indicated there was no significant difference in achievement goal orientations with courses and electives but sex. Female students were found to be more performance goal oriented than male students. Explanation of the differences in achievement goal orientations within sex group was sought in terms of socio-cultural factors. Implications were drawn for teacher educators to consider in the future planning and development of teacher education programmes. INTRODUCTION Research has indicated that the motivational orientations and affective variables are important factors influencing learning achievement at tertiary level education (Minnaert & Janssen, 1992). Possibly, there is a close relationship between motivation, achievement and the goals set by the students. Based on literature and research findings, it is anticipated that achievement goal orientations would be prominent determinants of students’ motivation and achievement behaviour. Basically, there are two contrasting achievement goals, namely: learning goals and performance goals (Ames & Archer, 1988; Archer, 1994; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Maehr & Braskamp, 1986). Learning goals refer to the goals in which individuals tend to increase one's mastery of new tasks and competence. Hence learning goals are also known as tasks goals or mastery goals. People who hold learning or mastery goals want to develop their competence on a task or increase their understanding of a subject and anticipate this to be achieved by hard work. Performance goals are the goals in which individuals seek to maintain judgment by trying to prove their competence. People holding performance goals are concerned primarily with demonstrating their ability (or concealing a perceived lack of ability) by outperforming others, particularly if success is achieved with little effort. Performance goals are considered ego incentives or ego involved (Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Leggett,1988; Maehr & Braskamp, 1986; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985). Dweck (1986) and Nicholls (1989) have argued that a learning goal orientation is more Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 21 desirable than performance goal orientation, which concentrates on outperforming others. Achievement goal orientations are expected to relate to motives and strategies of learning. The situation of how the achievement goal orientations were related to students' learning motive and strategies were explored by a number of empirical studies (Ames & Archer, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988; Nolen, 1987b). Also, whether one is oriented toward a learning or performance goal has been demonstrated to be a function of individual differences or to be induced by situational constraints (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986). Nolen (1987a) investigated the developmental differences in learning goals, studying strategy beliefs and their inter-relationship among school graders and college students. She administered questionnaires to the students to measure the levels of task orientation (aligned with a mastery orientation), ego orientation (performance orientation), work avoidance, as well as belief in the utility of two types of strategies: those requiring deep processing of information, and those requiring only surface-level processing. Results indicated that of the three goal orientations, only task orientation was significantly positively correlated with belief in the value of deep-processing strategies. This was the case at all three age levels. Moreover, valuing of the two strategy types was positively correlated for younger, but not college students, who appeared to more clearly differentiate the two strategy types on the basis of utility for learning than did the younger groups. Therefore, the hypotheses that students' personal goals for learning influencing which strategies they used in studying were supported. Greene and Miller (1996) studied the relationships among college students' self-reported goal orientation, perceived ability, cognitive engagement while studying, and course achievement. Results indicated that both perceived ability and learning goal scores were positively correlated with meaningful cognitive engagement which included self-regulation and deep strategy use. In addition, learning goals and perceived ability were positively correlated with each other and performance goals were correlated with shallow cognitive engagement. A causal model in which perceived ability and learning goals influencing meaningful cognitive engagement, which in turn influence midterm achievement was supported. Finally, shallow processing, which was influenced by performance goals, negatively influenced midterm achievement. All these studies have suggested that the more adaptive learning goal orientation is related positively to the more desirable deep approach to learning. In summary, researchers in achievement motivation have highlighted and regarded achievement goal orientations to be prominent determinants of students' motivation and achievement behaviour. Also the general emphases on learning (mastery) goals and performance (ego) goals that students perceive in schools and the goals they adopt appear to be important factors in students' school behaviour and may have broader implications for adaptive development. While the role of goals has been primarily demonstrated in the realm of learning and achievement, task and ego goals may also influence a wide range of action, thought and affect, including those associated with general well-being – general self-evaluations and patterns of behaviour, coping, and emotion (Kaplan & Maehr, 1999). Given the current concerns about the quality and professional development of preservice teachers, it is worthwhile to examine the achievement goal orientations of our future teachers who would be influential on their pupils' learning. Hence the study of achievement goal orientations of preservice student teachers is expected to generate useful information and implications for the teacher educators in the education of preservice student teachers. 22 OBJECTIVES This paper is a report on one of several research studies conducted to investigate the relationship among achievement goal orientations, self-concept and causal attributions, study approach and achievement of teacher education students. The aim of this paper is to explore the achievement goal orientations of preservice teachers in Hong Kong and to examine if achievement goals are related to sex and electives. Two groups of student teachers were chosen for study, one at degree level and the other at sub-degree level. A questionnaire on achievement goal orientations was administered to the two groups of students to complete. The questionnaire was adapted from the measuring instrument developed by Roedel et al. (1994) and comprised 10 items. Psychometric properties such as reliabilities and construct validity of the scale were determined to verify the applicability of the scale to the local context. Statistical analyses were applied to examine if there were any significant differences between the degree and the sub-degree course students in their goal orientations, as well as any differences in gender and elective groups. Based on the objectives of this study four specific research questions were drawn: 1. What are the achievement goal orientations of preservice teachers in Hong Kong? 2. Are the achievement goal orientations dependent on sex? 3. Are the achievement goal orientations different for electives/discipline groups? 4. Are the achievement goal orientations different for degree and sub-degree course students? Answers to the specific research questions would generate findings which were expected to provide useful information and implications for teacher educators and researchers in understanding the learning goals of students and hence in planning learning activities so as to assist the students' learning. SUBJECTS OF STUDY 473 preservice student teachers from the Hong Kong Institute of Education were chosen for study. Excluding the missing cases, the sample consisted of 289 students from the Certificate in Education (Primary) course (abbreviated as C.E. (Pri.) and 170 students from the Bachelor of Education (Primary) course (abbreviated as B.Ed. (Pri.). All were first year students. The former is a two-year full-time sub-degree course and the latter a four-year full-time degree course. Both courses require students to have two “A” level subject passes as entry requirement and consists of more female than male students. Most of the sample students were around 19 to 23. Students were offered different subjects to be taken as their electives and these subject electives were classified into five major categories, based on the subject nature and convenience of statistical analysis. The five major categories included Language Subjects, Social Studies, Science and Mathematics, Cultural subjects, Technology and Computer. METHODS OF STUDY Survey study by means of questionnaire on achievement goal orientations was conducted with the preservice student teachers of the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Purposive sampling was adopted with students chosen from degree and sub-degree courses. The questionnaire used was adapted from the measuring instrument developed by Roedel et al. (1994) and comprised of 10 Likert scale items. Psychometric properties such as reliabilities (Cronbach alpha) and construct validity of the scale were determined to verify the applicability of the scale to the local context. Exploratory 23 factor analysis (maximum likelihood, followed by oblimin rotation) was applied to investigate the factor structure and construct validity of achievement goal orientations existing within the group of preservice student teachers under study. Multivariate analyses by means of MANOVA at .05 level of significance were applied to examine if there were any significant differences between the degree and the sub-degree course students in their goal orientations, as well as any differences in gender and elective groups. Implications were drawn from the results so as to help teacher educators and researchers to understand the achievement goals of preservice student teachers and hence develop appropriate programmes and learning activities to assist students’ learning. RESULTS Achievement Goal Orientations of preservice student teachers By means of maximum likelihood and oblimin rotation, two factors (with item factor loading equal or greater than .3) were extracted from 10 items on achievement goal orientations. The two factors accounted for 42.11% of the initial variance. Table 1 shows the extracted factors and the factor loading of respective items. Table 1: Factor structure of achievement goal orientations of Hong Kong preservice teachers Pattern Matrix (maximum likelihood and oblimin rotation) Factor Question Items 1 2 Achievement goal orientation question 3 .736 Achievement goal orientation question 4 .687 Achievement goal orientation question 5 .478 Achievement goal orientation question 7 .377 .239 Achievement goal orientation question 9 .375 Achievement goal orientation question 10 .633 Achievement goal orientation question 2 .482 Achievement goal orientation question 8 .468 Achievement goal orientation question 6 .401 Achievement goal orientation question 1 .313 Goodness-of-fit test Chi-square df Sig. 103.337 26 .000* * p <.05 Internal consistency/reliability of achievement goal orientation scale (Cronbach alpha) :- Alpha = .6720 Standardized item alpha =.6752 (10 items) Achievement Goal Orientations and Sex Groups The sample consisted of 91 male and 368 female students. Table 2.1 shows the mean scale score, standard deviation and number of male and female students for different achievement goals. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 show the results of MANOVA study of the sex groups effect on achievement goals at .05 level of significance. 24 Table 2.1 Mean scale score and standard deviation of male and female students’ achievement goals Sex Mean Std. Deviation N Learning Goal Male Female Total 16.1648 16.6821 16.5795 2.8098 2.6982 2.7254 91 368 459 Performance Goal Male Female Total 17.0000 18.5870 18.2723 3.6968 2.9965 3.2065 91 368 459 Table 2.2 Multivariate tests: Sex groups Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. Sex Pillai's Trace Wilks' Lambda Hotelling's Trace Roy's Largest Root .040 .960 .042 .042 9.483 9.483 9.483 9.483 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 456.000 456.000 456.000 456.000 .000* .000* .000* .000* *p <.05 Table 2.3 Tests of between-subjects effects: Sex groups Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Sex Learning Goal Performance Goal 19.518 183.741 1 1 19.518 183.741 2.637 18.556 .105 .000* * p <.05 Achievement Goal Orientations and Elective/Discipline Groups Subject electives were categorized into five elective or discipline groups for MANOVA study: 1. Language Subjects 2. Social Studies 3. Science and Mathematics 4. Cultural Subjects 5. Technology and Computer Table 3.1 shows the mean scale score, standard deviation and number of different achievement goals held by students in the five elective or discipline groups. Results of MANOVA analyses of achievement goal orientations of the electives or discipline groups at .05 level of significance are given in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 respectively. 25 Table 3.1 Mean scale score and standard deviation of achievement goals for different elective/discipline groups Discipline Mean Std. Deviation N Learning Goal 1 2 3 4 5 Total 16.6000 17.3889 16.1538 16.4643 16.7317 16.5802 2.7544 2.1731 2.5115 2.7769 2.7297 2.7297 215 18 13 168 41 455 Performance Goal 1 2 3 4 5 Total 18.4884 18.1111 18.6923 17.9405 18.5122 18.2791 3.1886 2.1390 2.4962 3.4323 3.0176 3.2153 215 18 13 168 41 455 Table 3.2 Multivariate tests : Elective/Discipline groups Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. Discipline Pillai's Trace Wilks' Lambda Hotelling's Trace Roy's Largest Root .013 .988 .013 .007 .709 .708 .706 .838 8.000 8.000 8.000 4.000 900.000 898.000 896.000 450.000 .684 .685 .686 .502 P>.05 Table 3.3 Tests of between-subjects effects: Elective/Discipline groups Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Discipline Learning Goal Performance Goal 17.417 33.635 4 4 4.354 8.409 .582 .812 .676 .518 p>.05 Achievement Goal Orientations and Course Groups Table 4.1 shows the mean scale score, standard deviation and number of learning and performance goals shown by students in the degree and sub-degree courses. Results of MANOVA analyses of achievement goal orientations of the degree, B.Ed.(Pri.) and sub-degree, C.E. (Pri.) course groups at .05 level of significance are given in Tables 4.2 and 4.3 respectively. Table 4.1 Mean scale score and standard deviation of achievement goals for the degree and sub-degree courses Course Attending Mean Std. Deviation N Learning Goal CE Student BEd Student Total 16.7586 16.2824 16.5826 2.6641 2.8037 2.7232 290 170 460 Performance Goal CE Student BEd Student Total 18.2345 18.3588 18.2804 3.1359 3.3345 3.2077 290 170 460 26 Table 4.2 Multivariate tests : Course groups Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. Group Pillai's Trace Wilks' Lambda Hotelling's Trace Roy's Largest Root .009 .991 .009 .009 2.011 2.011 2.011 2.011 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 457.000 457.000 457.000 457.000 .135 .135 .135 .135 p>.05 Table 4.3 Tests of between-subjects effects : Course groups Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Group Learning Goal Performance Goal 24.310 1.657 1 1 24.310 1.657 3.295 .161 .070 .689 p>.05 Achievement Goal Orientations and Interaction effect : Sex * Course Groups The mean scale score and standard deviation of interaction sex * course groups on achievement goal orientations are shown in Table 5.1. Results of MANOVA analyses at .05 level of interaction effect of sex* course groups on achievement goal orientations, if any, are given in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 respectively. Table 5.1 Mean scale score and standard deviation of different sex * course groups on achievement goal orientations Sex Course Attending Mean Std. Deviation N Learning Goal Male CE Student BEd Student Total Female CE Student BEd Student Total Total CE Student BEd Student Total 16.1429 16.2143 16.1648 16.9248 16.2958 16.6821 16.7543 16.2824 16.5795 2.9175 2.6014 2.8098 2.5749 2.8504 2.6982 2.6677 2.8037 2.7254 63 28 91 226 142 368 289 170 459 Performance Goal Male CE Student BEd Student Total Female CE Student BEd Student Total Total CE Student BEd Student Total 17.1746 16.6071 17.0000 18.5133 18.7042 18.5870 18.2215 18.3588 18.2723 3.6568 3.8233 3.6968 2.9139 3.1302 2.9965 3.1335 3.3345 3.2065 63 28 91 226 142 368 289 170 459 27 Table 5.2 Multivariate tests : Sex* Course groups Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. Sex*Group Pillai's Trace Wilks' Lambda Hotelling's Trace Roy's Largest Root .006 .994 .006 .006 1.279 1.279 1.279 1.279 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 454.000 454.000 454.000 454.000 .279 .279 .279 .279 p>.05 Table 5.3 Tests of between-subjects effects : Sex * Course groups Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Sex*Group Learning Goal Performance Goal 7.781 9.122 1 1 7.781 9.122 1.057 .919 .304 .338 p>.05 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS As shown in Table 1, exploratory factor analysis by means of maximum likelihood and oblimin rotation extracted two factors, each consisted of five items of loading values equal and greater than .3. Chi-square value was significant at both .05 and .01 level, and rejected the null hypothesis. However, chi-square is dependent on sample size such that large sample is very likely to produce a significant result even when there is a reasonably good fit to the data (Bentler & Bonnett, 1980). Separate analyses of the items in two groups (3, 4, 5, 7, 9) and (1, 2, 6, 8, 10) did give support to the two-factor structure generated for the achievement goal orientations of the Hong Kong preservice student teachers under study. On examination of the nature and clustering of items, factor 1 was labeled as performance goal orientation and factor 2 learning goal orientation. The loading of related items on respective factors and the two identified goal orientations matched with previous western findings reported in research literature supporting the replicability of the measuring instrument in non-western cultural context. In short, there are two achievement goal orientations identified within the sample of preservice student teachers in the Hong Kong Institute of Education, namely, the Learning Goals and the Performance Goals. Also, the reliability of the 10-item scale for achievement goal orientation was found satisfactory (Cronbach alpha = .6720). The psychometric properties of the scale e.g. construct validity and reliability indicated that the scale adapted from Roedel et al. (1994) in measuring achievement goal orientations was applicable to the local context. Students of both C.E. (Pri.) and B.Ed. (Pri.) courses exhibited higher mean scale scores for performance goals than learning goals suggesting the preservice student teachers under study had higher tendency towards performance goals than learning goals. Multivariate analysis such as MANOVA indicated that there was a statistical significant difference of achievement goal orientations within sex group at both .05 and .01 level (Refer table 2.2 :- Pillai's Trace = .040, F(9.483, 2) and Wilks' Lambda = .960, F(9.482, 2)). Further test indicated the significant difference lied in the performance goals of the sex groups, F(18.556, 1), *p <.05 whereas learning goals showed no significant difference across sex groups (refer Table 2.3). Study of the mean scale scores of the sex groups in Table 2.1 indicated that female students had higher mean scale scores and lower standard deviation than male students in both learning and performance goals. This implied that many of the female students had stronger inclination towards learning and 28 performance goals than male students and the spread within the female students were not as large as the male students. While the male and female students showed little difference in their learning goals, female students were significantly different from male students in their performance goals (male, M = 16.1648, S.D. = 3.6968; female, M = 16.6821, S.D. = 2.9965). In other words, female students under study tended to be more performance goal orientated than male students and male students were more varied in their performance goals than female students. A possible factor which accounted for the higher performance goal orientation of female students might be due to the impact of gender stereotype in the traditional Chinese culture. In the traditional Chinese society, males were usually regarded as dominant figures and capable; females were considered to be dependent on males and were destined to be housekeepers to look after the family and children. Very often females were offered little opportunities of education and advancement. Given limited resources, the son has higher priority to get schooling than the daughter. To get her way through, the daughter had to demonstrate high ability and perform well in studies and achievement. The motive to learn and perform would be much stronger within a female if she wished to get educated and advancement in study and career. The situation in Hong Kong has changed with increasing influence of western culture and philosophy. More and more opportunities including education and career advancement are open to females. Nevertheless, the influences of traditional Chinese culture and gender stereotype still existed and females might try to demonstrate their competencies/abilities or perceived lack of abilities through outperforming their male counterparts in study. Both male and female students knew the importance of understanding and mastery of tasks in the process of learning and there was no significant differences in their learning goals orientation as reflected by the close mean values of the scale scores in learning goals. As regards the effect of electives or disciplines on achievement goal orientation, there was no statistically significant difference across different elective/discipline groups (see Tables 3.2 and 3.3). Variation of scale scores in achievement goal orientations was small as shown by the values in Table 3.1. That is, there was no significant effect of electives/disciplines on the achievement goal orientations, viz. learning and performance goals of the sample of Hong Kong preservice student teachers under study. Hence, electives or disciplines seemed not to be a determining factor on students' achievement goal orientations. The study of effect of electives/disciplines on achievement goal orientations by multivariate analysis was limited by the small number attached to certain categories of electives/disciplines such as social subjects, science and mathematics, technology and computer. Further research in this area with larger number of each category would confirm the result obtained in this study. Regardless of degree or sub-degree courses, there seemed to be no course effect on the achievement goal orientations of preservice student teachers as reflected from the MANOVA analyses shown in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. There was no statistically significant differences in goal orientations across courses (CE and B.Ed) at .05 level (e.g. Pillai's Trace = .009, F(2.011, 2), p >.05). That is, students from both the Certificate in Education (Primary) and Bachelor of Education (Primary) courses showed no significant differences in their achievement goal orientations. Similarly, there was no statistically significant interaction effect of Sex * Group on the achievement goal orientations as indicated in the mean scale scores and MANOVA analyses in Tables 5.1 to 5.3. The results seemed understandable as both courses recruit students with similar entry requirements and in general, there might not be a wide variation in terms of abilities and achievement goal orientations among students of the degree and sub-degree courses. 29 On comparison of the mean scale scores of learning and performance goals of preservice student teachers, both students of the Certificate in Education (Primary) and Bachelor of Education (Primary) courses had higher scores for performance goals than learning goals. The results implied that the students tended to seek and maintain judgment by trying to prove their competence in learning rather than increase their understanding and mastery of learning tasks and competence. Possibly the students might rely on rote learning and surface approach of study in order to achieve favourable judgment in their performance. This requires further verification in examining their adopted study approach or strategies. CONCLUSION In summary, measurement by a 10 Likert scaled item questionnaire instrument (adapted from that of Roedel et al.,1994) showed that the sample of Hong Kong preservice student teachers of both degree and sub-degree courses exhibited two types of achievement goal orientations. These achievement goal orientations included learning goals and performance goals. The result was similar to previous western findings in research literature. The identification of similar factor structure of the achievement goal orientations in this study to that of previous ones in western countries suggested the achievement goal orientations are similar in both western and Hong Kong Chinese students. In turn, the established construct validity of the scale adapted from the instrument developed by Roedel et al. (1994) for measuring achievement goal orientations in western cultures indicated the measuring instrument is also applicable to the Hong Kong context. Psychometric properties include reliabilities (Cronbach alpha) of the scale instrument also gave support to its applicability in other cultural context. While there was no significant difference in achievement goal orientations within course and elective/discipline groups, there was a significant difference in achievement goal orientations between sex. Female students appeared to be more inclined towards performance goals than male students in the sample under study, while learning goals remain similar between the two sex groups. A possible explanation for the performance goal difference between sex groups might be due to the influence of tradition and gender stereotype within the Hong Kong (Chinese) culture. IMPLICATIONS The fact that students of both degree and sub-degree courses showed higher mean scale scores of performance goals than learning goals was not an encouraging sign in terms of the motivation of students’ learning. The result suggested that the preservice student teachers tended to demonstrate their performance (to exhibit their abilities or conceal their perceived lack of ability) rather than pursuing understanding and mastery of their learning tasks. Female students showed greater mean scale scores than male students in both learning and performance goals implied that female students were possibly more achievement motivated than male students in their study. In turn, female students might had a stronger desire to learn and to achieve than their male counterparts although females tended to be more performance goals orientated. The phenomenon suggested the need of further investigating the causes of the goal orientations of the students, in particular the females, coupled with analysis of the curriculum/teacher education programme, as well as the teaching/learning approaches adopted. Further research may be done in investigating the relationship or cause-effect of achievement goal orientations of students with their learning approaches and 30 achievement. The higher inclination of female students towards performance goals compared with male students implied that there might not be enough provisions for the females, such as the opportunities of education and career advancement in Hong Kong. Males are still better catered for than females, due to the impact of traditional Chinese culture and philosophy, including gender stereotype. Males are in a better position, enjoyed the privilege of having greater chance and choices of education/study. To achieve equal opportunity of education, more have to be done to improve the situation in policy making and structuring of the education system in Hong Kong. As discussed in the previous section, preservice student teachers in Hong Kong tended to be more performance goal than learning goal oriented. This is understandable in terms of the keen competition in Hong Kong, in search for better educational opportunity in the tertiary sector and career advancement. In addition, it is often perceived that students of higher abilities would consider other courses, such as medicine, engineering, and information technology in universities as their first choice of studies. Students who choose teacher education as their programmes of study are considered of lower abilities and little choice. This could have an influence on the motivation and achievement goal orientations of student teachers. It is well understood that such kind of feelings are unhealthy and may lead to the less desirable qualities (performance goals) developed within preservice student teachers in their learning. The worse cases would result in the tasks avoidance phenomenon, and not willing to spend effort in their study. Quality education looks for increased internal drives and learning goals within students, while learning based on external motives and performance goals may not last for long. It is expected to have some changes or restructuring in the course/curriculum planning and teaching/learning processes in order to enhance the learning goals of preservice student teachers, subsequently to promote a positive attitude of learning within the students. The need to understand and master the learning tasks should be the goals to be developed within the preservice teachers, who in turn would exert similar influences on their pupils when the preservice teachers take up classroom teaching. In short, the ultimate aim in teacher education is to develop within student teachers a strong desire to learn and master their learning task so as to promote their competence rather than simply to learn for the sake of positive judgment by others. Subsequently, rethinking and analysis of the current curriculum deems necessary, together with careful planning in the future development of the teacher education programmes and implementation of appropriate teaching strategies. This would require further research and collaborative analysis by the teacher educators of the current practices in the teacher education institute. References Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271. Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Student learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267. Archer, J. (1994). Achievement goals as a measure of motivation in university students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 430-446. Bentler, P. M., & Bonnett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness-of-fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606. 31 Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040-1048. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and Personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273. Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5-12. Greene, B. A., & Miller, R. B. (1996). Influences on achievement: goals, perceived ability, and cognitive engagement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 181-192. Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (1999). Achievement goals and student well-being. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(4), 330-358. Maehr, M. L., & Braskamp, L. (1986). The motivation factor: A theory of personal investment. Lexington, MA: Heath. Meece, J. L., Blumfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. K. (1988). Students' Goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 514-523. Minnaert, A., & Janssen, P. J. (1992). Success and progress in higher education: A structural model of studying. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 184-192. Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Nicholls, J. G., Patashnick, M., & Nolen, S. B. (1985). Adolescents' theories of education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 683-692. Nolen, S. B. (1987a). The Hows and Whys of Studying: The relationship of goals to strategies. Paper presented at the annual meeting of American Educational Association. Washington, DC, April, 20-24. Nolen, S. B. (1987b). The influence of task involvement on the use of learning strategies. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Research in Education. Washington, DC, April. Roedel, T., Schraw, G., & Plake, B. S. (1994). Validation of a measure of learning and performance goal orientations. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 1013-1021. 32 Community College : A new born baby of the Hong Kong education system for the new millennium YUNG Man-sing The Hong Kong Institute of Education In the new millennium, there is an increasing global recognition of the importance of widening the access to higher education for accommodating students from all strata of the society for an equal educational opportunity as well as fostering the idea of life long learning and learning society (OECD, 1999a, 1999b, 2001; UNESCO, 1998). Responding to this global education reform, the SAR Education Commission proposed to encourage the establishment of various types of post-secondary colleges, while accommodating the existing institution (Education Commission, 1999, p. 22). The immediate result of the proposal was the establishment of several community colleges in early 2000, offering mainly Associate Degree programs. From the public, there are voices raising queries over the role of community college in the higher education system as well as whether community college can serve the similar function of traditional university in the provision of undergraduate education. The present paper attempts to introduce the different roles and models of community college in mass higher education systems in North America to highlight the merits and the functions of community college in mass higher education. The ultimate aim is to make some reflections on the development of community college in Hong Kong. COMMUNITY COLLEGE: A NEW BORN BABY OF HONG KONG EDUCATION SYSTEM Community college emerged as a new type of post-secondary institution in Hong Kong as the last millennium came to a close. In less than five months after the publication of the “Education Blueprint for the 21st Century” by Education Commission which proposed to encourage the establishment of various types of post-secondary colleges (Education Commission, 1999, p. 22), several community colleges were established by the University of Hong Kong (HKU School of Professional and Continuing Education -- Community College), the Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU International College), the Chinese University of Hong Kong respectively to offer Associate Degree programs. Following the announcement in his Annual Policy Address (Tung, 2000, p. 22) by the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government that within ten years, 60% of the senior secondary school leavers will receive tertiary education, more community colleges began to mushroom. The College of Higher Vocational Studies of the City University of Hong Kong (established since 1996), the School of Professional Education of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the University of Science and Technology, Lingnan University, the Hong Kong Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 33 Open University, the Hong Kong Institute of Education and various other private higher education institutions announced that Associate Degree (AD) programs will be launched in the school year of 2002. In fact, Associate Degree programme is only one form of post-secondary qualification. The SAR government envisages the emergence of a wide range of self-financing sub-degree programmes leading to Associate Degree, higher diploma and professional diploma (EMB, 2001, pp. 2-10). The current and planned intakes to full-time, self-financing post-secondary places (Associate Degree and Higher Diploma) in 2000/01 and 2001/02 are shown in Table 1. The SAR government also takes active initiative to support the development of many of these providers into community colleges. Table 1: The current and planned intakes to full-time, self-financing post-secondary places (Associate Degree and Higher Diploma) in 2000/01 and 2001/02 2000/01 2001/02 Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions (FCE) UGC-funded institutions and Open University of Hong Kong 1070 3910 Caritas Francis Hsu College and Vocational Training Council 140 1680 Sub-Total 1210 5590 Post-secondary college (i.e. Hong Kong Shue Yan College) 980 980 Registered schools offering post-secondary courses (courses are subject to successful external accreditation) 1600 2400 New providers (courses are subject to successful external accreditation) 300 Grand Total 3790 9270 Source: Education and Manpower Bureau (2001:3) According to the Education and Manpower Bureau, the SAR government will offer loans to assist non-profit-making providers with their start up expenses to establish new community colleges. This policy on establishing more community colleges aims to develop a diversified higher education system, widen students’ choice and encourage healthy competition (EMB, 2000, p. 10). By the end of 2001, a number of school sponsoring bodies such as, Vocational Training Council, Hang Seng School of Commerce, Po Leung Kuk, Caritas Adult and Higher Education Services, Tung Wah Group of Hospitals etc. has shown interest in establishing community colleges and offering Associate Degree programs. To the public of Hong Kong, the establishment of community college is a rather new concept. During the British administration, undergraduate education in Hong Kong was strictly controlled by the University Grants Committee funded degree granting institutions and the Open University. Students who wished to pursue for a degree locally must enroll into one of the degree granting institutions. The policy strictly adhered to the tradition of the British higher education system prevalent in the 1950s. University was the only chartered institution for granting degrees and offering undergraduate education. This traditional concept of undergraduate education remains a popular and the mainstream thinking in Hong Kong. It is not surprising, therefore, when the idea of community college was introduced to the pubic, doubts on the role and the function of community college were raised. At the open consultation sessions organized by Education Commission, responses were mixed. There were different interpretations about the nature and the functions of community college. Some considered community college as a post-secondary institution which offers adult education and leisure courses for the community, as a means to promote life long learning; others regarded it as a new interface 34 between senior secondary education and undergraduate education. Similarly, there were queries on the feasibility and effectiveness of setting up community college based on geographic location of the community, since the proximity of communities, population density, and the well developed mass transportation system of Hong Kong reduce the heterogeneity of community college in different communities. Indeed, not many people realized that community college carries a diverse range of educational functions and missions as university performs. In fact, community college in many other nations performs just as well as a miniature university and many have eventually transformed into a full size university. Many such experiences can easily be found in the development of community college in North America which will be described in the following sections. COMMUNITY COLLEGE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA While community college is a fresh idea to the Hong Kong public, it is a rather common feature of higher education in North America. It can be said that the concept of community college originated there and its mode of operation has produced far and wide influence on higher education systems in other nations as it has on Hong Kong now. Currently, there are 3,595 higher education institutions in the United States, with 43.8% are public and 56.2% are private. These institutions are classified into six different categories. They are: (1) Doctorate-Granting Institutions, (2) Master’s Colleges and Universities, (3) Baccalaureate Colleges, (4) Associate of Arts Colleges, (5) Specialized Institutions, and (6) Tribal Colleges and Universities (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994). Community college belongs to category (4). In 1999, there were the 1471 public and private community colleges in the United States (Digest of Educational Statistics, 1999). They provide a diverse range of programs from sub-degree, degree, to post-graduate degree for learners (McLaughlin, 2001). The huge community college sector supplements the university system; together, they constitute the mass higher education in the United States. To a large extent, the present landscape of the mass higher education system in the United States set out from community or regional college. Its historical root can be traced from the chartered colleges established in different British colonies on the eastern coast of North America in the 17th century colonial period. For example, the Harvard College, established in 1636 and the College of William and Mary in Virginia established in 1693, were two of the oldest chartered colonial colleges by modeling after the medieval European universities, such as Oxford University and Cambridge University. Others, like the College of New Jersey and the College of Rode Island were established based on the geographical location of the community. From 1636 to 1769, nine such colleges were established by religious organizations in the east coast (Graham & Diamond, 1997) (Table 2). These colleges were founded after many years of effort in petitioning to a royal body or the civil authorities in the colonial period. After the break from colonial status, colleges continued to grow in the 18th century. With the support from the civil government in land provision, charters were viewed as a relatively easy way to reward special interest constituencies, for building colleges might promote growth and development. 35 Table 2: Colleges in North America before the Independence and Formation of the United States Present name of institutions Original name Year of establishment Harvard University Harvard College 1636 College of William and Mary College of William and Mary 1693 Yale University Yale College 1701 Princeton University New Jersey College 1746 Columbia University King’s College 1754 University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia College 1755 Brown University Rode Island College 1746 Rutgers the State University Queen’s College 1766 Dartmouth College Dartmouth College 1769 Source: Rippa. S. (1984:84) The development of community or Liberal Arts College reached its peak when the United States Congress passed the Morrill Act in 1862 for establishment of at least one land grant colleges in every state in the country (Thelin, 1994, pp. 24-31). Soon after, a huge network of colleges was established in different parts of the United States. One of their chief missions was providing teacher training. Other vocational programs, such as agriculture and mechanical engineering were also offered. Community colleges paved the path of building more public universities in the following century. Clark Kerr (1990) summarized these changes over time that the public comprehensive colleges and universities were mostly originally community colleges and state teacher colleges which added many additional programs. Currently, the mass higher education system of United States consists of junior colleges (mainly community based), colleges, institute of technology, and universities. To the American public, the meaning of college and university is often interchangeable. They share an equal status in undergraduate education. The major difference is that community college provides the foundation stage of undergraduate education where students are exposed to liberal education, while university provides the stage of completion where students develop their specialties. Under the credit unit transfer system, junior colleges offer university transfer programs. Students may flexibly begin the first two years of degree programs at junior colleges (two years) and then transfer to other four years institutions to complete their degrees. It is not unusual for students to attend more than one institution before settling on a specialized program (Hilmer, 1997; The Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University, 1998, p. 22). This effectiveness of the transfer function demonstrates that community colleges are successful in preparing students for undergraduate education. The marked difference between the role of college and university in undergraduate education also rests on the research capability of the institutions. Generally, (four years) colleges and universities offer undergraduate programs, while universities offer both undergraduate and post-graduate programs. In other words, colleges are strong in teaching but weak in research; universities are strong in both areas. But, occasionally some highly reputed colleges also offer high quality post-graduate education programs. Among one of the most noticeable private institutions of this kind is Boston College which is highly reputed in research in higher education. Reasons behind this odd phenomenon is that the administration of Boston College insists on maintaining its name as a hallmark of historical tradition, despite that its mode of operation is equivalent to a comprehensive university. 36 COMMUNITY COLLEGE IN CANADA According to Statistic Canada, there were 206 public and private community colleges in 1994 (Statistic Canada, 1994). The largest community college network was found in Quebec (94), then followed by Ontario (32), Alberta (18), Newfoundland (12), British Columbia (10). Among them, 61 had enrollments of over 3,000 full-time students. Similar to the United States, the community college system plays an important role in the provision of undergraduate education (Jones, 1997, p.5). In Canada, ‘community’ is defined as “the interaction of individuals who share common concerns that produces a social dimension. This community, in turn, influences the people within it” (Faris Report, Saskatchewan, 1972, p. 8). Hence, one basic principle of community college has been that “it should assist in community development by offering programs of community education and service. In rural areas, it will serve as a mechanism for the maintenance and development of a viable way of life” (Faris Report, Saskatchewan, 1972, p. 59). On top of that, community college also acts as “brokers” for other agencies such as technical institutes and university and provides courses and credits on a contract basis. Community and regional colleges appeared in Canada in the early 20th century due much to the American influence. From the outset, most of them were privately run by religious organisations. From the 50s to 70s, some of these institutions were taken over by provincial governments and turned into a new type of public institution. Most of them maintained close affiliation with provincial university and in their early years, mainly enrolled students in university transfer program. For example, the Lethbridge Junior College, the first such public institutions in Canada, was founded in 1957 on the initiative of local school districts. The college maintained close affiliation with the University of Alberta until it was subsequently transformed into University of Lethbridge in the late 60s (Andrews et al., 1996, pp. 62-63). As a matter of fact, most of the public and private community colleges in Canada were founded in rural areas outside of bigger cities. The chief original purpose was to extend higher education opportunity to the rural population, so that students residing in the rural community would not be deprived of undergraduate education just because of the long distance from bigger cities, where most of the major universities were located. This rationale still holds true for current community colleges in Canada. The policy aims to facilitate not only access, but equity of access. By increasing the traditional low participation rates in rural areas, it will indirectly strengthen local enterprise, contributing to the development or creation of new activities. In the long run, it will sustain or help create local or regional culture. A higher education institution which requires staff with motivation, scientific culture, methodological rigour and experience of active life can become the embryo of culture life of a community. Recent development in community college in Canada has been encouraging. After successful operation for several decades, a number of public community colleges have been allowed to be upgraded as university colleges with degree granting power. For example, Fraser Valley Community College and Okanagan Community College in British Columbia were renamed as University College of the Fraser Valley and Okanagan University College respectively in the late 80s. In the private sector, Private Colleges Accreditation Boards were set up to approve program leading to a baccalaureate. From 1994 onward, four non-profit private colleges in Alberta have received authority to grant baccalaureate degree in approved programs. In other words, community college becomes a platform for higher education expansion for Canada. 37 REFLECTION ON COMMUNITY COLLEGE IN HONG KONG Community college is surely a new born baby in the education system in Hong Kong. It is certainly the main focus of development in the coming decade. In May 2001, the SAR Government, in explaining the fulfillment of the target of providing 60% of the relevant age group with tertiary education, announced that the Associate Degree places will be expanded to around 30,000 in number in the next 10 years. Community college will be developed as one of the main providers of these places. To date, these newly founded community colleges in Hong Kong are modeled after the community or regional colleges in North America, since they have much resemblance on their counterparts in North America in terms of programs offered. They mainly launch associate or sub-degree programs. Upon completion of the associate degree, students can transfer to other universities to complete their degree programs, based on a credit unit transfer system. For instance, over 10 overseas universities have agreed to accept graduates of Hong Kong Baptist University’s Associate Degree programmes for direct admission to their degree programmes. Similarly, 28 local and overseas universities (including the University of Hong Kong) have agreed to accept Associate Degree graduates of HKU SPACE’s Community College (EMB, 2001, pp. 1-3). This new arrangement indeed has widened access for those students who possess the ability and the will to pursue for a degree but have failed to enroll in degree programs at local universities because of the highly selective admission conditions. As illustrated in Figure 1, the highly selective nature of Hong Kong education system has created many barriers for those who aspire for a degree. Public examination (Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination and Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination respectively) has always been the sole device for screening students for sixth form education and admission to higher education in Hong Kong. Despite higher education expansion since the 90s, keen competition for undergraduate education remains. Data in 1996 indicated only 38% of students entered sixth form courses after secondary five (UGC, 1996, p. 1), while only half of the students who sat for the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination were admitted to degree programmes funded by the University Grants Committee (UGC). This bottle neck phenomenon is expected to remain for some time as degree places has been strictly restricted to 14,500 (in number) by UGC since 1996. Figure 1: Profile of Hong Kong Education System in 1999 38 With the introduction of community college, students are given more options to consider and the higher education progression path becomes highly flexible. Students will no longer be restricted to a narrow choice of programs and institutions simply because of the availability of places or due to performance of a single public examination. Community college also provides flexibility to those students who do not wish to enter higher education immediately after senior secondary education but would like to work or travel for a few years upon completion of senior secondary education. Community college allows students to enter higher education at their most desirable time. Nevertheless, at present, some courses offered by the local community colleges have not received approval from the local degree granting institutions yet. It seems that the only option for students is to continue their study at overseas institutions where credit transfer agreement exists. It is very crucial that local community colleges resolve this issue in the near future as the flexibility of community college lies in the credit unit transfer system. Based on this system, courses taken at community colleges will be recognized by universities, as long as the result achieved an above average level. This may mean a grade C or above, or it depends on the negotiated arrangement between institutions. This flexible arrangement enables students to enter program and to transfer to another one when the risk is lowest. During the first two years at college, students may choose between courses of generic or interdisciplinary nature which enables them to discover more deeply about the nature and content of the subject discipline before deciding on the final and most desirable subject discipline that matches one’s own career goal, personal interests and needs in the subsequent degree programs. After all, one of the goals of the current education reform in higher education is how to encourage universities to adopt a genuine system for fully transferable credit units (Butler and Hope, 2000; Education Commission, 1999, p. 22). Should this goal be realized, it will have tremendous implication on the future development in higher education in Hong Kong. Briefly speaking, it would reduce unnecessary competition between institutions and widen up individual choices of programs and institutions. The success of credit unit transfer system in community college is an important advancement leading to a comprehensive introduction of credit unit transfer system in all the degree granting institutions. For Associate Degree programs to be recognized by universities as well as by the public as a whole, quality assurance is of utmost significance. One important step to ensure quality before a course is conducted is accreditation. At present, Associate Degree programmes offered by the UGC-funded institutions and the Open University of Hong Kong, which are self-accrediting institutions (except Hong Kong Institute of Education), have their own internal accreditation mechanisms. Associate Degree programmes offered by other institutions are to be accredited by the Hong Kong Council for Academic Accreditation (HKCAA) to ensure consistency and comparability. Apart from providing more tertiary learning opportunities, the SAR Government must also encourage student participating by support measures by expanding financial assistance to qualified needy students. The SAR Government propose to introduce a means-tested grant scheme for most needy students, offer means-tested low-interest loan for other needy students and extend non-means-tested loan to all students. The total amount of financial assistance will depend on the pace of development acting on market force, the number of applicants and the financial circumstances of their families. Based on the projected student number in Table 2, and assuming that the number of student places will increase progressively on a straight-line basis over the remaining 9 years, the rough estimates by the EMB (2001) are summarized in Table 3. 39 Table 3: Estimated number of student financial assistance in Associate Degree programmes 2001-2012. 2001 2010 2012 (Full Effect) Additional Student Number Additional first-year student intake 6 5701 30 600 30 600 Additional student enrolment 8 7602 68 960 82 400 (1) Means-tested grant for most needy students3 No. of beneficiaries 760 5 990 6 470 Estimated amount of grant ($mil) 46 360 388 (2) Means-tested loan for other needy students No. of beneficiaries 3050 23970 25 900 Estimated amount of loan ($mil) 93 734 793 otal no. of beneficiaries of (1) and (2) 3 810 29 970 32 370 (3) Non-means-tested Loan Scheme4 No. of beneficiaries 700 5 520 5 960 Estimated amount of loan ($mil) 52 412 445 (4) Student Travel Subsidy No. of beneficiaries 3 810 29 970 32 370 Estimated amount of subsidy ($mil) 11 86 93 Source: Education and Manpower Bureau (2001, p. 8) Critics of the policy of expanding Associate Degree places opine that this is only a government measure to alleviate the general sense of frustration of those who are not admitted to tertiary education under the existing higher education structure. They claim that the government in so doing only postpones the time for the senior secondary school leavers to face the problem of employment, especially at this period of economic downturn. What the government should do in counteracting such opposition is to convince the public of the importance of economic and social benefits, both to the individual and to society as a whole, of a raise in education standard of a large proportion of the population. Secondly, the government should also start educating the public to readjust their expectation for economic benefits of education. While the notion that education is an investment that pays still holds true, the expectation for the “pay” should be realistic. The reality of mass higher education is that as more students receive it, the economic and social benefits will no longer be confined to a small group, as in the days of elite higher education. Hence while everybody in the higher education sector still gains, the gain (such as lifelong income) will probably not be comparable to their counterparts in an elite higher education system. The general uplifting of education standard of a majority of the relevant age group, rather than a minority, is nevertheless a healthy feature that should be supported. It is indeed an important step in human and social capital investment in Hong Kong in the new millennium. Further expansion in first degree places among UGC institutions is still under careful consideration. Most likely, it will be pending on the results and findings of the new round of higher education review conducted by the University Grants Committee from 2001-02 under the Chairmanship of Lord Sutherland and the planning of the next triennium budget of the UGC. Before any new plan is made, the new learning opportunity opened up by community colleges 1 The figure includes 5 590 places offered by FCE and 980 places offered by Hong Kong Shue Yan College. 2 The figure includes 6 570 first-year students and 2 190 second-year students currently pursuing their first-year programme in 2000/01. 3 The above estimates are based on the LSFS application exercise in 2000/01. EMB assumes that 43.5% of students will receive means-tested financial assistance. Of them, 20.5%, will be eligible to receive mean-tested grant. This is equivalent to the ratio of recipients receiving maximum grant under the LSFS. On average, students will be eligible to 51% of the maximum loan entitlement. 4 The above estimates are based on the NLS application exercise in 2000/01. EMB assumes that 8% of students will apply for NLS and that they will apply for up to 84.3% of the loan ceiling. 40 would certainly help lessen the pressure of the demand for undergraduate education, which is inevitably rising owing to the rapid population growth, economic and social development in the past decades. Developing along this trend, Hong Kong has joined many developing and developed nations in accommodating a wider participation in higher education as an important strategy for enhancing economic, social, and cultural development in a fast changing global knowledge based economy as illustrated in Figure 2 (OECD, 1999, p. 19, 2001, pp. 9-11; UNESCO, 1998). Figure 2: Comparative Enrolment Rates in Higher Education 1950-2000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Years Pe rc en ta ge o f r el ev an t a ge g ro up United States United Kingdom Japan South Korea Taiwan Hong Kong Sources: Department of Education and Science, Statistics of Education for the UK, HMSO, London; Department of Education and Science (to 1979) Statistics of Education, Vo.l.16 University Grants Committee, London; Department of Education and Science (from 1980) UGC University Statistics, Vol.1. University Statistical Record, Gloucester US Department of Education, as published in The Almanac of Higher Education 1989-90, Chicago University Press. Ministry of Education , Taiwan (1995) Educational Statistics of Republic of China, 1995. Ministry of Education, Korea (1987, 1995) Statistical Year Book of Education, 1975 - 1992. Ministry of Education, Japan (1995) Development of Education in Japan, 1990-1992. University Grants Committee, Hong Kong (1989-1993) OECD (1999) Education Policy Analysis—1999. * The figures confine to enrolment of university level 41 The higher education development pattern described in Figure 2 shows the continuous expansion of higher education in the five selected countries, as compared with that of Hong Kong. In the immediate post-World War Two period, higher education expanded first in the United States, then in Europe, and later in the third world and the newly industrialized countries (Altbach,1999, p. 21). Developed nations in the West such as the United States or the United Kingdom1 invested generously in higher education in order to foster economic recovery and reconstruction. Under the auspices of the United States, Japan also expanded its higher education in 1950. Japan retained the expanded student enrolment rate at around 10% in the decade after 1950, while the United States and United Kingdom investment increased by 5% to 7% in the same period. As for South Korea and Taiwan, due to their respective political situation in the early 1950s2, their higher education only started to develop then. The rate of expansion maintained at a slow but steady growth. In the 1960s, all the five countries underwent rapid expansion in higher education. There was a corresponding increase in the rate of economic growth. During the period of economic downturn in the mid 1970s and early 1980s, higher education continued to expand, though at a comparatively much slower pace in all these countries, except the United States. The enrolment percentage of the United States dropped by about 5 to 7% between 1970 and 1980. Expansion in higher education in the United States resumed its steady pace of development in the 1980s and the 90s (Altbach, 1999, pp. 20-24; Trow, 1989). In 1996, there are 14.6 million students were enrolled in universities and colleges in the United States, and 1.6 million students enrolled in higher education in United Kingdom (Robertson, 1999, p. 23). In the other developing nations, higher education continued to expand rapidly during the 1990s. These countries have found the money well spent, given the rapid economic development in the 1950s and 1990s (Drucker, 1993, pp. 186-193; Green 1999, pp. 203-205; OECD 1999a, 1999b; Robbins Committee Report 1963, p. 233; Robertson, 1999, pp. 17-35; Silver and Silver, 1997; Trow, 1989). The slowing down of higher education expansion in the nations in the 70s, however, should not lead to a wrong conclusion that when the government began to invest less in higher education, the economy crumbled. Certainly, the world economic slump in the 1970s was the result of many other factors such as the Oil Crises, and the slow expansion of higher education was merely its by-product. In fact, the cut in educational investment was a consequence rather than a cause of the economic setback. In the United States, despite the drop in enrolment percentage by 5% to 7% between 1970 and 1980 in this period, the percentage of student enrolment was maintained at a very high level (37% in 1980). It was certainly still one of the highest in the world. So, the more important focus of the issue is why the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom,4 continued 1Silver and Silver(1997:14-15) accounted that in 1938-9, there were 50,000 students in UK universities (when higher education in fact meant the universities). A rapid but painful process of post-war growth took numbers to nearly 80,000 in 1947 and 90,000 in 1956. In the early 60s, there were only 16 universities in the Great Britain; university education was still elitist. The first higher education expansion in the United Kingdom took place after the release of Robbins’ Report in 1963, which stated that “All young persons qualified by ability and attainment to pursue a full time course in higher education should have the opportunity to do so”. The 70s was a slow growth period as affected by global economy. 2 Korea was challenged by the civil war in the early 1950s. Republic of China has just moved to Taiwan and continued its administration since 1949. 3 Robbins Committee Report (1963 p.23) expressed a view that increasing the volume of higher education not only results in an increased rate of economic growth, but is the key to survival in an increasingly technological age. However, it is worth to note that, Barnett (1999) pointed out that the Robbins Report can be understood as an internal report of an academic community, assured of itself and of higher education as an existing social and educational good. The Dearing Report, in contrast, can be understood as an external document of the wider society and the polity. The basic distinction of the two reports are Dearings stressed more on key words, such as global economy, economic and international competition, concern on research, the concept of lifelong learning and the application of information technology. These differences are much due to the changing expectations on higher education in the era of knowledge-based global economy. 4 Scott (1995), Williams, (1996), and Dearing Committee Report, (1997) described that from the 1980s to the 1990s, Britain’s higher education system tripled its size especially after the Education Reform Act in 1988 and the White paper “A new Framework” was released in 1990. It recommended (1) single funding structure for universities, polytechnics and colleges of higher education. Polytechnics may use the title university. (2) National vocational qualifications to be introduced quickly. (3) Sixth forms may include part-time and adults students. (4) All 16 and 17 years olds should receive training credit on leaving full-time education. (5) All further education colleges and sixth-form colleges should be independent 42 to maintain a high investment in higher education during years of economic difficulty. Similarly, why did the private sectors and governments of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan continue to increase their investment in higher education during the difficult years? The answer looks obvious: human capital investment as advocated by human capital theory indeed influence governments when formulating higher education policy5 (Amano,1997; Blaug, 1970; Green, 1999; Lee et al., 1994; Milne, 1999, p. 84; OECD, 1998, 1999a; Shen, 1990). These researches all supported that even though higher education was not the panacea to the economic setback, it would continuously produce a supply of higher quality labour who possess positive working attitudes such as lifelong learning, high adaptability to work pressures, discipline and responsibility, and most important of all; an aspiration for higher living and earning standards along with the confidence and ability to achieve both. The continuous efforts of these governments in human capital investment especially in the tertiary level even in difficult years proved that high level human capital was an important asset. When the economy began to recover in the late 80s; it imminently activated its potential to interact with and facilitate the other factors that stimulated economic growth. This is mainly due to this fact that when the economy recovers, the human capital investment always reaps the benefits. Albeit the present economy of Hong Kong is still suffering from the adverse impact of the Asian Financial Crisis in 1999 and the more recent catastrophic terrorist attack in New York in 11st September, 2001, the SAR government still deems it necessary to invest continuously in human capital for a rapidly changing knowledge based economy as a means to maintain and sustain our global competitive edge. The founding of community college will provide a promising opportunity for further higher education expansion to meet this end. Community college may grow to become a full size university after years of successful operation and when demand for higher education continues to grow. After all, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Baptist University, the Lingnan University, and the Hong Kong Institute of Education are such distinctive examples of “college turned degree granting institutions”. References Altbach, P. (1999). Patterns in higher education development. In P. G. Altbach, R. O. Berdahl & P. J. Gumport (Eds.), American higher education in the twenty-first century (pp. 15-37). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Amano, I. (1997). Structural changes in Japan’s higher education system—from a planning to a market mode. Higher Education, 34(2), 125-140. Andrews, M. (1997). Postsecondary education in Alberta since 1945. In G. Jones (Ed.), Higher education in Canada : Different systems, different perspectives. New York: Garland Publishing. Barnett, R. (1999). The coming of the global village: A tale of two inquiries. Oxford Review of Education, 25(3), of local authorities. The latter became a legislature in 1992. In mid 90s, there were 103 universities in the United Kingdom. There were roughly one and half million students in UK higher education, almost one million of whom were on full-or part-time first degree courses. Higher education was transformed into mass system. The main rationale for higher education expansion in this period, therefore, was a response to economic needs and popular social demand, which bore a strong implication of social equity. 5 Amano(1997) pointed out that “The Education White Paper” of Japan in 1962 entitled “Growth and Education in Japan” argued for increased investments in education and expansion of higher education as a basis for accelerated economic growth. This paper was influential to the development of mass higher education from 60s until the early 70s when the oil shock of 1973 slammed the brakes on its development. Lee et al (1994) pointed out contemporary education policy in South Korea was basically economically orientated; it has been designed to promote and develop a structure of industries patterned after Japan. Shen(1990) stated that Taiwan adopted manpower forecasting techniques in educational planning after inviting consultants from Standford university in 1962. Six manpower reports were produced in the following 15 years. Human capital formation for economic needs was closely related to education policy. 43 293-306. Blaug, M. (1970). An introduction to the economics of education. London: The Penguin Press. Butler, R., & Hope, A. (2000). A documentary study of arrangements for credit accumulation and transfer in higher education. Hong Kong: University Grants Committee. [On-line]. Available: Http://www.ugc.edu.hk/english/documents/credit/cover.html Dearing, R. Lord (1997). The national committee of inquiry into higher education: Higher education in the learning society. London: The Secretaries of State for Education and Employment, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Drucker, P. (1993). Post-capitalist society. New York: Harper Collins. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2001). A paper prepared for Legislative Council Panel on Education, Subcommittee on Increase in Post-secondary Education Opportunities, Paper No.CB(2)1664/00-01 (02). Hong Kong: Government Printer. Education Commission. (1999). Review of education system: Framework for education reform - Learning for life. Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government. Graham, H.D., & Diamond, N. (1997). The rise of American research universities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Green, A., Wolf, A., & Leney, T. (1999). Convergence and divergence in European education and training system. University of London, the Institute of Education, United Kingdom. Hilmer, M. (1997). Does community college attendance provide a strategic path to a higher quality education? Economics of Education Review, 16(1), 59-68. Jones, G. (1997). Higher Education in Canada: Different systems, different perspectives. New York: Garland Publishing. Kerr, C. (1990). The American mixture of higher education in perspective: Four dimension. Higher Education, 19(2), 1-19. Lee, S. (1989). The emergence of the modern university in Korea. Higher Education, 18, 87-116. McLaughlin, G. (2001). The community college: a view from the United States. Key note speech presented at The Symposium on the Associate Degree and the Community College: New Pieces in the Puzzle of Hong Kong’s Higher Education System, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, 10th December, 2001. Milne, P. (1999). The role of universities in economic growth: the ASEAN countries. In H. Gray (Ed.), Universities and the creation of wealth. Buckingham: Open Universities Press. OECD. (2001). The well-being of nations: The role of human and social capital. Paris: OECD. OECD.(1999a). Redefining tertiary education. Paris: OECD. OECD.(1999b). Education policy analysis. Paris: OECD. Rippa, S. (1984). Education in a free society: An American history. London: Longman. Robbins, L. Lord (1963). Higher Education Report. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. Roberston, D. (1999). Knowledge societies, intellectual capital and economic growth. In H. Gary (Ed.), Universities and the creation of wealth. Buckingham: Open University Press. Saskatchewan. (1972). Report of the minister's advisory committee on community colleges. Regina: Department of Continuing Education. Scott, P. (1995). The Meanings of mass higher education. Buckingham: Open University Press. Shen, S. S. (1990). Higher Education and Graduate Employment: University Traditions and Economic Planning Imperatives: A Case Study of Taiwan (The Republic of China) with reference to Britain and the U.S.A. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, the Institute of Education, United Kingdom. Silver, H. & Silver, P. (1997). Students. Buckingham: Open University Press. The Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University. (1998). Reinventing undergraduate education: A blueprint for America's research universities. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 44 The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (1994). A classification of institutions of higher education. Princeton: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The University Grants Committee of Hong Kong. (1996). Higher education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Thelin, J. R. (1994). Campus and Commonwealth: A historical interpretation. In P. G. Altbach, R. O. Berdahl & P. J. Gumport (Eds.), Higher education in American society (3rd ed., pp. 21-36). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Trow, M. (1989). American higher education – past, present and future. Studies in Higher Education, 14 (1), 5-22. UNESCO. (1998). World declaration on higher education for the twenty-first century: Vision and action and framework for priority action for change and development in higher education. Paris: Author. Williams, G. (1996). The many faces of privatisation. Higher Education Management, 8(3), 39- 56. * The first draft of this paper was presented at the Conference of Reflective Thinking on Education Reform in Hong Kong: “Crises or New Opportunities?” held at the Hong Kong Baptist University on 8th July, 2000. 45 Critically appraise the proposals for a post-modern curriculum outlined by Doll (1993) in his “A Post-modern Perspective on Curriculum” YUEN Wai-Wa, Timothy The Hong Kong Institute of Education INTRODUCTION Post-modern age is perhaps one of the most often-quoted and loosely construed concepts in recent literature. In terms of historical epoch, the ending of the superstitious and ruthless Middle Ages (5th-15 th century) gave rise to the Renaissance (14th to 16th century) when humankind once again concerned about their earthly living, instead of just the afterlife. The ending of the basically backward looking Renaissance, the emergence of the French Mathematician Descartes and the English Mathematician Newton marked the beginning of the Modernist Age. In the name of Enlightenment, the obsession with numerical reasoning and scientific knowledge was granted almost undisputed approval. In the modernist paradigm, the universe was conceived as a clockwork order which runs in a linear, predictable and numerically expressed code. It was in this modernist era that industrialization was born and nurtured. The increased supply of commodities in return further buttressed the faith in the scientific, mechanistic mode of thinking. No one ever gave an all- convincing reason for the demise of modernism. Certainly, the catastrophes of the world wars and the rise of quantum physics would have a part to play. No one ever gave a clear time frame to the post-modern age about when it first started though the general belief is that it coincides largely with the emergence of the post-industrial economy in which industrial production lost its predominance to the tertiary sector. Again no one ever spoke with unshaken certainty on the meaning of a post-modern culture. Stephen Toulman (1982) aptly expresses that it is impossible to give an overarching definition to post-modernism as the movement is too new and too varied. On the other hand, Jameson (1991) tries to give some shape to this new paradigm by outlining the following characteristics: the absence of grand narratives, the valorization of discontinuity and individuality, the rise of consumerism, the supremacy of market mentality, the utter forgetfulness of the past, the celebration of heterogeneity, and the appeal to populism. The rise of this new age and culture makes inevitable the remolding of education which until recently dovetails only the modernist paradigm. This article reviews Doll’s proposal for a post-modernist curriculum. It is hoped that educators can reflect critically on the necessary attributes of post-modernist curriculums and how existing curriculums should be reformed to meet with the challenges that comes with the post-modern age. Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre 2002 46 CURRICULUM THEORIES IN POST-MODERN EDUCATION Against the background of the new paradigm, a new breed of curriculum theories arises. Post-modern curriculum theories reject the modernist Tyler's model which suggests that aims and objective are external to the learning process, a physicists’ obsession that the static objective truth is untouched by its spectators. Pinar is one among the earliest proponents of post-modern curriculum construction. Varied though the movement is, it is clear that the attempt is to redefine curriculum according to its original meaning \"currere\". Currere refers to \" run the racecourse\"(Cheung, 1999). Modernist curriculum lopsidedly focuses on the racecourse but forgets the hinge of curriculum \"to run\". Post-modernist theories endeavor to reconstruct curriculum based on the running theme, thus respecting the emerging dynamic and relativist ontology. Following the \"to run\" axiom, Pinar (1988) suggests that curriculum should be organized around reflections. Post-modern curriculum thoughts represent a wide array of different notions. Yet, three strands of thoughts can be discerned, each with its own emphasis and agenda (Cheung, ibid). Capra (1982) expresses the environmentalist concern about the antagonism and exploitation of modernist mentality. The emphasis is on reconstructing curriculum to build up a peaceful and ecologically friendly global village. On the other hand, Apple (1979) expresses the concern about the mirroring of existing power relationship (class, gender and race) and dominant ideologies on the making of the curriculum. Bowles and Gintis (1976), on the other hand, pinpoint on social stratification. The concern about social inequality has paved the way to reforming the curriculum to ensure emancipation. Giroux (1994) expresses the need to educate students to be critical and to read critically to transcend the border and confine of the text. Prigogine portrays the universe as a chaotic order, thus reversing the modernist cosmological conception of linear relationship, stable order and high predictability. Doll (1993) proposes that curriculum should be reconstructed to mirror the new paradigm. The post-modernist curriculum would need to be open, complex and dynamic in nature. DOLL'S CURRICULUM PROPOSAL Doll (1993) outlines his proposal of post-modern curriculum and explains how it converges with the more progressive thinking in the turn of the century. Doll (1993: 155) explicitly states that \" My own educational vision centers around Rorty-Kundera Statement. There does exist a fascinating, imaginative realm where no one owns the truth and everyone has the right to be understood…we are dealing not with a reality already set out there for us to discover but with multiple ways of interpreting the echo of god's laughter.\" Doll (ibid: 156) then further explains \" social, political, and human failures for which our century may come to be known: war, genocide, famine, poverty, enslavement, ecological devastation are all done under the aegis of rational thought and procedures, and in many cases with good intentions. However, it appears to me that these failures have all been based on unquestioning faith in a metaphysical reality….\" This couple quotations, spirit of which permeates almost every line of the book, reflects Doll's felt grievance against the harm done to humankind by the obsession with hard science, his aspiration to see the liberation of human minds and lastly and most importantly about the way how the complex cosmos should be interpreted. In curriculum terms, Doll portrays the following principles: 47 To begin with, the curriculum should not be a rigid linear sequence of pre-set learning activities. Instead, it should be a matrix. There is no beginning or end nor rigid sequential order, not to say confining and restricting boundaries. It emphasizes actions and interactions of participants and interaction of foci. The curriculum should emphasize a practical rather than a theoretical perspective. Teaching and learning need to be concrete and particular. The preaching of grand all-encompassing theories should be withdrawn in favor of theories grounded on practices which are able to handle the chaotic nature of the universe. The curriculum should be jointly decided on by the teachers and students involved. This devolution of power put the trust on teachers and students to be best experts of teaching and learning. The shift in the locus of control further requests central curriculum guidelines to be broad and vague to allow the treasured flexibility. Down to lesson planning, the same principle should be followed by teachers to ensure due flexibility for conjoint planning. In talking about pedagogical relations, Doll even suggests that a curriculum at the beginning can evolve to become something different at the end, following students' choice and the discourses generated in class. The curriculum should be based on recursive reflection. The consequences of the past can be taken as the problematic for the future. This can be a way to nurture the critical attitude and sense of community for the upcoming generations. The curriculum should be based on self-organization of the learners. Self-organization comes from timely and appropriate perturbation, instead of the fake sense of stability and predictability modernist education conveys. To facilitate the achieving of self-organization on which real learning and ability to survive in the post-modernist world depends, two conditions need to be met. First, the learning ethos should be one of joy and relaxation instead of one which is based on pressure and rush to learn. Second, the learners should be well versed with the learning materials. Revisiting the same materials from different perspectives would help to provide the richness in content that brings forth the desired cognitive transformation. Teachers are suggested to give up their traditional authoritative role to become partners of the learners, as the first among the equals. The classroom is to transform from being a tightly controlled ward to one marked by self-discipline and communal spirit where critical attitudes are construed in a friendly and constructive manner. Teachers should give up the moribund modernist view of epistemology where truth is absolute, static, external and can be ascertained by rational analysis. They should join hands with their students in exploring their version of truth in an interpretative, constructive manner, at critical dialogue with the text if necessary. In terms of cultural relations, perspectives across different cultures can help illicit the force necessary for us to go beyond the confines of our customary beliefs to other facets of the truth which can be interpreted in many respectable ways. Evaluation should not be conducted for the sole purpose of selection and screening. It should be geared towards promoting interaction between teachers and students. Students should not be measured 48 against straight canon according to some sort of deficiency theory. Instead feedback from students should be respected as one of the many possible interpretations of a complex truth and discussed in a warm, communal way. Last, but most important, is that curriculum should promote a new post-modern mentality. The essence of the mentality would be the dedication to pursue different interpretations and to explore new patterns and relations rather than to seek security in any dogma or orthodox as exemplified in the modernist mode of thought which degenerates to become a form of scientific superstition. DOLL'S CURRICULUM AS A BREAKTHROUGH To start with, we should have a clear conception about what a significant breakthrough represents. A major curriculum breakthrough is only worthy of the name if it meets the following conditions: First, it is markedly different from the past, not just in its outward appearance but also in its nature and underpinning philosophy. Such differences make it a better fit with its time than its predecessor. Second, it must be internally consistent and externally appealing to its audience. Third, it must represent a form of significant improvement over the current mode of thought. Fourth, it can be put to implementation. This implies either the curriculum dovetails the existing state of reality or it prescribes viable ways to overcome existing obstacles to its implementation. Using the above criteria in my analysis, I deem Doll's curriculum theory for being a breakthrough in the post-modern epoch. To begin with, Doll's curriculum is in line with the demand of the new era, whether one calls it post-modern or late capitalist age makes no difference. Curriculum in the modern age is based primarily on the theories of Tyler. The model that arises mirrors the cosmological construct and demands of industrial societies. Thus, there is a set of pre-determined aims to be achieved, as in the universe truth is external to its spectators. No room is provided for individual differences in learning and no allowance is ever granted to personal choice of subject matter as students are input in the manufacturing belt and standardization is a must in the manufacturing process. It reminds one particularly the scene of dropping identically masked students to the blast furnace in Pink Floyd's \"The Wall\". Evaluation and assessment are much emphasized as quality control, in quantitative terms at least, is accorded high priority in a factory. Underlining this modernist curriculum notion are the philosophies: perennialism and essentialism. In either philosophy, the epistemology assumes that there is a static set of knowledge, which exists, independent of time rather than as a function of time. The job of the students, thus, is to learn such knowledge from their teachers and this will enable them to survive their future life. What can be the social consequence of such a curriculum system? It depends. When the society is developing gradually and the demand of labor force is mainly diligence and compliance, there is a good fit between the society and the educational output. This is perhaps the case in the pre and early industrial period. However in the late industrial and post-industrial period, such a system is moribund. The human resources required in the tertiary sector of the fast-developing, information-technology-driven, post-industrial society are creative, adaptive and ever-learning personalities. The modernist curriculum system, which reduces the students to passive recipients of a fixed dose of knowledge, has become totally out-fashioned especially when knowledge becomes obsolete speedily. 49 Doll's curriculum proposal does not presume naively there is a fixed dose of knowledge which is necessary and sufficient for a life’s time. The locus of control and motivation in learning is placed in the learners themselves. That’s why there is the emphasis on activity approach and discovery method. There is in Doll’s theory a clear post-modernist chaotic spirit of indeterminacy, a negation of any belief of everlasting truth. Put against curriculum practice, this results in the call for learners’ own reflection as the core of learning and recursive exploration of subject matter as the means to facilitate the much-cherished reflection. To further reduce the repressive nature of schools and to enhance the impression of learning as a joyous process, teachers are to become learning facilitators rather than the authoritative fountain of knowledge and the dreadful whip of learning in the perennialist and essentialist conception. Students also are given a much greater autonomy in class and in choice of subject matter. Apart from the new epistemology and cosmology implied, Doll’s curriculum proposal is distinctive for the personalities it works to construct. Persons who take learning as part of their living and engage actively in them with joy at heart. Persons who bow to no dogmas whatever big names that scaffold them. Persons who actively construct reality from own reflections. These, I venture to say with cogent reasons, are exactly the personality traits post-modern humankind should possess. These are the very attributes of the surviving species Darwin’s nature will sort out in the post-modern ever- changing landscape. These are the nature of the very human resources post-modern tertiary sector of production would require. Coming back to the nature of the universe, there can be a never- ending debate about whether the cosmos has no orderly pattern. Some people say the Creator’s hands always move in mysterious way. Some believe that the way the trajectory of the cosmos is far more complex than humankind formerly theorized, perhaps with far more variables involved and in a more evolving rather than orbiting manner. Notwithstanding, an inquisitive mind is needed for one who lives in the post-modern time if any classic, authoritative theory and scientific explanations can be insufficient and better metaphor can emerge. This permission to liberate the human minds is found in Doll’s curriculum, which provides rooms for inquisitiveness and individual interpretations. Does the new proposal appeal to educators in this new era? This is another criterion a breakthrough should meet as expounded in my preceding discussion. Tentatively, I am optimistic. Doll’s curriculum proposal manages to integrate a number of leading educational thoughts emerging since the mid-twentieth century. The following strands of thoughts are clearly discernable in Doll’s Curriculum Matrix. Dewey’s concern about student-centered learning Students are active learners who are driven primarily by curiosity. A communal classroom with teachers as friendly facilitators is most supportive to students who learn through activities. Bruner’s concern about recursive learning Students are to learn in a recursive way via a spiral curriculum which provides the students first a bird eyes’ view of the subject and then a worm eyes’ view of certain portion of the landscape. Successive revisiting of the landscape enables the students to master the subject matter as well as provide the best opportunities for the students to correct former misconception. Piaget’s concern about transformation Students are programmed to develop by stages as ordained by nature. From infancy to adulthood, we pass 50 through the sensory-motor, pre-operational and then formal operational stage sequentially. The locus of control is thus inside a child rather than resting on the external agents, whom we call teachers. The job of teachers would thus be serving as facilitators of growth. Through providing stimulation and challenges in the form of disequilibrium, we help students to transform by enhancing and reforming their conceptual construct. Prigogine’s chaotic universe It is protest against the simplistic, mechanistic Newtonian cosmology. The universe is seen as a complex entity which mere mathematical formula can hardly manage to decode. The linear relationship in the old worldview is seen as too complacent, taking the shape of superstition with hard science. The real world is one where things are hardly predictable, both in direction and magnitude. Grand theories are of little use to explain local phenomena which can be interpreted in different, yet equally respectable ways. Doll not just manages to integrate the above said strands of thought, he also organizes them into a meaningful whole. In his own criteria of a post-modern curriculum, namely rigor, richness, relation and recursion, the theses of Dewey, Piaget, Prigogine and Bruner become united, at least instrumentally. The recognition of a vibrant universe (Prigogine), marked by uncertainty and indeterminacy, has implied that a curriculum is rigorous only if it respects multiple interpretations and transformation of knowledge. This would result only if students are able to transform cognitively (Piaget) in a rich curriculum that inspires. Such a state of affair would arise only in a recursive curriculum that allows ample chances for reflections (Bruner). A curriculum based on cultural relation is most conducive. In such a curriculum where one can find a hermeneutic frame based on many local narratives, Dewey’s dictums of a critical school community based on co-operation and interest finally make sense. Doll’s curriculum proposal is highly consistent, at least internally. Using building blocks as our analogy, Doll’s proposed parts fit together with an amazing degree of neatness. The important building blocks I can see are as follows: (i) a universe only half known ,or worse, wrongly understood (original assumption) (ii) people need to be enlivened intellectually (due to i) (iii) teachers and schools cannot claim dogmatic authority (due to i and ii ) (iv) students should be encouraged to reflect recursively and actively seek their own interpretation of truth (largely due to i, also to ii and iii) (v) examination and repression in schools should be played down (due to ii and iii) (vi) a critical but communal environment in school (due to ii, iv, and a natural development from iii) Furthermore, if we compare Doll's curriculum proposals to the development of public education in the developed world, we find an amazing degree of congruence. In the case of the United States of America, for example, the aims of education as stated in Goal 2000, specifies that elementary education would need to foster \" competency in challenging subjects including English, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics… and every school in America will ensure that all students learn to use their mind well, so they may be prepared for citizenship, further learning and productive employment…\" College/ University education would need to \" increase the youth's ability to understand development in science and in society, to think abstractly and critically…and to make wise decisions…The world is changing rapidly. Many jobs rely on new technology and already require more brain power than muscle power….\" 51 In the case of Japan, the 1995 Report on Education Systems spells out that primary and secondary education should seek to \" foster life-long learning attitudes…enables children to experience the joy of learning and of discovering new knowledge.\" In 1998, David Blunkett, Secretary of State for Education of the United Kingdom stated in the foreword of the policy paper The Learning Age that \" We stand on the brink of a new age. Familiar certainties and old ways of doing things are disappearing. Jobs are changing and with them the skills needed for the world of tomorrow. In our hearts we know we have no choice but to prepare for this new age, in which the success will be the education, knowledge and skills of our people\" DRAWBACKS OF DOLL'S CURRICULUM PROPOSAL In the preceding sections, Doll's proposal is lauded for its far-sightedness, internal coherence and ability to improve education quality in this new era. As implied, we are taking Doll's theory as practical rather than pure academic theory. As such, we would need to examine the validity and limitations of Doll's thesis on both theoretical and practical grounds. To begin with, the focus of education in Doll's theory is students, to be more specific, students' choice, motivation, and potentials to transform themselves and the knowledge they learn. This moves broadly in line with the humanistic trend of our age. This assumption about human nature is basic to any educational philosophy such as naturalism, essentialism and the like. Yet, as the platform to action, we will have to come back to the most unwelcome question:\" Can it be proved?\" Even if I do not intend to dispute the axiom in its broadest sense, in theoretical sense at least, we should be aware of the fact that mixed or even contrary findings are equally available. Kohlberg, for example, points out that in the pre-conventional stage (up to about age 10 at least) children are guided by pain avoidance principle. If Kohlberg is right, it is doubtful whether for this age group the active, curious learners, who are able to transcend their existing limitations through voluntary, communal, and critical dialogue, would ever emerge as envisaged by Doll and Dewey. In Maslow's motivation pyramid, on the other hand, survival and security are much more basic to that of excellence and self- realization, the couple of terms so neatly associated with Doll's ideal personalities who challenge and expand the prevailing frame of cognition, even against those preached by their teachers. Even back to Piaget who has so inspired Doll in his curriculum work; it is most worth noticing that the stage framework in concern is a rigid framework at least with reference to age. Such rigidity, I regret to say, is a negation of the ability education has to transform what has been ordained by nature. To be as positive as Doll is in his curriculum theories about the effect of schools and teachers as learning facilitators, we may need to approach Vygotsky's theories instead. In Doll’s vision, the ultimate aim of a post-modernist curriculum would be to liberate human minds so that social and scientific realities can be studied, particularly in a multi-dimensional and multi-faceted hermeneutic way. Thus there is the call for communal and critical dialogue in the classroom while teachers discard their traditional authoritative outlook. Good as the intention is, especially considering the realization of the limitations of human civilizations (illustrated by the two world wars and the countless social upheavals since the coming of the modernist age), it becomes a matter of doubt whether our education can truly become liberating agent with the change in the delivery. The basic question now becomes practical: \" whether existing school curricula have the breath that allows students to think freely and even divergently?\" This is particularly relevant with regard to social realities, namely social 52 beliefs, values and institutions. To this, Giroux (1990) answers rather negatively. He points out that schools and curriculum are so dominated by the official ideology or prevailing way of thought that they can be rather confining, parochial and restraining if the aim is to search for alternative theories. Bowles and Gintis (1976) emphasize the role existing curricula play in replicating the class structure of the capitalist society as the children of workers are forced to believe the bourgeoisie values and culture so as to be docile workers as they grow up. Bourdieu (1976), in his analysis of cultural capital, concludes that schools only favor the children of the middle class as the children from the grass root are bound to fail in a curriculum so grounded on middle class value, manner and language. Sadker and Sadker (1985) consider the matter from a gender point of view and propose that education only work to ensure male hegemony by intentionally nurturing girls to become submissive and passive. Should the above propositions be true, Doll might never achieve what he wants with his curriculum proposal, as schooling is basically a class control instrument. Apple (1993) explains the current trend of ideological manipulation \" A new alliance has been formed, one that has increasing power in educational and social policy. This power bloc combines business with the New Right and with Neo-Conservative intellectuals. Its interests are less in increasing the life chances of women, people of color, or of labor. Rather it aims at providing the educational conditions believed necessary both for increasing international competitiveness, profit, and discipline and for returning us to a romanticized past of the ideal home, family, and school…With the growth of post-modern and post-structural literature in critical educational and cultural studies, however, we have tended to move too quickly away from traditions that continue to be filled with vitality and provide essential insights into the nature of the curriculum and pedagogy that dominate schools at all level. Thus for example, the mere fact that class does not explain all can be used to deny all its power. This would be a serious error.\" If education we inherit from the modernist era is ideologically biased, what should be implemented so that education can free our minds in this post-modernist era? Recent literature is rich with suggestions on how to improve existing curriculum with regard to content and pedagogical issues. Giroux (1990, pp. 32-53) expresses the notion of a border pedagogy. Giroux explains \" That is a form of engaged practice…calls into question forms of subordination that create inequalities among different groups as they live out their lives. Likewise it rejects classroom relations that relegate difference to an object of condemnation and oppression, and it refuses to subordinate the purposes of schooling to narrowly defined economic and instrumental considerations. This is a notion of critical pedagogy that equates learning with the creation of critical, rather than merely good citizens.\" Accordingly, against the ideal Giroux (ibid) expounds that such border pedagogy should: i) offer the students opportunity to engage the multiple references that constitute different cultural codes, experiences and languages and developing a critical view of authority. (as a counter text) ii) disrupt traditional meaning and helps develop new forms of identity, including political, racial, class and gender identities etc. (as counter memory) iii) require teachers to possess a theoretical grasp of ways in which differences are made through various representations that marginalize subordinate groups and thus in the course of their teaching, students can give voice to how their past and present experiences. (as politics of difference) Largely Swartz (1996), who wrote on the idea of emancipatory pedagogy, shares this view. Swartz (ibid) expresses \" Emancipatory pedagogy is a process of teaching and learning that involves the use of multiple ways of knowing, being and behaving that contest and reconstruct dominant patterns of knowledge formation, dissemination 53 and perpetuation in schools…Emancipatory pedagogy is process of centering students and teachers in ways of teaching and learning that are based on posing and solving of problems…. Emancipatory pedagogy takes fundamental interest in equity and social justice.\" Analyzing from another angle, Ciardiello (2000) brings forth the importance of enhancing students' critical questioning as part of the new multi-dimensional literacy in the 21st century. Ciardiello (ibid) explains that \" The case for student-questioning training is based on the changing nature of literacy in the 21st century. The emergence of electronic and technological literacy has led to multi-faceted views of knowledge and different perceptions of the world.\" On the other hand, Sparzo et al. (1998) differentiates between knowing that (knowledge by description) and knowing how (knowledge by acquaintance) in the curriculum. It is believed that existing curriculum has come down mainly on knowing what and focus mainly on adding information. Truly empowering curriculum, it is proposed should: a) have purposeful, meaningful context (e.g., presenting information so that it can be organized, having students work on long term projects); b) helps students make connections and organize information and c) give students powerful conceptual tools to organize their knowledge (e.g., compare-contrast matrices, learning strategies, and critical thinking approaches). Apart from the preceding review which focuses primarily on curriculum design, it's worth our attention to examine the issues of bureaucratization, social ethos and logistic support, areas Doll seemingly has ignored notwithstanding their practical significance. We inherit from the modernist era not just educational practices, but also a bureaucratic educational structure. Curriculum changes, such as those proposed by Doll, would need to go down the huge bureaucratic web, often imbued with old conceptions and ethos, to reach the students and have impact. Midway downstream, the original design of curriculum changes might have been lost or filtered into something hardly recognizable to its originator(s). Even if the original design successfully reaches the schools, appropriate logistic arrangement and teacher training might be lacking to ensure a satisfactory outcome. Regarding social ethos, it should be borne in mind that any educational reform like Doll’s curriculum proposal can succeed only if there is favorable response from final users, especially students and parents. The more a reform deviates from the past, the higher is the risk of resistance due to inertia. This is particularly true if no extrinsic advantage can be seen and the conventionally held belief is threatened. Doll’s proposal best exemplifies such a change as it tries to put up a completely new landscape in education where what parents learned as axioms in their days as students no more apply. Thus, teachers no more ensure good behavior and right beliefs in a conservative way. Examination pressure, the prime reason to learn, is withdrawn. Youngsters become less submissive and more challenging to existing values. Parents might not warmly receive all these and even students might find it difficult to adjust to their new roles. What then is implied with reference to Doll’s proposal? Either Doll spends thought on supportive socialization and structural change of the education system and the decision making apparatus, say in the direction of parental education and democratization, and specifies the way ahead, or that I would deem that no viable way to clear the hurdles has been accounted for. This, as spelt out in my preceding discussion, is one point how a curriculum proposal should be evaluated. Last, but not the least, Doll’s curriculum structure should be better discussed with reference to its implication on course structure. A curriculum of no definite beginning and end entails an open school system and a highly flexible course structure. It implies a highly complicated educational landscape with a credit course structure that can transcend 54 time. Such a structure is probably based on transferable credits recognized across institutes within the same country and even between institutes across the state borders. A curriculum matrix can be realized only if such a flexible structure can be successfully planned for. CONCLUSION Doll’s curriculum proposal has been reviewed with regard to the coming of the post-modern age. It definitely represents one of the major strands of thought which is based on the assumption of a chaotic universe. As a theory, it is laudable for its internal consistency and for being appealing. It has the merits of being able to map out a new landscape of education, which liberates the human minds to explore the complicated universe the Creator ordained. However, such a new educational landscape would not surface, at least in the way Doll envisaged, unless more consideration is spent on substantiating the proposal, taking into consideration particularly the modernist structure present educational enterprise was established. A post-modernist curriculum can only emerge if all stake holders of education: curriculum planners, teachers, teacher educators, parents and students etc. can develop a culture of reform and have both a vision of the future and the courage to overcome obstacles in order to ensure that curriculum can dovetail the needs of the new age. References Apple, M. (1979). Ideology and curriculum. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Apple, M. (1993). The politics of official knowledge: Does a national curriculum make sense? Teachers College Record, 95(2), 222-241. Aronowitz, S., & Giroux, H. (1986). Education under siege. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bourdieu, P. (1976). The school as a conservative force: Scholastic and cultural inequalities. In R Dale (Ed.) Schooling and capitalism. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bowles, C. A., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America. New York: Basic Books. Capra, F. (1982). The turning point: Science, society and the rising culture. New York: Bantam. Ciardello, A. (2000). Student questioning and multidimensional literacy in the 21st century. The Education Forum, 64, 215-222. Department for Education and Employment (U.K.) (1998). The learning age- a Renaissance for a new Britain. UK: Author. Department of Education (USA) (1996). Goal 2000. USA: Author. Doll, W. E. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teachers College Press. Giroux, H. (1990). Curriculum discourse as postmodernist critical practice. Victoria: Deakin University. Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: product or praxis. Lewes: Falmer. Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, the cultural logic of late capitalism. London: Verso. Kenway, J. (1995). Having a postmodernist turn or postmodernist angst. In R. Smith & P. Wexler (Eds.), After postmodernism: Education, politics and identity. London: Falmer. Macpherson, E. D. (1995). Chaos in the Curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 27(3), 263-279. Morrison, K. (1995). Habermas and the sociology of knowledge. (Unpublished PhD thesis with the University of Durham). 55 Morrison, K. (1998). Management theories for educational change. London: Paul Chapman. National Council on Educational Reform (Japan). (1996). Report on education system/educational reform. Pinar, W. (1995). Curriculum theorizing. Berkerley, CA: McCutchan. Sadker, M. P., & Sadker, D. M. (1985, March). Sexism in the schoolroom of the 80's. Psychology Today, 54-57. Sparzo et al. (1998). Educational problems for the 21st century. Contemporary Education, 70(1), 4-13. Swartz, E. (1996). Emancipatory knowledge : A postcritical response to standard school knowledge. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 14(4), 394-417. 張文軍 (1999)。《後現代教育》。台北：揚智文化有限公司。 56 Quality Education through a Post-modern Curriculum Koo Hok-chun, Dennis This paper seeks to present a framework for the school curriculum in the twenty-first century. It first describes and appraises critically the Tyler rationale, which has been influential for many decades. The rationale forms the basis of the school curriculum in many eastern and western countries. Next, the concept and features of modernism which underpin the rationale are described, leading to a discussion of its major strengths and weaknesses. The paper goes on to present an alternative view of the curriculum - Doll’s Model, which better meets the challenges of the fast changing world. The model, with its prominent nature of postmodernism, is discussed. Strengths and weaknesses of the model are also analysed. The author also makes a comparison of the two models, explaining why the latter is preferable to the first in laying the foundation of school curriculum in the coming century. In the concluding section, recent curriculum initiatives in Hong Kong are described. There is discussion on the merits and limitations of The Target Oriented Curriculum. Then the new curriculum framework and its features are described leading to discussion on the implications for the Hong Kong curriculum. It is stressed that key concepts of postmodernism need to be taken into consideration so that the quality of education can be improved. Key words: curriculum; modernism; postmodernism; open systems; self-organisation; transformation; higher order thinking skills INTRODUCTION There are many conceptions of the school curriculum, and therefore many views of what it should be for and what it should contain. This paper will characterise two such interpretations and evaluate them. Definition of curriculum The word “curriculum” comes from the Latin word “currere” which means “a course to be run”. Many scholars have given curriculum a variety of definitions depending on whether they view it as a plan, an educational programme, learning experiences, actual occurrences, effects or others. Tanner and Tanner (1975) holds the view that curriculum means planned instructional experience designed to help learners develop and extend individual capability. This takes place in schools and is the result of the reconstruction of learners’ knowledge and experiences. Grundy (1987) regards curriculum as a cultural and social construction and a way of organising a set of human practices. The variety of definitions indicates that the word “curriculum” involves complex concepts and ideologies. Generally, it includes a consideration of the purposes of education, the content of teaching, teaching approaches with the focus being on the product as well as the process and a programme of evaluation of the outcomes. The study of curriculum is interrelated Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre 2002 57 to the study of education and it cannot be divorced from many other disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, sociology and ideology. Philosophical bases for curriculum and instruction John Dewey (1938) viewed education from another perspective. He points out that philosophy is the general principle of education and that education is the laboratory of education. Philosophy plays an important role in deciding the aims of education, teaching content and organisation. Hence, its impact on curriculum design cannot be over-emphasised. Dewey stresses that education should equip children with the ability to solve social problems to promote their growth. It is important that they develop continuously to meet the ever-increasing challenges of the world. In accordance with this, Dewey deems it necessary to design a curriculum based on children’s experiences and let children be involved in interesting and challenging problems. How these views are interpreted can be seen in the two different conceptions of curriculum discussed here - the modernist and post-modernist conceptions. MODERNISM AND POST-MODERNISM This section deals with the concepts of modernism and post-modernism and their features. Their philosophies have, indeed, a strong impact on the design of the school curriculum, leading to far- reaching consequences. Modernity Clear conceptions of modernism and post-modernism are important for addressing contemporary curriculum analysis. Doll’s work (1993) provides a thorough introduction to this field. Bell (1976) traces the roots of modernity back to Newton and Enlightenment thought. The scientific cosmology of Newton provided “faith in the homogeneity of the universe and its systematic, rational order.” Harty Levin (1966) says that in the fifty-year period 1890-1940, modernism produced “the most remarkable constellation of genius in the history of the west”. Hargreaves (1994) gave a description of the features of modernity. He asserts that modernity is a social condition both driven and sustained by Enlightenment beliefs in rational scientific progress. Politically, modernity typically concentrates control at the centre with regard to decision-making, social welfare and education, and, ultimately, economic intervention and regulation as well. Hargreaves pinpoints the undesirable effects of modernity on school education. Organizationally, the politics and economics of modernity have had significant and systematic effects on institutional life, including schooling. Most of today’s secondary schools are quintessentially modernistic institutions. Secondary schools have struggled hard to improve opportunity and choice for swelling numbers of young people, but at significant cost. There has been a cost of impersonality and alienation for their students, and bureaucratic inflexibility and unresponsiveness to change among their staffs. Personally, the effects of modernistic bureaucracies extend through to the formation and fulfilment of individual selves and identities. Furthermore, narrowness of vision, inflexible decision-making, unwieldy structures, linear planning, unresponsiveness to changing client needs, the sacrifice of human emotion for clinical efficiency and the loss of meaningful senses of community have all become increasingly apparent and worrying features of the later stages of 58 modernity. He argues that “many facets of modernity are clearly in retreat or under review - standardization, centralization, mass production and mass consumption among them”. He stresses that modernity is not only problematic but is in a crisis state. Doll (1993) asserts that modernism as an all-encompassing intellectual movement has outlived its usefulness, yet its influence on curriculum practice is still profound. We are in a new stage of intellectual, political, social development. It is time to do more than reform our methods and practices. It is time to question the modernist assumptions and develop a new prospective that simultaneously rejects, transforms and preserves that which has been. In curriculum terms, the managed, mechanistic, large-scale, predictable, behavioristic, objectives-driven and dehumanized modernistic bureaucratic curriculum is characterized by the Tylerian rationale which will be discussed later in this paper. Post-modernity We are moving from a modernist world and a modernist conception of the world to a post-modern world and a postmodernist conception of the world. There are no fixity, stability and absolutes. Major changes have taken place in recent times 1 . Jencks (1987) remarks that post-modernism looks to the past ; at the same time, it transcends the past. The new is built on the old and the future is a transformation of the past. Post-modern art and architecture are thus double-coded, indicating a present entwined with its past and future. Post-modernism has an eclectic nature. It is important to “choose and combine traditions selectively … eclect those aspects from past and present which appear most relevant for the job at hand”. Pluralism is a feature of post-modernism. Educationally, the art of creating and choosing is more important than ordering and following. Much of the curriculum to date has trained people to be passive receivers of preordained “truths”, not active creators of knowledge. Another feature of the post-modern, as pointed out by Jencks, is the concept of multilayers of interpretation. The post-modern looks to the past in order to code past remnants within a future vision. Doll argues that the educational views of Dewey, Piaget and Bruner are better understood from a post-modern perspective. Dewey’s concepts of experience and transaction, Piaget’s of development and reequilibration, and Bruner’s of learning and thought blossom more fully and richly in a post-modern milieu. Because change is exponential, it is not possible to say with certainty what the citizens of the twenty-first century will need from their schools. The aims, objectives, content, pedagogy, evaluation and direction of the curriculum are not fixed, but fluid. Doll stresses that one of the educational challenges in the post-modern mode is to design a curriculum that both accommodates and stretches, a curriculum that has the essential tension between disequilibrium and equilibrium so that a new, more comprehensive and transformative re-equilibrium emerges. Theories of Chaos and Complexity Another feature of postmodernism is the celebration of disparateness and chaos. In the present world where change and uncertainty, unpredictability and instability prevail, there is an ever-increasing need for self-organization and adaptability. Recent theories of chaos and complexity are potent reminders of the need for a paradigm shift in the way 59 we view the world, from a stable world-order to an ever-changing, unfixed scenario. Laplacian and Newtonian theories of a deterministic modernistically viewed universe are characterized by predictability, patterning, linearity, causality, stability and objectivity. They contributed to the view of the universe as an ordered mechanism, a closed and deterministic system susceptible to scientific laws. Their link with modernity is evident, for both are premised on the same principles of progress. Since the 1960s, such theories have been increasingly challenged with the rise of theories of chaos and complexity imbued with the spirit of change, uncertainty, openness and unpredictability and some thought-provoking principles 2. More recently, theories of chaos have been extended to complexity theory. Morrison (1997b) argues that order is not totally predetermined and fixed but that the universe is creative, emergent (through iteration, learning and recursion), evolutionary and changing, transformative and turbulent. Order emerges in complex systems that are founded on simple rules for interacting organisms. Systems, however defined, are complex, unstable, emergent, adaptive, dynamical and changing. It is the emphasis on nonequilibrium that brings order out of chaos. Change, uncertainty, openness are the order of the day and that a premium is placed on organizations (and self-organizations) that can respond to, live with, cope with and lead change. It is apparent that postmodernism, chaos theory and complexity theory are inseparable from one another. TYLER’S MODEL AND ITS CRITICAL APPRAISAL Tyler’s book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (1949) raised four questions: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. How can learning experiences be selected to be useful in attaining these objectives? 3. How can these educational experiences be organised for effective instruction? 4. How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated? Schubert (1986) considers the book one of the most influential books on curriculum thought and practice. The predetermination of objectives, the selection and organisation of experiences to reflect those objectives, followed by evaluations to determine whether the objectives have been attained, appear to place prime emphasis on the choice of goals. It can be seen that this is a modernist view. It provides a scientific model of learning, aiming at quality control. The procedures of designing and developing the curriculum are systematic and rational. Selection of educational purposes Tyler states that the selection of objectives is not only the first act that must be done in curriculum planning but the key to the whole process. These objectives are based on the needs of children, needs of society and the thoughts of experts. They are also the product of educational philosophy and psychology. In selecting a group of a few highly important, consistent objectives, it is necessary to screen the heterogeneous collection of objectives so as to eliminate the unimportant and the contradictory ones. The screen is based on the educational and social philosophy and psychological principles to which the school is committed. Furthermore, the consideration of the sequence of development is conducive to effective learning. Equally important is the awareness of the conditions requisite for the learning of certain types of objectives. A psychology of 60 learning not only includes specific findings but it also involves a unified formulation of a theory of learning that promotes the learning process. The Tyler Model is typical of modernism in that it places an emphasis on a mechanistic, prescribed, instrumentalistic, behavioristic, and predictable curriculum. It is mainly performance-based and behaviourist focused. Its high degree of prescription gives people sense of security and promotes standardisation. These are essential features of modernism and emphasize the “managerialist” roots of the Tyler rationale - an attempt to “manage” a curriculum for mass schooling. Selection of educational experiences In planning an educational program to attain given objectives, we have to decide on the particular learning experiences to be provided. There are three general principles for selecting such experiences 3: giving learners opportunity to practise, ensuring learner satisfaction, giving learners appropriate learning experiences in sufficient variety to attain various outcomes. Organisation of learning experiences In order for educational experiences to produce a cumulative effect, they must be so organised as to reinforce each other. Organisation greatly influences the efficiency of instruction which is a major feature of modernism - the desire for efficiency. There are three major criteria for effective organisation 4, namely continuity, sequence and integration. Evaluation of learning experiences Evaluation is the process of finding out how far the learning experiences as developed and organised are actually producing the desired results and the process of evaluation involves identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the plans. Consequently, we will know in what respects the curriculum is effective and in what respects it needs improvement. Since education objectives are essentially changes in the behaviour patterns of the student, evaluation must appraise the behaviour of students. The process of evaluation begins with the objectives of the educational program. Evaluation procedures give evidence about the behaviour implied by each of the major objectives. It is necessary to construct evaluation instruments for a particular objective. They must meet the criteria of validity and reliability. The results of an evaluation will be analysed to indicate the various strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum. It can be seen from the procedure that the Model is highly prescriptive, exercising great control over teachers and students. This has the undesirable effect of making them very passive. The Model lays emphasis on outcome, performance and behaviourism, and products that can be measured, controlled and managed. The significance of process is neglected. The Model is sympathetic to modernist attempts to standardise, control and build out human weaknesses or differences. Tyler’s Model is universal and uniform and that is its greatest strength and its greatest weakness. It is the archetypal modernist curriculum. 61 Strengths of Tyler’s Model Tyler’s Model is characteristic of modernism which has a lot of strengths with regard to clarity, simplicity, usefulness, practicability, comprehensiveness and focus on specific areas. Tyler’s Model is considered effective in curriculum design because it gives a complete paradigm with all the major considerations. The questions posed have a wide, long-lasting and popular appeal. The model is highly structured and systematic. It is also an appropriate system for large-scale mass education and good for the basics. It is performance based, behaviourist and outcome focused. Standards are set and the learning objectives are measurable. It is a closed system which is easy to follow. The model is sympathetic to the scientific positivist mentality that underpins the modernist conceptions of society - everything is predictable, ordered, measurable, objective and scientific. Rationality rules! Tyler put into practice the theories of many other educationalists such as Dewey. The framework he proposes is comprehensive, including all the major elements. At the same time, it is simple and easy to understand. It is not built on theories alone as pointed out by Hlebowitsh (1995) 5 . Furthermore, the evaluative system suggested by Tyler is one of the earliest theories in the field. The evaluative procedures are systematic and effective in judging the effectiveness of the curriculum and serve an important guideline for curriculum planners. His contributions are still recognised in the field of educational researches nowadays. Tyler’s rationale is a practical theory that is likely to improve any school curriculum. It has laid a due emphasis on the consideration of psychology, philosophy, and theories of learning. Tyler suggests that curriculum planning could start with the existing problems and needs and the rationale could be used at any point with these emergent conditions. Hlebowitsh (1995) remarks that the rationale is a framework that re-orchestrates key sources, determinants and questions that other progressive-experimentalists championed. The four questions raised by the Rationale correspond to the reflective nature of the problem method that Dewey discussed for educational inquiry. There is a broad and cautious quality to the rationale that the school can benefit from a problem-focused framework that provides a solid ground for the exercise of classroom intelligence and artistry. It gives an overall shape and direction to the schools, not only in adjudicating what knowledge, experiences and values are most worthwhile for the schools of democracy but also in making decisions over schedule of time and space. Tyler’s Model is also an appropriate system for large-scale mass education and good for the basics. It is a closed system which gives progressive completion to aims. It represents the progressive-experimentalist’s commitment to testing ideas in practice to founding judgements in key psycho-philosophical sources, and formulating curriculum problems and solutions based on a reflective method. Criticisms of the Tyler’s Model In the previous section, features of modernism have been discussed. In contrast with postmodernism, modernism has a lot of undesirable characteristics. Tyler’s model, being modernistic, is criticised for being mechanistic, remote from reality, closed, out-dated, behaviouristic, and prescriptive. William E. Doll (1993) makes a critical analysis of Tyler’s Rationale in his book “A Post-modern Perspective on Curriculum”. He regards it as a modernist, linear and cause-effect framework. The process becomes de facto the implementation and evaluation of pre-set ends. Such a view of process is severely limited. Tyler’s four foci are but a variation on Descartes’ general method for “rightly conducting reason and seeking truth in the sciences”. Learning, in 62 both these models, is limited to the discovery of the existent, the already known. In the closed system, there can be a transmission of information but not a transformation of knowledge. Descartes is highly committed to mechanism and considers it an extension of his faith in mathematics, producing the certainty he seeks. His mechanistic methodology permeates modernist epistemology and is evident at both subtle and overt levels in contemporary curriculum instruction. The mechanistic model is characteristic of the Tyler Rationale. Classroom pedagogy possibly does not question assumptions and beliefs; rather, it may begin with what is self-evident and moves in linear links to reinforce, establish, or prove that already set and valued. Doll (1993) remarks that Tyler places prime emphasis on the choice of goals. Being pre-selected, objectives as ends are elevated beyond or made external to the process itself. Tyler talks of “an acceptable educational philosophy”, which acts as a screen in the selection of objectives. However, as Kliebard (1995) points out, Tyler does not elaborate on the criteria of this screen. There also lies a basic value difference between John Dewey and Ralph Tyler. Dewey sees educational ends arising within the process of experiential activity, with learning as a by-product of that activity while Tyler sees educational ends set prior to experience, with learning a specifically intended, directed, and controlled outcome - one that can be measured. The difference is seen more clearly when curriculum is looked at from a post-modern perspective. For educational goals, Tyler turns to Bobbit’s (1924) notion of framing these in terms of the practical and professional work needs of contemporary society. Like Bobbit, he talks of “needs” as “gaps to be overcome” and he uses contemporary standards as the basis for these needs or gaps. Needs tacitly assume a stable-state universe wherein the oughts are agreed to, categorised and measured. The concept of standardised norms lying within a stable-state universe lies at the very heart of the modernist paradigm. It is also a concept the post-modernist paradigm, in all its variations, challenges, and rejects. Ted Aoki (1983) carries this concept of instrumentality in the Tyler rationale even further. He points out that the “scientific” tradition in curriculum is really a utilitarian orientation rooted in interest for “intellectual and technical control of the world”. The roots lie partly in modernism’s fear of uncertainty, and its utopian vision of a better world through order and control. Jacob Bronowski (1978) warns that “Cause and effect has taken powerful hold on our minds” that “we have the greatest difficulty in freeing ourselves from its compulsion”. He adds that “Nature is not strictly a succession of causes and effects”. Embedded within nature is the powerful force of creation, of spontaneous action, of self-organisation - examples of complexity and chaos theories We need to use the message of post-modern science if curriculum is to enter a new era. Tyler’s mention of the use of the philosophical and psychological screens has given rise to great controversy. Hlebowitsh (1995) comments that the Tyler Rationale acts as a device to legitimate the role of behaviourism and narrow specificity in curricular thinking. Tyler’s Model is undesirable as a complete model for the design of curriculum in education. It tends to cast students in a passive mode, emphasising control and understanding rather than empowerment. It also tends to trivialise the curriculum to the easily measurable, that is addressing lower order behaviours rather than higher order thinking. It also reduces the complexity of the curriculum to simplistic statements. Finally, it exerts a constraining influence on individual empowerment, emancipation and freedom which is the characteristic of post-modernism. It is useful to compare Tyler’s Model with Habermas’s (1981) Technical Model of the curriculum 6. They have features in common and have important implications for the design of curriculum. 63 DOLL’S MODEL AS AN ALTERNATIVE VIEW Tyler’s Rationale is characteristic of a modernist, scientific, managerialist mentality of society and education that regards ideology and power as unproblematic. Doll argues that it is firmly rooted in Taylor’s view of “scientific management”. Taylor believes that pre-ordering of tasks by managers for workers is “the most prominent single element in modern scientific management”. This has been incorporated into the design of curriculum by many curriculum developers. It is assumed that ends should be fixed prior to the implementation of means. Efficiency is measured in terms of the number of specific ends achieved and the time needed for achievement. Doll (1993) criticises Tyler’s Rationale for its linear ordering of the sequence: pre-set goals, selection, and direction of experiences, evaluation and its dichotomous separation of ends from means and the instrumentalist or functionalist view of the nature of education. Furthermore, its closed system of planning and practice is inconsistent with the notion of education as an opening process and with the view of post-modern society as open and diverse, multidimensional, fluid and with power more problematical. This view takes seriously the impact of chaos and complexity theory and derives from them some important features for contemporary curricula. Features of Doll’s Post-modern Model Doll’s philosophy of education is reflected by his pedagogic creed which stresses the concept of reflection. Doll believes that curriculum is a process not of transmitting what is known but of exploring what is unknown; and through exploration students and teachers “clear the land” together, thereby transforming both the land and themselves. Learning and understanding come through dialogue and reflection. The role of curriculum is to help us negotiate these passages; towards this end it should be rich, recursive, relational, and rigorous. As we leave our present century and paradigm for another century and paradigm, we need to develop a new set of criteria as to what constitutes an effective curriculum. Doll emphasises both the constructive and nonlinear nature of a post-modern curriculum which emerges through the action and interaction of the participants. He considers curriculum in terms of constructing a matrix in keeping with Dewey’s idea of mind as a verb and Bruner’s idea of it “as an instrument of construction”. He emphasises the concepts of self-organisation, indeterminacy, stability across and through instability, order emerging spontaneously from chaos and the creative making of meaning and considers these nonlinear concepts a new set of curricular criteria. Self-organisation In post-modernism, self-organisation is a major component. Originally, this is a term used to characterise the autonomy of biology. Prigogine (1980) contributes to the understanding of the concept of self-organisation by saying that it is not telelogical (moving to a predetermined end) nor teleonomic (purposeful adaptation to the environment, as in the preservation and function of life). Self-organisation is open-ended. The future evolves from the present (and the past) and is dependent on interactions that have happened and are actually happening. The open-endedness of this process is in its initiation of a next stage; the past does contribute but only partially to this initiation. It is the dialogue between the present construct and the problems of the environment that determines the emerging, next stage. A curriculum model designed along these transformational lines has the potential to be rich in generation. The process of self-organisation depends on reflective action, interaction, transaction - key points in the curriculum theorizing of Jean Piaget, Jerome 64 Bruner and John Dewey. One requirement for self-organisation to work is perturbation. A system self-organises only when there is perturbation, problem or disturbance (when the system is unsettled and needs to resettle) to continue functioning. As Piaget says, this unsettlement (disequilibrium) “provides the driving force” of redevelopment. Curriculum designed with self-organisation as a basic assumption is qualitatively different from curriculum designed with the assumption that the student is only a receiver. In the former, challenge and perturbation become the raison d’etre for organisation and reorganisation. In the latter, challenge and perturbation become disruptive and inefficient, qualities to be removed and stamped out as soon as possible. Open Systems Prigogine (1961) points out that in thermodynamics it is common to refer to systems as isolated, closed or open. Isolated systems “exchange neither energy nor matter”. It is the type of system that Socrates envisioned in his concept of knowledge being recycled. Closed systems, on the other hand, a development of the modernist paradigm, “exchange energy but no matter”. Open systems, a development of the post-modernist paradigm, “exchange both energy and matter”. The key point is that isolated systems exchange nothing, being at best cyclical; closed systems transmit and transfer; open systems transform. For the most part, the modernist curriculum has adopted the closed version where knowledge is transmitted and transferred. The post-modern curriculum has adopted the open version where learning is a transformative process. Open systems require disruptions in order to function while closed systems resist disruptions. Goals, Plans, Purposes Doll favours Dewey’s view that a curriculum should honour an individual’s ability to form, plan, execute, and evaluate as well as his planning activities - that is, his actual doing of planning. Such a curriculum should be based on an interactive, not a spectator, pedagogy and epistemology. There are two crucial misconceptions in the modernist curriculum. One is that an individual is assumed to best develop planning skills by being a passive receiver or copier of another’s plans rather than by being an active participant or discoverer of knowledge. The second is that we have assumed a cosmology based on a universe stable in order. This simplistic view of a stable universe has been found to be inadequate. Complexity is the nature of Nature. Undoubtedly, it assumes concepts not recognised by modernism for example, self-organisation and transformation. Goals, plans and purposes should arise not purely prior to but also from within action. Plans arise from action and are modified through actions. The two are interactive, each leading into the other and depending on the other. Evaluation Doll remarks that in the modernist curriculum, our frame for teaching is based on a closed set. The teacher helps students to acquire a particular, set body of knowledge in a particular, set way. Evaluation is mainly based on grades attained by students. In a modernist frame, evaluation is basically used to separate winners from losers. However, in the post-modern, transformative curriculum, there is no ideally set norm, no canon which serves as a universal reference point. Evaluation, in a post-modern frame, serves a different function. It would be essentially a negotiary process within a communal setting for the purpose of transformation. The teacher would play a central role in this process but would 65 not be the exclusive evaluator; evaluation would be communal and interactive. It would be used as feedback, part of the iterative process of doing-critiquing-doing-critiquing. The focus would be on helping students to develop intellectual and social powers through dialogue and constructive critiques. THE FOUR R’S-AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE TYLER RATIONALE Doll suggests the four R’s of Richness, Recursion, Relations and Rigor to serve as the criteria to foster a post-modern view and evaluate the quality of a post-modern curriculum. Richness This refers to a curriculum’s depth, to its layers of meaning, to its multiple possibilities or interpretations. In order for students and teachers to transform and be transformed, a curriculum needs to have the “right amount” of indeterminacy, anomaly, inefficiency, chaos, disequilibrium, dissipation and lived experience. The concept of developing richness through dialogue, interpretations, hypothesis generation and proving, and pattern playing can apply to all we do in curriculum. Recursion Bruner (1986) states that “any formal theory of mind is helpless without recursion” and asserts the importance of recursion for epistemology and pedagogy. This is also the way one produces a sense of self, through reflective interaction with the environment, with others, with a culture. Doll stresses that “recursive reflection” lies at the heart of a transformative curriculum. Bruner (1960) defines a recursive curriculum by his “spiral curriculum”. Dewey points out that every ending is a new beginning, every beginning emerges from a prior ending. Recursion aims at developing competence - the ability to organise, combine, inquire and use something heuristically. Its frame is open. Relation The concept of relations is important to a post-modern, transformative curriculum in two ways, in a pedagogical way and in a cultural way. In focusing on pedagogical relations, one focuses on the connections within a curriculum’s structure which give the curriculum its depth as this is developed by recursion. The concept of cultural relations grows out of a hermeneutic cosmology - one which emphasises narration and dialogue as key vehicles in interpretation. Bowers (1987) has tied the concept of cultural relationships to the ecological crises we face today. He draws our attention to modernism’s strong sense of individualism. Individualism has tended to pit humanity against nature and to believe that progress occurs through competition, not cooperation. This belief, unfortunately, is part of our present day pedagogy and cosmology. Rigor Rigor, in some ways, is the most important of the four criteria. It keeps a transformative curriculum from falling into either “rampant relativism” or sentimental solipsism. It moved from Aristotlean-Euclidean logic to deeply felt 66 perceptions and conceptions. The English empiricists wanted to move rigor away from subjective states to the objective and observable. Rigor can enter a world that can be measured and manipulated. Rigor in a post-modern frame draws on qualities foreign to a modernist frame, for example, interpretation and indeterminacy. Rigor can be defined in terms of mixing the two. The quality of interpretation, its own richness, depends on how fully and well we develop the various alternatives indeterminacy presents. It seems necessary to build up a community which is critical as well as supportive. Doll’s Model has been described. It can be seen that some principles of Doll’s Model are similar to those of Habermas’s Emancipatory Model of the curriculum. It is useful to make a comparison between the two models 7. Strengths of Doll’s Model It can be seen that Doll’s Model has a lot more strengths than those of Tyler’s in the qualitative aspect. It is a post-modern, transformative curriculum better suited to the demands of the new era. The open system encourages critical thinking, decision-making by all people thus promoting a democratic society. Hargreaves held a view similar to Doll in the concept of a post-modern world. He argues that “ the kinds of organisations most likely to prosper in the post-industrial, post-modern world, it is argued, are ones characterised by flexibility, adaptability, creativity, opportunism, collaboration, continuous improvement, a positive orientation towards problem-solving and commitment to maximising their capacity to learn about their environment and themselves.” Doll’s Model aims at promoting higher order competence as opposed to acquisition of subject knowledge of the curriculum. The classroom atmosphere is different from that of the traditional classroom. The teacher is no longer an authority, but a facilitator and transformative intellectual who caters for individual needs and differences. Learning is much more interactive, interesting, motivating and flexible. Here the Model again is in line with the style advocated by Hargreaves. He argues that “processes of inquiry, analysis, information gathering and other aspects of learning how to learn in an engaged and critical way become more important as goals and methods for teachers and schools in the post-modern world”. The Model fosters communication, independence and self-organisation. Opportunities for reflection are offered throughout the course of learning. The Four R’s of the curriculum set down the principles of an effective curriculum. Criticisms of Doll’s Model Tyler’s Model is neat, systematic and scientific, but Doll’s Model appears to be vague and unclear. Doll’s Model is, to a certain extent, unrealistic, idealistic, impracticable, and assertive. The open system Doll advocates may diverge to some unexpected or undesirable consequences. Conservative educationalists may find it insecure, unstable and uncertain. The Model may challenge the status and culture of teachers as respectable experts. Moreover, successful implementation of the curriculum based on Doll’s Model requires highly professional staff who are confident, resourceful and ready to meet the challenges. It may be too demanding on teachers. The kind of outcome is difficult to assess. Hence, in terms of reliability and consistency, it is not considered a good Model. The Model may pose a threat to government and bureaucracies as it does not favour central control with regard to decision-making, social welfare and education. 67 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE HONG KONG CURRICULUM The Tyler Model and the Doll Model and their respective strengths and weaknesses have been described in the previous sections. In this section, their implications for the Hong Kong school curriculum will be discussed. The Tyler Model has been influential for many years in Hong Kong and it forms the foundation of the school curriculum. But in recent years, the school curriculum has been found to be inadequate and there are attempts to introduce a new curriculum to respond to the fast changing world and the needs of the new century. The author is of the view that it is highly desirable that the new school curriculum in Hong Kong should embody the key concepts of the Doll Model which are characteristic of postmodernism. This section will examine the arguments for this point of view and a few recommendations will also be made. Background Compulsory education was enforced in 1971 for primary education in Hong Kong. From September 1978, the Government was able to provide sufficient places for every primary school leaver to proceed to three years of free junior secondary education. During the transition from a highly selective system to a system of free and compulsory education, quantitative concern was dominant. Morrison (1997a) points out that the relationship between the curriculum and the wider society is complex and ambiguous 8. The curriculum in 1960’s to 1980’s in Hong Kong was essentially based on Tyler’s Model which was highly prescriptive and closed. It was most suitable for colonial education because it promoted central control and stability. There was undue emphasis on “high status” knowledge which was academic, subject bound, abstract and theoretical. It was taught to the elite children. “Low status” knowledge of the opposite nature was taught to the mixed ability groups. The keen competition for school places made education serve the purpose of preparing students for examinations. Students had to devote all their time and energy to pursue knowledge and examination skills. They did not show interest in extra-curricular activities. Teachers were discouraged from talking about politics or any sensitive issues about the government. Little emphasis was placed on the development of cognitive skills in students. The Target Oriented Curriculum A significant change in the education system resulted from the unexpected new political situation in 1984 when there was a joint declaration by Britain and China that the sovereignty of Hong Kong would revert to China in 1997. This had important consequences on the school curriculum. The new direction of education would serve to foster democracy and autonomy of the people. A major change in the school curriculum came in 1991 when the Education Commission’s Report No.4 made recommendations on improving the quality of education in Hong Kong. The Target Oriented Curriculum (TOC) Framework was introduced. Noteworthy was the emphasis on the development of the higher order thinking skills, namely, communicating, inquiring, conceptualising, reasoning and problem-solving. The Target Oriented Curriculum initiative provided the Hong Kong education system with an opportunity to respond to the contextual requirements of the times, to address a number of major problems in the present education system, and to ensure that current conceptions of learning, progression and knowledge were built into the curriculum. It aimed at developing the capabilities of each individual to maintain and enhance the quality of life in our community. The TOC shows a marked improvement over the curriculum in the past. It is moving towards the direction of a 68 post-modern curriculum as evidenced by the following features: • the curriculum is process-oriented rather than focus on the product only, • it lays emphasis on the development of higher order thinking skills and fosters creativity, • the teacher is no longer the authority in the classroom. Instead, he acts mainly as a facilitator, helping children construct knowledge. Knowledge is not simply transmitted, • curriculum strategies address learner differences. Graded tasks are used to cater for students with different abilities. However, it is handicapped by its inherent modernist nature in that • it is still prescriptive and system-driven. The linear sequence of Tyler Model is followed: chosen targets, selected experiences, planned organisation and evaluation, • its degree of openness is limited, since there is prediction and control, • it assumes development based on stability; the concept of order emerging from chaos is lacking, and • it is not transformative enough and there is limited self-organisation. Curriculum review Since 1999, a holistic review of the school curriculum has been conducted in Hong Kong with a view to preparing the younger generation to meet the challenges of the 21st Century. In 2000, a new curriculum framework for Learning to Learn was introduced. Key learning areas, generic skills, and values and attitudes are identified. The Curriculum Development Council has set out the following overall aim of the school curriculum: The school curriculum should provide all students with essential life-long learning experiences for whole-person development in the domains of ethics, intellect, physical development, social skills and aesthetics, according to individual potentials, so that all students can become active, responsible, and contributing members of the society, the nation and the world. The school curriculum should help students learn how to learn through cultivating positive values, attitudes, and a commitment to life-long learning, and through developing generic skills to acquire, construct and communicate knowledge. These qualities are essential for whole-person development to cope with challenges of the 21st Century. A quality curriculum for the 21st Century should therefore set the directions for learning and teaching through a coherent and flexible framework which can be adapted to changes and different needs of students and schools. The school curriculum for the 21st Century is defined as the learning experiences to be provided to students necessary for achieving the aims of education in Hong Kong. The curriculum framework consists of three components: Key Learning Areas (knowledge/concepts), Generic Skills, and Values and Attitudes. There are eight key learning areas, 69 namely Chinese Language Education, English Language Education, Mathematics Education, Personal, Social, Humanities Education, Science Education, Technology Education, Arts Education and Physical Education. Nine types of generic skills fundamental to help students learn better are identified as essential. They are collaboration skills, communication skills, creativity, critical thinking skills, information technology skills, numeracy skills, problem-solving skills, self-management skills and study skills. It can be seen that the skills cover the basic skills as well as higher order thinking skills. They are not entirely new and some of them, such as communication skills and problem-solving skills have been emphasised in the TOC. RECOMMENDATIONS The introduction of the TOC has undeniably brought improvement in education in Hong Kong, but it still leaves much to be desired. Hong Kong is in need of a post-modern and transformative curriculum. The four R’s of Doll’s Model and the concept of self-organisation can help to develop a more effective curriculum in Hong Kong. The recent curriculum reform has apparently taken into consideration the principles of more effective models of post-modern and transformative curricula. The new curriculum framework lays due emphasis on constructivism and encourages critical thinking and learning by interaction and participation. However, it can be further developed so that it embodies the major qualities of a post-modern curriculum as advocated by Doll. To help schools put the curriculum framework into action, there is a need to provide teachers and school heads with professional development courses to enhance their professional competence and understanding of the school curriculum. At the same time, supportive measures should be adopted and extra resources should be provided to schools to help them improve and implement their curricula. It is also recommended that more classroom research be conducted to develop teaching and learning strategies to enhance students’ generic skills and the assessment strategies of such skills. CONCLUSION In this essay, the concepts of modernism and post-modernism have been discussed. Models of Tyler and Doll as typical of modernist and post-modern curricula have also been appraised. Clearly, both Models have their respective strengths and weaknesses. The Tyler rationale has been used as a general curricular foundation for many decades. Owing to its inadequacies, it is necessary to develop a new paradigm with a new set of criteria in order to design an effective curriculum. The 21st Century curriculum should desirably be post-modern in nature: open, rich, creative and characterised by a classroom atmosphere that offers chance for reflection, fosters higher order thinking skills and self-organisation. At the same time, it is useful to retain some of the strengths of Tyler’s Model in the new curriculum. In proposing any education reform, educationalists should consider the point of view of UNESCO (1996) which set out the “Four Pillars of education” 9 for the twenty-first century: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. We are pursuing and striving for quality education. A post-modern curriculum which adopts an open vision will undoubtedly contribute to our attaining the goal. 70 End Notes 1. Dalin and Rust (1996) point out that ten major revolutions have taken place, namely, the knowledge and information revolution, the population revolution, the globalizing and localizing revolution, the social relationships revolution, the economic revolution, the technological revolution, the cological revolution, the aesthetics revolution, the political revolution and the values revolution. 2. Principles of chaos theory - small scale changes in initial conditions can produce massive and unproductive outcome, - very similar initial conditions can produce very dissimilar outcomes, - regularity and uniformity break down to irregularity and diversity, - effects are not straightforward continuous functions of causes, - determination is replaced by indetermination; linear and stable systems are replaced by “dynamic”, changing, evolving systems and non-linear explanations of phenomena, - long-term prediction is impossible. 3. Five general principles for selecting experiences: - For a given objective to be attained, a learner must have experiences that give the opportunity to practise the kind of behaviour implied by the objective. - Second, the learning experience can give the learner satisfaction during the process of learning. - Third, the reactions desired in the experience are within the range of possibility for the learner concerned. This means that the learning experience should be appropriate to the learner’s present attainments, his predispositions and the like. - Fourth, there are a variety of learning experiences that can be used to attain the same educational objective. This implies that the teacher has a wide range of creative possibility in planning particular work. - Fifth, the same learning experience will usually bring about several outcomes. A well-planned set of learning experiences will be made up of experiences that at the same time are useful in attaining several objectives. 4. Three criteria for effective organisation - The first is continuity which refers to vertical reiteration of curriculum elements. - The second is sequence which is related to continuity but goes beyond it. It emphasises the importance of having each successive experience built upon the preceding one and going more broadly and deeply into the matters involved. - The third is integration referring to the horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences. It helps the learner to get a unified view and to unify his behaviour in relation to the elements dealt with. 5. The theories were first developed during Tyler’s work on the Eight Year Study, where 30 experimental schools engaged in a wide range of curriculum initiatives. The results of the Eight Year Study were favourable to the experimental schools. 6. Comparison with Habermas’s Model of the Curriculum Habermas’s view, in line with the Marxism that informs his work, is premised on fundamental principles of social justice, the promotion of social equality, and the nurture of “generalisable interests” (Habermas, 1976a), and the commitment to the emancipation of society. 71 Grundy (1987) argues that Habermas’ s knowledge-constitutive interests inform three styles of curriculum design: - a rationalist/behaviourist “curriculum as product” view of the curriculum revealing the “technical” knowledge-constitutive interest; - a humanistic, interpretative, pragmatic “curriculum as practice” view of the curriculum, embodying the hermeneutic knowledge-constitutive interest; - an existential, empowering and ideological-critical view of the “curriculum as praxis” embodying the emancipatory interest. Morrison (1997) points out that these styles provide a neat typology of educational goals and design models which enable systems of knowledge to be constructive; on the other hand, they are perhaps too conceptually neat. They fail to see the necessary interconnections and overlaps between what appear to be discrete ideal types. They also tend to trivialise the curriculum to the easily measurable, that is addressing the lower order behaviours rather than higher order thinking. They often reduce the complexity of the curriculum to simplistic statements. Finally, they exert a constraining influence on individual empowerment, emancipation and freedom which is the characteristic of post-modernism. The Technical Model of the Curriculum Habermas’s technical interest can be seen in the objectives or behavioural model of planning which features in literature from Tyler. In this model, the evidence for learning is demonstrated in the behaviour of students, evaluation of learning thus becomes assessment of end behaviour. The curriculum is cast in an instrumental view, focusing on controlling the content and outcomes. There is strong prescription and strong framing, arguing that the most rational way to plan a curriculum is to decide first the objectives and then find the most suitable means of achieving those ends - a means-end model which is an example of a technicist mentality which leaves aims unquestioned. Tyler’s Model and Habermas’s Technical Model of the curriculum are undesirable as complete model of the design in education. They tend to cast students in a passive mode, emphasizing control and understanding rather than empowerment. 7. Comparison with Habermas’s Emancipatory Model of the Curriculum It can be seen that some principles of Doll’s Model are similar to those of Habermas’s Hermeneutic and Emancipatory Model of the curriculum (Grundy, 1987). The latter serves student empowerment both in content and process, developing participatory democracies, engagement, student voice. Habermas sees in the development of freedoms the need for education to maximise generalisable interests and to serve the furtherance of equality in society, The rejection of a narrowly instrumentalist education coupled with the need for education to serve democracy, liberty and equality reinforces the need for citizenship education. Habermas’s views are fruitful in suggesting curriculum aims some of which are: - the need to develop students’ empowerment and freedom, - the need to develop communicative competence, - the need for education to promote equality and democracy, - the need to develop flexibility and democracy, and - the need to develop negotiated learning. 72 Clearly, they are in line with those advocated by Doll. 8. Morrison (1997a) points out that the curriculum can be viewed as an ideological selection from the available cultures, values and interests in society. It affects, effects and is affected somehow by the purposes, structures and contents of the wider society. The curriculum is neither value free nor ideologically innocent, because it is necessarily selective and that selection will support some sectors of society rather than others. Modern Critical theorists hold that the curriculum is inherently political and that therefore, the politics of the curriculum should expose the ideological, political, dominatory groups and interests in society being served by the curriculum. 9. “Four Pillars of Education”: - learning to know This means learning to learn so as to benefit from the opportunities education provides throughout life. - learning to do This means acquiring the competence to deal with many situations and work in teams. It also means learning to do in the context of young people’s various social and work experiences which may be formal or informal. - learning to live together This means developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdependence as well as a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and peace. - learning to be This means developing one’s personality and being able to act with ever greater autonomy in judgements and personal responsibility. Education must not disregard any aspects of a person’s potential: memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capabilities and communication skills. References Aoki, T. T. (1983). Towards a dialectic between the conceptual world and the lived world: Transcending instrumentalism in curriculum orientation. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 5(4), 4-21. Bell, D. (1976). Cultural contradictions of capitalism. New York: Basic Books. Bobitt, J. F. (1924). How to make a curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Bowers, C. A. (1987). Elements of a post-liberal theory of education. New York: Teachers College Press. Bronowski, J. (1978). The common sense of science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. New York: Random House. Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Clark, J. (1994). Improving the quality of learning. Hong Kong: Institute of Language in Education, Hong Kong Bank Language Development Fund. Curriculum Development Council. (2000). Learning to learn: The way forward in curriculum development. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Dalin, P., & Rust, V. D. (1996). Towards schooling for the twenty-first century. London: Cassell Dewey, J. (1938). Logic: A theory of inquiry. New York: H.Holt & Co. Doll, W. E. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teachers College Press. Education Commission. (1990). Education Commission Report No. 4: The curriculum and behaviour problems in school. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Education Commission. (2000). Learning for life, learning through life education blueprint for the 21st century. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Education Department. (1994). General introduction to target oriented curriculum. Hong Kong: Government Printer. 73 Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: Product or praxis? London: Falmer Press. Habermas, J. (1976). Legitimation Crisis, tr. J. McCarthy. London: Heinemann. Habermas, J. (1981). Modernity versus postmodernity. WA: Bay Press Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times. London: Cassell. Hlebowitsh P. S. (1995). Interpretations of the Tyler rationale: A reply to Kliebard. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 27(1), 89-94. Jencks, C. (1987). What is post-modernism? New York: St. Martin’s Press. Kliebard, H. M. (1995). The Rationale revisited. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 27(1), 81-88. Levin, H. (1966). What was modernism? New York: Oxford University Press. Morris, P. (1995). The Hong Kong school curriculum: Development, issues and policies. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Morrison, K. R. B. (1995). Habermas and the sociology of knowledge. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Durham, Chapter 10 and Appendix A. Morrison, K. R. B. (1996). Habermas and critical pedagogy. Critical Pedagogy Networker. 9(2), 1-7 Morrison, K. R. B. (1997a). The context of curriculum analysis; ideology, knowledge and interests in the curriculum. (EdD Study Guide, University of Durham) Morrison, K. R. B. (1997b). Business perspectives for educational change. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Prigogine, I. (1961). Introduction to thermodynamics of irreversible processes (2nd ed.). New York: Interscience. Prigogine, I. (1980). From being to becoming: Time and complexity in the physical sciences. San Francisco: Freeman. Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, paradigm, and possibility. New York: Macmillan. Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. (1975). Curriculum: Theory into practice. New York: Macmillan. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. UNESCO. (1996). Learning: The treasure within. Paris: Author. 74 The Diversified Development of Private Schooling in Basic Education in China: A Comparison between Shanghai, Guangdong, Wenzhou and Tianjin ZHU Yihua1 Shanghai Academy of Educational Science IP Kin-yuen The Hong Kong Institute of Education The development of private schooling in China follows very different routes in different regions. Since the beginning of the 1990s, regional differences can be found in regions like Shanghai, Guangdong, Wenzhou and Tianjin, even these four places are commonly well-off regions in China. This paper aims at describing the diversity and analyzing the factors leading to such diversity. It suggests that different economic structure, demand for basic education, decentralization of education authority and local government policies towards private education are the major attributes that explain the phenomenon. INTRODUCTION Private education has a long root in China that can be traced back to the days of Confucius, more than 2,500 years ago. It disappeared for more than 20 years, however, due to the ideological and political reform that took place after the takeover of the communist. Private education returned to the scene amid fierce debates during the 1980s when China began to adopt the reform and open policy. The controversial nature of private education in a socialist system can be seen in the various terms employed by people in describing more or less the same thing: some use the term “private education”; some use the traditional socialist term of minban (run by the civil community) education; and others may refer it as “education run by social forces” (shehui lilian banxue).2 Nevertheless, private education has now become a quickly expanding sector in the Chinese education particularly after the famous visits by the incumbent leader, Deng Xiaoping, to the southern part of China in 1992. Since then, market mechanism has been legitimized as an integral part of the “initial phase of socialism”. 1 Correspondence: ZHU, Yihua (Ms), Shanghai Academy of Educational Science, 21 Chaling Beilu, Xuhui District, Shanghai, China (Postal Code: 200032). Email: xmhuang@isdnnet.sta.net.cn IP, Kin-yuen (Mr), Department of Educational Management and Professional Studies, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Rd, Tai Po, NT, Hong Kong. Email: kyip@ied.edu.hk 2 The three terms are often used interchangably in the recent debates in Chinese private education although they are slightly different from each others. The term “private education” is politically sensitive and rarely used in the 1980s but is more frequently used in the 1990s. An interesting example is a report in China Education Daily on November 24, 1992 which mixed two terms together by using a title “Perspective on minban and private school” (Minban yu sili xuexiao datoushi). Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre 2002 75 According to a survey conducted at the end of 1996, funds injected into private schools have surged to 13 billion yuans. Near 10 million students were enrolled in more than 50,000 private education institutions, of which 24,643 are kindergartens, 1,806 are primary schools and 3,427 are secondary schools.3 Notably, development of private education did not take a uniform pattern across regions in China. In fact, different forms of private education provision have emerged in regions even of similar economic situation. This paper sets out to describe the different patterns that have taken place in four regions, namely, Shanghai, Guangdong, Wenzhou and Tianjin. Then it will discuss the possible factors attributing to such differences. DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT OF PRIVATE EDUCATION Shanghai Municipality In Shanghai, the municipal government plays a major role in initiating and supporting the development of private schools. It results in a “private” school system which can be characterized as “government subvention” type. The first batch of five private schools in Shanghai commenced as late as in 1992 just after Deng’s famous visit to the south. All these five schools made use of the campuses of some former public schools that have been granted to them by the district education bureaus. Each school was headed by a retired but renowned principal, who held of responsibility to raise funds for the school, recruit and select teaching staff (mostly also retired teachers), and to manage the school. Since then, the number of private schools in Shanghai increased drastically. As at September 1998, there were 158 private schools and the percentages of total school age student enrolled in these private schools were 13.4%, 3.8% and 2.9% for senior secondary, junior secondary and primary sections respectively (Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 1998). There are two major types of private schools in Shanghai: - Schools established by application to the government and run by individuals, enterprises or social groups which have gathered sufficient amount of start-up funding -- These schools usually locate on sites which are rented from district/country education bureaus or other government departments at very low cost or even without cost. Pilot Scheme on Public School Conversion – This involves two types of schools, firstly, those converted from former public schools that were poorly run with old dilapidated campuses/facilities; and secondly, new schools built at the junction of rural and urban areas resulted from the recent expansion of the city. This is known as the “Pilot Scheme on Public School Conversion, PSPSC” (gongli xuexiao zhuanzhi shiyan). The underlined principle is that the state-own status of the schools remains unchanged. However changes can be found in almost all other aspects. The source of school finance changed from solely state subsidy to that of multiple channels, including collection of tuition fee, donation and fund-raising. Strict and direct supervision by bureaucrats is substituted by the so-called “macro-control and supervision”, which means a looser control by the state. Accordingly, the management and operation system also change from state-direct management to that of more flexibility and autonomy, in terms of internal management, use of funding, organizational structure and appointment of personnel. We may call these schools “quasi private school”. Over 90% of the 158 private schools in Shanghai belonged to these two categories. They share the common 3 Figures quoted from the speech given by Qu Yandong (1999), Deputy Head of the Division of Development and Planning of the Ministry of Educational, in the 2nd National Conference on Minban Education; and data provided by the Education Office of the National People’s Congress based on the statistics data of the State Education Commission. Besides kindergartens and schools, the figure also comprises higher education 76 features of sites granted by the government at no or low cost. Some of them even receive from the government start-up funding and educational facilities. For the PSPSC schools, recurrent funding and teaching staff establishment are also being provided. After all, all facilities granted by the government remain state-owned but the rights to operation are given to the school managers. From the government’s perspective, there are two desirable aspects for such system. On one hand, the operators and many teachers of these schools are experienced retired educators. Their eagerness, ardency and experience in teaching and managing school can be utilized through such arrangement to supplement the shortage of experienced teachers. On the other hand, the government is also active in the course of reform. The promotion of private school system is included by the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission and also the district/county education bureaus in their respective education development and reform plans. Government agencies are also involved in giving support and supervision to the planning of new schools, student recruitment, teaching, school management, campus site and facilities, selection of principals and the reallocation of teaching staff, etc. The comparatively strong government regulation is often attributed to be one of the factors that lead to the high social reputation of these private schools in Shanghai (see, for example, Zhu & Zhu, 1996). The number of applications received by these private schools each year always several times exceeds the quotas (Shanghai Municipal Education Commission. 1997).4 Guangdong Province More than 40 private schools in Guangdong have been set up in the form of “Education Reserve Fund (jiaoyu chubeijin)”. It is, in fact, a business approach of school operation and can be referred as the “market orientation” type. Although the number constitutes only some 10% of the total number of private schools in the province, their impact is so prominent that this type of schools has been generally considered to be representing the major characteristics of Guangdong private schools. Education Reserve Fund is a special form of tuition fees. Students who are admitted into the schools have to deposit some 0.2 to 0.3 million yuans (= US$ 30,000 to 40,000 approximately) into the school fund. The operators of the schools then borrow from the school fund at medium term saving interest rate for purposes of either development of the schools or outside economic activities. Interest income derived from the fund is used to cover operational expenditure of the schools and all students-related expenditure (e.g., tuition, meals, accommodation, travelling and medicine, etc.). The deposits would be returned in full but without interest to the students upon graduation or when they leave the schools. This type of private schools requires a lot of initial investment that help to build large scale and well-equipped school campus. They target mainly at the high-income groups and have now developed into a niche of distinguished schools. However, these schools have to face considerable social and economic risks. According to a report in the Guangming Daily in 1995, “the ‘high-tuition’ schools in Guangdong Province have already received at least 1.2 billion yuans so far for their Education Reserve Funds”, but except the part used for school site development, “at least half of the money has been invested into the private market” (Dai, 1995). Without sufficient and effective legislation that regulates the operation of the Education Reserve Funds, there is a institutions and a large number of “other schools.” 4 According to the report, “the Xinshiji Secondary School recruited 80 students from more than 1,200 applications. The Lansheng-Fudan School recruited two classes but applications also exceeded a thousand. The Shijie Waiguoyu Primary School planned three days for the application for 160 places, but within only a few hours, the quota for 1,000 application had already been filled up.” 77 potential in corruption and misuse of the funds. The ups and downs in the economy also make these funds risky. In fact, there have already been signs that the recent economic crisis in Southeast Asia has adversely affected the operation of some private schools in Guangdong. Intense worries among the government and the public including the parents who have deposited great amount of money have led to the recent prohibition by the Guangdong provincial government of new Education Reserve Fund schools to be established.5 Wenzhou Wenzhou, a prefecture level city in the southern coastal part of Zhejiang Province in eastern China with a population of 7 million, is famous for its development of small enterprises in the overall economic development process of China. Private schools in Wenzhou are mainly developed by social forces with limited capital. Most schools are operated on need-basis as perceived by the people. The scales are usually small but with variety. As at September in 1998, there were already 26,200 students enrolled in 65 private schools. The total enrolment in private senior general secondary schools represented some 25% of the total enrolment in the city. Forty-five private senior vocational secondary schools with an enrolment of 15,600 (45.6% of the total enrolment). With the private education system, Wenzhou managed to pass the “two basics” requirement (which means basically implementing nine-year compulsory education and basically eradicating illiteracy among young and middle-aged adults) set by the provincial government and the state respectively in 1996 and 1997, three years ahead of the original schedule (Wenzhou Education Commission, 1998a). Funding for Wenzhou private schools mainly comes from various forms of tuition, and donation and loans from parents, the wider communities and banks. The Leqing Xingle Senior Secondary School, for example, was set up by 10 citizens who raised a total of 12.12 million yuans, of which 5 million yuans by themselves, 4.56 million yuans from bank loan and 2.56 million yuans donations from parents in the form of “commencement fee” (Wenzhou Education Commission, 1998b). Generally speaking, private schools in Wenzhou are run in a practical and flexible manner. There are day schools as well as evening schools; some are preparing students for further education and some for practical career needs. The operators of the schools also vary: there are retired government officials, retired teachers, educated young people, individual businessmen, proprietors, social groups like small political parties, unions and other forms of social group. The list also includes enterprises, villages, and street committees, etc. This seems to be in correspondence with the economic structure of the city to fit the needs of the many small enterprises. Tianjin Municipality Tianjin is another one of the four municipals in China. Private schools there are developed in a very special form as “parasites” to key-point public schools. In 1993, a primary school in Tianjin, as a pilot scheme, adopted the “one school, two systems” approach whereby some of its students belonged to the public school and the remaining students belonged to the privately-run or minban (so-claimed) section. The former groups were only required to pay the state-specified standard tuition fee while the latter had to pay at a much higher level. Following the example, four publicly-funded key-point schools each started its own private school in 1994. Though these private schools have their separate names, financial accounts, organizational 5 A speech by Mr Li Xiaolu (1999), Deputy Head of the Guangdong Provincial Education Bureau. 78 and management structures, and legal status, they did not have their own teacher establishment and education facilities. They shared the campuses, facilities and teaching staff of the public key-point schools. It was, in fact, another way for the public schools to secure additional funding to support the operation of the schools. With the support of the Tianjin municipal government, many key-point public schools followed this mode of operation. As at September 1995, there were already over 50 such schools approved by the government. The model is commonly referred to as “to borrow hen to lay eggs” (jieji shengdan). The key-point public schools are the “hens” that are being borrowed to lay the private schools, the “eggs” (Wang & Xu, 1998). The attractiveness of this kind of private schools stems from the original key-point public schools where places are highly competitive. A large amount of students who are originally not eligible to enter the key-point schools are being attracted to apply for the private schools inside those key-point schools they want to be in. Comparatively speaking, the tuition fee of these schools is not as high as that in Guangdong. Normal tuition fee for three years in either junior or secondary school ranges from 8,000 to 12,000 yuans which is affordable for ordinary families. They naturally become strong competitors against private schools that are run by real private sector, i.e., individuals and enterprises. FACTORS LEADING TO DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT When exploring into the different patterns of development of private education in these regions, we find some factors which may help to explain the formation of such difference of patterns. In the following, we will elaborate on how aspects of ideological and political shifts, decentralization, local decision-making and the economic structure of the regions affect the different patterns emerged in the regions. Ideological and Political Shifts The ideological and political shifts for the past two decades have caused huge change to China and have given immense support to the revival of private education across regions. The once “extreme leftist” (to use the jargon of the Chinese communist) ideologies during the Cultural Revolution has led to the total exclusion or suppression of the notion “private” in the political arena. The “restoration” of private education, just like all other private businesses, inevitably experienced fierce debates and conflicts. By learning from the past experience during the Cultural Revolution, there has been a common belief among Chinese people since 1978 that a solely state-run basic education system is neither feasible nor practical. Also it is simply incompatible with the economic developments that has already taken place. Private schooling has been looked upon as one major mean to supplement the public education system and to compete with it (see, for example, Wang, 1994). But throughout the past twenty years, political leaders had to reassure the public from time to time that private education (or more often, less sensitive terms like minban education and education run by social forces are being used) are being supported and encouraged: As early as in 1982, the new set of Constitution of the PRC passed by the 5th National People's Congress (NPC) had provided for the first time that “the state encourages economic organizations, state enterprises, businesses and social forces to operate educational activities in accordance with the law.” This formed the major basis for the policies of education reform in China thereafter. In 1985, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) promulgated the Decisions on the Reform of the Educational Structure (Guanyu jiaoyu tizhi gaigede jueding). This promulgation pointed out the weaknesses 79 of the education system and asked for changes in the structure of the educational system. However, due to the various kinds of restriction of the plan economy, there was still not much progress in the development of private schools by then. The visit of Deng Xiaoping, the unofficial leader of the country, to southern China in 1992 set an important milestone on the development of private education in China. Deng’s speeches during the visit helped solve the many theoretical and policy problems of economic and social developments in China. Not only had his visit led China to further economic reforms but he had also sparked off the drastic development of private education in China. In the same year, President Jiang Zemin (1993) stated in the 14th Representative Assembly of CPC Central Committee that “the solely state-owned education system has to be changed and education sponsored by the community should be encouraged and supported.” In the following year, Premier Li Peng (1994) pointed out in his annual policy speech to the 8th NPC meeting that the government has to “progressively develop a new education system whereby state-run schools continue to constitute the main body and will be supplemented by socially sponsored educational institutions at the same time.” The Framework for the Reform and Development of Education subsequently published by the State Council provided for the first time that “for the schools run by social groups and individual citizens in compliance with the law, the government adopts the policy of giving active encouragement, providing strong supports, offering guidance to the correct course and stepping up the regulation over them.” It was enchoed by the Vice Premier Li Lanqing (1995) who stated in the national meeting on educational matters that “encouraging and supporting minban education is an important mean to further development of China’s education system. The development of minban education is an important part of the reform of the educational structure.” In 1995, the 8th NPC passed at its third meeting the Education Law of the PRC. Section 25 of the Law provides that “the state encourages enterprises, social groups, other social organizations and individual citizens to operate schools or other educational institutions in accordance with the law.” The Law further provides that “no organization or citizen can operate school or other educational institution for profit,” and that “the legal rights of schools and other educational institutions are protected by the state.” In a recent international press conference in November 1998, the Minister of Education, Chen Zhili reiterated the importance of private education. She said the development of social forces-run educational institutions was one of the important breakthroughs in the educational reform since the opening up of China. The state has promulgated a series of regulations, e.g., the Regulation on Schools Run by Social Forces in 1998, to further encourage the development of private schools. The aim was to develop an educational provision framework in which state-run schools constituted the main body to be supplemented by schools run by social forces. The Ministry for Education would also devise policies that facilitate the inflow of private funding to and the development of private schools. These policy statements made by high level political figures from time to time showed that the Chinese government is keen in developing private education and reforming the educational structure (Guo, 1999). For the people in China who had suffered so much from the power struggles during and before the Cultural Revolution, it is understandable that frequent reassurance from different political leaders, government and party documents as well as legislation is vital for building their confidence. The long list of the reassurance also demonstrates the exploration process of the central government into the 80 issues. It is noteworthy that legislation aiming at regulating the practice always came after the announcement of the corresponding policies, which again were based on practical experience that had taken place. The famous phrase of Deng Xiaoping of “finding way to cross river by groping the rock” seems also apply in the issue of private education. Ambiguities of the policies and legislation (such as the prohibition of private schools which “aim at” profit-making as stated in the law) are often subject to interpretation. Different levels of political confidence and the absence of rigid directives from the central government have led to different responses from the local governments. Regions like Guangdong province where the first special economic zone was established tended to be more courageous than in any other places in permitting the setting up of high-tuition fee schools, which are commonly referred to as “noble schools” with a negative connotation. Whereas in Tianjin and Shanghai, to a large extent, the provision of private education is still closely kept within the scope of the local government. This is closely related to the decentralization process which is going to be discussed. Decentralization Varieties of private education provision in different regions was made possible after the mid 1980s when the Chinese central government decided to decentralize and delegate its authority to the various levels of local administration. The policy of delegation of authority to the various levels of local government on the administration of basic education was first stated in the Decision on the Reform of the Educational Structure in 1985 by the CPC. It was then confirmed in the form of state legislation when the Education Law was passed in 1986. Under a highly centralized system as in decades before, it is difficult for local governments to coordinate the provision of basic education, vocational education and adult education in response to the local needs. Schools are also not given autonomy to excel in their own ways. All these factors hindered in the past the realization of potentials among the local governments, the educators and the wider public that have high expectation for education. Demand for decentralization naturally mounted. Meanwhile, the economic reform also calls for changes in the financial management system in the government. As a result, the finance of local government is being strengthened. According to the principles of the new education administration system, local governments are responsible for policy-making, planning and implementation of basic education, and also the management of schools (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, 1985; State Education Commission & Financial Department, 1987). That implies that local government will have the authority as well as financial capacity to plan and construct their own private education system within the scope of the national legislation. It was in such circumstances that the various local governments started to make their own education development plans in the 1990s. The local government may thus set their own policy goals which deviate from central government in order to tackle the different socio-economic background of the regions. And in order to achieve the goals, local governments are more motivated than ever to seek for non-governmental resources (Cheng, 1995). Social input brought by private schooling is logically one of the ways out. Socio-Economical Background of the Regions Regional difference in social and economic developments is one of the major factors that led to the varied patterns of 81 private education development in China. Although the cases studied in this paper, i.e., Shanghai, Guangdong, Wenzhou and Tianjin, are all located in the eastern and southern coastal part of China where developments are comparatively rapid, there are still differences in their historical, geographical, cultural, economic and educational background. Shanghai and Tianjin have, since the last century, become China’s international ports and windows to the outside world. For the past 50 years, the two cities have also become important industrial bases of the country and are considered the most important economic zones of China. Guangdong, in particular the Pearl River Delta region, is also historically a prosperous and open-up region. In the past, it relies mainly on its agricultural economics. In 1980s, due to its proximity to Hong Kong and overseas and the establishment of special economic zones, there was extensive economic developments, in particular investment in non-state owned business (an average of 13.6% growth per year). A lot of the proprietors were formerly farmers with comparatively weak cultural and academic background who have now become very rich people. As for Wenzhou, it was historically one of the poorest and mountainous district in southern Zhejiang. This was mainly due to its remote location and lack of transportation link to the other parts of the country. Since the 1980s, Wenzhou has become one of the 14 open coastal cities of China and has started a series of new economic reform. Under the notions such as “small scale products, big markets”, “small investment, huge impact”, “small in size, large in development”, the private economy in Wenzhou has developed into a system composed of mainly small and flexible enterprises with large varieties. This has also turned Wenzhou from the poorest city to one the richest regions in Zhejiang Province. Table 1 Social Background of the Four Regions (1995) Shanghai Tianjin Guangdong Zhejiang GDP Per capita (yuan) 11,700 6,075 4,938 4,431 Disposable income Per capita (yuan) 8,438.89 6,608.39 8,561.71 7,358.72 Population density (per sq km) 1,612 (1) 736 (2) 363 (9) 408 (8) Population dependent index # 26.83 (1) 34.02 (7) 49.17 (23) 31.13 (3) Notes: (1) Numbers in bracket denote the rank among all regions. (2) In the absence of data of Wenzhou, data of Zhejiang Province is used here which is probably lower than that of Wenzhou. # Population dependent index means the average children dependent of each adult. Take Shanghai as an example, 26.83 means an adult in average has to afford to raise 0.2683 kid. Sources: “Evaluation of progress in the implementation of nine year compulsory education at regional level and analysis of regional difference”, in Hu (1997), p. 151; and Annual Statistical Report of China, 1997. From table 1, we can see the difference in GDP per capita among the regions could be as high as 2.64 folds but the difference in per capita disposable income is only 1.15%. Shanghai has the highest per capita GDP but its disposable income per capita is even lower than that in Guangdong. While the Shanghai municipal government may be in more financial advantage in offering public education, the capability of running well-off private schools in Guangdong and Wenzhou is effectively higher than that in Shanghai. 82 Demographic patterns also affect the education financing. In Shanghai, approximately 4 adults in average have to afford to raise a child. The figure is around 3 adults to 1 child in Tianjin and Zhejiang, and 2 adults to 1 child in Guangdong. That means the Guangdong provincial government not only suffers from financial inferiority in comparison to the Shanghai and Tianjin, it also suffers from the responsibility to support a larger proportion of student population. Obviously, Guangdong provincial government tends to be more motivated in seeking non-governmental resources. If we look at population density, all four districts are located in the southern or eastern coastal areas of China where population is huge. Shanghai has the largest population and the highest density of the all. Land resources are, therefore, expensive which is not favourable for private enterprises to run large scale private schools. Table 2 Implementation of Nine-Year Compulsory Education (1994) Shanghai Tianjin Guangdong Zhejiang Enrolment rate of primary school age students (%) 100.00 99.60 99.60 99.70 Retention rate of five-year primary education (%) 101.20 99.70 92.20 94.80 Gross enrolment rate of junior secondary students (%)* 106.68 90.91 72.52 89.13 Drop-out rate of junior secondary students (%) 1.24 2.43 4.96 3.76 Gross enrolment rate of junior secondary students includes enrolment of junior vocational secondary schools. Source: Hu (1997, p. 140). The student enrolment rate in Table 2 shows that Shanghai and Tianjin has comparatively succeed in the provision of school places for the nine-year compulsory schooling. On the contrary, the gross junior secondary enrolment rate and the retention of five-year primary education in Guangdong and Zhejiang are much lower. Therefore, both the Guangdong and Zhejiang have a more immediate task of providing adequate school places than their counterparts. They would again tend to look for extra resources. From the above elaboration, we may safely conclude that while private schooling in China by and large remains to be supplementary to the public school system in nature, the financial capacity of the local government to provide adequate and good quality education as well as the financial capacity of the people to create alternatives will be critical factors leading to different choices of private school development model in different regions. Different Policy Orientations of the Local Government Taking into consideration the central government’s policies on basic education as well as the local reality, the four local governments develop private schools with their own distinct characteristics. 83 Shanghai and Tianjin Both Shanghai and Tianjin are the most economically developed regions in China.6 They rank top amongst all regions in China in many ways in the provision of basic education. They have achieved the target of implementing nine-year compulsory education. The driving force for education development of the two regions is, therefore, to improve the education quality rather than quantity. However, in the course of development, the two places found certain difficulties in the improvement of quality of education, such as: • Lack of adequate funding - take Shanghai as an example, its public expenditure per capita on education in mid 1990s was below average of other developing countries, less than half of the average of other Asian countries and just equivalent to some 5% of the average level in developed countries (Wenwei Bao (Shanghai), November 2, 1995). Government subsidy to basic education in these two regions can cover only some 60% of the normal expenditure of schools (i.e., the salary expenditure for teaching staff). However, this amount already represents some 30-40% of the local government’s public expenditure in Shanghai. In Tianjin, education expenditure even represents as much as 50% of the government’s total expenditure (Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 1997). • Existence of some schools, physical conditions of which are below standard. • The provision of ordinary senior secondary schools has not yet reached the demand for school places. • Public schools that have long been operating under a plan economy are frequently criticized as mostly inefficient, inactive, and of poor quality and uniform style. Although the both governments are financially capable to provide adequate school places for the nine-year compulsory education for their people, it is natural for them to seek for extra funding in order to enhance education quality. The emergence of private schools also stand as an attractive alternative to create a competitive environment with the public schools and encourage the latter to improve their education quality. An insurmountable difficulty in the development of private schools in Shanghai and Tianjin is the lack of available school sites. This is due to the population density in the two regions, ranking the first and the second respectively in the whole of China. That means land resources are extremely scarce and expensive. Under the long tradition of plan economy system, state-owned enterprises in the two cities are better developed than private enterprises in general. Few private enterprises have the financial resources to purchase or rent at market rate suitable sites for developing decent private schools. The proportion of rich proprietors in these two cities is again relatively small, results in the restriction of the demand side of high-tuition fee school places. The government, therefore, plays an important role in the development of private schools through the provision of subsidy. This prompts the education system to move from one which was solely state-funded to one which is funded through multiple channels. In May 1993, the Shanghai Municipal Meeting on Education Matters proposed a pilot scheme to turn some poorly-run public schools into private schools. According to the suggestion, these new private schools remained to be 6 Using the categorization developed by Shanghai Institute of Intelligence Development in its “Comparative study on different regions in the implementation and stage of development of nine-year popular education” which tries to categories all regions into 5 groups by conditions of development of popular education, Shanghai and Tianjin belong to the most advanced Group A while Wenzhou and Guangdong belong to the second best Group B. See Shanghai Institute of Intelligence Development (1997). 84 publicly owned, but could follow the practices of some existing private schools in raising fund, recruitment of personnel as well as management of school. The same meeting proposed again in 1994 that the government is to strongly encourage the pilot scheme of turning public schools into private schools. The aim was to encourage enthusiastic social groups to participate in the education system, expedite the reform and improvement of poorly-run schools, and to raise the overall quality of education so as to satisfy the community expectation (Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 1993 & 1994). In accordance with this suggestion, each district and county in Shanghai gave up some vacant school sites to support the setting up of private schools. The pilot scheme to turn some public schools into private schools was also launched. In the case of Tianjin, the municipal government looks forward to the financial support of the society in the development of school education. The government has, therefore, allowed a considerable degree of flexibility on the development of fee-charging classes and/or private schools within public schools. The Shanghai and Tianjin governments are very active towards the development of private schools and in fact, private schools in the two regions depend heavily on the governments’ financial support. Consequently, the two governments did exercise considerable control over these private schools. In Shanghai, for example, the municipal government has adopted a very strict approach towards the management of private schools through various means, like municipal orders, education commission documents and seminars, etc. All private schools are required to fulfill the so-called “3-independence” requirement, namely, ownership of independent school campus, having an independent legal entity and being monitored by independent financial audit. The government has recently introduced additional measures to ensure the quality of private schools, like the annual school review and the quality assessment on education provision. Effectively, private schools have been included in the planning of the basic education system in Shanghai. Only poorly-run schools and new schools at the junctions of rural and urban areas are allowed to be selected to join the “Public Schools Reform Pilot Scheme”. Well-managed key-point public schools are not allowed to join the pilot scheme. Besides, the government has also adopted a series of policies on the tuition and financial management of private schools so as to control the tuition level (Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 1998). Wenzhou and Guangdong When compared with Shanghai and Tianjin, the environment for the development of basic education was not so desirable in Guangdong and Wenzhou. In Wenzhou, for example, in the early 1990s, only 35% of the areas in Wenzhou has achieved the target of implementing nine-year compulsory education, and over 90% of its schools were below the standards set by the provincial government (Lin, 1993). The Wenzhou Government, therefore, proposed to change its education system from one which was solely dependent on state subsidy to one which would be funded through multiple channels just like many of other local governments. In 1993, the CPC Wenzhou committee and the Wenzhou government jointly published the Regulations for Accelerating the Education Reform and Development in Wenzhou. The Regulations clearly encouraged the development of private schools. In July 1993, the Wenzhou government issued the Temporary Regulations on Social Forces-Operated Schools in Wenzhou, which set out formal regulations on the standard of the private schools, application procedures, fund raising mechanism, use of school campuses, management structure, assessment criteria, etc. The Regulations also provided a flexible environment for and introduced a lot of fiscal measures to facilitate the development of private schools. Some of these measures included the granting of interest free or low interest rate loan 85 to the school operators; recognition of the school operators’ private ownership over their fixed asset investment in the schools and allowing them to receive compound interest (less than 20% per annum); allowing the school operators to choose either to donate their personal investment to the schools or to be reimbursed by phases; and recognition of the contribution of the school operators, either a group or individuals, through spiritual or material awards. These policies encourage many investors in Wenzhou to participate in school operation. Though not all investors are wealthy and can afford to invest heavily in the schools, they are all welcomed by the government to participate in private education provision. All private schools, regardless of size and scale, are supported and welcomed by the Government. According to a survey, for the six years since 1992, investment in education has surged by an average of 300 million yuans per year. Though government subsidy also increased by an average of 100 million per year, its proportion in the total education expenditure has dropped significantly (see Table 3). With the joint support of the government and the society, Wenzhou passed the “two basics” requirement of the provincial government and the state three years ahead of schedule. Table 3 Financial Input in Wenzhou Education Year Total input (in 100 million yuans) Government input (in 100 million yuans) Government input as % of total input 1992 4 2.4 60 1993 6 3.0 50 1994 9 4.4 48.9 1995 12.8 5.1 39.8 1996 15.8 6.2 39.2 1997 18.3 7.2 39.2 Source: Wenzhou Education Commission (1998a). As for Guangdong, it has become one of the most dynamic and prosperous regions in China, in particular the Pearl River Delta region, since China began its reform and open policy. When people become rich, their desire for better quality education increases. If the government’s performance to improve the quality education falls short of the society’s expectation, private education has to come in to fill the gap. The difference between Guangdong and other regions is that private schools in Guangdong were first invested by the operators, and then by the students through deposits into the Education Reserve Funds. The government played little role in initiating and planning. There is report claiming that the prevailing belief in the Guangdong Province is that the market force and non-intervention policy are the best for both economic and social developments (Wang, 1998, p. 347). There had been heated debates among people in Guangdong when the luxurious Education Reserve Fund private schools first appeared. Even then the officials including those in the State Education Commission held different views on the issue. The Guangdong government, however, continued to adopt the no-intervention policy. In the past 10 years, some 40 large-scale private schools have been established, cumulating billions of yuans as education resources. Then it became very risky as the huge Education Reserve Funds can be affected by the ups and downs of the economic market and may cause corruption and mismanagement. The Guangdong government has therefore prohibited the establishment of new 86 Education Reserve Fund private schools and will tighten up the regulation of these schools.7 Table 4 Education Expenditure of the Four Regions (1995) Shanghai Tianjin Guangdong Zhejiang Expenditure of all primary school student per capita 1,591 718 857 766 Expenditure of all junior secondary student per capita 2,085 1,344 1,536 1,181 Expenditure of primary school student per capita within budget 1,249 591 409 384 Expenditure of junior secondary student per capita within budget 1,595 1,041 752 512 (yuan) Source: Shen (1998) By making use of private funding, one of the results is the equalizing of the total amount of education expenditure per capita across the four regions. In Table 4, regional disparity in expenditure for each student within budget (that is public education expenditure) is significant. For junior secondary students, Shanghai exceeds Zhejiang by 211% and Guangdong by 112%. But when the private sector is also counted, the figures are reduced to 76% and 36% respectively. As for primary school students, Shanghai exceeds Zhejiang by 225% and Guangdong by 205%. The figures are also reduced to 107% and 86% respectively when private school input is also taken into account. This shows that the Guangdong and Zhejiang province, at least in some ways, succeed in obtaining extra resources from private schooling to supplement the public schooling system. CONCLUSION The different patterns of the development of private school system in different parts of China, as discussed above, are the results of the negotiation process between the central and local government, and between the local government and the local situation. Given the encouragement from the central government to boost for private education and ambiguities in policies and legislation at the same time, the local governments find rooms to develop their own plans for private schooling and set their own goals accordingly. With the financial capacities strengthened and authority granted, the local governments are capable in the delivery of their own plans. However, the autonomy of the local governments is not unlimited. Under the clearly stated policy of maintaining public education to be the main part of the school system, no local government has ever tried to create a superior structure of private education over the public schools. Policy goals and orientation of the local governments play an important role in shaping the pattern of private education development adopted. Equally important is the financial capacity and affordability of the government and the people in providing adequate and satisfactory public education system and in raising alternative schooling system. Resources such as school site available also have an impact. Geographic, demographic and economic aspects which are 7 Li Xiaolu (1999), the Deputy Head of the Guangdong Provincial Education Bureau, spoke in a meeting with a group of minban school heads of the province, that the provincial government is planning to tighten up the control over school finance and their orientation in order to reduce risks. 87 related to either the supply or the demand side all count. The emergence of different patterns in the development of private school system across different parts of China also serves as a very clear illustration of a highly homogeneous system going diversified. 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Shanghai: Baijia Press. 89 教育改革背後的東方道德理念王殿卿北京東方道德研究所近 10 年來，中國大陸部分地區的學校開始探索與實施中華民族優秀傳統道德教育，引起了海內外各界的關注，也遇到了種種認識問題。在當今的時代，為何要進行這項教育？這種教育(1)、符合歷史發展的潮流嗎？它是一種進步，還是一種倒退？(2)、傳統文化與道德，在實現社會現代化進程中，是一種精神動力，還是一種思想文化的阻力？(3)、如何分清傳統文化與道德之中的精華與糟粕，這項教育會不會造成用文化糟粕毒害當代青少年？ (4)、如何亢理道德、尤其是傳統道德教育與政治教育的關係，這項教育會不會削弱學校的政治教育？(5)、在過去的百年中，傳統文化與道德一直是被革命的對象，今後在社會主義新文化與新道德的建設中，它將會充當何種角色？(6)儒家倫理在中國傳統道德中佔據主導地位，強調儒學的當代價值，會不會削弱馬克思主義的領導地位？是否會導致用儒學取代馬克思主義？對於這些問題的回應，關係著這項教育的命運，關係著新世紀中國大陸學校道德教育與社會道德建設的文化與傳統的根基，關係著能否建構有中國特色的社會主義新道德，因此，對於這項教育的當代價值及其依據的研究與回答，就顯得十分必要。進步與倒退在過去的 100 餘年，中國經歷了三次大的政治變革，一是康、梁變法，效法日本的明治維新，企圖建立君主立憲制而失敗；二是孫中山領導的辛亥革命，以法蘭西的民主共和為榜樣，雖然推翻了帝制，但是“革命尚未成功”；三是中國共產黨堅決“走俄國人的路”，建立了中華人民共和國，取得了中國革命的勝利。 1991 年，蘇聯和東歐先後解體，給中國人“以俄為師”和學習西方畫上了句號。於是，中國向何處去？再次要求每個中國人做出選擇。有一種主張，是從經濟體制、政治制度、文化模式等“全盤西化”；另一種主張，是“走自己的路”、建設有中國特色的社會主義。這兩種主張公開與不公開的論爭，就成為連續不斷的社會“風波”與“動盪”的深層內因。 1992 年鄧小平同志的南巡講話和黨的十四次代表大會，代表中國人選擇了鄧小平的理論，堅持走有中國特色的社會主義。鄧小平同志提出研究亞洲“四小龍”實現社會現代化的“東方模式”，指引我們思考與研究東方文化與“東方模式”、中國文化與“中國模式”之間的內在聯繫，也就是研究民族文化在實現社會現代化中的特殊價值。於是，中國人、外國人開始重新反思與對待中國的文化，一百餘年來、尤其是 80 年代的“西方文化熱”，被 90 年代的“中國文化熱”理所當然地取代了。中國人開始擺脫歷史上形成的“殖民地的文化心理”，對於自己民族的文化有了新的認同、自信與自尊。一個國家，在政治上獨立、經濟上開始富強之後，就必須有文化上的復興。否則，就難以建設有中國特色的社會主義，也就難有完整意義上的民族偉大復興。道德，是文化的重要組成部分，更是文化的靈魂，離開道德的文化必然是腐敗的文化。中華傳統美德是中華民族傳統文化的靈魂，是代代相傳、世世發展的民族智慧，是建設富強、民主、文明的社會主義中國的精神力量。對於新一代中國人進行中華美德教育，是中國歷史發展的必然要求。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 90 傳統與現代傳統文化與道德，是實現社會現代化的動力，還是一種阻力？是一個已經爭論了近百年的老問題，當今，又成為進行中華民族傳統道德教育必須回答的新問題。如果是屬於“阻力”，那麼此項教育實驗就失去了前提。較早將中國傳統文化看作“阻力”的代表人物，是德國人馬科斯•韋伯。他在 20 世紀初撰寫和出版了兩部書，《新教倫理與資本主義精神》，《中國的宗教――道教與儒教》。他認為，歐洲自 1789 年法國大革命以來，市民社會的飛快發展，是得益於一種精神動力，即以新教倫理為靈魂的資本主義精神；中國近代之所以貧窮、落後，不能實現市民社會，正是缺乏西方那種精神動力，而沒有經過革新的道德與儒教，就成為國人的精神桎梏。韋伯這種以西方是非論是非的“西方中心論”，盡管抹煞了滿清政府的腐敗與反動，也掩蓋了西方列強對中國長期侵略與掠奪的歷史罪過，然而，他的這套“理論”，卻被當時一批中國的精英所接受，並加以“炒作” 之後，就逐漸在中國人當中形成了一種文化自卑的情緒，使得中國人長期在世人面前挺不直自己的文化脊梁。在西方人的心目中，在中國似乎只有愚昧與落後，沒有文化與文明；在世界的文化格局中，中國文化似乎已經被“開出了球籍”。中國人對於自己的民族文化，失去認同、自尊與自信的“殖民地文化心理”影響深遠，直至 20 世紀 80 年代後期《河殤》主張用“藍色”文明取代“黃色”文明。在對待“傳統”的百年評判中，逐步形成了一種比較根深蒂固的“反傳統的傳統”，化解這種“反傳統的傳統”，尚需時日。傳統，是世代相傳的，具有民族特色的文化遺產。傳統文化，是世代相傳的思維方式、價值觀念、行為準則和風俗習慣。它既有強烈的歷史遺傳性，又有鮮活的現實變異性。它無時無刻不在影響、制約著每個人。傳統文化具有民族性，任何民族都有自己的歷史，也就有了自己的傳統文化。中國的傳統文化，是中華民族歷史的結晶，也是中華民族對於人類的偉大貢獻。中華民族傳統文化的精華，是人類文明中一筆寶貴的財富，它與各民族的優秀文化相互交融，造就了全人類的文明，在世界文化的寶庫中，中國傳統文化有其獨特的魅力，有不朽的生命力。它有獨具特色的語言文字，浩如煙海的文化典籍，嘉惠世界的科技工藝，精采紛呈的文學藝術，雄偉輝煌的建築，充滿智慧的哲學宗教，完備深刻的道德倫理等等，都是中華民族引以自豪的傳統文化的核心內容。中華民族優秀傳統文化是中國人，之所以能夠立於世界民族之林的根本，也是開創和建設有中國特色的社會主義新文化與新道德的歷史依據和現實基礎。傳統是歷史的產物，它隨著人類歷史的進程而不斷發展和變化。傳統有落後於時代的成分，但傳統不等於落後；傳統有其凝滯性，但傳統不等於保守；中華民族的文化傳統，主要是形成於封建社會，但傳統不等於封建。傳統，既有空間的局限性，又有超時空的無限性。它是在代代相傳的過程中，不斷充實和更新內容，在不斷向現實靠攏，並不斷為現實服務的進程中得到不斷發展。批判與繼承，是傳統存在與發展的內在動力與外在形式。對待傳統，應有清醒的認識和正確的態度，不能簡單地肯定或否定。籠統地、盲目地反對一切傳統，不僅是錯誤的，而且是有害的。它是民族虛無主義和歷史虛無主義的思想根源。中華民族的優秀文化傳統，已經浸透了所有中國人、所有海外同胞的心田。中華文化具有比血更強的凝聚力，它能夠把全世界中華兒女的心連在一起。不尊重自己文化傳統的民族，是沒希望的民族。 91 1990 年 3 月，江澤民同志在中南海懷仁堂，與北京大學學生代表座談時說：“任何一個民族都有自己的傳統。我們中華民族所以能在世界屹立五千年，就是因為我們有著優秀的民族傳統和民族精神”。 1997 年 11 月 1 日，江澤民同志在美國哈佛大學演講中指出，從歷史文化角度來了解和認識中國，是一個重要角度，因為現實中國是歷史中國的發展；中國的文明傳統，一直影響著中國人的思維方式、價值觀念、理想追求，乃致中國的發展方向；中國人民幾千年來形成了：團結統一的傳統、愛好和平的傳統、獨立自主的傳統、自強不息的傳統。這些論斷表明，中國的優秀文化傳統，至今仍然是實現中國社會主義現代化的精神動力。精華與糟粕在中國 5000 餘年的傳統文化當中，既有精華又有糟粕。因此，毛澤東同志早就提出了“取其精華、去其糟粕” 的基本原則。然而，這一正確的原則並沒有在實踐中真正落實。在經久不衰的反封建的聲浪中，傳統文化中越來越多的成分被當做“糟粕”橫遭批判與打倒，以至於在一般人的心目中，中國傳統文化就是封建糟粕。於是，中國傳統文化中能夠傳承下來的精華越來越少，而它的糟粕卻不斷地“借屍還魂”。這就使得一兩代的中國人，與自己民族的傳統文化拉開了距離，從不感興趣、不願意或不可能接觸，到知之甚少，以致無知。然而，對於自己民族文化越是無知的人，越是膽大妄為，越是敢於“全盤否定”、“徹底砸爛”。這些無知的人，對於“藍色文明”的精華，也是一知半解，於是就將“藍色文明”中的糟粕當做“精華”，變成了東西方文化糟粕新混合的“新載體”，成為一代沒有文化根基的“斷了線的風箏”。失去了自己民族文化的精華，又沒有消化吸收外來文化的精華，就必然生成一種東西文化糟粕相混合的“劣質文化”。這是值得反思的歷史經驗與教訓。中西文化關係史啟示我們，中國傳統文化中的精華成分，具有超越時空、超越階級的品質，她對於人類文明進程具有普遍價值。只有以自己民族優秀文化為基礎，借鑒吸收一切外來文化的精華，結合當代社會現實，才能夠建構或整合出新的文化。試圖離開或拋棄自己民族文化，去構建什麼新文化，就如同揪著自己頭髮想離開土地一樣的不明智。 1994 年初，江澤民同志在全國宣傳思想工作會議上，明確提出：“要用科學的態度對待我們民族的傳統文化和外來的文化。我們民族歷經滄桑，創造了人類發展史上燦爛的中華文明，形成了具有強大生命力的傳統文化。我們要取其精華，去其糟粕，很好地繼承這一珍貴的文化遺產”。 1991 年 12 月 19 日，江澤民同志在廈門大學與師生座談會時說：廣大青年是我們社會主義事業的接班人，是祖國未來的建設者，對他們要經常進行馬克思主義基本理論教育，同時也要經常進行我們民族的優良傳統教育。例如：孟子的“富貴不能淫，貧賤不能移，威武不能屈”，文天祥的“人生自古誰無死，留取丹心照汗青”，林則徐的“苟利國家生死以，豈因禍福避趨之”等等，對於激勵人們的愛國熱忱是很有作用的。應該說，這些話都是我們民族文化中一些富有哲理，教人正直、忠貞、有抱負的名言。學習和掌握它們，對於自己立身行事，為國家，為人民建功立業，是會受益匪淺的。為了矯正建國以來沒有認真，系統、有效地，對青少年學生進行中華民族優秀傳統文化教育的失誤，1993 年，中共中央制定了《關於中國教育改革與發展綱要》，1994 年中共中央，關於愛國主義教育和加強改進學校德育的兩個文件，1995 年頒布的《中華人民共和國教育法》，都對繼承和發揚中華民族優秀文化傳統，做出了明確的規定。從此，接受中華民族優秀文化傳統教育，成為每個公民的權利；對學生進行中華民族優秀文化傳統教育，也就成為每位教育工作者的義務。為了落實中央的這一系列的精神，1995 年年底，由李嵐清同志主持，教育部具體組織實施，羅國傑教授主編的《中國傳統道德》一書正式出版。這是建國以來第一次集中國內一流學者，對中華民族傳統道德資源，所進行的大規模開發。李嵐清同志在此書的序言中指出：“繼承和弘揚中華民族傳統美德的根本目的，在於結合 92 革命傳統教育，更加振奮我們的民族精神，增強中華民族的自尊心、自信心、自豪感和凝聚力；在於使社會主義道德具備更為豐富的內涵；在於更好地協調人際關係，促進社會主義市場經濟的健康發展；在於使社會主義、集體主義、愛國主義思想更加深入人心，成為社會主義文化思想的主旋律，並形成適應社會發展，有中國特色的價值觀和倫理道德範疇。”他還指出：“《中國傳統道德》可作為德育的參考教材，在學校試用一段時間，收集一下各方面的意見和反映，然後再組織力量，在此基礎上編寫出適合各級各類學校學生使用的教科書”。 1997 年 6 月，李嵐清同志在全國中小學德育工作會議上，再次強調開發革命傳統和我國優秀傳統兩種特有的德育資源，對青少年進行教育，把實現德育總體目標與繼承中華民族優良傳統結合起來，把中華民族優良道德傳統和人民革命以及在社會主義建設實踐中形成的革命傳統結合起來，賦於新的時代內容，吸收世界的先進文明成果，豐富和完善有中華民族特色，體現時代精神的價值標準和道德規範。政治與道德新中國成立以來的前 30 年，學校的德育任務與內容主要是進行政治教育，甚至一度用“突出政治”取代了其它思想道德教育。因此，至今有些中小學校仍然保留著“政教處”、“政治課”等等歷史概念。重政治輕道德的教育理念，並沒有因為黨和國家工作著重點的轉移，而有所改變。這種教育理念的直接後果，就是逐步削減了學校道德教育，使得一代以上的中國人道德素質下降、整個社會的道德風尚日益衰敗。可見，一個國家如果在 10-20 年內，忽視對於新一代國民進行道德教育，那麼就會在 15-20 年後，使得整個社會承受道德淪喪懲罰。因此，對於道德及其教育的功能，不能過於功利，不能追求立竿見影的教育效果，有遠見的政治家、對民族歷史命運負責任的政府，都會重視“德治”，重視精神文明建設，重視“以德化民”、“化民成俗”。 2001 年 1 月 10 日，江澤民在全國宣傳部長會議上的主要講話中指出： “我們在建設有中國特色社會主義，發展社會主義市場經濟的過程中，要堅持不懈地加強社會主義法制建設，依法治國，同時也要堅持不懈地加強社會主義道德建設，以德治國。對一個國家的治理來說，法治與德治，從來都是相輔相成、相互促進的。二者缺一不可，也不可偏廢。法治屬於政治建設、屬於政治文明，德治屬於思想建設、屬於精神文明。二者範疇不同，但其地位和功能都是非常重要的。我們應始終注意把法制建設與道德建設緊密結合起來，把依法治國與以德治國緊密結合起來。”這一重要講話，為我們研究中國古代德治思想以及道德教化的智慧明確了方向。人類所嚮往的社會，是以“小康”與“大同”為標誌的倫理社會，而不是一個法律多如牛毛、監獄遍佈全國、警察無處不在的法制國家。法制是實現倫理社會過程中的一種手段。道德與法律，是社會正常運轉的鳥之雙翼、車之兩輪，缺一不可。道德教化是法制建設的基礎。“道之以政、齊之以刑，民免而無恥；道之以德、齊之以禮，有恥且格”。對於制約人的行為來講，道德是一種內在的自律，法律是一種外在的他律。當一個人不能自律的時候，就需要由他律來制約。然而，就其大多數人而言，他們主要、經常、大量的行為，是通過自律來調整的。這就需要提升人自身內在的道德素質和修養。道德，歸根結底是社會經濟關係的反映，但它一旦形成就有其相對的獨立性，就會成為一種社會力量。道德本身不講功利，甚至超越功利，但是它又離不開功利。所有道德行為，都是一種價值判斷與選擇，或多或少都是以犧牲個人、集體利益為代價。從某種意義上說，道德的本質是利他的。然而，在經濟等一些領域中，道德又是一只看不見的手，它又能夠給人們帶來或多或少的利益，“有德則有財”。制假、賣假，坑蒙拐騙，謀財害命等等有背於道德的行為，或早或晚都會招致事業失敗、企業破產、身敗名裂。市場經濟需要法制的約束，更需要道德的規範。規範與成熟的市場經濟是道德經濟。在建立社會主義市場 93 經濟的初級階段，出現一些不道德現象，具有歷史的暫時性。建立社會主義市場經濟，加入世界貿易組織，需要建立人無誠不立、業無義不興，國無信不貯的道德規範。一個經濟大國，必須首先是一個道德大國。道德與政治是難分難舍的。政治決定著社會發展方向，道德是社會、政治穩定的基礎。沒有道德的政治，必然是腐敗的政治。以德治國，要求君與臣都要“以德為本、以德修身、為政以德”；強調所有君與臣都要“正人先正已”， “其身正，不令則行；其身不正，雖令不從”。要以德治國，必先“以德治吏”，“吏德”，是一種政治道德。社會道德風尚的興衰與政權的興衰，有著必然的聯繫。而統治集團道德風尚，主導著整個社會道德風尚。統治集團的道德衰敗，必然引導社會道德風尚的衰敗，當這種衰敗達到一定程度，超過某種警戒線的時候，改朝換代就勢在難免，這是一種歷史的明鑑。中華民族偉大之處，就在於她具有健全的道德更新的能力，歷經多次崩潰，而又能夠在廢墟之中重新站立起來。自從 1986 年中共中央做出關於社會主義精神文明建設的決定以來，對於國民的素質要求就有了統一的標準，這就是思想道德素質和科學文化素質。鄧小平同志提出的“有理想、有道德、有文化、有紀律”的“四有新人”，將“有道德”放在了第二位，可見道德素質與道德教育的重要。因此，落實中央關於全面推進素質教育的精神，要著重研討如何加強學校德育――道德教育――中華美德教育。文化革命與文化建設在 20 世紀前 80 餘年間，中華民族文化的歷史處境每況愈下，長期被作為否定、批判、打倒、以至革命的對象。 “文化大革命”的一個歷史罪錯，就是從“掃四舊”、“評法批儒”到“徹底砸爛”中國傳統文化，它對中國有形的物質文化的破壞，是有目共睹的，而給一代人心目中所留下“文化思維定式”的陰影與“文化內傷”，是需要相當長時間才能撫平的。民族的文化是民族的生命，是民族生存與發展的智慧。一個對於自己民族文化失去認同、自尊與自信的民族，是永遠不能立足於世界民族之林的。對於以往對自己民族文化的“不斷革命”，應有清醒的反思。對於傳統文化需要批判繼承。然而，批判是手段，繼承是目的。如果在實踐中只有批判，少有繼承，或者不繼承。那麼，手段就會變成了目的。在這種文化思想指導下，難有真正意義上的文化建設。對於傳統文化需要破與立，需要“去其糟粕，取其精華”。然而，“破”應當是為了“立”，“破”不是目的。“不破不立，破字當頭，立在其中”，曾經是一種文化革命的指導思想，它是破壞一個舊世界，建設一個新世界；砸爛一個舊世界，建設一個新世界整體戰略思想在文化領域的運用。如果，破字當頭，變成了破壞當頭；不破不立，變成了只破不立。如果破中國文化，立西方文化，把中西文化視為一種對立，甚至以否定和犧牲中國傳統文化為代價，全盤肯定和吸收西方文化，就必然導致中國文化被砍斷了根，西方文化又難以被中國人所認同並在中國大地上難以生根，進而造成一、兩代中國人對於自己民族的優秀文化傳統深感陌生，使得中國長期不能夠整合出一種適應時代潮流的新文化，這可能是中國文化建設的歷史教訓。批判與破，都一度成為文化革命的手段。文化大革命，通過大批判、通過破四舊，並沒有把封建文化的糟粕掃進歷史垃圾堆。相反，封建文化的垃圾，卻借屍還魂，與當代西方文化垃圾相混合，並不斷進行“現代轉化”，使得當今中國的道德文化與風尚，越來越令人憂慮。對於傳統文化，批判不能取代繼承，革命不能替代建設。沒有建設的革命，只能撞擊或沖擊文化，損傷文化的元氣，導致文化枯萎；只有將革命與建設相融合，才能使文化得以生存、復興與繁榮。 94 只有著眼建設社會主義新文化、新道德、新風尚，才能有足夠的文化正氣和力量，震懾歪風邪氣，重建禮儀之邦！建設有中國特色社會主義經濟、政治，需要轉變觀念。同樣，建設有中國特色社會主義文化，也需要轉變觀念。否則，仍然運用以往的文化革命觀念和文化路線，指導今天文化建設的實踐，那麼，有中國特色的社會主義文化是斷然建設不起來的！對於 100 年以來的“文化革命”進行歷史的反省，從中汲取有益的經驗與教訓，進而轉變國人的文化觀念，以便正確對待中國自己的民族文化、一切外來文化及其兩者之間的關係；正確對待馬克思主義與中國傳統文化的關係；正確對待文化建設與經濟建設的關係、文化建設與社會全面進步的關係；正確對待人文主義與神文主義的關係；正確對待人類文明進程中的“衝突”與“對話”的關係。這些觀念的變革，將是落實十五大建設有中國特色社會主義文化，進而把中國建設成為富強、民主、文明的社會主義國家的思想條件。馬克思主義與中國傳統文化進行中華民族優秀傳統道德教育，必須正確認識與處理中國傳統文化馬克思主義的關係。首先，馬克思主義是不會被儒學取代的。否則，馬克思主義就實在沒有生命力了。我們對於馬克思主義的科學性與真理性，有著堅定的信念和信心。其次，馬克思主義與中國文化不是絕然對立的。馬克思主義是人類智慧的結晶，中國 5000 餘年的文化與智慧，是人類智慧的重要組成部分。大量歷史資料表明，馬克思主義思想淵源中，就已融入了中國傳統文化的基因。早在 1945 年，美國漢學家顧立雅(1905--) 出版了他的《孔子與之道》一書。他對中國儒學在 17-18 世紀對歐洲的影響，尤其是對法國啟蒙學者的影響，做了極其翔實的闡述和論証。他在該書一開頭就明確指出： “眾所周知，哲學的啟蒙運動開始時，孔子已經成為歐洲的名人。一大批哲學家包括萊布尼茲、沃爾夫、伏爾泰，以及一些政治家和文人，都用孔子的名字和思想來推動他們的主張，而在此進程中他們本人亦受到了教育和影響。在儒學的推動下，中國早就徹底廢除了世襲貴族政治，現在儒學又成為攻擊法國和英國世襲特權的武器。在歐洲，在以法國大革命為背景的民族主義理想的發展中，孔子哲學起了相當重要的作用。通過法國思想，它又間接地影響了美國民主的發展。” 馬克思主義有三個來源，一是德國的古典哲學，其創始人是萊布尼茲，他對中國的二進位數學和宋明理學都有較多的研究；二是英國古典經濟學，其創始人之一是亞當•斯密，而亞當•斯密的老師是法國“百科全書” 派的權威之一魁柰，魁柰作為當時重農學派始創人，被公認為“歐洲的孔子”；三是法國的空想社會主義，它誕生於以巴黎大學為中心百年“中國文化熱”的背景之下，恩格思曾經著文論証它與中國《禮運篇》思想之間的關係。第三，馬克思主義在中國傳播，是一個與中國傳統文化相融合的過程。中國革命需要馬克思主義，馬克思主義與中國革命實踐相結合，使得中國革命取得最後勝利。與此同時，也是馬克思主義與中國傳統文化相融合的過程，也就是馬克思主義中國化的過程。馬克思主義作為外來的西方文化精華，要在中國被認同、接受、運用、開花與結果，就必須扎根於中國傳統文化的沃土之上。毛澤東思想和鄧小平理論，都是“洋為中用”、馬克思主義中國化的典範。一部中國近代史表明，任何外來的文化，如果不與中國傳統文化相結合，不把自己的根扎於中國傳統文化的沃土之上，即使是文化的精華，也不可能在中國的土地上生根、開花、結果。外來文化與本土文化是種子與土地的關係，馬克思主義也不列外。馬克思主義要在新世紀大放光芒，就需要與中國傳統文化有新的結合。而新一代中國人只有對中國的歷史、世界的歷史有較多的了解，才有接受馬克思主義的文化根基。否則，馬克思主義在他們的頭腦中只是空洞、僵硬的教條，或者成為他們升學、考試、拿學分的一種“工 95 具”。進行中華民族優秀傳統道德教育，本身就是一種歷史文化的教育，有助於青少年學生接受馬克思主義。第四，馬克思主義是共產黨的理論基礎，它使中國共產黨成為真正的共產黨，它使一批批優秀中國人成為真正的共產黨人。文化是每個人生命的一部分，中國傳統文化使得每一個中國人成為真正的中國人；馬克思主義的辯証唯物論與歷史唯物論，是指導人們認識、整理、開發、利用、繼承、和創新中國文化的世界觀和方法論；馬克思主義不是中國文化，它與中國文化精華相結合，推動中國革命與建設從勝利走向勝利；中國文化、包括儒家思想不能取代馬克思主義，而馬克思主義也不能夠取代中國文化。將兩者視為相互對立或彼此可以取代的觀點是錯誤的，它必然造成理論上的混亂和實踐上的誤導，既不利於馬克思主義在中國的發展，也影響繼承和發展中華民族優秀傳統文化。 96 培養應付逆境的能力錢遜清華大學 “生於憂患而死於安樂”― 孟子 “貧賤憂戚，庸玉汝於成也。”― 張載 ㆒ 世紀之交，社會的迅速發展和劇烈變化，對教育提出空前的挑戰，使教育面臨深刻的變革。上個世紀的 70 年代以來，關於教育如何適應未來社會發展需要的問題，發表了三篇重要的報告。1972 年，以富爾為首的國際教育發展委員會發表了《學會生存：教育世界的今天和明天》(《Learning To Be – The World of Education Today and Tomorrow》， ― 譯為‘學會做人’)的報告，提出“學會生存”的口號。其主要思想是“終身教育”和“學習社會”，具體提出了進行終身教育、加強普通教育、重視學前教育、注重能力培養等等。而其主旨則在於“力圖解決戰後教育與日新月異的科學技術不相適應的問題，力圖解決當代教育與社會物質生產迅速發展不相適應的矛盾。”“要求教育負擔起傳授年青一代當代社會激烈變化的條件下求得‘生存’的各種知識和能力。”1 1989 年，聯合國教科文組織在北京召開的“面向 21 世紀教育國際研討會”，發表了題為“學會關心；21 世紀的教育”的報告，提出了“學會關心”的口號。會議認為，人類所面臨的挑戰，已經遠比提出終身教育理論時要廣泛和深刻得多。終身教育理論提出的是經濟和科技發展、經濟結構調整和勞動市場的波動對個人的挑戰，而當前和未來人類所面臨的挑戰都遠遠超出了個人的範圍。2教育擔負培養新人具有應對這些挑戰的意志、素質和能力的使命，要教育青年從只關心自己的圈子裏跳出來，學會關心自己的家庭、朋友和同事，關心他人，關心社會和國家的社會、經濟和生態利益，關心人權，關心其他物種，關心地球的生活條件，關心真理、知識和學習，也關心自己和自己的健康。“學會關心”所提出的問題，不再局限於適應科技和生產發展的需要，是“教育觀念、倫理觀念和教育發展方向的又一次重大的變革與更新。”3 1993 年，聯合國教科文組織組建了“國際 21 世紀教育委員會”，由雅克．德洛爾任主席。1996 年，該委員會發表了他們的調查報告，提出了“學會學習”的口號。報告提出，教育的四大支柱是﹕學會認知，學會做事，學會共同生活和學會生存。報告重申了學會生存的口號，但特別提出，對於富爾報告提出的“終身教育” 的概念，應該“擴大其內涵”，“除了適應職業生活的變化外，它還應當包括人格、知識和習性的繼續塑造，以及批判能力和行為能力的繼續塑造。”4 這幾個報告，關注的是同一個主題，就是迎接新世紀社會各方面發展所帶來的挑戰。在討論中提出的問題和意見、思想，標誌教育思想、教育理論的重大轉變和發展。許多人指出﹕“新的挑戰、新的世紀需要教育 1 徐輝：《“學會生存”與“學會關心”― 21 世紀國際教育的呼喚》，《比較教育研究所慶專刊》，1995 年 10 月。 2 王一兵：《提高教育質量，迎接 21 世紀的挑戰》，《未來教育面臨的困惑和挑戰》人民教育出版社，1991 年，第 40 頁。 3 徐輝：《“學會生存”與“學會關心”― 21 世紀國際教育的呼喚》，《比較教育研究所慶專刊》，1995 年 10 月。 4 雅克•德洛爾：《論未來教育》，《信使》1996 年第 7 期。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 97 哲學的發展，甚至新的教育哲學。”5“為了迎接下一個世紀的挑戰，必須給教育確定新的目標，必須改變人們對教育的作用的看法。”這個新的看法、新的目標就是，教育要“使人們學會生存，實現個人全面發展”，而不再把教育單純看作是一種手段，一種單純為了獲得某些知識、技能和經濟目的而採取的手段。6 ㆓ 遍及各個領域的激烈的，甚至殘酷的競爭，經濟和科技知識的急劇變化，是當前和未來發展中突出的現象之一。據一些學者在上世紀末的估計，在知識領域，有些應用科學知識每 8-10 年翻一番，有的 3-5 年翻一番7；在勞動世界，50%的職業可能在一代人的時間裏發生變化，每 3-5 年就有約 50%的職業技能需要更新8。這一趨勢還在迅速發展。單靠青少年時期受教育學得的知識就可以享用一生的情況已經不復存在，人們必須時刻面對不斷的變化和由此而來的新要求。如何應付由此而帶來的壓力、變化和挫折、逆境，已經成為現代社會人們面對的一大挑戰；在這一挑戰面前，許多人感到不知所措，憂郁、焦躁等精神疾病以至自殺的現象增加。所有這些都受到人們的關注。正是針對這種挑戰，提出了“三張教育通行証”的思想。這是一位名叫柯林．博爾的學者提出的，他認為，每一個人都應該掌握三張“教育通行証”，一張是學術性的，一張是職業性的，第三張通行証則証明一個人的事業心和開拓能力。具有第三張通行証的人“對於變化持積極的、靈活的和適應的態度，視變化為正常，為機會，而不視其為問題。一個如此對待變化的，具有事業心和開拓能力的人，具有一種來自自信的安全感，處理危險、冒險、難題和未知，從容自如。這樣的人具有新的創造性思想，發展這些思想並堅持不移地使之付諸實施的能力；這樣的人有能力並勇於負責，善於交流、談判，施加影響，規劃和組織。他是積極的而不是消極的，有信心而不是朝三暮四的，有主意而不是總依賴他人。”9這一思想最後寫進了“面向 21 世紀教育國際研討會”的報告。三張通行証的思想把應付壓力、危險、變化和逆境的能力與學術性的、職業性的知識和能力並提，給它賦予了極重要的地位，反映了科技和生產發展、知識迅速更新和經濟結構、勞動市場急劇變化對人才素質的要求，是教育思想的重要變化。從學會生存、學會關心到提出教育的四大支柱，都貫穿對這一點的關注。 ㆔ 問題是如何來培養這種能力。這裏存在困難，因為這種能力是一些“可學而不可教的技能，只能在做中學”(埃及雅德博士語)10，它不可能完全在學校裏來培養；但我們不能不在學校裏進行這樣的教育，盡可能地使受教育者受到這方面的教育和訓練。至少，我們可以幾方面來進行。認識生活。如前面已經提到的，在科學技術高度發展的今天，在各個領域，我們所面對的是發展迅速，競爭激烈，變化頻繁的局面。從學校畢業以後，在一個職業，甚至一個單位穩定地工作幾十年的情況，已經不會再有。終身教育的思想就是適應於這一變化而提出的，其目的在於給人們適應新局面提供知識的支持。但只有知識的支持是不夠的，更重要的是思想和精神的準備。每一個人在他步入社會之前，就應該清楚意識到，生活 5王一兵：《提高教育質量，迎接 21 世紀的挑戰》，《未來教育面臨的困惑和挑戰》人民教育出版社，1991 年，第 45 頁。 6 《教育―財富蘊藏其中》，聯合國教科文組織中文部譯，教育科學出版社，1996 年 12 月，第 76 頁。 7 張健：《教育面臨的挑戰》，湖南教育出版社，1985 年，第 156 頁。 8王一兵：《提高教育質量，迎接 21 世紀的挑戰》，《未來教育面臨的困惑和挑戰》人民教育出版社，1991 年，第 45 頁。 9引自王一兵：《提高教育質量，迎接 21 世紀的挑戰》，《未來教育面臨的困惑和挑戰》人民教育出版社，1991 年，第 46-47 頁。 10引自王一兵：《提高教育質量，迎接 21 世紀的挑戰》，《未來教育面臨的困惑和挑戰》人民教育出版社，1991 年，第 44 頁。 98 將是不斷的變化，不斷應付新的挑戰，克服困難、危險，包括一次次的挫折和失敗，並為此做好精神準備。在這方面，學習中國古代哲人的智慧有重要意義。即使是在古代那樣穩定的農業社會裏，中國古人就從社會生活中體認到憂患意識的重要。孟子就提出了“生於憂患死於安樂”的著名命題。他說﹕“天將降大任於是人也，必先苦其心志，勞其筋骨，餓其體膚，空乏其身，行拂亂其所為，所以動心忍性，曾益其所不能。……然後知生於憂患而死於安樂也。”11他把艱難困苦、挫折失敗看做對人的磨練，只有經過艱難困苦的磨練，鍛鍊意志，增長才幹，才能擔當大任；安逸享樂，在溫室裏成長，則會在困難面前束手無策，遇挫折、逆境消沉絕望，往往導致滅亡。所以說﹕“生於憂患而死於安樂”。宋儒張載在其名篇《西銘》中也說﹕“富貴福澤，將厚吾之生也；貧賤憂戚，庸玉汝於成也。”也是把貧賤憂戚看作助人成功的條件。孟子、張載的話體現了中國人的人生智慧，正是這樣的智慧，養成了中華民族不畏艱險，自強不息的精神。一部中國歷史，處處滲透這種精神。司馬遷在蒙受宮刑的奇恥大辱的情況下，發奮著述，完成了不朽巨著《史記》。他在致友人任安的信《報任安書》中，曾列舉了許多先賢在逆境中奮起的事例，激勵自己。如“文王拘而演《周易》；仲尼厄而作《春秋》；屈原放逐，乃賦《離騷》；左丘失明，厥有《國語》；孫子臏腳，《兵法》修列”等等。司馬遷說，所有這一切，都是先賢在困厄中“發奮之所為作”。司馬遷正是繼承了這種精神。近代以來，也是在這種精神的激勵下，中國人民忍辱負重，前仆後繼，英勇奮鬥，終於戰勝強敵，贏得了民族獨立，建立了新中國。繼承發揚這一傳統精神，無疑對青年一代應付未來社會挑戰，戰勝逆境，會有重要的意義。志存高遠。古語云﹕“有志者，事竟成。”人生要有所成，貴在立志。立志又當高遠。有高遠之志，才能高屋建瓴，處理困難、逆境。《莊子》開篇就講“小大之辨”，說“窮發之北，有冥海者，天池也。有魚焉，其廣數千里，未有知其修者。其名為鯤。有鳥焉，其名為鵬。背若泰山，翼若垂天之云。摶扶搖羊角而上者九萬里。絕云氣，負青天，然後圖南，且適南冥也。斥鴳笑之曰﹕彼且奚適也，我騰躍而上，不過數仞而下，翱翔蓬蒿之間，此亦飛之至也，而彼且奚適也？”12莊子用這個寓言說明，眼光短淺的人無法理解至人的遠大志向和人生的真正意義。即所謂“燕雀焉知鴻鵠之志”。而有了遠大的志向，就不會斤斤計較於名利等小事，對於挫折困難也能泰然處之，甚至“視喪其足，猶遺土也”，以一種豁達的心態面對挫折和逆來逆境。孟子也有言﹕ “先立乎其大者，則其小者弗能奪也。”13有高遠之志，就能不受枝節小事的干擾，不為一時的挫折和困難而動搖苦惱，灰心喪氣。在大陸的高等學校，常見一些學生，考入高校前，可以克服種種困難，忍受種種痛苦，堅持不懈地為考入高校而奮鬥；進入高校之後，卻會因一次考試成績不好而悲觀失望，喪失信心，或甚至因失戀而絕望輕生。究其原因，重要的一點就是，在未進入大學時，他有考上大學這一目標的支持；一定要考上大學，是他忍受痛苦，克服困難的力量的來源。而一旦進入高校，他卻失去了目標；沒有了目標，於是也就失去了面對困難和挫折的勇氣和力量。古人云﹕“志小則易足，易足則無由進。”14 “學不立志，如植木無根，生意將無從發端矣。自古及今，有志而無成者則有之，未有無志而能成者也。”15以上所說現在一些青年的情形，正是“志小易足”，進入大學以後即無志，因此也就“無由進”。所以，從小教育青少年志存高遠，是培養他們適應未來社會需要，取得“第三張通行証”，具有應付困難、挫折能力的重要的一環。生活磨練。正如埃利雅德博士所說，應付生活挑戰的能力是“可學而不可教”的，“只能在做中學”。“生於憂患而死於安樂”，“貧賤憂戚，庸玉汝於成也。”只有這樣的認識還是不夠的，古人尤其重視生活中的磨練。 “人須在事上磨，方立得住。”16“人須在事上磨練做功夫，乃有益。若只好靜，遇事便亂，終無長進。” 11 《孟子•告子下》 12 《莊子•逍遙游》 13 《孟子•告子上》 14 《張載集•經學理虧•學大原下》 15 《王陽明全集》卷二十七《寄張世文》 16 《王陽明全集》卷一《傳習錄上》 99 17正如孟子所說，只有經過艱難困苦的磨練，“動心忍性，曾益其所不能”，才能真正具有應付一切的意志和能力。只停留在理論的認識上，就會“遇事便亂”，經不住考驗。所以，給青少年以在實際生活中磨練的機會，是幫助他們取得“第三張通行証”的不可忽視的一個方面。尤其是當前中國大陸，一代青少年都是獨生子女；祖輩、父輩經受過窮困、動亂，現在社會安定，生活改善，都希望盡可能給子孫輩創造一個良好的環境和條件，盡量滿足他們的一切要求。他們在安樂中長大，被稱做家中的“小皇帝”。這種情形已經造成一些青少年獨立生活能力低下，心理承受能力脆弱的後果，甚至發生了女研究生受騙被拐賣的事。這種情況已經開始受到社會各界的重視。許多人提出了進行“挫折教育”的問題。提出了種種主張和進行了各種試驗。特別值得重視的還有家庭教育。造成青少年獨立生活能力低下和心理承受能力脆弱的重要原因之一，是家庭教育的失誤。現在的家庭教育，存在不少問題。較突出的有以下幾種情況：[1]溺愛是普遍的現象。獨生子女在家庭中處於中心的地位，祖輩、父輩往往順從他們的一切意願，滿足他們生活上的一切要求。這不僅使他們獨立生活能力低下，而且養成了許多人以自我為中心的思想。[2]以升學為對子女的唯一要求。父母望子成龍，而在傳統思想和社會風氣影響下，許多家庭把望子成龍的目標集中到了一點上，就是考上大學。由此，對子女的唯一要求就是學業成績，一味苛責成績而忽略了思想、道德、意志、能力等方面的要求。為了保証子女考上大學，把子女當作重點保護的對象，一方面盡量為他創造良好的生活條件，另一方面要求子女不做(甚至是禁止做)任何家務勞動，一心讀書。[3]相信棍棒底下出狀元，以打罵為唯一教育手段。[4]還有的因為自己在動亂年代未能實現自己的理想，想在子女身上實現自己的理想，不與子女溝通，越俎代庖，一手為子女選擇志願，安排一切。[5]還有，“讀書無用”的思想也還在一些地方有其影響，少數家長只盼子女成大款、當富豪，以為讀書無用，讓子女棄學做工經商。以上各種現象，表現不同，有時也同時存在於一個家庭之中。所有這些都極大地影響青少年的健康成長。主要的影響是[1]對子女過分溺愛，嬌生慣養，是許多年輕人獨立生活能力低下的重要原因。正如孟子所說，“生於憂患而死於安樂”，溺愛出於愛而實為害。[2]過分的寵愛也養成了獨生子女以自我為中心的意識和習慣，嚴重缺乏對他人、對社會、對環境的關心；也使他們養成只知順利，不知失敗的心理習慣，嚴重缺乏應付挫折失敗的心理準備和鍛鍊。[3]狹隘的、純功利的目標把青少年引上片面發展的道路。以考上大學為唯一目標，和以成為大款、富豪為目標，看似相反，實際上都是把子女引向一個狹隘的、功利的目標，限制了他們的眼界，使他們鼠目寸光；也使他們不能全面發展自身的素質，而陷於片面、畸形的發展。[4]方法不當，缺乏溝通和交流，過於嚴厲的苛責和不恰當的打罵，或越俎代庖為孩子安排一切，會嚴重地挫傷孩子的自尊、自信和創造性，給各方面還不成熟的孩子帶來不堪重負的壓力，有時還引起子女對父母的反感、怨恨，以至出現學生自殺，甚至子女殺死父母的悲劇。總之，不恰當的家庭教育，對孩子們的身心健康有非常不利的影響，我們在青少年身上看到的種種問題，都與家庭教育有關。所以現在要特別提出家庭教育的問題，引起人們的注意。終身教育的理念已經為人們所接受，人們普遍重視了學校教育完成後的繼續教育，而現在還需要強調學前階段的教育，終身教育的實行要從家庭教育開始。終身教育的概念從時間上說，應該包括人的一生，從學前階段、學校教育階段到繼續教育階段；從教育形式上說，應包括家庭教育、學校教育和社會教育三個方面，而家庭教育則是終身教育的起點和最早的基礎；從教育的內容上說，不僅是要通過繼續教育更新知識來適應科學技術和生產結構的發展，現在的家長們也還需要通過繼續學習了解對下一代人才素質的要求，更新教育下一代的觀念。對終身教育的這種理解，更突出了教育的全民性。教育和教育改革都不只是學校與教育界的事，它應該作為一個全社會的問題來考慮，也應該受到所有人的關注，吸引所有人來參與。不僅要使學校教育適合現代社會的要求，而且也要使家庭教育適合現代社會的要求。為此要努力使每一個家庭、每一個為人父母的人，以及每一個學生，都了解未來社會發展對人的素質提出的要求， 17 《王陽明全集》卷一《傳習錄下》 100 了解應該把下一代培養成什麼樣的人和怎樣去培養，具有適合現代社會要求的教育觀念。要努力把學校教育與家庭教育相結合、配合，共同完成培養下一代合格人才的使命。 101 價值理想的失落與高等教育的德育危機葉富貴清華大學教育研究所在教育改革的浪潮中，中國高等教育獲得了前所未有的大發展，但也產生了一系列極其嚴重的問題。高等教育的德育就面臨著極大的危機。本文對中國高等教育德育危機進行了深入考察和分析，認為價值理想的普遍失落是德育危機的根源。而價值理想的失落既體現在國家的教育改革目標中，也表現在高等教育機構的追求中，更展現在個人的行為中。其結果則必然因為沒有共同價值理想的追求，在各種利益衝突中教育改革步履維艱。而要解決道德和德育危機，就應當建立全社會共同的價值理想。關鍵詞﹕高等教育；德育；價值理想 20 世紀以來，世界教育改革的浪潮是一浪高過一浪，在各種因素的促進下，到 20 世紀 80 年代，教育改革已成為世界各國的共同話語。而所謂教育的國際化﹑全球化，其實就是在教育改革中不斷實現和完成的。中國前現代化教育在步入現代時，由於拯救不了中國，也就拯救不了自身，在情願或不情願中，進行現代化。現代化就意味著改革，改革中國傳統教育，建立現代教育；改革中國本土教育，引入西方教育。一部中國現代教育史其實就是一部教育改革史。改革動因既然是武力和國力的敗落，改革的方向也就定調在堅船利炮和科學技術。傳統文化和道德雖然仍受到相當的關注和強調，但在改革的基本方向已定的情勢下，只能退居其次了。加上社會轉型、潮流時尚、智育競爭等因素影響，學校德育和道德狀況呈不斷下降的趨勢。高等教育也同樣面臨巨大的危機。高等教育的德育危機德育，即道德教育，而要論高等教育的德育危機，無疑首先應該考察高等教育的道德狀況。90 年代以來，在中國市場經濟的急速轉型中，在主動適應社會主義市場經濟的教育改革中，中國高等教育的道德水準也在急劇下降，其現實狀況令人堪憂。從高等教育機構來看，不少高校不是致力於提高教育質量，培養優秀人材，而是熱衷於搞創收，追逐經濟利益。並且這些高校不是通過正當經濟活動來獲得利潤，而是以變賣文憑的方式來收取錢財。在中國的各類報章上，我們會看到五花八門的進修班、課程班的廣告。有博士、碩士授予權的名牌大學多辦博士班、碩士班、研究生課程班，一般大學就只好去辦“專升本”之類的學位班、輔導班。自然碩士、博士班的學費比“專升本” 之類的要高得多。這導致了不少高校競相申請碩士點、博士點。而申請學位點又不是通過提升教育質量，而是把精力放在對主管部門和相關學術權威的“公關”上。由此又激發了高等教育主管部門和人員的道德水準惡化。有些高校還把手伸進自己學生的口袋，巧立名目，向畢業生收費，以至弄得學生、家長怨聲載道，主管政府部門不得不幾次專門發文加以制止。1至於高等教育機構內部的經濟腐敗等問題也同樣存在。2高等學校也不再 1 《國家教委、教育部關於制止向普通高校畢業生亂收費的通知(1999 年 6 月 28 日)》，《教育部政報》1999 年第 7、8 期。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 102 有溫情和人道，教師在學校的壓力下經受論文和職稱“非升即走”的煎熬，學生在學校的驅使下成為學術的、經濟的和榮譽的工具。從教師來看，在外在和內在的政治、經濟和學術權力與利益的驅動下，將“傳道、授業、解惑”拋在一邊，而搖尾乞憐，諂媚上司；栽贓誣陷，欺凌同事；道貌岸然，虛偽做作；師道不存，學道淪喪。特別是在學術上，作為以“求道”“弘道”為使命的大學教師，不少已經喪失了最基本的學術操守。由於中國的現行職稱制度與房子、妻小、權力，金錢、社會聲望乃至政治前途等緊密結合在一起，而職稱又在很大程度上決定於論文的多寡，於是相當多的教師將“科研”放在第一位，置教學於不願，而所謂“科研”，也就是與職稱相關的發表論文和研究課題。為了多發文章，一篇論文可以辦作幾篇發，一篇可以換個題目往幾個雜誌投，為了發文章，論文可以抄襲和偷譯，近年來《中華讀書報》等報刊網站已揭露了張汝倫《歷史與實踐》“抄襲”德文著作等多起論文剽竊抄襲事件。3學界的學術道德確實已經淪喪到令人悲哀慘不忍睹的境地。而教師對學生也缺乏其樂融融的師生之情，不是不關心，就是將學生當作工具。從學生來看，曠課﹑遲到在高校學生中已是家常便飯，不少學生不是學校裏用心讀書，而是到社會上去作下三欄的事，好一點的是到公司打工賺錢。平時不學習，一到期中、期末，則抄襲作業、偽造實驗資料、考試作弊，論文抄襲複製更已到了肆無忌憚的地步。南京一些高校的學生為了防止論文抄襲交上去“撞車”，竟在圖書館借閱的圖書上標上“此段已用”等留言，4 而有些好事者見有利可圖還專門創設網站提供論文複製服務。還有些學生為了“推研”、留京，挖空心思與老師套近乎，或進行政治投機。最近這幾年“考研”異常火爆，競爭激烈，而競爭的手段也是各呈其能。上了研究生後也不讀書，一年級跳舞談戀愛，二年級打工撰外快，三年級慌慌張張準備作論文，但又要找工作，論文也就拼湊了事。5 高等學校中諸如此類道德低下、學風敗壞的現象還很多，不勝枚舉。高等教育機構及主管部門也意識到問題的嚴重性，並採取各種措施，或針對某一具體問題加以整改，或就全面的道德危機強化道德教育。如廣東省教育廳就對廣州體育學院亂發文憑的事件進行了調查。6對於高等教育機構私開研究生班濫發學位，國務院學位委員會和教育部多次發通知要求按法規辦學，指出目前有少數高等教育單位，為經濟利益所驅動，降低標準亂發學歷文憑和學位証書，甚至用文憑和証書換取“贊助”、“捐資”。這不但敗壞了學風﹑校風，而且在社會上造成極壞的影響，玷污了高等教育的聲譽。7清華大學也已認識到校風對人才培養質量的重要性，將學風建設作為 2001 年到 2005 年教育教學改革八項重要工作的第一項。8至於加強高校德育工作，國務院、教育部、中宣部等已不知制定了多少法規，採取了多少措施。單是 1998 年以來就普通高校德育工作的有《關於普通高等學校 “兩課”課程設置的規定及其實施工作的意見》、《教育部辦公廳關於加強普通高等學校馬克思主義理論和思想品德課(公共課)教材建設及管理問題的通知》、《教育部關於加強和改進研究德育工作的若干意見》、《關於進一步加強高等學校學生思想政治工作隊伍建設的若干意見》9，等等。而且高等教育的道德危機並不是這兩年才有的， 2 《堅決制止“ 小金庫＂有關意見的通知(1999 年 10 月 29 日)》教財廳 [1999]11 號，《教育部政報》1999 年第 12 期。 3 孫周興﹕ 《實踐哲學的悲哀》，《中華讀書報》2000 年 3 月 29 日；孫周興﹕ 《悲哀復悲哀》，《中華讀書報》2000 年 4 月 5 日。 4 《高校學生畢業論文“ 抄襲＂風氣抬頭》，《江南時報》2000 年 12 月 25 日。 5 《戀愛、打工、拼湊論文，研究生在研究什麼？》，《中國青年報》2001 年 1 月 12 日。 6 《廣東省教育廳調查廣州體育院涉嫌亂發文憑事件》，《南方都市報》2001 年 1 月 16 日；http://edu.sina.com.cn 2001-1-16。 7 《教育部關於重申保証高等教育質量，加強學歷文憑、學位証書管理的通知(2001 年 2 月 5 日)》(教學[2001]6 號)，《教育部政報》2001 年第 3 期。 8 王大中﹕ 《為開創 21 世紀清華大學人才培養和教育工作新局面而努力》，《清華大學教育研究》2001 年第 1 期。 9 參見“ 中宣部、教育部關於印發《關於普通高等｀兩課＇課程設置的規定及其實施工作的意見》的通知(1998 年 6 月 10 日)＂教社科[1998]6 號，《教育部政報》1998 年第 7、8 期﹕ “ 教育部辦公廳關於加強普通高等學校馬克思主義理論課和思想德(公共課)教材建設及管理問題的通知(1998 年 8 月 11 日)＂教社政廳 [1998]1 號，《教育部政報》1999 年第 9 期﹕ “ 教育部關於加強和改進研究生德育工作的若干意見 103 前些年就已經存在並被發現且一再加強道德教育，如學位班的問題，國務院學位委員會在 1998 年就專門制定了《關於授予具有研究生畢業同等學歷人員碩士、博士學位的規定》(一九九八年六月十八日國務院學位委員會第十六次會議審議通過)。清華大學的學風問題在上世紀 90 年代初就“確實令人擔憂”，並為此開展了 6 年多的 “學風建設”。10而 21 世紀又將學風建設作為重中之重來抓，說明問題並未解決。至於中國共產黨和中國政府近 20 年來也不曾一刻放鬆過高等教育的德育工作。雖然有關部門一再宣稱這些問題都是改革中出現的暫時現象，是可以通過深化改革加以解決的。但迄今，只要是真正面對現實的，還沒有誰抱有信心和希望？既然高等教育的道德教育始終在進行和強化，但高等教育的道德水準卻沒有好轉，甚至一直在走下降之路，這就只能表明道德教育確實發生了危機。高等教育德育危機的根源要徹底解決高等教育的道德危機和道德教育危機，就必須找到危機的根源，然後對症下藥，才能藥到病除，病急亂投醫，瞎開處方，恐怕不但不能解決問題，反有可能引發新的問題。關於道德和德育危機的根源，無疑是與政治、經濟改革和高等教育改革及其所導致的社會轉型相關的。在市場經濟下，一切都趨於工具合理性的功利主義和實用主義。政府、組織和個人都競相逐利，把經濟效益放在第一位。高等教育也與社會一樣變得功利化。政府減少或斷絕了對事業性單位的某些高等教育機構的撥款和支持，取消或減低了教師的福利待遇，高等教育機構為了維護機構運行和其成員的收入水準，就不得不設法“創收”，至於其行為是否符合其作為高等教育機構的道德準則也就顧不及了；高校教師眼見自己收入相對或絕對下降，就去從事各種能帶來收益的活動，至於其是否合乎作為教師的職業道德和作為知識分子的價值準則也就無從顧及了。當今世界國家之間、高等學校之間、教師之間的激烈競爭更強化了高等教育的功利主義和實用主義。美國等世界發達國家都將教育作為經濟競爭和綜合國力競爭的基礎戰略，20 世紀 80 年代後，中國政府和共產黨也迅速將政治工具的教育轉變為國家和經濟競爭的手段。中共中央國務院在《中國教育改革與發展綱要》中指出： “世界範圍的經濟競爭、綜合國力競爭，實質上是科學技術的競爭和民族素質的競爭。在這個意義上，誰掌握了 21 世紀的教育，誰就能在 21 世紀的國際競爭中處於戰略主動地位。” 11 政府通過行政措施、評價標準、撥款方式等改革推進高等教育改革，高等學校相應在院系設置、學科、課程、評價標準等方面作出改革，而高校教師同樣調整自己的學術方向、研究模式、教育行為等。而其表現遠遠超出上文所羅列的種種現象。高等教育的工具合理性並不只存在於中國大陸，功利主義和實用主義及其所導致的道德和德育危機在世界上同樣嚴重。歐美日本無一不將教育作為國家發展和經濟競爭的手段。“1950 年以後，人們越來越根據教育對於國家的需要和國家的政策所作的貢獻來評價學校教育……一定的教育活動對於政治和軍事作出的直接的或潛在的貢獻，決定了這個教育活動是否值得進行，同時也提供判斷這個教育活動是否有效的標準。” 12 在美國許多教育家都認為，“國家如果想在經濟和軍事的前沿與蘇聯展開有力的競爭，學校就應該在像道德教育這樣的 ‘軟’領域中少花時間，而在學術性主題上多花些時間，民主更多的是依靠國家產品的多少和核彈頭的數量而 (2000 年 4 月 6 日)＂教社政[2000]3 號，《教育部政報》2000 年第 7、8 期。 10 周兆英等﹕ 《把建設優良學風落實到班級》，《清華大學教育研究》1990 年第 2 期，陳剛等﹕ 《學風建設的回顧與思考》，《清華大學教育研究》1997 年第 2 期。 11 國家教育委員會辦公廳﹕ 《中國教育改革和發展文獻選編》，北京﹕ 人民教育出版社，1993，4。 12 羅伯特．梅遜者，陸有論譯﹕ 《西方當代教育理論》，北京﹕ 文化教育出版社，1984，7-8。 104 不是個人的道德自律。”13然而結果確是六七十年代西方社會和高等教育、大學生普遍的道德衰退，人們甚至稱之為另一次“羅馬帝國的衰亡”14。於是，道德教育重新興起，“對品德教育重新感興趣源自 60 年代的騷亂、城市和大學校園的動盪、日益增長的犯罪，以及成年人對一些新的青年文化(包括廣泛吸毒和性自由)暴力特性的反對，是促使道德教育復興的原因。”15道德教育的研究也隨之復興。但西方國家政府對待高等教育的工具性價值觀和發展模式並沒有消解，道德和道德教育的問題依然存在。很明顯，工具合理性所導致的道德和道德教育是全球性的，中國高等教育的功利主義和實用主義本身也有全球化的因素，但這並不能說明和解釋中國德育和道德教育危機的特有表現。中國與世界其它地方的高等教育德育危機還有一些不同的地方，那就是整個高等教育價值理想的失落。政府在高等教育的效益與公平之間一味追求效益，大力發展科技教育，忽略人文教育；積極支持高等教育，迴避基礎教育；重視技術和應用研究，輕視基礎研究；關注高等教育的經濟成果，淡漠高等教育的文化意義。高等學校不是追求普遍價值和真理，而熱衷於轟動效應，不斷擴大學校規模，追求學生數、論文等數量指標，而不問教育和科研質量，大量開設諸如 MBA 等帶來較高收益的學科和專業，而忽視作為人類價值和知識基礎的學科和專業。大學教師寫起文章來還擺出一副知識份子“人類良知”的模樣，但做起事來卻成為權力和利益的附庸。從 80 年代開始，大學校園中相繼興起了薩特熱、尼采熱、弗羅伊德熱，到 90 年代又興起傳統文化熱、國學熱，而沒有哪一次真的熱下去了，彷彿一陣風一片雲，吹來又飄去。而現在的大學生連對價值問題的思考都不做了，跟感覺走，自然就沉入自我中心和物質主義中。價值理想的失落中國高等教育德育危機的根源既在於價值理想的失落，那麼，這種價值理想的失落又是如何發生的呢？首先，80 年代以來社會轉型導致了從前的價值理想的破滅，但新的價值理想卻沒有樹立起來。從 50 年代以來，中國共產黨和政府把共產主義的政治觀、價值觀和人生觀灌輸給了人民，並通過學雷鋒等方式將之貫徹到日常生活中，成為人們的生活方式和行為習慣。但 80 年代後，對“文化大革命”的揭露和批判一下子使全國人們的信仰發生動盪，大學生更因為其知識和理想產生理想幻滅。1980 年 5 月《中國青年》刊發的 23 歲青年潘曉題為《人生的路阿，怎麼越走越窄……》的信是極具代表性的。現實的市場經濟改革又使高等教育機構和大學生的經濟地位和社會聲望下降，一下子就使他們變得無所適從。80 年代的大學生還試圖尋求價值理想，到 90 年代後期，“價值理想”在大學生那裡已成為了引人發笑的概念和話題。 80 年代的價值理想失落與共產黨和政府在一些問題上的處置不當有關，這導致了共產黨和政府在大學生心中在一定程度上喪失了道德和政治的合理性和正當性。社會主義本來不僅是一種政治理想，在很大程度上，其吸引千千萬萬中國人為之奮鬥和犧牲的，更在於其道德理想，社會主義所秉有的公正、平等、正義、仁愛、溫情……，遠比其經濟制度和政治制度要打動人。但今天，中國的道德合法性卻在國內和國際上受到挑戰。雖然人們的經濟狀況在改善，但短暫地體驗了改革的收益後，很多普通民眾再次懷念起 20 多年前無憂無慮的社會主義道德和福利。萬俊人曾這樣分析 90 年代初“紅太陽”革命歌曲的流行：“無論人們怎樣評價毛澤東本人以及他所代表的中國時代，借革命經驗和領袖權威培植起來的革命道德曾經有效地主導過中國社會的道德生活秩序這一歷史事實卻給予新中國民眾以難忘的記憶。50 年代初至 60 年代中期那種夜不閉戶、人心激昂的景象於眼 13 Hersh, Richard H., Models of Moral Education: An Appraisal. London: Longman, 1980, P14. 14 菲力浦．孔希斯著，趙宣恆等譯﹕ 《世界教育危機》，北京：人民教育出版社，1990, 278。 15 Hersh, Richard H., Models of Moral Education: An Appraisal. London: Longman. 1980. P23. 105 前金錢紛飛、物慾膨脹的情景形成了太大的反差。”16另外，在國際上，90 年代以來，中國的人權一直受到譴責，雖然美國的動機是人人皆知的，但對中國政府的道德形象無疑構成了打擊。本來，社會主義的理想已將人權的內容都包括在內，但黨和政府卻很少將之作為自己的宣傳或號召。為什麼不將自己的道德形象樹立起來呢？沒有黨和政府的價值理想的引導，又如何指望一個急速轉型的市場經濟的社會機構和民眾決定其價值和理想？而高等學校和大學知識分子雖然本來應作為社會的良知和道德模範，但工具性的高等教育已使大學和知識份子沉淪了，擔負不了社會批評和價值理想的角色了。中國的社會轉型並不自 80 年代始，19 世紀中期開始的現代化已引發了中國的文化和道德危機。“新與舊、東方與西方的現時衝突隱含一種令人擔憂的道德危機；因社會轉型過於急速而帶來的道德傳統――不僅是中國古典道德文化傳統，而且還有近半個世紀以來形成的革命道德信念或傳統――自身綿延危機。”17而中國古典道德文化傳統延綿的危機有西方衝擊的因素，也有中國自身的因素。中國本是非常有歷史感，重視文化道德傳統的民族，但近代以來卻不知為何卻陷入一種歷史虛無主義的迷狂。在新文化運動和全盤西化派的眼中，中國是一部不道德的歷史，充滿虛偽、陰謀、不平等、人吃人……，完全是邪惡的歷史。這就將 2 千年的中國文化道德全給否定了。即使是以中國文化道德為職志的新儒家也缺少對歷史文化的敬意和尊敬，先是否定馬列主義，再否定新文化運動，接著又上溯到西學東漸時代清初，認為三百年中國學術文化和知識分子不斷走著下降之路。這樣層層否定，直到宋明理學才是歸宿。18這種趨勢在中國近現代歷史文化道德和教育研究中一直延續下來。建國初期的教育史是批判封建社會和國民黨時期的教育，“文化大革命”是批判“十七年”的教育，改革開放後是批判“文化大革命”的教育。如此冤冤相及，何時是終了。在這種不斷批判和否定中，道德和價值理想的崇高性也就沒有了，結果是誰都可以來嘲弄道德，出現了一種“蹂躪道德的現象”；故意將道德規範加以違反、嘲笑和奚落，將違犯道德的言語和舉動故意做得張揚，對符合道德的現象故意加以嘲弄和羞辱。19在一個沒有道德準則的社會，道德教育如何可能呢？問題還在於，中國的道德教育並不是純粹的道德教育，而是“思想、政治和品德教育”20。當把不斷受到批判、嘲笑、唾棄和否定的中國歷史文化道德來教養學生時，會在學生的價值理想和道德信念的鑄造中起一個什麼樣的作用呢？學生能因此樹立人生的道德信心嗎？當本民族的文化道德不能成為其價值理想的基礎時，又能完全指望用西方的道德價值來替代嗎？教育本身的內在特性也使價值理想的歷史傳承帶來困難，“教育者和文化權威的闡釋者，一方面因為維護文化傳統，必須堅持培養學生對既有文化的認同感，一方面，為了研究文化的生命力，又必須鼓勵學生對既有文化做批判性的思考、重新闡釋和觀念創新。”21在當代，教師與學生的代溝也是教師與學生價值理想和當代落差的一個原因。 16 萬俊人﹕ 《比較與透析- - 中西倫理學的現代視野》，廣州﹕ 廣東人民出版社，1998，417 – 418。 17 萬俊人﹕ 《比較與透析- - 中西倫理學的現代視野》，廣州﹕ 廣東人民出版社，1998，412。 18 參見拙作﹕ 《現代新儒學家的思想特質》，《清華大學學報》1997 年第 1 期。 19 《道德重建與制度安排》，《中國青年報》1996 年 10 月 29 日；楊明﹕ 《當前高校道德教育面臨的挑戰與創新》，《高等教育研究》2000 年第 5 期。 20 《中國普通高等學校德育大綱》。 21 汪丁丁﹕ 《探索面向 21 世紀的教育哲學與教育經濟學》，《高等教育研究》2001 年第 1 期。 106 結論正因為沒有共同的價值理想作基礎，所以在高等教育中，政府、高等教育機構、大學教師和學生缺乏共同的道德判斷、道德認知和道德交往的基礎，德育也不可能取得效果。在中國高等學校中因為價值基礎的不同所導致的德育衝突是屢見不鮮的。如馬克思主義理論課與思想品德課教的是“人的本質是一切社會關係的總和”，並以此批判“人的本質是自私的”、“個人中心主義”，和闡述集體主義的人生價值觀。但管理學課教的是管理哲學的人性論基礎就是“人的本性是自私的”；在馬克思主義政治經濟學課中灌輸的是社會主義信念，而經濟學課倡導的是“不搞私有化，就建不成市場經濟”。22更何況不少教師連所講的自己都不信，憑什麼感召學生呢？國家意識形態和宣傳部門、教育行政部門、高等學校和教師提供的道德內容本身就是衝突和矛盾的，憑什麼要求學生樹立堅定的價值觀、人生觀和政治立場。在價值和道德衝突中，各部門和個人為了“小我”利益，都堂而皇之地以自我的“價值”、“道德”來行事，而且還以改革的名義將自我利益的機制制度化和合法化。大學中有的院長、主任常在制定某一規則、制度時使之僅合乎自己的標準和條件，然後冠冕堂皇名正言順地獲得種種利益。愈是這樣發展下去，高等教育的道德問題將愈多，中國的文化和社會整合將愈多亂象，道德教育危機將愈深重。所以，要解決道德和道德教育危機，首先應在高等教育和全社會建立共同的價值理想。然後，應把共同的價值理想作為政府政策基礎、高等學校的目標、教師基本準則，並化為統一課程教給學生。美國從來的改革雖多是科技取向的，但也從來沒有忘記要形成美國高等教育和社會共同的價值觀。如 1948 年美國總統委員會《美國民主社會中的高等教育》所確立的目標就有：“培養學生具有與民主理想相一致的個人和公民生活倫理原則標準。”231984 年美國高質量高等教育研究小組在《投身教育：發揮美國高等教育的潛力》就批評過分職業化的課程會“失去它培養共同價值觀念的潛力，正是這些價值觀念和知識把我們結成一個社會整體。”24中國社會和高等教育要重視較高的道德水準，無疑也要通過教育熔鑄一種共同的道德和精神價值觀念。 22 吳倬﹕ 《建立結構合理功能互補的高校德育系統》，《清華大學教育研究》2001 年第 1 期。 23 Gary E M, The Meaning of General Education. New York; Teachers College (Columbia University), 1988.P123. 24 美國高質量高等教育研究小組：《投身教育﹕ 發揮美國高等教育的潛力》，教育發展與政策研究中心編﹕ 《發達國家教育改革的動向和趨勢》，北京﹕ 人民教育出版社，1986，38。 107 儒家倫理在公民道德教育㆗的㆞位與作用邵龍寶上海同濟大學儒家倫理作為傳統文化的表徵、傳統道德的主體，既有阻礙現代化的不相容性，又有為現代化提供動力支援的根源性資源優勢，這已成為大多數人的共識。但是具體而言，儒家倫理究竟怎樣阻礙又如何推動現代化發展；儒家倫理的哪些成份在起阻礙作用，哪些成份提供了和將要提供哪些具體支援，尤其是在可操作的實踐層面― 在現代公民道德教育中的地位與作用，還很難有一個差強人意的自圓其說，更難有一個實踐上成效顯著的嘗試和應答。其間的原因非常複雜。在我看來，大致有以下四個原因：其一，中國文化歷史太悠久、太複雜，不易辨識與看透。其二，儒家文化的墜落是在近代，西方列強的入侵使得救亡圖存的急務沖淡或耽擱了對中西文化的比較討論和辨證分析。其三，五四的文化精英在當時的世界潮流面前，因深黯並痛感自己文化傳統的缺失，對自己的文化和國民性的弱點哀其不幸，怒其不爭，導致矯枉過正。其四，史無前例的文化大革命是人類史上一場空前的浩劫，政治上的“左傾”殘酷地姦污著中國的文明。從世界文化發展的總的歷史來看，儒家是唯一受到自己民族的文化精英徹底批判的文化傳統。徹底批判、拋棄傳統帶來的後遺症後患無窮，其中一個嚴重的後果是無論學者、宣傳教育工作者，對儒家文化只有“學術資源”互相交流的“文化自覺”，少有或根本不敢想將“學術資源”轉化為“知識資源”進入教育層面的“文化自覺”，以為這是“大逆不道”這裏我還指出一個易被忽視的學理上的原因，即對“儒家倫理”這一概念的誤讀，這種誤讀在許多文章中都可看到，即把作為傳統文化的儒家倫理與作為文化傳統的儒家倫理混為一談。對儒家倫理的內涵之辨析儒家倫理最易造成人們理解上的迷惑和岐義叢生之處，是既可把它看成是傳統文化的儒家倫理，又可把它看成是文化傳統的儒家倫理。所謂元典儒學、漢代儒學、宋明理學、明清樸學就其各自而言屬前者，屬古人的生存樣態，可界說為一種已經存在的既定文化，它們以文獻典籍、典章制度、器物廟宇等設施的形式流傳下來，它是自然經濟宗法封建社會的經濟結構和意識形態的產物；它是我們想要認識的一種客體，是一種我們無法改變的歷史的存在；它是中國歷史文明的積澱，是精華與糟粕在古人生存世界的有機統一。作為傳統文化的儒家倫理可以理解為形而下的器，如《周易》、《中庸》等典籍已成了文化遺產。它的功能主要是具有歷史意義，可以在詮釋的基礎上對它加以批判性地繼承和應用，認識它的主要目的，在於以它作為一種載體或文化符號來傳達意義，古為今用。儒家倫理的文化傳統，是指當代社會中那些從歷史上流傳下來，體現民族性格、民族價值觀的道德精神，是歷史變遷的連續留存。由於中國傳統文化到宋明時期演化為儒釋道三家融合，它們又都生成於中國封建專制主義的社會之中，所以呈現出十分複雜的情狀，既有好的又有不好的甚至壞的連續留存，它是動態的、鮮活的、是過去發生的、現在仍保持著的一種精神性的東西。儒家的文化傳統不像儒家的傳統文化安靜地呆在歷史文獻 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》， Vol. 1， Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 108 典籍和文物典章中，等待現代的學者去發掘它、重釋它、接通它、應用它，它不與現代對立，不必人為地努力去貫通古今。儒家的文化傳統就是現實，傳統就是我們，它是眼下中國公民思維方式、行為方式、道德價值、生命樣態、生存智慧和精神方向的文化基因，它甚至可以代表中國現代化特有的一種文化的傾向性，即區別於其他任何國家、任何民族的現代化的文化特質。江澤民同志在“七一”講話中談到先進文化的內涵時指出：它是“面向現代化、面向世界、面向未來的，民族的科學的大眾的社會主義文化”，這種先進文化應“促進全民族思想道德素質和科學文化素質的不斷提高，為我國經濟發展和社會進步提供精神動力和智力支援。”建設先進文化和現代公民的道德教育體系務必立足“三個面向”，立足民族的科學的大眾的這幾方面的內涵，不能只注重一二個方面，忽視其他的方面，不能只注重批判詮釋傳統文化的儒家倫理，還要搞清作為文化傳統的儒家倫理，即要在活的歷史當中，在現實之中去理解，去把握傳統文化給當下中國人帶來的好的影響和不好的影響，使人們不僅懂得文化典籍中什麼是糟粕，什麼是精華，而且使人懂得什麼是文化傳統留給我們身上的優良的和腐敗的因素。這就是把自己民族的倫理文化傳統當作當下人們所進行的一系列持續不斷的活動和實踐的過程，把它看作正在趨向未來的一種動向，一種自覺地建設先進文化和構建公民道德價值體系的一個動態的過程。任何一位中國人，你可以說你不懂儒學，沒讀過“四書五經”，不瞭解孔子、老子及其學說，但你的行為、舉止、思維方式、生活樣態裏則或多或少滲透著儒家文化的基因。傳統社會有一大批目不識丁的山村夫老、沒有文字能力的“母親”，成為中國民族傳統的文化價值和倫理道德代代相傳的傳達者。孔子三歲喪父，可以說沒有得到父親的慈愛，孟子也差不多，宋明儒學的思想家無一例外都受到母親的身教之影響。作為傳統文化的儒家倫理與作為文化傳統的儒家倫理既有區別又相互聯繫，前者是後者的前提和基礎，後者是前者的流變與動態中的發展；前者是靜態中的歷史遺存，後者是動態中的文化在人的心理結構中的積澱，表現為人們的行為方式和生活樣態。這樣就得出了第一個結論：詮釋儒家倫理首先要弄清其內涵，又要把二者結合起來加以研究。唯其如此，我們才能既從文獻典籍層面又從現實的人的社會的實際出發，從傳統與現代，中國與世界這縱橫兩個座標中來考察儒家倫理在當代中國公民道德教育中的地位與作用。儒家倫理在公民道德教育㆗的㆞位由上述論述可順理成章地推論出以下結論：無論儒家倫理有多少特質與現代公民社會怎樣對立，也不管它有多少特質的精華可以作為現代公民社會道德建設的文化資源；不管你承不承認它，中國公民在經濟全球化語境下的道德建設必須從這個實際出發，因為它是中國人幾千年來特有的，現在仍在發揮影響作用的文化傳統。儒家倫理之于現代公民道德建設、社會主義精神文明建設、人格塑造等的地位具有根源性、民族性、母體性、前提性、不可回避性和勿庸置疑性的重要地位，不容任何人過份地推崇它、褒揚它、寵愛它或嫌棄它、厭惡它、否定它！它總是不斷地在動態的變異中從過去、現在到無盡的未來流淌在中國人血脈中的文化基因。這是指作為文化傳統的儒家倫理的地位。作為傳統文化的儒家倫理在公民道德建設中的地位是可以成為豐厚的“知識資源”，成為構建現代化公民不可或缺的人文知識資源。而作為“知識資源”和“人文資源”作用發揮的大小，又取決於我們用什麼樣的方法來詮釋、開掘、創造性應用這一傳統文化資源寶庫。詮釋儒家倫理的方法論不能採用簡單的一分為二法，認為批判就是棄去糟粕，而繼承就是吸取精華，其實它是一個有機的整體發揮它對歷史發展的客觀作用，而不是 109 精華與糟粕部分單獨各自起作用的，簡單的兩分法忽略了結構的整體性和作用的雙向性。儒家倫理中的精華與糟粕是複雜地揉和在一起的。例如整體主義是儒家的一個價值取向，它引導中國人重視家庭、重視民族國家利益，公而忘私、國而忘家、形成了中華一體的凝聚力，自古以來激勵著一代又一代正直的中國人發奮向上，不屈服惡勢力，堅持與外來的壓迫作鬥爭，它使海內外華人團結一心，實現了形神一體，在這次申奧活動中淋漓盡致地得到了體現。但整體主義在封建時代是“民本”與“尊君”一體兩翼的整體，它是泯滅個體主體性、創造力的罪魁禍手。它使個人難以在調節公開的行為時承擔重要的角色。它還容易導致權威主義，在廈門特大走私案中，我們可以看到受賄者因獲知比自己官大的人已經“涉嫌”就以為自己可以高枕無憂，結果釀成 600 多名黨政幹部牽涉進去的整體犯罪的觸目驚心的特大走私案。又如仁愛思想是有“差等的愛”，首先把愛施予有血緣關係的人，由愛父母、孩子、愛人、把愛心慢慢擴展開來，由愛親人到“老吾老及人之老”，再擴大到社會、國家是個同心圓，這一思想使孔子榮獲世界上公認的十大思想家之首的美譽。在中國歷史上，這一思想哺育了一代又一代志士仁人殺身成仁，為國捐軀。以親子之愛為核心的儒家傳統可以在中國的社會轉型中起到一定的“解毒”作用，即可以相對減少許多社會問題，諸如養老問題、孤兒問題、過分的貧富不均等等。這些是積極因素。它的弊端是可操作性不強，這個同心圓難以切實擴展開來，往往到了家庭就停止了，並不能在操作層面上不受經濟條件和其他條件的制約。在封建時代造就了不少滿口仁義道德，一肚子男盜女娼的封建偽君子。其次，親親為仁，只講人情，父為子隱，子為父隱，不要公理、法律，生怕對不起與自己關係親近的人，情感浸蝕法律，導致我國社會長期以來權大於法，及腐敗難以徹底根除，這又是糟粕。批判詮釋儒家倫理的方法論原則又是科學的唯物辯證法。不僅取決於對作為傳統文化的儒家倫理能不能超越簡單的“兩分法”，而且取決於我們有沒有對待作為文化傳統的儒家倫理的科學、正確的態度。這就要涉及到應怎樣看待我們自己，怎樣看待自己的文化傳統，有沒有“文化自覺”意識。對自己的民族文化有沒有自知之明、明白它的來歷、形成的過程，所具有的特性，作為中國人在全球化背景下意味著什麼？搞清以儒家文化為主幹的中華文化對當下中國人的影響與外國文化的異同及其關係。質言之，要搞清儒家倫理的文化傳統中究竟什麼是至今仍在阻礙著我們民族的優良性格，民族精神和凝聚力的因素，什麼是與現代化可以相通，並可為全球化作出自己應有貢獻的文化精華？不搞清以上幾個問題就說不清儒家倫理在公民道德教育中的地位與作用。儒家倫理在㆗國公民道德教育㆗的作用公民道德是公民社會建設的重要內容之一。現代化是包括器物的現代化、制度的現代化和人的現代化的良性互動的動態過程，其中現代化的社會整合的核心是公眾參與和社會生活的開放化、合理化。市場經濟的發展內在地要求公民社會的產生，而公民社會的建設歸根到底是通過人― 現代公民來實現，這就決定了中國在現代化、市場化過程中，公民道德建設顯得極為重要。公民道德是作為政治社會的成員在公共生活中相互對待的道德，它是人們對陌生人的恰當的態度和行為方式，它不是直接地由日常倫理引申，但必須以個人的人格修養作為前提。公民道德只有在人們可以作為政治社會的成員以平等的政治地位相互交往的社會才能形成。傳統的中國社會是臣民道德，因而儒家倫理對現代公民道德的建立有著深層次的對立。但臣民與公民又都是 110 “人”。人文與科學的區別在於：其一，科學技術的成果一旦為少數人創造發明出來，所有的人有共用的可能，而人文的智慧與經驗之積累，即使上升為理論的作品，要真正變成自己的體悟，變成自己生命的智慧，對生命的意義、生存的價值、理想人格的思考，必須靠每個活著的人自己去體驗，去嘗試、去創造。其二，科學技術的發明創造日新月異，兩千年前的科技成果只能存放在博物館裏，根本無法與現代發明相媲美，而社會人文科學的成果，無論年代多麼久遠，軸心時代的孔子、老子、佛陀、蘇格拉底的思想與經典卻並不因時而失去價值，伴隨時光的流失甚至會發出更加耀眼的光芒。這大概是圍繞人的生命意義，苦樂，榮辱，生死等人文課題，古人與今人有著許多驚人的相似之處，古人的相對緩慢的生活節奏似乎更便於深入思考人生的真諦，而現代人在為物質上的攀比競爭中很容易喪失了生活的意義。科學並不能全面地提升人生，所以現代人更加需要充滿人文內涵的儒家人生哲學來警醒、省察自己的生活。所以，有人主張，現代化不應以拋棄傳統為代價，建新樓不一定要拆老屋，譜新曲未必不能彈舊曲。何況儒家的文化傳統並非古人的遺存，而是滲透在今人血脈中的基因。對儒家的傳統文化的批判應以對儒家的文化傳統對當下中國人的影響作為前提，對活的文化傳統的理性把握，才能對傳統文化的文獻經典進行有效地批判性詮釋，使之成為“知識資源”，成為凝聚全世界華人的精神財富，成為維護國家統一的牢固堡壘，在文化全球化的衝擊下，它不僅僅有一種抵抗優勢文化擠壓的心理功能，而且在一定程度上可以為中國公民的生活原則提供正當性依據。因而，考究儒家倫理在當代公民道德教育中的作用和價值，不能停留在靜態地對文獻典獻的現代詮解上，而應從靜態到動態，把儒家倫理的傳統文化與文化傳統結合起來加以分析，不僅要從社會的經濟、政治、文化的互動中將社會看作是一有機體，還要從全球化、現代性、人的全面自由的發展的視角加以審視。在全球化語境㆘對㆗國公民的警示作用經濟全球化不可能淹沒民族文化，而是對民族文化的繼承、創新和走向世界提出了更高要求。在全球化語境下復興中華文化並為全球化作出應有的貢獻，首先要克服、消除儒家文化傳統給當下中國公民帶來的負面影響。不然你就不能以現代人的嶄新姿態參與到全球化進程中，你會使自身形象醜陋、行為乖戾，不附合國際遊戲規則，缺乏作為文明國度的中國人應有的風采。這些文化糟粕積澱為中國人的國民劣根性是什麼呢？是封建家長制，等級觀念、人身依附、奴僕性格、權大於法、保守心理、官本位、個性不能張揚、獨立人格挺立不起來，拖著一條長長的無形的封建主義的長辮子。這些負面的東西是現代中國公民身上的隱患乃至毒瘤。去除這些東西既要靠制度創新又要靠全民族的反思、教育引導（應該看到經濟全球化有利於消解這些弊端）這要在經濟、政治、文化建設的互動中逐步克服。單純的制度創新敵不過“權力真理論”，敵不過公務員們所信奉的按“按長官意志辦沒錯”的集體無意識。誰的心中都明白“第一書紀第一規律”，權大於法，論資排輩在各類單位和部門中仍潛移默化地影響著人們，近親繁殖在無形中侵蝕著我們社會的肌體。至於儒學中的精華，深邃的人文精神、“三軍可奪帥，匹夫不可奪志”的人格節操，“剛健、弘毅、自強不息的進取精神與責任感”，“天下為公、愛國為民、義以為上的價值取向”，“寬以待人、厚德載物、注重人際和諧的恕道精神”，“豐富的政治思想、治世經驗、從道不從君的為官之道”，“立品為人、修已篤行、知行統一的道德自覺與修養理論”等，這些都需要在每一個中國公民的日常生活工作中身體力行，發揚光大，需要在全球化的參與中與一切優秀的文化傳統交融，對話，讓世界瞭解我們，理解我們。我們不但要輸入文化而且要輸出文化。中國現在外貿上有順差，在文化交流上則是“逆差”，中國人瞭解西方超過西方人瞭解中國。這說明我們的文化有海納百川，有容 111 乃大的胸懷。在弘揚中華民族優秀的文化傳統時我們應當有足夠的自信。北京申奧成功和中國加入 WTO 意味著以儒家倫理為主體的中國傳統文化具有極強的生命力。現在的問題是要設法使儒學精華成為知識資源，進入到教育層面，讓青少年具有深厚的民族文化內涵，使他們能自覺地在網路上輸出文化，與西方文化對話、交流，在融合中復興中華文化。在參與全球化的進程中我們必須糾正以往的失誤：對自己的文化傳統該批判的未能徹底批判，該繼承和弘揚的未能真正繼承和弘揚。與之相應還要扭轉中國人缺乏歷史意識的毛病。中華民族有 5000 年淵源流長的歷史，而中國的歷史“記憶”卻如此薄弱，近 100 年來中華民族發生了一種“集體健忘症”，尤其是年輕人有些人甚至認為歷史悠久是落後的原因，美國歷史暫短所以發達，他們認為歷史只是很久以前的一段已模糊不清的煙雲，許多偉大的歷史事件過於遙遠，對於今天沒有指導意義。由於複雜的歷史的原因，中國人相當程度上失去了對自己古代偉大思想家、教育家的崇敬心，不再有人有興趣在大中小城市建造象徵中國文化，中國民族性格與民族精神的孔子塑像。至於中國人的經典，許多人不知是什麼，或者無知的斥之為封建主義的故紙堆，甚至斥之為“發思古之幽情”認為與現代化節奏格格不入。杜維明說，中國人一方面是源遠流長的文化傳統，另一方面只有短暫的“歷史記憶”。如北京大學有 100 年的歷史，但要把文革時期的資料找出來就非常困難。北大湯一介先生到哈佛訪問，想瞭解他的父親湯用彤在哈佛念書的情況，找到了湯先生和 1915 年到 1920 年在哈佛念書的成績單，也找到了給他講課的老師名字，同時還找到了他是從美國中部一個小學校轉學而來的證明以及介紹人，來美的交通工具。美國人十分珍視自己僅有的三百多年的歷史，採取各處措施用自己短暫的歷史對青少年進行歷史意識教育。所以在全球化語境下，中國人應有歷史意識，不知道歷史就不知道現在，更不知道未來的走向，不知道作為中國人意味著什麼？不知道中國文化的深厚意蘊及在世界文化中的地位。這是儒家倫理的第一個作用，它可以警示每一個中國人反思自己作為中國人意味著什麼？儒家倫理在市場經濟、民主政治與公民㈳會建設㆗的作用社會主義市場經濟與民主政治的建設需要倫理基礎和倫理秩序的支撐與支援，現代市場經濟的交換主體是獨立、自由的主體之間普遍協作，其運作方式是一種自行組織秩序，它把社會分工與合作從家族範圍和單位範圍拓展到家族以外的公司之間甚至世界性的更大範圍和更多的層次。市場經濟的發展內在地要求其社會成員擺脫人身依附，確立起具有獨立性的個人。伴隨市場經濟的發育成熟，具有獨立性個體的人越來越突破血緣和地緣的限制，從注重情感到注重契約化。個人從人身依附中走出，又很容易走入“人為物役”的陷阱。隨著政府職能的轉變，由獨立的個人組成的建立在一定利益關係基礎上的公民社會得以確立和形成。市場經濟的發展內在地要求並催生著民主政治的建立，這種政體形式的建立要以個體比較充分地發展為前提，並且要以公民權利至上的基本理念來支援。民主政治不僅能容納，協調公民個體的獨立自由的發展，而且能消解個體間引發的各種衝突，推動市場經濟與公民社會在自由而有序，充滿活力的互動中健康而穩定地發展。這將帶來政府與公民關係的變化，使得社會主義的現代公民徹底告別官本位社會和政治身份等級社會，逐步走向民主、公正、自由、平等的法治社會。市場經濟和民主政治都內在地要求社會倫理關係的純化，同時必然帶來社會倫理觀念和倫理秩序的深刻變化。其根本點“就是由血緣倫理、地緣倫理、親戚朋友倫理及單位倫理（即准宗法倫理）向適合於整個公民社 112 會並面向所有公民的普遍倫理轉變”。1儒家倫理在公民道德建設中的作用的發揮關鍵還在於制度的創設。我們必須認識到：一方面文化傳統並不是經濟發展的決定因素，另一方面傳統文化或文化傳統對經濟發展的制約或促進作用取決於一定的制度條件。文化是一種“軟體”，只有在一定制度的“硬體”中才能發揮其應有的作用。制度是文化作用于經濟的根本環節和條件。比如“儒家以人為本的思想，在專制制度下是不可能實現的，只有在民主制度條件下才能變為現實”，“儒家群體本位主義，在封建制度下，往往成為壓抑個體能動性、扼殺個性的思想工具，在現代市場經濟制度下卻可以成為團結合作精神的導向。” 2 甚至可以轉化為特殊的社會資本。普遍的社會倫理信任可以降低市場的“交易成本”或“額外交易成本”。建立一套公正的遊戲規則與民眾的道德信念和自覺遵守規範是一體兩面，市場經濟的前提設定不只是經濟的，還必須是道德的。“必要的公共倫理信念和道德規範，就是市場經濟普遍可能和持久進行的前提條件之一。誠實守信之于交易行為，勤勞節儉之於資本積累，團隊精神之於企業的組織和發展社會道義和人道精神之於經濟管理等等，可以說明這一點。” 3 儒家倫理在民主政治建設中的反效應不可低估。儒家倫理的民本思想，元典儒家中的獨立人格不能說與社會主義民主政治建設沒有相通相融性，但它們本身並不必然從內在要求民主的發展。因此“希望儒家道德思想必當發展為政治上的民主制度，很難不是一廂情願的願望”4 官德是公民道德中最具影響的德性修養，行政倫理是道德發展的高級階段，在社會主義道德體系中，行政倫理處於最高層次。行政倫理的價值基礎是廉政，價值核心是勤政。在傳統文化中不乏廉政與勤政的資源與典範。但自前儒學社會就形成的十分濃厚的社會等級制度和等級觀念的制約下，廉政和勤政的制度保證是皇權的人治。這一遺毒現在又成了孕育腐敗的溫床。總之，儒家倫理的道德資源只有在市場經濟，民主政治和公民社會建立的互動中反思和批判儒家文化傳統的糟粕，尤其是對為官者的消極影響，才能發揮出其豐厚的優良道德傳統的積極效應。在“知識㈳會＂對㆟的全面㉂由發展㆗的作用知識社會對人文道德素養提出了新的更高的要求，與工業革命不同，這次資訊革命在一定程度上也是文化領域的革命，與人們的猜想相反，資訊技術的迅猛發展，人的因素反而上升了。知識經濟的特點，是服務性經濟的在大規模發展，是從單線生產走向個別化總體服務，從而改變了社會的工作形態：從嚴格分工走向群體合作，從繁瑣的科層變為扁而鬆的工作組，知識重心下移，在工作中需要按需的、及時的、集體的建構性學習。新的組織形態，把人從工業社會嚴格的機構和規章中解放出來，要求員工要能溝通、共事、質疑、應變、創新，而人際的交往達到了新的密度和強度，也因此對人的道德價值、情感、良心、精神、責任心、自覺性提出了新的要求。另外，知識社會容易使人盲目追求工具理性，而忽視目的理性。比如父母和老師（家長、學校、社會）通過某種不約而同的“共謀”，把一個以“應試教育”為核心的理想世界灌輸給青少年。家長成了孩子的上帝，把自己的意志強加給孩子，使他們無法以自己的個性，興趣和才能出發營造適合於自己的理想世界。5虛擬世界使青少年的想象力和創造力得到了釋放，但種種失範現象極容易誤導他們的思想。6 在西方娛樂文化的衝擊下，青少年對傳統文化的認同越來越淡薄。只認金錢和名利，不講精神和價值，使一些年輕人失去了同情心，內疚心和羞恥心。現在越來越多的學生不服從紀律，而且放任、反叛、無心向學，由於社會流行講人權、講自由，所以學生認為自己有自由，沒有人可以說自己、管自己，甚至沒有人可以說自己不是。認為學生與老師，子女 113 與父母都是平等的，因為大家都是人，學生無必要尊重老師，子女無必要尊重父母。學校只管灌輸知識與技能，訓練應試的本領，以便提升學校的社會地位，學校變成生產產品的流水線，只見物不見人。現在青年人價值危機、信仰危機、無視權威、已成為世界性問題。綜上所述，知識社會需要人文精神，價值理想、而正在走進知識社會的人們又容易只見物質、功利，而丟失精神家園。儒家倫理雖然缺乏與現代性聯繫最緊密的科學與民主兩種質素，但如果僅用民主科學這兩樣東西來對中華民族的文化資源，（主要是儒學）進行一種判斷，那是愚蠢的。在儒家倫理中有著關於倫理學、美學、宗教哲學、人的充分自我發展、理性地面對失敗、對待義利、對待幸福、對待生育、生命智慧、精神價值、人格修養等豐厚的資源，它們可以培養中國人的文化能力、倫理的智商、體察自己和他人、以及如何在逆境中抗爭，使人能更深刻的洞見人世的人文知識、精神價值和人格素養。這些東西不僅不會反對民主，科學，反而使民主與科學的發展有了後盾，更符合中國人走向現代化的特色，這裏的標準是你不能一上來就拿西方的標準為標準。事實上，平心而論，儒家文化傳統經過 100 年來的西方文化的衝擊，尤其是經過近 20 多年的改革開放和參與全球化的洗禮，它已經融入了許多西方的先進思想和理念，科學與民主這兩樣東西（尤其是前者）開始真正深入人心。世界上恐怕不會有比中國到發達國家去留學深造的人數更多的國家，不會有人數比例那麼眾多的人對英文掌握得這樣好，也很少有像中國這樣在學習西方發達國家科技後，自己的國家在如此短的時間發生了如此大的變化。只要我們在吸取他人之長時，不要丟失自己的寶貝，只要我們能正視自己文化傳統中致命的弱點加以克服，只要我們在注重四個現代化的同時也注重政治民主化和人的現代化，而且使三者循序漸進，互相促進，互相影響，那麼，中國文化的復興和現代化的輝煌成功必然相互推動，儒家文化在全球文化中的地位肯定會日益提高。註釋 1. 龍興海 (2000)。市場經濟、民主政治與倫理演變。載《新華文摘》，2000 年 11 月，頁 28。 2. 唐凱麟、曹剛 (2000)。《重釋傳統：儒家思想的現代價值評估》。華東師範大學出版社，2000 年 11 月，頁 402。 3. 萬俊人 (2000)。《論市場經濟的道德制度》。中國社會科學，2000 年 10 月，頁 13。 4. 李錦全 (1999)。從儒學發展進程看儒學的前景。載《中國哲學史》，第 4 期。 5. 程介明。《知識社會中德育的新使命》。“現代化進程中青少年道德教育學術研討會”論文。 6. 俞吾金。《青少年教育的三個世界》。“現代化進程中青少年道德教育學術研討會”論文。參考書目張岱年 (1996)。建設新道德―儒學作為一個整體已經過時。載《教育藝術》，第 6 期。賀來 (2001)。人學研究的三個辯證層次。人大複印資料，載《哲學原理》，第 4 期。列文森著，鄭大華、任菁譯 (2000)。《儒教中國及其現代命運》。中國社會科學出版社，第 1 版。龍興海 (2000)。市場經濟、民主政治與倫理演變。載《新華文摘》，頁 28。唐凱麟、曹剛 (2000)。《重釋傳統：儒家思想的現代價值評估》。華東師範大學出版社。喻中 (2001)。《法律文化傳統與傳統法律文化》，社會科學報。陳廷湘 (2001)。20 年文化討論的反觀與思考。人大複印資料，載《文化研究》。 114 北京大㈻生的環境意識調查分析1 黃觀貴香港浸會大㈻郭志剛北京大㈻為了了解北京市高校在校本科生和研究生對於環境問題的知識、態度和行為，研究㆟員於 1998 年 9 ㈪對北京 10 所高校的 350 ㈴本科生和研究生進行了問卷調查。調查結果顯示，北京的大㈻生在考慮環境問題迫切性時，以㆗國國情為依歸。關於㆗國㈳會發展的㊝先次序，㈻生最㊝先考慮的是經濟發展，其次才考慮改善環境，他們普遍不願意以犧牲經濟增長或減少㈳會福利來換取環境改善。調查又發現，北京大㈻生並不活躍參與環保活動，環保組織很少，涉及面很窄。他們對㆒些與環境運動㈲重要影響的書籍的閱讀率不高，對於環境、㈾源和可持續發展㈲基本的認識，對環境保護工作㈲熱誠及願意承擔責任，顯示知識分子對環境問題的敏感度較高，是推動㆗國環境運動的動力來源。導言中國國家環保局局長在一份名為《全國公眾環境意識調查報告》2的序言中指出，調查結果表明，公眾的環境意識尚處於較低水平，與環保工作的要求還有相當的差距，要普及環境保護知識，提高公眾的環境意識，任重道遠。無疑，公眾的環境意識是一個社會文明程度的重要標誌，也是環境宣傳教育成效的集中體現。從個人的層面而言，許多研究結果顯示，環境意識是與一個人的教育水平有極密切的關係。本文匯報一個於 1998 年對北京 10 所大學的 350 名本科生和研究生進行了問卷調查的結果，概述中國大學生環境意識現狀和探討與環境意識相關問題。大學生是社會未來的棟樑，他們對環境問題的認識、態度與行為對於推動中國環境運動的發展有重要影響。在文中亦引述中華環境保護基金會和中國人民大學社會調查中心《全民環境意識調查分析報告》3的結果作對比分析，以了解當今大學生與公眾在環境意識的異同，希望結果對於如何推動中國的環境宣傳教育有一些啟示。研究目的及方法為了了解北京市高校在本科生和研究生對於可持續發展環境問題的知識、態度和實際活動，研究人員於 1998 年 9 月對北京 10 所高校本科生和研究生進行了問卷調查。調查成功訪問了北京 10 所高校學生共 350 人。被調查 1 有關研究課題是由香港浸會大學地理系黃觀貴博士及前中國人民大學人口研究所所長郭志剛教授共同設計，並由人民大學研究人員負責實地調查。部份經費來自香港浸會大學 FRG 經費(FRG/97-98/II-32)。 2 《全國公眾環境意識調查報告》是由國家環境保護總局教育部立項，委托北京大學中國國情研究中心實施的一項全國規模的大型抽樣調查研究項目。報告由北京中國環境科學出版社於 1999 出版。 3 中華環境保護基金會和中國人民大學社會調查中心（1966）《全民環境意識調查分析報告》北京：中國人民大學 Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre 2002 115 的大學有：清華大學、北京大學、中國人民大學、北京化工大學、北京理工大學、北京師範大學、北京醫科大學、首都醫科大學、中國農業大學、北京林業大學，涉及文學、理學、社會科學、工學、農學/林學、醫學、管理學、公共衛生學等專業。調查對象包括本科生 258 人，碩士研究生 51 人，博士研究生 41 人。其中，男生 178 人，女生 172 人。這些學生來自於全國 28 個不同省市自治區。其中，來自省會以上大城市的佔 30.6%，來自中小城市的佔 36.6%，來自鄉鎮的佔 15.4%，來自農村的佔 17.4%。由於被調查的對象是大學生，他們對於閱讀及理解問卷內容是沒有問題的，故調查採取自填的方式完成。為了保証調查質量，調查時主要採用了在同一時間、同一地點集中填寫的方式。問卷內容分為八個部分，包括調查對象的個人資料、環境世界觀、環境問題的迫切性、社會發展目標、對政府環境保護政策的看法、個人參與環境保護情況、個人環保知識取得的途徑等。現根據初步匯總統計結果進行分析及評述。環境世界觀問卷中提供了若干關於環境、資源與發展的陳述，請調查對象從四種答案中選擇以表示他們對這些陳述的意見。問卷中的一部份陳述是採自 Dunlap 及 Van Liere 的「新環境典範」4的調查問卷。這部分的匯總結果如表 1 所示，下面就調查對象對其中部分項目的評價意見加以分析。表 1：調查對象對於環境﹑資源與發展若干陳述的評價意見(%) 有關陳述極不同意不同意同意極同意當前地球上人口數量已接近地球資源所能承受的極限 1.4 24.3 54.3 20.0 大自然的平衡極為脆弱且容易受擾亂 2.0 34.9 45.4 17.7 人類有權去改變自然環境來滿足自身的需求 16.3 32.6 44.9 6.3 人類生來就有權利去管轄自然萬物 38.9 48.3 10.3 2.6 人類過份干擾自然就會引致災難性後果 3.4 2.6 31.1 62.9 野生動物與植物在世界上，主要是供人類使用 37.7 55.4 5.1 1.7 健康的經濟發展是將工業增長速度控制在一個穩定狀態 1.7 18.0 63.4 16.9 人類要生存則必須要與大自然共處 1.1 0.0 23.4 75.4 地球好像是一艘空間及資源都有限的太空船 1.7 12.3 52.0 34.0 人類必須適應環境因為他可以改造自然以滿足其需求 53.7 40.0 3.7 2.6 工業社會的經濟增長是有其極限的 2.3 28.3 61.1 8.3 人類正嚴重地破壞地球環境 1.7 5.4 50.9 42.0 人類必須無條件地保護地球上生物多樣性 3.7 25.4 40.3 30.6 現代社會應提倡適度消費，反對高消費的生活方式 1.1 13.7 57.7 27.4 只有維護生態平穩，才能保證經濟的持續發展 0.9 3.1 47.4 48.6 人類的發展必須以不危及下一代的需要為原則 0.6 6.6 53.1 39.7 21 世紀的人類文明將呈現為生態化的文明 0.6 11.4 60.3 27.7 在參加調查的大學生中有 74.3%對 “人口已接近地球資源所能承受的極限”表示同意。由於中國是人口壓力十分巨大的國家，20 多年來堅持計劃生育，廣泛開展對人口問題的宣傳教育。顯然，調查對象中大多數對以上陳述表示同意是中國自身的國情所分不開的5。雖然多數學生同意 “大自然的平衡極為脆弱且容易受擾亂”和 “人類有權去改變自然環境來滿足自身的需求”，但同意與不同意的比例差異較少。這表現出大學生在這一問題上處於不同的角度來回答問題。而這兩個問題使他們感到選擇同意或不同意難以表達他們的看法。調查又發現有 93.1%的學生不同意 “野生動物與植物生長在世界上，主要是供人類使用”的說法。在對 “人類過份干預自然常會引致災難性的後果”問題的回答中看出，同意和極同意比例分別為 31.1%和 62.9%，合計達到 94.0%。說明即 4 見 Dunlap, R.E. and Van Liere, K.D. (1978). ‘The New Environmental Paradigm’, The Journal of Environmental Education, 9(4):10-19.陳述 1 至 12 採自 The New Environmental Paradigm。 5 有關中國的人口與環境問題可參閱：曲格平、李金昌(1992)，《中國人口與環境》，北京：中國環境科學出版社• 116 使認為人類有權改變自然環境來滿足自身的需求的人中的大部份學生也知道這一權利的自然限制。此外，有 90.3%的人同意健康的經濟發展是將工業增長速度控制在一個穩定的狀態；更有 98.8%同意 “人類要生存則必須要與大自然和諧共處” 。並且，有 92.7%同意可持續發展的基本發展原則，即 “人類的發展必須以不危及下一代的需要為原則”。以上結果，可以看出北京大學生對於環境﹑資源和可持續發展具有比較清楚的認識。關於環境問題迫切性的認識以下的提問目的是要了解大學生對環境狀態和發展趨勢的感知程度。並同針對中國和全球的不同情況，本次調查將中國和全球的環境問題分開提問。據《全民環境意識調查分析報告》(簡稱《全民意識》)所述，一般公眾對中國環境狀況繼續惡化的趨勢感知不明顯；其中知識份子較為敏感。因此在這次調查中，設計了向北京大學生提問中國和全球有關環境問題迫切性的評價。本次調查關於大學生對中國環境問題的迫切性評價的統計結果在表 2 提供。從表中可見，森林面積減少、水污染、水土流失和大氣污染有最多大學生評為「非常迫切」的環境問題6。表 2：調查對象對於中國若干環境問題的迫切性評價(%) 環境問題不肯定絕對不迫切不迫切中度迫切迫切非常迫切噪音污染 3.1 0.9 8.0 39.1 32.9 16.0 大氣污染 0.3 0.0 0.3 6.3 35.4 57.7 水污染 0.6 0.0 0.6 3.4 26.9 68.6 垃圾(固體廢物)污染 0.0 0.3 1.1 15.7 40.9 42.0 有害化學物廢物 1.7 0.6 4.6 30.0 40.0 23.1 風景名勝景觀破壞 1.4 2.0 8.3 35.1 31.1 22.0 濫佔耕地 0.6 0.3 2.6 14.6 34.3 47.7 海岸及海水污染 4.3 1.1 4.9 20.0 40.9 28.9 水土流失 0.0 0.6 0.9 6.3 27.1 65.1 酸雨 2.9 1.4 8.6 36.9 37.7 12.6 農葯殘留物 4.3 2.9 8.9 36.3 30.6 17.1 森林面積減少 0.9 0.6 0.6 6.3 21.7 70.0 為了對本次調查中北京大學生對中國環境問題的評價加以概括，我們將兩次調查評價等級進行簡化，將三類不同程度的迫切的比例進行了合計。同時，《全民意識》調查的相應結果同時並列，以便加以比較(見表 3)。因為兩次調查所列項目不同，並不能一一對應，這裡僅以本次調查項目為基礎進行比較。並且，本次調查是以迫切性評價提問，而《全民意識》調查時以嚴重性提問。此外，在《全民意識》調查中將生活垃圾和固體廢物分成兩項為提問，但在本次調查中卻是合併在一起提問的。因此，在表 3 中列出《全民意識》調查關於此項的結果時，同時提供兩項數據，括號中為固體廢棄物一項的比賽。 6 亦可參閱由世銀出版的 China 2020 (1997), Clear Water, Blue Skies: China’s Environment in the New Century. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. 117 表 3：大學生與公眾對環境問題迫切性概括統計與比較調查對象大學生公眾* 大學生公眾* 選擇類型不肯定不知道迫切嚴重噪音污染 3.1 12.4 88.0 56.5 大氣污染 0.3 9.5 99.4 67.8 水污染 0.6 10.5 98.9 66.4 垃圾(固體廢物)污染 0.0 (13.1) 12.0 (64.2) 98.6 56.5 有害化學物廢物 1.7 ---- 93.1 ---- 風景名勝景觀破壞 1.4 ---- 88.3 ---- 濫佔耕地 0.6 ---- 96.6 ---- 海岸及海水污染 4.3 29.7 89.7 38.1 水土流失 0.0 ---- 98.6 ---- 酸雨 2.9 ---- 87.1 ---- 農葯殘留物 4.3 15.6 84.0 47.4 森林面積減少 0.9 13.9 98.0 61.5 *1996《全民環境意識調查分析報告》從表 3 提出，在 1995 年《全民意識》調查中，一般公眾對中國存在的環境問題感知程度較低，認為 “嚴重” 和 “很嚴重” 的合計比例最高也不超過 68%。而本次調查中，大學生對所列所有環境問題的感知程度非常高，所有各項問題被認為迫切的水平均在 80%以上。由於本次調查在評價時使用了 “中度迫切”，有一定可能造成 “迫切合計”比例較高。那麼，很低的 “不肯定”的比例從反面仍然能夠反映出大學生對中國環境問題的感知程度很高。如果按 “迫切合計” 排序，大學生們認為名列前幾位的中國迫切環境問題是﹕大氣污染第一；水污染第二；水土流失和垃圾(固體廢物)污染並列第三；森林面積減少第四；濫佔耕地第五。如果按 “非常迫切” 一項的比例排序，大學生們認為名列前幾位的中國迫切的環境問題是﹕森林面積減少第一；水污染第二；水土流失第三；大氣污染第四；濫佔耕地第五，垃圾(固體廢物)污染第六。可以看出，這兩排序的前幾位項目完全吻合，只是在序次上有一些差別。對五年後中國環境的狀態的估計上，認為將會變好(包括認為 “好多了” 和 “好”兩類)的合計比例為 31.4%，認為 “一樣” 的只有 13.1%，而認為會變差的(包括認為 “差多了” 和 “差”兩類) 的合計比例為 55.4%。這一結果反映了大學生中對於中國環境問題的危機感，同時也表現出對當前環境治理能力和發展前景並不是很樂觀。本次調查還就全球若干環境問題按其迫切性作出評價，其匯總結果在表 4 中。從表 4 中 “不肯定”一列的比例看出，北京大學生對全球環境問題的了解程度略低於對中國環境問題的了解。按照前面的兩種方式分別對他們的評價進行排序，排序結果在表 5 中。 118 表 4：調查對象對於全球若干環境問題的迫切性評價 (%) 全球環境問題不肯定絕對不迫切不迫切中度迫切迫切非常迫切臭氧層破壞 2.3 0.6 2.9 19.1 36.6 38.6 跨國界酸雨問題 6.6 1.1 9.7 36.6 36.0 10.0 溫室效應 1.4 0.9 5.1 22.9 39.1 30.6 生物多樣性下降 1.7 0.0 5.1 17.1 38.0 38.0 熱帶森林消失 2.6 0.3 3.1 19.1 31.1 43.7 土地沙漠化 0.3 0.0 0.9 9.7 30.9 58.3 天然資源枯竭 0.9 0.6 3.7 20.0 36.3 38.6 輻射污染 5.4 1.1 12.0 38.3 28.6 14.6 能源耗盡 1.4 2.9 7.1 23.4 35.4 29.7 極端氣候事件增加 2.3 1.4 5.7 24.6 36.3 29.7 以 “迫切合計比例” 排序，北京大學生認為名列前幾位的全球迫切的環境問題是﹕土地沙漠化第一；熱帶森林消失第二；臭氧層破壞和天然資源枯竭並列第三；生物多樣性下降第四；溫室效應第五。如果僅以 “非常迫切” 的比例排序，北京大學生認為名列前幾位的全球迫切的環境問題是﹕土地沙漠化第一；天然資源枯竭第二；臭氧層破壞第三；熱帶森林消失第四；生物多樣性下降第五；溫室效應第六。兩種排序的前幾位可以看出，它們之間也有很強的一致性。表 5：調查對象對全球環境問題迫切性的排序全球環境問題非常迫切排序迫切合計% 排序臭氧層破壞 38.6 3 94.3 3 跨國界酸雨問題 10.0 10 82.6 9 溫室效應 30.6 6 92.6 6 生物多樣性下降 38.0 5 93.1 5 熱帶森林消失 43.7 2 93.9 4 土地沙漠化 58.3 1 98.9 1 天然資源枯竭 38.6 4 94.9 2 輻射污染 14.6 9 81.5 10 能源耗盡 29.7 7 88.5 8 極端氣候事件增加 29.7 8 90.6 7 大學生們對五年後國際環境狀況的估計上，認為將會變好(包括認為 “好多了”和 “好” 兩類)的合計比例為 25.2%，認為 “一樣” 的有 21.7%，而認為會變差的(包括認為 “差多了” 和 “差” 兩類) 的合計比例為 53.2%。反映大學生對國際環境前景不甚樂觀。㈳會發展目標在本次調查中，關於中國社會未來五年發展的一些優先考慮的問題中提供有四項內容可供選擇，它們是：(1) 維持高水平的經濟發展；(2) 維持強大的國防及警察部隊；(3) 讓人民在工作上和社區中有較多的發言權；(4) 應注重改善都市和鄉村的環境。調查結果表明，大學生們中多數認為經濟發展與改善環境兩項作為優先考慮。在上述四項內容中作為首選考慮的分佈中，首推經濟發展的佔 49.7%，首推改善環境的佔 37.4%。對上述四項內容中作為第二位選擇考慮時的回答中，選擇經濟發展的佔 31.4%，而選擇改善環境的佔 42.6%。相比之下，無論是在首選回答和第二位選擇回答中，第二項(國防實力)和第三項(民主參與)內容的選擇比例都相對較低。為了取得 119 調查對象在綜合性更強的條件下如何評價環境問題，本次調查設計了更多項目供調查對象進行最重要﹑第二位重要和最不重要項目的選擇。選項包括﹕1﹑維持社會秩序；2﹑論人民在政府的決議過程中有較多參與的機會； 3﹑阻止物價上升；4﹑保護言論自由；5﹑經濟成長；6﹑維持強大的國防及警察部隊；7﹑論人民在工作上和社區中有較多的發言權；8﹑應注重改善都市和鄉村的環境；9﹑維持經濟穩定；10﹑邁向一個較不冷漠，更有人情味和人道的社會；11﹑打擊犯罪；12﹑邁向一個有遠見和有理想比有錢更重要的社會。這些項目的調查結果在表 6 中集中提供。表 6：調查對象對各項發展政策評價選擇 (%) 選擇項目最重要第二位重要最不重要 1. 維持社會秩序 7.4 17.7 2.3 2. 讓人民在政府的決議過程中有較多參與的機會 3.4 9.4 7.1 3. 阻止物價上升 0.0 2.6 16.9 4. 保護言論自由 1.1 2.6 11.4 5. 經濟成長 28.3 11.1 0.9 6. 維持強大的國防及警察部隊 1.1 2.9 20.6 7. 讓人民在工作上和社區中有較多的發言權 0.6 2.6 5.4 8. 應注重改善都市和鄉村的環境 11.1 22.6 1.1 9. 維持經濟穩定 25.4 14.3 1.1 10. 邁向一個較不冷漠，更有人情味和人道的社會 4.3 4.0 20.3 11. 打擊犯罪 1.4 2.3 2.0 12. 邁向一個有遠見和有理想比有錢更重要的社會 15.7 8.0 10.9 合計 100.0 100.0 100.0 列在內容供選擇最為重要的回答中，選擇 “經濟成長”的比例最高(28.3%)，其次為 “維持經濟穩定” (25.4%)，然後是 “邁向一個有遠見和有理想比有錢更重要的社會” (15.7%)。選擇 “改善城鄉環境”為首位重要的比例為 11.1%，排在第四。選擇其他各項發展指標作為首選重要的比例都低於 10%。在上述 12 項內容中選擇第二位重要的發展目標時，選擇 “改善環境”的比例為 22.6%，排在第一位。另外回答比例較高的選擇分別為 “維持社會秩序” (17.7%)， “保持經濟穩定” (14.3%)， “經濟成長” (11.1%)。其他各項的比例都在 10%以下。考慮到本次調查的主旨是關於環境及可持續發展，調查對象在回答這兩個問題多次涉及關於環境問題，因此會有先入為主的心理影響。在這種情況下，調查對象對於關於環境的內容十分敏感，因此有可能產生某種導向。一般而言，關於環境選項的比例會有所提高。正是在這種情況下，我們發現多數大學生選擇今後五年最為重要的發展目標時，並沒有把 “改善環境”作為首選，選擇 “經濟成長”、“經濟穩定”、甚至 “邁向一個有遠見和有理想比有錢更重要的社會”的比例都高於 “改善環境”，確實反映了這發展目標在調查對象心目中的重要性。同時，選擇其他發展目標作為首選不意味著北京大學生不重視改善環境，只是相比之下他們認為最當務之急是發展和穩定經濟，這反映出大學生對於社會發展各項內容採取了比較務實的態度。在上述 12 項中， “邁向一個有遠見和有理想比有錢更重要的社會”一項是比較抽象的內容。但是在選擇首位重要目標時，它的比例高於 “改善環境”。這反映了大學生中同時存在理想主義和高尚人生價值的追求。然而，務實態度和高尚追求之間存在一定矛盾。比如，在選擇上述 12 項目標中最不重要的一項時，結果顯示出比例較高的幾項分別為：維持強大的國防及警察部隊(20.6%)，邁向一個較冷漠、更有人情味和人道的社會(20.3%)，阻止物價上升(16.9%)，保護言論自由(11.4%)，邁向一個有遠見和有理想比有錢更重要的社會(10.9%)。而 “經濟成長”、 “改善環境”、 “維持經濟穩定”則都是比例極低的選項。事實上，從上述 12 個方面的發展目標中權衡首位重要的選項，在大學生的認識中並不十分明確。比如， 120 以上問題答案比較集中於經濟方面和環境方面，實際上調查對象中在回答時需要權衡這兩者在他們心目中的權重。在調查設計中，問卷對上述 12 個方面進行了最重要和最不重要的選擇提問以後，相隔兩大類很多提問之後，又提問了如下問題： “您是否認為在當前中國，環境問題比經濟發展更重要﹖”。回答為 “不是”、 “不肯定”、 “是” 三種選項。通過調查數據對前面首位重要目標選擇與環境與經濟相對重要性的選擇所做的交互分析結果，有關部分顯示在表 7 中。表 7：調查對象對於環境與經濟相對重要性前後回答的比較 (%) 環境問題比經濟發展更重要在多發展目標中選擇在第一位重要者為不是不肯定是合計 5. 經濟成長 36.4 52.5 11.1 100.0 8. 應注重改善都市和鄉村的環境 -- 20.5 79.5 100.0 9. 維持經濟穩定 27.0 47.2 25.8 100.0 從表 7 中可以看到，在前面選擇 “5.經濟成長”的人(他們已經隱含地將經濟放在了環境之前)在要求明確回答兩者相對重要性時，一半以上人卻感到不肯定了。甚至有 11%的人的回答與前面選擇答案相反，認為環境問題是比經濟發展更重要。在前曾經選擇 “9.維持經濟穩定”作為最重要的發展目標的人中也發生了類似的情況。而在前面曾經選擇 “8.應注重改善都市和鄉村的環境”的人中盡管有少部分(20.5%)在要求明確回答兩者相對重要性時變得不肯定了，但沒有人發生返過來認為經濟比環境重要。從這裏可以看出，關於主觀感受和評價的問卷調查中，調查對象容易自覺不自覺地受到調查題目的暗示，尤其對於後續問題的回答和明確進行比較選擇時更容易受調查題目和先導問題的影響。此外，《全民環境意識調查分析報告》結果表明，來自全國的 3,663 名被訪者對十大社會問題(包括教育問題、物價上漲問題、人口問題、科技發展問題、社會治安問題、社會道德問題、環境問題、失業問題、貧富不均問題和住房問題)所表達的排序結果經過加權統計，環境問題被認為是第六位需要解決的問題。在北京大學生對環境問題看法調查中，對 12 項發展目標只要求選擇其中前兩位最重要的和其中最不重要的，因此無法進行總排序的加權統計。但是，僅從以上所示發展目標的重要性選擇結果來看，在大學生中認為改善環境的地位是比較靠前的。對環境保護政策的看法調查中對於環境保護與其他方面的關係還設計了一系列有關提問，這裏按答案選擇類型分別加以分析。表 8 說明，調查對象在對解決環境問題方面採取政策的看法是十分積極的。對 “您是否支持在可能減慢經濟增長的情況下，也要加保護中國的環境” 這一問題，採取支持態度(含支持和非常支持)的比例高達 78.8%，而採取反對態度的比例僅有 5.4%。這裏的回答表現出大學生們雖然十分重視經濟發展，但是反對單純注重經濟增長而不顧環境的破壞。相比之下，調查對象減少社會福利開支而增加資源改善的提問顯得有所保留，持 “非常支持”態度的比例比前一問題大幅度下降，而採取 “反對” 和 “中立”態度的比例卻顯著上升。將對前兩個問題的回答結果及前面對於經濟與環境重要性問題的回答聯繫起來看，大學生所期望的是經濟增長同時帶動社會福利水平的提高和逐步改善環境，而不是犧牲經濟增長或減少社會福利開支以換取環境的改善。大學生們對於推行 “排污收費”的環境管理制度和推行 “誰污染，誰治理”的環境政策的支持率都相當高，分別為 77.1%和 74.0%。並且，他們十分贊成在中國成立一些群眾性環境團體，其支持率達 94.0%。 121 表 8：調查對象對於採取保護環境的政策的態度 (%) 非常反對反對中立支持非常支持即使可能減慢經濟增長也要加強保護環境 0.29 5.14 15.71 49.14 29.71 減少社會福利開支而增加資源改善環境 1.14 16.00 29.14 48.00 5.71 推行 “排污收費”的環境管理制度 2.29 10.00 10.75 43.14 34.00 推行 “誰污染，誰治理”的環保政策 0.86 14.86 10.29 40.00 34.00 在中國成立一些群眾性環保團體 0.00 0.57 5.43 59.43 34.57 在表 9 中可以看到，與 “對減少社會福利開支而增加資源去改善中國的環境”問題的回答類似，調查對象在對 “是否願意為了保護環境而過簡樸的生活”上雖然選擇支持的比例超過半數，但表示 “非常願意”的比例較低，而表示 “不願意”或 “中立”的比例相對較高。這一特徵也同樣在 “是否願意為了改善環境而繳付較多的稅款”問題的回答中表現出來。表 9：調查對象對於個人生活與保護環境的關係 (%) 極不願意不願意中立願意非常願意是否願意為了保護環境而過簡樸的生活 1.14 12.00 28.00 50.29 8.57 是否願意為了改善環境而繳付較多的稅款 0.29 10.86 25.43 58.00 5.43 關於當前政府對環境保護的投入和宣傳教育工作(見表 10)，絕大多數調查對象都認為不夠，並且其中表示 “極不足夠”的比例很顯著，特別是對政府投入的問題上更是這樣。結果表明學生對加強環境教育及增加環保投資有強烈要求。表 10：調查對象對於環保工作的投入和宣傳教育的評價 (%) 極不足夠不足夠中立足夠非常足夠目前政府投入環境保護工作的資源是否足夠 36.86 54.29 6.86 1.71 0.29 目前政府的環境宣傳與環境教育是否足夠 28.57 63.71 6.86 0.86 0.00 關於 “誰應該為中國環境問題負最大責任”問題(表 11)，調查對象中大部分(66%)認為是政府。其中，43.4% 認為當地政府應負最大責任，22.6%認為應由中央政府負最大責任。儘管政府不是直接的環境破壞者，但是調查對象仍然認為政府的責任最大，這是因為企業和個人雖然可以自覺以實際行動參與環境保護，然而所受的局限性很大。特別是經濟活動的外部性(externality)問題，使得企業和個人往往形成不顧社會後果追求直接經濟效益的動機。對於這些損害社會公眾利益的行為，只有通過制定有關的法律的規章制度加以社會約束才能得到有效的制止，而在這一方面政府的權威最大。表 11：調查對象對於中國環境問題的最大責任者(%) 當地政府中央政府當地大型企業當地中小型企業一般群眾誰應該為中國環境問題負最大責任 43.43 22.57 11.43 16.86 5.71 在《全民環境意識調查分析報告》結果表明，公眾認為，目前改善環境問題，一是靠環境法規建設，二是 122 環境保護宣傳，三是國家增加環境保護方面的資金投入，四靠每個人對環境保護的努力。雖然本次調查中所詢問的是最大責任者，與以上調查提問方式不同，但是其中的緣故是相通的。應該說，多數北京大學生明確認為環境問題的最大責任者是政府，而不再僅僅將政府當作解決問題的訟裁人，反映了他們對於政府在制定和推行環保政策和法規的責任的更深入的理解，即政府在環保問題上不僅是具體問題發生後的處理者，而且有責任採取措施防範於未然。他們並不局限於對環境問題具體事件的直接責任者，而是在討論總體環境問題的責任者，這是大學生與一般公眾認識上的不同。本次調查說明，大學生們雖然對於環保問題的重要性有一定的認識，但是對於如何制止破壞環境的行為卻並不知道如何去做。在回答“當您發現有污染事件時，您是否清楚知道可到何處去投訴”問題時，只有 12.0% 的人表示“清楚知道”，而有 40.6%的人表示“不知道”，另有 47.4%的人表示“不肯定”。在對“長遠和有效解決環境問題的方法”問題上，有 72.6%的人選擇了“發展科技”的答案，23.7%的人選擇“改變生活方式”，另外有 3.7%的人表示“中立”，沒有發表明確意見。這一結果與前面所分析的大學生希望經濟發展、生活水平提高、同時保護環境的立場是一致的，多數人並不認為中國當前需要以改變生活方式為主要方法來保護環境，而是取各方面協調發展的觀點。個㆟參與環境保護情況在個人參與環境保護情況方面，調查問卷中列出 15 項具體活動，詢問調查對象願以何種形式參加。選擇答案共有六項，包括：不會參與參加、簽名請願、寫信往環保單位或投稿報刊雜誌、分派傳單喚起公眾關注、加入抗議隊伍、採取個人的直接行動(包括改變個人生活習慣)。表 12 列出了各類形式活動的選擇結果。從表 12 中可以看出，不參與的比例表現了對該項活動不積極的態度。例如，調查對象對第 12 項活動“爭取成為無核電國家” 的不參與率最高，達到 65%，表現出多數大學生並不將核電與環境破壞聯繫起來。此外對於“爭取動物權利” 和“限制汽車增長”的不參與率也比較高，兩者都在 20%以上。將汽車工業作為支柱產業的宣傳顯然對大學生有一定影響，導致其對限制汽車的不參與率稍高。不參與率在 10~20%之間的項目還有“10%土地劃為自然保護區”、“回收氯氟碳化合物”、“保持人口零增長”、“保護未受破壞地區”、“宣傳中國 21 世紀議程”、以及“開發自然資源時應受嚴格管制”。不參與率在 10%以下的項目有“喚醒糧食危機意識”、“宣傳人類為地球家庭的一份子的觀念”。“維護生物多樣性”、“全面節約運動”、“ 保護耕地”、“ 維護野生動物棲息環境”、“設立多一些公共空間或綠化地帶”。從上述項目的不參與率中可以看出，調查對象對於“爭取動物權利”與“保護生物多樣性”及“保護野生動物棲息環境”的態度有明顯差別，相當一部份人更關心的是維護物種保持和生態平衡，而並不是一般地強調動物權利。 123 表 12：調查對象個人參與環境保護活動形式的選擇結果（%）活動項目不參與簽名寫信傳單抗議直接行動要求政府立即回收氯氟碳化合物以減慢對臭氧層的破壞 17.43 44.86 11.14 12.57 3.71 10.29 宣傳「人類為地球家庭的一份子」的觀念 7.43 25.43 12.29 40.57 2.00 12.29 要求政府限制汽車增長以控制城市空氣污染問題 22.29 31.43 18.00 16.86 8.57 2.86 要求政府保護耕地，嚴格限制將良地變建地 4.29 31.71 26.29 17.14 19.14 1.43 要求政府在舊城區內設立多一些公共空間或綠化地帶 3.14 36.00 33.71 15.43 8.00 3.71 工業部門開發自然資源時應受嚴格限制 10.29 33.71 25.43 14.29 13.43 32.86 參與保護地球上未受破壞地區的運動，如極地和熱帶雨林 12.29 32.29 11.43 25.14 8.86 10.00 宣傳中國 21 世紀議程 12.29 22.00 10.86 45.71 2.00 7.14 保護世界野生動植物，維護生物多樣性 7.43 22.57 14.57 34.00 5.71 15.71 參與爭取動物權利的運動 24.86 24.29 10.29 21.14 10.57 8.86 參與喚醒中國人的糧食危機意識 8.00 21.43 18.29 34.57 4.57 13.14 爭取中國成為一個無核電國家 65.43 16.00 6.86 7.71 3.43 0.57 維護中國境內野生動物棲息環境 4.29 28.57 17.71 32.86 7.71 8.86 爭取將中國土地的 10%劃為自然保護區 17.71 32.00 21.14 20.00 6.57 2.57 推動將中國人口成長在 2010 年前維持在“零增長”水平 13.14 22.86 10.29 32.86 5.14 15.71 推動全民進行全面節約﹝節糧、節水、節地、節能﹞運動 6.29 18.86 8.57 31.14 2.86 32.29 合計% 236.6 444.0 256.9 402.0 112.3 148.3 平均% 14.8 27.8 16.1 25.1 7.0 9.3 在願意參加的環保活動中在所取的形式上也因活動內容不同而發生一些變化。但是一般而言，調查對象更願意以參加“簽名請願”和“分派傳單喚起公眾關注”的形式與環境保護活動，而不願採取“加入抗議隊伍” 的形式。這表示學生只願意參與一些非對抗性的環保活動。對“有沒有加入校內校外的環保社團”問題的回答顯示出，參加了環保社團的人只佔 5%，並且其中大部份人(4.3%)表示雖然參加了，但並不活躍。絕大多數人(81.4%) 表示，尚未參加但有興趣參加；只有 12.6%的人表示對參加環保社團沒有興趣。由此可見，在北京大學生中環保方面的活動很不活躍，社會組織也很少，涉及面很窄。個㆟環保知識及其取得渠道調查問卷中，特別設計了若干問題來反映調查對象對環境方面的知識程度和環境知識來源及取得渠道的情況。調查中列出 5 本有關環境保護的經典書籍：《寂靜的春天》，《增長的極限》，《只有一個地球》，《21 世紀議程》，《我們共同的未來》。總的來說，大學生們對這些書籍的閱讀率不高。除了《只有一個地球》的閱讀率為 34.4% 以外，其他四本書的閱讀率都在 6%至 15%之間。調查對象對於有關環境的重要國際會議及其文件的知識比有關書籍的了解程度明顯提高。在所列項目中包括：斯德哥爾摩人類環境會議(1972 年)，里約熱內盧國際環境與發展大會(1992 年)，《人類環境宣言》(聯合國)，《世界自然資源保護大綱》(聯合國)，中國第一次全國環境保護會議(1973 年)，《中國 21 世紀議程》。除了對於國內較早召開的第一次全國環境保護會議知道的比例較低(15.4%)以外，聽說過其他各項的比例都在 20%以上。 124 特別是對於《中國 21 世紀議程》、里約熱內盧國際環境與發展大會、《人類環境宣言》知道的比例較高，分別是為 40.6%、48.3%、56.6%。大學生們取得有關中國環境問題知識的正式出版刊物類型主要為通俗讀物(雜誌、報刊等)，有 88.3%的人在這類讀物上得到過有關信息。然而，通過其他形式的讀物獲得中國環境信息的比例都較低，比如：專著 (11.4%)，年鑑(4.0%)，學術期刊(22.3%)，工具書(10.3%)等。這反映出，大學生對於中國環境問題的了解程度並不深入，只有較少比例的人專門進行過學習和研究，中國的環境教育工作仍需深化，以強化學生對環境保護工作的承擔。調查對象對於更廣泛的環保知識取得途徑的回答表明(見表 13)，大學生取得環保知識的最主要形式為影響廣泛的大眾傳媒形式，如報紙、雜誌和電視、電台，表示“經常”能夠從這兩方面得到信息的比例都為 76%。經常能從有關書籍和期刊中取得信息的比例則為 49.4%，而從其他渠道經常取得信息的比例相對較低。表 13：調查對象環保知識取得的途徑（%）途徑類型從不偶而經常報紙、雜誌 0.0 23.7 76.3 電視，電台 0.0 24.0 76.0 與家人交談 17.7 67.4 14.9 與朋友交談 5.1 67.1 27.7 書籍、期刊 5.4 45.1 49.4 課程、會議 25.4 57.4 17.1 政府發佈消息 12.3 66.6 21.1 環保組織 24.0 60.6 15.4 總結在世紀之交的今天，對發展道路的反思，已經成為世界性的話題。大學生是未來社會的棟樑，他們的思想、信念與行為，對推動社會發展起了極重要的作用。這個調查結果顯示，北京的大學生認為中國目前最迫切的環境問題依次為：森林面積減少、水土流失、水污染、空氣污染、垃圾、和濫佔耕地等。至於全球性環境問題，學生認為土地沙漠化問題最為嚴重，其他依次是天然資源枯竭、臭氧層破壞、熱帶雨林消失、生物多樣性下降和溫室效應等。可見同學在考慮全球環境問題迫切性時，亦以中國國情為依歸。關於中國社會發展的優先次序，學生首推經濟發展最優先考慮的佔 49.7%，而首推改善環境的佔 37.4%。總體而言，學生希望經濟增長能帶動社會福利水平提高進而逐步改善環境，他們不願意以犧牲經濟增長或減少社會福利來換取環境改善。此外，北京大學生對於參與環保活動並不活躍，環保組織很少，涉及面很窄。大部分學生只願意用 “簽名請願” 和 “分派傳單喚起公眾關注” 的形式參與環保活動，而不願意採取 “加入抗議隊伍” 的形式。大學生取得環境問題的資訊主要來自大眾傳媒，他們對於一些環境運動具影響力的經典書籍的閱讀率不高，對於中國環境問題也缺乏深入的認識，中國的環境教育工作仍有待深化。雖然如此，北京大學生對於環境、資源和可持續發展有基本的認識，對環境保護工作有熱誠及願意承擔責任，顯示知識分子對環境問題的敏感度較高，是推動中國環境運動的動力來源。 125 殖民㆞㈳會㆗的民族意識：香港回歸前後的公民教育葉國洪香港浸會大㈻教育系 1997 年 7 ㈪ 1 ㈰是香港回歸祖國懷抱的劃時㈹㈰子。回歸後香港行政㈵區在「㆒國兩制」與「高度㉂治」原則 ㆘繼續發展。後殖民㆞(Post-colonialism) 教育將是香港教育的另㆒㈵色。誇大和忽視殖民㆞主義對香港的控制和幕後誘導作用，對真正認識香港實情絕無好處。而回歸前香港政府向來對公民教育是「明褒暗貶，明揚暗抑」的，故研究和展望廿㆒世紀香港㈵別行政區公民教育，是㈲現實需要和時㈹意義的。殖民㆞主義以異族控制香港㆞域㈾源及戰略要塞，當然不欲被統治者民族主義高漲，故嚴禁㈻校談政治更明文規定，「重英輕㆗」及「暗抑㆗史」實是英㆟統治百年方針。不過，㉂從 1967 年香港暴動以後，英㆟重視「懷柔政策」，於課程㆖不著痕跡㆞幕後操控，少㈲公然「鎮壓」，淡化年輕㆒㈹㆗國青年的民族意識，在㆒定程度㆖頗為成功，故回歸後在公民教育方面，須㆘㆒番不偏不倚的「撥亂返正」工夫。香港教育發展的歷史特點許多人誤以為香港是自由港，香港政府奉行「積極的不干涉政策」，可以清靜無為，垂拱而治。雖然香港政府盡量不干預經濟去讓經濟自由發展，但政府在穩定社會的大前題下對米價、公共設施、醫療保健、教育、勞資糾紛仲裁和房屋等方面有一定程度上的介入，使香港擁有龐大廉價勞動人口以支援工商業的急速發展。(J.R. Schiffer, 1985)1除了殖民地掠奪資源和操縱特權外，我們不能不承認英國人在十九世紀末在香港推動的現代化「聲、光、化、電」建設，頗能傲視同齊。(區域市政總署博物館事務組，1986)2 而英國人重視工商競爭力的保持和發展，故亦重視買辦、通譯及公務員人才的培養，香港教育就在這環境下成長和茁壯的。香港回歸後的公民教育在 1984 年 9 月 26 日簽訂了《中英聯合聲明》3；自此，香港進入一個非殖民化的過程。教育在這過渡期中，既 1 Schiffer, J.R. (1985). Anatomy of a laisser-faire government: The Hong Kong growth model reconsidered. In P. Hills (Ed.), State Policy, Urbanization and Development Process (pp1-29). Hong Kong: Centre of Urban Studies and Urban Planning, University of Hong Kong. 有學者認為香港優惠低入息家庭的公屋政策與維繫社會穩定有莫大關係，1還間接減低貧富差距，可見香港政府在城市規劃扮演一定程度上重要的角色。 2 區域市政總署博物館事務組 (1986)。《香港鐵路博物館》。香港：區域市政總署博物館事務組，頁 9-10。孫中山在十九世紀末年代曾看到英國人統治下的香港市容整潔，交通發達，洋房建築牢穩，因而泛起西化改革之心，可見香港的城市規劃比當時的清政府進步得多，而當時中國現代化的社經改革，直接或間接多取材自香港。 3 香港處於一個其他地區從未遇過的政治的狀況，這個狀況的背後有三條中國歷屆政府都不承認的不公平條約，中華人民共和國成立後， Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 126 可成為社會穩定的力量，也是社會改變的根源。(Postiglione, 1992; 1997)) 香港教育制度一直如「拼盆形式」(香港布政司署，1981)，沒有長遠整體的目標和規劃，自從中英簽署聯合聲明後，由於不少問題已明朗化，如教學語言、私校問題及公民教育等問題才受到應有的重視 4。撇開有關港督(港英最後一任港督)彭定康政制改所引起的中英爭拗事件不論，「一國兩制」的模式是香港前所未有的政治狀況 5，如果能成功運作的話，將為世界政治發展史上一項「新轉機」。談及公民教育問題，「公民」是指具有一個國家的國籍身分，根據該國的憲法和法律規定而享有權利並承擔義務的人。從過去一百多年的殖民地子民到香港特別行政區公民概念的形成，港人面對個人身分與角色的轉變6 。公民教育的定義無絕對性的準則(Wright, I. (1993)) 7。「公民」和「國民」的身分，相對公民教育而言，國民教育是狹義的「尋根源」--------民族教育部分，是公民教育範疇中重要的一環，也是一向以來在香港的學校公民教育中所欠缺的 (學校公民教育指指引 , 1985)。從廣義而言，公民教育是社化 (Socialization)及再社化 (Re-Socialization)歷程的一部分，是社會培養新加入成員在政治、經濟和社會生活中成為理想公民的一個教育過程；不同的時空(光明日報，1995)、文化和意識形態下，對理想公民有不同的準則，而且決定了推行公民教育的目標、內容和方法(White, 1982)。本港推行現代公民教育已廿多年8，其間遭遇不少內外困阻。在一般香港學校的環境中，通過課程的設計、評鑑的方法、畢業考核的要求，校方著重將知識灌輸給學生，較少顧及青少年的情感和理性的發展，故鮮能使培訓學生成為自主、自決的公民(Neill, 1996)。因此，在學校推行理想的公民教育，除了灌輸「知」以外，還應注重「情」「理」的培養，透過實際生活經驗的體會，希望能將知識和技能融合成積極的生活態度。香港推行公民教育，應該使香港市民在面對 97 前後的國民身分轉變時，能夠處於泰然、樂於接受及認同新的國民身分。英國的政治教育(Political Education/Citizenship education)中心訊息是帝國主義而非民族主義，教育目標在於政治啟悟(political literacy)(Porter, 1981)，即知識、態度和技能，及對當代政治學的理解。推行公民教育是香港政府九十年代教育政策過渡期的準備的目標之一(Hong Kong Government, 1996)。教育問題多變多端，客觀事實的發現，尚須不斷考究，而個案研究能夠提供問題成因之理解，對錯綜關係、動態變化之情境作適當的分析的研究(Yip, 1995)。然而天主教學校在公民教育方面有果敢堅毅的嘗試。多次闡明對香港問題的立場，即：香港是中國的領土，作為歷史遺留下來的問題，中國政府一直主張，在適當時候以適當方式收回香港主權。 1982 年前英首相戴卓爾夫人訪問北京，提出以「主權換治權」的建議遭拒絕，經英國外交大臣賀維多次談判，英國接受了鄧小平提出的「一國兩制」的政治構想， 4 參閱香港教育統籌委員會第一、三、第四號《教育統籌委員會報告書》及《學校公民教育指引》(1985)。 5 Bray, M., & Lee, W. O. (1993). Education, democracy and colonial transition: The case of Hong Kong. International Review of Education, 39(6), 541-560. 6 除了要作好心理上的準備，還作好認知方面的準備，以改變生活態度，才能掌握應付環境改變的技能.Kelly, G. P., & Altbach, P. G. (1978). Education and Colonialism. New York: Longman. 7 「公民」(citizenship)( 大英百科全書(1970)) －－－是個人和國家之間，由該國的法律所制定的關係，並因此而衍生出「公民」的權力和義務。美國百科全書(1978)「公民」是個人與國家之間的關係，其中包括個人在該國完整的政治地位和他對國家的效忠，公民有其權利和義務。而中國則認為公民教育(辭海(1979))是「資本主義國家為訓練適應資產階級政治需要的公民而進行的政治思想教育」、「社會主義中愛國主義與國際主義教育(patriotism and internationalism education)是緊緊相關的。」(中國大百科全書(1992))因而歸類於德育課。政治課歸類於思想教育課。台灣則認為「公民(citizen)具有一國國籍，而又享有公法上權利及承擔公法義務的人。國民未必都享有公權及公法義務，故與公民不同。國民如具公民資格，在法律上則享有憲法所賦予權利。“中華民國” 公民有選舉、罷免、創制、複決之權“憲法”十七條」。(大辭典 (1985)) 並參 Wright, I. (1993). Civic education is values education. Social Studies, 84(4), 149-152. 8 1967 年暴動後教署在課程上推出公民、經濟及公共事務、政治及經濟事務等科目,進行零散的公民教育。 127 在本港學校推行公民教育/國民教育的有不少困阻，我們必須認真對付。首先確定在學校推行公民教育/國民教育的意義，為了使受教者成為一個面對大時代轉變的對社會、國家以至世界有貢獻的「好」公民，一般學校的文化和氣氛，制訂推行公民教育/國民教育的內容及範疇，界定學校在推行公民教育/國民教育所擔當的角色，在教學法、推行模式、活動設計、考量評估等，從實踐中改善；歸納政策決定者、執行者和受眾的意見，將在學校推行公民教育/國民教育的困阻鋪陳出來，然後尋求解決辦法。教師教育是一種專業教育。教師教育能幫助教師有效地掌握學科知識和傳授技巧，與學生共同分享。假設教師有一定的使命感和專業精神，對學生的發展特質有深刻的了解，發現學生的學習和情緒問題，繼而積極尋求解決的方法。個人的學識、教學技巧、專業態度和應變能力，是「有效能教師」的指標(盧乃桂，1995)。從研究取向和成果的角度觀之，教師培訓者一般未臻拓展和批判知識的境界(Lanier & Little, 1987)。教師是實際推行公民教育時的人力資源，一般教師背景、文化及對民族文化的認同程度的差異，要組織一個有效能的工作小組不容易。為解決這個困難，教師間須瀰漫著學習氣氛，積極推動公民教育統籌委員會工作，推動由統籌主任帶動提昇同事們對香港現勢的了解及對國家、民族的認同感。學生反應方面，他律階段的兒童，或價值觀念不正確或混亂衝突的兒童，經過澄清討論後，還不能或無法澄清其行為觀念，教師應該明白指引一條坦道，使其直道而行，自律的道德不可流為放縱(permissiveness)。價值是行為表現的一種，有事實可徵，有軌跡可循，而非只是個人主觀的「情感」表現，在價值建立的過程中，運用批判性的智慧逐步探討，在建立的歷程中，教師應標示明確的「價值導向」，而非完全的「價值中立」(value free) 9。在華人社會中，兒童的道德與價值觀念，直接受父母的影響，在多元化社會中，並沒有一個被所有人都接受的「良好公民」的意念(Lawton & Dufour, 1973)；香港是一個經濟主導的社會，升學和考試主導著教育，由小學一年級開始，教育首要任務是抗衡學生家長的價值觀；功利主義和政治恐懼是一般香港市民的心態(曾榮光， 1986)。1991 年立法局引入直選，民間爭論民主進程步伐，意見紛紜，中、英關係發生變化，至九五年因「彭定康方案」、「臨時立法會」的法理問題爭拗升級，期間政治氣候乍冷乍暖。大家對「民族主義」、「愛國」、「國民」等名詞也不輕易提起，遑論從事推行工作，亦恐怕引起學生家長的敏感猜度，何況當時政壇上正興起「扣帽子」風。從與學生的談話中，可以發掘他們的求知慾，但他們對事件的因果一知半解，家庭與學校給予他們的支援有限，教師因為課程緊迫，沒有時間解答學生的問題，家長以公民教育非「呈分」科目，不加重視，政治問題過去是教育的「禁區」，到九十年代才解禁，無論是教師及家長在政治知識、態度和技能方面，都未能滿足香港今日兒童正在被開啟的政治思想的腦袋。公民教育應該是一門獨立學科，我們應以嚴肅認真的態度去面對，我們應抱持正義、仁愛，和平、自由、平等等觀念、拓闊個人及學生對香港的視野和局限。我們應培養個人及學生正確的國家、民族觀念；尋自己的根，認同自己的文化，投身本地建設，從客觀的認識開始，到理性的判斷和感情的培養，「扎根香港、胸懷祖國、放眼世界」。我們應不斷「思考、生活、實踐」，運用「價值澄清法」(Value Clarification)(Kirschenbaum, 1977)教授公民教育，知識、態度、技能三者並重。我們應觀察、思考、判斷、確定立場，作出個人的選擇和決定。學校行政階層方面，吳清基(1984)建議：建立正確教育行政人員價值觀念，是提高教育行政決策合理運作 9價直中立是討論過程的態度，當學生未有足夠的知識作為獨立思考的基礎時，教師應負起有方向性的價值指導。 128 的當務之急，鼓勵教育行政人員在職進修，增進教育行政人員知識能力，避免個人直覺反射決定和減少個人人格特質影響強化基層教育行政人員素質，不同教育行政人員作決策時，受個人因素影響的差異非常顯著；重視非主管職人員教育行政功能，許多重要教育行政決策的達成，原始創意往往來自幕僚人員的作業；加強教育行政專業態度訓練，促進教育行政決策的專業取向發展；提高教育行政決策合理運作，首先對影響教育行政決策的因素要有確切了解和掌握。個人因素方面，必須建立正確的理性個人價值觀念，增進廣博適用的個人知識能力，調適衝動的不當的個人直覺習慣，陶冶合適的完美的個人人格特質；在組織因素方面，應建立良好的有效祖織資訊溝通系統，改進和諧良善的內部人際關係，避免不當的有害組織外在壓力影響，慎選合理的可行的組織傳統習慣作法。(Stufflebeam, 1971)10 教師方面，Crick & Porter (1978)指出在不同的社會環境，對政治教育一詞有不同的理解，政治教育應有的內涵：認知層面(cognitive domain)、態度層面(affective domain)、交往層面(interactive domain)、行為層面(action domain)。社會探究法強調對公眾的事件(public issues)開放而反思的探究。梁一鳴(1991)認為社會醒覺(Awareness) 和關注(Concern)是一種精神狀態，具體表現在青少年及社會事物的關注(產生興趣)、了解和探討。很多社會和政治事件是缺乏理論及信念基礎，教師的角色相對重要，探究的模式著重思考、探求和討論，更提供了運用邏輯推理和理性思考的訓練機會，可有助於教師教導學生探求、決策和判斷的能力，負責任的參與在於探究。推行國民教育不單是一個認知教育，更是情感的教育，不少教師對國家民族缺少認同感(香港教育工作者聯會， 1996)，他們在小學推行國民教育可從認知層面開始，為學生提供中國國情的資料，遇到爭議性課題時，先採取積極中立的態度，不為學生提供答案結論；教師本身亦可透過推行國民教育的過程中，更新或塑造自己對國家的歸屬感，成為一個愛國的中國特區公民，為人師表，實踐一國兩制；如果作為一個中國人對國情認識不足，民族情感薄弱。只愛「過去」，而沒有民族感情和國家觀念，欠缺承擔感；只愛「未來」，會脫離現實，愛一個理想中的烏托邦，是虛浮的、自私的；一個好國民應該承繼「過去」，認識「現在」，為「未來」奉獻。學生反應方面，公民參與(Spiegel & Mittenthal, 1986)11是一個難以捉摸的理念(Spiegel & Mittenthal, 1986)。對事物的看法、信念，即使有人實證，仍然要存懷疑，以不同角度分析資料，挑戰權威的態度，評估後用正面的解決方法，反思，加上創作性思考，其實是對自己信念的挑戰，教師感性的反應容易引起學生相應的 10.學校行政階層方面自《學校公民教育指引》(1985)之後，教育署輔導視學組的督學建議學校在各科教學計劃中配合公民教育的零碎作法，只是形式上聊備一格，執行與否，全賴教師的自發與自律；踏入九十年代，社會政治氣氛鼓吹「民主」，學校如果要全面系統化推行公民教育，首先要取得校監、校董會、家長的同意和支持。對於推行公民教育的開明程度不一致，需要在尋求校董認同推行公民教育的意義時，要得到校董會大多數成員的支持，有一定的困難。政治氣候的乍冷乍暖，無論是校董、教育工作者或者是學生家長，普遍對政治敏感而且恐懼。學生家長對學校政策的關心和迴響，速度很快、聲音很大；因此家長對於推行公民教育的反應，亦是學校行政人員需要關注。《指引》(96)指出公民教育的內容包括知識、反思、行動、價值、態度、信念和能力七部分；跟進評估是統籌工作不可或缺的。知識的部分可以評估，但態度和技能方面的評度考量很難，加上教師的工作量很大，一般香港土生土長的年青教師，對中國歷史、民族的觀念模糊，大部分「力不從心」，所以雖然學校設有公民教育統籌委員會，但有關課程設計、策劃活動、整理和分配資源、計劃和評估工作，校長責無旁貸的要負起領導工作(White, 1982)。有關信念、態度、價值觀和能力的評估，可以透過相關時事小評、道德處境生活實踐、模擬參與社會及政治活動進行(Scrieven, 1967)、經常公開或在早會時間與學生討論時事問題，讓他們發表意見，在交流中澄清某些價值觀念。 Stufflebeam (1971)提及的 CIPP 評估模式，範圍包括：C—事件發生前後的脈絡評估(Context evaluation)、I—投入工作的評估(Input evaluation)、P—過程的評估(Process evaluation)、P—成果評估(Product evaluation)。可以作為評估工作的參考，但如何讓評估工作制度化，而不是隨負責教師個人學養主觀判斷，作為教育行政人員在尊重教師工作滿足感之餘，又不失工作素質，是推行公民教育/國民教育的困阻。 11參閱 Spiegel, H., & Mittenthal, S. (1986). The many faces of citizen participation : A bibliographic overview. In Citizen Participation in Unba Development. Vol. 1. Washington, USA: Nation Training Laboratories. 參與(civic participation)-政治參與(political participation)、公眾參與(public participation)、基層參與(grass-roots participation)、普及參與 (popular participation)、人民參與(people’s participation)、社區參與(community participation)。 129 行動。研究實體安排每周早會主題，訂定全年公民教育活動計劃，循序漸進，利用多元化活動形式推行，逐步將早會公民教育內容加入測驗及考試中。將每天的早禱連結當日社會生活或政治事件，讓學生把關心社會事務生活化，從而影響家長的看法。初時答應試行把報章時事資料加在社會科第一次測驗卷中而不算分數，並且答應範圍不超越早會的公民教育時間內容；以後擴展至所有測驗、考試。九六年採用常識科，試題中，亦加入「香港現勢」部分；內容滲透在各類試題中，不超過 15%，教師擬試題時，不能讓學生感覺那是令他們「失分」的部分，而是使他們「得分」的部分，鼓勵學生從課本以外的資訊中獲取知識。香港回歸後的歷史教育教育目標是造就有創造力、有思想、有活力的人，(Jan Kluczynski, 1983) 須能幫助國家經濟與文化部門完成國家和地方的發展任務。故此，香港教育推行教育改革加重民族教育成份，推行實是急不容緩。民族教育須注意要點:1.打破過往弊病:劃一性、封閉性、非國際性。2.在民族中仍重視個性原則:確立個人尊嚴、尊重個性、自由（與放縱、無秩序、無責任、無規律完全不同）、自律、和自我負責的原則。3. 在民族中仍重視個人尊嚴、尊重個性、自由、自律、和自我負責是不可分割的統一整體。12 (日本臨時教育審議會關於教育改革的咨詢報告, 1984) 4.民族社會（national community）：1 政治：公民身份決定于國民身份，而民族社會是本土環境中最高層次。2 民族主義和愛國主義：在不隨意犧牲人權的前題下，強調國民身份及歸屬感、盡力協助國家凝聚力的形成和國力的增強。 5. 大學生應學習範圍：了解本國政府和文化基本意識形態，了解本國政、經、行政體制；了解本國社、政問題，參與的途徑和方式；了解本國公民的權利和責任13，及了解中國文化和歷史，以培養民族認同和愛國精神。結論:民族為本的國際化科技化教育是廿一世紀香港教育新方向邁向廿一世紀的香港特區，回歸後約五年，須全面重組課程結構。在不削弱本港既有國際競爭力的前題下，宜突出歷史教育和公民教育。歷史教育強調近代現代史的興衰得失，中三至中七，校內校外考試都是必答題，以免部分教師取巧刪略不教。文化史部分，應強調近代現代經濟改革的波折歷史，讓學生了解當代經濟改革的迫切性和必要性。歷史教育和公民教育都應在非殖民地方面發揮應有的作用－－立足香港，胸懷祖國，民族為本，面向世界。公民教育亦以民族為本，結合歷史教育去培養理性為本的愛國主義，然後強調基本法教育、法律教育、人權教育、環保教育與及道德為本的性教育。此外，要維持及增強本港既有國際競爭力，發展國際化(Internationalization)及科技化(Technologicalization)、電腦化(Computerization)，但仍須以「一國兩制」原則下的民族利益為前題。所以可以說民族為本的國際化科技化教育是廿一世紀香港教育新方向。最後，透過民族為本的歷史教育和公民教育，我們所憧憬的目標是培養學生具有更為自主、自律地學習、獨立思考和有意義地生活的能力。而具有深遽睿智的文化修養、深厚的民族感情和使命感始可以為學生生活添上源頭活水，提供內在的澎湃動力，去發展潛能，將來為本港、為祖國爭光立功，進而為全人類作出獨特的貢獻。 12日本臨時教育審議會關於教育改革的咨詢報告,1984 年 9 月,轉引自（中國）中小學課程改革與試驗課題組赴日考察團《日本中小學教育和課程----中小學課程改革與試驗課題組赴曰考察報告》北京:人民教育,1994,頁 20-21. 13香港學生應該了解：政治上：中國政府的意識形態是社會主義和共產主義; 經濟上：中國政府的是計劃經濟和社會主義市場經濟; 行政上：中國政府的是民主集中制和共產主義基本機制; 深入了解中國文化和歷史，以培養民族認同和愛國精神。 130 參考書目 Bray, M. & Lee, W. 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Tan, 1994) 教育行為知識技能環境教育目的強調小學環境習慣的形式掌握和應用知識於周遭環境觀察技能及簡單的實驗知識和環境倫理(初小及高小) 高小則著重公民行動技能中學於家中及社區事務裏實踐愛護環境的習慣應用知識去解決在社區層面的問題簡單的問題解決和決策公民行動技能、公民行動經驗及環境倫理。初中則著重環境知識。 (四)Tilbury(1995)認為以「可持續發展」為路向的環境教育應以宏觀式(holistic)課程取向作為基礎，這就是說「可持續性」應整合在各個學習範疇(areas of learning)。陳佩正(1996)亦指出環境教育具有跨學科的特性，是學科整合的最佳工具。除了學科(正規課程)外，應透過非正規課程(如校外機構所舉辦的活動)和非正式課程(課外活動) 推行環境教育，正如《學校環境教育指引》(香港課程發展議會，1999a，頁 13)所言：「只有透過參與校內及校外形形色色的環境教育活動，才能使學生最有效地學習。」在香港推行環境教育的挑戰不少過往的研究顯示，香港學校的環境教育狀況並不算理想，取向較強調認識環境的教育，而置身環境的教育和關心環境的教育相對地受到忽視(Lee, 1997)。學校環境教育在管理和實施有被「邊緣化」(marginalised)的現象，例如不少學校沒有正式的委員會或專責老師統籌環境教育的推行；正規課程方面，環境教育主要透過滲透方式，在小學的常識科、中學的地理科、生物科、綜合科學科、社會科或學校所設立的德育、公民教育和宗教教育學程裏教授。課外活動方面，部份中學透過與環保有關的學會或興趣小組安排環境教育活動，部份小學則透過環保日、環保週或其他活動(如旅行、參觀、植樹、清潔活動等)讓學生參與(李子建，1998)。綜合而言，在香港推行以「可持續教育」為路向的環境教育，會面對兩大障礙(Ham & Sewing, 1987-88)：（一）支援上的障礙：一般教師的工作量都十分繁重，缺乏時間設計環境教育活動或計劃。另一方面，教師受到公開考試或校內評估的影響，精力多花在完成學科課程內容，以致缺乏上課時間教授環境教育。此外，學校缺乏財政和額外資源推行環境教育活動(如戶外考察)。（二）教育上的障礙： 135 部份教師對「可持續發展」的概念以至環境教育的理念都沒有深入的認識，因此他們缺乏信心推行環境教育。部份教師則對「可持續發展」持有不同的見解，例如他們對環境倫理的看法可能偏向以人類中心主義(楊冠政，1996)，與強調以生態中心主義為本的可持續發展觀點可能不甚相容(周儒，1992)。另外，一些教師可能對推行環境教育缺乏興趣，或缺乏適當的訓練去推行環境教育(Cherif, 1992；Stimpson, 1997)。推行以「可持續發展」為路向的環境教育面對的機遇縱使推行環境教育面對不少困難，但是最近教育改革的趨勢和課程政策的改變，對推行環境教育仍創造不少機會。在資源方面，學校可以透過「優質教育基金」、環境及自然保護基金等申請撥款，以資助進行環境教育活動；構思中的「可持續發展基金」也許會為學校提供額外的資源支援環境教育活動。最近發表的《香港學校課程整體檢視改革建議》(香港課程發展議會，1999b)指出課程的改革應加強學生所需的基本能力元素，如積極的價值觀和態度(如環境教育)，鼓勵為學生提供機會，「體驗課堂以外的生活，讓學生參加由學校或外間機構舉辦的活動」(頁 5)，也建議「利用課程統整，為開放及高彈性的課程架構發展多樣化的學習模式」(頁 6)。就課程統整而言，學校可以主題來統整各科教學，例如浸信會呂明才小學下午校在六年級實行課程統整，以「和諧綠世界」為學校主題把中、英、常識、美勞、音樂、聖經等各科統整起來。學校也可以考慮發展以活動為本的跨科目(科際)取向，用以統整課程和推動環境教育，例如 Kwan(1996)以「你今天有沒有摟抱一棵樹？」為題，使學生從不同學科(如語文、數學、美術、音樂、舞蹈及戲劇、體育、健康、社會、科學、烹飪等)的角度認識「樹」及其對生態系統的重要性。除了綜合活動外，教師又可安排與「可持續發展」或「環境保護」為主題的專題設計，為學生提供從多角度思考問題的機會。此外，學校可與社會機構和環保組織結成夥伴，利用社區環境的學習機會，讓學生親身感受環境問題的迫切性，並透過身體力行去服務社區(如清潔社區、植樹、宣傳環境保護的重要性)。這些活動除了發揮環境教育的「社區為本」取向和「行動」取向外，也豐富了學生的生活經歷，從中也提供了發展學生體能和培養他們對環境美感和覺醒的機會。如果在發展校本環境教育的活動過程中遇到困難，學校亦可考慮向大專院校尋求支援服務(如提供到校的在職教師培訓)，或與它們建立夥伴關係(如共同發展以「可持續發展」為路向的校本環境教育課程)，這樣便可消除部份學校發展環境教育的阻礙。理想的學校環境教育，應該採取全校取向，意即通過教職員工的團結和合作以及校外的支援締造一個有利環境，致力實現「可持續發展」的遠景(李子建，1998)。在未達致全校取向的層次之前，學校可以採取下列策略推動環境教育：（一）有些研究顯示，校長和一些「核心小組成員」(core group members)是推動學校環境教育不可或缺的因素(如 Lee, 1999；課程發展議會，1999a)。因此，校長宜扮演領導的角色，鼓勵師生發展校本環境教育活動，並嘗試在人力、物力和財政資源方面提供實質而充足的支援推行環境教育。在人手方面，校長可組織地理科、生物科、綜合科教師或對環境教育有興趣的教師組成「工作小組」，作為校內推行環境教育的核心成員。（二）在組織環境教育課程和活動方面，學校可先透過「滲透」方式，在一些與環境教育關係較直接的學科(如地理科、生物科等)加強「可持續發展」教育，學校也可利用考試後的時間或學期中 136 一段時間，先開展一些小規模與「可持續發展」有關的「綜合學習」單元，這樣對正規課程的教學進度影響較少。此外，學校可鼓勵高年級學生協助設計和組織環境教育活動；學校更可鼓勵家長參與和支持有關環境教育的活動，並在家中實踐符合環保的生活方式。（三）學校宜定期檢討校內環境教育的進展和評估學校環境教育活動的成效，並多與其他學校交流推動環境教育的經驗。當學校環境教育發展至一定水平時，學校可考慮成立一個「環境教育委員會」，透過正式機制策動全校師生和員工制定校本的環保政策和長期的環境教育計劃。這樣，學校的環境教育才能「可持續發展」。參考書目中華人民共和國香港特別行政區政府資訊中心網頁：一九九九年施政報告全文（http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/199910/06/addressc1j.htm）。李子建（1998）。《中小學環境教育理倫與實踐：邁向可持續發展》。中國：北京師範大學出版社。周儒（1992）。環境倫理的探討。載《環境教育》，第 15 期，頁 25-31。明報（2002）。〈董晤環團及商會可持續發展委員會押後成立〉。1 月 18 日。柏蔚元、尼奧斯．斯坦（1999）。《邁向可持續發展？香港環境可持續性實用指標》。香港：香港大學城市規劃及環境管理研究中心。香港課程發展議會（1999a）。《學校環境教育指引》。香港：香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（1999b）。《香港學校課程整體檢視改革建議》。香港：香港教育署。浸信會呂明才小學下午校。《課程統整特刊—和諧綠世界》。香港：環境及自然保育基金。張坤民（1997）。《可持續發展論》。北京：中國環境科學出版社。許嘉琳、王紅旗、周又紅、張亞立、郝芳華（1996）。《面向可持續發展的中學環境教育》。北京：北京師範大學出版社。陳佩正（1996）。環境教育―學科整合的最佳工具。載《環境教育》，第 28 期，頁 53-58。楊冠政（1996）。人類中心主義。載《環境教育》，第 28 期，頁 33-49。蔡亞娜、程舸、黃秉坤（1994）。《持續發展與環境教育》。廣州：廣東人民出版社。 Cherif, A. H. (1992). Barriers to ecology education in North American high schools: Another alternative perspective. Journal of Environmental Education, 23(3), 36-46. Department of Education, Queensland. (1992). Teaching for ecologically sustainable development: Guidelines for years 11-12 geography. Queensland, Australia: Department of Education. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. (1999). Sustainable development education panel: First annual report 1998. Norwich, UK: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Disinger, J. F. (1990). Environmental education for sustainable development? Journal of Environmental Education, 21(4), 3-6. Engleson, D. C., & Yockers, D. H. (1994). A guide to curriculum planning in environmental education. Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. Fien, J. (1997). Stand up, stand up and be counted: Undermining myths of environmental education. Australian Journal 137 of Environmental Education, 13, 21-26. Ham, S. H., & Sewing, D. R. (1987-88). Barriers to environmental education, Journal of Environmental Education, 19(2), 17-24. Huckle, J. (1991). Education for sustainability: Assessing pathways to the future. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 7, 43-62. Huckle, J., & Sterling, S. (1996). Education for sustainability. London: Earthscan Publication Ltd. Kwan, T. (1996). Preparing “small” environmentalists through activity-based and interdisciplinary environmental teaching. New Horizons in Education, 36, 94-103. Lee, J. C. K. (1997). Environmental education in schools in Hong Kong. Environmental Education Research, 3(3), 359-372. Lee, J. C. K. (1999). Case studies on the adoption of environmental education: A Hong Kong perspective. Environmental Education and Information, 18(1), 13-28. Stimpson, P. G. (1997). Environmental challenge and curricular responses in Hong Kong. Environmental Education Research, 3(3), 345-357. Tan, M. C. (1994). Environmental education for sustainable development in ASEAN secondary schools. In D. Bandhu, H. Bongartz, A.G. Ghaznawi & B. Gopal (Eds.), Environmental education for sustainable development (pp.463-472). New Delhi: Indian Environmental Education and UNESCO. Tilbury, D. (1995). Environmental education for sustainability: Defining the new focus of environmental education in the 1990s. Environmental Education Research, 1(2), 195-212. 138 澳門小㈻課程的發展：法令㆔㈧／㈨㆕／M 古鼎儀香港教育㈻院前言自一九八七年中葡聯合聲明在北京簽署，澳門教育進入了另一個新的發展階段。一九九一年八月廿九日澳門政府頒布第一一／九一／M 號的《澳門教育制度》法令，制訂了澳門教育制度的總綱。其後教育暨青年司於一九九五年／九六年度開始課程改革工作，包括修訂和編製各類澳門本地課程文件和教學大綱實施於官立學校，並再進而把成功的經驗推廣至私立學校。本文介紹澳門小學課程的發展背景和有關特色, 並進一步探討有關澳門小學一九九四年第三八／九四／Ｍ號教育法令和論述澳門課程改革的一些困難和阻力。課程發展：法令㆔㈧／㈨㆕／Ｍ一九九四年七月澳門暨教青司頒布教育法令第三八／九四／Ｍ號《學前及小學教育之課程組織》，進一步鞏固了澳門教育制度指導性框架（framework）及規定了課程組織之制訂和給予各中、小和學前教育有關教學內容和目標的指引。推行這些法令時，政府因應於澳門歷史背景和社會發展及官立和私校的行政和教學自主性情況，採取較為靈活和開放態度，以制定各教育程度（包括幼兒教育、小學教育預備班及小學教育和初中及高中）課程發展的指導方針。教育法令有其普遍性和強制性的意義，但私立教育機構仍然是給予相當寬闊的空間和自由，這樣可以使其保留特色及發展校本課程和重整教學計劃。根據法令第三八／九四／Ｍ號第二條有關小學教育課程發展計劃有以下具體指引： I. 小學課程目標和計劃一、小學教育之教育活動旨在實現《澳門教育制度法律》第八條所訂定之一般目標。二、小學教育課程計劃包括單科目或多科目組別，以及強制參與之輔助課程活動，旨在促進學生之全面培訓及個人目標之實現，從而促進社會之進步及發展。三、教學內容應選擇可確保學童獲得及掌握對認知、社會情感及運動方面之全面發展所必需之知識、價值觀及態度，同時應誘發學童之求知慾及自我發展之興趣。四、教員應負責創造積極、有意義、綜合性及社會性之教學環境，以推動學生、其他教員、家庭及群體之參與。五、教育機構得在小學教育開始或繼續教授第二語言，而至第五年級及第六年級時，第二語言之教學應更規範及更具系統，且在不具強制性之前提下，應以本地區之兩種官方語言為優先。由於澳門仍然處於葡國殖民政府過渡期管治，由此對於第二言語的學習，以上第五項強調第二 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 139 語言的教學以澳門的兩種官方語言（即葡文和中文）為優先選擇。 II. 小學教學大綱一、教學大綱係對教學過程作出指導之工具，用以制定教學目標及實質內容，使教育機構本身之教學計劃得以實施。二、教學內容及教學方法之選擇應符合學生之教育心理發展狀況及有關教學階段之目標，鼓勵學生積極參與及激發其作為理性、道德及社會主體之自主性。三、教育暨青年司（葡文縮寫為 DSEJ）設立一小組、負責為本法規所指之各教育程度制定不同科目組別及科目之大綱，但不影響私立教育機構制定本身之大綱。教學大綱為法令中的第七條，其中最值得關注的部份是過渡期的政府為因應傳統澳門教育發展型態和一九九九年十二月回歸中國的情況特別設立課程小組對澳門的不同教育程度（幼兒、小學、中學）制定各科目的教學大綱和課程指引。這些都是在葡國殖民管治末和回歸中國前的過渡期間教育制度所必須面臨有關延續與變遷（continuity and change）的處理問題。有鑒於學科之間的相依性和因應學校整體課程的結合和連接，輔助課程主要是讓個別學校根據學生的背景和學習需求和學校的特色去制訂計劃以促進跨科目學習活動的目標。第三八／九四／M 法令第八條有關輔助課程之活動有以下的指引：一、輔助課程活動指多科目或跨科目間之活動，旨在補足教育機構本身之教學計劃。二、輔助課程活動之整體大綱主要包括與自然環境、藝術、體育、運動、技術、衛生、互助及自願等有關方面之教育，旨在豐富學生之文化、公民及科學知識以及使其融入社會。三、輔助課程活動均載於教育機構年度活動計劃內，且由該機構教學機關負責作出評價，尤其是評價課程活動與教材、與學生已具有之能力或將獲得之能力之關係。四、教育機構之教學領導組織在考慮可利用之空間及課時，以及接受輔助課程之學生之特點之前提下，應協調輔助課程活動之整體大綱之實行。 III. 小學教育課程計劃根據表一顯示，澳門小學教育課程計劃可以歸納為五個範疇： I. 品德教育 – 包括（1）道德教育，（2）公民教育和（3）宗教教育。 II. 基礎知識 – 包括（1）語言，（2）教學語言或第二語言，和（3）數學。 III. 常識 – 包括（1）社會，（2）自然科學，（3）健康衛生，（4）歷史和（5）地理。 IV. 美育及體育 – 包括（1）視覺教育，(2)手工，（3）音樂和（4）體育。 V. 輔助課程 – 包括跨科目活動，目的是豐富學生之文化、公民和科學知識以及使其融入社會。澳門眾多的私校是由宗教、社團與及個人等名義等興辦。宗教團體辦學包括有天主教和基督教等，和政治團體包括中國、台灣、和葡國等。以上法令所擬定的小學教育課程計劃，私校對公民教育和教學語言和第二語言方面享有很大自主權，但官立學校的學生必須學習葡語。至於每週課時和節數，學校有權作出個別的調整，即每週組別節數為 28 至 40 節，每節課時由 35 至 45 分鐘不等。 140 IV. 成績評核長久以來，澳門政府對教育採取自由不干預政策，由市場力量帶導教育發展。澳門政府沒有制訂統一考試和學生能力評估機制，相對而言學校間學術水平和教學質量存在著較大的差異。在課程發展的過程，三八／九四／Ｍ號教育法令第九條對於學習評核制度給予下列的基準：一、符合《澳門教育制度法律》所訂原則之評核模式應促學生之學業進步，顧及學習上之進展及進度，更應保障教學質量。二、幼兒教育及小學教育預備班之評核成績不影響學生之升學。三、評核內容及方法之確定應以所選擇及公佈之教學目標及教學過程為依據。四、家長及監護人有權知有關學習進度之資料，以及有關決定年級或學習階段之晉升之標準。五、本法規所載之各教育程度之評核制度，須呈交有權限實體認可，但該認可須按日後頒佈之專有法規之規定為之。殖民政府採取自由放任態度，對民間辦學缺乏支持。學校各自為政，教育理念傾向以精英主義和升學主義主導。一般學校多以學科考試成績作為教學評量，對於以下不同的教學評量模式（除下列第（4）項）較少應用於日常教學活動中：（1）安置式評量（placement evaluation ）（2）診斷式評量（diagnostic evaluation）（3）形成式評量（formative evaluation）（4）總結式評量（summative evaluation）（5）標準參照式評量（criterion-referenced evaluation）（6）常模參照式評量（norm-referenced evaluation） V. 輔助及補習教育措施澳門教育的一個重要特色是學校輔助及補習教育措施，以幫助學生克服學習和升學的困難。學校的學習科目數目繁多，授課時間和學習活動緊迫。第三八／九四／Ｍ號法令的第十條對輔助及補習教育措施有以下的指示：一、由教育機構舉辦之旨在幫助學生克服學習上不足之一系列課程之內外活動，均視為輔助及補習教育措施。二、教育機構應確保對學習任何課程組別或對學習課程科目有困難或不足之學生得到輔助及補習教育。三、輔助及補習教育措施得以不同形式進行，尤其是： a. 有輔導人員指導之補習室，旨在解決學生學習上之問題及輔助其完成作業； b. 指導學生及向學生提出意見之計劃； c. 有關課餘時間之利用之特別計劃； d. 選擇性課程，旨在使用新教學策略及對空間及課時作不同安排。 141 四、為執行輔助及補習教育措施，教育機構在有需要時得要求本地區現存之公共教育、衛生及社會輔助部門提供合作。五、教育機構之教學領導組織應對所提供之輔助作出總評核。事實上，輔助及補習教育是澳門學校教育的一個重要組成部份。這方面反映澳門學校課程編排的緊密情況和對學生、教師和家長造成的心理壓力和精神負擔。學生於課餘和週末回校讓教師給予輔助或補習，但另方面會失卻了有益身心的課外活動和個人興趣發展。結語對於澳門課程發展和其後於一九九五／九六年度開始作出的一系列課程改革，至今的成果教育工作者雖然仍未有一致的定論，根據沙法爾克（Schaffarzick,1995）的理論認為有效的課程發展計劃應包括以下各項元素。（詳見《課程：理論與設計》75 頁。）：（1）決定需要；（2）理論基礎的建立；（3）目的及目標的使用；（4）照顧到發展心理學及學習研究；（5）分組合作；（6）資源的製作；（7）早期傳播的規劃；（8）員工培訓的準備；（9）試驗及修訂；（如試行點）（10）持續的發展。課程發展和改革是一項龐大和漫長的工程。澳門政府於一九九一年八月訂定了一一／九一／Ｍ號關於《澳門教育制度》的總綱。其後於一九九四年制定了對上述教育法例的補充法例：（1）法令三八／九四／Ｍ；（2）法令三九／九四／Ｍ；和法令四六／九七／Ｍ。根據澳門政府的構想，設立二八／九四／Ｍ號法令是希望由一九九四／九五學年開始，透過在幼兒教育第一年、小學教育預備班和小學教育一年級教學實驗方式實施，然後再加以改善後再推廣至私校。從沙法爾克（Schaffarzick,1995）的課程發展計劃檢討澳門課程發展的過程，我們可以瞭解一九九一年澳門教育制度總綱的制訂及其後有關的課程法令的實施，澳門教育發展於回歸中國後已經進入了嶄新的階段。另方面，對於回歸後的課程改革和實施策略及官私校體制在謀求異同及教育目標和行政自主方面仍然有待努力取得各方面共識和作進一步改善。這些包括沙法爾克所論述的第（2）及（5）至（10）項目，與及改善其他先存的教育情境與社會條件和教育意識型態，包括澳門官立和私校行政和教學體制的分歧，員工福利和範疇、績效責任、資源分配、學生背景、評核制度，與及九年義務教育的實施等問題將會是廿一世紀澳門課程改革新的挑戰。 142 表一：小學教育課程計劃〔澳門 1994 年頒佈的法令《學前及小學教育之課程組織》（第 38/94/M 號）〕每週課節(E) 最少及最多課節（F）組別培訓內容（科目）一年級至四年級五年級至六年級指導品德教育 1.1 道德教育 1.2 公民教育（A） 1.3 宗教育 1 – 2 1 – 2 基礎知識 2.1 語言 2.1.1 教學語言（B）2.1.2 第二語言（C） 2.2 數學 18 – 20 19 – 22 常識 3.1 社會 3.2 自然科學 3.3 健康衛生 3.4 歷史 3.5 地理 4 – 6 5 – 7 美育及體育 4.1 視覺教育 4.2 手工 4.3 音樂 4.4 體育 4 – 8 4 – 8 輔助課程(D) 每週最多及最少節數 28 – 38 30 – 40 A. 由教育機構自行決定，至少開設一科。 B. 按教育機構之教學語言來選定。 C. 私立教育機構可在中文、葡文及英文中選擇一種；官立機構遵照《澳門教育制度法律》第三十五條之規定。對第二語言之教學內容必須詳細考慮，應注意學童之年齡及所採用之教學方法。 D. 課時由教育機構訂定。 E. 組別之節數最少為二十八節，最多為四十節。 F. 每節課最少為三十五分鐘，最多為四十五分鐘。 143 參考㈾料方炳隆（2000）。《澳門學校教育的課程管理模式》。「澳門教育如何邁進新紀元」教育研討會提文，2000 年 5 月 20-21 日。澳門大學文化中心。澳門大學教育學院與澳門教育暨青年局主辦。王英杰（2000）。《減負：澳門教育改革的一主題》。「澳門教育如何邁進新紀元」教育研討會提文，2000 年 5 月 20-21 日。澳門大學文化中心。澳門大學教育學院與澳門教育暨青年局主辦。陳既詒（2000）。《21 世紀澳門私立中小學校行政體制改革之趨勢》。「澳門教育如何邁進新紀元」教育研討會提文，2000 年 5 月 20-21 日。澳門大學文化中心。澳門大學教育學院與澳門教育暨青年局主辦。《澳門教育制度法例》（1997）。澳門：教育暨青年司。古鼎儀、馬慶堂編（1994）。《澳門教育：抉擇與自由》。澳門：澳門基金會。莫禮時 (1992)。香港課程發展的概況：問題和可行辦法。載吳永清編《課程：理論與設計》，中文譯本。香港：朗文出版社。。 144 孔子與陶行知教育思想的比較胡少偉香港教育㈻院孔子是㆗國教育史㆖最為著㈴的教育家；而陶行知則是㆗國近現㈹傑出的教育家之㆒，要對㆗國古今教育思想㈲所了解，認識孔子和陶行知的教育思想，看來是頗基本的。本文嘗試在描述兩者生平的基礎㆖，以比較的方法去分析兩者在教育主張、教㈻看法和教㈻哲㈻等㆔方面的異同，從㆗勾劃出㆗國古今主要的教育思想，並使 ㆟對這兩位教育家的思想㈲較概括的認識。前言孔子(公元前 551-前 479 年)是中國教育史上最為著名的教育家。他的教育思想對中國古代教育的發展有極重要的影響，被世人尊稱為萬世師表，亦是中國古代開創私人講學的教育家之一，其所建立的儒家學說自漢以後亦成為中國歷代教育和文化的核心內容，要學習和了解中國教育的歷史，就不能不對孔子的教育思想有所了解。陶行知(1891-1946)是中國近現代傑出的教育家之一，是五四運動以後具有影響力的人民教育家，他既批判中國傳統的舊教育，亦反對洋化教育。他所建立的生活教育理論和實踐，不單體現了二十世紀初中國的國情和時代特色，亦大大推動了近現代中國教育的改革和發展，是影響當今中國教育發展的主流思想。故此，要對中國古今教育思想有所了解，學習和認識孔子和陶行知的教育思想，看來是最起碼的。此文嘗試在描述兩者生平的基礎上，以比較的方法去分析兩者在教育主張、教學看法和教學哲學等三方面的異同，使人對這兩位中國古今教育家的思想有較概括的了解。兩㆟生平孔子名丘，字仲尼，出生於春秋末期。孔子小時生活於當時文化中心的魯國，有“周禮盡在魯”的說法，這使孔子從小就受到西周傳統文化的薰陶，崇拜和響往西周教育與文化。他雖自小便立志當官，好學不倦；惜仕途不大順利。約於三十歲時，他看到「天子失官，學在四夷」，故衝破學在官府的桎梏，投身興辦私學，實行“有教無類”。孔子亦曾率領弟子到過周、齊兩國，一面了解民生和政治；一邊以隨問隨答方式講學，指出“學而優則仕”，並提倡“仁”和“禮”作為做人和從政的道德標準。五十一歲的孔子回魯國作地方官，至五十六歲升為代理宰相，政績裴然；但亦因此被迫下台。於是他又專注教學授徒，帶領弟子周游列國，漂泊了十三年，及至六十八歲才返回魯國，自此以後便專心從事教育和整理古代文化典籍的工作。後世所流傳的《詩》、《書》、《禮》、《樂》、《易》、《春秋》等六經；差不多都是經孔子搜集加工才得以保存。此外孔子一生學而不厭，誨人不倦，有弟子三千多人。當中精通禮、樂、射、御、書、數六藝者有七十二人。而《論語》一書則是其弟子輯 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 145 錄的孔子言行錄，是研究孔子教育思想的主要資料。陶行知，原名文濬，後改知行、行知。他小時受惠於教會學校，至 1914 年畢業於金陵大學後，赴美留學；他初入伊利諾大學攻讀市政學，後轉入哥倫比亞大學研究教育，為杜威的中國學生之一。1917 年回國應聘於南京高等師範學校，建議將“教授法”，改為“教學法”；並於 1926 年起草了《中華教育改進社改造全國鄉村教育宣言書》，提出了“教育必須下鄉，知識必須交給農民”。他身體力行，一年後創辦了曉庄試驗鄉村師範學校，實踐“生活即教育”、“社會即學校”、“教學做合一”等教育主張。1932 年又於上海創辦了上海工學團，以 “工以養生，學以明生，團以保生”的宗旨來辦教育，除了鼓吹學科學外，亦創立了小先生制和“即知即傳” 的教育方法。抗日戰爭爆發後，他又於 1939 年在重慶，為難童創建育才學校以補償普及教育中的遺憾，提出培養學生做“人中人”不做“人上人”；並提倡解放兒童的創作力。1946 年，他又建立重慶社會大學，提出新大學之道：“在明大德、在親民、在止於人民之幸福。”從他一生推動教育普及的實踐中，可見陶行知先生確實是中國現代史中最著名的人民教育家。教育主張的比較孔子和陶行知對教育有不少的主張，為了便於比較和分析，此文用教育哲學的角度將他們兩人的教育主張；歸納於教育的定義、目的、內容和社會功能四個方面。從表一中發現孔子和陶行知都視教育為治理社會國家的一個重要手段，孔子提出庶富教治國三步驟，指出不教而殺謂之虐，肯定了教育對管治人民和國家的重要性；而陶行知則明確教育是為改造社會而設，他認為教育人，能達至天下為公的社會。但在教育的目的方面，兩者都有不同的側重。孔子所提倡的仕而優則學，學而優則仕，是一套士人教育觀，帶領了不少後世儒家學者以做官為個人學習目的；反之，陶行知因有受西方平等文化的薰陶，加上面對日益衰落的中國社會，深感教育的目的是要讓所有受教育者能自主和明理，做自己和國家的主人。表一：孔子和陶行知教育主張的比較孔子陶行知教育的定義教，上所施下所效也；育，養子使作善也(論語說文) 生活教育是給生活以教育，用生活來教育，為生活向前向上的需要而教育(1939，見《文集》，頁 694) 教育的目的仕而優則學，學而優則仕(論語子張) 學也，祿在其中矣(論語靈公) 我們要教人，不但要教人知其然，而且要教人知其所以然(1936，見《佚文》，頁 99) 民主教育是教人做主人，做自己的主人，做國家的主人(1945，見《文選》，頁 306) 教育的內容子以四教：文行忠信(論語述而) 不學詩，無以言，不學禮，無以立(論語季氏) 主張習六藝六經用活書、活用書、用書活(1935，見《文集》，頁 468) 主張教育要學習科學、創造和民主教育的社會功能 “不教而殺謂之虐”(論語堯國) 提出“庶”、“富”、“教”治國三步驟(論語子路篇) 教育為改造社會而設，為教育社會人才而設 (1918，見《佚文》，頁 7) 教育為公，以達到天下為公(1945，見《文選》，頁 306) 146 至於教育內容方面，孔子因自小受周禮的薰陶，深感先賢古人的言行是榜樣，故主張以西周的六藝六經為教育內容；而陶行知卻是一名積極反對傳統八股的教育行動家，其所提倡活用書，讓學習者學習科學、創造和民主等都具備了創新的意義。最後，在教育定義方面，陶行知將杜威主張的教育即生活，改變為生活即教育；指出生活決定了教育的環境，實際的生活是教育的中心，而教育的意義亦在於改善生活，其教育的定義與生活緊密連繫；然而孔子的教育定義則只圍繞著教育的過程和目的，指出教育是一個學習的過程，並能使學習者得到增值的效果。當中一個強調教育與環境的關係，而另一個視教育為一獨立完整的過程。總言之，孔子和陶行知兩人的教育主張皆重視教育的功能和其目的性，然而在教育的定義和內容上，卻有所不同的側重。教㈻看法的異同在教學方面，孔子和陶行知都各有一套看法，當中孔子對教學的看法，為二千年來中國教師對教學的取向提供一個基礎。根據表二，孔子在教與學的主張至今仍為教育工作者所樂道；他所主張因材施教、有教無類、溫故知新、學而時習之、不恥下問和學思合一等教與學的方法和態度，皆適用於現今的教學環境，這充分體現出孔子一生在教學實踐的經驗和心得，是歷久常新的。而陶行知在教學方面的看法卻只側重與做的結合；他主張教學做合一，指出如何做，則如何教，亦如何學。並提出以即知即傳的方法來推廣教育；他亦不屑偽知識，故倡導教人求真學做真人。至於孔子和陶行知對教師的取態，則有相近亦有相違之處。孔子倡導教師身教的重要，指出其身不正其令不行；並提出教師要學而不厭，誨人不倦。而陶行知雖然要求教師要做改造社會的靈魂和教學生去學；但他卻突顯出師生的平等，提出師生要共教、共學、共做和共生活。此外，有關學生學習的作用和成果方面，孔子和陶行知亦有根本性的分歧。首先，孔子視人有高低之分，他期望學習者能透過教育獲得士人的道、德、仁、藝等特質；並提出教育對過高和過低的人來說是無效的。但在陶行知的心目中，所有人皆可受教，無分彼此，而每個人教育的成果是要人皆有民主和自治的能力，這與現代社會的基本需要是一致的。最後，有關學校的看法，陶行知提出社會即學校，認為生活的環境亦是學與教的場所；這論點對當時中國教育的不普及和教育資源不足，是有積極的意義的。而孔子在春秋時代亦看到西周的秩序盪而無存，官員已不能把持教育，加上各地諸侯管治的需要，私學便隨之而起。事實上，孔子亦是推動中國古代私學發展的重要人物。綜合以上四個方面，孔子和陶行知在教育的看法，基本上是異多於同，要分析個中的原因，看來要從更高的層次比較孔子和陶行知的教育思想。 147 表二：孔子和陶行知對教學看法的異同教學孔子論語陶行知教與學實踐因材施教有教無類(論語靈公) 學而時習之(論語學而) 溫故而知新(論語為政) 學而不思則罔，思而不學則殆(論語為政) 毋意、毋必、毋固、毋我(論語子罕) 教而好學，不下問(論語公冶長) 能近取譬(論語雍也) 教學做合一(1927，見《文選》，頁 284) 如何做，則如何教，亦如何學(1932，見《佚文》，頁 75) 即知即傳人，會的教人，不會的跟人學。不會教人的不配受教育。(1935，見《文集》，頁 449) 千教萬教，教人求真，千學萬學，學做真人。 (1946，見《文集》，頁 821) 教師學而不厭，誨人不倦(論語述而) 其身正，不令而行，其身不正，雖令不從。(論語子路) 三人行，必有我師焉。擇其善者而從之，其不善者而改之(論語述而) 先生的責任不在教，而在教學，而在教學生學 (1919，見《文集》，頁 13) 教師稱為指導員，不稱為教員，指導學生教學做，與學生共教、共學、共做、共生活(1926，見《文選》、頁 281) 鄉村教師做改造鄉村生活的靈魂(1926，見《文選》，頁 277) 學生唯上智與下愚不移(論語陽貨) 志於道，據於德，依於仁，游於藝(論語述而) 要教學生為民主的小學生(1946，見《文集》，頁 819) 想有能夠共同的自治的公民，必先有能夠共同自治的學生(1919，見《文集》，頁 19) 學校天子失官，學在四夷(左傳昭公十七年) 社會即學校(1932，見《佚文》，頁 76) 教育哲㈻的分歧要分析孔子和陶行知的教育思想不同的原因，要再深一層比較兩人的教育哲學觀(詳見表三)。首先孔子和陶行知對社會的看法是有根本上的不同的，孔子的理想社會是一個天下有道的社會，各人皆尊仁重禮；而社會的本質是一個差序的格局，君君、臣臣、父父、子子，每個人皆有其定位，而應安份守己。但陶行知卻認為社會本質是變動及不可測的，其心中理想的社會，是一個大眾皆有幸福的社會；表面上，他好像與孔子倡導天下為公的理念是一致的，但本質上他倆對人是否生而平等有不同的取態，這不單突顯出中西價值的分別，亦體現出人類發展的成果。表三：比較孔子和陶行知的教育哲學教育哲學孔子陶行知理想社會大道之行也，天下為公(論語禮運) 天下有道，禮樂征伐自天子出(論語季氏) 大學之道在明大德、在親大眾，在止於大眾之幸福 (1946，見《文集》，頁 538) 社會本質君君、臣臣、父父、子子(論語顏淵) 宇宙是在動，世界是在動，人生是在動(1934，見《文集》，頁 407) 知識論知之為知之，不知為不知，是知也(論語為政) 我非生而知之者，好古，敏以求之者也(論語重氏) 知為行之始，行為知之成(1932，佚文，頁 75) 去與取，只問適不適，不問新與舊(1922，見《文選》，頁 275) 故欲求常新之道，必先去舊之方，試驗著，去舊之方也(1919，見《文選》，頁 271) 價值觀天下有道則仕，無道則隱(論語泰伯) 不義而富其且貴，於我如浮雲(論語述而) 見賢思齊焉，見不賢而內自省也(論語里仁) 己所不欲，勿施於人(論語顏淵) 沒有道德的人，學問和本領愈大，就能為非作惡愈大(1942，見《文集》，頁 723) 也只有肯跟老百姓學習的人，才能做老百姓的真正領導者(1946，見《文集》，頁 813) 148 至於知識論方面，孔子認為知識是客觀存在的，假若人對某事認識了便是知，而知的方法是從古籍和思考中得到的；新知識是孔子沒有考慮的課題。而陶行知的知識論正如他的名字行知，體現了知識和行動的結合，知識、實踐、新知識、再實踐是不斷累進的過程，當中他亦提出知識有新與舊和適與不適之分，這亦奠定了他敢於否定老師杜威所提出教學即生活的主張，而創建提出適合當時中國社會的“生活即教育”理論。在價值觀方面，孔子就個人高度提出了豐富的人本主義的價值準則，包括有修身自省、推己及人、重義輕利等高尚品格；而陶行知則以社會為出發點，主張以平民大眾的標準為準則，合乎大眾群體的規範便是有價值的人。從上文可見，孔子和陶行知的教育哲學基本上是南轅北轍，是完全不同的。孔子的教育哲學整體上類近精華主義的取向，提倡應以古為鑑，學禮習仁以求仕的教育觀。而陶行知則較似重建主義的取向，認為透過教育與人和社會兩者的亙動，使中華民族成為一個教人好學的民族，去創建一個中國人民大眾的新社會。總結孔子和陶行知都是生活於一個動盪的中國社會環境。孔子在面對春秋時代各地諸候挾天子以令諸候的狀況，他提倡仿古習周禮以重建社會秩序，這一方面推動了私學在中國的施行，另一方面又促進了百家爭鳴的學術風氣，但卻又無意間建立了影響中國二千多年的儒家文化，使教育成為歷代君王選士治民的工具。陶行知活在清末民初，整個社會既動盪又混亂，在去封建立新風和西風東來的年代，他一方面極力反對傳統腐敗的文化，另一方面亦反對洋八股的引入。他所與時代脈搏息息相關的教育試驗，創建了一套生活即教育的理論，既有中國的特色，又推動了全民教育觀的建立，他那種以教育人民，去改造社會的觀念，至今仍適合當代的中國教育。最後，孔子和陶知行的教育思想的不同，反映了他們受身處的社會人文環境所影響，而他們在中國古今社會的教育事業所作的貢獻是廣受認同的。此文曾於 22-1-2000 在香港大學比較教育研究中心舉行的「邁向比較教育研究會」中發表。註：為使各讀者直接了解孔子與陶行知兩人的教育思想，各表列的內容皆直接引述兩人原文，當中有關陶行知觀點的年份是陶原文出處的年份。而所引述的文章則來自下列之書本 1. 見文集為《陶行知文集》 2. 見佚文為《陶行知佚文集》 3. 見文選為《中國現代教育文選》 149 參考書目毛禮銳、瞿菊農、邵鶴亭（1983）。《中國古代教育史》。北京：人民教育出版社。毛禮銳編（1987）。《中國古代教育家傳》。北京：北京師範大學出版社。王炳照、郭齊家、劉德華（1985）。《簡明中國教育史》。北京：北京師範大學出版社。王炳照、閻國華（1994）。《中國教育思想通史》。湖南：湖南教育出版社。伍振鷟（1987）。《中國教育思想史--先秦部份》。台北：師大書苑有限公司。江蘇省陶行知教育思想研究會及市京曉庄師範陶行知研究室（1981）。《陶行知文集》。江蘇省：江蘇人民出版社。何國華（1997）。《陶行知教育學》。廣州：廣東高等教育出版社。李雄揮（1996）。《孔子的教育哲學》。台北：心理出版社有限公司。孟承（1985）。《中國古代教育文選》。北京：人民教育出版社。金成之編 (1989)。《陶行知佚文集》。四川：四川教育出版社。孫培青、李國鈞（1995）。《中國教育思想史》，第 3 卷。上海：華東師範大學出版社。陶行知（1996）。《中國教育改造》。北京：東方出版社。陶愚川（1985）。《中國教育史比較研究》。山東：山東教育出版社。華東師範大學教育系（1989）。《中國現代教育文選》。北京：人民教育出版社。董寶良編（1993）。《陶行知教育學說》。湖北：湖北教育出版社。 150 從成本效益角度看直接資助計劃對優質學校教育發展的影響王常錦意導論 1760 年工業革命的成功及在英明的君主帶領下，英國的國運在十八世紀開始欣欣向榮，表明要向全球掠奪殖民地。由於美國在 1776 年脫離英國獨立，英國人喪失不少在美國的資產，在龐大艦隊的支援下，英國人便轉向東方，欺凌國勢較弱的國家，以滿足擴張殖民地的野心。當時的印度，亦淪為英國的殖民地。英國商人發現了在印度種植的鴉片(Malwa)，向中國傾銷，可以帶來高達千倍的利潤，便不顧中國人的生死，拚命的向中國輸入鴉片，賺取數量驚人的白銀。在中國，煙毒之氾濫造成嚴重的經濟和社會問題。1835 年林則徐以『數十年之後，中國將無可用之兵，亦無可籌之餉』上奏清朝道光皇帝，道光深受感動。1839 年林則徐以欽差大臣身份南下廣東厲行禁煙工作，可惜，卻成了 1840 年中英鴉片戰爭的導火線，中國戰敗，在 1842 年簽訂定南京條約，把香港島割讓給英國。1858 年，英法聯軍攻打中國，中國又戰敗，把九龍半島在 1860 年割讓給英國。1898 年，李鴻章代表中國簽署「中英邊界拓展條約」(北京條約內的一個條款)，批准英國租借新界 99 年，1997 年租約期滿。所以，由 1898 年開始，香港便由香港島、九龍半島及新界組成為英國在中國南面大門的一個殖民地。在英國政府的眼中，香港土地面積小，又缺乏天然資源，她掠奪香港祇是求取立足點去發展遠東貿易(Lau 1987)。因此，殖民地政府根本不重視香港的教育，辦學擔子只是落在教會的傳教士和華人辦的私塾承擔！殖民地政府的教育政策香港教育制度一直如「拼盆形式」，沒有長遠整體的目標和規劃。自 1842 年開埠至 1981 年整整 139 年統治本港的日子裏，只是因為要準備背景資料給國際顧問團(Visiting Panel)對香港教育制度作全面的檢討而編寫《香港教育全面檢討》，以便顧問團為香港教育政策的未來發展作出適當的建議。漠不關心的年代做任何事，都應該先訂下一個明確的目標，再切實執行，才容易收到預期效果。可惜，香港政府從 1842 年統治香港，直至 1993 年 9 月才正式的訂定「香港學校教育目標」(香港被英國殖民政府統治 151 年後)，這是殖民地教育缺乏遠見及理想的旁証。師資的良窳，直接關係教育的成敗，可惜，殖民地政府從 1842 年統治香港，直到 1939 年(統治香港八十七年後)，才開始有系統的師資訓練。香港的師範教育目標，祇是把師範視為一種職業訓練課程，並不是一種專業；而香港的師範學制，自 1939 年以來，紊亂不堪，充分表現出政府對師範教育的漠視，完全沒有一套完整的計劃去發展師資訓練，訓練師範生可以負起「傳道、授業、解惑」的責任為社會培育下一代。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 151 教育是當權者利用來訓練和控制國民思想的滲透工具，殖民地政府在香港推行的教育政策，最成功的地方就是強化英語教學，這個政策，由 Sir John Pope Hennessy (Governor of Hong Kong 1877-1882)指令全港政府學校皆要教授英文，全港學校亦要把英文定為學習的主要科目，直至百多年後的今天，特區政府要推行母語教學，亦遭到不少的困難，香港人重英輕中的心態，真是根深蒂固！社會壓力下的改進 1949 年，中國政權易手，香港的學生不能回國升學，再加上第二次世界大戰後，英國人對殖民地的政策亦因應世界性的普及教育潮流而要修訂，殖民地政府在 1965 年推出「一九六五年白皮書：教育政策」，定下為所有學齡兒童提供學位的目標，在 1971 年要把目標完成。殖民地政府在 1974 年推出「一九七四年白皮書：香港未來十年之中等教育」，界定了中學教育的發展方向，由於政府承擔了中學的發展，亦決定透過資助學校去擴展中學學位，但也間接成了影響私校發展的分水嶺，使一直在香港教育界佔一重要席位的私校招架乏力，從此日漸式微。港人對殖民地政府的認受性增強從晚清末年開始，中國的政局一直處於劣勢，內憂外患，使一些中國人，離鄉別井到香港暫時居留，過一些較平和的生活，這一些「移民」，抱的是「過客」心態，不一定會有植根於香港的意圖。 1966 年，中國爆發「文化大革命」，紅衛兵的行徑影響到香港某些人士亦在香港擺放「炸彈」等去製造暴亂，失盡香港人的民心，在無從選擇之下，港人寧取殖民地政府的統治，可以安享平穩的生活。大家既然選擇植根於香港，自然想發展經濟，賺取利潤，同心合力之下，這也是香港經濟於七十年代開始起飛的原因的之一。工商界求才的壓力戰後的香港工業開始發展，憑著低工資、低成本、低價格的優勢，在市場上亦可找到出路。但踏入七十年代，受到兩次石油危機的打擊、各國保護主義興起等，香港的工業產品要高質素化才可以找到市場。政府在 1973 年推出的「一九七三年綠皮書：教育委員會對香港未來十年內中等教育擴展計劃報告書」亦引述了香港工業聯會的《意見書》，接納發展中等教育，為工商界培養更優質的僱員以改善產品質素去競爭銷路。九年免費基礎教育的推行香港沒有自然資源去發展，所以，更要倚重人力資源、國民的精力、技能和適應力去爭取貿易和勞工市場。香港工商業的穩步發展，使港府稅收收入大增，使政府可以落實由 1971 年推行免費普及小學教育，由 1978 年起推行初中免費普及教育。在實施九年免費基礎教育的政策時，在 1971-1977 年度因為津貼中學未能供應足夠學額，政府的權宜手法是向辦得較嚴謹的私立學位「買位」應急，所以，在 1971-1977 年間，私立中學學生人數急升。隨著津中的相繼落成和《教統會第三號報告書﹝1988﹞》的發表，政府削減向私校「買位」，在 1990 年，政府和 20 間私立中學簽訂十年買位合約，預計在 2000 年，便不用再向私立中學買位，全港所有初中學生，皆可受教於政府中學或政府資助中學，但私校的發展又應該朝那一個方向走？殖民地政府在後過渡期的教育發展策略 1984 年 12 月 19 日，中、英兩國政府簽署了關於香港問題的《中英聯合聲明》，確認中華人民共和國政府於 1997 152 年 7 月 1 日恢復對香港行使主權，所以，香港由 1984 年開始，便踏進殖民地時代的後過渡期。中華人民共和國香港特別行政區〈基本法〉亦在 1990 年 4 月 4 日第七屆全國人民代表大會第三次會議通過，規定香港特別行政區實行的制度，以保障國家對香港的基本方針政策的實施。根據〈基本法〉第六章第一百三十六條的條文：香港特別行政區政府在原有教育制度的基礎上，自行制定有關教育的發展和改進的政策，包括教育體制和管理、教學語言、經費分配、考試制度、學位制度和承認學歷等政策。社會團體和私人可依法在香港特別行政區興辦各種教育事業。回應 1984 年簽署了〈中英聯合聲明〉，香港政府只用了 13 年的時間(1984-1997)，便推出了教統會的「七本」《報告書》和《學校管理新措施》，制訂了香港一系列的教育政策，特區政府也不可修改。教育是百年樹人的大業，教育政策一定要慎密周詳的小心策劃和釐定，以期達到教育的目的，殖民地政府匆匆的推出這一系列的《報告書》，除了大花金錢外，實在看不到任何策略去挽救學生的低劣成績。在 96/97 財政年度，教育方面經核准的公共開支達 398.2 億，佔政府經常總開支 21%和非經常開支 8%，如此龐大的教育經費，得出中學生如斯的成績，大學生的水準亦是公認的下降，公帑的支出，實在需要好好的檢討！從經濟及行政角度看香港學校的經營策略在香港辦學，要接受教育條例(Education Ordinance)及教育規例(Education Regulations)及其附屬法例和因應需要而修改的條例和規例的約束。中學、小學及幼稚園要受教育署監管一切的運作。從經濟方面去看，本港的學校可分三大類，即完全由政府辦理的官立學校、政府資助而由志願團體主辦的資助學校，以及私立學校(其中有部份私校接受政府買位或接受政府的『直接資助計劃』等)。政府學校政府學校(中學和小學)，由教育署負責辦理，所有教職及非教職人員皆是公務員，由公務員聘用條例(Civil Servant Regulations)約束，一切運作，要完全聽從教育署指示。資助學校資助學校是政府根據中/小學資助則例作全面資助，而委託志願團體負責管理的學校。政府給予資助學校非常豐裕的津貼，亦給予資助學校教職人員優厚的福利，在殖民地政府的大力培植下，香港的資助中學學生，佔全港中學生人數的 80%，官立中學學生只佔 8.1%，私立學校則只有 11.9%。政府花費每年差不多 30% 的稅收去辦教育，而津貼學校的僱員和官校的教員又享有高薪厚利，如果全港達 90% 的中學畢業生皆是受業於他們，但是會考成績卻是如斯不濟，這些老師實在是難辭其咎！補助學校香港在 1842 年開埠，政府漠視教育，主要的辦學責任都落在教會的傳教士身上，英華男校創校於 1843 年、聖保羅男校創校於 1851 年、聖若瑟書院創校於 1875 年等，都是教會全資辦學。直至 1873 年，政府接納當時的中央書院(Central School) (政府主辦的第一所官校，即現時的皇仁書院)校長兼總督學 Mr. Frederick Stewart 的建議，用補助計劃(Grant-in-Aid Scheme)去獎勵辦學成績優良的學校，學生成績愈好，學校受補助(bonus)愈多；但如果學校不用心辦學，學生成績不佳，則老師要被革職(dismissed)，學校亦得不到政府 153 的補助(bonus)去營運。我們祗要看看深受家長歡迎的「老牌名校」，都是那十多間歷史悠久的教會開辦的學校，它們嚴謹及問責的辦學精神，都是秉承於這個要「問責」的「補助計劃」，再加上辦學的神職人員把教育事業作為終生的奉獻，更是相得益彰。津貼學校政府對補助學校學生的每年成績考核，都非常嚴格，每年都由總督學及英倫派來的督學(Royal Inspector of Schools)親到該些學校去進行考核工作。在政治局勢及考核人手不足的情況下，政府引入資助則例(Code of Aid)鼓勵志願團體辦學，一來可以響應二次大戰後世界性潮流的普及教育，二來又可以乘勢打擊多有政治背景的私校，三來又可以把教育視為資本主義社會的資本累積策略(Offe，1984)，所以，政府給予津貼學校各種優厚的津貼，亦邀請一向辦學聲譽良好的團體經辦新津校，到現在，津貼中學(連補助中學在內)，差不多有四百多間，分佈全港，成為最強勢的學校組織。不過，津校所享有的是變相的「終生聘用制」和「終生津貼制」，倒是帶來了不良的後果。津校拿取的所有津貼，不會因辦學不力或學生成績不好而被扣除，政府更依時每年因應通貨膨脹而作調整；津校老師亦不用問責，不用因學生成績低劣而被革職，祇要不犯刑事案，便可以快快樂樂的拿取高薪繼續誤人子弟，直至六十歲，才因退休而要離職。這種政策，是導致某些缺乏責任感及無教師專業操守的教育界人士濫竽充數的在教育界為教師，看香港學生的成績低落，行為亦有偏差，老師們應好好的作一個自我反省及檢討；政府亦應對這「津貼」政策來一個大改革！私立學校私立學校，顧名思義，是私人資金作營運的學校。這種學校，依經營的策略，可以分牟利與非牟利兩種。因財政來源的問題，這些從 1842 至 1991 年，從未被政府眷顧的學校，特別是中文學校，不少都有政治色彩，接受台灣國民政府或中國大陸政府的資助去求存，以維持非牟利的性質；牟利的私校，一般來說，都是一些自我定位的英文中學，摸準香港人崇英眨中的心態，能在官津的夾擊下生存。右派學校這些學校，就是指那些親台灣政權的學校。在 1949 年之前，由於畢業生可以回國升學，而殖民地政府又對教育事業持漠不關心的態度，家長在無可選擇下，把子女送入這些學校受教育。國民政府遷台後，對這些學校亦有金錢上的資助，但由於七十年代中期至八十年代，殖民地政府大力擴辦津貼中/小學，又推行九年基礎教育，再加上八十年代落實的〈中英聯合聲明〉，這些和北京政權對立的學校，已經自行退隱。左派學校香港教育的特點是『一元化學制、多元化辦學』(陸鴻基，1988)，換句話說，就是指殖民宗主國和殖民地政府並未能全面控制香港的教育，對這些政治立場親「強而有力的政府」的學校，殖民地政府更小心處理。五十年代爆發韓戰，西方國家對中國實施禁運的封殺。殖民地政府在 1952 年趁機修訂教育法例，取代 1913 年的教育法例，尤其把重點放在管制學校和教員把學校利用作政治活動。從此，新教師的註冊，要先經警務處政治部作嚴謹的思想及背景審查；而行政局更有權拒絕學校教師註冊、撤銷已註冊教師的資格、封閉任何學校、控制學校的所有課程及教科書等，把這些政治色彩鮮明的學校作有力的箝制。 154 其實，在香港開辦的左派學校，不單在財政上全無殖民地政府資助，連在這些學校任教的教師，在 1990 年以前，教育學院的「在職教師訓練班」從不收錄入學，這已不是甚麼秘密。這種手法，桎梏了左派學校聘請「好學養」人士入職為暫准教師(Permitted teacher) 。為了子女的前途，港人多不會把子女送入左派學校讀書；直至 1991 年，政府公佈實施「直接資助計劃」，這些左派學校才有一線生機。香港教育水準低落：政府的全盤津貼式資助帶來的負面影響香港的官校教師是公務員，公務員的升級標準，主要放在年資方面，祇要年資夠，而又沒有犯什麼「曾被人投訴」的過失，通常都不要任何積極進取，便可以順利升級，所以，公務員的隊伍，大家覺得到都是「按本子辦事」，這是避免犯錯的一個最實際的方法，津校教師的實際福利，比公務員為佳，他們佔有香港教師市場人手的八成以上，對教導港人子弟成材可謂影響深遠。香港中學畢業生在(1987-1997)的主科會考成績香港在 1971 年實施普及小學教育，在 1978 年實施初中普及教育，在 1981 年實施「中四學位分配辦法」把中三成績較佳的學生派往官/津校繼續高中課程，這些經過中學和小學十一年教育的學生，理論上，他們的會考成績應該不太差，但會考的成績是使人失望的。尤其是中國語文科，中文是自己的母語，成績如此不濟，老師的教學態度和學生的學習心態皆有問題。老師的教學態度「師範生的學歷已低，學習缺乏動力」(motive)，但求合格(pass)，便取得檢定教師資格去謀生……」(Chan 1998)。由於大學學額的急劇膨脹，成績較理想的人都可以入讀大學，教育學院在 1993 年 9 月開始，已經把收生標準降至兩次中學會考合計，成績有 6 科(E)級已經可以申請入讀，師範生學歷如此低，再加上沒有任職教師的使命感 (commitment)，怎能稱職為教師？「香港對教師的要求非常高：許多教師應該(但並不是)精通兩種語言。」(《國際顧問團報告書》段 3.8.1)，香港學生中/英語言水準低落，這該是原因之一。「香港教學水準平庸。當局必須為教師提供更多機會，讓他們可以主動訂出一些發展專業的計劃，從而培養出專業精神。」(《國際顧問團報告書》段 3.8.45)自從〈中英聯合聲明〉在 1984 年簽署後，殖民地政府已經為那些教師提供了不少的福利；再以 1997/1998 學年的一間標準班級結構的津貼中學為例，這間學校由原定的 50 位教職員結構(參：中學資助則例：頁 39)，因為要回應政府近年來的種種減輕老師工作量的新政策，最高可以聘用 62 位教職員，比標準額高了 24%；如果以該校在 1995/96 年度得到教育署的經常性津貼額 $24,139,448.35(這祇是老師們拿取的扣除了他們 5% 公積金供款額的薪金)去粗略試算，這間學校的老師薪金津貼(Salary Grant)在 97/98 年度，大約$30,415,705.39，超過三千萬元，如果再加上教署對津中要承擔的其他津貼費，沒有設津貼申請上限的五年一次校舍修葺大維修除外，政府對一間標準級及標準校舍設計的津貼中學每年的津貼費近四千萬元，這些公帑，是否花得太枉？ 155 學校的問責制度香港的津貼中學，從開埠至現在，從沒有因為學生成績差而被教署封校，教師更不會因教導無方而被解僱，因為要解僱一位老師，手續繁複，學校為避免麻煩，通常都祇好讓這些所謂老師任教下去，直至自行流失。津貼中學是既得利益者，所以在政府推出的「學校管理新措施」(1991)，邀請津校加入時，反應冷淡，是意料中事，那一些津校願意放棄「不勞而獲」的一定有的既得利益而去再「逐鹿」去找更多營運資源？政府便唯有推出《教統會第三號報告書(1988)》「直資學校」的建議，推行「直接資助計劃」，希望從另一角度去資助及鼓勵私校/津校發展為另一強大的體制，讓家長選校時有更多選擇 (《第三號報告書》段 4.64)，政府給直接資助學校的津貼比津校為低 (《第三號報告書》段 4.60)，如果津校因直資學校的其他條件而肯轉為直資學校，政府的資助成本可以減少，而政府又批准直資學校可以向家長收取額外費用(《第三號報告書》段 4.60-4.62)，學校要向家長徵收額外費用，一定本身要有使家長信服的地方，即是說，校長的辦學一定使家長有信心，家長才肯為子女多付額外金錢去接受更佳的教育。所以，理論上來說，如果學校加入直資計劃，他一定要積極辦學，提升學校效能，才能吸引學生及家長，對暮氣沈沈但接受政府龐大津貼的津校，能起一定的啟導作用。直接資助計劃應可帶來一個轉機直資的背景資料《國際顧問團報告書(1982)》從一個公平均等的角度去批評殖民地政府統治香港 140 年來的教育政策，指出：「香港的教育體系有不少極為明顯的問題，當局必須加以注意。其中有些更是長期性的問題：例如公平及份量的問題。雖然社會人士的注意力與目標會隨不同環境與觀點而作出改變，但負責策劃及製訂政策的人員應有能力辨明各種趨勢及制定適當的策略去加以應付：這是當局在教育管治方面須長期留意的事項。」(《顧問團報告書》段 4.5) 顯而易見，顧問團是在批評香港的私校政策，「一般私立獨立學校質素低落，當局並無施行提高質素或下令停辦的政策去把情況改善」(《顧問團報告書》段 3.4.32)。香港的私校，在政府剛推行初中免費教育(1978)的時候，因為政府需要向他們「買位」去安置初中生去補充官/津初中學位的不足，曾經風光了一段日子，但由 1982 年開始，「買位」總數隨津校的迅速膨脹已逐漸下降，政府祇向質素較好的二十多間私校買位，其餘的五十多間，便陷入財政困境，甚致要關閉，政府也再沒有加以援手。還有，在上文 3.3.2 所論及的左派學校，政府是否亦應該「辨明趨勢」而對它們有政策上的改變？這些在立場上是親北京政府的學校，殖民地府在後過渡期應採取那一種策略去幫助解決他們長期以來被孤立的困境？《顧問團報告書》指出，政府要使質素較差的學校「追上水平」。「正如我們指出，香港的基本教育制度現在已成形。入學人數增加得既速且多。學校制度現在應該集中應付學生迅速增加所帶來的挑戰 – 這些新問題是與質有關而多於與量有關的。當所有要讀書的人都得以入學的時候，社會的期望便會轉向把教育質素方面各種參差的現象加以改善。參差的現象包括例如不同學校的不同資源種類及不同的成績等。」(《顧問團報告書》段 3.4.33)。「沒有一個教育制度可以令所有學校有完全一律的質素。當局的目標應該是不斷漸漸的將較差學校的質素提高至最好學校的水平。」(《顧問團報告書》段 3.4.35)。政府的直接資助計劃，就是回應(《顧問團報告書》而由《教統會第三號報告書 1988》)建議去推行。 156 直資政策的效益行政局在 1989 年 9 月 26 日正式批准「直資計劃」的推行，教育署亦由「新成立的私立學校檢討組」 (Private School Review Section) 專責處理直資計劃的事宜。由 1989 年開始，教育署每年都用行政通告的形式邀請資助及私立學校 (國際學校除外)參加，條件亦很優厚和寬鬆，如「前身為資助學校的直接資助學校，可獲准隨時退出該計劃，但須最少給予教署九個月通知」「直資學校有充份的自由去訂定符合基本教育的課程、學費及入學資格」等(31)，但是這計劃並不受津校歡迎，除了聖保羅男校在 1990 年以高姿態公佈想加入，但也被一些教育界所謂領袖公開亂扣帽子，指該校「追求貴族化教育，剝削貧苦子弟入讀」,一連串的漫，使該校的夏永豪校長面目無光，該校亦無奈撤回申請，保持津校身份。從此，亦再沒有任何津校申請加入直資計劃。 1991 年 9 月 1 日，一共有 9 間學校加入直資學校體制，其中 5 間是左派學校，4 間是國際學校。福建、香島、漢華、旺角勞校和培僑是在殖民地政府孤立下尚可掙扎生存的左派學校，「直資計劃」給予他們的津貼，猶如一枝強心針；我們都希望，這些學校在解決經濟困局後，能並肩和香港官/津學校一樣，承擔了教育香港下一代成材的責任，為實現「港人治港」培養人材。教育署為表示向這些學校修好，教育署署長李越挺先生亦出席了培僑中學 92 年度的畢業典禮為主禮嘉賓。這是一個相當有意義的社交事件，亦間接向北京政府表明和平合作的意向。其他在 1991 年參加直資計劃的國際學校，因為亦有收錄一些喜歡修讀這類學校的香港本土學生，教育署亦批准給予直資津貼以資助那些本土學生，這是香港政府一個十分慷慨的行徑，因為香港有足夠的本土學校讓他們讀書，這些學生入讀這四間收費高昂的國際學校又得到政府的直資津貼，這祇是一個向外國民主國家標榜香港政府的「民主」作風手法而已！直資政策對香港教育體系發展的影響在直資政策津貼下，「多元化辦學」又幫助了兩間學校的發展。在 1992 年 9 月，恆生商學書院和李寶椿聯合世界書院加入直資計劃，為香港的預科學生提供另一類的預科教育。恆生商學書院，開辦預科的商科課程，主力培育學生報讀大學的商管、經濟、會計等課程，為香港的工商業提前訓練接班人。這間學校的畢業生成績非常好，繼續大學課程的學生超過 95%。李寶椿聯合世界書院(Li Po Chun United World College)是United World Colleges體系學校在世界各地的八間成員學校之一，他們辦學的宗旨是訓練學生確認他們個人對社會的責任和認識自我及自己的潛能，收錄入學的學生都有優異的中學成績，修讀國際承認的〝International Baccalaureate Diploma〞預科文憑，該校畢業生入大學的比率是 100%。李寶椿聯合世界書院的學生，40%是香港本土學生，60%是來自世界各地的精英份子，由於香港政府能給予直資津貼給香港本土學生，亦可間接幫助了那些外國學生繳交較便宜的學費。這 60%外國學生畢業後，都是回國升學居多。他們學有專長，都是他們自己國家的棟樑，香港曾經協助培育他們成材，飲水思源，如果教育是一個長線投資的話(Carnoy，1990)，對這類學校的投資亦可視為一項重要的資本累積策略，既可協助他們的母國增加人力資本，香港亦可能會獲益(Offe，1987)。直資政策發展的局限由於受申請規條所限，政府給予直資學校的資助，遠比給予津貼學校的資助為低，學校一定要努力運作，爭取好成績去吸引學生入讀並繳付差額的學費。這樣的辦學方式，學校和老師的壓力肯定不輕，又怎可吸引傳統收取大量津貼的津貼學校加入去自找苦吃！所以，這個計劃自 1991 年 9 月 1 日實施以來，到目前，祇有 13 間學校加入，可算是慘淡經營！ 157 結論星加坡前總理李光耀先生，在 1965年 10月 9日宣佈星加坡脫離英國獨立的時候，曾經說過：〝the worthwhile return of education......a good citizen robust, well-educated, skilled and well-adjusted.〞星加坡獨立後，經濟穩定，國泰民安，這和該國一貫以來重視教育投資，成功地通過教育，能融合國內各民族知道要為自己國家的利益，放棄一己之私利，首要發展經濟，建設和富強自己的國家。 Schultz(1961)亦認為投資在人身上，如教育、訓練和遷移等，經過一段時間，可以得到更大的報酬。香港的教師們，薪酬偏高，福利亦優厚，政府又安排形形式式的在職複修去協助他們進德修業，希望能提升他們的見識及工作能力，改進教師隊伍的人力資源，使他們用心教學，教導本土學生成材，增加社會的生產力。政府對教育界的龐大投資，如果能強化了教師們對工作的使命感，回報率應是不錯的。特區行政首長董建華先生在 1997 年的〈施政報告〉(段 101)亦提出了「教育制度檢討，增加教育開支，使香港學生得到優質教育」；其中亦提出「檢討現時有關私立學校的政策，使私立學校制度更活躍、更多元化，並鼓勵私校創新和為家長提供更多選擇」，是董建華先生看到「直資計劃」能驅使學校要追求卓越，「在明確的問責制度下，以有效率和具成本效益的方法，達到社會對優質學校的期望，滿足社會的需求」。我亦希望，在特區政府亦支持的「多元化教育的體制下」，直接資助計劃能為香港的教育帶來蓬勃的生機！參考書目王齊樂 (1983)。《香港中文教育發展史》。香港：波文。中華人民共和國：香港特別行政區基本法 (1991)。香港：三聯。中學資助則例 (1984)。香港：政府印務局。《行政長官董建華施政報告》(1997)。香港：政府印務局。香港布政司署 (1981)。《香港教育制度全面檢討》。香港：政府印務局。香港布政司署 (1993)。《香港學校教育目標》。香港：布政司署教育統籌科。香港教育制度全面檢討―香港的教育制度 (1981)。香港：政府印務局。孫邦正 (民 52)。《師範教育》。台灣：正中書局。教統會 (1988)。《報告書(第三號)》。香港：政府印務局。教統會 (1992)。《報告書(第五號)》。香港：政府印務局。教統會 (1997)。《報告書(第七號)》。香港：政府印務局。曾景安譯 (1984)。《葛亮洪爵士回憶錄》。香港：廣角鏡。蔡寶瓊 (1987)。《教育社會學觀察》。香港：廣角鏡出版社。鍾宇平等編 (1988)。《學校私營化----理論、效果與抉擇》。香港：小島。 Carnoy, M., & Samoff, J. (1990). Education and transition in the third world. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Chan, K. W. (1998). The role of motives in the professional development of student teachers, Education Today, 48(1), 2-8. Endacott, G. B., & Hinton, A. (Eds.). (1962). Fragrant Harbour: A short history of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. 158 Hill, M., & Lian, K. F. (1995). The politics of nation building and citizenship in Singapore. London: Routledge Kelly G. P., & Altbach, P. G. (1978). Education and colonialism. New York: Longman Lau, S. K. (1987). Society & Politics in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. Liewellyn, J. (1982). A Perspective on Education in Hong Kong. Report by a Visiting Panel. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Luk, H. K. B. (1991). Chinese Culture in the Hong Kong curriculum: Heritage & colonialism. Comparative Education Review, 35(4), 650-668. Ng Lun N. H. A.m (1985). Interactions of East and West: Development of public education in early Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. Offe, C. (1984). Crisis of Crisis Management: Element of a Political Crisis Theory. In J. Keane (Ed.), Contradicitions of the welfare state (pp. 35-64). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Schultz, T. W. (1961, March). Investment in human capital. American Economic Review, 51, 1-17. Sweeting, A. (1993) A phoenix transformed: The reconstruction of education in post-war. Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. 159 Education Reform and Language Selection in Hong Kong: Brief Remarks by a Linguist on the “Medium of Instruction” and “Mix” Issues B. Jernudd Hong Kong Baptist University1 Linguistic theories distinguish between human faculty for language, for any language, and the realization of that capacity through the use of particular language in particular situations. There exists a fundamental contradiction between the linguist’s endorsement of the human faculty for language that inevitably emerges equally in all of us and the popular belief of the different worth of varying ways of speaking. Regrettably, this latter belief is as unfortunate as it is real. While linguists have to contend with the political realities of labeling speech as languages and dialects, as standard languages or jargons, as mixed or not, there is no room in their theory for degrees of adequacy for the human language faculty. It is a matter of dogma in linguistics that human beings have the same potentials for expression and that capacity for language matures fully in each individual (with the exception of individuals who have been raised in inhumane conditions) and it finds its realization – its expression -- in an individuals’ proficiency of use of some variety of language. There is no contradiction between this dogma, with its implication that varieties of language are adequate for the purposes of expression to which they have been put, and the obvious fact that individuals a) conform to social norms that also embrace language expression and b) strive for better expression to suit particular purposes of expression. What then should these norms be and what is better expression? In this note, I will attempt some partial answers. My main point will be that individuals will accomplish adequate communication quite happily through participation in communicative interaction that is meaningful to them. I base this point on my fundamental belief that learners as any other communicating individuals manage their speaking so as to note and adjust inadequacies, relative to the interactive situation they find themselves in. FUNDAMENTAL PREMISE The premise Linguistic-grammatical theory today rests on the axiom that “…normal human intelligence is capable of acquiring knowledge [of language] through its own internal resources, making use of the data of experience but moving on to construct a cognitive system in terms of concepts and principles that are developed on independent grounds… languages are held to “grow” by virtue of common human resources” (MacSwan 1999:8-9). 1 I thank in particular Professor J. V. Neustupný of Obirin College, Tokyo, and also Dr. G. Bruche-Schulz of the same Department of English Language & Literature as myself for their comments that helped me shape this paper. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 160 This being so, it is a logical necessity for linguists to endorse in principle as fundamental the premise that all languages are equally worthy, equally suited to be the conduit for an individual’s expressive purport. In the context of language selection as medium of instruction, this fundamental premise was, for example, expressed in a UNESCO declaration of 1953. The child’s mother tongue is the right selection. In today’s formulation, the school should be so organized as to allow the child to use its own language and the developing child’s own language should be celebrated by all participants in the educational process. Modulations In practice, what is the child’s own language may not be that easy to determine. Children from a “traditional” village that has been incorporated into an urban educational district and other children from the uptake area whose families have moved into the district will of course have had different speaking experiences. Especially in areas that are fast developing, accommodations have to be made by all parties to these differential communicative backgrounds. (I will return to “linguistic diversity” below.) Schools that use the children’s vernacular as the medium on which expressive, cognitive and emotional growth of the child is based follow best practice. In countries with a very well established system of a continuum of varieties from national standard thru regional speech to contemporary dialect, individual differences may well be bridged by teachers’ accommodations of speaking according to linguistic-behavioral norms at intermediate points on this cline. Additional languages have a role to play. Great care has to be taken if other languages are introduced. Bilingual education is one possible accommodation to realities of differential communication practices in a community and to future communication goals: “Ideological, idealistic and research-based doctrines of educational provision […] plead for the foundations of education being laid in the primary language while the second language is gradually built up in the development of bilingual skills […] when local cultural, political and religious factors have to be taken into account, as is the case everywhere, then language policy in education has to co-ordinate what is feasible with what is desirable.” (Baetens Beardsmore 1999:509-510). Should an educational system take a bilingual turn, it must be organized in such a way that no child’s speech is marginalized. To implement a curriculum which will include goals to implement particular language norms, it is of paramount importance that adequate noting, evaluation and adjustment of all deviations in the children’s speech from that of the norm takes place. This management process however must be present in the children’s own speech. It is initiated in the teaching situation and the child has to be the one to apply it. How this can be brought about is a pedagogical problem which interfaces with but cannot be solved by linguistics alone. Good teachers know to initiate in children this process of child-managed acquisition. Also, pedagogy along the lines of what is currently proposed under the label of “language awareness” may point in the right direction; and interactive, negotiating pedagogies that stimulate active exploration of speech practices may be compatible with what linguistics mandates. What is also absolutely important is that no secondary inadequacies (personal communication, J. V. Neustupný) occur. By that I mean, among other matters, that not a single child’s speech and educational chances must be devalued because of a teacher’s higher expectations for children whose speech reflect the characteristics of an elite. 161 APPLICATION Diversity among pupils When a child who speaks a different variety from that (those?) already used in school joins school, the society and the educational system should make every effort to give that child an education in the child’s variety. When I say diversity and different variety, I refer to “language” as well as to the non-grammatical “discourse” differences and other behavioral competences that enable successful participation in school events. Children’s differing ways of speaking must be respected and schooling must accommodate to the child’s language and discourse behaviors. Placing the child’s language behavior at the center can organize schools and the educational process in different ways. This again is not a problem for which linguistics alone can predict successful solutions. A few suggestions may however not be misplaced here. First, small classes would seem imperative because otherwise how can the child be engaged in speaking such that the child’s own language management is stimulated? Second, a child could be placed with others like him/her which would broaden the inclusiveness of the teacher’s speaking in the children’s language variety and which would of course support mutuality of interaction between all children and the teacher. Another way could be that teachers use several language varieties and discourses in a linguistically diverse class – which of course requires that the teachers are competent and willing and trained to do so, small classes, a conducive physical environment, and so on. If a child’s variety of language cannot remain the medium throughout the years of learning, education in it must be made available for as long as it takes to enable the child to make a transition into the majority’s language environment without harm to the child’s affective, cognitive, expressive and otherwise behavioral development and school performance in whatever regards. A disturbing fact of educational language practice is the apparent belief that one language and only one language can be a medium at any one stage of education. This monolingual ideal does not reflect realities of language practices outside of school in most communities around the world. If the recognition of “foreign languages” is taken into account, then I cannot think of a single community that is not multilingual. As a matter of fact (personal communication, J. V. Neustupný), multilingual (multivarietal) classrooms have always been there. Even today, strictly speaking by linguists’ criteria, probably all classrooms are multilingual (multivarietal). What this paper advocates, in harmony with professional beliefs among linguists, is the necessity to manage these situations. Classroom discourse can and in my opinion should reflect community practices. Teachers should be trained in interaction and language management and be willing to interact in multiple ways of speaking (of languages and discourses) in their classrooms, to appropriately connect education with children’s family and community experiences and practices of communication. Multilingual state policies States (and the equivalent, e.g., SAR’s, territories, and so on – wherever in governance the responsibility for education lies; another term could be “political community”) are major stakeholders in language management with regard to their young citizens. Besides realities of their respective language situations, states have overt policies to help organize future communication in support of related state goals. Hong Kong is an example of a political community with an explicit 162 trilingual (Cantonese, Putonghua and English) and biliterate (Chinese and English) policy that supports its unique position as a SAR and its domestic social and economic goals. Such policies in no way contradict the principle that language selection in education depends on the choice of the child’s own variety. Multilingual policies merely challenge the educational process to organize education for best results. Progression There is nothing mysterious about teaching languages. There is an abundance of good practice to learn from. For example, only a few weeks ago, the Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies at the Polytechnic University of Hong Kong co-organized an international conference on plurilingualism (Plurilingual Hubs in the New Millennium; http://www.cbs.polyu.edu.hk/hubs/) and many of the papers addressed directly and very helpfully precisely the issues of the timing of introducing new languages, the amount of curricular time to give to them, methods of enabling acquisition including content teaching and if so what content to cover at what levels of education and in what progression, of assessment (which should be specifically tailored to the methods and desired outcomes) and so on. Teacher training and teachers’ communication and pedagogical practices are obviously especially crucial determinants of outcome. Perhaps the single most important action we in Hong Kong can take is to tap best practices from elsewhere with a view to thoroughly understanding their particular situations and then to draw lessons for ourselves in view of Hong Kong’s peculiar educational and linguistic circumstances (and taking into account social and economic goals). I feel it is worthwhile to selectively indicate one here. Acquisition of English is on top of many Hong Kong parents’ and the Hong Kong government’s educational agenda. One pedagogical choice to enable English acquisition by pupils is some kind or other of bilingual education. Baetens-Beardsmore who co-organized the Plurilingual Hubs conference reviews operational variables for teaching English through the bilingual technique of teaching a combination of languages and other subject content. He comments on Brunei and Singapore. His comments are of value to Hong Kong. The operational variables are “the most difficult ones to manipulate in applying any language in education policy” (516). Among his operational variables are: “Teacher competence” He observes how even when teachers do their best to implement a policy, they “fail to understand the process of an integrated content and language-learning syllabus. This leads to a pedagogic strategy which produces reactive language but not active language usage, thereby at times defeating the major objective of a bilingual programme using content-matter to help the language learning process” (518). As a linguist, I agree wholeheartedly with the necessity of integrated teaching and active language management to enable language learning. “Language strategies in classroom teaching practice” He observes how “teacher-fronted activities … tend to hinder active language usage by children… also tend to lead to pseudo-questions and display questions to reveal knowledge already known by the teacher” (520). 163 As a linguist, I agree wholeheartedly with the necessity of active and interactive language management in enabling language acquisition. “Whole-school policies” He observes how the “mistake is to concentrate on the language side alone, where what is needed in bilingual education is an integrated approach that takes into account a whole set of parameters” (521). As a linguist, I agree wholeheartedly with whole-system approaches to accomplish educational outcomes, including language acquisition. Lessons for Hong Kong are that, among many other operational variables, unless teacher competence assures success, language strategies in classroom teaching enhance interaction and enable learning, and the approach is integrated, Hong Kong should not implement bilingual methods. Furthermore, Hong Kong’s language and education situations are radically different from many that inform current literature and practice however. Experience internal to Europe relies on distances between languages in all regards: grammatical and socio-linguistic and other behavioral-contextual distances are minor indeed compared to the gulfs that separate Cantonese (and even more so Chinese-Putonghua) from English language practices. Educational resources and traditions may well be just as far apart. In such light, the following questions expressed by the Chief Inspector of the Luxembourg Ministry of Education where three languages are successively introduced and used in the school system should give cause for serious concern in Hong Kong (quoted by Baetens-Beardsmore, 513): - To what extent does the passage from one language to another hamper intellectual development, not only in language studies but in all the subjects on the curriculum? - To what extent does the simultaneous use of two languages prevent children from comfortably expressing their thoughts and feelings? - To what extent is bilingual education responsible for a certain mutism in pupils, a tense attitude, a lack of self-assurance and personality, an inability to produce personal and creative work? These questions warn that bilingual education solutions differ significantly in their outcomes and that success depends on particular circumstances in the particular community as well as on the proper implementation of education and language management theories. ‘Mix’? Closely related to the medium of instruction and bilingual education discussions in Hong Kong is the issue of ‘mix’. Languages are in ever increasing contact in contemporary society. That names for things (lexical items) move across languages is hardly a novel phenomenon and an entirely healthy phenomenon. People who already know English may readily recognize some loan words in Cantonese (or in my case in Swedish) that have been borrowed from English. “A borrowed word is one which has moved from one lexicon into another [language’s lexicon] where it is coded with language-particular morphology and mapped to PF [phonetic form] with language-particular phonological rules” (MacSwan 235). Children acquire and all people use borrowed words and they behave like any word that constitutes a language. It is, further, a tenet of linguistics that people adapt languages to appropriate use each in its particular context. 164 This is an unremarkable claim. It merely says that behavior is differentiated and mostly for good reasons. One doesn’t cut cheese with an axe. And just as a majority of the world’s population is multilingual, that majority as easily and naturally code-switches. What’s appropriate in one moment in a particular contextual configuration of thought and action is not in the next; one way of speaking is appropriate to the one context, another way of speaking to the next one. It is a fact that children’s language faculties mature so that they become competent members of the communicative community and command a multiplicity of the expected varieties that are used in that community. When the family or significant others with whom they interact use several languages and varieties of languages, the children develop competence in these and use them appropriately, i.e., “keep them apart” as systems and apply them according to communicative context . These facts need not be challenged. I repeat, these facts are proven and not open to challenge. To these facts we add the observation that much before the end of schooling, early in fact, students are completely fluent in Cantonese (thus, their linguistic individual growth is essentially complete). During that schooling, they begin acquiring also English. However little English they may know, what could possibly be wrong with trying some of it out in an utterance? Since they know their Cantonese, does generating and uttering an additional piece of language to that to which most people are accustomed in any way subtract from their Cantonese competence or harm the hearer? Presumably the utterance was meaningfully directed at and exchanged with some other person, and was deemed fully adequate by that interlocutor. It would seem a praiseworthy behavior and an act of linguistic innovativeness. Praiseworthy at least in that the student is trying out his/her English – the acquisition of which is one of Hong Kong’s most pressing educational goals. Code-switchers/-‘mixers’ do not have limited linguistic competence in comparison with others. They actually know more of languages, because they can draw also on the English lexicon in such a way as to adequately integrate a piece of that different language into an otherwise Cantonese utterance. Incidentally (as J. V. Neustupný reminded me), for those among you who are familiar with language acquisition theories, this agrees with the belief common in applied linguistics that interlanguage errors testify to the learner’s advance of acquisition of the target language, subject of course to making sure that the target norm does not disappear from the acquisition process. Integrating languages meaningfully in discourse – isn’t that a much nicer expression than the so maligned expression ‘mix’ -- is no mean achievement which presupposes considerable linguistic skill. I might add that the more they learn of English, they better they will become at code-mixing! Code-switching (-mixing) “enhances rather than limits the expressive capacity of an individual” (MacSwan 250). He demonstrates how “putting the recursive grammars of two languages together generates infinitely many strings that are not in either infinite language taken separately” (251). In simpler terms, an individual who draws on the resources of more than one language (however little that individual knows of the second language) can generate many more utterances than if he/she were to speak only the one language. I praise expressive inventiveness in these terms but I am not suggesting that education should give up on enabling students to progress in their acquisition of others’ language norms. Of course they should be so enabled. There is no contradiction between the praise of code-switching behavior and the goal of progression as long as pedagogy assures that students remain active learners and language managers moving in the direction of the teaching norm. And if a student knows to name a concept in only one language, say, in English, does that do any harm to the 165 student or to anyone else? The answer is obvious as the question is silly. Of course it does not do any harm. But it does provide an opportunity for the person to learn the equivalent name in the other (or another) language. It is not the fault of code-switching-mixing that society differentiates the use of varieties according to contexts. It is however a matter of educational policy to determine whether some content will become associated with English rather than Cantonese by virtue of being so taught. This is a matter that has nothing to do with code-switching/-mixing and it requires separate discussion. My own value in this regard is clear: a democratic society should strive to give all people the opportunity of equal access to information and to participation in political processes. Educational language selection policy and practice should reflect that value. Citizens today face ever more complex issues of environment and governance and a language shared by all facilitates informed decisions and understanding of their consequences. CONCLUSION I am the first one to admit that I assume in this note that learners want to learn, including wanting to acquire languages and discourses. If they do not, I have nothing to say. Other than my fundamental belief in a pedagogy that respects the children’s own languages and discourses, I advocate a language management approach to language development in learners. Linguists who work with language management theory (for example, see Neustupný 1987, 1989) are by no means alone in advocating such an approach. Ball and Lardner (1999) discuss the secondary English classroom in the public school in the United States and argue the importance of a pedagogy according to which “[T]eachers and students become monitors of their own and each other’s grammar and discourse patterns”. This can be accomplished by “focusing on participation patterns in interactive discourse in order to raise the awareness of teachers of the links between their own styles of communication and their students’ responsiveness in classroom exchange”; and such “intentions and expectations need to be evident in observable or, we might say, audible behaviors in the classroom.” Individuals will accomplish adequate communication quite happily through participation in communicative interaction that is meaningful to them. I base this point on my fundamental belief that learners as any other communicating individuals manage their speaking so as to note and adjust inadequacies, relative to the interactive situation. School is but another interactive, communicative situation. References Ball, A., & Lardner, T. (1999). Dispositions toward language: Teacher constructs of knowledge and the Ann Arbor black English case. Trends & issues in postsecondary English studies (pp. 1-22). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Beardsmore, H. B. (1999). Language Policy and Bilingual Education in Brunei Darussalam. Bull. Séanc. Acad. R. Sci. Outre-Mer/Meded. Zitt. K. Acad. Overzeese Wet, 45, 507-523. MacSwan, J. (1999). A minimalist approach to intrasentential code switching. New York and London: Garland Publishing. Neustupný, J. V. (1987). Communicating with the Japanese. Tokyo: The Japan Times. Neustupný, J. V. (1989). Strategies for Asia and Japan Literacy. Melbourne: Monash University, Japanese Studies Centre. 166 Catering for the Needs of Gifted and Talented Students by Defining an Appropriate Curriculum WONG Kam-kuen, Doris The Salvation Army Tin Ka Ping Primary School INTRODUCTION Gifted education is a universal issue that raises public attention in recent decade. The mission of education is to ensure that the educational needs of all students are met so that their potential can be fully developed. It follows that gifted and talented (G&T) students require ‘special’ education because of their extraordinary abilities and intelligence. When the development of gifted education in Hong Kong is still in its early stage, the Education Department and other related institutions have taken positive steps in planning and expanding the future development. Particularly, some literature studies assert the development of curriculum on gifted education is of great importance for accommodating the educational needs of G&T students. In this essay, I would like to discuss the issues about catering for the needs of gifted and talented students by designing an appropriate curriculum. A case study about a pilot school that undertakes the ‘school-based programme for academically gifted students’ highlights the implications for the school as a whole. In order to nurture high potential students with appropriate learning opportunities and challenges, the development of curriculum on gifted education is a critical aspect that requires considerable attention. GIFTED & TALENTED STUDENTS VS EDUCATIONAL CURRICULUM There are so many definitions to describe the term ‘Gifted and Talented children (G&T)’. Personally speaking, I like Ogilvie’s definition (cited in George, 1992) most. The author stated that “Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons, who, by virtue of outstanding abilities, are capable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated educational programmes and services beyond those normally provided by the regular school programme in order to realize their contributions to themselves and society.” From another article ‘Growing up Gifted’ by B.Clark (1983), there is another clear and precise meaning: “gifted children usually exhibit the ability to generalize, to work comfortably with abstract ideas, and to synthesize diverse relationship to a far higher degree.” Due to their exceptional ability and performance, the regular school programmes are inadequate to cater for the educational needs of these students. The journal ‘Gifted and Talented Children’ by T. Darling (1986) highlighted the importance of differentiated programme for these students. Darling suggested that if the G&T student’s potential is developed fully, a different strategy and programme should be derived in order to satisfy their needs. More importantly, as a parent, teacher or educator, our job is to make every effort in helping these students to develop their abilities Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 167 through a proper channel. In this way, their talent and intelligence will not be wasted but catered for. It follows that a special programme other than the regular curriculum should be prepared. According to the journal ‘A Differentiated Curriculum in Mathematics’ by Rae Deeley (1996), the aim of such a special programme is to create, foster and nurture a total learning environment for the gifted and talented students with the objective of enabling them to develop to their potential within a directing or interesting environment. Deeley argues that “the basic curriculum is unlikely to be sufficient for gifted learners.” Instead, they want and need extra materials to extend their knowledge and potential. The author further states that deepening and widening their learning content and giving them challenges are effective ways for strengthening their thinking skills. In other words, we need to provide opportunities for G&T students to engage in open-ended tasks to a level of complexity to which they are satisfied. Although the above journal puts focus on mathematics teaching, the ideas can be applied to all other subjects. When the importance of developing a special curriculum for G&T students is widely recognized, how to design an appropriate curriculum is another issue that raises my attention. Particularly, the quality and characteristics of a school’s curriculum are vital ingredients to the eventual realization of the student’s capacity. It is of great importance to create an optimal match between the students and the curriculum. In order to deliver an effective curriculum to these children, O’Day & Smith (1993, cited in Colangelo & Davis, 1997, Chapter 10) have suggested several elements for designing a successful curriculum for gifted learners: • Meaning-based: it emphasizes depth over breadth; concepts over facts. Learning is grounded in real-world issues and problems that students care about or required to know. High-ability students will lose their intensity in uninteresting busy work or lack of depth in the subjects. • Higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation): it provides students the opportunity of demonstrating their understanding in advanced content and ideas. It also cultivates modes of ‘professional thinking’. Gifted students engage in higher level and abstract thinking and they prefer hard and challenging work. • Self-learning: it allows students’ involvement in planning, monitoring and assessing their own learning. Active learning and problem solving are promoted. • Intra-and interdisciplinary connections of subjects. • Technology-relevant: new technologies are used as tools for the learning process. • Provisions for acceleration and compression of content since gifted learners can master new material in shorter time than typical learners. • Integration of content by key ideas, issues, and themes. • Opportunities for independent learning based on students’ interest and capacity. • Use of inquiry-based instructional techniques. Theoretically, a comprehensive curriculum for G&T students will be produced if the above elements are included in the design. It is hoped that the special curriculum can accommodate the educational needs of G&T students so as to attain optimum levels of learning. 168 GIFTED EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG As I have mentioned previously, a well-designed curriculum will enhance G&T students’ potential and extend their ability. Being the responsible educators, we must not just ‘throw’ these students into the designed curriculum without giving further guidance, assistance and support. Rather, we should “remain an active partner in the educational process, reinforcing and complementing the activities with the gifted and talented students.” (Lavin & Rothman, 1991) Therefore, implementing gifted curriculum and programmes will bring significant influences to the school as a whole. For instance, it is vital to understand the school head’s involvement in supporting the curriculum development; to assess teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitude in designing the appropriate curriculum contents; to evaluate the response of G&T students towards the curriculum; to ensure the availability of sufficient resources for implementing the curriculum; and to foster parents’ understanding and support to the curriculum development. Thus, many practical challenges and implications are foreseeable when the curriculum on gifted education is being implemented in the mainstream schools. CASE EXAMPLE–A PILOT SCHOOL UNDER THE “SCHOOL-BASED PROGRAMME FOR ACADEMICALLY GIFTED STUDENTS” The Education Department in Hong Kong stresses on quality education. Teachers and schools are encouraged to pay attention to individual differences in learning. In 1990, the Education Commission Report No.4 (ECR4) recommended the development of a school-based programme in mainstream schools with the aim to meeting the needs of academically gifted students. Then, 19 primary schools were invited by the Department to try out the school-based curriculum scheme for academically gifted students. The objective of this pilot project was to develop the potentials of gifted students and to cater for their educational needs. The primary school at Shatin in this case was the one that took part in the pilot. According to the headmistress, to satisfy the teaching needs and educational ideals was the main reason of joining the scheme. The school wanted to go deeper in gifted education. Besides, it could obtain more teaching resources from the Education Department. Creative teaching as the theme of curriculum development In this school, the teachers-in-charge have implemented creative teaching as the theme for developing curriculum on gifted education. The curricular contents, strategies, activities and programmes were all designed for promoting creative teaching. Most importantly, the essence of the design was to meet the learning needs of G&T students. Following the theme of the school’s gifted curriculum, teachers wanted to promote students’ creative thinking ability. It also aimed at satisfying the element of ‘meaning-based’ in the design of a high quality curriculum for gifted learners. Through the discussion of open-ended questions with “6 W” (Why, What, Where, Who, When and How), students were encouraged to provide creative, flexible answers. Answering these questions provided opportunities for students to think deeply, and it also trained students to solve real world problems. As students were free in answering questions, they would feel less bored and their learning interest would be stimulated accordingly. Moreover, students could also develop their self-learning ability. Having high reading ability, they would solve their 169 own problems by reading extra books and other subject-related materials. In addition, students were taught new information technologies. They were then required to develop, or to create advanced products (e.g. compositions, graphic design) by using these technologies. Furthermore, creative thinking was emphasized on every subject so that the intra- and interdisciplinary connections were established. Through the creative teaching approaches and activities, students in this school found satisfaction in what they had learned. However, some other elements for developing successful gifted curriculum are still excluded. Thus, there are rooms for these pilot schools to further develop their curriculum on gifted education. The major forces influencing the design and implementation of gifted curriculum School heads The headmistress claimed that she had learned a great lesson from the pilot scheme as she realized her role as an initiator of gifted education. Recalling from her experience, she had performed ‘multiple’ roles in curriculum development, as a director, a supporter, a coordinator and a policy-maker. In order to design and implement an appropriate curriculum for the school, the headmistress needed to consider whether the proposed curriculum was compatible with the school ethos, the mainstream curriculum, as well as cooperation between students and teachers. Thus, she largely focused on teacher training, team spirits and participation so as to motivate teachers’ contributions. In fact, the responsible teachers agreed that the headmistress’ passionate support and assistance had created a good atmosphere for developing the gifted curriculum. In addition, the headmistress had played an important role in organizing resources and in establishing connections with schools outside. For example, she made effort in obtaining more resources from the Education Department in designing the teaching contents, approaches and related activities. Guest speakers had been invited for introducing creative teaching to teachers. Other professional speakers were also invited for sharing their experience and knowledge about creativity with the students. In this way, students’ learning interests were promoted and they had acquired more useful knowledge from curricular activities. Teachers According to the headmistress, the appointment of mature, experienced and trustworthy teachers-in-charge was one of the key elements that contributed to the success of designing and implementing a gifted curriculum. Especially, the quality of the gifted curriculum was largely dependent upon their level of involvement, commitment about gifted education, understanding and handling approach towards G&T students. It was because teachers were those who planned, implemented and evaluated the curriculum. However, the teachers-in-charge and a few other responsible teachers claimed that their knowledge and skills were inadequate for designing and implementing a ‘suitable’ curriculum. This explained why the school’s gifted curriculum did not include all of the necessary elements for developing a successful gifted curriculum as discussed previously. Moreover, many teachers also complained that their workloads were heavier because they needed to spend extra time and effort in developing the curriculum. Sometimes, they found difficulties in resource allocation and time management. In order to deal with these problems, the headmistress decided to enhance teacher training on gifted curriculum 170 planning, development and evaluation. Teachers were encouraged to take further study. At the same time, workload reduction was granted to allow teachers more time to plan for creative teaching during the curriculum try out. Teachers were advised to utilize the limited resources more fully by means of sharing. Students Regarding the effectiveness of the gifted curriculum, students’ response must be taken into account. After evaluating the implementation of creative teaching in gifted curriculum, the headmistress recognized that the progress was too compressed. Students were not given adequate time for in-depth thinking. Furthermore, many students faced difficulties when they were required to handle some questions that required thinking. This was largely the result of the traditional teaching approach. In addition, there were time limitations which constrained students to learn effectively. Obviously, these learning difficulties discouraged students’ participation and their enthusiasm about the curricular activities. The design of gifted curriculum was good and appropriate, but students could not achieve the best results to develop their potential in full. As such, the objective of catering the educational needs of gifted students was just unachievable. Parents On the other hand, the headmistress perceived the message of gifted education had not been spread widely. Thus, many parents did not understand the concept and advantages related to the development of gifted curriculum. For instance, some parents worried about the extra time that their children needed to spend on joining the curricular activities. They did not understand the importance of these activities would eventually maximise their children’s abilities and intelligence. Because of these reasons, the effectiveness of the gifted curriculum was adversely affected. In order to increase parents’ participation, the headmistress realized there was a need to strengthen communication with parents. She gave strong consideration to organizing school-based activities and providing support to parents. It was expected that these activities would further facilitate the development of gifted curriculum. CONCLUSION Many literature theories assert the view that gifted education should aim at facilitating students of high potential to explore and develop their abilities and intelligence. While the curriculum and activities on gifted education should be designed to cater for the needs of G&T students, several important elements are recommended. In the course of designing and implementing the curriculum for gifted students, the pilot primary school in the case example highlighted the particular role and the likely implications regarding to the reform. Anyhow, when a well-designed, well thought out curriculum takes place and if it is supported by educational leadership, the opportunity of maximising the G&T students’ potentials would be significantly enhanced. 171 References Clark, B., & Merrill, C. E. (1983). Growing up gifted. Sydney: Merrill. Colanfelo, N., & Davis, G. A. (1997). Handbook of gifted education (2nd ed.). London: Allyn & Bacon. Darling, T. (1986). Gifted & talented children: A national concern. National Conference on Gifted & Talented Children. Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (1998). Education of the gifted and talented. London: Allyn & Bacon. Deeley, R. (1996). A differentiated curriculum in mathematics. New South Wales: NSW Association of GAT. Education Department of Hong Kong. (1999). Pilot school-based programme for academically gifted children, evaluation report (Executive summary). Hong Kong: Author. Lavin, C., & Rothman, R. (1991). Developing your young gifted child’s maths concepts. Victoria: Hawker Brownlow Ed. Smutny, J. F., Walker, S. Y., & Meckstroth, E. A. (1997). Teaching young gifted children in the regular classroom. Victoria: Free Spirit Publishing. 172 The Use of Literary Texts in Primary Level Language Teaching in Hong Kong Gladus LAU C.U.H.K.F.A.A. Thomas Cheung School INTRODUCTION Traditional course books include many extremely dully written materials that have neglected the interest of learners of a second language. As our approach to teaching English has been shifted from the traditional oral-structural approach to communicative approach, course book publishers try to produce more speech materials that they consider really situational and very ‘communicative’. Nevertheless, according to the basic objective of our new English syllabus in 1997, teachers have to enable our learners ‘to develop an ever-improving capability to use English’ (CDI,1997). It is doubtful that the use of speech materials is the only means to improve learners’ ability to use English. R. Carter and J. McRae (1996) points out that literary texts contain ‘culturally-rooted language which is purposefully patterned and representational, which actively promotes a process of interpretation and encourages a pleasurable interaction with negotiation of its meanings.’ They advocate that imagination as a vital source for language learning must be developed. Through imaginative interaction with the text, learners learn to read, infer, and think creatively. They can become more aware of the target language and better readers of the world. In the present paper, I am going to show the use of literary texts, especially short stories, are appropriate teaching materials for young learners. I tried to use a short story in two versions, a narrative text and a drama script, in teaching primary three pupils. Learners were asked to think imaginatively about the story, to discover the use of present tense, to appreciate the music of the texts, to recognize certain new vocabulary, to act out and rewrite the story. Activities included listening to the story, reading aloud practice, role play, making word walls, retelling and rewriting the story. Children’s participation was active. The teacher’s role was more a provider of resources and a motivator than an instructor. A happy and enjoyable learning environment was created and learner involvement was great. It implied that genuine communication cannot depend on some conversational speeches which are only communicative on the surface. Literary texts especially short stories are valuable sources for language teaching. I would conclude that effective language learning is based on the use of literary texts under appropriate teacher guidance. Teachers need to focus on choosing appropriate reading texts and flexible teaching methodologies which can provoke reading interest and enhance language development. R. Carter and J. McRae (1996) suggest that a wider range of texts should be provided for reading. Learners need to develop a habit of reading extensively and effectively on their own. When children become independent language learners, they can really develop ‘an ever-improving capability to use English’. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 173 Text selection J. McRae & R. Boardman (1984) have pointed out that the final goal of second language teaching is to enhance learners’ ability to read literary texts comprehensively and happily. J. McRae (1991) has listed out factors that need to be concerned in text selection. He prefers texts that ‘To be usable and valid, a short text must have a clear and readily identifiable setting, and/or situation, and/or characters. Any one of these can be sufficient.’ He adds that, ‘…there will almost always be a turning-point in the passage, something that will indicate a movement within the passage, implying a beginning, a middle and an end.’ (p.44) In this sense, short stories are always the most ideal literary texts for language teaching. Ellis and Brewster (1991) have encouraged the use of story-telling in the primary sector because they believe that every child likes stories. It is very true that children find stories easy to access and understand since most stories have familiar settings. Through reading stories, children can discover more about the world and foreign cultures that they are curious about. They enjoy learning the language because they can think and exercise their imagination freely when reading stories. In the present study, I have chosen the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ in two versions, one is in direct speech and the other is a narrative description. I would like children to discover the difference between these texts as they read. This story is one of the most familiar ones for children. The main character, Jack, is a boy. Children can penetrate themselves into the character. The adventure of Jack in the story is always attractive to young children. As for the character of a giant, it is imaginary and familiar enough to young children. This may associate their memory with the giant in the story of Alladin. Language choices Vocabulary Teachers believe that vocabulary needs to be simple and concrete in a text. It is especially true for young children. N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy, eds., (1997) point out that most beginning learners have problems to learn vocabulary directly from context. I agree with their observation, that most young learners always find it difficult to guess new vocabulary. Even when children understand the meaning, they are not able to explain it to the teacher in the second language. They lack confidence and their basic content vocabulary is really limited. Usually, primary school teachers use pictures to illustrate the meaning of new vocabulary and children are allowed to use their mother tongue to explain their meaning. In this way, the work of guessing becomes possible and easier. Vocabulary learned from the chosen texts are: beans, beanstalk, giant, castle, gold, goose, grow, rich, sell, buy, chase and laying. For those nouns, children can guess easily from pictures and real objects. For verbs and adjectives, they need to understand them from context. However, traditional reading activities emphasize the comprehension of the text only. Teachers are satisfied when learners have answered all the questions about the content correctly. J. McRae and L. Pantaleoni (1990) emphasize the importance of learners’ response to what they read rather than understanding every single word or comprehension of the text. It is important to let children make guesses from context and allow them to remember the meanings by images. They suggest that learning vocabulary from cards is probably more effective because learners can acquire a sense of 174 progress and achievement. Grammar Effective grammar learning is no longer teacher-centred and transmissive. We allow learners to investigate the grammar rules. Carter (1997) states that, ‘A study of grammar in texts is a study of grammar in use.’ (p.34) In order to be able to use the language expressively and correctly, it is better for learners to understand more about the usage of grammar rather telling how it is used. Teachers are responsible to foster learners’ language awareness and ability to reflect on the language. As Ellis and Sinclair (1989) have suggested that the more conscious and reflective the learner is, the more effective the learning will be. The grammar focus in the two texts is the use of simple present tense to indicate things happening and to express simple truth. Phonology It is the ‘music’ of the text. G. R. Roberts (1999) reminds second language teachers that our learners are not ready to understand the relationship of letters to corresponding sounds although they have learned the alphabet. He adds that children, at the early stages of reading, need to be taught how sounds can be attached to letters. Young learners need to be taught how to blend phonemes, blends, digraphs, syllables, and morphemes. Teacher demonstrations and classroom practice are necessary. When children can discover memorable sound patterns from texts, their confidence to read increases. When they can read fluently, they enjoy reading. Activities like building up the word-wall, making the word-train and word-tree, and making use of letter-sound or sound-letter relationship to read can foster children’s competence in pronunciation and spelling. Finally, teachers need to pay attention to teach proper intonation so that the music of the text can be brought out naturally. STAGES AND THEMES OF TEACHING FROM THE TEXTS Pre-reading stage J. McRae (1991) reminds teachers that the pre-representation of an imaginative text is a ‘warm-up’ exercise that enables learners to understand the reason for reading it. He stresses the importance of the pre-reading stage as the key part of the whole learning process. In my try-out, I used a picture of Jack’s family to show the background knowledge of the story. In the picture, children saw a cow, a boy and a woman with sad faces in a small hut. I asked questions to elicit the relationship between the boy and the woman, why the family was happy or sad, what they were going to do with their cow. They were encouraged to infer and express their ideas freely. Some of them were shy to open their mouths because they lacked the confidence to speak in English. In order to encourage more pupils to join in the guessing activity, I allowed some less able pupils to use some mother tongue in their expression. I let the others to help them in converting the mother tongue 175 into English. I went on to ask them if they had cows at home and why not. They laughed and started to imagine what would happen if they had cows at home. It took quite a while for this brainstorming and I found they really enjoyed thinking imaginatively. In the beginning, I did not tell them any answers but asked them to read the text and try to find out if their guesses were correct. Children were clear about what they were going to find out when they started their reading. They were excited to know the story and prove their guesses by themselves. I let them read the narrative text of the story first. While-reading stage For young learners, learning certain basic vocabulary, which may impede their understanding of the text, is important. It is very common for teachers to use pictures to show the vocabulary at the beginning of every lesson in the primary school classroom. I do not reject the use of pictures to show new vocabulary. However, I find that when children are able to grasp the main idea of the story, they can explore the meaning of new vocabulary presented in the text. As some stories are so familiar, it is not difficult even for young learners to guess the meaning of basic vocabulary. They learn when they read. They read and they learn. It is important to train young learners to make reasonable guesses for the meanings of new vocabulary by reading the whole text rather than just showing them what they are by pictures although this is the most convenient way. As the story of ‘Jack and the beanstalk’ is one of the most popular stories, many pupils could guess the meaning of most vocabulary like beanstalk, castle, giant, and the gold eggs. They were proud of understanding these new words by themselves. Then I asked them to draw beans, beanstalk, goose, castle, and the giant on the blackboard. They were so excited to draw what they could imagine. Then I showed them a wall-picture of the story, and asked some of the brighter ones to label the new vocabulary to the objects on the picture. This activity was helpful for the less able learners to understand those vocabulary and remember them more easily by images. I let children listen to the cassette while they read the story for the second time. J. McRae (1991) points out that listening to and reading the text simultaneously is important because “The text comes to life when read or performed; it comes off the page, and becomes very much more than either simply a reading text or a listening exercise.” (p.110) I agree that texts become alive when it is presented orally especially by native speakers. Children enjoy listening to the story when they can read at the same time. They not only can understand the text better but also appreciate the music of the text when they read. I asked the class to read aloud after the listening activity. I believe that young children need to imitate and practise pronunciation together at this early stage. Although J. McRae (1991) says that there are many better ways for teachers to check and practise pronunciation, I find that class reading is necessary for young learners with less confidence. Children may prefer to read aloud together before they can carry out other reading activities like jigsaw reading. They need to build up their confidence with peer support. In order to develop an awareness of a letter-sound relationship, children were asked to build up word-walls, word-trains, and word-trees. Different groups were doing different worksheets. They searched words from the text and other reading materials in the class library. They discovered many words with the same beginning and ending sounds. 176 When they finished their worksheets, they had to show their work to the others. I let them and helped them read out what they had written down and stuck all worksheets on the board. I told them to add new words when they encountered them in future reading materials. In the past, I used to check children’s comprehension about the text after they learned the vocabulary and pronunciation. Teachers like to ask traditional questions like: What did Jack sell? What did Jack see when he climbed up the beanstalk? Who wanted to eat Jack? However, J. McRae and M.E. Vethamani (1999) have reminded teachers teaching literature that the focus of teaching is no longer on mere facts searching but on the interaction with the text. They point out that teachers need to provide chances for free response. I tried it. I asked my pupils the following questions: - Jack sells his cow for some beans. Do you think he is stupid? - Why is he stupid/not stupid? - What do you pay when you buy something? - Look at Jack in this picture. Do you think he is happy? - Why Jack is not happy? - Is the cow a good friend of Jack? - Why do you think so? - Do you think Jack is greedy when he takes the goose away? - Can you take away things that do not belong to you? - Wolud Jack take the goose to the police? - Will you take it home or to the police if you were Jack? - What will your mother say if you take a gold goose home? - When Jack becomes rich, what will Jack buy? - What will Jack’s mother buy? - When you become rich, what will you buy or what will you do? - What will your mother/father buy? - What do you think the gold goose will eat in order to lay gold eggs? All these questions allow pupils to think imaginatively and respond freely. However, I encountered some difficulties in explaining my questions to the pupils. They were surprised when they understood my questions. Some of them still tried to refer to the text to find out answers as they used to! It took quite a long time to enable them to think imaginatively and start to answer my questions. At last I allowed them to use their mother language and they began to react more actively then. Then I presented another text to my pupils. It was a drama script of the same story. In the text, some of the basic vocabulary were replaced with relevant pictures. Children had to listen to the cassette and find out the words missing in the text. It was not a difficult task. I let them listen for the second time, and asked them to pay attention to the way that different people spoke. Then jigsaw reading began. They were very excited and tried to read with proper intonation and stresses. When I invited them to read individually, they were enthusiastic to participate. I realized that they were confident and interested to read at that moment. 177 Pupils were asked to role-play the story of Jack and the beanstalk by following the drama script text. I monitored the role-play and encouraged them to act in front of the class. Pupils enjoyed acting and watching the role-play. Different pupils were invited to act out. Later, some pupils played my role as monitors enthusiastically. The actors and actresses were practising their pronunciation and intonation of the target language spontaneously and productively. Post-reading stage Usually teachers will be satisfied at this stage when they realize that their pupils can read independently. The foremost objective in traditional reading is comprehension. When pupils can answer most of the questions about the content of the text, the lessons are supposed to be successful and over. However, J. McRae (1991) reminds us that more meaning may emerge after repeated and careful reading, more ideas may be constructed when learners become more informed and aware. He repeatedly stresses the importance of communication about the text, learners’ response and their reaction to the text. It implies that further exploitation of the text can be carried out at this stage. Children should learn how to use the language but not the facts from the text. Language learning can only take place through the process of genuine communication. I let children discuss in groups about the following questions: - Do you like Jack? - What do you think about Jack? Lazy? Brave? Greedy? - What do you think Jack usually does? - Who is the man that gives Jack some beans? A magician? A fairy? - Why does that man give Jack the beans? - If someone gives you some beans, what will you do? - Can a goose speak? - What do you think the goose can be? A princess? A witch? - Do you want to have a goose that can speak? Why? They tried to write down their answers on a piece of cardboard. When they came back to me after their group discussion, they started to express their ideas according to the above questions. There were always no definite answers for every question. The goal of this activity was to elicit free response and it was easier than the previous stage. When they expressed their ideas, they naturally used the simple present tense. Then I tried to ask pupils to discuss for a written assignment. Each group had to rewrite the drama script by negotiating new words to replace the pictures in the text. They were very excited to do this activity and it did not take a very long time to finish. I walked around the class and realized that they were thinking more imaginatively than before. They were braver to use their own words. At last, each group came out and role-played their own drama in front of the class. The new stories were very interesting and imaginative. I appreciated their thinking and performance. I told them that their stories were so good that they could go home and tell the stories to their relatives. 178 RESULTS OF THE TEACHING Analysis of the effectiveness of using literary texts Course-books always provide stereotype conversational speeches. They are usually boring and referential, but not imaginative and representational. Teachers always find that it is hard for young children to learn and remember new vocabulary from these speeches. We try many ways to help them remember new words learned like: copying the new words for assignment, dictation every week, and spelling activities in the class. However, children still forget what they learn. Literary texts provide a meaningful base for vocabulary learning. In the try-out, vocabulary was presented in a story. Children learned the new vocabulary in context by making their own guesses for the meaning of new words. They enjoyed and were proud of being able to learn by themselves. It is not surprising to find that most of them could remember all the new vocabulary learned from the story. Literary texts are a rich source for learning activities of building up word-trees, word-trains and word-walls. They foster the development of an awareness of the letter-sound relationship. They are helpful for pupils to remember the pronunciation of the new vocabulary. In the past, children always forgot the spelling of new words because simply they could not read them out. Literary texts are a springboard for activities like reading aloud, jigsaw reading, and role-play. They familiarize children with the pronunciation of the new vocabulary and makes it easier for them to remember the spellings. Moreover, in participating in these oral activities, children learn to use proper intonation and appreciate the beauty of the language. Group discussions and rewriting activities based on the literary texts can provide writing practice to consolidate vocabulary and grammar learning. Children can avoid the monotonous copying of new vocabulary. They become free writers with their own thinking. They become eager to learn to express their ideas in the target language. Their learning becomes more effective with the use of literary texts because they simply enjoy their learning. Learning difficulties encountered Time is always a problem. It is quite rigid in a primary school time-table that every week we have ten English lessons. Every lesson has 35 minutes. Every week there must be a dictation, a listening lesson, and an ETV (educational television) lesson. We have to finish most of the modules in the course-book which provide only a little amount of literary texts. Teachers have to select suitable texts and make good use of the limited time available. For young learners, they are not accustomed to respond freely during their language lesson. It takes time and effort for them to understand what the teacher means in the second language. I would suggest that a little use of the mother tongue in giving instructions may be helpful. To elicit children’s response needs to be patient. When we require children to think of something imaginary, we need to give examples. Usually children can think but they cannot express their thinking in the second language. In the early stage, we need to allow them to use a little mother tongue in their response. It is important that teachers need to develop learners’ confidence to think as well as their ability to use the language. This is always not easy. During group discussions, some brighter pupils may tend to dominate as leaders. This may be helpful or harmful. 179 Teachers need to be very careful to monitor the discussion so that all members are doing the job. My pupils complained their friends were like dictators when their opinions were not accepted. Teachers need to encourage children to negotiate. IMPLICATION FOR FUTURE TEACHING There is a growing tendency for language teachers to use literary texts in teaching Chinese, the first language in Hong Kong. Teachers encourage children to rewrite stories and poems creatively. It is found that children learn and use the language more effectively when they have freedom to think and express their own ideas. It is time for English teachers to evaluate the use of literary texts and think about an adaptation of our teaching materials in teaching the second language. L. Machura (1991) after her experience of using story books to teach English in Poland concludes that no course-books are capable of offering young learners to ‘gain access to a richness and magic of language’. After my try-out, I realize that effective language learning depends on the process of exploiting literary texts. I am aware that the main objective of reading is not merely for comprehension as J. McRae and L. Pantaleoni (1990) have mentioned. Learning activities like class discussion, reflection of what has been read, role-play, rewriting and retelling stories that can activate learners’ free response need to be encouraged. Through class interaction, children can develop and increase their communicative and language competence. To bring about children’s improvement in the use of English, we need to provide our young learners a wider range of literary texts (R. Boardman and J. McRae, 1984; R. Carter and J. McRae, 1996). We need to read with our learners together. We hope our children can become effective readers and language users. References Boardman, R., & McRae, J. (1984). Reading between the lines. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carter, R. (1997). Investigating English discourse. London: Routledge. Carter, R., & McRae, J. (1996). Language, literature & the learner, creative classroom practice. London: Longman. Curriculum Development Committee. (1981). Syllabuses for primary school - English (Primary 1-6). Hong Kong : Education Department. Ellis, G., & Brewster, J. (1991). The storytelling handbook for primary teachers. London: Penguin. Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning how to learn English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Geoffrey, R. R. (1999). Learning to teach reading. London: Paul Champion. Machura, L. (1991). Using literature in language teaching. In C. Brumfit, J. Moon, & R. Tongue (Eds.), Teaching English in children. New York: Harper Collins. McRae, J. (1991). Literature with a small ‘l’. Basingstoke: Macmillan/MEP. McRae, J., & Pantaleoni, L. (1991). Chapter and verse. Oxford :Oxford University Press. McRae, J., & Vethamani, M. E. (1999). Now read on: An introduction to multi-cultural reading. London: Routledge. Schmitt, N., & McCarthy, M. (Eds.). (1997). Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy. London: CUP. 180 中學中國語文科新修訂課程(2002)的考索周國正香港浸會大學中文系香港課程發展署計劃在 2000 年 9 月推行中學中國語文科的修訂課程。在 2000 年年底和 2001 年年初作過好幾次簡介和諮詢，其間有不少老師提出寶貴意見，有贊成的，有反對的，也當然有抱有保留態度，希望多了解一點的。這個修訂課程的設計籌劃，本人曾經參與，對課程的構思以及發展過程也有一定的了解，因此希望藉著這個機會向各位報告。由於有關課程的文件材料現在已經廣為流通，一般人對課程的基本框架、方向都有所認識，所以本人在這裏不再重複，希望集中時間討論一些曾經仔細考慮過，但沒有在文件中鉅細無遺寫出來的問題。這些問題是：(一) 修訂課程的目的；(二)“範文”(指定篇章)→ 範文(語文範例)→ 學習材料; 及(三) 文化的學習，以下分別討論。修訂課程的目的在未回答為什麼要推行修訂課程之前，我們首先需要確定這個課程和現行課程有何不同，有所修訂的是什麼地方？下面是一個簡單的比較： (中學中國語文１９９０) (中學中國語文２００２) 教學目標 1. 培養學生閱讀、寫作、聆聽、說話和思維等能力，提高學生學習本科的興趣，並使學生有繼續進修本科的自學能力。 2. 藉著本科的教學，啟發學生的思想，培養學生的品德，增進學生對中國文化的認識，並加強學生對社會的責任感。 (中學中國文學１９８６) 教學目標 1. 培養學生閱讀中國文學作品的興趣，提高理解、分析、欣賞中國文學作品的能力，並能對一些適合他們程度的作品，課程宗旨 1. 提高讀寫聽說能力、思維能力、審美能力和自學能力； 2. 培養語文學習的興趣、良好的語文學習態度和習慣； 3. 培養審美情趣，陶冶性情； 4. 培養品德，加強對社群的責任感； 5. 體認中華文化，培養對國家、民族的感情。 1 1 見《學會學習：學習領域――中國語文教育：諮詢文件》（香港課程發展議會，2001 年 11 月），頁 71、73 及 12。現行課程修訂課程 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 181 作簡略的評論。 2. 使學生透過文學作品的學習，獲得中國文學常識。 3. 增進學生對中國文化的認識。 4. 使學生藉本科的學習，收陶冶性情、美化人格的效果。從這個比較可以看出，雖然行文用語和表達方式有點不同，但兩個課程的整體目標和內容，基本上是差不多的。比較大的分別是修訂課程包含文學部份，可以說是把現行的語文課程和文學課程併合為一。此外文化部份由增加對中國文化的認識改為體認中華文化，培養對國家、民族的感情；由以前的認知層面推進到榮辱與共的身體力行層面，更為強調。不過，即使是在現行課程之中，語文老師所做的也不限於增加學生對中華文化的認識，其實也兼顧到體認力行方面，也從不會輕忽家國的情懷。但這樣是否意味只要把現行課程的語文、文學部份合而為一；在文化部份再加強體認，那就等同於修訂課程呢？恐怕不是。因為修訂課程最重要的地方，不在於重新設定學習方向和內容，而在於更新教學模式。現行的課程雖然也提出讀、寫、聽、說四種語文能力的訓練，也強調品德及思維能力的培養，但在實際施教的時候，不少老師其實把大部份的時間花在指定篇章的講授方面(習慣上稱為“範文”教學。這裏要順帶澄清 “範文”這個觀念。“範文”在香港一般理解為教科書內所選取的文章。以中四、中五這些要面對香港中學會考的班級來說，“範文”更往往只是指中學會考範圍內所指定的二十六篇文章)。教學步驟往往是：一．學生預習有關篇章；二．作者介紹及篇章題解；三．講解課文，包括字詞音義、段落意義、全篇主旨等等；串講完畢則，四．就篇章中某些重要內容及寫作技巧作出討論，最後附以某些語文練習。語文科的教學任務、教學進度往往就由講授哪些指定篇章、講授多少指定篇章去決定(這是指一般的情況，我們知道某些學校、某些老師其實已經不再採用這種方式，而改用單元設計，根據以提高語文能力為目的教學重點而自行選用、組織教材施教)。這樣的“範文”教學有什麼問題呢？不少老師會問，這難道不是行之多年的教法嗎？難道我們不需要學習古今的優秀篇章，不需要從中汲取養份嗎？對這個問題應該這樣看：“範文”教學、串講“範文”本身並沒有問題。不僅沒有問題，而且是必須的，因為在語文學習的過程中，某些階段學生要先理解、欣賞、模仿優秀的作品，這樣才能豐富儲積，才能認識基本的技巧，才可以逐步提升為語文運用的能力。模仿，是學習的其中一個階段，以優秀的篇章――範文為模仿的的對象，完全沒有問題。但現時的“範文”教學卻往往不是這樣，“範文”並不是作為一個示例，而是作為死記硬背的材料。學生是否已掌握一篇“範文”，決定於他們是否知道這篇文章的主旨是什麼，篇中各段落之間的關係如何，用了什麼寫作技巧等等。學生如果能夠熟記這方面的分析說明 (多半先由教師、“天書”代勞)，在測驗考試時準確答寫出來，就視之為學生已經掌握有關篇章的證據。最極端的情況甚至是：學生把有關篇章的分析背得滾瓜爛熟，但對篇章原文卻很陌生。因此可以說，現時的“範文”講授，往往已經異化，疏離於作為示例以轉化語文能力的目的。此外，目前的“範文”――指定篇章的種類和數量也未盡人意。這些篇章大部份是文學性的作品(也是千挑萬選出來的優秀作品)，這些篇章作為文學作品去研習，去欣賞，去精講精讀是非常需要的。但如果作為語文學習的範文，卻並不足夠，因為在語文運用中，文學性創作只是其中一部份，除此之外還有生活、學習、工作中所需要的實用語文，例如寫一個報告，作一份建議，解釋一個問題，說明一件事件等等。全以文學作品作為 182 範例，並不完全恰當。將語文教學過份集中於“範文”講授，更是偏差。修訂課程之所以提出，主要目的之一就是要改變這種情況。 “範文”(指定篇章)→範文(語文範例)→學習材料2 那麼我們還需要不需要“範文”？怎樣才可以令“範文”達到原本的作用？修訂課程提出的建議是： 1. 取消指定篇章(“範文”) 2. 擴闊學習材料 3. 鼓勵單元教學不設指定篇章，也就是說，不以某些篇章的內容作為主要的教學及評估對象，這樣老師和學生就必須重新思考，學習某一篇章的作用目的是什麼，是把有關篇章的內容結構的分析背熟，還是從其中學習到寫作的竅門，轉化為自己的能力？隨著指定篇章取消，學習材料自然而然會擴闊。以前學習集中於有限數量的幾十篇，現在就要根據學習需要去重新選用。選用的準則是：切合明確的語文學習重點，有助於提高語文能力。這些學習材料固然也可以是以前的指定篇章，但在教學中的作用就要重新考慮，在教學編排中，要認識對有關篇章的講解、引導在達致某個學習目標上有什麼作用？而不是為講解而講解，更不是把對某一篇章的認識當作語文教學的最終目的(除非這篇章是作為文學作品去研習。在文學研習中，對文學作品本身的欣賞了解，就是一個目的。但在語文科中，文學學習只是其中一部份，不能只從文學學習的角度去處理所有篇章。而且即使是作為文學作品學習，最終的目的也應該是培養提高審美情趣、能力，使學生可以自行閱讀欣賞其他作品。) 而且，只要能達到有關的語文目的，就可以自由選用，而且可以選用多篇、多種材料。自由選用的好處是可以因應學生的實際程度和需要，切合學生的興趣。以此體現校本設計的精神，便於達到愉快學習的目的。相反，如果篇章是指定的話，那無論所面對的是什麼學生，都要用相同的材料，除非程度剛好適合，否則無論過高過低，都容易令學生失去興趣，而且亦不容易根據他們語文實況取長補短，以作有針對性的訓練。當教學以單篇的文章為重心的時候，只要一篇一篇的去教，就已經算作完成教學任務，但隨著選材自由化以及多樣化，自然就引出教材組織的問題，修訂課程提倡用單元的方式去組織材料。組織設計單元的時候要有全局性的考慮，使各個單元總合起來時可以涵蓋全部主要教學重點，擺脫以前由有限的指定篇章決定語文訓練重點這種做法的局限性。單元根據教學重點設定之後，可以選用不同形式的多項材料，每種材料處理的精粗詳略可以不同，教學的目的不在於引導學生對有關材料鉅細無遺的掌握，而在於從多項材料中抽取與有關教學重點相關的成份，在比較、分析以及適量重複的過程中達到提高語文能力的目的。修訂課程要求把範文變回真正的範例，通過這些範例引導學生認識篇章要怎樣結構，怎樣推展，怎樣遣辭造句，怎樣營造效果，怎樣達致某種語用功能。運用範文教學的最終目的是要學生把範文的優點汲取過來，轉為己有，再在自己的語文運用中表現出來。這樣範文才真正起到範例的作用，才是名副其實的範文。文化的學習修訂課程的其中一個特別標舉的部份是中華文化。文化的學習是現行課程裏面也有的，事實上是不可能沒有，因為現時的“範文”裏面充滿中華文化素材，在課文講授中不可能不觸及文化元素。 183 既然如此，何以又特別提出中華文化的學習？這裏要先提一件前一兩年發生的事。香港的一所教育學院招生，其中一項測試是朗讀文章，以看看咬字讀音的水平，其中一篇裏有“乾坤”兩個字，結果有不少考生竟然讀作“肝申”。表面看來這是字詞學習中的缺失，但想深一層，就會知道其實是文化認識貧乏的問題。乾坤、陰陽、天地，這是中華文化思想內的基本觀念，如果一個學生對中國傳統文化有一定的接觸，有基本的認識，根本就不可能出現這種錯誤。(除非他在口語中知道“乾坤”這個觀念但不知道寫法如何，以致不能把所見的 “乾坤”二字與口語中的“乾坤”觀念連結起來。但即使是這樣，也意味著這個考生平日有關中華文化的閱讀不足，否則從上下文義之中應該可以推知這兩個字就是口語之中的“乾坤”。) 這種情況和中四、中五教學集中講授二十六篇指定篇章也可能有關係。學生既然大部份時間精力都放在這些有限的指定篇章之上，其他材料就會很少涉獵。因此只要在這些篇章中不出現“乾坤”二字，學生就很可能不懂。香港一般中學生閱讀量很少，出現這種情況毫不足怪。這種對中華文化無知的情況是很普遍的，極需改善。但我們顯然不能通過指定篇章去改善這種情況，所以在設計新課程的過程中，曾經考慮(事實上也著手做過)參照美國人 Eric Hirsch 的方法，3 具體列出一定的文化項目，以此作為中學生對中華文化認識量的參照。當時首先參考一般文化書籍中對文化的分類，然後再在每一類之下具列項目。至於應該怎樣分類、分多少類，包括什麼類以至每類下面收集多少項項目，都不可能有完全客觀的標準，當時的計劃是設立工作小組，由大專、中學教師及課程發展署的同工組成，根據專業經驗首先草擬若干項目，經向部份語文科教師諮詢修訂後，再向全港的語文教師全面諮詢，最後以最大的專業共識為依據確定。在準備的過程中，發現所需列入的項目極多，單是列出項目(不加說明)，也要數十頁。有老師擔心無法施教(“要教”是一種根深柢固的觀念，一時間不容易接受學生(在教師指引下)“自學”的提法)，為免加重教師心理／教學負擔，最後決定不具列條目，而只是列出物質、制度、精神三個內容類別，和認識、反思、認同三個學習層面。4 物質性的文化項目例如豆腐、羅盤；制度性的例如科舉、傳嫡；精神性的例如孝道、中庸等等，一般人都知道大體上的區別(雖然未必可以截然劃分)，無庸贅述。這裏希望集中介紹一下“認識”這一個層面。為什麼要認識中華文化，這似乎不說自明，作為中國人，當然要對本身的文化有所認識，這一點相信很少人會有異議。但除此之外還要指出的是，對中華文化的認識和語文能力有很深切的關係，這也是中國語文科要特別標舉中華文化的原因。語文一方面是文化的一部份，而另一方面語文又自然包含文化的內容，兩者難以分割，譬如說，在“他是我們公司的諸葛亮”這句話之中，如果聽者不了解《三國演義》以來“諸葛亮”在中華文化中的象徵意義，根本就無從理解。另外如“八月十五是中秋，有人快活有人愁”，也要先了解“中秋”在中華文化有團圓之意，然後才可以看出上、下兩句之間意義上的聯繫，否則就會變得如“一月一日是元旦，有人快活有人愁”一樣近乎毫無關係的兩句話了(更準確的說法是變成了“還用你說”的 truism，因為任何一天都是有人快活有人愁的)。其他如漢語之中的“我再考慮考慮”一般上是一個委婉的拒絕，和英語的“I will consider it again”表示真的重新考慮不同。缺乏這些了解，會影響語文溝通的有效程度。甚至可以說，對中華文化的認識是良好中文能力的一個條件。不過，要知道多少，要了解多深才算認識中華文化，卻很難說清楚。仍然以諸葛亮為例，可以有以下的深 2 “學習材料”是修訂課程文件中的用語，目的在於強調：一．超越單篇的限制，二．以學生為中心去學習。 3 參 E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Joseph Kett, James Trefil (1988). Cultural Literacy: what every American needs to know. New York : Vintage Books, 1988 ; E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Joseph F. Kett, James Trefil (1988). The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Boston : Houghton Mifflin. 4 見《中學中國語文課程指引（諮詢稿）》（香港：香港課程發展議會編訂，2000 年 12 月），頁 18 至 20。 184 淺層次： 1. 知道諸葛亮代表智者 2. 知道諸葛亮代表智者，省稱孔明 3. 知道諸葛亮代表智者，省稱孔明，是三國時代蜀國的丞相 4. 知道諸葛亮代表智者，省稱孔明，是三國時代蜀國的丞相，其代表智者是經《三國演義》渲染的結果 5. …… 一個中學生要認識多少個這樣的項目，對每個項目認識要達到什麼程度，這都難以客觀釐定。 5 如果真的要由老師一一講授的話，那就更不知如何處理了。老師的擔心不是沒有道理的。因此，即使在最初要為中學課程定出文化項目的時候，基本思路都不是要求老師逐一講授，而是指引學生自學。而所謂自學，也不是按照某些條目一一研習記誦，因為這樣會把本來很有趣味的知識變得枯燥呆板，把學習的樂趣變成學習的負擔。較為理想的自學方式是和語文學習結合，在潛移默化的活動中進行，其中一種方法是閱讀小說，以金庸的《射鵰英雄傳》為例，書中有豐富的、不同類別的文化素材，兼括器物、制度、地理、歷史以至文學、宗教、思想、人倫各方面。有趣味性，又有優秀的文學技巧，在享受閱讀的過程中又自然而然增加對文化方面的認識，可謂一舉數得。在適當的時候，老師更可以引導同學思考書中人物道德上的抉擇，例如郭靖應忠於蒙古，抑或忠於南宋；華箏公主間接逼死郭靖之母的恩怨情仇；以至段王爺、瑛姑、周伯通的三角關係，以及應否寬恕裘千仞等等，都是文化反思認同、思維訓練的良好題材，而且亦切合一體多面、環環相扣的課程精神。 6 文化學習的成效如何評估，這是還沒有好好解決的問題。最直接的想法當然是考核學生知道不知道“初唐四傑是哪四個”之類，但這類考核既會把文化學習變成枯燥的死記硬背，而且在未有具體條目之前更難以實行，因此並不可取。其中一個比較可行的方案是和聽、說、讀、寫的考核結合，同時進行。以閱讀、聆聽能力測試為例，可以部份選用包含文化成份的材料，或是設計題目時預設考生對文化有一定的認識，否則不能妥善作答。至於說話、寫作就更簡單，部份題目可以就文化課題設定，考生需對有關課題有基本認識才可以有良好表現。如果真是採用這種方式的話，那麼在考試課程就應該有明確的說明，甚至明確地定出這類題目的比例。最後要提到的是現行中六高級補充程度《中國語文及文化》科的問題。這科的第二卷是“文化問題”，考核的是學生對文化課題的思辨評斷能力，雖然也涉及語文表達能力，但以前者為主，後者為次；和上文剛說到的把文化認識結合語文能力考核，以語文能力為主，文化認識為副，輕重主次顯然不同。如果《中國語文及文化》科繼續保留，那和將要推行的修訂課程各有偏重取捨，可以並行不悖；但如果學制改變，《中國語文及文化》科取消，那麼這一種文化反思的能力是否應該繼續考核，考核的方式如何，是否另設一卷，或在修訂課程的考卷中闢出一部份，都是要認真考慮的問題。 5 最近國務院僑務辦公室編纂了《中國文化常識》，所希望解決的應當就是這些問題，可以作為參考。參國務院僑務辦公室編：《中國文化常識》（香港：世界傑出華人基金會有限公司，2001）。 6 同註 4，頁 9，〈第四章學習範疇目標及教學說明〉。 185 對當前香港教育改革的一些哲學反思* 劉國強香港中文大學教育學院前言筆者前曾為文論及，當前的世界性教育危機，從宏觀角度看，是因當前時代的哲學文化偏向發展――經驗主義、實證主義、物理主義、科學主義在主導著，使人們的價值取向，偏於功用主義、實用主義和感覺主義。教育改革的成功，必須自覺此種時代偏向之發展，在教育設計與政策上應配合時代文化轉向的要求，才能改善教育的一些根本問題。1 筆者在另一文中，亦曾就主觀心靈的運用之不同，分心靈的不同表現為「道德心」、「觀照心」、「認知心」和「情識心」，並指出我們今日的文化教育之弊病，是在於太偏重於「認知心」的培養與運用，對「情識心」放任，不承認或不重視「道德心」之道德體驗與「觀照心」的美感經驗的客觀真實性，也即不真能重視「道德心」「觀照心」之培養，所以這個時代的問題是「情識心」牽引「認知心」以主宰世情的時代，使道德教育價值教育普遍困難與低落。 2 以上兩文筆者皆作較宏觀的和系統的哲學反省，相較而言，筆者現在報告之本文，是較零散的就當前香港教育改革所提出的一些概念作出哲學的反思。 *本文於 5-6/5/2001 香港浸會大學教育系與珠海書院合辦之「教育改革研討會」上宣讀。關於培養學生「樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔、敢於創新」的反省教統會於 1999 年 1 月底發出教育目標諮詢文件，事後教統會從四千多份意見書中，歸納到公眾普遍認同香港在二十一世紀的整體教育目標應是：讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面都有全面而具個性的發展，使其一生能不斷自學、思考、探索、創新和應變，具充分的自信和合群的精神，願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由和民主不斷努力，為國家和前途作出貢獻。並歸納到首要達致的目標應是培養學生「樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔、敢於創新」，自此以後，「樂善勇敢」便在教改文件中時常出現。固然，「樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔、敢於創新」，就其意義孤立地了解（包括每一項孤立地了解，或 1 見拙文〈論價值教育與香港教育改革―一個建基於哲學與文化的反省〉，香港中文大學香港教育研究所，教育政策研討系列 No.28，1999 年 10 月。 2 見拙文〈從中國傳統心性之學看道德教育價值教育成效之內在基礎〉，報告於「新世紀的價值教育與公民教育」國際研討會，香港中文大學教育學院，2000 年 6 月。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 186 四項作為一整體而孤立地了解，而不關連於任何脈絡來了解），原則上是對的，似乎沒有什麼可以反對的。但如果這四項首要目標純粹只是建基於歸納普遍市民的意見而來，只據像投票方式之量化原則而來，其背後沒有假設一些更基本的原則，則這些目標在某些脈絡下便變得不一定可取。「樂於學習」比如培養學生「樂於學習」之目標，對學習感到快樂自然很好，快樂是主觀的心理狀態，快樂亦可以有程度之差別，快樂可以是純粹感性的，也可以包含有理性的成分。若純粹感性的，沒有自覺與理性的成份，便可變成一種沉迷與陷溺。比如年青人對槍械的結構、槍械的知識的追求了解，學習製造感到快樂，以至日漸沉迷，以至廢寢忘餐，或至運用槍械造成傷害。可知培養學生「樂於學習」目標也不是絕對的。而且如有論者所批評的，學習不是每一分鐘都是喜樂的，無論學習知識或技能，有時是需要用多一點功，吃一點苦的，當然吃苦用功是不應不當地加重與擴大。但「樂於學習」不能是一個絕對化的原則。「善於溝通」培養學生「善於溝通」看來是一個相當適切的教育目標，由此也必須培養學生具備兩文三語的能力。但單有很好的兩文三語能力，或者「齊給便足」，是否就等於能「善於溝通」呢？真能「善於溝通」，除了語文能力與技巧外，還須包括對語文背後的文化思想有更多的了解，與對人心理之了解及人情練達的培養；更重要的還需要一種對他人同情體諒與誠意開放自己的一顆心。故「善於溝通」並不等於善於辯論，善於言說。有時甚至不言不語，默然無語中，才更好傳情達意。因此培養「善於溝通」也並等於單單培養溝通語言的工作，也是關連培養人之性情與品德。「勇於承擔」承擔是對義務而言，當是一種義務時，也包涵是一種「應該」（ought）的意思，也就是一種道德的責任。就算一般言語上說我們承擔一份工作，本來工作也不一定要我們做、不一定要我們承擔的，但既選擇了承擔，這工作便成了我們義務，我們應該把它做好，把它完成，因此可知即使選擇承擔一份工作，也有了道德義務。作為一個人，我們即有很多自然而來的責任，須要承擔的。對自己，每個人對自己生命、健康、自尊等有責任；對家庭，每個人對父母、兄弟、妻（夫）兒有責任；對國家，每個人對國家的安全、完整及文化有責任；對於人類，每個人於人道、人類文化、人類公義有責任；對於宇宙萬物，每個人對環境保護，對其他生命、對愛物惜物，有責任。若能夠對各種義務責任，不逃避，勇於承擔，當然是教育上一個理想的目標。但「勇於承擔」是一種情懷，是一種氣概，然而如何在承擔各種義務而又能充份完成這些責任，則同時需要一種智。或當不同義務責任產生衝突時，如忠孝不能兩全，如何衡量，如何抉擇，這也需要一種智。智是虛，情是實，虛實相涵，所以「勇於承擔」的培養，不能是寡頭的，必須亦包涵道德智思的培養，只有情智並舉，「勇於承擔」之意義才能真正完成。 187 「敢於創新」作為一個教育目標，培養學生「敢於創新」，沒有人會反對。但同樣的也不能無條件地把此一目標或原則絕對化。如果只強調「敢」，只強調「新」，亦可以適得其反，產生反教育的效果。「敢於創新」是涵有對舊的有所批判，有所超越的意義。批判舊的超越舊的，並無不可，而且也很多時候是應該和需要，但若對舊的沒有充份了解，知其優劣，或舊的縱使沒有優點，也應該了解其所有劣點與不足之所以然，然後才批判超越與創新，這樣的「敢於創新」才有基礎。若只空泛強調「敢」，強調「新」，尤其是學者在任何事情仍在初學階段，應先培養同情的了解，深入的認識，欣賞的心胸，然後來的「敢於創新」才有基礎。此所以梁啟超嘗言：舊也而不得不謂之新，惟其日新，正所以全其舊者也。 3 梁啟超要新民，卻先求有舊可守，這是智慧的話，是真正的「敢於創新」者，真正的能培養新民者。目標的存在結構筆者用的這個小標題看來有點唬嚇人的，好像很哲學的，但道理卻是相當真實的，沒有半點玄虛。從以上分析，「樂於學習」，「善於溝通」，「勇於承擔」和「敢於創新」的四目標，每一目標的真實意義的實現與完成，都隱含了另一面的義理之同時需要實現，真實的「樂於學習」，不止是感性的，也是理性的，感性是情，理性是智。此處情是實，智是虛；情是陽，智是陰，陰陽相濟，虛實相涵，才能有真正的樂於學習。在「善於溝通」中，語文之表達及善於運用是一種表現，或呈顯，故是陽是實，若真要達到「善於溝通」，便須人之誠意胸襟與背景之文化知識人情練達，這些都成了表達出來的語文背景，而像不凸顯於前位，因此這些都成了陰，像虛涵能包裹著表達的語文，所以也是虛實相涵，陰陽相濟，才能達到真實的「善於溝通」。在「勇於承擔」中，亦是如此，如前所述，勇於承擔是情，足以完成所承擔責任是智，情是陽，智是虛（此處為虛更因像是沒有了承擔之情之勇），故也是虛實相涵，陰陽相濟才能真實完成「勇於承擔」。在「敢於創新」中，真正的創新，在於先了解舊的，在於保存舊的優點，了解舊保有舊便作為基礎作為背景，在有基礎及有背景上創新，才是真正的創新，創新是表現是顯現，是陽是實，了解保有舊作為基礎是陰，是虛，有了基礎才可以虛以待新創造之出現。所以也是陰陽相濟，虛實相涵，才能有真實的「敢於創新」。總括而言，教者欲培養學生達至此四目標，必須了解此四目標的存在結構，了解此四目標中的陰陽虛實之理。筆者以上所說的話，看似玄虛，但其實都是實話，因為說明了四目標有層層義理，但若四目標變成了口號，喊的人，推行的人，不意識到背後虛實相涵的層層義理，這些口號變成平面的話，平面便淺薄，淺薄便成虛言，所以世界上一切僵化平面化了的口號都是虛言。 3 梁啟超《新民說》，《梁啟超選集》，吳嘉勛，李華與編，上海人民出版社，1984，頁 211。 188 改革方向原則與人文教育的反省改革方向原則之肯定教育統籌委員會於二零零零年九月發表《終身學習，全人發展--香港教育制度改革建議》，筆者個人認為，就建議書內容所陳述之教育意念與義理而言，是不錯的。關鍵在日後如何落實及如何解決技術性的問題。教統會在香港教育改革的第二階段教育制度的探討中，由諮詢到改革建議，所列舉的改革方向原則：學生為本永不放棄講求質素全方位學習全社會動員 4 應該是沒有人可以異議的。當然，是否能實現這些原則，便要看實際教育制度之改革，課程之改革，以及還要看在推行這些新制度新課程的各層教育人員教師的質素，以及日後教育資源之是否充足而定。人文教育的虛弱至於人文教育的課程，現時教育改革中，有關基礎教育的課程，建議分成八個學習範圍：中國語文教育、英國語文教育、數學教育、科學教育、科技教育、個人社會及人文教育、藝術教育、體育教育。明顯的，這「個人、社會及人文教育範圍」，除了包括中史西史或世史各科內容外，也包括如現時公民教育，道德教育、環境教育、價值觀教育的內容，以至我們可以說人文教育也可以包括經濟教育、宗教教育，與文化教育。可以想見，這一「個人、社會及人文教育」範圍的內容是相當廣闊的，若這範圍的課程份量或教學時數只佔八份之一 (即八範圍之一)，則可以想見，這範圍內的各種上述學科原素便相對變得沒有以前重要了，比如中史科，雖然學校可以選擇保留，但此科的教學份量便顯得沒有以前重要了。如果為了把這一廣闊範圍的內容濃縮以至成一綜合人文科，理論上說，也未嘗不可，而且也可使不同學科建立關連及整體之效果。然而，要綜合得好，編定這一綜合人文科課程者，必須是學問深廣而又能融會貫通，能把握樞要又能顯理於具體，否則學科內容便往往大而無當，更多泛泛之空言。比如像：「未來人文世界將是中西文化結合的世界，我們應該把中西文化中好的東西結合起來，不好的去掉」、「我們要發揚中國文化的優秀部份，揚棄其不好與過時的部份」、「世界各大宗教都是教人為善的，所以基本都是共通的」、「不同種族的歷史有其共同性與特殊性」等等文字便可能會比比皆是，這些看似說了很重大的話，卻是空泛得什麼也沒有說。若綜合人文科出現的是這些「大話」綜合，則是可悲的。比如說把中史與西史或世史關連起來綜合起來教學，理論上是好的，但不要說教師必須有中西史充份了解與融會貫通的學力，學生如果中史及西史 (或世史) 之基礎知識不足，沒有中史西史的整體性發展的了解，將來得的縱使是綜合性的比較性的歷史比較知識，也將是一種僵化的、死記的、零碎的知識，是否真能使人達到通古今中西之變，便難說了。在我個人看來，中國歷史科的教學，對於作為中國人來說，是重要的，在中學階段，至少在基礎教育中一 4 《終身學習，全人發展》，教育統籌委員會，二零零零年九月，頁 5。 189 至中三的階段中，是應保留作為獨立而必修的學科。我會同樣主張一個英國人在他的基礎教育中，必須有幾年的獨立而必修的英國史學科的課程，或俄國人在他的基礎課程中，必須有獨立而必修俄國史學科的課程。以下我嘗試從哲學的角度扼要的說明我認為在基礎教育中應保留獨立而必修中史科的義理所在。人存在的基本性相是歷史性在西哲海德格 (Heidegger) 看來，人的存有的基本性相真實性相是時間性相 (Zeitlichkeit)，也就是人的歷史性 (Geschichtlichkeit)，也就是歷史性使過去、現在、未來時間 (time)，外在於人的存有，而成為過去、現在、未來內在於人的存有而為一整體，成為了人的時間性。因此在人，如果人有真實的存在，時間必須變成「時間性」，也就是說時間由外在變成內在。如果只是外在地看人在時間中，過去的我己過去，過去了的不再存在；未來的我還未存在；好像我只存在於當下的現在，然而當我要抓著當下「現在」時，「現在」瞬間已成過去，人無法找到自我真實的存在。因此在海德格看來，人能有真實的存在，是因時間內在於人成為人的時間性與歷史性。我們也可以說，對於一個民族或國家或社團，其真實性即在其時間性與歷史性。以至我們更可進一步說，任何創造之有真實性，也必有其歷史及其完成，即必有其歷史性。太古時代，固然沒有中華民族，更沒中國，因此似乎沒有必要一定要重視中華民族歷史，中國歷史，甚至因為怕種族主義國家主義的遺害而反對強調中國歷史的教學。這都是過猶不及。當知中華民族，中國人真要存在於世界，則必須在其歷史發展中展現與完成，沒有歷史，民族與國家也不存在。歷史意識也是一種追源溯本的意識，中華民族特別重視歷史，也是中國人向來重視追源溯本之精神而來。再從儒家哲學的角度看，儒家以人存在的本源在人之本心本性，你可以說本心本性就是人存在的形而上的根本，從某些宗教的信仰或哲學來說，上帝就是人存在的形而上的根本，人由上帝所創造而來。在儒家，人由本心本性而來，這本心本性就是天，就是道，也可說是由「天」或「道」而來。所以心、性、天、道是一，一些宋明儒者都這樣說過了。從「本心」「本性」角度看，一切人是同一的，也是絕對平等；因每一個人既都有本心本性基礎，都可以原則上成為聖人，所以孟子說「人人皆可以為堯舜」，堯舜就是儒家所稱道的聖人。那麼為什麼有不同的人，不同的個體呢？有不同的人，有不同的個體，就是因為人的現實存在是在具體的歷史中，每個個體的人真實的存在就在其歷史中，理論上說，每個人在他的現實遭遇中盡心盡性回應，便是聖人，但現實個別的聖賢還是有個別性與獨特性，其個別性與獨特性仍然在於他生命之歷史性。當然，現實上可以說是沒有聖人的。孔子，是我們所公認的聖人，在生命中還是有他的歷史性，發展性，由十五志於學到七十從心所欲不逾距，仍然是有發展有歷史的存在，孔子歷史生命的存在，使孔子成為孔子。每一個人的具體存在，都在一個具體的歷史與具體環境中，個人如何恰當回應其遭遇（即如何應事以義），必包涵其對其所屬家庭，團體，種族盡量求充足知識。若我生而為中國人，為中華民族之一份子，我之此一命運，亦同時要求我對中華民族之歷史文化有最基本的認識，進而確立個人自我真實存在的歷史性的一些內涵。同樣的，儒家亦要求一個英國人有責任了解認識英國及英國人的歷史文化，以完成其具體存在所命於他的責任。作為中國人去了解認識中華民族中國的基本歷史文化，也就是孟子所謂的「義命」。所以，總結的說，筆者主張初中須有獨立必修的中史科。 190 環境教育與綠色㈻校-「可持續發展」課程的實踐何建㊪香港公開大㈻環保運動的口號是「著眼全球、本㆞入手；共同承擔、由我做」，要訣就是去鼓勵群眾建立起正確的生活和價值觀念，凡事本著「愛物惜物、尊重㉂然」這大原則來實行。只要大家齊心㈿力，環保這理想必可早㈰實現。眾所周知，環境教育是推動環保工作的原動力，它不單著重認知和瞭解，更在乎㈻生的熱誠投入和共同實踐。因此，增強校內的環保教㈻㈾源和設施固然重要，但若在條件不許可㆘，教育工作者仍可透過所教科目的可用㈾料，針對生活處境和多姿多釆的㉂然現象，讓㈻生親身感受到㉂己和生態系統間的緊密連繫，凡事多作思考和關懷，從而培養出㆒顆愛護和尊敬㉂然的赤熱心腸，在㈰常生活裏承擔起「世界公民」的責任。環境教育，必須從綠化心靈開始！跨學科的綠色教育環保與物理、化學、文史、地理、經濟等科目不同，它不是一門專業，而是一種跨學科的整全知識和生活哲學。現代人已逐漸明白：環保不單靠科技去解決生態問題，它更需要大家有一種跨越學科的胸襟和見地，並且要懂得綜合和同步疏濬難題的技巧。舉例而言，全球氣象變化既涉及物理、生物、化學、地理、政經等多元範疇，我們就必須合科技、社會、經濟、商業、道德，甚至乎政治上的專業智慧去尋求出路。從歷史裡得到明證：自從工業革命以來，人類百分之九十五資源用於開發和改造地球，只有百分之五用於回收和保護環境，污染和生態破壞庶難避免。此外，人類的價值思維偏向於「多消費、少節約」，「先污染、後治理」，乃在發展上形成了破壞環境的勢頭。在國際的層面，富裕國家為了本身利益，不惜把污染性高的工業向落後地區輸出，但由於傳媒往往受大國操縱，他們反倒過來指謫貧國們破壞全球生態。弱國為了短暫的經濟利益，不惜容忍污染性高的行業在境內立足，他們仿如飲鴆止渴。在矛盾日益激化底下，保護地球氣候的國際公約乃遲遲未能落實。從公義與平等的角度出發，貧民、不能掌握家庭實權的婦女、弱勢社群等，他們的教育和謀生水平較低，往往便成為污染的最大犧牲，社會上的抗爭更是無日無之。從上述例子可見，環境學確是一門立體化的學問，它既滲透於每一門學科，又要求每個人有獨立的學術見地，在在考驗現代人是否具備綜合、消化和活學活用的能力。深入認識環保問題能夠幫助學生擴闊視野、增強理解力和認清周遭的處境，教育價值不容忽略。若要成功推動環境教育，老師的首要任務就是幫助學生關心時事、培育公民的責任感，以周密的邏輯思考去建構全方位的知識網絡。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 191 活潑有趣的綠色教育很多教育工作者向我反映：在繁重的課程裡，怎可能再加插環保這個在公開試不用考試的科目呢？對於老師們沉重的課程負擔，我本身十分同情。但如我所一再強調，我們可先不要把環保看作一個普通學科，倒要把它看作一種公民參與和生活藝術，躬身力行，才可從中逐漸體會出環境教育的樂趣。環境教育的真義就是關懷、愛惜、求真、負責任和持久性的生活實踐。環保必須從校長和老師做起，以身作則，上有好榜樣，學生才有決心追隨，全校才會建立起一套環保的文化。從積極的角度看，環保令我們更關心生活的細節，更了解鄰舍的處境，更仔細分析學科間的微妙連繫，也為我們提供一個絕佳的良機與學生一起成長。舉例而言，節省紙章和電力，又或自攜餐盒不用發泡膠，我深信由上而下的一連串活動或展覽，功效遠不如各老師平日所建立起的好榜樣來得有效和具感染力。我們不要強逼自己搞一大串活動，為的只是博取公開賽的幾個環保獎項；輕輕鬆鬆地在生活中環保，學生自然會受薰陶而激發起興趣和責任心！環保應是活潑而多姿多采的。我有幸獲辦學團體推舉為浸信會永隆中學和浸信會天虹小學的校監，這兩所學校蒙校董會和全校師生的鼎力支持，把環保設定為辦學宗旨，獲選為 2000 年度「綠色學校」中、小學組總冠軍。它們的實踐經驗，應可作為其他學校的借鏡。綠色學校的第一個特色是「全民參與」，它們首創在校內推行「環境管理系統」(Environmental Management System)，由校長或主任擔任「環保經理」(Green Manager)，下至課室、實驗室、校務處和小賣部也設立分組(圖 1)，讓老師、學生和校工互相督促，全情投入綠色的生活。其次，「綠色學校」極注重課程統整和環保剪裁，亦即把環保思想儘量滲透、相互緊扣在既定的課程單元裏面。舉例而言，生物或自然科老師與同學們一同查核校園裡的花卉和樹木學名，又或在校園內放置觀鳥的望遠鏡等，花費金錢和人力不多，加深了學生對學科的理解能力，還培育了他們愛護自然界的決心，成本少但效益大。在分析化學和地理樣本時，老師可帶領學生到屯門河或龍鼓灘海濱去實地考察和採樣，那環保、活動和學科上的需要就能夠兼顧。可有想到把學生領到校園的溫室、水池或盆栽旁邊，寓環保於文學創作與欣賞之中？這種實物教學方法頗有創意，必能令學生加深興趣，誰說文科的老師們不能教環保？問題是大家有沒有動腦筋和建立起環保的文化而已。說來，家政老師亦可兼教食物污染和珍惜食水源頭，美術和手工老師也可教導學生海洋生態或廢物循環再用。環保就是這麼富有彈性和趣味，它其實可化作整個教育網絡的核心，據此而建構出一個互動和多元化的教育體系(圖 2)。可持續的環保教育綠色學校的第三個(亦是最重要的一個)特色，就是推動「可持續的發展」(sustainable development) 的理念。「可持續的發展」是 21 世紀的思想主流，它的含意是「發展既要滿足現代人的需要，亦要以不損害子孫後代的發展潛力為代價」。這套大原則在 1992 年的地球高會中得到世界各國元首的支持，自此聯合國也以它作為政治、經濟、環保、社會發展和教育的主調，而香港特首董建華先生也先後在他的施政報告中表示會全力推動「可持續的發展」。縱觀「可持續的發展」思想之形成，正是人類汲取過往在科技、經濟和社會上不平衡發展的慘痛教訓，希望日後在規劃上多照顧環保、在社會開發上多注重公平和公義、令科技更配合資源運用，教育更著重綜合思維和跨越學科的高明眼界。因此，香港若要成為國際級的都會，教育體系亦須具備承先啟後的觸覺，以環境教育為中心，推動綜合(Integrated)、整全(Holistic) 、互動(Interactive)的學習方式，裝備學生去迎接「地球村」的降臨。 192 綠色學校必須視推動「可持續發展」為己任，讓這種世界思潮在香港普及，並且發揚光大。支援以環境和社會可持續發展為學習中心可謂任重道遠，從實踐中得出經驗，學校必須有系統、目標明確和資源齊備。有見及此，上述兩所「綠色學校」都撥出地方設立了「環境教育資源中心」，內設有小型的圖書角、展覽櫃、多媒體資料庫和直通主要環保網站的電腦終端機，並且與本地著名的環保團體維持著密切的夥伴關係，令老師和同學們可以隨心所欲得到支援。當然，「環境教育資源中心」標誌著學校對「可持續的發展」思想的領先觸角和全力認同，它也是全校師生實踐環保的心臟地帶。在浸信會天虹小學上午校推動的可持續發展教育活動，概如圖 3，主責的老師們均十分樂意與教育界同僚們分享經驗。總結一所注重環保和可持續發展的學校，不單表明這所學校別具教育特色，更顯示這所學校的校風是注重社會使命和地球的管家職責(Stewardship)。綠色象徵心境明靜祥和、思考多元並發、胸襟有容乃大、目光宏遠亦時常關懷周邊的事物和人際變化。香港需要更多的環保學校，我們的下一代需要更深化的綠色教育，歡迎各位前線教育人員加入行列！環境教育委員會環保經理：由校長或主任擔任環境保護小組學生環保大使校務處職員及工友教師培訓及發展小組學校小賣部廢物管理小組環境及科學實驗室環境教育資源中心圖 1 綠色學校的環境管理架構 193 ∕ 地理 ― 音樂 ∖ 物理 ∣ 文學 ∣ 經濟 ∣ 歷史/社會 ∣ 金工/美勞 ∣ 化學 ∣ 環境學 ∣ 公共事務 ∣ 自然/ 綜合科學 ∣ 家政 ∣ 生物 ∣ 語文 ∣ 公民教育＼數學 ― 美術 ∕ 圖 2 環境教育可作為各學科的核心，連成學習網絡 194 行政架嚮浸信會天虹小學上午棍可持續發展教育活動圖中文科英文科常講科音樂科美勞科校外還動聯校原子童醫芯 (環保團體) 回收gt劃愛己愛校 1\ 愛地球計劃校外活動第二階段 (;æ;願機構) 鱷彩天虹綠化校園計劃與大地共舞計劃愛己變被愛地球計劃第三階段 195 創意寫作教學黃潔貞香港教育學院創意寫作的序曲一九九八—九九學年，一項名為「小學中國語文高效能教與學」的研究計畫獲語文基金撥款贊助，開始於全港十多間小學推行，該計畫共分三部份―「綜合高效識字法」、「全語文寫作」及「創意及情意寫作」。其中「創意及情意寫作」側重培育學生的創意，引導學生認識自己的情緒及表達自己的感受。這部份的研究計畫先後在五間小學推行。計畫推行前，先由負責人謝錫金博士及本人主持教師培訓講座，學期中，研究人員根據學校的需要提供了各級的參考教案供教師使用，及繼續安排教師培訓。經過一學年的研究試驗，發現學生寫作的內容豐富了，創意及情意的表達，亦比過去沿用的寫作教學方法有顯著的改善，「創意及情意寫作」的教學模式亦因是在學校內撒下了種子。前一學年，研究計畫結束了，本人重訪曾參與研究計畫的聖公會田灣始南小學，發現其中一班學生的作品，不但能繼續達成原定的研究目標，而且，學生的實際表現，比預期的還要理想----學生的詞彙運用豐富、句子表達多變化、寫作意念新穎、篇章佈局的層次和結構具法度，整體的寫作表現，著實令人驚喜不已！後來本人到該班的授課教師---王娟老師的課上觀課，發現學生在課上的表現令人難忘！上王娟老師的課，發現學生在閱讀課上的表現，不但反應敏捷、想像豐富、思維活躍、樂於舉手、勇於表達、朗讀投入、聲情並茂；在寫作課上，學生不但興緻勃勃的參與討論，而且樂於動筆。雖然只是小二，可是學生寫作的內容，不單饒有新意，而且遠遠超越一般小二學生的水平，綜觀學生的整體語文能力，在聽說讀寫各範疇看來，都有非常優異的表現。本人深深感受到，這些教學成效，絕對不是孤立地、憑藉著一些寫作教學方法及寫作教案的指導便能輕易達到，而是教師對創意及情意寫作教學的教學理念，有深刻的消化和理解，並能將這些理念延展到閱讀、聆聽、說話等教學範疇全面應用的結果。王娟老師的教學心得，很值得其他有心推廣「學生為本」、「創意及情意寫作教學」的同工深思，下面附上學生作品數篇，及王娟老師的教學心得，供各位小學中國語文教育同工參考。王娟老師的教學心得，讓我們看到寫作課不能孤立處理。寫作教學本是語文教學的總輸出。一位具創意的教師，不單要在寫作課上思考如何引導學生創意思維與動筆，她還要在其他的語文課上貫徹始終的用創意的方法教閱讀、教師生之間及同學之間的彼此尊重與聆聽、用創意的方法誘導同學多思考、多口頭表達，這種種努力訓練，才會令寫作課收到豐碩的成果。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 196 創意教學的教室王娟聖公會田灣始南小學當今的社會，每個兒童都有接受教育的機會，所以普及教育發展到今天，不再止於服務對象----「量」的增加，而是追求教育的效果―「質」的提升，照顧學童的個別差異與協助學童全面發展才是教育的精要所在。教學的模式也應由過去重視輸入大量知識，轉而重視指導學生學會學習，建構知識。所以，教導學生掌握學習的方法、在群體中學會聆聽與分享，進而重整、發展及建構自己的知識、並盡展所長，是今天教育改革的核心所繫。為了讓學生發揮潛能，創意教學應滲透於各科的教學中。下文以小學中國語文科為例，談談怎樣在構思創意寫作教案以外，建立一個適宜推行創意教學的教室，以利啟迪學生，有效的推展創意寫作。和諧的師生關係是教學成敗的關鍵我很同意陳龍安先生所說：教師在教學時，若繃著臉孔，不苟言笑，教室的氣氛必會非常緊張、嚴肅，出現壓迫感，學生不敢表達意見，甚至連思考也會停下來。所以教師若能常帶微笑，語帶幽默、多欣賞及關懷學生，給予學生支持，令學生感到獲得信任和安全，不用擔心怎樣配合教師的喜怒哀樂，而有強烈的內在動機追求學習，這樣，學生才會放膽思考、湧現創意。教師應持開放的心靈教師需明白自己有很多的想法、教法或傳統的觀念是有局限性的，只有不斷的充實自己，聆聽學生，才可以提升教學的素質。抱持這種態度，教師才比較容易和學生有對話，了解學生的想法，從而懂得從學生的立場、觀點看問題，引發互動雙向的教學。只有真心誠意的聆聽學生，才會有助激發學生的創意。重視每個學習者我們要有堅定的信念：每個學生都能在他們各自的起點上有進步。在教室內，教師須儘量給予學生發言機會，對於他們的提問和回答，教師可加分析或說明、但不要太快下判斷，宜預留時間讓其它同學齊來給意見或加以補充。教師要以身作則，接納、重視學生的不同意見；同時，須培養學生具有開放的心靈、尊重別人的意見，學習彼此欣賞。此外，不要排斥學生錯誤的想法，反應予學生發言的機會，讓教師了解學生為甚麼會有這些想法，然後加以正面的誘導，使學生明白自己的不是，力求改進。只有這樣，學生才會更有勇氣面對錯誤，重拾信心，接受新的挑戰。善於發問利用創造性的發問技巧提問，如提出一些沒有標準答案的開放性問題，讓學生應用擴散性的思考方法以找出多種多樣新奇和獨持的答案。提問時，須注意提問的範疇應以學生的知識經驗為基礎，並應多給時間讓學生思考。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 197 創造性的提問包括探究原因、預測後果、比較異同、推測可能、假設想像等，教師在使用發問技巧時，可同時應用腦力激盪的原則-----討論應是公開的，任何意見均可提出，大家要有開闊的心胸，容納不同的意見，最後，結論也不應要求單一的答案。在語文教學上，各教學範疇應有呼應，目的在營造一個讓學生熱愛語文的教室讓學生積極參與讀文教學的學習儘可能以課文為語文學習的出發點，而不應以課文作為學習的終點。教授課文時，應設計把課文與學生的生活經驗聯繫起來學習，以喚起學生的長期記憶，印證學生的生活經驗與感受，增加學生對課文閱讀的親切感、樂趣，並在教學過程中，豐富學生常用的生活詞彙。此外，在教學記敘文或描寫文時，可用引導幻想的方法，引導學生把教學內容想像成一幅一幅的動畫，以增加學生的形象思考能力，有助學習。重視佳作分析指導學生欣賞課文或其他補充選文的寫作技巧，如修辭特色，用字技巧等。多向學生提問：為何要如此用？用了這些修辭方法後可達到甚麼效果？有沒有其它更理想的、或更恰當的表達方法可代替呢？這些方法可讓學生在觀察、分析、比較中學會寫作。多朗讀朗讀不是指一般的唱讀，而是運用合適的語調、緩急有致、抑揚有度地朗讀。千萬別少看這步驟！教師講解了課文，學生不一定就懂。其實，學生若沒經過朗讀，對課文的理解仍會含糊不清，似明非明。我們應要設定目標 — 透過朗讀讓學生徹底了解課文，只有句讀清晰的朗讀，才能顯示學生對語文教材有較深刻的理解，這些理解就是學生用得上的語文養料，日積月累，便可轉化為學生的語文能力，提高讀寫的水平。鼓勵朗誦 — 提高學生學習效果的最佳方法學生把課文的內容理清了，進一步掌握課文的寫作情境，再經過一字一句準確無誤、繼而聲情並茂地讀過後，才容易體會文章的寄意。這些訓練令學生融入課文中，達至忘我的境界。受過朗誦訓練的學生，學習動機一般都會比較高，由於他們愛讀書，語感日益增強，結果是寫作的表現也日見進步。加強說話訓練在課上撥出時間讓學生說話：說故事，讀報、分享生活的喜與樂、談談感受、說說不同的意見等。亦可安排在學期的某時段，請學生就他們喜愛分享的課題，輪流在課上演說兩至三分鐘。說話流暢，內容豐富，也能有助寫作。增加練筆機會 1. 寫片段：遇有突發性事件、學校的活動日、重要的節日等、可著學生試試寫下該事件的經過、談談自己的感受。遇天氣有大變化，也可著學生即時觀察，再寫下來。遇有同學精彩的表演、領獎或被罰，也可輕輕鬆鬆的寫寫感受。 2. 寫週記：讓學生寫生活經驗是最易入手的一種寫作訓練方法。小二學生已可開始嘗試，初時，學生可能沒 198 信心。教師可以最淺白的方式給他們解釋：寫週記只是和老師談話，說說在一個星期中有趣的事，若不懂寫的字，可以圖畫表示，或請教父母或老師，漸漸地，學生會在周記內無所不談，甚至連秘密也寫下來。有一點需注意的是：老師要對學生所寫的有回應，那才容易激發學生寫作的興趣。善用讀寫結合遇著合適的課文，可進行讀寫結合選取某些值得仿寫的句群、段落或篇章，由老師引導，試行仿寫 / 改寫。只要學生感到寫作有趣，便會很快按提示做到，而且很有成功感的完成。多角度評改學生作品教師宜用正面的態度，多和同學討論一些常見的寫作通病，以指導學生改進。此外，鼓勵同學交流分享，欣賞別人寫作優秀之處，也能提高他們的寫作興趣。這些都是有助學生寫作進步的方法。總的來說，應用創意教學教授中國語文，教和學的都會感到更輕鬆、更滿足、更有成功感。 204 價值教育與教育改革湯恩佳孔教學院去年九月，教育統籌委員會頒布以「終身學習、全人發展」為口號的《二十一世紀教育籃圖》，提出多項近乎翻天覆地的建議，並描述了數個「教育改革的遠景」，包括「確認德育在教育體系中的重要使命」和「建設一個具國際性、具民族及兼容多元化的教育體系」。這些都是應予肯定的。重視「德育」和強調「民族傳統」，正正是香港教育未來兩個重要的發展方向，足以補救百多年來香港教育政策的失誤。回歸前的香港，由於仍屬英國殖民地，鼓吹「英語教學」自有其政治需要與目的。回歸以後，特區政府當可以放開懷抱，積極提倡母語教學﹔可惜，三年以來，表面上大部分中小學已改用母語，卻特准部分學校保留英語教學，反而令學校之間，形成更大的分化――採用英語的一晃而成為「名校」，家長爭相把子女送入就讀﹔ 而推行母語教學的學校，卻淪為次等。也許這並非教育當局的原意，但事實擺在眼前，三年的母語教學是成是敗，大家心中有數。今年本來應是檢討有關決策的大好時機，當局卻一再推延，連高中語文政策也放手不管，任由學校自行決定，母語教學的前途無疑更令人憂慮！說到這裡，大家不要誤會我反對「英語」。事實上，香港作為一個世界城市、國際大都會，英語在各行各業中的應用是極為普遍的﹔我們的下一代也極需要好好學習和掌握，使香港能在國際舞台上有足夠的競爭力。但「學者英語」和「英語教學」完全是兩回事――前者注重溝通技巧，以實用為主，講求語文能力看訓練和應用﹔ 後者卻是以灌輸西方文化為主，好讓人們浸淫於西方思維方式之中，認同其理念(殖民地政府期望的，正是這樣)。當然，作為一個現代人，生活於一個日漸全球化的社會中，我們無可避免要接觸外來文化，更應對外來文化有所認識，但，這並不是說，我們要盲目西化，甚至像五四時期某些文化人，把我國固有文化全盤否定！試問世界上，有哪些國家不是以「母語教學」的？有哪個民族不是以本土的傳統文化為主，外文為副？這正是國體、國策、國情，民族尊嚴的表現。我們的中國大陸、台灣省，以至亞州的日本、韓國、歐洲的法國、德國、意大利、瑞典、瑞士、西班牙等，都是國富民強科技發達的國家和地區，在國際商業競爭中亦是勝利者之一，卻同是以「母語」為主要的教學媒介。相對來說，一些國家，如巴基斯坦、孟加拉、菲律賓、斯里蘭卡、印度等，被殖民地政府統治過後，自己傳統文化失落，採用了外語為主導，卻不見得他們在國際競爭上起了甚麼作用。本人不是歧視外語，但外語絕不能作為主題。過去，香港的教育制度太重視英文，忽視中文，此一情況勢將改變，譬如政府招募公務員時，亦較前重視申請者的中文水平。其實，學生到學校讀書，最重要的是培養學生獨立思考和創造力，以及擁有各科知識和基本語文能力。而採用中文課本、母語教學，就能促進學生的思維發展及分析能力，令學習更有效率﹔學生更具自信，就會有足夠的能力去應付英語學習。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 205 在此，又讓我告訴大家一個事實，香港每年的會考狀元雖然多數來自英文中學，令人以為名校出英才，但是，根據兩年前一項研究，比較英文中學與中文中學考生會考成績的差異，竟得出一個令人驚異的結果――「及格率」和取得高分數的「平均率」，中文中學考生的成績原來都較英文中學的好。即是說，個別英文中學會考生的成績雖名列前茅，但祇屬少數精英，反而中文中學考生的成績卻是平均而穩定的。遺憾的是，肩負宣傳教育重任的傳媒，未能把這項信息宣揚開去，去改變家長對母語教學的排斥觀念，實在令人痛惜。採用「母語教學」除了可以令學生的學習更有成效外，更重要的，是加強他們對本身文化的認識和認同。其實，近年不少西方學者，對中國文化，尤其以孔子為代表的儒家思想，推崇備至。1988 年，七十五位身處西方學術桂冠地位的諾貝爾獎得主在巴黎開會結束時宣言﹕「如果人類要在廿一世紀生存下去，必須回顧二千五百年，去吸取孔子的智慧。」由此可見，孔子思想正好補救了西方現代文明的不足之處。我真的不明白，為什麼已回歸於祖國懷抱中的香港，卻走回頭路，未能令炎黃子孫親炙我國文化的精深博大，更未能引導莘莘學子回歸到以民族傳統為主導的國民教育的大方向？英國的湯恩比 ( A. J. Toynbee ) 曾表示，西方主導世界文化已有五百年，卻仍舊烽煙四起，未能令世界達致真正的和平，因而感慨地說﹕「儒家文化如果不能取代西方成為人類的主導，那麼整個人類的前途就是可悲的。」李約瑟博士也說過﹕「今天保留下來的各國時代的中國文化，中國傳統，中國社會的精神氣質和中國人的人事事務，在許多方面，將對以後指引人類世界作出十分重要的貢獻。」而聯合國文教組織泰勒博士更說過﹕ 「當今一個昌盛、成功的社會，在很大程度上，仍立足於孔子所確立和闡述過的很多價值觀念。這些價值觀念是超越國界、超越時代的﹔屬於中國，也屬於世界﹔屬於過去，也會鑑照今天和未來。」可見孔子是「聖之時者」，他的思想歷萬古而常新，其理論體系和思想內涵的精粹之處，確能超越地域和時代，為世界文明的發展提供所需要的價值和成份。因此，如果要達成教統會所描述的「遠景」：「建設一個具國際性、具民族傳統及兼容多元化的教育體系」，當務之急，便是讓莘莘學子有機會接觸儒家文化，從嶄新的角度去重認孔子思想。本人非常讚賞教育統籌局羅范椒芬局長，用《禮記•中庸》的「博學之、審問化、慎思之、明辨之、篤行之」這句儒家名言為《星島日報•家長版》作題詞﹔而羅局長早前在電台做節目時，因有感於香港回歸後，社會及政治的分化、貧富差距愈來愈大等問題而落淚，本人也深表同情。這兩件事証明了羅局長是懷著「仁者愛人」之心，來履行她作為教育統籌局局長的職責。本人更極力支持羅局長要改革本港「精英名校」的決心，好讓我們年輕的一輩擺脫「填鴨」式的教育，而能從更廣博深遠的「文化」層次去學習和成長。說到「德育」方面，正如教育統籌局助理局長潘漢雄先生最近在本院的畢業典禮上所說﹕「德育是儒家教育理念的核心﹕孔子以『仁義』為師、『忠恕』為本，並講求『格、致、誠、正』，以及『修、齊、治、平』之道﹔無論德性修為，以至倫常關係、公民教育、為政之方，都有兼及。今天的教育家有關『德育』的各種學說和理論，根本無出其右。」事實上，孔子所倡導的「德育」，就是要人建立正確的「價值觀」﹔換言之，他的教育就是「價值教育」。近年，西方不少發達國家，本身也出現無數社會問題。布熱津基在他的《大失控與大混亂》一書中便列出了目前困擾美國社會的二十個大難題，其中包括暴力犯罪、道德敗壞、精神空虛等﹔而根據美國一項調查反映，更有約三分一的中學生曾犯店舖盜竊罪，約三分之二的人曾在考試中作弊﹔尤其令人震驚的，是有學生因畢業問題而槍殺老師，一名年僅十歲的學童竟攜帶武器回校射殺同學，也有學生從互聯網上學得製造炸彈的方法。最近更有一名美國大學生籌備校園大屠殺，他的睡房藏有 30 枚炸彈及多枚燃燒彈。在在顯示只側重「知識」、「科 206 技」而忽略、德育――價值觀」的遺害！至於目前香港的情況，也令人擔憂 ﹕青少年精神貧乏，民族虛無，而「店舖盜竊」、「考試作弊」等問題同樣亦日趨嚴重，加以近日的炸廁所及電話亭等事件，以及犯罪率大幅上升 13.5%，無疑已響起了警號。雖然還不曾出現「槍殺老師」、「射殺同學」等暴行，卻已發生涉嫌糾黨刀傷小學訓導老師的案件。冰山一角，如果我們還不從「德育――價值觀」這基本問題上著手，後果確實不敢想像。我們的教育不只是「知識」、「科技」的灌輸，也應是「德育」、「價值觀」的建立。孔子強調先「明德」而後「格物」，著實是千古顛撲不破的真理，因為還未能明白做人的道德，而先去「格物」，猶如「童子操刀，其傷實多」，是萬分危險的。當然，「教育改革」的成功，除了所有從事教育工作的人﹝包括教育當局、大專院校、辦學團體、教師等﹞ 共同努力以外，社會人士的支持和合作也不可或缺，其中尤以部份「家長」和一些「傳媒」兩方面為最。「母語教學」的失敗，不少「家長」仍保留「殖民地」時期「重英輕中」效應﹔最近，更有報刊鼓吹幼兒院、小學生「大逃亡」往外地升學「浸鹹水」，卻未見它們大力宣傳去年得諾貝爾獎的崔琦博士，是在香港中文中學出身的。此外，不少報刊誇張報導「暴力」、「淫褻」及其他「盜竊亂賊」的新聞，也往往令青少年人混淆是非對錯的準則，迷失方向。文化乃一國國脈之所繫，是一個國家與民族全部智慧和文明的集中體現，亦是維繫一個國家和民族的精神紐帶。以孔子儒學為基礎和主流的中華文化是中華民族凝聚力的根基和發展的動力。中華民族在新的時代要保持自己的存在和發展，就必須固守和發揚自己的文化傳統。民族凝聚力是綜合國力的重要內容和體現，把中國人和海外華人凝聚成一個具有強大向心力，可以創造任何人間奇跡的民族整體。中華民族凝聚力的培養必須從弘揚儒教，加強孔子文化思想的教育抓起，使之普及大眾，深入人心。因此，在新的時代，我們一定要樹立對中華文化的民族自信心，有計劃地加強儒家優秀傳統文化的教育，把它編入大、中、小學、幼兒園教材，切實有效地開展教育﹔並從幼兒做起，從小進行有系統的儒學、國學和歷史教育，灌輸愛國的傳統美德，把我國青少年和學生培養成具有優秀中華民族素質的下一代，作為國家精神文明建設的支柱，與國家的經濟、科技等物質文明同步發展，這樣做是非常重要的。中華優秀儒學文化能否普及大眾，深入人心，關係到民族文化的興衰、社會的團結凝聚、防分裂，乃至整個國家的命運。我們要把孔子學說發揚光大，振奮民族精神，為復興偉大的中華文明而努力。 207 從「香港㆗㈻教師思維技巧工作坊」淺談「思維」教㈻胡飄關綺雲香港浸會大㈻教㈻發展㆗心「香港中學教師思維技巧工作坊」（以下簡稱「中思」）是香港浸會大學教學發展中心思維工程主辦項目，已在 2000 暑期完成，其後仍不斷收到教師查詢或學員邀請在教師專業發展日介紹思維技巧教育。這一方面肯定了我們的工作和努力，也表示現時教育界對思維技巧教育的需求。說起來，「中思」的出現，除了是順應知識社會及教育改革的需要外，也可追溯至一九九三年，筆者之一胡飄與校內同工陳湛杰，在香港浸會大學教師文憑課程中開設「創意與批判思維」的科目有關，當中累積的經驗和培訓出來的學員，間接推動了「中思」的面世。結果多年教師文憑班的思維科目教學經驗成了「中思」基礎，部份學員成「中思」的骨幹導師。「中思」是一個為期十五個月的計劃，對象是中學教師，目的是藉教導一些思維技巧予學員，讓他們再應用到課堂裏，最終優化學生的思維技巧。「中思」的設計主要分為四個階段，第一階段是一些行政、宣傳、培訓導師等的工作，其餘階段屬於不同系列的工作坊。第二階段「初階」及第三階段「進階」各挑選了十個思維技巧教授予學員，前者的主題是「基本思維技巧」；後者的主題是「教與學的思維技巧」。第四階段是「暑期學院」，邀請新加坡具思維教學經驗導師教授如何將思維技巧滲透入各學科之中(表一)。順帶一提，新加坡在一九九七年舉辦「國際思維研討會」時，提出「重思維學校、好學習國民」(Thinking Schools, Learning Nation) 的口號，在國內推行教育改革，將思維教學帶入中小學，甚至大學；也在初中增設思維學科，和大幅刪減原本課程的三成。她的先行經驗是值得香港負責教育及課程改革人士繼續留意和參考的。教導思維技巧建基於思維是可以教導的信念。這信念及相關的技巧並非近幾年才出現，以往有古希臘蘇格拉底對話方式。說起思維，大家立即會想起哲學，想起它的語意辨証，三段論法等等，但現時我們討論的思維教學是從心理和教育學的範疇出發，從如何學習的角度探討。學生掌握思維技巧後，可以幫助他們更好地學習，轉移再應用在他們的生活和將來計劃上面。我們重新提倡教導思維技巧，並不表示現時教師沒有教導學生思維，而是我們鼓勵教師刻意及明顯地教導學生思維技巧，讓學生知道自已正在學習思維技巧。當學生意識到這些思維技巧的存在，他們才會著意及刻意去使用。篇幅所限，如何令到學生有意識使用思維技巧至變成思維的習慣，在別處再討論。總括而言，我們想藉著工作坊向參加的教師介紹一系列有系統的思維技巧和它們的教授方法。總結教育界現時採用的思維教學的類型可有三種：直接教導(將思維技巧獨立教授予學生，不涉及任何學 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 208 科內容)、活動主導(藉著教學活動在學科內教導思維技巧)和滲透法(刻意將思維技巧滲透入學科的教案內)，第三者的目的是向學生同時教導思維技巧和學科知識 (Swartz & Parks, 1994；胡飄，黃熾明，關綺雲，2001)。「初階」和「進階」的設計都是屬於直接教導的派別，而「暑期學院」就屬於滲透法的派別。在三個系列的工作坊中，都採用了一些鼓勵思維的教學活動，即活動主導派別所提倡的，由於這些思維教學活動在我們工作坊中並非工作坊的目的，而只是手段，故也沒有將這個派別的角色在我們的工作坊強調出來。超過 140 間學校近 400 位教師直接參予「中思」的工作坊。一般人預計只有前線教師和初入職的教師才對思維及思維技巧有興趣。事實上，接近一半的參與者是屬於決策階層和富有教學經驗的教師，這似乎顯示出他們也認同思維教育的重要。從工作坊後的自我評估顯示，超過九成學員表示工作坊能成功達到他們預期的目標，八成學員覺得自已對將批判與創意思維技巧滲透入教學內容的態度變得較正面，近七成學員表示有信心將自己在工作坊所學的東西應用出來。上述的學員評估結果，可以說「中思」算是成功了。「中思」的經驗及教育界人仕的鼓勵，促使我們將信念推展至小學層面，造就「香港小學思維作坊及思維教案計劃」的出現。事實上，要有效地培養學生思維能力，教師除了掌握教授思維的技巧，還需要其他方面的配套，例如學校文化、教師態度、家長配合，甚至課堂時間表及教學評估方式等等，這些均屬於整體性的改變和需要長期的落實和執行，本文論及的工作坊只屬優化學生思維工作的基建項目而已。表一：工作坊初階、進階及暑期學院一覽表 1. 作坊初階 2. 作坊進階 3. 暑期學院 A1 處理意念 D1 控制意識與認知透過中國語文科建立思維技巧 A2 計劃行動 D2 建立記憶架構透過中國文學科建立思維技巧 A3 優先次序 D3 培養思考習慣透過英國語文科建立思維技巧 A4 思考抉擇 D4 概念的教與學透過數學科建立思維技巧 B1 分析形勢 D5 組織、分析與理解技巧透過科學科建立思維技巧 B2 認識比較 E1 衍生與綜合技巧透過文化科目(音樂科)建立思維技巧 B3 組織思考 E2 理性思維技巧透過資訊科技建立思維技巧 B4 暫時總結 E3 解決問題透過家庭、學校合作建立思維技巧 C1 考慮証據 E4 創意與發明透過實事評估培養批判思維技巧 C2 對錯之間 E5 學校思維課程的挑戰參考書目胡飄、黃熾明、關綺雲（2001）。《思維教學滲透法課程設計手冊》。香港：香港思維教育促進會。 Swartz, R.J., & Parks, S. (1994). Infusing the teaching of critical and creative thinking into content instruction: A lesson design handbook for the elementary grades. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Books & Software. 209 從專題研習實例中探討推行全人教育的可行性張偉菁天主教永助學校從教育制度檢討改革方案諮詢文件中，看到「專題研習」這個學習模式，使我有進一步探討一下它與教與學的新文化有何關係的動機。根據文件中所提及的條件是利用專題研習的過程鼓勵老師引導學生以不同角度，運用橫跨不同學科的知識去思考和解決問題。本文嘗試從實踐的層面探討一下推行「專題研習」的成效。理念方面心理學家桑戴克曾指出：「人類改變自我的力量，就是學習，學習可能是自身最深刻動人的一件事。」也就是說，學習就是生活，一項慣性活動，一生也不可終止。因此專題研習的學習模式是很適合於發展及培養學生這方面的能力及態度。專題研習是針對一個主題作更深入的探討，老師誘發學生圍繞著一個問題，通過有效的資料搜集、整理、分析、綜合反思等過程讓學生對問題進行探究，並作出結論，歸納出一些新論調或建構出一些新知識。同時在整個過程中，學生從資料搜集及整理當中，學習到如何分析、表達、評鑑、反思等能力，從而培養他們主動參與、探究解難、勇於嘗試及與人相處的態度。在整個過程中，創意思維能力絕對可以發揮得淋漓盡致，正正可以達到以下的要求：「每個兒童的潛質得以發展，日後成為有獨立思考能力和關注社會事務的成年人，並具備知識技能，處事成熟，生活充實及對本港社會作出積極的貢獻。」(教育統籌科，1993，頁 6) 個案研究專題研習範疇：環保問題 1. 為什麼我要保護環境？ 2. 我在日常生活中可以怎樣保護環境？ 3. 我可以怎樣參與保護本區的環境？ Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 210 概念 : 設計內容先決定以跨學科形式或主題式教學取向，如用跨學科式，老師必須計劃各科適合的內容及重點。決定如何引導學生學習，全體老師需作一次腦震盪活動，這樣一定可以使教學更生動、更富創意。千萬要留意初步計劃不能作準，在實行過程中，需根據老師及同學的反應作不斷修改。學習模式讓學生接觸主題內容，令他們先了解問題所在，包括從抽象到具體的例子，讓他們學習如何分析所見所聞，建構自己的思維，找出疑問，決定研習範疇，與同學和老師討論，並修正自己的假設，再一次實地調查或研究，作一次最後的歸納，肯定自己的假設，然後使用自己最擅長的表達模式發展自己的論據及見解。活動模式採用多元化教材，配合多元化活動以引發學生學習。座談會、論壇、訪問、調查、實驗及戶外參觀等活動，使學生在學習過程中，獲得多元化的學習經歷；同時為了要達到教學跑出課室的目的，特別設計多次戶外活動，如參觀環保署、綠田園、嘉道理農場、傷健樂園、本區環境等，目的在擴展學生視野，使學習活動與現實生活緊扣。科目配合為達成專題研習的學習重點，各科活動需作相應的配合，如中文科撰寫投訴信，環保建議書及標語創作，英文科訪問外籍人士，數學科統計家居垃圾，常識科設計環保城市，美勞科廢物利用小手工及再造紙，音樂科環保歌曲創作，體育科進行環保遊戲創作等。世界香港地域社區社區社會家庭學校環保與我 211 評估模式探用多元智慧的評量方式，放棄現行紙筆評核機制，評估包括進展性及總結性評估兩方面。在進展性方面，學生是分階段地將意念與老師溝通，老師亦分階段地評估學生，給予具體意見，所有資料必須保存於個人工作履歷檔(Portfolio)中。每一科目分別有自己的學習重點及評估準則，而總結性評估則著重於評估整個學習過程的學習技能、態度、創意及反思能力。資源運用新的學習必須有新的理解，傳統的時間表編配方式也應該重新調整。舊有的時間表框架，須作彈性的編排，如音樂創作活動需時較長，就讓兒童一氣呵成地創作，千萬不要打斷，多次戶外活動也應有特別安排，切記不可為參觀而參觀，流於表面。同時社區及志願團體的支援是無限的。只要能互相協作，將資源運用於支援學生的學習中，一定會產生意想不到的效果。學習成果在這次專題研習的推行中，眼見同學在最後一天的展覽準備過程中的投入及專注，實令人鼓舞；再從他們的表演認真而內容創新，見解獨立的態度上，可知這課程的影響及成效。不單從學生方面得到成效，老師看到同學的積極，感受他們的喜悅，也會替他們帶來一份無言的欣慰，使教師感到辛勞也是值得的。結論通過活生生的例子，深深感受到教育是人類有目的地、有組織地傳授經驗、技能及價值觀的社會活動。設計活動的理念是根據日本學者加藤幸次(1995)所提出的三種學習環境設計教學，其中包括人的學習環境，以老師為主；物理性的學習環境，以物理性的空間認識，產生學習活動；潛在的學習環境，以文化氣氛為主，產生潛在課程。從以上學習環境中促進學生探究課題的興趣和關心，引起同學學習的慾望，令他們不斷嘗試，在選擇與探求的過程中，反復深思，將舊經驗與新經驗交疊并比，在挑戰與對抗歷程中建立自己的思維，達到全人教育的目標。參考書目林惠珍（1999）。《海闊天空開放教育系列，學習篇生活，學習與創造自我》。台灣：聯經出版公司。教育統籌會委員會（2000）。《教育制度檢討改革方案諮詢文件》。香港：香港政府。 212 談製作教㈻網頁的苦與樂陳志華聖公會梁季彝㆗㈻隨著資訊教育年代的來臨，學生也經常瀏覽網頁，除了用作消閒遊玩外，更用來找尋學習材料、交流學習心得等。兩年前，我開始撰寫教學網頁，名為ＡＬ中史教室(http://lky.hkcampus.net/~lky-ccw/index.html)。製作網頁過程中，我除了要面對不少技術困難外，更遇到不少非技術性的問題。我編寫的小網主要為高考中史科而設，內設有課程綱要篇、治亂篇、史學名著原文篇、史學名著技巧篇、交通篇、宗教編、思想篇、答題篇、取分篇、功課篇、參考篇、治亂史技巧篇、歷史資料題分析篇和考試篇等。大部分內容也依照現時高考課程而設。現簡介部分內容供大家參考賜正。治亂篇主要介紹歷朝的治亂要事。以宋代國策分頁為例，內便有強幹弱枝、重文輕武政策簡介。除了史事內容外，更附歷史學家的評語。學生瀏覽後，可用作備課或做功課的參考資料。功課篇內有學生的功課論文，供同學們參考。知己知彼，百戰百勝。不少學生是井底之蛙，多閱其他同學的功課，實獲益不少。我設計這個子頁的宗旨是鼓勵同學多交流學習心得。因此，同學們可將功課論文電郵(以 doc 或 txt 檔案)給我。我會批改並給予評語，然後會上載於網頁中。自這個消息發佈後，不少學生也將功課電郵給我批改。結果，我未能立刻批改全部習作，只能按前後次序分期將學生的功課上載至網頁。參考篇內分為史料參考類、本地參考類、中台參考類。史料參考類提供不少有用的網址，如二十四史綱、歷史年表等。本地參考類則羅列了不少本地出色的歷史教學網頁，如中國歷史研習室、中國歷史新天地、中史園地等。史學名著原文篇則包括有不少古代典籍的資料，如史記、漢書、三國志。除學生外，不少朋友也喜愛這部分。遠至外地朋友，也曾致電郵給我，稱這部分實用，具參考價值。答題篇則簡介高考答題技巧，供學生參考。考試篇則有分為七部分，分別為治亂史、制度史、思想史、交通史、經濟史、史學史和宗教史等。各部也有歷年試題分析表，供學生在應試前瀏覽，作為參考。這個網頁設計需時。我也記不得用了多少時間來製作它。現時，不少老師也指出教學工作繁重，我也不例外。因此，我只可在課餘時間編寫，有時更朝夜相連。在製作過程中，我曾遇到不少技術性問題和非技術性問題，現在此與大家分享交流。技術性問題方面，我首遇到編寫網頁技術的問題。雖然我曾修讀教署舉辦的網頁編寫課程，但實際編寫網頁時仍有不懂的地方。例如如何加入留言版、討論區、時間等。結果，我要再報讀一些電腦課程，如ＪＡＶＡＳＣＲＩＰＴ、ＦＬＡＳＨ等，提高電腦技術，應付所需。除此之外，我更要經常找電腦科老師及其他電腦高手查問。從錯誤中學習，才可不斷成長。其次是資料電腦化難題。我任教高考中史多年，雖已有不少寶貴資料，但大多資料仍未有電腦化。雖然現時已有中文文字辨識系統，但中文手寫文字卻極難給電腦系統辨識。結果，我要用大量時間將資料輸入電腦中。至今，我仍未完工。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 213 儲存空間也是一大難題。雖然學校及教署等也會提供一些空間，給予老師們上載網頁。但網址名稱較難記。因此，我希望申請一個易記的網址。最初，我希望申請www.chinesechistory.com。可惜，這個既易記又有意義的網址已被人登錄。最後，我選了www.chinhistory.com。但登記一個網頁要辦理不少手續及要付註冊費。一年後，我卻忘記跟進續約。現在，這個易記的網址已不可用，真令人感到可惜！若教署提供協助，老師們便不用為此煩惱憂心！非技術問題方面，製作及更新一個教學網頁著實需要不少時間。老師日間教學已十分繁重，要不斷更新資料，實有不少困難。可惜，一些學生卻不瞭解，不斷要求更新資料。結果，老師實難應付。過去，老師只在課室教學，現已延伸至課室外。過去，老師只在日間教學，現已延伸至夜間。面對教育改革，老師們已吃不消，如何面對這種延伸教學。經過年多的親身感受，我覺得以一人之力去推持及更新整個網頁資料，實十分吃力！同學們電郵來的問題，我要定時回答。同學們電郵來的功課，我要定時批改。結果，我會疲於奔命！因此，網絡世界中的虛擬教師可能會發展成為一個專職。教署會否增設這些職位，供一些老師擔任幕後角色，去支援前線的教學。這個構想是未來的教學的新趨勢！老師沒有可能日間在課室教學，夜間在網絡世界中教學。老師也要休息！總括來說，網絡世界教學仍在起步階段。我製作網頁時遇到難題，相信不少老師也有相同的經歷。可惜，教署除提供資訊課程外，卻沒有任何具體實質支援！老師們只可自救！若教署在各區增設一些資訊主任，替老師更新教學網頁或輸入資料，老師便有福！老師們便可走回前線。現在，老師們既要做先鋒，又要做守門員。結果可能是兩面也不好！教署大力提倡資訊教育，為何不提供多點具體支援給老師。硬件重要，軟件也不可缺！ 214 「理想教育」 ― 從古今三位中國教育思想家看香港的教育目標劉鳳鸞嗇色園可立小學近幾年來，香港的教育面對著重大的改革。一九九七年，香港特別行政區行政長官董建華先生在首份施政報告中，向教統會提出要全面檢討香港的教育制度。一九九九年一月，教育統籌委員會(教統會)發表了《教育目標諮詢文件― 廿一世紀教育藍圖》(下簡稱《教育目標諮詢文件》)，檢討了一九九三年九月政府發表的《香港學校教育目標》，並為學前教育、中小學教育及高等教育定下詳細的教學目標。《教育目標諮詢文件》推出以作廣泛諮詢後，引起社會各界人士熱切的討論。筆者現從教育哲學思想的角度，以古代教育思想家孔子、近代教育思想家蔡元培和陶行知的教育思想內容，從「教育功能」、「教育主張和內容」、「對教師教學的看法」、「對學生學習的看法」四方面，跟香港九三及九九兩套教育目標進行比較，闡述其異同，從而探討香港兩套教育目標背後的教育理念。此外，筆者亦會分析香港教育的現況，並會就香港教育目標的發展方向作出建議。比較分析的資料簡介《香港學校教育目標》與《教育目標諮詢文件》一九九二年十月，教統會發表了《香港學校教育的目標》的諮詢擬稿，在諮詢期間，收集了社會人士的不同意見，加以修訂，並於一九九三年九月推出了《香港學校教育目標》。《香港學校教育目標》「訂立了五項與提供教育機會有關，和十項與教育的過程及成果有關的目標(下簡稱十五個目標)」(第一頁)，為全港中小學定下較長遠的教育目標。一九九九年一月，教統會發表了《教育目標諮詢文件》，檢討了一九九三年九月的《香港學校教育目標，認為《香港學校教育目標》「只涉及學校教育，未有涵蓋各個學習階段」(頁 3)，未能夠配合社會急速的發展，因而制訂了幼兒教育、學校教育和高等教育的目的、目標和實踐方針，務使香港的教育目標更臻完善。筆者現只就《香港學校教育目標》內的「基本目標」、十五個目標以及《教育目標諮詢文件》內的「整體目標」、學校教育目標和學校教育實踐方針進行討論和分析。古今中國三位教育思想家筆者從中國古今多個教育思想家中，選取了中國古代教育思想家孔子、近代教育思想家蔡元培和陶行知的教育思想內容，從「教育功能」、「教育主張和內容」、「對教師教學的看法」、「對學生學習的看法」四方面，跟香港九三及九九兩套教育目標進行分析比較。這三位中國古今的教育思想家都學有專長，聲名卓著，對後世教育的影響極大。孔子被後世尊稱為「至聖先師」、「萬世師表」，其教育的思想與學說一直被沿用至今，譬如：「有教無類」和「因材施教」。後世不少教育家大都繼承並發揚了他的教育思想，例如：康有為便提出了「大同世界」。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 215 蔡元培是中國首位提出「五育並重」主張的教育家，而「五育並重」的建議與推行，使學校教育能夠注意到兒童各方面的均衡發展，改變了舊教育過分強調「勤有功，戲無益」的觀念說法。此外，他提出的「學術自由」和「兼容並包」的教育思想，使到中國的教育學術研究百花齊放, 影響深遠。陶行知師承杜威，提出「生活教育論」，反對中國傳統的教學內容脫離現實，強調要把教育與生活結合起來。此外，他極重視教師的教學方法和學生的學習模式。他建議教師要「教學做合一」，又認為學生一定要「從做中學」，盡量實踐所學的東西，活學活用。他的教育思想及其內容主張，使後世的教育工作者進一步明白「學以致用」的重要。討論三位教育思想家和兩套教育目標的思想內容比較中國古代教育思想家孔子、近代教育思想家蔡元培和陶行知的教育思想內容，在中國教育思想史上具有重大的影響，即使現今香港的教育，仍然有很多適用之處。筆者從「教育功能」、「教育主張和內容」、「對教師教學的看法」、「對學生學習的看法」四方面(見附件二)，把孔子等三位教育思想家跟香港兩套教育目標的思想內容進行比較。 1. 教育功能孔子等三位中國教育思想家和香港兩套教育目標都指出教育的功能是培養適當人才，為國家的未來作出貢獻。孔子說「舉賢士」，「仕而優則學，學而優則仕」(《論語.子張》)，人才分為聖人和君子，分別可以協助國家達成「大同世界」與「小康之家」。蔡元培和陶行知均提出“救育救國論”，他倆認為當時的中國那麼疲弱，是因為國家不能夠開發民智，不能夠培養足夠的人才。《香港學校教育目標》在「基本目標」中說明要透過學校教育發展兒童的潛能，使他們有足夠的生活技能，成熟的處事態度，「過充實的生活，並對本港社會作出積極的貢獻。」(頁 6)《教育目標諮詢文件》的整體目標是要使兒童五育均衡地發展，掌握各種能力，「願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由和民主不斷努力，為國家和世界的前途作出貢獻。」(頁 15) 2. 教育主張和內容在教育主張及內容方面，三位教育思想家和香港兩套教育目標有很多相同的地方。筆者並綜合了有關的內容，從下列三方面加以闡述：普及教育「普及教育」使所有人民都有平等的讀書機會，是一個很理想的教育理念。孔子提出「有教無類」，認為任何人都有權利接受教育，教師不應該理會學生的貧富或賢愚，任何學生都要教導。孔子本人便設立私塾，教導來自不同背景的學生。「有教無類」的提議打破了當時只有貴族子弟讀書的局面，普及教育。蔡元培和陶行知都認為普及教育十分重要。蔡元培更指出，社會的不平等源於教育的不平等，因此，國家一定要推行平民教育，令平民有機會進入小學、中學甚至是大學。(毛禮銳，1984) 陶行知說「中國教育最大的毛病，就是不能普及。」(華中師範學院教育科學研究所，1984)《香港學校教育目標》目標一「接受基本教育的機會」列明「每名兒童必須接受最少九年日校教育」(頁 6)；《教育目標諮詢文件》認同《香港學校教育目標》目標一的理念，更進一步強調學校教育是為了要「奠定學生終生學習的基礎」(頁 16)，普及教 216 育使香港所有適齡的兒童有平等機會入讀小學，為終生學習而作準備。因材施教孔子提出「因材施教」的教育理念，主張教師要注意學生的不同才能和個性，要以不同的方法教導不同的學生。蔡元培受到西方自由主義的教育哲學思想影響，建議教師要按照學生的興趣及個性特點，以不同的方法去教導他們，使他們自由發展(毛禮銳，1984)。他的提議正好與孔子的「因材施教」理念相配合。陶行知贊成教師要「因材施教」。此外，他更主張「人才教育」，認為「人才教育屬於國民教育範疇之外的一種『因材施教』」(何國華，1999)。他認為每個兒童都應該接受教育，教師要以不同方法教導不同的學生。如果教師碰到有特殊才能的兒童，就要悉心培養，「應加以特殊的教育，使其才能能充分發揮」(何國華， 1999)，否則便會浪費人才，對他們也不公平。《香港學校教育目標》目標四「不同的教育方式」說明「政府鼓勵採用不同的教育方式來達致教育目標」(頁 8)；《教育目標諮詢文件》指出學校要幫助每一個學生發展，並要照顧個別差異」(頁 16)，教師不能夠以一套教育方法去教導不同的學生。五育並重「五育」就是德、智、體、群、美,它能夠協助兒童全面地成長。孔子十分著重道德教育，他「認為一般文化知識服從於道德教育的需要。」(毛禮銳，1984)孔子以「文、行、忠、信」(《論語•述而》)四教教導學生，陳景磐(1981)指出，「孔子智育的對象主要的就是傳統文章」。「文」就是智育的對象，指的是西周的傳統典章，如：詩、書、禮、樂等典藉。此外，孔子重視「游於藝」(《論語•述而》)，對音樂有濃厚的興趣，認為音樂可以陶冶性情，能幫助一個人建立正確的道德觀。蔡元培是中國首位提出「五育並重」的中國教育思想家。他認為五育可以協助國民發展全面而健全的人格。他提出的五育分別是：軍國民教育 (體)、實利主義教育(智)、公民道德教育(德)、世界觀教育(群)及美育(美)。蔡元培的「五育並重」教育哲學思想在中國教育史上有很重要的影響，使後世的教育工作者注重學生的五育均衡發展。陶行知也重視五育的均衡發展，尤其是美育。他創設的育才學校，便大力提倡美育，「形成了一套獨特具風格的、具有濃厚生活氣息和創造精神的美育理論。」(何國華，1999)他認為美育能夠陶冶兒童的性情和豐富他們的精神生活。他認為美育不只限於音樂繪畫，把很多項目加進美育的內容，例如：學校的環境美、優美的校風和校容等。《香港學校教育目標》著重兒童的五育發展，目標八至十的「學習技能」項目(頁 11-12)是有關「智育」的；目標十三「個人品格和德行」便指出學校和家長要合力培養兒童正確的道德觀念(頁 14)；目標十五「藝術及文化的培養」(頁 15)就是培養兒童的美育。《教育目標諮詢文件》在整體目標中開宗明義，說明香港的學校要「讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面有全面而具個性的發展」(頁 15)，而在有關學校教育的建議目標中，更詳細地、清晰地列明五育的內容，譬如：建議目標(9)「群體生活」說明兒童要有「具備與人溝通的能力」、「以寬容的態度與人相處，以民主的程序處理事情」等(頁 34)。 3. 對教師教學的看法教育的作用很大，而在整個教育過程中，教師扮演著舉足輕重的角色。孔子等三位教育思想家均談及對老師的教學的看法。《香港學校教育目標》較少提及老師的角色，而《教育目標諮詢文件》則作出補充，論及老師的角色。筆者試從「教師的責任」、「教師應該具備的條件」、「教師的教學原則和方法」三方面加以分析： 217 教師的責任孔子等三位教育思想家都認為教師的責任不只在教書，還在培養學生的道德，使他們有健全的人格。孔子提出的 “四教”，蔡元培提出的「五育並重」教育方針，陶行知強烈反對教師「教死書，死教書，教書死」的意見，都說明了教師不能夠只以傳授知識為主要目的。教師還要教學生待人處世之道，要讓他們有道德觀念，做個有高尚品德的人。《香港學校教育目標》雖然沒有明確列出教師的責任，但如前所述，《香港學校教育目標》的一些目標列明要發展兒童的五育，這表示教師要做到「教書育人」。《教育目標諮詢文件》補充了《香港學校教育目標》的不足之處，在「學校教育目標的實踐方針」(下簡稱「實踐方針」)的第七項中，指出「學校不應只是讀書和求學的地方，也是讓學生學會做人與做事的園地」(頁 36)，教師只灌輸學生知識是不足夠的，還要做到「育人」。教師應該具備的條件其次，三位教育思想家及《教育目標諮詢文件》均指出了教師應該具備兩個主要條件。第一，教師要以身作則。孔子認為「其身正，不令而行，其身不正，雖令不從」(《論語•子路》)，教師身教重於言教。陶行知認為教師一定要嚴求律已，教師要做到「一舉一動，一言一行，都要修養到不愧為人師的地步。」 (華中師範學院教育科學研究所 1984)。《教育目標諮詢文件》在「實踐方針」的第六項中，指出「學生在德、智和群的培養，或態度/價值觀的建立，取決於教師的身教和言教」(頁 36)，教師要做好自己的本分，成為學生學習和模仿的對象。第二，教師要做教學相長。孔子說：「學而不厭，誨人不倦，三人行，必有我師焉」(《論語•述而》)，陶行知強調「教學做合一」的重要，認為教師「應該一面教一面學，並不是販賣某些知識來，就可以終身賣不盡的。」(華中師範學院教育科學研究所，1984)。《教育目標諮詢文件》在「實踐方針」第二項中提出學校要「提升施教與學習的素質與效能」(頁 36)，學校要提供優質學校教育，教師就是推行優質教育的重要人物。教統會(1999)在《第七號報告書》中，鼓勵教師要透過進修，提高個人的專業地位。教師要不斷提升自己的內涵修養，改善自己的教學方法，使學生有所得益。教師除了教，還要不停地學。教師的教學原則和方法再者，三位教育思想家及香港兩套教育目標都極著重教師的教學原則和方法。如前文所述，教師一定要做到「有教無類」及「因材施教」。此外，教師還要做到啟發誘導。孔子說：「不憤不啟，不悱不發，舉一隅不以三隅反，則不復也」(《論語•述而》)。蔡元培說：「(教師)不可一句一句，或一字一字的，都講給學生聽。」(毛禮銳，1984)教師要引起學生的興趣，教學生治學方法，待學生有困難時才協助他們。陶行知也主張教師要擅於運用啟發方式來教導學生。他認為教師絕不可以把學生培養成書呆子，而要培養學生有獨立的思考能力和處理實際問題的能力。《教育目標諮詢文件》在「實踐方針」第三項中指出在教學的過程中，「學生是主體動，由教師作引導。」「教師要提供方法和條件，幫助學生自發和有效地學習」(頁 36)，也就是說，教師要以兒童為中心，要引導、啟發學生去掌握學習方法。 218 對學生學習的看法教育的服務對象是學生，學生的學習態度，往往影響了個人的學業進度。孔子等三位教育思想家及香港兩套教育目標都建議學生要有有獨立的思考能力，要有自動、自覺、自學的學習精神。孔子強調學生要「舉一反隅」，學生學習一定要積極、主動。蔡元培提出了自由主義教育理論，認為學生要「隨時注意自己發見求學的門徑和學問的興趣」(高叔平，1980)，並要主動學習。陶行知認為學生不可以死讀書，而要做到活學活用。他強烈抨擊傳統教育令學生缺乏創造性和積極性，要求學生要有獨立的思考能力。《香港學校教育目標》在「基本目標」便指出學校教育是要發揮每個兒童的潛能，使他們「日後成為有獨立思考能力和關注社會事務的成年人」(頁 6)，而在目標九「學習技能：思考和推理」也再次強調學校要協助學生培養「符合邏輯、獨立和有創意的思考」(頁 11)，學生不能夠只依賴教師，要獨立、具創意。《教育目標諮詢文件》在建議目標(2)「思考能力」和(3)自學能力強調學生必須具備主動、自學的學習精神，「一生不斷追求知識」 (頁 34)，認為學生一定要有終生學習的積極態度。香港教育的困境筆者綜合上述的分析和比較，發現香港的兩套教育目標的內容有在「教育功能」、「教育主張和內容」、「對教師教學的看法」、「對學生學習的看法」四方面，跟孔子、蔡元培及陶行知三位中國古今教育思想家的教育思想及主張有很多相同之處，可見，香港的兩套教育目標都在積極推行一套「理想教育」。不過，香港推行「理想教育」的成效並不顯著，筆者現試從「學校學制」、「教育政策」、「教學環境」、「師資培訓」及「社會觀念」五方面，概述香港教育的困境以及教育工作者在實行《香港學校教育目標》時所遇到的困難，並探討在香港目前的教育環境下，《教育目標諮詢文件》所擬定的教育目標和方針是否可行。 1. 學校學制《香港學校教育目標》目標一「接受基本教育機會」說明每名適齡的兒童都必須九年強迫普及教育(頁 6)，使人人有書讀；《教育目標諮詢文件》在「學校教育的目標」也指出學校要開發學生的潛能，鼓勵他們追求卓越(頁 17)。這些全是很好的教育理念。可是，政府卻一直沒有解決學制的問題。香港的中學分成五級 (Banding)，學生被分成五類。從九八年九月開始，香港的中學更分成以母語教學的中文中學和以英語教學的英文中學，全港只得百多所中學是英文中學，能夠進入英文中學的全都是第一級或第二級的學生。此外，近年來，政府大力推行優質教育，推出「新直資計劃」，又積極發展私立學校體系，把更多的資源投進本來已經發展得相當不錯的學校，而不是「使最不足者受益」(曾榮光，1998)。政府只求「拔尖」，卻沒有「補底」，把學生分成五類，卻沒有特別照顧學習能力差的學生，沒有設法協助不同的學生發揮不同的潛能。這樣的學校學制只是標籤學生，有違「有教無類」及「因材施教」的精神。政府如果不正視學制問題，那麼無論《教育目標諮詢文件》寫得多麼漂亮，也無法改變目前教育的不公平現象。 2. 教育政策近幾年來，政府推出了很多教育政策，譬如：《香港學校教育目標》上提到的目標為本課程、校本管理新措施等(頁 16)；《教育目標諮詢文件》上提到的兩文三語、資訊科技等(頁 17)。這些政策或改革的目的或理念很好，不過，政府的實施的手段與過程卻很有商榷餘地。首先，政府的教育改革推行過太急，沒有足夠的時間讓前線教育工作者去理解及實行有關內容。就以推行「資訊科技」教育為例，教育統籌局於一九 219 九八年十一月發表了《與時並進-----善用資訊科技學習》的五年計劃，希望在二零零三年時，教師和學生都能夠掌握基本的資訊科技知識，且要透過資訊科技教育「把學生變為充滿活力和創意的學習場所」、「學生則成為主動性強、具探究精神和創意的學習者」(頁 1)。資訊科技教育的目的與《香港學校教育目標》及《教育目標諮詢文件》有關培養學生自學、主動的求學精神相配合，可是，在五年那麼短的時間裏，不少教師要由不大懂得掌握電腦操作到利用電腦科技教學，使學生變成「主動性強、具探究精神和創意的學習者」，會否有點困難？目下有多少學校仍然欠缺良好的科技教育的學習環境？其次，政府推出的教育政策及擬訂的教育目標多是徒具教育理想，苦無正確的實行方法。例如：目標為本課程強調要教師照顧學生的不同需要，這種「因材施教」的精神相當好，可是，課程指引卻一直沒有明確指出教師應該如何去做。難怪教師只把不同的課業分給不同能力的學生，就算是照顧學生的個別需要？這樣，只會形成更鮮明的標籤效應，違反了「有教無類」的精神。又如《教育目標諮詢文件》在「建議目標」(2)「思考能力」中表明學校協助學生「掌握高層次的思考方法，包括對知識的理解、運用分析、綜合和評價的能力；具備創意思考和革新的能力；具備應變的能力；具備批判思考的素質和解決問題的能力」(頁 34)，這正符合孔子等三位教育思想家提出要培養學生獨立思考能力的看法。可是，學校怎樣提高學生這些高層次的思考方法？《教育目標諮詢文件》在十項「實踐方針」中都沒有具體的建議，試問學校又可以怎樣做呢？ 3. 教學環境香港的學校如果要實踐理想教育，一定要先有理想的教學環境。《香港學校教育目標》強調學校教育的重要性，《教育目標諮詢文件》在「實踐方針」第七項更進一步說明學校「不應只是讀書和求學的地方，也是讓學生學會做人與做事的園地」(頁 36)，教師要做到教書育人。不過，《教育目標諮詢文件》提出的實踐方針有多大的可行性？香港的教學環境容許教師達到理想教育嗎？教師要教書育人，就要有充足時間去接觸學生，現在，香港的教師根本分身乏術，他們不但要依據緊迫的課程來教書，而且花上很多時間應付連串的教育改革和處理一些繁瑣的行政事務，就連教批改作業的時間也不足夠，更遑論抽時間來與學生作進一步接觸，觀察他們、留意他們的個性和才能，以及用不同的方法來教授學生了。香港教學環境如果無法改變，那麼任何教育目標都難以實現。 4. 師資培訓香港政府如要順利地推行理想教育，便要提高教師的質素。明顯地，香港的師資培訓並不足夠，而且不能夠與教育目標相配合。例如：《香港學校教育目標》目標九「學習技能：思考和推理」提出學校要幫助學生「符合邏輯、獨立和有創意的思考」等(頁 11)，是個很好的教育目標，因為它能夠提高學生的學習能力。可惜的是，香港缺乏有關的師資培訓，因而教師本人都無法掌握正確的及多元化的思考方法，更不用說要去提高學生的思考方法。筆者可以學能測驗作為例子來說明有關情況。學能測驗原本的目的是要考核學生的邏輯和推理能力，而這兩種能力是可以訓練出來的。「邏輯」其實是一門專門的學科，有一定的理論，是用來協助人釐清思路的。香港的教師大部分沒有接受過邏輯思維的訓練，在面對學能測驗時，只會不斷地叫學生做多些有關題目，結果浪費了訓練學生思考能力的機會，徒然把學能測驗變成洪水猛獸。《教育目標諮詢文件》的建議目標也提出教師要提高學生的高層思考方法，更在「實踐方針」第三項中指出學校和教師要「提供方法和條件，幫助學生自發和有效地學習」(頁 36)。試想，如果有關的師資訓練根本沒法教導準教師們掌握不同的教學法，又怎樣刺激學生主動學習？難道教師只要不停地累積經驗，最終就可以達至有關目標?有多少學生成為了教師們的「試驗品」？ 220 5. 社會觀念此外，一些固有的社會觀念，也使政府難以推行「理想教育」。香港是個資本主義的社會，教育的作用往往與經濟發展有密切的關係。香港社會的「人才」，主要是能夠推動經濟發達的。香港的教育仍然是考試主導，考試的最終目的考入大學，成為香港社會的「人才」。《香港學校教育目標》的基本目標(頁 6)和《教育目標諮詢文件》的整體目標(頁 15)都表明注重五育發展，但是香港有多少學校能夠做到五育平衡呢？所謂的「智」，就是把書讀好，應付考試。其他四育也只是紙上談兵。另外，孔子等三位教育思想家都主張「因材施教」，教師要注意學生的個性，要讓學生發現自己的興趣和才能並加以發展。不過，在香港的現實社會裏，有多少學生真的可以順著自己的興趣或個性來發展呢？就如筆者前述，連政府都只會「拔尖」，而未能夠做到「補底」，學校要實行「五育並重」、「因材施教」的教育理想，真是談何容易。建議香港目前的教育狀況仍然有待改善，政府要完全達至「理想教育」，實在是困難重重。然而，這並不說政府要放棄教育理想。筆者認為政府可以做以下的事情來改善目前的教育困境，以求把《香港學校教育目標》及《教育目標諮詢文件》的內容付諸實行：貫徹實行「拔尖補底」的理念政府要推行「理想教育」，就要做到真正的「拔尖補底」。「補拔尖底」符合《教育目標諮詢文件》「學校教育的目標」中指出「學校要照顧個別差異」、「保證學生達至基本水平」(頁 17)的教育理念。筆者認為，政府應該「拔尖」，要培養精英，而這些精英必須是曾榮光(1998)提及的「績效精英」(meritocracy)，即是經過學校選拔制度而挑選出來的人才，他們一般都具有高度的智能和專門技能。孔子、蔡元培和陶行知三位古今教育思想家都認為教育的功能是培養人才，因為人才可以推動社會的繁榮。陶行知更進一步提倡「人才教育」，認為人才教育是「屬於國民教育範疇之外的一種『因材施教』教育」(華中師範學院教育科學研究所，1984)。任何社會都需要人才去推動社會發展，而培育人才根本是「因材施教」的表現。如果政府不好好培訓精英，對這群具有特殊才能的精英來說，是不公平的。此外，政府更需要「補底」。政府要把多一點資源投入學習能力較弱的學生身上，協助他們達至基本水平，這樣做才算是達到真正的「普及教育」。事實上，筆者絕不贊成精英主義教育。筆者主張的是政府在發展普及教育的同時，也要好好培養具有特殊才能的精英，使社會能夠不斷進步。政府如果只把學生按學習能力分成五類，卻又不因應各類學生的學習需要而提供不同程度的支援或協助，根本無法實踐理想教育。 221 給予教師更多教學的空間《教育目標諮詢文件》提及到教師的責任、教學原則等，跟孔子等三位教育思想家同樣重視教師在教育過程中的作用。不過，香港目前的教學環境根本不理想，急速的教育改革以及緊迫的課程只叫教師疲於奔命。教師都無法愉快地教學，學生又怎可以做到《教育目標諮詢文件》中提出的「愉快和努力地學習」(頁 36)呢？政府要成功地推行理想教育，必須先給予教師更多教學的空間。無論教育目標的廣度和深度有多大，都需要由教師去把它實行，才會達至預期的效果。教師要有充足的時間去備課、去反思、去學習，才可以做到《教育目標諮詢文件》「實踐方針」第二項提到的「提升施教與學習的素質和效能」(頁 36)。政府不能夠一面提出要提升教師的專業地位，一面推出排山倒海的教育政策及種種監察教師的機制，阻礙教師發揮他們的專業知識來教書育人。加強學術研究及師資培訓《香港學校教育目標》和《教育目標諮詢文件》提出的種種目標，例如：以不同的教育方式教學、幫助學生自發和有效地學習、提高學生的思考能力等，都有助於學生有效地學習。政府如果要做到《教育目標諮詢文件》在整體目標中所說到的要使每個兒童均衡發展，掌握不同的能力，「願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由和民主不斷努力，為國和世界的前途作出貢獻」(頁 15)，就必須先提升教師質素。政府應該把更多資源給予各大院校，讓它們不斷改善教育課程，把課程跟教育目標相配合，以利教師的專業發展。更重要的是，政府要鼓勵各大院校進行各類有關教育的學術研究。政府近年來提倡的質素教育，包括了要提升教師的專業水平，而教育研究正是提升教師專業水平的途徑。陶行知提出「教學做」合一，教師要做到教學相長，就要多從事教育研究，或參考各大院校的學術研究成果，掌握最新、最有效的教學方法，以擴闊自己的視野。改變社會固有的教育觀念社會一些有關教育的觀念是很難改變的，例如：讀書只為了考試、五育均衡並不重要等。可是，政府卻應該站在領導地位上，透過一些政策慢慢地改變社會的觀念。譬如，政府要徹底實行「普及教育」，便不可以只「拔尖」而不「補底」，讓「精英主義」的思想在社會中廣泛流傳；政府要達至《教育目標諮詢文件》中「五育並重」及「發揮兒童的各種潛能」的教育理念，就要減少不必要的考試、開拓寬闊兒童的升學途徑、把多一點資源用來推動體育、美術和公民教育科。事實上，教統會最近提出的一些措施，如取消學能測驗、「大直路」、建設社區學院等正朝這個方向走。雖然仍然不足夠，但是不失為好的開始。至於成效如何，則仍然有待觀察和檢討。結語總括來說，《香港學校教育目標》和《教育目標諮詢文件》背後的教育理念跟孔子、蔡元培和陶行知三位中國古今教育思想家的思想內容及主張有很多相同的地方。可見，香港所推行的是一套古今教育家所推祟的理想教育。不過，香港目前的教育正陷入困境，教育工作者難以實行兩套教育目標。「教育」不但影響著每個人的個人成長，也影響著整個社會的發展。香港政府一定要竭盡所能，循序漸進地執行所有能夠達至理想教育的政策，別讓兩套教育目標變成兩套洋洋灑灑的千字文，卻一點也不切實際。 222 參考書目毛禮銳 (1984)。《中國教育歷史簡編》。北京：教育科學出版社。朱熹集註釋 (1997)。《論語》。台北：金楓出版有限公司。何國華 (1999)。《陶行知教育學》(第四版)。廣東：廣東高等教育出版社。香港布政司署教育統籌科 (1993)。《香港學校教育目標》。香港：香港布政司署教育統籌科。高叔平編 (1980)。《蔡元培教育文選》。北京：人民教育出版社。教育統籌局 (1998)。《與時並進―善用資訊科技學習》。香港：政府印務局。教育統籌委員會 (1999)。《教育目標諮詢文件―廿一世紀教育藍圖》。香港：香港教育統籌委員會。教育統籌委員會 (1999)。《第七號報告書》。香港：香港教育統籌委員會。郭齊家、施克燦編著 (1997)。《中國歷史智庫：近代教育家》。台北：昭文社。陳大齊 (1964)。《孔子學說》。台北：國立政治大學出版委員會。陳景磐 (1981)。《孔子的教育思想》。湖北：湖北人民出版社。曾榮光 (1998)。《香港教育政策分析：社會學的視域》。香港：三聯書店(香港)有限公司。華中師範學院教育科學研究所編 (1984)。《陶行知全集》。長沙：湖南教育出版社。 223 發問、問答與起來答話香港中文大學「小學生在中﹑英﹑數三科學習動機與模式」發展與研究計劃數學組1 智性互動發問理應為教學上重要環節之一。歐蘇伯(Ausubel)六十年代提出了「有意義的口授」(meaningful verbal instruction) 及「表露法」(expository learning model)提出課堂式講授未必比自由活動方式的自我表現法遜色，可以做到既以學生為中心，課堂節奏卻由老師所主導(student centred and teacher led)，問題在於先行組織(advance organiser)之訂定及以發問不斷監察學生是否已接收老師所欲傳遞的訊息(Ausubel, 1961, 1963, 1968a, 1968b；又見 Bell, 1978)。早在古希臘時期，著名的蘇格拉底與曼諾(Meno)的對話就是企圖闡述一個目不識丁的小童(奴隸)如何可以透過蘇格拉底的不斷發問，自我發現出邊長為「1」的正方形對角線之長為「√2」)亦即右圖中 4 條斜線所形成之正方形其面積為小正方形面積之 8 倍) (見黃毅英，1994)。縱使這段對話中可有不少值得再深入討論之處，無疑這種透過問答所形成為智性衝擊，最後導致概念(在學習者腦海中)之自我建構至為重要。根據 Lakatos(1976)的看法，數學學習應為一個「合理猜想 ― 勘察和反駁」的曲折歷程(zig-zag path)，可惜正如 Lampert (1990)所說：「一般來說，數學被聯想到『肯定性』：認識其中內容，獲得正確的答案，並須快速地得之」。此種文化之假設乃由學校經驗所形成。其中，『做數學』即為遵循教師所定下之規則而行：『認識數學』意為當教師問問題時記得起並能應用正確的規則：而『數學真理』之決定乃在於獲得答案之後得到教師之認許。這種做數學和在學校裡甚麼叫認識數學之信念乃由經年累月之觀看、聆聽及練習而形成。反問與反省放遠一點來看，這種發問與反問不但對問題解決能力的培養至為重要(Scandura, 1977；黃毅英，1990)，挑起「疑情」更是不少古代教師所用的教學方法。所謂「不憤不啟」、「不悱不發」，務求達至「小疑小悟﹑大疑大悟」的效果(Wong, 1998a, 1998b)。此外，讓學生起來答話本身是一種勇氣的訓練(黃，1998)，讓學生可以先組織好自己的想法，表達(present)出來，接受觀點上的挑戰，繼而辯護(defend)，最後引起一種對話和論述(discourse)。所以，老師由發問、引起回答、再繼而追問、轉向等所扮演之角色甚為重要，而不只是停留於一問一答之一種「考問」。因此之故，向來很多學者都提出過不少有關發問之技巧(見黃，1994)，如小頓、步伐、激勵、偵察(pausing, pacing, 1 計劃之首席研究員為香港中文大學課程與教學學系系主任黃顯華教授﹐研究助理為朱嘉穎女士﹐數學組組員包括香港中文大學課程與教學學系黃毅英教授﹑台灣嘉義師範大學應用數學系梁淑坤教授及香港中文大學學校與夥伴協作中心劉應泉先生﹑世界龍岡黃耀南小學的林靜儀老師﹑梁芝蘭老師﹑葉雅文老師以及香港中文大學校友會聯會張昌學校冼秀容老師和李慧苑老師。本計劃得教育署資助，謹此鳴謝。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 224 prompting, probing) (見Brown, 1975；亦見黃毅英，1994)，也提出發問質素的層次(見Sanders, 1966；張玉成，1984 及黃，1994)。總而言之，就是要透過發問，促使學生繼續思考。例如一般論者不贊成「合唱式問答」(chorus response：雖然頗為普遍)就是基於這個原因。除了容易引起混亂外，部份學生會傾向不加思考、濫竽充數(人云亦云)。故此除了讓學生自由舉手作答外，指定特定對象發問亦有其本身的作用。在小學數學課裡常見的問題是找些甚麼學生作答或出來作報告(reporting)呢？當然找一些答案完整的報告有典範作用，反過來，太常找做錯了同學出來報告會使其他同學感到混亂，而出來報告者也有被奚落之感。不過也不妨間中找一些答案不太完整的答案討論也有好處。因為學生思考上的謬誤因存在於腦袋裡，往往不容易探測。只有透過實際操作(運算)才能顯露。找出一些學生常犯錯誤作討論就可探討一些常見的誤解(misconception)。況且，經常只找成績較佳、做得好的作答更有「標籤效應」，宜作避免。學生答錯了怎辦﹖ 有一些老師，當學生提供了錯誤的答案時(譬如說「3」)，老師為免由他「一錘定音」，於是問全班有否其他答案，於是有些算對的(譬如說「4」)便會舉手。老師就說「算出『3』的請舉手…算出『4』的請舉手…呀，算出『4』的比算出『3』的多，故此答案應是『4』」。這種說法是有問題的，因為答案的真偽不是舉手決定的，一個較佳的做法是講意識到「3」不一定對，繼而與大家逐步跟蹤解決問題的過程。這是回應了Lampert(1990)所說的在數學堂裡，數學的真理全有老師所決定這個不健康現象。如何處理胡亂舉手的學生？至於學生過份踴躍舉手，我們也許要提防學生只為惹起老師的注意力而胡亂舉手(attention seeking)。社群心理學實有不少討論值得我們借鑒。一般而言，我們過份理會(他們一舉手就叫其作答)自然會強化了這種胡亂舉手的行為。但長期不理會他們，反過來就會壓抑了他們舉手的舉動，於是學生開始不留意老師發問了！這也是我們所不想見到的。社群心理學提出的辦法就是首先用「不定量、不定時」的強化方式讓學生意識(制約：conditioning)到老師是會叫他的，但不一定舉手即叫(淡化了S-R的聯繫)。這還不夠，我們又要找一些其他您想要出現的行為作為取代。當然我們不希望這個「取代品」是答對了才可作答。一個可能性是學習認真、投入，就可請他作答。例如鼓勵一些近日有進步的學生作答。至於哪些才是學習認真的同學，這便是發問的藝術了。此外，還要注意公平性(年紀小的學生尤其介意)。例如某某經常舉手，可以考慮說，「某某，我看到你已做得很好，不過今次給另一位同學作答，好嗎？」其實這樣擴大了受獎勵者的範圍。在巡視學生做活動時的口頭鼓勵亦是一種可能性。如此既有公開的獎勵，也有個別的鼓勵。獎賞變得多層次化，且亦推廣了。學生也開始曉得，不一定靠舉手吸引老師的注意力。當然，如能逐步由外在動機轉為內在動機則更佳(劉誠，1989，1990)。 225 TARGET Epstein(1989)歸納了動機理論的研究成果，提出了一個促進學習的架構，名為TARGET，分別代表了Task(課業)、 Authority(權責)、Recognition(認可)、Grouping(組合)、Evaluation(評估)及Time(時間) (又見連文嘗、黃顯華，1999)。本研究計劃亦是以此為基本的理念架構。引申到發問，我們可以如下作出詮釋：首先，我們引發學生進入問答情景的論述(discourse)，其實可以算是一種課業，而權責是指授權(empower)學生擔當學習上的領導角色。透過老師引導之學生對答，希望學生們慢慢感受到課堂學習不是坐著等待老師最後之答案，然後抄下、記住，而是等學生們自身的猜想與辯解過後建構其數學概念，這本身便是一種權責。而老師從旁之認可不是作答案的最後拍板，而是透過整個思考過程的合理性認可數學上恰當之做法，不是靠個人的喜惡(所謂「無必、無我」)。不單如此，老師不只認可準確的答案、正確之做法、更應認可學習之投入。這就是上面所說的將強化準確答案轉到學習之認真性。至於組合，除了可作分組討論外，如何了解個別學生的能力「組別」、是否願意作答(readiness) 又或只是爭取老師的注意都是值得注意的。評估當然不是指測驗考試一類正式的考核，老師在答問過程中亦應不斷「評估形勢」，看哪些學生真的透過這些答問提高了學習的興趣，哪些學生反而被忽略了又哪些學生被一時之錯誤受到挫敗。所以，評估的範疇應是涉及這些情性(動機、興趣、投入等)區宇(affective domain)，連文嘗、黃顯華(1999)更指出時間更是最被忽略的一環。Lampert(1990)便指出課堂數學教學往往訓練出學生做數學題和答有關的問題時要匆忙的作答。久而久之，使學生覺得答題中深思熟慮是不必要的。尤如歐蘇伯所相信，口授方式的課堂教學未必沒有其長處，但必須配合以適當的發問與對答，在其間，我們若能掌握其中要點，教學才會達到「既以學生為中心，卻又為老師們主導」的境地。參考書目張玉成 (1984)。《教師發問技巧》。台北：心理出版社。連文嘗、黃顯華 (1999)。《教育改革的核心問題：學習的性質 ― 從主流小學到國際小學》。香港：香港中文大學教育學院及香港教育研究所。 I 刺激(S0) 反應(R) 舉手老師留意強化後果︰學生不斷舉手 II 舉手(S0) 老師老是不理睬強化後果︰學生不再舉手 III 舉手(S0) 老師作不定時不定量之強化(R) (脫鉤) IV 同時掛鉤到更有意義的元素舉手(S0) 學習認真(S1) 老師回應(R) 答案準確 226 黃毅英 (1990)。解題與數學教育。《數學傳播》，第 54 期，頁 71-81。後載黃毅英編 (1997)。《邁向大眾數學的數學教育》(頁 59-82)。台北：九章出版社。黃毅英 (1994)。問答與數學教學。《數學傳播》，第 70 期，頁 66-80。後載黃毅英編 (1997)。《邁向大眾數學的數學教育》(頁 123-152)。台北：九章出版社。黃毅英 (1998)。《數學教育實地觀察》。香港：香港數學教育學會。劉誠 (1989)。青少年心理：社會動機與學習。《香港中文大學教育學報》，第 17 卷 2 期，頁 162-174。劉誠 (1990)。動機與學習。《香港中文大學教育學報》，第 18 卷 2 期，頁 129-141。鄭肇楨 (1979)。數學教學途徑的探討。載香港教育專業人員協會數學組編，《數學教學途徑的探討》，頁 2-3。 Ausubel, D. 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When the problem is not the question and the solution is not the answer: mathematical knowing and teaching. American Educational Research Journal, 27, 29-62 Sanders, N. M. (1966). Classroom question: What kind? New York: Harper & Row. Scandura, J. M. (1977). Problem solving: A structural/process approach with instructional applications. New York: Academic Press. Wong, N. Y. (1998a). The gradual and sudden paths of Tibetan and Chan Buddhism: A pedagogical perspective. Journal of Thought, 33(2), 9-23. Wong, N. Y. (1998b). In search of the “CHC” learner: Smarter, works harder or something more? Plenary lecture. In H. S. Park, Y. H. Choe, H. Shin & S.H. Kim (Eds.), Proceedings of the ICMI-East Asia Regional Conference on Mathematical Education, 1, 85-98. 227 玩具 - 在科學學習的功能梁家猷相信不少老師都曾攜帶玩具進入課室作為該課的輔助教具。有過這樣經驗的老師，大抵會發現學生都會被老師的玩具所吸引，而他們也會較平時留心，學習的興趣，亦較平時高漲，這說明了玩具在教與學上一個為人熟識的功能 - 玩具能引發學生的學習動機。這功能在各學科均適用。然而，在科學學習上，玩具還引能起其他功能。作為一個科學老師，我們的職責，除了向我們的學生提供一些科學知識外，還有其他任務，例如，使我們的學生了解尋找科學知識的路 - 如何進行科學探究及使他們有興趣走科學家的路。但是，實驗室的常規儀器，往往是為一些特定實驗度身訂造，一般而言，難以利用它們進行指定範圍以外的科學探究活動。反之，玩具的設計，往往結合了多個科學概念，而且結構上亦較繁複，因此，我們可使用適當的玩具，作為探究對象，在課室/實驗室中進行科學探究活動。以下是一些以玩具作為對象的探究活動的例子。 <例一> 螢光棒 (見圖一) 圖一螢光棒是一件很普及的玩具，特別在節日前後，例如聖誕節、新年，更容易購買到。在演唱會中，歌迷亦常揮動手中的螢光棒，向他們的偶像致意。螢光棒在年青人心中具一份親切感，筆者掌握這心理因素，在中一科學科單元一中，以[螢光棒為甚麼會發光] 為題，安排學生進行科學探究活動。活動要求學生進行小心觀察，細心觀察是科學發現的第一步，是發現問題的泉源。學生經細心觀察後便不難找出發光的秘密，從而能提出他們的假設，於是筆者讓他們進行實驗，以驗証他們的假設。當學生做得興高彩烈的時候，筆者便向他們提出以下問題： [怎樣使螢光棒發出更亮的光輝？] 於是學生便分組進行討論，得出一些結論，但是筆者並沒有即時作出回應，反之，向學生提出另一問題： [如何能延長螢光棒的發光時間？] 學生再進行討論，最後筆者安排學生所提供的方法，讓學生進行實驗，以証明他們的假設。在整個學習過程中，同學除學會了一些知識外，他們亦認識到科學探究的步驟，認識到公平測試的重要，認識到進行實驗時，安全的重要性，而實驗的可行性，亦是進行科學探究前要考慮的一個重要問題。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 228 <例二> 會生長的鱷魚 (見圖二) 圖二這是一條長約 10cm，身闊約 1.5cm，厚 0.5cm 的玩具鱷魚。如果把它浸入水中，它便會漸漸長大。筆者以這玩具為對象，與學生進行科學探究。開始時，筆者問學生是否相信這鱷魚會否在水中生長，及嘗試猜測它生長速度，要回答後一個問題，學生除需進行實驗外，還需收集數據，並想想怎樣去表達數據。初步的實驗顯示鱷魚的確會在水中長大，並且生長率是線性。於是筆者提問同學：「如果繼續把鱷魚浸在水中數天，結果會怎樣？」這研習使學生認識到科研並不是衹限於一般課堂上短短的實驗，有些研究是需要經過一段日子才能有結果，這種需長時間的科學活動，在一般學校擁有的儀器中，是較難安排到的。此外，透過這活動，學生學會用圖線表達結果，藉着圖線的曲線趨勢，學生可推測再過若干日後鱷魚的長度，這樣學生便認識到科學探究能使純猜測變成有理據的預測。如果科學探究衹局限於老師安排，然後帶領學生完成研習，這單向性活動不單很快把學生心中提升中的興趣冷卻下來，更會使學習變得被動，鼓勵不到學生自發地學習。因此，筆者再要求學生想想他們對這有趣的鱷魚還想知道些甚麼？經討論後，學生提出以下問題：「鱷魚生長的體積的速度是否和長度一樣呢？它會不會在其他液體中生長？…」透過討論，學生決定那些問題可以研究，那些在有限資源和知識下未能進行探討。最後他們需要設計實驗解決他們的問題。在進行實驗期間，學生會遇上困難，及發現方法上出了問題，例如在研究鱷魚的體積變化時，他們起初是以量筒盛水量度鱷魚的體積，但是他們發現鱷魚漸漸長大時，鱷魚便不能納入量筒內，於是他們需要另找方法去量度鱷魚的體積。此外，學生亦醒覺用排水法可能會影響量度結果，因為這鱷魚會吸水！透過這類活動，可幫助學生提升解決問題的能力與及進行科研的一些基本技巧，例如怎樣量度不規則的物體的體積等。一件小小玩具，便能幫助學生走上科學家的路上。 229 <例三> 會叫的小丑(見圖三)和蟬(見圖四) 圖三圖四這兩件玩具外表已很吸引，玩時發出的聲音更吸引。筆者以上述兩件玩具如上例一樣要求學生提出他們對這兩件玩具希望知道些甚麼，然後依據可行性及安全性等原則設計實驗找出問題答案。這裡不再詳加敘述研習過程。筆者所認識到的玩具，很多都能作為科學探究活動的好工具，亦有不少能直接在教學上使用，代替實驗室的儀器，成為一些課題的好教具。讓我舉一些例子証明玩具這個功能。 <例一>會發聲和閃燈的陀螺(見圖五) 圖五圖六轉動時，陀螺上的燈會亮着(圖六)並發出樂音，顯明地，電路是在陀螺轉動時閉合的，這是否適用於簡單電路這一課題？市面上能發聲和閃燈的聖誕咭亦具相約功能。為甚麼生日咭打開了便響起來和咭上的燈亮着呢？這是否表示電路在咭打開時閉合的呢？這兩件玩具中的開關是否有共通的地方？這一類玩具是否可代替實驗室中的開關，可引入使用，使學習更為生活化？此外，由於陀螺是在轉動時燈才亮，這玩具對研究圓周運動可直接移用，使學生認識到物體沿圓周運動時，如果沒有外力把它拉向中心，它便會有偏離軌道的傾向，而這玩具中的電路開關是否運用了這個原理呢？(見圖七) 圖七 230 <例二> 熱血沸騰的小丑 (見圖八) 圖八這小丑內有液體，把小丑拿在手中液體便會沸騰，如果把手拿開，液體便慢慢流回原來地方。如果把小丑置於冰塊上，液體便會迅速跑回原位。為甚麼會這樣呢？這玩具在氣體受熱膨脹的課題是否可加以利用？使用玩具的好處是學生由觀察開始，主動發現問題，進而想法子解決問題，是自發性的學習，因此遠較使用常規儀器進行教學好得多。 <例三> 能量轉換很多玩具均涉及能量轉換或各種形式的能量，這對中一裏「能量」一章的教學上幫了一個忙。筆者用二十多件玩具(圖九/圖十顯示兩件該批玩具)，代替常規儀器去演譯能量的各種形式和能量轉移，結果效果甚為良好。圖九圖十玩具是一件創作，因此，使用玩具教學有助學生學習邏輯思維與及能鼓勵學生進行創意練習。筆者從市面購買一些木製產品(圖十一是一例) 。這個木盒子在設計上具創意，玩者要接受木盒製造人的挑戰，如何打開這盒子。這些玩具極能訓練學生邏輯性的思維能力，與及能鼓勵他們對問題作多方面的思考。圖十一 231 此外，筆者亦嘗試以玩具鷹(圖十二)為始學生找出鷹為甚麼能平衡，最後由他們設計另一件能平衡的玩意，讓學生發揮他們的內在潛能，使他們感覺到創造力是人人都有，不是某些人的特質。圖十二利用適當的玩具，應用在適當的課題上，不只幫到老師的教和學生的學，更可訓練學生進行高階思維，上述是一例，以下是另一些例子。有兩件有趣玩具—inverting pop top(圖十三)和 magic boat(圖十四)。前者轉動時會突然反轉(圖十五)，有違反地心吸力原理之嫌，而後者在沿逆時針方向轉動時會慢慢停下，和我們想像中一樣，但把它沿順時針方向轉動時，它只轉了數轉便掉頭旋轉，怪有趣。學生祇要小心觀察便會猜到這與地心吸力有關，如果屬實，把這些玩具帶上太空，它們的表現又是否能一樣？中二有一個單元是[太空之旅]，把上述情況引入課題，是否能有效地鼓勵學生進行高層次思維。科學的發現，往往是由猜想開始的。圖十三圖十四圖十五以上只是筆者對玩具作為一件科學教具一點點意見，希望為老師帶來一個新意念，使他們的科學堂變得更有趣，更有意義。 232 新界鄉村小學：落後抑理想？賀國強浸會大學教學發展中心筆者近期應邀往一些鄉村小學(村校)參與檢討工作，不但擴闊了眼界，也對不同辦學的方向有更深入的認識。新界村校多是在二次大戰後的廿年間創辦，當年香港人口激增，百廢待舉，小學的普及為政府發展教育的首要任務，一些社團在九龍的徙置區開辦了天台小學，而很多新界村校亦應運而生。七十年代初的小學教育在量方面已達飽和，政府開始從質方面改進小學教育，徙置區的天台小學陸續關閉。隨著新市鎮逐步發展，設備較完善的小學陸續開辦，不少家長選擇讓其子女入讀，加上很多新界鄉民移居海外發展及政府推行家庭節育計劃的成功，村校式微的命運似乎在所難免。自八十年代開始，政府的政策是逐步淘汰村校，這也是無可厚非的，因為村校收生不足，加上校舍、設備和師資都及不上新市鎮的大校。從地理的分佈情況來看，村校式微是從南向北移，沙田、荃灣、葵涌等區現今差不多已無村校。惟近年村校的命運似乎稍露曙光，主要是內地來的學生多，因現存的村校多在新界北部，往返深圳尚算方便；加上村校為免被淘汰而發奮圖強；而且村校的環境也較接近國內農村的情況，實在更適合從內地新來港的學童。亦有家長希望子女讀書開心，不要整天在做功課，而讓孩子入讀村校。要是教育學者杜威或盧梭復生，他們會認為村校比市區大校更適合實踐其教育理想，因村校的自由度較大，更能關心、照顧及了解學生。對於未能適應市區學校的、過度活躍的、或成績參差的「壞學生」，村校會先讓他們開開心心讀書，然後再改善其操行；學生如有特別行為，老師通常都盡快協助解決，若無行為上的問題，才看其學業。故此在這方面村校是發揮著特殊學校的作用，有些人從表面上看，認為村校的經濟效益低，其實是很不公平的，我們或應視村校為普通及特殊學校間的緩衝區，給問題學生和其家長多一個另類的選擇。村校校舍、課室、設備等一般不太理想，通常都沒有音樂室、美勞室、禮堂等，近年政府大力發展資訊教育，這方面的設備不比大校差，電腦拍得上大校的先進。很多村校好像與世隔絕，學生較少受物質影響，他們大都喜歡這種環境，對大自然的常識較好，例如認識到周圍的花草樹木昆蟲等。他們一般都很重感情，很少有要中途離開的。村校的師生比率一般都較大校優勝，惟因規模小，通常是每級只有一班，或甚至是兩級同在一教室內實行複式教學，教師要兼任的科目及級別較多。一般村校老師事無大小都要處理，不能讓學生有積怨，很多小事情通常都要很快解決，故此實際工作量與大校相若。近十年間本港的教育急劇改變，學生無心向學，老師雜務繁多，工作壓力沉重，不少學校已淪為知識的廠房，師生及同事間的關係淡薄，很多老師覺得這樣做下去沒有意義，覺得自己和學校的宗旨不太吻合，故此教齡長的老師耗盡，年資淺的老師想轉校或轉業者比比皆是。惟村校似乎受到的衝擊較小，老師一般似較其他學 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 233 校的開心，他們仍覺得學校好像大家庭似的，在大校任職應在這方面多反省。總括來看，村校所能發揮的教育果效，並非目前新市鎮的大校所及，而且村校所剩數目不算多，可以視作調整緩衝的機制，八十年代開始政府淘汰村校的政策似應重新檢討。 234 美國「設計活動教育」新趨勢孔美琪維多利亞幼稚園我和其餘 4 位老師一行五人往美國參加為期四天的「第八屆兒童設計活動研討會」。進行研討會的地方是位於美國的中部 – Urbana-Campaign，那兒是一處較偏靜的市鎮，環境很優美和寧靜，四處種滿粟米及甜豆，在香港便很難找到這樣令人舒服的地方了! 那兒的人很樸素和友善，當我們有需要時，他們也很樂意幫助我們。我們居住及上課的地方，並非一般現代化的酒店或學校，而是一座具有歷史價值和充滿藝術氣氛的大屋，四周圍都能感受到大自然的氣息，無論在屋內、屋外及花園都能看見由屋主從世界各地搜集回來的雕像和藝術品，這樣的學習環境實在令我們意想不到和興奮。在四天的研討會中，美國學者莉莉安.凱斯及蘇菲亞.查斯 (Sylvia Chards)大力提倡以幼兒主導，著重幼兒心靈推動的「兒童設計活動」(The Project Approach)正是發現式之學習: 讓幼兒對一些事物產生興趣，主動探求，發掘知識及運用已具有的技能及技巧去發揮，並且經歷親身學習的體驗，以激發幼兒主動找答案的積極學習態度，從中培養思考、分析和表達的能力，藉以繼續其探索、調查、找尋及澄清概念這循環延續的樂趣，滿足其學習之需要。此次於美國進修之 Project Approach 課程，瞭解到設計活動方案教學是什麼。此次學習中，明白設計活動方案教學可分三個階段: (一)是方案開始; (二)是方案執行; (三) 是強化方案。第一階段活動開始是教師利用圖片或簡短的幻燈片放映，講個故事或展示圖片、傳遞一兩件有趣的東西…. 等，很容易激發幼兒的興趣，這樣，一開始討論就可以給幼兒深刻的印象。在初討論的階段，教師會發現幼兒能運用他們的語言和行為等知識來討論相關的經驗。教師也可讓幼兒在課室內戲劇扮演、繪畫、書寫，教師可藉著觀察幼兒的遊戲和工作，了解幼兒理解的部份，也可以藉此知道幼兒的偏好和關心的事物，家長也可提供一些資訊，與孩子聊聊方案的進行情況，與孩子分享和方案有關的資料及到校參觀孩子的作品。而當第一階段結束步入第二階段時，教師可回頭檢視設計活動方案主題網的計劃，並根據目前孩子身上了解的進行評估。第二階段執行設計活動的重點在於提供幼兒新的第一手經驗，並協助幼兒以各種有趣的方式思考該經驗，以激發出有意義的活動並投入其中，活動可有校外參觀、教室訪客、調查活動、計劃小組學習活動等。在此階段，幼兒學習監控並評估自己的努力與成就、面對自我評價、相信自己的判斷、練習發問、不怕失敗而勇於嘗試，教師鼓勵幼兒自然地互相幫助，協調這些學習經驗，塑造設計活動整體的成果。第三階段強化設計活動，是活動的高潮，教師可讓幼兒向其他班級發表成果，作開放參觀，而方案的主要力量在協助幼兒結合新、舊學習經驗，維持幼兒的興趣，而此階段可讓教師和幼兒可以一同回想方案執行中值得回憶的事件及回顧在這段時間裏孩子學到的能力，進行設計活動方案的評估。在設計活動中，兒童與環境中的人、事、物發生有意義的交互作用，盡力將社會對兒童的教育要求與兒童 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 235 的需要和興趣相符合。在設計活動的過程中充份顧及兒童已有的知識和經驗的重要性，主張讓兒童在遊戲狀態中主動地去建構知識。在實施設計活動的過程中，從主題網絡的設計，方案活動的展開和實施，到方案的總結，整個過程不墨守成規，而是通過積極的師生互動，給與兒童充份自由探索、盡興表現和共同生活的機會。同時，也將 “最近發展區教學” 的概念運用於設計活動，要求教師在盡可能理解兒童的基礎上不失時機地通過教學去促進兒童的發展。「兒童設計活動」是針對一個主題做更深入的探討，「兒童設計活動」因此能與其他教學方式整合成任何課程，幼兒的學習過程中可以進一步地計劃課程並評估自己的發展。幼兒在日常進行的主題活動獲得基本的技能，加上「兒童設計活動」學習中，在一個有意義的情境，便將這些技能運用出來，所以教師可以無懼將原先設計的任何主題作為後盾，幼兒透過自己互相的討論、計劃、設計、安排、檢討等不同層面引發出學習動機時便作為補給。教師與幼兒都在彼此互相學習，兩者皆成為課室的主人，擦出「教」與「學」的火花! 此外「兒童設計活動」不單只在學校進行活動，亦有賴家長的參與及支持，進行「兒童設計活動」的同時，家長的角色亦要因應需要而有所轉變，他們再不是每天檢核幼兒功課有多少，而是藉著和幼兒談天、發掘幼兒的興趣及取向、了解事物的過程、尋找問題的真相、搜集有關的資料，甚至到訪學校講解，帶領校內幼兒出外參觀; 進行實地考察。幼兒感到父母的支持，對於父母的幫助亦能令他們對日常生活事物更感興趣，他們嘗試在自己各項工作中運用父母最為著緊的技能如: 讀、寫、算以配合自己的需要。因此在進行「兒童設計活動」家長同時扮演著一個極為重要的角色。根據 Lillian Katz 提及主題教學及設計活動可相輔相成，一些比較知識性或不能提供幼兒親身體驗的主題，應以主題教學模式，例如: 不同國家、恐龍、太空…等。主題教學與設計活動五個不同之處主題教學設計活動教師協助兒童學習技巧外在的學習動機: 兒童依從教師的要求，並希望獲得教師的獎勵教師決定教學活動及教學材料教師是專家，由於兒童能力不足，一切均需由教師教導教師負責兒童的學習，進展及成果教師提供機會讓兒童運用技巧內在的學習動機: 兒童對事物感興趣，認為富挑戰性，而參與的過程又樂趣無窮教師提出一系列活動供兒童選擇，並讓他們自行決定配合自己程度又富挑戰性的活動兒童是專家，教師是諮詢者，協助兒童發揮所長教師與兒童分享學習過程及進展資料來源: Katz, L & Chard S.(2000) Engaging Children’s Minds (2nd Edition). Boston : Ablex Publishing Corporation 除了著名學前教育家及對兒童設計活動有資深研究的 Dr. Katz 及 Dr.Chard 講解其理論、經驗及例証外，我們還有機會分別與一些來自美國本土、加拿大…等不同國家的學前教育工作者，組成約六人一組的小組學習和討論，大家互相分享經驗及交換意見，從中了解其他國家如何推行兒童設計活動。我們還能與其他學前教育工作者一起實際地進行兒童設計活動，同學分為 11 個小組，就研討會的大屋及附近環境作研究項目，包括我組研究 “Sunken Garden”，其他研究項目包括湖、通道、地板、燈、廚房、東方影響、窗、香草花園…等。大家一起以大腦激盪法去選擇題目、搜集資料、整理資料、訪問有關人員、拍照、商討如何展出我們的作品及研究所得 236 的成果等，令學習氣氛非常融洽，從而我們更能清楚明白如何將書本上的理論融合在實際推行中。在短短的四天行程中，我們不單能親身學習，還能體驗當地的文化和結識不同國家的學前教育工作者。因正值暑假，只限於暑期課程，曾參觀 2 間幼兒園，卻未能真正實地體驗設計活動在課室的推行，實美中不足。 237 江蘇、台北和新加坡小學教育的綜合李傑江、鄧兆鴻、胡少偉、冼偉林香港初等教育研究學會「優質的香港教育模式；小學全日制之研究」研究小組曾造訪三個不同的華人地區，以考察當地的小學運作情況，並研究有任何值得香港小學教育界借鑒的地方。研究小組考察的華人地區包括江蘇省(南京及揚州)、台灣以及新加坡。在江蘇省，小組分別在南京及揚州兩地參觀考察了共八所不同性質的小學，訪談對象包括了教育部官員、8 位校長、20 多位老師及主任、12 位家長及 30 多名學生等。在台灣，小組拜訪了人本教育基金會，並參觀了四所不同的小學(當中三所位於台北)，訪談對象包括 4 位校長、16 位老師、6 位家長以及 12 名學生。在新加坡，小組參觀了三所小學，訪談對象包括 3 位校長、20 多位老師、8 位家長以及 12 名學生，亦與新加坡教育部的官員進行了多次的面談。小學教育的階段象徵了孩子以集體學習的形式正式接受社教化的第一步，故其學習的內容除了包含個人在社會生活的基本能力之外，其學習形式亦無可避免反映出個別社會所盛行的價值觀及意識形態，以至於有關當局的教育理念，及整體社會的經濟環境。南京揚州(下稱「內地」)、台北以及新加坡三地雖然同樣是以華人為主的社區，但其現代化的程度及社會基本結構不盡相同，反映在小學教育裡，自然亦有不同的文化表徵及重點。學校教育的職能在內地，學校教育是延續其集體主義意識形態的重心項目，小學教育的理想除了要注重德智體及勞動等方面的發展以外，學生的國家意識以及服務集體的意識亦是小學的重點目標。假如我們將這一個層次的教育效能稱為道德教育(或政治教育)，則同一高度的道德教育目標並不存在於台北或新加坡的小學教育當中。台灣在解嚴之前亦有強調三民主義的集體教育觀，但自 1987 年解嚴以來，社會上主要的建制均朝著民主化及權力下放的方向發展，在小學教育方面集體主義的色彩已經大為減退。台北目前所盛行的教育價值觀反而是一定程度的應試教育心態，尤其是普遍家庭均具有一定的經濟能力，孩子往往在小學放學後即立即被安排轉到私人補習班裡上課，另外在學科課程之上，家長亦會把孩子送到學習藝術的才藝班，令孩子的學習生活普遍十分忙碌。至於新加坡，其教育政策以經濟效益主導，亦不大強調集體主義思想的道德教育，學校的功能主要乃為市場提供相應的人力資源 1 。在小學教育上，此看法則體現為一定程度的效益主義以及精英主義教育觀，在六年小學教育裡，學生要分別在四年級(學習能力檢測)及六年級(小學離校試)面對兩次公開試，由於兩者均影響重大，故不少的家長每星期會讓孩子上兩至三節的私人補習課，整體而言，孩子所面對的學習壓力十分之大。 1 新加坡前教育部長在 1986 年有下述的講話： “One of the key factors which must guide our education system in future years must be to ensure that our education system remains relevant to the type of economy in which our children will have to find employment when they leave school.” Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 238 課程及課堂設計三地所教授的學科種類大抵相近，離不開「語文」「數學」「美」「音」「體」「社會」等。另外，內地有教授自然科，而新加坡則有科學科。三地課程的一個較大的分別可能在於主科(語文及數學)所佔的課時比例上：從我們搜集到的時間表上推算，這在新加坡是 76-80%，比中台都多。內地是 43-48%，而台灣則是 42-50%。出現這個現象的原因大概有兩個：其一是新加坡推行雙語教育(英語及母語)，而中台則不然 2 。其二是新加坡政府相信其國人的雙語表達能力是促進其經濟發達的重要因素，而教育為經濟服務亦是其國策之一，故其將主科及副科的堂數定為百分之八十與二十之比例亦非不能理解 3 。另一個值得討論的是學生作息的安排：三地當中，以新加坡的半日制形式最接近香港，而且以三十分鐘一堂，課與課之間互相緊接著，學生並無明文的休息時間(見附表一)。另外新加坡的半日制與香港的也有分別，他們的一三五年級是下午班，而二四六年級則是上午班，假如上下午班的作息時間與教育素質的高下有一定的因果關係的話，這種混合安排令每個學生都要接受年份相等的上午及下午班教育，似較香港的劃一式半日制公平。在日制安排上，內地是全日制而台灣則是以全日制為主的，但兩者的相同之處是每課間均有十分鐘的轉堂時間，讓學生及老師稍為歇息，也讓老師有時間從一個班房步行到另一個班房上課。除此以外，內地的時間表安排也有兩個特色：第一，他們的午飯時間特長，一般有一小時五十分到兩小時不等，相信與內地人士的午睡習慣有關。第二，在他們的時間表上(見附表二)每天均有固定的時段進行保健及德育活動，包括寫字、眼睛保健操及早操和晨會等，這都對孩子的全面發展有積極意義(台灣有些學校也有早操晨會等時段，但寫字時間及眼睛保健操時間則沒有了)。台灣的小學使用全日制為主的混合模式：低年級(一、二)上半天課；中年級(三、四)每星期上三天全日；高年級(五、六)每星期上四天全日(見附表三及四)。它的好處是：以一種漸進的形式讓孩子逐步適應較長節數的學校生活。而且這也與孩子不同階段的體質發展互相配合。因為孩子在幼稚園的上課時數一般較短，若貿然在剛進小學的時候要求他們連續留在學校七小時，可能會令他們不適應小學的學習生活。學校環境及管理綜合而言，三地的學校環境都有所不同。以研究小組所參訪的學校而言，以台灣的學校規模最大，一般全校會超過 70 班，每班人數約在四十人以上，每校老師人數可達數百人。據說這些超級大校都集中在城市，而鄉村小鎮的小學亦有小於 30 班的，規模相差頗遠。至於在南京及揚州，則以座落於城市的主要學校規模較大，由 49 班至 55 班不等，每班人數可以多達五十多人。至於座落於縣及鎮的學校則一般只有 20 多個班。在學校環境方面，以大校而論，中台兩地的小學均有不錯的操場及雨天操場，至於除此之外的設施，則以台灣的學校較優勝了。他們的學校一般均設有保健室、牙醫診所、電腦室等；此外，台灣小學班主任的辦公桌就設在課室之內，班主任一般兼教自己班的不少科目，令老師與孩子的關係密切，亦強化老師的歸屬感。至於新加坡的半日制小學，以研究小組所探訪的學校而言，一般每晝設有 26-28 班，每班人數約有四十人。據研究小組從新加坡教育部所取得的資料看，一般小學在基本設施上已有不錯的配備，例如他們除了設有牙醫診所及醫療休息室外，也設有一個 700 平方米的飯堂以及約 200 多平方米的停車場等，這都是內地與香港的小 2 香港目前小學主科（中英數）所佔的課時比例約為 63-66%，也比新加坡少。 3 見小冊子 Primary Education: Schooling in Singapore, Ministry of Education. 239 學所望塵莫及的。至於在學校管理方面，有一點特別值得我們注意的是教師開會時間的安排。在台灣，每逢星期三下午，全台的小學都不用上課，以供教師進修研習或開會之用。這做法的好處是為教師預留一段特定的時間，讓他們可以心無旁鶩地進行非教學的工作。另外由於這個是全台小學一律執行的措施，故此不同學校的教師亦可趁此機會互相交流或進行其他團體活動。在新加坡，由於他們推行的是一校一舍的半日制，校長與主任要兼顧上下午校的老師及同學，對於在不同時段上課的老師而言，並不容易聚集起來開會及表決意見，對此，他們的處理方法就是在星期三的中午建立一個叫接觸時段(Contact Time)，讓上午校的學生提早廿五分鐘放學，而下午校的學生則延遲半小時才上課。期間照顧學生的工作由義工家長負責，而所有老師及主任則會開會討論學校的行政事宜，或分享教學經驗等。學生的課外活動及家課量在南京及揚州，自從素質教育改革在 1990 年推出以來，在老師職責及小學生的課外活動及家課量等方面都有了新的整合。小學老師雖然每星期祗有十多節課的負擔，但在此之上他們還要兼顧學生的課外活動，例如當班隊輔導員或執教興趣班等。但是所謂的課外活動，其實已經併入了正規課程之內，成為「活動類課程」。當中有少先隊的團體活動，另外還有一項名為「科技文體課」的單元，兩者每週合共四至五節，「科技文體課」的內容包括唱歌、書法等的文娛體育活動(即「興趣小組」)，校方亦可利用這段時間進行集體活動，或到校外參觀一些「教育基地」(例如天文台、植物園、烈士陵園)等。在台灣，中高年級的小學生在時間表上一般有每週一至兩節的「團體活動」(或作「社團活動」)，意味著學生可以有固定的集體活動時間(例如是運動或音樂隊伍練習等)，另外，非校隊成員的學生也可以在這段時間參加課外活動，內容包括不同的興趣小組，例如合唱組、籃球組、游泳組等，由不同的老師指導。除此之外，台北學生普遍在課餘時間參加的才藝班也可說是課外活動之一，雖然並非正規學校教育的範圍。在新加坡，研究小組所訪問的小學都有為學生提供的不同種類的課外活動，包括各類型的體育活動(如田徑、藍球、網球)、制服小組(如紅十字會)和小組活動(如民族舞、戲劇、園藝等)。但估計小學生實際參與的課外活動可能比中台的學生少，最主要是因為學生要在小四及小六分別應付兩個公開試，另外，新加坡在下午天氣較熱，有不少人士認為並不適宜讓學生在此時段進行戶外體育活動，加上新加坡小學目前仍以半日制為主，故可用以進行非正規教學活動的時間及地方亦不多。在功課量方面，三地當中僅以江蘇省對此有所規定，內容包括：「小學一年級一般不留書面作業，二、三年級家庭作業每天不超過 30 分鐘，四年級不超過 45 分鐘，五、六年級不超過 1 小時。」(《國家教委九年義務教育全日制小學、初級中學課程計劃(試行)》)制定此規條乃為確保學生有足夠的活動和遊玩的時間。至於台灣及新加坡兩地，情況有所不同。據「研究小組」抽樣訪問所得，台灣的小學生花在做功課的時間由半小時至三小時不等，但一般都在一小時內完成。但由於英語目前在台灣是十分熱門的科目，不少家長會安排孩子上英語(及其他科目)的補習班，所以，孩子除了應付學校的作業外，不少還需要做補習班的功課。在新加坡，據「研究小組」抽樣訪問所得，新加坡的小學生花在寫功課的時間，由半小時至三小時不等，平均多在兩小時內完成。也有部份受訪的學生表示，他們聘請了私人補習教師，輔導的科目多數為中文、英文、數學等，平均每星期補習一至兩天，每次約兩小時。所以，除了應付學校的作業外，不少學生還需要做補習課的作業。 240 師生溝通及家校合作以研究小組的參觀印象而言，三地中以新加坡的情況與香港的較為接近。由於兩地均是半日制，加上課程緊迫，老師與學生的溝通主要仍然是在正規課堂教學的環境下進行。至於內地及台灣，情況稍有不同。在台灣，每天早上有二十分鐘的導師時間，既促進師生溝通，亦讓老師有時間辦理班務。而且班主任在台灣又稱為級任導師，會兼教學生的不少科目(例如國語、數學、美術、道德健康、體育等)，平常級任導師的工作桌就置在課室之內，學生與老師的關係明顯較為密切。至於在內地，班主任老師是學生班隊(少先隊)的輔導員，也會帶領學生進行不少的科技文體活動，亦不乏師生溝通的機會，其美中不足之處是每班的人數較多，往往有五十人或以上，對班主任老師來說是一個很重的負擔。在家校關係方面，三地的文化不同，故亦有不同的表現，其中尤以內地及台灣的差異最為明顯。內地的家校文化主要仍以學校為主導，由校方舉辦家長參觀日，甚至出版教育家長的刊物，亦有以學生表演為主的家長晚會等。學校為家長安排活動，家長普遍亦對校方及老師十分信任。故此內地的學校雖然也有家長委員會的組織，以向校方反映家長的意見，但整體上對內地的家校文化影響並不大。台灣的家校文化與內地的對比很大，因為家長會不獨參與校務(例如圖書管理、督導交通、提供輕度的醫護、園藝管理等等)，也能左右學校在校管上的決策，故有學校行政部門與學校教師會及家長會在權力均衡上鼎足三立之說。以最近台北市政府遴選教育局長一事為例，台北市教師會和台北市家長會聯合會、台北市家長協會，都參與了此次教育局長遴選。而在短期內，遴選國小校長亦已指日可待，在國民教育法的校長遴選規章上已列明，在遴選委員會中須有至少五分之一的成員來自家長會，充份反映出家長在台灣教育民主化上的積極角色。結語在本文，研究組以五個不同的角度比較了內地、台灣以及新加坡的小學教育情況。期透過這五個方面的反映，以了解三地的小學教育的概況，從而啟發香港小學教育的參與者去思考一個理想的日制安排，須從學校教育職能、課程和課室設計、學校環境和管理、學生的課外活動和功課量、與及師生溝通和家校合作等五方面配合，才能有所作為。在此，小組期許香港目前推行得如火如荼的小學全日制改革並不止乎一個政治動作，而能提昇為香港小學教育素質改革的好開始。＊此文章的資料來自香港初等教育研究學會和教育評議會合辦的「優質的香港教育模式：小學全日制之研究」該研究計劃是得到優質教育基金贊助，謹此致謝。＊附表一：楊州巿某小學作息時間表節次分鐘數時間 10 7:30-7:40 教師早操 20 7:40-8:00 早操、晨會 1 40 8:10-8:50 第一節課 2 40 9:00- 9:40 第二節課 3 45 9:50- 10:35 第三節課 (課始: 眼保健操) 上午 4 40 10:45-11:25 第四節課 241 120 11:25-1:25 午飯、午睡 5 1:25-1:30 預備 15 1:30- 1:45 寫字 5 45 1:55- 2:40 第五節課 (課始: 眼保健操) 6 40 2:50-3:30 第六節課下午 10 3:50 學生放學附表二：台北巿某小學作息時間表節次分鐘數時間 20 8:00- 8:20 週會、升旗、朝會、早操 20 8:20-8:40 導師時間 1 40 8:45-9:25 第一節課 2 40 9:35- 10:15 第二節課 15 10:15- 10:30 課間活動 3 40 10:30-11:10 第三節課上午 4 40 11:20-12:00 第四節課 65 12:00- 1:05 午餐、午間活動、靜習 5 40 1:15-1:55 第五節課 6 40 2:05- 2:45 第六節課 7 40 2:55- 3:35 第七節課 15 3:35-3:50 整潔活動下午 20 3:50-4:10 放學時間備注： 1. 全台的小學在每星期三的下午都沒有課上，留作「教師進修及研習活動」。 2. 一二年級的學生每週祗在星期四需要上第五至第七節課，其餘時間午後毋需上課。 3. 三四年級的學生每週祗在星期一、四及五需要上第五至第七節課。 4. 五六年級的學生逢星期一、二、四及五需要在下午上課。附表三：新加坡某小學作息時間表（上午）節次分鐘數時間 1 30 7:25-7:55 第一節課 2 30 7:55-8:25 第二節課 3 30 8:25-8:55 第三節課 4 30 8:55- 9:25 第四節課 25 9:25- 9:50 小息時間 5 30 9:50-10:20 第五節課 6 30 10:20-10:50 第六節課 7 30 10:50-11:20 第七節課 8 30 11:20- 11:50 第八節課 9 30 11:50- 12:20 第九節課上午 10 30 12:20-12:50 第十節課 242 課堂教㈻基本法李㈻銘香港理工大㈻㆗文及雙語㈻系引言「基本法」本來是個沈重的詞語，因為它可以指國家憲法，也可以指某方面的基本法律。但「基本法」這個詞語有時用起來也有輕鬆的一面，例如「遊戲基本法」、「購物基本法」、「交友基本法」……，說起來並不覺得沈重。我以為討論課堂教學是認真的事，有時不免嚴肅，但可不宜沈重。我現在把題目擬為《課堂教學基本法》，是取其不沈重的用法，雖然我們所討論的，是個嚴肅的課題。所謂《課堂教基本法》，討論的顯然是課堂教學所涉及的基本原則。基本，意云「根本」，例如事物的根源或最重要部分，就是事物的根本。因此，我預備提出來討論的，是我認為課堂教學中最主要、最根本的東西，雖然是否最主要、最根本，還得要大家來判斷。觀課報告考察㊠目的歸納與說明本港各大專院校的教育學院，都有導師觀課的要求，而且要填寫觀課報告。根據各教育學院觀課報告的內容，導師所考察的範圍，約可歸納為五方面，包括：預備工作、施教過程、課堂互動、教室管理、教師表現或特質。其中「預備工作」方面，雖會影響課堂教學的表現，但並不是課堂教學的直接表現，為了節省篇幅、時間，我刪除了這一部分。下面所列，就是香港大學、香港中文大學、浸會大學的教育學院和香港教育學院觀課報告的考察項目：表一：各教育學院觀課報告的考察項目教院名稱考察項目浸大教院港大教院中大教院香港教院投入程度講解技巧提問技巧教具運用教學步幅鞏固所學目標達成施教過程時間控制 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 243 教院名稱考察項目浸大教院港大教院中大教院香港教院教學策略教材運用學生參與對首創性/ 主動性的支持回應學生的感受個別照顧引起興趣氣氛營造組織活動技巧/ 學習活動吸引、延續學生注意力課堂互動身體語言互動技巧關注教室環境處理秩序難題/ 突發事件注意學生反應/ 不良行為成功執行常規/ 維持秩序教室管理避免過激指責 (教師特質) (教師表現) (教師個性) (教師特徵) 儀表聲線目光神態語言一致性熱誠效能信心外表公正親切及支持教師良好師生關係根據上表所列資料，有幾點需要略作說明。 244 1. 各教育學院一致留意「講解技巧」、「提問技巧」和「教具運用」的考察，不過香港教育院並沒有「講解技巧」和「提問技巧」兩項，而只有「語言運用」一項。香港教院小學教育證書課程的觀課報告，把「語言運用」分列為：(1)教學語言，包括語音、聲線、流暢程度、措詞；(2)語言溝通。「講解」和「提問」必然涉及語言的「運用」和「溝通」，因此我也算香港教院有「講解技巧」和「提問技巧」的要求，雖然在內涵上未盡相符，這是大家都知道的。 2. 浸大教院有「投入程度」一項，其他教院則沒有列出；「目標達成」一項，只有浸大教院和中大教院列出，而「教學策略」和「教材運用」，則只有香港教院列出。 3. 「學生參與」，各教育學院都認為在課堂教學中是很重要的。但「對首創性/ 主動性的支持」、「個別照顧」、「引起興趣」、「氣氛營造」、「吸引、延續學生注意力」、「身體語言互動技巧」，則只有一所教育學院認為有考察的必要。 4. 「教室管理」方面，香港教院有標示這個範圍，但並沒有開列考察的細目，只好勉強歸入「維持秩序」項下。「關注教室環境」一項，只有浸大教院列出，而「避免過激指責」，則只有中大教院列出。我相信大抵有關導師因有所見，所以才列為考察的項目。 5. 教師個人方面，浸大教院和香港教院各有「教師特質」和「教師特徵」的標目，但沒有列出細項，而港大教院的「教師表現」考察，則有五項，中大教院的「教師個性」考察，則有八項。我的推測是，浸大教院和香港教院沒有列出細項，主要由導師根據教師在課堂教學中的表現，來描述他們的「特質」和「特徵」；港大教院和中大教院的導師，則要通過開列的項目，來評估教師的個人表現。取徑不同，觀課報告的形式自然也有分別了。我在下面試參考各教育學院觀課報告的內容，再結合自己的一些看法，談談課堂教學基本法。課堂教㈻基本法(㆒) 了解教㈻對象課堂教學的教學對象，當然就是學生。學生有不同的能力、認識、性向、態度，因此往往會影響我們的教學效果。多了解他們多一些，就會對教學有利多一些。知己知彼，因勢利導，雖屬老生常談，但不一定毫無價值。不過，因勢利導，並非投其所好，兩者是有分別的。最近報刊、電視介紹的「九反」教師，他的教學用的就是「投其所好」而不是「因勢利導」，許多教師或許不願認同他的做法，但他的確在了解教學對象方面用了不少功夫，因此頗受他的學生和部分家長的歡迎。現代教育學者所強調的「學生為本」，以至教育當局所推行的「校本課程」、「目標為本課程」，他們所重視的，就是了解教學對象。選擇施教策略策略，指根據情況而制訂的行動方針和方法，因此，在概念上，施教策略可涵蓋施教方法，而施教方法不能涵蓋施教策略。課堂教學的成效，會受到幾方面的因素所影響，除了教師因素外，還包括：教學對象、教學目標、教學內容、教材性質、教學時間、教室環境等等。掌握多方面的情況，再來制訂適當的施教方針和施教方法，這就是施教策略的選擇。這個世界可以有永恆的的原則，但應該沒有永恆的策略，因人、因時、因地、因事而 245 變，是運用策略的主要精神，課堂教學施教策的選擇，也應該如此。講究語言運用教學語言是課堂教學的主要部分。教學語言的表達形式是多種多樣的，摡括起來，主要有三種：教學口頭語言、教學書面語言、教學體態語言。這三種語言在課堂教學活動中，構成了一個以口頭語言為主、以書面語言和體態語言為輔的綜合語言系統。如果說，口頭語言是教師在課堂教學中進行知識信息的有聲表達，書面語言和體態語言則是教師在課堂教學中對知識、感情等信息的無聲表達。由此可見，教學語言不同於一般生活語言，也不同於日常的工作語言，它具有很強的藝術性 2。講究教學語言的運用，特別是講究口頭語言的藝術運用，是語文教師不可不留意的課題。《禮記•學記》云：「善教者，使人繼其志。其言也，約而達，微而臧，罕譬而喻。」 3 意思是教學語言要言簡而意明，話語淺近而意義深遠，這可說是對教學語言最主要的要求。還有把要求說得較詳細、具體的：教師在教學語言方面，應力求做到下列幾點：(一)準確簡明，富有示範性；(二)通俗生動，富有幽默感；(三)富有條理和層次感；(四)富有啟發性、激勵性；(五)抑揚頓挫，富有節奏感 4。所謂「幽默感」、「節奏感」，已是藝術加工的要求了。鼓勵㈻生參與課堂教學的成效，與學生參與的程度有密切的關係。學生參與愈多，他們所取得的學習成果就會愈大。因此，教師在課堂教學中，如何鼓勵學生參與，鼓勵學生怎樣參與，向來是個大家關注的課題。有經驗的教師都知道，提問可引起學生的學習動機，啟發他們思考，促進他們流露感情、表達觀點，是鼓勵學生積極參與的有效辦法。其他如組織講演、辯論、諮詢、調查、匯報、觀察等等課堂活動，也是培養學生積極參與意識的有效途徑。此外，在教學過程中有意留出空白，也是誘使學生積極參與的方法。空白是一種藝術，例如：刪去一些教學內容，讓學生有思考活動的餘地；在讀到關鍵處稍作停頓，讓學生去構建自己的答案；總結時少提供一些要點，讓學生去補足等等 5。盡力達成目標任何一節或一個單元的課堂教學，總會有預定的目標，一切策略、方法，一切活動、安排，都是為了目標的達成。缺乏目標的教學，有時也會取得一些成果，但往往要靠運氣，而且一定與前後課節之間缺乏緊密的聯繫，在教學內容上，也會出現較多重複、缺漏的情況。有了預定目標，並不是不可修訂或調整，我們可根據學生反應、教室環境、突發事件而作必要的修訂或調整，但整個教學，還是有清楚的取向，而在前的修訂或調整，更可以在後來的課節作適當的配合或補足。這就不會影響主要目標的達成。因此，所謂「盡力達成目標」，關鍵是「盡力」而不是「必須」。根據經驗，有「盡力」之心的教師，在課堂教學中大多能達成預定的目標。課堂教㈻基本法(㆓) 課堂教學的優劣成敗，與教師的表現有極密切的關係。除了上述五項基本法，教師還可以對自己有附加的要求。這些要求，或可名為「法外之法」。 246 互動課堂教學，是教師和學生在教室中的雙邊活動，因此互動是課堂教學最重要的要求。我們在上課前不妨問：我會怎樣引發師生之間的互動？下課後，我們也可以檢討：這一節課是否有足夠的互動成分？現代語文教育，愈來愈講求電腦多媒體教材的配合，我們在評量多媒體教材的優劣時，往往會從互動功能方面眼。我們對科技製作的東西已有這樣的要求，難道對以人為主的課堂教學，不該有更高的互動要求嗎﹖ 誠懇誠懇發自內心，表現出來是一種真摰篤實的態度。有了這種態度，就可破除教師與學生之間的隔膜，建立互相信任的關係，甚至有時可以使課堂中的教學語言，包括口頭語言、書面語言、體態語言，都蒙上一層光彩，增強說服的力量。我曾受教於不大善於詞令的老師，也曾觀察過略嫌拘謹的教師上課。結果是，他們的誠懇態度，竟使大部分學生忘記了他們的不足。當然，態度誠懇而又善於詞令的教師，可說是兩美兼備，最為難得。大多數的情況是，詞令有相當水平，再加上誠懇的態度，教師在課堂教學中，就一定會有不俗的表現。投入投入指精神的專注。教師是成年人，在群體生活中，不免會面對有待處理的事務和複雜的人際關係。例如我們有時會有掛慮，有時會感到不如意，而家庭、學校、親人、朋友、同事、鄰人等等，有時也會做出一些干擾的事，影響我們的情緒。有專業精神的教師，都知道把個人情緒帶入教室是不適宜的。教師進入教室以後，所應該做的，就是要忘記私人的事務，聚精會神投入教學工作，與學生的活動、反應相呼應，力求爭取課堂教學的最大成效。藝能界的表演者，往往能做到這一點，這很值得我們效法。警覺在課堂教學中，教師不能只關注教學內容的處理和教學目標的達成，他還應有敏銳的感覺，為周遭的情況變化而作出適當的反應。例如教學環境的改變、教室中的突發事件、個別學生的言談舉止、部分學生的情緒表現等等，都會影響課堂教學的進程，如果教師視若無睹，只顧按照著原定計畫施教，不作任何調整或處理，結果一定會影響教學的成效。不過，有一點可以肯定的，就是精神專注投入課堂教學的教師，感覺會較為敏銳，對教室中所發生的一切事情，會較有警覺之心。此外，教師進入教室以後，時時提高警覺，也可逐漸培養自己對教室的情況變化有敏銳的感覺和迅捷的反應。靈活成功的課室教學，往往因為有事前的周詳計畫和現場的靈活調動或安排。「靈活」與「警覺」是互相依存的。在課堂教學中不懂靈活之道的教師，即使在教室現場中有警覺之心也沒有用。可見「警覺」與「靈活」，相合則兩美，分離則兩傷。所謂靈活，從課堂教學的角度來說，必須與教學環境、教學內容、學生反應、輔助設施等等相結合，其中包括：施教方式靈活、剪裁教學內容靈活、組織教學過程靈活、處理突發事件靈活、提問技巧靈活、詢問應答靈活、因勢利導靈活等等。 247 結語從法律觀點看「基本法」，我們會重視立法的精神、法律的條文和法律的貫徹執行。課堂教學基本法，談的是教育中的教學原則。我們會重視教學原則所包含的精神和意義，但更重視「人」的成分，即教師在教學中的角色。這是教育與法律不同的地方。在課堂教學中，教師只要不違背大家認同的教學原則，就可以因應實際的情況，在教學上作適當的安排或調整。教亦多術，我們不必刻板地遵從教學原則的條文。有人認為，教師在課堂教學中要扮演三種不同角色：教師專業角色、藝員角色、推銷員角色。作為教師，必須具備應有的學養和修養，這是專業要求；作為藝員，必須留意自己的儀表、聲音、動作，把表達技巧充分發揮，達到吸引觀眾的效果，這是表演要求；作為推銷員，一切以顧客需求為依歸，達到銷售的目的，這是促銷要求 6。我們知道，教師到底不同藝員和推銷員，但藝員的表演藝術和推銷員的促銷藝術，都有表達技巧的要求，教師是不是也要學習、掌握他們的表達技巧？也有人認為教室就是舞台或直播室，教師每一次踏入教室進行課堂教學，就是在舞台或直播室表演，而且是現場演出或直播，稍一出錯，都會讓觀眾看到 7。在課堂教學中，我們可以有不同的表演風格和表達技巧，但別忘了學生就類似觀眾，一節課堂教學，就好像一場表演。教師能抱著這種態度去進行課堂教學，教學表現大抵不會差到那裏去。至於我所提到的課堂教學基本法，只不過有類於一些表演守則，供表演者作為參考，臨場表現，仍然有待教師的靈活變通。附註 1 1999 年 7 月 9 日無線電視台新聞節目報道：美國哈佛法學院用二十萬美元聘請顧問調查學生缺乏學習興趣的原因。這顯示哈佛法學院很重視對教學對象的了解。 2 王 (1998)。《教學語言藝術―課堂教學的主旋律》。廣西師範大學出版社，頁 5-6。 3 吳哲楣主編 (1995)。《十三經》上冊。國際文化出版公司，頁 511。 4 殷巧兒 (1994)。朗誦技巧。載李學銘編《語文教師的認識》。語文教育學院，頁 75-76。 5 彭永才 (1992)。如何使演說更具感染力。載李學銘編《語文教學與語文學習》。語文教育學院，頁 103。 6 馮克誠、范英、劉以林 (1996)。《教師行為規範全書》第 10 冊《教學技術行為規範(下)》。華語教學出版社，頁 31、72、73、108、109。 7 馮克誠、范英、劉以林 (1996)。《教師行為規範全書》第 8 冊《教師語言行為規範》。華語教學出版社，頁 7-9。 (本文內容，曾摘要在一個以中學教師為對象的中文課堂教學研討會中發表。研討會於 1999 年 7 月 10 日在香港浸會大學舉行，由香港教師中心、香港浸會大學教育系教育資源室、香港中文大學校友會、亞太數碼教育及培訓學會聯合主辦。) 248 從「黑箱作業」看教育理念林碧霞香港浸會大學教育系進念二十面體(Zuni Icosahedron)是一個民間藝術組織。這個多元化的藝術組織於一九九五年六月至八月間，舉辦了一個社區學校藝術教育活動，名為「黑箱作業」(Blackbox Exercise)。這是一個由前市政局資助的藝術教育活動，由一群年青義工及一位全職的統籌者推行，並邀請了幾位在錄象、漫畫、裝置，攝影、文學等藝術範疇有創見的藝術家參加。近年，香港的藝術教育漸漸走向學科為基礎的發展方向。如大部分的學科一樣，藝術的確是可以系統性地學習的學科，但亦如某些其他學科一樣，可以幫助學生發展情感教育、建立價值及確立社會意識等，而因此，教師應該理解本科的特性及同時細心衡量教育的意義及目標，才能達成全面教育學生的目的。社區學校藝術教育，是否在這方面帶來新的啟示? 本文先審視進念「黑箱作業」這個社區與學校合作的藝術教育個案，再帶出一些有關的教育概念。「黑箱作業」這項活動，為藝術教育提供了不同的教學資源及方法，並根據較進步的教育觀點，推行時能照顧到學生在認知方面、在發展個人方面及在發展社會意識方面各個層面，並且，它可以擺脫了學校課程的限制，亦即是擴闊了藝術教育課程，讓學生達成有效的學習。它所帶出的有關教育概念，包括有:發展學生的學習性向，教育目標的轉型及擴闊課程等，都有助學生發展學習動機，專心學習，以致促成良好的學習效果。但這裏涉及的教育概念，從未有機會在本港實行，卻在「黑箱作業」中論證了。進念的黑箱作業引起動機的主題這個名為「黑箱作業」的活動，本來暗喻學校教育的複雜及難以明瞭。這個主題，就首先引起參加者的關注，而各活動(包括展覽、討論、創作等)，都環繞這個主題作出探討及引伸。而由於活動的對象大多是學生，因而黑箱比喻為學校這個主題，引發青少年學生不少回響，不少都把切實的學校經驗拿出來互相交流分享。於是學生對參予「黑箱作業」都很感興趣，而且印象深刻。達成多方面的教育目標「黑箱作業」的目的，是希望年青人主動對藝術、個人、環境、社會及文化作出探索。這個教學活動把教育中重視的認知、情意、與及社會等元素都綜合起來，使參加者得著較完整而多方面的教育。這個開闊的教育概念，必須貫徹在所有的活動內容中，才能取得預期的效果。這種開闊教育概念，可從以下分析「黑箱作業」活動形式，顯示如何貫徹。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 1, Spring 2002 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2002 249 形式活潑的展覽介紹裝置的概念「黑箱作業」的第一階段活動是參觀展覽。展覽場地是一個木板搭成的大黑箱，裏面以塗上黑漆的木板分隔成九間房子，而房子是有通道互通的。學生可隨意選擇使用哪一扇門進入黑箱內。箱子內的各個房子都由藝術家利用不同素材及媒體；作出裝置。而學生可在黑箱內各房間自由進出。進念的工作人員並不作出具體的解釋和陳述，對於同學的提問只作出啟發式的回答，例如當被問及藝術家的意圖時，會反問「你又認為他的意圖如何？」；被問及為何這樣做時，會答﹕「你不會這樣做，又會怎樣做？」故大多數同學都能夠體驗黑箱的裝置過程，從而整理出裝置藝術的概念。而不同年紀的學生，無論小學、中學、及大學的學生，也會對黑箱裝置產生好奇，進而對裝置及藝術產生探求的興趣。活動工作坊共同探索身體與環境的關係第二階段的活動工作坊著重刺激同學對環境作出探索﹕例如身體在環境中的方向性，關注力、節奏感、同步性等。透過活潑的遊戲及活動，進念工作人員營造輕鬆的學習氣氛，並與同學打成一片，而同學亦有份參予設計遊戲，而有些時候，同學會選擇作旁觀者，亦完全容許，同學是依自己的學習方式及興趣，體驗及經驗這些活動。討論是活動經驗的體現不論是第一階段的參觀展覽或第二階段的活動工作坊，也有討論的環節，這環節使同學認識別人的觀點。而最重要的，它是參加者參觀展覽或工作坊經驗的體現。例如﹕在討論環節中，同學可以共同探討展覽中裝置的形式與內容，同學或會提出「裝置是否等於佈置？」、「為何某藝術家的裝置是一間空空的房？」、「為何錄象與聲音的混合也算是藝術？」等等問題。從討論中，同學會明白到藝術形式是多樣化的。他們亦可能對藝術技巧作出批評，或談論觀看展覽時的心得或感受，於是藝術亦成為與人溝通的媒介。參加者亦會發表參加活動工作坊的感受，做完活動後，同學能對事情作出反省。例如「黑漆中感覺很冷。」「人很多時也缺乏方向感。」這些，都能擴闊同學的視點觀感，對平日較少思索的問題，作出思考。同學或會開始思索個人與環境的關係，人與人的關係等。討論環節正好讓同學有一個溝通、探求及互相參考的機會，比權威式的教學，在學習方面更奏效。進念工作人員亦多用啟發及鼓勵聯想的方式，使同學發揮多向性思維，增強同學的自主性及創意。藝術座談會進一步鞏固同學的藝術知識及經驗一系列的座談會，是擺設裝置的藝術家主持的，在會上，藝術家與同學分享有關裝置藝術及其他與藝術有關的概念，如創意、審美等。同學更有機會直接了解藝術家的創作過程和意圖，當中誘發了不同題目的討論，例如在美學、哲學、教育等各方面，擴闊了同學的視點，使同學把個人與社會上的事情聯系。這些討論，會幫助同學建立日後的生活態度及價值觀，這個教學方式擺脫了學校課程的限制，而學生所學的，比校內所學的似更寬廣。 250 創意工作坊一同做裝置創意工作坊給同學機會，共同研究裝置，並且著手進裝置藝術的創作。同學們在工作坊內把領悟到的裝置藝術知識運用，在一個約一立方呎的小黑箱內進行裝置藝術。許多同學的作品反映了同學們對生活、社會或教育的心聲、而在工作坊，同學更藉藝術發展個人思考，抒發個人情緒。這個活動總結了同學在兩個多月參加「黑箱作業」的經驗。一位參加者更表示，「這個階段的學習，就好比用一條鎖匙開啟了我的腦袋，使我漸漸發現不同的通道。」這個表述，正面反映了「黑箱作業」的教學效果。黑箱作業的教育效果上述的演譯，描繪了「黑箱作業」的教學方式，它運用了不同類型教學活動及教育資源。有些方式是確立知識系統的；有些是要達成發展參加者的經驗的；有些是為提高學生的學習興趣，鼓勵學生探求的精神。這些教學活動都收到明顯的效果。例如確可以發展個人情意與認知；確可以使個人多認識別人與增加社會意識；確可認識藝術與個人的關係等。當然由於傳統學習形式根深蒂固的影響，有一些同學較難接受「黑箱作業」的教學形式，認為這種學習「不大正式」，此外，還加上管理與資源的問題，其實很多細節仍有待改善。然而這些活動背後的概念，是希望學生產生學習動機，有助同學專心學習，達致良好的學習效果。這些從經歷中發展學習的理論，早已在教育理論上出現。以下筆者嘗試從進念這個個案中整理出對於當前教育甚有意義的概念，希望教育工作者面對教育工作時，能時常持一個清醒的腦袋，面對教育問題。適應學生學習方式的教學可增強學習效果教師在教學中往往會發現，學生會有不同的學習方式(learning style)。例如有些學生十分倚靠老師的講授，但有些學生卻在圖書館東翻西翻，仍然在學習上有出色的表現。其實學習方式的形成，是基於學生有不同的學習性向(aptitudes of learning)。構成學習性向的原因十分複雜，包括一切可歸因為個人意圖、情意及認知方面發展的因素。故確切地說，教師面對教學，並非僅僅是傳授知識這般簡單、死板。面對不同需要及不同能力的學生，教師一方面要採用不同的教學方法，提供不同類型的學習環境及資源，幫助大部分學生達到有效的學習。另一方面，教師更要發生學生的「學習性向」，使學生的能力及傾向足以應付社會一般的要求，並且培養學生能力，能調節個人的興趣及專長，才容易在現代化的社會中立足。教育目標的轉型，教育應調節個人發展傳統的學校教學，是以教師為主導的，教師依照學科為單位的課程，把知識傳授給學生，並且以規劃化的考試，作為評估學生的學習成就。這方式可有效地增加學生的知識，而教師亦因此成為授受關係中的權威。由於社會進步及轉型，知識普及和來源多樣化，教師也就不能單單滿足於傳播知識，教育的目標，從以往的灌輸知識，轉變為培養學生的個人質素和學習能力，及引導學生個人發展。以香港為例，目前的轉向，香港的教育比以前更重視發展個人認知、價值取向及社會技能等方面。學生學習的目的不單是學到某些知識技能，而是希望培養成探求的態度，運用知識的能力，可以把所學的知識技能綜合應用，甚致產生新的學問技能，去應付社會上的問題和挑戰。 251 這種更新的教育觀念，不僅表示教育方式應該由傳統的知識傳授，變為透過知識去培養和訓練學生各方面的能力，更指出，學校或教師更需要有意發掘每個學生的潛能及個人目標，提供各種合適的方法，讓同學在教師的引導下，發揮自己的潛能，一方面更認識自己與環境的關係，另一方面亦對社會作出貢獻。教育目標的轉型，預示教師的教學方式亦應當相應變得有彈性。「黑箱作業」的整個活動的運作方式，對如何實踐這種教育觀念，作出正面的，很有價值的啟發。

Report on Review of Continuing Professional Development of Serving Principals (June 2007)

Category: Documents在职校长持续专业发展检讨报告 1. 序言研究目的 1.1 这次关于在职校长持续专业发展的检讨，有以下目的︰ a) 了解在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的种类、选择持续专业发展活动时所抱的理念，以及该等活动与下列各项的关系︰ - • 校长个人培训需要 • 学校发展需要 • 社区和教育发展需要 • 六个主要领导才能范畴 b) 了解在职校长在参加持续专业发展活动上遇到的困难，以及他们认为该等活动对他们的影响； c) 了解校董会对于在职校长持续专业发展活动的意见和参与程度。 2. 检讨的理念架构校长的专业发展背景 2.1 《校长领导培训课程》咨询文件于1999年6月发表后，各持份者对于政府致力于提升校长的专业水平均表示大力支持。但是，对于为所有校长举办统一的课程，并规定所有在职校长须在二零零七年九月前取得校长证书等建议，持份者则有所保留。 2.2 当时的教育署于2002年发表的咨询文件里，已提出了拟任校长、新入职校长和在职校长须参与持续专业发展的理念架构；并预计校董会在以下各方面均可发挥重要作用： • 跟在职校长讨论如何订定他们的持续专业发展计划； • 为在职校长创造足够空间，以便他们参与持续专业发展活动；以及 • 提供财政支持，让在职校长参与质素优良的持续专业发展活动 1。 2.3 以下有关校长持续专业发展的建议已获得政府接纳，并于2002年公布 2︰ a) 由2004/05学年起，所有拟任校长必须获得校长资格认证。校长资格认证包含三部分，就是专业发展需要分析、完成特定课程及提交个人专业发展资料册； b) 由2002年9月起，新入职校长在入职后首两年必须修毕特定专业发展课程、参加持续专业发展活动，及每年向办学团体 /董事会提交个人持续专业发展资料册； c) 至于在职校长，由2002年9月起，在入职后第三年起每年须参加 50小时的持续专业发展活动；而在三年间，应至少参加150小时的活动。在职校长参加的持续专业发展活动，必须采用有系统的学习、实践学习及为教育界和社会服务的模式。他们必须因应个人培训需要、学校发展需要、社区和教育发展需要以及以下六个主要领导才能范畴，订定本身的持续专业发展计划︰ (i) 策略方向及政策环境； (ii ) 学与教及课程； (iii ) 教师专业成长及发展； (iv) 员工及资源管理； (v) 质素保证及问责；及 (vi) 对外沟通及联系。在职校长的持续专业发展计划 2.4 根据教育署于2002年9月发出的指引，由2003/04学年起，在职校长的持续专业发展计划须列于学校的周年校务计划书内。该计划书须经办学团体 /校董会通过，并送交学校所属的教育署区域教育服务处存盘，以便跟进支持。由2002/03学年起，教育署会在每年大约六月底，公布由署方举办的持续专业发展活动，供在职校长参考。办学团体 /校董会须确认这些持续专业发展活动与六个主要领导才能范畴有所关联，并且采用有系统的学习、实践学习或教育界及社会服务等模式。在2002/03学年，办学团体 /校董会可一次过认可在职校长由1999年9月至2002年8月所参与的持续专业发展活动，以50小时为上限。于每年年终及每个三年周期完结时，在职校长须把持续专业发展活动的纪录提交办学团体 /校董会确认。由2003/04学年起，在 1 教育署(2002年)，《持續發展以臻卓越，校長持續專業發展諮詢文件》。 2 教育署於 2002年 7月 17日發出的通告第 32/2002號，《校長持續專業發展》。职校长亦可进行专业发展需要分析，以协助他们考虑自己的专业发展需要，进而修订个人的发展计划 3。校董会担当的角色 2.5 教育署曾为各持份者举行研讨会及意见交流会，以便他们就该署 2002年9月公布的指引表达意见，而在该署其后发表的「常见问题」中，也清楚说明了办学团体/校董会对在职校长有以下责任 4︰ a) 推动及监察校长不断持续进修，为学生谋求最大的利益； b) 可一次过认可在职校长由1999年9月至2002年8月所参与的持续专业发展活动，以50小时为上限； c) 就持续专业发展计划向在职校长提供意见及支持； d) 就在职校长在一个三年周期内，每年参加持续专业发展活动所订定的最低时数提供意见； e) 确认在职校长的持续专业发展活动和纪录。检讨方式 2.6 在职校长应每年参加50小时的持续专业发展活动，而在三年间，应至少参加150小时的活动，活动模式包括有系统学习、实践学习及为教育界和社会服务。但是，能达到所订定的时数只是一个途径，不是一个目标。因此，还必须根据六个主要领导才能范畴，检视持续专业发展活动的内容。 2.7 有研究人员曾强调，校长的专业发展课程应包含两方面的元素，就是结构性元素，例如使命、课程、教学方法、时间与科技的运用等；以及以价值观为本的文化元素，这方面的元素是建立社会归属感、使命感和加强学习动机的关键 5。 2.8 一项2004年所发表的研究介绍了澳洲和日本的校长在职培训课程所涵盖的范畴。这项研究的对象是澳洲新南威尔士130所小学和中学的校长和副校长、以及日本中部130所小学、初中和高中校长和副校长，研究人员发现他们的在职培训课程涵盖了下表所列的六个最重要范畴 6。重要范畴澳洲中小学校长日本中小学校长 a) 信息科技及信息管理 √ √ 3 教育署(2002年)，《校長持續專業發展指引》。 4 教育署(沒有註明日期)，「常見問題︰校長的持續專業發展」。 5 Peterson, Kent (2002), “The professional development of principals: innovations and opportunities”, in Educational Administration Quarterly, 38(2): 213 – 232. 6 Gamage, David T and Ueyama, Takeyuki (2004), “Professional development perspectives of principals in Australia and Japan”, in The Education Forum, 69(1): 65 – 78. b) 教育领导者的专业操守、道德观及价值观 √ √ c) 当前公众关注的教育行政问题 √ √ d) 对有志成为校长的人士的能力评估 √ e) 教育行政工作实习 √ f) 改革/变革的简介与管理 √ 2.9 在美国对校长的持续专业发展进行的类似研究中，也发现「信息管理及变革领导才能」、「教育领导者的专业操守、价值观及道德观」两项被视为在职培训最重要的范畴 7。 2.10 研究显示，现时为校长举办的在职培训课程应有所改善，必须以实用为主，切合学校实际情况，并更着重理论与实践的结合。研究建议，在职培训课程的内容应更加全面、有系统、贯彻一致；重点应该是帮助校长吸收最新的知识和经验，以及为校长提供更多机会，进行知识交流，观摩成功经验。8 在美国，一项对校长的专业发展课程的检讨也提出类似的意见，研究人员指出：很多这类课程的设计，都未能互相配合，也未能符合长远学习的需要。 9 2.11 因此，这次检讨的目的虽然在于了解在职校长参与持续专业发展活动的实际情况，但是如果在收集实际数据之余，还能了解在职校长在持续专业发展上的需要、期望及所遇到的困难，就更加理想了。简而言之，这次检讨希望可获得以下资料： a) 持续专业发展活动在六个主要领导才能范畴方面的相关内容； b) 在职校长的培训需要及期望，以及他们在参加持续专业发展活动上遇到的困难； c) 法团校董会 /校董会在在职校长的持续专业发展方面担当的角色； d) 持续专业发展的影响； e) 对在职校长持续专业发展理念架构的建议。 2.12 这次检讨主要根据在 2002/03、 2003/04及 2004/05学年的三年周期内，以及2005/06学年开始的其后三年周期内，在职校长订定及实行其持续专业发展计划的经验。 7 Zu, Zhixin, Gamage, David and Mininberg, Elliot (2003), “Professional preparation and development of school leaders in Australia and the USA”, in International Education Journal, 4(1): 42 – 59. 8 Gamage, David T and Ueyama, Takeyuki (2004), “Professional development perspectives of principals in Australia and Japan”, in The Education Forum, 69(1): 65 – 78. 9 Peterson, Kent (2002), “The professional development of principals: innovations and opportunities”, in Educational Administration Quarterly, 38(2): 213 – 232. 2.13 尽管以上所建议的检讨方式以参与及过程为主，但同样重视在职校长持续专业发展的结果。毫无疑问，持续专业发展有助提升士气、巩固专业抱负、专业价值观及个人价值，并有助于鼓励创意和提升教学热诚，对在职校长十分重要 10。 2.14 关于学校领导层的质素与学校成效之间的关系，目前已经有多项研究探讨过。但是，一些影响学校成效但讨论得比较少的其它因素，如教师的工作原动力及教学质素等，也很重要 11。此外，研究发现：如果持续专业发展在改变校长的行事作业之余，还符合学校的发展需要，并使学生得益，则对学校的影响最大。因此，除了校长应参加持续专业发展活动外，各职级的其它教职员也应该参加持续专业发展活动，以切合个别教师、各团队教师及学校整体的需要，从而在校内建立起专业发展的良好气氛，使学生得益 12。 2.15 换言之，在评估在职校长参加持续专业发展活动对学校及学生的影响的同时，也应评估各个职级的其它教职员参加同类活动所带来的影响。这样的检讨方式显然超越目前的研究范围。因此，本报告所载的评估结果，只是根据在职校长表达的意见所得。此外，为免要求学校提交报告，加重他们的工作负担，有关法团校董会或校董会在校长持续专业发展中所担当的角色，数据是透过与在职校长详谈而获得的。检讨方法 2.16 在进行这项研究时，研究人员尽量避免对在职校长造成太多不便，或加重他们的工作量。在要求在职校长提供研究所需的资料前，研究人员已先行分析教育统筹局(教统局；现称教育局 )所保存的资料，并查阅了在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的计算机数据库；本报告载有该数据库内有关984 名在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的统计资料。 2.17 此外，为补充持续专业发展数据库所存的数据，我们对在职校长进行了一项简短而具代表性的抽样问卷调查。该项调查以分层随意抽样方式选取305所学校的校长作为对象，分层的决定因素是校长任职的学校类别及出任校长的年资，因为进行持续专业发展的时数与出任校长的年资有关。调查同时以有系统的抽样方式进行，并按在职校长任职的学校类别及地区分类。透过有系统的抽样方式 (也是随意抽样的方式 )，调查可涵盖不同种类及不同地区的学校。 10 Chapman, Judith D (2005), Recruitment, retention and development of school principals, publication of International Academy of Education and International Institute for Educational Planning. 11 Bush, Tony and Jackson, David (2002), “A preparation for : international perspectives”, in Educational management and administration, 30(4): 417 – 429. 12 UK Department for Education and Skills (2005), Leading and coordinating CPD in secondary schools 2.18 下表显示了抽样细节及响应率。在随意抽样的302名在职校长中， 172名在职校长交回问卷，回应率为57%。这次调查使用的问卷详见附录，本报告亦载有问卷调查的结果。小学年资有效的抽样调查人数回应的在职校长人数回应率 5年或以下 41 24 58.5% 6年 – 10年 40 25 62.5% 11年 – 15年 40 20 50.0% 16年 – 20年 15 11 73.3% 21年或以上 16 9 56.3% 合共 152 89 58.6% 中学年资有效的抽样调查人数回应的在职校长人数回应率 5年或以下 33 20 60.6% 6年 – 10年 33 20 60.6% 11年 – 15年 35 19 54.3% 16年 – 20年 31 17 54.8% 21年或以上 18 7 38.9% 合共 150 83 55.3% 2.19 本报告所载的调查结果主要依据教育局提供的计算机数据库所储存的持续专业发展数据而得。在简短的问卷调查中获得的数据，如适用的话，也包括在内。此外，与15所小学及15所中学的在职校长进行详细面谈时所搜集到的意见，也在本报告中有所反映。除另有注明外，本报告提及的统计资料均来自持续专业发展数据库。 3. 问卷调查结果在职校长的概述 3.1 在职校长中大约61%是男性，39%是女性。其中 56%任职于小学， 44%任职于中学。如下图所示，大多数在职校长为51岁或以上。圖︰以年齡組別劃分的在職校長百分比 1.2% 7.1% 15.8% 32.3% 33.2% 10.4% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 60以上 3.2 超过半数(63%)在职校长任职校长10年或以下，另有22%任职校长11 年至15年，只有约15%任职校长16年或以上。圖︰以任職校長年資劃分的回應者百分比 13.2% 50.1% 22.1% 8.5% 6.0% 0% 20% 40% 60% 5年或以下 6 - 10年 11 - 15年 16 - 20年 20年以上持续专业发展活动由教育局举办或委托机构提供的持续专业发展活动 3.3 根据教育局保存的数据显示，在2002/03至2004/05学年的三年内，大约90%在职校长参加了由教育局举办或委托机构提供的持续专业发展活动；其中59%为男性，41%为女性。在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的平均时数为31.1小时，男性在职校长的平均时数为26.9小时，女性在职校长的平均时数为34.6小时。一般而言，41岁至45岁年龄组别的在职校长参加教育局提供的持续专业发展活动的时数较多；而在年龄组别中较年轻或较年长的在职校长参加的时数则较少。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以年齡組別劃分，在職校長參加教統局 (現稱教育局)委託機構提供的持續專業發展活動的平均時數 34.0 39.4 35.2 30.2 29.4 11.1 0 10 20 30 40 50 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 60以上 3.4 一如预期，年资较浅的在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的时数较多。在2002/03学年至2004/05学年期间，年资少于6年的在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的平均时数为39小时，而年资超过20年的在职校长的平均时数仅为25小时。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以任職校長的年資劃分，在職校長參加教育局委託機構提供的持續專業發展活動的平均時數 39.2 37.9 30.8 26.6 24.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 5年或以下 6 - 10年 11 - 15年 16 - 20年 20年以上 3.5 与在职校长面谈时，有在职校长指出，就在职校长参加教育局举办或委托机构提供的持续专业发展活动而言，使用电子化服务入门网站登记并保存在教育局数据库内的时数，大大低于实际参与持续专业发展活动的时数。问卷调查结果显示，在2005/06学年，在职校长参加教育局举办或委托机构提供的持续专业发展活动的平均时数为65.3小时。相比于小学在职校长的时数 (59.9小时)，中学在职校长的时数略高(72.4小时)。 3.6 就教育局委托机构提供或教育局举办的持续专业发展活动的性质而言，在职校长的持续专业发展活动大约一半 (47%)时数用于参加研讨会，另外17%参加工作坊。参与培训课程形式的持续专业发展活动占11%，而经验交流会占7%。小学及中学在职校长参加的持续专业发展活动的形式颇为相似。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以活動性質劃分，在職校長參與由教育局委託機構提供的持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 5% 0% 11% 7% 47% 17% 13% 6% 0% 13% 8% 47% 17% 10% 3% 1% 8% 5% 48% 18% 16% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 簡介會會議培訓課程經驗交流會研討會工作坊其他所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.7 就教育局举办或委托机构提供的持续专业发展活动的模式而言，在职校长参加的发展活动绝大部分属于有系统的学习 (97%)，其余则是实践学习(2%)以及为教育界及社会服务。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以模式劃分，在職校長參加由教育局委託機構提供的持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 2% 1% 97% 4% 1% 95% 1% 1% 99% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 實踐學習服務有系統的學習所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.8 就教育局提供或举办的持续专业发展活动的内容而言，在职校长所参加的活动中，约40%是一般培训的活动，另外19%关于课程发展与推行。另外，关于学校行政管理的活动占11%。小学及中学在职校长的持续专业发展活动的模式颇为相似。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以活動內容劃分，在職校長參加由教育局委託機構提供的持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 19% 8% 6% 40% 9% 11% 1% 5% 1% 21% 7% 5% 40% 8% 12% 0% 6% 1% 17% 10% 8% 41% 10% 9% 1% 4% 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 課程發展與推行一般管理發展資訊科技教育與一般培訓有關的其他活動與職業訓練有關的其他活動學校行政及管理特殊教育學科知識與教學法其他所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.9 当然，在职校长参加的持续专业发展活动的性质、模式及内容，在一定程度上取决于教育局是否提供有关活动，但同时也反映出在职校长对持续专业发展活动的需求。上述的统计数据显示，在职校长所参加的持续专业发展活动包括了各种不同性质及内容。这反映出在职校长的培训需要，包括了课程发展、教学法、信息科技教育、学校管理及特殊教育等不同方面。我们注意到教育局举办的持续专业发展活动的模式，绝大部分属于有系统学习的模式。虽然教育局也为在职校长提供了为教育界及社会服务的活动，但仍需要探究为不同组别的在职校长提供实践学习活动的可行性和适切性，尤其是有关组别的在职校长感兴趣而又认为重要的课题。学校举办的持续专业发展活动 3.10 在2002/03学年至2004/05学年的三年期间内，只有约41%的在职校长参加了由学校举办的持续专业发展活动。其中53%为男性，47%为女性。参加持续专业发展活动的时数平均为245小时，男性的平均时数为214小时，女性则为279小时。一般而言，51岁至55岁年龄组别的在职校长参加由学校举办的发展活动的时数较多；而较年轻或较年长的在职校长参加的时数则一般较少。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以年齡組別劃分，在職校長參加學校舉辦的持續專業發展活動的平均時數 194.3 210.8 249.8 275.9 231.1 106.1 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 -55 56 - 60 60以上 3.11 一如预期，年资较浅的在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的时数较多。在2002/03学年至2004/05学年期间，年资少于6年的在职校长参加这类活动的平均时数为 303小时，年资 16年至 20年的在职校长的时数为 335小时，而年资超过20年的在职校长的平均时数仅为239小时。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以任職年資劃分，在職校長參加學校舉辦的持續專業發展活動的平均時數 302.8 250.5 274.8 334.9 239.0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 5年或以下 6 - 10年 11 - 15年 16 - 20年 20年以上 3.12 就在职校长参加学校举办的持续专业发展活动而言，虽然部分人士曾质疑保存在教育局培训数据库内的参加时数可能低于实际参加时数，但问卷调查结果显示，在2005/06学年，在职校长参加学校举办的持续专业发展活动的平均时数为64.5小时。相比于小学在职校长的时数 (49.7小时 )，中学在职校长的时数较高(84.4小时)。 3.13 就学校举办的持续专业发展活动的性质而言，在职校长参加发展活动的时数中，大约30%用于参加培训课程，另外14%是研讨会。工作坊形式的持续专业发展活动则占9%时数，而经验交流占6%。小学及中学在职校长参加的持续专业发展活动的形式颇为相似，但小学在职校长参加的活动中，较多时数用于参加培训课程。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以活動性質劃分，在職校長參加由學校舉辦的持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 3% 2% 30% 6% 1% 1% 14% 3% 1% 9% 29% 3% 3% 36% 6% 1% 1% 13% 3% 1% 10% 22% 2% 1% 24% 6% 2% 1% 15% 4% 1% 8% 36% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 簡介會會議培訓課程經驗交流會論壇入職/迎新研討會職員發展日探訪工作坊其他所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.14 就学校举办的持续专业发展活动的模式而言，在职校长参加的活动超过半数 (56%)属于有系统的学习，其余属于实践学习 (20%)以及为教育界及社会服务(25%)的模式。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以活動的模式劃分，在職校長參加由學校舉辦的持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 20% 25% 56% 20% 21% 59% 19% 28% 53% 0% 20% 40% 60% 實踐學習為教育界及社會服務有系統的學習所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.15 就学校举办的持续专业发展活动的内容而言，在职校长所参加的活动约28%与学校行政管理有关，11%与职业培训有关，11%则是一般培训的活动。关于课程发展与推行、一般管理发展及关顾辅导的持续专业发展活动各占9%。小学及中学在职校长的持续专业发展活动的模式颇为相似，但相比于中学在职校长，小学在职校长参加职业培训及学科知识与教学法的持续专业发展活动的时数比例较大。圖︰2002/03學年至2004/05學年，以活動內容劃分，在職校長參加由學校舉辦的持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 2% 1% 9% 2% 9% 3% 2% 11% 11% 9% 1% 3% 1% 28% 3% 4% 2% 1% 9% 3% 7% 3% 2% 5% 16% 7% 2% 4% 1% 28% 2% 7% 2% 1% 9% 0% 11% 3% 2% 16% 7% 10% 1% 3% 1% 28% 3% 2% 0% 10% 20% 30% 中國研究電腦知識與應用課程發展與推行英語能力一般管理發展人力資源管理資訊科技教育與一般培訓有關的其他活動與職業培訓有關的其他活動關顧輔導普通話研究與評估安全與衛生學校行政管理特殊教育學科知識與教學法所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 2005/06学年在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的总时数 3.16 一如上文所言，根据在职校长在问卷调查中提供的数据显示，在职校长在2005/06学年参加持续专业发展活动的总时数，大大多于教育局培训数据库所记录在职校长于2002/03学年至2004/05学年期间参加这类活动的平均时数。与在职校长详谈时，多名在职校长指出，使用电子化服务入门网站登记的数据，很可能未完全反映在职校长参加所有持续专业发展活动的实际情况。下文载有2005/06学年问卷调查所收集的资料。 3.17 如将在职校长参加的所有持续专业发展活动计算在内，包括由教育局举办或委托机构提供以及由学校举办的活动，在职校长在2005/06学年参加这类活动的平均时数为129.8小时。中学在职校长的时数 (156.8小时 )较高，而小学在职校长的时数 (109.7小时 )较低。 3.18 超过半数(52%)在职校长于2005/06学年参加持续专业发展活动达100 小时或以上。中学在职校长参加持续专业发展活动的人数 (65%)，大大多于小学在职校长的参加人数 (43%)。在2005/06学年，只有很小百分比的在职校长(4%)参加少于30小时的持续专业发展活动。圖︰在2005/06學年，以總時數劃分，在職校長參加持續專業發展活動時數的百分比分佈 52% 10% 4% 8% 8% 2% 6% 5% 4% 65% 2% 8% 5% 6% 2% 6% 5% 1% 7% 6% 5% 3% 11% 9% 1% 16% 43% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 100小時或以上 90 - 98小時 80 - 89小時 70 - 79小時 60 - 69小時 50 - 59小時 40 - 49小時 30 - 39小時 30小時以下所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.19 以所花的时间计算，在职校长的所有持续专业发展活动中，学校举办的占45%，另有三分之一由教育局举办，其余22%则由教育局委托机构提供。一般而言，对于由学校举办的持续专业发展活动，中学在职校长付出的时间 (占他们参加持活动总时数的 51%)多于小学在职校长付出的时间 (40%)。圖：在2005/06學年，以舉辦機構劃分，在職校長參加持續專業展活動時數的百分比分佈 45% 33% 22% 40% 33% 27% 51% 33% 16% 0% 20% 40% 60% 由學校安排的持續專業發展活動由教統局舉辦的持續專業發展活動由教統局委託機構提供的持續專業發展活動所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.20 就在职校长于2005/06学年参加的持续专业发展活动的模式而言，在职校长参加活动的总时数中，约44%属于有系统的学习，其余属于实践学习 (23%)以及为教育界及社会服务(33%)。圖：在2005/06學年，以活動模式劃分，在職校長參加持續專業發展活動總時數的百分比分佈 44% 23% 33% 45% 22% 33% 33% 24% 43% 0% 20% 40% 60% 有系統的學習實踐學習服務所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.21 与在职校长面谈时，多名在职校长表示，他们有很多机会参加有系统学习的活动，包括出席与教育改革措施及其它主要教育政策有关的研讨会。 3.22 至于实践学习方面，在职校长未必有时间亲自参与活动，但如果他们愿意，可以与其它教师一起设计或领导实践学习。教师及校长其实有很多参与实践学习的机会。正如几位在职校长指出，部分处于发展阶段的学校必须推行多项新计划，以提高教与学的质素及成效。此外，除了一些将在未来几年推出，并对学校影响深远的政策 (例如教学语言的政策)外，现时有多项新政策正在推行，例如关于高中教育新学制、通识教育、校外评核、德育与公民教育、融合教育、全港性系统评估结果应用等。学校必须透过谨慎的计划与试验，恰如其分地面对这些新转变。在这过程中，在职校长无可避免地需要带领教师参与每项新计划。 3.23 然而，一些在职校长认为：各校长在实践学习方面的水准与实施方法差异很大。一些校长擅于撰写文件或研究论文，一些喜欢亲身参与其中，而另一些则可能擅于在研究学习项目中担当行政角色。多数在职校长承认，在校内推行的任何实践学习项目，他们均无法抽太多时间亲身参与或撰写文件。在职校长既要进行研究学习，又要处理学校各种行政事务，他们必须在这两方面作出平衡，妥善分配时间；对他们而言，执行行政工作比参加持续专业发展活动更应优先处理。一些在职校长又指出，很难量度在职校长在这些实践学习项目中所付出的时间，而且学习的多寡很难通过参加持续专业发展活动的时数来反映。因此，锱铢较量参加持续专业发展活动的时数实在意义不大。 3.24 至于为教育界及社会服务，在职校长有很多机会参与，但必须考虑优先次序、个别学校的发展需要和在职校长的个人选择。举例而言，一些在职校长可能想花较多时间在学校的教与学活动上，或主力建立有效的教学团队，其次才是参与教育团体或社会团体的活动。 3.25 另有一些在职校长指出，持续专业发展活动的分类存在灰色地带。例如，出席关于教育改革或重要政策的研讨会或简介会，既属于持续专业发展的活动，也可以被视为在职校长工作的一部分。至于为教育界及社会服务，则可能涉及一些与教育专业无关的活动。 3.26 就学校举办的持续专业发展活动的性质而言，下图显示在职校长所参加的发展活动的类别繁多。就他们参加持续专业发展活动的时数而言，他们所参加的活动多数是研讨会 (占参加活动总时数的16%)、工作坊 (15%)、会议 (14%)、培训课程 (13%)、探访 (12%)及经验交流会 (11%)。小学及中学在职校长参加的持续专业发展活动的形式颇为相似。圖：在2005/06學年，以活動性質劃分，在職校長參加持續專業發展活動的總時數的百分比分佈 8% 12% 15% 13% 16% 11% 14% 7% 5% 11% 12% 19% 13% 15% 9% 13% 6% 3% 7% 16% 7% 13% 17% 13% 11% 13% 5% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 其他探訪工作坊培訓課程研討會經驗交流會會議簡介會暫駐計劃所有在職校長小學在職校長中學在職校長 3.27 正如所有在职校长在会面时表示，他们必须经常调整他们的持续专业发展活动，以配合校务工作的优次及本身的专业培训要求。对所有在职校长订定太严苛的持续专业发展规定，显然不符合在职校长及学校的最大利益，因为持续专业发展只是途径，而不是目标。持续专业发展活动的质素 3.28 大部分在职校长都认为，他们参加的持续专业发展活动甚具成效或颇具成效。超过半数在职校长认为，在六个主要领导才能范畴中，其中四个范畴的活动甚具成效，计有：策略方向及政策环境 (55%)、对外沟通及联系 (55%)、学与教及课程(52%)以及质素保证和问责(51%)，但员工及资源管理的成效则较低 (40%)，显示这方面的培训质素，包括专业适切性，需进一步改善。只有少数在职校长认为他们参加的持续专业发展活动的成效很低或十分低，这显示在职校长整体上满意持续专业发展活动的质素。圖：在2005/06學年，校長對持續專業發展活動成效的意見的百分比分佈 32% 39% 47% 42% 39% 7% 3% 9% 2% 1% 3% 6% 7% 4% 6% 4% 3%55% 52% 50% 40% 51% 55% 44% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 對外溝通及聯繫質素保證和問責員工及資源管理教師的專業成長及發展學與教及課程策略方向及政策環境十分高 / 高一般十分低 / 低沒有意見 3.29 与在职校长面谈时，他们指出持续专业发展活动的质素相当参差，对于很多经验丰富及具有大学学位以上学历的在职校长来说，其中一些活动欠缺有深度的处理。很多可计算持续专业发展活动时数的研讨会或简介会只不过是意见交流会，其它则主要解释新的教育政策，而该等新政策在教育局发出的通告中早已有所解释。部分在职校长建议邀请更多外地专家，甚至非教育界的专家，主讲更具启发性的课题，包括介绍一些有别于学界固有想法的新概念。 3.30 至于实践学习，一些在职校长认为，教育局对于在职校长推行实践学习活动并无质素监管。很多在职校长对实践学习一无所知，教育局并没有就在职校长如何恰当地进行实践学习提供指引或协助。他们认为，「实践学习」一词过于虚夸，令人怀疑是否对在职校长有实际作用。校董会/法团校董会的角色 3.31 与在职校长面谈时，所有在职校长均指出，他们参加持续专业发展活动的计划与报告均提交予校董会 /法团校董会，而差不多所有计划与报告均获得校董会 /法团校董会支持及确认。很多在职校长指出，他们与校董会 / 法团校董会之间经常就一切有关学校运作的事宜，包括在职校长的持续专业发展等进行沟通。在大多数情况下，校董会 /法团校董会均信任在职校长的专业水平，很少对他们参加持续专业发展活动的计划有所质疑，尽管少数较为主动的校董会 /法团校董会会经常就在职校长参加持续专业发展活动事宜向他们提供意见。大多数在职校长承认，校董会 /法团校董会担当重要的监管角色，确保在职校长参加持续专业发展活动，使学校得益。 3.32 部分在职校长指出，虽然他们会在几个月甚至一年前预先拟订持续专业发展计划，但实际情况有时会迫使他们偏离预订的计划。他们有时因为工作太繁重而无法出席已选报的研讨会；有时则难以找到适合自己的课程或研讨会。而且在拟订计划时，往往无法预计日后的其它培训需要，也无从知道有甚么新的课程可供他们选择。此外，很多在职校长都表示，校董会 /法团校董会在有需要时，通常希望在职校长优先处理学校事务，他们惟有推迟甚至放弃已计划的培训活动。因此，在职校长拟订的持续专业发展计划只不过表示了他们参加活动的意欲，实不宜为拟订持续专业发展计划而花太多时间。在职校长持续专业发展所带来的影响 3.33 与在职校长面谈时，他们大部分均表示，参加持续专业发展活动对他们本身及其任职的学校均有正面影响。持续专业发展活动有助于他们吸收专业知识、扩阔视野、汲取其它学校和国家的成功经验，而最重要的是藉此启发思维，反思自己多年来的行事作业。他们参加持续专业发展活动对校内教师也有正面影响，有助推广学习风气，并且能以身作则，为教师树立榜样。 3.34 然而，少数在职校长认为很难衡量在职校长参加持续专业发展活动所带来的影响。他们指出，问题的重点不在于在职校长是否参加持续专业发展活动 (例如出席研讨会 )，而在于他们如何学以致用，将学到的新概念与知识应用于工作之上。事实上，无论有没有参加持续专业发展活动，学习及持续专业发展都在课堂上或教室内外贯彻不断。参加持续专业发展活动所遇到的困难 3.35 略少于三分之一的校长表示，他们在参加持续专业发展活动方面遇到困难。遇到这方面困难的中学校长 (35%)比小学校长 (30%)较多。另一方面，超过半数校长表示在这方面没有遇到困难。圖：2005/06學年校長參加持續專業發展活動是否遇到困難的百分比分佈 57% 56% 59% 11% 14% 6%35% 30% 32% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 所有校長小學校長中學校長是否沒有意見 3.36 校长在参加持续专业发展活动方面遇到的困难，包括没有足够时间参加活动 (占82%)、培训时间不方便(51%)、培训地点不方便(37%)、适合的课程不多(32%)，以及适合而质素好的课程收费过于昂贵(22%)。圖：2005/06學年校長參加持續專業發展活動遇到困難，以主要困難類別劃分的百分比 7% 10% 22% 32% 51% 37% 82% 6% 10% 16% 45% 48% 16% 78% 86% 57% 54% 21% 28% 11% 8% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 很多可供選報的課程均質素差劣適合的課程沒有足夠名額適合兼質素好的課程收費過於昂貴適合的課程並不多培訓時間不方便培訓地點不方便沒有足夠時間參加活動所有校長中學校長小學校長培训需要及期望 3.37 少数在职校长指出，在职校长的培训需要及期望有相当差异。一些在职校长较有兴趣成为学校课程的领导人，自然有兴趣参加更多与课程改革等有关的持续专业发展活动。有些则较有兴趣在学校推行改革 (例如改变学校的文化及教师的态度 )，因而可能想付出较多时间参加与行政管理有关的持续专业发展活动。 3.38 一如上文所论，各在职校长的持续专业发展需求不同，视乎在职校长的个人培训需要及学校发展需要。举例而言，如果在职校长任职的学校关注校外评核、自我评估或小班教学事宜，则在职校长便会付出较多时间参加与质素保证及收集数据方法有关的持续专业发展活动或进行小班教学的实践学习。如果在职校长任职的学校较为关注校本课程的发展，则会付出较多时间于课程发展方面。 3.39 部分在职校长建议举办多些下列范畴的持续专业发展活动︰ a) 学校推广及品牌建立； b) 与家长等不同持份者的交流，包括如何与家长及社区建立良好关系，并从中获得资源和支持； c) 学校领导及管理：关于教师、社工、其它专业人员 (尤其在特殊学校 )及支持人员的管理方法，包括如何解决教职员的压力及精神健康问题，以及如何激励士气、如何处理教师的不同能力等问题； d) 财务管理； e) 法律事宜：尤其在成立法团校董会后与学校运作有关的法律事宜，以及个人资料保障及专业责任赔偿的事宜； f) 切合校长需要、与教与学活动中运用信息科技有关的课程。很多这方面的培训课程主要切合教师的需要而不是校长的需要； g) 校本管理：少数在职校长认为，这方面的研讨会或培训课程不多，他们并不清楚学校是否妥善推行校本管理，是否取得预期效果； h) 融合教育：很多学校并不知道如何妥善处理有特殊教育需要的学生； i) 教育以外的课题(例如全球性的热门题目)，旨在启发思考。有关更改持续专业发展政策的建议 3.40 很多出席面谈的在职校长表示，为在职校长推行的持续专业发展政策是一项德政。这项政策具有充分灵活性，在职校长可根据本身的培训需要及学校的发展需要，自行拟订持续专业发展计划。由于绝大部分校长感到持续专业发展的重要性，并且主动参与有关活动，持续专业发展已为学校带来一定影响，故这项政策应已达到其目的。除非有极为充分和令人信服的理由，否则不应对这项政策作出任何重大改变，尤其是会增加在职校长的工作量和工作压力的改变。总而言之，问题的重点应在于持续专业发展政策对教育质素所带来的影响，而不是持续专业发展本身。 3.41 很多在职校长认为，现时有不同培训机构开办各类课程，在职校长有很多选择，可配合个人培训需要及学校发展需要。同时，在职校长可透过不同沟通渠道向教育局提出建议和意见。只要教育局乐意听取意见，大多数在职校长都应该满意现时的安排。 3.42 所有出席面谈的在职校长均认为，要达到持续专业发展的时数要求并不困难，尤其是研讨会、简介会一类的培训课程，均可视为持续专业发展活动。有些在职校长建议，应严格管制持续专业发展活动的质素和水准。同时，应将某些项目定为必须出席的活动 (例如中学校长必须参加有关高中教育新学制的活动)，这些项目可定时更新。 3.43 另一方面，出席面谈的大部分在职校长均认为，现时在职校长根本不可能不参与持续专业发展。虽然目前推行的持续专业发展政策仍须保留，但教育局应尽量减少对在职校长持续专业发展活动的干预。教育局应给予更多支持和协助，而不是加以干预和监控。如果在职校长只参加一些最能帮助他们达到时数要求的活动，就会违反了这政策的原意。政策若要行之有效，必须建立在互相信任的基础上，而不是假定有些校长可能不忠实，或不依循指引行事。此外，现时已有其它方面的监管和质素保证机制，例如有校董 / 法团校董会监察、教育局区域教育服务处定期探访及校外评核，可确保在职校长是根据个人培训需要及学校发展需要而参与持续专业发展的。 3.44 一些校长认为，教育局如果有意投放更多资源，以推广在职校长持续专业发展，可考虑提供不同的支持措施，而不是加强监管政策的推行。举例而言，教育局可针对各类在职校长感兴趣的课题，在必要时联同大专院校为在职校长举办实践学习的活动。透过这类活动，学校之间可以交流经验。对于不大熟悉实践学习的在职校长，这样的安排亦有助于他们发展更有效的理念架构及研究方法。同时，在职校长之间也可互相分担工作量。如果教育局设立有关实践学习个案的数据库，供所有学校使用，对在职校长亦有帮助。但是，有几位在职校长指出，教育局不应藉在职校长的持续专业发展提高声望或争取资源。 3.45 这次研究显示：很多在职校长虽然会妥善保存自己的持续专业发展计划和活动纪录，但没有将它们上载到学校的网页，有些则只上载了扼要的介绍。很多出席面谈的在职校长认为没有需要在学校网页公开自己的持续专业发展计划，因为家长及其它持份者不会感兴趣。另一些在职校长则表示，如果他们在网上公开自己的持续专业发展计划，也不会太详细，以免给其它持份者错误的印象，以为他们花太多时间参加个人发展活动，何况教育局在这方面并没有强制性的规定。基于以上种种情况，很多出席面谈的在职校长都质疑这项规定的理据及作用。 3.46 一些在职校长表示：按不同的持续专业发展活动的性质、模式及内容，将活动详细分类和记录十分费时，一个课程或研讨会通常可列入多于一个类别。如果将时间用于其它更重要的工作上，会更有意义。一些在职校长指出，教育局的电子化服务入门网站在使用上十分不便，该系统有时运作缓慢，而且并不适合在同一学校内同时任职于小学和中学部的教职员所使用。 3.47 大部分在职校长并非亲自使用教育局的电子化服务入门网站记录其持续专业发展活动的资料。他们当中有些由学校职员代劳，有些则没有定期记录。由于所有在职校长均会透过学校本身的系统、计算机系统或以人手操作方式，记录并报告在职校长及教师的持续专业发展活动数据，他们认为要使用电子化服务入门网站再次记录数据，实属多此一举。 4. 建议在职校长的持续专业发展政策 4.1 在出席面谈时，很多在职校长均表示支持在职校长的持续专业发展政策。他们认为这政策是一项德政，具有充分的灵活性，在职校长可根据本身的培训需要及学校发展需要，自行拟订持续专业发展计划。问卷调查亦显示，绝大部分在职校长参与持续专业发展活动均超越目标时数。在2005/06 年，只有约4%的在职校长参加持续专业发展活动少于30小时。从在职校长表达的意见得知，他们参加持续专业发展活动对本身及学校的发展均有正面影响。 4.2 很明显，这项政策应已达到预期的目的。因此，除非有极为充分和令人信服的理由 (研究结果并没有如此显示 )，否则不应对这项政策作出任何重大改变，尤其是会增加在职校长的工作量和工作压力的改变。总而言之，检讨的重点应在于持续专业发展政策对教育质素带来何种影响，而不在于持续专业发展本身。此外，检讨重点也不在于在职校长是否积极参加持续专业发展活动 (如出席研讨会 )，而在于他们如何学以致用，将学到的新概念与知识应用于工作之上。事实上，不论有没有持续专业发展，学习及持续专业发展亦会在课堂上或教室内外贯彻不断。政策实施 4.3 虽然对在职校长实施的持续专业发展政策没有必要作出重大改变，但研究结果显示，在政策执行上仍有改进的空间，现扼述如下︰ a) 研究显示，教育局举办的持续专业发展活动绝大部分采用有系统的学习的模式。虽然教育局为在职校长提供的活动也包括了为教育界及社会服务等模式，而在职校长也有不少参加这类活动的机会，但教育局仍需要探讨为不同组别的在职校长提供实践学习活动的可行性及适切性，尤其是在职校长感兴趣及认为重要的课题。透过这类活动，学校之间可以交流经验。对于不大熟悉实践学习的在职校长，这样的安排亦有助他们发展更有效的理念架构及研究方法； b) 此外，教育局应考虑设立有关实践学习个案的数据库，供所有学校使用； c) 大多数在职校长认为在持续专业发展活动中，策略方向及政策环境、对外沟通及联系、学与教及课程均较有成效，而只有40%在职校长认为有关员工及资源管理的活动有用，显示这方面培训活动的质素及专业适切性需进一步改善； d) 有在职校长建议举办较多以下方面的持续专业发展活动︰ 1) 学校推广及品牌； 2) 与家长等不同持份者的交流，包括如何与家长及社区建立良好关系，并从中获得资源和支持； 3) 学校领导及管理：关于管理教师、社工、其它专业人员 (尤其在特殊学校 )及支持人员，包括解决教职员的压力管理及精神健康问题，以及如何激励士气、如何处理教师的不同能力； 4) 财务管理； 5) 法律事宜：尤其在成立法团校董会后与学校运作有关的法律事宜，以及个人资料保障及专业责任赔偿的事宜； 6) 切合校长需要、与教与学活动中运用信息科技有关的课程。很多这方面的培训课程主要切合教师而不是校长的需要； 7) 校本管理：少数在职校长认为，这方面的研讨会或培训课程不多，他们并不清楚学校推行校本管理是否妥善、能否取得预期效果； 8) 融合教育：很多学校并不知道如何妥善处理有特殊教育需要的学生； 9) 教育以外的课题(例如全球性的热门题目)，旨在启发思考。 e) 为了减轻在职校长在记录持续专业发展活动方面的负担，包括使用教育局的电子化服务入门网站记录数据，可考虑按持续专业发展活动的性质、模式及内容，简化活动的分类。

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 2 (2003)

Category: Documents香港教師 ㆗ 心㈻報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 第㆓卷 Volume 2 出版：香港教師㆗心 Publisher ： Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ㆞ 址：：香港北角百福道 4 號香港教師㆗心 101 室 Address ： Room 101, Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 4 Pak Fuk Road, North Point, HONG KONG 國際標準期刊號： ISSN 1682-8984 ㊞刷：香港㈵別行政區政府物流服務署㊞務科 Printer ： Printing Division, Government Logistics Department, HKSAR 出版年份： 2004 年 Year of Publishing ： 2004 i 香港教師 ㆗ 心香港教師㆗心(㆗心)是根據1984年教育統籌委員會第㆒號報告書的建議而於1987年成立的，㆗心的總部位於北角百福道㆕號，由前身為㆒所小㈻的建築物改建而成，於1989年6㈪開幕，是㆒所多元化和多用途的㆗心。 ㆗心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供㆒個富鼓勵性、㆗立的及沒㈲階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結㆒致，發揮專業精神。㆗心的目的包括為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動教㈻專業發展、發放教育㈾訊和宣傳教育意念。 ㆗心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過教師㆗心的㆔層管理架構參與教師㆗心的管理工作。這管理架構包括㆒個諮詢管理委員會、㆒個常務委員會和數個工作小組，負責㆗心的決策，㈼察和執行㆗心的不同工作及活動。諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）的工作主要是決定㆗心的策略和㈼察㆗心的運作。諮管會由72㈴委員組成，其 ㆗35位由教育團體提㈴及選出；35位由教師提㈴及選出，另外2位由教育統籌局常任㊙書長委任。常務委員會（常委會）是諮管會的行政架構，與㆗心的㈰常運作和活動㈲著密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任；其他成員包括兩位㈹表教育統籌局的諮管會委員及㈩位由諮管會提㈴及選出的諮管會委員。各工作小組負責㆗心內不同範疇的工作，其工作性質可顧㈴思義。它們是出版小組、圖書館及教㈻㈾源小組、活動小組、章程及會籍小組、教育研究小組及專業發展小組。各小組的成員是諮管會的委員或增聘委員。目前，㈲150個教育團體登記為㆗心會員。㆗心除了單獨主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港的教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業的活動，㆗心亦贊助這些團體的活動。由2002年㉃2003年度，㆗心與教育統籌局各科組及教育團體，合辦了超過150㊠各類教師專業發展活動，參加㆟數超過㆔萬㆟次。香港教師㆗心（北角會所）位於香港北角百福道㆕號的香港教師㆗心（北角會所）佔㆞約㈨百平方公尺，設㈲㆒間大型演講室/展覽室、 ㆒個會議室、㆔間講堂、㆒間㈾訊科技教育室、㆒間教育團體綜合辦事處、㆒間教育專業圖書館和㆒間㉁息室，歡迎㈻校、教育團體預訂借用。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Centre) was established in 1987 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. Its base or headquarters, a multi-facet and multi-purpose Centre housed in a former primary school building at 4 Pak Fuk Road, North Point, was opened in June 1989. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of in-service education; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the provision of resources; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and several Sub-committees. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations or teaching-related organisations; 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers; and 2 members appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education and Manpower. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to-day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairman and 2 Vice Chairmen, 2 Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB) representatives, and 10 other members elected by and from the AMC. The various sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. The names of the sub-committees, such as Publication, Library and Teaching Resources, Activities, Constitution and Membership, Educational Research and Professional Development, reflect the work of the sub-committees. Members of the sub-committees are either members of the AMC or co-opted members. At present, 150 educational bodies are registered members of the Centre. The Centre organises activities either by itself or jointly with non profit-making educational organisations for teachers in Hong Kong. It also sponsors activities organised by these organisations. During the financial year of 2002 to 2003, the Centre has organised, jointly with various sections of the EMB and educational organisations, over 150 professional development activities for teachers, with a total attendance frequency of more than 30,000. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point) The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point), with a total area of about 900 square metres, has a large exhibition / seminar hall, a conference room, three lecture rooms, an information technology education room, a composite office for educational organisations, a multi-media professional library and a lounge, which schools and educational organisations are welcome to use by reservation. iii 香港教師 ㆗ 心㈻報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師㆗心㈻報》(《㈻報》)為香港教師㆗心出版的刊物，每年出版㆒次。《㈻報》刊登與教育㈲關的行動研究報告及論文。《㈻報》的投稿者來㉂本㆞及海外的教師、師訓機構導師、教育研究㆟員及㈻者等。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an official publication of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. It is published once a year. The HKTC Journal publishes action research reports and original contributions on areas of education. Contributors include teachers, teacher educators, educational researchers and scholars from local and overseas communities. 顧問團 (Board of Advisors) 榮譽顧問 (Honorary Advisors) Mark Bray 香港大㈻ Ronnie Carr 香港公開大㈻ Paul Morris 香港教育㈻院 Gareth Williams 英國倫敦大㈻教育㈻院馬慶強香港浸會大㈻鍾宇平香港㆗文大㈻編輯顧問 (Editorial Advisors) Andy Green 英國倫敦大㈻教育㈻院 Tan Eng Thye, Jason 新加坡國家教育㈻院李㈻銘香港理工大㈻梁貫成香港大㈻莫家豪香港城市大㈻陳湛杰香港浸會大㈻傅浩堅香港浸會大㈻黃錦璋香港大㈻黃顯華香港㆗文大㈻鄭燕祥香港教育㈻院盧乃桂香港㆗文大㈻ iv 編輯委員會 (Editorial Committee) 主編 (Chief Editor) 張國華香港大㈻委員 (Members) 李子建香港㆗文大㈻何景安香港㈻科教育研究㈻會胡少偉香港教育㈻院梁兆棠香港教育工作者聯會黃楚標㈻校容萬城香港浸會大㈻葉國洪香港浸會大㈻黃冬柏新會商會㆗㈻雷其昌博愛㊩院歷屆總理聯誼會梁省德㆗㈻顏龍香港㆗文大㈻教育㈻院校友會執行㊙書 (Executive Secretaries) 陳啟彬香港教育統籌局趙清淮香港教育統籌局湯潔芝香港教育統籌局 (排㈴按筆劃先後次序排列) (In alphabetical order) © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 ISSN 1682-8984 Printed in Hong Kong v 主編序當我接任《香港教師中心學報》第二卷的主編時，第一個在腦海中浮起的問題是香港其實已有不少教育的學術期刊，為何還要花費精力在一本由教師中心主辦的學報。我對自己的答案是：這些學報大部份主辦者都是學術機構或學會，學術的味道會相對地濃厚，所追求的是理論體系或研究方法的嚴謹，但在鼓勵廣義的教育工作人員對教育實踐的反思和整理，卻往往放在第二位。我認為這本《香港教師中心學報》，正可補充作為一個較強調教育專業實踐的討論平台。我們對這年刊的期望，是希望它能夠成為前線教育工作者和學院裏工作同工的共同平台。在這個平台上，我們希望有關的討論，可以連繫教育理論和實踐。一些理論性較重的文章，我們希望能談及對教育實踐的引申意義；但對一些討論教育實踐的文章，則希望能觸及一些較深層和引起反思的討論；對一些關於海外的討論，更希望能對香港的情況，作出一些比較。本期的文章，多多少少都有上述的影子。另外，我們對文章的評審工作，也確立了一些程序，從而保障獲接納文章的質素。首先是評審委員，為了保障《學報》內文章對學院和學校同事的可讀性，每篇文章都經至少一位學院和一位學校同事的審閱。編委員內的委員，分別來自不同院校和學校。在評審的過程中，除了編委會委員外，也邀請與文章專業範疇有關的院校或學校同事參與。但每篇文章的評審，都一定會由兩方面意見綜合作出決定。其次是評審準則，為了鼓勵教育工作者多從教育實踐中總結經驗和把討論層次提升，我們特別鼓勵前線教育工作者將在學校進行的行動研究寫成總結性文章。我們亦理解到對行動研究的討論，與一般學術論文的評審準則未必相同，我們亦為此類文章專門設計了另一份評審準則。第三是評審過程。我們堅持不記名評審。一篇文章要獲得接納，必須同時得到兩名不同背景的評審委員認同。如兩名評審委員未能有一致意見，編委會會再邀請第三名評審委員，加入評審。遇有重大分歧，編委會會以全體會議形式，作出最後決定。因此，本次評審工作，一共涉及三十四人。除編委會成員十人外，還有學院背景評審員十四人和學校背景評審員十人。他們都為論文提出寶貴意見，並花費不少心思，為文章進行評審，本人在此謹表衷心的謝意。《香港教師中心學報》主編張國華二零零四年一月目錄 Contents 一、行動研究報告 / 經驗分享 1 Report on the Action Research Project on English Dictation in a Local Primary School ..... 1 CHIANG Oi-kit 2 透過閱讀報章增加學生對香港時事的興趣之行動研究 …………………………………… 22 香俊斌 3 寫作日誌–行動研究報告 …….…………………………………………………………….. 29 鄧薇先 4 預科物理班上推行以「學生為中心」教學策略的經驗分享 …….……………………….. 36 黃冬柏 5 美勞科的多元智能教學方案對兒童在美勞科的創造力之影響 …………………………... 41 邢慧萍二、論文 1 The Effects of Schools on Teachers’ feelings about School Life: A Multilevel Analysis ....... 64 PANG Sun Keung, Nicholas 2 「時段編課方式」（Block Scheduling）的研究和香港經驗……………………………….. 85 張國華 3 專題研習：尋找課程改革的理論基礎 …………………………………………................... 93 李子建 4 於「個人、社會及人文教育」學習領域推行社會專題研習 ……………………………… 105 羅雪怡 5 從國際趨勢與近期研究成果看香港小班教育政策的可行性 …………………………….. 109 葉建源 6 「香港小學思維技巧工作坊及思維教案計劃」經驗談 ……………………………………. 116 胡飄、關綺雲 7 地域差異的中國農村基礎教育發展與香港的教育投資援助 …………………………….. 120 容萬城 8 論合作學習的局限性 ……………………………………………………………………….. 132 王凱 9 創新學習評價研究 ………………………………………………………………………….. 138 龔春燕、胡方三、調查報告 1 「小學教師對專題研習的觀感與期望」問卷調查報告 …………………………................ 147 香港教師中心教育研究小組 1 Report on the Action Research Project on English Dictation in a Local Primary School CHIANG Oi Kit Taikoo Primary School This is a report on an action research project which investigates the extent to which dictation can help pupils learn English as their second language in a local government-subsidized Chinese primary school. It documents a teacher-initiated, classroom-based action research which turned English dictation exercises from the traditional types into innovative ones in three upper primary classes. Respondents came from a sample of 97 average-ability pupils from three primary four to six classes in the school. The researcher compared pupils’ perspectives before and after the study and reported the consequent changes in pupils’ perceptions of their dictation lessons. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected through two sets of structured questionnaires, two semi-structured interviews and teacher’s class observation. RESEARCH BACKGROUND Dictation is an activity to write down something that someone says or reads out as it is being said or immediately after it is said. Although not many writers have written on dictation as an individual topic and internationally there is hardly any research which looks into the effect of dictation on second language learning, the use of dictation as one of the favourite language teaching and learning methodologies has gone through a long history. Dictation has long played a significant role in the English language curriculum in Hong Kong, particularly in primary schools because it is clearly stated in the primary school English language syllabuses. Dictation is therefore conventionally treated as an isolated and independent lesson in most schools’ weekly timetables. Teachers often follow the mode of ‘seen’ dictation as suggested by the former Education Department in the school syllabus (Curriculum Development Council, 1997). Thus, dictation often acts as a memorization exercise or a spelling-checking assessment in which teachers read the text, pupils dictate it, and then the teachers read the text the third time for pupils to check through their work (Raimes, 1983; Davis & Rinvolucri, 1988; Careless, 1999). Pupils, particularly the less capable pupils, either work under stress or give up in the boring and threatening lesson. They gradually develop a negative attitude towards dictation lessons that hinders their learning. In fact rather than mechanical drilling or assessing, dictation can also be treated as a teaching and learning exercise in which pupils learn to improve their language learning. Teachers can make use of different genre and a number of dictation activities to conduct their lessons so as to change a boring, threatening and stressful classroom atmosphere into a relaxing, supportive and enjoyable learning environment which subsequently brings a positive influence on learners’ performance (Davis & Rinvolucri, 1988;. Wajnryb, 1992; Curriculum Development Council, Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 2 1997, Goh & Fraser, 1998). THE RESEARCH Objective The objective of this project was to find out to what extent could dictation activities help pupils’ learning of English as their second language in a traditional local Chinese primary school. Research Questions 1. Can dictation lessons be meaningful and interesting? 2. If so, can dictation activities help pupils’ learning of English as their second language? Sampling Pupils came from class 4A, 5A and 6A of a traditional Chinese primary subsidized school at the Eastern District on Hong Kong Island. There were 31 pupils in 4A, 33 pupils in 5A and 33 pupils in 6A. In total, 97 pupils participated in the study. Their age ranged from ten to fifteen. They sat in rows in normal classroom setting. These pupils mostly came from working class families. Their English classes were their only opportunities to be exposed to the English language. The majority of them had studied English for a number of years since kindergarten. They were able to listen, speak and write simple English. But one-third of them have arrived in Hong Kong from Mainland China for less than five years. They had only learned English for three to four years. Their limited experience in the language often hindered their second language learning. However, all learners were hard working. Time Duration The project was carried out from 25th February, 2002 to 7th June, 2002 with a total length of three and a half months. During the period there were the Chinese New Year holiday, Easter holiday, a test and a mid-term examination. Methodology An action research study, which was classroom-based and teacher-initiated, was undertaken. Action research is a process of study done by systematically collecting data on one’s everyday practice and analyzing it in order to come to some conclusions about what future practice should be. It involves a self-reflective cycle of identifying a situation or problem, planning a change, acting and observing the processes and consequences, and then re-planning, and so forth (Figure 1). It offers a valuable opportunity for teachers to be involved in the research to collect first-hand information (McNiff, 1993; Atweb, Kemmis & Weeks, 1998). Action research was applied in this study because it enabled the teacher researcher of this project to follow the steps in the spiral that helped her reflect upon her teaching and improve her pupils’ situation. She intended to see if the plan would work well or if any necessary modification or amendment would be needed to improve her pupils’ language learning. 3 Figure 1 The self-reflective spiral in action research (Kemmis, S. and Wilkinson, M., 1998 in Atweb, Kemmis & Weeks ed., 1998) Pupils from class 4A, 5A and 6A were chosen as sampling. Most of them were of average academic standard although a few were a bit below average standard because many of them were new immigrants who had arrived from Mainland China for less than five years. The project began and ended with interviews and questionnaires. In total two interviews were conducted and three questionnaires were administered. A semi-structured interview and a structured questionnaire were conducted at the start of the study to collect data on pupils’ perceptions of their traditional dictation lessons. Then, a variety of innovative dictation activities were introduced to replace the traditional dictation exercises pupils used to have. A checklist was used to help the teacher researcher to observe pupils’ behaviour and performance during class. Afterwards, another semi-structured interview was conducted and an identical questionnaire was distributed to pupils to gather their perceptions of their dictation lessons after the changes. Finally, an additional questionnaire was distributed to pupils to collect their overall opinions about their dictation lessons after their new experiences. Pupils’ perceptions and opinions before and after the changes were compared and analysed. INNOVATIVE ENGLISH DICTATION ACTIVITIES During the study, five different innovative dictation activities were implemented in ten weeks to replace the traditional dictation exercises. Pupils’ interest and ability were considered. The activities were intentionally set from the easiest to the more challenging. Each activity was conducted twice to make sure pupils understood the rules and got used to the ways the activity worked. Clear instructions were given before the start of the activities so that pupils understood well what they were going to do. Considerable teacher’s support was provided to pupils who had difficulties during the activities. At the end of each task pupils were given five to ten minutes to check their spelling mistakes using their reference books such as course books and dictionaries. The dictation activities used in this project were adapted from Davis & Rinvolucri’s (1988) Dictation, Wajnryb’s (1992) Grammar Dictation and the Curriculum Development Council’s (1997) Syllabuses for Primary Schools: English Language Primary 1-6 respectively. They include: 4 a. Jig-saw dictation Pupils listened to a short text read by the teacher. They wrote down chunks of the text in the form of phrases or short sentences. This helped pupils develop their skills in understanding and listening to the gist of the text. b. Partial dictation Pupils worked in pairs. A text was divided in half. One read his/ her half of the text for his/ her partner to dictate. Two of them worked out the whole text. This provided pupils with an opportunity to complete a reading, speaking and writing task. c. Running dictation Pupils worked in groups of five to six. One member was responsible for writing the text while other members took turns to read out the text sentence by sentence. This provided pupils with an opportunity to work co-operatively. d. Grammar dictation Pupils worked in groups of four to five. They listened to a short text read by the teacher at normal speed and jotted down some important words. Then they pooled their resources, discussed and worked together to compose the text as nearest to the original text as possible. This enabled pupils to work out a speaking and writing task collaboratively. e. Composition dictation Pupils worked in groups of three to four. They listened to a text read by the teacher at normal speed and jotted down familiar words as they listened. Then they made use of their limited number of isolated words or fragments of sentences to reconstruct their version. Their texts did not need to be exactly the same as the original text. Pupils were allowed to discuss, compare, seek help from peers and edit their texts before the final submission. Examples of pupils’ work and their activities were shown at Appendix 1 and 2. Data Collection Two semi-structured interviews, teacher researcher’s close observation of pupils’ performance during class and two sets of structured questionnaires were used to collect data in this study. Quantitative data came from the questionnaires and qualitative data came from the interviews and observation. In this way, data were triangulated to ensure validity (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989; Nunan, 1992; Bell, 1993; McDonough and Mcdonough, 1997). a. Interviews Semi-structured interviews (Appendix 3) were conducted. Five pupils per class, which represented approximately fifteen per cent of the sampling, were chosen at random to be interviewed to collect their open-ended opinions in details. These opinions complemented the deficiencies of the questionnaire so that pupils could explain their ideas in details. Same pupils were interviewed twice, before and after the implementation of the study. 5 b. Questionnaires Two sets of face-to-face questionnaires were used. An identical Likert 5-scale questionnaire (Appendix 4) with twelve statements indicating the responses of ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘no opinion’, ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ was used to collect pupils' perceptions of dictation in the beginning and at the end of the project. This allowed respondents to provide a wide range of responses. Chinese translation was written under each statement to help pupils interpret the context more easily and clearly. Another simple ‘Yes-No’ questionnaire (Appendix 5) was used to collect pupils’ overall opinions about the dictation activities. All questionnaires were conducted in class so that teacher could give a clear explanation to pupils and clarify all queries raised. In addition one hundred percent return rate could be ensured. c. Observation Teachers carefully observed pupils’ performance during lessons. They made use of an observation checklist (Appendix 6) to record what had happened in class that helped them investigate, analyse and conclude their findings when the project came to an end. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The pupils interviewed stated that they always spent at least a half to one hour to prepare for their traditional dictation lessons before changes. They all viewed dictation as a kind of spelling-checking exercise. 12 out of 15 pupils (80% of the pupils) indicated they were working under stress and threat. 100% of the pupils declared that they were always trying hard to get high scores to satisfy their parents. They all thought that every learner had to undergo dictation lessons in their language learning process. All of them had strong belief that dictation helped their learning. They had never thought of any possibility of change in the way dictation could have been conducted. Some pupils expressed their concerns about having changes. They were insecure over any new ways of dictation which they had never experienced before and they did not have confidence in getting satisfactory results in their work in new ways of doing dictation. After the introduction of the innovative dictation activities, pupils began to enjoy their dictation lessons. Some pupils immediately asked whether they would have the same kind of activities in their coming dictation lessons once the lesson was over. They looked forward to having the lessons again instead of avoiding them like what they did in the past. Data collected in the questionnaires revealed pupils’ consistent and strong belief in the use of dictation in their learning. The figure was even higher than it was before the study. There was an increase of 17 pupils representing 17.5% of the sample. This is an encouraging finding because it reveals that pupils not only treat innovative dictation activities as interesting games but also as learning processes. 15 more pupils, an increase of 15.5%, found happiness in their dictation lessons and the satisfaction pupils gained from the innovative dictation lessons also increased by 12.4% or a total of 12 more pupils. Pupils who were previously worried about changes realised that dictation lessons could also be fun. 57 out of 97 pupils, representing 58.8% of the sample, either gave the responses of ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ on having more dictation lessons. There was an increase of 15 pupils representing an increase of 22.7% who held positive responses when compared with the figure at the beginning of the study. In the final questionnaire, 78% of pupils expressed that they enjoyed their innovative dictation activities while 76% of the pupils expressed their preferences in having the new innovative dictation activities to the traditional exercises they used to have. 6 The rise in figures implies that pupils have developed a positive attitude towards their dictation lessons. They began to believe that learning could take place in relaxing and enjoyable dictation lessons. Their positive attitude led to their willingness in having more dictation lessons that might eventually enhance their language learning. Details were shown in the following diagrams. 7 Figure 2 Comparison of pupils’ perceptions on dictation before and after the study Dictation helps my learning Pre-study Post-study Dictation helps my learn ing 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A Dictation helps my learning 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A Dictation makes me happy 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A Dictation makes me happy Pre-study Dictation makes me happy 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A Post-study 8 Dictation brings me satis faction 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A Dictation brings me satisfaction Pre-study Post-study Dictation brings me satisfaction 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A I like to have more dictation I like to have more dictation lessons 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 atrongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A I like to have more dictation lessons 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 strongly agree no opinin strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s 4A 5A 6A Pre-study Post-study 9 Dictation helps my learning 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s pre-study post-study Dictation makes me happy 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N um b er o f p u p il s pre-study post-study Dictation brings me satsifaction 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N u m b er o f p u p il s post-study Figure 3 Summary of pupils’ perceptions on dictation before and after intervention I like to have more dictation 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 strongly agree no opinion strongly disagree Scales N um b er o f pu p il s pre-study post-study 10 I like traditional dictation exercises 44% 56% Yes No I like the current dictation activites 78% 22% Yes No I think the current dictation activities help my learning 72% 28% Yes No Figure 4 Pupils’ overall perception on dictation activities I prefer the current dictation dictation activities to the traditional exercises 76% 24% Yes No 11 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The pupil-centred action research approach which relates to actual practice has proved to be appropriate in this study because it meets the criteria of making improvement in teachers’ professional practices (Atweb, Kemmis & Weeks, 1998). When pupils were doing their dictation, their weaknesses and needs such as pronunciation problems were easily identified. This facilitated teachers to tackle pupils’ problems. It also allowed teachers to direct their teaching more precisely towards pupils’ needs. Furthermore, the innovative dictation activities provided pupils with interesting, authentic and challenging tasks to practise. They succeeded in motivating pupils to learn as well as helping them develop proper useful learning strategies such as listening and editing skills. In completing the tasks, pupils also learned to work in collaboration and appreciate peer help. These were the unexpected outcomes that pupils achieved. This study aimed at improving the learning environment and teaching strategies in English dictation lessons in a local Chinese primary school in order to enhance pupils’ English language learning. Generally speaking, the basic objectives of this research study were achieved. The majority of pupils successfully changed their perceptions of dictation from treating it as a solely spelling-checking and revision exercise to a meaningful learning task, from a boring, threatening and stressful environment to an interesting, enjoyable and collaborative atmosphere. To a certain extent the change in perception might help pupils develop a positive learning attitude towards their dictation lessons. Pupils’ confidence has thus increased and their anxieties have in turn reduced. Definitely these positive feedbacks may enhance pupils’ future learning. However, to what extent and by what means can dictation be used in the most effective way in helping pupils’ second language learning have not yet been discovered due to the limited length and scale of this study. Therefore, further investigation in the impact of dictation in second language learning, especially in local primary schools, is recommended in the future. References Atweb, B; Kemmis, S. & Weeks, P. (Eds.) (1998). Action Research in Practice: Partnerships for Social Justice in Education. New York: Routledge Bell. J. (1993). Doing Your Research Project. Buckingham: Open University Press Careless, D. (1999). Managing Systemic Curriculum Change: a Critical Analysis of Hong Kong’s Target-Oriented Curriculum Initiative. In Stimpson, P. & Morris, P. (Eds.) Curriculum and Assessment for Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Open University Press Curriculum Development Council (1997). Syllabuses for Primary Schools: English Language Primary 1-6. Hong Kong: Government Printer Davis, P. & Rinvolucri, M. (1988). Dictation: New Methods, New Possibilities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Goh, S. & Fraser, B. (1998). Learning Environments Research 1. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic McDonough, J. & McDonough, S. (1997). Research Methods for English Language Teachers. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited McNiff, J. (1993). An Action Research Approach. London: Routledge Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Raimes, A. (1983). Techniques in Teaching Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press 12 Seliger, H. & Sohamy, E. (1989). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press Wajnryb, R. (1992). Grammar Dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press 13 Appendix 1 Examples of Pupils’ Work 14 15 Appendix 2 Pupils at work 16 17 Appendix 3 Interview A. Personal Data Class : Name : Age : Sex : B. Answer the following questions truly. Please explain in details. 1. Are you satisfied with your dictation outcome you currently score? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 2. Do you think dictation helps learning? If so, in what ways? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 3. Do you spend time in preparing for dictation? If so, how long? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 4. Do you think preparing for dictation interfere your daily life? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 5. Do you think dictation is necessary? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 6. Are you satisfied with the way of dictation you are having now? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 7. Do you think there is a need of change in the way of dictation? Yes / No ____________________________________________________ 18 Appendix 4 QUESTIONNAIRE ON DICTATION PUPIL PERCEPTIONS Directions This questionnaire is not a test. Your opinion about your dictation lessons is needed. Please read each sentence carefully. Please answer all. Please answer honestly. Show your opinion by circling one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. _______________________________________________________________________________________________ For example strongly agree strongly disagree There must be a dictation lesson in the time table. 1 2 3 4 5 If you strongly agree that there must be a dictation lesson in the time table, circle 1. If you slightly agree that there must be a dictation lesson in the time table, circle 2. If you have no opinion that there must be a dictation lesson in the time table, circle 3. If you slightly disagree that there must be a dictation lesson in the time table, circle 4. If you strongly disagree that there must be a dictation lesson in the time table, circle 5. _______________________________________________________________________________________________ If you want to change your answer, just cross it out and circle another number. e.g. 1 2 3 4 5 _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 19 A. Personal data Class : _____________ Age : _____________ Sex : _____________ B. Circle your answers. strongly agree strongly disagree 1. Dictation helps me learn the language. 默寫練習有助語言學習 1 2 3 4 5 2. Dictation makes me practise the newly learnt language. 默寫練習令我溫習最近學習的語言知識 1 2 3 4 5 3. Dictation is interesting. 默寫練習富趣味性 1 2 3 4 5 4. Dictation is boring. 默寫練習是沉悶的 1 2 3 4 5 5. Dictation makes me happy. 默寫練習令我愉快 1 2 3 4 5 6. Dictation makes me unhappy. 默寫練習令我不快 1 2 3 4 5 7. Dictation brings me satisfaction. 默寫練習為我帶來滿足感 1 2 3 4 5 8. I always do well in dictation. 我常在默寫練習中表現良好 1 2 3 4 5 9. I always do badly in dictation. 我常在默寫練習中表現不佳 1 2 3 4 5 10. I always spend much time in preparing for dictation. 我通常花很多時間為默寫練習作準備 1 2 3 4 5 11. I like to have fewer dictation lessons. 我希望有少些默寫練習 1 2 3 4 5 12. I like to have more dictation lessons. 我希望有多些默寫練習 1 2 3 4 5 20 Appendix 5 QUESTIONNAIRE PUPILS’ OVERALL PERCEPTIONS ON DICTATION ACTIVITIES Directions This questionnaire is not a test. Your opinion about your dictation activities is needed. Please read each sentence carefully. Please answer all honestly. Draw a circle to show your opinion. Circle Yes if you agree with the sentence. Circle No if you don't agree with the sentence. If you want to change your answer, just cross it out and circle the new answer. A. Personal data Class: Primary _____ Age : _______ Sex : F / M ________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Circle your answers. Opinion Answers 1. I like the traditional dictation exercises. Yes No 2. I like the current dictation activities. Yes No 3. I think the current dictation activities help my learning. Yes No 4. I prefer the current dictation activities to the traditional exercises. Yes No e.g. I enjoy my dictation work. Yes No 21 Appendix 6 Observation Checklist Class : Primary _____ Teacher : ________________________________________________ Date : ________________________________________________ Module / Unit : ________________________________________________ Activity : ________________________________________________ Class event : (Tick the most appropriate box from 1-5, 1 means the least, 5 means the most) Responses Questions 5 4 3 2 1 1. Are pupils interested in their task? 2. Are pupils actively participating in their task? 3. Do pupils have any difficulty in co-operating with their peers? 4. Do pupils have any difficulty in carrying out their task? 5. Are pupils able to complete their task? Others : _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ 22 透過閱讀報章增加㈻生對香港時事的興趣之行動研究香俊斌香港道教聯合會㈻校本文以行動研究為研究方法，目的是證明能否透過閱讀報章令學生關心社會和政府事務，同時亦解決研究員在常識課所遇到的問題。本研究為期六個月，對象是一班小學六年級學生。這班學生大部份都是兩、三前年才從國內遷到香港居住，對香港的事物和政府都認識不深也不感興趣。在本研究中，研究員透過多項活動去增加同學對閱讀報章的興趣，從而認識香港時事和關心政府事務。緒論研究動機及目的在香港教育統籌局課程發展處編訂的《學會學習》文件中，在常識科發展方向提及「學生要對觀察周遭的環境產生濃厚興趣，並透過了解本地社會……認識他們在社會的角色和國民身份。」可見學生了解和觀察身邊的事物和社會上所發生的事是非常重要。可惜根據青年事務委員會所進行的「青少年公民意識和道德價值研究」調查，大部份青少年對香港有歸屬感，但只有三分一人會留意時事，而多數人承認對公共事務及政府架構不大認識和不感興趣。香港教育學院的公民教育中心在「香港小學公民教育的實踐：增值與推廣計劃」的問卷調查發現，在「關心社會」這項公民態度方面，其中一間被訪學校，只有百分之三十四的學生表示經常留意社會新聞，百分之六十一的學生只能夠偶而留意社會新聞，更有百分之五的被訪學生表示從不留意社會新聞。而其他兩間被訪學校的學生在這方面的公民態度的表現也只是一般，例如在其中一間學校，超過一半(百分之五十一)的受訪學生表示只能夠偶而留意社會新聞，更有近百分之七的學生表示從不留意社會新聞 (布森祖，2001) 。從以上的兩個調查結果顯示，香港的小學生對關心社會及政府事務的公民態度仍有待提升。社會每天都在急速轉變，因此有關社會時事及政府事務的資訊就只有從報章和電視新聞節目中得悉，而不是在教科書上。可惜本港的小學教育偏重教科書上的知識和考試制度，使學生只注重針對考試而出現的知識，對時事及社會事務顯得不太關心，更難希望他們了解和關心政府事務。研究員所教的學生亦出現上述的問題，因此研究員期望用行動研究去找出一些方法來提升學生關心時事和閱讀新聞的興趣。期望學生從而養成每天閱報及收看新聞報道的習慣，使學生能留心時事，以致關心社會和政府事務。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 23 研究方法及背景研究方法「行動研究法最大的特性是針對實際教育情境所發生的問題，企圖在研究中，將可能解決問題的方法做變項，然後從研究過程中來檢證這些問題解決的情形，所以研究結果，也就是問題初步解決的結果，它的確是以『問題解決』為導向的。換言之，它是一種實用性的考慮。」(陳伯璋，1990)。有鑒於此，研究員採用行動研究來改變教室情境的問題，同時找出提升學生對時事的興趣的方法，增加研究者本身的教學專業知識。研究對象及背景「以一種合作的方式，使研究者和實際工作者的角色合一，來進行解決此時此地的問題的研究」(陳伯璋，1990)。研究員是小學六丙班的班主任，兩年前開始教授該班常識、英文和美勞，對該班學生了解很深。這班學生大部份都是兩、三年前從國內遷到香港居住，對香港的事物和政府都認識不深；同時由於國內的生活模式和政府架構跟香港不同，形成他們對香港的時事和政府事務完全不感興趣。雖然學生每兩星期要交一份新聞剪報，但學生一般都沒有提起興趣盡力去做。由於試卷中會有時事題，所以他們通常最留心時事新聞的時間是考試測驗前兩周。除此之外，他們便不會去看報章和新聞報道。這種為了應付考試和功課才去閱報的習慣，根本不能使他們養成讀報的習慣。研究時間由於要提升學生關心時事的興趣是需要用比較長的時間，故此此行動研究用了五個月的時間來進行。參與研究的老師們會每天在常識課或班主任課中用十分鐘來討論時事，並且會用幾節常識課進行不同的活動，如「時事百萬富翁」和「怎樣有趣味去閱讀報章」等活動。研究設計 (方法與工具) 本人認為香港的青少年對社會及政府事務不關心的原因主要有以下兩點：(一)他們認為社會和政府的事情太複雜，不容易明白。(二)他們認為這些都是成年人的事，和他們沒有關係，也沒有能力去改變。張春興(1997)在培養學生的學習動機上有以下五點建議： (一) 在教學活動中培養學習動機 (二) 先求滿足學生的缺失性動機 (三) 讓學生確切了解學習的性質 (四) 使每個學生均獲成功感 (五) 善用教師回饋激發學生士氣因此，研究員根據上述的理論設計了以下的課程，希望藉此探討本計劃的成效。本計劃分為三個階段。研究員會根據學生的表現和檢討各階段和成效，再修正下一階段的計劃內容。 24 ㈾料蒐集方法研究員會用以下的方法收集資料： 1. 團體訪談研究員會利用團體訪談的方法搜集資料。這方法可使受訪者能在輕鬆的環境下抒發己見，並在互相修正之下搜集較詳盡的資料。在每次團體訪談中都有另一位常識科老師協助，使取得的資料更加準確。 2. 問卷調查研究員會根據團體訪談所獲得的資料設計問卷。問卷的問題包括三個部份：1. 學生閱報及收看電視新聞的習慣。2. 學生對時事新聞的興趣。3. 怎樣才可增加學生看新聞的興趣。 3. 參與觀察研究員是六年級丙班的班主任及常識科的教師，故由研究員作觀察員是最適當的。研究的歷程本研究分三個階段進行第一階段研究時期 2002 年 1 月中至 3 月中發現問題這班同學常識科的成績一向都不錯，自四年級起，每次測驗或考試的全班平均成績都能達到 85 分以上，他們失分最多的部份通常都是時事題，令他們一直不能取得更好的成績。在本學年上學期的學期考試(2002 年 1 月)，同學在時事題失分的情況十分嚴重，大部份同學在時事題部份取不到分數。在團體訪談中得知失分原因大致如下：「在教科書內沒有時事題的答案，不知怎樣温習」、「家中沒有買報紙，怎會知道時事」、「報紙上新聞都很多，我怎會記得」、「我對時事和有關政府的事情都不感興趣」….. 研究員根據團體訪談所得的資料設計了一份「有關閱讀報章的習慣和香港時事關注」問卷，以便取得更多的資料去擬定計劃。分析問題根據問卷的調查結果歸納出以下現象： 1. 家中每天有購買報章習慣的同學只得七位(大約是兩成的同學) 2. 每天有閱報習慣的同學只得三位，偶而閱讀報章的同學有十五位，其餘的同學只會在做剪報功課和考試前才閱報。 3. 女同學最愛閱讀娛樂版新聞，而男同學多愛看體育新聞。 4. 大部份同學都不愛閱讀有關政府政策和事務的新聞，同學表示因為他們看不明白，所以不去讀。研究員發現首先要增加學生閱報的機會，其次是指導他們怎樣去閱讀報紙，使他們增加閱讀報紙的興趣。擬定計劃 1. 「借閱報紙計劃」：研究員每天訂購三份報章放在課室內，讓同學在小息及午息閱讀。放學後也可以帶回家詳細閱讀。 2. 「每天新聞十分鐘」：在每一節常識課結束前十分鐘，跟學生討論當天重要和有趣的新聞。 3. 鼓勵同學把認為重要和有趣的新聞自由地貼在壁報板上。 4. 用兩節常識課時間舉行「怎樣有趣味去閱讀報章」的課題。 25 實施計劃 1. 研究員選擇了一份內容較適宜小學生閱讀的報章。每天訂購三份報章，但偶而亦會多買一份其他報章給同學作比較。 2. 為了每天跟學生討論新聞，研究員每天會提早回到學校，在報章上剪輯重要和有趣的新聞作記錄。 3. 壁報板剪報方面，同學的反應未如理想，只有數張剪報。 4. 在三月，研究員進行了「怎樣有趣味去閱讀報章」的一課，其內容如下： - 報章的簡單歷史及發展 - 介紹報章由採訪到出版的程序 - 報章的類型和不同的取向 - 怎樣選擇適合自己的報章 - 報章的內容介紹 - 讀報的樂趣分析資料 1. 團體訪談研究員在三月(第一階段完結)利用團體訪談法搜集資料。利用午息的時間找了六位同學(表現積極、普通和不投入的同學各兩位)來進行。歸納談話內容，得出以下幾點： - 他們認為「每天新聞十分鐘」對認識時事很有幫助。 - 他們認為最有趣的地方是在「怎樣有趣味去閱讀報章」那一課，研究員曾用一則新聞比較各份報紙的報道，最後發現每份報紙的報道都有不同的地方。 - 他們都同意「借閱報紙計劃」對他們認識時事有幫助，但因只得三份報紙，希望可以多買幾份。 2. 參與觀察 (一) 研究員在午息及小息的時間都常小心觀察同學閱報的情况，研究員發現以下的情况： 1. 有二十位同學曾經在午息時借閱報章，其中有五位差不多每天都有借閱，其他是偶而借閱。 2. 大部份的女同學會先看娛樂版，才看頭版和港聞版。有些女同學看完娛樂版後便放下不看了。 3. 很多時候同學們都會喜愛一同閱讀同一份報紙。 4. 有七位同學喜歡放學時把報紙拿回家閱讀。 (二) 研究員觀察同學在「每天新聞十分鐘」的表現，大部份同學的反應很好，認真地跟研究員討論時事，也亦常常發問。研究員發現他們最愛聽或討論的時事都是有關謀殺、傷人、災難、自殺和家庭悲劇。最不感興趣的是有關政府的事務、政策和官員的事情。 (三) 研究員發現學生在兩次講座「怎樣有趣味去閱讀報章」和「有關電視新聞」的表現都很積極。研究反思以下是研究員在每個活動的反思： (一)「借閱報紙計劃」基本上已達到增加同學閱讀報紙的機會，研究員覺得午息和小息的時間很短，而報章又只得三份，有些想借閱的同學都借不到。故此研究員多買兩份不同的報章，亦鼓勵同學自己購買，並在午息時借給同學閱讀，甚至同學可以閱讀過期的報章。 (二)「每天新聞十分鐘」的活動基本上已達到引起同學對時事的關注的目的。在第一階段，由研究員選擇及讀出每天新聞的方法，同學比較被動。故此在第二階段研究員會要求由同學選擇及讀出每天新聞。 (三) 研究員發現學生在兩次講座「怎樣去閱讀報章」和「有關電視新聞」的表現都很好，基本上可謂已達到目的。經研究員進行資料分析和反思後，認為第一階段的目的已經大致達到。但學生對新聞仍未有興趣，尤其是對有關政府的新聞。所以在第二階段要解決的是怎樣可以使同學喜愛閱讀報紙中的新聞版，尤其是有關政府事務的新聞。 26 第二階段研究時期 2002 年 3 月中至 4 月中發現問題同學對新聞仍未有興趣，因此第二階段的目的是要使學生產生興趣。擬定計劃除「每天新聞十分鐘」和「借閱報紙計劃」會繼續進行外，還會增加「時事百萬富翁」遊戲。根據張兆球(1989,P56)的理論：遊戲被視為一項重要的教學媒介和資源。事實上，藉遊戲為兒童提供輕鬆的學習環境，讓他們吸收那些往往令人感到枯燥和抽象的課題，確是至為理想。因此，研究員希望用遊戲和比賽來引起學生對時事的興趣。「時事百萬富翁」會由研究員作主持及準備問題。實施計劃 1. 在第二階段的初期，研究員鼓勵同學帶報紙回校在午息時與同學分享，加上研究員多買兩份報紙，所以出現報紙過多的情况。於是研究員便再沒有加買報紙。 2. 「每天新聞十分鐘」仍然繼續舉行，但主要由學生負責選擇和朗讀新聞。 3. 我們分別在兩個星期五的常識課舉行了兩次「時事百萬富翁」的遊戲，學生的反應比預期的積極。分析資料參與觀察： 1. 「借閱報紙計劃」較第一階段有明顯的進步，這是由於同學要應付「時事百萬富翁」的問題。午息讀報的人數增加，亦有同學自己購買或從家中拿報章回學校跟同學分享。同學常常一起推測哪些時事新聞會在「時事百萬富翁」出現。 2. 在「每天新聞十分鐘」的活動中，有部份同學除自願朗讀當日新聞外，還在討論時發表意見。 3. 「時事百萬富翁」得到同學的熱烈參與，比預期還要成功。團體訪談：研究員在四月中(第二階段完結)利用團體訪談法搜集資料。本人利用了午息的時間找了六位同學 (表現積極、普通和不投入的同學各兩位)進行訪談。研究員從觀察和與同學談話中，發現他們對時事新聞的興趣增加了，但仍然對有關政府的事務的新聞不感興趣。同學對政府的事務不感興趣的主要原因如下： 1. 政府的部門和官員太多太複雜，所以不想深入了解。 2. 對政府政策多是不明白的，所以放棄。 3. 政府的事好像很遙遠，與自己無關。研究反思 1. 從「時事百萬富翁」同學熱烈參與的情況可以證明，利用遊戲確實可以提升學生的學習興趣。但是當遊戲不再舉辦時，同學會否仍對時事新聞保持興趣？這是研究員關注的事情。所以在第三階段便不再舉辦「時事百萬富翁」。 2. 研究員從觀察和與同學談話中，發現他們已對時事新聞增加興趣，但因為對政府的事務不明白導至興趣不大。因此，研究員希望用第三階段的活動去加深學生對政府官員和政策的認識，從而提升興趣。第三階段研究時期 2002 年 4 月中至 5 月底發現問題對有關政府事務的新聞最不感興趣。擬定計劃 1. 「借閱報紙計劃」會繼續進行。 2. 「每天新聞十分鐘」會作出一些改變，以後的「每天新聞十分鐘」會由研究員選擇一些有關政府事務的新聞作解釋，並引導同學討論。 3. 加入「每週政府新聞榜」活動，先由學生以投票方式選出該個星期內一個他們最感興趣的政府事務的新聞(曾在「每天新聞十分鐘」中討論過的)，然後再詳細分析及討論。計劃於星期五的常識課中舉辦共三次。實施計劃 1. 「借閱報紙計劃」繼續順利舉行，而「每天新聞十分鐘」則集中討論有關政府的事務。 2. 「每週政府新聞榜」共舉行了三次。 27 分析資料 1. 「每天新聞十分鐘」雖然只集中在政府事務的新聞，但同學的表現理想。有部份同學除自願朗讀當日有關政府的新聞外，還經常發問，並在討論時發表自己的意見。 2. 「借閱報紙計劃」，午息讀報的人數較第二階段減少，可能是因為同學不用應付「時事百萬富翁」。 3. 「每週政府新聞榜」，大部份同學的表現都尚可，勇於發問和在討論時發表意見，但有部份的同學的表現較被動。研究反思 1. 從「借閱報紙計劃」學生表現較差的情况，可知道「時事百萬富翁」對學生的影響力很大。這件事使人擔心在本研究結束後學生會否繼續閱報。為了知道在所有活動完結後學生仍有讀報的習慣，在六月初，除了保留「借閱報紙計劃」外，研究員把所其他活動都停止。然後在七月初再進行一次「有關閱讀報章的習慣和香港時事關注」的問卷調查及團體訪談。 2. 在最後一次的「每週政府新聞榜」的活動中，同學選了「升中男女共同派位」的新聞。當天大部份同學的表現都十分好，勇於發問和提出自己意見。從這件事可明白到如果老師在選擇新聞作討論的時候，最好選一些跟學生有關的新聞，可以引起他們對新聞的興趣。第㆔階段後的㈾料分析㈾料分析 1. 問卷調查從最後一次問卷調查的結果發現，大部份同學增加對閱讀報章的興趣，對香港時事的關注亦有明顯的增加。有三分之一的同學表示對政府政策和事務有很大的興趣，大部份同學表示對此有少許興趣，只有少部份表示不關心。這個問卷調查結果已表現出此項研究的成效。 2. 參與觀察研究員在六月至七月期間仍暗中觀察同學借閱報紙的情形，發現同學借閱報紙的情況比第三階段差，借閱報紙的次數亦減少，但仍比第一階段時好。研究員對這個結果已感到滿意，同時也證實研究員所設計的教學活動是可以提高同學對時事和新聞的興趣，但要使同學養成每天閱報習慣的目標則仍未達到，有待進一步研究及推動。 3. 團體訪談從七月初的團體訪談得出以下幾點： -所有同學都同意整個研究內的活動能增加他們對閱報和對時事的興趣。 -同學們認為「每天新聞十分鐘」和「每週政府新聞榜」的活動都可以增加他們對政府事務的了解。 -同學們認為「時事百萬富翁」的活動最能引起他們對時事和政府事務的興趣。研究員總結「時事百萬富翁」活動的成功，證明遊戲可以增加學生的學習興趣，這正符合前文提到張春興對培養學生學習動機的建議。在訪談中發現學生不愛閱報、不關心時事，其中原因是由於他們對政府事務認識不深。但「每天新聞十分鐘」除了増加學生讀報機會，老師更可從旁講解、討論，使學生增加對政府事務的認識，這樣便能幫助學生克服因不認識政府事務而不關心時事的障礙，慢慢使他們養成閱報的習慣。 28 從以上各項資料分析後得出的結果，這次行動研究的目的基本上已達到，但學生仍對政府事務不大感興趣。如果可以舉行第四階段的話，相信情况必定有所改善，可惜這班同學已是六年級的同學，在計劃完結時將升讀中一，故未能延續這研究計劃。參考書目陳伯璋 (1990)。《教育研究方法的新取向—質的研究方法》 (頁 158)。台北：南宏圖書公司。張兆球 (1989)。「如何有效地利用遊戲進行公民教育」，輯於《香港兒意公民教育—探索與實踐》(頁 58)。香港：救世軍小組及社區服務部。張春興 (1997)。《教育心理學》(頁 328)。台北：台灣東華書局。布森祖 (2001)。「公民教育教材套的特色與推行困難研究報告」，輯於《香港小學公民教育的實踐：增值與推廣計劃特刊》。香港：香港教育學院社會科學系公民教育中心。 - - 29 ㊢作㈰誌 – 行動研究報告鄧薇先浸信會沙田圍呂明才小㈻研究背景本校一向注重學生的表現成就，提升學生的英語能力是我校重點發展的項目。多年來我們嘗試了不同的教學策略去提升學生的英語能力，包括外籍英語教師授課、大英文故事書教學、合作教學、拼音教學等。但是我們仍覺得學生的英語水平需要再進一步提升，特別在寫作方面。現時一般小學生不肯下苦功，貪圖安逸，怕苦怕累，意志薄弱，不思進取，不肯動腦筋，不願勤練筆，所以大部份的學生英語水平都停滯不前，讀了六年小學，連一句英語也不能用自己的思想表達出來。除了學生懶惰的因素外，家長也需要負一部份責任。不少家長過份姑息孩子，少少工作已惟恐學生承受不起，應付不來，趕忙向學校投訴，使教師不敢施驅策學生努力，間接影響學生不肯勤奮練習。現時，學校寫作練習安排整年不超過十篇，寫作的字數也十分有限。學生的寫作訓練極不足夠。為了培養學生肯「多思」、「勤寫」的良好心理素質，今年本校英文教師嘗試要求學生寫日誌(My Journal Writing)，讓學生樂於動手，努力提高英語寫作能力。從經驗或文獻所得，提高語文能力並沒有捷徑，學生必須勇下苦功，多讀多寫，才有成功的機會。堅持寫日誌是提高學生寫作水平的有效途徑。倘若學生能勤寫、多寫，學生的語文能力定能增長。除了提升學生的寫作能力外，設計「寫作日誌」的另一個作用是希望能夠用英文與讀者溝通。教師鼓勵學生把自己學過的東西和每天發生的事情寫出來，與家人和同學溝通，使家長也知道學生在學校裡做了些什麼事和他們的感想，增加親子的了解。在推行這個計劃的初期，我們預計實踐時會遇到的兩個困難，先行嘗試去解決，使這新的課程改革能順利推行。第一個困難是學生最初不會懂得憑空想象寫作的內容，因此教師只要求學生把課堂上剛學到的東西，記在「寫作日誌」上。「寫作日誌」的設計是“What have you learnt today?”。學生可以把在課堂上所學到的生字和句子寫在日誌上，就可以確保「寫作日誌」每天都有東西可以寫，不會因為學生不知道寫什麼，而使「寫作日誌」中斷。校長預計到的另一個困難是因這本「寫作日誌」，使教師批改的工作量大大增加。現時有些教師要教三班英文，每班有學生 35 人，就算每星期批改一次，也要批改百多本「寫作日誌」。批改這些「寫作日誌」對教師是一項非常沉重的工作，因此學校不會要求教師批改「寫作日誌」，卻以通告請家長自行替學生批改，又或者鼓勵學生互相交換批改。設計「寫作日誌」的目的只是讓學生「多寫」，多動筆，從而習慣想到就寫，寫得放心，寫得流暢，並不拘泥於是否有錯誤的出現。在教師方面，因為並不會增加他們批改習作的負擔，他們就樂於督促和鼓勵學生寫日誌。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 - - 30 研究目的我們設計了一個「行動研究」去探討「寫作日誌」計劃推行過程中教師和學生會遇到的問題和解決這些問題的方法，也探討這個新的教學策略對提高學生的英語寫作能力的成效。此外，我們更希望能從「行動研究」中去發現建立和維持學生每天動筆寫作的習慣其中的因素和環境。研究問題 1. 「寫作日誌」是否能提升學生的寫作興趣？ 2. 「寫作日誌」是否能提升學生的寫作能力？ 3. 學生在做「寫作日誌」時所面對的困難？ 4. 教師在做「寫作日誌」時所面對的困難？ 5. 家長在做「寫作日誌」時所面對的困難？ 6. 什麼策略可以幫助學生維持每天的「寫作日誌」的習慣？研究設計這個研究從量化研究和質化研究兩個方向去進行。量化研究研究只設計「寫作日誌」意見調查問卷派發給全體學生填寫。第一次於上學期結束時(即 2002 年 1 月)派給學生填寫，第二次則於下學期結束時(即 2002 年 7 月)派給學生填寫，兩次所得的數據可以比較全校學生在上下學期對「寫作日誌」的意見有何不同。問卷是在上課期間內由班主任指導學生填寫，所以回收率達百分之百。質化研究質化研究於 2002 年 6 月(即研究後期)進行。質化研究採用深入面談和文獻資料研究兩種方法去探討「寫作日誌」的效能，以及學生、教師和家長所面對的問題和改善策略等。深入面談包括訪問十二位學生及其英文教師和家長，訪問人數共 32 人。為了令研究範圍更廣，十二位接受面談的學生是從小一至小六選出的。每級選一位英文成績差和一位英文成績佳的學生作為訪問對象。文獻資料研究主要從學生的作品入手。作品從小一至小六學生中摘取，每級選取二十四本「寫作日誌」，上、下學期各十二本，其中六本是英文成績較佳學生的作品，其餘六本則由英文成績較差的學生中選取。比較學生上、下學期作品的內容、字數和篇數，就可以顯示學生經過「寫作日誌」計劃後寫作表現的質和量、寫作能力和興趣是否有所改變。 - - 31 研究結果每週「㊢作㈰誌」的㊜合次數從問卷調查和訪問家長所得，每週學生的寫作次數最普遍是二至三篇。上下學期的統計都顯示百分之三十的小二至小六學生每週寫二至三篇，每篇字數約 20-40(6-10)句，這是佔最多的百分比。只有小一的學生每週寫多於五篇。小一學生寫的篇數較多，可能因為小一學生作品較短和簡單，而且其他功課量較少，所以每週可以寫多於五篇。但是大部份其他班級的學生每週最多只可寫二至三篇。這個統計使教師清楚知道要求學生寫日誌的次數要依據學生的班級而定。教師可以安排一年級學生每天都寫，培養學生每天動筆的習慣。小二至小六的學生便不必強求他們每天都寫，除非個別學生對寫作特別有能力和興趣。教師可以要求普通小二至小六學生每週最少寫兩次，從統計數據顯示一般學生是可以達到這個寫作頻率的。㈻生的㊢作表現沒㈲因「多㊢」而進步從是次研究發現，學生對「寫作日誌」的興趣和表現是在不斷下降。下學期學生寫作的篇數和字數較上學期少。這個現象不只是出現在成績差的學生，成績好的學生也有這種情況。經過教師們細心的查證，發現學生在下學期「寫作日誌」的表現較上學期為差，主要有下列兩個原因︰ (1) 欠缺新奇感 – 在上學期當這個計劃新推出的時候，學生覺得新鮮、好奇，所以有興趣去做，但是在下學期的時候，學生已失去新鮮感，而教師也沒有特別的鼓勵，所以學生便沒有動力去維持寫作的表現，而且很多學生都馬虎了事，把內容重覆照寫便交差。 (2) 欠缺成功感 – 由於避免教師的工作量大增，故此沒有要求教師每次為學生批改或給予回應。由於教師沒有給予學生回應、肯定和表揚，大部份學生因為沒有得到教師的肯定而產生的成功感，所以未能保持積極進取的心態。㈻生做「㊢作㈰誌」遇到的困難學生最大的困難是不懂得用英語來表達自己的感受，寫出來的東西並不是正確的英語，而是“Chinglish”。學生的組織能力和思考能力不強，如沒有提示，他們便不知道如何下筆，有些學生思考數小時也沒有寫下一句英語。「㊢作㈰誌」能否提升㈻生的英文㊢作能力？從學生問卷的數據，我們發現超過六成的小一至小三的同學承認，寫日誌能提升自己的寫作能力；可是超過六成的小四至小六的同學卻認為寫日誌不能提升他們的寫作能力。這裏顯示低年級的學生與高年級學生的意見是有很大的差別，而且是剛剛相反。總括來說小四至小六的學生並不認為寫日誌可以提升他們的英文寫作能力。不過從學生的面談中，結果卻是另有發現。在是次訪問中，我們抽樣選出小一至小六各兩名學生，一名是英文成績佳的，另一名是英文成績弱的。從面談的內容，我們發現結果也是相當一致的。成績佳的學生肯定地承認寫日誌能提升學生的英文寫作能力，但是成績差的學生便沒有這麼肯定寫日誌可以提升他們的寫作能力。 - - 32 六年級一位成績較弱的學生回答說︰「寫日誌可以一點一點提升我的英文寫作水平，卻沒有提升我的寫作興趣。」三年級一位成績較弱的學生回答說︰「我覺得寫日誌並不能提升我的寫作能力，除非有成人的幫助。」一位老師說︰「寫作日誌可以提升學生的寫作水平，連很差的某某同學也有進步，因為老師逼他寫。」從訪問家長的意見中反映，約五成的家長都表示寫日誌理應可以提升學生的英文寫作能力。三年級一位家長說︰「我發覺我女兒的寫作組織能力提高了。」不過也有家長反映說︰「她的小孩子沒有興趣寫英文，寫日誌是應付老師，她不斷重覆寫作內容，內容並非是她親身經歷，所以寫日誌並沒有提升學生的寫作能力。」從訪問英文教師的意見顯示，全部的教師都認同寫日誌可以提升學生的英文寫作能力，但是有兩位英文教師特別提出，利用寫日誌去提升學生英文寫作能力是因應個別學生而定。英文成績較好的同學，對英文有濃厚的興趣，他們的寫作能力也較高，寫作並沒有困難，所以這類同學願意寫日誌，甚或天天都有興趣寫自己的東西，所以便能提升他們的英文寫作能力；但是英文成績較弱的學生，對英文並沒有興趣，而且寫作能力低，故此他們不知道在日誌上寫什麼東西便不寫了。寫日誌對學習動機低和英文水平低的學生並沒有大幫助，他們的英文水平便不可以提升。幫助㈻生做好「㊢作㈰誌」的方法在問卷裏，列出四個方法讓學生選擇那一個最能幫助學生寫好「寫作日誌」。四個選擇包括：閱讀、老師教導、家人教導和與同學切磋。約百份之四十的學生認為閱讀是最好的方法去提升其寫作能力，這也是大部份學生的回應，大部份學生要知道要提升自己的寫作能力，必須自己努力，多閱讀，是唯一的不二法門。當然如果家長有能力協助學生「寫」，引導學生寫不同的題材和正確的句子，學生的進步會較為容易，也不會強烈反對寫「寫作日誌」。除了家長外，教師是可以幫助學生寫好「寫作日誌」的。一位教師說：「在開始的時候，學生們不知從何入手，經過老師在課堂上的教導後，例如寫有關當天的天氣，當天是星期幾等，學生寫作量日增。」由此得知，教師的教導也是十分重要的。研究啟示不同㈻生對「㊢作㈰誌」㈲不同的反應從訪問學生和教師的內容發現，不同學生對「寫作日誌」有不同的反應。一位老師說︰「喜歡的會做得好好，不喜歡的，你叫他做就像要了他的命，尤其是高班。」另一位三年級英文老師說︰「三年級的學生很有興趣寫，有些學生會買多一本簿去寫，但高年級學生因為有很多功課，故興趣較低。」從上述教師回答可反映教師需針對四種不同的學生，設計四種不同的對應策略和要求進行這個「寫作日誌」的教學活動。 - - 33 類別現象對應策略一至三年級的學生較認為「寫作日誌」能幫助自己養成良好的寫作習慣約六成的學生都很聽話，有興趣學習，每天寫「寫作日誌」也不計較，學生容易完成。超過六成學生喜歡父母和教師閱讀其「寫作日誌」。教師應繼續鼓勵學生每天動筆的好習慣。四至六年級學生，大部份高年級學生都不喜歡寫，覺得是負擔。因為他們並不認為「寫作日誌」可以幫助他們養成良好的寫作習慣。約六成高年級學生不喜歡讓教師和家長閱讀其作品內容。教師要思考更多的策略去改變學生的思想，認同「多寫」是對提升其英語能力的唯一方法。教師也要鼓勵學生有開放的態度，樂於讓不同的讀者閱讀其寫作。由於高年級學生的功課較多，教師可要求學生每週只寫一次，減低學生對「寫作日誌」的負面情感，教師更可以在上課時間教學生寫「寫作日誌」，減輕學生回家的工作。成績較佳的學生學生英文成績佳對寫「寫作日誌」不會抗拒，因為他們有能力完成。教師要繼續鼓勵這群學生，更主動去用文字表達自己，養成天天動筆的習慣。成績較差的學生學生英文程度太弱，而且思考能力低，不知道如何動筆寫「寫作日誌」，如只給他們機會重覆寫出錯誤的句子，這是沒有益處的。教師可以免除這些學生寫日誌，鼓勵他們先閱讀，或教師要針對這些學生的程度，加強輔導這些學生學習表達。增加㈻生㊢作的動力由每次肯定㈻生㊢作表現開始研究發現無論是成績好或差的學生，下學期的寫作日誌表現包括內容和字數較上學期進步。從結果分析，問題是學生的寫作並沒有得到教師即時的回饋和鼓勵，以致寫作動力減低。我們知道學生在學習時，每取得一點成功，如能及時肯定，便會有一種經常的成功感，使他們看到自己努力得到的成果，從而建立自信心和進取心。成功感是促使創造力自我引發的巨大精神動力，故此，教師要充分肯定學生的一點一滴的成績，使學生對於自己取得的成績有一種獨得成功的快樂和恰如其分的自我欣賞和陶醉，使學生能經常保持動力去寫日誌。為了要肯定學生寫日誌的努力，教師商討了下列方法去肯定學生的成功： 1. 教師日後在學生寫日誌後，盡量給與一些鼓勵的回應。在平衡教師工作量的原則下，教師每週必須批改四十位同學的寫作日誌，使同學在兩週後獲得教師一些及時的肯定和表揚； 2. 教師會針對基礎差的同學給予他們更多的幫助，每星期儘量親自引導其寫日誌的方法，給予這些同學更多及時的指引、肯定和鼓勵，讓這些基礎差的同學有成功的信心。 3. 為減輕教師批改的壓力，學生每星期只需要寫一次，學校又為學生增設兩本寫作日誌簿，給學生輪流使用。這樣，教師便有兩週批改的時間，不致太趕迫。 4. 學校制訂更多獎勵制度，鼓勵學生用心寫日誌。方法一是使學生對寫日誌的熱情由「幾分鐘熱情」變為「一段時間熱情」。挑選寫作好的或有進步的同學在早上廣播期間，向全體同學宣讀其內容，讓其他同學鼓掌祝賀他的成功。第二個方法是教師獎勵「多寫」的同學，把獎勵表貼在壁報上。把學生寫的篇數紀錄在表上，當學生達到一個預設的指標，便獲得獎勵。另外一個新設的獎勵方法是在小五至小六年級挑選值得表揚的同學，給予他們 - - 34 機會免費參加英語營，以作鼓勵。提升教師的專業發展教師推行「寫作日誌」計劃後，不斷反思和檢討，對學生學習加深了解。以下是教師在推行「寫作日誌」的改變：項目起初的策略改變的策略 (一) 寫作內容教師要求學生寫在英文課所學過的東西，結果學生並不思考，只是把英文課所學過的生字和句子，抄在「寫作日誌」內，扼殺學生的創意，學生也沒有機會學習用文字表達自己。取消「寫作日誌」的引子“I have learnt…….” 鼓勵學生用英語表達自己的生活和感受，減少學生不動腦筋、搬字過紙的壞習慣。 (二) 批改方法 1. 有學生的日誌是從沒有機會給教師批改 2. 給學生一個剔或一些印章 1. 規定教師必須一個月內批改一次。 2. 除批改錯字和文法不通的句子外，更著重給予學生正面的回應和鼓勵。 (三) 教學策略教師起初並沒有思考如何指導學生寫「寫作日誌」，有些教師在教學生寫詩歌後便鼓勵學生寫。經過行動研究和反思，教師覺得要做多一點工作，在課堂教導學生如何寫「寫作日誌」，下列是教師提出的教學策略： 1. 學生不懂得用英文句子表達，可用圖畫畫出來或寫中文，讓教師知道學生不懂的字彙和句子，便會在課堂上教他們； 2. 鼓勵學生把看過的圖畫簡單地寫在「寫作日誌」內； 3. 加強生字教學，使學生有閱讀基礎，鼓勵學生把學過的生字和句式寫在筆記簿內作為生字和句子的銀行，在寫作的時候可以提取使用。 4. 預設題目例如： My happy weekend, I like…..和提供圖畫，幫助寫作能力低的學生，容易掌握寫作的內容。 5. 指導學生把生活體驗表達出來，例如：學生取成績表時的心情，學校特別活動的情況，生日會或節日的實況等。 6. 把學生在「寫作日誌」經常寫錯的生字和句式加入平日教學和評估表。 (四) 制度 1. 上下學期每位學生獲一本「寫作日誌」 2. 一星期裏教師批改三至四本「寫作日誌」 3. 由英文教師批改 1. 一學期有兩本「寫作日誌」交替使用； 2. 一星期教師批改四十本「寫作日誌」 3. 學校安排外籍英語教師和圖書館主任協助批改「寫作日誌」。教師的「悟」性要高，了解㈻生文字裏的寓意作出相應的輔導寫作日誌的字數雖然很短，由 20-40 字不等，但是有學生會真誠地把自己的體驗和思想，透過文字傳達給讀者。如果教師有敏銳的「悟」性，明白學生文字的寓意和衍生的問題，給予即時的輔導，對學生甚有幫助。在一個學生的寫作日誌裏，學生不停寫出媽媽不在家，他便很高興，他不喜歡媽媽留在家裏，因為他喜歡玩遊戲機。 - - 35 倘若媽媽不在家的時候，他們可以盡情地玩遊戲機，不會受到母親的阻止。倘若教師關心學生，看到了這些訊息，便應與學生傾談，勸導他不要沉迷玩遊戲機，更不應討厭母親留在家裏。從寫作日誌反映學生的問題，給予即時的輔導是設計寫作日誌這個計劃的非預期效果。總結透過這次行動研究，我們肯定了寫作日誌的好處。寫作日誌能提升學生用文字表達自己的能力，有助提升小一至小三學生的寫作興趣。此外，寫作日誌也能為老師提供教學、評估及輔導學生的資料。不過老師要對語言文字有相當造詣和敏捷反應才能為學生作出即時的回饋及輔導。現今雖然有很多評估方法，但行動研究是其中極具科學化的評估方法之一。透過行動研究，我們能以科學的數據準確顯示學生的學習問題，讓老師反思其教學效能並適當地改變舊有的教學法。由於行動研究能為老師提供正確的改革方向，所以老師願意接受更多的工作量以提升教與學的成效，這是我們做行動研究的非預期效果。 36 預科物理班㆖推行以「㈻生為㆗心」教㈻策略的經驗分享黃冬柏新會商會㆗㈻由於教改文件大力提倡專題研習，近年來不少學校都在小學或初中推行跨學科的專題研習。但研究性學習的本質並無年級局限，專題研習的學習方法應該適合在高中學科。此外，教學模式的改變的重點之一是令學生成為學習的主角。本文簡報在一所社區中學內推行的教學計劃，並分享幾年來推行的經驗和報告觀察學生在計劃實施中的表現，及嘗試探討這個計劃如何在不同方面體現本港現時所推行的課程改革目標。背景教統會在完成了第七號報告書後便決定檢討本港教育，從系統的根本處開始探討；於是教育改革巨浪一下子就衝到香港來，並波及每一個人。在教育改革諮詢文件內，改革原則中的頭條就是「學生為本」，並指出必須推行課程改革，使學生「從知識的灌輸轉為著重如何學會學習」，專題研習更被定為四個關鍵項目之一。（１）正在這段期間，筆者在校內的公開試班上施行了一個小變革，內容涉及學生在物理科的學習。自此之後，中小學推行專題研習便如雨後春筍，一時間報導和在研討會上亦出現了不少報告。專題研習一般的推行形式大同小異，由數位同學組合為小組，選定主題後就透過互聯網或問卷調查搜集資料，最後製作成一份報告。而且大部份在小學或初中推行，少有在高中進行。（２，３）一直以來，高中及預科的課程教學都被公開考試牽著鼻子走。為了應付考試綱要，不少中等能力的學生往往花費大量時間去鑽研相對深澀的課程內容，久而久之，便難以從學科學習中獲取求知的趣味。這種情形在筆者任教的物理科尤為顯著。在九七年筆者便嘗試在預科班推行了兩個計劃：「課文演示」及「專題研習」；目的是透過計劃強迫學生以學習主人身份去接觸學科資料。幾年來筆者不斷微調這兩個計劃，至今形式上已變得更為多元化，而且推行時亦收到意料之外的功效。本文簡報計劃的施行經驗及討論實行計劃的困難及成果。實施歷程針對計劃的目標，最初是提供機會，讓修讀預科物理的學生能夠主動閱讀課本及參考資料，並進行自我學習。「課文演示」計劃要求全班學生輪流、分段選取課程章節中的一小部份，先行在家中研讀，然後返校在課堂上講演和向同學報告。至於「專題研習」計劃的期望，大致上與現時課程改革的目標一樣，目的是拓展學生學習物理知識的範圍，從課本內知識推廣至無邊際的整個物理世界。計劃內容包括學生按意願分組或個人，選定題材及 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 37 自訂研習模式，展開資料搜集及探究，並在暑假後於課堂上報告研習結果。最初學生在課文演示部份都感到困難，但在年多時間內每位學生有差不多四次機會演示，結果是口語表達、利用黑板或高映機解說的能力都有顯著改進。另一方面，因為當年教育署已開始推動資訊科技學習，學生在搜集資料上並不困難，故此專題研習報告的質素頗為不俗。其後兩屆學生在科任老師督導下，依同樣模式進行的學習計劃亦取得頗佳的表現。在二零零零年筆者再度任教預科課程，鑒於資訊科技教育計劃已經差不多完成，校內已建立極為完善的網絡系統，加上不少學生在中學時期已學過透過互聯網進行資料搜集，因此「課文演示」計劃除了保留運作模式不變外，更增加了使用資訊科技的要求。學生分組研讀課文後返校報告時，必須以不多於五張幻燈片的簡報作為工具，同時亦鼓勵學生透過寬頻登入一些具有動畫或虛擬實驗的網址，增加簡報的互動性及趣味性。另一方面，「專題研習」計劃內容亦有所調適。研習內容方面增加了限制，學生不可以只進行資料搜集，加以整理後便匯報。筆者要求研習部份必須包括實驗設計、模型製作或通過數據搜集等過程。目的是讓學生透過實踐過程獲取知識，結果是困難度增加了，但學生收獲卻比以前更多。今年因為高級程度會考增加了「教師評審」計劃（TAS），筆者預計教師和學生都會因為 TAS 而增添了工作量，所以第三度調整計劃內容。「課文演示」計劃維持原狀，但專題研習部份則化整為零：將研習過程分為三個階段，每個階段的規模盡量縮小，只包含具有核心價值的元素。在中六上學期，每個學生必須完成閱讀一本課外書籍，然後在課堂上匯報內容知識。中六下學期內，學生可個別或小組進行專題資料搜集，經整理後成為物理學專題講座，於課堂上向同學講演專題內容。最後，學生自行組合成研習小組，負責設計一個小型實驗，並在暑假期間借用學校實驗室進行探研及數據分析。中七開學後在課堂內示範和講授實驗所得。觀察與結果「課文演示」計劃的成效未算十分成功，雖然多年來的學生都有依計劃要求自行研讀課文及課上講演，但效能卻不高。可能因為大部份學生基礎不穩固，他們的學習能力只達到中等程度，所以自學課程內容會較為吃力。然而，若以此作為課前預備來說，學生在預備演示時都會先行研讀，甚至翻看其他教科書及參考書；從這個角度來看，計劃又可以說是頗為成功。而且，部份學生能在演示時提出困難及疑問，有助教師及同學在學與教進程中有所聚焦。其次，多次的演示亦提升了學生的口語技巧和溝通能力。教師規定學生必須應用資訊科技作簡報，迫使學生學習應用軟件；最明顯的成果是班中數位原本不懂使用電腦的學生，在畢業時已能純熟地在網上搜尋有用資料，製作包含超連結或者有動畫的簡報軟件。「專題研習」計劃的成效比較顯著，亦能夠達標。首先，計劃目標是擴闊學生學習物理知識的範圍。參閱表一和表二，從學生分組專題研習的題目和涵蓋的知識範圍比較，約有 70%的專題是考試課程以外的內容，因此這個計劃的目的已達到。當然學生在那些範圍的涉獵並不算深入，不過在簡報時，仍可見到他們頗能掌握簡報的專題內容和知識。 38 表一：1997-99 年度專題研習題目 (知識範圍) 自行設計實驗 Rolling down an inclined plane (斜面上的滾動) 力學 A study in Stability (物體穩定性研究) 力學專題閱書 Clouds (雲層的形狀) 地球物理# 報告 Comets (彗星) 天文學# The Big Bang (宇宙大爆炸) 宇宙學# 互聯網資料 Plasma (等離子體) 電磁學# 匯報 Fusion (熱核反應) 核子物理學# The Sun (太陽構造及輻射) 天文學# Solar Energy (太陽能) 天文學# Energy of a Black Hole (黑洞的能量) 重力理論# Distortion in Space (空間的扭曲) 重力理論# #考試課程範圍以外表二：1998-00 及 1999-01 年度專題研習題目 (知識範圍) 互聯網資料 A study of Light (光的研究) 光學匯報 Nuclear Energy (核能) 核子物理學 Electromagnetic Waves (電磁波) 電磁波 Evolution of stars (恆星的演化) 天文學# Black holes (黑洞) 宇宙學# Icebreaker (破冰船) 流體力學# Laser (激光) 原子物理學 Aurora (極光) 天文學# Supernova Explosion (超新星爆炸) 天文學# Einstein & Photoelectric effect (愛因斯坦及光電效應) 原子物理學 Evolution of Stars (恆星的演化) 天文學# Secret of the Sun (太陽的秘密) 天文學# Superconductor (超導電體) 低溫物理# Fluid Dynamics (流體力學) 流體力學# Space shuttles (太空穿梭機) 航天科技# #考試課程範圍以外由於今年計劃要求有所改變，學生進行研習的內容大致上都在考試課程範圍內。不過，因為目標有所改動，評估層面也有所不同。由於在計劃中要求加入了實踐過程，所以評估重點便轉移到學生研習過程中，得到甚麼學習機會和可以獲取甚麼技能了。筆者沒有進行量性檢討，只透過學生提交的書面報告和多次會面收集學生本身的觀感，大致上歸納出學生有下的收獲：（一）增進了同組同學間的合作性、強化了人際間的溝通技巧；（二）嘗試設計實驗和使用不同儀器進行測量；（三）懂得辨識有用資料和分析數據；（四）能夠從浩瀚資料海洋中有效地搜尋合用的資料；（五）因為進行實驗時大多數組別都不是十分順利，結果學生們因而學得更樂觀，更能面對因實驗失敗帶來的挫折感和惆悵心情；（六）在簡報實驗結果時，學生們亦能有效地運用資訊科技。 39 表三：2000-02 年度專題研習題目 (技能範圍) (實驗) Heating with a Microwave Oven (微波爐加熱實驗) 實驗設計、資料搜集有進行，有結果 Efficiency of a solar cell (量度太陽能電池的效率) 實驗設計、資料搜集有進行，有結果 Boomerange (回力捧的運動) 實驗設計、資料搜集有進行 Torsional Oscillation (扭力擺動) 實驗設計、資料搜集有進行 A study of Tops (陀螺運動研究) 實驗設計有進行 Oscillation by an EM field (電磁場引起之振盪) 實驗設計有進行，無結果 Vibration mode of standing waves (駐波振動模式) 實驗設計有進行，無結果 Sound Generator (聲音產生線路) 元件製造失敗，無結果討論與前瞻這兩個計劃的試驗成果尚算理想，所以筆者在未來的預科教學中會繼續推行。若與高級程度物理課程綱要列出的宗旨比較，計劃的結果顯示確實有助提升學生學習物理知識的興趣、引起學習物理的動機和產生成功感；同時亦令他們懂得鑑賞物理學的發展，並可發展他們應用物理的技巧，例如設計實驗、進行實驗、解決問題、數學分析、批判評鑑和傳意等的技巧。其中一個重點是讓學生親身經歷學習物理知識和技能的過程，縱然他們未必能夠通過實驗而有所發現。其次，數次推行這些計劃的經驗，亦可支持課程改革文件中推行專題研習的論點。從幾屆學生的表現來看，專題研習的確有助推動學生自主學習、自我監控和自我反思；讓他們經驗到不同的學習策略。同時，學生亦能享受到以協作或個別方式，進行計劃、閱讀和決策。自從課程改革文件面世後，我們經常閱讀到學校在小學和初中水平推行專題研習的報告和經驗分享；筆者的經驗卻說明了在公開試壓力下，預科學生仍然可於學習學科知識的同時進行專題研習，而且在學習過程中亦可運用和發展更高層次的共通能力。第三，計劃的施行回應了教育改革的要求，給予學生更大的空間和彈性去組織和掌握學習。學生被要求自主學習，課堂演示讓學生邁出第一步。部份能力高的學生甚至可以協助他人學習，發展更深層的學習技能。同時，計劃設計亦驅使學生非掌握到校園資訊科技器材和應用軟件不可，回應了教統局五年策略的政策要求。總結多年的經驗，當中遇到不少的困難。學生方面是能力的問題，由於大部份學生的學習能力屬於中等水平，他們要應付深澀的高級會考課程已十分吃力，因此每次推行這些計劃的初期總是很多埋怨。少部份學生會考課程根基不夠牢固，自學要求和專題研習都可能加深了他們的無力感；所以筆者在開學初期都刻意把不同學業能力的學生編成一組，期望他們深入認識後可以發揮更強大的互助精神，助人自助。幸好現時課程變革的大趨勢是鬆綁拆牆，加上課程改革聲中亦強調培養共通能力的必要性，這些均有助筆者輔導學生認真投入這些計劃帶來的學習新模式。另一個困難是學生對計劃目標的不認同，多年來考核經驗導致學生建立了一個觀點：只有老師去教，自己才會學到。於是推行這兩個計劃時，總有些學生抱怨未教何會懂得講演，部份學生因而顯得不投入，甚至事事依賴他人，情況就如在初中推行專題計劃一樣。由於筆者要求去屆學生在專題研習中加強實驗技能的展示，初期學生頗為抗拒。但在今年起公開試作出改革，實施TAS令學生了解掌握實驗技能的考試意義，這有助化解他們在這方面的抗拒感。教師方面的困難則是時間控制。推行課堂演示，學生成為學習主人。當遇上解決不同的困難時便要找老師 40 詢問，結果是課餘教一次，課堂上又教一次，甚至因學生有所誤解而要花更多時間去更正概念！在專題研習上由於筆者變成了所有組別的指導老師，磋商會談的時間變得十分沉重。由於這個計劃並非學校策略，所以無法挪動到任何時間及資源的支援，尤其是教學時間上的鉅大損耗。為了騰出時間供學生匯報，於是傳統教學所佔的時間縮短了很多，粗略統計損耗率差不多有20%。為了令學生手上有更多參考資料去思考專題研習的題目和實驗設計，筆者必須翻閱國內外雜誌和有關小型實驗設計的論文，期望有更多事例供學生參考。當然，副產品是筆者在本科專業上也有所提升。為了更能切合學生發展學科上的學習能力和建立有助終身學習的共通能力，由今年起專題研習計劃的內容作出了改變。但目標並沒有改變，調整後的專題研習仍然會擴闊學生在物理科內的學習視野。雖然本科已實施 TAS，不過筆者仍然堅持學生在專題研習內容中有實驗過程這一個元素，為的是讓學生多些了解和應用實驗技巧。新加入的核心項目――閱讀和內容講解，針對近年來學生多了從網上搜尋資料而疏遠了文字媒體。此外，這項目亦貫徹了課程改革建議中「從閱讀中學習」這一環。展望將來，『化整為三』的新模式可能因應教改形勢而不斷有所調整。總括而言，筆者期望將來繼續在預科班級中推行這套計劃。因為這計劃能令學生在應付公開考試課程之餘，一方面可以開拓更廣闊的視野，另一方面又可以培養興趣和強化更多的學習技能。若本地教育宏觀環境有所改動，例如高中改為三年制、公開考試容許學生透過研究性學習評估他們的多元能力的表現、教師可用空間再有增加等，則這個計劃尚可加以推廣或整合，令高中學生在學習不同學科課程時更有樂趣。參考書目 1 教育統籌委員會(2000年5月)。《教育制度檢討改革方案》諮詢文件。 2 香港教師中心(2001年)。《教師中心傳真》第40期，2001年7月。 3 〈全年一貫的「專題研習」〉。《現代教育通訊》第58期，2001年6月，頁16。 41 美㈸科的多元智能教㈻方案對兒童在美㈸科的創造力之影響邢慧萍寶安商會溫浩根小學研究背景 — 缺乏創意、興趣低落研究員現任教小四美勞科，發現學生在課堂創作時欠缺自信，學習動機亦不高。他們往往拘泥於所描繪的人物或景觀與現實生活中不大相似而未敢下筆。在製作時，他們往往修改又修正，務求使自己的作品，無論在形式或主題上，都與其他同學或教師的舉例類同，欠缺其獨特性。在研究員初步的了解下，得知他們對藝術品的看法是：「愈與實際景況相像的，愈是優秀的藝術品。」他們對藝術有這樣的概念，乃是從過往的美術教師或成人而來的。歐蓋尼•弗爾龍(Eugene Veron)在其美學一書中寫道：「所謂藝術，就是情感的表現，有時通過具表現力的線條、形式或色彩排列，有時通過具有特殊節拍或節奏的姿勢、聲音或語音文字。」(籐守堯， 1998)。因此，假如只以藝術中模仿論的角度看待兒童的作品，難免小四甲班學生有如此的表現。研究動機 — 儘量有效運用腦袋、發揮無限創意根據 Goodlad 的研究(封四維，2000)，「在一千個教室中的課堂活動，都只用到大腦 1%的潛能(聽講和寫習作)，很少要求學生建構、繪畫、表演、角色扮演或創造東西。」也就是說孩子沒有機會使用大腦中絕大部分的學習區域。即使本校的美勞課，大部分的教師亦多因追求「勞」方面的技巧，講求精闢細緻的成人藝術，而集中教授製作的技巧，往往在一輪的講解後，加上一兩張示範作品，學生便開始進行製作。在我們已知道及重視的語言及數學邏輯智慧外，嘉納(Gardner，1983)的多元智慧理論系統中，八種智慧的特點是具有同等重要的地位。而在馬里蘭州特殊診療研究中心(specific diagnostic studies)測定學生典型的學習風格的方式中，發現學生的學習風格包含著三種不同比例的學習方式。根據肯恩 · 鄧恩以及麗塔 · 鄧恩(Ken & Rita Dunn)的研究，約 34%的兒童靠律動、音樂節奏、聲音聽覺型的學習，37%靠肢體動作運動型學習，29%靠空間圖片視覺型的學習(林麗寬，1997)。假如我們只集中採用某一種型式授課，即只有約莫三成，甚至更少的學生受惠。研究目的 — 運用多元智能教學提升兒童在美勞科中的創造力基於以上背景，研究員擬在小四甲班進行有關多元智能教學的行動研究，期望能藉多元智能的教學策略，改善學生在美術方面的創造力，並提升他們對美術創作的興趣。研究員更希望透過這項研究的結果，作為日後檢討及設計美術課堂活動的根據。為求深入瞭解有關多元智能的教學策略的實施成效，以改善美術科的教學質素，研究員將以下兩個問題作為本研究探討的焦點： Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 42 (一) 多元智能的教學策略如何提升本校小四甲班美術創造力？ (二) 多元智能的教學策略如何提升本校小四甲班美術創作的興趣和動機？文獻概覽本研究採用行動研究，主要目的在設計多元智能美術教學方案，及藉此探討此方案是否具有提升兒童在美勞科中創造力的成效。因此對於行動研究、創造力的概念與評量方式、多元智能的教學，均有加以探討的必要。本章將就行動研究、多元智能理論及創造力的內涵與評量方式等三節，進行相關文獻的探討。行動研究 — 有關行動研究的基礎理念「行動研究」(action research)乃是基於「教師即研究者」的理念，將「實務行動」與「應用研究」結合，由實務工作者的實際工作情境或經驗中，根據自己實務工作上所遇到的實際問題進行研究，設計問題解決的策略，透過實際行動付諸實施，並加以反思、修正，以解決實際問題，增進實務工作者的實踐智慧及專業知能（黃政傑， 1985；蔡清田，2000a）近來行動研究在教育界受到相當的重視，主要是傳統的研究與基礎教育訓練無法解決個別教室以內出現的教育問題，理論與實際之間可能有相當大的落差，對教師從事實際教育的裨益不大(歐用生，1989)。因此唯有教師能對自己的教室和教學實施研究，親自「看到」並「體驗」到革新過程，去重新學習和再社會化，改變自己的知識觀，才能達成問題解決的理想(歐用生 1989)。因此行動研究具有以下的特性：(1)研究者為實際工作者； (2)應用結果者即行動研究者；(3)在實際的工作環境做研究；(4)以「問題解決」為導向；(5)以「共同合作」的方式進行；(6)研究情境獨特且具即時性；(7)研究計劃是屬於發展性的：(8)注重研究實際情況的改變情度。行動研究中是以解決問題為導向，因此計劃是很有彈性的，在整個過程中要不斷的考核與檢驗，利用各種資料、工作技巧考核階段性的成果。因為具有彈性，所以行動研究並無統一的模式，其研究途徑相當多樣化的。研究者歸納了蔡清田(2000b)及封四維(2000)所提出的行動研究程序，其典型的階段及過程包括：(1) 尋得研究的起始點 (2) 釐清情境 (3) 發展、觀察、反省行動的策略並付諸實行 (4) 公開行動後所得的知識。封四維 (2000)更認為研究是依新教材單元的出現而循環重複，以作為教學決定與修正的依據。針對小四甲班的現況，研究者實在希望借助是次行動研究的機會，解開現今的困局。 43 研究的歷程 — 由界定主題至公開所得的知識本研究參考封四維(2000)及 Herbert Altrichter(1997)的行動步驟，將研究流程以圖一表示。圖一研究流程圖 ♦ 發現問題行動研究以解決實務工作者所遭遇到的問題為依歸，從個人實務中發展，找出一個起點(Herbert Altrichter， 1997)。在過去約半年內的教學，發現學生在課堂創作時欠缺自信，學習動機亦不高，且創作的作品欠缺創意。因此採取行動研究以解決當前的問題。 ♦ 探查基於問題發現乃經研究者的初步觀察及批改學生作品所得，為深入了解問題的成因，研究者先透過訪談錄音及發現問題：學生在美勞課缺乏創意、興趣低落參考有關文獻，發現創造力可透過有效的教學、合適的環境及創作的過程提升行動構思：設計多元智能的教學方案教學行動方案執行教學方案監測評估策略技巧循環修正個人反思討論分析資料整理論文撰寫教師教學反思建構循環教學方案修正循環 (共三次) 探查：分析問題初步的成因 44 問卷調查，分析問題的背景，以確定問題的範圍。在界定問題及其範圍的同時，亦可借助探查而獲得問題範圍內的證據(賈馥茗、楊深坑，1988)，以助日後作研究進行及分析實施成效之用。 ♦ 閱讀相關文獻一方面站在學生的立場，思考他們對美術的需求及困難，一方面查詢相關的文獻。閱讀有關培養創造力及多元智能教學等書籍，並開始進行行動構思。 ♦ 行動構思依據行動研究之精神，研究計劃並非一成不變。研究者每有一個行動，便要評估此行動的成效，透過不斷的省思與修正，再執行下一個計劃，因此本階段採用螺旋循環式的歷程，把計劃分成三個單元進行，每一個美術創作都是一個行動循環的單位，以多元智慧的教學貫穿整個行動研究，而每一循環則有特定的課堂目標，詳情可參考各單元教學的行動循環圖(圖二)。圖二多元智能教學的行動循環圖行動研究的循環 — 在單元施教的循環中修正 ♦ 擬定方針首先是依照多元智能的理念構思各單元的主題，初步擬定以兩個繪畫及一個立體雕塑進行，主題以人及動物為主。每單元均有其特定的教學目標。 ♦ 行動與觀察初步的內容方針擬定後，便開始實施教學計劃。在實施的過程中，尤其是上課時的情形，研究者會細心觀察兒童的一舉一動、一言一行，例如兒童在參予課堂活動的投入程度，與同學討論與課題相關的內容，甚至記錄他們在上課前有否搜集與課題相關的資料，和對資料的運用情況。擬定方針省思與修正行動與觀察單元的目標主要資料的來源：學生表現 1. 課堂活動的參與 2. 資料的運用與搜集 3. 與同學相討與課題相關的內容內容及目標的修正： 1. 學生作品的獨創性 2. 能否達到教學目的 45 ♦ 省思與修正每兩週完成一單元後，研究者會針對創造力評量對兒童的作品作出評估及檢討，從作品的獨特性、目標的達成程度及比較兒童過往與是次研究的作品的分別。藉此反省、歸納與整理，並作為修正下一單元設計的依據。為了對多元智能理論在小學美勞課程設計上的應用有更清楚的了解，以下首先概述多元智能理論；其次以研究者服務的學校，應用多元智能理論進行美術課程設計，以介紹本研究如何把多元智慧理念融入於中美術課程中。多元智能論 — 多元智能理論概述嘉納(Howard Gardner，1983)認為智慧是多元的，可以隨著不同領域內容或符號表徵系統而有不同的成長(封四維，2000)。每一個孩子都擁有各種不同的天賦才能，至少存在八項基本智慧，其內容簡述如下(封四維，2000； D.Lazear，2000)： 1. 語言智慧：指的是有效運用口頭語言和書寫文字的能力，這項智能包括對語文結構與章法、語音、語義，以及實用語言之操作能力。 2. 邏輯—數學智慧：指有效運用數字能力與推理能力，包括對邏輯與數學的形式和關係、陳述與命題、運作，和其他抽象概念的敏感度與能力，例如分類、推論、類推、計算和假設之考驗活動。 3. 空間智慧：能準確地感覺視覺空間，並把知覺的東西表現出來，包括對色彩、線條、形狀、樣式、空間以及這些元素之關係的敏感度。 4. 音樂智能：指能知覺、區辨、變化和表達音樂形式的認知能力，包括對樂曲之韻律、音調、音色的敏銳感覺。 5. 肢體—動覺智慧：善於運用整個身體來表達想法和感覺，以及運用雙手靈巧地生產或改造事物。包括特殊的身體技巧，如協調、平衡、力量、彈性、速度以及觸覺等能力。 6. 人際智慧：能察覺他人的情緒、意向、動機及感覺的能力，包括對他人臉部的表情、聲音、手勢的敏感性，以及能分辨不同人際關係的暗示，以及對這些暗示做適當的反應。 7. 內省智慧：有自知之明，並據此做出適當行為的能力，包括對自己的了解，意識到自己的內在情緒、意向、動機、脾氣和欲求，以及自律、自知和自尊的能力。 8. 自然探索智慧：指能欣賞和認識動植物、辨認物種的成員，以及連結生命組織的能力。根據多元智慧理論，每一個人都具有這八種智慧，而且以其獨特的方式運作這八種智慧。只要給予適當的鼓勵與教導，大部分的人可以將這八種智慧發展至某一合理的程度，並可以複雜的方式將這八項智慧結合起來運作(D.Lazear，2000)。而岩士唐(T.Armstrong，2000)更提到作為教師不應以固定的標準去評量每一種智慧，因為它們的呈現是多樣性的，而智慧亦會因在不同發展階段，以不同的方式呈現。運用多元智慧理論中的八種智慧，可開闢各種不同的課程設計，封四維(2000)提出目前多元智慧運用在教學上可分為三大類型：(一)強調單項智慧的培養；(二)運用多元智慧管道達成某項學習目標；(三)兼顧單項智能與多元智慧來增強教與學的多元管道和效果(封四維，2000)。例如在美術科中，我們可透過畫面中色彩的律動找出學生的音樂智慧，學生亦可在創作的過程中，以身體不同的部位，不同的動態探索，充分利用其動覺智慧來學習。本研究所指的多元智能的教學策略，是採第二大類型，即運用多元智慧管道達成某項學習目標，課程設 46 計是把某一智慧的教材與教學活動，轉換為另一種智慧的教學活動。但無論做何種方式的課程設計，都必須要在符合教學情境、課程目標與學生需求的情況下安排，不要只為實施多元智慧取向的課程，而忽視了該學科的主要學習目標。課程方案 — 如何把多元智慧理念融入於本研究中本研究把多元智慧教學的理念融入本校小四年級美術科之繪畫、立體雕塑等三個單元內，並發展此三單元之教學活動設計，即本研究所指的多元智慧美術課程方案。研究者嘗試在各單元中發展學生的人際智慧、語言能力智能、數學邏輯智能、肢體動覺智能、音樂智能及視覺空間智能，借助這些活動刺激學生思考創作，亦能引發其學習動機。創造力的內涵關於創造力的研究，發展到五十年代左右，對創造力的定義已有二十幾個之多，至今更是無法細數，可見創造力並沒有普遍一致的定義，因而，許多學者對創造力提出概念性及理論性的分類觀點以說明創造力的內涵，並提出各種方式來評量創造力。創造力的概念 — 對創造力的四種學說很多學者對創造力並無一致的看法，不過他們都離不開以下四大類：(一) 主張創造乃是創新未曾有的事物；(二) 主張創造是一種思考歷程，在思考過程中運用創造力及問題解決的能力；(三) 創造是一種能力，也就是創造力； (四) 認為創造是一種人格特質。 (一) 創造是一種成果根據教育百科辭典(1994)的解釋，創造力(creativity)一辭是指根據一定目標，運用已知訊息，產生出某種新穎、獨特、有益於社會或個人的產品，其中，「產品」可以是一種新觀念、新設想、新理論，也可以是一項新技術。對於這個創造力的定義，吉爾福特(Guilford，1985)有相同的見解，他認為創造乃是個體產生新的觀念或產品，或融合現有的觀念或產品而改變成一種新穎的形式。 (二) 創造是一個歷程主張創造是一種思考歷程的學者如張春興(1997)認為創造是一種行為表現，該行為的表現結果應富有新奇性與實際價值，例如以一個新的觀點看眼前的問題，並給予解決的方法，他是持問題解決導向的。Mary (1985)也認為創造力是一種思考和行動的過程，它同時是一個人獨特思考後的價值呈現，它可能是一種解決問題的歷程，也可能是生產一些新產品的過程。他們的著眼點都不是創造的終極成果或行為表現，而是當中的歷程，所持的是一種過程取向。 (三) 創造是一種能力有不少學者則認為創造是一種能力。扥浪斯(Torrance，1974)稱創造力可能是一種發明能力、產生性能力、擴散性思考能力，也可能是想像力(陳龍安，1998)。嘉納(Gardner，1982)認為創造力(他稱為智力)可包括語言的、邏輯數學的、音樂的、視覺空間的、肢體動覺的、內省的、人際智能的和自然智慧八大領域的能力。(毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台，2000)。 47 (四) 創造是一種人格特質有學者如賈馥茗(1976)認為創造是一種人格傾向，其包含自由感、獨立性、幽默感、堅持力、勇氣等內涵(毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台，2000)。陳龍安(1998)綜合歸納各家有關創造力之意義，對創造力下一定義：「創造力是指個體在支持的環境下結合敏覺、流暢、變通、獨創、精進的特性，透過思考的歷程，對於事物產生分歧的觀點，賦予事物獨特新穎的意義，其結果不但使自己，也使別人獲得滿足」。他並從以下幾個觀點分析創造力(陳龍安，1998)： 1. 創造力可表現在各個領域，在藝術方面常與高品質的新產品聯想在一起。但大多數創造思考是較為平凡粗淺，沒有甚麼傑出的結果，這種思考活動甚至可能沒有甚麼可見的產品。 2. 創造力的獨創性，指「想出別人所想不出的觀念」之能力，並且把創造力視為一種產品或任何創造的結果。一個計畫、一則故事、一首詩、幅畫、一篇樂曲、一件發明或一篇科學理論均是創造的結果。 3. 創造力的心理歷程，強調思考運作的狀態比實際產品重要。以這種觀點來看，創造力便是某種特殊的心理歷程。不管一個人的產品品質或獨創力如何，最低限度這個創造思考的過程與他們的自我表現同樣重要。 4. 創造力與問題的解決能力有關，面對問題時能夠尋求解決之道。扥浪斯 Torrance(1974)認為可從以下四方面來看創造力(陳龍安，1998)： 1. 創造的成果—某種理念、思想、行為或作品。 2. 創造的歷程—產生創造成果的認知歷程。 3. 創造性的人—創造者的人格特質。 4. 創造性環境—促成創造的外在環境。換言之，包括創造成果、創造歷程、創造人和創造性環境四方面(毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台，2000)。本文所指的創造力，乃是指上述四方面。創造力的評量 — 評量創造力的法則藉由創造力的概念瞭解到創造力本身概念的複雜與不明確，許多學者以不同研究的取向探討創造力，與其對創造力的測量亦有所不同。Amabile(1983)提到創造力的實證研究大多應用到評量的技術，這些技術不外以下三類： 1.對產品做客觀的分析，2.主觀的評定產品或個人的創意，3.創造力測驗(泛指基於心理計量取向而編製的測驗，而這些測驗主要目的在為了測量與創造有關的能力、特質或性向)。本研究的評量將採 1.對產品做客觀的分析， 2.主觀的評定產品或個人的創意兩方面，並就 Torrance(陳龍安，1998)看創造力的四方面的評量作出闡述：創造成果 Golann(1963)指出有許多研究者支持創造力就是產生創造性的產品，就是真實生活中的成就或才藝的表現，或是日常生活中的創意經驗，經驗可以是一種想法、行為或是活動的創意，而這些創意經驗可以來自不同領域的活動(引自毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台，2000)。詹秀美(1990)綜合歸納多位研究者的創造性產品的定義後，認為創造的產品必須具有兩個條件：新奇性或 48 獨特性、適當性或實際性。郭俊賢，陳淑惠(1996) 更認為除了評鑑創造之外，尚可加入其他向度，如美感訴求等(毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台 2000)。因此本研究在評量學生作品時，是以作品創意的新奇與獨特性，再加上美感作為評量的參考數據。創造歷程賈馥茗(1976)認為創造力是一種心理歷程，此時著重思考，但卻不是從思考的類別著眼，而是著重解釋問題情境中，個人自思考之萌生以至創造性概念的形成之整個歷程的分析(毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台，2000)。例如學生在創作前的資料搜集，至在課堂中對這些資料的整理，篩選以至重整的過程，都屬於這次研究中，創造歷程之評量數據。創造人創造人泛指其人格特質，他們在生活中，對人、對事物，在行為上表現其獨特個性，包括氣質、態度、興趣、動機和情緒(張春興，1997)。例如學生在美術課堂中表現投入，對創作感興趣，無論與老師或同學均抱良好的態度，積極參與課堂活動等。創造性環境差不多所有研究創造力的學者都認為環境對創造力之形成起了重大的影響。一個安全、熱忱、支持、獎勵、幽默、溫暖的創造氣氛是必要的。因此教師應盡量減少規則的限制，或允許創新規則，加強友誼，增進溫暖的氣氛，對表現良好者予以正增強，少用批評、控制、冷淡的語氣。更重要的是應給予創作人適當的讚許，對作品給予肯定(毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台，2000)。研究設計研究員採用行動研究法，是由於這種研究法可以「針對實際教育情境所發生的問題，企圖在研究中，將可能解決問題的方法，作為變項，然後從研究中來檢驗這些問題的解決情形。」(楊荊生，1993)。研究員目前的問題是學生在美術課堂中缺乏動機，創意貧乏，因此研究員希望藉著設計多元智能美術教學方案，探討此方案是否具有提升兒童在美勞科中創造力的成效。研究員將在下文交代有關本研究的設計。研究策略 — 配合學習模式，運用多元智能由於學生的多元智慧潛力無法精確測知，故實驗教學前，研究者將仔細地規劃教學內容及設計課堂活動。如前文所提，兒童的學習可分三大類型：(一)律動、聲音、節奏的聽覺型、(二)善於利用肢體動作的運動型、(三)處理空間圖象的視覺型。科學家更提出人腦的左右兩邊，掌管著不同的智能(左腦強調：語言、邏輯、順序因果、數學；右腦強調：節奏、音樂、圖畫、想像力、旋律)(陳龍安、朱湘吉，1999)。為了配合兒童的學習模式，加上要善用全腦的理念，研究者遂把與上述三大學習類型有關的多元智慧，運用到三個單元共十二節的教學活動中。而本研究主要使用到的多元智慧有以下六種：人際溝通智慧、視覺空間智慧、語言智慧、邏輯—數學智慧、肢體動覺智慧和音樂智慧。我們在進行美術創作時一定會遇到挫折或靈感枯竭的一刻，人際溝通智慧幫助同學間彼此協作，解決問題和汲取意見；視覺空間智慧、肢體動覺智慧和音樂智慧能刺激學生從多角度接觸藝術，擴大其靈感的來源。研究員捨棄餘下的內省智慧及自然觀察智慧，其中原因是兩者未能直接配合課程單元，更重要的是，兒 49 童在德育課題下(如道德及價值觀)了解及反省自己的正負面，對自己的思想及行為作出批判，其內省智慧將較易發揮。而學校場所屬人工化，相比起海灘及郊野等天然場地，後者更能提供合適環境讓兒童進行探索，發展其自然觀察智慧。兒童的多元智慧須在合適的情境和狀態下才可全面發展，本研究就各種智慧的特性，設計適合的活動，讓兒童對其智慧發揮事半功倍之效。以下是各單元設計的內容： ♦單元一 — 快樂小丑的臉扮表情遊戲(人際溝通智能)  配合視覺及運動型學習教師讓學生模仿不同的表情及情緒，讓其他的同學透過觀察他人臉部的表情、手勢等，藉此察覺他人的情緒、意向及感覺。透過仔細的觀察，亦有助學生掌握人類五官的比例及其細緻的部分。畫小丑(視覺空間智慧)  配合視覺型學習學生利用線條、形狀、樣式、空間以及這些元素之關係，盡量繪畫出不同小丑的面孔表情，當中運用了視覺空間智慧。教師以 3 分鐘為限，兒童在比賽及遊戲的心理下，提高了活動的趣味性。壁報快照(視覺空間智慧)  配合視覺型學習在課堂完結時，學生作品欣賞後，教師更為學生的作品來一集體快照(圖十二)，除了可讓學生在視覺空間上得到刺激，亦可起鼓勵作用。 ♦單元二 — 未完的故事說故事 (語言智慧)  配合聽覺型學習教師請學生在聽過軒軒的生日禮物一故事後，幻想故事的結局，要求他們在當中加插有趣的情節，務求有出人意表的效果。學生也可充分利用右腦，發揮想像力。腦力激盪(邏輯—數學智慧)  配合聽覺型學習教師講述軒軒的生日禮物的前半部時，在故事中出現的狗狗、貓貓和鼠鼠，本是小朋友熟悉的事物，但老師運用了增加、減少、變大、縮小、比較、替換或相反等原則，改變原物的屬性，要學生思考其後果(陳龍安，1998)，兒童要運用邏輯推理，把故事各枝節歸納，成為一個具有創意的結局。學生亦可透過故事角色扮演(圖十三)，增加其想像力。 ♦單元三 — 舞者看錄影帶(視覺空間智能)  配合視覺型學習教師播放一段舞蹈的錄影帶，讓學生留心欣賞(圖十四)，並把最深刻的幾個姿態以速寫記錄下來。教師請幾位學生把剛才記下的動態模仿出來，並說出深刻的原因。 50 你也來跳舞(肢體動覺智能、音樂智能)  配合運動型學習同學跟著教師播放的音樂節奏，自由搖擺及扭動身體，幻想自己亦在舞列中(教師可鼓勵學生幻想一些跳舞的器具)。教師運用了創造性動作策略啟發學生隨著舞步與節拍，在不自覺間發揮其肢體動覺智能與音樂智能。黃任來(1996)指出，創造性動作並不同於無意義的肢體動作，是一種能表達個人思想與情感或引起自我鬆弛的身體動作。研究對象 — 選取樣本的原則本研究的研究對象為本校小四甲班 28 位學生。他們全都參與本研究的三個單元，共 12 節的教學活動，並填寫問卷。另外，研究員為深入了解多元智慧教學方案如何提高兒童的創造力，並對本研究教學方案的成效作出評量，為避免因學生個人對美術的喜好或對美術本科知識掌握多寡的偏差，研究員採用立意取樣的方法，即依據研究員主觀的見解和判斷，選取認為最典型的例子(吳明清，1991)，在班中選出六位(每組兩位)美勞科成績分別處於上、中、下三級的甲、乙、丙、丁、戊、己六位學生，作小組訪談，希望儘可能減低不必要的誤差。研究方法 — 多角度資料核對，增加可信性因行動研究的主要特徵為研究員即工作者，其研究處即工作處，因此研究計劃具發展性，透過行動研究者的主動觀察與反省思考，進而探究其教學中可能的錯誤(陳惠邦，1998)，並如何在此時此地解決實際的問題(楊荊生， 1993)。而以「人」作為研究工具的最大限制則是每個研究者都有其個人的看法(Elliott，1988)，為避免影響研究的過程與結果，研究員儘量嚴謹詳細地記錄教學日誌，並透過課堂觀察、分析學生的作品，同時亦在研究進行前及完結後採用訪談及問卷調查等方法，以三角檢定從學生、老師及學生作品三方面分析研究結果，以求增加本研究的信度。 ♦ 問卷調查在研究前及完結後進行一次全班性的問卷調查，目的是取得整體性的資料。由於研究員是在工作期間進行研究，因日常事務繁重，為要易於整理及分析班內二十八位同學的結果，因此問卷調查的設計是採封閉式的題目。其好處在於有標準答案，同學易於填答；研究員亦較易記錄及分析答案，省時準確(王玉民，1997)。在研究進行前先進行問卷調查，目的在收集學生對美術科的整體意見，及作為設計教學方案的參考資料；而研究完結後的問卷調查主要是針對研究實施後，整體學生對多元智能教學方案的意見。為避免學生對問卷內容的曲解及控制填答的情境，問卷調查是以當面實施的方式進行，有助確保其信度與效度(王玉民，1997)。 ♦ 小組訪談基於有些資料在封閉式問卷中是無法得知的(如填答者作出選擇的背後因由)，因此研究員亦對研究樣本安排了小組訪談。多個受訪者在同一時間內進行訪談，一來可減低被訪者的心理壓力，較能自由和坦誠地抒發自己，二來各學生亦可協助彼此回憶，修正對問題的看法，收集思廣益之效(王文科，1994)。另外，小組訪談更能互補各個受訪者談話內容的不足，使表達的意見更客觀及具代表性。訪談的內容屬半結構性，研究者最初由一系列結構性問題出發，然後為作深入探究起見，採開放性問題，讓學生能充分反映己見，務求獲致更完整及有價值的資料(王文科，1994)。而本研究的小組訪談分別在研究實施前及完結後進行。首次的訪談主要是收集學生個人對美術、美勞教學及學習環境方面的意見，以便作研究設計 51 及供教師參考之用；而研究實施後的小組訪談主要是了解學生對是次研究教學的意見，及更深入了解整體問卷數據背後的原委。 ♦ 課堂觀察研究者在課堂中進行有結構性的觀察，根據早前訂下的觀察重點，可參考觀察量表，記錄學生在課堂中的表現。但對於一些突如其來的行為(如有意義的說話)，研究員亦記錄在教學日誌內，作為補充分析研究成效之用。 ♦ 作品比較在研究實施前，研究員盡量找來了研究樣本中六位同學以往製作與本教學方案類同的作品，並在教學方案施行後，比較他們的作品的創意及藝術美感表現的差別。為減低研究者的主觀偏見，及增加研究的信度與效度，研究員運用了研究者核對法(Researchers triangulation)，特地找了兩位本校的美勞科任，對學生的新舊作品以作評價，比較核對其他教師與研究員的看法是否一致(王文科，1994)，還是研究員本身存在偏見，以致兩者間出現明顯差距。研究限制 — 教師及時間性的限制由於研究者並無協同工作者一起參予研究，對某些事情的觀點可能易於形成不易察覺的偏見，且為初學研究者，批判性不夠，研究方法不純熟，這也是行動研究為解決實際問題的與提升教師專業發展所不可避免之處(陳伯璋，1988)。行動研究的焦點只是針對研究者在教學範圍內出現的問題(Wood，1988)，加上研究樣本少，因此本研究的結果只能反映研究內的實際情況，對於整體性之推論上有其限制。基於人力與時間因素的限制，本研究為期只有六星期，當中發展之多元智慧教學方案是否具有提升學生對美術科的創造力，本研究結果只能說明即時的成效，對於其持續性則有待日後的研究。研究分析及結果要評量本研究的多元智能教學方案的成效，與及學童在接受此方案後，其創造力有否提升，我們可從學生上課及課前的準備、課堂的環境及學生作品推斷出來。對創作活動表現濃厚興趣透過研究員在課堂的觀察，加上研究後問卷調查結果的互相印證，學生的確對多元智能教學活動深感興趣。在二十八位學生中，大部分的同學表示玩這類型的教學活動「很開心」。(見下表) 單元項目美術教學活動覺得很開心和感興趣 1 扮表情遊戲 23 / 28 一 2 畫小丑鬥多比賽 24 / 28 3 說故事(軒軒的生日禮物) 23 / 28 二 4 玩「齊來捉小貓」 23 / 28 5 觀看舞蹈錄影帶 20 / 28 三 6 你也來跳舞 19 / 28 52 對於整體學生，研究員觀察到他們在玩「扮表情遊戲」時，全體同學都聚精會神觀察同學的表情，更爭相舉手說出各表情可留意之處，他們在遊戲中顯得既合作又積極投入，與以往上課時的態度散漫有明顯改善。研究員曾於去年任教本班大部分學生的中文科，已發現他們對聆聽故事的興趣甚強，唯往往到發表意見時卻較被動畏縮。但在本研究中，當聆聽「軒軒的生日禮物」故事後，同學都能積極發表意見，共同創作故事結局，且創意新奇。研究員在小組分享中曾聽過同學間有以下的對話：「老鼠因為要避開大貓，跑入廁所內用廁紙捲著自己，好像木乃伊一樣，於是大貓看不見牠就逃過大難。」「花貓召集其他流浪貓，商討對付大狗的反擊行動。」這些富創意的對話是研究員意料不及的，學生除了就這三種動物(狗、貓、鼠)的特性創作故事結局外，更跳出了這框框，引入故事以外的元素(如別的動物或物件)，完成創作。課堂活動積極投入除了是研究員對整體學生的評價外，亦同樣適用於研究樣本中不同美術能力的學生。在訪談中，可印證以上的結果。研究員憶述被訪者對於觀看「舞蹈錄影帶」的意見：己學生(美術能力低)認為觀看舞蹈錄影帶可讓她想到一些以前沒想過的動態。乙學生(美術能力高)稱錄影帶中舞蹈員的姿態有助刺激她思考。對於「畫小丑鬥多比賽」，同學有以下的意見：戊學生(美術能力低)說比賽時，偷看到隔離同學已畫了很多(小丑)，自己都不可以差。丙學生(美術能力中等)覺得同學畫的小丑樣子很有趣。 (小組訪談) 從以上的訪談內容，研究員發現即使美術學能力不同的學生，都能對教學活動產生興趣；美術能力較高的學生能從活動中自行找到有助提升自己美術的知識，其創造歷程的進步較為自發性；而活動對美術能力較差的學童可起彼此激勵的作用，對提升他們的學習動機有明顯的效果。上課表現積極，課前準備充足研究員透過課堂上的觀察，發現大部分學生不單投入課堂上的活動，原來在課堂前也做足準備功夫。根據問卷調查，有 85%的學生同意自己在美勞課中有盡力搜集有用的資料，更有 89%的學生同意自己在美勞課中有盡力嘗試解決遇到的困難。研究員通常在單元實施的一週前要求學生搜集與課題有關的資料。在研究期間，四甲班的電腦科教師向我表示曾有三位同學(其中一位是研究樣本中美術能力中等的學生)向她申請午膳後借用電腦室，目的是在網上尋找圖片(指狗、貓、鼠及舞蹈圖片)，可見的確有學生為了美術創作而認真做好事前準備。在同學創作時，研究員不時都聽到同學間有很多建設性的對話： (單元二：「未完的故事」) 學生 A：「這隻(狗)唔好，一點都不惡！」學生 B：「不是呀！牠(狗)要裝一副扮豬食老虎的樣子，才突然撲過去。」另一邊有學生說： 53 學生 C：「你不要加太多黑色，否則顏料會變得混濁」 (同學對話) (單元三：「舞者」) 學生 D：「你用膠紙貼住隻腳便可企穩。」學生 E：「見到膠紙很難看！」學生 D：「不用怕，之後用紙黏土遮住就可以了。」 (同學對話) 根據研究員的觀察，整體學生在課堂中都積極討論對資料的運用，同學間互相給予意見，交換合適的圖片，亦有把現成的資料加以篩選及重新組織，配合創作。他們亦發揮互助精神，協同解決問題。但在問卷調查中，只有三成的學生(約十一人)表示同意現在的學習環境(指同學秩序)比以往有明顯的改善。研究員嘗試在小組訪談中找出原因：甲學生(美術能力高)：「同學談話好大聲，十分嘈吵，影響我創作。」乙學生(美術能力高)：「又時常問我怎樣做好，哪張圖片好，十分騷擾。」研究員：「他們以往會問這些問題嗎？」乙學生(美術能力高)：「不會，通常說閒話。」為深入了解，在研究員追問下發現六位學生全都曾有徵詢他人的意見，但較多發生在美術能力較差的學生身上。在訪談中，有學生表示：戊學生(美術能力低)：「不知道怎樣做，老師又沒空，所以就問同學。」研究員明白雖然藝術是培養創造思考的基本途徑，但是，兒童在進行藝術活動時，並不一定具有創造力，假如他們害怕作出不被接受的反應，或覺得自己的作品必須符合成人標準時，就可能會作出刻板的「能被接受」的東西或反應，以博得成人的讚許。因此教師有責任營造一個創造性的教學環境，讓學生能在安全、自由、及開放的環境下進行創作(Stephanie，1984)。當兒童顯露出創作的動機和需要時，教師不應加以扼止，反而應該鼓勵他們去進行探索和冒險(Sternberg，1996)。因此研究員在研究期間儘量減少干預兒童的活動，鼓勵他們大膽嘗試，並接納新奇甚至荒誕的想法。即使課堂中出現噪音，只要是與課堂有關及有意見的，教師都包容接受。從訪談中，研究員發現美術能力較高的學生在創作的歷程中較能自我調適，與以往的態度沒有顯著的分別，但相對美術能力較差的學生，他們較多表示出現困難，須要提供更多的意見協助創作。他們現在主動尋求幫助，足以證明了他們投入創作，相對起以往無意識的交談及敷衍完成作品的創作態度，研究員認為他們在創造的歷程上是有明顯的進步。學生的作品能表現創造及想像力根據羅恩菲爾(Lowenfeld，1957)繪畫表現心理發展之分析，小四的兒童正處於圖式期，此時期的學生會用圖式表現人與環境的概念。人物沒有正確的比例，亦常會因應其經驗以誇張或省略的方法去處理形象；他們所畫各形象間有較明確的空間關係，有基底線和天空線。四甲班學生以往作品中的物象，較多正面和整齊地安排在畫面中基底線之上，構圖較呆板。但在多元智能教學活動帶領下，部分學生的作品已跳出了這個階段，並且意念大膽創新，造型突出。 54 研究員比較乙學生(美術能力高)過往「我的老師」(圖四)及現在「快樂小丑的臉」(圖五)的作品時，發現乙學生過往很喜歡把人的眼睛跨張地畫得閃閃發亮，卻忽略了對其他部分的描繪。但在這次畫「快樂小丑的臉」中，她顧及到畫面的一致性，沒有像以往只顧畫眼睛，亦把人臉在笑時會出現的笑紋也繪下來。比較丙學生(美術能力中等)在三年級時畫「我的家」(圖六)與現在「未完的故事」(圖七)兩幅作品時，他在這次練習中打破了地基線的概念，能在平面上表達出三度空間的效果。乙學生對內容有豐富有趣的聯想。畫中的黑點其實是小貓腳踏黑油漆後，逃走時留下的腳印，而小老鼠就扮著自己是畫中的一部分，逃避小貓的追捕。除了研究樣本外，班內亦有不少學生在創作品中表現其創造力。例如在「快樂小丑的臉」單元裏，同學竟然想到要繪畫「呆滯小丑的臉」(圖八)、「驚慌小丑的臉」(圖九)；在「未完的故事」(圖十)中，同學用色大膽，毫不忌諱，嘗試用不同的筆觸表達質感；在「舞者」(圖十一)的立體雕塑中，人物的造型更是層出不窮，充分表現出創造人那種冒險精神、好嘗試及不從眾的人格特質(陳龍安、朱湘吉，1999)。這是在此研究前極少發生的。美術能力較差的學生更見改善研究員以立意取樣抽取過往在美術科成績表現在高、中、低水平的學生來作研究，皆因研究員預期能力較高的學生，對於多元智能的教學應比能力較差的學生獲益更多，效果亦更顯著。但經分析後(詳見下表)發現即使原來表現較差的學生，雖然在創造成果方面的改變並不顯著，但在創造的過程中，他們只要找到配合他們學習模式的活動，他們都會表現積極投入。研究者在完成本研究後，曾與六位學生面談，他們亦反映出在這六堂的美術課中投入了，比以往更注重美術的製作過程，亦多了與同學相討設計的背後意念。創作的過程學生美術能力課堂活動參與創作的態度創作的成果甲高稍有進步沒有改變稍有進步乙高有進步沒有改變沒有改變丙中等非常進步有進步有進步丁中等有進步有進步稍有進步戊低非常進步非常進步稍有進步己低非常進步非常進步沒有改變研究者認為當兒童學習的內在動機高昂時，其創造活動根本上都是自發性的。而研究結果亦顯示他們在創作動機及創作態度兩方面，皆有顯著的進步。至於創造成果未能達到即時的果效，可能是因為本研究只是為期六週，時間尚短，要較差的學生在其作品中表現創造力，實在需時發展。結論及建議從本研究中發現多元智能教學確能提高學生對美術創作的動機和興趣，加上多元化的教材及教學活動，有助提升學生內在動機和創造力(張春興，1997)，對其創造力有正面的影響。大部份學生在活動期間表現得雀躍和興奮，在進行創作時認真投入，學生的作品充分流露出豐富的想像力。研究結果亦顯示多元智能方案無論對學習能力、美術能力不同的學生都有正面的影響。 55 既然已知孩子與生俱來就至少擁有八種不同的智慧，教師只要配合這些智慧，設計合適及多元化的教材，勢可發掘及激發學生的潛能。教師層面多元智能教學方案提供多樣化的教材提供安全、自由及開放的學習環境鼓勵學生自主、充分表現自己提升內在學習動機勇於嘗試，發展新的意念提升滿足感，增加創作的興趣學生層面圖三多元智能教學如何提升學生美術科的創造力圖三說明了多元智能教學如何提升學生美術科的創造力。我們接受從事藝術活動是一種創造，同樣地，我們認同創造除了創造的成果外，也應包括創造歷程。那麼教師是否也應把學生對資料的搜集和構思，在創作時所付出的努力和態度，作為評估其藝術成就的指標呢？本人十分同意余樹德(2001)的意見：「美術教師對學生本科的評核態度至為重要。學生在美術課的評估應由其構思以至製成都一併包括在內。」因此一個較全面的評核，總比給予一個單純的分數或等級更有積極意義。研究員綜合本研究的結果，有以下的建議： (一) 教師方面：作為美術教師應開放自己，接受多角度的意見及新思想，為學生提供合適的學習環境，明白創造力可因合適的教育活動而得到充分發展，也會因教育取向或形式的不當而被遏阻的道理。對於美術評量更應有一正確的評核態度，評估時盡可能包括學生的創作過程以及課堂表現，可考慮與學生當面傾談，或為作品提供詳細的評語。提升美術創作的興趣和動機提升美術科的創造力 56 (二)課程方面：透過本研究，研究者深深的體會到「課程」不是一種固定和靜態的東西，是教師和學生透過互動而生的產物。本研究採用的教學方案，除了可作為目前美術科活動設計的參考外，更可推廣至其他學科。因為對於學科成績表現較差的學生，傳統的補救方法只是針對他們的弱項加強訓練、反覆練習(如輔導班)，對於在學階段的兒童確是有效；但假若我們轉換另一角度，試從兒童八種不同的智能中，設計合適的學習活動，引導出孩子內潛的強勢智慧，這不但可令他們重拾自信，自我肯定，更可作為他們邁向終身學習的原動力。參考書目 H.G. Blocker 著，籐守堯譯 (1998)。《現代藝術哲學》。四川：四川人民。封四維 (2000)。《多元智慧教學》。台灣，台北：師大書苑有限公司。林麗寬 (1997)。《學習革命》。台灣，台北：中國生產力中心。黃政傑 (1985)。《課程改革》。台灣，台北：漢文。蔡清田 (2000a)。《教育行動研究》。台灣，台北：五南圖書。蔡清田 (2000b)。「行動研究及其在教育上的應用」，輯於中正大學教育研究所主編。《質的研究方法》。台灣，高雄：麗文。歐用生 (1989)。《質的研究》，台灣，台北：師大書苑有限公司。 D.Lazear 著，郭俊賢、陳淑惠譯 (2000)。《落實多元智慧教學評量》，臺北 : 遠流。 Herbert Altrichter, Peter Posch, Bridget Somekh 著，夏林清等譯 (1997)。〈教師動手做研究〉。《行動研究方法導論》，臺北 : 遠流。陳惠邦 (1998) 。《教學行動研究》。台灣：師大書苑。賈馥茗、楊深坑 (1988)。《教育研究法的探討與應用》。台灣：師大書苑有限公司。楊荊生 (1993)。〈哲學研究法與其他研究法的關係〉。載於賈馥茗、楊深坑編，《教育學方法論》。台灣，台北：五南圖書。陳龍安 (1998)。《創造思考教學的理論與實務》。台北：心理出版社。黃任來 (1996)。〈美勞科創意教學法〉。載於黃政傑主編《美勞科教學法》。台北：師大書苑。毛連塭、郭有遹、陳龍安、林幸台 (2000)。《創造力研究》。台北：心理出版社。張春興 (1997)。《教育心理學—三化取向的理論與實踐》。台北：東華書局。陳龍安、朱湘吉 (1999)。《創造與生活》。台灣，台北：五南圖書。吳明清 (1991)。《教育研究》。台灣，台北：五南圖書。王文科 (1994)。《教育研究法》。台灣，台北：五南圖書。王玉民 (1997)。〈樣本之抽取〉。《社會科學研究方法原理》，台灣，台北：洪葉文化事業有限公司。陳伯璋 (1988)。〈行動研究法〉。載於陳伯璋《教育研究法的新取向—質的研究方法》。台北：南宏。教育百科辭典 (1994)。教育百科辭典編審委員會主編。台北：五南。余樹德 (2001) 。《美育的革命》。香港美術教育協會。 Gardner, H. (1983/1993). Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic books. Gardner, H. (1982). Art mind, and brain: A cognitive approach to creativity. New York: Basic Books. Elliott, John (1988). What is action-research in schools? Victoria：Deakin University. 57 Mary, M. (1985). Creative activities for young children (3rd Ed.). Delmar Pubilsher. Amabile, T. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer-Verlag. Wood, Patricia (1988). Action Research：A field perspective. Journal of Education for Teaching.14(2) Sternberg, Robert J. (1996): How to develop student creativity. Alexandria,Va. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Stephanie, F. (1984). Who am I in the lives of children? An introduction to teaching young children. Englewood Cliff, N. J. Armstrong, Thomas (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Lowenfeld, V. (1957): Creative and mental growth. NY: Macmillan. 58 圖四學生作品—「我的老師」圖五學生作品—「快樂小丑的臉」 59 圖六學生作品—「我的家」圖七學生作品—「未完的故事」 60 圖八學生作品—「呆滯小丑的臉」圖九學生作品—「驚慌小丑的臉」 61 圖十學生作品—「未完的故事」圖十一學生作品—「舞者」 62 圖十二學生作品快照圖十三學生扮演故事中的惡貓 63 圖十四學生觀賞舞蹈影片 64 The Effects of Schools on Teachers' Feelings about School Life: A Multilevel Analysis PANG Sun Keung, Nicholas The Chinese University of Hong Kong A study of teachers’ feelings about school life is important for educational administrators and policy makers since school life will determine what teachers feel, which in turn determine what teachers do. When more literature on teachers’ school life and feelings accumulates, understandings of school processes and how to improve school will be better. An instrument, Teachers’ School Life Questionnaire, was developed for this study. LISREL and multilevel modeling techniques were used to analyse the data obtained from a sample of 554 teachers from 44 secondary schools. The major findings of the study indicate that school characteristics had more effects on teachers’ school life than did teacher characteristics and the four subscales of teachers’ feelings about school life were in a causal order as: order and discipline, sense of community, job satisfaction and teacher commitment with the former variable promoting the latter both directly and indirectly. In order to improve schools, besides the need to look into the cultural and informal world of values, norms and assumptions in schools, Rosenholtz and Simpson (1990), Schein (1990) and Reynolds and Packer (1992) called for a need for study of teachers’ psychology and feelings in the workplace. We truly need psychology to understand the deep structure of schools to have a thorough understanding of their cultures. When more literature on inter-group, psychological, and interpersonal processes accumulates, understandings of school processes and how to improve school will be better. Teachers’ psychology in the workplace will determine what they feel, which in turn determine what they do. According to the work of Lewin (1936, 1943), human behavior is the result of the relationship between an individual and the environment. The interaction between the person and the environment determines the patterns of feeling and behavior. The organizational environment may be a critical factor that affects teachers’ feelings and behavior. In the school workplace, the interaction between its organizational climate (the environment) and teachers’ feelings (the individuals) will determine teacher dedication (the behavior). In such interaction, order and discipline and sense of community are two important factors of school climate. Job satisfaction is an important element of teachers’ feelings and commitment is an important facet of teachers’ behavior. Order and discipline in schools is one of the major elements that determines school climate (Willower, Ediell & Hoy, 1967; Edmonds, 1979; Rutter et al., 1979; Stephens, 1988; Pang, 1992; Taylor & Tashakkori, 1994). The order and discipline maintained in a school’s building and classrooms communicates the seriousness and purposefulness of the school in approaching its tasks (Purkey & Smith, 1983, 1985). Good schools usually have good order and Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 65 discipline. If a school environment is noisy, distracting, or unsafe, student learning cannot take place. On the contrary, if rules are consistently and fairly enforced, not only behavioral problems that interfere with learning can be reduced but also this can promote organizational members’ feelings of pride and responsibility in the school community. Should a school be good or effective in teaching and learning, its general order and discipline needs to be properly maintained. Schools should also build feelings of community that contribute to reduce alienation (Newmann, Rutter & Smith, 1989) and increase performance of students and staff (Purkey & Smith, 1983, 1985). Sergiovanni (1994) puts it this way: Communities are socially organized around relationships and the felt interdependencies that nurture them. Instead of being tied together and tied to purposes by bartering arrangements, this social structure bonds people together in special ways and binds them to concepts, images, and values that comprise a shared idea or structure. (p. 217) Community, in this study, refers to “the collections of individuals who are together bound to a set of shared values.” By developing a sense of community, principals can crystallize the energy of the members of the school community to form a commitment to each other that builds the strength of organizational culture. In such a school, there is a mutuality that becomes the governing norm among teachers and there is a strong sense of solidarity (Calabrese & Barton, 1994, p. 2). Furthermore, when teachers have a strong sense of community in schools, they would have better feeling of job satisfaction (Lee, Dedrick & Smith, 1991) and commit themselves to both the school and its students. Job satisfaction and commitment to schools are the two important ingredients of teacher dedication. The former is psychological and the latter, behavioral. Smith, Kendall and Hulin’s (1969) conception of job satisfaction may be the most popular and widely accepted one. They define job satisfaction as “feelings or affective responses to facets of work situation” (1969, p. 6). Their definition of job satisfaction is found to be consistent with Sathe’s (1983) framework of diagnosing organizational culture, that is, organizational culture and job satisfaction are directly and closely related. According to Sathe’s interpretation of organizational culture which is defined as “something shared in common” and Smith, Kendall and Hulin’s conceptualization of job satisfaction which is referred to as “affective response to perceived difference between what is expected and what is actual,” it is contended that the higher the degree of sharing of organizational values between teachers and the school, the higher the level of job satisfaction will be experienced by the teachers. Thus it is postulated that there is a positive relationship between teacher job satisfaction level and the strength of organizational cultures. Commitment and job satisfaction are closely-knit concepts. Commitment results from the satisfaction that accrues from a job (Firestone & Rosenblum, 1988, p. 286). Rosenholtz and Simpson (1990, p. 241) argued that various qualities of the organizational context within which teachers work influence teachers’ commitment to their profession and to the schools in which they work. Teachers having low level of job satisfaction in a school for a long time will probably have low commitment in their jobs. As satisfaction declines, a person’s commitment shrivels until he/she changes work. Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979, p. 226) define organizational commitment as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization.” In this study, organizational commitment refers to “a sense of teacher loyalty to the school workplace and an identification with its values and 66 goals.” This type of commitment reflects an alignment between teachers’ and a school’s organizational values and needs, thereby resulting in a strong organizational culture in that school. Based on Lewin’s proposition that human behavior is a result of the relationship between an individual and the environment, an attempt was made to investigate teachers’ feelings of the environment and of them. It was postulated in this study that teachers’ feelings about school life were composed of four indicators, two of which were environmental and the other two, individual. Four subscales of teachers’ feelings about school life, which covered both environmental and individual dimensions, were proposed and developed as the observable and measurable indicators. On the environmental dimension, sense of community and order and discipline were the two proposed extrinsic factors of teachers’ feelings about school life, whereas on the individual dimension, job satisfaction and commitment were the two proposed intrinsic factors. Thus a major aim of this study was to test whether teacher’s feelings about school life were conformed to a one-factor model with four indicators. In addition, this study also attempted to answer three research questions as below: What were teachers’ general feelings about school life commonly found in schools? Were teachers’ feelings about school life related to school characteristics and teacher characteristics? What were the effects of school environment on teachers' individual feelings? METHODOLOGY A questionnaire method was employed in this study. In the absence of appropriate instrument to investigate the issues, an instrument, Teachers’ School Life Questionnaire (TSLQ), was created and developed for this study and designed to assess teachers’ feelings about school life. There were four different subscales of feelings about school life, including order and discipline, sense of community, job satisfaction and teacher commitment. Literature was the primary source of inspiration for the content areas covered by the school life items in the instrument. Respondents were simply asked to rate the school life items with the following instructions: What are your feelings about school life? Please indicate, in the space on the right hand side of each item, the degree you agree or disagree with the description. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree Nor Disagree Slightly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree The Development of the TSLQ The TSLQ was developed with two separate and randomly selected samples of teachers in two different phases: a pilot study and a main research. A total of 250 teachers from 14 randomly selected Hong Kong secondary schools took part in the pilot study. The development of the TSLQ in the pilot study succeeded in reducing the number of school life items from 96 to 44. As to the main research, the data was obtained from a sample of 554 teachers from 44 randomly selected secondary schools. In turn, the number of school life items was reduced to 24 in the main research. Principal component analyses (PCAs) (as means of data reduction), reliability tests (in computing the Cronbach’s Alphas of the 67 subscales) and correlations (in testing the validities of subscales) were involved in the development of the subscales. The four subscales of teachers’ feelings about school life developed with their Cronbach’s Alphas shown in brackets were: Teacher Commitment (0.76), Job Satisfaction (0.92), Sense of Community (0.85), and Order and Discipline (0.86). Table 1 shows the items of the four subscales of the TSLQ. 68 Table 1: Subscales and Items of the Teachers’ School Life Questionnaire Subscale F1: Teacher Commitment (α = 0.76) 1. I am willing to do extra work in order to help this school to be successful. 2. I find that there is no specific reason to invest extra time and effort in activities beyond the classroom borders. * 3. I express a high degree of commitment to the school. 4. I really care about the fate of this school. 5. I will help students to solve their problems, even after school time. Subscale F2: Job Satisfaction (α = 0.92) 1. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this school. 2. I would recommend this school to someone like myself as a good place to work. 3. I talk up this school to my friends as a great school to work for. 4. Deciding to work for this school was a definite mistake on my part. * 5. For me this is the best of all possible schools to work. 6. I have a sense of pride and belonging to the school. 7. This school really inspires me to give good job performance. Subscale F3: Sense of Community (α = 0.85) 1. In this school, the experienced teachers always help the new teachers to improve. 2. In this school, there is an active concern for others in the community. 3. Our teachers make an effort to know the students as individuals. This school is a “family” for all members. 4. Students, teachers, and administrators work cooperatively to make the school a better place in which to work and learn. 5. Staff in this school always shares their joys and difficulties. 6. The principal, administrators and teachers are close friends. 7. In this school, there is a strong sense of \"family\" among the staff members. Subscale F4: Order and Discipline (α = 0.86) 1. Our school has many discipline problems. * 2. Teachers are proud of the conduct of our students. 3. Our school has a high reputation among parents in terms of student behaviour. 4. The school is kept clean and littering is not a problem in our school. 5. Student attendance at our school is unsatisfactory. * Note. (1) \"α\" indicates the Cronbach's Alpha of the respective subscale. (2) “*” indicates a negative items. 69 A Confirmed One-Factor Model of Teachers’ Feelings about School Life After having developed the subscales of teachers’ school life to ensure their reliability and validity, LISREL confirmatory factor analytic modeling techniques using the PRELIS 2 and LISREL 8 computer programs (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993) were used to analyze the data and to test whether the four indicators, Teacher Commitment, Job Satisfaction, Sense of Community and Order and Discipline, were conformed to a one-factor model of teachers’ feelings about school life. A hypothetical model of teachers’ feelings about school life with the four indicator variables (X1 to X4) loaded on only one latent factor (ξ1) was proposed and tested. The one-factor model of teachers’ feelings about school life showed a close fit to the data and no modification of the model was needed. The confirmed one-factor model of teachers’ feelings about school life together with the estimated parameters is shown in Figure 1. The confirmed model showed that all the four indicators, Teacher Commitment (X1), Job Satisfaction (X2), Sense of Community (X3) and Order and Discipline (X4), loaded on the one and only one latent factor, Teachers’ Feelings about School Life (ξ1) (Pang, 1996). The goodness-of-fit indices for the confirmed one-factor model are given in Table 2. All the fit indices, including GFI, AGFI, NFI, NNFI, CFI, IFI and RFI, showed that the one-factor model was also very well fitted to the data with fit indices equal to 1.000 or above 0.990. The RMSR (0.00550) and the standardized RMSR (0.00636) of the confirmed model indicated that the remained unexplained variance and covariance of the model was very small. The confirmed model’s RMSEA (0.0) and the 90 percent confidence interval for RMSEA (0.0; 0.0529) also well supported that there was a close model-data congruence. 70 Figure 1. A Confirmed One-Factor Model of Teachers’ Feelings about School Life δ1 Teacher Commitment X1 = 0.71 λ11= 0.54 Job δ2 Satisfaction X2 λ21 = 0.93 = 0.13 Teachers’ Feelings about School Life Sense of λ31 = 0.67 ξ1 δ3 Community X3 = 0.56 λ41 =0.61 Order and δ4 Discipline X4 = 0.63 Note. Xs--observed variables; δs--error terms of X-variables; ξ1--latent variable; λij--factor loadings of X-variables on the latent variable. Table 2: Goodness-of-Fit Statistics of the Confirmed One-Factor Model of Teachers’ Feelings about School Life Chi-Square with 2 Degrees of Freedom = 0.368 (P = 0.832) Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 1.00 Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) = 0.998 Root Mean Square Residual (RMSR) = 0.00550 Standardized RMSR = 0.00636 Total Coefficient of Determination For X-variables = 0.895 Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 1.00 Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) = 1.000 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 1.000 Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 1.000 Relative Fit Index (RFI) = 0.999 Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.0 90 Percent Confidence interval for RMSEA = (0.0 ; 0.0529) P-value for Test of Close Fit (RMSEA < 0.05) = 0.943 71 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Teachers’ Feelings about School Life in Hong Kong Secondary Schools The study provides evidence to support that teachers’ feelings in the workplace at least had the four different dimensions: teacher commitment, job satisfaction, sense of community, and order and discipline. In the confirmed one- factor model of teachers’ school life, the total coefficient of determination for the model was 0.895, that is, 89.5% of the variance of teachers’ school life was accounted for by the model. The model reveals that the four indicators (Xs) loaded on the latent factor (ξ1) in a decreasing order of factor loadings as: Job Satisfaction (0.93), Sense of Community (0.67), Order and Discipline (0.61) and Teacher Commitment (0.54). Thus in determining teachers’ feelings about school life, job satisfaction was the most important ingredient, sense of community and order and discipline the next, and commitment the least. Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations of the four subscale scores of teachers’ school life on a scale of 1 to 7, with higher values indicating stronger feelings. In terms of degree of intensity of such feelings, Commitment (5.49) was the strongest, Job Satisfaction (4.68) and Sense of Community (4.52) the next, and Order and Discipline (4.25) the least. The findings show that teachers’ feeling of commitment in most of the 44 schools was stronger than the other three dimensions of feelings and its standard deviation was smaller than those of the other three dimensions as well. Teachers in most secondary schools were found to have strong feeling of commitment in their workplace. These findings seem to suggest that the Hong Kong teachers are hard working, ready to accept challenges and do their best for their children. The findings are also found to be consistent with Mowday, Steers and Porter’s (1979) postulation about the differences between commitment and job satisfaction, in which organizational commitment is more global, holistic and stable, whereas job satisfaction is more specific, fluctuating and less stable. Table 3: Means and Standard Deviations of the Subscale Scores of Teachers’ Feelings about School Life X-variable Mean SD Valid Cases Teacher Commitment 5.49 0.75 552 Job Satisfaction 4.68 1.16 550 Sense of Community 4.52 1.03 551 Order and Discipline 4.25 1.30 552 Variance Components Models Since this research study examined teachers’ school life, it was suspected that individual teacher’s responses to the questionnaire were not entirely independent but were influenced by the prevailing cultures in their schools. If organizational cultures of schools in part determine teacher responses to the questionnaires, teachers’ responses within a school would be more alike, on average, than responses from teachers in different schools. Teachers within a school would tend to share similar perceptions and feelings of school life. The data obtained from the random sample might exist in a hierarchical, nested structure with teachers at level-1 and schools at level-2. Failing to take account of the inherent multilevel structure of the data could result in difficulties to statistical conclusion validity. The common 72 difficulties were aggregation bias, undetected heterogeneity of regression, misestimates of parameters and their standard errors and increased probability of committing Type 1 errors (Aitkin & Longford, 1986; Goldstein, 1987; Lee & Bryk, 1989; Bryk & Raudenbush; 1992). In the study, after listwise deletion, there were 507 teachers clustered in 44 schools. The four teachers’ school life variables (including Teacher Commitment, Job Satisfaction, Sense of Community, and Order and Discipline) were all tested using variance components models. For these analyses, the multilevel analysis computer program MLwiN (Goldstein et al., 1998; Rasbash & Woodhouse, 1995; Woodhouse, 1995) was used. Results for the unstandardized variance components models of the four variables showing the grand means (γ00), school-level random coefficients (σ0 2), teacher-level random coefficient (σe 2), and intra-school correlation (ρ) are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Estimated Parameters of the Variance Components Models of Teachers’ Feelings about School Life Scale Grand Mean γ00 (SE) Between- School Variance σ0 2 (SE) Within- School Variance σe 2 (SE) Total Variance (σT 2 = σ0 2 + σe 2) % of Variance Between Schools % of Variance Within Schools Intra-school Correlation Teacher Commitment 5.507* (0.049) 0.054* (0.022) 0.523* (0.034) 0.577 9.36 90.64 0.094* Job Satisfaction 4.735* (0.108) 0.422* (0.109) 0.907* (0.060) 1.329 31.75 68.25 0.318* Sense of Community 4.549* (0.084) 0.233* (0.066) 0.809* (0.053) 1.042 22.36 77.64 0.224* Order and Discipline 4.327* (0.148) 0.877* (0.204) 0.791* (0.052) 1.668 52.58 47.42 0.526* Note. (a) Parameters which are statistically significant at or beyond the p < 0.05 α level by univariate two tailed tests are indicated with a (*). (b) Listwise sample size = 507 The findings indicate that the four variables of teachers’ school life were significantly dependent on the school contexts. The schools did have very strong effects on Order and Discipline (52.6% of the total variance), Job Satisfaction (31.8%), Sense of Community (22.4%) and Teacher Commitment (9.4%). Thus it was important to stress that under such circumstances multilevel analyses were essential if correct statistical and substantive conclusions were to be drawn from any subsequent explanatory modeling procedures. A comment should be made concerning the proportion of variance in order and discipline that was due to school effects. The findings show that schools did have an extraordinarily great effect on order and discipline with intra-school correlation of 0.526 (i.e., 52.6% of variance of order and discipline was due to school effects). Such a large school effect on order and discipline of schools might be due to the fact that school order and discipline was closely related to pupils’ academic abilities and the fact that under the Secondary School Places Allocation System (Education Department, 1992) before the year 2002 in Hong Kong, primary 6 pupils of similar academic abilities (banding) were allocated together to a school. At that moment, when all primary 6 pupils were promoted to secondary schools in a 73 district, they were divided into five equal bands according to their academic abilities. Band 1 pupils were the more able ones, while Band 5 pupils were the least able. In the System, pupils were allocated to schools according to their preference and their positions in the banding. Thus schools competed among themselves to attract pupils by their history, academic performance in external examinations and their reputations in the community at large. Usually schools enrolled pupils of similar abilities. Based on these, schools could be divided into Band 1 to Band 5 schools roughly and informally. In a study of school discipline climate, Pang (1992) showed that order and discipline and banding values in the Form 1 pupil intake were strongly associated and those schools of poor banding values usually had more discipline problems among pupils. “Band 5 schools” in Hong Kong were widely recognized as the more problematic schools in terms of both pupils’ learning attitudes and behavior (Pang, 1999). Thus it was the SSPA system in Hong Kong that determined the general pupil ability grouping in schools, which in turn, determined the general order and discipline in schools. Simple Multilevel Regression Analyses To estimate the proportion of variance in the four obtained variables due to the effects of the related variables of interest, for example, school and teacher demographic characteristics, and to take account of the sampling structure of the data, simple multilevel regression models were fitted to the sample data. For these models the four variables were treated as response variables (Yij) for teacher i in school j separately. The demographic data of teachers, including sex (X1), age (X2), rank (X3), post (X4), teaching experience (X5), number of years in the present school (X6) and teacher’s religious affiliation (X7), and the demographic data of schools, including district (Z1-Z2), type of school (Z3-Z4), history (Z5), banding values in the Form 1 pupil intake (Z6), school’s religious affiliation (Z7), and whether or not in the School Management Initiative (SMI) scheme (Z8) before the year 2000, were entered as the explanatory variables. The simple multilevel regression models can be represented by the following two equations: Level 1: Yij = β0j(X0) + β1j(X1ij) + β2j(X2ij) + ..... + βPj(XPij) + α1j(Z1ij) + α2j(Z2ij) + ... + αQj(ZQij) + eij [1] Level 2: β0j = γ00 + µ0j [2] where it is assumed that eij ~ NID(0, σe 2) and µ0j ~ NID(0, σ0 2) (where NID means normal and independent distribution). The two random terms (eij and µ0j) represent the sum of all influences on Yij other than those of the explanatory variables. γ00 is the average intercept across the schools. The intercept β0j in the within-school relationship is the average change in the outcome (Yij) for each unit of change in the explanatory variables (X1-X7 and Z1-Z8) jointly. The regression coefficients βpj , p = 0, ...., P, and αqj , q = 0, ...., Q, indicate how the outcome is distributed in school j as a function of both of the measured teacher (Ps) and school (Qs) characteristics. For notation consistency, the intercept is written as X0 (= 1). In the estimations, all the explanatory variables were put into the first round model to check whether they were significant at 0.05 level of confidence. Those variables which were found to be statistically insignificant were eliminated and the remaining significant ones were put into the second round of model fitting. The parameter estimates (βs, αs, eij and µ0j) for the solutions to the multilevel models under iterative generalized least squares (IGLS) estimation are provided in Table 5. Table 5 shows that, overall, more school characteristics did have effects on teachers’ school 74 life than teacher characteristics. The findings for teachers’ feelings about school life which were significant at 0.05 confidence level are summarized in Tables 6(a) and 6(b). A general discussion of these significant findings, focusing on the effects of school and teacher characteristics on various teachers’ school lives, is provided below. 75 Table 5: Variation in the Subscales of Teachers’ Feelings about School Life, Showing Multilevel (ML) Solutions, Fitted Estimatesa with Standard Errors in Parentheses (N=507 teachers, from 44 schools) Explanatory Variables Response Variables: Teachers’ School Life FIXED: Teacher Commitment Job Satisfaction Sense of Community Order and Discipline γoo Constant 3.202 (0.573)* 5.700 (0.181)* 4.439 (0.064)* 4.528 (0.400)* School Level: Z1 District 1 (1=N.T., 2=Kln.) -- 0.522 (0.148)* -- -- Z2 District 2 (1=N.T., 2=H.K.) -- 0.578 (0.144)* -- -- Z3 Type 1 (1=Co-ed, 2=Girls) -- -- 0.663 (0.255)* Z4 Type 2 (1=Co-ed, 2=Boys) -- -- -- -- Z5 History 0.006 (0.001)* -- -- -- Z6 Banding (Band 1 - Band 5) -0.076 (0.026)* -0.308 (0.042)* -- -0.582 (0.066)* Z7 Religious Affiliation (1=Without, 2=With) -- -0.269 (0.080)* -- -- Z8 School Management Initiative Scheme (1=Non-SMI, 2=SMI) before the year 1998 -- -- -- -- Teacher Level: X1 Sex (1=Male, 2=Female) -- -- -- -- X2 Age -- -- -- -- X3 Rank (1=Non-promoted, 2=Promoted) 0.197 (0.085)* -- -- -- X4 Post (1=Non-administrative, 2=Administrative) 0.180 (0.083)* -- -- -- X5 Teaching Experience -- -- -- -- X6 No. of Years Served in the Present School -- -- 0.019 (0.006)* -- X7 Religious Affiliation (1=Without, 2=With) -- -- -- -0.177 (0.084)* Per Cent of Variance Explained b 13.2 % 40.2 % 31.1 % 39.7 % RANDOM: Between-school Variance - σ0 2 0.0072 (0.0106) 0.054 (0.026)* 0.083 (0.030)* 0.249 (0.069)* Within-school Variance - σe 2 0.494 (0.032)* 0.742 (0.049)* 0.634 (0.042)* 0.756 (0.050)* Intra-school correlation 0.014 0.068 0.116 0.248 Notes: a “--” denotes an insignificant parameter; therefore the estimate is not reported. If reported, coefficients which are statistically significant at or beyond the p < 0.05 level are indicated with a (*). b The proportion of variance explained was calculated by taking the difference between the variance in the components model and the variance in the regression model. 76 History, banding value, teacher rank and type of post were the explanatory variables of teacher commitment in the school workplace. The findings show that schools with a longer history and better Form 1 pupil intake had highly committed teachers. The findings also indicate that schools which had better intakes of pupils had highly committed teachers and schools which had low ability pupils had teachers who were less committed. Similar findings were obtained in Kushman’s (1992, p. 36) study: schools serving disadvantaged students engendered less teacher commitment to the school workplace, even though these were the schools where such commitment was arguably most important. In terms of teacher characteristics, the findings indicate that if teachers were promoted and/or had some sort of administrative work besides teaching, they were more highly committed in their work. Altogether, 13.2% of variance in teacher commitment was jointly accounted for by the factors. Table 6(a): School Effects on Teachers’ Feelings about School Life School Characteristics Effects 1. Location (Kln. vs. NT) Teachers from Kowloon district had higher job satisfaction than teachers from the New Territories. 2. Location (HK vs. NT) Teachers from Hong Kong Island had higher job satisfaction than teachers from the New Territories. 3. Type Teachers from girls schools had stronger feelings of order and discipline than teachers from co-educational schools. 4. History Teachers from schools having a longer history had stronger commitment than teachers from schools having a shorter history. 5. Banding Teachers from schools with lower banding values in the Form 1 pupil intake had stronger commitment and job satisfaction than did teachers from schools with higher banding values. The order and discipline in schools of lower banding values was also better than in schools of higher ones. 6. Religious Affiliation Teachers from schools with a religious affiliation had weaker job satisfaction than teachers from schools without a religious affiliation. Table 6(b): Effects of Teacher Characteristics on Teachers’ Feelings about School Life Teacher Characteristics Effects 1. Rank Promoted teachers had stronger commitment than non-promoted teachers. 2. Post Teachers with administrative duties had stronger commitment than teachers without administrative duties. 3. Period of Service in the Present School Teachers with a longer employment history in the present schools had stronger sense of community than teachers with a shorter employment history. 4. Religious Affiliation Teachers with a religious affiliation had weaker feelings of order and discipline than teachers without a religious affiliation. 77 School district, banding values in the Form 1 pupil intake and schools religious background were the major explanatory variables of teacher job satisfaction. All these factors jointly accounted for 40.2% of the variance in job satisfaction. The findings show that the poorer the quality of pupils in a school, the less satisfaction the teachers had. Teachers from schools located in Kowloon and on Hong Kong Island were more satisfied with their work than those from schools in the New Territories. Again it was a factor related to the quality of pupils. It had long been known that schools in the New Territories had a larger proportion of problem pupils. Most families from the New Territories were of low socio-economic status. Many schools in this district were newly established and therefore had a shorter history. Many teachers from schools in the New Territories always claimed that they had pupils of lower ability groups as compared to those schools in Kowloon or on Hong Kong Island. The results of this study are congruent with Sweeney’s (1982) study of teacher satisfaction which showed that teachers who worked with high ability students were more satisfied than colleagues who taught average ability level students and the least satisfied were those teaching low ability level students. Moreover, teachers from schools with religious backgrounds were less satisfied than teachers from schools without religious backgrounds. Teachers from schools with religious backgrounds had higher expectations of the schools than their counterparts. When these high expectations were not fulfilled, higher level of dissatisfactions resulted. For sense of community in the schools, only the period of service in the present schools by teachers was an explanatory variable. This factor accounted for 31.1% of the variance in sense of community. The longer the time the teachers had taught in the present schools, the stronger was their sense of community. Good order and discipline was found in girls’ schools and schools with better Form 1 pupil intakes, these results being consistent with Pang’s (1992) study which investigated the discipline climate of schools in Hong Kong. However, teachers who had a religious affiliation were found to have worse ratings of the order and discipline in schools. It may be due to the fact that teachers who had a religious affiliation had higher expectations of the schools and therefore were more easily dissatisfied with the order and discipline of their schools. All these factors jointly accounted for 39.7% of variance in order and discipline of the schools. Lastly, a comment should be given to the effects from the school-based management scheme (Education and Manpower Branch & Education Department, 1991)--the School Management Initiative (SMI)--in Hong Kong schools. The SMI, issued in March 1991, was a document to identify failures in the education system of Hong Kong and to bring about management reforms in schools. The findings show that, during the period from 1991 to 2000, the SMI scheme did not bring about changes in the relationships between teachers and the schools and the SMI schools had not brought teachers better general feelings about school life. That is, the SMI scheme had no effects on schools’ order and discipline and the unity of community, and had no effects on teachers’ job satisfaction and commitment. The SMI scheme did not improve the order and discipline and sense of community in schools, both of which are the processes of school cultures. Even worse, the SMI scheme did not enhance teachers’ job satisfaction and commitment in the workplace as compared to their counterparts. Another study by Pang (1998a) shows that the SMI scheme did only urge schools to clarify their goals, redefine the roles and duties of staff, improve the communication systems and use resources effectively. In that sense, school effectiveness was not promised without teachers being more committed to the organizations and the processes of teaching and learning. The SMI brought about structural changes in the schools, but not cultural ones. A cultural change should be a fundamental change in values and value orientation and a change of 78 attitude and mentality in the schools (Pang, 1998b), but these were not seen in the SMI schools. Thus the promised success of the SMI for educational reforms and leading the schools toward effectiveness or excellence were not fulfilled during the years from 1991 to 2000. In summary, teachers’ feelings about school life were largely and significantly affected by school characteristics, for example, school location, type of schools (girls’ or co-educational), history, religious affiliation and banding value in Form 1 pupil intake. However, not all these characteristics can be changed and manipulated by the school administrators and teachers. What they can change or manage are to adopt those strategies to enhance the schools’ reputation to parents through raising the academic standards in external examinations and improving students’ conduct and behavior both inside and outside the schools. These strategies allow them to compete for the more able pupils in the Form 1 pupil intake. A Recursive Model of Teachers' Feelings about School Life Having confirmed the one-factor model of teachers’ feelings about school life and having examined their relationships with school and teacher characteristics, an attempt was made to investigate the effects of school climate on teachers’ feelings and behavior. According to Lewin’s model (1936, 1943), human behavior is the result of the relationship between an individual and the environment. It is postulated in this study that the school organizational environment is a critical factor that affects teachers’ feelings and behavior. In the school workplace, the interaction between its organizational climate (the environment) and teachers’ feelings (the individuals) will determine teacher dedication (the behavior). In such interaction, order and discipline and sense of community are two important factors of school climate. Job satisfaction is an important element of teachers’ feelings and commitment is an important facet of teachers’ behavior. Path analysis was used to test a hypothetical recursive model of teachers’ school life shown in Figure 2. Path analysis enabled the assessment of the direct causal contribution of environmental factors to teachers’ feelings and behavior. The model involved variables of two kinds: explanatory variables and dependent variables. The dependent variables were to be accounted for by the explanatory variables. Thus the approach was that of estimating the coefficients of a set of linear structural equations, representing the explanatory and dependent relationships hypothesized in Figure 2. Again, use was made of the multilevel analysis computer program MLwiN for these analyses. 79 Figure 2. A Hypothetical Recursive Model Showing the Relationship of School Environment and Teachers’ Feelings and Behavior School Climate Teachers' Feelings Teachers' Behavior Order and γ21 Sense of γ32 Job γ43 Teacher Discipline Community Satisfaction Commitment Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 γ31 γ42 γ41 Note. Ys are the subscales of teachers’ feelings about school life; γ is the regression coefficient of a variable on the other. The arrows indicate the direction of the effects, being from tails to heads. The main concern in this paper was about relationships among the variables: (i) the school and teacher “effects” on teachers’ school life and (ii) the “causal” effects of teachers’ feelings about school life described in the form of a recursive model. A cautionary note should be made with respect to the terms, “effects” and “causal relationships” postulated in this paper. Since the statistical data in this study were a “snap-shot” and therefore cross-sectional in nature, there was no way that the data could suggest the directionality of the relationships as implied in the above model. However, based on theories in the literature, it could be postulated that school and teacher characteristics could account for the variances in teachers’ school life and specifically that, teachers’ feelings about school life were connected in the recursive model (causes and effects). The analysis of the data was designed to shed light on the question of whether or not these hypotheses were consistent with the data. If relationships were inconsistent with the data, doubt would be cast on the theories that had generated them. Consistency of the assumptions with the data, however, would not necessarily constitute a proof of the directionality of the causal relationships, but at least it would lend support to it. The hypotheses would have survived the test if they had not been disconfirmed. Figure 3 shows the results of the analyses and the effects of school environmental factors on teachers’ feelings and behavior. All effect coefficients shown in Figure 3 are positive and statistically significant, while the insignificant coefficients are not shown. The causal relationships among the school life variables are arranged in the following ways: (1) enforced school order and discipline promotes teacher sense of community and job satisfaction; (2) strong sense of community in schools enhances teacher job satisfaction; and (3) teacher job satisfaction increases teacher commitment. Thus the four school life variables are in a causal order as: order and discipline, sense of community, job satisfaction and teacher commitment with the former variable promoting the latter, both directly and indirectly. It is to remind that the \"causal relationships” among the variables in the recursive model were led by theories and had not be disconfirmed 80 by the data. However, when interpreting the findings, we should be aware of the limitation arising from the cross- sectional nature of the data. Increasing attention has been paid in many schools to improving the working conditions of teachers. Commitment to their schools and satisfaction with their jobs are important ingredients in teacher motivation. While the literature on teacher job satisfaction does not allow one to assume that satisfaction is directly tied to commitment (Lester, 1988), Kushman's (1992, p. 24) study found that organizational commitment is strongly associated with job satisfaction and that teacher commitment to the school depends to a high degree on satisfaction with their teaching duties. The recursive model shows that the effect coefficient of job satisfaction on teacher commitment is 0.50, while other variables had no effects on it. Thus when the desire is to enhance teacher commitment, overall job satisfaction in the workplace should be the first factor to consider. Enhanced teacher commitment may link to school effectiveness in at least two ways (Kushman, 1992, p. 11): (1) commitment reflects teachers’ willingness to go beyond the minimum role requirements of the job, to seek solutions to educational problems, and to ensure that all students succeed and (2) commitment will result in reduced staff turnover. Figure 3. A Recursive Model of Teachers' Feelings about School Life School Climate Teachers' Feelings Teachers' Behavior Order and 0.49 Sense of 0.47 Job 0.50 Teacher Discipline Community Satisfaction Commitment (14.0%) (53.1%) (25.2%) 0.35 Note. Parameter estimates are provided as standardised regression weights (betas) from multilevel analyses. Percentages are given as the percentages of variance accounted for by the explanatory variable(s). The recursive model also shows that the two ways to enhance teacher job satisfaction, inter alia, include fostering sense of community and enforcing order and discipline. Maehr and his colleagues’ (1990) findings, in which the level of teacher job satisfaction was found strongly related to teacher autonomy, sense of community, principal’s leadership, and order and discipline, support the results. Schools where there is a stronger sense of community have more satisfied teachers. On the other hand, schools with less orderly environments are likely to have less satisfied teachers. As the organizational climate of schools becomes more open, orderly and when there is a strong sense of unity, the level of teacher satisfaction increases (Grassie & Carss, 1973; Miskel & Ogawa, 1988). 81 Sense of community is one of the important factors that determine school social environment. “Community” and “organizational culture” are actually the two sides of a coin, which we can feel differently. When there is a strong sense of community, faith, trust, confidence, and acceptance of each other is often the result (Rousseau, 1991). When there is a strong organizational culture, there is a strong sense of solidarity (Calabrese, 1994) and a community of mind will be developed (Sergiovanni, 1994). By developing a sense of community through the building of a strong organizational culture, a mutuality that becomes the governing norm of relationships among teachers and school administrators will be developed. Thus when the school community perpetuates, both teacher satisfaction and commitment continue to be maintained at a high level. Order and discipline is another important factor that constitutes the school social environment. Some research on effective schools (Edmonds, 1979; Wynne, 1981; Lasley & Wayson, 1982; Firestone & Rosenblum, 1988) has concluded that one of the most important indicators of successful school is the presence of good order and discipline. Perhaps the most important aspect of schools’ learning climate is the discipline climate (Kushman, 1992; Pang, 1992), that is, students’ behavior and discipline practices that support an orderly and academic environment. Without the maintenance of some degree of order and discipline, educational processes cannot proceed at all. A disruptive climate will interrupt the flow of instruction and teaching then becomes secondary to maintaining classroom order. This frustrates teachers, and frustration leads to loss of sense of community, job satisfaction and commitment. Thus maintaining a good discipline climate that supports productive teaching appears to be essential in building job satisfaction and organizational commitment. CONCLUSIONS Attempts were made to analyse and understand the psychological states of teachers in schools and their general feelings towards school life. Based on Lewin’s model of human behavior, in which human behavior is the result of the relationship between an individual and the environment, attempts were made to examine the school and teacher effects on teachers’ school life and the causal relationships among the school life variables. To fulfil the purposes of the research, a standardized instrument--the Teachers’ School Life Questionnaire (TSLQ)--was developed. The questionnaire had been developed with various statistics involving principal component analysis and LISREL modeling techniques and with different samples of teachers from the Hong Kong secondary schools. The instrument, the diverse samples of teachers and the statistical methods employed render the investigations of teachers’ psychology and feelings in the workplace justifiable and reliable. Multilevel analysis was also used to analyze the data, because the data were hierarchical in nature. The use of multilevel analysis in testing the explanatory models of teachers’ school life allowed the researcher to avoid Type I errors, aggregation bias and undetected heterogeneity of regressions in the results and also allowed to account for the multilevel effects. In analysing the data from 554 teachers from 44 randomly selected secondary schools in Hong Kong, a confirmatory one-factor model of teachers’ feelings about school life was obtained. Within the model, 89.5% of the variance in teachers’ feelings about school life were accounted for. It is evident that teachers’ feelings about school life could be distinguished into four kinds as indicated by the observed variables, that is: order and discipline, sense of 82 community, job satisfaction and teacher commitment. School characteristics had more direct relationships with teachers’ school life than did teacher characteristics. That is, it did matter which school a teacher went to. A recursive model of teachers’ feelings about school life was developed in this study. The model postulated that the “causal effects” existed among the school life variables. The findings show that order and discipline in schools generally had a positive effect on the sense of community and job satisfaction; sense of community in schools directly enhanced job satisfaction which, in turn, promoted teacher commitment. These causal relationships were led by theories and the data collected were used to test such relationships. This study shows that the model had not been disconfirmed by the data, therefore the causal relationships postulated were not disconfirmed as well. If values in general are manifestations of forces that drive behavior, then feelings, on which all values are based, also give an impetus to behavior. The interaction of teachers’ feelings and experiences with their personal values and schools’ espoused values will determine what they do and how they behave in schools. In view of the findings in this study, a study of teachers’ psychology and feelings in the workplace is important for educational administrators and policy makers, since teachers’ psychology and feelings may have impacts on teachers’ responses and behavior to the general administration and management practices in schools and on their responses to the teaching and learning processes in classrooms. 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Phi Delta Kappan, 62(5), 377-81. 85 「時段編課方式」1（Block Scheduling）的研究和香港經驗張國華香港大學教育學院「時段編課方式」近年開始在美國確認為主流教育制度。剛巧香港有個別中、小學在過去一、兩年開始實踐這種授課方式。本文的作用，在於檢視美國在這方面的爭論，和介紹一間學校在這方面的嘗試。全文大致分為下面幾部份。第一部份介紹「時段編課方式」在美國的源起、理念和在這方面有關的研究和爭論。第二部份介紹本港四間學校在這方面的經驗。第三部份討論如何把有關經驗引進香港。一. 源起一般認為，「時段編課方式」的源起，可追溯自一九八三年美國政府發表的「面對危機的國家」（A Nation at Risk）。報告質疑當時美國教育制度的效能，並提出美國要在對學生期望、課程內容和上課時間方面迎頭趕上。現在回頭看來，當時對時間上的看法，比較簡單。報告基本上只是要求學校增加學生在校的學習時間；報告書甚至具體的提議「學區和州立法當局應該要求每天在校七小時，每學年上課 200 或 220 天」，這些想法，後來被認為不設實際。聯邦政府後來特別成立國家教育委員會，專門研究學校上課時間的安排和學習的關係，並於一九九四年發表為「時間的囚徒」(Prisoners of Time)報告。報告指出，美國的公立教育，受制於時間表和校曆表的支配，而從不為教育界人士醒覺。過往的教育，只著重鼓勵學生在有限的時間空間內儘量學習，並錯誤地假設不同的學生，都可以在這種傳統所設訂的空間（在美國而言，指四十五至五十分鐘）內學習。委員會結論，是呼籲要「結束時間教育的控制權」，並把對時間運用的主動權，還給教育（National Commission on Time & Learning , 1994）。這個報告，引起不同州政府對時間運用的重視，例如麻省政府，成立 Massachusetts Commission on Time and Learning，並於九五年發表名為「發揮時間的威力」（Unlocking the Power of Time）報告。報告的基調，在於討論如何有效的運用每一日和每一學年，以及相關的配套措施（The Massachusetts Commission on Time and Learning，1995）。不過，在國家的層面，所鼓勵的，是彈性的時間表安排（flexible scheduling）。這種彈性安排，可以有如下的體現。 1 Block Scheduling 在台灣一些文獻中有數個譯名，如「時段排課方式」（劉慶仁，2000）、「區段行事曆」（單小琳，2000）等。香港暫時並沒有正式的譯名，筆者嘗試翻譯為「時段編課方式」，但筆者對此譯名仍不滿意。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 86 1. 隔日制：學生每兩天進修六至八科； 2. 4 x 4：學生每天上課，每課長約九十分鐘，這亦是後面將會較詳細討論的「時段編課方式」； 3. 密集課程制：整個學年複式一連串的暑期密集課程。這裡又可有不少變化，如學生可每天上一節四小時的課，連續上三十天，又或每天上兩節每節二小時的課； 4. 三學期制：這個方法是把整個學年分成每十二星期一學期的三學期制，學校於每學期內又可設計出不同的上課組合。筆者在這裡無意討論上面四種彈性授課時間安排，不過，自九四年「時間的囚徒」報告發表後，教育界接納更好好運用教學時間這點想法。這個理念後來被運用在不同的領域，亦化成不同的改革和行動方案。例如，九九年聯邦教育部一份針對提高高校學術水平的報告中，便花了整章討論彈性授課安排可以帶來的好處（Visher & Hudis，1999，頁 66-73）。一般而言，彈性授課安排是這方面較為成熟的討論，亦較為人所接納。而在彈性授課中，「時段編課方式」又是其中最流行的方式。Cawelti 於一九九四年發表的一份報告，聲稱當時全美有百分之四十的學校，採納了某種方式的「時段編課方式」。這個數字是否準確，不在這裡考慮之列，但這足以說明這是一種值得我們注意的教學安排趨勢。二. 研究和爭論關注「時段編課方式」的研究，主要有兩方面。第一方面是「時段編課方式」對學生學習成效的研究，第二是在學校裡關於推動「時段編課方式」的討論。正如文首所述，美國推動「時段編課方式」的背景，在於擔心學生的學習水平。因此，學術界對於「時段編課方式」對學生的學習成效，進行了大量研究。總括而言，現時仍未能完全證明「時段編課方式」對學生的學習成效完全有幫助。這方面的研究，頗有分歧。 Marchant & Paulson 曾深入訪問美國中西部二千多名高中學生。大部份高中學生都同意「時段編課方式」使他們的學習興趣增加，並認為這種學習方式可以幫助他們更好好的掌握有關學科知識。他們也發現有少部份學生並不歡迎這種教學方法，主要是因為教師仍以演講法授課，他們未能適應（Marchant & Paulson，2001）。 Hall-Turner & State 曾對喬治亞州一間小學的三、四和五級學生進行調查。他們把學生分成二組，其中一組接受傳統的時間表，另外一組則採取「時段編課方式」上課；一年後，他們著學生參加一個名為 Iowa Tests of Basic Skills 的考核。他們發現這批學生在閱讀和數學能力等方面，沒有顯著的不同。類似的互相矛盾研究結果，比比皆是。大致上的情況是，如果純以量度學生學習成果的測量工具，則學生在傳統教學法和「時段編課方式」的表現實在差異不大（Deuel，99 等）。但如連學生的出席率、秩序，老師的反應也計算在內，則一般而言，「時段編課方式」可以有不錯的學習效果（Khazzaka，1998；Veal & Flinders， 2001）。 Veal & Flinders 的發現，對我們進一步了解有效推動「時段編課方式」有一定參考作用。Veal & Flinders 的研究，是把教師有否因為推動「時段編課方式」而改變授課方式﹑教師有否為如此改變感到焦慮和師生關係等考慮在內。研究者指出教師往往會因為實施了「時段編課方式」而採納了不同的教學方式，如他們較多採用了專題學習、合作學習和個別學習等方法。研究人員亦發現師生關係亦因此而得到改善。但同時間也有教師表 87 示在個別的學科內容裡，教師會因為恐怕對教學時間的控制出現差錯，而更會依賴演講法來進行授課，因而影響了教學效果。 Veal & Flinders 等的研究，指出一個更重要的問題，就是只是引進「時段編課方式」本身，而沒有其他配套措施，並不能提高教學質素和效果。這也是筆者準備轉向準備討論這方面的第二組文章。這組文章，主要集中討論如何推動「時段編課方式」。 Cunningham 等學者指出，要「時段編課方式」得到成功，必須要有六種條件： 1. 教師的投入和擁有感（ownership）； 2. 學生和家長的投入和擁有感； 3. 充足的教師發展計劃。作者指出教師必須懂得如何運用下列的教學方法和工具，以充份發揮「時段編課方式」的優點：熱身；容許學生在班房內移動；合作學習；多媒體中心；電腦室；錄影；其他教學媒體；大組討論；互動性演講；綜合性課程；友儕教學；引導式實踐和遊戲或學習等活動； 4. 充足的規劃時間； 5. 分享成功經驗和問題的機會； 6. 教師教學和學生學習的評估（Cunningham 等，1996）；其中推動「時段編課方式」最不遺餘力的，是北卡州大學一位講座教授 Queen, J.Allen，他就這個題材已出版了不少專書和論文（Queen & Gaskey, 1997,1999; Queen & Isenhour, 1998a, 1998b; Queen, Algozzine & Eaddy, 1997a, 1997b; Queen, Algozzine & Isenhour, 1999; Queen, 2001）。 Queen 於 2000 年發表了一份專論，檢討美國過去約十年推動「時段編課方式」的成效。他雖然同意越來越多人採用這種授課模式，也有數據說明教師平均有七成時間在這種模式內採用互動式教學方法。（Queen , 2000:3）但他同時也十分擔心不少人只是形式上把授課時間拉長，把授課節數減少；而沒有相應的改變授課形式。後者往往是前者成功的必要因素。 Queen 亦指出「時段編課方式」，並不是一種直接提高學生學習能力的工具。因此，他說如果單只比較實施「時段編課方式」前後的學生成績，未必能得到好成績，但他也引用了不少研究，說明學校一旦採用「時段編課方式」後，教師較為傾向同時轉用更多樣化的授課形式。但他也同時警告學校內的老師未能轉用較互動的教學方法，教學只是浮光掠影。他又提出教師如要發揮「時段編課方式」，必須懂得下列技能： 1. 設計一個九週的教學設計進度計劃，這個進度必須連每週和每天的進度都包括在內； 2. 運用不同教學策略的能力； 3. 懂得如何去設計一個能容許最大的學習彈性和創造力的環境； 4. 有意願和能力去成為一個有效的班房管理人員； 5. 有自由去與不同人分享學與教的經驗（Queen，2000:9）。有趣的是，Queen 上面所說的五點，除了第一點外，都與「時段編課方式」沒有直接（intrinsic）關係。因此，「時段編課方式」和靈活互動教學法是孿生兄弟，教師本來就應該懂得和樂意運用靈活互動的教學法；但學校也應該同時創造能鼓勵這種教學法的環境，而似乎「時段編課方式」就是這樣的一種環境。 88 Queen 亦自編網頁，推動「時段編課方式」(http://www.blockscheduling.com)。不過，亦有人十分反對政府推動「時段編課方式」，有家長甚至自設網頁，羅列各種認為「時段編課方式」並不比傳統授課安排有更好效果的研究結果，以說明「時段編課方式」是一種沒有科學根據的意見。(http://www.jefflindsay.com/Block.shtml) 三. 香港一小學經驗筆者曾到幾間正在實行「時段編課方式」的中學和小學，進行個案研究•限於篇幅，下面只能討論一小學個案• 樂民小學2上午校是一所政府津貼的半日制學校，創校於 1979 年。從 2001-02 學年開始，採用新時間表編制，將原來每天 7 節課，重整為每天 5 節。校長表示，隨著取消學能測驗及教育改革的推行，學校感到更改時間表編制是為學校改革踏出第一步；同時，家長亦期望學校多辦課外活動，發展全人教育，以適應社會的急劇轉變。因此，重整時間表是勢在必行的。醞釀過程時間表的重整，校長扮演著啟動的角色。在 2000 年 9 月，校長於學校行政會議上建議，把每天節數減少，延長每節課的教學時間。經過數次的會議及吸取其他學校的經驗後，學校的管理層初步同意校長的建議。決定改革後，校長及副校長著手游說科主任及老師，並安排老師參觀實行新時間制的學校。為了增加老師的信心，校長在校務會議上與老師一起訂立改革原則： (1)平均分配每老師每天一節空堂； (2)中文科每星期 6 節； (3)英文科每星期 6 節； (4)數學科每星期 4 節； (5)常識科每星期 3 節； (6)美術、音樂、體育、宗教、普通話、電腦及輔導課每星期 1 節； (7)圖書課 1/8 節。決定重整時間表後，學校成立兩個專責小組，負責星期一至星期五的時間表及星期六的課外活動安排，初擬後再讓老師回應。有部份老師表示，擔心低年級學生因課時延長而難以集中專注力；數學科老師也擔心減少節數會影響教學，因數學科學習必須循序漸進，不能省卻某些課題；有老師亦建議星期六只有中、英、數堂或美、勞、體堂，但也有老師覺得不適合。校長表示，在討論過程中，老師並沒有明確表示贊成或反對，他們反而擔心家長會否接納，亦因此曾有老師提議將計劃擱置。籌備過程經過多番的討論及綜合老師的意見後，學校決定落實更改時間表編制。於 2001 年 4 月，兩個專責小組草擬了一份新時間表，每節 45 分鐘，讓行政組及各老師檢討。期間，學校曾討論使用循環週，但經投票表決後，學校決定使用星期制，因為老師認為循環制對小學生而言太複雜。經過行政組討論後，新時間表正式落實。 2 這是一間真實學校的化名。 89 表一 00/01 學年時間表範例（重整前）時間一二三四五六星期六時間 8:00-8:15 班主任課 8:15-8:45 中 TV 中默英 TV 常 TV 普圖 8:00-8:30 8:45-9:15 數數中英常 9:15-9:45 英默音數英宗數 8:30-9:10 9:45-10:00 小息 9:10-9:25 10:00-10:35 宗英常中數 10:35-11:05 美體音體英英 9:25-10:05 11:05-11:20 小息 11:20-11:55 美常中作數中中 10:05-10:45 11:55-12:30 美常中作音書法課外活動 11:00-12:00 表二 01/02 學年時間表範例（重整後）時間一二三四五六星期六時間 8:00-8:15 班主任課 8:15-9:00 英中英數英中文活動/ 英文活動 8:00-9:05 9:00-9:15 小息 9:05-9:25 9:15-10:00 常英中中中默 10:00-10:45 體音美英電美術勞作/ 音樂/體育 9:25-10:30 10:45-11:00 小息 10:30-10:50 11:00-11:45 中數英默宗常 11:45-12:30 中普數常數課外活動 10:50-11:55 90 表三時間表重整前與重整後的比較重整前重整後 1. 時間表（每週） - 每週上課節數(長週計) 38 節 25 節 - 每日一般上課節數 7 節 5 節 - 每節一般時間 35 分鐘 45 分鐘 - 週六上課活動日 - 編制星期制星期制 2. 各科節數（每週） (節/百分比) - 中文 9-10 (23%) 6 (24%) - 英文 7-9 (21%) 6 (24%) - 數學 6 (15%) 4 (16%) - 常識 5 (13%) 3 (12%) - 美勞 3 (7%) 1 (4%) - 音樂 2 (5%) 1 (4%) - 體育 2 (5%) 1 (4%) - 普通話 1 (2.6%) 1 (4%) - 宗教/德育 2 (5%) 1 (4%) - 電腦/圖書 0 (0%) 1 (4%) 合共 38 節 (100%) 25 節 (100%) 3. 其他 - 班主任課每天 15 分鐘每天 15 分鐘 - 小息星期一至五：每天 2 節，每節 15 分鐘星期六：1 節，15 分鐘星期一至五：每天 2 節，每節 15 分鐘星期六：2 節，每節 20 分鐘比較重整前與重整後的時間表，學校由每天 7 節，每節 30 分鐘，改為每天 5 節，每節 45 分鐘，星期六只有 3 節，並以活動為主（表一及表二）。每科每週的教學時間亦有所更改，中文、英文及數學科的每週教學時間佔總教學時間的百分比是輕微上升的，但其他科目所佔的百分比相應減少（表三）。為了配合新時間表，老師於 00/01 學期終，進行課程調適及裁剪；同時，測考的次數也相應減少，由原來每學期兩測兩考減至每學期兩測一考，希望讓教師多些時間教學及減輕學生的考試壓力。初步評估於 01/02 學年上學期終，學校進行初步評估，老師的回應有正面的，也有負面的。 91 有部份老師認為，課節時間的延長，令課堂較前靈活，增加老師與學生的互動機會。教學內容上，每課節的內容和份量與前相若，老師相對地有更充裕的時間進行各項教學活動，以提高學生的學習興趣，並讓學生有更多機會深入發問。教與學的質素提高，在高年級較為明顯，特別是老師有較多時間協助成績稍遜的學生。另一方面，有任教術科及數學科的老師認為，由於節數減少，令上課較倉促，老師未能完成課程，老師認為，需要再進行課程剪裁、設計教學活動及研究教學法，並給予老師時間適應課程及教學法的改變。未來展望學校時間表編制重整，是為課程改革踏出第一步，未來學校的工作是發展校本課程及教學法，老師們將多採用集體備課，在各科課程上進行調適、設計教學活動及改善教學法，一方面讓老師之間有更多討論的機會，同時，對學生學習也有莫大的裨益。四. 總結香港經驗上面所述的學校，美國的文獻所描述的個案，最大的不同，在於前者對「時段編課方式」的興趣，並不在於短期內提高學生的學業水平，而在於將之作為提高學與教水平的基礎。每一間學校的校長和教師，都似乎十分清楚這種改動，必須要其他配合，才能發揮效力。這種想法與 Queen 的說法，不謀而合。美國的研究，反而過份討論「時段編課方式」是否能直接提高學生成績。這種討論，往往導致兩者之間的中介因素，為研究者所忽略；這種過份簡化的因果關係，對這方面的討論幫助不大。但反觀筆者所參觀的學校，採納有關方法的背景，頗有參考價值。其中一所中學的情況，是因為學校要處理資訊科技和選科等問題，學校感到原有課室安排不能滿足新形勢的要求，後校長經其他教育專家推介，接觸到「時段編課方式」的文章，才開始走這條路。另外三間小學的校長，則是先後到上海。參觀學校後，發現上海學校對時間空間的運用，與香港的概念截然不同，他們回港後，直觀的提出使用這種方法。因此，這四間學校，一開始運用這種方法時，其理念反而比美國文獻所報導的更為全面。這幾間學校，在校內不同的範疇、不同的層面，進行不同的課程改革。在會面的過程中，校方和老師十分清楚，「時段編課方式」只是教學改革的手段，而不是目的。用筆者的說法，他們十分清楚，「時段編課方式」只是教學改革的基建和平台。但採用這種方法後，為學校的其他改革提供了必需的條件，而更重要的，是課程、教學法的改革，變成了學校內部條件的轉變，因此，這些改革變成大家的問題，再也不是單單校方的要求。「時段編課方式」起碼的改變，在於每節增長，而總節數減少。四間學校的教師都異口同聲的說，再也不能使用舊有的教學方法，因此教師同意引進更靈活的教學法。由於總節數減少，學校自然要進行課程裁剪。至於裁剪是否合適，教學法靈活後是否最能提高學習水平，透過一次的學校探訪，未能得到結論。但無論如何，引進「時段編課方式」，明顯地協助學校啟動了學校內部課程改革的機制。事實上，筆者每次訪問，問及校方和老師下一部的構想，他們總是異口同聲的說是課程改革。筆者還十分欣賞校方在引進有關構想時，十分著重有關的部署。從每間學校的個案都可顯示，引進「時段編課方式」是一項十分重要的工程，學校如何引進有關措施，如何部署，都反映學校對有關問題的小心策劃。這種大膽探索又小心規劃的手法，對其他正引進不少改革措施的學校，相信有一定的參考作用。 92 參考書目 Cawelti, Gordon, 1994, High School Restructuring: A National Study. 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Interim Report, ED436024. 93 專題研習：尋找課程改革的理論基礎李子建香港中文大學教育學院本文對「專題研習」的意涵、淵源和發展及其理論基礎作探討。作者並對專題研習的步驟或探究過程作分析，並初步建議一個包含課程取向、專題學習和專題教學三方面的理念架構。專題研習：尋找課程改革的理論基礎「專題研習」可說是近年課程改革的「熱門項目」，課程發展議會（2001）最近公佈的《學會學習》文件明確地建議推行四個關鍵項目，以提高學與教的效益，其中一個關鍵項目為專題研習，其取向為「幫助學生培養共通能力及建構知識」（頁 7）。此外，未來課程發展路向建議把課程架構分為三個互為關聯的部份：（1）學習領域：中國語文教育、英國語文教育、數學教育、個人、社會及人文教育、科學教育、科技教育、藝術教育及體育；（2）共通能力：批判性思考能力、創造力及溝通能力、協作能力、運用資訊科技能力、運算能力、解決問題能力、自我管理能力及研習能力【註：課程發展議會（2001）建議先從前三項共通能力做起（頁 7）】（3）價值觀及態度：課程發展議會建議在後期發展階段（2001-02 至 2005-06 年）將著重「責任感、承擔精神、尊重他人、堅毅及國民身分認同」等價值觀和態度的培養（頁 23）以個人、社會及人文教育課程為例，課程發展議會（2000）在該學習領域的諮詢文件建議以專題研習配合教學、學習與評估，並認為「跨學科的專題研習讓學生在不同的學習經歷中，將知識、技能、態度與價值觀連繫起來和應用。」（頁 16-17）內地近年也積極提倡類似的課程改革，稱為「研究性學習」（霍益萍，2001；應俊峰，2001）。本文初步探討專題研習的理念及理論基礎，它的歷史淵源和發展，以及在課程改革脈絡的可能定位等。「專題研習」的意涵根據應俊峰（2001，頁 2）指出，研究性學習「要在幫助學生接受知識的同時，使其形成一種對知識主動探求、發現和體驗，學會對信息獲取、分析、判斷、選擇，並重視解決實際問題的積極的學習方式。」霍益萍（2001，頁 10）則從廣義和狹義兩方面理解「研究性學習」，他認為研究性學習「泛指學生主動探究的學習活動。它是一種學習的理念、策略、方法、適用於學生對所有學科的學習。」從狹義而言，研究性學習作為一門獨立的課程是「指在教學過程中以問題為主體，創設一種類似科學研究的情境和途徑，讓學生通過自己收集：分析和處理信息來實際感受和體驗知識的生產過程，進而了解社會，學會學習，培養分析問題、解決問題的能力和創造能力。」 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 94 另一些學者指出專題為本學習（project-based learning）的定義為（http://www.csd.uwa.edu.au/altmodes/to_delivery/project-based_learning.html）：一種使學生投入的學習經驗，學生參與複雜的真實世界研習計劃，藉以發展和應用其技能和知識一種確認學生具有內在的學習動機和學習能力的策略，這種策略極度重視學生的需要一種事前確認課程成果的結果，但學生學習過程的成果則並非預設的，或非完全可預測的一種要求學生從很多信息來源和學科抽取相關知識去解決問題的學習一種學生學會學習如何去管理和分配資源（如時間和物資）的經驗羅文基（2000，頁 1-2）指出主題探索暨專題研究具有下列教育意義和功能：（1）自主學習――培養學生自我導向的終生學習能力；（2）發現學習――培養學生對一個主題或問題進行探索與研究；（3）統整學習――學生需要整合幾個領域的知識去探究問題；（4）合作學習――學生可結合同儕或以親子方式進行學習；（5）開放學習――容許學生在題目的選取，資料的搜集和結果的分析等歷程給予開放和自由度另一些論者（如 Blumenfeld et al. 1991）認為專題包括兩個基本元素（http://college.hmco.com/education/resources/res_project/students/background.html#Features）：（1）一個問題或難題，用以組織和驅動活動，整體形成一個有意義的專題（project）；（2）專題研習最終以不同的產品或一系列人工製品（artefacts）作為多元表達形式、個人溝通，或以後果性任務（consequential task）回應探究的問題。專題研習在不同學習階段（從幼稚園至高中）都有應用和實施的例子，就幼兒教育的經驗來說，Katz 及 Chard（2000）指出「專題」（project）是指對某一課題進行研究，而進行專題探究時，學童可能有下列活動（p.5）：決定（deciding）一些東西；辯論（arguing）某一論點；解釋（explaining）其意念給同學知道；預測（predicting）結果和假設（hypothesizing）預測的基礎；檢查（checking）事實和細節；訪談（interviewing）可為成為所需資料來源的人士；引發（initiating）探究的新方向；抽取（drawing）從觀察、記憶和幻想而來的信息；記錄（recording）觀察，報告（reporting）結果；給予（giving）他人建議，鼓勵（encouraging）對方；接受（accepting）成果和為結果承擔（carrying）責任。此外，Katz 及 Chard 指出專題研習與系統化教學有一些不同之處（表一），例如專題研習強調技能的應用、學童的熟練（proficiency）能力、內在動機和視學童為專家等。 95 表一：系統化教學與專題研習（project work）（Katz & Chard, 2000, p.13）系統化教學專題研習教師集中幫助學童掌握技能教師提供學童機會去應用技能外在動機：學童的動機源自使教師滿意和得到獎勵內在動機：學童的興趣和投入引發他的努力和動機教師選擇學習活動和提供合適的教材學童從教師所提供的活動中選擇和決定其學習內容及程度教師是一個專家；教師注意學童的不足之處學童是專家；教師建基於學童的強項教師對學童的學習、進度和成績負上責任學童與教師對學習及成績分擔責任總的來說，專題研習大致上具有下列特徵：（1）強調學生為中心（如學生的需要、內在動機和自主性）兼重過程和產物的一種學習理念、策略、經驗和方法；（2）重視發現和解決問題，培養不同的能力，尤其知識和技能的應用；（3）重視與現實世界的聯繫；（4）以多元化方式表達或重視探究的成果。專題研習的淵源和發展專題研習的出現可說是源於十六世紀的歐洲建築與工程教育運動，根據 Knoll（1997）對「設計作業」（Project Method）的研究，設計作業及其意念的歷史發展大致可分為五個時期：（1） 1590 – 1765：歐洲建築學院開始進行專題研習（project work）（2） 1765 – 1880：專題（project）作為一種常規的教學方法，逐漸在美國植根（第一波）（3） 1880 – 1915：在一般公立學校和技能訓練院校引入專題研習（4） 1915 – 1965：「設計作業」的重新界定，並由美國傳播至發源地（歐洲）（第二波）（5） 1965 – 今日：重新發現和理解「專題」的意念，並在國際層面進行「第三波」的傳播就美國在專題研習的發展經驗來說，杜威首先提出「建設性手工」（constructive occupations）的意念，他和同事後來在美加等大學的附屬小學裏也引入此意念。所謂「手工」（或稱「作業」），它包括木材及工具的應用、烹飪、縫紉和紡織等活動（杜寶山、康春枝，1990，頁 85）。透過接觸家庭和不同社會的手工（或作業），學生的學習與生活更密切地聯繫起來，而且他們通過建造、操作、調查、實驗和研究，學童「從做中學習」，知識的建構成為有意義的任務（王承緒等，1991）。 Kilpatrick 可說是正式把「專題」廣泛地推廣的學者，他在 1918 年發表「設計作業」一文，他認為「專題」是一個「有誠意而有目的行動」（a hearty purposeful act）（Knoll, 1997），「專題」可包括建造一部機器、解決一個數學問題，學習一個法國生字以至欣賞日落。Kilpatrick 認為「設計作業」包括四個階段：（1）目的（purpose）；（2）計劃（planning）；（3）執行（executing）；以及（4）判斷（judging），而理想的「設計作業」在於四個階段均由學生主動構思和執行。不過杜威對 Kilpartrick 的「設計作業」有下列批評（Knoll, 1997; Tanner & Tanner, 1990）： 96 「專題」（project）應為師生的共同事工（common enterprise）而非為學童所獨有的；專題研習宜反映反省性思考元素：（1）界定問題；（2）注意環境問題的條件（辨別重要因素）；（3）訂定解決問題的假設；（4）詳盡描述和推理不同假設的可能價值；（5）主動地驗證假設，尋求解決問題的意念，因此專題研習是「思」「行」並重的；專題研習宜強調教師為學童提供輔導和方向的角色（因為學童可能選擇了一些「力有不逮」的課題）。在一九二零年代，「專題研習」引入俄羅斯和逐漸受到重視。及至六十年代，布魯納的發現學習理論令「專題研習」（尤其在科學教育方面）再次受到重視，歐洲方面亦視「專題研習」作為一種透過探究的學習形式，並強調它的實用價值、跨學科性和社會取向。及至七十年代，中歐和北歐所提倡的綜合學校運動、社區教育運動、開放課程和實用學習都以「專題研習」的意念為參照點，而自八十年代開始盛行的建構式（constructivistic）概念，如探究為本學習、解難等，亦以「專題研習」作為一種教學方式（Knoll, 1997）。學習理論發展（如維高斯基的理論、自我引導學習理論）以至資訊科技的發展亦使兒童為中心和以探究為中心的取向再次受到重視（Polman, 2000; Okolo & Ferretti, 2001）。專題研習的理論基礎與專題研習的相關理論眾多，由杜威對經驗和反省性思考的理念；布魯納的發現學習論、開放教育論及至建構教學觀念；維高斯基的理論和自我引導學習理論等，都使「專題研習」理論基礎的內涵越趨豐富，本文僅對部份與建構教學相關的理念作初步探討。 1. 建構教學觀念建構主義可說是當今教學理念的主流，可是它並非一家之言，正如張世忠（2000，頁 4-5）綜合不同學者的看法，建構主義強調：（1）學習者主動建構知識；（2）知識是學習者經驗的合理化或實用化，而非記憶真理或事實；（3）知識是學習者與別人互動與磋商而形成共識。建構主義為本的教學設計可謂包羅萬有，包括社會建構主義式的教學、多元智能的教學、開放式教育、建構式網絡教學等（張世忠，2000）。就專題研習而言，維高斯基（Vygotsky）的理論強調社會文化環境對個人學習起著重要的作用，教師的工作在於創造合適的環境，讓學習者與環境和他人產生互動，不斷引發學生的「潛能發展區」，將社會活動的經驗內化，並成為個人建構的知識。維高斯基及社會建構主義式的教學對專題研習的啟示為（張世忠，2000；Polman, 2000）：真實（authentic）處境對學習極為重要；通過合作式教學和小組學習活動，不同能力和性向學習之間的互動，對認知發展較有幫忙；利用語言（如口頭報告、相互對談）或寫作方式刺激學習者目前知識的架構，因此教師宜多讓學生有機會去解釋或發展他們探究的主題內容。 2. 專題研習也可結合加德納（H. Gardner）的多元智能理論（如蘇詠梅、鄭美紅，2001），以研習「動感之都在沙田」為例，學生的專題研習可結合加德納所提倡的八種智能，分別為：語文智能、數學邏輯智能、自然探索智能、人際智能、內省智能、視覺空間智能、身體動覺智能、音樂智能（表二），這些多元智能與《學會學習》課程架構建議的共通能力頗有相通之處（李子建、馬慶堂，2002）。 97 表二：動感之都在沙田學習目標： 1.透過生活化的學習情境讓學生加強瞭解沙田區的歷史及發展現況 2.透過學習發揮學生的多元智能參觀地點學習內容／學習領域可能涉及的智能（主要類別）共通能力（例子）曾大屋客家圍村的歷史（中國語文及人文學科）客家人的生活習慣（人文學科）客家山歌（藝術）建築特色（數學及藝術）語文智能、人際智能、內省智能人際智能、內省智能音樂智能、視覺空間智能邏輯數學智能、音樂智能、視覺空間智能溝通能力研習能力創造能力創造能力、運算／運用資訊科技能力車公廟車公廟的歷史(中國語文及人文學科) 廟內對聯、碑文(中國語文、藝術) 建築特色（數學及藝術）民間習慣、宗教傳統（人文學科）語文智能、人際智能、內省智能語文智能、音樂智能、視覺空間智能邏輯數學智能、音樂智能、視覺空間智能人際智能、內省智能溝通能力溝通能力、創造能力創造能力、運算能力研習能力、批判性思考能力其他可涉獵「動感之都在沙田」的課題：文化、歷史：香港中文大學、香港文化博物館、道風山文娛、康樂：香港體育學院、沙田大會堂、沙田馬場、彭福公園、社區中心、學校房屋的發展、商業活動、交通網絡等註：意念來自《香港明愛職業訓練及教育服務•課程統整研討會暨工作坊》，原作者為張月茜女士 98 空間智能 1. 用圖像建構學習的大綱 2. 沙田區建築物的特色 3. 沙田區及分佈的城巿規劃佈局動感之都在沙田數學邏輯智能 1. 探究曾大屋的建築特色 2. 統計沙田區的學生餘暇活動情況人際智能 1. 小組合作搜集資料及匯報 2. 小組合作解決難題語文智能 1. 閱讀有關沙田的歷史發展 2. 完成某項沙田區發展的報告音樂智能 1. 欣賞客家山歌 2. 音樂創作：動感沙田肢體動覺智能 1. 透過角色扮演，演譯沙田區某重要人物或事蹟 2. 舞蹈創作：動感沙田自然觀察智能 1. 沙田中央公園的植物種類 2. 沙田區環境生態及應如何保護本區 3. 如何處理城門河的污染問題內省智能利用學習日誌反思整個學習歷程註：意念來自《香港明愛職業訓練及教育服務•課程統整研討會暨工作坊》，原作者為張月茜女士 99 3. 開放式教育對專題研習有一定的啟示（陳伯璋、盧美貴，1996；張世忠，2000），首先開放式教育建基於人文精神，以學生為主體，重視個性化發展，教學方法強調啟發和引導式，而評量方式強調過程，這與學生為中心的學習環境有不少相通之處（李子建、黃顯華，2002）。至於落實開放教育，部份教育工作者認為學習的場所宜「跑出課室」，讓社區、大自然成為開放教育的教室，資源方面則強調學校社區化、社區學校化、以及社區資源的整合（袁國明，2001）。 4. 自我引導學習（self-directed learning）理論以往在成人教育領域備受關注，近年開始亦受到部份學者重視，探討如何把自我引導學習的理念在學校裏實踐。自我引導學習很多時候與下列名詞相提並論，如自我教導、獨立學習、獨立研究、自我導向研究、探究方法等（林進材，1999）。林進材（1999，頁 366-368）綜合不同學者的看法，指出：重視學習者具有獨立的人格特質；學習者擁有「學習決定權」；重視學習者經驗與專家經驗的融合；適應學習者的個別差異；以工作或問題中心取向的學習導向；學習者的學習動機來自於內在誘因。這些特質與前述「專題研習」的取向有一定的關聯。Bolhuis 及 Voeten（2001）及其他學者建議以過程取向教學（process-oriented teaching）輔助學生達致「自我引導學習」的理想，這種教學包含四種原則：（1）邁向學生調節全部學習過程－教師作為學習的模範（如示範如何學習和展示思考過程），然後啟動學生參與和練習，讓學生逐漸養成良好的學習習慣和注意自己的學習取向；（2）焦點放在知識的建立（尤其在學科領域）教師的任務在於使學生掌握學科的知識、典型的學科問題、獲得知識的程序（學習技能和策略）；（3）注意學習的情緒層面（emotional aspect）教師應讓學生理解學習的價值（即使它是困難的）。以解難而言，教師宜強調建立學習目標（如何去解決難題），而非重視表現目標（能夠解決難題），藉以提高學生的學習動機和學業成就。此外，教師宜提供正面的回饋（強化任務取向，而非針對個人表現）；（4）視學習過程和結果為社會的現象教師宜鼓勵學生觀察他人及從他人身上學習，因此可利用合作學習方式促進不同學習者之間的互動。《基礎教育課程指引》內的「專題研習」部分（3C）也指出專題研習以問題或難題作起點，並在預備階段激發學生的動機，使學生「意識到他們才是學習的主人」（課程發展議會，2002，頁 6），然後在實施階段逐漸減少對學生的指導，鼓勵他們的獨立研習。專題研習的步驟或探究過程不同教育工作者都建議不同的專題研習過程或步驟（表三），大體而言，探究的步驟分為探索（searching）／解決問題（solving）／創造知識（creating）／分享成果（sharing） 100 （http://college.hmco.com/education/resources/res_project/students/background.html#Features）值得注意的是，向明中學和霍益萍的建議較重視學生和教師在專題研習的角色。表三：專題研習的步驟或課程實施過程霍益萍（2001，頁 119-120）上海巿向明中學（應俊峰，2001，頁 214）趙李婉儀（2001，頁 49） Allen (2001) 1. 組織輔導報告、佈置與動員 2. 個人選擇題目、同學自由組成課題組 3. 小組選舉組長、在老師指導下進行課題論證 4. 明確課題研究方向，共同設計課題研究方案 5. 開題報告、通過課題研究方案評審 6. 小組獨立開展研究、教師負責監控、指導 7. 教師組織課題組之間交流，推動課題研究 8. 撰寫研究成果，進行個人和小組總結 9. 班級展示、同學評議 10. 答辯會、年級報告會 11. 教師評定成績、總結學生自主性 1. 了解課程目標 2. 了解課題研究的一般過程 3. 自己提出問題並形成課題 4. 提出研究方案 5. 可行性論證與答辯 6. 具體實施研究方案 7. 進行中期檢查 8. 研究完成，形成結果 9. 組間交流教師指導性 1. 進行課程說明 2. 進行基本知識講座 3. 課題的發現與選擇講座 4. 進行個別指導 5. 組織答辯論證會 6. 分學科教師指導 7. 分學科組織中期答辯 8. 幫助分析、總結 9. 組織評定 1. 探討主題 2. 落實主題 3. 訂定值得探索的範疇／假設 4. 設計搜集資料的方法／工具 5. 搜集資料 6. 整理及分析資料 7. 綜合及表達論據 8. 發表及分享成果 9. 反思及檢討第一階段：決定研究問題（透過探索和分享意念及經驗）第二階段：學生搜集資料，並利用不同媒體和自己的基本技能去呈現探究結果第三階段：（debriefing），把成果與他人（如同學、家人或社區人士）分享此外，Blumenfeld 等（1994, p.540）學者建議科學科的「專題為本教學」（project-based instruction）模式，強調教師的規則、締造學生的學習和反思過程，包括：（1）一個驅動（driving）探究的問題（包含有意義的內容，並與現實世界問題有關）；（2）容許學生學習概念，應用資料和以多元化方式表達知識的探究和人工製品（artifacts）；（3）鼓勵師生之間以及社區人士的協作；（4）利用科技工具（如電腦、電訊等）協助學生分享和表達意念。「大學與學校夥伴協作共創優質教育計劃」內利用反思的方法（視為一種行動研究），稱為 4-P 模式（圖一）（李子建，2002），運用於專題研習裏（張月茜，2002）。 101 圖一：4-P 模式邁向一個專題研習的理念架構在課程發展議會（2002）公布的《基礎教育課程指引》內，文件建議不同模式的專題研習，並指出「學校在推動專題研習時，宜靈活處理，選取最適合學校情境的模式」（3.2.3，頁 5），在促進學生學習方面建議「在學習過程中給予清晰明確的目標和指引」和「對學習的過程和成品同樣重視」（頁 7）。筆者參考上述方向，嘗試提出一個專題研習的理念架構，這個架構分為三大度向（如圖二）：（一）課程取向――專題研習其實可以是學科為本（如地理科、歷史科、經公科、語文科）（高慕蓮、李子建、梁振威，2001），也可是學習領域為本（如個人、社會及人文教育學習領域）、跨學科（如把地理科、語文科、數學科等統整起來），以至跨課程（如把正規課程、非正規課程連繫起來；把不同經歷統整起來，邁向「全方位」學習）（李子建，高慕蓮，2001）取向；（二）專題學習――專題學習宜兼顧過程和產品取向，過程涉及探究的步驟或程序（如 4-P 模式）、經歷，而產品涉及多元化的呈現方式，更重要的是「反思」專題學習經驗、策略和成果；（三）專題教學――在專題研習的過程中，根據 Weaver 的分析，教師的角色可以作為聆聽者、伙伴、贊助者、嚮導、提問者、導師、輔導者、造型者、講解者和示範者（鄭燕祥，1995，頁 198；Shiu, 2001），教師亦可扮演專家、顧問、輔導者、促導員或協同學習者的角色（趙李婉儀，2001）。在教師互動中，教師宜考慮學生的學習風格以及專題研習的取向，然後調整自己的角色。這個理念架構較具彈性，較配合課程發展議會（2000）建議校本課程發展可以具備不同的設計模式、教學模式和評估模式的延續線（以個人、社會及人文教育領域為例），不過基於篇幅所限，本架構未能對專題研習的評估所整合，日後學校可根據校本的現況和對專題研習的發展遠景作出取捨，發展具校本特色的專題研習。 Problem Clarification 澄清問題 Progress Evaluation 進展評鑑 Programme Action 計劃行動 Planning 計劃 102 圖二：專題研習的理念架構參考書目王承緒、趙祥麟、顧岳中、趙端英譯，凱瑟琳．坎普．梅休、安娜．坎普、愛德華茲著（1990）。《杜威學校》。上海：華東師範大學出版社。李子建（2002）。〈前言〉。《「大學與學校夥伴協作共創優質教育」計劃通訊》，第二期，頁 1-2 。李子建、馬慶堂（2002）。〈課程統整理念的初步探討〉。載《香港明愛職業訓練及教育服務課程統整研討會暨工作坊資料冊》（頁 7-15）。香港：香港中文大學大學與學校夥伴協作中心。李子建、黃顯華（2002）。〈學習宗旨、學習領域與學習經歷：尋找《學會學習》諮詢文件的理論基礎〉。載李子建編著《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》（頁 63-92）。香港：中文大學出版社。李子建、高慕蓮（2001）。〈全方位學習理念與實踐：對新修訂中學中國語文科課程的啟示〉。論文發表於 2001 第四屆中國語文課程教材教法國際研討會，主辦機構為香港中文教育學會、香港城巿大學，香港，12 月 5 日。林進材（1999）。《教學研究與發展》。台北：五南圖書。林寶山、康春枝合譯，杜威原著（1990）。《學校與社會兒童與課程》。台北：五南圖書。高慕蓮、李子建、梁振威（2001）。〈專題研習與語文教學的關係〉。論文發表於 2001 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(2001). The project approach to learning. Curriculum Update, Spring, p.3. Blumenfeld, P.C., Krajcik, J.S., Marx. R.W., & Soloway, E. (1994). Lessons learned: How collaboration helped middle grade science teachers learn project-based instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 94(5), 539-51. Blumenfeld, P.C., Soloway, E., Marx, R.W., Krajcik, J.S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating problem-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3 & 4), 369-398. Bolhuis, S., & Voeten, M.J.M. (2001). Toward self-directed learning in secondary schools: What do teachers do? Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 837-855. Katz, L.G., & Ghard, S.C. (2000). Engaging children’s minds: The project approach. (2nd edn.). Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Knoll, M. (1997). The project method: Its vocational education origin and international development. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(3), 59-80. Okolo, C.M., & Ferretti, R.P. (2001). Preparing future citizens: Technology-supprted, project-based learning in the social studies. In J. Woodward and L. Cuban (Eds.), Technology, curriculum and professional development: Adapting schools to meet the needs of students with disabilities (pp. 47-60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Polman, J.L. (2000). Designing project-based science: Connecting learners through guided inquiry. New York: Teachers College Press. Shiu, L.H. (2001). Project work – Introducing the innovation in class. Revised paper originally presented at the International Conference on Rejuvenating Schhols through Partnership. Hong Kong: Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, August. Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. (1990). History of the school curriculum. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 104 網址： http://www.csd.uwa.edu.au/altmodes/to_delivery/project-based_learning.html （The University of Western Australia） http://college.hmco.com/education/resources/res_project/students/background.html#Features (Houghton Mifflin College ) 105 於「個人、社會及人文教育」學習領域推行社會專題研習羅雪怡香港中文大學社會學系《香港教育制度改革建議》指出，教育需要培養學生終身學習的意識和建構知識的能力。為提供這些學習經歷，課程發展議會建議在「個人、社會及人文教育」學習領域推行專題研習。這種強調學生主動學習及建構知識的理念，與建構學習理論相符。本文先簡介建構主義教學的理念及教學策略，然後以中文大學社會學系所舉辦的「社會專題研究比賽」為例，示範建構主義教學的實施策略，以及如何利用電腦網絡進行互動學習，加強專題研習的成效。引言《終身學習•全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》指出在知識社會中，教育需要培養學生成為自主的學習者，有終身學習的意識和自行建構知識的能力(教育統籌委員會，2000)。在學習過程中，學生不再是被動地接受知識的灌輸，而是主動地從學習經歷中培養能力，以及建構知識。故此，學校課程必須提供適當的學習經歷，協助學生學會如何學習、培養共通能力，以獲取和建構知識。在組成學校課程的八個學習領域當中，以「個人、社會及人文教育」學習領域最為著重探究式學習，藉此培養建構知識的能力(課程發展議會，2001)。為提供這些學習經歷，課程發展議會建議學校在課程中推行四個關鍵項目，其中以專題研習最能幫助學生培養共通能力及建構知識，而學校亦可運用資訊科技進行互動學習，以促進專題研習的推行(課程發展議會，2002)。這種強調培養學生主動學習精神與建構知識能力的教育理念，與建構理論的教學觀不謀而合。建構學習理論認為，學生必須主動積極參與學習過程，才能有效地從學習經驗中發展能力、掌握及建構知識。教師的角色，由知識傳授者轉為協助學生建構知識者。教學活動必須以學生為中心，強調引發學習動機、促進主動學習和提供互動討論的環境等。故此，瞭解建構主義教學的理念及教學策略，定必為教師如何提供促進學會學習的學習經歷帶來啟示作用。本文先簡介建構主義教學的理念、對學生學習過程的觀點以及建議教學策略。然後以香港中文大學社會學系所舉辦的「社會專題研究比賽」為例，示範建構主義教學的實施策略。此外，學校普遍運用資訊科技作單向式的溝通，如資訊的傳遞，卻甚少用作雙向式的溝通如網上教學回饋。一項關於香港中小學應用資訊科技於教與學的情況的研究結果顯示，本港教師主要利用電腦網絡發放教學資料及展示學生學習成果，而鮮有利用網絡為學生提供回饋、與學生討論學習問題或進行學習上的輔導(陳茂釗，李子建，張永明，2002)。本文亦示範了本系如何利用電腦網絡進行互動學習，從而加強專題研習的成效。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 106 建構學習理論建構學習理論認為，人的認知組織由他所擁有的許多概念或經驗所組成。這些概念和經驗互相緊密地連結起來，最終構成人的知識。根據這個理念，學習者若要有效地掌握新概念，他必需主動地將新概念與他已有的概念和經驗連繫起來，使新概念成為認知組織的一部份。故此，為達至有效的學習，建立新概念的學習環境須配合學習者的興趣及生活經驗，使他主動地參與學習過程，從而促進新概念與認知組織的結合。第二，當學習者接觸新課題時，若他的認知組織已有一些先入為主的概念，與新概念互相矛盾，便會阻礙他建立正確的新概念。第三，由於個人建構的知識來自有限的生活經驗，建構知識的過程需要與別人不斷的互動討論(葉殿恩，1999；張世忠，2000)。基於建構論的學習理念，有效的學習活動必須以學生為中心，從學生的已有概念和生活經驗作學習的出發點，引起學生學習動機，使學生積極參與學習。此外，教師先引出學生的已有概念，協助學生認識到先入為主的理念的謬誤之處，然後加以修訂，才能協助他們建立正確的新概念。最後，教師可用合作學習、小組互動討論等學習活動，讓學生積極思考、刺激學生想像力，從而產生新概念和測試自己已有的概念。故此，教師的角色由知識傳授者轉變為協助學生建構知識者。教師安排的教學活動，不再是單向式的知識傳授，而是促進學生的主動參與及學習，以及學生與學生、學生與教師的互動關係(葉殿恩，1999；張世忠，2000)。社會專題研究比賽香港中文大學社會學系自 1997 年起，開展「中學通識教育科支援計劃」，重點為中學高級補充程度通識教育科及專題研習提供教學支援。本系編寫了《社會研究一本通》一書和建立了「通識教育資源網」 (http://liberalstudies.hk.st)，向中學師生提供社會專題研習的教材及資料。此外，本系每年均舉辦社會研究入門學生講座、教師工作坊及「社會專題研究比賽」。「社會專題研究比賽」提供中學生一個實踐機會，讓他們透過專題研習的學習經歷，培養共通能力，學習建構知識。為協助學生開展社會專題研習，大會除了為參賽學生提供課堂導修外，更透過「通識教育資源網」提供網上導修。踏入第六屆「社會專題研究比賽」，我們汲取過往的實踐經驗及中學師生的意見、參考先進的教育理論與教學策略，不斷求進，致力提供有效促進學會學習的學習經歷。是項活動的成效得到中學師生的肯定，參加人數不斷上升，今屆比賽更有二百二十多位來自不同學校的學生組隊參加。教學對象的差異(不同程度、個性、背景及生活經驗等)既為我們的教學過程帶來挑戰，亦同時提供了一個最好的實踐環境，讓我們探索如何提供促進學會學習的學習經歷。課堂導修大會為參賽隊伍提供數次課堂導修，導修課主要協助學生擬定研究題目、設定研究設計、分析數據與訪談資料、以及撰寫研究報告。課堂導修的安排有以下特色： 107 (1) 善用工作紙，瞭解學生的已有概念及知識我們將研究題目相近的三至四隊參賽隊伍組在一起，一起進行導修課。在導修課前，導師先向參賽同學提供有關社會研究方法的建議書目和工作紙，著他們先閱讀有關書籍，從有興趣的社會研究題目入手，搜集文獻資料，構思研究的目標、對象、主要概念、研究假設和研究方法，然後填寫工作紙交給導師。導師詳閱各隊伍的工作紙，瞭解他們對研究題目的認識，找出概念不清晰、思考上的謬誤及研究設計的缺失後，才安排導修課。讓學生研習有興趣的題目，能引發學生學習動機；透過工作紙，可引出學生的已有概念和找出他們思考上的謬誤，從而對症下藥。 (2) 鼓勵及引導討論，促進協作學習及批判思考在導修課中，導師先要求學生向其他參賽隊伍匯報研究對象及研究設計。匯報後，導師會邀請其他參賽隊伍發表意見、評估是項研究及提出建議。導師不預先指出該項研究的缺失之處，而是圍繞這些地方向其他參賽隊伍作出提問及追問，著他們補充、提出不同或相反的觀點及具體生活經驗，引導學生進行分析，從而讓學生自行找出這些謬誤或缺失，促進學生主動學習精神及批判思考能力。導師要求學生向其他同學匯報，可讓學生學習如何組織自己的想法、表達自己的觀點、接受別人的質詢、繼而辯解，這過程能有效促進學生的溝通能力。此外，由於學生各有不同的背景、生活經驗和能力，透過鼓勵他們互相討論和答問，學生們可以交流意見、互相補充及協助，共同建構知識，發揮協作學習的作用。 (3) 善用概念圖，加強歸納及分析能力待學生們討論完畢後，導師會針對學生未能發現的謬誤或缺失之處作出進一步的追問、補充和解釋。然後引導學生對文獻資料、個人經驗及討論所得進行歸納和分析，從而建構抽象的概念，或對自己原先所建立的概念和研究設計進行修正，鍛鍊學生的歸納和分析能力。在歸納和分析的階段，導師會協助學生建立概念圖，幫助學生釐清思路，歸納出抽象的概念及因果關係，從而修正研究範圍、研究假設和研究方法。導師除了擔當引導者及協助者角色之外，亦擔當著顧問和資料提供者的角色。導師會對學生的提問給予具體建議，由於參賽者為高年級學生，導師多提供原則性資料(如問卷調查及深入訪談法的優劣之處及適用情況)，讓學生因應自己的研究自行作出決定。 (4) 善用提問，促進主動學習精神總括來說，導師先著學生做課前準備，既可讓學生主動參與學習過程，亦可讓導師瞭解學生的已有概念和思考上的謬誤，從而對症下藥。在課堂中，導師先著學生做匯報，然後互相討論與答問。這樣，既可促進學生的課堂參與及溝通能力，亦可發揮協作學習的作用。導師透過提問和追問，引導學生進行建設性的討論與答問，讓學生主動思考，共同發現研究缺失及進行修正，得以建構知識，而不是被動地等待導師給予答案。學生須於指定日期向大會提交報告，讓評判對各研究報告的內容、創意、表達技巧及研究方法進行評審。比賽完畢後，各參賽隊伍除了收到評判的書面評語外，導師更會與各參賽隊伍進行檢討導修，講解研究報告的可取及缺失之處，並提供具體改善建議。當教師計劃在學校推行專題研習時，可按級別指定某些共通能力的學 108 習和評核重點，並在學生進行專題研習時，著意引導學生發展這些重點技能，使學生得到適切及整全的訓練(課程發展議會，2002)。網上導修 (1) 利用網絡展示學生學習成果及導師評語，加強學習效果大會已將社會研究方法的學習材料上載於「通識教育資源網」，供參賽隊伍閱讀，然後開始構思研究的目標、對象、主要概念、研究假設和研究設計。此外，大會將歷年得獎的學生專題報告和導師評語上載於「通識教育資源網」。學生可以同時參考這些資料，從這些報告的可取及缺失之處學習，加強學生對社會專題研究技巧的掌握。 (2) 利用網絡向學生提供回饋及學習上的輔導在下次導修課前，學生可透過網上導修站提交研究進度與成果，供導師細閱和作課前準備。此外，導師亦會透過導修站提供進展性建議。學生在研究過程中出現困難或對建議閱讀資料有不明白的地方，均可在網上留言，向導師作出提問。導師便會在導修站回答學生的問題，針對學生的學習困難，提供具體建議、相關資料及網上連結。此外，若導師發現與學生研究相關的書籍目錄、最新的網上資訊及新聞連結，亦可即時將之上載於導修站。總結以上的教學實踐經驗分享，盼能啟發同工在未來的課堂教學中，更能體現建構學習理論的教學。教師須因應個別學校的情況和學生的特點，對本系推行專題研習的方法加以調適，使學生從「個人、社會及人文教育」學習領域的專題研習中得到最大的得著，培養主動學習精神及建構知識的能力。參考書目陳茂釗，李子建，張永明 (2002)。〈資訊科技在香港中小學教育的現況與展望〉。《優質學校教育學報》，第 2 期。張世忠 (2000)。《建構教學―理論與應用》。台北：五南圖書。葉殿恩 (1999)。〈常識科的教學策略〉。《基礎教育學報》，第 9 卷第 1 期，頁 53-63。教育統籌委員會 (2000)。《終身學習•全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》。香港：政府印務局。課程發展議會 (2001)。《學會學習―課程發展路向》。香港：政府印務局。課程發展議會 (2002)。《基礎教育課程指引―各盡所能•發揮所長》。香港：政府印務局。 109 從國際趨勢與近期研究成果看香港小班教育政策的可行性* 葉建源香港教育學院教育政策與行政系按照常識，小班級當然比大班級好。因此在 2002 年 7 月 19 日，當被問及應否把中小學每班人數減至 25 人一班時，候任教統局局長李國章回應說「應該 20 人一班」（《明報》2002 年 7 月 20 日報導），社會人士多表歡迎。不過有關小班制的問題，西方學術界過去是意見紛紜的，並不如一般人想得那麼簡單。理性的政策制訂過程中，決策者和巿民都應該問：何謂「小班」？小班制真的有成效嗎？跟所需要的高昂成本比較，小班制又值得嗎？因此，本文將就近年的國際大趨勢、最新的研究成果以及香港出生人口下降所帶來的機遇三方面，嘗試協助回答上述問題。何謂「小班」？「小班級」(small class) 本身是個相對的概念，指的是班級的規模比較小，但小到什麼程度才可稱為小班，則沒有定論。以南韓為例，由二十世紀六十至九十年代初期的一段長時間裡，其中小學班級都維持在 50 至 70 人之間 (Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development, 2001: 24)，因此對於該國而言，一個三十人的班級也可算是小班。而在美國文獻的探討之中，一方面由於該國的中小學早已縮減到平均少於三十人的規模，另方面由於把小班視作一種適應師生互動的教學的策略，基於研究所得，美國的主流遂認為二十人以下的班級，方可稱為「小班級」(Finn, 2001)。可見小班與否，跟一地的具體處境有莫大的關係。在香港，目前的班級維持在三十多人一班，因此在本文裡，只要明顯地低於三十人，便有條件稱為「小班級」。國際趨勢國際大趨勢之一，是九十年代以來，多數國家都在推動小班制。在香港人心目中，英美都是實施小班制的地區，實際上，他們認為仍不夠小。由 1998 年起，美國在克林頓政府推動下，已有超過半數的州實施「班額削減計劃」，把每班人數由約 25 人減少至 15-18 人 (Finn, 2002) ；而事實上，各州在過去十多年來都陸續有推動小班教育的地方計劃。英國的貝理雅政府也在競選時許下五大承諾，其中之一是把幼兒班至小三的班額降至 30 以下 (Independent, Nov 2, 2000)。 * 本文部分內容曾發表於 2002 年 9 月 19 日《明報》論壇版，題為《小班教學的機遇》。本文之修訂，得到兩位隱名審稿人提供的寶貴意見，特此表示感謝。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 110 更值得關注的是，亞洲鄰近地區也在紛紛大幅削減班級人數。就以大中華地區為例，上海巿自 1995 年起便因應齡學童人口減少而降低班額，目標是每班 20 至 24 人（上海巿教育委員會基礎教育辦公室等，1999）；2002 年間，上海巿有關官員在香港透露，已陸續開展小班教育的學校，佔全巿小學約三分一。台灣在李遠哲領導下的行政院教育改革審議委員會 (1996)，為了給教育改革創造條件，把削減中小學班額列為重要措施，目標為 1998 年減至每班 40 人，2006 年進一步減至 30 人。甚至鄰近的澳門，也為了改革需要，在 2001 年把中小學班額由 45 人減至 35 人 (參看《華僑報》2001 年 4 月 12 日)。至於韓日兩國，也在削減班額。南韓的金大中總統在經濟低潮中，於 2000 年元旦賀辭中宣佈要大力投資教育，實施小班教育 (Kim, 2001)。而日本則隨著適齡人口下降，其最近的七項教育改革首要任務之一，便列出了在主要科目中削減班額至每班二十人 (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2001)。這種種跡象都顯示，東亞各國正在按照各自的具體情況削減每班人數。目前東亞各國都在大力推動教育改革，在經歷了九十年代末的亞洲金融危機之後，公共財政都頗為緊絀，但各國仍然紛紛堅持減少每班人數，其意義更為突出。為何各國都減少每班人數呢？這又聯繫到另兩個大趨勢。第一，是配合教育改革的需要，特別是亞洲地區，改革每每強調更多的師生互動，反對單方向的灌輸，大班級制顯然是改革之路上的一大障礙（行政院教育改革審議委員會，1997；上海巿教育委員會基礎教育辦公室等，1999）。第二，是隨著美國近年有關小班制研究的突破性進展，大家對小班制的成效，有了新的認識。近年的研究及發展的成果有關小班制的研究，以美國最為發達，但結論也最為紛紜。在過去幾十年裡，有不少研究發現小班制可以帶來一些效益，可是其程度卻極為參差，有些效益較大，有些效益偏低，與所涉及的額外成本不成比例，因此有些學者對於廣泛推行小班制有頗大的保留 (如 Robinson, 1990)。不過，由於多數小班制的研究規模都較小，方法又欠嚴謹，因此可信程度並不高。情況到了近年開始出現變化，美國先後推行了幾項大規模的小班制試驗，提供了大量數據，使我們有條件達致比較嚴格而可信的結論。早在 1981 年，美國印第安納州議會便撥款三十萬美元，在 24 所公立小學低年級推展一項為期兩年的 Prime Time 試驗。由於成效良好，州議會決定在 1984 年把計劃推展至 286 所小學，在一至三年級（及幼稚園），各班人數減少至 18 人，或在增加一位教學助理的情況下，減少至 24 人。研究發現，在學習集中程度、個別化教學、課室紀律、教師滿足感等方面，計劃都收到了正面的成效；但學業成績方面，小班的表現並不穩定。而大多數研究者都同意，由於該計劃並未有嚴格地控制各項變數，因此所得的效果，其可信程度打了很大的折扣 (Finn, 2001; Biddle & Berliner, 2002)。最有影響力的大型計劃，首推田納西州的 STAR 實驗計劃（Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio）。實驗在 1985-89 年間在 79 所小學推行，涉及的班級為幼兒班到小學三年班（K-3）共 328 個課室約 6,300 學童，分為三組，一組為小班級（13-17 人），一組為正常班級（22-26 人），還有一組是配備了全職助教的正常班級。實驗結束後，全部學生在小四均回到正常班級上課。該州其後並開展了追蹤性研究，對比早期曾就讀小班制的學生在正常班級的表現，與一直在正常班級就讀的學生有何差別，直到 1997-98 年這些學生高中畢業為止。過去十多年，由不同的研究人員追蹤了學生在升上高年級的表現，發表了一系列研究報告，證實了在小學低年班實行小班制，效果比一般人所想像為大，綜合如下：(Biddle & Berliner, 2002; Finn, 2002; Hertling, et al, 2000) 111 在實驗期間，小班級在各科的成績表現都比另外兩組明顯地優勝（參看表一）。在實驗結束之後，雖然小班級學生回到正常班級上課，但追蹤他們日後的成績表現，其成績一直明顯比其他兩組優勝。此外，小班級學生日後的退學率較低，選修外語的比例較高。近期的追蹤報告甚至發現小班制的少女懷孕比例明顯低於正常班級，說明早年的小班經驗影響既深且遠 (Krueger & Whitmore, 2001)。實驗過程，教師也是隨機分派，沒有特別培訓過。可見小班的成效並非教師因素影響的結果。所有背景的學生都在小班制中得到明顯的益處，而少數民族等弱勢社群學生得益尤其大。在 STAR 試驗的正面成效影響之下，美國不少地方的教育當局紛紛推出規模大小不同的計劃和試驗。其中較受注目的包括威斯康辛州的 SAGE (Student Achievement Guarantee in Education) 計劃，該計劃在 1996 年開始在 30 所小學內的幼稚園及一年級推行，逐年擴展至三年級。其特別之處，是特別針對貧窮家庭的子弟。計劃的初步成效跟田納西州的 STAR 計劃相似，在語文和數學方面都取得了可觀的成效，而黑人成績的進步尤其顯著 (Biddle and Berliner, 2002)。小班級為何有這麼深遠的影響力，研究者尚在探討之中。初步估計是每班人數減少之後，學生得到較充分的照顧，師生關係變得和諧，學生上課的注意力較為集中，對學習、對社群、對自己，都建立起比較正面的態度和形象。在早期的學校經驗中，這些都非常重要 (Biddle & Berliner, 2002; Hertling, et al, 2000)。不過縮小班級的經驗也不完全是正面的。加州在 1996 年開展一項大規模的縮減班額計劃 (class size reduction programme)，便被 Biddle & Berliner (2000) 稱為「一個州不應該怎樣縮小班級規模，加州的計劃在許多方面都幾乎可列作教科書裡的個案研究」（頁 15）。當年加州的小學班級的平均人數為 28 人，而目標是每班低於 20 人。然而，加州當時正面臨課室和合格教師的短缺，班額的減少，意味著須要招攬更多教師，形成大量財政較為短絀的學區無法招聘足夠的合格師資 (Stecher, et al., 2001)。加州的經驗正好說明，小班雖然可以帶來良好效果，但必須好好策劃，不理會其他不利因素而只顧推動小班教學，效果可能適得其反。還有一些問題未有結論，例如每班多少人最好，北美的研究都指向 20 以下，但東西文化差異極大，到底多少最好，實在很難說。同時，也有不少學者認為，東亞的儒家文化圈地區，班級雖然大，四十人以上的班級比比皆是，但學業成績一向斐然 (Biggs, 1996)，因此西方的研究成果，是否能夠直接移植到東方社會裡，值得進一步探討和研究。這方面，上海和台灣近年的經驗值得參考。上海和台灣並沒有做嚴格意義的實驗，他們推動小班化教學的目的，並非要證實大班好還是小班好，而是要通過小班實現教育改革的目的。在台灣，行政院教育改革審議委員會在其《總諮議報告書》（1997）中指出：在國民義務教育階段，學齡兒童開始接受正規的學校教育，由於來自不同的家庭社經背景，在身心發展及行為表現方面，有個別差異的現象。最基本的理念與方法，就是「有教無類」、「因材施教」、「因勢利導」與「發展潛能」，也就是「帶好每位學生」。目前中、小學教育，由於僵化、統一的制度與課程，加上長期資源投入不足，以及不正常教學與升學主義之影響，使學校內未受到充分照顧的學生明顯存在。他們常在教育的初期，就無法奠定良好的學習基礎，隨後又在編班與強調學業成就的大班教學中，得不到適時、充分的照顧，因而生活習慣、學習態度、是非判斷及基本讀、寫、算能力，都比一般學生相差甚多，變成學校相對的弱勢者。（第三章） 112 因此該委員會的第一項相關建議，是改革課程；第二項建議，便是縮小班額。由此可見，台灣教育當局是把縮小班額作為配合教育改革的一項措施。其間，教育改革審議委員會委托了學者為推行小班制作了詳細的規劃（任懷鳴，1995），目標則是在 1998 年每班人數降至 40 人，到 2006 年進一步降至 30 人。至於上海，則早於 1996 年開始在 12 所小學試行小班教學，由於成效顯著，在 1998 年擴展至超過 60 所小學。2002 年中筆者訪問上海，從有關官員了解到目前全巿已有約三分一的小學，正在不同程度地推行小班化教學，把每班人數降至 20-24 人。上海巿在 1998 年發表的基礎教育規劃之中，把小班化教育視為一項優先項目：「九五」時期，上海小學教育改革和發展的重要切入口是逐步推行「小班化教育」。要制訂配套政策和措施，為小學實施「小班化教育」提供保障條件。（上海巿教委「上海巿建設一流基礎教育規劃」課題組，1999，頁 40）。該巿教育委員會副主任張民生（1999：88）則指出推動小班化的意義，在於「積極探索課堂教學模式改革」：小學小班化教育試點，從改革課堂教學組織形式著手，引發了教學思想、教學內容、教學方法等一系列的變革因應這個思路，上海巿教育委員會基礎教育辦公室等在 1999 年編印了《小學小班化教育教學指南》一書，嘗試把新的教學方式傳播出去。上海和台灣的出生率都在下降之中，雖然它們無法把班級人數下降到 20 以下，但為了配合教育改革的需要，兩地均努力推動按其各自的實際條件，推動小班教育。香港實施小班教育的可行性相比起其他地區，香港在這方面的探討，算是開始得比較遲。理由很簡單，小班教學成本相當高昂，如果不是碰上小學入學人數持續急跌這個黃金機會，大幅減少班額根本不可能。香港的出生人數由 1991 年的六萬八千多人，持續下降至 2001 年的四萬八千多人，約減少了三分之一（參看表二），而且尚未有回升的跡象，政府估計未來會穩定下來（政府統計處，2002）。其效應將會在未來幾年在小學顯露出來。換言之，即使不增加財政撥款，不額外增加教師編制，隨著就學人口的逐漸下降，每個學生所享有的人均教育經費已可得到顯著的上升，為優質教育提供極有利的條件。與此同時，香港也正在處於教育改革之中，也正在改革課程，其主要的改革原則之一，是教學以學生為本（教育統籌委員會，2000，第六章），這一種教育方向，明顯地要求更多的互動，而非只是單方向的灌輸，在通常情況下，大班級都不利於實施更多互動的教學方式。在出生率急降的情況下，當局開始考慮實施小班教學，是順理成章的。事實上，香港也有一部分小學在有限的資源下自發地嘗試局部的小班教育，包括北角官立小學（《星島日報》2002 年 11 月 4 日報導）、柏立基師範校友會何壽基小學、博愛醫院陳國威小學（《明報》2002 年 11 月 17 日報導）等，根據校方和教師的自我評估，都認為可以改善課室秩序，嘗試更多互動的教法等等。這些嘗試雖然尚未有進行嚴謹的評價，但初步成效明顯是正面的，跟教育改革的方向也是一致的。由於小班教學有明顯的吸引力，家長和教師都普遍認同實行小班教學。按照香港初等教育研究學會（2002）對小學教師及家長所做的一項調查，贊同減少每班人數的佔了絕大多數，家長為 86.1%，教師為 85.7%。贊同的 113 原因，主要是小班教學可以「加強對個別學生的照顧和輔導」(94.1%)、「增加學生的參與及師生互動機會」 (92.1%)、「改善課室的活動空間」(71.6%) 三項。由此可見，家長和教師對小班教學都重視小班教學所可能帶來的個別照顧和加強照顧的可能性，與教育改革的方向也是相當一致的。儘管小班教學受巿民歡迎，但政府財政緊絀，卻牽制了小班教學的實際施行。前財政司司長梁錦松（2003）指出，由於政府收入減少，2002/03 年度的綜合赤字，估計達 700 億元，接近開支總額 2,433 億元的三成。解決財政的方法，是節流，即減少政府開支。在教育方方面，適齡學童減少剛好可以帶來節約的好機會；實施小班教學的話，則正正抵消了節約的成效。由於財政上的考慮，加上對於小班制的成效仍缺乏本地的科學驗證，決策者雖然有意試行小班制，暫仍未能全面付諸實踐。在 2002 年 11 月 27 日的立法會上，當局並沒有同意全面施行小班制（李國章，2002），而由張文光議員推行以 25 人為一班的小班制議案，雖然獲得多數支持（20 人贊成，15 人反對，9 人棄權），仍在分組投票中被否決（立法會，2002）。持反對意見者在發言中大多認同小班教學的原則，但對於小班的具體人數、所涉及的經費問題等等，則持保留態度。由此可見，在適齡學童人口下降的背景之下，香港雖然有足夠的受訓教師與校舍設備，但如果缺乏充足的財政支持或對實施小班制的足夠的重視的話，小班制最終能否實施，仍然是一個疑問。總結回顧西方教育的發展，可以知道，在上世紀七十年代，歐美各國也是抓住出生率下降的機遇，改善教育條件的。聯合國教科文組織國際教育研究所首任總管孔布斯 (P. Coombs) 曾寫過一本《世界教育危機——八十年代的觀點》 (1985)，總結了當時發達國家的策略：「很有意思的是，儘管財政緊張，中小學註冊人數下降，許多發達國家還是保持住了教師隊伍的規模，使之未受太大的觸動，其結果是降低了學生與教師的比例。例如在美國，中小學註冊人數總數從 1969 年的 5,140 萬減少到 1979 年的 4,700 萬，每位教師所教學生的平均數從 22.3 下降到 18.8。」（頁 118）此外，「發達國家還抓住時機，以合格的教師代替不合格的教師，並對現有教師進行在職培訓，從而更新了教師隊伍。」（同上1）正如上海、台灣等地，香港在進入廿一世紀之初也經歷著出生率下降的情況；同時，香港也在極力追求改革教育，使學生更加「樂於學習」，主動學習，加強師生之間的互動，避免只有單向灌輸。因此，雖然政府無意立刻全面推行小班制，仍計劃在小學進行「具效能的分班分組教學策略的研究」，探討小班教學的可行模式（教育統籌局，2003）。無疑，在未來的一段時間裡，在小學階段實行小班制，仍將是非常有吸引力的一個政策選擇。 1 此處採用了趙寶恒、李環等的中譯，見菲力浦•孔布斯著：《世界教育危機：八十年代的觀點》（北京：人民教育出版社， 1990 年出版），頁 128-129。 114 表一：STAR 計劃實施期間小班級組比起正常班級組的成績優勢閱讀數學幼稚園＋0.5 月＋1.6 月小一＋1.3 月＋2.8 月小二＋3.9 月＋3.5 月小三＋4.5 月＋2.6 月數字顯示的小班級組比正常班級組的成績優勢。以小三閱讀為例，要達到相同的水平，大班級組須平均多花四個半月。換言之，小班制學習成效較正常班為佳。資料來源：J. Finn (2002: 53) 表二：香港過去二十年的出生人數及出生率出生人數生育率(每千人) 1981 86,632 1,930 1986 71,620 1,370 1991 68,508 1,280 1994 71,764 1,360 1995 68,836 1,300 1996 64,559 1,170 1997 60,379 1,100 1998 53,356 990 1999 50,513 970 2000 53,720 1,020 2001 48,394 930 註：「生育率」(total fertility rate) 指每千名成年婦女所生育的子女數量。資料來源：歷年《香港年報》及政府統計處 (2002)。2001 年出生數字則採自《蘋果日報》8 月 19 日報導。參考書目 Biddle, B. J. & Berliner, D. C. (2002). Small Class and Its Effect. Educational Leadership (Feb), pp. 12-23. Biggs, J. B. (1996). Western misconceptions of the Confucian-heritage learning culture. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (eds.), The Chinese Learner: Cultural, Psychological and Contextual Influences (Hong Kong and Melbourne: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong; and the Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd), pp. 45-67. Coombs, P. (1985). The World Crisis in Education: The View from the Eighties. New York: Oxford University Press. Finn, J. (2001). Class Size and Students at Risk: What is Known? 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(2001). Learning to learn: Life-long learning and whole-person development. Hong 119 Kong: Author. Education Commission (2000). Learning for life learning through life: Reform proposals for the education system in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Author. Fosnot, C.T. (1996). Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning. In C.T. Fosnot (Ed), Constructivism: Theory, perspective, and practice (pp.8-33). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Swartz, R.J. & Parks, S. (1994). Infusing the teaching of critical and creative thinking into content instruction. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Books & Software. Tishman, S., Perkins, D., & Jay, E. (1995). The thinking classroom: Learning and teaching in a culture of thinking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 120 地域差異的中國農村基礎教育發展與香港的教育投資援助容萬城香港浸會大學教育學系教育經濟學者們重視教育的經濟價值，在眾多的教育經濟學研究中發現，透過教育過程中產生的增值，可以大大提升個人的生產力。因此，教育所產生的綜合生產力可推動整體經濟發展，亦即「教育與提升生產力之間的關係對經濟發展有直接影響」，而最為明確的證據在教育投資對農村經濟發展中最為顯著（Dension,1962; 1964; Lookheed et.al.1980; Jamison and Lau, 1982; Psacharopoulos and Woodhall, 1985:38-42; Wei et.al. 1999）。鑒於這情況，本文嘗試探討中國農村基礎教育政策在近年的發展，並介紹香港各界人士近年在中國進行的教育投資如何配合中國貧困地區的基礎教育發展。再者，這些教育投資經驗對香港當前的教育改革會帶來一些甚麼啟示呢？本文第一部份介紹中國貧困地區基礎教育的概況及財務安排政策；第二部份介紹香港各界人士過去對中國貧困地區基礎教育的援助。第三部份解釋貧困地區的教育行政及教育經費分配所面對的困難及新政策如何解決問題。最後總結經驗，展望未來中港兩地在教育投資政策上的發展路向。中國貧困地區基礎教育概況中國以農立國，農村人口龐大，達 8 億 7 百 39 萬人（中國統計年鑒，2001），佔全國人口的七成多。按中國國家統計局（2001）發表的最新統計資料顯示，學生全部學費只相當於國民生產總值的 2.23%（見表一），而且目前全國大部份的農村基礎教育仍然落後，特別是偏遠省份及山區的情況更為嚴重。中國教育部也承認，中國仍屬於教育欠發達的國家（中國教育部， 2002），這情況對整體經濟發展相當不利。表一：2000 年中國中小學生學費佔國民生產總值表小學初中高中總計在校人數（萬） 13,013 6,256 1,295 20,564 如每年學費（RMB$1,000） 2,000 億如每年學費（RMB$500） 1,000 億 2000 年中國國民生產總值 89,404 億教育支出佔國民生產總值 2.23% 資料來源：中國國家統計局（2001）據統計，助學工程「希望工程」實施十幾年來，總共才募集了十幾億元人民幣，這只是杯水車薪而已。如果等待這些貧困地區的經濟發展和貧困人口脫貧，雖然能解決普及教育問題，但這不單是一個漫長的過程，而 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 121 且教育的落後又將嚴重影響這些地區的經濟發展和貧困人口的脫貧。Whitty（2002: 113-114）指出，教育發展的落後對兒童有直接及間接的影響。貧困的學生的身體狀況一般較差，從而影響他們的學習能力，同時造成生活上情緒較為波動。由於他們缺乏學習機會，更缺乏在家中的學習指導，正因如此，使他們產生了對社會環境及事物的冷感和失望，影響了他們正常身心的發展，繼而形成社會上相對地大的弱勢社羣，造成教育落後與經濟貧窮的惡性循環。很多教育界人士認為，所謂「基本上達到『普及九年義務教育』目標」，仍有甚多不善之處。面對較普遍的失學、輟學現象，就產生了一個問題：為什麼不按照《義務教育法》強制執行呢？答案很簡單：因為貧窮，交不起學費雜費，而貧窮是無罪的（新華社，2002）。在中國，仍有近七千萬貧困的農民，因為窮而被逼放棄權利和義務，一方面是因為不能忍受貧困的折磨，及面對外界的物質引誘，於是輟學到外地闖蕩，希望能改變現狀；另一方面是因為家長沒有能力支付子女上學所需要的費用，於是提前放棄對孩子的培養（朱德全、王慧萍， 2001）。要從根本上解決在貧困人口中推行普及義務教育的問題，教育部認為必須修改《義務教育法》，明確規定政府必須實施免費義務教育。這樣，法律才能保障《義務教育法》的實施。但目前貧困地區教育落後的惡果已經突出顯現，超生、破壞生態、生產力低下，嚴重地限制了這些地區的發展，也拖慢了全國的經濟發展（新華社，2002）。造成中國農村基礎教育發展地區間差距的原因十分複雜，主要因素包括：（一）地區間經濟發展的不平衡。（二）農民生活困難、居住分散、資訊閉塞是造成教育發展地區差距的直接原因。（三）自然環境是影響教育發展地區間差距的重要客觀因素。（四）傳統生活習慣和文化觀念的影響，如重男輕女和不同宗教信仰的影響。（五）地方的教育政策和教育思想相對落後，學校教學質量低下，效益不高，也是造成教育發展地區差距的現實原因。（六）教育投入不足，辦學條件差，師資隊伍不健全。（七）少數民族語言、文字的教學存在問題（吳德剛， 2001；羅華，2001）。 122 圖一：中國教育發展地區間差距地區一（9 省巿）：北京、天津、上海、廣州、江蘇、浙江、山東、遼寧、吉林。有國家級貧困縣 30 個。地區二（12 省）：河北、陝西、黑龍江、安徽、福建、江西、河南、湖北、湖南、四川、海南、山西。貧困地區義務教育工程於 1995 年-1997 年展開。地區三（9 省區）：內蒙古、廣西、貴州、雲南、西藏、甘肅、青海、寧夏、新疆。貧困地區義務教育工程於 1998 年-2000 年實施。資料來源：中國教育部《國家貧困地區義務教育工程》http://www.moe.edu.cn/gc/yiwu_edu/index.htm 《九年義務教育法》與「小馬拉大車」自上世紀 50 年代直到 80 年代，中國的義務教育一直實行國家辦學、中央集權、財政單一供給的管理模式。直至 1986 年 4 月 12 日第六屆全國人民代表大會第四次會議通過《中華人民共和國義務教育法》，並於同年七月一日起實施，才用法律形式正式確定了義務教育這新體制。《中華人民共和國義務教育法》從嚴格意義上來說，「義務」的教育是「免費」的教育（中國網，2002）。《義務教育法》明確規定：「公民不分民族、種族、性別、職業、財產狀況、宗教信仰等，依法享有平等的受教育機會」，「國家對接受義務教育者免收學費」。該法規定，「實施義務教育所需事業費和基本建設投資，由國務院和地方各級人民政府負責籌措，予以保證」，同時提出了「地方負責，分級管理，誰辦學誰掏錢」的原則，但當時並未對各級政府的職責作出明確的規定。其實，這種政策是沿襲了自清末民初到 40 年代，中國在鄉村推行教育時以地方自籌資金為原則的傳統，即由地方的祀田、廟產中撥出經費，由政府接受（李健東， 1996）。 1989 年，國家對財政體制進行改革，決定在鄉一級建立財政，包括教師工資在內的十幾種支出放在鄉財政，這項改革更強化了「誰辦學誰掏錢」的投資體制。1992 年發佈的《義務教育法實施細則》，進一步把以地方為主負擔教育經費的特徵加以明確。由於中國的教育行政及教育經費的分配，主要是按地域分區自治管理，即「地方負責，社會參與」。《義務教育法》第八條規定：「義務教育事業，在國務院領導下實行地方負責、分級管理」（吳德剛，2001）。不過，以往中國內地的義務教育是出現了許多問題，造成了一個扭曲的現象：中央和省級政府掌握了主要財力，但基本擺脫了負擔義務教育經費的責任；縣鄉政府財力薄弱，卻承擔了絕大部分義務教育經費。這種政府間財力與義務教育事權責任的不對稱，是義務教育――特別是農村基礎教育經費短缺的重要原因。許多研究者將這種不對稱狀況稱為「小馬拉大車」和「大馬拉小車」（中國農村研究網，2002）。 123 中國農村義務教育本來就投入不足，負債發展；農村稅費改革後，面臨投入有減無增，正常運轉困難；義務教育投入體制不合理，鄉村弱肩難以承擔義務教育的重擔；農村義務教育投入責任極待明確等等（見表二），問題皆待解決，而教育扶貧便是改善這些地區的貧窮落後的基本措施。表二：1994-1998 農村義務教育經費收入來源的變化年度總計財政預算內教育撥款教育稅費校辦產業、勤工儉學及社會服務用於教育支出其他財政性收入社會捐、集資學雜費其他收入 1994 100% 59.1 14.4 3.2 0.3 12.1 8.6 2.3 1996 100% 52.6 15.9 3.1 0.3 16.3 9.0 2.7 1998 100% 57.7 16.1 2.1 3.4 7.9 10.9 1.9 資料來源：中國教育部財務司編《中國教育經費統計年鑒》；周曉紅、孫豔霞（2002）據中國國務院發展研究中心的調查，中國的義務教育經費 78%由鄉鎮負擔，9%左右由縣財政負擔，省負擔 11%，中央財政負擔不足 2%。而中央和省級政府的教育事業費大部分用於高等教育，對義務教育只承擔補助貧困地區和少數民族地區的責任。因此，經濟收入低的縣份對教育投資的承擔便頗為艱巨，而對於位處偏遠山區的小鄉鎮及小村落而言，教育經費更是少得可憐。有時候，甚至老師的薪金要以「寫白條」的方式經年拖欠，至於校舍、家具，以至一些基本的設施也沒有足夠資源進行修補，更遑論添置新的設施。這些情況不單對學生的學習構成障礙，而且日久失修的校舍對老師和同學的生命構成威脅。因此，在一些赤貧地區，由於當地政府缺乏經費開辦學校，所以無法貫徹中國「九年義務教育法」的政策。有時候，學生為了上學，不得不翻山越嶺的到鄰村的學校上學（胡一帆， 2002；郭健如， 2003）。所以，這些山區的教育問題是極需要外界伸出援手，幫助解決的。而這問題也牽動了不少海外華人的關注。香港援助中國各級教育的概況自 1950 以來，香港各界團體一直支持中國的教育發展，不過都是零散、規模很小，大多數以捐助家鄉的教育發展為主。到 1990 年初，中國青少年發展基金會發起「希望工程」後，引起了香港人對內地貧困地區基礎教育的關注，激發港人對內地貧困地區基礎教育進行投資的熱情。以下是部份香港各界人士及團體近年來對中國內地貧困地區的教育投資（見表三）。表三：香港各界人士及團體近年來對中國內地貧困地區的教育投資分類團體名稱教育投資（投資範圍）苗圃行動由一群香港志願人士在工餘成立於 1992 年，致力促進中國基礎教育，為中國 7 個省份，包括廣東、湖南、四川及雲南等，提供資助金額逾 9,000 萬，在各地捐資興建 420 所學校。近年舉辦「行路上廣州」步行籌款活動。現每年資助逾 26,000 名內地中小學生的書簿雜費，共同資助內地貧困學童繼續學業。春蕾計畫「春蕾計畫」是 1989 年中國兒童少年基金會發起並組織實施的一項救助貧困地區失學女童重返校園的社會公益事業。慈善團體育苗計畫由政府教育人員職工會及香港資助小學校長職工會聯合發起的「廣東省偏遠地區育苗助學計畫」，自 1993 年至今，共籌得善款逾 1,400 萬港元，成功支持 30 多個縣市共 95 所學校進行維修或重建。 124 中國燭光教育基金捐資興建 33 所學校：廣東省 21 所、貴州省 10 所、湖南省及四川省各 1 所。其中 17 所已建成，有 16 所仍在興建。長城教育基金由一群教育界及工商界人士成立於 1999 年，一）資助廣東省連南瑤族自治縣龍翔學校學生學雜費專案。二）資助內蒙古自治區視障兒童專案。三）「千台電腦寄愛心」活動。四）與香港教育學院及廣東省連南縣教育局，聯合舉辦「邊遠地區教師素質工程」之「連南縣小學教師繼續教育培訓」，由香港教育學院派出教師培訓連南 250 名小學教師。香港培華教育基金 1981 年秋，李兆基、霍英東、鄭裕彤、郭炳湘等到內地參觀後決定回港後成立「培華教育基金」，為祖國培養人才。自成立以來，共資助內地 367 個不同專案，受資助參加培訓人士達 10,433 人，不少人士已成為內地中、高層官員。培訓內容包括經濟與工商管理、旅遊與酒店管理、稅務會計、英語、醫學、室內設計、園林管理、海洋石油企業管理、物業管理、城市規劃、環境保護等多種專業，特別是對各級少數民族幹部和西部地區幹部的培訓。香港福建希望工程基金會由旅港福建籍人士組成，已在國內援建 77 所「希望小學」，分佈在福建、西藏、雲南、貴州、新疆和廣東等 13 個省份。另外又資助了萬餘名貧苦學生的五年學習費、捐出 70 套「希望書庫」及 15 套「三晨影庫」現代教學設備予有需要之學校。香港元朗東莞同鄉會在中國廣東大沙洲，新陸，田寮下，梅溪等地興建五所小學，為二千多名學童提供完善的學習。雁心會在湖南、貴州、廣西、雲南及陝西等地區捐資興建學校，共提供 5,000 個學位。川彥社在廣東省連南資助超過 5,000 名學童；在貴州省多個縣巿捐資接近 3,000,000 元，重建危房學校。愛心力量在廣西省賀州巿、廣東省雲浮巿、湖南省及大西北地區興建小學。香港中文大學校友會――「小扁擔勵學行動」「小扁擔勵學行動」由「香港中文大學校友會聯會教育基金會有限公司」屬下的「中國教育發展基金」設立及管理，「中國教育發展基金」成立於 1995 年，由香港中文大學校友發起籌組，並於 1996 年正式開展「小扁擔勵學行動」，旨在扶助國內貧困農村基礎教育發展。主要活動包括主辦勵學團、贈送學校禮物、發放助學金、興建小學等。活動地區包括粵西封開縣，粵北地區包括乳源、連南、韶關等地。扶輪會（九龍東）在雲大棉先生推動下，已在全國各省市捐資興建 100 所小學。中國慈善基金由雲大棉先生創辦，援助廣西百色地區的基礎教育建設。樂施會中國發展基金於 1992 年成立，致力在內地推行扶貧救災工作。透過綜合發展的方法，包括提供基本設施、基礎教育、技術培訓、醫療援助及小額貸款等。多年來，投資援助超過 1 億 3 千 2 百萬元。多年來，救世軍港澳軍區：中國事務部自 1988 年開始致力在內地推行扶貧救災工作。近年成立「中國兒童助學發展計劃」就是借著經濟援助，讓貧困家庭的孩子不會失去接受教育的機會與權利。該會現與雲南、廣西、廣東、山東、四川、內蒙等的有關單位合作，援助各地貧困家庭的兒童繼續學業。宗教團體香港基督教協進會「五餅二魚教會行動」（盧光輝校長）過去十年在貴州、雲南、四川、廣西、甘肅、寧夏和內蒙等的貧瘠山區，推動 190 所危校的重建工作，資助近年每年達 40,000 多名失學兒童重返校園。 125 香港明愛－中國服務計劃至 2002 年，在廣東、河北、湖北、陝西、雲南各省共興建了 32 所學校，並提供了 29 項教師培訓計劃。此外向福建、甘肅、貴州、廣東、廣西、河北、湖北、陝西、雲南、山西、四川、青海各省的貧困山區的失學兒童提供共 1,539 項助學金。香港寶蓮寺由 1995 年起致力在內地捐建「希望工程學校」，自完成第一間位於廣東省新興縣的「六祖紀念學校」後的三年間，將捐建學校範圍推廣至貴州、遼寧、黑龍江、湖南、湖北、浙江、江西省等的偏遠山區，為當地村民助建基礎教育學校。到目前止，已啟用或興建中的新校舍總共已助建了 51 間，期望於五年內，捐建校舍達 100 間。香港佛教聯合會成立「贊助希望工程學校」部門。鼎力資助邊荒山區校舍。已開幕的計有紹根希望中學，陳國超、大雄、鄭常智、崔馮常寶、李世明、釋大光紀念希望學校。朱敬文教育基金於六、七十年代成立助學金，造就了不少香港專才，亦每年幫助 3,000 名江蘇和安徽的大學生完成學業。香港杏範教育基金會於 1982 年創辦，在內地兩市三省（上海市、天津市、湖北省、雲南省、江西省），捐建項目九項。有兩座科技圖書館、一座星期學校、兩座希望小學、若干科研專案、數批書刊資料、設立獎學金等專案。共捐資美元 93 萬元，港幣 85 萬元，人民幣 129 萬元。田家炳基金會於 1982 年創辦，在中國 31 個省、直轄市、自治區均有獨資和襄資捐建項目數百宗。在全國 44 所高校捐資興建教育書院、教學樓、師資培訓中心和體育中心，另捐辦專業學校 7 所、中學 83 所、小學 34 所及幼稚園 5 所。其他專案包括國家教育部「高等師範教育面向 21 世紀教學內容和課程體系改革計畫」、北京市自然博物館「田家炳生物標本館」、南京市中國科學院紫金山天文臺「田家炳天文科學交流中心」及全國鄉村學校圖書室 750 間。資助各院校開展教育科研工作和贊助教育機構舉辦大型國際學術研討會；在香港多所大學設立中國學者訪問基金；贊助各地田家炳中學舉辦各類交流考察活動。邵逸夫教育基金自 1985 年起，18 年來累計捐贈達 26 億 2 千多萬元予內地教育事業，用於興建 3,808 座各類教育用途建築物，遍及內地 31 個省、市和自治區。2003 年再捐款 2 億港元，以興建內地西部 300 多所大中小學校。李嘉誠基金會自 1980 年以來，向香港、中國內地及海外的教育、醫療、文化、公益事業作有系統的資助。歷年來，捐款累積達港幣 47 億元，其中約佔 70% 透過李嘉誠基金會統籌資助，其餘 30%則在李先生推動下由旗下企業集團捐出。個人基金霍英東教育基金會霍英東基金會銘源基金會霍英東教育基金會於 1986 年成立的，出資一億港元，與教育部合作，旨在鼓勵中國高等院校青年教師脫穎而出和出國留學青年回國內高校任教，每兩年評選一次在教學和科研工作中取得優異成績的 35 周歲以下的青年教師，進行資助和獎勵。霍英東基金會和銘源基金會在粵北等地區捐助興建 40 多間學校，在廣州市興建英東中學，計劃資助粵北山區的優秀學生來學校就讀，為南沙、珠江三角洲和粵北山區培養德智體全面發展的人才。 126 鄭裕彤博士早於 1978 年便捐資 180 萬港元擴建順德華僑中學，並在該校設維修基金，以先父名義設立紀念鄭敬詒獎學金。在八十年代起捐資給家鄉興建新中學及捐資 200 萬元廣州建成大型圖書館。自 1987 年起每年捐 12 萬元給倫教中學獎助學金。九十年代捐資給廣州中山醫科大學建立鄭裕彤博士國際眼科培訓中心，捐贈 1,000 萬港元給廣州市科技進步基金會，捐贈 2,000 萬港元給中華文化促進會；捐資美國三藩市加州大學設立鄭裕彤博士獎學金；為中國各醫科大學之教研人員提供專科訓練；在香港大學設教研金、在港大醫學院設獎學金給訓練中國醫生作臨床實習； 1994 年捐 150 萬元給順德市教育基金；並於 1994 年捐巨資 8,000 萬元人民幣在順德市德勝區興建獨具規模的鄭裕彤中學。方樹福堂基金方潤華基金撥款資助的學校遍佈國內三十多個省(自治區)市，共資助建校 11 所幼稚園，50 所希望小學，27 所中學，58 所大學內的電腦中心及其他教學樓、圖書館、教學設施等十多所。曾憲梓教育基金會獎勵高等師範院校、教育學院、中等師範學校（包括幼師及教師進修學校）及師範性較強的綜合性大專院校中有成就、有貢獻的優秀教師共 7,028 人，金額達 4,502 萬人民幣。實施「優秀大學生獎學金計畫」，用於獎勵家境貧寒及在高等院校就讀的品學兼優學生，資助 3,500 名學生，捐款金額達 1,260 萬人民幣，包括北京大學、清華大學、北京師範大學、復旦大學、西安交通大學等重點大學共 35 所。王錦輝慈善教育基金在全國各省市捐建中小學 60 多所，成立「貧困師範大學生助學金」用於獎勵家境清貧及在 22 所重點師範大學就讀的品學兼優學生，並在東莞市成立獎學金予品學兼優學生。周凱旋基金自 1996 年以來共撥款 1,500 萬人民幣，在甘肅、雲南、廣西等七個省份的偏遠山區，興建過百所「明天小學」。嚴寬祜先生多年來共捐資 3,000 萬在全國各地興建 80 間中小學，共資助 6,000 多名學生學習。何鴻章先生捐資在寧夏、廣西、雲南、遼寧省等偏遠地區興建 10 多間小學，為改善小數民族女學童的就學機會。其他港島區有超過 300 個團體及以個人名義捐贈 280 所學校遍及全國各地。希望工程（香港） 1989 年 10 月，中國青少年發展基金會在內地推出旨在幫助偏遠貧困地區青少年重返校園、完成基礎教育的希望工程，得到海內外許多善心人士的積極回應。據不完全統計，在希望工程中，來自香港的捐款達 5 億元人民幣，這些捐款改變了 23 多萬名失學兒童的命運，興建 1600 多所希望小學。資料來源：各團體的網頁資料，香港明愛服務計劃，綜合報章報導等。如有遺漏，恕未能盡錄。整體來說，過去 20 多年來，香港不少熱心人士例如包玉剛先生、王寬誠先生、梁銶琚先生、伍舜德先生、郭炳湘先生、譚華正先生、王仲銘先生、王惠棋先生等及各界對中國內地的教育捐款達 100 億元，對各級教育，特別是基礎教育的建設起了很重要的推動力，雖然偶爾傳出一些挪用公款、投資失利等負面消息，但經中央紀律檢查委員會查證後，發現多是查無實據的惡意中傷。當然在為數眾多的項目中，不排除有個別的違規行為出現，但一經查證，違規者也難逃法網。可幸，這些事件並沒有打擊港人對中國基礎教育建設的信心，香港各界人士仍繼續捐款及進行教育投資，加快達成「科教興國」、「振興中華民族」的願望。香港各界的捐款雖然解決了部份迫切的問題，但內地的教育管理體制的問題依然存在，主要是中央對農村義務教育財務安排上的政策實施。 127 《九年義務教育法》發展的轉機儘管私人投資於農村的教育每年有上升的趨勢，但要有效地解決農村義務教育管理體制的問題，仍需要政府有效的政策制定和推動。至 2002 年，李嵐清副總理（2002）終於提出要確保所有地區農村義務教育都按照「以縣為主」的管理體制運作。調整的關鍵是要實現兩個重大轉變，即把農村義務教育的責任從主要由農民承擔轉到主要由政府承擔，把政府對農村義務教育的責任從以鄉鎮為主轉到以縣為主。縣級政府要承擔發展農村義務教育的主要責任。這正好反映出中央一再表現出要辦好農村義務教育的決心。農村義務教育管理新體制的實施中國國務院辦公廳（2002）在 5 月 16 日發出了《關於完善農村義務教育管理體制的通知》，要求各級人民政府確保新的農村義務教育管理體制在這年全面運行。《通知》要求，各省（自治區、直轄市）必須在所屬的所有國家扶貧開發工作重點縣的農村小學和初中實行「一費制」收費辦法，不得以任何藉口推辭或不實行「一費制」。 2002 年「一費制」收費標準為每生每學年農村小學 160 元，初中 260 元。收費標準不得提高，各省級人民政府也不得抬出新的農村中小學收費專案。李嵐清（新華社，2002）進一步強調完善農村義務教育管理體制，重點辦好以下幾項工作：（一）建立穩定有效的農村義務教育經費投入保障機制，做到「三個確保」，即確保按時足額、統一發放教職工工資、確保農村義務教育學校公用經費、確保農村中小學危房改造經費。（二）加大監管力度，建立公示制度、舉報制度和責任追究制度，保障農村義務教育經費落實到位和有效使用。對擠佔、挪用農村中小學教育經費、拖欠農村中小學教職工工資，以及不及時修繕危房造成重大安全事故的，要追究領導和直接管理者的責任。（三）進行稅費改革的地方，要採取有力措施，切實保證農村義務教育經費高於改革前的水平，並努力做到「三個增長」。（四）幫助貧困地區積極發展現代遠端教育和電化教育，享受到優質教育資源，實現義務教育的跨越式發展。（五）加強教育對口支持工作，大力開展經常性的助學活動，資助家庭經濟困難的學生完成學業。為了解決財政體制問題，中央政府正在採取措施幫助貧困地區發展，總的來說，基本實現義務教育的普及化之後，義務教育的發展就應要走一條均衡發展的路。均衡發展有三個領域：（一）區域之間教育的均衡發展，這要通過各級財政加大對貧困地區的扶持。（二）學校之間的均衡發展，淡化等級標準和等級評估。各級政府及其教育行政部門在區域內要採取措施，擴大優質資源的發展，要通過佈局結構調整，改造或取消一些薄弱學校，在辦學條件的評估上，提倡合格評估，採取各種方式來推進教育的均衡發展。（三）不同群體之間受教育的公平機會。通過加大助學力度，各種免費的政策，幫助一些弱勢群體能夠接受教育。特別是現在採取了推進教育的資訊化，要通過現代遠端教育，使貧困地區的孩子也能跟城市的孩子一樣，接受高水準、高質量的教育。 128 當然，均衡發展是一個逐步推進的過程，不可能一蹴而就，中國這麼大，發展這麼不一致，東西部的教育經費差別有時候達十倍以上。由於財政體制出現問題，中央政府正採取措施幫助貧困地區發展。為了解決問題，中國教育部成立了「國家貧困地區義務教育工程」。這是立國以來中央投入資金最多、規模最大的教育工程。「義教工程」由教育部和財政部共同組織，從 1996 年開始實施，第一期到 2000 年，中央共增設 39 億元專款，加上地方投入資金共達 125 億元，範圍涉及 852 個貧困縣。二期「義教工程」所涉及的 522 個專案縣，是 2000 年年底前全國尚未「普九」的所有的貧困縣（山西晚報，2002）。而逐步的推進發展基礎教育是中國義務教育發展的一個戰略性措施。以下是概括地介紹幾個按《關於完善農村義務教育管理體制的通知》而進行改革的省份。貴州省貴州省是一個多民族的偏遠內陸省份，全省 86 個縣中有 46 個國家級貧困縣，其中人均年收入在 300 元以下的縣有 11 個，全省 70%以上的縣財政入不敷出（羅華， 2001）。由於歷史、自然、地理等原因，教育基礎薄弱，經濟發展滯後，自我發展能力差。由 2002 年 8 月開始，貴州在 50 個國家扶貧開發重點縣試行義務教育「一費制」。若有縣需要提高「一費制」的標準，必須經地（州、市）級教育、物價、財政部門審核，提出意見報省教育、物價、財政部門批准。對貧困家庭的學生，應實行減免收費制度。除按規定標準收費外，不得再向學生收取任何費用。違反規定者，需受各級教育、物價、財政部門要嚴肅查處（貴州都市報， 2002）。此外，在資金的管理上，切實做到專戶儲存、專款專用，嚴禁挪用，努力提高資金使用效益。在土建專案安排上，堅持專案學校立項審批制度和招投標制度，增強「工程」的透明度；堅持「工程」專案學校法人制和監理人制，增強有關人員的責任感；強調專案學校配套設施建設和儀器設備、圖書的配備以及校長和教師培訓，硬體與軟體並重，建設與管理並重。新疆――烏什縣新疆烏什縣是國家級貧困縣，少數民族人口佔總人口的 97.5％，經濟基礎薄弱，財力有限。1996 年，被列為「國家貧困地區義務教育工程」試點縣，從而建立起了縣、鄉、專案學校三級目標管理體制。為了落實配套資金，縣委書記親自出面幫助貸款 100 萬元，縣長也從極度緊張的財政收入中安排了 30 萬元，並實施了鄉村教育公積金制度，每個村拿出 5000 元，全縣 108 個村共籌措資金 54 萬元。但關鍵是老百姓的支持，認為「建學校是咱老百姓自己的事」。每當建校工程遇到困難時，村民紛紛伸出援手，可見百姓都珍視工程質量，以發揮資金效益，全縣積極為各專案學校制定出標準的施工圖集、品質管制標準圖，印發專案上建工程施工現場監理手冊，確定了定點包乾幹部人員等。工程從選料、用料、用量到技術質量都採取層層把關；從地基、砌磚到封頂，每道工序都有嚴格的規範檢查，並實行了施工許可證制度。對檢查發現有質量問題的工程，堅決推倒重蓋。經過兩年的努力，全縣 62 所專案學校全部建成，全縣適齡兒童入學率由實施工程前 90％提高到 99.8％（新疆日報， 2002）。西藏自 1998 年，西藏開始實施「國家貧困地區義務教育工程」，擴建和新建了 70 個縣的 196 所中小學校，實現「普六」的縣從 11 個增加到 44 個，人口覆蓋率從 22%增加到 62.84%；實現「普九」的縣從零增加到 5 個，人口覆蓋率達到 10.27%，有力地促進了西藏普及義務教育工作。西藏從去年開始實施第二期「義務教育工程」，中央將在 5 年內累計投入 1.7 億元，自治區配套 8,500 萬元，中小學危房改造工程中央投入 5,500 萬元，計劃建設專 129 案 116 個。目前已動工的中小學專案有 55 個，整個工程進展順利。未來展望回顧五十多年來，中國的農村基礎教育長期受到資源缺乏的影響，再加上文化大革命時期的破壞，進展不大。到 1986 年才開始實施《義務教育法》，但由於地區間經濟發展的不平衡及自然環境的影響而造成的教育發展地區差距，所以推行時會困難重重。再加上在實施過程中，教育行政及教育經費的分配，是按地域分區自治管理，便產生了許多問題。由於教育事權責任的不對稱，產生了農村基礎教育經費短缺的現象。幸好在香港及海外人士的捐助下，不少部份的偏遠地區得到了援助，但問題仍未能全面解決。在 2002 年 11 月舉行的中共十六大報告在論述全面建設小康社會目標中提出了教育的發展目標：「形成比較完善的現代國民教育體系」，「人民享有接受良好教育的機會，基本普及高中階段教育，消除文盲。形成全民學習、終身學習的學習型社會，促進人的全面發展。」報告還提出「造就數以億計的高素質勞動者、數以千萬計的專門人才和一大批拔尖創新人才。」教育部部長陳至立（2002）指出「力爭實現國內生產總值到 2020 年比 2000 年翻兩番的目標，需要強有力的人才和智力支持」。但正如十六大報告所指出的那樣，當前中國生產力和科技、教育還比較落後，人力資源面臨著嚴峻挑戰。她認為，挑戰來自三個方面：一是國民科學文化素質偏低。中國人均受教育年限約為 8 年，而世界許多國家人均受教育年限都超過了 10 年。中國高等教育毛入學率為 14%左右，低於世界平均水平；二是中國勞動力知識結構重心偏低。2000 年，中國就業人口中具有高中及以上學歷的比例為 18%，具有大專及以上學歷的比例僅為 5%，與發達國家差距較大；三是中國人才狀況不適應國際競爭和產業結構調整的要求。根據產業結構調整的要求，新增勞動力受教育程度應達到高中以上水平。但目前中國高中階段毛入學率僅為 42%，高新技術及高級經營管理人才、高素質的技術工人都不能滿足需求。過去十年，中國的經濟改革，促使經濟發展有大幅度的增長，中央政府也意識到農村基礎教育問題不獲解決，對長遠經濟發展不利。所以 2002 年公佈的新政策規定，所有地區農村義務教育都按照「以縣為主」的管理體制運行，加上中央政府大量撥款成立「國家貧困地區義務教育工程」，從而扭轉並加大了農村義務教育的投資，這點是合乎了「人力資本理論」所珍視的「以人為本」原則，實是明智。按中國教育報（2002/12）報導「在 2002 年 12 月，第九屆全國人大常委會第 31 次會議上，全國人大教科文衛委員會表示，將會同國務院有關部門進一步開展對教育經費投入的立法研究，同時建議將義務教育法的修改儘快列入全國人大常委會立法規劃」。事實上，世界各經濟強國的教育發展歷程，都是由發展基礎教育開始，從而建立堅穩的基石，使各級教育得以穩步發展，對全民經濟、文化、民族素質乃至整體社會作出貢獻（OECD, 2001）。從中國農村的教育經驗裏看到，華人社會重視教育，不論環境是窮困，為人父母的多明白教育的重要性。而中國政府正是受「再苦也不能苦孩子，再窮也不能窮教育」的教育投資理念影響，進行大規模的教育改革。反觀香港特區政府在嚴重財政赤字的影響下，應否對教育投資有所保留呢？今後，無論是政府或是社會各界人士對中國的農村基礎教育或香港特區政府的教育的繼續投資，實是至善之道。 130 參考書目 Dension, E.F. (1962). Accounting for United States Economic Growth, 1929 - 1969. Washington: Brookings Institution. Dension, E.F. (1964). ‘Measuring the contribution of education (and the Residual) to economic growth’. In Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development, 13-55. Jamison, D. and Lau, L. (1982). Farmer Education and Farm Efficiency. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Lockheed, M. et. al. (1980). ‘Farmer education and farm efficiency: a survey’. In King.T (ed.), On Education and Income. World Bank Staff Working Paper, No. 402, Washington: World Bank. OECD (2001). The Well-being of Nations: the role of human and social capital. Paris: OECD. Psacharopoulos, G. & Woodhall, M. (1985). Education for Development: An Analysis of Investment Choice. Washington: World Bank. Wei, X., et. al. (1999). ‘Education and Earnings in Rural China’. Education Economics, 7 (2) 167-187. Whitty, G. (2002). Making Sense of Education Policy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/2002/Apr/138813.htm http://www.chinanews.com.cn/2002-09-05/26/219111.html 山西晚報（2002）。《「國家貧困地區義務教育工程」》，5 月 14 日。中國青年報（ 2002 ）。《國家貧困地區義務教育工程在西藏「開花結果」》， 9 月 3 日。 http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/EDU-c/176371.htm 中國青年報（2002）。《確保「一個也不能少」寧波分步實施免費義務教育》，7 月 22 日。中國教育報（2002）。《全國人大加快教育經費投入立法研究》，12 月 26 日。中國新聞網（2002）。《教育部糾風辦：農村義務教育收費不准自製標準》，9 月 5 日。中國農村研究網（2002）。《農村義務教育經費怎樣不斷流》。http://www.ccrs.org.cn/big/ncywjyjfzn.htm 中國農網（2002）。《國務院:確保新農村義務教育管理體制今年全面運行》，5 月 17 日。 http://www.aweb.com.cn/2002/5/17/200251783822.htm 中國網（2002）。《楊春時委員：義務教育應是免費教育》，3 月 16 日。 http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/lianghui/119920.htm 中華人民共和國國家統計局（2001）。《中國教育及財政統計》。中國：北京。中華人民共和國國家統計局（2001）。《中國統計年鑒》。北京：中國統計出版社。中華人民共和國國務院辦公廳（2002）。《關於完善農村義務教育管理體制的通知》。中國：北京。中華人民共和國教育部（2002）。《國家貧困地區義務教育工程》。中國：北京。中華校園網（2002）。《教育部部長助理：義務教育本質要求必須堅持》。 http://www.54youth.com.cn/gb/paper113/43/class011300002/hwz205155.htm 朱德全、王慧萍（2001）。〈農村基礎教育問題初探〉《西南教育論叢（雙月刊）》，（3）頁 60-69。江南時報（2002）。《義務教育該免費了》，7 月 24 日。http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/177754.htm 吳德剛（2001）。《西部教育：九年義務教育問題》。北京：中共中央黨校出版社。李健東（1996）。《政府、地方社區與鄉村教師――靖遠縣及 23 縣比較研究》，北京大學社會學人類學所博士論文。周曉紅、孫豔霞（2002）。〈論重建我國農村義務教育投資新體制――我國農村義務教育投資困境與出路〉《東北師範大學學報》（2），頁 106-113。 131 胡一帆（2002）。《農村義務教育難解之結》載於《中國鄉村》，6 月 27 日。 http://www.china-village.org/bbs/showtopic.asp?TOPIC_ID=119&Forum_ID=6 陳至立（2002）。《教育部部長陳至立解讀中國教育發展目標》，12 月 18 日，新華網。貴州都市報（2002）。《貴州在 50 個縣試行義務教育「一費制」》，8 月 28 日。新華社（2002）。《李嵐清：調整和完善農村義務教育管理體制》，4 月 27 日。新疆日報（2002）。《眾志成城增新曲——新疆烏什縣實施「國家貧困地區義務教育工程」紀實》，8 月 1 日。農村之窗（2002）。《農村義務教育縣級人民政府「唱主角」》。http://www.gdlczc.com/nongjiaoxzfzj.htm 羅華（2001）。〈西南貧困地區農村基礎教育現狀分析與改革構想〉《西南教育論叢（雙月刊）》，（1）頁 40-46。 132 論合作學習的局限性王凱華中師範大學基礎教育課程改革研究中心合作學習與許多教學理論和策略一樣有著自身局限。從歷史的角度看，它是緩和種族矛盾的工具。在研究方法上，合作學習研究者只重實驗法，而忽視完整的研究方法體系，這造成了合作學習理論的不成熟。在實踐中，合作學習策略存在諸多問題，其適用範圍也不甚明確。合作學習（cooperative learning）是目前世界上許多國家普遍採用的一種富有創意和具有實效的教學理論與教學策略體系。由於它在改革課堂氣氛，大面積提高學生的學業，促進學生形成良好的非認知心理品質等方面效果顯著，被人們譽爲「近十多年來最重要和最成功的教學改革」。[1]我國關於合作學習的系統研究始於 20 世紀 80 年代末，浙江、山東等省先後開展了較大規模的實驗研究，取得了良好的效果，極大地推動了合作學習理論的發展和本土化。進入 21 世紀後，國家新的課程標準積極倡導合作交流的學習方式。許多教育理論工作者極力評介國外優秀的合作學習原理和策略。合作學習被看成是治療以教師爲中心的傳統教育不足的良方而一度風行。愈來愈多的一線教師嘗試結合學科特點運用合作學習法，取得了一定的成效。經驗論文如雨後春筍般見諸報端。在一片盛讚合作學習聲中，一些教師言必稱小組合作、合作學習法成爲他們的萬能法寶，每堂課皆用。殊不知任何一種教學理論都有著自身的不足和局限性，合作學習也是一把「雙刃劍」有其利也有其弊。在學習借鑒合作學習理論並將之運用於教學實踐時，我們應當清晰瞭解它的局限性，以提高運用合作學習的有效性。反種族隔離的策略：合作學習的歷史局限合作學習是一種古老的教育觀念和實踐。在西方，古羅馬昆體良學派曾指出，學生可以從互教中受益。大約在 18 世紀初，英國牧師倍爾和蘭喀斯特（Bell, A.& Lancaster. J.）廣泛運用過小組合作學習的方式。19 世紀初合作學習觀念傳到美國。在教育家帕克（Park, F.）和杜威（Dewey, J.）的積極倡導下，合作教學法在美國教育界佔據了主流地位。然而，由於公立學校強調人際間的競爭，合作教學法從 20 世紀 30 年代起失去了主導地位。 70 年代合作學習觀念中道復興。在斯萊文（Slavin, R.E.）、約翰遜兄弟（Johnson, D.W.& Johnson, R.T.）、卡甘（Kagan, S.）等學者的推動下，原有的合作學習觀念迅速發展成爲一系列原理與策略體系，再度成爲美國教育界的時尚。合作學習的重新興起絕非偶然，它既反映了自 1957 年前蘇聯成功發射人造衛星後，美國朝野要求大面積提高教育質量的呼聲，也是對傳統教學形式的反思和對傳統評分制的批判，尤其是它與反種族隔離運動息息相關。二戰後，由於美國公開的敵人已經消除，經濟繁榮使分配不均日益突出，加上 60 年代國民對越戰態度的高度歧異，使得宿有的種族衝突和歧視更爲表面化、普遍化。反種族隔離的呼聲一浪高過一浪，最後演變成一場聲勢浩大的具體運動。這場運動反映到教育領域就是反校際隔離，反班級內的隔離。1954 年美國最高法院通過一項決議，要求所有公立學校不再採取「隔離但又平等法」（separate but equal doctrine），實行各族融合 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 133 政策。[2]合作學習即是教學上反種族隔離，實現各族和解的一項革新策略。其目的是遏止白人好競爭的個性，使來自不同階級、種族、性別的學生擁有平等的學習機會，共同運用文化遺産與資源進行學習。時至今日，雖然許多研究者把合作學習視爲多元文化教育的重要策略，而不再提及反種族隔離，但是掀開多元教育的面紗，看到的還是：合作學習策略仍舊以促進不同種族、不同文化學生的理解與共融爲最高目標。[3] 但是，僅僅依靠合作學習縮小種族間的差別，幻想借教學組織形式的改變來調和種族矛盾，暴露出合作學習的歷史局限性。合作學習往往依靠任務關聯、條件關聯、成績關聯等主體外在的因素，促使小組成員彼此互助。而且學生常常受到教師權威的脅迫而暫時湊合一處，因此合作普遍缺乏內在動機。即使組內實現裏真心合作，但組間仍然彌漫著競爭的硝煙。雖然現時的合作學習評核模式也採用效標參照，緩和組間競爭的緊張氣氛，但較爲常見的是：用組間的競爭來調動學生合作學習的積極性。因而競爭是絕對的，合作是相對的。合作學習並不能真正有效地抑制白人的競爭性格，求得種族間的和睦共處。來自混合學校的報告也表明：合作學習策略對不同種族兒童之間的關係雖有一定程度的改善作用，但收效甚微，不同種族的孩子仍然在自己所屬的種族內發展同伴關係和友誼關係。[4] 獨尊實驗法：合作學習研究方法論的缺陷綜覽美國當代合作學習三十餘年的發展史，窺視其背後的研究方法論，我們不難看出合作學習的研究深受美國科學化運動的影響，重視「假設——實證」的研究範式，強調研究的科學性。合作學習研究發起人之一的斯萊文教授曾指出，合作學習研究應符合四項科學標準：（1）必須是把合作學習組與學習同樣材料的控制組進行比較研究。（2）必須有證據證明實驗組與控制組最初的條件相等。如隨機分派學生，實驗組與控制組之間的標準差在 50%以內。（3）研究的持續時間至少爲四周（20 個小時）。（4）成績測量必須針對實驗組和控制組的教學目標來進行。如果實驗組和控制組所學的內容不一致，那麽一定要用標準化測驗來評估所有班級共同追求的目標。[1]在這種科學精神的指引下，研究者釐定了總的假設，即是與他人合作的教學目標或任務可以促進學生間的合作，更有效地激發學生的自我意識，引導學生尊重他人並且自尊，培養學生的主動參與精神和合作態度，使學生習得社會交往技能。[5]在這一假設的前提下，研究者運用實驗法研究了合作學習對學生學業成績、一體化班級（mainstreamed 指弱智、正常兒童混合編班）、學生自尊的影響。研究結果表明影響是積極有效的，應該說合作學習一開始就走上了科學化的道路，但是僅僅通過實驗法來追求科學化有失偏頗。首先，研究方法的選用，在一定程度上取決於對研究物件的認識和把握。合作學習研究的物件是活動中的人，是平等關係中的人。其活動具有多邊、共時、交互作用性和影響因素關係的複雜性。相對於獨立學習而言，合作學習中的變數較多，而且它們以非線性、隨機性等複雜性的方式存在著。例如隨著小組人數和環境的變更，合作學習對個別學生的影響具有不確定性。正如加涅所言，隨著集體的規模的增大，必要的教學事件對個別學生的影響可能由近乎確定降到可能性較低的程度。[6]同時這種自上而下「假設——實驗」的研究方法只能體現「靜態的」因果關係，不能關照「動態的」關聯過程。因此單純的實驗法不可能清晰揭示合作學習內部複雜的因果關係，實驗的結果值得懷疑。這也許可以說明，爲什麽合作學習在實驗狀態下有效率達 72%，而在日常教學狀態中效果卻不明顯。[7] 再從合作學習活動進行的角度來分析。由於合作學習會受到具體的時、空、物質條件，尤其是師生文化背景因素的影響，活動會産生不可預測的多種可能，其過程呈現出動態生成狀態。這些生成的結果往往是教學中不可多得的靈光，對學生的發展起著至關重要的作用。而實驗法只趨向對已作假設的教學結果進行驗證和評估。動態生成的結果被忽略不計，甚至將其視爲影響實驗效度與信度的不利因素而對其予以控制。 134 從以上分析可以看出，單一的實驗法不足以認識合作學習的複雜性。我們必須力克簡單、抽象和靜止認識這一問題的思維方法，在方法體系上綜合哲學、科學、藝術等人類研究方法，放棄對普遍萬能合作學習模式的追求，直面其本身的複雜性，理性真實地把握合作學習。基本理論龐雜，模式策略繁瑣：合作學習理論的不成熟教育研究是「事理」研究，即探究人所做事情的行事依據和有效性、合理性的研究。它包括兩大類型的研究：作爲依據的研究，可稱作基本理論的研究；作爲有效性和合理性改進的研究，可稱作應用研究。[8]爲了尋求合作學習的理論基礎，國外一些學者博采群體動力理論、選擇理論、教學工學理論、動機理論、發展心理學理論、認知精製理論。但是他們僅僅停留在援引相關理論的水平，並沒有在衆多基礎理論支撐下探索合作學習的本質規律。各種理論缺乏有效的梳理整合，以致於如表一[1]所示；合作學習的定義只是描述了合作學習的形式和一般過程。這反映合作學習的基本理論研究缺乏深度。表一國內外若干代表性的合作學習定義在當今全球化的時代，合作意識已滲透到各個領域。政治上，人們對話合作，尋找共同點來緩解或化解衝突；經濟上人們愈來愈多地在共同遵守規則的基礎上尋求廣泛的合作；社會問題上，全球逐漸在保護生態，可持續發展等問題上達成共識，並合作戮力解決世界難題。可以這樣說合作已成爲時代精神而無處不在。合作既成手段，又是目的。一方面它是人們取得某種利益的手段，另一方面它也是人類追求的生存方式。由此看來，合作學習也不能只看成是實現教學目標的手段與策略，它應該成爲現代人的合理內涵，現代人存在的方式，成爲新世紀的教育目標。目前對合作學習自身的認識正缺乏人、人與社會的視野，忽視了對其本體價值的探尋。合作學習研究者崇尚技術理性，偏好應用型研究，較多地把合作學習視爲手段探討其有效性，以期較好指導實踐。然而，一個能發揮指導實踐功能的教學理論不僅是教教師怎麽做，而且還要能提高教師看待教育問題的敏感性，增進教育者對教育實踐活動的理解能力、判斷能力、決策能力與反思能力。合作學習既是有目的的意向性活動，又是一個教育者不斷探究，不斷調適的過程。合作學習課堂總是具體的、情景化的。教師不可能兩次步入同一個合作學習現場。合作學習研究者專注於模式方法的設計、應證，並交給教師應用。現存的策略、方法和模式不勝枚舉，繁瑣龐雜。以卡甘的結構法爲例，該法在 1990 年時的變式就有 50 多種，且呈逐年上升之勢。[1]但是無論方法有多少，卻不可能滿足具體課堂的要求。合作學習理論和策略只有真正啓迪教育者，爲 [美]斯萊文： [美]約翰遜兄弟： [以]沙倫： [英]賴特： [加]文澤： [中]王坦：合作學習是指使學生在小組中從事學習活動，並根據他們整個小組成績獲取獎勵或認可的課堂教學技術。合作學習就是在教學上運用小組，使學生共同活動以最大程度地促進自己以及他人地學習。合作學習是組織和促進課堂教學的一系列方法的總稱。合作學習是指學生爲達到一個共同的目標在小組中共同學習的學習環境合作學習是有教師將學生隨機的或有計劃地分配到異質團隊或小組中，完成所佈置的任務的一種教學方法。合作學習是一種旨在促進學生在異質小組中互助合作，達成共同學習目標，並以小組的總體成績爲獎勵依據的教學策略體系。 135 他們提供分析框架，幫助教師深刻理解所處的教育情景，提高他們面對具體情景的決策能力，並不斷反省合作教學的實踐，形成個性化的理論，才能使策略發生效用。當前的合作學習理論恰恰不具備這樣的功能，而顯得不成熟。條件界定不清：合作學習適用範圍不明合作學習並非是放之四海而皆準的金科玉律，它有其適用的條件。從目前國內外豐富的研究成果來看，對合作學習的適用條件沒有清晰地界定。首先，不是所有兒童適合在小組中學習。兒童是具有豐富個性，不同文化背景的學習者。對於每一個兒童，合作學習不一定是最佳的方式。一些批判合作學習的人認爲，思想感情內向的兒童，自信心差，膽小和害怕受到別人拒絕的學生不適合在小組中學習。性格對立的學生會造成更多的小組衝突。[9]一些心理學研究發現，以色列農莊兒童比城市兒童更具合作性。[10]中國孩子比美國、加拿大孩子更爲合作。[11]這表明學習主體個性、文化差異對合作學習方式的選用有著制約作用。其二，面對衆多不同類型的合作學習模式、策略，合作學習研究者未能言明合作學習策略適用的學科。各學科的學習規律有所不同，合作學習策略不可千篇一律。在語言學科中，合作主要是鼓勵小組成員相互交流資訊，碰撞思維。而在自然科學的學科中，則多半是小組成員分工協作，共同完成作業。即使是同一學科，不同的學習階段應對應不同的合作學習策略。如作文課中，在選題、審題、構思等階段，可以運用合作學習策略，促使學生借鑒互補，共同提高。但是在寫作文時，學生應該獨立作業。其三，合作學習不適用所有的學習任務。一般來說，簡單的知識技能教學任務無須小組合作學習。有人認爲探索性的思考題（要求學生做出某種有價值的預測發現）、拓展性的訓練題（要求學生多方面思考，尋求解決問題的多種方案、思路）、比較性的分析題（要求學生對多種答案進行比較、分析從中選擇最佳的）、多步驟的操作題（設計比較複雜，學生個人難以完成，需要分工協作）等要求發揮集體智慧和力量，能夠形成「認知衝突」的學習任務適合採用合作學習方式。[12] 其四，運用合作學習不能缺少相應的物質條件。班級條件和規模會限制合作學習的運用。美國小學班容量只有二十三、四名學生。近年來，在克林頓總統的支援下，教育界開展了小班化運動，正逐步將班容量降爲 15 人，這樣教室裏的空間較大，有利於減少合作學習時小組間的干擾，方便教師關照。在我國中小學裏，絕大多數班級規模較大。條件較好的城鎮學校每班人數一般都有 50 以上，教室空間太小，噪音太大，合作學習很難開展。矛盾重重：合作學習實踐面臨挑戰 1、分組合作學習者主張異質分組。其理由是，異質分組能創造多樣化的學習環境。因爲學習者的背景、思想、性別、民族特點各不相同。儘管這種觀點表面上看起來合情合理，但是有一些研究已開始反駁它。這些研究表明，把有色人種的學生從其他有色人種中孤立出來，或者把女生從其他女生中獨立出來，對於這些個體獲得學業成功不利。[13]因爲他們在小組內感到孤獨，微不足道，或者因爲扮演模式化的角色，而活躍不起來。並且異質小組內交往的雙方往往彼此間缺乏共同語言，難以互相開啓心扉，敞開各自的資訊庫，形成資訊互補，心心相印，和諧共振的氛圍。 136 2、學習進度學生學習同一材料的速度是不一致的。在小組合作學習中，一些能力差的學生要麽跟不上小組的速度，要麽生吞活剝學習內容，勉強趕上。霍爾特（Holt, D）稱合作學習導致差生學習時間的無效分配，這種無效的時間分配是得學生掌握知識少，學習質量差。如果小組因害怕差生掉隊，而放慢甚至暫停小組學習，輔導差生，這對於大部分學生來說是不公平的。[14]維奇（Vickie, R）還報告合作學習使學生抱怨反覆向差生解釋自己已掌握的學習內容，並且差生總是處於消極學習狀態。[15] 3、小權威異質小組內不可避免地出現能力強的學生控制小組的局面，這阻礙了全組成員平等參與小組活動，尤其對於內向、文靜的和能力較差的學生不利。「小權威」往往獨斷專行，包辦任務，以自己的見解代替全組的想法。那些內向的學生不敢或不願表達思想，做出自己的解答，最後論爲「複製」「小權威」思維成果的聽衆。不僅如此，「小權威」的出現還會爲懶惰的學生營造「避風港」。懶惰的學生在小組內不出力，卻享受小組共同的成果。雖然有的合作學習研究者提出了「積極互賴」、「個別績效」 [1]、「團體任務設計」[16]等策略來解決「小權威」問題。但是來自實踐的研究表明「小權威」現象並未得到有效的杜絕。金（King, F）的研究表明優等生主宰著小組討論的主動權，一般扮演著領導的角色，而低分數的學生處於消極狀態。[17]萊恩（Lynn, S）的研究表明無論在何種背景情況下，差生的參與都明顯低於其他成員。[18] 4、組內衝突由於小組內成員的個性、背景等各不相同，小組內經常容易出現爭吵，不願合作的情況，嚴重影響正常的教學秩序。理論上，只要教師給學生教授所需的社交技能，並讓他們練習這些技能，就可以使學生間形成良好的互助、互動的合作關係。但是，培養學生良好社交技能是合作學習的目的，而不是前提條件。在國家新課程改革實驗區的中小學校裏，所見到的事實是：小組合作活動中經常出現不友好、不傾聽、不分享的現象。如有一位教師上了一節「統計」的小組合作學習課。教師把各種景色的「花」（花型卡片）分給學生，讓兩人一組合作擺出統計圖，統計每種「花」的數量。一些學生把卡片全部拿走。另一些學生與之發生爭執。現在大陸大多數的學生是獨生子女，其中一部分學生性格自私、偏執、好勝，這恐怕是影響合作學習順利開展的重要原因。 5、獎勵合作學習中，教師採取一些模式來鼓勵學生。例如在小組的每一個人完成了一個工作單元或一次好的測驗時，將其總分進行匯總，按小組的成績（即分數）決定是否給予獎勵；另一種模式時間小組的得分進行平均，把平均分數作爲小組成員的個人成績，以平均分作爲是否給予獎勵的依據；第三種是一個小組完成一項集體任務得一分，在一段時間內所得到的分數作爲這個小組每個成員的得分。這三種模式對小組中某些成員是不公平的。 6、小組人數合作小組規模究竟多大爲宜，合作學習研究者沒能達成一致。有的主張小組人數應該盡可能的少，以便保證小組內人人有責任，每個人有充分的時間參與活動。另外一些人則認爲，小組人多有利於形成豐富多樣的學習環境。[19]這造成實踐中教師隨意安排小組人數，導致合作學習寡效。 137 綜上所述，學習借鑒美國合作學習理論與策略必須正視其固有的局限性。首先，美國合作學習不僅是一項新的教學策略，更是一項意圖緩和國內種族矛盾，實現種族和解的政治、社會策略。我國的國情是種族衝突不明顯。因此，認清這一局限，對於依據我國社會需要和著眼培養具有合作互助品質的人的需要，來建構我國獨特的合作學習理論有著現時意義。再者，合作學習理論是一種實踐科學理論。僅靠科學實證研究方法並不能深刻揭示其規律。它還必須紮根教學實踐，關注師生文化，體驗合作歷程，探尋自下而上的紮根理論。最後，教師必須認真看待合作學習實踐中已暴露的種種矛盾與弊病。在進行合作教學設計時，時刻提醒自己可能會出現的問題，積極地、創造性地尋求辦法、途徑；在合作教學中，不斷監控合作學習的過程，運用教學機智及時解決出現的問題。參考書目 [1] 王坦 (2001)。《合作學習——原理與策略》。.北京：學苑出版社。 [2] 郭德俊 (1994)。〈合作學習的理論與方法〉。《高等師範教育研究》。1994(3)。 [3] 周立勳 (1994)。〈國小班級分組合作學習之研究〉。臺灣國立政治大學教育研究所博士論文。.另見 Holt, D.(1993). Cooperative Learning for Students from Diverse Language Backgrounds: An Introduction. In Daniel, D. Holt. (Eds.) Cooperative Learning: A Response to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity. Washington, D.C.: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistic. [4] Richard I. Arends (1988). Learning to Teach. Random House Inc. p.404. [5] 郭華 (1998)。〈小組合作學習的理論假設與實踐操作模式〉。《中國教育學刊》。1998(5)。 [6] 加涅 (1999)。《教學設計原理》上海：華東師範大學出版社。 [7] Jacob, E（1999）. Cooperative Learning in Context. State University of New York Press, Albary [8] 葉瀾.(1999)。《教育研究方法論初探》上海：上海教育出版社。 [9] Criticisms against Cooperative Learning (http://hagar.up.ac.za) [10] 方曉義.(1992)。〈兒童合作與競爭行爲發展研究綜述〉。《心理發展與教育》。1992(1)。 [11] 龐麗娟 (2002)。〈論兒童合作〉。《教育研究與實驗》。2002(1)。 [12] 柳汐浪.(1998)。〈分層推進與合作學習——面對差異的兩項革新試驗〉。《教育研究與實驗》。1998(3)。 [13] Rosser, S.V. (1997). Re-Engineering Female Friendly Science. Teachers College Press, Columbia University. [14] Holt, D. (1997). The Case Against Cooperative Learning. Accounting Education. Vol.12, No.1, p.191-194 [15] Vickie, R. (1999). Cooperative Learning: Abused and Overused?. The Education Digest. Vol.38, No.2, p.74-80 [16] 溫彭年、賈國英 (2002)。〈建構主義與教學改革——建構主義學習理論綜述〉。《教育理論與實踐》。2002(5)。 [17] 托馬斯•L•古德等著，陶志瓊等譯.(2002)。《透視課堂》。北京：中國輕工業出版社。 [18] Lynn, S. (2000). Effect of Workgroup Structure and Size on Student Productivity During Collaborative Work on Complex Tasks. The Elementary School Journal. Vol.100, No.3, p.183-212. [19] Fiechtner, S. & Davis, E.A. (1992). Why Some Groups Fail: A Survey of Students’ Experience with Learning Groups. In Goodsell, A.S. (Eds.) Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. Syracuse University. 138 創新學習評價研究龔春燕胡方重慶市教育科學研究院創新學習作爲一項開拓性、探索性、前沿性和具有國際意義的研究與實驗課題，其重大價值即在於：它反映了伴隨著新世紀學習社會化的到來所引起人們在學習方式上的革命性的變化。這種變革的趨勢就是人們在學習方式上將在傳統的維持學習的基礎上轉向適應現代社會發展需要的創新學習。雖然，早在 1979 年，國際著名學術團體羅馬俱樂部的三位成員在其研究報告《學無止境——回答未來的挑戰》中首先提出創新性學習，但作爲一項課題來研究，並大規模地開展區域性實驗，卻是始於中國。1998 年初，重慶市教育科學研究院在重慶市教育行政部門的大力支持下，率先啓動這項課題研究。他們在全市選擇了 31 個縣、近四百所中小學，有計劃地組織了這項課題的實驗研究，同時，中國學習科學學會在全國 11 個省市還組織了 400 餘所學校參加，香港教育工作者聯會組織了 11 所實驗學校。爲檢測、衡量研究與實驗的成果，總課題組還組織各方面力量，採取行政、專家與群衆相結合的方式進行創新學習的評價研究。一、創新學習評價指標的構建創新學習開展，離不開對評價的研究，儘管評價是最困難的研究，但課題組本著實用、容易操作、體現創新學習思想原則，通過多次應用與修改，建立了「學生創新學習評價表」、「教師創新學習指導評價表」、「學校創新學習特色評價表」、「創新學習課題研究評價表」，在評價中，我們還特別重視對中小學課堂教學的評價，因爲課堂教學是指導學生創新學習、培養學生創新能力的主渠道。構建具體的創新學習評價的指標體系，有效地發揮了評價的導向，激勵、調控作用。在創新學習評價方面，課題組根據評價的基本理論、創新學習的理念和課堂教學評價的原則，提出了由評價的理論依據、評價目標、評價原則、評價內容及要點、評價的基本方法等構成的總體框架。（一）創新學習評價基本理論 1.重學生發展創新學習評價以「學生發展爲本」爲出發點，以創新學習基本理論爲依據，以現代化教育評價的新理念爲導向的指導思想下建立起來的。發揮評價的導向功能，改變教師的教學觀、人才觀、效率觀。力求把培養學生的創新精神、創新思維、實踐能力放在重要的地位，形成民主、平等、合作、和諧、生動活潑的課堂教學氛圍。同時由於學生個別差異的客觀存在，往往力不從心，評價中價值標準不能一刀切，用同一標準壓抑學生學習的積極性。學生課外學習的價值取向強調每個學生都有充分學習的潛能，爲他們進行不同層次的學生課外學習提供 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 139 了可能性，也爲個別化的評價方式創造了條件。 2．重情感體驗創新學習評價，不論是學科課程還是結合社會實踐活動，注重學生學習中的體驗。如學生課外學習評價非常關注學生在問題解決或跨學科、綜合式學習中，對科學研究一般過程、方法、原理等的體驗。學生在實踐中既發展了觀察、思維、操作和表達等基本能力，更獲得了大量的感性認識。因此，創新學習的評價十分強調學生在探究過程中的體驗，包括使命感、責任感、自信心、進取心、意志、毅力、氣質等精神自我認識和自我教育的發展。 3．重課堂改革長期以來，課堂教學評價存在著重教輕學，重知輕能，重結果輕過程，重統一要求，輕獨立見解，重管理輕評價，輕執教者自身評價輕學生參與評價等傾向。這些評價觀念已經不能適應現代化教育思想和時代發展的要求，阻礙學生創新精神的發展。在課堂教學形式上，確立學生主體地位，真正實現教師的角色轉換，體現學生主動參與自主學習，改「一言堂」爲「群言堂」；改學生「呆聽、死記、蠻練」爲「趣、疑、思、創」；改學生「聽從、盲從、順從」爲「質疑、奇思、獨創」，倡導學生參與、合作、競爭。在課堂教學中，使他們得到生動、活潑、主動的發展。課堂教學評價是教學研究的重要組成部分，是充分發揮課堂教學評價的導向激勵和改進功能。建立創新學習課堂教學模式；對於全面實施素質教育主渠道，培養 21 世紀的創新人才具有極重要的作用。 4．重問題探究「疑」是創新學習課堂教學的主軸，是思維訓練的核心。學校工作、教師教學、學生學習都必須突出「問題」意識，爲問題而學，爲問題而思，解決問題，可能是創新的開始。（二）創新學習評價目標 1．充分發揮創新學習評價的導向功能，切實轉變教師的教育教學觀念，規範課堂教學，從而對建立起符合創新學習的課堂教學模式。 2．通過課堂評價改革，確實實現教師的角色轉變，真正確立學生在課堂教學中的主體地位，落實學生創新意識，創新思維和實踐能力的培養，爲學生成爲符合新時代社會發展要求的創新型人才奠定基礎。 3．通過評價，營造學校創新環境。（三）創新學習評價原則 1．導向性原則創新學習評價首先要在現代教育理論和先進的教育教學、現代管理理論的指導下進行，緊緊把握評價的方向。在創新學習課堂教學評價中則體現「教爲主導、學爲主體、疑爲主軸、動爲主線」的教學原則。注重教給學生 140 學習方法，把培養學生的創新精神和實踐能力放在學校、教師的重要位置，爲學生形成終身學習能力奠定良好的基礎。 2．科學性原則創新學習評價從評價內容、評價指標到評價方法都力求科學合理，評價專案的分類具體簡明，易於操作，力求準確公正、客觀。 3．整體性原則創新學習評價既從學校整體方面入手，同時也從創新學習課堂教學評價著力，同時評價課堂從「導」與「學」兩大方面進行。變「教」爲「導」，主要是強調教師應是課堂教學的組織者、指導者。既不忽視教師的主導作用，又突出學生的主體地位，有利於真正形成民主、平等、合作、和諧、生動活潑的課堂教學氛圍。 4．體驗性原則創新學習實施的目的是培養學生的創新精神與實踐能力，就必須重視學生的動手操作，體驗學習。在課堂教學中也強調學生全面主動地參與，積極投入學習和實踐活動，活動時間不得少於二分之一。學生自主學習，讀、思、疑、議、創有機結合，貫穿全過程。 5．動態性原則評價重過程、重應用、重體驗、重全員參與。如開放式主題活動課程，價值取向中可能多關注些學生提出問題、解決問題的能力或體驗等；跨學科綜合式學習課程的評價，可能側重關注學生對知識體系的橫向綜合性理解、掌握和應用；分科課程中穿插綜合性專題研究，可能比較關注學生對學科知識、技能應用能力、探求能力等進一步拓寬、拓深和拓展等。動態性還反映出教育目標在不同的學校可能會各有側重。 6．創新性原則創新學習的開展會帶來學習的變革，學校管理的變革。如評價創新學習課堂教學應緊緊抓住「疑」和「思」這兩個關鍵。教師要圍繞重點、難點和關鍵引疑、導疑、設疑、創設「疑」的環境空間。學生應勇於質疑問難，學會思考、分析，解決疑難，且見解獨到，有新意。在質疑、釋疑過程中，師生間、同學間相互合作，積極討論，拓寬思路，讓學生在「疑」中迸發「創新」的火花。（四）創新學習課堂教學評價方法創新學習評價的方式有多種，根據不同的評價目的和標準，選擇相應的方法。一般的講，評價的方法主要包括以下幾種：問卷法、觀察法、訪談法、資料法、測驗法、比較分析法、測量統計法以及個案法和軼事記錄法等。在評價過程中，人們不論採用哪種方法，都應遵循實事求是的原則，對任何被評價物件都不應做簡單的肯定或否定，最重要的是將定性分析與定量分析密切結合起來，以便保證評價結果的客觀性和科學性。 141 1．過程結果結合評價法注重對學生學習結果的評價，更應注意對學生的學習過程的評價，但是，重視是學習結果，通常的形式表現爲考試、尤其是升學考試的分數。學生課外學習評價也關心學生學習的結果，即對研究成果的報告、論文、作品、製作等也進行評審，但是，評價學生研究成果的價值取向重點是學生的參與研究過程。諸如學習方式、思維方式、知識整理與綜合、資訊資料的收集、處理和判斷等。因此，注重學生課外學習的過程，重視的是學生學習的主動性、創造性和積極性等。 2．定性定量結合評價法即評價結論既有定性的評價要點和等級、也有定量的分數，等級視分數而定。根據研究課、合格課、競賽課、選拔課、考核課等不同要求，還可適當調整分值權重。在操作過程中，首先要掌握各級指標的內容，再按三級指標、二級指標、一級指標的順序，由具體到概括進行分析評價。這樣，既能充分發掘課堂教學中的亮點或失誤點，又能從整體效果上進行綜合評價，力求做到全面、客觀、科學，更重視應用的原則。 3．理論實踐結合評價法單科性、學術性課程對學生學習的評價，也注意學生基礎知識、基本技能的應用。但是，這種應用的範圍，更多的是在理解中的應用。學生課外學習評價強調的是學生把學到的基礎知識、掌握的基本技能，應用到實際問題的提出和解決中去，關注諸如社會的環境保護問題、人與自然的關係問題、精神文明建設中的問題、科學技術發展問題等等。在問題提出和解決中主動獲取知識、應用知識，既促進學生對知識價值的反思，又加深對知識內涵理解和掌握，形成知識的網路和結構。因此，注重學生課外學習中知識和技能的應用，重視的是學生主動探求、創新勇氣和能力綜合等在更高層次的發展。 4．群衆專家結合評價法即評價人員由「教、學、管」三方面組成，最後的評價結果按配比的方式進行核算。教者本人評分爲 10%、學生代表評分佔 20%、管理者（評課者）評分佔 70%，也可根據學生年段情況等適當調整比例，還可爲學生單獨擬定科學、客觀、簡便的評價量表。學生代表和管理者選若干人，使評價結果更爲客觀公正。這樣做，師生也會按評價量表中規定的標準不斷反思、調整，調整各自的教與學行爲，最終達到創新學習的課堂教學要求。二、創新學習評價指標體系的構建評價的核心問題是構建創新學習評價的指標體系。爲發揮評價的導向、激勵、調控和改進作用，總課題組首先抓住構建評價指標體系這一關鍵，從課題研究的實際出發，邊實踐、邊研究、邊總結、反覆提煉、概括和昇華，以期構建創新學習研究與實驗成果有效評價體系。歷經三年理論研究和實踐探索，到目前爲止，已初步構建了《學生創新學習評價表》、《教師創新學習指導評價表》、《學校創新學習特色評價表》和《創新學習課題研究評價表》。 142 表一：學生創新學習評價表指標體系與權重分配評分等級一級指標二級指標優良中差評分 A11 創新動機 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A12 創新欲望 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A1 創新意識（0.3） A13 創新興趣 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A21 敢於批判 5 4 3 0-2 A22 創新勇氣 5 4 3 0-2 A2 創新精神（0.15） A23 創新意志 5 4 3 0-2 A31 大膽質疑（猜想） 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A32 發散思維 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A3 創新思惟（0.3） A33 聚合想象 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A41 樂於自主 5 4 3 0-2 A42 善於合作 5 4 3 0-2 A4 創新方式（0.15） A43 主動探究 5 4 3 0-2 A51 學習水平 5 4 3 0-2 A5 創新效果（0.1） A52 創新作品 5 4 3 0-2 定性結果優 80-100 良 70-79 中 60-69 差 0-59 量化總分表二：教師創新學習指導評價表指標體系與權重分配評分等級一級指標二級指標優良中差評分 A11 學生主體 5 4 3 0-2 A12 促進發展 5 4 3 0-2 A1 指導理念（0.15） A13 開發潛能 5 4 3 0-2 A21 會學 5 4 3 0-2 A22 善思 5 4 3 0-2 A2 指導目標（0.15） A23 敢創 5 4 3 0-2 A31 知識與技能 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A32 過程與方法 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A3 指導內容（0.3） A33 實踐與創新 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A41 方法組合 5 4 3 0-2 A42 媒體選擇 5 4 3 0-2 A4 指導藝術（0.2） A43 指導模式 5 4 3 0-2 A51 創新素質 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A5 指導效果（0.2） A52 創新成果 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 定性結果優 80-100 良 70-79 中 60-69 差 0-59 量化總分 143 表三：學校創新學習特色評價表指標體系與權重分配評分等級一級指標二級指標優良中差評分 A11 終身學習的理念 5 4 3 0-2 A12 可持續發展理念 5 4 3 0-2 A1 教育理念（0.15） A13 創新教與學的理念 5 4 3 0-2 A21 發展全面 5 4 3 0-2 A22 發展個性 5 4 3 0-2 A2 教育目標（0.15） A23 發展創新的精神 5 4 3 0-2 A31 資訊的豐富性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A32 策略的開放性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A3 教育措施（0.3） A33 實踐的多樣性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A41 必要物質條件 5 4 3 0-2 A42 人際和諧條件 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A4 教育環境（0.2） A43 管理創新機制 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A51 學生創新素質 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A5 教育效果（0.2） A52 教師創新能力 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 定性結果優 80-100 良 70-79 中 60-69 差 0-59 量化總分表四：創新學習課題研究評價表指標體系與權重分配評分等級一級指標二級指標優良中差評分 A11 選題的現實性 5 4 3 0-2 A12 選題的可行性 5 4 3 0-2 A1 選題（0.15） A13 選題的獨特性 5 4 3 0-2 A21 設計的科學性、可行性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A22 控制的嚴密性、邏輯性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A2 實施（0.3） A23 過程的扎實性、操作性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A31 資料的翔實性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A32 推斷的邏輯性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A3 結題（0.3） A33 結論的科學性 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A41 實踐的有效性 5 4 3 0-2 A42 推廣的可能性 5 4 3 0-2 A4 價值（0.15） A43 成果的創新性 5 4 3 0-2 定性結果優 80-100 良 70-79 中 60-69 差 0-59 量化總分 144 根據表一、表二，可設計創新學習課堂教學評價表表五：創新學習課堂教學評價量表學校班級學科教者評課者課題年月日指標體系與權重分配評分等級一級指標二級指標優良中差評分評課摘要 A11 體現“教爲主導、學爲主體、疑爲主軸、動爲主線”教學原則 5 4 3 0-2 A12 目標具體、靈活，符合年級特點和學生實際 5 4 3 0-2 A1教學思想與目標（15 分） A13 內容開發，容量恰當，層次分明，針對性強 5 4 3 0-2 A21 結構、時控合理，講授時間不超過 1/2 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A22 重點突出，難點突出，善於設疑導疑 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A23 富有節奏，善於組織教學高潮 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A24 反饋及時，矯正迅速 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A25 注重學法指導，情知交融，啓迪思維 5 4 3 0-2 A26 設計訓練針對性強，課堂靈活、生動 5 4 3 0-2 A2教學過程（35 分） A27 合理使用輔助教學媒體，板書設計科學、新穎、美觀 5 4 3 0-2 A31 好中差生全體參與，積極性高，訓練面廣 5 4 3 0-2 A32 好中差學生都有收穫 5 4 3 0-2 A33 掌握學法，習慣良好 5 4 3 0-2 A34 訓練效果好，思維靈活，掌握知識牢固 5 4 3 0-2 A35 氣氛活躍，主動投入，入境生情 5 4 3 0-2 A36 自主學習，讀、思、議、練、創貫穿全過程 5 4 3 0-2 A37 善於思考，勇於質疑，見解有新意 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 A3學生學習反映（50 分） A38 舉一反三，靈活運用方法解決問題 9-10 7-8 5-6 0-4 其他總分 145 根據表一，對學生課外專題學習（小課題）制定表六的評價表：表六：學生課外專題研究（小課題）評價表評價指標與權重評分等級一級指標二級指標優良中差評分研究主題的新穎性、創造性 8－7 6－5 4－3 2－0 採用多種手段獲取資訊，確立主題 5 4 3 2－0 充分協商，找到了合適的協作者 5 4 3 2－0 確立主題前與協作者充分協商 7 6－5 4－3 2－0 提出研究主題制定研究計劃（0.35）設計了初步研究計劃 5 4 3 2－0 按照方案有計劃的採用多種方法進行研究 10－9 8－7 6－5 4－0 根據實情合理修訂研究計劃 5 4 3 2－0 對主題反復論證 5 4 3 2－0 根據研究內容收集多種資訊（資料資料） 5 4 3 2－0 完成了對主題成果的解釋說明及交流活動 5 4 3 2－0 與協作者合理分工，承擔了主要任務 10－9 8－7 6－5 4－0 實施研究主題（0.5）研究過程有關記錄資料資料翔實 10－9 8－7 6－5 4－0 形成了研究成果或者新觀點 5 4 3 2－0 在多種媒體（黑板報、學校校報）中展示 5 4 3 2－0 成果交流與表達（0.15）有繼續研究的計劃 5 4 3 2－0 上述四方面評價是從總體上對參與課題研究與實驗的各方面人員，包括學生、教師、學校管理者和課題組的成員進行評價的指標體系。通過這些評價可以從各側面反映課題研究與實驗的運作與成果，從而肯定成績，找出差距，以利於進一步深化研究與實驗。爲保證評價的準確性、合理性和有效性，在評價過程中，應重點貫徹以下評價原則：即方向性原則、客觀性原則、發展性原則、創新性原則、激勵性原則。三、創新學習評價的實施 1、評價的組織評價的組織，一是指評價工作機構；二是指評價工作管理。機構是爲了實現一定的評價目的而建立的人的集合體，是評價工作人員進行評價工作的構架系統。評價組織機構只有做到目標明確、分工有序、通力合作，才能達到既定的工作目標。本課題的評價實踐證明，由領導、教師和學生代表、專家和教育行政管理人員組成的「三結合」的組織形式最爲合適。組織機構的建立，僅是開展評價工作的構架系統，評價的開展還需要一定的組織管理工作，才能實現評價的目的，取得預期的效果。評價的組織管理在限定目標、制定方案的前提下，要做好如下幾項工作：（1）做好宣傳教育，使被評價人員提高對評價的認識，瞭解評價的步驟，理解評價的標準，主動配合評價活動。（2）搞好協調和控制，以便及時發現問題，把握方向，採取相應方法，以保證評價活動順利開展。（3）及時檢查和總結、探索評價工作的規律，鼓勵先進，鞭策後進，使評價工作更富實效性。 146 2、評價的程式整個評價程式可分爲評價的準備、實施和結果處理三個階段。（1）準備階段可分爲組織準備和方案準備兩個方面。組織準備的核心是解決「由誰來評」的問題。方案準備的核心是解決「爲什麽評」「評什麽」和「按什麽標準評」的問題。（2）實施階段。此階段的主要任務是根據評價方案和指標，廣泛地收集、整理評價資訊進行評價，包括價值判斷和原因分析兩個重要環節，其中價值判斷是核心。（3）結果的處理階段。此階段的主要任務是對評價結果進行綜合分析，並做出全面、客觀的科學結論，即對各種評價資訊加以歸類、分析、綜合、做出結論，形成綜合性的意見，寫出評價報告，向有關部門和人員反饋資訊。同時把評價工作中收集到的有價值的各種資料分門別類地進行整理、歸檔，形成文書檔案。 3、評價的資訊學生課外學習，重要的是學生主動參與類似科學研究的過程，而不是研究的結果或成果。因此，過程資訊包括結果或成果資訊的充分和系統，是對學生研究性學習作出有效價值判斷的基本保證。與原有單科性、學術性課程及學生學習的評價相比，研究型課程及學生研究性學習的資訊，主要不是由教師通過作業、測驗、考試，以及觀察、提問等收集學生學習的資訊，而主要地是由學生主動收集和提供。例如開展小課題研究或主題研究活動，課題的報告或方案，評審與立題，課題研究過程以及課題研究結題、報告、成果及評審中的答辯等，課題小組及每個成員，在研究活動的全過程中，産生了大量的資訊，其中有文字的、有行爲的、有靜態的成果、有動態的實踐、有外在的形象、有內在的體驗、有物質形態的、有精神狀態的等等。指導學生系統地收集這些資訊，不僅是對學生課外學習進行價值判斷的需要，是有效發揮評價的診斷、導向、激勵等功能的需要，也是對學生實踐能力培養的一個重要方面。創新學習的評價研究是一項複雜的系統工程，特別是評價指標體系的建構更要經過評價實踐的反覆檢驗才能逐步完善，爲課題研究與發展服務。 147 「小學教師對專題研習的觀感與期望」問卷調查報告香港教師中心教育研究小組胡少偉、雷其昌、徐慧旋、湯潔芝背景「專題研習」是香港課程改革的四個關鍵項目之一。根據教育統籌局課程發展處的資料，在各學習領域或跨學習領域內，專題研習是一種有效的學習與教學策略，能夠推動學生自我導向、自我調控，以及自我反思 (課程發展議會編訂(2002b)，頁 1(3C))，可見推行專題研習能為學生提供更多主動學習的機會。在內地的課程改革中，也有類似專題研習的研究，這些研究備受重視。根據鍾啟泉等(2001)在《基礎教育課程改革綱要(試行)解讀》中指出：研究性學習強調基於學生的直接經驗，密切聯繫學生的自身生活和社會生活，綜合運用學生所有的知識，由學生自主選擇問題進行跨學科探究，以獲取學生自己的結論(鍾啟泉、崔允漷、張華，2001，頁 123)。從中說明了專題研習對學生能力發展的重要性，因為在專題研習的學習過程中，學生可擺脫依賴教師的心態，主動監控自己的學習，成為學習的主人翁。為了探討香港小學教師對「專題研習」(Project Learning)的觀感與培訓需要，香港教師中心於 2003 年 2 月至 3 月期間進行了一項名為「小學教師對專題研習的觀感與期望」的研究，希望藉此瞭解前線老師的需要，從而作出適當的配合與支援。是次問卷調查屬自願性質，主要探討全港小學及小學老師於過去一年進行專題研習的情況，以及在專題研習方面的培訓需要。在這項研究調查中，教師中心向全港 814 間小學各派發 4 份問卷，合共發出 3256 份問卷。各校獲得的 4 份問卷分別由校長、教務主任或負責課程發展的老師、一名主要教授初小的教師及一名主要負責教授高小的教師填寫。在寄出的 3256 份問卷中，教師中心共收回 1422 份問卷，回收率達 43.67%。當中很多小學校長及老師就專題研習的推行提出了寶貴的意見。有關回應者的背景資料見報附件一。小學教師運用專題研習進行教學的情況回應的教師中有高達 75.4%表示曾於過去一年透過專題研習進行教學，其餘 24.6%回應表示並未於過去一年透過專題研習進行教學﹔這顯示本港小學教師運用專題研習進行教學的情況普及。在曾透過專題研習進行教學的教師中，有 87.5%表示在過去一年運用專題研習進行教學 1 至 3 次。在各科目中，以常識科教師最常運用專題研習，有 572 人，其次為中文科有 251 人、數學科有 169 人及英文科有 168 人，而進行跨科與跨範疇的專題研習的教師有 182 人。這反映出小學教師大多以科本形式進行專題研習。回應的教師在各級運用專題研習教學的情況都各有不同。在過去一年曾在小一級運用專題研習有 173 人、小二級有 154 人、小三級有 196 人﹔在高小年級方面，小四級有 247 人、小五級有 321 人，而小六級均最多有 401 人。這結果顯示了任教越高年級的教師越多進行專題研習教學的情況。表一統計了小學教師推行專題研習 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師㆗心㈻報》, Vol. 2 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 148 的影響的回應。當中超過四分三的教師都肯定專題研習能增加自己與學生接觸的機會(76.7%)，但也有相約數目的教師認為增加了自己的工作量(74.2%)。至於正面回應專題研習能幫助教師更全面評估學生的表現的有 62.5% 教師，但認為專題研增加自己工作壓力的教師也有 60.4%。可見大部份教師對推行專題研習的評價是有彈有讚的。表一﹕教師對推行「專題研習」的影響的看法極同意同意一般不同意極不同意有效回應 1. 增加自己與學生接觸的機會 8.3% 68.4% 21.3% 1.9% 0.1% 1407 人 2. 有增加了自己的工作量 21.2% 53.0% 22.0% 3.7% 0.1% 1403 人 3. 能幫助老師更全面評估學生的表現 6.8% 55.7% 33.0% 4.4% 0.1% 1407 人 4. 增加了自己的工作壓力 13.2% 47.2% 30.7% 8.4% 0.5% 1402 人 5. 有增加自己與同事溝通及交流的機會 7.0% 52.3% 37.1% 3.6% 0.1% 1406 人 6. 增加了評估的難度 10.4% 46.3% 31.2% 11.8% 0.3% 1401 人 7. 增加了教學的難度的問題 7.4% 44.3% 33.7% 13.9% 0.7% 1401 人 8. 有增加自己對工作的滿足感 3.3% 40.1% 49.5% 6.6% 0.5% 1403 人 9. 有增加了自己與家長的接觸 1.7% 23.8% 55.8% 17.9% 0.7% 1405 人學生能力的掌握和對學習的影響專題研習通常以富挑戰性的問題或難題作起始，讓學生在某時段內，以協作或個別的形式進行研習，包括計劃、研讀和作決定。透過多樣化的活動，專題研習幫助學生建構知識，並把知識、能力、價值觀與態度結合起來。對於專題研習能幫助學生掌握各種共通能力的程度，受訪的校長及教師有以下的回應(見表二)。從結果顯示，八成以上的小學教師認為專題研習最能幫助學生增強以下五項能力﹕協作能力(88.1%)、研習能力(87.3%)、溝通能力(86.8%)、增強運用資訊科技能力(83.8%)及解決問題能力(83.8%)。這說明了本港大部份小學教師均認同專題研習可培養學生不同的共通能力。表二﹕教師看專題研習對學生共通能力的培養極同意同意一般不同意極不同意有效回應增強協作能力 24.0% 64.1% 10.6% 1.2% 0.1% 1402 人增強研習能力 17.0% 70.3% 11.8% 0.9% 0.0% 1402 人增強溝通能力 24.2% 62.6% 11.9% 1.2% 0.1% 1400 人增強運用資訊科技能力 14.9% 68.9% 15.1% 1.0% 0.1% 1397 人增強解決問題能力 16.8% 67.0% 14.9% 1.2% 0.1% 1401 人增強創造力 13.1% 66.0% 19.3% 1.6% 0.0% 1400 人增強批判思考能力 10.1% 62.5% 25.3% 2.1% 0.0% 1402 人增強自我管理能力 8.3% 57.5% 32.0% 2.1% 0.1% 1399 人增強運算能力 0.6% 29.2% 58.3% 11.3% 0.7% 1361 人 149 表三是有關教師就推行專題研習對學生學習的影響的回應。在回應的一千四百多名小學校長和教師中，超過八成以上都認同下列五方面的優點﹕增加學生與同學間的溝通合作機會 (92.2%)、加強學生運用知識的能力 (84.5%)、提升學生的學習興趣 (81.3%)、令學生更能主動學習(80.5%)及提升學生學習能力(80.3%)。從以上數據分析，大部份教師都肯定專題研習對學生學習具效益。根據鄧耀南等(2002)的研究個案中發現，校長及教師認為﹕ 專題研習的探究與結果同樣重要。當中教師在學生探究過程，無論在主題上的醞釀，以及探究計劃的擬定和實施，都必須提供指導和支援﹔並認為在整個研習的過程中，學生需要不同程度的指引(頁 56)。故教師在肯定推行專題研習的好處時，須掌握發展學生探究過程的能力。課程發展議會(2002a)文件也指出教師在班內要鼓勵各組學生記錄研習的情況，從而了解學生的進展及所遇到的問題，在有需要時給予適當的指導及回饋﹔而同班學生選擇相同的研習範圍，可方便教師安排研習活動(頁 144)。這點十分值得推行專題研習的教師留意。表三﹕教師就推行專題研習對學生學習的影響的回應極同意同意一般不同意極不同意有效回應 1. 能增加學生與同學間的溝通與合作機會 30.3% 61.9% 7.4% 0% 0.5% 1411 人 2. 能加强學生運用知識的能力 13.4% 71.1% 14.5% 0% 0.9% 1407 人 3. 能提升學生的學習興趣 10.4% 70.9% 18.2% 0% 0.6% 1410 人 4. 能令學生更能主動學習 17.4% 63.1% 18.3% 0% 1.2% 1408 人 5. 能提升學生學習能力 8.8% 71.5% 18.8% 0% 0.9% 1410 人 6. 能讓學生更愉快地學習 10.1% 59.1% 29.1% 0% 1.8% 1408 人 7. 能幫助增加學生的自信 8.7% 61.1% 28.9% 0% 1.3% 1407 人 8. 能增加家長與學生的溝通 5.8% 44.1% 44.4% 5.5% 0.1% 1409 人 9. 能提高學生的學習進度 1.9% 35.2% 52.7% 9.7% 0.6% 1408 人 10. 會增加學生的學習困難 1.9% 22.5% 43.1% 31.2% 1.3% 1402 人 11. 會擴濶學生的學習差異 2.5% 21.8% 41.3% 32.8% 1.6% 1398 人表四是教師認為專題研習對學生在不同科目中發展相關共通能力的回應。當中以常識科教師回應最為正面，超過半數常識科教師認為專題研習可促進學生在八個共通能力的發展，而中文科及數學科教師也有過半認為專題研習對學生相關六項共通能力發展是非常重要的，也就是說，這三科教師較肯定專題研習對學生共通能力發展的重要性。另一方面，美勞科、音樂科及普通話科教師卻認為專題研習只對兩項共通能力發展有幫助。可見不同科目的教師認為專題研習對學生能力發展的重要性是受到各科特點而有所不同。從學生共通能力方面看，各科過半數的教師皆認為專題研習對學生協作能力的發展非常重要，而過半常識科教師則同意專題研習能發展學生運用資訊科技的能力。至於運算能力，只有數學科教師回應專題研習能幫助學生發展這方面的能力。有關教師對其他相關能力的回應可參閱表四。 150 表四﹕各科教師看專題研習對學生能力發展的影響表中文英文數學常識美勞音樂體育普通話運算能力 68.4% 運用資訊科技能力 65.9% 研習能力 63.8% 59.8% 58.5% 76.5% 創造力 53.4% 50.4% 63.3% 80.6% 67.2% 批判思考能力 59.7% 59.8% 73.1% 解決問題能力 60.0% 54.0% 75.1% 76.4% 溝通能力 71.0% 68.9% 53.7% 68.6% 51.0% 61.4% 協作能力 64.7% 63.5% 59.9% 71.9% 60% 56.3% 62.0% 51.5% 自我管理能力 51% 50.3% 註﹕上表只顯示超過半數教師的百分比教師的培訓需要在推行專題研習時，教師的角色轉變及技能的掌握是關鍵的因素。正如易進譯(2002)在文中指出一個學生都不希望向一位不會駕駛飛機的教師學習飛行。同樣，學生只有從能夠從事研究的教師裏才能學會研究。教師必須示範研究過程，並與學生分享他們的研究經驗(頁 20)。這意味著應有專門的培訓課程指導教師如何從事研究，以及如何鼓勵他們的學生去研究。對於有否接受過相關專題研習的訓練及其次數，只有 22%的教師表示從未接受過有關進行專題研習的訓練，即高達 78%的受訪教師表示有接受過有關專題研習的訓練。當中 56%表示接受過一至兩次有關專題研習的訓練，16.8%表示接受過三至四次有關專題研習的訓練，5.2%表示接受過五次或以上有關專題研習的訓練。正如內地學者鄒尚智(2002)觀察後指出，教師對研究性學習這門新課程的知識所知甚少，在絕大多數情況下，還是應用原來的課程知識進行教學，這在某種程度上造成了新瓶裝舊酒的現象(頁 223)。教師對研究性學習及專題研習的課程知識掌握不足，是實施這類課程的最大障礙。因此，鄒尚智建議教師應深刻理解創設研究性學習課程的意義，補充研究性學習的目的、目標、特點、內容、實施步驟、評價、管理等方面的知識，清楚自己在研究性學習課程中的地位和作用。這是十分值得有意推行專題研習的教師參考的。在被問及是否覺得自己已具備足夠的技巧與知識進行專題研習活動時，有高達 64.3%的教師認為自己具備的技巧和知識不足夠，4.2%更表示完全不足夠，而表示十分足夠和足夠的分別有 1.2%及 30.3%。表五列出哪些技巧對教師推行專題研習活動有幫助，當中小學教師認為最需要接受培訓的技巧是選取合適題材及進行的模式、如何指導學生進行專題研習及評估方法與技巧等三方面。 151 表五: 對教師推行專題研習活動有幫助的技巧選取合適題材及進行的模式： 1028 人如何指導學生進行專題研習： 1106 人評估方法與技巧： 1009 人資料搜集及籌備活動： 974 人跨科或跨學習領域的協作： 878 人怎樣與其他教學方法配合： 865 人同儕間的協作： 734 人報告及展示學生的成果： 580 人有關指導學生選題方面，王升(2002)指出﹕選題這一環節是研究性學習教學實踐的開始。在這階段，教師在教學過程中應注意以下三方面﹕培養學生的問題意識；向學生介紹提問的方法；與學生一起確立課題(頁 207)。教師可循此三方面提高學生選題的技巧。至於專題研習的評估方面，附件二「專題研習計劃準則參考表」修訂了本地學者謝錫金、岑紹基的建議，可供推行專題研習的教師參考。李雁冰曾提出以表現展示評定去評估學生，表現展示評定通過要求學生實際演示某些結果，以說明這些結果是有價值的，並由此證明學生已掌握了這些結果。這些表現展示評定要求把學生學習任務「放在前面」，即以關注結果開始，然後逆向開展活動以便為學生創設適當的任務 (李雁冰，2001，頁 224)。台灣的郭俊賢、陳淑惠的譯文則提倡鼓勵學生的自我評估，他們認為學生有能力評估自己的優點與弱點，也能清楚說出所學到的，並確認自己如何應用適當的思考與學習歷程。學生可以主動地用日誌、同儕評量會、檢核表、展示會、非正式的師生討論或學習檔案，記錄他們的學習歷程(郭俊賢、陳淑惠譯，1999，頁 238)。這兩種有關學生的評估方法和技巧，均值得有意推行專題研習的教師參考。結語有關專題研習培訓課程的主辦者，有高達 82.5%回應表示若香港教師中心舉辦相關的專題研習教師培訓課程，他們會參與；17.5%表示不會。約一半(50.2%)的回應者表示希望這些專題研習培訓課程以不分科形式進行，其餘的 49.8%表示希望以分科形式進行。可見，香港教師中心應積極考慮提供有關專題研習的課程，以支援小學教師更有效地實踐專題研習。參考書目王升(2002)。《研究性學習的理論與實踐》。北京﹕教育科學社。李雁冰主譯、比爾．約翰遜著(2001)。《學生表現評定手冊場地設計和前景指南》。上海﹕華東師範大學出版社。易進譯、Steinberg, S.R., Kincheloe, J.L.著(2002)。《學生作為研究者 ― 創建有意義的課堂》。北京﹕中國輕工業出版社。郭俊賢、陳淑惠譯、Campbell, C., Campbell,B. & Dickson, D.著(1999)。《多元智慧的教與學》。台北﹕遠流出版事 152 業股份有限公司。鄒尚智(2002)。《研究學習指南》。北京﹕中國人事出版社。課程發展議會編訂(2002a)。《小學常識科課程指引(小一至小六)》。香港﹕課程發展議會。課程發展議會編訂(2002b)。《基礎教育課程指引 (小一至中三)》。香港﹕課程發展議會。鄧耀南、李子建、梁錦波、曾偉凌(2002)。〈初中人文學科課程專題研習﹕一個個案在實施過程中的探討〉，輯於林智中等編《課程統整第四屆「兩岸三地課程理論研討會」論文集。香港﹕香港中文大學教育學院。鍾啟泉、崔允漷、張華(2001)。《基礎教育課程改革綱要(試行)解讀》。上海﹕華東師範大學出版社。 153 附件一「小學教師對專題研習的觀感與期望」問卷調查回應者之背景資料在 1422 位回應的老師/校長中，男性佔 364 人(26.1%)，女性佔 1030 人(73.9%)。在師資訓練方面，當中有 97 人擁有教育碩士學位；654 人擁有教育學士學位；910 人擁有教師文憑；44 人現正接受師資訓練；14 人表示從未接受師資訓練；49 人表示擁有其他的教育資歷。數據顯示部份校長及老師擁有多於一項的師資訓練資格，而其中最多人曾接受教師文憑的訓練。在教學年資方面，佔最高比例的是擁有 20 年以上年資的校長及老師，有 504 人，佔 35.4%；其次為 6-10 年年資者，有 271 人，佔 19.1%；11-15 年年資者有 232 人，佔 16.3%；16-20 年年資者有 196 人，佔 13.8%；2 年或以下年資者有 57 人，佔 4%。顯示此問卷的回應者中，以年資較高的教員為主。教師在過去一年任教的科目及人數：中文： 742 人英文： 511 人數學： 636 人美勞： 420 人體育： 198 人音樂： 168 人普通話： 239 人常識： 724 人其他： 233 人(包括聖經科及資訊科技科等) 中、英、數及常識科為最多回應教師任教的學科，此與該四科為小學主要科目有關。如果教師中心舉辦「專題研習」培訓課程，回應的校長和教師選擇參加的月份、日子和時間：月份： 1 月：78 人 2 月：111 人 3 月：159 人 4 月：263 人 5 月：171 人 6 月：201 人 7 月：489 人 8 月：303 人 9 月：73 人 10 月：131 人 11 月：147 人 12 月：169 人日子：星期一至五：623 人(57.5%) 星期六/假期：460 人(42.5%) 時間：上午(九至十二時)：562 人下午(二至五時)：522 人晚上(六至九時)：159 人 154 附件二研習計劃準則參考表題目﹕_________________ 班別﹕_________________ 組別名稱﹕____________ 學生姓名﹕___________________________________________ 表現水平改進意見評量向度評估準則優良良好滿意待改善題目概括內容及範圍適切背景交代背景和源起概述目的及內容資料整理從資料中發現有意探究的問題整理、分析、歸納初步得來的資料運用資料提出合理的假設工作項目各項工作有研習目標各項工作清晰規劃程序交代實行的步驟闡述應用的方法及工具提出工作進度及分工的構想勾劃研習的輪廓整體規劃合理可行語文運用清楚、通順錯別字不多編輯目錄、簡明、印有頁碼版面潔淨、整齊討論建議合理有獨特觀點分析討論持平總體評語及建議﹕ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 改自謝錫金、岑紹基(2000)量表診斷寫作教學法。取材自香港大學課程學系母語教學教師支援中心《專題研習------ 在評量中促進有效學習》。 155 徵求審稿員《香港教師㆗心㈻報》現誠邀教育界同工、校長及教師加入本《㈻報》成為審稿員，《㈻報》將提供㈲關審稿的訓練，㈲興趣參與審稿工作的同工，請填妥㆘列㈾料傳真回香港教師㆗心(傳真號碼：2565 0741)，轉《㈻報》編輯委員會收，以供聯絡之用。如㈲任何查詢，歡迎致電 2565 5142 與本㆗心聯絡。姓㈴：任教㈻校/任職機構：聯絡電話：電郵㆞址：行動研究報告及論文徵集本《㈻報》歡迎任何與㈻校教育和教師教育㈲關的行動研究報告及論文，課題可包括：課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法創新的教㈻法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法創意教㈻家長教育校本教職員培訓，包括入職教師培訓及輔導校本管理㈻生支援及㈻校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢㈻生培訓教師入職培訓及輔導教育改革評議比較教育高等教育幼兒教育㈵殊教育美術教育音樂教育教育史 156 Invitation for Reviewers The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal invites principals, teachers and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. We will provide training in reviewing papers to interested parties. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please fill in the following and fax it to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (fax number: 2565 0741), c/o the HKTC Journal Editorial Committee. The information provided is for communication purposes only. Should you have any enquiry, please contact us at 2565 5142. Name: School/Institution: Contact Number: Email: Call for Action Research Reports and Papers The Journal invites submission of action research reports and articles covering all aspects of school education and teacher education, such as: Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy Creative teaching Parent education School-based staff development, including teacher induction program School-based management Student supports and schools ethos, including guidance and counseling Student development Teacher induction and mentoring Critique on education reform Comparative education Higher education Early childhood education Special education Fine arts education Music education History of education 157 稿例 (一) 原稿請採用 8.5 x 11 吋稿紙，清楚書寫。作者、文題、所屬機構、地址等請在另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者。作者應留一份原稿作存，以防遺失。 (二) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不超過 6000 字為限。 (三) 文稿的題目及作者姓名均須附中或英譯名。每篇文稿請附摘要一份，中文摘要以 200 字為限，英文則為 150 字，中文稿除附中文摘要外，並請附英文摘要一份。 (四) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時一至兩月。凡經採用之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表教師中心之立場。 (六) 來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會印製之《出版手冊》(2001 年，第 5 版)。中文格式請參考本期文稿。 (七) 本刊每年截稿日期為十一月底。所有稿件及有關通訊請遞交或郵寄至香港北角百福道 4 號香港教師中心(電郵：info@hktc.emb.gov.hk)，香港教師中心學報編輯委員會收。 (八) 版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載《學報》任何圖表或五百字以上之文字。 Notes for Contributors 1. Manuscripts should be clearly typed on 8.5” x 11” paper, with the author’s name, title, affiliation and address on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscript to guard against loss. 2. Manuscripts in both Chinese and English are welcomed. The length of submitted manuscripts should be not more than 6000 words. Manuscripts beyond this limit will be returned to the author for resubmission. 3. An English title should accompany an article written in Chinese and vice versa. An abstract of not more than 200 characters in Chinese and 150 words in English should precede each article. In the case of articles in Chinese, the abstract should be in both languages. 4. All submissions will go through the editorial review that usually takes one or two months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the following one or two issues. The Editor reserves the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or requests the contributor to do so, or reject the article submitted. Once the final version of an article has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed., 2001). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadlines for submission of articles is November 30 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 4 Pak Fuk Road, North Point, Hong Kong. (E-mail address: info@hktc.emb.gov.hk). 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 500 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 158 英文電子圖書香港教師中心現已購置 400 多冊電子圖書 (e-books)，內容包括課程設計、教育政策、特殊教育、學校行政、教育心理、各科教學等，供持有本中心圖書証的同工，從館內的終端機或經互聯網上閱覽及借閱。特點電子圖書提供方便、快捷及全天候借閱服務，加上內置字典及自助歸還書籍功能，教師可在任何時候、任何地方(學校或安在家中) 享受以上服務。凡已領有教師中心專業圖書館借書証的同工皆可免費借閱本館電子圖書。閱覽辦法 1. 進入香港教師中心網頁，網址 : http://www.emb.gov.hk/hktc。按動「專業圖書館」一欄，然後選擇「電子圖書」。 2. 第一次使用者，需以網上方式要求圖書館職員代開設個人帳戶及密碼，職員會以電郵方式寄回帳戶及密碼給用戶。 3. 用戶取得個人帳戶及密碼後，可隨時在任何一部已連結互聯網的終端機上，登入香港教師中心電子圖書館藏更改個人資料、檢閱書籍、瀏覽書籍摘要及借閱書籍，詳情請參閱「電子圖書」內「電子圖書使用簡介」。此外，教師亦可在網上閱覽國際教育文獻資料庫(International ERIC)和六十冊教育期刊的內容。圖書館將不斷豐富其館藏以為教師提供更完善的服務。(若有查詢，請致電 2564 9608，與北角會所圖書館聯絡。教師中心專業圖書館於星期日及公眾假期休息。)

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 3 (2004)

Category: Documents!\"#$ $ % $&#'() *)( \" i 香港教師中心香港教師中心（中心）是根據1984年教育統籌委員會第一號報告書的建議而於1987年成立的，中心的總部位於北角百福道四號，由前身為一所小學的建築物改建而成，於1989 年 6月開幕，是一所多元化和多用途的中心。中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立的及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。此外，中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，並協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念。中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過教師中心的三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會、一個常務委員會和六個工作小組，負責中心的決策，監察和執行中心的不同工作及活動。諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）的工作主要是決定中心的策略和監察中心的運作。諮管會由72 名委員組成，其中35位由教育團體提名及選出；35位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育統籌局常任秘書長委任。常務委員會（常委會）是諮管會的行政架構，與中心的日常運作和活動有著密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任；其他成員包括兩位代表教育統籌局的諮管會委員及十位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員。各工作小組負責中心內不同範疇的工作，包括出版小組、圖書館及教學資源小組、活動小組、章程及會籍小組、教育研究小組及專業發展小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。目前，有153個教育團體登記為中心會員。中心除了單獨主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港的教育團體合作或贊助團體籌辦推動教育專業的活動。在2003年至2004年度，中心已經與多個教育團體合辦超過150項有關教師專業發展和康樂的活動，參加人數超過2萬人次。香港教師中心（北角會所）位於香港北角百福道四號的香港教師中心（北角會所）佔地約九百平方公尺，設有一間大型演講室 /展覽室、一個會議室、三間講堂、一間資訊科技教育室、一間教育團體綜合辦事處、一間教育專業圖書館和一間休息室。歡迎學校、教育團體預訂借用。 ii Hong Kong Teachers' Centre The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Centre) was established in 1987 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. Its base or headquarters, a multi-facet and multi-purpose Centre housed in a former primary school building at 4 Pak Fuk Road, North Point, was opened in June 1989. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of in-service education; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the provision of resources; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duites and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations or teaching-related organisations; 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers; and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education and Manpower. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to-day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairman and 2 Vice Chairmen, the 2 EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) representatives, and 10 other members elected by and from the AMC. The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work in the Centre. They include Publication, Library and Teaching Resources, Activities, Constitution and Membership, Educational Research and Professional Development. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC . At present, 153 educational bodies are registered members of the Centre. Apart from organising activities by itself, the centre also jointly organises or sponsors activities with non profit-making educational organisations for teachers in Hong Kong. During the financial year of 2003 to 2004, the Centre has organised, jointly with many educational organisations, more than 150 professional development and cultural activities for teachers, with a total attendance frequency of more than 20,000. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point) The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point), with a total area of about 900 square metres, has a large seminar / exhibition hall, a conference room, three lecture rooms, an information technology education room, a composite office for educational organisations, a multi-media professional library and a lounge. Schools and educational organisations are welcome to use these facilities on a booking basis. iii 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)為香港教師中心出版的刊物，每年出版一次。《學報》刊登與教育有關的行動研究報告及論文。近期《學報》的投稿者多來自本地及海外的教師、師訓機構導師、教育研究人員及學者等。以下為《學報》第二及第三卷之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an official publication of the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre. It is published once a year. The HKTC Journal publishes action research reports and original contributions on areas of education. Contributors of Volume 1 to 3 are mainly teachers, teacher educators, educational researchers and scholars from local and overseas communities. The advisors and editorial committee members of Volume 2 and 3 are listed as follows. 《學報》顧問團 (Board of Advisors) Mark Bray University of Hong Kong Ronnie Carr The Open University of Hong Kong Christopher Day University of Nottingham, UK Andy Green University of London Andy Hargreaves Boston College Paul Morris Hong Kong Institute of Education Tan Eng Thye, Jason Singapore National Institute of Education Gareth Williams University of London 丁　鋼華東師範大學朱小蔓中央教育科學研究所李榮安香港教育學院李學銘香港理工大學馬慶強香港浸會大學張斌賢北京師範大學教育學院梁貫成香港大學莫家豪香港城市大學陳伯璋台灣淡江大學教育學院陳湛杰香港浸會大學陸鴻基香港教育學院傅浩堅香港浸會大學閔維方北京大學馮治華香港浸會大學 iv 黃錦璋香港大學黃顯華香港中文大學潘慧玲國立台灣師範大學鄭燕祥香港教育學院盧乃桂香港中文大學鍾宇平香港中文大學蘇肖好澳門大學顧明遠中國教育學會編輯委員會 (Editorial Committee) 主編 (Chief Editors) 李子建香港中文大學容萬城香港浸會大學委員 (Members) 何景安香港學科教育研究學會胡少偉香港教育學院梁兆棠香港教育工作者聯會黃楚標學校黃冬柏新會商會中學葉國洪香港浸會大學雷其昌博愛醫院歷屆總理聯誼會梁省德中學顏　龍中華基督教會基道中學 (排名按筆劃先後次序排列) (In alphabetical order) 執行秘書 (Executive Secretaries) 陳啟彬香港教育統籌局陳嫣姍香港教育統籌局趙清淮香港教育統籌局邵佩兒香港教育統籌局 © The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre 2004 ISSN 1682-8984 Printed in Hong Kong v 主編序由一九九九年起，我們便參與香港教師中心《學報》創刊號的工作，擔任籌備委員會委員及執行編輯的工作，與一群教育界同工一起探索《學報》發展的方向。創刊號出版後，我們又繼續參與《學報》第二卷的編輯工作。在籌備《學報》第三卷時，編務委員會決定採用「雙主編」制分擔《學報》之事務，以減輕工作量。當《學報》編輯，工作雖是較為細碎，但卻甚為重要，尤其當要安排合適的評審員評審文稿時，往往涉及多次工作會議、通訊聯繫、反覆校對與訂正；如遇文章論點有爭論時，還要尋求不同學者的意見，務使文章在刊登前得到充份的修正。雖然這些工作需時六至八個月，但有賴編委會各委員和評審員利用工餘時間評審，同時也有賴編委會秘書處勤奮、盡責的同工支援，編務工作才得以完成。在此感謝各同工付出的努力。香港教師中心《學報》在這幾年慢慢成長，文章質素也逐漸提高，投稿更見踴躍。以第三卷為例，中、英文稿件數量能取得平衡，各佔一半。現在《學報》逐漸廣為學界認識，今期有幸邀請了兩岸四地及國際知名學者加入成為編輯顧問，務求提高水平，爭取《學報》成為一份理論與實踐並重、具審查制度的亞洲地區學術期刊，這也是編委會在創刊時的目標之一。在《學報》第三卷的工作進入最後階段之際，我們在此謹向曾參與評審員工作的人士及協助修訂文稿中、英語文的大學或學院講師，致以衷心的謝意，當中包括Ms Christine Anne BRUCE、Dr Victor FORRESTER、何文勝博士、李子昂博士、李怡老師、李家和博士、李傑江校長、李潔冰博士、周昭和先生、周淑娟老師、林嘉妮教授、胡　博士、施敏文先生、梁柏偉先生、許俊炎校長、陳淑安女士、黃顯華教授、楊善錦先生、葉淑儀老師、雷其昌校長、董學平先生、蔡達香博士、潘玉嶋博士、鄧兆鴻校長、鄧國俊博士、楊兆榮先生、鮑偉昌博士、謝均才教授及譚肖芸博士。第四卷《學報》將以「高中學制與課程改革」為主題，並計劃於二零零五年十月出版。藉此希望對這課題有認識的前線教師、教育研究人員及學者踴躍投稿，與大家分享對這嶄新課題的觀點。《香港教師中心學報》主編李子建、容萬城二零零四年十一月目錄 Contents 一、理論及政策評論 1 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: …................... 1 Argument, Indicators and Implications KWOK Lai-yin, Percy 2 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點 …………………………………………….... 15 李子建 3 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」……………………………………………............ 28 容萬城二、實證研究 1 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: ……………………................................. 37 An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives ZHONG Caishun, WU Zongjie 2 Problem-based Learning: a problem with Education? ………………………………............ 48 Victor FORRESTER 3 Teacher Professional Development: ……………………..................................................... 56 In-service Teacher’s Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching CHAN Kwok-wai 4 香港初中推行公民教育的現況 ………………………………………………...................... 72 吳迅榮、梁恩榮 5 教育及課程改革的思潮下：………………………………………………........................... 85 香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序沈劍威、陳運家、夏秀禎三、行動研究 1 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes ………………………………............ 91 CHAN Kam-wing 2 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback …….. 98 and Its Implications for Writing Teachers CHIANG Kwun-man, Ken 3 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject …………………………………………………. 116 CHEUNG Sze-hung, Queenie 4 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 ………………………………………………… 128 郭思穎、林少雯、趙明明四、經驗分享及其他 1 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms ……………………………….......... 141 WONG YU Lai-wah, Teresa 2 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思 ……..................................................... 155 賴柏生、胡少偉 3 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長 …………………………………………. 162 歐凱鑫 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications KWOK Lai-yin, Percy Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract The paper highlights the determinants for demand for private supplementary tutoring and their interrelationships in a case study of Hong Kong. Reviews of past local and international literature reveal several research gaps related to tutoring studies and lack of theoretical explanations for the emergence of tutoring demand. Based on relevant interview and survey data, some socio-economic and socio-cultural patterns of tutoring demand are depicted in terms of a multi-level socio-cultural argument for its nature and determinant relationships via some conceptual indicators. New issues and challenges to various educational fields are finally addressed. INTRODUCTION Past comparative and international research on examining educational systems (Dore, 1976, 1997; Eckstein & Noah, 1992; Little, 1984, 1997) realized that private tutoring is, to a large extent, a by-product of examination-oriented learning or examination-driven school curricula. Other past social or sociological studies like Dore (1976, 1997) and Little (1997) indirectly touched the 'hidden' educational phenomena at national level and in comparative perspective when examining the pervasive phenomena of 'diploma disease' or 'credential inflation' in lately developing societies. As private tutoring was not their research focus, there was a gap in theoretical explanation for emergence of 'diploma disease' or 'credential inflation' and demand determinants, or causal links among their determinants for tutoring in single countries or comparative perspective. Among the existing works on private tutoring, Bray (1999) stood out as an important and broadly- focused comparative work on both of its demand and supply sides and drew policy-making implications and his following works (2003) pinpointed the adverse effects of private tutoring upon mainstream schooling, societies and economies, based on five case studies in Asia and Africa. Other studies (de Silva, 1994; Foondun, 1992; Zeng, 1999) hinged upon pervasive 'hidden' educational phenomena in African countries or Asian regions without any inter-regional contextual 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 2 comparisons. And all of their works lacked a detailed the oretical analysis of causal relationships among demand determinants. Methodologically speaking, there are logistic difficulties for doing research on tutoring, due to its subtlety, complexity and irregularity. The subtlety of private tutoring lies in its hidden scale, subject to intangible nature of tutoring services in socio-economic perspectives (Hua, 1996, p.5). Its complexity comes from inexact causal relationships between formal daytime schooling, family and tutoring in socio-cultural and socio-economic dimensions. Its irregularity is derived from governments' difficulties in controlling its growth, censoring or monitoring the functioning of tutorial schools, owing to some socio-cultural and socio- political reasons (Bray, 1999, pp. 37-41 & 74-83). Such three characteristics often lead educational policy- makers or researchers to pay little attention to tutoring. It is because there are more thorny educational problems in pressing policy agendas and other urgent research issues. Through a multi-level analysis, the paper endeavors to portray how some educational and social phenomena at micro (individual), meso (institutional) and macro (system) levels are related to the pervasive phenomenon of private tutoring at all secondary levels (Secondary 1-7 / Grade 7-13) of schooling in Hong Kong. It also puts forth some theoretical arguments for causal relationships between social, educational changes and demand determinants, and conceptualizes a socio- cultural argument, accounting for the emergence and nature of demand for tutoring in Hong Kong. Subsequently, its far-reaching implications for further research will be drawn. LITERATURE REVIEW Comparative studies on examining educational systems When doing cross-national comparisons of educational systems, some researchers have detected the widespread phenomena of 'diploma disease'. Theoretically speaking, Dore's 'diploma disease' (1976, p.72) thesis and Little's modif ied term (1997) 'credential inflation' have contended that the later the development of societal modernization, the more widely will be credential uses for occupational selection, or the more rapid will be the rate of credential inflation. As a result, schooling will become more examination-oriented and educational certificates will turn to be problematically stressed, devaluating the true values of schooling. When considering strategies for combating 'diploma disease', Little (1984, pp. 202-228) has observed that there will not be much impact on reducing demand for or changes in value beliefs about tutoring, and emergence of diploma disease does not necessarily entail occurrence of pervasive tutoring phenomena. For instance, despite commonly suffering from diploma disease, some lately developing countries like China, Egypt, Japan and Sri Lanka had a large scale of the 'hidden' educational phenomena whilst others such as England and Tanzania did not have such pervasive phenomena of tutoring in 1990s (Little, 1997, pp. 5-21). Single-society or cross-national studies on tutoring Past comparative researchers on tutoring (Bray, 1999, 2003; Chew & Leong, 1995; de Silva, 1994; Foondun, 1998, 2002) realized that the phenomena of private tutoring are complicated. Its possible multi-level demand determinants can be related to various arenas of education (Baker et. al, 2001), society and heritage 3 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications culture (Sorensen, 1994). Macro-level social factors include credential inflation, favorable economic prosperity, big income differentials and limited job opportunities (de Silva, 1994). Meso-and macro-level educational factors are signif icance of high-stake examinations for upward social mobility, national government's ineffective censorship, ineffective daytime schooling (Bray, 1996; de Silva, 1994), peer group influence (Hua, 1996) and uneven access to higher education (Stevenson & Baker, 1992). Micro-levels social factors are students' personal characteristics (Hua, 1996) and their families' socio-economic status (George, 1992) and no free academic guidance from families (Kim, 2000; Polydorides, 1986). On evaluation, causal relationships among such social and educational factors articulated by past researchers have not been fully conceptualized into a unified theoretical framework in single societies or cross-societal perspective so far. And there has been no investigation about overall impacts of determinants upon students' or their parents' determination to seek tutoring in intra-societal and inter- societal perspectives. Other pieces of past single-society or cross- national research (Akiba & LeTendre, 1999; Chew & Leong, 1995; Foondun, 1998) lacked a clear definition of private tutoring and a systematic classification of its types, resulting in inaccurate analysis or invalid comparisons. Single-country past research literature on tutoring (Fenech & Spiteri, 1999; Harnisch, 1994; Rohlen, 1980; Yoon, 1997) merely investigated the intensity or scope of demand for tutoring without bridging the gaps between micro-level and macro-level determinants. Tutoring research in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, most past studies (Lee, 1996; Liu, 1998; Man, 1998; Tseng, 1998; Wong, 1998) on tutoring were quantitative research reports, depicting the span and intensity of demand in statistical variations or patterns. For instance, reasons for seeking or not seeking tutoring, distributions of tutoring fees, duration of tutoring, types of supply at primary (Primary 1-6 / Grade 1-6) or secondary levels (Secondary 1-7 / Grade 7-13). They lacked detailed educational and social explanations for those descriptive demand variations and patterns, and no in-depth investigation was focused on lower secondary (Secondary 1-3) levels. In particular, Tseng (1998) hypothesized possible impacts of high-stake examinations and credential inflation upon tutoring without sufficient qualitative data support. Yeung (2000) articulated qualitative patterns of teachers' value beliefs towards private tutoring at middle secondary (Secondary 4-5) levels through teacher interviews. On the supply side, Tong (2001) detected the supply of private tutoring as a commercial commodity in massive scales in Hong Kong and Taipei without any scrutiny of the supply- demand mechanism or theoretical socio-cultural explanations for the supply. On the whole, past research in Hong Kong did not cover conceptual and theoretical issues concerning demand or supply for private tutoring. In other fields of education, previous researchers in Hong Kong tended to underestimate the significance of private tutoring or indirectly touched it without penetrating studies, despite its widespread existence at primary and secondary levels of schooling. For example, Yiu (1996) only depicted a case of how mass tutors helped tutees make preparation for economics at advanced level. Facing the new syllabus, an economics teacher was so helpless that he borrowed lecture notes indirectly from those tutees. Moreover, little attention was paid to household expenditure on private tutoring 4 in some studies of financing of basic education (Cheng, 1992; Kwan, 1992; Wong, 1992). Past researchers on social stratif ication (Post, 1994; Postiglione, 1997) focused on gender variations or ascription over achievement in educational opportunities and the influence of social classes (or status groups) and families resources upon students' educational attainments (or learning outcomes). They neglected possible effects of tutoring on educational outcomes. Other bodies of sociological research done by Post (1993) and Tsang (1993) concerned more about the tensions between the government and educational policies and internal mechanisms of policy implementation e.g. the impacts of nine-year free, compulsory education policies implemented at primary and lower secondary levels since 1978 mentioned by (Wong, 1997). Noteworthy, additional effects of social stratification induced by demand for tutoring have not thoroughly been investigated in their studies. NAT U R E , PAT T E R N S A N D DETERMINANTS With all these research gaps and limitations, the author strives to undertake a multi-level social analysis of students' demand and to build up a unified theoretical framework, accounting for the nature and emergence of the demand in Hong Kong as a case study (Kwok, 2001). Such case study qualitatively explores into causal interactions of its possible demand determinants and their interrelationships, in socio-cultural and socio- economic senses. Its research foci lie in the nature and socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns of secondary school students' demand for private supplementary tutoring in Hong Kong from 1 September 1997 to 31 August 2000. The marketing mechanism of its supply side will not be scrutinized in the paper. Multi-level educational and social determinants for the nature and such patterns of demand for private tutoring and their causal inter-relationships will be formulated in terms of theoretical argument and pattern indicators, based on interview and survey data. A definition of private supplementary tutoring Private supplementary tutoring, throughout the paper, refers to a kind of extra, fee-paying academic teaching or drilling for full-time students studying in regular school instruction programs or syllabuses at all levels of education. It necessarily has three characteristics: • academic oriented • monetary transfer (from tutees or their parents / guardians to tutors) • tutoring content or mastery of some cognitive skills being in line with tutees' day-time schooling. Private supplementary tutoring can complement and repeat what tutees (full-time students) have learned in their daytime schools. It can help them revise their daytime lessons and deepen their understanding of the underlying concepts or theories through drilling exercises. Its main functions are to help students cope with examinations and to improve their academic achievements. There are various types of tutoring: individual, group (2-8 tutees per group) and mass (more than 8 tutees in a class) and their geographical locations can be in tutees' or tutors' residential areas, day-time school campus or even in commercial buildings. Its massive scale can partially be reflected on the supply side by heavy advertisements of various types of tutoring in streets, popular public areas and through mass media, 5 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications and by an increasing number of registered mass tutorial schools in Hong Kong. On the demand side, indicators are its high occupation rate of students' spare time and rough statistical figures reflected by some past studies done in Hong Kong (Lee, 1996; Tseng 1998). Socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns A student questionnaire survey (containing semi-open multiple-choice and five-point Likert-scale optioned statements concerning degrees of agreement / disagreement) was conducted in six conveniently sampled secondary schools of 630 respondents in Hong Kong in the school year 1998-1999. One class was randomly selected from each of form range: Secondary 1-3 (S.1-S.3), Secondary 4-5 (S.4-S.5) and Secondary 6-7 (S.6-S.7), with the permission of the school heads and assistance of the school administrators. Items were written in Chinese language and tested and modified after a pilot study conducted in another secondary school in April 1998. Criteria for determining families of low, middle and high socio-economic status (SES), father's, mother's or (inclusively in logical sense) guardian's occupation were classified into blue-collar / unclassified types, white-collar types and professional / executive types respectively. The following socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns of tutoring demand are depicted, in triangulation with interview data, collected from snowball samples involving various types of stakeholders in Hong Kong: • Emergence of nuclear families: The average household size (including tutoring and non-tutoring respondents) was 4.52 and the average number of schooling children per family was 2.28 respectively. Their nuclear families (of average size 4.52) in general had great academic concern. For detail, variations over studying forms can be found in table 1. Such nuclear family structure would increase the likelihood of seeking tutoring, as educational expenditure (including tutoring costs) focused merely on 1-2 schooling children per family. Table 1 Distributions of mean numbers of family members, school children per family Groups of students Tutoring students Non-tutoring students Various studying forms S.1 - S.3 S.4 - S.5 S.6 - S .7 S.1 - S.3 S4 - S5 S6 - S7 Mean no. of family members (including 4.40 4.26 4.28 4.75 4.82 4.39 the respondents) (FN) Mean no. of schooling children (including the 2.15 1.96 2.09 2.54 2.45 2.47 respondents) (SN) Note: all numbers are round off to 3 sig. figs. 6 • Affordability of tutoring fees: It was found that in families of low socio-economic status (SES), students' participatory rates in private tutoring were 24% at S.1 - S.3, 47% at S.4 - S.5 and 61% at S.6 - S. 7 levels whereas in high SES families, the rates were 63% at S.1 - S.3, 55% at S.4 - S.5 and 68% at S.6 - S.7. Among one f ive-opinioned statement concerning decisions tutoring fees over quality, affordability of tutoring fees was one decisive factor for seeking tutoring, especially in low-income or middle-income SES families, in tutees' perceptions in table 2. Table 2 Distributions of opinion about affordability among tutoring students Affordability is more Parents’ or Guardians’ Parents’ or Guardians’ Parents’ or Guardians’ important than quality when considering Low SES Middle SES High SES current forms of tutoring (blue collars, (while collars) (professionals or no occupation, executives) or unclassified) Strongly agree (14 / 132) 11 % (7 / 51) 14 % (12 / 123) 10 % Agree (32 / 132) 24 % (12 / 51) 24 % (22 / 123) 18 % Neutral (44 / 132) 33 % (14 / 51) 27 % (39 / 123) 31 % Disagree (33 / 132) 25 % (13 / 51) 25 % (36 / 123) 29 % Strongly disagree (9 / 132) 7 % (5 / 51) 10 % (14 / 123) 11 % Note: all percentages are round off to whole figures. Table 3 Distributions of parents’ or guardian’s educational qualifications Parents' or guardians' educational qualifications Demand for Primary Junior Upper Matriculation University or Proportion tutoring education or Secondary Secondary above out of total below respondents No (126/195) (101/182) (59/125) (19/58) (19/70) (324/630) 65% 55% 48% 33% 27% 52% Yes (69/195) (81/182) (66/125) (39/58) (51/70) (306/630) 35% 45% 53% 67% 73% 48% Proportion (195/195) (182/630) (125/630) (58/630) (70/630) (630/630) out of total 31% 29% 20% 9% 11% 100% respondents Note: all percentages are round off to whole figures. • Insufficiency of free academic guidance from elder family members: Survey data illuminated that the higher educational qualifications of tutees' parents or guardians, the greater would be the demand for tutoring, despite the fact that they could teach tutees freely by themselves in table 3. Qualitative data reflected that the busy daily working schedule of tutees' elder family members was the most probable reason. 7 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications • Relationships between consuming tutoring types and nature of curricula: Both qualitative and quantitative data reflected that the lower the secondary level, the more popular would be individual home tutoring and multi-functional tutoring (provision of lesson revision, examination preparation and homework guidance). The higher the level of upper secondary (S.4-S.7), the more popular form would be examination-oriented mass tutoring. One-to-one residential tutoring and multi-functional tutoring were relatively more common at lower levels of secondary schooling than upper levels. Interview data also revealed that upper secondary curricula were less flexible without catering for individual learning differences than lower ones. Student tutoring at upper secondary levels of schooling were accommodated to open examinations whilst tutoring at lower secondary levels of schooling focused more on individual learning differences, in line with less rigid school curricula. • Examination-oriented school culture: In the survey, examination pressure was the biggest reason for seeking private tutoring at upper secondary levels of schooling whilst it was only the fifth big reason at S.1-S.3 level. The more senior the studying forms, the higher were the participatory rates in private tutoring: 35% at S.1-S.3 level; 47% at S.4-S.5 level; 70% at S.6-S.7 level. Among extra learning needs identified by students, examination skills were the most common. So examinations dominated surveyed students' learning, and tutoring students sought private tutoring in order to cope with examination pressure. The situation was more serious at the upper level of secondary schooling (i.e. S.4-S.7). This implied open examination-driven upper secondary curricula in the mainstream sector of Hong Kong (Hong Kong Baptist University & Hong Kong Examinations Authority, 1998). • Selective functions or screening effects of the secondary educational system: The earliest starting time to seek private tutoring was mostly at P.4-P.6 level for tutoring and non-tutoring students during the survey time, regardless of their current studying levels in the survey. The second peak starting time was at S.4-S.5 level for S.4-S.7 students. Qualitative data indicated the screening effect or selective function of the educational system where some junction points were found between upper primary and lower secondary levels and between upper secondary (S.4-S.5) and matriculation (S.6-S.7) levels. • Social significance of some popular tutoring subjects: Popular tutoring subjects were Mathematics and English. These two subjects were major ones in the whole S.1-S.5 curricula and also important for tutees' future careers. One of the common mass tutoring subjects at S.6-S.7 level was Use of English, which was a compulsory subject for university entrance examination, playing a decisive role in their future career. Despite the transfer of its sovereignty to Mainland China with Chinese as her official language since 1997, English itself is still an international and official language for maintaining prosperity of the Hong Kong society. In the six schools, there was a higher proportion of Science tutees in particular than Arts ones at S.4-S.7 level, because of greater expected rates for receiving tertiary education or better job prospects after graduation. 8 • Societal credentialism and meritocracy: Among the 5-optioned statements, the majority (strongly or just) agreed to the statements that education was the most potent means for upward social mobility and that private tutoring was regarded as a kind of educational investment. Qualitative data provided the underlying reason. Upper secondary students near the graduation time had more time to think about their future career and naturally higher expected rates of return when seeking tutoring. THEORETICAL ARGUMENT FOR TUTORING DEMAND AND THEIR DETERMINANT RELATIONSHIPS Through cross-method and cross-data triangulation (Neuman, 2000), a comprehensive picture of how a combination of multi-level demand determinants acted upon each other during the research period is portrayed as follows: I. The ultimate causative forces lied in rapid social modernization with corresponding economic growth and technological advancement, facilitating the marketization of various types of tutoring and affordability of tutoring fees at the societal level. II. Education was the major screening device for upward social mobility, in line with some salient features of Confucian-heritage culture. And credentials were used for elite selection and job allocation in such a meritocratic society of Hong Kong. As a result, credential inflation or qualification escalation was involved at societal level. III. At educational policy level, there was little effective censorship or monitoring of quality education in mass tutorial schools. At societal level , marketization of mass tutorial schools was prevalent through mass media and their locations were geographically located in urban areas with convenient access by means of public transport systems. IV. At school level, examination-oriented upper secondary curricula and dominating summative assessment reinforced students' and teachers' heavy stresses on academic achievements. Students faced considerable studying pressure and peer group pressure when crossing over 'hurdles' at upper secondary and matriculation levels. They were accommodated into rigid school curricula, without catering for their individual learning differences. As a result, their learning problems increasingly arose, in case of insufficient academic guidance from teachers, their questionable pedagogy and tight studying schedules. V. At nuclear family level, elder family members' heavy daily workloads or inappropriate educational qualif ications rendered little free academic guidance for students. VI. Subject to the above I-V, secondary school students would seek tutoring, in case of unfulfilled basic or extra learning needs from family, peers, teachers and ineffective self-learning in Hong Kong. Conceptual indicators and determinants relationships To trace out interrelationships among demand determinants for private tutoring, three key conceptual indicators were articulated as accessibility, affordability and insuff iciency. Accessibility referred to the availability of various types of tutoring, promoted through mass media or other promotion means under the state's policy governance. Socio-economically, affordability concerned whether tutees or their families could afford certain types of tutoring whilst 9 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications insufficiency in socio-cultural sense, pointed to the dissatisfaction of basic or extra learning needs initiated from daytime schools and lack of free academic guidance from tutees' elder family members, school teachers, peers and self-learning. In fact, there were three sets of determinant patterns. Firstly, big socio-economic changes led to marketization of various types of tutoring in a multi- service economy and establishment of convenient public transport system after fast technocratic changes under the state's ineffective policy censorship towards various types of tutoring. This came to accessibility of demand for tutoring. Secondly, affordability of tutoring fees was mostly resulted from emergence of nuclear families with 1-2 schooling children on average. The underlying reasons were high economic growth in the 1980s, successful control of birth rate since 1970s (Ng, 1978) and parental willingness of spending education for students' future, under great societal competitive pressure in the late 1990s. Thirdly, facing credential inflation and social selective functions of educational system under heritage Chinese culture, students (key stakeholders) regarded education as the most potential means for upward social mobility. In some cases, low quality in school education and rigid school curricula created extra learning needs or basic learning problems for some students, which could not be satisfied freely by their elder family members, school teachers, peers or solved by themselves. In short, this referred to insufficiency of free academic guidance from students' social circles. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES There are two major contributions of the study. Firstly, it provides a multi-level theoretical argument accounting for socio-cultural and socio-economic demand patterns for tutoring and demand pattern indicators help explicate determinant relationships. Secondly, socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns of tutoring demand help imply further advancement in several fields of educational research. School effectiveness and improvement Based on research findings, lack of alternatives for satisfying extra learning needs of schooling children from families and schools reflect unresolved problems in school quality education, intended curricula implementation and family education. This poses a great threat to the normal functions of formal schooling, in view of enormous demand for private tutoring in Hong Kong and other societies with similar development. Educational researchers on school effectiveness and improvement (e.g. Neville, 1995) and local policy- makers (e.g. Education Commission, 2000) often regard daytime schools as a standard unit of analysis at meso level. However, the influence of mass tutorial schools or home tutoring upon schools and students cannot be neglected, because of the supplementary role of private tutoring. Therefore, notions of 'school effectiveness' and 'learning effectiveness' need to be revitalized, facing the joint effects of day-time schooling and part-time private tutoring on students' learning outcomes. Economics and financing of education Reflected from interview data, some tutees or their elder family members regarded private tutoring as a kind of educational investment for upward social mobility, under great meritocratic and credential pressure. The notions of 'private or social rates of return' to both formal and informal education (Carnoy, 1995; Psacharopoulos, 1994) should include allowance for considerable 10 financial figures spent on private tutoring in the societies with pervasive phenomena of private tutoring. Theorists who advocate formal education as a screening mechanism (Groot & Hartog, 1995) need to consider the effects of seeking private tutoring on students' overall academic achievement. Under peer group pressure and higher studying motivation, high-achievers seek more affordable tutoring lessons with fruitful academic returns than lower-achievers, reflected from survey and interview data. As a result, screening effects are reinforced in such a way that more academically talented or able students can survive at the top of schooling systems. So more theoretical discussion on 'screening models' and empirical studies on 'rates of return' need to be rectified. Sociology of education On the one hand, cultural capital, investigated by the pioneer sociologist Bourdieu (1977, 1997) and his followers such as Brown (1997) and El-Bilawi (1982) needs to include considerable monetary expenditure upon private tutoring at household level in those countries with pervasive phenomena of private tutoring. On the other hand, social capital in the creation of human capital, which is proposed by some sociologists like Coleman (1997), should incorporate some resources attributed to subsidized or charged types of private tutoring from some commercial enterprises or voluntary community organizations. Such resources are not negligible when considering community or household financing of education (e.g. Bray, 1996, 1998, 2002). Further, the supplementary roles of tutoring will complicate the educational inequality and social inequity issues. Inequalities of educational opportunities and qualities in educational input and teaching and learning processes will be aggravated by students' unequal accesses to different types and extent of tutoring. In table 3, those students with high parents' or guardians' educational qualifications tended to indicate greater demand for tutoring than those with low qualifications, besides quality considerations in tutoring. In particular, heavy demand for individual residential tutoring or taking numerous mass tutoring subjects might cause financial burden to low-income families revealed by qualitative data. Other blackmail cases of 'moonlighting' teachers towards their day-time students and idol tutors' illegal release of open examination trends are also unfair to the majority of examination candidates during educational assessments (Bray 2003; Greaney & Kellaghan, 1995). Cultural issues Some past culturists (Cheng, 1997; Zeng, 1999) argued for the influence of 'Confucian-heritage culture' over the massive demand for private tutoring in East-Asian countries. They speculated some commonalties such as meritocratic drive towards nation-wide examinations (similar to examinations recruiting civil servants in ancient times of China), working through hardship and studying by diligence rather than inborn abilities, and repetitive, holistic approaches to learning. All these salient features exhibited distinctive characteristics of heritage Chinese cultures, uncovered by some researchers in educational psychology (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000; Watkins & Biggs, 1996). On evaluation, such cultural argument seemed to lack rigorous cross- cultural data support. It was because some non-Chinese heritage societies with pervasive 'hidden' educational phenomena might have similar inter- or intra-societal tensions, similarly articulated in the above socio-cultural argument (de Silva, 1994; Foondun, 1992, 1998, 2002; Hua, 1996). And large-scale cross-societal studies like 11 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications TIMMS 1995 and TIMMS-R 1999 have not scrutinized any correlations between intensity of tutoring demand (except some parameters such as time spent on after- school lessons in Leung, Yung & Tso, 2002, p.37) and features of societal cultures. Nor have follow-up comparative studies pinpointed any causal relationships between cultural features and intensity or span of tutoring demand (e.g. Baker et. al., 2001) when comparing East Asian societies with African, European, North American and South American counterparts. Hence, more cross-national or cross-societal qualitative studies should be conducted in future to articulate how heritage cultures constitute or reinforce schooling students' demand for tutoring under those inter- and intra-societal tensions in the above socio-cultural argument. CONCLUSION In the above, a multi-level socio-cultural argument for the emergence of demand for tutoring has been articulated. And demand determinants and their causal interrelationships have also been conceptualized in terms of indicators like accessibility, affordability and insufficiency. Further research recommendations are made to academic f ields of school effectiveness, economics and financing of education, sociology of education and cultural studies in education. 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London: Cassell. 15 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點李子建香港中文大學摘要隨著知識經濟時代的來臨，知識社會逐漸形成，新型態的知識工作者（knowledge worker）出現，不少學者開始重視「知識管理」的觀念，並把「知識管理」的理論應用於教育改革和教師專業發展。本文初步探討知識管理的理念對課程領導與教師發展的啟示，並對下列範圍作討論：（1）知識管理的意涵及課程知識的管理；（2）校長和中層管理者成為課程（知識）領導，著重知識的創造、整理和分享、教師個人知識管理，以及知識社群和網路的發展。序言 Elliott（1998）和歐用生（2000）都強調課程改革是一種「革新的社會實踐」，教師宜成為革新的實驗者和行動研究者，並具有反省、批判的能力，透過同儕間合作慎思和協同實踐，以及師生的協商和共同建構，創造具脈絡化和校本精神的課程知識。最近，課程發展議會（2002）公布的《基礎教育課程指引》况指出：「從學校經驗所得，行動研究、教師發展及校本課程發展有緊密的關係。」（10，頁13）此外，文件建議學校教師以小組形式進行行動研究，並向校內其他同事推廣。在學校和課程改革的經驗况，以往我們以為如果找到最有效能的學校運作模式和最佳的課程／教學實踐，把這些模式和實踐傳播出來，其他學校加以摹仿和採用便能產生理想的效果，可是實際上，正如課程發展議會（2001，頁 63）指出：「由於每間學校的教師和學生各有不同的特色，學校本身進化的過程和變數也截然不同，以『一刀切』的概念推行課程發展並不可行。」隨著知識經濟時代的來臨，知識社會逐漸形成，新型態的知識工作者（knowledge worker ）出現，Hargreaves, D.（2000）根據英國的經驗指出不少行業的知識生產由純正的學科為本、同質性、專家領導、同儕評審的和大學為本的模式逐漸轉移到應用的、問題為本、跨學科的、異質性、問責檢視的和含蘊在網絡的模式，而教育亦不能避免這種方向的轉變。不少學者開始重視「知識管理」的觀念，並把「知識管理」的理論應用於教育改革和教師專業發展（Sallis & Jones, 2002; 陳美玉，2002；王如哲，2000a；譚偉明、李子建、高慕蓮，2004）。本文初步探討知識管理的理念對課程領導與教師發展的啟示，並對下列範圍作討論：（1）知識管理的意涵及課程知識的管理；（2）發展學校成為一個學習型組織，並著重知識的創造、整理和分享、教師個人知識管理，以及知識社群和網路的發展。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 16 課程領導何謂領導？Lambert（1998, p.5-9）指出領導（leadership）具有以下涵義：（1）一個團體（group），而非僅指個別的領導者（如校長）。每位（組織內成員）都有成為領導者（leader）的潛能和權利。（2）關於一起學習、一起合作地建構意義和知識。領導是關於導致建設性轉變的學習，而學習是邁向共同的目的（shared purpose）。（3）涉及透過持續的交談，把觀感、價值觀、意念、資訊和假設表面化的機會；一起探究和衍生意念；在共同信念和新資訊的情景下，尋求反思工作和賦予工作意義；創設對工作新理解所衍生的行動。（4）要求權力和權威的再分配（redistribution），以邁向共同／共享的學習、目的、行動和責任。課程（與教學）領導可說是近年一個新興的議題，許多學者對這個議題都做出了探究。黃顯華、徐蔣鳳、朱嘉穎（2002）分析不同學者的課程領導定義及性質，指出課程與教學領導可在下列學校課程發展的過程中產生作用：（一）課程設計 ‧ 認清形勢、揚長補短 ‧ 上下一心、建構願景 ‧ 課程與教學改革的優先次序的抉擇 ‧ 探究課程目標與行動的配合（二）課程決定 ‧ 作「保（留）、改（變）、開（始）、停（止）」（Keep, Improve, Start, Stop ）的決定（三）課程實施 ‧ 建立夥伴式的團隊文化，尋找課程改革的同行者 ‧ 注意教師反思性的專業發展，培養「轉化型課程領導」 ‧ 改變學校文化，建構學習型組織 ‧ 善用資源，為教師創造空間 ‧ 邀請家長的參與，爭取家長的支持（四）課程評估 ‧ 對學生的評估 ‧ 教師的評估 ‧ 對課程本身的評估 Wiles及Bondi（1998, pp.216-218）指出就課程工作而言，下列為常見的領導任務（recurring leadership tasks ）：（1）發展操作的理論（an operating theory）；（2）發展機構和一個工作環境；（3）訂定標準；（4）利用權力去建立一個組織氣氛；（5）建立有效的人際關係；（6）規劃和啟始行動；（7）維持溝通渠道開放和有效運作；（8）評估成績。此外，不少學者認為建立專業學習社群（professional learning community ），或使學校成為學習型組織（learning organization），是促進學校和課程變革的途徑。就前者而言，Hall 及 Hord（2001, p.197）指出專業學習社群具有五個度向：（1）共同價值和願景；（2）集體學習與應用；（3）支持性及分享式領導；（4）支持性條件；（5）分享式個人實踐。要建立專業學習社群或者一個學習型組織，每一位組織的成員需要協助：（1）建立共同遠景；（2）規劃和提供資源；（3）投資專業學習；（4）檢查進展；（5）提供持續的支援。 Henderson 及Hawthorne（1995）亦指出革新或轉化型的課程領導（transformative curriculum leadership）在下列三種情景脈絡有助於學習社群的建立：（1）合作性檢視現行的政策、實踐和成果（如行動研究）；（2）溝通和解難的訓練；及（3）形成一個「應該是如何」（what should be）的共同願景。就後者來說，聖吉等人（Senge, et. al, 2000）指出學校成員可考慮組織學習的五個基本法則（key disciplines）： (1) 個人通達（personal mastery） — 表達個人願景的意象，並同時務實地評估現狀； 17 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點學校作為一個學習機構，領導者方面的角色也有相近的特徵（Morrison, 2002, p.113）： ‧ 辨認自我組織和組織學習的平台； ‧ 發展團隊和網絡作為組織學習的主要機構； ‧ 發展校內的願景、投入和連繫性（alignment）； ‧ 鼓勵和支持冒險試驗和精神； ‧ 發展校內組織學習的策略，以及不同形式和條件的學習，如（1）維持性學習（maintenance learning）：為新教師而設的導引（induction）學習、對外和對內的基本資料和行政步驟；（2）基準式學習（benchmarking learning）：成員與他人分享其工作實踐；多渠道溝通，使成員知道校內所發生的事情；（3）創意式學習（creative learning）：資訊系統地分類和儲存；成員主動地從個案材料中學習，並分享意念和實踐。正如課程發展議會（2002）指出，校本課程發展、教師發展、行動研究和學校發展存在著緊密而互動的關係，不斷促進學生的學習（圖一），課程領導和知識管理的觀點在這些環節發揮那些作用呢？ ‧ 課程領導和知識管理促進學校發展，使學校機構邁向一個學習機構；知識管理鼓勵成員的團隊學習，整體的機構學習，而校本課程發展和行動研究促進課程知識的創造和轉化，成為組織的知識； ‧ 課程領導強調校內成員共同建構遠景，並透過賦權教師和分享式領導，鼓勵教師反思性的專業發展和具校本特色和需要的課程發展； ‧ 課程領導和知識管理的共同目標是促進學校成為學習型組織（機構學習），並透過課程和教師發展使機構累積和整理知識，以及改善學生的學習。 (2) 共同願景（shared vision）──大家建立共同目的； (3) 智力模式（mental models）──強調反思和探究技能； (4) 團隊學習（team learning）──重視團體互動； (5) 系統思考（systems thinking）──人們學習更好理解相互依賴性（interdependency ）和變革（change），以及尋求達致最具建設性變革的槓桿作用（leverage）。知識領導與學校和教師發展 Sallis 及 Jones（2002）指出在知識組織况，知識領導方面宜具下列特徵： ‧ 培養知識工作者（knowledge workers ），確認知識是一種社會建構（social structure），而知識工作者是自我激發（self-motivating）的； ‧ 培養機構的互信和合作性，並鼓勵成員分享知識（例如利用「講故事」和學習對話方式）； ‧ 培養中層管理者作為溝通的橋樑，發展團隊和知識社群。 David Hargreaves（1999）建議學校可發展成為「創造知識」（knowledge-creating）的學校，它們具有下列四種特徵：（1）審計（audit）校內的專業（工作）知識 — 發掘員工的知識和專長；（2）管理創造新專業知識的過程；（3）使專業知識變為有效（validation） — 通過分享和研究增加知識的有效性；（4）傳播專業知識 — 使知識和實踐可轉移（t r a n s f e r a b l e ）至另一教師或可轉換（transposable）至另一情景。 18 圖一課程領導與知識管理的概念（修訂自課程發展議會，2002 ， 10，頁13）教師發展可說是學校作為一所學習型組織的發展焦點，教師發展大致可分為三種取向（Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992; 李子建，2002a），分別為知識與技能發展、自我理解和生態轉變（表一）。就課程領導和知識管理的角度來說，教師發展作為知識技能發展宜培養教師掌握反思和行動研究、團體學習、溝通（如講故事）和解難等技能。教師發展作為自我理解宜培養教師的反思、鼓勵教師與他人分享知識和收集資訊，藉以建構共同的目的、願景。教師發展作為生態轉變重視團隊工作，教師在學習的自主性，並透過建立互信而合作的變化，促進集體學習和學習社群的建立。 19 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點表一教師發展取向（Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992 ）教師發展作為教師發展作為教師發展作為知識與技能發展自我理解生態轉變（knowledge & skills （self-understanding）（ecological change） development） ‧裝備教師的知識與技能 ‧反思教師的個人與實用 ‧改變教師的工作脈絡（以改善學生的學習機會）知識因素（如時間、領導、 ‧技術取向 ‧人本取向資源） ‧教師專業發展 ‧教師個人發展 ‧創設一個支持教師持（staff development）（需經歷若干階段）續專業發展的教師文 ‧知識源自外來專家；化和工作環境限制強調由上而下的取向 ‧未能充分尊重教師專業 ‧緩慢、花費時間和昂 ‧可能變為「強制的合夥主義（professionalism）貴，而且並不能預測成文化」（contrived 和重視教師的實用知識果 collegiality） ‧技能和知識未能在適當 ‧仍有控制的意味（教師 ‧容易演變為強迫的、的脈絡（如具協作文化被視為「被發展者」）；正規的、滿足行政需的學校情景中）中應用教師發展被視為「治療要的和重視可預測成式的控制」果的取向 ‧未能注意教師所處的脈絡，過分強調教師對變革所負的個人責任 ‧掌握建構願景、評估、 ‧反思工作，賦予工作意 ‧領導者與教師分享權反思及行動研究團體／義；分享個人的知識、力；建構學習型組織集體學習、溝通及解難觀感、價值觀、意念、和合作性文化；建立的知識和技能資訊和假設，藉以建構支持性條件促進集體共同的目的和共同願景學習、應用和分享 ‧掌握講故事和學習交談 ‧利用行動學習作為個人 ‧鼓勵建立團隊工作的技巧和團隊發展的手段（teamwork）及學習社 ‧掌握記錄重要事件 ‧給予知識工作者的智力群（critical incidents）、自主性（intellectual ‧營造分享和收集資訊行動學習及與知識管理 autonomy）的過程相關的技能 ‧關懷知識工作者的壓力 ‧培養機構的信任度（trustworthiness） ‧建構持續學習的文化焦點限制課程領導的取向及相關功能（黃顯華、徐蔣鳳、朱嘉穎，2002； Lambert, 1998； Hall & Hord, 2001）知識管理的取向（Sallis & Jones (2002)）知識管理的意涵學者對知識管理有不同的定義，Sallis 及 Jones （2002, p.3）認為「知識管理」涵蓋新技術的應用以至開發某一組織的智力資本（in t e l l e c t u a l capital）。他們進一步覺得「知識管理」是關於「學習去知道我們所認識的東西」（learning to know what we know）和「知道不認識但應該認識的東西」（know what they do not know but should know）。王如哲（2000a ，頁 31）引述Rossett 及 Marshall（1999）的定義，指出：「知識管理」包括確認、文件化，以及分類存在於組織員工與顧客的顯性與隱性知識。他認為「『知識管理』是促使人員運用知識的一種機制，並使人員能夠在特定情境中採取有效之行動。」（頁30）台灣陳美玉（2002）率先提出「教師個人知識管理」，強調使「教師有機會將個人的『外顯知識』，以及內隱的 20 實踐性知識，化作系統性且能相互傳承與保存的資料。︙︙教師能處在知識型的社會中，以最短的時間發揮最高的環境適應、知識創造與快速學習的能力，成為新經濟時代的典型知識工作者。」（頁8） Liao及Yau(2001)從商業的文獻指出暫時沒有一個統一「知識管理」的定義，不過他們指出不同的定義反映下列觀點：（1）知識管理是一個過程 — 它用以確定、組織、轉化和利用機構內的資訊和專門才能；（2）知識管理涉及發展一個系統 — 幫助人去學習其工作、環境和人，並更快和更佳地溝通知識；（3）知識管理是一套技術 — 一套工具用以組織知識成為小組，以及管理規則和規則間的互動；（4）知識管理是一種功能 — 它是智性資產的辨別、有利化和主動管理，包括外顯知識和個別人士及社群所擁有的隱性知識。綜上所述，筆者認為：知識管理與知識建立（knowledge building ）、知識分享（sharing）、知識創造（creation）互為關聯（Fullan, 2002）。它是一種策略、過程、收集、保存和分配 — 發展新知識和分享現存知識，以及建立一種機構文化為所有教育持分者創造價值（修訂自Liao & Yau, 2001, p.44）。（課程）知識的類別及其管理方式在知識管理的文獻中，不少學者提及知識分為顯性知識和隱性知識兩大類（表二）。這個分類建基於Polanyi（1983）的意念，尤其是隱性知識的分析。Polanyi指出「我們可以知道的比我們可以講述的更多」（we can know more than we can tell ）（p.4），例如我們可以認識某人的面貌，並從不同人士辨認其面貌，但我們不一定能夠講述我們如何能辨認出來。再例如騎單車，很多人懂得騎單車，但未必能夠清楚地說明如何平衡自己，以免從單車跌下來（Cook & Brown, 2002, p.73）。同樣地，有些新手懂騎單車的原理，但未必擁有騎單車的隱性知識（平衡，並向不同方向行駛）。這種情況在課程改革中也屢見不鮮。比如有些教師懂得不同課程統整的模式和發展校本課程的程序（顯性知識），但未必能有效地設計和實施符合校本情景的課程統整方案。亦有些學校教師創設和實施校本課程統整方案（隱性知識），但未必很具條理和理念地表述校本課程統整背後的原則和相關理論。表二顯性知識與隱性知識之比較（Sallis & Jones, 2002, pp.12, 14 ）顯性知識（Explicit knowledge） ‧「認識它」（knowing that） ‧（宣告式知識 declarative knowledge） ‧ 客觀和正規的知識 ‧ 明確的（tangible）資訊 ‧ 能夠被編碼（codified） ‧ 有意識地獲得（accessible） ‧ 能夠容易以網絡方式連繫在資料庫和號和信念 ‧ 能夠容易以信件、電郵、互聯網等傳遞和轉移給他人隱性知識（Tacit knowledge） ‧ 認識如何（程序式知識 procedural knowledge） ‧ 社會建構的知識 ‧ 包括兩類：技術性知識（知識如何）及認知性知識 ‧ 包含機構况的傳說（folklore） ‧ 儲存在人們的腦海 ‧ 可以作為掌握某一技能的知識 ‧ 包含價值觀、覺察、預感、偏見、感受、意象、符號和信念 ‧ 可以變得混亂（chaotic） ‧ 難於編碼和儲存在資料庫和內聯網內 ‧ 通常難於溝通和分享 ‧ 有價值和成為經驗和學習的一種豐富來源 21 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點根據不同學者的分析，顯性知識和隱性知識是互為補充的實體，並可能透過個人或集體人員的互動，從其中一類知識轉化為另一類，為組織累積新的知識。王如哲（2000a ，頁 64）引用 Nonaka 和Takeuchi 的觀點，指出有四種知識轉換（knowledge conversion ）方式，以前述課程改革為例，它們是（參考Sallis & Jones, 2002）：（1）社會化 — 從個人的隱性知識至團體的隱性知識。例如課程發展主任（個人）向他／她的同事分享課程統整的意念和他校的經驗，同事也交流他們對課程統整的看法，在分享（一種社會學習）的過程裏產生了一些新意念。（2）外部化 — 從隱性知識至顯性知識，意念轉化成為實在（practical reality）。這個過程通常涉及隱喻、比喻和理念之運用，例如佛教茂峰法師紀念中學在發展跨科主題教學的過程，運用「以學生中心」、「以社會中心」及「以知識中心」作為校本課程設計的理念（李子建等，2002）；不少學校在發展課程統整時，會選擇一些主題（李子建、張翠敏、張月茜，2002），這些主題的孕育某程度上也可說是外部化過程。（3）結合／組合 — 從分離的顯性知識至統整的顯性知識。這是一種轉移知識的手段，使知識得以檢驗。例如某校的課程統整的經驗通過分享方式（如組織研討會、發表論文）與其他人士溝通，並獲得他們的回饋。（4）內化 — 從顯性知識至隱性知識，這是一個較困難的過程，目的是使團體形成需要解決問題的心智圖像（mental image）（Sallis & Jones, 2002, p.21）。例如經過多次設計和實施校本課程統整方案後，學校組織衍生了不少正面的經驗和待改進的議題，通過內部分享，不同教師一方面從校方的經驗豐富了自己的隱性知識，另一方面經意或不經意地孕育了集體解決未來校本課程統整的共同興趣（common interest ）和共同目的（common purpose）。另一種內化的方法是「從做中學」（learning by doing ）。例如學校嘗試從小做起，引入真切性評量，不同教師從實踐中理解真切性評量的意涵和評估在校本實踐的可行性。總括而言，通過四種知識轉換的方式，隱性知識與顯性知識產生不同的互動，進行衍生不同類型的知識（圖二）。以課程改革為例，社會化過程可能產生團體內不同人士的「共鳴性知識」（例如對課程統整的理解）；外部化過程可能產生「概念性知識」（例如建立校本課程統整的設計原則和特徵）；組合過程可能產生「系統性知識」（例如分享校本課程統整的評估結果及學習成果顯證）；內化過程可能產生「操作性知識」（例如引入課程統整的革新研究或新評量方式）。此外， Nonaka 及Takeuchi（1995）指出： 22 圖二組織知識創造的螺旋（修訂自王如哲，2002a，頁 67， 79；Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, p.73） a 面對面接觸 b 從做中學 c 內部訓練與教育 d 討論論壇 e 內部資訊公報和資料庫 f 革新研究 g 知識的轉移和再次使用：研究與發展 h 外部的接觸：聯盟、夥伴外部化 (Externalization) 組合 (Combination) 知識論層面資訊 (Information) 知識論層面內化 (Internalization) 隱性知識社會化 (Socialization) 個人群體機構機構間本體論層面知識層次 h f g e d c b a 23 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點 ‧ 組織知識的創造透過四種知識轉換方式的螺旋而達致（圖三），但通常從社會化過程起始。 ‧ 組織知識創造的螺旋除了認識論層面（顯性知識和隱性知識的分野）外，也可涉及本體論層面，即可跨越個人、團體、組織及組織之間的層次，而個人的隱性知識是組織知識創造的基礎，透過較大規模的團體和組織的互動，知識不斷轉化、累積（沉澱而成為組織知識的資產），使不同層次（由個人以至組織間）的機構學習得以完善（Morrison, 2002）。圖三四種知識轉換的方式及知識螺旋（修訂自Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, p.62, 71-2；王如哲，2000a，頁64）就課程知識的管理方式來說，王如哲（2000a）引用普羅特國際管理顧問公司，指出知識管理會遵循下列三項步驟： i 進行知識內容分析 — 例如把校本課程的經驗分析和整理成為可以向他校分享的知識； ii 激勵人員和文化 — 例如透過發展共享文化和表現評估機制獎勵參與知識創造、維持和管理的同事； iii 應用科技 — 例如利用資訊基本設施儲藏和整理知識，使同事很容易取得相關資訊，並透過網際網絡分享和討論知識對校本課程發展方向的啟示等。外部化 (externalization) 概念性知識 (conceptual knowledge) 社會化 (socialization) 共鳴性知識 (sympathized knowledge) 組合 (combination) 系統性知識 (systemic knowledge) 內化 (internalization) 操作性知識 (operational knowledge) 顯性知識隱性知識隱性知識顯性知識 24 以教師發展為導向的學校知識管理知識管理理論的知識論層次起始於個人，而個人的知識管理是機構學習和學校發展的重要基礎。就學校而言，陳美玉（2002，頁55）指出：「教師個人的知識管理同樣要在學校支持系統的協助下，在一個鼓勵個人持續進行動態的學習，並且不斷將知識外顯化、檔案化與書面化，助長知識分享、交互流動與移轉的環境中，才能將教師個人具高度脈絡性與經驗性的內隱知識與實踐智慧具體化出來，並有效的回饋到學校組織的發展上。」學校可考慮透過教師發展的強化，鼓勵教師採用下列不同個人知識管理方法（陳美玉， 2002）：（1）合作自傳法 — 把個人生活史的描述，與同儕分享，例如可針對目前工作環境脈絡、班級內常用教學方法與理念、個人專業發展與教學理想的詮釋，一方面擬定未來的專業發展計劃，另一方面反省與分享建構的個人知識，並尋求解決教學問題的實踐方案；（2）札記反省法 — 把教學實踐與教學理論相互印證，反省實踐與理論的差距或不一致的地方（李子建，2002b），以及特定事件處理與事後分析等。這個方法除了與同儕共享個人知識內容外，亦著重他人的回饋和對話，藉以發展更高層次（具反思性）的個人知識。（3）經驗學習法 — 把重要事件與經驗的描述，然後由閱讀者（如校外人士、校內不同部門同僚）標示他們的看法，作為集體合作討論反省的材料，這種方法一方面協助教師澄清自己的想法，另一方面可建立團體成員間的信任，以及把個人的經驗傳遞至另一個人或部門；（4）教學檔案或檔案法 — 把教學或課程發展的相關資料（如文字記錄、相片、錄影、錄音等），加以註解、註釋和反思，使內隱知識轉化為外顯知識，並可透過與他人對話和分享，促進校內的基準式（或標竿）學習（benchmarking learning）；（5）個人理論建構法 — 描述或回顧個人與教育相關的重要生活經驗及歷史，以隱喻方式把教師的觀點作深刻的處理，然後透過合作反思和不同方法（如庫存方格技術），把教師的內隱知識外顯化和理論化，並通過檢視理論間的邏輯關係和一致性，建構和發展教師的個人理論。此外，教師也可通過反思和行動研究（李子建，2002c），豐富個人的專業實踐理論和學校組織的課程知識。不過，正如不少學者指出，教師從事行動研究並非易事，一方面是缺乏資源和時間，另一方面也可能欠缺信心和技巧，因此大學和其他機構可考慮與學校建立夥伴關係（李子建等，2002；黃顯華、朱嘉穎，2002），以平等和互信的方式促進教師發展。學校邁向學習型組織在學校作為學習組織層面而言，Sallis & Jones （2002）指出下列取向有助強化知識管理：（1）多元智能及創意能夠發揮學校組織內不同人士的才能，藉著他們的創意和創新，促進組織內知識的創造和轉化；（2）情緒智能 — 透過發展良好的人際關係，促進團隊學習和知識社群的建立，以及隱性知識的分享和轉化；（3）困難的交談（difficult conversations ） — 交談由困難的交談開始，透過對話和了解雙方的情緒和觀點，把交談變成學習式交談；（4）行動學習 — 從做中學，並透過創意地解決問題或推動改革，把隱性知識外顯化； 25 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點（5）e-學習（電子化學習） — 學會學習，透過資訊及通訊科技提供另類而互動式學習的媒介；（6）社團式大學（corporate universities ） — 發展組織內（in-house）知識創造的取向。除了行動學習和學習型組織，王如哲（2000b）建議學校組織成員可運用利用式學習（exploitative learning）及探究式學習（exploratory learning），前者強調任務外顯化和持續改進的品質、明確而詳細的工作程序和適度的工作循環，後者較強調彈性和創意，不過會存有一定的風險。小結本文初步探討從知識管理的觀點看課程領導和教師發展，就未來發展而言，學校可考慮下列方向： ‧ 課程領導宜與學校發展結合，創造有利條件使學校成為一個學習型組織，以配合校本課程發展； ‧ 課程領導宜促進合作性文化、團隊工作和學習社群的建立，配合知識管理的方向。課程改革的迷思和挑戰很多，其中較弱的一環是課程評鑑和總結經驗。歐用生（2002）指出：「若只是有『衝勁』的校長，帶著有『創意』的教師，一直往前衝，沒有往後看，沒有加以評鑑。缺乏反省、批評的『草根模式』將淪為『草莽模式』。」（頁13）學校成員可藉著學校自我評鑑的機會把校本課程改革的經驗作一梳理和沉澱，以往學校可能只是關心「已經做了些甚麼」和「是否把事做對」，課程實施和評鑑的過程是否已得到照應，日後學校成員或可思考「可能和應該做些甚麼」和「做正確的事」（張吉成、周談輝、黃文雄，2002），多反思甚麼是對學校，尤其是對學生學習是最好的，把校本課程改革提鍊成為課程知識和實踐智慧。課程改革本身是一個複雜的系統，涉及學校所處的脈絡、學校的組織結構（如時間、空間和角色描述等）、政治、學校領導、教師的生活及其工作、學校文化和教師學習等元素（Hoban, 2002）。不少學者認為要擁抱課程改革，校長和中層管理人員宜扮演課程領導的角色，例如校長成為教學領導或革新的課程領導（高新建等， 2002；Fullan, 2002），而教師發展，尤其是教師的賦權增能（teacher empowerment ）更是學校本位課程發展關注的重點。此外，學校宜發展成為學習型組織，促進教師間的合作和團隊學習。校長和中層管理者宜成為課程領導，並以民主和革新（transformative）為取向，大家可思考 Henderson 所提出的一些問題，例如（修訂自 Henderson, 1999, p.16 ）： ‧ 如何使我們的某一科老師在其任教科目內引入動手、解難和創意的活動？ ‧ 如何鼓勵我們的某一科老師領導其他同事去探討教學改進的問題？ ‧ 如何重新設計課程去促進學生「學會學習」？ ‧ 如何使我們的老師花更多時間去進行有意義的合作式教學探究？ ‧ 如何使家長一同討論對某一科學習表現欠理想的策略？教師發展方面，根據Hargreaves 及 Fullan （1992）所建議的取向，知識與技能發展，除了反思、行動研究和行動學習外，學校宜發展教師的交流和團隊協作技巧；自我理解可給予他們較寬鬆的工作間環境，多關顧教師的工作壓力和給予教師更多的專業信任和自主性；生態轉變則可鼓勵他們共同持續學習、創造、整理和分享從課程和教學所得的知識，藉以培養持續學習和改善的學校文化。 26 參考書目王如哲（2000a）。《知識管理的理論與應用》。台北：五南圖書。王如哲（2000b）。〈知識管理與學校教育革新〉。《教育研究集刊》，45（7），頁35-54。李子建（2002a）。《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》。香港：中文大學出版社。李子建（2002b）。〈課程與教學改革的展望：加強理論與實踐的對話〉。論文發表於「教育研究與實務的對話：回顧與展望」國際學術研討會主題演講，主辦單位為台灣師範大學，12月 13日。李子建（2002c）。〈反思與行動研究〉。載黃顯華、朱嘉穎編著《一個都不能少：個別差異的處理》（頁 67-83）。台北：師大書苑。李子建、高慕蓮、梁邵麗紅、馬慶堂（2002）。《校本行動研究的理論與實踐》。香港：香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。李子建、張翠敏、張月茜編（2002）。《課程統整：校本課程發展》。香港：香港中文大學大學與學校夥伴協作中心及香港教育研究所。李子建、張慧真、袁國明、陳燕輝、曾偉凌（2002）。〈初中跨學科主題教學：總結與反思〉。載林智中、張善培、王建軍、郭懿芬編《課程統整第四屆「兩岸三地課程理論研討會」論文集》（頁43-55）。香港：香港中文大學教育學院課程與教學學系與香港教育研究所。張吉成、周談輝、黃文雄（2000）。《組織知識創新：企業與學校贏的策略》。台北：五南圖書。陳美玉（2002）。《教師個人知識管理與專業發展》。台北：學富文化事業有限公司。黃顯華、朱嘉穎（2002）。《一個都不能少：個別差異的處理》。台北：師大書苑。黃顯華、徐蔣鳳、朱嘉穎（2002）。〈課程與教學領導定義與角色的探究〉。載黃顯華、朱嘉穎編著《一個都不能少：個別差異的處理》（頁29-46）。台北：師大書苑。歐用生（2000）。《課程改革》。台北：師大書苑。歐用生（2002）。〈披著羊皮的狼？ — 九年一貫課程改革的深度思考〉。課程與教學學會主編《新世紀教育工程：九年一貫課程再造》（頁2-24）。台北：揚智。課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習：終身學習．全人發展》。香港：政府印務局。課程發展議會（2002）。《基礎教育課程指引》。香港：政府印務局。譚偉明、李子建、高慕蓮（2004）。〈香港學校界別的知識平台：學校專業協作計劃〉。《基礎教育學報》， 13（1），頁163-180。 Broadbent, M. (1998). The Phenomenon of Knowledge Management: What Does It Mean to the Information Profession? Information Outlook, May, 23-36. Cook, S. P. N., & Brown, S. (2002). Bridging Epistemologies: The Generative Dance Between Organizational Knowing. In S. Little, P. Ouintas and T. Ray (Eds.), Managing knowledge: An essential reader (pp. 68-101). London: The Open University and SAGE Publications. Elliott, J. (1998). The Curriculum Experiment: Meeting the Challenge of Social Change. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Fullan, M. (2002). The Role of Leadership in the Promotion of Knowledge Management in Schools. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3/4), 409-419. 27 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點 Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2001). Implementing Change: Patterns, Principles, and Potholes. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G. (1992). Introduction. In A. Hargreaves and M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding teacher development (pp. 1-19). UK / New York: Cassell / Teachers College Press. Hargreaves, A. (2002). Teaching in the Knowledge Society. Keynote paper. Technology Colleges Trust. http://www.cybertext.net.au/tct2002/keynote/hargreaves.htm Hargreaves, D. H. (1999). The Knowledge-creating School. British Journal of Education Studies, 47(2), 122-144. Hargreaves, D. H. (2000). The Production, Mediation and Use of Professional Knowledge Among Teachers and Doctors: A comparative analysis. In Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (Ed.), Knowledge management in the learning society (pp. 219-238). Paris: France: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Henderson, J. G., & Hawthorne, R. D. (1995). Transformative Curriculum Leadership. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill. Henderson, J. G. (1999). The Journey of Democratic Curriculum Leadership: An overview. In J. G. Henderson & K. R. Kessan (Eds.), Understanding Democratic Curriculum Leadership (pp. 1-22). New York: Teachers College Press. Hoban, G. F. (2002). Teacher Learning for Educational Change. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Lambert, L. (1998). Building Leadership Capacity in Schools. Alexandria, VI: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Liao, P., & Yau, O. H. M. (2001). Knowledge Management: The Key to Success in the 21st Century. Hong Kong: Chinese Management Research Centre, City University of Hong Kong. Morrison, K. (2002). and Complexity Theory. London: Routledge Falmer. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowledge-creating Company. New York: Oxford University Press. Polanyi, M. (1983). The Tacit Dimension. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith. Rossett, A., & Marshall, J. (1999). Signposts on the Road to Knowledge Management. In Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) Conference Proceedings: Knowledge Management. (ED 431948) Sallis, E., & Jones, G. (2002). Knowledge Management in Education. London: Kogan Page. Senge, P., Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Putton, J., & Kleiner, A. (2000). Schools That Learn. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (1998). Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice (5th ed.). New York: Macmillan. 28 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」容萬城香港浸會大學教育學系「性」在華人社會常被視為一種禁忌，不但中國政府1和一般家庭刻意規避，連學校也避免直接深入探討。然而，21世紀的社會風氣，使性意識的解放成為時勢所趨，大量的性報導、性刺激隨著無遠弗屆的大眾傳播、互聯網等充斥社會，對兒童、青少年帶來衝擊。由於這種客觀局勢的改變，使得「性教育」在華人社區受到前所未有的關注和重視（例如李文照、黃志明，1996；林孟平，1997；潘綏銘，1997，1999，2000； Archard ， 1998 ， 2000；劉光華， 2002；王鍾和，2002；楊雄、姚佩寬，2002；袁岳， 2003；胡珍， 2003；紫薇、佐桐， 2004；張耀銘， 20 0 4）。這情況在香港也不例外，（程敏夫、少年維特，1993；吳敏倫、吳穎英， 1 9 9 3；王䓪鳴， 1 9 9 5；文思慧、蔡寶瓊， 1997）。香港警方（香港警務處，2004）在 2003 年拘捕七至廿五歲青少年罪犯近一萬七千人，當中涉及強姦、非禮、非法性行為及其他色情罪行等犯案者有五百七十人。至於犯強姦及非禮罪名被捕的「青少年」中，竟有八十四人年僅七至十五歲；十六至十八歲的則共有三十八人。有議員及學者認為數字令人咋舌，當局應正視問題，全面推行性教育，教導青少年如何克制性慾。 1 中國人民大學教授、性社會學研究所長潘綏銘（1999，頁 9-15）著的《存在與荒謬-中國地下「性產業」考察》揭露中國內地的娼妓問題不僅是「死灰復燃」，而是在迅速發展，這已經是一個人盡皆知的現實。由80年代初到1997年底，中國累計查獲的嫖娼賣淫人員約是210萬人次。該書在出版時曾受多方壓力，後來得著名社會學家費孝通教授為該書的書名題字，才得以順利出版。由此可見，政府對與「性」有關的課題仍被視為一種禁忌。目前，香港小學的「性教育」課程主要集中在小五及小六的常識科中，是屬於個人與群性發展的範疇（香港課程發展議會，2002，頁34）。對課程改革與教學創新而言，這是一個十分重要的環節，畢竟性教育的課程實踐有助培養學生在社會生活的能力，幫助學生的個人成長，而最重要的是培養德育的發展（香港課程發展議會， 2002，頁5-6）。這些知識、態度和技能將會對學生的一生產生重要的影響，然而在2002年頒布的《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引》中，對小學常識科性教育課程的描述，則仍是在第一學習階段的分類表中簡單概述「與性有關的議題」而已（香港課程發展議會，2002，頁28-29），似乎對性教育仍未能作更深入的探究。由於前線教師們所能掌握有關教授「性教育」策略的資料不多，所以不能對如何落實香港小學常識科的性教育作深入探討，和研究多元化的教學策略。無可置疑，在新一輪的課程改革中，香港的小學常識科在2004年將會採用不同的模式來組織個人、社會、人文教育和科技教育等六個不同的學習範疇，以達至學生的有效學習。目的是確保能銜接幼稚園階段與日常生活相關的主題式及專題式課程（香港課程發展議會，2002，頁63）。事實上，「性教育」的定義不只是狹義的生殖、生理教育，而應是廣義的人生教育、人格教育、生活教育。性教育不僅是教導各種有關性的知識，更主要的乃在於培養負責任、有愛心的做人態度，促成兩性之間的和諧關係，引導個體在生理、心理及社會三方面的成熟發展（王鍾和， 2002）。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 29 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」但如何落實香港小學性教育，將會是香港的課程設計者、學校、教師在未來需要面對的重要課題。可惜的是，前線教師似乎不敢接觸這課題，例如在2003年2月由香港教師中心主辦全港最大型、以教師為主的《課程改革與教學實踐》的教育會議中，當中39項活動，沒有一項與如何在香港小學常識科落實性教育的課題有關。由此可見，在香港的小學教師看來，性教育依然是一個有所顧忌的區域，儘量避而不談，這景況真教人惋惜！從課程改革與教學創新的角度來看，教師的態度會不會構成推廣性教育的障礙？教師能否健康地建構和發展教學創新的知識、技能和態度呢？課程改革是否要從教師教育開始？以上種種問題也是教育工作者需要面對和探討。世界各地的小學性教育早在七十年代，瑞典2、美國、法國、加拿大及澳洲等發達國家，便在小學一年級時開始推行性教育，有的國家甚至在幼兒園階段便開始。劉國霖（2000）指出，「兒童在幼稚園接受性教育，容易把性教育視為一般事物，更能以開放態度去探索」。而中國青少年研究會秘書長孫雲曉也認為應該在孩子進入青春期之前，就進行性教育。在小學二、三年級就對孩子進行性知識教育是非常好的黃金時期，那時講陰莖、陰道、子宮就像講杯子一樣，對他們來說都是知識。性，好 2 楊雄（2002，頁195）瑞典是世界上第一個推行性教育的國家，在政府建議下於1942年開始性教育。1956年提出義務化性教育，1957年制定了性教育指導要領，其中包括了所有新興的性科學研究成果和實態調查，也匯總了各個學校報告的問題；1977年推出教師用性教育指導書，但是在所有學校真正地開展性教育是在70年代以後。這是因為即1956年以後，多數人仍持有傳統的價值觀，視性為可㘹，反對喚醒兒童式的性教育。自1976年開始明顯減少，與此同時，瑞典的性病和性犯罪的比率也在下降。瑞典的性教育主要從幼兒園便開始普及，以滿足孩子們的要求為前提，由淺入深，主要是從生理學的角度傳授妊娠與生育知識；中學則完整地傳授生理與身體機能的知識；在高中，則把重點放在如何調整對象關係和人際關係上，最終以避孕知識教育而告結束。比一層薄紙，捅破了也就沒有甚麼了，不要把性搞得很神秘（紫薇、佐桐，2004 ，頁247）。大部份西方的小學性教育課程和教學是由嚴格的教學進度來規管。課程內容大都主要針對7~13歲小學生正值身體迅速成長階段，其要點是：一、認識自己的身體：瞭解男女身體的簡單區別，瞭解人體主要器官及其功能；二、培養良好的衛生習慣，瞭解生殖器的清洗方法；三、學習青春期發育的知識，瞭解第二性徵；四、懂得男女之間互相尊重，互相幫助。繼而在初中階段，再進一步學習...... 五、心理發展認知六、異性交往的禮儀和方法七、性生理知識八、性對人生的意義九、甚麼是愛情十、處理性慾的知識和方法十一、人類的性與動物性的不同十二、性交知識十三、性病知識十四、避孕知識在過去，英國的性教育的發展則比其他西方國家較為緩慢。小學教育中雖有政策，但學校往往不需要提供性教育，辦學組織有權決定是否需要或在何時提供性教育，但必須在中學階段進行性教育。直至1994年，英國教育部才開始將權限放寬，但仍保留小學家長能要求子女退出性教育課程的權利，不過學童依然要學習「全國課程」中的常識科內容。畢竟，「全國課程」的常識科內容，也只是一些關於生殖系統的普通知識。這種不合時宜的情況，近年已開始受到英國教育界的關注。英國聖安德魯大學道德哲學與公共事務研究所所長雅捷教授（Archard，2000，p.7）曾 30 對此提出了強烈不滿，批評英國政府忽略學校的性教育，導致缺乏教師培訓與資源，也只有少量的課外活動計劃或相關的跨科目活動來支持性教育的健康發展。值得注意的是，過去香港的課程發展很大程度是沿襲英國本土的課程政策，這也難怪香港的教育當局對這方面是有所保留。但在 21 世紀，香港特區政府是否仍要墨守成規呢？在亞洲，日本的中小學性教育比其他亞洲國家較為先進，在八十年代開始便在中小學推行有規劃的性教育，內容包括身體發育、心理發展、男女的人際關係及與社會協調方面。環顧亞洲各國，日本的中小學是通過學校的全部教育活動來進行性教育的，包括「性的學習」和「性的指導」兩部分。所謂「性的學習」是指為了向學生傳授科學的性知識，使他們理解生命的寶貴，具有正確的異性觀和性行為的自我決定能力等，而按照《學習指導要領》的要求，在一定的科目中，有計劃地進行的性教育。這些學科主要有小學體育科中的「保健」領域、初中保健體育科中的「保健領域」、高中保健體育科中的「保健」科目、理科、家政科或技術、家政科（初中）、社會科或公民科、生活科、國語科等。另外，在特設的「道德」時間中，也部分進行性知識、性道德方面的教學。應當指出的是，這些學科、科目是按照各自的教學目的、目標和計劃進行的，他們不是專門的性教育課程，所以在性教育上，通過制定全體計劃和學年計劃，明確各學科、科目的作用，加強其教學的協調，使其內容具有連續性和系統性很有必要。「性的指導」主要是通過特別活動、「領域外活動」（即包括學科課程、道德、特別活動等三部分的教育課程體系以外的活動）進行的性教育。這種性教育不是以性知識傳授為主要目的，而是讓學生掌握如何處理、解決自身存在或面臨有關性的問題上所需要的各種能力，形成應有的態度，養成良好的習慣。在特別活動中，與性教育有關的活動主要有班級活動（高中為課外學習活動）、兒童會（初中、高中為學生會）活動和學校例行活動等。在領域外活動中進行的性教育主要是教師利用課前、課後時間，對在性發育上有不適應症狀的學生和在性行為上有問題的學生進行的個別教育。另外，在「道德」時間中也進行這種「性的指導」。根據日本性教育協會編著的《性教育指導要項解說書》的解說，從小學至高中階段的性教育的內容大體如下： 1. 情緒性和感受性。即：培養學生自然地、豐富地接受「性」的心情；讓學生領略生命的神秘性、偉大性和純真性；培養學生對生命的連續性、親子緣分等偉大自然的裁量的敬畏之念。 2. 社會性。即：讓學生知道自己生命的珍貴，使他們認識和發現自己是與其他生命共同生存的；培養學生尊重男女各自的特質和平等性的精神，使學生理解性的作用和男女關係的應有狀態，培養他們相互合作的態度；使學生對社會上的性問題有堅定的認識，培養他們審視性文化和性道德的能力，養成他們符合於社會人的素質。 3. 科學性。即：使學生對自己身體上和心理上產生的性的發展如何變化有科學的理解，傳授正確的知識，培養學生能恰當地對待自己的能力和態度。 4. 自我控制能力。即：為了培養正確地控制性慾望的能力，使學生理解行為的手段和對待性衝動的方式。另外，日本文部省編輯的《關於學生指導中的性指導》指明了中小學性教育的四項目標：使學生確實認識自己作為男性或女性的性別；使學生能基於尊重人性和男女平等的精神，建構男女人際關係；使學生作為家庭和社會的一員，取得 31 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」基礎、基本事項；適應身心的發展，解決面對的各種課題；使學生學習作為青年期的人的理想生活方式（張德偉、饒從滿， 2000）。日本學校性教育的發展，值得我們參考。相對而言，華人地區包括中國內地、香港、澳門及台灣，中小學性教育的推行則發展得緩慢了。華人地區的性教育為何「性教育」在華人社會常常被視為一個敏感的課題？這主要是家長、老師和學生均受傳統觀念的影響，在面對性教育的時候感到尷尬。以中國東北的長春巿為例，在長春地區，仍有很多家長擔心過早開展性教育，會引起孩子對性的關注。也有老師認為孩子年紀太小，講了也未見能聽得明白，所以性教育多安排在初中開始。長春巿朝陽區教育局通過對全區小學五六年級和初中學生進行大規模問卷調查，知道現在的孩子青春期提前，小學五六年級的學生已進入青春期，性教育應該在學生青春期前開始，所以得出在小學階段實行性教育是勢在必行的結論（蔣蕾、康磊，2002）。中央電視台（2002）報導，1998年的一次全國調查顯示，80% - 90%的中學生缺乏基本的性知識，許多高中生還不清楚「懷孕」究竟是怎麼回事。此外，有資料表明，目前中國青少年的犯罪中30％是性犯罪，其中網上不良資訊是重要誘因。《讀者文摘》（2003）為了探討青少年對「愛情與性」的看法，在台北、上海、香港三地各訪問了五百名十三至十九歲青少年，男女比例約各佔一半；發現台北青少年的性態度較上海和香港的開放，對十五個「性」問題之中的十四個，贊同程度都高於香港和上海。只有「允許未成年少女合法墮胎」一項，上海的贊成率最高（百分之三十八點六），但台北也高達百分之三十五。意見調查也發現，香港是兩岸三地之中最保守的，在八個問題上不贊同的比率最高。可是，台北青少年的性知識似乎較為貧乏，這一點從保險套的問題上可見一斑：台北有近四成受訪者認為「使用兩個保險套較能避免染上性病」；上海的比率為二成七；香港的比率只有二成四，超過一半人不相信這說法。目前，中國有三億多青少年，每年有二千多萬人進入性成熟期，並渴望得到正確、健康的性教育。一項香港和深圳兩地的對比調查顯示，香港的中、小學生獲得性知識的年齡普遍比深圳要早，而且多數是從課堂上獲得，而深圳的學生更多是從影視作品中學到的，知識很不全面，但深圳學生嘗試性行為的時間卻比香港學生要早，次數也較多。大學生方面，香港城市大學研究員岳曉東、甄雪麗（2001）以大型問卷調查，分析京、港大學生性觀念、性經驗和擇偶觀之異同。發現香港與北京的大學生在性觀念和性經驗存有相當大的差異，卻在擇偶觀上差異不大，主要仍按照「郎才女貌」的偏好。在性觀念上，香港大學生較北京大學生要開放得多，且兩地女大學生的性觀念較男生要保守得多。在性經驗上，香港大學生也較北京大學生開放得多，且兩地男大學生的性經驗又較女大學生要豐富得多。這正好反映出中國需要具有「性別平等」的性教育（晏涵文、黃富源，2000）。在台灣，王鍾和（2002）指出教育行政當局對性教育的態度較為消極。規定課程標準雖然列有「青春期的健康生活」、「美滿的家庭」、「認識異性」、「優生與生產」、「國中健康教育」等單元，高中也列有若干生物學的單元，但對於「性教育」卻隻字未提，更遑論對「性教育」課程的整體規劃。多年來，台灣學校性教育的實施經常都相當的被動，除非教育行政當局極力推行，否則學校較少去積極面對如「性教育」等這種敏感的問題。楊雄（2002，頁130）更指出台灣性教育方面缺少系統資料，根據現有資料反映，台灣中學生認為學校實施性教育相當不夠的約佔 90%以上，贊同應積極推行性教育者約佔85%以 32 上。推行性教育應首先從提供充分的性認知開始。例如：如何與家人相處與親愛、如何保護自己不受傷害、男生與女生之間的尊重與合作、如何控制及適當地表達自己的喜、怒、哀、樂情緒等。在香港，突破（1994）做了一項有關青少年與性角色、態度與行為的調查，發現約三成被訪者對性慾的出現產生罪咎感，約六成人會採取壓抑的方法處理性慾。林孟平（1997）就中學生與性進行的調查中，發現有四成的被訪者用壓抑方法處理性慾，更有五成人為處理性慾而感到不安；而不知所措者則佔四成之多。以上數字反映年青人對性慾抱有負面感覺，由於他/她們不知如何面對自然的性慾流露，於是壓抑便成為青少年處理性慾的方法，但抑壓卻會帶來不良的後遺症。吳敏倫（1995）指出長久抑壓對某些人會造成傷害，甚至使人做出犯罪的性行為。此外，多個調查更發現（FPAHK，1991；突破，1994；林孟平，1997；李文照，1998）約有三至四成的青少年以自慰解決性慾。但自慰的結果卻往往換來傷害。其中一份報告（林孟平， 1997）發現，在有自慰經驗的中學生中，（一）怕被人知道的有百分之十一點七；（二）認為有害身心的佔百分之八點四；（三）有罪咎感的則有百分之六點六；（四）感覺羞恥與懊悔的也有百分之四點七。以上數字反映香港不少青少年以自慰作為解決性慾的方法，但卻要面對不道德與罪咎的負面情緒。香港明愛黃大仙明愛青少年綜合服務（1999）的一項調中發現57%的受訪者表示得不到足夠的性教育，在聚焦小組中，學生表示學校未盡力提供性知識，而且內容不全面。學生吸收性知識的途徑，主要來自報章（31%），學校（29%）及朋友（24%）。聚焦小組中，學生也表示多從報章或成人影碟中獲得性知識，當遇到「性」方面的困惑時，43%的受訪者最希望從朋友身上獲得幫助，其次是家人（17%）及社工（14%），只有19%及21%的受訪者答對愛滋病的傳播途徑和行為的題目。性行為方面，有41% 受訪學生無想過自己發生性行為的年齡，24%則選擇17-20歲。聚焦小組中，同學表示性行為多在無計劃及匆忙下進行，47%表示在拍拖階段要面對及處理「性行為」這問題。近年，香港青少年對性的態度越趨開放，按城市大學社會科學部（2003）的調查，受訪者對青少年性思想的評價，五成七指青少年對性較隨便，四成七指他們較多性濫交；至於行為指標，七成九人認同青少年有自由選擇性取向，這反映青少年較成年人更接受同性戀。當學校、家庭與教會未能提供正確與健康的性教育，青春期男女就通過報刊、影視媒體等耳濡目染，吸收了歪曲的不良資訊。香港的性教育發展在香港，正規的性教育課程要遲至八十年代中才在香港出現。前教育署在1986年 12月成立了性教育資源中心，為教育和有關教育團體提供參考資料及教學輔導服務，並編印了《中學性教育指引》，這是一本較有系統的中學性教育教材，主張不設性教育科，建議將性教育通過不同科目，以隱蔽式或綜合式的方法向學生作滲透，提議不指定由一位老師授課，而提議老師在所教的科目，遇到有關性的內容時，便負責教導。1985年又成立了香港性教育促進會，從事理論研究和宣傳工作，收到較好的效果。但是一些學校仍視「性教育」為洪水猛獸、禁區，除了只在中三的生物科中偶爾一提之外，願意在香港的學校推行性教育的學校簡直是鳳毛麟角。性教育開展至今，各方面都認為離開青少年的實際需要還存在差距，極需努力改進。這景況實在是不利香港的青少年健康的成長。先賢說「食、色，性也」3，既然「性」是一種與生俱來的現實，為何不正面的面對，而刻意避而不談呢？ 3 見《孟子．告子上》第四章。 33 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」自九十年代初，在香港家庭計劃指導會及香港電台電視部合力推動下，第一部關於性教育的電視節目──「性本善」面世，開始深入社會，將性和與性有關的話題及知識全面的向巿民推廣。但「性教育」的禁區仍未能全面開放。文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997，頁3）在《性教育再思教育工作者參考手冊》一書中指出，香港大部份成年人對「性」方面缺乏清晰而坦誠的思考，以致對「性」及其有關的文化理念、社會制度及權力關係不能好好掌握。這反映出香港的華人表面西化，但對性觀念的禁區仍有顧忌。為了更有效地推動香港的性教育，香港課程發展議會（1997）發表了《學校性教育指引》，提出性教育的八個基本原則，要求學校推行性教育時應以學生為中心，在不同時候、階段因應學生不同的發展而施教。但據文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997）指出學校推行性教育有不少困難。（見表一）表一學校推行性教育時常遇到的困難學校推行性教育時常遇到的困難困難百分比教學時間不足 91% 欠缺曾受性教育訓練的教師 89% 缺乏專業建議 81% 教師感到不自然／尷尬 78% 資源／教材不足 65% 教師不願參與 57% 資料來源：文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997）《性教育再思教育工作者參考手冊》。有些事件曾對前線教師構成打擊，使他們裹足不前。例如在2001年，有一節目講述一間小學的一連串性教育課程，包括青春期的身心轉變，以及約會、婚姻和婚前性行為等倫理問題。此節目在每一節播出前，均有字幕建議家長陪同子女一同觀看。在其中一節，一群小一及小二學生繪畫男孩和女孩成長後的身體改變。一些學童在開始的時候感到尷尬，但在教師指導下，他們全都能完成習作，部分更在鏡頭前介紹自己的作品。其中一節的節目遭一位觀眾投訴，節目內容描述一名教師要求一群小學生繪畫人體的性器官，有侵犯兒童之嫌。此節目有關兒童性教育的嚴肅紀錄片並無不雅，也無侵犯兒童之處，並附有警告字句，因此可以接受在上述時段播放。最後，投訴因理據不足而不被接受（香港政府新聞處， 2001）。但由此可見，在香港的小學落實性教育仍是荊棘滿途，問題也相當複雜。香港小學的性教育主要集中在小五小六的常識科，主要提及學生（青少年）在青春期內生理及心理上的變化。雖然在課程中有性教育的部份，可是知識只是局限在青春期這一個狹窄的範圍之內，缺乏技能和態度上的培養。這樣的教學，毫無疑問能提高學生對青春期的認識，但同時也會引起更大的好奇心。如沒有培養適當的態度，好奇心可能會導致他們犯錯，社會問題也隨之出現。歸根究底，是學校的老師未能配合。首先，香港人對「性教育」諸多避忌，甚至認為「性教育」是無必要的。而香港大部份的小學老師就是在這個環境下成長。當小學老師在需要講授有關性教育的課題，便會覺得尷尬，加上欠缺性教育的訓練，教師在講授時會難以啟齒，更不免覺得無所適從，因此在面對性教育課程時，常常是輕描淡寫的帶過，或讓學生自修或回家自行研讀，而不會深入的講解。再者，香港小學的科目繁多，性教育是安排在五、六年級的常識科中教授，而常識科課程緊密，往往礙於上課時間不足而不能全面傳授性教育的知識，而且在考試主導的學習制度下，也沒有硬性規定學校對實施性教育進行評估。試問學生在這樣的情況下，又如何獲得有質量 ─ 即具有知識、技能和態度的性教育呢？ 34 如何克服及落實香港的小學性教育的挑戰學校是傳授知識的地方，也最能按部就班，有系統地向青少年推行性教育。實施周詳而有計劃的性教育課程，實有賴學校、家庭和社會三方面的配合和努力。面對小學常識科的課時限制，除了通過正規的教育方法傳授性教育知識外，也可以同時通過非正規教育方法在小學推行性教育。課外活動小學除了在常識科中教導與性有關的課題外，也可以在課外活動中加入性教育的元素。香港家庭計劃指導會幹事李明英（2001）認為，最重要是校方的參與和配合外界團體的援助，例如舉辦「小學性教育講座」，因應不同級別學生的需要，按其心性發展和理解能力而建議各式各樣性教育課題，例如「青春期」、「約會戀愛」、「性騷擾」、「性取向」等。這主要是針對學校受到固定節數的限制，這些性教育講座可編排於班主任課、早會或課外活動，通過問答、討論、錄影帶播放、遊戲、信箱解答、短講、節目欣賞等，輔以各式各樣器材，如模型、卡通圖板、教材套及錄影帶等，增強學習興趣，例如學生就錄影帶片段內容以「人生交叉點」形式作出選擇及發表意見，務求讓學生能夠從自己的情況出發，主動吸收性訊息，建立個人的性觀念。以靈活的方式施教，較單向的講授方式來得有效直接（李明英， 2001）。同時，這些活動也可以邀請家長一起參與，一則作為親子活動，二則可以讓家長獲得正確的性教育觀念，成為家長在家庭教育中灌輸正確的性教育知識的途徑。家庭教育兒童及青少年最信任、最具影響力的啟蒙老師就是父母。性教育不但應由零歲開始，還應由家庭開始。性是個人成長的一環，若父母能緊貼子女的心性發展需要，積極負起教育的責任，相信對啟發子女學習正確的性觀念及健全的性態度，可收事半功倍之效，也能有效加強兩代之間的緊密關係。家長在推行家庭性教育所遇到的障礙，主要是性知識不足、欠缺信心、不能克服尷尬心理、不懂施教技巧等。因此學校及教育當局有需要幫助家長掌握良好性態度及基本知識，內容方面也應特別加強兒童心性發展、回答子女性問題技巧、親子溝通方法等，以便增強向子女談性的信心。此外，當局也需鼓勵父母承擔家庭性教育的責任，強調兩代要建立有效的溝通及互相關懷，使孩子確認家庭的重要性（李明英， 2001）。由此可見，通過家庭和學校合作來推動小學的性教育和家庭教育，可收事半功培的效果。教師教育對很多已接受小學師範教育的教師來說，尤其是一些年青及未婚的教師來說，推行學校性教育仍是一個嶄新的經驗。因此教師培訓機構仍需要不斷加強在職教師對推行性教育的「常新教育」。可是，各大師訓機構所提供有關性教育的培訓不足，大多數只佔一個單元的部份課時或是選修課程，試問這樣又如何能提供充份的學習和討論呢？可幸的是，香港教育學院及香港浸會大學（校外進修部）的教育學士學位課程中也加插了一個單元的「性教育」課程。此外，在2003年3月由教統局主辦的「教師交流月」也開始鼓勵前線教師面對小學性教育的課題，但成效如何，仍為未知之數。這些活動的目的為充實在職教師及準教師的性知識，確立良好、坦誠、開放的性態度，能嘗試接納學生們的想法，以增強討論和教授有關課程的信心。與此同時，教師培訓機構也需要介紹各項資源及幫助教師掌握施教技巧，例如在互聯網頁上搜集資料的途徑，並將資料運用於課堂、專題學習、小組學習、反思學習及疑難為本學習之中， 35 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」也需介紹如何處理學生的突發性「性」提問時的正確技巧。其次是克服在表達性教育內容時可能出現的障礙和困難，並能分享及接納他人的性態度，用不同的分析角度給學生提供全面的知識、技能和態度。總結總括而言，周詳而有計劃的性教育，實有賴學校、家庭和社會三方面的配合和努力。小學常識科的內容不單只是著重性教育上的知識，也應將內容推及至人格教育及道德範疇（文思慧、曾家達及吳敏倫，1990；Lamb，1997；晏涵文、黃富源，2000），並應盡量以平等、交流和討論的形式進行（文思慧、蔡寶瓊，1997，頁23）。然而，性教育的目的，並非要機械式的灌輸我們所接受、所推祟的某一套價值觀念給予下一代，而是培育他們的思考和選擇能力。第一階段的性教育可通過小學常識科來推動兒童成長，而推行性教育最終的目的，是可以使小學生開始對性和性行為的效果有正確和全面的認識，探討自己對性的態度，以及對婚姻和家庭的觀念，藉以培養出更好的判斷技巧和溝通技巧。最後，培育出一致和積極的價值觀及負責任的行為（香港課程發展議會，1997）。誠如文家安（2000，頁18）所希望「性教育能培養學生在肉體的、認知的、情感的、社會的、道德的和靈性的都各有成長」。換言之，待學生吸取有關資料後，懂得以其成長背景、教育或個人經驗，衡量面對性行為或其他性向抉擇的後果，並明白自己所能承擔責任的能力範圍，以最合適其本人的性價值觀去作出判斷和決策行動（Archard， 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Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives ZHONG Caishun Zhejiang Normal University WU Zongjie Zhejiang University Abstract Teacher development is a major concern of current educational reform in China. This paper draws on theories that there are three aspects of teacher development : professional knowledge, teachers’ commitment and community of practice. This paper reports an illustrative ‘snap-shot’ of three middle school English teachers’ lives, to illustrate the current situation in China of teachers’ professional development. An analysis of this data indicates a current deficiency in professional knowledge, teachers’ commitment and community support, which undermines these teachers’ professional practice for the purpose of professional development. Key words Teachers’ professional development, Teachers’ knowledge, Teachers’ commitment INTRODUCTION Substantial progress in education has been witnessed in China, embracing both educational policies, institutional management and teacher training. However education in China is still found to be “imbued with problems” (Li,1999,p.179). One major cause of these problems appears to be the teacher education system (Zhang Jiaxiang, 2001). In China, teachers are usually graduates from normal universities, colleges or schools, where various area of ‘subject knowledge’ such as psychology, pedagogy and methodology are offered for professional development. After graduation, the schools where they work may then provide limited in-service training including mentored teaching, basic skills training, modern technology training, short-term training in holidays, participant observation, and collegial lesson planning (Zhang Jiaxiang & Sang Yongna, 2001; Zao Mengceng, 1999). These forms of training however may not fit well with the teachers’ professional practice (Song Deru, 2001). 37 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 38 Based on the concept of “lifelong education” (UNESCO report, 1996), the Ministry of Education in Mainland China now seeks to develop teachers’ “further education”, by involving all elementary and middle school teachers in the enterprise of professional development (Cheng Shuhua, 2000). The intent here is to raise the quality of education. Learning from countries adopting a similar “quality of education” goal and with contexts similar to China, such as India (as reported in Dyer et. al, 2004), people come to realize that in-service training could not achieve expected goals where the training content is felt to be irrelevant to teachers’ professional daily practice. To bridge this ‘relevance’ gap, the focus of teacher development has now been oriented towards the teachers’ lifeworld (Goodson, 1994; Allwright, 2003; Wu, 2002a). This paper seeks to investigate three ‘teachers’ lifeworlds’ and to illuminate what is relevant to the ‘professional development’ of middle school teachers in Mainland China. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Research in teacher development has changed its focus over the past few years. Two decades ago, it was still based on the “delivery mechanism” (Freeman, 1998) which was mainly concerned with what we knew or thought was important about teaching. But by the 1990s interest had been diverted towards “the thinking of the teacher” (ibid) i.e. teacher learning. This implied that teacher development was to provide teachers with “opportunities to learn” (Hargreaves and Fullan, 1992, p.1). This change in focus is reflected in the various approaches adopted in teacher development practice. Hargreaves and Fullan (1992, p.2) categorize three types of teacher development as: • knowledge and skill development • self-understanding, and • ecological change In this paper the three facets of teacher development are reformulated as three guiding research questions to invesitgate the situation of Chinese teachers’ professional lives. What expertise does the teacher need to have? “Xu gao wei shi” (‘the knowledgeable can be the teacher’) may best characterize Chinese traditional expectations of teachers. Knowledge of subject matter has long been considered central in China’s teacher education system. This view is now gradually changing. Freeman and his collaborators ( Freeman, 2002; Freeman & Johnson, 1998; Freeman & Richards, 1996) propose theoretical frameworks that redefine the scope and nature of teachers’ professional knowledge and emphasize teachers’ personal understanding of their daily practice. For Rose (2003) such changes in the notion of professional expertise indicate a move from ‘official’ to ‘local’ knowledge - the former being unitary and totalitarian while the latter appears to be “discontinuous, disqualif ied and illegitimate” (Jorgensen 2002, p.31). What developmental approach deserves teachers’ commitment? Approaches to teacher development fell broadly with a ‘skills- and knowledge-based’ paradigm in the majority of our past practices (Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992; Dyer et. al, 2004). Knowledge or skill was considered as something existing objectively there, usually discovered or possessed by some experts or authorities and therefore 39 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives known as “official knowledge” (Apple, 2000). Based on such a theory, teacher development is usually manifested as efforts exerted in various ways to facilitate the transmission of knowledge from trainers (experts) to trainees (teachers) Therefore it depends heavily on training institutions, beaucratic authorities and ‘experts’. Teacher trainees only play a passive role. But for Hargreaves & Fullan (1992), this “top-down” or “outside-in” method may silence teachers’ voice arising from their practice and prevent teachers from gaining true understanding for their own professional development. As more “local” knowledge is preferred now, we no longer regard knowledge as something that we can move around from one person to another (Wu, 2002a, p.339). This implies that teacher development cannot be achieved through institutional instruction but through understanding of individual teachers’ life in exploratory practice. (Allwright, 2003) What external supports are needed to facilitate teacher development? Where top-down imposition of knowledge and contextual irrelevance may drown teachers’ authentic understanding of their practice, interest has focused on communities of practice (Wenger, 1998). Communities of practice are assigned two key characteristics: Collaboration: Collaboration in teaching can take various forms such as peer discourse or dialogue (Manouchehri, 2002; McCotter, 2001), seminars or workshops (Frank, 1998), observing colleagues’ classroom teaching (Richards, 1998), action research in group (Wu, 1995; Carr & Kemmis, 1986) or even informal communication like chat, discussion, writing letters or emails, and other collective activities among colleagues. Autonomy: For Clement & Vandenberghe (2000, p.85) autonomy “holds prospect for creativity, personal study, reflection, the elaboration of new orientations and as a consequence for professional development”. For Richardson (1997, p.185) a community conducive to professional development shall be one of “sacred space”. Given these characteristics, for professional autonomy to flourish, it requires both social and institutional respect and nourishment. Teacher development, as we can see from the review above, has been approached from various perspectives with different foci. A common feature amongst the more recent approaches is that they address teachers’ practical and local needs and teachers’ “dwellings” (Wu, p.2002a) i.e. their daily professional life (Goodson, 1994; Allwright, 2003; Wu, 2002a). So in this paper we propose to take a “snap-shot” of three middle school English teachers’ professional life in China to illuminate the challenges and opportunities they encounter in their professional development. THREE CASE STUDIES The three case studies comprise three native-Chinese teachers of English and their reflections sampled over one representative teaching week. Convenience sampling - interviewees are long-term colleagues of the researchers: the ‘teaching week’ is arbitrarily selected - is an acknowledged research limitation. However the intent here is to report a ‘snap-shot’ of teaching reality. The validity of this ‘snap-shot’ stems from the mutual respect and confidence shared between researcher and respondent as demonstrated in the following biographic sketches: Huifei: She was born in a scholarly family (her mother was the headmaster of a middle school), educated in a medium-sized city in Jiangxi, elected 40 Chairperson of students’ union at college and awarded the Championship title in a debate contest. As a teacher, she has been honored as a “model teacher” in her school and invited to give demonstrative classes for her colleagues. Lifang: She is a girl from the countryside, a second-prize winner in a provincial English proficiency contest and promoted from a rural middle school to the No. 1 in her county for her excellence in teaching achievement and professional competence. Her husband is headmaster of a middle school and they have one daughter. Linwei: He is also from a rural family in Jiangxi and known for his diligence as a student at college. As a teacher, he was also promoted from a junior to a senior middle school for his professional accomplishments. The three interviewees have each had five-years’ teaching experience. They are reaching a stage of “impact concerns” (Fuller, 1969) in which teachers usually start to be concerned about further development in their profession by drawing on not only their personal but also social potential. This also can serve well our purpose of researching professional development. Reflecting geographic distances, the data comprise a series of telephone interviews. All interviews are held in the evening, once a day over a period of one full teaching week. Each interview starts with the reminiscences of our past shared college life, our feelings about our life and career, an account of what they do at work during the day including their daily teaching routine, their contact with students or colleagues and their feelings and comments on these interactions. Interviews are recorded in the form of book notes, whose accuracy is confirmed immediately after each interview. Then episodes or activities are identified. The analysis presupposed the concept that life is revealed as consecutive episodes and that the primary way of living is manifested as “comportment” within an episode (Donnelly 1999, p.936), so those episodes are the windows for us to understand the teachers’ life. Episodes are categorized and analyzed in terms of teachers’ knowledge, commitment and community of practice. The following serves as one example of this analysis process (Note: interviews were originally conducted in Chinese). Prompt: How was your school day today? Huifei: I attended a meeting this morning. It was summoned by the schoo l ’s League Committee. It had nothing to do with teaching. It was held as a response to a circular from upper educational authorities. ... (Interview Notes on April 7). In this conversation we can see that Huifei is talking about an administrative meeting she had joined. Her story also reveals that in this meeting they just sit there, listening to one school leader’s speech reporting on a circular passed down from the upper educational authorities. From this we deduce 1) that the knowledge within this meeting is “hard” or “official” (Apple, 2000) for it is circulated and universally applied in all schools of their city, taking no account of the specific situation or needs of individual teachers and schools. 2) that teachers show little or no commitment to the agenda of the meeting, since this meeting is imposed top-down on the teachers, does not emerge out of their authentic teaching practice and “it had nothing to do with teaching”. 3) that there is no collaboration among leaders and teachers in this meeting, for what they have to do is follow the requirements or stipulations in the circular. They do not have the autonomy to change 41 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives the proceedings or content of the meeting. It appears that all teachers are taking uniform actions but this impression is contrived. By drawing on the analysis of their daily practices in the way we illustrated above, we reach the following understanding of middle school teachers’ professional life. FINDINGS Our analysis shows that the three case studies share remarkable similarities in terms of the three analytical dimensions of professional life. Knowledge Our talks with the three teachers all show that they are embedded in “an organizational knowledge structure” (Schon, 1983, p.336). The main drive of their professional activities is the imposed “off icial knowledge” from top down. Linwei has the following account: Our primary duty is to fulfill the requirements listed in the syllabi and help students achieve high marks in exams. (Interview Notes on April 7) As illustrated above the official guidelines are internalized as the perception of teachers’ duty, and are embodied in their pedagogical discourse in terms of both their teaching content and method. Commitment By “commitment” here we do not mean the time, energy or emotion teachers devoted to their profession. Instead it is intended to mean the self-elaboration of authenticity of teachers’ practice i.e. the personal horizon which a teacher explores in order to enact his authentic understanding in his professional life. Their stories in our interviews indicate that the teachers are all more bothered with their daily routines than voicing and reconstructing the meaning of education within their own “knowledge landscape” (Clandinin & Connelly, 1995). One example demonstrates this phenomenon: Lifang: Every day, I teach lessons, grade students’ homework, plan lessons or chat with some friends. (Interview Notes on April 7) Linwei: The majority of teachers here consider that their only duty is to perform the routine classroom teaching. They care nothing about their own professional development. (Interview Notes on April 8) However, we do find that instances where they can engage in “marginal practice” (Wu, 2002), which can lead to authentic understanding as demonstrated in the following: Huifei: Now I am experimenting with a new theory— task-based learning. Caishun: How did you come up with that idea? Huifei: I came across it in some books. And I felt the idea is not only significant to our education but also practical in my teaching. So I started to try it. I surfed on the net to look for relevant materials and new ideas for my teaching. And now it works well. Caishun: I am quite interested in it because in my university some teachers are experimenting with a kind of similar theory called “RICH”. Huifei: That’s too great! Could you send me some relevant materials? The problem I have now is lack of materials and equipment. (Interview Notes on April 2) 42 Huifei’s spontaneous response to the idea of task- based learning is rooted in her concern for her daily teaching routines. Through her marginal practice (experiment in her own private space of classroom) she starts to match her life and work. This could encourage her further exploration in her professional life. But this authenticity will depend on her capability in negotiating the dialogues between her reading of institutional text and her own exploratory practice, which is the hardest point for all of them. Community of practice All three stories reflect the features of their professional communities. The collegial activities they talk of in the interviews include: Classroom observation: In Linwei’s school, all teachers are required to observe their colleagues’ classroom teaching 15 times every school year. In Lifange’s school, they are required to observe at least each colleague’s classroom teaching once every school year. Collegial lesson planning: Both Huifei and Lifang’s schools require that all those who teach the same subject grade meet and plan their lessons together once every week. Sta f f meet ing: Ever y week the school administrators will convene all the staff at least once, to circulate new educational policies, regulations or information on school’s daily life. (Interview Notes on April 7) One remarkable feature of these activities is that they are all officially administered, as time and places are fixed for teachers to meet and measures are taken to make sure that all those involved will take part on time and make requested contributions. These activities were intended to develop a collective and collaborative culture in which all teachers could achieve ‘professional development’. But they are not well accepted by teachers as we can see from teachers’ responses: Lifang: This afternoon it was our time to do collegial lesson planning. But this activity has long existed in name only. We never actually did it. We just sat there, some having idle talks and others minding their own business. (Interview Notes on April 8) Linwei: Although we are supposed to observe colleagues’ classroom 15 times every school year, we do not observe this rule strictly. We think it is of little help to our own teaching. (Interview Notes on April 7) However, this lack of interest in those collegial activities seems to be in contrast with their uncertainty in teaching and inner desire for opportunities to learn from others. Lifang: I just go it blind. I really want to see how others are getting on. I wish we could have more chances to observe teachers’ classroom teaching in other schools. (Interview Notes on April 10) Linwei: Learning from other teachers is important. We need more opportunities to learn from those experienced teachers. (Interview Notes on April 7) These two types of paradoxical stories are categorized as “overt” and “covert” by Clandinin & Connelly (1995), which are told respectively in public and private spaces. According to Clandinin and Connelly (1995), it is the covert stories that are related to teachers’ professional development and therefore should be encouraged in practice. However, this kind of “narrative authority” (Olson & Craig, 2001, p.670) is often thwarted or silenced in professional contexts so that teachers always feel uneasy to speak out such covert stories: e.g. 43 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives Lifang: We do sometimes ask each other questions. But they are usually problems with language points for teaching. We rarely discuss such professional questions like how to teach. We feel uncomfortable to talk about those things. (Interview Notes on April 10) Lastly we would also like to mention in passing some differences we find between these three teachers. They differ in degrees of passion and commitment towards their profession. Whereas Lifang is a highly devoted teacher and accepts her current way of life as a teacher, we can feel a sense of “having no other choice” from her words in our talks. Linwei has decided to change his job. He is leaving to study for his master degree. Only Huifei appears enthusiastic about her job. Certainly personality in relation to gender may be one important reason for their differences. But we find the contexts also play an important role. For example in Huifei’s school, she can experiment with theories like task-based learning and explore new possibilities. We know these innovations in teaching require communities of certain authenticity. The possibility in Huifei’s school is made possible by the openness of her school in the city. For example, she has easier access to information such as internet and higher value is placed on professional development. But Lifang and Linwei do not have such luck. In the relatively less developed towns, the institutional morale appears to be more conservative, where teachers are more ready to accept what they are used to through institutionalization. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT This paper reveals in current middle schools in China more challenges than opportunities for teachers’ professional development. Through the study of three school teachers’ one-week career life, we find that all the three teachers are imbedded in educational contexts where authorized versions of knowledge prevail, teachers’ voice and their authentic understanding are suffocated, collegiality is mandated and manipulated superficially and staff are generally alienated at work. The culture can be characterized as stagnation, resistance and alienation. It is far from conducive to teachers’ professional development. Educational authorities and researchers in Mainland China recognise these problems and are making strenuous efforts to popularize the concept of school-based in-service training for middle and primary school teachers (Yang Xiuzhi, 2002). This concept allows schools to design their own training plans, objectives and content based on the school and teachers’ specific practical needs. Teachers are expected to achieve development in their own daily practice. This approach towards teacher development aims to shape “teachers as learners” and “schools as learning communities” (Clarke & Hollingworth, 2002, p.949). Basically, we agree that this concept should be enouraged to address the situation facing middle school teachers now. But in order to realize a fundamental change in our educational practice, we would argue that our endeavors should be first directed to address the following three primary issues: Transforming current teachers’ beliefs and value systems about educational knowledge and practice The first reality we reveal in our study is the dominance of “official knowledge”. We have already pointed out that one result of such dominance is the uncoupling of theory and practice. In order to motivate teachers’ professional development, we must first of all make 44 them realize the indeterminacy and unpredicatibility of the constant changing reality and the limitations of the authorized version of knowledge in addressing their changing practical needs. We shall also commit them to the belief that the truth of knowledge only comes from their authentic educational practice. We find most of our teachers are always looking for or expecting to be given some kind of model in teaching so that they can simply follow it1. But they are actually often disappointed by those transplanted teaching methods or approaches, which are usually the results of technically manipulated experiments, because those scientific findings are irrelevant to their practical contexts. Their needs can only be addressed through their own understanding in practice or “local knowledge” (Dyer et. al , 2004). So “teacher development programme(s) needs to be able to convince teachers of their own capacity directly to effect change, and to build on and extend teachers’ views of the possible” (ibid, p.51). Teachers will not simply depend on the theories and official knowledge they are provided with. Instead they will see themselves as creators of professional knowledge. But this shift cannot simply be stimulated through inculcation. Otherwise, the new endeavor will fall again into a vicious circle as we we have seen in the past educational reforms.The prerequisite of its success is that school-based in-service training be implemented in an authentic sense of “school based”. Committing teachers to authentic reflective practice As we have argued above, most teachers are more ready to accept what they have been accustomed to. They are resistant to change imposed upon them. This has been the reason for the failure of our past education reforms. We can never successfully formulate any model for all teachers to follow. We argue that in-service training now should be re-focused on teachers themselves. This is congruous with our stress of “local knowledge”. When teachers begin to turn their interest to their own daily practice, they may be able to start a dialogic process between their own beliefs and practice. In this way teachers can involve themselves in “exploratory practice” (Allwright, 2003) and reflect authentically on their practice. To arrive at such a goal theoretically teachers need to understand: 1) that teacher development programs are started not because their daily practice is problematic and needs correcting. Instead, we shall take our daily practice as normal and base professional development on the normal. (for this point see Donnelly, 1999) 2) that teacher development is a process of negotiation between educational theories, teachers’ own authentic (local) understanding and authentic (local) practice, which may be illustrated by Allwright’s (2003, p.115) closed circle that unites ‘Thinking globally, acting and thinking locally’. 3) that the authentic voice and practice of teachers can only be nourished in authentic communities. Transforming school into a learning community “Contrived collegiality” may be the best concept to represent the current nature of school communities in Chinese schools. Most of the collegial activities are institutionalized and compulsory, as our study has shown. They are grounded on the extant institutional and educational systems like unif ied curricula, examinations, etc which function to strengthen the traditional ‘technical practice’ (Halliday, 1998) rather 45 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives than stimulating ‘authentic practice’. Within such communities, teachers will not feel safe, for they are always faced with challenges from the institutions, colleagues, and students. Now most schools in China have introduced the scientific management mechanism, which forces teachers into struggle against each other. For example, they have to be evaluated by institutions for their personal promotion; they have to compete with their colleagues for the security of their position in the school, and they hold the responsibility for the students’ performance in the examinations. In this way, how could teachers have true dialogues while working together? How could they practise authentically? The following words of two teachers reveal part of teachers’ mental tortures in practice. Lifang: Since my students are going to take the college entrance exam soon, I had no way but to do those reading and listening practice exercises in class. (Interview Notes on April 7) Linwei: Sometimes I did come across some ideas but I could not apply it in practice. Because for the senior students examination is considered most important by all. I could not risk my students’ future for my personal experiment. (Interview Notes on April 9) Lifang and Linwei both betray their own authentic understanding to give way to the dominant institutional control. They are doing what they are actually unwilling to do. What our teachers need is autonomy and constructive collegiality. For the former, the way out might be, as Hargreaves and Fullan (1992, p.16) argue, “to shift the balance of responsibility for teacher development and curriculum development from the centre to the periphery, from administrators to teachers, and from men to women”. To achieve this we need to provide enough safe space in which teachers can freely talk about their covert stories. This kind of community must be based on democracy, mutual understanding and joint action. We must be particularly cautious against any violent interventions by institutions and beaucracy. These three case studies were one enterprise to explore Chinese middle school teachers’ professional life. 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Victor FORRESTER Hong Kong Baptist University Abstract As the discovery of penicillin from a ‘failed’ medical experiment illustrates, it is good practice to revisit apparent teaching and learning ‘failures’. Two Hong Kong case studies are here reviewed for they report educational ‘failures’ evidenced by students displaying a negative learning experience while undergoing Problem-based Learning (PBL). The first case study involved Primary Four and Five pupils; while the second investigated post-Secondary school students. An analysis is provided of these two negative learning experiences followed by a critique of possible solutions. The findings are intriguing - Problem-based Learning is shown to provide a flexible, responsive pedagogy that reflects Hong Kong’s current learning priorities. It is argued that the reported educational ‘failure’ reflects a tension between learner diversity and educational priorities, which raises the possibility that these ‘failures’ indicate not a ‘problem with PBL’ but rather a ‘problem with education’. INTRODUCTION Given that the origins of Problem-based Learning (PBL) have been traced back to the educational pragmatism of John Dewey (Menon, 1997) it is perhaps not surprising that PBL’s claim to present real-world problems within a learning context currently attracts popular attention amongst educationalists (Savin-Baden, 2000; Little et. al, 2001; Tan, 2003). Specific educational claims for PBL have arisen from findings in a range of educational settings e.g. PBL has been shown to bridge the gaps between theory and real-world practice in both medical education (Balla, 1990a,b; Schwartz et. al, 2000) and engineering (Perrenet, Bouhuijs, & Smits, 2000). At a more general educational level, PBL has been found to enhance specific learning skills e.g. knowledge construction and reasoning (Albanese and Mitchell, 1993); building positive study attitudes (Kaufan and Mann, 1996) and the transfer and integration of concepts to new problems (Norman and Schmidt, 2000). Such positive claims have led to the practice of PBL to be subjected to closer scrutiny. For example Tan, Little, Hee and Conway (2000) note that the ability to pose and define a problem can be limited by the learner’s access to information. Within conventional school settings for example, the potential of PBL to expose students to open-ended learning was found to be constrained by the higher priority of meeting and following the formal school-based curriculum. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 49 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Recognition of a tension between the open-ended learning offered by PBL and the closed-learning of the formal curriculum has stimulated debate that currently focuses on making education relevant to the ‘real- world’. This view argues that the real world is filled with problems, projects and challenges and that creating a “curriculum that reflects this reality makes sense” (Glasgow, 1997). Within Asia a similar debate has centred on questioning the ability of the education system to meet the market-demands for a knowledge- based workforce (Levin, 1994; Mok & Chan, 2002). In Hong Kong the argument that education should reflect reality has been strongly promoted (Learning to Learn - Curriculum Development Council, 2000) and accordingly PBL’s potential to expose this ‘reality’ to Hong Kong students would appear to have a pivotal role in fostering current education reforms (Cheng, 2002). Where PBL’s potential to expose ‘real-life’ to Hong Kong students may not be in doubt, professional teachers may legitimately question whether PBL really fosters students’ learning. To explore whether or not PBL fosters students’ learning, this paper reviews two Hong Kong case studies where PBL students display learning problems and argues that the findings may question the current assumption that Hong Kong’s education should reflect reality. WHAT IS PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING? For Tan (2003), a current definition of PBL is: a progressive active learning and learner-centred approach where unstructured problems are used as the starting point and anchor for the learning process Tan also acknowledges that, for some students, the experience of PBL can induce a sense of helplessness. Rather than exploring the reasons for their helplessness, Tan offers a three-point checklist for PBL implementation: 1. Is the ‘problem’ set in a contexts meaningful? 2. Does tutor-support include a protocol of questions? 3. Does appropriate scaffolding support self-directed learning? However the very need for such a checklist indicates that the implementation of PBL has not always been a complete success. Accordingly it is appropriate to identify and explore why PBL may not be helpful for all students. To explore the possibility that PBL may not be helpful for certain types of students, two Hong Kong case studies are now examined. Context And Research Method The first case study involves Primary Four and Five students (n=240). These students were drawn from a range of Hong Kong Primary schools whose staff volunteered to have their students experience PBL. Their PBL experience comprised a key element which was a Baptist University two-day Summer School initiative that aimed at promoting thinking skills (www.hkbu.edu. hk/~think). The specif ic PBL experience to be considered here was monitored and reported by the host staff in co-operation with the pupils’ regular school teachers (Wu and Chan, 1999). The second case study involves post-Secondary Hong Kong students (n=25). These post-secondary students were in their first year of a two-year Bachelor in Education (Add-on) programme at the Hong Kong Institute of Education where part of their teacher- training programme employed PBL. This case study was monitored and reported by the relevant teaching staff (Forrester, 2001). The research method employed here involves revisiting these two published case studies from the 50 perspective of investigating the students’ reported problems with PBL. The research method involves: 1. reviewing the findings of two published PBL case studies 2. analyzing the underpinning problems with PBL 3. critiquing PBL and individual learning styles Having outlined the context and research method, the following investigation begins by reviewing these two PBL case studies and their respective findings. 1st Case Study: Primary School PBL Eight PBL forums were formed from (n=240) Hong Kong Primary Four and Five students. Each PBL forum (n= 30 pupils; duration approx 1.5 hrs) was both led and monitored by the Baptist University Summer School host staff and the pupils’ regular classroom teachers. Each forum comprised pupils (girls/boys) from the same school/class. Although details of the pupils’ family background were not reported, it is reasonable to assume that participation in this thinking Summer School signif ied that these schools recognized certain limitations with their current curriculum. All PBL forums first viewed a traditional story modified to include popular local children’s cartoon characters. Subsequently, the pupils discussed aspects of the story. Embedding PBL within a ‘discussion scaffold’ each PBL forum followed a five-step cyclical sequence that alternated between Student and Instructor-led activities. The assumption here was that thinking is enhanced by prioritizing cooperative and cognitive learning: PBL Forum: 5-step sequence Instructor-led activities Step 2. introduces higher-order questioning (Why, Who, What, When, Where, How.) Step 4. introduce 1. a set of rules for discussing the selected question. “I dis/agree, because......” 2. how to examine ideas by using thinking skills/tools (e.g. an idea may be valued in terms of its Plus, Minus, Interest) Student-led activities Step 1. view video brainstorm contextual questions Step 3. brainstorm higher-order questions select (by voting) one of the questions Step 5. circle-discussion of the selected question 51 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Findings The reported research method generated cross- validating observations made in tandem by both participant observers - the pupils’ regular classroom teachers and the researchers’ own observations. These observations were supplemented by both teachers’ and researchers’ post-event reflections (Wu and Chan, 1999). Across all eight PBL forums, two different sets of student attitudes or behaviors were observed: • ‘cooperative’ students (80%) who discussed fully and with engagement. • ‘non-cooperative’ students (20%) whose discussion contributions were characterized as being confusing, chaotic, non-productive, and non-constructive. 2nd Case Study: PBL and the training of post-Secondary students Post-Secondary students (n=25; age range 19-22 years old, all female) embarking on their first year of a two- year Bachelor in Education programme at the Hong Kong Institute of Education were observed over one thirteen week semester. Part of their studies aimed at promoting professional reflection. Participants were required to: 1. formulate individual research proposals 2. offer an oral presentation of the research project (at local conference standard) 3. present a final written research report (following local conference guidelines) PBL scaffolding suppor t was dispersed throughout the thirteen-week semester. The assumption here was that reflection is enhanced by prioritizing periodic learning that is practical and cognitive: • research methods; library search; research report writing conventions • group meetings • whole-class’research-in-progress reports’ • explicit awareness both of choice and the need for the individual to be able to defend that choice Reported Research Method and Findings The research method involved a participant-observer - the instructor maintained a weekly diary, whose observations were cross-validated by both formal and informal feedback sessions with participants. Supplementary data were obtained from students’ mid and end semester anonymous course evaluations. The reported findings were of students rapidly dividing into two groups: • a larger group (n=20) who engaged with the set practical learning and went on to successfully present papers at an international conference. • a smaller group (n=5) who, though socially interactive, were disengaged and challenged by the set practical learning. Participants’ informal feed-back was reported as being guarded but towards the end of the programme ‘disengagement’ was acknowledged and sourced to a questioning of their commitment to teaching as a career. The instructor’s weekly diary entries acknowledge this minority’s growing ‘disengagement’, the majority’s ‘success’ and the initial difficulties of identifying the source issue. Formal mid-semester anonymous feedback confirmed ‘difficulties’ but not the source issue. Approximately two-thirds through the timetable, a source issue was identified and corrective initiatives were implemented - involving counseling and exploring alternative learning paths - however the effectiveness of these initiatives was mitigated by curriculum time- constraints. 52 Analysis - Why Does PBL Ill Serve Some Students? The analysis here takes as its focus those students who appear ill served by their PBL experience. This analysis will illustrate potential weaknesses within the open- ended education of PBL. In both case studies, an analysis of the reported findings reveals two key features. First, both case studies display contextual similarities. None of the participating students were entirely voluntary - the Primary pupils were ‘volunteered’ by their respective schools; the post- Secondary students were undertaking a mandatory course. Both curriculums were delivered within fixed time-constraints. Both involved students assumed to be academically homogenous - primary schools shared the same banding; tertiary students passed the same entry vetting-procedures. Second, neither of the two case studies demonstrates homogenous results - in both case studies, a majority was reported as ‘active’ PBL learners’ alongside a minority reported as being ‘ill-served’ by PBL. For school teachers, dealing with students who are neither entirely voluntary nor homogenous learners is perhaps not unusual and is commonly termed either teaching a ‘mixed ability’ class or taken as an example of the professional challenges presented by ‘inclusive education’. Certainly the professional challenge of dealing with such learners is widely acknowledged - along with recommended appropriate strategies. For example, Brown (2001) advises teachers facing ‘mixed ability’ or ‘inclusive education’ that group discussion/ presentation may challenge those students who experience general delays in cognitive functioning. In other words, not all students can cope with the exposure of PBL group discussions. Brown’s recommended strategy to facilitate such students’ learning involves providing repetition and practice of basic information and skills - e.g. hands-on activities. In contrast, Guillaume (2000) offers an alternative view by explaining that students challenged by social and/or behavioral problems commonly display off-task behavior, an inability to work independently and poor social skills. In other words, not all students develop into self-learners. To help such students, Guillaume’s suggested strategy is to provide cooperative learning. For professional teachers engaged in addressing the challenges of ‘mixed ability’ or ‘inclusive education’ the strategies recommended by Brown or Guillaume - providing opportunities for ‘hands-on’ or cooperative learning - are perhaps neither new nor for the professional teacher, too demanding. What such strategies serve here to illustrate is that in education the professional teacher is a flexible teacher who recognizes that the learning context priorities or at least encourages students to have individual learning styles. PBL and individual learning styles Two examples serve here to illustrate the relationship between the demands of PBL and students’ individual learning styles. For illustrative purposes, both examples are hypothesised as being sited within a Hong Kong class setting, in which a PBL class teacher is adopting one of the two coping strategies offered by Brown and Guillaume. In each example the selected strategy is then critiqued in terms of the learning outcomes. Following Brown (2001), it is hypothesised that a class teacher presents PBL within a context or problem that emphasises practical applications. A critique of this strategy in terms of the learning outcomes reveals that the teacher may expect to find that this emphasis on practical applications may confound students who flourish within the contexts of cooperative and cognitive learning. 53 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Following Guillaume (2000), it is hypothesised that a class teacher presents PBL within a context or problem that emphasises cooperative learning. A critique of this strategy in terms of the learning outcomes reveals that the teacher may expect to find that this emphasis on cooperat ive emphasis may confound and disadvantage students who flourish within the contexts of practical and cognitive learning. As the above two critiques serve to illustrate, PBL by itself, does not offer a panacea to meet all students’ individual learning needs for PBL. Instead, like many teaching approaches, it is mediated through the teacher’s choice of pedagogy. The question then arises, what influences the teacher’s choice of pedagogy? In both the Primary and post-Secondary case studies, the evidence indicates that the teachers’ choice of pedagogy was successful for the majority but less so for the minority. On reflection, this situation may have been improved had the teachers adopted a multi-pedagogic approach - in effect matching pedagogies to individual learning styles. However the teaching contexts of each case study appears to have narrowed the teacher’s choice of pedagogy. In the Primary case study, the ‘teaching agenda’ held that thinking was to be enhanced by prioritizing cooperative and cognitive learning. In the post-Secondary case study, the ‘teaching agenda’ held that reflection was to be enhanced by prioritizing periodic learning that was practical and cognitive. What influences the teacher’s choice of pedagogy - as illustrated by these two case studies - is the ‘teaching agenda’. As is perhaps common throughout Hong Kong’s education, teachers are positioned as mediators between a mandatory curriculum and ‘streamed-by- ability’ students. Where it is assumed that students are ‘streamed-by-ability’, their teacher’s choice of pedagogy will tend to be narrowed to address the perceived imperatives of the mandatory curriculum. SUMMARY PBL has been demonstrated to be an inherently flexible pedagogy that reportedly has been successfully implemented across diverse knowledge areas such as medicine and engineering and also - with less reported success - across the more general educational contexts of Hong Kong students ranging from primary levels to post-secondary levels. This flexibility can here be characterized as demonstrating that PBL: • is adaptive to a wide range of educational contexts • promotes active learning • provides a learner-centred approach A review of two case studies of PBL within the more general educational contexts of Hong Kong students ranging from Primary age to post-Secondary however demonstrates that despite PBL’s flexibility, certain students remain ill served. An examination of these PBL-failed students serves here to highlight that solutions and alternative learning scaffolds are available and could readily be adapted to address a plurality of individual learning styles. A critique of these PBL adaptations then serves to illustrate that in teaching/learning the ‘problem with PBL’ lies not within this one pedagogy but arguably within a mis-match between educational priorities and student learning styles. For example, where teachers mediate PBL through cooperative learning (as in the first case study involving Primary students), such a priority may ill-serve those who flourish through practical learning. Similarly, where teachers mediate PBL through practical learning (as in the second case study involving post-Secondary students), such a priority may ill-serve those who flourish through cooperative learning. In other words, it appears that it is not PBL but rather the teaching and learning contextual priorities - the ‘teaching agenda’ - that may not match individual learning preferences. 54 References Albanese, M and Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based Learning: A Review of Literature on Its Outcomes and Implementation Issues. Academic Medicine, Vol 68, pp.52-81. Balla, J.I. (1990a). Insight into Some Aspects of Clinical Education, I: Clinical Practice. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 66, 212-17. Balla, J.I. (1990b). Insights into Some Aspects of Clinical Education, II: A Theory for Clinical Education. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 66, 297-301. Brown, H.D.(2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (2nd edition). New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Cheng, K.M.(2002). The Quest for Quality Education: The Quality Assurance Movement in Hong Kong. In J.K.H., Mok, & D.K.K., Chan (Eds), Globalization and Education: The Quest for Quality Education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Curriculum Development Council (2000, November). Learning to Learn: The Way Forward in Curriculum Development. (Consultation document) Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council. Forrester, V. (2001). The Case of Student-teachers in Self-research. HKIEd: Kulwer Press. Recognition that teaching and learning contextual priorities - the ‘teaching agenda’ - may not match the individual’s learning preferences invites teachers to question these priorities. Such questioning is helpful for it serves to highlight that the ‘problem with PBL’ may reflect a more general ‘problem with education’. Of this more general ‘problem with education’, Tan, Little, Hee and Conway (2000) have argued that the open-ended learning of PBL can be constrained by formal curriculums. This paper expands their view, by highlighting that formal curriculums may only be part of a broader ‘problem with education’, which constrains teachers’ choice of pedagogy. As the two case studies illustrate, the teacher’s choice of pedagogy can be constrained by contextual similarities. First, both case studies report a curriculum located within a constraining timeframe. Second, both case studies report students as assumed to be academically homogenous. Where students are assumed to be academically homogenous, teaching that addresses a plurality of individual learning styles may have a low teaching priority. It is this combination of contextual similarities that constrained teacher’s choice of pedagogy and which suggests that a ‘problem with PBL’ may rather be a ‘problem with education’. To resolve this learning and teaching ‘problem with education’, one solution rests in challenging ‘ownership’ of the curriculum along with pedagogic reliance on assumptions of ‘homogenous’ learners built on the questionable legitimacy of ‘streaming-by-ability’. Where a curriculum accounts for all the allocated time, conflict with learner diversity appears inevitable and the teacher may expect to encounter student ‘failure’. However, where a curriculum is ‘negotiated’, where teachers feel empowered to exercise their professional flexibility, then pedagogic reliance on assumptions of ‘homogenous’ learners can be reduced and the essential unity of learning and teaching restored. 55 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Glasgow, N.A. (1997). New Curriculum for New Times: A Guide to Student-centered, Problem-based Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Guillaume, A.M. (2000) Classroom Teaching: a Primer for New Professionals. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill. Kaufan, D.M., & Mann, K.V. (1996). Comparing Students’ Attitudes in Problem-based and Conventional Curricula. Academic Medicine, 71 (10), 1096-1099. Levin, B.B. ed (1994). Energizing Teachers Education and Professional Development with Problem-based Learning. Virginia: ASCD. Little, P., Tan, O.S., Kandlbinder, P., Williams, A., Cleary, K., & Conway, J. (Eds) (2001). On Problem-based Learning: Experience, Empowerment and Evidence. Proceedings of the 3rd Asia Pacific Conference on Problem Based Learning. Newcastle: Australian Problem Based Learning Network. www.newcastle.edu.au/conferences/PBL2001. Menon, M. (1997). Can a Problem-based Approach Enliven the Curriculum? Prospero, vol.3 no 2, pp.62-67. Mok, J.K.H. & Chan, D.K.K. (2002). Introduction. In J.K.H. Mok & D.K.K. Chan (Eds.), Globalization and Education: The Quest for Quality Education in Hong Kong (pp.1-19). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Norman, G.R. and Schmidt, H.G. (2000). Effectiveness of Problem-based Learning Curricula: Theory, Practice and Paper Darts. Medical Education, Vol 34, pp.721-728. Perrenet, J.C., Bouhuijs, P.A.J., & Smits, J.G.M.M. (2000). The Suitability of Problem-based Learning for Engineering Education: Theory And Practice. Teaching in Higher Education, 5 (3), 345-358. Savin-Baden, M. (2000). Facilitating Problem-based Learning in Higher Education: Untold Stories. Buckingham, Open University Press for the Society into Higher Education. Schwartz, P. Mennin, S. and Webb, G. (2000). Problem-based Learning: Case Studies, Experience and Practice. London: Kogan Page. Tan, O.S. (2003). Problem-based Learning Innovation: Using Problems to Power Learning in the 21st Century. Singapore: Thomson Learning. Tan, O.S., Little, P., Hee, S.Y., & Conway, J. (Eds) (2000). Problem-based Learning: Educational Innovation Across Disciplines. Singapore: Temasek Centre for Problem-based Learning. Wu, W.Y., and Chan, C.K. (1999). Exploring Thinking Curriculum in Hong Kong Primary School: A Five-year Retrospect. In M. Wass (Ed.), Enhancing Learning: Challenge of Integrating Thinking and Informal Technology into the Curriculum (Vol II, pp.642-647). Singapore: Educational Research Association. 56 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching CHAN Kwok-wai Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract This paper reports a survey study of in-service teachers’ motives, perceptions and concerns about teaching. Three motives were identified for their choosing of teaching as a career, viz. Intrinsic/Altruistic, Extrinsic/Job condition and Influence from others. Of the three motives, it was mostly Intrinsic/Altruistic motive which caused them to join the teaching profession. For the concerns, the teachers under study demonstrated a higher proportion of “concern for pupils” than “concern with self ”, suggesting they had progressed to a higher stage of professional development. The teachers were generally inclined towards the constructivist conceptions about teaching and learning. Nevertheless, they were pressurized by the tight teaching schedule and examination system, hence they still relied on didactic teaching and required students to memorize or recite what were taught in class. Key words Motives, Perceptions, Concerns, Professional development, In-service teachers 摘要本論文報導一個調查在職教師的教學動機、看法和關注結果。選擇教學作為職業的動機，可分為內在 /利他，外在/工作條件和他人的影響。其中持內在/利他動機的人數最多。至於教師的關注焦點，“關注學生” 比“關注自己”的人數較多，顯示受調查的教師已進展到較高的專業發展階段。調查中的教師具信心、投入，一般傾向於建構主義，然而，受壓於緊湊的教學程序和考試制度，仍然倚靠傳統的講學方法和需要學生背誦和記憶課堂內所學。關鍵詞動機、看法、關注焦點、專業發展、在職教師 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 57 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching INTRODUCTION The quality and performance of teachers are always considered as determining factors for the success of educational changes. Since the 1980s, the decline in quality of teachers has become an issue of concern to the education sector (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Education Commission, 1992). Scholars and educators have identif ied several major problems faced by recruitment and retention in the teaching profession, such as the teaching profession fails to attract bright young people (Murnane, 1991), a disproportionate share of higher ability teachers leave teaching to pursue for other careers (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Murnane, 1991), and the under-representation of both qualified minority teachers (Newby, Smith, Newby, & Miller, 1995) and males in the primary school teaching force (Johnston, Mckeown, & McEwen, 1999). The first few years of teaching seem to be critical for novice or beginning teachers. Studies showed that a fairly high proportion of teachers leave the teaching profession in the early years of teaching and that some potential teachers do not join the teaching profession (Ingersoll, 2001; “Teacher Shortages”, 2001). In US, about one-fourth of teachers leave by the end of their second year (National Center for Education Statistics, 1992; cited in Smith, 1997). Some of them leave the teaching profession with disappointment and a sense of helplessness during these period. Several reasons may account for their leaving of the teaching profession, viz. the attractiveness of the teaching work which is related to their motives of taking up teaching as a career, the lack of support (assistance) related to their concerns about teaching, their perception about teaching before and after joining the teaching profession, which eventually may strengthen their desire to stay in the profession or to leave with disappointment and dissatisfaction. It is obvious that the quality of teaching force is not governed only by the qualification, pedagogical knowledge and teaching skill of teachers, but also their enthusiasm, dedication and commitment in teaching. It is also determined by the motives of teachers to join the teaching team and how they perceive teaching as a career. At the same time, the teachers’ behaviour and teaching performance may also be influenced by their conceptions about teaching and learning and their confidence to teach. Thus it is important to examine all these psychological constructs of teachers. The present study aims to study the professional development of in-service teachers from beginning to experienced teachers through investigating psychological constructs of in-service teacher education students in a tertiary institute of Hong Kong. The examined psychological constructs included in-service teachers’ motives in joining the teaching profession, their perception/conception about teaching and learning before and after taking up teaching and their focus of concerns in teaching. It is hoped that the results would provide valuable information to teacher educators and school authorities to assist professional development of teachers to promote their qualities and retain quality teachers in the teaching profession. RELATED LITERATURE The professional development of teachers can be considered in two aspects: cognitive and affective, both of which are important in determining teachers’ efficacy. The cognitive aspect refers to acquisition of pedgagogical knowledge and improved instructional skill, which will help teachers’ classroom teaching and management. In some way, this is influenced by the teachers’ beliefs and conceptions about teaching and 58 learning, for example, the role of teacher and pupils and the preferred way of teaching and learning. The teachers’ commitment and dedication to the teaching career is an important affective component in teacher development. Probably they are influenced by the motives in taking up teaching as a career, the confidence level and concerns in teaching. Qualified teachers lacking the motives to teach often have little enthusiasm and driving force in their work. When a teacher has taught for sometime, work may become routinized. Consequently, interest decreases and the teacher fails to work to his/her full capacity and becomes less effective. In concrete terms, the result is lack of planning, resistance towards change and general negligence. Researchers are keen to find out the reasons that may have affected students’ perceptions and career choices. There have been research literature on the views of student teachers (e.g. Johnston et. al, 1999; Reid & Caudwell, 1997), the career intentions of undergraduates and high/secondary school leavers and their perception of the teaching profession (e.g. Hutchinson & Johnson , 1994; Kyriacou & Coulthard, 2000). All these studies have helped teacher educators understand student teachers’ motives to teach. Numerous studies on the motives of teachers entering the teaching profession have been conducted in US and Britain; however, few have been conducted in Asian countries (Yong, 1995). Research on prospective teachers in the US and Britain show that their major motives in choosing a teaching career are both altruistic and intrinsic. However, the study conducted by Yong (1995) shows that extrinsic motives were the determinants for teacher trainees entering into teaching in Brunei Darussalam. The results do not lend support to earlier research studies in Western countries. In a study of non-graduate pre-service teacher education students by Chan (1998), it was found that their major motives in enrolling in the teacher education program were mainly extrinsic. While the motives to choose teaching as a career is influential upon individual’s performance in classroom teaching, teachers’ concerns about teaching are often studied in the stages of teacher development. Fuller (1969) conceptualized teacher development around concerns expressed by teachers at different points in their professional experiences. She believed that concerns were reflective of strong motivators and of areas of great interest to the teacher (Heathcoat, 1997). Fuller’s (1969) model of concerns has been widely used in teacher education institutes as illustration of different stages of teacher professional development. In her studies, Fuller (1969) identified two categories of concerns - concerns with self and concerns with pupils. Student teachers and teachers in their first year consistently showed concerns with self (e.g. class management, acceptance by pupils and others), which are related to survival in the classroom. As teachers progressed along, teachers become increasingly concerned with their ability to manage the teaching tasks and their influence on pupils’ learning and development. That is, experienced and effective teachers tend to focus their concerns on pupils’ needs and development. Later, Fuller reorganized her early model of teacher development and theorized that teacher concerns could be classified into three distinct categories: “self concerns” which center around the individual’s concern for their own survival related to their teacher preparation program, including their teaching experience; “task concerns” which focus upon the duties that teachers must carry out within the school environment; and “impact concerns” which are related to one’s ability to make a difference and be successful with his/her students and the teaching/learning process (Fuller, 1969; Fuller, Parsons, & Watkins, 1974). Fuller (1969) believed that as pre-service teachers moved through their training, their concerns moved from self 59 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching to task, then finally to impact concerns. Similar kinds of concerns changes are expected to be found in in-service teachers as they progress in the periods of teaching. The categories of teachers’ concepts hypothesized by Fuller (1969, 1974) have been demonstrated and partially supported in some other researchers’ work (Chan, 2002; Furlong & Maynard, 1995). It was reported that pre- service and beginning teachers have greater self concerns than those exhibited by in-service and experienced teachers (Adams, 1982; Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987). Teacher educators need to have a knowledge of pre-service and novice teachers’ concerns and to address their concerns in order to decrease the rates of attrition of teacher candidates within their progress (O’connor & Taylor,1992). Whether there is a cultural or social difference is also an interesting area of investigation. Related to the teachers’ concern is their confidence to teach. Weinstein (1989, 1990) has found that pre-service teachers in US are unrealistically optimistic about teaching before teaching practice. Although they agree with the concern of experienced teachers on class discipline, they are optimistic in handling class teaching and lay much value on teacher- pupils relationship. O’Connell’s (1994) study indicated that the first year teaching was not what the novice teachers expected and many of the previous beliefs and optimism had broken in face of the reality. Therefore, the degree pre-service teachers are prepared for teaching are reflected from the confidence and optimistic view held. The changes in confidence and optimism toward teaching before and after taking up teaching can be reviewed from the teachers’ perceptions. The information gathered would provide useful feedback to teacher educators and teacher education students to evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of the program for professional development of teachers. Another important component in teachers’ professional development is teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning. Researchers have suggested that teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning are beliefs driven, and are related to teachers’ instructional decisions, teaching behaviour and actions in the classroom (Caldehead, 1996; Flores, 2001; Richardson, 1996). A teacher’s educational beliefs or conceptions may influence his/her judgement about what kind of knowledge is essential, the ways of teaching and learning and the methods of class management to be adopted. That is, teachers’ beliefs and hence their conceptions about teaching and learning can guide pedagogical decisions and practices (Ennis, Cothran, & Loftus, 1997; Wilson, Readence, & Konopak, 2002). Research has also suggested that teacher education students’ beliefs are well established by the time they begin a teacher education program and that these beliefs about teaching are formed during the apprenticeship of observation in their former days of schooling (Lortie, 1975). There are varied opinions and findings as regards whether the teachers’ beliefs and conceptions about teaching and learning can be altered by training and experiences gained in teacher education programs (e.g. Tillema, 1997). Therefore, examining teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning (such as their views about pedagogy, the role of teacher and students, the relative importance of theory versus practice, the usefulness of teacher education program to their teaching, etc.) would provide valuable feedback to teacher educators and program designers on the effectiveness and impact of the teacher education program on pre- and in-service teachers’ professional development. OBJECTIVES The present study aims to examine the motives, conceptions and concerns of in-service teachers in the process of professional development. Based on the purpose of the study, several research questions were drawn. 60 Research Questions 1. What are the motives of in-service teachers in choosing teaching as a career? 2. What perceptions/conceptions are held by in- service teachers before and after taking up teaching? 3. What are their concerns about teaching? 4. Are there any significant differences in teachers’ motives to teach and concerns about teaching with respect to their demographic characteristics? Method A questionnaire was administered to 246 in-service teacher education students of a tertiary institute in Hong Kong. The questionnaire contained 80 items, to be rated on a five point Likert scale: from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Based on the theoretical concepts and research findings on teachers’ motives, concerns, perceptions/conceptions about teaching and learning as mentioned in the Related Literature section, items were written to measure these variables and grouped into four areas. Area 1 consisted of 21 items intended to measure the motives of the participants to take up teaching as a career. Areas 2 and 3 each consisted of 19 items, intended to examine the psychology of the participants before and after taking up teaching. The assessed psychology of the particpants included the confidence to teach, their perceptions/conceptions about teaching and learning, related to the constructivist and traditional views about teaching, pedagogy, teacher-pupils relationship and class management. Area 4 consisted of 21 items intended to examine the concerns in teaching, which targeted at students’ learning and development, the teaching tasks and the teachers themselves. Before completing the questionnaire, participants were asked to supply their demographic characteristics including their gender, age, elective or subject, teaching experiences and level (primary or secondary) taught in school. Participants The participants were in-service teacher education students enrolled in the Two-year Part-time Postgraduate Diploma of Education (PGDE) and the Three-year Mixed Mode Bachelor of Education (MMBEd) program. There were 80 students (32.52%) from the PGDE program and 166 (67.48%) from the MMBEd program. Of those who had indicated their gender (N = 203), 64 were male (31.5 %) and 139 were female (68. 5%). The age ranged from 20 to 36 and above, mostly around 20-25 (38.5%) and 26-30 (34.6%). For teaching experiences, they ranged from less than 1 year (4.7%) to more than 20 years (6.8%), most of them around 1-5 years of teaching experiences (61.3%). There were 58 students teaching at primary and 186 at secondary level, with 2 teaching at post-secondary level. Data Analysis Exploratory factor analysis using Maximum Likelihood and Oblimin Rotation was applied to the rated response items (Areas 1 and 4) of the questionnaire to determine the number and nature of factors accounting for the motives to take up teaching as a career; and the focused concerns perceived by the in-service teachers. Psychometric properties (reliability Cronbach alphas) of the motives and concerns factors or subscales identified were then computed. Multivariate analysis (ANOVA) was also applied to investigate if there was any significant difference of the identified factors or subscales wi th respect to the demographic characteristics of the participants. 61 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching Results 1. Motives to Teach With eigen-value of 1 as the cut-off and scree-plot test, three factors were extracted accounting for an accumulative percentage of variance equal to 51.11%. The first factor accounts for a variance of 24.03%, the second factor 17.32% and the third one 9.76%. According to the nature of items, factor 1 was labeled “Influence from others”, factor 2 was labeled “Intrinsic/ Altruistic” and factor 3 was labeled “Extrinsic/Job condition”. The factor structure and the mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the extracted factors are given in Table 1. Table 1 Factor Structure, Mean, Standard Deviation and Reliability of the Motives in Choosing Teaching as a Career Pattern matrix (Maimum Likelihood and Oblimin Rotation) 62 ANOVA was applied to analyze the motives of in-service teachers to take up teaching with respect to their demographic variables. Significant difference was found at .05 level between programs of study, age and teaching experiences. For programs of study, significant difference was found in the second motive to teach, that is, “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive (PGDE: mean = 3.64, SD = .52; MMBEd: mean = 3.80, SD = .58), (F (1, 240) = 4.34, p<.05; t (240) = -2.08, p<.05). For age groups, signif icant difference was found in the motive “Influence from others” and the difference was found between two age groups (20-25: mean = 2.49, SD = .73; 26-30: mean = 2.20, SD = .73), (F (3, 230) = 2.81, p<.05; t (169) = 2.59, p<.05). For teaching experience, signif icant difference was found in the motive “Influence from others” (F (5, 229) = 2.40, p <.05) and this was found between the following groups of teaching experiences (1-5 years versus 6-10 years and 1-5 years versus 16-20 years). In the former case, (1-5 years: mean = 2.39, SD = .69; 6-10 years: mean = 2.05, SD = .75, t (181) = 2.67, p <.05); and in the latter case, (1-5 years: mean = 2.39, SD = .69; 16-20 years: mean = 1.82, SD = .69, t (153) = 2.65, p< .05). There was no significant difference in the motives to teach across gender, elective groups and levels taught. 2. Perceptions/Conceptions before and after taking up teaching The perceptions/conceptions of in-service teachers before and after taking up teaching were analyzed in several domains, the frequency counts and percentages were given in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 respectively. 63 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching Table 2.1 Perceptions/Conceptions before 祖國ngup 臨aching A. Confidence and Optimism Q22L缸k of confidence about one's cl晶S 扭扭扭ng ability Q23F，間ling 句世血is世CID也e Írrst 但也:bing B.Cla甜 Management Q24 Friendly towar曲曲曲血，也血noproblem 旭 class discipline Q25~叫U臼 puni也ing studen妞， more 間wards Q26 More rewards, studen抽血即回se motivation個 I曲血 Q27 Dedica扭 to teach 祖d care for students, wouId be accep阻dby S岫d扭扭 Q28 Don't want個 be sevl間 towar，也 studen個 Q29 Can't be lenient and relaxed, else hard to ∞ntrol stud自由 Q30 Make more use of teacher's au血ority to control students，也is helps class management C.Concep世ono: teaching and learning 。1 Follow the practice of呵 former個cher ♂血n/Sec.) 個個ch mystuden'個 Q32 Foll師也e practice of也e exIS恤g臨品:her抽血句帥但問ienced Q33 Byal1 me祖s provide oppo此間ities for s個den'阻， discussion, no wo叮y about class discipline Q34 Studen個 need not reci'阻也，esu句ect knowledge 1 祖.ught Q35 Tbe role ofteacher 扭曲 f阻li扭扭 stud扭扭， learning ra也，er也阻臨ach knowledge Q36 It is 血ore etfective for te臨her to teach students direct ins阻叫 of allowing stud聞組 to ∞nstruct knowledge by th阻lSelves D.The心ryve目us Practice Q37To 阻ach，叩句自tmatter ∞mes f i'rst, educational 也開討間 n阻t Q38τ'he 血副n purpose of attending teacher education program is 個 acqui're a qualified 臨ach前 S個，tus Q39 The Inatiù晦 only祖叫Jes也e田間， noac'叫alhelp個wards祖叫血直 Q40 The program offered by也eln鉗扭扭曲恤阻四祖岫ing晶晶cy *Sum血dpercen祖ge include Strongly Disagree and Disagree #Su血血dpe血祖祖ge include Strongly Agree 阻dAgree Disagree* N問個l Agree# 142 (57.7%) 64 (26.0%) 40 (16.2%) 32 (13.0%) 77 (3 1.3%) 137 (55.7%) 99 (40.3%) 的 (34.6%) 62 (25.3%) 27 (10.9%) 的 (38.6%) 124 (50.4%) 49 (20.1%) 84 (38.9%) III (45.5%) 12 (4.9%) 的 (27.2%) 167 (67.9%) 26 (10.5%) 的。5.6%) 157 (63.8%) 68 (27.7%) 105 (42.7%) 73 (29.7%) 86 (35.3%) 91 (37.3%) 的 (27.5%) 132 (53.8%) 76 (3 1.0%) 37 (15.1%) 104 (42.2%) 95 (38.6%) 的 (19.1%) 41 (16.6%) 98 (39.8%) 107 (43.5%) 82 (33.4%) 98 (39.8%) 66 (26.8%) 32 (13.1%) 86 (35.2%) 126 (51.6%) 86 (35.1%) 110 (44.0%) 49 (20.0%) 80 (32.7%) 101 (41.2%) 64 (26.1%) 67 (27.3%) 73 (29.8%) 105 (42.8%) 89 (36.2%) 的 (38.6%) 62 (25.2%) 34 (13.9%) 101 (41.1%) 111 (45.1%) 64 The results in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show the confidence, optimism and commitment expressed by the in-service teachers under study, as well as their perceptions/ conceptions about class management, the relative importance of theory versus practice, the preferred ways of teaching and learning. 65 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching 3. Concerns about Teaching With eigen-value of 1 as the cut-off and scree-plot test, two factors accounting for an accumulative percentage of variance equals to 35.37%. The first factor accounts for a variance of 22.75%, and the second factor 12.62 %. According to the nature of items, factor 1 was labeled “concerns with pupils” and factor 2 was labeled “concerns with self ”. The factor structure and the mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the extracted factors are given in Table 3. ANOVA was applied to examine if there was any significant difference in the concerns displayed by in- service teachers with respect to their demographic variables. No significant difference was found in their concerns across programs of study, age, sex, elective groups, and levels taught. 66 DISCUSSION Three factors were extracted from factor analysis of the item responses representing the sampled in-service teachers’ reasons to join the teaching profession. These three factors accounted for the motives of the in-service teachers to choose teaching as a career. The three motives were “Influence from others”, “Intrinsic/ Altruistic” and “Extrinsic/Job conditions”. In terms of the mean values of the three factors (see Table 1), the in-service teachers under study chose teaching as a career mostly due to the “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive (mean = 3.75, SD = .57), next, the “Extrinsic/Job condition” (mean = 2.85, SD = .67) and last the “Influence from others” factor (mean = 2.31, SD = .77). That is, the in-service teachers joined the teaching profession mainly due to the fact that they liked to work with children and adolescents; they liked to help others and found the work meaningful and challenging, and suited their personality. Material rewards such as salary, stability, holidays, and easy to find a job as contained in the “Extrinsic/Job condition” factor were not as important and determining as the “Intrinsic/Altruistic” factor in their choice of teaching as a career. “Influence from others” such as teachers, parents, peers and mass media, though influential, was not as decisive when compared with the previous two factors. The result was similar to some of the findings reported in Western countries, but differed from that of the Young’s (1995) and Chan’s (1998) findings of pre- service teachers. The difference was probably due to the different composi t ion and demographic characteristics of the samples in the studies including their educational qualification. In the present study, the teacher education students were in-service teachers of either university graduate status or non-graduate teachers holding Certificate of Education qualification (qualified teacher status), the latter group continued to upgrade their qualification to university graduate status through part-time study. In Young’s (1995) and Chan’s (1998) study, the sample, however, consisted of pre- service non-graduate teacher education students enrolled in a certificate course. These students usually could not enter university although they got Advanced level subjects passes and hence they often consider teacher education as an alternate means of continuing further study and they might not be intrinsically or altruistically motivated in joining the teaching profession. ANOVA study showed that a significant difference at .05 level was found in the motives to teach between programs of study, age and teaching experiences. Both PGDE and MMBEd students had mean value of “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive above the mid-point of a five-point scale (PGDE, mean = 3.64, MMBEd, mean = 3.80 showing their relatively high interest to teach children and adolescents. The difference between the two groups was possibly due to their different background. The MMBEd students had destined to take up teaching after completing their Certificate course (a full-time two or three year sub-degree programs, designed to prepare non-graduate teachers for primary and junior secondary level teaching) some years before they got enrolled in the MMBEd program while the PGDE students could have other career options after university graduation besides teaching. Younger people might not have made up their mind at an early stage of choosing teaching as a career and they might have been more influenced by others such as their former teachers, parents, peers and media when they eventually joined the teaching profession. This might account for the differences in the motive “Influence from others” between age groups. Similar effect might be found due to different teaching experiences. Those with more 67 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching teaching experiences, usually also older ones were more matured, stable in thought and decision making, hence less influenced by others in joining teaching profession. This was reflected by the relatively lower mean score of the elder groups (mean = 2.20) and more experienced group (mean = 1.82) in the factor “Influence from others” in comparison with the younger (mean = 2.49) and less experienced group (mean = 2.39). Referring to the perceptions/conceptions held by the sampled in-service teachers before taking up teaching, as shown in Table 2.1, the teachers tended to be confident about their class teaching (57.7% confident versus 16.2% lack of confidence) and optimistic (55.7% felt optimistic in the first teaching versus 13.0% not optimistic) when they took up the first teaching, the result was similar to the findings by Weinstein (1990) study of pre-service teachers that they tended to be optimistic at their beginning of teaching practice. Table 2.1 suggests that the sampled in-service teachers have their own ways of teaching based on their beliefs and conceptions rather than followed the practice of their former primary and secondary teachers (53.8% reported they did not follow the practice of their former teacher to teach their students and only 15.1% did) or existing teachers in the schools they taught (42.2% indicated they did not follow the practice of the existing teachers versus 19.1% who did). The result was somewhat different from the “apprenticeship of teaching” notion put forward by Lortie (1975) although some individuals of the sample did follow this practice. As for class management, the in-service teachers appeared to be in favour of rewards over punishment (50.4% agreed versus 10.9% disagreed). A majority of the teachers (63.8%) did not want to be severe towards students. Many of them (67.9%) agreed that if they were dedicated to teach and care for students, they would be accepted by students. However, there were mixed views among the teachers about whether they should be friendly, lenient and relaxed; the percentages of agreement and disagreement in these perspectives were quite close when class discipline and management were concerned (Table 2.1 refers). For the conceptions about learning and teaching, more teachers in the sample believed the role of teacher is to facilitate students’ learning (51.6%) instead of direct teaching/transmission of knowledge (13.1%). 35.1% of the teachers did not agree that direct teaching is more effective than students’ construction of knowledge while 20.0% held opposite view. It was interesting to find that the majority (44.0%) remained neutral in this conception. That is, while some teachers were in favour of the constructivist conception of learning and teaching, others remained undecided or neutral towards the views. Further reflection of the varied teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning was reflected from their responses towards the statement “students need not recite the subject knowledge the teachers taught”. The percentages of those who disagreed and agreed to this view were not widely different (33.4% versus 26.8%). Similarly, they won’t totally ignore the importance of educational theories in comparison with subject matter knowledge and many of them agreed that the program in the Institute helped their teaching. For the perceptions/conceptions held by the in- service teachers after they took up teaching, it was delightful to find that their confidence and commitment to teach increased as shown in Table 2.2 (confidence increased: 68.3%, commitment increased: 66.3%). However, it is worthy to point out that student’s attitude and misbehavior in learning, as well as the performance and behaviour of existing teachers in the school did influence teachers’ commitment to teach. In other words, while the teachers were dedicated to teach, the school management side and the education authority should empower teacher’s commitment with support and provision of sound learning atmosphere. 68 Many of the teachers in the sample after taking up teaching still agreed to use rewards and approval in class management, they also tended to be caring and friendly towards students despite some agreed that being friendly and caring might not reduce the students’ misbehaviour and class discipline problems. While many teachers were in favour of the constructivist conceptions of teaching and learning, considerable number of them held the views that allowing students to construct knowledge by themselves were idealistic and impractical. This view exists both before and after taking up teaching. Possibly the influence of the assessment and examination system, the tight teaching schedule, the large students number in class, all these factors caused teachers to be cautious and not readily give up the didactic mode of teaching and allows students to construct their knowledge. Besides, many teachers in the sample agreed the program offered by the Institute helped their teaching; this reinforced the conception that the teachers enrolled in teacher education program not only for the sake of acquiring qualified teacher status and upgrade their qualification but also had the will to continue their professional development with further learning. The result in Table 3 supports the hypothesis and findings of Fuller (1969) that two major concerns were detected within teachers, one “concern with pupils” and the other “concerns with self ”. Comparing the means of the two factors, factor 1 “concerns with pupils” has a higher mean score (4.06) than factor 2 “concerns with self ”. The finding is similar to previous research reports that pre-service and beginning teachers have greater self concerns than those expressed by the experienced in- service teachers and that in-service teachers’ task concerns are higher than their self concerns (e.g. Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987; Maxie, 1989). Two implications arise. First, it is a positive sign to find our teachers care and concern more with pupils than their self in the process of professional development. Students are placed on the top priority and what the teachers do mainly is for the good and well being of the students. The teachers in the sample might have been more conscious about their impact on the development of students, that is, many of them have reached the final stage of professional development proposed by Fuller (1969, 1974). As well, many of the teachers are committed, dedicated and work for the benefits of the students and they inclined to be student-centered. Second, viewed at a different angle, there might be troublesome factors related to students’ learning, e.g. students’ low or lack of motivation to learn, disruptive behaviour and class discipline problems. All these aroused teachers’ anxiety and concerns that “pupils’ cases” was put as priority concerns/issues. If that is the case, then the education authority, parents and teachers should work collaboratively to solve the problem and teacher education institutes should equip teachers with more knowledge and techniques to handle the problem cases and relieve their worry and concerns. For “self concerns”, this included the language competency and information technology competence, the teaching technique, teaching schedule progress, use of media and which class to teach; some of these are concerns for survival, and some are task concerns. As the sample comprised teachers of different age and teaching experiences, it is no wonder why both types of concerns were found. Notice that with the recent educational reform and changes put forward by Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB), the language bench mark test and information technology competency requirement had caused much anxiety and concerns within teachers. Teachers were pressurized to handle such many requirements and reformation changes besides normal teaching and non-teaching duties within a short duration. This cannot be neglected as it has a strong psychological impact on teachers. Additional training and support are required to help teachers overcome these concerns. 69 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION This study identified three motives and two concerns of a sample of in-service teachers in Hong Kong. The three motives were: “Intrinsic/Altruistic”, “Extrinsic/Job condition” and “Influence from others”. Of the three motives, the in-service teachers under study were mostly influenced by the “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive in joining the teaching profession. They were inclined to help children and adolescents in their development through teaching their interested subjects. They indicated that teaching was meaningful, challenging and fitting their personality or religious beliefs. Consequently, it is expected they care more about the well-being and learning of their students than extrinsic values attached to the job condition, such as salary, holidays, status, ..etc. The “Intrinsic/Altruistic motives” would help the teachers remain in the teaching profession with persistence and enthusiasm and not to give up teaching readily. Such expectations were reinforced with the concerns expressed by the teachers under study, who demonstrated a higher proportion of “concern for pupils” than “concern with self ”. The phenomenon suggested the Hong Kong in-service teachers under study had progressed to a higher stage of professional development, according to the theoretical framework of Fuller (1969) and others (Buhendwa, 1996; Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987). However, the higher proportion of teachers’ concerns about “class discipline”, “the students’ learning motivation”, “intellectual, moral and value development of students” should not be neglected as it raised an alarming sign to the negative learning attitude and misbehaviour displayed by increasing number of students. The solving of these problems obviously requires cooperative effort of teachers, parents, community and the education authority. The present study found that the Hong Kong in- service teachers under study were conf ident and committed to their teaching; their confidence and commitment increased after they took up teaching. This is an encouraging finding. Nevertheless, teachers should not be overloaded as they have been facing with countless educational reform and requirement all the time, which might cause teachers exhausted, and eventually burnt out. The Hong Kong in-service teachers in the sample in general were self-improving, always tried to upgrade not only their education qualification but also the efficacy of their teaching work through attending teacher education program which they considered useful and functional in helping their teaching. The Hong Kong in- service teachers were generally inclined towards the constructivist conceptions about teaching and learning, agreeing to provide more opportunities for students to discuss and that the teacher’s role is a facilitator of students’ learning rather than transmitter of knowledge. Being exposed to both the Chinese and Western culture and philosophy, Hong Kong teachers had gradually changed to be more democratic and inclined to adopt the constructivist approach to teaching and learning. However, being pressurized by the tight teaching schedule and examination system, the Hong Kong teachers would not entirely give up didactic teaching and they still require students to memorize or recite what were taught in class. Recitation or memorization is not bad if considered as rehearsal to enhance memory in information processing of knowledge, a foundation for further learning and application. This accounts for a considerable number of teachers who agreed that students should recite or memorize what they were taught in class. In summary, the Hong Kong teachers under study were found to be confident, committed and caring for their students’ learning and development. They had a positive sense about teaching and learning. 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Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 281-292. 72 香港初中推行公民教育的現況吳迅榮、梁恩榮香港教育學院摘要本研究是以問卷，配合有目的的抽樣個案訪談，對本港中學負責初中公民教育的教師作出調查，探討自九九年公民教育建議成為獨立科目後，初中推行公民教育的組織、目標、模式、課題、途徑和困難。結果顯示很多負責公民教育的教師未接受或接受少於十小時的培訓；很多學校未設有獨立科而以周會或講座形式推行公民教育；學校和教師的價值取向會影響校本公民教育的設計和內容；及不清晰的教育政策使學校在推行方面無所適從。研究建議教育統籌局和大專院校可以在培訓和課程目標和設計方面加以支援，使公民教育教師能運用多元的教學方法，以爭議性的事件和政治概念去充實公民教育課堂，藉此提升學生的批判思考能力。前言一九九七年七月一日，中國在香港恢復行使主權後，香港便毅然進入一個非殖民化時代，這時，公民教育的其中一個主要任務是重新界定香港市民的國民身分 (Ng等，2000)。其實，自一九八四年中英簽訂聯合聲明開始，直至九七年主權回歸前這一段過渡期間，有關日後香港公民教育的內容和如何推行以適切地配合非殖民化香港的討論，持續不斷；有關機構對香港青年作出多項關於公民意識的調查，例如，課程發展議會的調查認為有需要加強中國文化和國民教育 (Curriculum Development Council, 1995)；基督徒學會及教育行動組的調查則指出有需要在公民教育中加強政治元素的訓練 (梁大輝、劉修妍等，1994)；也有調查發現教師在推行公民教育時的教學資源不足 (教育署輔導視學處，1997)。由於殖民地時期的教育是一種強調社會控制的疏離本土文化的教育 (Kelly 及 Altback, 1978)，九七年前的香港教育刻意把中國民族教育疏離和淡化。曾榮光 (1994) 批評，殖民地香港的公民教育是一種「無政治」(apo l i t i c a l ) 和「無民族」 (anational) 的殖民地精英教育。黎國雄 (1998) 更認為在欠缺政治實體的香港殖民地，港人只有子民 (subject) 的地位而沒有所謂「公民」(citizens) 的身分。因應八四年關於香港前途的中英聯合聲明，香港政府於八五年推行《公民教育指引》 (Curriculum Development Council, 1985)。可是，這份強調以滲透形式推行公民教育的指引，被很多學者批評欠缺明確內容及組織，無新意且原地踏步 (例如︰陳建強，1996；曾榮光，1985； Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 73 香港初中推行公民教育的現況 Bray及 Lee, 1993; Lee, 1996; Leung等， 2000； Ng等，2000)。 Leung (1995) 形容這個指引將公民教育德育化和瑣碎化 (trivialization)；Morris 及 Morris (2000) 認為《指引》提議的跨學科滲透課程需要將目前各科課程目標擴闊來迎合公民教育的個人及社會目標。但現實告訴我們，Morris, McClelland & Man (1997) 的研究發現大部分的教師不按照指引的提議去推行公民教育，且避開了《指引》中的政治元素。九十年代香港政制出現改革，包括九一年立法局直選議員及九五年將投票年齡由 21 歲降至 18歲。面對政權移交，八五年的《指引》已顯得過時。殖民地政府於九五年成立公民教育工作小組，課程發展議會並於九六年發表了新的《學校公民教育指引》，新《指引》較舊指引具體而全面，除加入民主、自由、平等、人權與法治等政治元素外，更強調以批判思考及解決問題的技能來認識社會、民族國家和世界，祈能作出合理的判斷 (Leung 等， 2000)。在推行方面，九六年《指引》建議學校採用跨學科滲透課程、獨立學科和綜合學科等策略，使學生能在學校多元的教學環境下培養公民價值觀。最重要的是，政府接納新《指引》的建議，決定於一九九九年在初中設立獨立的公民教育科。雖然如此，Ng等 (2000) 環顧當時的教學環境，覺得在學校推行新《指引》會受到很多限制，包括時間表安排、教師培訓、課程重點和教學資源等；從公民權責範疇來看， Tse (1997) 則認為新《指引》的民主教育和民族教育元素仍感不足，教師也未能有足夠的知識與技巧去裝備自己成為一個有效的公民教育工作者。Ng (2000) 的一項調查也發現教師在民族教育範疇中的政治知識匱乏，他們在校內只著重民族教育的文化部分而避開政治議題。面對九七政治環境轉變，新《指引》無疑較八五年的《指引》更有系統及具體地描述回歸後公民教育的目標、內容和推行策略，並加強公民教育應有的政治元素，培養學生的公民權責。可是，九七年後，教育環境隨著經濟和政治環境的轉變而受到衝擊，且政府在2001年開展了中、小學的課程改革，學校在新《指引》下推行公民教育的現況是值得我們探究的。本研究嘗試以問卷，配合有目的的抽樣訪談的方法，探討九六年《學校公民教育指引》公佈及九九年開始實施公民教育初中獨立科目以來，現時初中 (中一至中三) 學校推行公民教育的現況。所謂現況，是指在初中推行公民教育的組織、目標、模式、課題、途徑和困難，從而探究影響公民教育在學校推行的因素。研究方法本研究主要採用問卷調查法向全港 400 間中學 (國際學校除外) 發出問卷，由負責公民教育的教師以不記名的形式填寫，以蒐集關於中一至中三推行公民教育的資料。研究員收集問卷後進行分析，並於兩個月後有目的地選擇 (pu rpo s i v e sampling) 四位在不同背景中學任職的校長或負責推行公民教育的教師進行訪談，得到的個案資料，有助佐證、澄清或檢視問卷的調查結果。去函時主要邀約校長進行訪談，但有兩所學校校長推介負責教師面見。四所學校中，一間是傳統的左派愛國學校，其餘三所則具有宗教背景，目的是探討辦學團體的價值取向會否影響推行公民教育。訪談的內容大致與問卷的內容相同，包括組織和統籌公民教育、推行的途徑和方法、困難及影響因素等。二零零一年底，研究員以郵遞方式將問卷寄往400間中學，由學校校長或負責公民教育教師填寫，兩個月後，共收回181份，回收率是45.5%。回收率偏低是本研究的局限，一則是郵遞問卷的回收率往往出現偏低情況，二則是聖誕假臨近時發出問卷，也可能影響教師填寫問卷的意欲；另一方面，本研究只能描繪學校推行公民教育的現況，而未能就原因和效果作深入的討論。問卷設計分為五個部分，包括 (1) 樣本學校的背景資料， 74 (2) 組織及人力資源，(3) 推行模式，(4) 目標和方法及 (5) 困難與展望。研究員將收集回來的資料加以整理和統計以協助分析及討論。問卷分析問卷的第一部分是樣本學校的背景資料。在181 間學校當中，有 83.4% 開校具十年歷史以上， 76.8%的問卷來自男女校，回應率大致與現時中學的男女學校比例相約。有關其他部分的結果，分述如下︰一、推行公民教育的組織及人力資源「推行」在這况是指統籌、策劃和推動。一般學校都有公民教育小組統籌初中校本公民教育，從表一顯示，超過一半學校由班主任負起推行公民教育的角色，有三分一學校以公民教育科科主任為推行公民教育的核心。有少部分學校以其他小組及人員負責或策劃與推行公民教育。表一學校在初中推行公民教育的組織及人員的百分比（可選擇多項）其中94位未受過這方面的培訓，約一半教師接受少於十小時培訓，只有74位曾受十小時以上的公民教育培訓 (表二)。其他數據顯示，43.6%的中學參與策劃及推行初中公民教育的教師少於五人，另外43.6%則由五人至十人推行公民教育。在收回的181份問卷統計中，共有316位教師參與推行公民教育，表二曾受訓的公民教育教師的百分比 75 香港初中推行公民教育的現況二、推行模式新《指引》提議採用四種模式去推行初中公民教育，以下是學校在採用不同模式的百分比。表三學校初中推行公民教育的方式的百分比（可選擇多項）表三數據顯示，佔七成以上的學校採用非正規課程，即普遍以早會或周會，其次是課外活動形式進行；也有五成多學校使用跨學科滲透形式融合在正規課程科目內。此外，接近五成學校以綜合課程的方式推行公民教育。綜合課程是把公民教育與其他相關的範疇，包括倫理教育、環境教育、班主任課、通識教育、生活技能課等，在正規時間上佔有節數。不同課堂名稱反映該課節的重點或不同的教學理念。例如班主任課是透過班主任接觸學生的時段去幫助學生全人的成長；倫理課較強調道德價值的培養，生活教育課則將重點放於日常生活的技能。調查指出超過五成學校使用班主任課來推行公民教育，其餘的綜合課節則各佔一成。三、初中公民教育的課程目標研究員將九六年《公民教育指引》的各範疇目標列出，共有一百六十至一百七十多所學校在問卷中填寫本項目。從表四所見，大部分樣本學校認為他們的公民教育課程的目標都能配合《指引》，而第一項「關懷社區、國家、國際關係及人民生活」、第三項「關注本地的社會、公民權利和義務」和第四項「了解香港、中國及世界關注的事情」最為學校所認同。表四學校在推行公民教育課程目標的百分比（可選擇多項） 76 四、常教的課題大部分學校表示常將香港公民的權責、家庭觀念、基本法和當今時事列為公民教育課題(見表五)，而且較著重香港與中國的關係，以及香港人在政治群體中扮演的角色。惟當課題涉及中國國民教育、政治制度和抽象的政治概念時，學校的關注較少。表五學校在初中常教的公民教育課題的百分比（可選擇多項）五、學校推行公民教育的困難表六顯示，大部分學校遇到的困難是缺乏曾受公民教育培訓的教師，而學生對公民教育缺乏興趣也不容忽視。若將「常遇到」及「間中遇到」的百分率加起來，超過六成學校認為教學資源不足、教育政策不清晰、沒有校內文化配合、缺乏同僚共識等都成為推行公民教育的阻力，而佔五成的學校表示經常或偶然遇到教師不願意任教公民教育，這點值得我們關注。 77 香港初中推行公民教育的現況表六學校推行公民教育常遇到的困難的百分比（可選擇多項）六、加強公民教育的途徑在展望公民教育推行的途徑方面(見表七)，頗多學校已委任教育負責人和設立公民教育統籌委員會，有超過一半學校考慮將會增加公民教育的資源、增加非正規課程中公民教育的時數、增加課題、增加公民教育活動和鼓勵更多教師接受公民教育的培訓，這顯示有很多學校愈來愈重視公民教育，態度積極。可是，有差不多一半學校不欲增加公民教育的正規課程時數，相信由於學校的時間表空間有限，公民教育只宜於非正規課程中推行。表七學校在加強公民教育途徑的百分比（可選擇多項） 78 訪談的結果與分析研究員在分析收回的問卷後，在二零零二年中，就問卷的內容，到四間不同背景學校與校長或負責公民教育的教師進行訪談，聽取他們的意見，以補充和佐證問卷調查的內容。一、甲校甲校乃一間「愛國學校」，即所謂「左派」學校，自一九四六年創校已有公民教育，希望學生在校園中培養對國家的認同和歸屬感。校歌有一句︰「讓我們的青年人走上民主科學的大道，為建設新中國而貢獻自己的力量。」因此，該校的公民教育重點是以國家民族感情和基本品德操守為主。該校校長說︰「在公民教育中，我們除了培養學生的品德修養外，更重視一年一度的國慶、校慶和五四青年節活動。」在推行方面，該校沒有公民教育委員會來協調初中公民科在正規課程和非正規課程的活動。最重要是教師既合作又有共識，校長說︰「我們的教師均有共同理念，立場一致。我們容許學生有一個較寬的討論空間。例如陳水扁上台事件，有人贊成，有人反對。但學校的態度則十分明確，就是反對台獨，擁護一個中國的看法。」在教師培訓方面，校長並不看重教育學院提供的課程，並懷疑其成效；他認為公民教育最關鍵的並非知識，而是教師的態度︰「我們的教師以自學和關心時事去裝備自己的公民意識，公民教育是一種感情教育。教師的態度、表達能力、感情流露等能影響學生，這就是公民教育。」校長對《公民教育指引》的內容也欣賞，但認為作用不大，因為沒有教科書配合，故此他相信公民教育是各取所需的。但他也發覺在現時的教育環境下難以有效擴展公民教育的教授︰「在現有的考試主導課程下，公民教育不受重視，這是鐵一般的事實。況且，家長多採取功利態度、公民教育可有可無；還有，學校發展公民教育的空間有限。」二、乙校乙校是一間佛教學校，由於校長不要求負責公民教育的教師篤信佛教，所以公民教育並無涉及宗教色彩。負責初中公民教育的教師認為該校在推行公民教育時有清晰的目標︰「我們希望學生能透過公民教育掌握正確的資訊，讓學生明白、思考和實踐，藉著此批判思考培養適當的做人態度和價值觀，對社會有參與和有建樹。」學校主要是透過非正規課程推行公民教育，由公民教育組統籌有關的活動。該教師說︰「我們利用周會時間推行公民教育，為時大約三至四分鐘，高年級及低年級輪流進行。周會內容視情況而定，較時事性。除此之外，我們也透過展板、參觀、問答比賽和講座去推廣公民教育。」協助推行公民教育的教師，基本上沒有接受有關的培訓過程，教師邊做邊學，對一些問題的 79 香港初中推行公民教育的現況看法未必相同，但盡可能在意見交流過程中尋求共識，或多與其他學校公民教育教師交流，從而學習更多教學法。整體來說，該校遇到的困難是：「我們要花時間去設計和更新課程的內容，我們實在太忙，沒有時間去仔細閱報，了解時事發展；而且教師的公民教育理念訓練不足，沒有培訓的機會，這是最大的障礙。」雖然如此，該校在推行公民教育時較為暢順，乃由於推行公民教育的組長教師非常負責，具時事觸覺性，且與其他學校的公民教育教師經常保持聯繫。學校的行政安排容許教師有較大的自由度去剪裁公民教育的內容，而且教師可自願參與教學，這都是推行公民教育的助力。三、丙校丙校是一間天主教的鄉村學校，曾利用宗教倫理科向教育統籌局(教統局)申請公民教育津貼，推行國民教育。校長說︰「任教國民教育的教師全部都有宗教背景，在宗教倫理科的正規課程中進行。雖然較強調宗教信仰，我們相信無礙推行公民教育，因為培養學生的批判思考能力是課程的目標之一，使他們具有良好公民的內涵和要素，對社會和國家作出貢獻。」除了宗教倫理科外，該校經常以班主任課，周會和其他公民教育活動，如升旗禮以增強學生的「香港情、中國心」。可是，學生在公民教育的接收方面，強差人意︰「學生的學習興趣只是一般，對正規課程反應並不熱烈，自我反省的能力弱。可能他們覺得並非和自己有切身的關係，更切身反而是自己的家庭問題。」在推行方面，負責非正規課程的教師來自公民教育及德育委員會，成員是不同科目的教師。委員會成員與任教國民教育的教師之間的溝通，主要靠角色重疊的兩位教師之間維繫。在培訓方面，學校鼓勵同事進修，但教師並不十分重視，寧願參與本科進修。困難方面，校長認為︰「阻力很大，我不得不承認校內公民教育教師的角色不太明確，且他們培訓不足，而學校投放在公民教育中的資源亦不足。另一方面，學生對該科的興趣不大，眼光狹窄，顧己不顧人，都是公民教育推行的絆腳石。」四、丁校丁校是一間道教學校，但校內宗教氣氛不濃厚。由於學生的成績組別較低，教師較少談及高層次的公民概念，如人權、自由、民主和平等，而且對培養學生批判思考的能力沒有充分信心，但他們較強調個人的價值觀與成長。負責公民教育的教師說︰「我們在公民教育課程况的目標是提升學生的公民意識，培養個人價值觀、國家歸屬感和世界公民使命感。由於學生的學業成績稍遜，故批判思考能力相對薄弱。」在丁校的正規課程况有生活教育科，其內容結合了公民教育與德育，包括同學的個人認知、成長價值、性教育、傳媒教育、國民身分及環境教育。而非正規課程中，每年都有不同主題，例如美化校園、關心社會、心繫祖國、立足香港和面向世界。師資方面，該校只有四位教師任教公 80 民教育，其中兩位同時兼教生活教育中的德育範疇，主要是公民教育只佔生命教育中的一部分。該校教師說︰「公民教育組只有四位成員，但我們積極與其他科目教師合作，推行各種活動。可是，其他教師並不感到公民教育的重要性，對公民教育的掌握與認同不足，故在推行方面也得遷就，以免產生衝突。」由於人手缺乏，四位教師工作忙碌，未能參與教統局舉辦的培訓課程，全靠同事間的溝通和經驗補足。幸好有校長的支持，給予小組自由度去釐定課程，使負責公民教育組的教師能有較大空間在正規和非正規課程中設計活動。綜合上述四間學校在初中推行公民教育的情況，各校由於背景各異，推行公民教育的目標、重點和模式都有不同：有些著重愛國教育；有些強調素質培養；有些則關注價值薰陶。值得提及的是，在四所訪談的學校中，負責公民教育的教師都肩負使命感，要配合學生的特質而設計公民教育課程，並以多元化方式推行公民教育，可是他們遇到的困難也不少，包括︰ 1. 學校傳統及辦學宗旨對公民教育課程有顯著影響例如甲校由於有清晰的政治立場，在學校况推行以愛國教育為重點的公民教育，丙校則以宗教倫理科推行公民教育。 2. 學校管理層的態度被訪的教師認為，學校管理層的態度在推行公民教育起著決定性作用。校長的支持和認同公民教育的重要，可令教師有更多空間、人手和資源推行公民教育。 3. 教師的共識要有效推行公民教育，必須全校教師合作，達到共識。可是，訪談發現個別學校的教師缺乏默契和承擔。 4. 教師的培訓根據被訪教師表示，大部分教師未有接受正規公民教育的培訓，有些只有參加過一些短期課程或講座，有時或工作繁忙，未能關注時事，引致信心不足。 5. 資源與課程由於學校時間表緊迫，不容許投放太多資源於公民教育的課程上，有礙公民教育的發展。 6. 家長和學生的態度個別被訪教師表示家長和學生都太功利，由於公民教育非考試科目，所以得不到重視。這些困難因素，很多都和問卷結果不謀而合，且更有效地說明影響個別學校推行公民教育的實際情況。討論及建議綜合問卷和四所學校校長或負責公民教育的教師訪談結果的分析，現時學校在初中推行公民教育課程受著教師師資、辦學團體背景、推行的模式、教師的共識和教統局搖擺不定的政策所影響。 1. 校本公民教育共識的建立一直以來，公民教育的推行都相當強調「人人有責」，問卷也顯示大多數學校都是以非正規課程和滲透式來推行公民教育(表三)，但要做到「人人 81 香港初中推行公民教育的現況有責」及成功，在校內建立同工的共識，並以上述兩模式來推行公民教育，誠然是極之重要的；但從面談得知，除了甲校情況較佳外，其他三校同工對公民教育理念大都缺乏共識，已明顯地阻礙了學校公民教育的發展。推行公民教育，必須是全校教師的共識。學校可考慮在老師培訓日，由有關教師統籌，邀請師資培訓機構的專家與全校教師一齊探討如何建構共識及在各科目、各種活動中發展公民教育；此外，教師也應定期交流彼此對公民教育的看法與期望，努力建構一個全校取向的公民教育目標和計劃。 2. 人力資源與師資培訓綜合問卷和訪談得悉，缺乏曾受訓的教師是學校推行初中公民教育的主要困難，一則是肯任教公民教育的教師數目少，如果不是學校指派，很多教師也未必有興趣任教；二則是很多負責教師未曾接受或接受少於十小時的公民教育培訓。事實上，提供公民教育訓練的途徑並不多，師資培訓機構只提供選修單元，但修讀學生人數不算太多。教統局也委託大專院校開辦中、小學公民教育短期課程；但正如訪談所顯示，由於教師工作繁忙和興趣所限，修讀人數不多，且時數所限，學習內容也不能太深入。當然，教統局和大專機構提供足夠及適切的公民教育訓練課程是責無旁貸的，但更重要的是，教育當局應提供進修時間，讓老師能專心進修，否則訓練也只是走過場而已！此外，更需要增強班主任及負責公民教育教師的知識和教授技巧，學校有需要邀請大專講師或專業人士成為顧問，並舉辦多一點「到會式」的全校教師發展工作坊，除了探討如何建構共識外，更要協助教師掌握滲透式公民教育的推行理念和方法，並以學校為本位設計教學，將理論付諸實踐，進一步了解二零零二年課程改革將公民教育劃入「個人、社會及人文教育」的學習領域。為了保證公民教育教師的質素，課程除了知識、技能和態度外，還須注意澄清教師本身對公民教育的詮釋和價值取向。因為他們必須掌握基本理念，並就學生的需要選擇教學主題及設計教材。 3. 推行的模式和課程學校多設有公民教育小組來統籌公民教育活動，雖然教統局於一九九九年將初中公民教育設定為獨立科目，並由課程發展處編寫課程大綱，惟只有不多於四分一的樣本學校設有獨立科目，學校最常用的是透過非正規課程，如週會、講座等去推行公民教育；可能這方式較為省時，但這種「斬件」式的公民教育能否滿足學生的需要是一大疑問。透過正規課程的科目去推行公民教育也是常見的推行模式，可是，這種「滲透式」方法在香港學校緊迫的時間表中，因各科目互相競爭，既有自己的目標及內容，又以考試為主導，所以專科教師未必能在授課時，兼顧學生公民教育方面的需要。此外，滲透式的模式推行公民教育需要教師擁有一定的技巧和公民教育造詣，在缺乏公民教育培訓的情況下，這種方式的效用成疑。此外，綜合課程的模式也多為學校採用，即讓公民教育在學校時間表上出現，通常以公民教育、道德教育、情緒教育、生命教育等為名稱，以價值澄清及批判思考方法在課堂上討論問題。不過這些課程內容廣泛，且多在班主任課中進行，全校的班主任能否掌握這麼多樣教育的知識和技巧已是疑問，況且調查發現，很多教師因工作繁忙，沒有時間去關注時事，更何況大部分班主任未受過正規的公民教育訓練。還有，班主任課的部分時間往往用來處理班務，其效果如何，可想而知。故此，學校可能被迫只集中發展其中某一方面，例如個案訪談顯示甲校強調愛國教育，乙校強調時事，丙校以宗教倫理代之，丁校側重於個人價值觀的成長。不但如此，在這種種的困難下，學校可能被迫較少談及高層次的公民 82 概念，例如人權、政冶。在這情況下，九六年《公民教育指引》提出以人權教育、民主教育、法治教育、環境教育的教學焦點很容易被邊緣化，而學校公民教育就可能會再走回道德化、非政冶化和瑣碎化的情況 (Leung, 1995; Leung & Ng, 2004)。因此，學校需要有一個高層次的公民教育委員會，全面統籌正規課程和非正規課程中公民教育的部分，透過學校各種活動全方位地推行公民教育，確保能全面及均衡地發展公民教育。 4. 公民教育目標和課題九六年《公民教育指引》的目標，大體上以本土出發，進而對國家文化的認同，同時著重價值的培養；其中以「關懷社區、國家、國際關係及人民生活」、「認同和尊重中國文化」和「關注本地社會、公民權利和義務」最為學校認同。可是，研究顯示，教師自身對公民教育的價值取向及教學能力也影響公民教育的目標和內容。還有，學校的背景及辦學宗旨也影響對公民教育的取向，例如愛國學校多側重於中國民族的感情教育，宗教學校則以道德教育為重。在課題方面，從表五顯示，多數學校選取「香港公民的責任與權利」和「家庭的價值觀念」為教授內容，較少採用的課題是「多元化的世界」和「國際組織」的功能，這可以看出香港的教師在推廣公民教育方面較喜歡以本土為重，而關心國際事務則較少。在全球一體化的今天，學校有責任擴闊學生視野，而有關法治及政治參與的課程也須得到注重，以培育學生作為公民的多元身分 (梁恩榮，2003)。因此學校課程設計者，宜多參閱公民教育課程指引，因應學校的資源和學生需要，平均地將各個課題包括在公民教育的正規課程和非正規課程內，才可以設計出一套理想而有系統的課程，否則公民教育只會變得支離破碎。可是，Ng (2000) 的研究顯示，超過一半的教師未曾閱讀公民教育指引，這一點是值得關注的。 5. 公民教育課程改革除了缺乏師資之外，教學資源及專業支援不足也是一大問題，但這些都是技術性問題，教統局和各志願團體及大專院校可以在這方面配合援助。此外，教育政策不夠清晰明確，也使學校在推行公民教育方面倍感困難。由一九八零年的《道德教育指引》，到一九八五年的《公民教育指引》，曾經被批評為公民教育道德化、非政治化和瑣碎化的時代 (Leung, 1995; Leung等，2000；Ng等，2000)。一九九六年的《公民教育指引》是針對以往的弱點和配合回歸時香港學生需要而訂定的文件 (Lee, 1996)，將一些政治觀念和批判思考的價值培養方法納入課程，使學生由本土觀念擴展到對全球公民身分有觸覺和認識。可是，二零零零年的《學會學習》課程改革文件將公民教育與道德教育作同等的歸類 (課程發展議會，2002)，很多在九六年《指引》被認為是重要的概念、價值，例如人權、民主、參與、公義等都被輕輕帶過，甚至隻字不提，取而代之是國民身分對社會及國家的承擔態度等，使公民教育道德化及返回「非政治化」的層面 (Leung 及 Ng, 2004)，對教育學生多元身分的公民教育目標有所抵觸 (梁恩榮，2003)。教統局宜汲取九六年以前模糊不清的公民教育政策的教訓，有需要向學校清楚交代現時公民教育中的政治元素和其在新課程改革中的地位，避免公民教育重蹈覆徹，返回道德化和非政治化的道路。另一方面，在推行公民教育時，教師不應逃避教授「政治概念」的單元及「爭議性」和「敏感性」的課題。結論是次調查結果顯示學校在初中推行公民教育的態度頗積極，相當高比率的學校已設立了公民教育小組 (82.3%, N=181)。不過，一些老問題如校長取向、師資培訓、缺乏教師共識等仍有待解決， 83 香港初中推行公民教育的現況也影響正規和非正規課程的推行模式。Lee (1999) 在研究國際公民教育推行情況時鑑別了公民教育四個範疇，包括 (1) 民主、制度、公民權利和責任； (2) 國民身分； (3) 社會連繫和社會分歧和 (4) 大眾傳媒。本研究顯示，由於香港在二零零零年以後面對新的課程改革，以上的國際公民教育共通的範疇有可能被不清晰的公民教育政策忽略，在邊緣化與道德化的威脅下，公民教育教師應多運用多元的教學方法，以爭議性的事件和政治概念去充實公民教育課堂，藉此提升學生的批判思考能力。參考書目梁大輝、劉修研等 (1994)。《青年勇闖民主路》。香港：基督徒關懷香港學會。教育署輔導視學處 (1997)。學校公民教育回顧 (1985-1996)，《學校公民教育資訊》8，頁1-12。梁恩榮 (2003)。香港公民教育老師的民族教育觀。《基礎教育學報》，第十二卷第二期，頁29-56。陳建強 (1996)。〈香港公民教育的回顧與前膽〉。載劉國強、李瑞全編。《道德與公民教育︰東亞經驗與前膽》。香港︰中文大學香港教育研究所。曾榮光 (1985)。〈剖析《學校公民教育指引》的方向與途徑〉，《中報月刊》，第71期，頁47-52。曾榮光 (1994)。〈非殖民化的公民教育 — 九七以後香港學校公民教育的構思〉《香港中文大學教育學報》，第二十二卷，第二期，頁240。黎國雄 (1998)。〈公民教育新路向〉。《青年研究學報》。第一卷，第一期，頁151-158。課程發展議會 (2002)。基礎教育課程指引︰各盡所能，發揮所長 (小一至中三)。香港︰課程發展議會。 Bray, Mark & Lee, W.O. 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The Chinese University of Hong Kong. 教育及課程改革的思潮下：香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序 Hong Kong Primary Schools Physical Education Panel Chairpersons' Ranking of the Importance of Different Leadership Skills Amid the Climate of Education & Curriculum Reforms 沈劍威、陳運家、夏秀禎香港中文大學摘要香港小學的體育科科主任在教育及課程改革的思潮下，仍然身擔繁重的教學工作及行政職務。本文嘗試探討小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序，從而討論小學體育科科主任應如何於教育及課程改革下，憑著其既有的專業訓練和經驗，配合教育領導技巧的理論，轉化為實用的領導技巧，接受『變』為學校的新文化。關鍵詞教育及課程改革、體育科科主任、領導技巧 Abstract Chairpersons of Physical Education (P.E.) Panels of Hong Kong primary schools, amid the climate of Education and Curriculum Reforms, still bear heavy workload derived from teaching and administration tasks. In this article, we would like to investigate the P.E. panel chairpersons' ranking of the importance of various leadership skills. A discussion of how P. E. Panel chairpersons of primary schools can mingle their received professional training and experiences with the theories of educational leadership skills, so as to transform into practical leadership skills and to accept \"change\" as a new school culture will also be conducted. Keywords Education and Curriculum Reforms, Chairpersons of P. E. panel, Leadership skills 85 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 86 引言香港現正著力於教育及課程改革。根據香港教育制度改革建議(2000)之內容，未來的教育方向及理念著重為生活而學習、終身學習及全人發展。當中希望學生有樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔及敢於創新的特質，而且課程內容更從以往強調知識的灌輸，轉為著重學生如何「學會學習」；從偏重學術，轉為多元化的全人發展；從固有的科目框框，推行整合性的學習領域；從以課本主導，轉而採用多元化教材的學習模式；社會支援教育、教學跑出課室；從學校傳統的上課時間表觀念，轉變為綜合而富彈性地編排學習時間；取消過早分流，為學生提供發展潛能的機會；由傳統技術的傳授，轉為著重認知、情意及技能，以及提升協作能力、溝通能力、創造力和批判性思考能力 (課程發展議會，2002)。現時香港小學體育科科主任不僅教授及統籌體育一科，也同時兼顧一至幾個學科。在當前教育改革下日益繁忙的工作中，小學體育科科主任要掌握各項領導技巧，並按優先次序排序，使教學工作更具成效。九項教育改革的領導技巧以下是根據Reavis & Griffith (1992)九項領導技巧要點的申述： 1. 變革管理的知識 — 當一個團體意識到有變革或新需求時，領導者所需要的知識包括：如何反應、收集訊息、如何準備、提出訴求、如何發展、意見採納、執行、評估及修訂。教改或教育整合的取向是全盤取向的面對轉變，以至如何計畫財政、人事、課程、指導、決策及配合文化。對於改革的行政管理，有時會低估其難度，例如：難改的舊習慣、身心疲累或內外阻力等。所以，身為主張改革或帶領改革的領導者，必須充分把握變革管理的知識及應變的策略。 2. 協作的領導作風 — 與他人合作的領導作風，可以換來高強度的互信及減少危機出現，使變革時，能降低不安及恐懼感。 3. 團隊營造的能力 — 組織與團隊有大不相同的地方。組織只是把人事組合起來或分配到各單位；而團隊則是隊內各人各有職份，各有其工作目標以達成團隊的使命。再者，隊員之間共同承擔責任、互信、互相體會及互相欣賞。變革中的領導者是須要有營造團隊的能力，而非只領導一個組織。 4. 教育的價值 — 越複雜的行政架構，其領導者所考慮的不同價值狀況就更多更廣。例如：財政責任、政治生存、守法精神、公共宣傳、勝負競爭的考慮等。 5. 富道德目的 / 有目的感 — 改革中學校的領導者，應該以學校辦學宗旨為依歸。有教學的遠象及切實執行以最好的教育為出發點的方案或計劃，使教改更有目標感及道德感。 6. 有課程及指導的知識 — 學校行政人員皆為課程及政策之導航者，對於課程改革及指導的知識必須能充份掌握，也能有清晰的工作遠景。他們可以公平地分配工作，而非橡皮圖章，而且深入了解整體教育及課程改革的來龍去脈，就有如交響樂團的總指揮。 7. 有理性及可解釋的據點 — 教改中的領導者須要有目標感及能理性分析變的原由。在混亂或迷茫時，有足夠的導引；對同事及下屬有不屈不撓、堅定不移以及恆久不變的處事理據；於變的過程中提供支援及帶領；訊息下達、決策過程及工作分配能夠達到可靠性、一致性及完整性；當同事或下屬產生疑問或躊躇時，能夠理性地解決問題及作出適 87 教育及課程改革的思潮下：香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序當的支援；又能根據其文化、立場以及角色解釋當中的理據，使同事或下屬得到安撫及協助。 8. 具該文化知識及了解如何改變 — 團體中各成員的感受、各階層運作的模式、文化、傳統以及意識等，皆為教改成敗的重要關鍵。領導者如能掌握自如，作出適當的調適及疏導，便能帶領團隊盡快適應改變。 9. 具觸覺性 — 觸覺性是對人的行為如何影響他人的察覺能力。團體中各成員若有困惑或迷失，如能被領導者及早察覺，以同理心、同情心及支持的心態紓解，便能提高信心和士氣，以及樂於接受改革。香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序香港小學體育科科主任對以上領導技巧的重要性排序與Reavis & Griffith (1992)得出的九項教育的領導技巧重要性排序不盡相同(見下表一)。其次序為： 1.團隊營造的能力； 2.具課程及指導的知識； 3.協作的領導作風； 4.變革管理的知識； 5. 教育的價值； 6.具觸覺性； 7.具該文化知識及了解如何改變； 8.富道德目的 / 有目的感； 9.有理性及可解釋的據點。討論在深入了解香港小學體育科科主任為何對以上九項領導技巧重要性如此排序之前，我們要先對小學學校的行政架構及各科老師的職責有所理解。圖（一）修改自Goggins (1974)的The Dow Corning Matrix的概念，主要表達各成員於組織架構中的功能和專業的平均權力，是持久及平穩和諧的，而且尚有發展空間 (Stoner & Freeman, 1989)。表一 88 圖（一）從圖（一）中，我們不難理解到小學體育老師除任教體育科外，也身兼功能小組的主任或成員，甚至身兼三至四個其他學科的教學工作。在學校的整個團體中，他可能是功能組別的訓導主任，亦同時任教體育、英文及數學等數項科目，也多是一班的班主任。當遇到校內各科或各組會議時，特別是教育改革下的新措施、新的課程內容或試行新的學制，這些體育老師未必能同時間釐定其崗位及角色。碰到重要決定時，更可能忘記體育科在學校課程和教育理念的重要性。因此，在這種境況下，最終受影響的可能是學生。再者，在一項香港小學體育組內部溝通的研究報告中顯示，小學體育組成員的內部溝通現況是有值得改善的空間，而其內部溝通皆遇上某程度上的障礙。增加參與決策的機會、持開放的態度、主動傾聽、縮短溝通距離、運用回饋的方式及增進對組織目標的理解，以上六項訴求皆為參與該研究之小學體育組成員，對改善其內部溝通得出的應有策略 (Sum, 2003)。我們有理由相信，這些小學體育科科主任對於領導技巧最主要排序為「團隊營造的能力」。在繁複的日常行政及教學的工作中，他們要求的是一位可以營造團隊能力的領導人才，目的是可以更加專注於體育學科的發展及策劃，其次是這些領導人才須具備體育課程及指導的知識。體育有別於其他科目，體育是與健康、生理、心理、解剖......等多方面的整合，所以涉及的知識甚廣，也要了解如何滲入及應用在體育課中，對於現今工作繁重的體育老師，實在極富挑戰性。體育在教育及課程改革中不能獨善其身，科目間的合作及各科主任的協作風氣，應是一間好學校及願意接受改革的團體必有的作風。變革管理的知識並 89 教育及課程改革的思潮下：香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序非不重要，在教育及課程改革中，體育老師比其他科老師可能較易適應新政策；因為體育老師的專業師資培訓中，必有牽涉到比賽及競爭的元素，比賽及競爭的環境是多變的，順境時乘勝追擊；逆境時會消化因由，採取對策。其實，對於工作繁重的小學體育老師，他們對教育及課程改革的領導技巧中到底有否教育價值、具該文化知識及了解如何改變、富道德目的或有目的感及觸覺性等，已經大多麻木或不盡消化。他們多考慮到有工作便盡量完成，可能已忽略了變革到底對學生有利與否及富有育人的理念。工作繁重、角色衝突以及行政主導的小學現況，可能是導致小學體育老師減低有理性及可分析的據點的考慮。實施教育改革及新課程顯然是一個敏感的話題，特別是當新課程將會威脅到某些利害關係者及現況時。要學校接受新的體育課程，體育老師必須對家長的關注更為敏感 (Chan & Johns, 1998)。實施教育改革及新課程時，所遇到的困難重重，特別是香港現時出生率下降，各區小學縮班，但師生比率沒有因此下降，甚至某些小學教席變為二人一職。這種種因為財政及經濟環境下的困局，令到改革及新課程下，體育科科主任要有好的領導技巧，實在增添難度。無論怎樣下去，體育科科主任及老師，應有正面的專業態度及行為，盡量避免有負面的想法，有確切的教育改革立場，接受變才是永恆的意識形態。凡事共商合作及確認同事間的貢獻，做一個轉化型的領導者多於一個事務辦理的領導者。有效的改革皆要學校的行政者及各科(體育科)的領導者，能適應政治上、教育哲學上、政府政策上及社會需求上的轉變。辦學團體的成功皆取決於教育行政者是否有能力適應教育的內容、方法及社會思潮的新需求。體育老師的專業訓練，通常是著重於如何教體育，而非管理體育；但他們最後很多都因為機遇、需求或個人喜好，而擔任行政管理工作，以及領導其他體育老師。所以，他們需要在職前及在職期間學習有關領導的工作，而且於教育及課程改革中擔當推動新措施的重要導航者。總結在整體的大氣候中如中國，正如火如荼地推行教育及課程改革，其根本的目的是通過更靈活的課程安排，使學生能建立全面發展的基礎，有利於他們成為富創意、好思考、善解難及能應變的人才（盧乃桂，2002）。教師在改革的過程中扮演著舉足輕重的角色，並強調應該關注他們的專業發展，促進他們在知識、能力、態度和情感等方面的改變（盧乃桂及操太聖，2003）。體育科科主任本身已接受了專業的體育及教育訓練，在教育及課程改革過程中，體育科科主任本身就是一個「動力」。這個動力可以領導學生、同工及學校各階層，甚至家長協助推行改革。經過了由政府及學術單位舉辦的學術會議及工作坊，香港小學體育科科主任已能正面地接受新的體育學習領域課程指引(小一至中三)(Ha et. al, 2003)。態度及理念正面是領導教育及課程改革的先決條件。當領導者能發揮其領導技巧時，加上與學校各階層人士保持足夠的溝通，相信體育科的發展，不只是現在教育改革中八大學習領域的其中一大範疇，亦是未來健康及日常生活的重要部份。體育科科主任應關注自身的專業發展及知識、技能的改進。他們亦應以既有的專業訓練和經驗，了解教育改革中領導技巧的理論，配合轉化型的領導型態，實現團體遠景及目標。體育科能成為八大主要學習領域，皆須要有遠景的領導者，在教育及課程改革的思潮下，能接受及使用多元化的機制，推動各體育科同事接受『變』為學校的新文化。 90 參考書目課程發展議會（2002）。《體育學習領域課程指引（小一至中三）》。香港：香港教育署。教育統籌委員會（2000）。《香港教育制度改革建議；二十一世紀教育藍圖》。香港：香港教育署。盧乃桂 (2002)。基礎教育課程改革對中國內地和香港教師的挑戰。載《教育發展研究》，第4期，頁22-29。盧乃桂、操太聖 (2003)。抗拒與合作：課程改革情境下的教師改變。載《課程、教材、教法》，第1期，頁71-75。 Chan, W. K., & Johns, D. P. (1998). Implementing New Programs: A case of Physical Education, Educational Research Journal, 13(2): 177-95. Goggins, W. C. (1974). How the Multidimensional Structure Works at Dow Corning. Harvard Business Review. January- February. Ha, A. S., Chan, W. K., & Sum, K. W. (2003). A Final Report on Teachers Development Programme - Conferences and Workshops for PE Curriculum Leaders in Primary Schools. Hong Kong: Education and Manpower Bureau. Reavis, A., & Griffith, H. (1992). Restructuring Schools: Theory & Practice. Technomic Publishing Company Inc. Stoner, J. A. F., & Freeman, R. E. (1989). Management. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 4th Edition. 273. Sum, K. W. (2003). Inner Communication Among Primary Schools' Physical Education Teachers. In Ha, A. S., Chan, W. K. and Sum, K. W., A Final Report on Teachers' Development Programme - Conferences and Workshops for PE Curriculum Leaders in Primary Schools. (pp.32-35). Education and Manpower Bureau. Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes CHAN Kam-wing The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract Most in-service teachers find curriculum modules difficult to understand when they are studying for a part-time degree in education. In teaching in-service teachers about curriculum, the author first encountered difficulty in catering for their different needs arising from their diversified backgrounds. The condition gradually improved when cooperative learning was used as the main teaching strategy. In this paper, the author attempts to share his experience of using Jigsaw II to teach in-service teachers. The successful implementation of Jigsaw II is discussed, including skilful handling of participants’ requests, clearing their misunderstanding of the concept of Jigsaw II, and allowing time for the participants to appreciate the beauty of Jigsaw II. 91 BACKGROUND Education in Hong Kong is undergoing a fundamental reform that has sparked off a series of changes at various levels: system, school and classroom. One of the notable changes relates to teachers’ professional development. Teachers are expected to act as curriculum change agents and leaders in school to develop a school-based curriculum that aligns with the new curriculum framework. A variety of measures are taken to support teacher development, such as the provision of curriculum resources and school-based support for curriculum development and creating time and space for teachers (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). These measures are vi ta l to the successful implementation of the curriculum change, and are particularly helpful to those teachers who have not taken curriculum studies in their teacher training. As a major teacher education provider, the Hong Kong Institute of Education is proactive in its programme development and has been offering core modules in curriculum studies since 1994. However, the teaching of curriculum has met with some difficulties. First, student teachers often find curriculum studies a remote subject, especially compared with their major subject. Unlike the major subject, which is a continuation of one of the academic subjects in their secondary education, the subject content of curriculum studies is often perceived as new and hence unfamiliar. Second, it is difficult for student teachers to relate the content of curriculum studies to their own experience, and hence asking them to construct knowledge based on their personal experience is not easy. The scenario discussed above becomes more complicated when we teach curriculum to another group of student teachers - namely the in-service teachers (hereafter called the participants). These participants are serving teachers who have got a qualified teacher status. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 92 They are taking mixed-mode programmes to upgrade their professional qualification to the bachelor’s degree level. Though they all hold a Certificate in Education or Teacher’s Certificate, they differ in their teaching experience. It is not surprising to find both novice and veteran teachers in the same class. Unlike the pre-service student teachers, these participants have certain understanding of the concept of curriculum. They know what the school curriculum is, but may not understand how it came about or why a certain kind of curriculum is adopted. The curriculum modules therefore aim to equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge to reflect on their practice, and to evaluate and design a curriculum that suits their school context. Various methods have been used to teach the participants who are diverse in ability, learning style and teaching experience. These methods include lecturing, individual and group presentation, as well as discussion in pairs, small groups and with the whole class. The discussion method appeals to the majority of the participants as they have something to share and learn from each other. However, a major drawback of the method is that it creates an opportunity for some participants to become “free riders”, especially when the discussion is held in small groups. These free riders share the group outcome, but contribute little to the group. This brings harm not only to the group collegiality, but also to the free riders themselves. For the free riders, the gain is minimal, and they end up losing interest in the module. Indeed, the productivity of the group does not reflect the group size, since “the sum of the whole is less than the potential of the individual members” (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, p.71). As a result, the group becomes a pseudo-learning group in which “the interaction among group members detracts from individual learning without delivering any benefit” (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, p.71). SHARING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGY Apart from sharing with the readers a new teaching strategy, the paper aims to fulfill two objectives: (1)to explore the usefulness of Jigsaw II in in-service teacher education programmes; and (2) to find out ways to enhance the effectiveness of Jigsaw II. Cooperative learning is the instructional practice in which students help each other to learn in small groups towards a common goal (Johnson and Johnson, 1999). Much research has been done over the past thirty years on the use of cooperative learning across age groups, ability levels and cultural backgrounds. The results generally suggest that cooperative learning develops higher-order thinking skills (Mathews et. al, 1995), enhances motivation, improves interpersonal relations (Nastasi & Clements, 1991) and peer relations (Slavin, 1985). Most important, it exploits the diversified abilities of pupils to enhance their cognitive and social performance. Various cooperative learning methods have been developed over the years and put into practice in the classroom. Some of the most extensively researched and widely used methods include Student Teams- Achievement Divisions (STAD), Teams-Games- Tournaments (TGT), Jigsaw II, Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) and Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) (Slavin, 1995). Each of these methods has its own characteristics and relevance to different curriculum areas and students in different key stages of learning. For example, while STAD, TGT and Jigsaw II can be adapted for use across most subjects and grade levels, TAI is specif ically designed for mathematics in Grade 3-6 and CIRC for reading and writing instruction in Grade 2-8. There are some other popular cooperative learning methods, which include 93 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes Group Investigation, Learning Together, Complex Instruction and Structured Dyadic Methods. Jigsaw II The cooperative learning method that I have used to teach curriculum to the participants is Jigsaw II, which was developed by Robert Slavin, having adapted Elliot Aronson’s Jigsaw technique. The implementation of Jigsaw II comprises five steps: (1) reading; (2) expert group discussion; (3) home group reporting; (4) testing; and (5) group recognition. I will give a brief overview of its implementation, followed by an elaboration with examples. Overview First, the materials to be read and learnt are divided into four parts with guiding questions. Each pupil in a group is asked to focus on reading one part of the materials. Upon finishing the reading, pupils from different groups who have read the same part of the materials form an expert group to discuss the materials. After the discussion, the group members go back to their home group reporting what they have discussed in the expert group. After listening to each “expert” in the group, all group members become familiarized with all the four parts of the materials. At the end, testing is performed on individual members to compare their performance. Each group member takes an individual quiz and the score is compared with the base score to calculate the individual improvement score, based on which a group average score is worked out. The group with the highest average group improvement score is given group recognition by getting a group reward. Alternatively, any group which has its average group improvement score reaching a pre-determined level can receive a group reward. Reading Take teaching the topic on models of curriculum design for a 3-hour session as an example. Each participant is given an identical set of materials relevant to the topic, as well as an expert sheet. For groups of four, the expert sheet consists of four questions, each of which focuses on one of the four themes of the reading materials. Every member of the group is responsible for finding answers to one of the questions in the expert sheet from reading the relevant part of the materials. The questions in the expert sheet shown below can be randomly assigned to the group members. 1. What are the features and limitations of Tyler’s model? 2. What are the features and limitations of Wheeler’s model? 3. What are the features and limitations of Walker’s model? 4. What are the features and limitations of Skilbeck’s model? Each participant reads the relevant materials for half an hour. Alternatively, the reading of the materials can be done as homework before the class to save the lesson time, especially when the materials are lengthy. Expert group discussion Participants working on the same question in the expert sheet form an expert group. Four expert groups are thus formed. In order to facilitate the discussion, some guiding questions can be set for each expert group. Each member is encouraged to take notes of what they have discussed so that they can teach their members in their home group after the expert group discussion. Whenever a problem arises, the participants should try to handle it by themselves before seeking help from the teacher. Conflicts should be resolved using appropriate social 94 skills. Depending on the type of questions, group consensus may not be necessary. This step can also take half an hour. Home group reporting Participants in the expert groups go back to their original home group to teach others the things they have discussed. They are reminded to help each other to master the materials as much as possible. After each member has shared his/her expert knowledge with each other, it is useful for the teacher to conduct a short whole class discussion. The purpose of the class discussion is for clearing doubts, if any, as well as for provoking further discussion of the topic. This step may take an hour to one and a half hours to complete. Testing Members of each group take an individual short test after mastering the reading materials. Usually, the test items are in the form of multiple-choice questions. Immediately after the test, members exchange their test papers to mark the answers. The individual test scores are then computed as improvement scores by comparing with the base scores that represent students’ past performance. This step takes about half an hour to complete. Group recognition If the average group improvement score (calculated by adding the total improvement scores of the members of the group and dividing it by the number of members) reaches a predetermined level, each member of the group will be awarded a group reward. The reward may take the form of a certificate or other forms that the group members treasure. Each member of the group gets the same reward, irrespective of their individual performance in the test. The purpose is to strengthen their cooperation. This final step takes 10 minutes to finish. Success of Jigsaw II In the design of Jigsaw II, Slavin has constructed in it four elements which contribute to its success: (1) mixed- ability grouping, (2) individual accountability, (3) group reward; and (4) equal opportunity to success. These four elements will be discussed below with reference to my experience with the participants. Mixed-ability grouping In my class, the participants were carefully assigned to heterogeneous groups in terms of ability, gender and teaching experience, so that each group was a cross- sectional representation of the whole class. Research shows that the performance of low ability students improves in heterogeneous grouping (Webb & Cullian, 1983) because these students receive more elaborated explanations from their high ability peers about the learning materials (Webb, 1992). In the case of high ability students, research shows inconsistent results for their learning outcome. Some research suggests that there is no regression among high ability students (Hooper et. al, 1989); others show that they perform as well in heterogeneous as in homogeneous groups (Nastasi & Clements, 1991; Hooper & Hannafin, 1988). Webb (1992) argues that high ability students learn more in heterogeneous than in homogeneous groups because when giving elaborated explanations to the low ability peers, they reorganize and clarify information in different ways, which enhances the development of their meta-cognition. 95 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes Sometimes, the composition of the group has to be revised slightly to smoothen the implementation. On one occasion, after I had carefully allocated the participants to groups, I noticed a male participant in a group showed no interest to participate in the discussion. I talked with him during the break and found out that he preferred to join his neighbour group in which he had friends of close working relations. He said: I know the merits of learning in a mixed- ability group. I am also using it with my pupils. They seem willing to join the groups that I allocate them to. But as an adult learner, I prefer to work with someone I know. I accepted his request and noticed that in the new group, his performance measured up to his potential. Individual accountability Individual accountability means that the success of a group depends on the individual learning of all the group members (Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1995). Apart from responsibility for one’s own learning, each member has to be responsible for facilitating the learning of the rest of the group. Individual accountability exists when the performance of each individual member is assessed, the results are given back to the individual and the group to compare against a standard of performance, and the member is held responsible by groupmates for contributing his or her fair share to the group’s success (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). As such, individual accountability motivates the group members to help one another to exert maximum effort in the learning process (Slavin, 1995). My experience with the participants revealed that it could be difficult for them to accept the concept of individual accountability. Three participants told me that they could not convince themselves that they should be held responsible for the learning of their group members. They insisted that learning was a personal thing and a person should get what he had paid for. One of the participants remarked: It sounds strange to me that one has to be held accountable for others’ learning. If a person does not want to learn, he should bear the consequence, but not the members of his group. Another participant reiterated: It’s already very good if everyone can be responsible for their own learning. It will be difficult, if not impossible, to go further to ask them to be responsible for each other’s learning. I respected their views and let each of them form a ‘one-man group’. They read the whole set of materials and were responsible for their own learning. After four weeks, one of them changed his mind and asked me to let him join one of the groups. Group reward Individual accountability can be fostered by the effective use of group reward based on individual performance (Slavin, 1987). As members know that for each to get a group reward, the performance of the group, which is determined by the sum of each member’s improvement score, must reach an expected level. This extrinsic reward motivates them to learn hard for themselves, as well as to help each other to learn well. With other things being equal, group reward and individual accountability enhance the achievement outcomes of cooperative learning (Slavin, 1995). At first, the participants in my class were interested in receiving a group reward as recognition of their cooperative effort. I gave each member a certificate that I designed . After several times, they were not interested 96 in the group reward, though I attempted to change the form of the reward each time. Nevertheless, they still made effort to learn hard for themselves and to help each other to learn. They told me that they were intrinsically motivated as they had really learnt something and experienced enjoyment in the process of learning. One of the participants commented: Experiencing success in learning itself is an effective reinforcer. I don’t think I need any extrinsic reward unless it is very attractive, like a scholarship or a free trip overseas. Equal opportunity to success Jigsaw II uses improvement scores instead of test scores for computing the group score. If test scores are used, members of low ability will be perceived as a burden to the group as it is impossible for them to get as high test scores as those of brighter members. It is unlikely that they will see themselves giving as much contribution to the group as other members. With improvement scores, members of different ability are given an equal opportunity to earn points towards the group score so long as they make improvement over their past performance, irrespective of their actual score. The only rival is the self while the other members of the group are friends. Two of the participants sent me an email saying that they thought it was unfair that their performance could be influenced by other members of their group. One of them wrote: No one wants a member of low ability in their group as the group score will be dragged down. It is evident that the participants do not understand that each member can contribute as much to the group as the other, irrespective of their ability. I explained to them that the influence could be positive and negative. Sometimes, the group got a good score mainly because of the improvement made by the other members of the group. Moreover, this kind of assessment is formative and could only help them learn better. In no circumstances would the group score be counted towards the summative assessment of individual participant. CONCLUSION Various overseas studies have suggested that Jigsaw II as a method of cooperative learning can be effectively used across most subjects and grade levels. It not only enhances the motivation and performance of students, but also develops their social skills for group work. From my experience, Jigsaw II can also be successfully employed to teach curriculum studies, a brand new subject, to the local in-service teachers of diversified backgrounds. Nevertheless, the tutor has to be cautious in handling individual participants’ needs and interest. It is suggested that the tutor should exercise a certain degree of flexibility in structuring heterogeneous groups so that the members can learn from each other in a collegial atmosphere. Learning in cooperative groups may not appeal to every learner. If an adult learner prefers to learn alone, there is no reason why he/she should be forced to learn in a group, unless his/her mindset of learning has been changed. It is suggested that before cooperative learning is employed in the classroom, the tutor should conduct some problem- solving activities with the participants that require a different mindset so that they will be less resistant to the idea of cooperative learning. To conclude, for successful implementation of Jigsaw II, the tutor has to handle the participants’ requests skilfully (e.g. grouping) and make sure that participants have a clear understanding of each step of the method. Finally, the tutor has to allow time for the participants to appreciate the concept of learning together. 97 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes References Curriculum Development Council (2001). Learning to Learn: Life-long Learning and Whole-person Development. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Hooper, S., & Hannafin, M.J. (1988). Cooperative CBI: The Effects of Heterogeneous versus Homogeneous Grouping on the Learning of Progressively Complex Concepts. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 4(4), 413-424. Hooper, S., Ward, T.J., Hannafin, M.J., & Clark, H.T. (1989). The Effects of Aptitude Comprehension on Achievement during Small Group Learning. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 16(3), 102-109. Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (1989). Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, MN: Interaction. Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1999). Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning. (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Mathews, R.S., Cooper, J.L., Davidson, N., & Hawkes, P. (1995). Build Bridges between Cooperative and Collaborative Learning. Change, 4, 35-40. Nastasi, B.K., & Clements, D.H. (1991). Research on Cooperative Learning: Implications for Practice. School Psychology Review, 20, 110-131. Slavin, R.E. (1985). An Introduction to Cooperative Learning Research. In R. Slavin, S. Sharan, S. Kagan, R.H. Lazarowitz, C. Webb, & Schmuck (Eds.), Learning to Cooperate, Cooperativing to Learn (pp. 5-15). New York: Plenum. Slavin, R.E. (1987). Ability Grouping and Student Achievement in Elementary Schools: A Best-evidence Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 57, 293-336. Slavin, R.E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research and Practice. (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Webb, N. (1992). Testing a Theoretical Model of Student Interaction and Learning in Small Groups. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz Miller (Eds.). Introduction in Cooperative Groups: the Theoretical Anatomy of Group Learning. (pp. 102-119). New York: Cambridge University Press. Webb, N., & Cullian, L.K. (1983). Group Interaction and Achievement in Small Groups: Suitability over Time. American Educational Research Journal, 20(3), 389-397. 98 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers CHIANG Kwun-Man, Ken Tin Ka Ping Secondary School Abstract Most teachers believe that providing students with effective feedback on their writing is vital as it helps students to correct their own mistakes and be more independent writers, which will in turn train them to become better writers. However, some research studies on the effectiveness of teacher feedback on ESL students’ writing report a grim picture (Hendrickson, 1980; Semke, 1984; Robb et. al, 1986; Truscott, 1996) as teachers’ feedback does not seem helpful for students to improve their writing. This paper presents the results of a classroom research study that examines factors that affect the effectiveness of teacher feedback by analyzing students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback on their writing. It is suggested that the ineffectiveness of teacher feedback may not lie in the feedback itself, but in the way how feedback is delivered to students. The study also provides several implications for teachers when giving effective feedback to students. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Teaching writing is one of the most difficult tasks for ESL teachers as it involves various processes which require teachers to devote a lot of time to helping students write better. Teachers in Hong Kong spend a great deal of time in the post-writing process because most of them are required to grade students’ compositions in detail. It is especially time-consuming when the compositions are badly written and organized. Apart from focusing on teaching students how to actually write good compositions, most teachers believe giving effective feedback is an alternative way to train students to become better writers because it helps students to correct their own mistakes and be independent writers. However, some research studies on the effectiveness of teacher feedback on ESL students’ writing report a grim picture (Hendrickson, 1980; Semke, 1984; Robb et. al, 1986; Truscott, 1996) as teachers’ feedback does not seem helpful for students to improve their writing. As an English teacher, I am interested in finding out to what extent the tremendous work English teachers have been doing is useful to students. Therefore, I decided to conduct a classroom research study to examine students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback in order to get a clearer picture as to how effective teacher feedback could be given. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 99 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Definition of Teacher Feedback Teacher feedback can comprise both content and form feedback. Content refers to comments on organization, ideas and amount of detail, while form involves comments on grammar and mechanics errors (Fathman & Whalley, 1990). In the present study, teacher feedback is defined as any input provided by the teacher to students for revision (Keh, 1990), and this includes both content and form. Research into Teacher Feedback on Student Writing Investigations into teacher feedback have included studies examining the effectiveness of teacher feedback (Fathman & Whalley, 1990; Kepner, 1991; Zamel, 1985; Truscott, 1996) and examining student preferences and reactions towards teacher feedback (Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994, 1996; Leki, 1991). There are also studies examining the effectiveness of teacher feedback through the comparison of peer feedback (Connor & Asenavage, 1994; Zhang, 1995). Although the effectiveness of teacher feedback has been examined in different ways, the findings have not been conclusive. In Zhang’s (1995) study, students highly valued their teacher’s feedback and corrections. Leki’s (1991) study also demonstrated that students found error feedback very important and they demanded to have their errors corrected by their teachers. However, Truscott (1996) proposed that error correction should be abandoned. He argued that direct correction is not useful for students’ development in accuracy and that grammar correction would bring about harmful effects on both teachers and students. While teachers would waste their time and effort in making grammar corrections, students would be demotivated by the frustration of their errors. He also introduced the notion that the absence of error correction would not contribute to fossilization of errors. Apart from the disagreement on error feedback, there are mixed views on giving feedback as regards grammar and content. Zamel (1985) suggested teachers should avoid mixing comments on content and grammatical corrections in the same drafts while it was argued that a combination of both content and grammar feedback will not overburden students but help them with their writing (Ashwell, 2000; Fathman & Whalley, 1990). THE STUDY Owing to the lack of consensus on the effectiveness of teacher feedback, this study aims to gain more insights into giving effective feedback by asking what students think, want and do after they receive teacher feedback. As most of the past studies have pursued the inquiry of teacher feedback in two general ways, namely students’ preferences for teacher feedback (Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994; Leki, 1991), and students’ responses to teacher feedback (Cohen, 1987; Ferris, 1995), this study follows the similar traits and attempts to find out how students perceive teacher feedback, what they are concerned about, and what they do after receiving teacher feedback. In addition, from my observation, students of junior forms and senior forms tend to respond differently to teachers’ feedback, and this affects how they correct their errors. Thus, in the present study, I also examine what teachers need to pay attention to when they give feedback to students of lower and higher proficiency level. In other words, I explore the following research questions: 1. What are the students’ preferences for teacher feedback? 100 2. What are the students’ responses to teacher feedback? 3. Are there any differences in the preferences for and responses to teacher feedback between junior and senior form students? 4. Are there any implications for the teacher to provide more effective teacher feedback? Subject The subjects were 15 Form 7 students and 15 Form 2 students of a secondary school in Hong Kong. The students volunteered to help the teacher to conduct the study concerning their writing. The students, who took part in the study, had been taught by the teacher for one and a half year and half a year respectively. In the writing classes, the usual practice was that the students wrote the first drafts for peer editing before they submitted the final products to the teacher. The teacher then read the final products and wrote error feedback and feedback on content and organization on the compositions. The students were required to do corrections by revising the compositions at home and submit their revised compositions. The students were taught the correction codes that the teacher used for error feedback at the beginning of the academic year. They were also given a checklist of correction codes to refer to when doing corrections. Questionnaire Survey The questionnaire is adapted from the ones used in Ferris’s study (1995) that investigated students’ reactions to teacher feedback in multiple-draft compositions and Leki’s (1991) research on the preferences of ESL students for error correction. However, since the objective of this study aims at investigating students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback, some questions were modified. Questions 3-6, 7-10 were set to examine students’ responses to teacher feedback, while question 5 aimed to look into students’ preferences for teacher feedback (See Appendix 1). Adjustment Because half of the subjects were Form 2 students, they might not be able to understand some of the terminology in the questionnaires. In order to ensure their understanding of the questions, the teacher explained the terms in the questionnaires explicitly. The teacher was also present when the junior form students did the questionnaires so that they could ask questions directly. Interviews While the questionnaires would provide quantitative information of the study, in-depth interviews were conducted to obtain qualitative data. The interviews were conducted to look into the issues that could not be clearly addressed from the findings of the questionnaires. Three of the students who had completed the questionnaires were randomly selected and interviewed. The interviews were conducted in Cantonese and aimed to find out what students think of teacher feedback, and what in detail they do with teacher feedback. The core dimensions explored were as follows: • Do you like teacher feedback? Why and why not? • Do you think that teacher feedback is useful for you to improve your writing? Why and why not? • Which aspect of teacher feedback do you pay most attention to? Why? • What do you usually do after you receive teacher feedback on your composition? Why? • What is the biggest problem for you to make use of teacher feedback? Why? 101 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Questionnaire Results In the study, Question 6a, 6b, 6c and 6d aimed to look into students’ preferences for teacher feedback. When asked how important it was for their English teachers to give them feedback, the majority of the students answered that it was either very important or quite important. In finding out how they perceived teacher feedback in different aspects, 83.4% (See Table 1) and 80% (See Table 2) of the students thought that feedback on grammar and vocabulary was very important and quite important, but a smaller percentage of the subjects expressed the same view on organization ( 56.7 % ) (See Table 3) and content (53.4%) (See Table 4). Table 1 Q6c: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on grammar? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 40% 53.3% 46.7% Quite important 33.3% 40% 36.7% Okay 26.7% 6.7% 16.7% Not important 0% 0% 0% Table 2 Q6d: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on vocabulary? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 33.3% 33.3% 33.3% Quite important 46.7% 46.7% 46.7% Okay 20% 20% 20% Not important 0% 0% 0% Table 3 Q6a: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on organization? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 13.3% 26.7% 20% Quite important 20% 53.3% 36.7% Okay 60% 20% 40% Not important 6.7% 0% 3.3% Table 4 Q6b: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on content? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 33.3% 20% 26.7% Quite important 13.3% 40% 26.7% Okay 46.7% 40% 43.3% Not important 6.7% 0% 3.3% 102 Questions 5a, 5b, 5c, and 5d examined more closely what kinds of feedback the subjects paid more attention to. Similar to the findings of Question 6, the subjects paid more attention to feedback involving grammar (23.3% Always; 46.7% Usually) and vocabulary (13.3% Always; 40% Usually) when compared to feedback related to organization (6.7% Always; 33.3% Usually) and content (13.3% Always; 36.7% Usually). It was anticipated that the junior form students would pay more attention to grammar; however, it was, unexpectedly, found that the senior form students paid more attention to feedback on grammar than organization and content (See Table 7-10). It was found that both junior and senior forms students had the tendency to view feedback on grammar and vocabulary as more important, showing that they valued feedback on surface errors more than macro- level or semantic errors. As indicated above, the majority of the subjects expressed that teacher feedback was important to them. However, interestingly, when asked how often they read over their composition again after their teachers returned it to them, only 13.3% and 10 % of them indicated they would “always” and “usually” do it. 50% of the subjects even said they did not do it very often. Surprisingly, when looking at how differently junior and senior form students responded to the question, 73.3 % of the senior form students responded that they did not read over their composition very often while only 26.7% of the junior form students said they did so (See Table 5). Table 5 Q3. How often do you read over your composition? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 20% 6.7% 13.3% Usually 20% 0% 10% Sometimes 26.7% 20% 23.3% Not very often 26.7% 73.3% 50% Never 6.7% 0% 0% Table 6 Q4. How often do you think about your teacher’s comments and corrections carefully? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 13.3% 13.3% 13.3% Usually 53.3% 40% 46.7% Sometimes 20% 46.7% 33.3% Not very often 13.3% 0% 6.7% Never 0% 0% 0% 103 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Table 7 Q5a. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving organization? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 13.3% 0% 6.7% Usually 40% 26.7% 33.3% Sometimes 33.3% 73.3% 53.3% Not very often 13.3% 0% 6.7% Never 0% 0% 0% Table 8 Q5b. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving content/ideas? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 26.7% 0% 13.3% Usually 20% 53.3% 36.7% Sometimes 53.3% 33.3% 43.3% Not very often 0% 13.3% 6.7% Never 0% 0% 0% Table 9 Q5c. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving grammar? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 20% 26.7% 23.3% Usually 46.7% 46.7% 46.7% Sometimes 26.7% 26.7% 26.7% Not very often 6.7% 0% 3.3% Never 0% 0% 0% Table 10 Q5d. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving vocabulary? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 0% 26.7% 13.3% Usually 40% 40% 40% Sometimes 40% 20% 30% Not very often 20% 13.3% 16.7% Never 0% 0% 0% 104 Table 11 Question 8: Are there ever any comments or corrections that you F.2 F.7 Average do not understand? Percentage 1. No 13.3% 20% 16.7% 2. Yes 26.7% 6.7% 16.7% 3. Yes; I can’t read teacher’s handwriting 46.7% 20% 33.3% 4. Yes; I understand but sometimes disagree with the comments 33.3% 26.7% 30% 5. Yes; I don’t understand grammar items, and symbols 40% 46.7% 43.3% 6. Yes; I don’t understand the comments about ideas or organization 0% 26.7% 13.3% 7. Yes; comments are too general 20% 13.3% 16.7% 8. Yes; others 0% 0% 0% Questions 7 and 9 aimed to explore the subjects’ responses to teacher feedback and their responses to the comments and corrections that they did not understand respectively. The findings show that most of the subjects responded to their teacher’s feedback by using different strategies. The most common practices of the students included making corrections (70%), and remembering the mistakes (70%). They also asked their classmates (66.7%) and teacher (43.3%), checked dictionaries (46.7%), and checked grammar books (20%). When comparing what the junior and senior forms students did to address teacher feedback, it was found that the senior form students tended to be more independent (e.g. remembering the mistakes and checking dictionaries) while the junior form students tended to depend more on the others (e.g. classmates and teachers). When asking what they would do when they did not understand teacher’s feedback, the subjects expressed they would mainly ask classmates or friends (60%), ask teachers (36.7%), and try to correct the mistakes themselves (36.7%). Overall speaking, the students would only employ very limited strategies to address teacher feedback. It seems that there is still much room for improvement in this aspect. Question 8 attempted to examine if students had difficulties understanding teacher feedback and what the difficulties were. 83.3% of the students expressed that they had problems understanding their teacher’s comments. The most common problems they had included: (a) they did not understand the correction codes and symbols (43.3%), (b) they could not see their teachers’ handwriting (33.3%), and (c) they did not agree with their teachers’ comments (30%). The findings do not show that there are significant differences in the problems encountered by the junior and senior forms students, but a higher percentage of the junior form students had difficulties understanding their teacher’s handwriting, while more senior form students did not understand their teacher’s comments about ideas and organization (See Table 11). 105 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Question 10 examined whether the students felt teacher feedback was helpful and the reasons behind their answers. Although only a small percentage of the subjects expressed that teacher feedback was not helpful (See Table 12), not many subjects thought that their teacher’s feedback could help them, either. Most of the students thought teacher feedback was helpful because they could avoid their mistakes (46.7%) and they would know where their mistakes were (63.3%). It seems that the students felt their teacher’s feedback was more effective in helpful them deal with surface errors than global or semantic errors. Table 12 Question 10: Do you feel that your teacher’s comments and F.2 F.7 Average corrections help you to improve your writing skills? Percentage 1. No; I need more help to correct my errors 20% 6.7% 13.3% 2. No; my teacher’s comments are too negative and discouraging 20% 0% 10% 3. No; my teacher’s comments are too general 13.3% 6.7% 10% 4. No; others 0% 6.7% 3.3% 5. Yes; I know what to avoid/improve next time 33.3% 60% 46.7% 6. Yes; I know where my mistakes are 60% 66.7% 63.3% 7. Yes; the comments help me to improve my writing skills 20% 46.7% 33.3% 8. Yes; the comments help me to think more clearly 26.7% 33.3% 30% 9. Yes; some positive comments build up my confidence 13.3% 46.7% 30% 10. Yes; I can see my progress because of the comments 6.7% 26.7% 16.7% 11. Yes; I respect my teacher’s opinion 20% 46.7% 33.3% 12. Yes; the comments challenge me to try new things 20% 13.3 % 16.7% 13. Yes; others 0% 0% 0% Interview Results In the interviews, all the subjects expressed that teacher feedback was important; however, they did not read over their composition again very often. One of the subjects responded that she felt frustrated and bored reading her compositions over and over again as they were the same old mistakes. Another subject expressed that reading the compositions again did not help her very much because she did not fully understand the comments and corrections. She even said although she could make corrections, sometimes she did not understand why the corrections were right. This shows that their teacher’s comments and corrections failed to help them internalize the knowledge and skills involved in their writing. In short, they could not learn effectively from the corrections or feedback. All the interviewees indicated that feedback on grammar was more important than content and organization in their questionnaires. However, interestingly, when they were asked to think about what kinds of feedback were more important to them in the interviews, all of them expressed the view that comments on content and organization were more important. When they were asked to reflect clearly on why there were differences in their answers, they came up with two reasons. One of them was that they thought 106 grammatical mistakes would hinder them from expressing what they wanted to convey. Another one was that their English teachers in their junior and senior forms had been emphasizing grammar was the most important element. This thus affected the way they viewed grammar. They were also asked what kinds of teacher feedback they paid more attention to and all of them said they paid more attention to grammar. When asked why they would do so, they expressed that their teacher’s feedback mainly focused on this linguistic aspect. They said they would pay attention to comments involving content and organization, but their teacher’s feedback in these areas was usually very general. They pointed out that most comments related to content and organization were non-specific, such as “your ideas are not very organized”, “this point is not clear” and the teacher did not give clear explanations. They found it unhelpful to their improvement in content and organization, and so they did not pay much attention to it. Since their teacher’s comments focused more on grammar, they paid more attention to grammar in return. When asked what their problems were when they read their teacher’s feedback, the interviewees expressed three main problems: a) they did not agree with their teacher’s comments because they thought that their teacher misunderstood what they wrote, b) they did not understand their teacher’s comments as they were too general and lacked explanations, c) they did not understand the grammar terms and correction codes. When they were asked to what extent they were familiar with the correction codes, they said that they only understood some basic codes, such as tenses, and prepositions. When asked why they did not understand the codes, they expressed that they had never been explicitly taught what the correction codes referred to. What they had was just a checklist of correction codes on the composition sheets. Worse still, they said different teachers tended to use different codes, and sometimes the codes had never been explained to them clearly. When asked whether they felt teacher feedback was helpful, all of them responded that it helped them to avoid and make surface-level mistakes. Again, they explained the reason why teacher feedback did not help much with content and organization was that it tended to be too general. The researcher ended the interview by asking what they hoped teacher feedback would be like. All of them hoped that the teacher would point out their weaknesses and strengths in their compositions. They expressed that teachers tended to give negative comments and a lot of corrections, which was very discouraging and frustrating. Although they did not indicate that their teacher’s comments were too negative and discouraging in their questionnaires, their responses in the interviews show teachers need to pay attention to affective factors when giving feedback. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING The results of the study indicate that there are several issues writing teachers need to be aware of. In the following, these issues will be addressed and their implications for teaching will be discussed. The results of the study show that the students did not pay as much attention as they should when compared to how much they valued their teacher feedback. It is contended that there are some plausible reasons for such a contradictory picture. First, it is suggested that the students’ teacher has been over-emphasizing grammatical feedback. However, the linguistic feedback has failed to help the students to internalize their linguistic knowledge effectively, so the students do not read over their compositions with feedback carefully. Second, the 107 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers students felt frustrated because they found that they made the same grammatical mistakes again and again, so they would skip the corrections in frustration. In other words, it is plausible that the students may be familiar with the mistakes they have made but they cannot learn from the mistakes or master the linguistic knowledge involved. This may explain why more senior form students tended to read over their compositions less often as they thought they knew the mistakes. This also explains a common phenomenon that teachers keep giving linguistic feedback, but at the same time, they complain that their students keep making the same mistakes. The issue arising from the above contradictory picture boils down to another question: Why do students fail to learn from their teacher’s linguistic feedback? To investigate why linguistic feedback is not effective, the way that linguistic feedback is given comes into play. In Hong Kong, most teachers employ corrections codes or editing symbols to give linguistic feedback, and this is actually most teachers’ usual practice (Bates et. al, 1993). However, research has shown that some techniques may not be as effective as teachers think. The study carried out by Ferris et. al (2000) shows that students who received coded error feedback after a semester did not outperform those who only receive error feedback that was underlined. Likewise, it is found in other studies that giving students coded indirect feedback cannot bring about immediate advantage (Ferris et. al, 2000; Robb et. al, 1986). What’s more, it is contended that “written error corrections combined with explicit rule reminders ..... is ineffective in improving students’ accuracy or the quality of ideas” (Kepner, 1991, p.310). Despite the above f indings, it is too early to conclude that students do not benefit from feedback with correction codes or editing symbols at all. It is believed that there are some reasons for the failure to learn from corrections. First, it is possible that students may not be able to understand the grammatical rules and metalinguistic terms that the teachers use, even though they are provided as cues (Ferris, 1995; Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Lee, 1997). Second, students basically do not have adequate linguistic and pragmatic knowledge for error correction (Ferris et. al, 1997). Third, the use of coded feedback “may not give adequate input to produce the reflection and cognitive engagement that helps students to acquire linguistic structures and reduce errors over time” (Ferris & Roberts, 2001, p. 177). It could also be that students are overwhelmed and confused by the large number of correction codes. Under such circumstances, the problem of failure to learn from corrections may not lie in the use of correction codes and editing symbols, but in the way they are implemented in the classroom. Teachers, thus, need to employ different strategies to rectify the situation. Firstly, it is important that error feedback given with a marking code be handled very carefully, especially when the marking codes are grammar-based (Lee, 1997). To make full use of the marking codes, teachers need to ensure that students are clear about the grammar rules involved and that metalanguage used is shared between teachers and students. The use of terminology also needs to be reconceptualized in case students have difficulty understanding it. Teachers then may need to come up with a list of correction codes that students can manage and make better use of. This, on the one hand, can help teachers cater for the needs of students of various forms and different proficiency levels more appropriately. On the other hand, this avoids causing students to become demotivated in reading and learning from the marked compositions. In addition, students are usually taught by different English teachers throughout the secondary school years and different teachers may use different methods to give error feedback. Therefore, teachers should not presuppose that 108 students understand the codes or symbols they use or that they are able to learn from the codes or corrections by themselves. Instead, teachers need to teach them explicitly and provide students with ample practice until they can master the metalinguistic terms and knowledge to understand the corrections. As suggested by (Ferris & Roberts, 2001), students will be able to develop accuracy if a system of marking codes is used consistently throughout the term and their knowledge about the system is reinforced through lessons. It is also recommended that students should be taught metacognitive strategies to deal with linguistic feedback. It is found that the subjects did respond to their teacher’s feedback, but they seldom made use of dictionaries and grammar books to deal with the feedback that they did not understand. Teaching metacognitive strategies will let students know that there are other ways to learn from feedback and that they are responsible for their own learning to a certain extent. It can also promote autonomous learning. In this study, it was revealed that the students did value teacher feedback, but they had diff iculty in making use of the feedback. It is supported by the students’ answers in the questionnaires and interviews that they had problems understanding their teacher’s feedback because of misunderstandings between them and their teacher. Various research studies have in fact indicated (e.g. Ferris, 1995) that students do encounter problems in understanding their teacher comments because the instructions or directions are not clear. Ferris & Hedgcock (1998) gave an example illustrating that students may fail to interpret a teacher’s question as a suggestion or request for information, and it is not surprising to find that students ignore it when they do revision. It is, therefore, suggested that teachers should explain their responding behaviour to their students (Zamel, 1985). They should spend time specifically on explaining “their overall philosophy of responding (as well as specific strategies and/or symbols or terminology used) to the students” (Ferris, 1995, p.49). Teachers should also promote class discussions on response and encourage students to read and ask questions about the feedback given by them. It is especially helpful for students, such as students in Hong Kong and China, who feel that they should not challenge teachers’ authority though they disagree or do not understand the comments given by teachers (Ferris, 1995). This idea is also supported by Hyland (1998), who suggests that a fuller dialogue is needed in order to avoid miscommunication between teachers and students. This kind of dialogue is highly recommended to be extended in teacher-student conferencing, which “is a face-to-face conversation between the teacher and student..” (Reid, 1993, p. 220). As it has long been pointed out that miscommunication imposes difficulty on students and teachers approaching revision and giving feedback, teacher conferencing is a good opportunity for both of them. It helps students and teachers understand each other’s expectation concerning feedback. It also helps teachers understand more about the students’ perspective, past learning experience (Hyland, 1998), which will enable them to give better and more personalized feedback to individual students more effectively. Based on the research findings, it is recommended that teacher-student conferencing is more important for senior form students, as there is a higher percentage of the senior form students who complained that they did not understand or disagreed with their teacher’s comments. The senior form students are of a higher proficiency level, and they need more sophisticated skills to write their compositions. Teachers, thus, need to give more feedback to help them with their writing, and exchange of ideas will certainly be more necessary. Teacher-student conferencing is a good opportunity for students and teachers to exchange their 109 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers ideas. However, there are numerous constraints in reality that make it difficult to carry this out because teachers may not have time to conduct conferencing with every student after every composition. To address this problem, teachers need to pay close attention to students who exhibit diff iculties in making use of teacher feedback. They can conduct editing workshops or post- writing grammar clinics with those particular students, so as to demonstrate an instructional approach that fosters closer links between feedback and grammar instruction. It is apparent from the findings of the study that the students did want to learn from the comments, but because the comments involving content and organization were not specific enough to help them improve their writing, the students did not read over their compositions with care. It has been pointed out that vague comments should be replaced with text-specif ic comments (Fathman’s & Whalley’s, 1990; Zamel, 1985) - “feedback that is directly related to the text at hand, rather than generic comments that could be attached to any paper” (Ferris & Hedgcock, 1998, p. 133). The example given by Bates (1993) is that it is preferable for teachers to write down “I like the example about your sister” than “Good example”. Fathman and Whalley (1990) contended that the reason why students did not make substantive revision on content is that the content feedback given by teachers was not text-specific enough. Therefore, teachers should avoid giving vague comments if they want students to make use of their comments to improve their writing. In order to let students better understand how they can improve their writing, Lee (2002) suggested vague comments like ‘the text doesn’t hang together’ could be replaced by specific comments like ‘inappropriate conjunctions’ or ‘unclear reference’. By doing this, teachers will need to share the metalanguage they use when giving feedback to students who can then make use of the comments to revise and improve their writing. Apart from the above issues, another problem in teacher feedback in the present study seems to lie in the over-emphasis of grammar. A great number of the students thought that feedback on grammar was the most important and they usually paid more attention to linguistic feedback. Nevertheless, the students realized that feedback involving content and organization was more important when they give it second thoughts in the interviews. Their reaction to linguistic feedback seems to be subconscious. It may reflect that their perceptions towards linguistic feedback was affected by the priority of their teacher’s response to writing. It has long been said that teachers of writing are more concerned with providing error feedback and sentence-level feedback than other important elements (Cumming, 1985; Kassen, 1988; Idhe, 1994). It is not surprising to infer that the students’ teacher in this study also focused more on local errors. If this is the case, it reveals that is important for teachers to reprioritize their responses so as not to give their students a false message that feedback on local errors is more important than global ones. Leki (1992) suggested teachers pay more attention to global than local errors, as global errors have a greater impact on understanding. This is in line with the idea of Lee (1997), who recommends teachers to focus on more meaning errors than surface-level errors. Although students do express that they want all of their errors to be corrected (Leki, 1991; Ferris et. al, 2000; Ferris & Roberts, 2001), it may sound necessary for teachers to prioritize the errors that their students need to focus on most (Lee, 1997). In addition, in the interviews, the students shared that they felt discouraged when they received too much negative feedback, which would adversely affect how they read over teacher feedback. Therefore, it is essential 110 for teachers to take affective factors into account when giving feedback. Fathman & Whalley (1990) suggested that even general positive comments and suggestions help students improve their writing through revision. However, a study carried out by Cardelle & Corno (1981) finds that only positive comment is not sufficient enough to motivate students to improve their writing. While criticism only can lead to some improvement, it is reported that the most effective way is a combination of praise and criticism. Teachers, thus, are reminded that when giving constructive criticism, it is also important to place encouraging comments as well. However, teachers in Hong Kong may have to pay more attention to giving positive comments, as it is found that “students may distrust praise if it is not frequently given in their own culture” (Hyland, 1998, p. 280), and “too much praise may confuse, mislead, or demotivate students” (Cardelle & Corno, 1981). This alerts Hong Kong teachers on how and when to give positive comments to students. Teachers should look into the role of affective factors in giving teacher feedback and understand more about their students’ world before they give positive and negative comments. CONCLUSION This study aimed to investigate both Hong Kong students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback and the differences between junior form and senior form students. Although there are very few observations made on the different behaviors among the senior and junior forms students, the study has provided some insights into giving effective feedback in the Hong Kong context. There is quite a lot of literature from research done on giving feedback on error, but one big limitation is that most of the studies did not last long enough to prove how students benefited from teacher feedback. More longitudinal studies are needed to find out how teacher feedback can help students understand and internalize what they have been provided and taught, and how this can help them to produce better quality writing. In addition, being an EFL teacher, what concerns me is that the factors involved in teaching writing in an ESL and EFL context are very different, not to mention the biggest difference in the purposes for writing for EFL and ESL students. It is hoped that more research can be conducted in an EFL setting so as to provide EFL teachers with more insights into giving effective feedback. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Kitty Purgason and Dr. John Liang of Biola University for their valuable comments that helped me shape this paper, and Dr. Icy Lee and Ms Deborah Ison for reading and commenting on the later versions of the paper. 111 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Questionnaire Survey 1. Form 2. Sex : 3. How often do you read over your composition again when your teacher returns it to you? always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 4. Do you think about the teacher’s comments and corrections carefully? always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 5. Do you pay attention to the comments and corrections involving: a. Organization always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 b. Content/Ideas always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 c. Grammar always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 d. Vocabulary always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 e. Mechanics (e.g. punctuation, spelling) always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 6. How important is it to you for your English teacher to give you comments on : a. Organization Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 b. Content/Ideas Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 Appendix 1 112 c. Grammar Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 d. Vocabulary Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 e. Mechanics (e.g. punctuation, spelling ) Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 7. Describe what you do after you read your teacher’s comments and corrections (check all the things which you do) Ask teacher for help Make corrections myself Ask classmates for help Check a grammar book Think about/remember mistakes Check a dictionary Nothing Others: 8. Are there ever any comments or corrections that you do not understand? If so, What is the reason? No (Please go to question 10) Yes; Yes; I can’t read teacher’s handwriting Yes; I sometimes disagree with the comments Yes; I don’t understand grammar terms, abbreviations, and symbols Yes; I don’t understand the comments about ideas or organization Yes; comments are too general Yes; others 9. What do you do about those comments or corrections that you do not understand? Nothing Ask my teacher to explain them Look corrections up in a grammar book or dictionary Ask classmates/friends/family for help Try to make the correction regardless of whether I understand or not Others 113 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers 10. Do you feel that your teacher’s comments and corrections help you to improve your composition writing skills? Why or why not? No; I need more help to correct my errors No; my teacher’s comments are too negative and discouraging No; my teacher’s comments are too general No; others Yes; I know what to avoid/improve next time Yes; I know where my mistakes are Yes; the comments help me to improve my writing skills Yes; the comments help me to think more clearly Yes; some positive comments build my confidence Yes; I can see my progress because of the comments Yes; I respect my teacher’s opinion Yes; the comments challenges me to try new things Yes; others N.B. Questions 3-5, 7-10 by (Ferris, 1995:45, 53) Question 6 by (Leki, 1991;213) 114 References Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of Teacher Response to Student Writing in a Multiple-draft Composition Classroom: Is Content Feedback Followed by Form Feedback the Best Method? Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(3), 227-257. Bates, L., & Lane, J. & Lange, E. (1993). Writing Clearly: Responding to ESL Compositions. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Cardelle, M., & Corno, L. 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(1991). An Experiment in the Relationship of Types of Written Feedback to the Development of Second Language Writing Skills. The Modern Language Journal, 75, 305-313. Lee, I. (1997). ESL Learners’ Performance in Error Correction in Writing: Some Implications for College-level Teaching. System, 25, 456-477. Lee, I. (2002). Helping Students Develop Coherence in Writing. English Teaching Forum, 40 (3), 32-39. Leki, I. (1991). The Preferences of ESL Students for Error Correction in College-level Writing Classes. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 203-218. Leki, I. (1992). Understanding ESL Writers. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. Reid, J. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing. Englewood Cliffs, HJ: Prentice-Hall Regents. Robb, T., Ross, S., & Shortreed, I. (1986). Salience of Feedback on Error and Its Effect on EFL Writing Quality. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 83-93. Semke, H. (1984). The Effect of the Red Pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17, 195-202. Truscott, J. (1996). The Case for “The Case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes”: A response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 111-122. Zamel, V. (1985). Responding to Student Writing. TESOL Quarterly, 19(1), 79-101 Zhang, S. (1995). Reexamining the Affective Advantage of Peer Feedback in the ESL Writing Class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4, 209-222. 116 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject 於純粹數學科引進「學生同儕教學」 CHEUNG Sze-Hung, Queenie Stewards Pooi Tun Secondary School Abstract Students need to be endowed with generic skills so as to meet the challenges of an ever changing and knowledge-based information society like Hong Kong. Traditional education systems that focus on memorization and examination cannot satisfy these new demands. So there is a need for the shift of learning and teaching (L&T). This paper shares the experience of launching “Peer Tutoring” in Advanced-Level Pure Mathematics subject in one school. It focuses on how peer tutoring influences students’ learning behaviors and attitudes, learning effectiveness and skill promotion. The change of roles for students and teachers, advantages and limitations of peer tutoring will also be discussed. Keywords Peer tutoring, Learning behavior, Learning attitudes, Learning effectiveness, Skill promotion INTRODUCTION Educational reform in an information society like Hong Kong in the 21st century focuses on equipping students with self-learning skills and broadened knowledge. According to the Curriculum Development Council, the paradigm of “imparting knowledge” is shifting to that of “fostering students to learn how to learn”, which involves reform of roles of students and teachers in the processes of learning and teaching (L&T). It is important to teach students generic skills in order to help them learn how to learn. These generic skills namely communication, cri t ical thinking, creativity, collaboration, information technology, numeracy, problem solving, self management and study skills, should be developed through L&T in the contexts of different subjects. Hence, teachers should no longer be merely knowledge transmitters, but also facilitators of the independent learning process of their students (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). In response to the above-mentioned reform, peer tutoring can be a cultural change in L&T. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 117 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject WHAT IS PEER TUTORING? “Peers” is defined as someone belonging to the same group, in terms of status, in society. Here “peers” refers to the students in the same class taking the same subject. Peer tutoring involves one or more students teaching other students in a particular subject area. This provides one-on-one attention, immediate feedback, and active “discovery learning”, which are especially effective in science education, in a non-threatening environment. Being a mathematics teacher, I have been attracted to catering students’ individual difference using “peer tutoring” in my lesson plan. Peer tutoring seems to be a good solution to help minimize individual differences. Theoretical Bases of Peer Tutoring According to the basic cognitive developmental theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, human development can be viewed as constructive or socio-genetic processes. In the views of Piaget’s constructivism, “human beings are capable of extending biological programming to construct cognitive systems that interpret experiences with objects and other persons...Peer interactions provide rich and necessary contexts for students to revise their current cognitive system. Such revisions would, in turn, lead students to make new meanings.” (O’Donnell and King, 1999, p.5) Vygotsky’s theory views human development as a socio-genetic process by which children gain cognitive growth by interacting with others who are often more competent. Such process will be effective if the interaction occurs within one’s “zone of proximal development”. Instead of being a passive learner, students should be encouraged to have more interaction with others. It is known that verbal interaction is important for cognitive change and knowledge construction (Forman and Cazden, 1985), and students would have better cognitive growth if they were working with each other than working alone (Bell et. al, 1985). Students can also learn skills, beliefs and behaviors by imitating peers and adults without interacting with them (Bandura, 1986). They can figure out their misconceptions and thus correct them by observing others (models). A number of studies supports that modeling can promote subsequent performance on the observed task (e.g. Kuhn, 1972; Murray, 1972; Zimmerman, 1974). However, modeling is ineffective when models function far in advance of the participants (Kuhn, 1972). Hence, a peer model is better than an adult model because students, observing a peer completing a task successfully, would probably increase their self-concept and believe that they could also succeed in the same task. On the other hand, many researchers find that teenagers inhabit cultural worlds far different from those of their teachers (e.g. Murdock and Phelps, 1973). As students communicate at the same levels of knowledge background and use the same language, they are more likely to accept one and others’ opinions (Piaget, 1976) and are generally more willing to challenge each other than to challenge teachers. Besides, compared with those, like most of the teachers, who had had no difficulties in learning, students who had struggled themselves to understand a concept may be advantaged in providing “scaffolding” - the process of enabling one to carry out a task that he /she would not be able to perform without assistance. It is because peer students are more sensitive than teachers to non-verbal cues given by other students to indicate that they do not understand something (Allen, 1976), and they are better able to explain concepts in much familiar terms (Noddings, 1985). Thus, students will learn better from tutors who are their peers, or who are similar in general culture and background, than from teachers. Most students find that Advanced-level Pure Mathematics is, to a certain extent, quite abstract, and 118 so do my students. They always reflect that after observing my solving some mathematical problems, they can learn new skills in tackling similar problems, but this may not necessarily enhance their problem solving confidence. I have tried to launch peer tutoring in teaching some of the topics, aiming at strengthening students’ problem solving confidence. General Benefits to Participants in Peer Tutoring Scheme Benefits to Tutees According to Doise et. al (1975), when children are presented with a solution that contradicted their own, even if the contradiction is not a correct one, will promote children’s progress. In peer tutoring, students are exposed to a more challenging mode of class interaction. As interaction may produce cognitive conflicts and disagreement among students, to resolve, students have to discuss, understand, try and accept new ideas. Such a process makes students to reflect, justify and explain their own beliefs and thus help students to learn through seeking and comprehending alternate solutions. Student tutees gain from the process of understanding others’ ideas, correcting previous misconceptions and f illing the gaps between prior knowledge and new ideas. Finally, students work together to invent their own problem-solving procedures and discover their own solutions, creating an atmosphere of social stimulation and support (Damon and Phelps, 1989), resulting in enhancing students’ communication and collaboration skills. As a matter of fact, many research f indings showed that peer tutoring produced significantly greater achievement than normal classroom instruction (e.g. Bausell, Moody and Walzl, 1972; Russell and Ford, 1983). Allen and Feldman (1973) found that children learned better by peer tutoring in science-related topics than by studying alone. Horan et. al (1974) and Mevarech (1985) also showed that pupils who are tutored in mathematics improve mathematics achievement and classroom behavior more than control groups who are not tutored. Benefits to Tutors When student tutors are temporarily adopting the teacher’s role, their behavior will be constrained by the expectations of peer students, leads to develop sympathy with their teachers and began to cooperate with them. This results in improved behavior in tutors’ own classrooms, a better attitude towards schoolwork and a deeper respect for learning (Geiser, 1969; Allen, 1976). Tutors will also learn responsibility, caring for others (Coleman et. al, 1974), gain the experience of being needed, valued, and respected. Such an experience produces a new view of self as a worthwhile human being (Hedin, 1987), develops tutors’ sense of personal adequacy, enhances their feeling of self-esteem, and improves their self-concept (Mainiero et. al, 1971). In order to convince others, students who teach others have to struggle to make the material meaningful to the learners, thereby have the opportunity of reflecting upon their own learning process and reinforcing tutors’ knowledge of fundamentals (Bruner, 1963). In the process of giving explanations and justifying their ideas to student tutees, student tutors may review and restructure the knowledge they possess, clarify or recognize material in new ways in their own mind, recognize and fill in gaps in their understanding to see how their subject area “all fits together”, identify and resolve inconsistencies, and construct more elaborate conceptualizations (Yachel et. al, 1991). Student tutors then could be benefited from the process of reorganizing and restructuring their thinking for nothing clarifies their ideas as much as explaining them to others. In fact, the 119 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject tutor receives the most gains in peer tutoring scheme. What is more, Goodlad and Hirst (1989) suggested peer tutoring could give tutors a chance to make direct use of the knowledge they already possessed and might, consequently, inspire them to seek more of it. Benefits to Teachers As mentioned previously, students who are mobilized with the role of a tutor will sympathize their teachers and improve their classroom behavior, this may reduce discipline problems and create an atmosphere of cooperation that make teacher’s job pleasanter. Peer tutoring can also free teachers from routine tasks, giving them more time on planning the curriculum and arranging conditions in which students can learn (Goodlad and Hirst, 1989). Furthermore, according to a Stanford University study, peer tutoring is consistently more cost-effective than computer-assisted instruction, reduction of class sizes or increased instructional time for raising both reading and mathematics achievement of both tutors and tutees (Levin, 1984), which means, teachers can use their resources more effectively. IMPLEMENTATION OF PEER TUTORING Target Students All Matriculation (Form 6-7) Mathematics Group students in Stewards Pooi Tun Secondary School, sitting for the 2003 Hong Kong Advanced Level (HKAL) Pure Mathematics Examination participated in the peer- tutoring scheme. There were 15 students, with average grades of about B and C respectively in the Hong Kong Certif icate (HKCE) General Mathematics and Additional Mathematics Examinations (2001). Duration of the Peer Tutoring Scheme In order to keep pace with the teaching schedule, the peer-tutoring scheme was first launched as a pilot in the term break period (Form 6) from mid-June to August in 2002, when both the teacher and the students were less busy and were more capable of accepting such a challenging shift of mode of learning. The scheme was taken place in the post-examination classes (before the summer vacation started) and the summer tutorial classes, twice a week in about two-month time. Each class lasted for three hours. After that, students were encouraged to use peer tutoring regularly in the new semester (Form 7). Topics included in the Peer-tutoring Scheme As the students had to adopt the teaching role, topics included in peer tutoring should not be too difficult for them. Two topics, namely “Indefinite Integrals” and “Definite Integrals”, were chosen in the pilot classes because all the students had already acquired the basic knowledge and skills in tackling problems involving “integration” when they were in Form 5. The teacher first tailored the chosen topics into several sub-topics. Then divided the class into five groups, each of three students. The groups were allowed to choose the sub- topics on their own free will. Each group prepared their own teaching material or lecture notes and took turn to deliver lectures. For the audience, they had to take an active part in class discussion. Later in the new semester (Form 7), instead of delivering lectures, students were only asked to use peer tutoring regularly in solving mathematics problems, especially those in the past HKALE papers. 120 Teacher’s Role in Peer Tutoring In launching peer tutoring, in which students shared teacher’s duty in delivering lectures doesn’t mean freeing teacher from lesson preparation. Instead, it shifts teacher’s role in lesson design. Teacher’s new roles are mainly focused on the following: 1. Preparations Teacher should help students to form groups, considering factors like gender, abilities and pre- existing social relationship of students so as to maximize their performance. He/she then breaks down the teaching materials into a series of digestible snippets, and helps to set clear objectives and goals. It is also necessary to provide material needed in presentation and help to set preparation schedule to make sure that student tutors have sufficient preparation time. 2. During Students’ Presentation Teacher should be responsible for monitoring and supervising students’ presentation, offering instantaneous feedback like giving praises and comments, correcting mistakes, strengthening and reorganizing key points. Besides, teacher should engage and challenge students to arouse discussion, and teach critical thinking and questioning skills. 3. Lesson Enrichment Teacher is also expected to provide intellectual inspiration and leadership to arouse interest, and finally, to focus on teaching new or supplementary information. EVALUATION ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PEER TUTORING In order to assess the effectiveness of peer tutoring, students’ perception of their dispositions and outcomes in learning were measured for both the “teacher-as- instructor” and the “student-as-instructor” modes of study. The main questions investigated in this study were, “Did the students benefit from the change in modes of study towards student-as-instructor learning style?” and “What are the advantages and limitations of peer tutoring?” The Instrument A self-developed questionnaire was introduced to measure four subscales of students’ dispositions and outcomes in learning as listed below: 1. Learning Behaviors - it measured students’ perception of their behavior in learning like how concentrated and actively involved during class discussions, and how well they collaborated in learning. 2. Learning Attitudes - it measured students’ perception of their disposition in the dimension of motivation, confidence in problem-solving, self-concept, and how challenging they found the lessons. 3. Learning Effectiveness - it measured students’ perception of their disposition in the dimension of 121 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject effectiveness, learning climate, understanding of concepts, and catering individual difference. 4. Skill Promotion - it measured students’ perception of their disposit ion in the dimension of independence and autonomy in learning, mind broadening, cr i t ical thinking ski l ls and organization. All the 15 Pure Mathematics students sitting for 2003 HKALE were asked to rate the items of the questionnaire on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 6, in which 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 6 indicating “strongly agree”. In addition to the item- rating questions, two open-ended questions concerning students’ opinion of the advantages and limitations of peer tutoring were also introduced in the questionnaire. Finally, students’ HKALE result, in terms of passing rate and value-added index in Pure Mathematics, will be analyzed in reviewing the overall effectiveness of the scheme. Results and Discussions Before going on to the data analysis, there are two important things to point out: first, since the sample is non-random and convenient with only 15 subjects, the results might not be statistically reliable nor significant, however, they still reflected something to a certain extent; second, 5 out of the 15 subjects (33%) had attended private tutorials, therefore their overall HKALE results cannot be simply attributed to the peer-tutoring scheme. Students’ Overall Perception of Peer Tutoring Scheme Students’ perception of their dispositions in the four subscales are summarized in the following: Table 1 Means of the subscales of the questionnaire Subscales No of cases Mean Teacher-as-instructor Student-as-instructor Learning behaviors 15 4.42 4.55 Learning attitudes 15 3.97 4.25 Learning effectiveness 15 4.55 3.87 Skill promotion 15 4.14 4.17 Results from the questionnaire indicate that students perceived that the “learning attitudes” in the student-as-instructor mode of study was higher than that in the teacher-as-instructor mode of study by 0.28, while their “learning behaviors” and “skill promotion” were just slightly better in peer tutoring. Interestingly, they reflected that peer tutoring was far less effective than conventional classroom instruction by 0.68. 122 Let’s go into details of each of the subscales: 1. Learning Behaviors: Table 2 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Learning Behaviors Students showed greater “involvement” and had more “collaboration” in peer tutoring, but they didn’t find much difference in terms of “concentration” and chances of “expressing opinion” in both modes of learning. 2. Learning Attitudes: Table 3 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Learning Attitudes Students found that peer tutoring was much more “challenging”. It was better able to “motivate” their studies and improve their “self-concept”. However, watching their peer tutors solving various problems successfully might not necessarily upgrade their “confidence in problem-solving”. 123 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject 3. Learning Effectiveness: Table 4 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Learning Effectiveness Though students agreed that peer tutoring could enhance “learning climate” in class, they pointed out that it was rather time-consuming, and that’s why they rated “efficiency” in the student-as-instructor mode far lower than that in the teacher-as-instructor mode by 1.20. They too strongly reflected that with pedagogic training and rich teaching experience, teacher was more professional and experienced than peer tutors in “catering individual differences” and explaining “concepts”, especially those abstract ones. 4. Skill Promotion: Table 5 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Skill Promotion The results indicate that in peer tutoring, students would have better growth in “organization”. Contradicting to the research review, students showed that they learnt “critical thinking” skill more in the teacher-as-instructor mode of learning. This might be attributed to the fact that the teacher used to prepare teaching materials intended for training students’ critical thinking. For example, the teacher often presented examples of different problem-solving methods, some were even conceptually wrong, and asked students to criticize or modify them. 124 Result Summary Most of students, taking the role as student tutees, agreed that they were more motivated and actively involved in class for they had to listen extensively and attentively because, unlike in the “teacher-as-instructor” mode of study, they could not take for granted that whatever student tutors taught were all correct. They tended to be more critical-minded and learned to challenge their peer tutors, making the lessons more challenging and thus promoting learning climate. Besides, through peer tutoring, students had more opportunities to collaborate and organize their learning material and to share with their peer, meaning that every one could contribute to the learning outcomes of the whole class, resulting in an increase in self-concept and organization skills. In spite of this, students found that peer tutoring was less efficient, in terms of understanding new concepts and catering individual differences. Students’ Opinions in the Two Open-ended Questions 1. What did you like best about peer tutoring? - “In order to participate in class discussion, I had to prepare for the lessons. This helped me to build a habit of reading teaching materials before class.” - “We had to prepare lessons in groups, this helped us to develop learning bonds with student peers.” - “During peer tutors’ presentation, I was less likely to accept all what they presented, this sometimes aroused conflicts among us. To resolve, I was encouraged to develop a tolerance for uncertainty and conflict.” - “The learning cl imate was much more challenging, and consequently increased my motivation, concentration and involvement in class.” - “As all of us had the opportunities to teach and to challenge our peers, we could make significant contribution to every student’s knowledge construction. This not only increased our self- esteem, self-confidence and leadership, but also built up our spontaneity in learning.” - “Peer tutoring helped us to move away from dependence on teachers’ authority toward belief in our own ability to seek knowledge and figure out solutions.” - “Peer tu tor ing promotes cooperat ion, friendliness, positive social behavior like giving praise and encouragement, and hence improve our communication and interpersonal skills.” 2. What are the limitations in peer tutoring? - “Without pedagogic training, students able to understand a concept well does not necessarily imply that they can teach the concept equally well.” - “We may have to pay extra effort in adapting ourselves to the different teaching styles of different student tutors.” - “It may cause disciplinary problem if the students are not mature and disciplined enough.” - “Peer tutoring is in overall much more time- consuming than traditional classroom teaching. This may cause difficulty in keeping pace with the teaching schedule, especially when there is an existing syllabus for public examination.” - “We may learn wrong concepts if the teacher is not alert enough in correcting mistakes made by the student tutors immediately.” - “Not every topic is suitable to implement peer tutoring. Some topics may be too abstract and require much of teacher’s elaboration, or some may be too hard to break down into a series of digestible snippets.” 125 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject Students’ Hong Kong Advanced-Level Examination Result in Pure Mathematics (2003) The passing rate of the fifteen students in 2003 HKAL Pure Mathematics Examination was 93.3%. Three students (20%) got “distinctions”; all these three students were the most active ones involved in peer tutoring and only one out of them had attended private tutorials. According to the Value-Added index released by the Education and Manpower Bureau (Table 6), the target students had an overall estimate of 5.71 value added. Since factors affecting learning outcomes are too complex, we cannot simply attribute the value added to the launching of peer-tutoring scheme. Nevertheless, peer tutoring indeed created a self-learning atmosphere and promoted students’ generic skills that are essentials of effective learning. Table 6 Value-Added Index of 2003 HKAL Pure Mathematics Examination 2003 Value-Added Stanine Low Estimate High Pure Math 2.2 5.71 8.86 8 Ref. Range -9 to 9 1 to 9 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Hong Kong is now developing towards an information society in which students need to be endowed with generic skills so as to meet the challenges of such an ever changing and knowledge-based environment. Traditional classroom’s board-and-chalk teaching that focuses on memorization and examination can merely contribute to these new requirements. So there is an undeniable need for the shift of teaching mode. Peer tutoring provides an alternative for both learning and teaching. It helps to upgrades students’ learning behaviors and attitudes, enhances critical thinking and organization skills, and promotes communication and collaboration. These lead to a self learning climate in which students move away from the dependence on teachers’ authority toward self-confidence in problem solving. In order to yield greater benefits from peer tutoring, it is suggested that as the pre-requisite for both the student tutors and tutees, they should be considerably disciplined and have to be taught some bases on certain topics before they can teach. For the topics chosen, they should not be too abstract nor far beyond students’ grasp, because presenting students with difficult problems will not necessarily result in productive discussion and cognitive change. Instead, a decline in correct responding and more deeply entrenched misunderstanding may result (Levin and Druyan, 1993). Last but not the least, the teacher should be alert enough throughout student tutors’ presentation so as to correct any misconceptions immediately. Peer tutoring should been seen as one of the many teaching strategies available in education reform. It is not intended to replace other teaching techniques, but rather to complement them. 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Effectiveness of Peer Tutors vs Resource Teachers, Psychology in the Schools, 20 October. Yackel, E., Cobb, P., & Wood, T. (1991). Small-group Interactions as a Source of Learning Opportunities in Second- grade Mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 390-408. Zimmerman, B. J. (1974). Modification of Young Children’s Grouping Strategies: The Effects of Modeling, Verbalization, Incentives and Age. Child Development,45, 1032-1041. 128 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力郭思穎、林少雯仁濟醫院羅陳楚思中學趙明明教授香港中文大學撮要現今學生普遍缺乏創作靈感，使寫作倍感困難。根據基模理論(Schema Theory) 及多元互動創意想像的意象模式(Multidimensional Interactive Creative Imagination Imagery Model)，意象訓練(imagery training)可以有效地使學生寫作時更具創意。我們是次研究，就是將意象訓練應用於三班，合共一百二十三個中學二年級的學生身上。該批學生於訓練前及訓練後都會參與一個中文作文評核，以了解他們的作文在訓練後會否更具創意。創意的評核準則包括：流暢力、獨創力、文法及文章內容。意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力現今學生普遍都有寫作上的困難(Cameron, Hunt, & Linton, 1996)，其中主要的困難包括缺乏題材、缺少適當的詞彙、使用錯誤的文法及沒有良好的組織力。就組織能力而言，學生因花很少時間草擬、訂定題旨及覆閱文章，最終行文往往變得欠說服力、前文不對後理，以致文章難於被人明白。透過這個研究，我們試驗意象訓練能否協助學生解決以上的問題。寫作有學者 (Leung， 2001)形容寫作的過程就是主觀地去解釋個人的想法，而且每個人的腦中都有一套屬於自己的詞彙和對每個詞彙的解釋 (mental dictionary)，以及使用詞彙去解釋不同觀念的獨特法則(Pinker, 1995)。 Hayes & Flower (1980)說過，寫作可以歸納為構思、轉譯及覆閱三個過程。構思就是製造及組織意念；轉譯就是將預備論述的意念化成文字 (Bock & Levelt, 1994)；而覆閱則是閱讀文章，找出其中的問題和錯處。而其中轉譯的過程，更起著一個重要的角色。Bourdin and Fayol (1994) 則指出，寫作比說話要求更高的集中能力，而兒童集中力較弱，因此他們寫作所能引用的詞彙，往往比說話時為少。在技術的層面上看，學生往往缺乏腦力激盪、自由寫作、使用聯想及記憶等解決問題的技巧。因此要提升學生的寫作能力，訓練便需要包括有關的技巧。解決問題的技巧易學難精，而學 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 129 生又缺乏人生經驗及閱歷，使學到的只會是一些較粗略的基本技巧。有經驗的作者在籌備及覆閱文章時，都會有效地運用不同的認知策略。而有關的策略有助他們於寫作時作出適當的自我規限。在切合讀者的需要、便於覆閱和修改、以及能完成整個寫作等大前題上，作者更需要有策略地去取捨文章的素材(Albertson & Billingsley, 2001)。文章要寫得好，作者必須對寫作的準則及題目有足夠的認識。所以，學生除了需具備詞彙運用、文法及句子結構等知識外，對作文題目的了解也是必需的(Pinker, 1995)。前者能從課堂上學到，而後者則關乎學生對週遭環境的感受及其閱讀習慣。總括而言，這都和學生的態度有密切關係。學生的學習態度及寫作動力均是教學上要顧及的重點範圍。但當學生未能有效地運用文字去表達時，學習的動力便會相應下降。字數和時間的限制，對分數的擔憂或老師其他的要求，都會減低學生的寫作動力 (Sharples, 1978)。在壓力下，學生亦較難進行創作，所以學生須於一個有安全感，且沒有壓力的工作環境內寫作。創作力要有良好的寫作能力，學生需要掌握不同的技巧，學習知識和改善態度。雖然現今學校已提供相關的訓練，但相對之下，學校都較少著重提升學生的創作力。以下我們將討論創作力是如何有助於寫作。我們會就著Wallace (1926)有關創作力的四個階段，即準備期、醞釀期、頓悟期和創作期，討論提升創作力如何能幫助學生寫作。有關創作力的訓練，主要集中於準備期。首先，學生對其寫作題目的背景有更深切的認識，會有助於開始他們的寫作。此外，使用視聽器材的刺激及促使同學間的討論，則有助於發展學生的解決問題技巧，這些技巧，亦有助他們提取及運用腦內有用的記憶。另一方面，在準備期間，老師與學生討論他們的作文題目，將有助提升學生對作文的興趣，達至推動寫作的作用。但如果學生處於一個具威嚇性的氣氛下寫作，例如過份擔憂引用錯誤的意念，或於未能完成作文時會受罰等，都會因恐懼、失敗而失去寫作的動力。學者Dawe (1993)指出文學老師在教授小說時，應鼓勵學生想像其中角色的形象。他亦證明了提升學生的想像力和語言表達力，會有助提升學生的閱讀、寫作與批判思考等能力。此外，亦有學者 (Sadoski, Kealy, Goetz, & Paivio, 1997) 發現，有否引用一些具體的語句及有否運用意象化，均能解釋一些語言運用上的差距。使用一些具體的字、詞、句，會比抽象的易被人形象化、了解、記憶及感覺有趣(Sadoski, et. al, 1997) 。學生透過對身邊世界細心的觀察，再結合已有的概念，便能發展具創意的新意念 (Ward, 2001)。透過聯想，將這些新意念與接收回來性質近似或不同的資訊互相組合而成新概念，已可以算是運用創作力的開端。學習了創作力及橫向思考，學生的意念將會更深和更廣。在第二及第三個階段，即醞釀期及頓悟期，學生需身處於一個被支持及鼓勵的環境當中。要創造他們個人的想法，需要有足夠的時間，因此在訓練的起步階段，學生不會被要求有一個很高的寫作效率。況且當學生能掌握意象化後，他們的寫作速度自然會比以往快。在最後的一個階段，即創作期，學生會在老師的支持及協助之下，與同學討論及表達他們的想法。完成作文後，亦應容許及鼓勵同學間互相給予意見，使寫作有進步。甚麼是意象？意象是指物質訊息的輸入，也是腦部如何對這些訊號的處理及怎樣去理解有關的訊息 (Broudy, 1987)。這些物質訊息可以是圖像、聲音、觸覺或 130 情緒感受，而每個人的腦部如何去處理這些訊息的方法亦不相同。接著，這些訊息會轉化為意識、知覺、感受及推動力，最終成為行動。而在完成這種種之前，腦內亦會先形成一個心理圖像 (Khatena, 2000)。意象與語言的運用現今有很多理論去解釋意象如何有助於語言運用，而基模理論 (Schema Theory) 及雙碼理論 (Dual Coding Theory) 便是其中兩個。基模理論假設我們的記憶中存在著一些抽象的架構，用來表達知識 (Dawe, 1993; Kaufmann, 1980)。基模理論將注意力集中於文章上有意義的地方及讀者已有的知識上，誘發了不同的研究，豐富了我們對閱讀本質的理解。當學生在寫作或閱讀時，新的概念會根據他們過往的經驗和知識而產生。而當學生拿到一個作文題目後，他們會用固有的記憶去理解題目，接著按他們腦內已有的資源，去寫他們的文章。然而，基模理論卻忽略了學生的情緒反應，因而不能解釋何以同一個學生於不同的狀態下，會對同一件事有不同的理解。此外，這理論亦不能解釋為何學生能構思他們已有知識範圍以外的意念。而且，有好的意念，學生亦未必能把它們組織成文章。至於雙碼理論則提出處理非語言及語言的資訊，分別是由兩個系統去處理，而這兩個系統是獨立但有連繫的 (Dawe, 1993; Kaufmann, 1980; Riding & Cheema, 1991) 。處理非語言的系統是指意象系統，因為該系統的其中一個作用，就是使腦部產生影像 (包括視覺、聽覺、感觀及情緒)。而處理語言系統，則是指專門處理語言的次系統或口語系統。以上提到的兩個系統有不同組織及運作特徵 (Dawe, 1993)。在接收到語言訊息後，該訊息會被連續性地及依據句法整理。對於非語言的訊息，則會被整理為一個包括視覺、聽覺、感觀及情緒的結合。透過語言或是影像的刺激及聯想，接收到的詞句會與其他詞句連結，而近似地，接收到的影像亦會喚起腦內其他相關的影像。雖然接收語言及非語言模式是透過兩個不同的系統，但正如前文所述，該兩個系統是互相關連的。因而詞句訊息能引發其他詞句的聯想外，亦能同時喚起能聯想到的影像，反之亦然。舉個例說，當一個學生將「雪糕」儲存於語言與非語言模式的記憶內，他看到「雪糕」後，便會聯想到他喜愛的雪糕味道、顏色、吃的感覺等等。而他亦能在見到「雪糕」一詞後，聯想到雪糕的影像及其他有關雪糕的特徵。此外，該學生亦可從雪糕上，進而聯想到其他的味道、感覺或食物。根據雙碼理論以及多元互動創意想像的意象模式(Multidimensional Interactive Creative Imagination Imagery Mode) ，意象訓練能幫助學生從一個圖像，連鎖反應地喚起一連串其他的圖像，這可以有助他們去寫更豐富和更有創意的文章 (Hutton & Lescohier, 1983; Sommer, 1978) 。因此，訓練會集中使用書面語，幫助學生透過意象化，去描寫他們所看到、聽到、感覺到及想到的事，從而促使學生寫一些有創意的故事。研究方法參與訓練的學生需要出席六堂共五小時的意象訓練，其中內容包括提升學生的動力、意象化能力、有關寫作的技巧及知識和改善寫作應有的態度等。另一方面，教導學生如何放鬆自己亦是訓練的重點。學生於輕鬆的環境及鬆弛的狀態下，除了感到舒適外，也能提升他們的寫作動力、想像力及意象化的能力。學生在訓練中，會加深了對創造力的認識，有助他們掌握及運用創造力。一篇有創意的文章，會有較多及較原創的意念、較好的內容及更有組織。此外，訓練亦會包含提升觀察力的技意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 131 巧。因為就算學生具有創意而想到一些有趣及獨特的意念，寫出來的文章也不一定會使讀者感到有意義或產生共鳴。要增加對這個世界的認識，使寫的文章容易與人產生共鳴，是需要透過對週遭細心的觀察。是次研究，我們除了考試分數外，亦就著其他四個方面作評分，即流暢度、獨創性、內容及文法。我們會以學生文章意念的多寡去量度流暢度，而獨創性則是計算文章上的意念，是否較少於其他文章上出現 (Lissitz & Willhoft, 1985; Plucker & Runco, 1998)。至於內容及組織力的分數，則取決於學生如何去闡釋他們的意念。假設研究中，共有123位學生參與了意象訓練。而我們會透過事前及事後測試，了解研究的成效。在研究中，因變量分別有文章的內容、流暢度、獨創性及文法的評分，和中文作文的考試分數。獨立可變物則分別有性別及有否參與了意象訓練。我們假設學生參與了意象訓練後，他們的創意及中文作文的表現均會有所提升。研究對象該123位學生來自同一所第二組別的中學，他們來自中學二年級的三個班別，由同一位中文老師任教，而該老師亦是是次研究的研究員之一。而有關研究的事宜，學生事前是不知道的。他們被選中參與這個研究，是因為他們同時被該研究員所教。參與訓練的三個班別中，其中一班 (共 41 人)　成績較好，考試排名在全級二百四十個學生的前八十位。而參與研究的男女生比例如下：研究設計是次研究的設計，為一個事前與事後對比的測試。123位學生於接受意象訓練的前後，都會參與一個測試，以評核四項有關創意及作文的評分，從而評估他們在訓練前後是否有分別。此外，研究亦會利用有參與訓練的學生的中文作文考試成績，對比84 位沒有參與訓練的學生，以評估訓練的成效。至於學校的編班情況，學校會根據學生的學業成績，將學生編進成績較平均或成績較好等兩種班別。參與研究的三班學生，其中兩班為成績較平均的班別，一班為成績較好的。我們在對比考試分數時，會從有參與訓練與沒有參與訓練的班別裡，各揀一班成績平均及成績較好的班別來作比較。材料及步驟事前測試所有有參與意象訓練的學生，都會於接受訓練前，為一篇題目為「我在學校年終的頒獎禮中獲獎，情況會是這樣的......」寫一個結尾。文章需在七十分鐘內完成，沒有字數限制，亦容許學生於寫作時與同學交流意見。人數男生 59 女生 64 總數 123 132 意象訓練教節目標活動教具課業及評估 i. 利用圖片和簡報，向同學展示有創意 i. 簡報一的圖片和文章。 ii. 工作紙一 ii. 老師讀「創作」兩字，讓同學把在腦內浮現的影像記在工作紙一上。 iii. 引導同學說出創意的四個特性：流暢工作紙二：九宮力、彈性、獨創性、精進力。畫 i. 請同學分享工作紙二，溫習創意的特性。 ii. 利用簡報二及三解釋潛意識及靈感的 i. 音樂工作紙四：請同由來： ii. 簡報二：冰山學把工作紙上所甲、鬆弛法：讓腦內記憶從潛意識浮 iii. 簡報三：令人鬆寫的物件，用腦現；弛的圖畫海圖像法，想像乙、漸進式鬆弛法。 iv. 物件一個故事。可用 iii. 在音樂的襯托下，老師說出一些物件 v. 工作紙三圖畫或文字。，引導同學把腦海內浮現出來的影像在工作紙三上。 iv. 請同學用聯想的方法，把所想的影像豐富起來。 v. 溫習鬆弛法和冥想。 i. 溫習鬆弛法和冥想。 i. 簡報四：假象、 ii. 利用簡報四介紹假象、模稜兩可的圖模稜兩可的圖像像和一些創意實例。和一些創意實例 iii. 利用簡報五介紹創作四個過程：準備 ii. 簡報五：用漫畫期、醞釀期、頓悟期、創作期。解釋創作的四個 iv. 現在的訓練在準備期。第一、二種訓過程。練是流暢力和靈活性。 iii. 工作紙五工作紙五：拼字練習 iv. 工作紙六工作紙六：面罩的用途 v. 簡報六：橫向 v. 利用簡報六，介紹橫向思維。思維 i. 利用簡報七，介紹獨創力。 i. 簡報七 ii. 講解觀察力的重要。 ii. 簡報八 iii. 利用簡報八及工作紙七，完成觀察力 iii. 工作紙七訓練。 iv. 音樂、氣味 iv. 重溫鬆弛法和冥想。 v. 工作紙八 v. 完成工作紙八：故事創作。 vi. 請同學與鄰座交換工作紙八，有與人不同的意念得1分。 vii.老師再抽其中一位同學，將他的意念朗讀出來，再與全班同學比較，帶出要獨創並不容易。 i. 利用簡報九，講解精進力。 i. 簡報九 ii. 重溫放鬆的技巧。 ii. 原稿紙 iii. 完成作文(家課) 續寫：十五年後的 iii. 音樂、氣味今日，我看著自己的孩子，心裡想著 ︙︙ i. 重溫放鬆的技巧。 i. 音樂、氣味 ii. 利用評改量表，每位學生分別評量3 ii. 評改量表位同學的作文。 1 2-3 4-6 7-8 9 10 令學生明白創意的特性腦海圖像思維、創意和中文寫作流暢力及靈活性訓練訓練獨創力訓練精進力互評意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 133 4. 文法文法評分文字運用表達能力語文能力流暢標點符號 0 很多的錯字難以理解沒有用書面語不流暢較多的誤用 1 較多的錯字用簡單句子使用較多口語較差較少的誤用 2 一般多的錯字較清晰使用較少口語普通較少的誤用 3 較少錯字良好全為書面語好很少的誤用 4 沒有錯字非常清晰全為書面語優異沒有誤用事後測試在完成整個訓練後，會要求學生續寫一篇文章，題目為「十五年後的今日，我看著自己的孩子，心裡想著︙︙」。評分一個於香港大學主修翻譯及比較文學三年級的學生，會充當研究助理，協助為研究中的作文評分。四個會被評分的範疇包括文章的流暢度、獨創性、內容及文法，評分的標準如下： 1. 流暢度流暢度會以文章上意念的多寡來計算，而同一個主題的不同意念，會以同一個意念作計算。例如：「輝看看東，只因為這是他的夢境」與「突然，東消失了。輝醒後，發現這只是一場夢」是相同的意念。此外，文章風格是不會計算分數。 2. 獨創性一個意念的獨創性的分數計算方法如下：以 1 除以所有提及相同意念學生的數量。(例如：有位同學在事前測試中提及學習過程或回憶上課情況，那麼該 75 位同學每人可獲分)，而一個學生的獨創性分數，則是他所有意念的獨創性分數的總和(例如：有同學寫出 3 個意念，而每個意念的分數分別是：分、分和分，那麼他在獨創性方面，共獲得分)。 3. 內容 (文章內容及組織力) 內容評分組織力背後的意義直覺故事性 0 沒有沒有沒有沒有 1 弱沒有沒有簡單 2 一般不明顯沒有簡單 3 好有有較充實 4 非常好有強非常充實分數分數 1 75 1 75 17 60 1 4 1 50 134 結果參與這個研究的123個學生，就讀於同一所中學的二年級。其中有效的個案為118個，男生佔56 個（即47.5%），而女生則佔62個（即52.5%）（見表一）。表一　性別分佈頻數百分比男生 56 47.5 女生 62 52.5 總數 118 100.0 學生分別於意象訓練之前和之後參與一個測試。在有效個案當中，有110學生出席了訓練前的測試，而出席訓練後的測試則有111人。在測驗試中，老師及研究助理會就流暢力、獨創力、文法及內容四方面作出評分。由於有部份學生缺席了訓練前或訓練後的測試，故此有七個個案的分數被取消。表二及表三分別顯示了訓練前及後的測試中，四個評分的最小值、最大值、平均數及標準差。在訓練前的測試，流暢力、獨創力、文法及內容的平均分數分別為 1.62 、 0.05 、 8.28 、 1.49，而在訓練後，這四方面的平均分數則分別是2.23、 0.08、 9.41、 1.80。表二　事前測試創意作文分數的統計 N 最小值最大值平均值標準差流暢力 110 0 3.00 1.6182 0.8238 獨創性 110 0 0.3180 0.0545455 0.0715288 文法 110 0 16.00 8.2818 3.0564 文章內容 110 0 3.00 1.4864 0.7706 N 110 表三　事後測試創意作文分數的統計 N 最小值最大值平均值標準差流暢力 111 0 5.00 2.2252 0.9213 獨創性 111 0 0.2836 0.0810811 0.0593378 文法 111 0 16.00 9.4054 2.7614 文章內容 111 0 3.00 1.8018 0.7725 N 79 30.00 90.00 61.5696 11.8913 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 135 大致上，四方面的分數，即流暢力、獨創力、文法及內容的評分，於訓練後均有進步 (表四)，而且都達百份之五的顯著水平 (表五)。表四　事前測試和事後測試分數的平均值和標準差平均值標準差事前測試事後測試事前測試事後測試流暢力 1.6182 2.2252 0.8238 0.9213 獨創性 0.0545455 0.0810811 0.0715288 0.0593378 文法 8.2818 9.4054 3.0564 2.7614 文章內容 1.4864 1.8018 0.7706 0.7725 表五　事前測試和事後測試分數分別的 t檢驗配對樣本 (Paired Samples Test) 的 t檢驗配對差值 (Paired Differences) 95% 信賴度 (Confidence Interval of the Difference) -.5728 1.1167 .1100 -.7911 -.3546 -5.206 102 .000 -2.5E-02 8.50158E-02 8.38E-03 -4.1E-02 -8.0E-03 -2.939 102 .004 -.9806 2.8318 .2790 -1.5340 -.4271 -3.514 102 .001 -.2767 .8364 8.242E-02 -.4402 -.1132 -3.357 102 .001 第一組流暢力第二組獨創性第三組文法第四組文章內容平均值標準離差方差上下 t檢驗自由度 P值 (Mean) (Std. Deviation) (Upper) (Lower) (Df)(Std. Error Mean) 事前測試和事後測試中的比較 136 表六　事後測試中的流暢力、獨創性、文法、文章內容和考試分數不同性別的結果事後測試 N 平均值標準差標準誤差流暢力男 52 2.0577 .9164 .1271 女 59 2.3729 .9078 .1182 總數 111 2.2252 .9213 8.745E-02 獨創性男 52 6.51694E-02 4.79666E-02 6.65177E-03 女 59 9.51049E-02 6.50196E-02 8.46483E-03 總數 111 8.10811E-02 5.93378E-02 5.63209E-03 文法男 52 9.0000 3.1060 .4307 女 59 9.7627 2.3877 .3109 總數 111 9.4054 2.7614 .2621 文章內容男 52 1.7692 .8311 .1153 女 59 1.8305 .7228 9.411E-02 總數 111 1.8018 .7725 7.332E-02 考試分男 38 58.5789 14.1663 2.2981 女 41 64.3415 8.5866 1.3410 總數 79 61.5696 11.8913 1.3379 於事後測試的各項分數上女生的流暢力（Xgirl = 2.37, Xboy = 2.06）、獨創力（Xgirl ＝ 0.1, Xboy = 0.07）、文法（Xgirl = 9.76, Xboy = 9.00）、文章內容（Xgirl = 1.83, Xboy = 1.77）及考試分（Xgirl = 64.3, Xboy = 58.6）（見表六），平均分都比男生為高。但在統計學上，於比較變異數(variance)後，只有獨創力及考試兩方面的分數，於不同性別上有較明顯的差別（表七）。意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 137 表七　性別的多組樣本均數比較 (ANOVA) 檢驗事後測試離均差平均自由度平均值 F-值顯著水平 (Sum of Squares) (Df) (Mean) 流暢力組間變異 2.746 1 2.746 3.303 .072 (Between Group) 組內變異 90.624 109 .831 (Within Group) 總數 93.369 110 獨創性組間變異 2.477E-02 1 2.477E-02 7.447 .007 (Between Group) 組內變異 .363 109 3.326E-03 (Within Group) 總數 .387 110 文法組間變異 16.079 1 16.079 2.130 .147 (Between Group) 組內變異 822.678 109 7.548 (Within Group) 總數 838.757 110 文章內容組間變異 .104 1 .104 .173 .679 (Between Group) 組內變異 65.536 109 .601 (Within Group) 總數 65.640 110 考試分組間變異 654.884 1 654.884 4.861 .030 (Between Group) 組內變異 10374.483 77 134.734 (Within Group) 總數 11029.367 78 表八　事前測試和事後測試的配對樣本積差相關分析 (Paired Samples Correlations) 事前測試和事後測試樣本數值積差相關分析顯著水平 (N) (Correlation) 第一組流暢力 103 .204 .038 第二組獨創性 103 .203 .040 第三組文法 103 .518 .000 第四組文章內容 103 .403 .000 138 意象訓練與考試分數的關係在研究中，我們亦發現有參與意象訓練的學生，和沒有參與訓練而於中文作文考試時，能獲得較表九　考試分樣本數值平均值標準差標準誤差沒有參加訓練的 83 50.61 10.52 1.15 參加了訓練的 81 60.98 12.64 1.40 總數 164 55.73 12.69 .99 表十離均差平方自由度平均值 F-值顯著水平組間變異 4400.582 1 4400.582 32.627 .000 組內變異 21849.613 162 134.874 總數 26250.195 163 討論第一，現有實例證明，意象訓練有助學生改善其寫作的流暢程度、文筆風格、內容及文法習慣。首先，意象訓練相信能讓學生創作出更多「埠」來接通不同的知識，「埠」(port) 類似電腦中用來連接外界資訊的連結點，「埠」的數量越多，連結點也越多，亦即可處理和接收更多資料和功能。在寫作上，「埠」使他們能建構出各類寫作上的知識框架，如詞彙、文法、認知能力及與主題相關的資料。一個擁有越多「埠」的學生，於同一個刺激下，能接收更多。此外，學生透過將影像在心裡形象化，從而具體掌握到他們準備要寫的內容，而非停留於發展概念的階段。第二，一個具創意的頓悟往往於課堂間的休息期間浮現於腦中(Ford & Ford, 1992) ，所以進行創意寫作前，需事先發展概念和鞏固所學習之意象化技能。再者，學生應爭取機會多加寫作，因日常課堂學習為他們進步所需。因此，可見意象化技能的訓練、個人鬆弛和思想的形象化三者於學生寫作的創意上發揮作用。第三，鬆弛運動也可喚起學生內心深處的意識，這類運動能將他們想寫的情景形象化。一句句子能誘發出另一句，當他們興致盎然，文句會情不自禁般不斷湧現。在此情形下，他們的寫作動力亦提高了。第四，這訓練已包括了作業動力及與創意相關的技能如觀察、自由聯想及水平思考在內。已有學者提出這些技能對提高學生寫作表現極有幫助 (Amabile, 1983)。在整個訓練過程期間，參與的學生顯得享受課業。每當老師說「一起做鬆弛運動」時，同學佳成績的學生作比較(Ximagery= 60.98, Xnon-imagery= 50.61, p=0.000)(見表九及十)。意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 139 們便立刻準備就緒，並閉起雙眼，而且沒有人入睡。此外，他們均很熱烈回答問題及做運動。相信對這些方面可作更深層次的詳細研究。此研究有著一定局限。基於研究期間碰巧遇上非典型肺炎疫潮，使教學時間表排得過緊，以致未能將訓練節目套入其中，該老師只能一方面催促學生應付課程，一方面努力騰出時間進行此研究。建議日後再作同樣的研究時，可每星期進行一次訓練，以便讓學生於課堂以外抽空實踐所學之技能。此外他們也可歸納這些技能用於其他語言學習上，而額外的練習亦能改善學習的效果。第二個不足之處，乃於此研究中缺乏對照標準。基於其他中文教師有公務在身，只有一名研究者參與該訓練。由於目前已展開了這個訓練計劃，將來執行此計劃時可邀請更多教師參與，他們可作不同程度的參與，如批改作文、執行訓練、改良訓練物資、觀察學生表現等。有些班級則可招募作對照標準。第三個不足之處，乃是探討雙碼理論及意象訓練兩者，以一個更接近心理語言學的角度看意象化如何提高掌握語言的口語部分的研究不足。將來再進行此研究時，可引入五感教學法，因為它們是直接與人們腦裡對外圍刺激的認知有關。參考書目 Albertson, L. 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Imagery, Language and Cognition. Norway: Universitetsforlaget. Khatena, J. (2000). Imagery. In E. Torrance (Ed.), On the Edge and Keep on the Edge (pp.87-100). Westport, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing. Leung, W. (2001). Develop Creative Thinking through Writing Composition. Xie Zuo, 4, 17 -19. Lissitz, R. & Willhoft, J. (1985). A Methodological Study of the Torrance Tests of Creativity. Journal of Educational Measurement, 22, 1-11. Pinker, S. (1995). The Language Instinct. New York : Harper Perennial. Plucker, J. & Runco, M. (1998). The Death of Creativity Measurement Has Been Greatly Exaggerated: Current Issues, Recent Advances, and Future Directions in Creativity Assessment. Roeper Review, 21, 36-9. Riding, R. Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive Styles - An Overview and Integration. Educational Psychology,11, 193-215. Sadoski, M., Kealy W., Goetz, E., & Paivio, A. (1997). Concreteness and Imagery Effects in the Written Composition of Definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 518 - 526. Sharples, M. (1978). How We Write Writing as Creative Design. In R. Sommer (Ed), The Mind's Eyes: Imagery in Everyday Life (pp.37-52). New York: Seymour Publication. Sommer, R. (1978). The Mind's Eye. Paloalto, Ca: Dale Seymour Publications. Wallace, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: Harcourt Brace. Ward, T. (2001). Creative Cognition, Conceptual Combination, and the Creative Writing of Stephen R. Donaldson. American Psychologist, 56, 350-4. Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms WONG YU Lai-wah, Teresa The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract In the era of education reform in Hong Kong, on various government documents, different concepts and functions of assessment were introduced to the community. The importance of formative assessment was emphasized. This paper aims to study the student teachers’ implementation of formative assessment in General Studies lessons during their teaching practise. Commonly used assessment methods, alignment of learning and assessment activities, student teachers’ intervention after receiving feedback from pupils, difficulties encountered, perception of the student teachers on formative assessment and pupils’ feedback are reported in this study. It is hoped that the study will provide insight into the practice of formative assessment in primary General Studies classrooms as one aspect of the professional development of General Studies Teachers. 141 INTRODUCTION As the new educational goals of Hong Kong schooling are to enhance student-centred learning and pupils’ ability to learn how to learn (Curriculum Development Council, 2001; Education Commission, 2001), this calls for reform in the assessment system. Ridgway (1998) commented that appropriate assessment scheme can be powerful levers to support reform; assessment schemes that do no reflect new educational ambitions are barriers to progress. Different concepts and functions of assessment were introduced to the community on recent education reform documents (Education Commission, Sept 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 2001). Assessment was proclaimed as an integral part of education process. The formative assessment was stressed as a way to improve teaching and the learning of pupils. Research on formative assessment provides examples of how learning and teaching was improved (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2003). The aim of the present study is to examine the student teachers’ implementation of formative assessment in General Studies lessons during their teaching practice. It is to study student teachers’ perception of formative assessment after the conducting formative assessment in General Studies lessons, the commonly used methods of formative assessment, the alignment of assessment activities with learning activities, student teachers’ intervention after receiving feedback from pupils, difficulties encountered in the classrooms and feedback from their pupils. By studying the implementation of formative assessment in local primary school classrooms, it is hoped that the present study will provide Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 142 some insight for the practising teachers when they plan to conduct formative assessment in General Studies lessons as one aspect of their professional development in order to enhance the learning of the pupils and their own teaching. SUMMATIVE VS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Assessment is conducted to serve different purposes: supporting of learning, reporting the achievements of individuals and satisfying demands for public accountability. Formative assessment serves the first purpose while summative assessment serves the latter. It is important to match the selection and the use of assessment methods to the particular purpose which the assessment is to serve (Black, 1998). Bloom, Hastings & Madaus (1971) defined ‘summative evaluative tests’ as the assessments conducted at the end of units, mid-term or at the end of a course. They were designed to judge the extent of students’ learning of the material in a course for the purpose of grading, certification, evaluation of progress or even for researching into the effectiveness of a curriculum. Moreover, aggregation of the results of pupils’ performance in various public examinations also serves as an economic way to show the public that the schools do promote the learning of their pupils (Black, 1998). On the other hand, teachers have the need of constant information about what the students know and the strategies being used to process and comprehend new concepts (Shepard, 1992). Formative assessment provides short term feedback to teachers so that learners’ strengths and weaknesses in relation to their progression can be identified. Then teachers can use the feedback in planning what to do next in order to enhance learning as well as teaching. Hence, formative assessment is essential to effective teaching and learning (Black, 1993). Formative assessment is carried out by all the agents in the classroom. A pupil needs to know where she/he is and understand, where she/he wants to be and also how to “fill the gap” between her/his current knowledge and understanding and the desired level. This involves both the teacher and the pupil in a process of continual reflection and review about progress (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority http://www. qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/). Thus, formative assessment focuses on dialogue between the teacher and the pupils. Torrance (1993) suggested that formative assessment f its into the constructivist approach to learning with the teacher-pupil interaction supporting the pupils in moving towards Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD). Black & Wiliam’s finding (1998a) reported a strong link between effective formative assessment and an appropriate and supportive pedagogy. The essential elements of any strategy to improve learning through the implementation of formative assessment are the setting of clear goals, the choice, framing and articulation of appropriate learning tasks, the deployment of these with appropriate pedagogy to evoke feedback and the appropriate interpretation and use of that feedback to guide the learning trajectory of pupils. Teachers should therefore involve pupils in the process of self- and peer- assessment, underpinned by a constructive approach to learning. That is, teachers should make use of the previous knowledge of the pupils to design different learning activities to help pupils to construct knowledge, provide assessment activities to assess the learning of the pupils, and provide feedback to pupils and intervention when necessary. 143 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms Stiggins (2001) remarked the artistry of classroom assessment requires teachers to orchestrate a careful alignment among purposes, achievement targets and methods. In this way, the relation among teaching, learning and assessment was emphasized. The alignment of teaching objectives, learning and assessment activities, and intervention conducted by the co- researchers are reported in this study. Stiggins (2001) introduced four basic classroom assessment methods: selected response assessment, essay assessment, performance assessment and assessment that relies on direct personal communication with pupils. Selected Response Assessment This includes all of the objectively scored paper and pencil written formats. Format options include multiple choice items, true/false items, matching exercises, short answer fill-in items, and different sorts of worksheets with an inquiry nature. The index of achievement is the number of questions answered correctly. The teacher is not to give grades or marks but to give descriptive comments on the answers or the work of the pupils. Other types include the following: “Quick Check-in” (Trimarchi, 2002) The teacher hands out slips of paper in the middle of the lesson and asks pupils to answer a probing question directly related to the discussion. The papers are written anonymously and collected immediately. The teacher examines the papers, reads aloud examples of correct answers, picks out misconceptions and addresses them on spot. “Teacher Letter” (Trimarchi, 2002) The letter includes the following items: • Here is what I understood to be the MAIN IDEA of today’s class. • These are a few IMPORTANT POINTS I learned about the main idea. • These are things you talked about today that I DID NOT “GET”. Pupils write it at the end of the lesson and the teacher responds to the letters the following day, reading aloud correct answers and correcting misconceptions. Essay Assessment Pupils have to prepare an original written answer to questions about the content knowledge or provide an explanation of the solution to a complex problem. The teacher reads the original written response and evaluates it by applying specified scoring criteria. Performance Assessment Pupils carry out a specified activity under the watchful eyes of the teacher. Performance assessment can be based either on observation of the process while pupils demonstrate skills, or on evaluation of products created, e.g. debate, role play, mini survey, case study and presentation, or carrying out a laboratory experiment, etc. The purpose is to let pupils show different abilities and learning outcomes. Scoring guides may be negotiated with pupils. Personal Communication as Assessment One of most common ways that teachers gather information about day-to-day pupils’ achievement in the classroom is talking to them. This includes questions posed and answered during instruction, interviews, conversation, listening during class or group discussion, oral examination and conferences with pupils after lesson. Pupils’ responses and answers can show their understanding; therefore teachers should ask more open- 144 ended questions and allow more time for pupils to respond (Black & Wiliam, 1998b). This is also classified as interactive formative assessment (Bell & Cowie, 2001) which takes place during the pupil-teacher interactions. Teacher and pupils interact in the whole class, the small group and one-to-one situations. Each of the above methods provides its own special form of evidence of pupil proficiency, such as knowledge and understanding, reasoning proficiency, performance skills, ability to create products and dispositions (e.g. attitudes, values, interests, self- concepts and motivation) (Stiggins, 2001). This study is to examine the common assessment activities employed by the student teachers and difficulties they encountered in General Studies classrooms. SELF-ASSESSMENT AND PEER ASSESSMENT The development of formative assessment implies changes in roles for both teachers and pupils. Self- assessment and peer assessment of the pupils are the major characteristics of the formative assessment. Therefore, they should be promoted among pupils to enhance effective learning. Self-assessment involves both reflection on one’s learning strategies, and analysis or critique of one’s work. In order to make self- assessment successful, not only the teachers but also the pupils should hold the belief that the process of assessment helps learning (Sutton, 1995). Thus teachers should train pupils on self-assessment, explain the learning objective(s) of each task and provide encouragement to pupils through planned strategies and dedicated time. On the other hand pupils may work in pairs or in groups, make suggestions about each other’s work, or ask questions about the peer’s thinking or reasoning (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/). Rubrics of assessment may be negotiated with pupils in order to promote learning. Pupils’ feedback on the assessment activities and the student teachers’ perception on formative assessment are also reported in this study. In short, teachers should align the assessment activities with learning activities in order to help pupils achieve the learning objectives that include the acquisition of knowledge and skills, and value learning. This not only helps to promote the learning of the pupils but also the teaching. General Studies General Studies, an integration of Science, Health Education and Social Studies, was introduced in 1995. It is proclaimed in the syllabus for Hong Kong General Studies (Primary I-VI) (1994) that through meaningful activities children understand the inter-relationship and interdependence between people, things and their environment. They are also helped to develop values and attitudes in order to become rational and responsible citizens. The curriculum consists of four strands, i.e. healthy living, living environment, natural world, and science and technology. The integrated approach claims to allow pupils to look at issues from different perspectives, hence making their learning experiences more holistic and less fragmented (Curriculum Development Council, 1994, 1997). In the era of education reform, the new curriculum (Curriculum Development Council, 2002) moves away from content-focused approach to a learner-focused approach. It emphasizes the enhancement of pupils’ inquiry and investigative skills for construction of knowledge. Schools are encouraged to adapt the central curriculum in developing their school-based curriculum and promote life-wide learning. Teachers are encouraged to use different modes of assessment and provide quality 145 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms feedback on the strengths and weaknesses on pupils’ learning in order bring about improvement in learning and teaching. Co-researchers Oldfather (1997) invited the student participants of his study of student motivation (Oldfather, 1993) to be engaged as co-researchers. The study, interpretive study, was based on the interactions which took place between the students and the researcher in order to construct understanding about the research questions. It was reported that the explicitly collaborative relationship in the inquiry increased students’ sense of ownership and involvement, therefore led to greater depth in the findings. Simpson (1998) also involved his students in the research, participatory research, of the Contemporary Aboriginal communities in Canada as the philosophy of adult education places learners in the center and focuses on the learners’ control over their learning process (Tandon, 1988). It is trusted that experiential knowledge is valid as people best know their own situations and can best solve their own problems (Colorado, 1988) RESEARCH ON FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT IN GENERAL S T U D I E S C L A S S R O O M S - OBJECTIVES AND METHODS The research was conducted to see how formative assessment was conducted in General Studies classrooms in primary schools. Nine student teachers of the Post Graduate Diploma in Education (Primary) (Full-time) programme were invited to be co-researchers of the study. During their teaching practice the co- researchers planned and wrote the lesson plans to show how they aligned the assessment tasks with the learning activities. They also wrote weekly reflection reports to report the following: • Events in which they succeeded in helping pupils to understand the lessons. • Difficulties that they encountered in implementing “Learning, Teaching and Assessment” during the week. During the whole teaching practice block, they videotaped a lesson with the focus on the study of the interactive formative assessment. By the end of the teaching practice block each of the co-researchers interviewed five of their pupils in order to collect feedback on their learning and the teaching of General Studies in the classrooms. They asked the pupils the following questions: 1. Did you like General Studies lessons? Why? 2. What activities did you like most in the lessons? How did they help your learning? 3. Did you answer any questions in the lesson? How did it help your learning? 4. Did you know how to do the worksheets in the lesson? If you did not know how to do, what did the teacher do? Furthermore, after their teaching practice, the co- researchers were interviewed by the researcher so as to make supplements on their weekly reflection reports. They answered the following questions: 1. Please tell your learning experience of formative assessment in your previous education and your ideas of formative assessment. What are the methods to implement formative assessment? 2. During the teaching practice, how did you prepare the lessons (learning activities, assessment activities)? 146 3. What learning activities and assessment activities did you provide to your pupils? 4. When did you use questioning to assess the learning of your pupils? Did you ask probing questions? Did you provide enough wait time? If yes, how long was it? Did you name pupils to answer your questions? Did you ask those who raised their hands? Did you ask those who did not raise their hands? If yes, what were their responses? 5. When did you use worksheet to assess the learning of the pupils? Did you give them grades, marks, or comments only? 6. Did you encounter any difficulties? If yes, what were they? Transcription of the interviews with the pupils and the co-researchers were made by the researcher so that their identities were kept anonymous. FINDINGS During the teaching practice, the co-researchers taught the following units: Leisure Activities (Primary 2), Basic necessities of Life (P3), Electricity and Life (P4), The History and Geographical Setting and History of Hong Kong (P4), Reproduction (P 5) and Environmental Protection (P6). The findings reveal the co-researchers’ perception on formative assessment, the commonly used methods of formative assessment, the alignment of learning and assessment activities, intervention undertook and the difficulties encountered during the implementation period. Finally, pupils’ feedback is reported in this study. The Co-Researchers’ Perception on Formative Assessment During the interview, all the co-researchers claimed that they did not have any experience of formative assessment in their previous education. They stated that formative assessment was different from summative assessment. It could be conducted at different intervals of the lesson. For example, when it was conducted at the beginning of the lesson, the purpose was to test pupils’ previous knowledge or misconceptions. It may be conducted after a teaching point was taught in a lesson. At the end of a lesson it is to test the understanding of the pupils and to provide help if the pupils did not learn the major concepts in the lesson. On the video-taped lesson, a co-researcher tested the previous knowledge of her pupils when they started to learn leisure activities. After pupils shared their experiences, she made use of the matching activity to collect feedback from the pupils in order to assess the learning of her pupils so that she might either provide help to them or proceed to the other activity. By the end of the lesson, most co-researchers provided a worksheet to assess pupils’ learning of the lesson. A co-researcher remarked that the self assessment activity helped pupils to assess their own learning after learning a unit. The peer assessment activity helped to assess and promote the attitude and the skills needed in the group work. Some commonly used methods of formative assessment Among the four basic classroom assessment methods proposed by Stiggins (2001) which were mentioned in 147 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms the earlier section, all the co-researchers often used personal communication with pupils which includes questioning, observation, and conference during recess or lunch time, selected responses assessment in the format as a worksheet, and performance assessment which mainly included pupils’ presentation or role play after group discussion, and matching task on the blackboard. Essay assessment was not employed because in Primary General Studies lessons, pupils were helped to develop knowledge, generic skills, and values and attitudes (Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Therefore, essay assessment was not considered to be an essential element in the classroom assessment of General Studies. The following will explain the methods commonly employed by the co-researchers. Direct personal communication with pupils: Questioning During the interview, most co-researchers stated that they made use of questioning to assess the previous knowledge of the pupils at the beginning of the lesson. In the lesson after pupils doing various learning activities, such as observing diagrams of the world population, photos of the animals and plants, studying cases or newspaper cut-outs on different kinds of pollution in Hong Kong, they frequently asked pupils questions or discussed with the class, especially in the lower primary, to help them assess their own learning. When they had to be in a hurry to finish the lesson, they asked questions to consolidate the learning of the whole lesson. When pupils could not answer the questions or could only give partially correct answers, the co-researchers raised probing questions to help pupils learn. For example: in a video-taped lesson, a co-researcher asked her pupils, “Was the pair of scissors drawn to the magnet?” She did wait about 5 seconds for pupils to answer. When the pupil frowned, she probed, “Which part of the scissors was drawn to the magnet?” As the pupil did not provide any answer, she allowed him to sit down and asked the other pupil to answer. Usually the wait time worked well because most pupils could give correct answers with the help of the teacher or the classmates. It was also found on a video- taped lesson that the pupils were too enthusiastic that they shouted the answers without waiting for their classmate to answer. The situation was discussed with the co-researcher during the interview. She confessed that at the beginning of the teaching practice block she accepted the shout-out answers because she did not want to discourage the pupils from providing responses. Without responses from the pupils, it would be difficult to have interaction with them and collect feedback from them. After she was more acquainted with the pupils, she trained them to show respect and patience with the classmates so that everyone in the class did think about the questions and waited for the invitation to answer questions. Furthermore, when the other pupils were answering, they had to assess the answers to see whether they could provide supplements or different opinions. Afterwards, the performance of the class was very satisfactory. Most of the co-researchers remarked that they did call names to invite pupils to answer questions. Usually at the beginning of the teaching practice block, they called those who raised their hands or those at the front because they did not know the pupils well. Later, when the pupils were accustomed to their styles of teaching, they called those who did not raise their hands to answer to check their understanding and the efficacy of their teaching. Some of them could give correct answers; they had been very attentive in the lesson so they were encouraged to raise hands to answer questions. But some of them could not; the co-researchers had to ask probing questions to help them. One co-researcher reported that 148 in the middle of the teaching practice block, some who had not raised hands did put up their hands to answer, because they knew that they would be called upon during the lesson. She found it encouraging as pupils learned to take an active role in the lesson. Direct personal communication with pupils: Observation All the co-researchers did observe the pupils to assess their learning. They observed the pupils when they were answering questions, doing matching activities on the blackboard or role play, holding group discussions or doing group activities. During questioning, they observed the whole class or individual pupil to see if they should ask any probing questions to inspire the thinking of their pupils. During group activities, e.g. the classif ication activity, they circulated in the classroom, listened to the pupils, offered advice if they sought help or clarified their misconceptions. They usually provided feedback on the performance and achievement of the pupils after the group presentation or role play in order to encourage the pupils to learn effectively and continue to do well. Most co-researchers reflected that it was easier to observe individual pupil during group activities than during the whole class activities. They developed better relationship with the pupils while moving around, assessing pupils’ learning and providing them with immediate assistance. Direct personal communication with pupils: Conferences with pupils after lesson During the interview, most of the co-researchers reported that it was difficult to cater for individual differences in the whole class activities. In order to conduct the lesson smoothly, when they noticed only a few pupils had not learned the concept, they conferenced with them during recess or lunch time to assess their learning and provide immediate intervention when necessary. Selected response assessments: Doing worksheets During the interview, all the co-researchers reflected that providing worksheets to pupils was another common method to conduct formative assessment. Pupils were asked to do worksheets after doing or observing experiments during the lesson. They also completed worksheets after learning some major concepts or at the end of the lesson. Most co-researchers reported that on the worksheets they gave grades and wrote remarks to encourage pupils to do better the next time or commented on the misconception of the pupils. Only two co-researchers did not give grades or marks on the worksheets; they just wrote comments, e.g. very creative, good work, etc. They considered that would help the pupils more. Furthermore, the grades on worksheets were not counted in the formal assessment. One co-researcher stated that some of the pupils did not like to do worksheets too often. They complained, “Worksheets again!” On the reflection report, she confessed that sometimes she provided two to three worksheets in a lesson. Therefore she designed different types of assessment activities, e.g. matching activity, role play or group presentation, to assess the understanding of the pupils and pupils welcome such changes. Another co-researcher reflected that she did ask pupils to do a lot of explanation in black and white when they learned the problem of solid waste. After listening to the feedback of the pupils, she made a change by asking pupils to just present their ideas about noise pollution to the class. During the group presentation on her video-taped lesson, two pupils were 149 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms holding an A3-size sheet of paper on which major points were written while the third pupil was presenting their ideas on the solution to the noise pollution problem to the whole class. The pupils appeared to enjoy this kind of writing and presentation and the class atmosphere was very good. Performance assessments Most of the co-researchers remarked after group discussion if there was sufficient time, they invited the pupils to present their ideas to the whole class. On a video-taped lesson, pupils made use of the microphone to do their presentation and the presentations were well received by the class. When learning how to care the toys, a co-researcher asked the pupils to present their ideas in a role play. In learning the science topics, such as magnets and electricity, the pupils did the experiment and completed worksheets. Pupils also did experimental activities on f iltering the polluted water and reproduction of plants, and then they reported the results to the class. Self and peer assessment On the video-taped lessons, all the co-researchers provided pupils group discussion/work so that they could assess each others’ understanding and provide a better learning outcome, e.g. presentation. During pupils’ presentation, matching or classification work on the blackboard, the co-researchers also asked the other pupils to assess whether they would make some supplements or corrections so that all the pupils were engaged in such activities. Only one co-researcher invited pupils to fill in the self-assessment form after finishing a unit. They were asked to state the major points that they learned and what they did not understand, and evaluate their own performance in the lessons. She also invited the group leaders to conduct the peer assessment. They had to assess the performance of the group members during the group discussion. The assessment items included group members’ participation, cooperation and understanding of the discussion question and observance of discipline. The co-researcher reported that the whole class performed well during the discussion and presentation. It is trusted that in doing the self and peer assessment, pupils started to think about their learning and learn to manage themselves which helped to enhance pupils’ learning. Aligning assessment activities with learning activities All co-researchers tried to provide different learning activities to help pupils to learn the major concepts. In preparing a lesson, they first read the textbooks to check what should be taught. Then they read other textbooks and references to see what learning activities the pupils should undergo. In order to check whether the pupils learned the major concepts or not, then they aligned the assessment tasks with the learning activities. Table 1 shows the alignment of learning and assessment activities. 150 Table 1 The alignment of learning and assessment activities Learning Activities G r o u p wo r k , e . g . matching activity Group discussion Doing experiments or wa tch ing t eache r ’s demonstration O b s e r v i n g p h o t o s , pictures, diagrams or maps S t u d y i n g c a s e s / newspaper cut-outs Assessment Activities Matching activity on the b l a c k b o a r d a n d explanation to the class Pupils’ presentations or role play Doing worksheets Questioning or class discussion, or colouring the map Doing worksheets and pupils’ presentations or class discussion All the co-researchers also checked the learning of individual pupils by marking answers on worksheets, their textbooks or workbooks which were completed after doing experiments, observing the demonstration or finishing a chapter. Intervention Intervention is an important element in formative assessment. All the co-researchers remarked that when they found most of the pupils did not understand, they told other examples or cases and discussed with the class, drew a simpler map and explained to them, did another demonstration or gave hints and asked them to try again, showed other photos or newspaper cut-outs and explained once again to the pupils. They also asked them questions in order to clarify their alternative concepts. One co-researcher stated that she changed the lesson plan of the next lesson when she found most of the pupils did not grasp the major concept. Difficulties encountered when implementing formative assessment in General Studies lessons On the Reflection Reports the co-researchers stated difficulties they encountered when they carried out formative assessment activities in General Studies lessons. These include the diff iculty in assessing individual pupils, different agendas of the teacher and the pupils, classroom management problem and tight teaching schedule. Difficulty in assessing individual pupils One co-researcher stated that she often asked some pupils questions in the classroom. It was only when she marked pupils’ workbooks, she found that about one third of the class did not grasp the concept. She reported that it was diff icult to ask all the thirty-five pupils questions and assess their learning in a lesson of thirty minutes. Several co-researchers remarked that they noticed that some pupils did not participate in the group discussion even when they had urged them to take part in the group activities. These pupils might be intimidated by the more assertive pupils, therefore the group report was only the contribution of some active members and it did not effectively assess the learning of the other pupils. Sometimes, they were busy in managing the class and helping some other active pupils. Thus, they were not sure whether each pupil of the group understood and heavily depended on the worksheets to assess the learning of individual pupils. 151 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms Different agendas of the teacher and the pupils During the interview, one co-researcher reported that during recess one girl told her that she preferred to sit in her place and listen to the teacher. Another co- researcher also stated that some of her pupils did not like the activities and complained that their classmates were too noisy in doing the activities. These pupils of upper primary were accustomed to the traditional way of learning - listening attentively to the teacher to “receive” knowledge and work hard to complete the workbooks. They considered that was all that they had to do to be good pupils. It was witnessed from a video- taped lesson, the pupils were very excited and noisy in making a periscope. According to the experience of the co-researcher, the noise level was acceptable but the pupils might not be accustomed to these kinds of learning and assessment activities. Classroom management problem and tight teaching schedule Several co-researchers stated that the classroom management problem and the tight teaching schedule affected the implementation of assessment activities. They found it difficult to manage thirty five pupils in the classroom. All co-researchers remarked that the major difficulty was the time constraint. They found that they had to be in a hurry in order to finish the topics assigned by the Supporting Teachers because it took time to allow pupils to do different learning and assessment activities. Therefore, it is not surprising that only one co-researcher invited pupils to fill in the self and peer assessment form after f inishing a unit. One co- researcher remarked that because of the tight teaching schedule and his inexperience in time management in the classroom, by the end of the teaching practice block some major teaching points on the textbook were just told to the pupils and only a few questions were raised to assess pupils’ learning. Feedback from pupils When interviewed by the co-researchers, most pupils could tell the major topics that they learned in the lessons. They all claimed that they liked General Studies lessons because there were different types of activities in the lesson, e.g. group discussion and presentation, doing experiments, etc. In all the video-taped lessons, most pupils actively participated in various activities, such as doing experimental activities or class discussion. Some pupils claimed that they understood the lesson because they could answer the questions raised by the teacher. Some said that when they had revision with their mothers at home, they could answer the questions. Most of the pupils remarked that the questions raised by teachers helped them to think, to know more about the lesson, and to be brave and to have more confidence in answering questions. When they did not know the answers, the teachers helped them or asked others to answer. Some pupils disliked writing too much but enjoyed different designs of activities on the worksheets. IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION This paper reports the implementation of formative assessment in General Studies lessons by the student teachers, the co-researchers of this study, during their teaching practice in local primary schools. When they planned the lessons, they aligned assessment activities with learning objectives and activities. The assessment 152 activities included direct personal communication with pupils, selected response assessment, performance assessment, self-assessment and peer assessment. Most co-researchers admitted that they became more aware of the effectiveness of the learning of the pupils when they implemented formative assessment in their day to day teaching in the classrooms. Although formative assessment was advocated in the education reform documents as the essential element in learning and teaching, difficulties encountered by the co-researchers illustrate that conducting this new assessment practice is not a simple or easy task. In order to make the implementation, first of all, there should be reform in pedagogy and curriculum as formative classroom assessment is learner-centred (Boyd, 2001). Thus, The practice of school-based curriculum, which was advocated in the education documents, may be adopted so that the rich content of General Studies may be trimmed down according to the abilities and needs of the pupils. Then in the lesson, teachers can provide pupils with various learning activities in line with the inquiry approach (Curriculum Development Council, 2002), have more interaction with the pupils, and carry out different assessment tasks to evaluate individual pupils not only on knowledge and understanding but also on skills, values and attitudes (the Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Furthermore, teachers should also be empowered to have the freedom and flexibility to make adjustment to the ‘agreed’ teaching schedule so that they can take interventions or re-design the lessons according to the information collected in order to enhance the learning of the pupils. Therefore, such educational change cannot be implemented successfully by individual subject teacher in the school. As professed by all the co-researchers that they did not have the knowledge and experience of formative assessment in their previous education, all the subject teachers should be supported by different staff development programmes so that they may receive on-going support from experts to learn and challenge the conceptual bases behind intended reforms (Shepherd, 1995) and re-visit their views and beliefs about their role in the classroom. When they have the shared vision to promote the learning of the pupils who should play an active role in the learning process, they may plan the implementation with great care and thus make the implementation successful. “Schools should have the culture that there is joint lesson preparation in alignment of learning, teaching and assessment. Teachers worked together to decide the major teaching points to be covered, design worksheets to assess the learning of pupils,” remarked by a co-researcher who witnessed the teachers preparing lessons together during her teaching practice. Black and Wiliam (1998b) highlighted that the success of formative assessment needs the contribution of all teachers. Secondly, when formative assessment is accepted and to be implemented by all teachers in a school, school heads and teachers should educate the pupils about the major characteristics of formative assessment, especially their role in the process of learning. Thus, as the pupils proclaimed in the present study, they not only enjoy and learn through the different activities in the lesson, they also realize an active role in their own learning. In the lesson, teachers should also inform pupils the learning goals of different activities and to discuss with them the criterion of good work or show them the exemplars of good learning outcomes. Then pupils know how to take the initiative to learn and answer questions during class discussion, do the worksheets and co- operate with their peers in various group work. Furthermore, after receiving quality feedback on learning from teachers, pupils can make adjustment to 153 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms their learning approaches or skills so that they can learn better and f ill the gap between their cur rent understanding and the desired level. Gradually, pupils may change their mindset and become an active agent in the learning process. They may see the benefits they receive from the practice of self and peer assessment, not just by filling in the assessment forms but also during the group work/presentation, and some assessment activities on the blackboard. In this way, assessment becomes an integral part of the learning-teaching- assessment cycle (the Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Thus, the effectiveness of implementation of formative assessment depends on the involvement of different agents in the school, i.e. teachers, school heads and pupils. As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the implementation is not a simple or easy job, teachers may work together to conduct the action research to study the abilities and needs of their pupils, their implementation practice, the diff iculties they encountered in their classrooms or school context. Then they can make improvement accordingly, and share their experience with other subject teachers when they start to conduct formative assessment in their own subjects. References Bell, B. & Cowie, B. (2001). Formative Assessment and Science Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in Education, 5 (1), 7-71. 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Retrieved 8th November, 2003 0n the World Wide Web. http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/ Ridgway, J. (1998). From Barrier to Lever: Revising Roles for Assessment in Mathematic Education. National Institute for Science Education, Vol. 2, No.1, 1-8. Shepard, L.A. (1992). ‘Commentary: What Policy Makers Who Mandate Tests Should Know about the New Psychology of Intellectual Ability and Learning’. In Gifford, B.R. and O’Connor, M.C. (Eds.) Changing Assessments: Alternative Views of Aptitude, Achievement and Instruction. Boston and Dordrecht: Kluweer, pp.301-28. Shepherd, L.A. (1995). Using Assessment to Improve Learning. Educational Leadership, 54, no.5 (1995): 38-43. Simpson, Leanne R. (1988). Aboriginal Peoples and the Environment. Canadian Journal of Native Education, v.22 (2), pp.223-237. Stiggins, R.J. (2001). Student-involved Classroom Assessment. Merrill Prentice Hall: USA. Sutton, R. (1995). Assessment for Learning. Salford, England: RS Publications. Tandon, R. (1988). Social Transformation and Participatory Research. Convergence, v21, n2-3, pp. 5-18.. Torrance, H. (1993). Formative Assessment - Some Theoretical Problems and Empirical Questions. Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol.23, No. 3, 333-343. Trimarchi, R. (2002). Drawing Quiet Voices, The Science Teacher. American Science Teachers Association. 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思賴柏生、胡少偉香港教育學院摘要現代公民的發展，重視公民的積極民主參與，學校公民教育亦逐漸以主動公民取代被動公民的教育。香港回歸後的學校公民教育政策，開展公民積極參與的學習環境和機會，學校開始重視有選舉性參與的學生會活動。本文嘗試從探討學校學生會選舉，了解香港學校「參與性公民」教育的發展，並指出其中困難所在。 155 引言九七回歸後的香港，學校公民教育肩負發展新時期本土公民的責任，並協助塑造香港特區市民的身份。新公民建基於國家根本，伸展到整個國際社會，能夠適應社會向知識型社會的轉型和經濟全球一體化的發展。新公民的未來發展方向會是主動公民(active citizen)的參與性民主(participatory democracy)教育。在公民參與的學習中，有選舉成分的學生會活動是學校公民教育非正規課程的主要組成部分。本文嘗試從探討學校學生會的選舉參與 (electoral participation)，了解香港學校參與性公民(Participatory citizenship)教育的發展。參與性公民的概念 Dividson (1997) 指出全球化下的公民發展，分殊治理 (management of diversity) 是公共參與的重點，民主參與不再只局限於社會或國家層次的代表性民主制度 (representative democracy)，只靠定期選舉(periodic election)的民主參與，被認為過於被動和力量微弱，此種被動公民( p a s s i v e citizenship)的參與不再適合於高流動、高動力的後工業社會的發展需要。Dividson認為社會應容許市民參與影響他們日常生活的公共事務，政府需要開放和下放公共政策權力到個人生活的層次。為使公共服務更能有效滿足他們的個別需求，市民的公共參與要能夠發揮常日公投(e v e r y d a y plebiscite) 的效能。換言之，社會需要積極開展並實踐主動公民(active citizenship)的參與性民主，否則不能滿足地方社會朝向國際化和全球化的發展和競爭。 Sandercock (1998) 和 Sassen(1996) 相信在現今的自由民主大都會社會，當地政府須要確保每個人擁有平等使用城市空間的權利(right to public space)，他們在現有的法律制度下，自由組合，通過積極的公共參與，爭取最大使用城市的政治空間，用以改善他們居住的社區和個人生活質素。所以全球化下的新社會，如要人、貨、財的流通暢通無阻，便需要擴大民主參與到公民個人生活的公共事務的層次上，以確保他們能夠自由選擇每人喜愛的生活和文化方式的權利(Kress, 1996) 。簡而言之，今天的公民教育應是參與性公民的教育。在學校實踐方面，Print等(2002)指出學生會是學生學習民主參與的重要場所，學校的民主文 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 156 化和環境，例如，學校是否願意開放決策權力讓學生參與部分學校事務，直接影響參與性公民教育的發展。Print等(2002)認為北歐的丹麥透過立法，規定學校成立有選舉成分的學生會是進步的措施，學校的民主教育不單能夠確保學生體驗民主參與的機會和權利，更幫助學生認識負責任的公民參與的重要及更能夠鞏固丹麥民主政治體制的跨代發展。香港參與性公民教育的課程發展自八零年初至今，香港學校的參與性公民教育，無論在知識、方法和態度方面的教學，都出現明顯的改變 (見《表一》)。一九九九年，特區政府在《廿一世紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度檢討》的諮詢文件中，提出教育要培育一群對社會、國家、民族作出承擔和面向國際社會的國民。《教育目標諮詢文件》(教育統籌委員會，1999)期望教育能推展香港的政治發展，包括民主的發展和協助完成國家建設的工作： \" 回歸祖國代表了香港人的中國國民身份得到確認，我們的青年人需要多認識祖國的文化、現況和未來的發展，在「一國兩制」及「港人治港」的大原則下，充分發揮香港獨特的地理和政治特色，兼收中西文化所長，建立一個面向世界、有深厚文化基礎、團結、自由和民主的社會。\"（頁9）自香港政治過渡開始後，學校公民教育有關參與性公民理念的發展，出現漸進式改進。八五年，政府發出《學校公民教育指引》(《85指引》) ，宣示學校課程需要加入民主教育，可惜較多學校教學卻充斥非政治化(de-politicization)和德育化 (moralization) 的意識和舉動(Leung,1997；Morris & Chan, 1997)，忽視民主政治在民族國家公民發展的深層意義和價值，公民教育未能幫助學生處理複雜的政治轉變、建立正確的態度和認識民主與國家主權的關係，也解決不到民主追求與國家統一的矛盾及其引發的政治衝突。九六年，政府頒發新的《學校公民教育指引》(《96指引》)，修正過往的偏執，嘗試從國家本位和世界格局入手，重新定義香港公民，指出現今的公民發展，民主參與和其他政治價值，包括國家民族主權和統一、國際化等是互相依存的關係，需要適當平衡。二零零零年的《香港教育制度改革》報告書(《教改》) 進一步深化參與性公民的教育，指出在全球化的世界格局下，每一獨立主權的政治社會在朝向開放的知識型社會的發展時，民主參與是必不可少的。報告書並鼓勵學校開設獨立的公民科及在非正規課程中，成立有選舉參與的學生會，培育學生成為由具民主公民能力和熱愛他們學習及成長的學校社區，從而擴大到關心香港的社會。香港參與性公民的發展，在「一國兩制」的政治框架下，傾向選取以公民多向( m u l t i - dimensional citizenship) (Cogan, 1997) 的公民發展模式，參與性民主政治定位於維持國家的領土完整和主權統一 (He & Guo, 2000)之下，公民的民主不能高於國家主權，參與性公民的分殊管理，需要服膺於對民族國家的認同和承擔。故此學校施行公民教育時，避免直接觸及民主與國家統一的矛盾關係，民主和愛國主義的教育多分開處理，例如：學生會選舉參與的學習，多集中學生公民民主能力的培育，而不會涉及愛國主義教育的課題。 157 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思表一：課程革新（公民教育）（摘錄自：賴柏生（付印中），香港學校的課程革新、公民教育與公民的發展：一個社會學的分析）（供公民教育部分參考）摘錄自：香港課程發展議會（1985）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（1996）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。教育統籌委員會（2000）。《廿一紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度改革建議》。香港，政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習：課程發展路向》。香港，政府印務局。 158 學校參與性公民學習的施行香港大多數中學施行公民教育時採用跨科目 (cross disciplinary)和全校參與的策略 (whole-school approach)，亦透過正規課程、非正規課程和隱蔽課程的學習，三者並行兼用，相互補充。學生會的選舉參與，是學校參與性公民教育非正規課程的主要學習活動。香港在八十年代正式進入政治過渡的時期，學校開始重視學生會民主公民參與的學習，紛紛成立有選舉參與的學生會，教育學生自我管治的能力，為將來「一國兩制」、「港人治港」、「高度自治」培育愛國愛港的良好公民和管治人才。香港自開埠到八四年期間，衹有約20%的中學成立有學生會，但自八四年到九七年回歸時，有學生會的學校數目已增加至 52% (教育署，2000) 。二零零一年的《課程發展路向》報告書 (《課改》) 建議改變過往「知識學習」的路向，開始著重「生活事件」和「學習者為中心」的教學，「專題研習」與「閱讀中學習」兩者並重，學校生活實踐的學習，如學生會的選舉參與等，逐漸成為參與性公民學習的重要媒介。隨著《教改》和《課改》的校本化，香港社會如何落實廿一世紀「整體教育目標」的公民教育，取決於個別學校的辦學理念、學校政策、傳統文化及專業教師的協作，透過對檢視學校如何施行學生會的選舉參與，我們可以深入了解學校參與性公民教育的情況和問題。從學生會選舉看參與性公民教育的隱憂學生會的選舉參與，是學校每年最大規模和最受重視的參與性公民學習活動。學校的學生會競選活動，多在學年初段進行，時間會長達一整個月。高年級同學 (主要是中六同學，部分來自中四年級) 聯結志同道合之士，籌組班子，競逐學生會各執事職位。重要的競選活動是候選內閣向學校同學介紹他們的計劃或政綱。學生會會長及幹事多透過直接選舉產生。學校在選舉日會儘量協助投票順利完成，安排時間、場地，讓全體同學選出他們的學生會會長和幹事。學生會的監議組織 (代表會或監議會) 隨後亦會產生，成員多由間接選舉選出，候選同學主要來自各個學會、會社的領導代表。一般而言，學生會肩負統籌及協調各個學生組織的活動，多會採用協商及妥協方式解決會社間的糾紛和衝突。另方面，學生會代表會出席部分校方常設的校政會議，代表同學向校方反映和表達意見。賴、胡( 2 0 0 3 )以人種誌學 (ethnography)的方法去深入訪問一所有廿多年歷史的津貼中學，跟學生會的領導同學進行了聚焦性小組面談(focus-group discussion)，談論他們對學校學生會的歷史發展、現行操作、與學校的關係和個人體驗等，發現學生會參與性公民的學習，偏重精英化民主領袖的訓練、強化精英化民主的意識(democratic elitism)和代表性民主的公民參與： \"學生會會長級領導全由高年級同學出任，他們在學業成績上，不論是原校生或是外來生，都是出類拔萃的同學。他們經過艱辛的競選活動，成功當選的，同學會非常珍惜他們的成就；落選的同學亦會受到學校的禮待和器重。學校會主動與他們建立良好的工作關係，透過常設機構和顧問老師，就學生日常有關的問題，向學生會或同學代表接觸和磋商。學校民選的學生會代表制配合委任的領袖生制度，建構出整套學生精英的制度，基礎穩固，行之有效，效率奇佳。 \" (賴、胡，2003，頁163) \"對(同學)個人來說，投身學生會工作，爭取表現，鍛鍊自己，無論勝敗得失，都會是寶貴的公民學習經歷，能夠幫助他們加深認識和了解作為民主領袖所需的基本知識、技能和 159 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思態度。他們認為課本學習和課堂學習提供不到這些寶貴的經驗。例如：參與競選學生會職位的同學，尤其外來生，深刻體會空有服務熱誠未必成事；老師、同學等群體的支持和信任方是先要條件。作為民選領袖，他們需要清楚認識個人的知名度、同學的需求和學校的期望。他們要有領袖的魅力、組織能力和決斷力。 \" (賴、胡，2003，頁163 -164) 但是，在新公民思維的學者眼中，大部份學生的公共參與機會受到精英制度的限制或剝削，例如：有學校不接受中一同學在學生會選舉中投票選取他們的學生會幹事(賴柏生，2001)。在開放、自由、民主、發展的知識型社會下的公共事務治理，民眾需要「代表」，不需要「代辦」，更需要直接和理性的參與。學校應該提供相應的機會讓普通同學學習公民的參與，讓他們在參與日常學校事務中學識運用基本的公民權利和應盡的義務，讓學生體驗民眾常日公投(e v e r y d a y plebiscite)的力量。學校要教育學生建立主動公民的參與觀念，確保他們會於未來實踐公民的參與，能夠取得個人與社會的雙贏發展。簡言之，學校公民教育需要與時並進，提倡精英(elite)、民眾(mass)共同參與的公民教育，新世代的參與性公民教育是精英與民眾的政治教育，學校需要兩者平衡兼顧，不可偏執。作為非正規課程的學習，學生會的選舉參與存在一定的問題。首先，學校未有發展參與性公民的開放民主氣氛和管理風格(Leung,1997)。謝均才(1999) 指出權威的學校組織和管理削弱民主的教育，在階層化的科層治事架構下，學生會的代表性和自主性存有相當多的限制；學生校政的參與，流於形式。另方面，學生會活動在傳統的課堂學習觀念下，未被視為正常的學習，它的學習價值和地位常被忽視和矮化。同學視學生會活動為學科學習以外的學習；家長將之看待為課餘的興趣活動，課堂學習是正業，其他學習皆為次。在勤讀為尚、考取功名(大學學位) 為大的學習氣氛下，同學在參與學生會活動的同時，多憂慮耽誤學業，心理負擔很大，他們大都恐懼日後成績真的變壞，會招致父母責難，或後悔自責。此外，賴、胡(2003) 指出， \"學生會選舉參與的公民學習是開放式的學習，學習環境不全受督導老師的控制，老師未必能夠有效防止負面的學生學習經歷和學習成果\" (頁 162)，例如：(一)同學常會強烈感覺\"校方的干預\"，不滿負責老師的\"專權\"和\"偏私\"；感覺學校對他們信任不足，不太願意開放校政，不希望他們過多的參與；(二)在醞釀組閣競選及競選期間，同學個人心理和同儕關係變得複雜，同學之間會產生猜疑，他們有時感覺適應不來。有同學承認，若果處理欠妥善，會出現\"後遺症\"，影響同學間的關係；(三)當選後的學生會工作，幹事會同學有時感到\"無助和氣餒\"。他們發現同學選舉熱潮過後，參與冷感、逃避和欠缺承擔。他們大都對學生會事務漠不關心，對學生會舉辦的活動，欠缺支持和參與。有幹事會同學埋怨有\"被出賣\"的感覺。因此假如學校和社會不改變課堂學習的傳統觀念，及重新確立非正規課程的學習價值和地位，會嚴重影響著重生活實踐的參與性公民教育的正面發展。學校參與性公民教育的前路九七回歸後，香港進行教育制度改革，培育新公民是未來學校教育發展重點之一。《教改》、《課改》啟動校本改革，《96指引》倡議參與性公民的教學，用以迎接回歸後的政治整合、未來知識型社會的發展以及全球一體化的挑戰。學校學生會的選舉參與學習，逐漸發展成為正規課程以外一重要的公民學習經歷。但從我們的觀察，現時很多學校的參與性公民教育仍落後於時代發展的需要：(一)參與性公民的課程內容、教學重點，連接不上《教改》、《課改》對社會新公民的要求。學校仍然偏重被動的代表性民主的培育，窒礙了 160 主動公民的參與性民主發展；(二)學生會選舉參與的重要性未被學校和教師充分理解，影響以非正規課程為主的參與性公民學習，確保不了學習成效，影響香港學校參與性公民教育的發展。香港的中學應與時並進，改革課程使顯性和隱性課程相結合，加強生活活動的學習，把學生會選舉參與的實踐活動，引入課堂學習部分，如專題報告、個人或小組反思及分享等。另外，學校需要讓負責公民教育的教師接受在職進修，使能充分掌握參與性社會的政治發展，及以正面、開放的態度看待學生學習主動公民參與的活動。學校可以借鑑丹麥學校公民教育的發展模式，開放更多渠道讓學生參與學校事務，使學生會更能發揮參與性公民學習的功能。香港未來的建造，如要與國際社會融合，在全球一體化的競爭下發展，香港學校需要進一步提倡及培育參與性公民的教育，重新建立以《96 指引》和《教改》為藍本的參與性公民教育，發展如Dividson (1997) 所言的公共事務公民直接參與的特質，藉此培育年青人成為富參與性、具包容性及國際視野的新公民。參考書目教育統籌委員會(1999)。《廿一紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度檢討：教育目標諮詢文件》。香港，政府印務局。教育統籌委員會(2000)。《廿一紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度改革建議》。香港，政府印務局。教育署(2000)。中學的學生會：http://www.info.gov.hk/ed/statisti/graphics/chi/edin7c.jpg. 香港課程發展議會（1985）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（1996）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（2001）。《課程發展路向 — 學會學習》。香港，政府印務局。謝均才（1999）。〈香港學校公民教育的實施：問題與課題〉，《青年研究學報》，2(1) ，頁177-186。賴柏生(2001) 。〈學校公民教育與學生民主素質〉，載於香港教育工作者聯會編《青少年成長與家庭、社會和學校教育》(香港，三聯書店)，頁65-7。賴柏生(付印中)。《香港學校的課程革新、公民教育與公民的發展：一個社會學的分析》。賴柏生、胡少偉(2003) 。〈民主公民與學校公民教育：初探香港學校學生會的公民學習〉，《青年研究學報》，6(1) ，頁158-165。 Cogan, J.J. (1997). Multidimensional Citizenship: Educational Policy for the 21st Century. An Executive Summary of the Citizenship Education Policy Study, funded by the Sasakawa Peace Foundation. Tokyo, Japan. Dividson (1997). From Subject to Citizen: Australian Citizenship in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. He, B.G. & Guo, Y.J. (2000). Nationalism, National Identity and Democratization in China. Aldershot: Ashgate. Kress (1996). Internationalization and Globalization: Rethinking a Curriculum of Communication, Comparative Education, 32(2): 185-196. Leung, S.W. (1997). The Making of An Alienated Generation: The Political Socialization of Secondary School Students in Transitional Hong Kong. Aldershot: Ashgate. 161 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思 Morris, P. & Chan, K.K. (1997). The Hong Kong School Curriculum and the Political Transition: Politicization, Contextualization and Symbolic Action. In M. Bray & W.O. Lee, Education and Political Transition: Implications of Hong Kong's Change of Sovereignty (pp.101-118), Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong. Print, M., Ornstrom, S. & Nielsen, H. (2002). Education for Democratic Processes in Schools and Classroom. European Journal of Education, 37(2): 193-210. Sandercock, L. (1998). Towards Cosmospolis: Planning for Multicultural Cities. Chichester. New York: Wiely. Sassen, S. (1996). Cities and Communities in the Global Economy: Rethinking Our Concepts. American Behavioural Scientist, 39: 629-39. 162 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長 The Importance of Mentoring in the Professional Development of Kindergarten Practitioners 歐凱鑫聖羅撒幼稚園摘要本文旨在探討師徒制對幼兒教育工作者專業發展的重要性。筆者因應一次當上啟導教師的經歷，分析師徒制的影響因素，檢討成效，並提出具體建議，以鼓勵本港幼教機構嘗試和實踐師徒制，從而促進香港幼兒教育發展。 Abstract This paper discusses the importance of mentoring in the professional development of kindergarten student teachers and mentor teachers. The paper identifies some key factors that influence successful mentoring and suggests ways that kindergarten practitioners could put into practice. The paper aims to encourage practitioners in early childhood settings to practise mentoring in order to contribute to the development of Hong Kong's early childhood education. 導言教學啟導體現師徒制(mentoring)，它建基於啟導教師(mentor)與啟導學員(protege)的夥伴合作關係，可以促進教師效能及學生學習(Smith&West- Burnham Eds, 1993；Wilkin, 1992)，應用於幼兒教育，有助提升幼兒教育學與教的成效(Y i p , 1999；葉香玲，2000)。筆者於二零零三年首次當上香港教育學院的啟導教師，指導一名在我校實習的學生，為期七周。本文建基該次啟導經驗，探討啟導經驗如何促進實習教師及啟導教師的個人專業成長，引証文獻的理念。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 163 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長理念架構教學啟導建基於師徒制，學者 And e r s o n & Shannon (1988)指出，學界對師徒制的理解不一。他們對師徒制的定義如下：「(師徒制)是培育的過程，由較具經驗及技能者作為榜樣，對經驗及技能較淺的同工給予教導、支持、鼓勵，輔導，視之如朋友，目的是提升後者的專業與個人發展。師徒制的成效，建基於啟導者對學員毫不間斷的關懷。」(筆者譯) 引文指出啟導教師是實習教師的「榜樣」，這正是香港教育學院啟導課程提及的「楷模」角色。圖一顯示啟導教師身兼七個角色：以上七個角色，我在啟導過程中全部實踐了。教學啟導有賴啟導教師與實習教師共同付出，它為雙方提供學習、反思的機會，有助個人成長，也有助不斷提升教學效能，為學生提供高素質的學習，達致專業成長 (Killion, 1990；李婉玲，2002)。啟導經驗對實習教師的影響促進實習教師的專業成長 Gordon & Maxey (2002) 指出，初任教師的困難來自疏離、角色轉變、工作艱辛、指引不清、支援不足等。我關顧的實習教師首次來校面談，亦表示上述憂慮，教學啟導正可助她克服困難。為免實習教師有疏離感，我發揮朋友角色。我待她如好友，向她主動提供精神支援，例如：與她一起午膳，協助她融入學校環境。此外，我擔當輔導者角色，給予勉勵，例如：觀課一天前，我與她分享自己首次接受觀課的經驗和心情，減輕她的焦慮。實習教師獲得心理支持，有助她投入實習工作，提升專業效能。教學方面，實習教師亦獲得支援。由於她缺乏教學經驗、技巧不熟練，我擔當楷模角色，作為她的教學借鏡。例如：首三天實習，她觀察我上課，從中學習和反思，改善她的教學信念與方法。整個啟導過程，我擔當輔助學習者與專業同儕角色。我向實習教師提供具體建議，例如：她要教授非典型肺炎的常識，我提供網址及小冊子，協助她備課。實習教師得以解決教學疑難，逐步提升教學能力。為求更有效幫助實習教師，我擔任觀察者與批判者角色。我進行觀課，觀課前、後均安排會談，並作會談紀錄。會談時，我多作引導、善用提問，留心用語，這使實習教師更能得益 (薛添信等，2002)。觀課一天前會談，我向她展示觀課表現評核表，讓她明白觀課目的和要求；從她提交的教案，我得知課節安排，並就此給予意見，師徒共同討論。觀課後，我們隨即進行會談，就課堂的表現詳細討論，實習教師可作澄清及提問，而我可給予回饋，師徒共同分析，有助提升教學效能。圖一啟導教師角色 (香港教育學院，2003) 164 觀課活動讓我體現觀察者與批判者角色，實習教師獲得具體建議及反思機會。觀課結束後，實習教師即日就課節表現，撰寫檢討與反思日誌。透過反思，她可以檢討自己的表現，從中改進教學方法，並掌握評鑑課堂表現的方法，日後可評核自己的表現。這些經驗為實習教師投身教師事業作好準備，有助她專業成長。促進實習教師的個人成長啟導經驗讓實習教師經歷角色轉變。這是她首次到學校工作，由學生變成教師，要學習履行教師的職責。此外，她面對陌生環境，要學習適應，要學習如何化解困難；縱使她選擇向我求助，也要思考場合、措辭、禮儀等。對實習教師而言，啟導過程讓她體驗現實校園工作環境，學習新的生活態度與技能。角色轉變使實習教師清楚幼稚園的實際運作。啟導前，她對這方面的認識，來自書本、傳媒、師長和親友。今次她走進校園，參予日常教學及行政工作，工作日程與全職教師無異，並與前線教師交流，可以引証所學知識。這些全新體驗，讓實習教師增廣見聞、刺激思考，有助她個人成長。啟導經驗對啟導教師的影響促進啟導教師的專業成長教學啟導除了有利實習教師外，亦有助啟導教師專業及個人成長。專業成長方面，我首次當上啟導教師，香港教育學院提供十八小時專業課程，探討啟導教師必備技能，包括溝通技巧、會談技巧、觀課技巧、教學分析評鑑技巧等。這些知識和技能，既可促進啟導成效，也可拓展我的眼界。在日常教學及行政工作，可以發揮所學，提升專業水平。我任職幼師至今九年，本以為經驗豐富。與實習教師接觸前，沒有期望從這名「老師」身上學到半點東西。然而對她加深認識後，我卻徹底改觀。雖然她的專業知識和技巧有待改進，但是她認真備課，仔細編寫教案，積極搜集教具，處處表現敬業樂業的精神。為了加深幼兒對抗炎方法的知識，她自製彩色精美的抗炎紙板作為教具，幼兒反應甚佳。可見她亦有可取的教學技巧，可供我學習。與實習老師相處，我獲得很多啟發。觀課前，我仔細思考一節出色課節的要素，以便評核實習老師的表現。觀課後，我思量若自己是授課者，我會怎樣教授相同課節？如何改進？我回想以往處理課節的手法，並與實習教師表現互相比較。她的教學亦有可作參考之處，例如：構思傳染病的主題網，她的設計與我任職學校的原有設計不相同，但是各有千秋。她的教學產出：學生作品，絕不遜色於我任教的學生，也令我反思自己教學的成果。觀課後，我回家把她的教學錄影反覆細看，獲益良多。啟導教師角色為我帶來同儕學習的機會，培養我對教學工作的反思能力，讓我有機會思考優劣、得失，謀求改善之道，促進我專業成長 (羅厚輝等，1997) 。促進啟導教師的個人成長從實習教師身上學到很多新見解和技巧。由於師徒制要求啟導教師對實習教師採取尊重和包容的態度，所以我變得樂於接受新嘗試，培養廣闊的胸襟和尊重別人的態度。我身為啟導教師，職責上必須樂於協助實習教師，這使我的思想和性格產生改變。以前我較被動，但是啟導開始後，我逐漸變得主動友善待人，這有助我改善人際關係，使我與校內及校外人士增進友誼，促進個人成長。 165 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長檢討與建議是次教學啟導存在兩個困難：第一個困難是時間不足。教學啟導適逢非典型肺炎肆虐，任教學校因此停課。這大大打亂啟導日程，其中實習教師到校觀摩導師授課的時間，縮短為三日。她在三月二十四至三月二十六日來校觀摩後，直至五月十九日才繼續進行啟導，中間相隔甚久。啟導未能連貫，不免影響成效。此外，日常學校工作繁重，師徒難以騰出時間詳細討論。面對時間不足，只能設法有效運用時間。停課期間，我透過電話與電郵，主動聯絡實習教師，詢問是否需要協助。復課後，我在午膳時間，主動坐近她的身旁，爭取時間分享。此外，我跟她協議在下班後留校討論，觀課前、後的會談正是如此。利用有限的時間發揮最大效益，這是我進行啟導的願望。第二個困難是實習教師在啟導過程欠缺主動。停課期間，我主動聯絡實習教師，她卻顯得較被動，沒有向我尋求協助。在校內，她的表現沉默，很少跟啟導教師以外的同工談話交流，未能爭取前線教師的額外支援。面對實習教師表現被動，我更加提醒自己要貫徹主動、友善的態度，打破隔膜，不斷向她施以援手，希望她終能打開心扉。我做好本份，無奈她的反應始終未如我所願，有時難免洩氣。只有寄望實習教師明白及認同啟導的價值，主動為自己個人與專業成長而付出努力。成功的師徒關係，建基於啟導者與學員的共同投入參予，缺一不可 (Gehrke, 1988)。結語除了大專院校與幼稚園合作層面外，幼稚園可以實行校本師徒制，讓校內教師互相借鏡，使師徒制成為校本教師發展的策略。我嘗試把這次啟導經驗總結為圖二：正如圖二顯示，教學啟導兼具學習與反思兩個功能，透過啟導教師與實習教師互相激勵，有利雙方個人與專業成長，塑造雙方為終身學習者，既提升學校效能，也提升幼兒教育學與教的成效。然而這並非單向發展，而是雙向回饋。教育領域環環緊扣，師徒制讓教師、學校與教育三者均提升效能，營造優良的學習文化，有助促進幼兒教育學與教的成效。圖二啟導經驗總結 166 參考書目李婉玲 (2002)。《顧問教師的角色 — 促進教師專業的成長》。香港：香港教育學院，教學啟導課程研討會提綱。香港教育學院 (2003)。《教學啟導教師課程講義》。香港：香港教育學院。葉香玲 (2000)。《採用師徒式促進優質幼兒教育》。香港：香港教育學院。薛添信、蘇秀冠、陳維疆等 (2002)。《優質教學視導導師手冊》。香港：香港大學出版社。羅厚輝、陳鄭佩華、謝陳寶華、黃葉香玲 (1997)。《「同儕視學」在發展幼兒教師「反思」能力的角色》，載《教育曙光》。香港：香港教師會。 Anderson, M. E. & Shannon, A. L. (1988). Toward a Conceptualization of Mentoring. Journal of Teacher Education, 39: 38-42. Gehrke, N.J. (1988). On Preserving the Essence of Mentoring as One Form of Teacher Leadership. Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1): 43-45. Gordon, S.P. & Maxey, S. (2000). How to Help Beginning Teachers Succeed. Alexandra, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Killion, J.P. (1990). The Benefits of an Induction Program for Experienced Teachers. Journal of Staff Development, 11 (4): 32-36. Smith, P. & West-Burnham, J. (Eds) (1993). Mentoring in the Effective School. Harlow: Longman. Wilkin, Margaret (1992). Mentoring in Schools. London: Kogan Page. Yip, Heung Ling (1999). A Study of Kindergarten Principals as Mentors for Initial Teacher Education. Unpublished MEd Thesis. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 5 (2006)

Category: Documents香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal 第五卷 Volume Five 教育統籌局 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 5 = !\"# = !\"# NV !\"#$%&'( NtNMS !\"#$ fppk=NSUOJUVUQ ! OMMS Publisher Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Address W106, 1/F, Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon International ISSN 1682-8984 Standard Serial Number Year of Publishing 2006 ===== !\"#$ ! NVUQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 NVUT !\"#$%&'()*+ NV= !\"#$%&'( NtNMS !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@'ABCD !\"#$%&'()*+,-$./0123456$789-:;<=>?@AB !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012-.345 !\"#$%&'()*$%+,-./0123$% 456+,789:$% !\"#$%&!\"'()*+,-.!\"/012+,34/0156,#$789 !\"#$%&'()* !\"+,-./012 !\"#$% !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,&'- ./012 TO !\"#$%PR !\"#$%&'()PR !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'#( !\"# !\" !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-./012345\"6 !\"#$%&'()$%*+,\"#$%&'()$%-./012345'(67 !\"#$%&'()*+,$%&-.)/0#$%&'(1 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !./012\"#345\"#367\"#389: !\"#$%& !'()*+ !,- !./01234.50, !\"#$%&'() !*+,-./+01$%&234567489:; !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABC: !\"#$%\"#&'()*+,-(./01234$%56789:;<- !\"#$%&'()*&'+,-.!\"/0123456789:;-<&'= !\"# á Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Centre) was established in 1987 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. Now, it is located at W106, 1/F, Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of in-service education; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the provision of resources; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations or teaching-related organisations; 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers; and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education and Manpower. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to-day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairman and 2 Vice Chairmen, the 2 EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) representatives, and 10 other members elected by and from the AMC. The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Publication, Promotion, Activities, Constitution and Membership, Educational Research and Professional Development. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to HKTC is convenient for the visitors. HKTC is located inside the EMB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the Kowloon Tong MTR / East Rail Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibus. We have a number of multi-media plus broadband workstations, self-service xerox machines, electronic journals, educational journal collection, reading area, and display-boards. Moreover, multi-purpose meeting rooms and conference rooms for organising seminars, workshops, meetings are available at the Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the HKTC Centre. áá ======= Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$%&' !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,%&-./ ! !\"#$% !\"#$%&'() ! !\"#$%&'()*+,+-./0+,*12345' !\"#$ ! !\"#$%&'( The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an official publication of the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre. It is published once a year. The HKTC Journal publishes action research reports and original contributions on areas of education. Contributors are mainly teachers, teacher educators, educational researchers and scholars from local and overseas communities. The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. ! (Board of Advisors) Christopher Day University of Nottingham, UK Andy Hargreaves Boston College Lee Wing On !\" The University of Sydney Mok Ka Ho !\" University of Bristol Peter W. Hill Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Paul Morris Hong Kong Institute of Education Shan Wen Jing !\" University of Macau Tan Eng Thye, Jason Singapore National Institute of Education Gareth Williams University of London Wong Yuk Shan !\" Hong Kong University of Science and Technology !\"# !\"#$ !\"#$%& !\"# !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%#& ! !\"# !\"#$%#& !\"# !\"# ! !\"# ááá ! !\"#$%&'(#) ! !\"# !\"#$% !\"# !\"# !\"# ! !\" !\"# !\"=(Editorial Committee) (Chief Editors) !\"# !\"# (Members) !\"# !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$% & !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%#&'() !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"# áî © qÜÉ=eçåÖ=hçåÖ=qÉ~ÅÜÉêëD=`ÉåíêÉ=OMMS ISSN 1682-8984 Printed in Hong Kong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î 目錄 Contents 一、與「語文學習」主題相關論文 1 反思幼稚園的全語文學習 …………………………………………………........................... 1 林志德、歐凱鑫 2 英文科說話教學設計與實踐：行動研究個案 ……………………………………………..... 9 吳潔慈、李子建 3 解讀閱讀理論啟迪英語教學 ……………………………………………............................ 21 嚴復偉、柴秀花 4 兒童學習中英語文記憶策略初探 …….…………………………………………………….. 30 蕭美儀 5 分析高中語文新教材的人文性特點 ………………………………………………………... 35 陽利平 6 以心理健康教育提高學生語文素質 ………………………………………………………... 42 劉紅梅二、與「語文學習」主題相關的特邀及經驗分享文章 1 對香港語文教育政策的歷史回顧和提升語文教育水平的幾點看法 ……………………… 48 何景安 2 台灣三套初中語文教科書的評議 ……………………………………………….................. 59 何文勝 3 教與寫的創新：一個寫作系列的設計 …………………………………………................... 70 梁燕冰 4 一間小學的經驗分享 — 由廣州話走向用普通話教中文（經驗分享文章） ……………… 80 陳翠珍 5 加大課外閱讀量提高學生語文能力（經驗分享文章） …………………………………… 88 孫新三、其他教育經驗分享及評論 1 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: ……………………................ 94 finance and administration YUNG Man-sing, Andrew 2 In-service teachers’ motives and commitment in teaching ………………………………... 112 CHAN Kwok-wai 3 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school…………….. 129 WONG Pik-yu Cherry, CHAN Chi-wai, Arthur FIRKINS 4 課程領導及發展：綜合人文學科的經驗 ………………………………………………….. 140 李子建、何家騏 5 通達學習：教授小六數學行動研究 ……………………………………………………….. 148 李偉成、李鳳萍 6 實施校本同儕觀課的思考 ……....................................................................................... 160 胡少偉 7 道德教育須情智雙彰 — 從美國當代道德教育反思 ……………………………………… 166 劉國強 8 概念圖結合網絡學習對中六文化科學習的成效評估 …………………………………….. 185 梁靜雯、郭禮賢 !\"#$%&'( Reflections on Whole Language Learning in kindergarten !\"#$%#& !\"#$% !\"& !\"#$% &'()*+,-./% 01(23456% &'/789:;<=>? @AB !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01\"23456\"7839':+,-./1;< !\"#$%&!\"' () Abstract Whole Language Learning as indicated by literature is a way of nurturing language development of children, especially in increasing the interest of language learning. Based on empirical research, this paper attempts to examine the effectiveness of Whole Language Learning in the context of kindergarten education and to suggest ways to improve language ability of children. Keywords whole language, kindergarten education, language ability of children Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 1 2 ! !\"#$%&'\"()*+, !\"# OMMSN !\" !\"#$ ! !\"#$ NVVSVV !\" tÜçäÉ=i~åÖì~ÖÉ !\"#$%&' !\"# !NVVV !\" !\"#E !\"#$%OMMOF=O !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-.'(/ !\"#$%& N V V T !\" OMMN !\"#$%& NVVVdççÇã~å=Éí=~äKI NVUTX=o~áåÉë=C=`~å~ÇóI=NVVM !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"\"#$%&'()*+,- ./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01% !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./#01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 ! !\"#$%&'()*+_ÉêÖÉêçåI NVVM !\"#$%&'()&*+,-. !\"#$%& !\"NVVTdççÇã~åI NVUS !NVVU !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&' (!)*$+,- !\"#$%&NVVT !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+'%,*+'-. !\"#$%&'()!*+,\"-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+$,-./ !\"#$%&'()*%+,-./012 !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./01% !\"#$%&'()*)+),-./01 !\"#$%&' !\"#$% OMMS ! NVVTdççÇã~å=Éí=~äKI=NVUT !\" #$%&'()*+,-. má~ÖÉí !\"sóÖçíëâó ! ! !\"#$%&' ()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"NVVV !\"#$%&'( Ñ~Åáäáí~íçê !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()* !\"OMMN !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'#$()*+,-. /01 !\" NVVTdççÇã~å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tÜçäÉ=i~åÖì~ÖÉ ! ! !\"#$NVVT !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! `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ergeron, B. (1990). What does the term whole language mean? Constructing a definition from the literature. Journal of Reading Behavior, 22, 301-329. Goodman, K.S. (1986). What's whole in whole language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Goodman, K.S., Smith, E.B., Meredith, R., & Goodman, Y.M. (1987). Language and Thinking in School: A Whole- Language Curriculum. New York: Richard C. Owen. Raines, S.C. & Canady, R.J. (1990). The whole language kindergarten. New York: Teachers College Press. 7 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%& N 8 !\"#$%& NPWPMJNPWQM NPWQMJNQWMM ! ! ! ! !\" NQWMMJNQWOR L= L NQWORJNQWRM ! NQWRMJNRWOR !\"#$%&' NRWORJNRWPR ! NRWPRJNSWMM !\" NSWMMJNSWPM ! NSWPMJNSWQM !\" Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 Curriculum design and implementation in the teaching of speaking: an action research !\"#$ !\"#$%#& !\"# $%&'()*+,-./012345678/9/:0#;<,-=>0?@ABC !\"#$%&'()*+, -./01234-56789:;0<=>?@ABCD<EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234)*56789:;<=9>?@A9 BC9DE !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012-$3456789:;<$%=>!?@4A:BC !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./012&3(4*+ ,-#$567892:;<=> !\"#$%&'($!)*+,(-.%/$%0123/4356%789:;<=>?@ !\"#$%&'()*+,- &./0123456 789:;%<=>?@AB%CD !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$\"%&'()*\"+,-. Abstract This action research project investigated the effects of a teacher's instructional design and implementation on students' motivation and development in the teaching and learning of English Language speaking skills, as well as the teacher's reflection on the whole process. The subjects of the study were Primary Four students taught by one of the investigators. Data was collected from student questionnaires, in-depth interviews, lesson video recordings, research logs, lesson observations by critical friends, and students' work. The study found that sustained teacher reflection for ongoing instructional adaptations in light of learners' characteristics and progress is conducive to raising students' motivation and self-confidence. Four crucial factors for raising students' confidence in speaking English were identified: instructional activities that match learners' ability; promotion of learner initiatives; a good teacher-student relationship; and teacher commitment. The study has also confirmed the need for flexible and open instructional design in catering for individual differences, and the positive contributions of action research to teachers' professional development. 9 10 ! !\"#$%&'()*+,tçåÖI=iÉÉI=káI e~ìI=eìáI=eçåI=C=qëìáI=NVVS !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+',-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0%+, !\"#$%&'()*)+,-./01 óÉëåç !\"#$%&'()*+,! !\"#$%pòÉI= NVVRX= pòÉ= C= tçåÖI NVVV !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-\". ! iÉÉI=pòÉ=C=pÜÉâNVVU !\"# !\"#$%&'()*(%+,-(./! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0+12 !\"#$%&'() *+,!'-%./ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$\"#%& !\"#$%&'%()*+,- NK !\" !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./ !\"#$%& OK !\" !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'(\")*+,-# !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%& !bääáçííNVVN !\"#$%&bääáçííDë ~Åíáçå=êÉëÉ~êÅÜ=ãçÇÉä !\"#$%&'() Keywords action research, reflection, theory of self-determination, individual differences 11 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$ bääáçííI=NVVN !\"#$ !\"#$ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'() !\"#$ !\"#=mêÉJí~ëâJN !\"#=mêÉJí~ëâJO !\"#=mêÉJí~ëâJP !\"#$ !\"mêÉJí~ëâNI=OI=P !\"#$%&'( !\"#$ !\" q~ëâJNI=OI=P !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%& ! !\"# !\"#$ !\"#$%q~ëâJN !\"#$%q~ëâJO !\"#$%q~ëâJP !\"# !\"#mçëíJí~ëâ=N !\"#mçëíJí~ëâ=O !\"#mçëíJí~ëâ=P 12 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./-0 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./01( !\"#$%&'(!)*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+$,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+',\"-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 mêÉJí~ëâ=N !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%\"&'()( *+,-./0 R !\"#$%&'() V !\"#$ Q !\"#$%mêÉJí~ëâ=O !\" V !\"#$%!&'()*mêÉJ í~ëâ=P !\"# V !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 01 !\"#$%&'() Q !\"# í~ëâ mçëíJí~ëâ !\"# mçëíJí~ëâ !\" mêÉJí~ëâ !!\"#$%&'()*\"#+ !\"#$%&'()*!+,-.,&)* !\"#\"$%&'()*+\", !\"#$%&'()*+,-.&'/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0'12 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0,12 !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./0 !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'() Pre-task 1: Pupils ask one of their classmates the following questions in the classroom: 1. What is your name? 2. Where do you live? 3. How do you go to school? 4. How many brothers and sisters do you have? 5. What do you like doing? 6. Who is your favourite teacher? 7. Who is your favourite singer? 8. What is your favourite subject? 9. What is your favourite cartoon character? 10. What are you good at? After the interview, they have to report back to the whole class (Oral Presentation). Pre-task 2: Pupils ask one of their family members or relatives the following questions in their homes. They have to record their interview on the tapes. New Welcome To English (2nd edition) Origin of Pre-task 1, 2, 3 Book 4A Module: People Unit 1: Myself and friends - getting to know you Ask your new friends the following questions: 1. What is your name? 2. Where do you live? 3. How do you go to school? 4. How many brothers and sisters do you have? 5. What do you like doing? 13 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 1. What is your name? 2. Where do you live? 3. How do you go to school/work? 4. How many brothers and sisters do you have? 5. What do you like doing? 6. Who is your favourite singer? 7. What is your favourite TV programme? 8. What are you good at? 9. Who do you love most? After the interview, they have to draw pictures/bring photos of the interviewees and then report back to the whole class (Oral Presentation). Pre-task 3 : Each pupil asks one tourist (native speaker) the following questions at the tourist spots. They have to record their interview on the tapes and they have to take photos with the interviewees. 1. What is your name? 2. How do you spell your name? 3. Where do you come from? 4. How do you come to Hong Kong? 5. How many brothers and sisters do you have? 6. What do you like doing? 7. Who is your favourite singer? 8. What is your favourite TV programme? 9. What are you good at? 10. Who do you love most? 11. Is my English good? After the interview, they have to show photos of the interviewees and then report back to the whole class (Oral Presentation). Enrichment Task 1: Pupils fall into groups and act out the story. Then they will have self-evaluation and peer-evaluation. They also have to fill out the self-evaluation form and peer-evaluation form after watching the video shot. Enrichment Task 2: In groups, pupils think out a new story through group discussion. They have to apply the target language pattern (comparative and superlative forms of adjectives) in their stories. Origin of Enrichment Task 1, 2, 3: Book 4A Module: People Unit 5: About My Family Pages 28, 29: A Story: Brothers and sisters 14 NK !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./0 !\"#$#%&' ()*+,-./ !\"#$%& OK !\"#$ ENF !\"#$%& OO !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,#$-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+%,-. EOF !\"# !$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-.& Enrichment Task 3: In groups, pupils discuss about the arrangement of work distribution and different roles to play in their own stories. Then they have to act out their own stories. Lastly, they will have self- evaluation and peer-evaluation orally and then fill out the self- evaluation form and peer-assessment form after watching the video shot. Post-task 1: In the classroom, pupils ask their classmates as many questions as they can by using \"How often do you ......?\" After the interview, they have to report back to the whole class (Oral Presentation). Post-task 2: In their homes, pupils ask their family members or relatives as many questions as they can by using \"How often do you ......?\" They have to record their interview on the tapes, bring the tapes to school and let the whole class listen to the tapes. After the interview, they have to draw pictures/bring photos of the interviewees and then report back to the whole class (Oral Presentation). Post -task 3: At the tourist spots, pupils ask tourists (native speakers) as many questions as they can by using \"How often do you ......?\" They have to take photos with the tourists, record their interview on the tapes, bring the tapes to school and let the whole class listen to the tapes. Then, they have to show photos of the interviewees and then report back to the whole class (Oral Presentation). Origin of Post-task 1, 2, 3 Book 4B Module: Out and about Unit 3: Things we do - having fun Pupils know how to ask questions using \"How often\". Pupils know how to answer the above question using \"once, twice, three times, four times ...... a day/a week/a month/a year.\" Example: How often do you play football? I play football once a week. !\"í~ëâë !\"#$%&' !\"#$\"#%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+ EPF `êáíáÅ~ä=ÑêáÉåÇ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'#$()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+', !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ EQF !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,#- 15 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'( !)*+, !\"#$ ERF !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,%+- !\"#$ %\"&' ()*+, !\"#$%&'!\"#()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+ ESF !\"#$%&'()*+ , !\"#$%&'()*!\"+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&' !\"# NK !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+, O O !Q !\"#$%&!\"#' !\" !\"# !\"# !\"# !\"#$%&'$()* !\"#$%&'()*+,!-$() !\"#$%&'() *+,- !\"#$%qáã= !\"# ! !\"#$ !%&!$'() ! !\"#$%&'()!\"*+), !\" mêÉJí~ëâ=N !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\" !\"#$%&'() *+#,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0- !\" #$%&'()* +,- !\"#$%&'mÉíÉê mêÉJí~ëâ=O !\"#$%&'$()#*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'(%)*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-$./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,(- mêÉJ í~ëâ=P !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%& !'j~êÅç !\"#$%&'()*+,&*-&. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ j~êâ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#`êáëíó !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()káÉä ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ vìâá !\"#$%&'()*&+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./& !\"#$%!&'()*+!,- !\"#$%&'()\"*+,-./0 !\"#$%!&'()*\"#+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*\"#+% !\"#$%&'()$*+,$*- !\"#$%&'()*+,-.pÜÉÉê~ !\"#$%&#'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*#+,-qáã jáëëI= !\"# $%&'()* !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%& !\"#$% !\"#$%& !\" !\"#$%& ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#!$%&'()*+,-./( !\"#\"$%&'()*+,-./0 ! 16 !\"#$ %&'()*+,-.\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01$2 !\"#$%\"#&'() ! ! !\"#!$%&'() *+,-./#012,013'4567å=ZOO N !\"#$%&' PKO RKM O !\"#$%& PKQ PKV P !\"#$% PKR QKN Q !\"#$%&'( OKN QKR R !\"#$ PKQ QKN S ! !\" !\"#$% PKV QKU T ! !\" !\"#$%&'() PKS QKU U ! !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,- PKT QKS V ! !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 PKS QKU NM !\"#$%&'() PKT QKS NN !\"#$%&'(!)*+,-./012 OKP OKO NO !\"#$%&'()*'+,-./ PKM QKM NP !\"#$%&'() PKM PKV NQ !\"#$%&'()* NKU PKU NR !\"#$%&' OKN RKM !\"\" N !\"#$R !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'$%()*#+,-./0123 qáã !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'( j~êÅç !\"#$%&'() !\"#$% qçããó !\"#$%&'() !\"#$ mÉíÉê=fé !\"#$%&'() !\"# eáåëçå !\"#$%&'() !\"# j~êâ !\"#$%&'() jáëë=kÖ !\" h~êÉå !\"#$%&\"#' ! \" #$%&'()*+, ! \" # $%&'()*+,-jáëë= !\"# !\"#$%&' !()* !+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+dKbKdKbKE_F KKKKKKKKKKKKK !\"#$%!\"& !\"#$%&'() !*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./dKbKdKbKE_F ! !\"#$%&\"'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-dKbKE_F !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( !)*+,-. !/ !\"#$%&'()jáëë= ! !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-&)./,-0dKbKE_F 17 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+*,-./0 !\"#$mêÉJí~ëâ båêáÅÜãÉåímçëíJ í~ëâ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" !#$%&'()*+,- ïáääáåÖåÉëë É~ÖÉêåÉëë áåîçäîÉãÉåí ëÉäÑJ ÅçåÑáÇÉåÅÉ êáëâJí~âáåÖL=Ç~êáåÖ ëÜçï=áåíÉêÉëí=áå ëéÉ~âáåÖ !éêçåìåÅá~íáçå áåíçå~íáçå=~åÇ ëíêÉëë ÑäìÉåÅóÖê~ãã~íáÅ~ä=~ÅÅìê~ÅóîçäìãÉ=çÑ îçáÅÉ !\"#ÉóÉ=Åçåí~Åí= ÖÉëíìêÉ ÄçÇó ä~åÖì~ÖÉ ëÉäÑ=~ï~êÉåÉëë !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-mçëíJí~ëâ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!\"'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01&2 !\"# !\"êáëâJí~âáåÖ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+(,-./012 !\"#$%&$!'()*+ ,-.) !\"#$%!#&'()*+,-.%/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$% !\"# mêÉJí~ëâ !\"# mçëíJí~ëâ ! \"#$%&'()*+, mêÉJí~ëâ=N !\"#$%&'()*+,-./)01 !\"#$%&$'()*mçëíJí~ëâ ! !\"#$%&O !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01\" OMJPM !\"# $ =OK !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%& '$()*+, -. !\"#$%&'#()*+,-./ mêÉJí~ëâ=NI=OI=P !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./.0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$ %&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%é~êêçíáåÖ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./*0 !\"#qÜÉçêó=çÑ=pÉäÑJÇÉíÉêãáå~íáçå !\"#$%&'(í~ëâ !\" !\"#$%&'~ìíçåçãó !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 Åçãé~ê~íáîÉ=Ñçêã=çÑ=~ÇàÉÅíáîÉëëìéÉêä~íáîÉ=Ñçêã çÑ=~ÇàÉÅíáîÉë !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 táååáÉJíÜÉJmççÜqáÖÖÉêmáÖäÉí !\" !qáÖÖÉê=áë=Ñ~íK=máÖäÉí=áë=Ñ~ííÉê=íÜ~å qáÖÉêK=táååáÉJíÜÉJmççÜ=áë=íÜÉ=Ñ~ííÉëíK !\"#$%&'( !\"#)*+,* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()**+ ,-. !\"#$%&'())*+,-'./ ! \"#$ %&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,%-.( !\"#$%&'()'*)+,-./ 18 !\"#$ NK== !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 ENF !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! !\"#$%&'()*+#, !\"#$%&'()*)+,-- !\"#$%&'( EOF !\"#$% !&'()*+,- !\"#$%&&'()*+,-. !éêçåìåÅá~íáçå !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234567 mêÉJí~ëâë !\"# !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"#$ mêÉJí~ëâë ! !\"#$%&'( båêáÅÜãÉåí=í~ëâ=N ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'( !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&' ! båêáÅÜãÉåí=í~ëâ=N !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' Åçãé~ê~íáîÉ ëìéÉê ä~ í áîÉ= Ñçêã= çÑ ~ÇàÉÅíáîÉë !\"# !\"#$%&' !\"# båêáÅÜãÉåí=í~ëâ=O !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' !\"# !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' ! !\"#$%&wma ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$~ìíçåçãó !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+, - !\"#ã~ëíÉêó ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&ïÜçäÉåÉëë !\"#$%&'()*+ ÅçãéÉíÉåÅÉ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'() *+ !\"#$%&'()#$*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+, ëíêÉëë=~åÇ=áåíçå~íáçå !\" !\"#$%&'!\"()*+,' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\" EPF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'%()!\"*+,- !\"#$%!\"&'#$()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- 19 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 EQF !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()$*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*\"+, !\"#$%&'()\"#$*+' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+ ERF !\"#$%& '(#)*+,$ !\"#$%&'()!*+$! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+!,-. !\"#$%&' ESF !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-). !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ ! OMMN !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$% Brumfit, C. (1987). Conclusion. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 8, 164-165. Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge, and action research. Philadepphia, PA: The Falmer Press. Cazden, C. B. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning (2nd Ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Connelly, E. M., & Ben-Peretz, M. (1997). Teachers, research, and curriculum development. In Fliners, D. & Thornton, S. (Eds.), The curriculum studies reader. London: Rouledge. Csikszentmihalyi, M. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"== !\"# Decoding reading theories and enlightening English teaching !\"#$ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()'*+,-./01\"#$234567!\"$89:;<%=&4>?@ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"#$/01&2345,6789:;<.=>&?@ABCD' !\"# !\"#\"$%&'\"()*+\",- Abstract To foster students' reading abilities is one of the most important aims in English teaching. In this paper the authors analyze the main factors influencing students' reading abilities, make a brief introduction to reading theories and suggests reforming students' reading techniques by strengthening their vocabulary together with focusing on acquisition of cultural background knowledge and cultivating good reading skills. Keywords reading theories, decode, English teaching, background knowledge, reading skills 21 22 ! !\"#$%&'()'* +,\"-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'() *+,-./012 !\"#$%& '()*+,-./#01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*#$+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\",- !\"#$%&#'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'(%)*#+,-./01 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$% !\"#$%&' ! !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'#$()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!\"0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0*+! !\"#$%& !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-'.# !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#$ !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'(\") !\"#$%&'()*+,-&./\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'(!)'*+,-./01 !\"#$% !\"#$%&'#() !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/0,1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\".1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0$1 !\"#$%&'$()*+,-\"./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#-\". !\"#$ %&' !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()&'* +,-./0 !\"#$%&#'()*+,-./0' !\" #$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'(')%&*\"+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&12 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"/0 !\"#$%!\"&'()*+,-.\"/0 !\"#$%&'()!*+,- ./ !\"#$%&'()*&'(+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+\",-.(/01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-. NR !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$ !\"# ! ! !\"#$%&'OM !\"#$ ! !\"#$%&'PM !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&'PS !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-&./012 !\"#$%&$'()*+,-./ !0 !\"#$%&'()*#$+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,*-./01 !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$ NK !\" !\"#$%&'()* +,-./! !\"#$%&'()\"*+#$ ,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.+/ 23 !\"== !\"# !\"#$%&'\"#()*+,- OK !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !/ !\"#$%&'( !\")*+,- !\"#$%&'()*$+,'-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'() PK !\"# !\"#$%&'()&'*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#!\"#$%&'(#)*# !\"#$% &'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./+( !\"#$%&'\"($))*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !)*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-'./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./'01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-*./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"#$./0 !\" !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&''\"()*+\",-./0 !\"#$%&'(\")*+,-# !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+%&,'()*- !\"#$ !\"#%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- NK !\"#_çííçãJìé=jçÇÉä dçìÖÜNVTO !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'($)*%&+, !\"#$%&'()*+, ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0) !\"#$%&'()*+,-.*+/ !\"#$%&'()%&*+,- !\"# !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+),-.%/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(\"&'%)*(\") !\"#$% !&'()*\"+$, !\"#$%&'()*+,!-.$/ !\" #$ %$ &' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !!\"#$ !\"#$%&$' !\"# !\"#$ !\"# TM !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,(,-. !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+#$%' !\"#$%&' !\"\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'#()*+, OK !\"#qçéJÇçïå=jçÇÉä !\"#$%&'()*+,)*-. 24 dççÇã~å !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%& !\"#$%&' dççÇã~åI=NVTSWQUV !\"#$ !\"#$%&#'()*+,$-./ !\"mêÉäáãáå~êó=ÉñéÉÅí~íáçå !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&#'(&#)!*+, !\" #$%&#$'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+, -. !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$/0 !\"# !\" OMMO !\" !\"#$!%&'!()*+!%!, !\"#$%&'()*#$%+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,+-.-/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*)+,-./0 !\"#$ %&'()*+, -./ !\"#$!% &'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./ ! PK !\"#fåíÉê~ÅíáîÉJ~ééêç~ÅÜ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 aKbK=oìãÉäÜ~êí dçìÖÜ !\" _çííçãJìé=jçÇÉä !dççÇã~å !\"#$qçéJÇçïå=jçÇÉä ! !\"#$%&'()\"*+#,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-),+* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./)* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'() *+,-#. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,,-. !\"#$%&' !\"()*+, !\"#$%&'()\"#*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$% !\"#!$%&'()\"*+,-./ !\" #$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,$-./0 !\" !\"NVVQ !\"#$ !\"#$%& #\"!$%'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'$%()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./-0 !\"#$ %\"#&'!\"()*+, !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.!/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%& !\"#$%Schema Theory !aKbK=oìãÉäÜ~êí !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"1+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$ 25 !\"== !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ !,-.& !\"#$%&'()*+\", -.$/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-)./~å ~Åí áîÉ= çêÖ~åáò~í áçå= çÑ = é~ë í = êÉ~Åí áçåë= ~åÇ ÉñéÉêáÉåÅÉë !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&\"'(%)*+ ,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 pÅÜÉã~í~ !\"#$%&'()*+,- oìãÉäÜ~êíINVUM !\" OMMP !\"#$%\"&'()$*+, !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./0,- !\"#!$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-./0(1 !\"#$%&'()*+&,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+, -./012 !\"#$%&'()!\"#*+),-./ !\"#$%&'$()#$*+,-./ ~Åíáî~íÉÇ !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"# $%&'()*+,-./0!1 !\"#$%&'()*+, -#.) !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%\"#$&'#()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.-/012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.*/012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0,12 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$% cê~åâ=pãáíÜ =råÇÉêëí~åÇáåÖ oÉ~ÇáåÖ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áF= !\"#$%#&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.EááF !\"#$%&'()%*!+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+$,- E á á á F = !\"#$%&'(É ó É ëé~å !\"#\"$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$% !&'$()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !EáîF= !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*#+,EîF= !\"#$%&Eîá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`ä~êâI=iKe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`ä~êâI=iKeK==pí~êêI=fKpK=ENVTSFK==pÉÅçåÇ=i~åÖì~ÖÉ=iÉ~êåáåÖ=~åÇ=qÉ~ÅÜáåÖK==kÉï=vçêâW=oçìíäÉÇÖÉI=`Ü~éã~å=~åÇ e~ääI=fåÅK a~îáÉëI=m~ìä=~åÇ=bêáÅKmÉ~êëÉ=EOMMOFK==pìÅÅÉëë=áå=båÖäáëÜ=qÉ~ÅÜáåÖK==içåÇçåW=cçêÉáÖå=i~åÖì~ÖÉ=qÉ~ÅÜáåÖ=~åÇ=oÉëÉ~êÅÜ mêÉëëK cê~åâ=pãáíÜ=EOMMQFK==råÇÉêëí~åÇáåÖ=oÉ~ÇáåÖ^=mëóÅÜçäáåÖìáëíáÅ=^å~äóëáë=çÑ=oÉ~ÇáåÖ=~åÇ=iÉ~êåáåÖ=íç=oÉ~ÇK i~ïêÉåÅÉ=bêäÄ~ìã=^ëëçÅá~íÉëK dççÇã~åI=hKpK=ENVSTFK==oÉ~ÇáåÖW=^=éëóÅÜçäáåÖìáëíáÅ=ÖìÉëëáåÖ=Ö~ãÉK=gçìêå~ä=çÑ=íÜÉ=oÉ~ÇáåÖ=péÉÅá~äáëíI=SI=NOSJNPRK dçìÖÜI=mK_K=ENVURFK==låÉ=pÉÅçåÇ=çÑ=oÉ~ÇáåÖK==få=páåÖÉêI=eK==oìÇÇÉääI=oKbÇëK=qÜÉçêÉíáÅ~ä=jçÇÉäë=~åÇ=mêçÅÉëëÉë çÑ=oÉ~ÇáåÖK==fåíÉêå~íáçå~ä=oÉ~ÇáåÖ=^ëëçÅá~íáçåI=fåÅK dêÉääÉíI=cê~åÅçáëÉ=EOMMMFK==aÉîÉäçéáåÖ=oÉ~ÇáåÖ=pâáääëK==`~ãÄêáÇÖÉW=`~ãÄêáÇÖÉ=råáîÉêëáíó=mêÉëëK e~êãÉêI=gÉêÉãó=EOMMMFK==eçï=íç=qÉ~ÅÜ=båÖäáëÜK==içåÇçåW=cçêÉáÖå=i~åÖì~ÖÉ=qÉ~ÅÜáåÖ=~åÇ=oÉëÉ~êÅÜ=mêÉëëK kìíí~ääI=`ÜêáëíáåÉ=EOMMOFK==qÉ~ÅÜáåÖ=oÉ~ÇáåÖ=pâáääë=áå=~=cçêÉáÖå=i~åÖì~ÖÉK==pÜ~åÖÜ~áW=pÜ~åÖÜ~á=cçêÉáÖå=i~åÖì~ÖÉ bÇìÅ~íáçå=mêÉëëK oìãÉäÜ~êíI=aKbK=ENVVTFK==qçï~êÇ=~å=áåíÉê~ÅíáîÉ=jçÇÉä=çÑ=qÉ~ÅÜáåÖ=áå=pK=açåáÅ=EÉÇFI=^ííÉåíáçå=~åÇ=éÉêÑçêã~åÅÉ=sfK eáääëÇ~äÉK==kgW=bäÄ~ìãK pÅêáîÉåÉêI=gáã=EOMMOFK==iÉ~êåáåÖ=qÉ~ÅÜáåÖW=~=dìáÇÉÄççâ=Ñçê=båÖäáëÜ=i~åÖì~ÖÉ=qÉ~ÅÜÉêëK==içåÇçåW=cçêÉáÖå=i~åÖì~ÖÉ qÉ~ÅÜáåÖ=~åÇ=oÉëÉ~êÅÜ=mêÉëëK 30 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+ Exploring children's mnemonic strategies in learning English and Chinese !\"# !$%&'()\"*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./01234)(56!\"#$7)89:;<=;>?(4@ !\"#$%&'()*+,%-./012345678,./94:;<=>5?@3ABCDE !\"#$%& ! ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234'567 !\"#$%&'($%&'()*$+\",- Abstract Is rote learning indispensable in maximizing children's English and Chinese proficiency? If that is true, learning English and Chinese will be difficult. In fact, if appropriate mnemonic strategies can be mastered, not only learning English and Chinese will be easy, learning itself will simply be sheer joy. In view of this, the current study attempts to examine three basic mnemonic strategies, namely, \"transferable\", \"meaningful\", and \"experiential\" practices. To illustrate these strategies, some practical examples on children's use of these strategies in learning English and Chinese are quoted. Keywords English and Chinese language learning, mnemonic strategies, mnemonic practices, primary education 31 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+, -./,\" !\" NVUTOTQ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01!2 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"# !\"#$%&'()* !\"# !\"#$%&'( !\"# !\" !\"#$%&'()*+&,-.#/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 0 !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&' ! ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'( ! ! !\" !\"#$ !\"#$% ! ! ! !\"#$% ! ! !\"#$%&'()(*)(+,-./( !\"#$%&'(& ! ! !\"#$%&\"'(\")*\"+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+, ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 ! !\"#$% &'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"# !\"# gÉåëÉåOMMR !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01%\" !\"#$\"#%\"#&\"#'\"() ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+, #- . !\"#$% ! !\"#$% !\"#$ % ! !\"#$% !\"#$%jáääÉêNVRS !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-. !\"#$_~ÇÇÉäÉó= NVVQ !\" !\"#$#%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,$%-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+#$ !\"# !\"#$%& !\"# !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()\" !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()* !!\" !\"#$%&'()*+!\"#$%,-. !\"#$%&\"'()*+,$&-./ !\"#$%&'()* ! !\" !\"#$%&'()*#$+,-./01 !\"#$% &'()*+,#$-(. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0%'1 !\"#$%&' !\"#$% ! ! !\"#$%&'()* ! !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,má~ÖÉí= ~åÇ fåÜÉäÇÉêI= NVSV !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./#0' !\"#$% ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()!*+,-!*./0 !!\"#$%&'()*+, i ~ å É = C k~ÇÉä= OMMMI = iÉaçìñ= NVVQ ! NVUU !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 32 !\"#$%&'($)*+,-.&/01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0#12 !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# ! !\"#$%&' ! !\"#$ !\"#$ ! !\"#$%& !\" ! !\"#!$%!&'! !\" #$ %& '()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 ~í !\"#I= ?Ä~íI= Å~íI= Ñ~íI Ü~ í I = ã~í I = K K K K K K ? Ü~ãÄìêÖÉêÜ~ãÄìêÖÉê !\"# !\"#$%&'()!\"*+,&-. ! !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&' !\"#$ ! \"#$% !\"#$%&'()*!+, PB RB !\"#$%& OMMN !\" !\"#$ %&'($)*+,-. !\"#$% !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$ !\"#$% !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./( !\"#$%&'( ! ! !\"#$%%&'($)*+, !\"#$% !\"#$%&'( !\"#!$%!&'( !\"# !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"=W= ! !\" !\"#$ !\"#$% !\"#=L= !\"#$%&!'( !\"#$%&'()*+,\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$% !\"#$%&' ()* !\"#$%&i~åÖì~ÖÉ= bñéÉêáÉåÅÉ píçêó !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+ #$&,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%& !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#\"$%&'()*\"!#()+ !\"#$%&'() *+,-& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\" ! !\"#$ !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()!*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-&./0 !\"#$%& 33 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+, -. !\"#$%&'() !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$% !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%& !\" jó= Ä á ê í ÜÇ~ ó W = tÜ á ÅÜ = ãçå íÜ \ `É ä ÉÄ ê ~ í á çå = = ïÜÉ ê É I = ïÜÉå I ïÜç I = Ñ ççÇ I = Ö~ãÉ ë I = K K K K K K \ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\" !\"#$%&'() *+,= ?tÜ~í Å~å= óçì= ëÉÉ= áå= íÜÉ= é~êâ\? ?tÜ~í= ~êÉ íÜÉ= ÅÜáäÇêÉå= ÇçáåÖ\? !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ ! \" # $ % & ' ( ) * + % ? Ö ê ~ å Ç Ñ ~ í Ü É ê I = Ö ê ~ å Çãç í Ü É ê I = ì å Å ä É I ~ìåí áÉ?= = !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$ !\"#$%% Å áåÉã~ I = ê É ë í ~ì ê~å í I = î áÇÉç J ë Ü ç é I = Ä ~ å â I = é ç ä á Å É = ë í ~ í á ç å I = é ç ë í ç Ñ Ñ á Å É I = ëìéÉêã~êâÉ í !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"# ! !\"# $%&'()*+,'-./01 !\"#$%&'\"#()*+,-./0 !\"#\"$%& !\" #$%&'(!')*%+, ! !\"#$%= ä~ãéI= ÅäçÅâI= ëçÑ~ !\"# !\"#$%&'#$% () !\"#$%&'()*+),+-. !\"#$% !\"#$= !\"#$%&'()*+,-= ?qÜáë á ë = íÜÉ = ï~ó= ïÉ= ÅçãÄ= çìê = Ü~ á ê I = ÅçãÄ çìê= Ü~ á ê I = ÅçãÄ= çìê= Ü~ á ê X = íÜ á ë = á ë = íÜÉ ï~ó= ïÉ= ÅçãÄ= çìê= Ü~ á ê I = ~ í = T = ç DÅ äçÅâ áå= íÜÉ= ãçêåáåÖK?= = EqìåÉW= eÉêÉ= ïÉ= Öç êçìåÇ= íÜÉ= ãìäÄÉê êó = ÄìëÜ K F !\"#$!#%&'(#)*#+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$% !\"#$ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#/ !\" ! !\"# çåÉ= íç= íïÉåíóW= !\" = ?N= ä á í í äÉI= O= ä á í í äÉI= P= ä á í í äÉ= fåÇá~åëI Q = ä á í í ä É I = R = ä á í í ä É I = S = ä á í í ä É = fåÇ á ~å ë I = T ä á í í ä É I = U = ä á í í ä É I = V = ä á í í ä É = f åÇ á ~å ë I = N M ä á í í ä É = fåÇ á~å = Äçó ë K ? !\"#$#%&'(\"$)*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# $%&'()!*+,-. 34 !\"# ! !\" ! !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ !lìê=eçìëÉ !\"#$%&' !\"#$%!\"#&'()*+,-. ? â á í Å Ü É å I = Ä ~ í Ü ê ç ç ã I = Ç á å á å Ö J ê ç ç ã I ÄÉÇêççãI= ë á í í áåÖJêççã?= !\" !\"#$%&'()#*+,-. ?^ä áÅÉ I = ïÜÉêÉ= ~êÉ= óçì\= tÜ~í= ~êÉ= óçì ÇçáåÖ\?= ?f Dã= áå= íÜÉ= ë á í í áåÖ= êççãK= f Dã ï~ í ÅÜ á å Ö = í É ä É î á ë á ç å K ? !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! cççÇ !\"#$ mÉíÉê !\"#$%&'()*+,-./( ?mÉ í É ê = ä á â É ë = É ~ í á å Ö = á Å É J Å ê É ~ã K ? !\"# ! !\"#$\" !\"#$%&'%()*!+,-. !\"# ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$% #&'í ~ Ä ä É I = É Ö Ö I Ö á ê ä I = ä ~ãé I = éç ë íã~å I = K K K K K K !\"#$%&'()%&*+,-./01 !lìê=eçìëÉ=áåI= çåI= ìåÇÉêI ÄÉÜáåÇ !\"#$%íêÉÉI= ÄÉåÅÜI ë ä á Ç É I = í ~Ä ä É !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 ! ! ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01=X= !\"#$%&'()*+,$-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! NVUT !\"# !\"#$%& !\"#$OMMN !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( NVUU !\"#$ !\"#$ !\" !\"#$%&'()* Baddeley, A.D. (1994). The magic number seven: still magic after all these years? Psychological Review, 101, 353-356. Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind. U.S.A. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Lane, R. & Nadel, L. (Eds.) (2000). The cognitive neuroscience of emotion. New York: Oxford University Press. LeDoux, J. (1994). Emotion, memory, and the brain. Scientific American, 270(6), 50-57. Miller, G.A. (1956). The magic number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 Analyzing humanistic characteristics in new Chinese teaching materials of senior high school !\"#$#% !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"# !\"#$%&'(#)*+,-./012\" !\" !\"#$!%&'!()*+,'-./0123456!,'-.7/89:#; !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 !\"# !\"# !\"# !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012345(06789:;<=> !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$ Abstract In contemporary Chinese education, there is a striking course of politicization. Under the new situation of curriculum reform, People’s Education Press published their Chinese secondary teaching materials at an open, modern and scientific attitude. The teaching materials reflect the spirit of culture-transmission and avoid formalism of political dogma. They highlight ‘knowledge and skills’, the ‘processes and methods’ as well as ‘emotions, attitudes and values’ in learning. Students can understand and experience the common feelings of mankind and improve their humanistic qualities through learning the language. Keywords Chinese teaching material, humanism 35 36 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./)01 !\"#$%&'() #*+,-./01 !\"#$% &'()*+,'-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.!\"#/ NP !\"#$%&#'()*+, !\"#$%&\"'()*+&,%+-./ !\" NO !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+$,-./ !\" !\"#$%&' !\"#$% ! !\"\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-)./012 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'() !\"%*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./0\"1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&'1 !\"#$% & !\"# ! !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+, -./01 !\"#$%N= !\"# !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'($)*+($,-.#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,#$-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-).&/ !\"# $%&'()*+,-./*0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!012 !\"#$%& !\" !\" !\"#$%&'%()%*+,*-\" !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-'./# !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'(# !\"#$%&'O= !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.*+/01 !\" #$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-&.*/ !\" !\"# !\"# ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"01 !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$ !%&$ !' $() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.)$/0' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"# !\"# !\"#$% !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 12, !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,$-()./$ !\"#$%&'()*\"+,&-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$$%&'()*+,\"-./0 ! \"#$%&'()*+,-./01 37 !\"#$%&'(#)*+ !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-&.!/ !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-.*/ ! !\"#$% !\"#$% ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&' !\"#$% ! !\"#$%&'()* !\" ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-, !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,&-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./012 !\"# $%&'()*+,-./&# !\" !\"#$% !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./0 1 !\"#$%&'()*+, -!./01 !\"#$%&'(()*+,-./!0& !\"#$%&'()*%+,- ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+&,-. ! !\"# !\"# !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# !\" !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !\"#$%&'()#*+,(-.+ !\"#$%&'(\")*+,-./0+1 ! !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 ! \" #$%&'()*+ ,- !\"#$%&'()*+,!-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()\"#$%*'(+, !\"#$%&'()*+*,)-./0 !\"#$%&'()! *+, -./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.P= ! !\"#$%&'()*%+,-.# !\"#$%&'()*&+,&-./\"0 !\"#$%&'() !*+#,-$%. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0#1 !\"#$%& !\"# !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"#$ !\"#$%&'(\"&)*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$% !\" !\"#$%!\"#&'() !\"#$%&'()*+$ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01$2 !\"#$%&'()*+,$-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+#%,-&./0 !\"#$%\"&'()* +,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./&0 !\"#$%&'()*%+, !\"#$%&'()*+\",-%./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,- ./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./,0& !\"#$%&'!\"()* +,-./0 !\"#$%&'()* !+,#-.& !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$/01 ! !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"#$%&'#()*+,-./012 38 !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./0 !\"#$%&'()%&!$*+, !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ ! \"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/0 !\"#$%&'()*+$,-./012 !\"# Q= !\"#$%!\"&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./#01 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,%&'- !\"#$%&'()*$+,-./01 !\"#$%&' ()\"*+\"*,\"-# NK !\"#$%&'()*+,-.($ !\"#$%&'()*+,*-./0 !\"#$%& '()*++,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./+0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-,./0 !\"#$%&'()!*+,- !\"#$%&$'()*+,(-./ !\"#$%&' !\"# !\"#$%&'()#*+,-.#/ !\"# !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%& ! !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-. \" !\"#$%&'()*+$,- ./ !\"#$%&'( R= !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./% !\"#$%!\"&'(#)*'!\"+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*&'+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'() !\"#\"$ !\"#$%&'()$!*+,$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 ! !\"!#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%!&'\"()&*+ , !\"#$%&'()*+ !,-. !\"#$ !\"#$$%&'() !\"#$$%&'(!\")*$+ !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./ !\"#$%&'() *+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()#*+,-./ !\"# !\"#$% &'()* ! !\"#$%&'!()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'!()*+,--./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\" #$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"# OK !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+#, !\"#$%&'()\"*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./0 !\"#$%$&'()*+,%-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%#&'()*+,-./! !\"#$%&'()*+,-$%&' 39 !\"#$%&'(#)*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"# !\"#$%&'()*+, !\" !\"#$%&'()*+\"+$,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$%& !\" !\"#$ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0. !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'( !\" ! !\"#$%&'()'*+,-./ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./0 !\"#$ %&'( )*+, -. !\"#$%&'()*+,%-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-..+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./(0 !\"#$% !\" !\"# !\"#$!%&'()!*+,-.# !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! !\"#$%&'() *&+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,$ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&' !\"#$%& !\" !\"#$%#&'( !\"#$% !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'#()*+,= !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$% !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/0 !\"#$%&'()*+S= !\" !\"# !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-%&. !\"#$%& '()*+\",- !\"#$%&'()*+&,-%./ !\"#$ T !\"#$%&'(# ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#! ! !\"#$%&'((#) !\"#$%&'()*+,--./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,!-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,()-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()%*'+,%-' !\"#$%&'()*+,,-./0 !\"#$% !\"#$%&'( !\"##$%&'()*+,-.'/ ! !\"#$%& !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%&'() !\"*+,-& !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$ !\" !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./&0 !\"#$%&'()'(*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./( !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%& !\"# 40 !\"#$%&' !() !\"#$%& !\"#$% !\"#$\"%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()* !\" !\"#$% !\"#$%& !\"#$%& !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-\"./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./ !\"#$%&'!()&*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,!-./' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'!()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'!() *+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.! !\"#$%&'()*+,$-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$0 !\"#$%&'()$*+,-./0 !\"#$%#&'() !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&1. !\"#$%& !\"#$%&' ( !\"#$%&'()*$+,!-.'/0 !\"#$%&'($)*+,-$./0 !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./0 !\"#$%&'()!*+, U= ! !\"#$%&'( !$)*+,&-. !\"#$% !\"# !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./011) !\"#$%&'()* +,-./'01 !\"#$% !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+\",-%\". !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$ !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.%/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.%/011 !\"#$%&'()(*+'%,-. !\"#$\"%&$'()*+,-./$0 !\"#$%&\"'()* !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./012 !\"#$%&'(&)*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$/0 !\"#$%&'()*+, -.#$% !\"#$% !&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,%-.+/ !\"#$%$&'()*+',)*#+- !\"\"##$!%&'() !\"#$%&!'()\"* +,-. !\"#$%&$'()*+,-./$01 !\"#$%&'()*+,(-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.%/+ !\"# !\"#$ !\"# ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'( )!*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-*+./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0'12 !\"#$%&\"#'()*+,-.*+/ 41 !\"#$%&'(#)*+ N !\"#$NVVQ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%& O OMMM !\"#$%& ! \"#$%& P OMMO !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./0 !\"#$%& OQO Q !\"#$%&!'OMMO !\"#$ ! \"#$%& R OMMP !\"#$%&'%() !\"#$%& SIT OMMP !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&' U OMMO !\"# !\"#$%&' V NVVU !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+, V= !\" !\"#$%&'()* +,-./ !\"#$%&''()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0#12 !\"#$#%&'()*#+,-.&/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 42 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 Enhancing students' Chinese language quality through psychological education !\"#$%&'( !\"#\"$%&'()*\"+,- !./0)*+.\"'(1$2345)\"6789:;< !\"#$%&' !()*+,-%$./01%23456 7879$.&'%:;<= !\"#$%& '()*+, -.+/0-.12 3456 !\"#$%&'()*+\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234567.89:;+,-./0< !\"=>1?@% !\"#$\"%&'()*+,-./01234./56&017*89:&;< !\"#$%&\"'( Abstract Chinese language education aims to enhance students' language quality and this issue is closely-related to psychology. During the process of implementing creative pedagogy as a core element for quality education, it is crucial to assure that students have a healthy mind. Chinese language education helps cultivating students' psychological quality whereas students with a healthy mind can enhance their language learning as well as language quality. One of the effective ways to improve their language quality is to conduct psychological education through language education. This paper aims to explore the relationship between students' language quality and their psychological health and to find out the ways to improve students' language quality through conducting psychological education. Moreover, it also discusses the new requirements on the quality of language teachers. Keywords Chinese language proficiency, psychological health, Chinese language teaching 43 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$#%&'()*+,-.&/0 !\"#$%&%'()*+,-./%!\" !\"#$%&'()* +,--./01 ! !\"#$%&'()*&+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0%123 !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()$%*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./'(#01 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+$,- NK !\"#$%&'()*+,-# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,!\"-.' !\"#$%&'()*+,-. $/ !\"#$%&'()*+'(,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+, -./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*#+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,*-!./ !\"#$%&'()*+,%-./0 !\"#$%&'()*)+,-(. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !. !\"#$%&'() !\"# !\"#$%&'(#)*'+,)* !\"#$ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-+. !\"#$%&'()* !+,-.# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0* !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. OK !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,* !-, !\"#$% &'()*+,!\" !\"#$%&$'()*+,-./% !\"#$% !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'#()*+,-.- ! !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./)0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%#&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,&-./0 !\"#$%&'()%&*+\",-. !\"# PK !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+$%),- !\"#$%&'\"()*#$+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,%-./0 !\"#$%&!'($)*+,-.! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 44 !\"#$ %&'( )*+,-. ! !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,!-.!/ !\"#$%&'()*+,%-$. !\"#$%&'()*+!,$%& !\"#$% !&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-./ !\"#$%&'%()%*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0/ !\"#$%&'()*+, -. !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$ !\" #$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()* NK !\"#$%&'()'*+, !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$ !\"#$%&'#(%)*#+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$% !$!&'()*+, ! !\"# !\"#$%&' !\"#$%$&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%0 !\" !\"#$% !\" !\"#$%&'()* ! !\"#$%&'()#*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.'/0 !\"#$%&\"'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0( !\"#$%&'()*+,-# ./ ! OK !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./0 !\"#$%&'$()*+,-./ !\"#$ %&'()*+#,-& !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./ !\"#$ %&'()*+,-.&/ !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()* ! ! !\"#$%\"& '()* !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 ! !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-$ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,+-. !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./' !!\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+#\",- !\"#$\"%&'($)*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-%&\". !\"#$%&'()*+ 45 !\"#$%&'()*+, PK !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\" #$%&'() !\"#$ !%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-)./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"# !\"#$%\"&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'() *+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%!&'$%!()*%+, !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+, -./ QK !\"#$%&'()*+$, !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-). !\"#$%&'()*+(,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,*-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0& !\"#$%&'()&*+ !\"# !\" !\"#$ !\"#$ !\"#$%#&'()*+,- ! !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'%()*(+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'( )*+,-.& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\" !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&\"'()*+ !\"#$%&'( NK !\"#$% &'()*#+ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*)+),)-. !\"#$%&'()*+, -./0 !\"# $%&'()*+,-./$ !\"#$%&' ()*+,-. !\"#$%&'!()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+, ! !\"#$%&'()*+,*-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$\"%&'()*+,-./\" !\"#$%&'($)*+,-./& !\"#$%&'()%&*+',%- !\"#$%&'()*%+,-.\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\" !\"#$%& OK !\"#$%$&'()*+ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*!+,-. 46 !\"#$%&'() *+,-.%/ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()&*+,- !\"#$%&'(#)*+,-.&/ !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-./0 !\"# $%&'()*+,\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$% !\"#$%&$'()*+, - ! ! !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'($%)*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./0 !\"#$%&$'()*+,!-./ !\"#$%&'()* +,- ! !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-!.#/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" !\"#$%&$'() !*+, !\"#$%&'()#$*+,-.# !\"#$%&'(!)*$+,-.\" !\"#$$%&'()*+!,- !\"#$% !\"#$% ! !\"#$%& !\"'()* !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'( )*+,-. !\"#$%&'()'*+,-. !\"#$%&'(\")*%&+,\"- !\"#$% &'#()*+,- !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./+ !\"#$%&'()#$* !+, !\"#$%&'!()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+ PK !\"#$%&'($)*+, !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()!*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()!\"*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"# ENF !\"# !$%&'( )\" !\"#$%&$'()*+\", ! \"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- . !\"#$%&'()'*%&+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&' ()*+,-. !\" EOF !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*!\"+,- !\"#$%&'()\"*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*!+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&' ()*+, !\"#$% 47 !\"#$%&'()*+, ! OMMR !\"#$% !&'()* !\"# OMMQ !\"#$%\"!&'()*%+, !\"#$ !\"#$% !OMMQ !\"#$%&'== !\"#$%&&'( !)*+,-./0)12345678)193 OMMR !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !\"#OMMR !\"#$%&'!() !\"# !\"#$OMMP !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()* !\"OMMM !\"#$%& !\"#$%&' OMMP !\"#$%&'(!)* !\"# 48 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.!\"# !\"#$% A review on the history of Hong Kong's language teaching policies and opinions on improving the standard of language teaching !\"#$% & !\"#$%&'() ENF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0$1 !2340526789)*:;<='>?@- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234567.89:%;<=3>?@ABCDE !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012345 !67\"589:;<1=>?@AB/CD !\"#$ EOF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01'(,*23-.&456789: !\"!#$\"%!&'\"()&)!*\"+,!* Abstract The article discusses the topic in two ways: (1) The writer attempts to review the history of language teaching policies and explore the development of medium of instruction in schools in the past century while undermining the use of mother-tongue teaching. The writer also reviews the changes of language teaching policies in Hong Kong before and after the unification of Hong Kong with her motherland, thus making Hong Kong a unique language area after a period of over one hundred years. This is mainly due to the encouragement of using English as a main teaching medium in most schools under the 49 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.!\"#$/0'1234 !\"#$%&'()* NK !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-./+ ! N !\"#$%&'()*+%,-. !\"#$%&#'()#*+,- ! \"#$ %&'()*+, !\"#$ O !\"#$%&'()*+,-* !\"#$%&'($)* NUQO !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*!+,NUSO !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$ NURU !\"#$% aêK=g~ãÉë=iÉÖÖÉI=aKaKI=NUNRJNUVT !\"#$ !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'(#)*+,!- !\"#$%#&'()$*+,- !\"#$%&'()\"*$%+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'(\")*+ NUTT !\"#$páê=gçÜå=eÉååÉëëó !\"#$%&'()*+#,- !\"#$%&'()*+,!-. !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%!&' PNVNN !\"#$%&'()*+#, !\"#$%&'(!\")*+ !\"#$% !\"#$%&! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%!&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,#$% !\"#$%& !\"#$% NVRP !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+',-. !\"#$ OK !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*&\"#$%+, N !\"#$NVOR !\"p á ê `ÉÅáä=`äÉãÉåíá NVOR NN NVPM R !\"#$%&'#()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+%, !\"#$%&'()*+,-!. !\"#$%&' ()*+\" !\"#$%&' NVOS ! ! !NVQS !\"#$% !\"NVRN !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+&,-. !\"#$ British rule before the unification. This may contribute Hong Kong to become an international city. (2) The writer suggests ways to raise the level of \"bi-literate and tri-lingual\" (language policy) skills at a faster pace and also brings out eleven personal opinions on how to improve the standard of language teaching. Keywords bi-literate and tri-language, the language policy, mother-tongue teaching, medium of instruction in secondary schools, foreign language 50 O !\"#NVPR !\"#$%&' bK=_ìêåÉó !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-\". !\"#$%&'()*+,%-. !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()#*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ PNVPT !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'&()*#+,- !\"#$%&'(')*+,-NK V ! PK !\"#$%&'()* N !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%!&'\"#()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-#. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+#$% O !\"#$NVRN !\"#$% !\"#$kKdK=cáëÜÉê ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&' PNVRO !gK=hÉëïáÅâ ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ N V R V !\"#$%&'(g K p K cìäíçå !\"#$%& !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,+ !\"#$%&'() !*+ !\"#$ !\"#$%&' !\"#$%& !\"#$% !NMTRJOMMP Q j~êëÜ !p~ãéëçå NVSP !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%j~êëÜ !\"# p~ãéëçå !\"#$%&' !\"# !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\" !\"#$%&'()* ! !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"# NVUN QK NVSP !\"#$%&'(NVSN ! oK_K=_ä~Åâ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dççÖäÉ !QSM !v~Üçç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éKPPU ! \"#$%&'( NVUP !\"#$%&'( !\"#$ éKPRR ! \"#$%&'( NVUS !\"#$%&'() !\"#$ éKPRP ! \"#$%&'( ! !\"#$%&'() !\"#$ éKPRT ! \"#$%&'( ! !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ éKPRV ! \"#$%&'( NVVM !\"#$%&'(()*+,-#.%/01 !\"# OMMN !\"#$ !\"#$%& ! !\"#$ éKPSS ! \"# !\"# !OMMN !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0!123456éKPTQ ! \"#$%&'( !NVTV !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$!\"%&'()*+, !\"# $% !\"#$\"%&' !\"#$%&'(\"# )(*+,-(\"#./0'1 )2\"34NVVR !\"# !\" !\"#$%&' NVVN !\"#$%&'() ! \"#$%&' !\" #$NVUN !\"#$%&'() ! \"#$\"%& !\"#$%&'OMMQ !\"#$%&'()NMTRJOMMP ! \"#$%&'( NVVM !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$% Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+ Criticism on 3 sets of Taiwanese junior secondary Chinese language textbooks !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123!456768!9:;#<=>#<?/#<@ABC !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:%9:;<=>?1@=ABCDE !\"#$%&'()*+,-.,/0123456 !\"#789:;<=>?&@0ABC' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234562 !\"#$%&'$() Abstract This study examines three sets of currently-used Taiwanese Chinese language textbook critically upon their compilation and selection. Evidence is drawn from system theory, cognitive theory, subject theory, ability construction theory and curriculum theory. The result of the study shows that units of all the three sets of Chinese language textbooks are generated from ideas of daily living. However, no proper integration of units has been made. For the learning units, no clear instruction has been given to disseminate the designated language skills learned. Meanwhile, follow-up activities for units and utilization of diversified language teaching are two important areas which lack sufficient description. It would be highly likely to be more reasonable for the learning units arranged according to the language ability and skills. Keywords Taiwanese junior secondary Chinese language, textbook, criticism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péÉ~êã~å !\"#$ íïçJÑ~Åíçê=íÜÉçêó !\"#$dìáäÑçêÇ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*&'+,-./0 NVVVRQJTV !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'(%)*+,- !./0 !\"#$%&'()*++,-%. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01NVVS NMPV !\"#$%&'()*&'+,-. !\"#$%&'(_êìåÉê !\"#$%& d~ÖåÉ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ong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%& '()!*+ A creative approach in the teaching of writing: the design of a writing series !\"#$%#& OMMM !\"#$%&'&()*+,-.#-/0123&'4567)*#8\"95:; !\"#$%&'(#)*+,-./\"012\"342\"56789:;<=>?@A(BCDE !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-./0123456789:;<=>?@AB&CDEF;<G !\"#$%&'()*$+,-./01)*2,3415678, 9:;<=,>?@A !\"#$%& '()%&*+,- *+ Abstract The Education reform launched in Hong Kong in 2000 recommended highly the enhancement of students' learning skills. Nine generic skills were identified. Creativity is among one of these nine skills. It was found in surveys that many teachers did not fully understand the theory of creativity. They equated games, competitions and some flashy activities in class as \"creativity\". They failed to understand that creativity is related to cognitive development, and even to multiple-intelligence. This article reports the design of a writing series for junior secondary students. The design takes into consideration the psychological development of adolescents, writing objectives, the genres in writing and the development of different thinking skills. Keywords creativity, writing in Chinese language, three-dimensional model of the teaching of writing, creative teaching 71 !\"#$%& '()!*+ ! OMMM V ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! !\"!#!$!%&'()*+(,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,*-.*/01 !\"#$%&'()$*+ ,,-. OMMMQ !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$ %\"&' (\")*+ ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&' ()*+,' -./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\" !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./+0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. OMMO !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ VMB !\"#$% &'()*+,-. UMB !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./01! !\"#$%&'()! !\"#$ !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*)+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()* !\" !#$ !\" !\"#$% ! !\" !\"#$%&\"'()*+, ! !\"#$ ! !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'(%&)*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. lëÄçêå NVVP ! !\"#$% !píÉáåNVUQ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'(\")*+#,-./0 !\"#$%&'(%)*+,-% N _~ÉêNVVT !\"#$%&'()*% !\"#$%&'()*%#+,-!./0 !\"#$%&'()*+, O NVRM !\"#dìáäÑçêÇ NVTT !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()\"* !\"#$%&'()*+, NK !\"#$%qçêê~åÅÉNVSR !\"#$%&'()$%&*'$+, !\" #$%!& '(%)*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,'(- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" #$%&'( OK !\"#$%&$\"'()*+, pÅÜäÉáÑÉêNVUN !\"#$%&'(# ENF= !\"#EOF= !\"#$% EPF= !\"#$%&'()EQF= !\"#$%&ERF= !\"#$%&' ESF= !\"#$%&'ETF= !\"#EUF !\"EVF= !\"#$%&'()*+ !ENMF= !\"#$%&'ENNF= !\"#$ENOF= !\"#$%&ENPF !\"#$%& !\" NVUVV PK !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0' !\"#$\"%&'()NVVM !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./0 !\"#$%&'()ENF= EOF= 72 EPF= !\"EQF= !\"ERF= !ESF= !\"#$ETF= QK !\"L !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 táääá~ãë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`~ÅÅ~ãáëÉINVUT !\"#$%\"&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$% 73 !\"#$%& '()!*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'( )*#+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*!+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01#2 !\"#$%&'%()%*+#,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-*./0' !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$%01 !\"#$%&'()*+E S t r u c t u r e o f Intelligence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áF !\" #$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- 78 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-& !\"#$ EááF ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$% ! !\" !\"#$%&'(!)*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+#,- !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$ !\"#$ !\"#$#% !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*$+,- ! EáááF !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,!- !\"#$%&'() EáîF !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&!'()* !+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-& !\"# !$% !&' () !\"#$ EîF !\"#$%& !\"#\"$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'() *+,- !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./ !\"#$!%&'(! !!\"#$%&'()*+,&'(-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. ! !\"#$%&'!\"#$%& \"#$ !\" mááêíç NVVRNN 79 !\"#$%& '()!*+ N píÉáåI=jKfK=ENVUQWNFK==?`êÉ~íáîáíó=áë=~=éêçÅÉëë=íÜ~í=êÉëìäíë=áå=åçîÉäíó=ïÜáÅÜ=áë=~ÅÅÉéíÉÇ=~ë=ìëÉÑìäI=íÉå~ÄäÉ=çê=ë~íáëÑóáåÖ Äó=~=ëáÖåáÑáÅ~åí=Öêçìé=çÑ=çíÜÉêë=~í=ëçãÉ=éçáåí=áå=íáãÉK? O _~ÉêI=gK=ENVVTWQFK==?`êÉ~íáîáíó=êÉÑÉêë=íç=~åóíÜáåÖ=ëçãÉçåÉ=ÇçÉë=áå=~=ï~ó=íÜ~í=áë=çêáÖáå~ä=íç=íÜÉ=ÅêÉ~íçê=~åÇ=íÜ~í=áë ~ééêçéêá~íÉ=íç=íÜÉ=éìêéçëÉ=çê=Öç~ä=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅêÉ~íçêK? P !\"#$%&'&()*+ !\"# ! NVVT !\"#$% ! \"#$% NVUV !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$OMMM V !\"#$%&'()*+,-. ! \"#$%& NVUR !\"#$ !\"#$%& NVVV !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' !\"#$!%&'!()*NVVV !\"#$%&' !\"#$% OMMO !\"#$%& !\"#$%& OMMN !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !OMMM !\"#$%&' ()**+,- !\"#$%&'()* _~ÉêI=gK=ENVVTFK==`êÉ~íáîÉ=íÉ~ÅÜÉêëI=ÅêÉ~íáîÉ=ëíìÇÉåíëK==_çëíçåW=^ääóå=~åÇ=_~ÅçåK `~ÅÅ~ãáëÉI=aKgK=ENVUTFK==fÇÉ~=ÖÉåÉê~íáçå=áå=ïêáíáåÖK==få=^K=j~íëìÜ~ëÜá=EÉÇKFK==têáíáåÖ=áå=êÉ~ä=íáãÉW=jçÇÉääáåÖ éêçÇìÅíáçå=éêçÅÉëëÉëK==kÉï=vçêâW=içåÖã~åK dìáäÑçêÇI=gKmK=ENVTTFK==t~ó=ÄÉóçåÇ=íÜÉ=fnK==_ìÑÑ~äçI=kÉï=vçêâW=`êÉ~íáîÉ=bÇìÅ~íáçå=cçìåÇ~íáçå=fåÅK dìäÅÜêáëíI=jK=ENVTOFK==qÜÉ=éëóÅÜçäçÖó=çÑ=ÅêÉ~íáîáíóK==jÉäÄçìêåÉW=jÉäÄçìêåÉ=råáîÉêëáíó=mêÉëëK lëÄçêåI=^KcK=ENVVPFK==^ééäáÉÇ=áã~Öáå~íáçåK==_ìÑÑ~äçI=kÉï=vçêâW=`êÉ~íáîÉ=bÇìÅ~íáçå=cçìåÇ~íáçå=mêÉëëK mááêíçI=gK= =ENVVRFråÇÉêëí~åÇáåÖ=íÜçëÉ=ïÜç=ÅêÉ~íÉ=E !\"F !\"#$%&'( pÅÜäÉáÑÉêI=_K=ENVUNFK==eçï=ÅêÉ~íáîÉ=~êÉ=óçì\==kÉï=vçêâW=bìÖìåÉ=o~ìÇëÉééK píÉáåI=jKfK=ENVUQFK==píáãìä~íáåÖ=ÅêÉ~íáîáíóI=îçäìãÉ=fI=fåÇáîáÇì~ä=éêçÅÉÇìêÉëK==^ã~Ö~åëÉííI=kÉï=vçêâW=qÜÉ=jÉïë mêÉëëK qçêê~åÅÉI=bKmK=ENVSRFK==^=åÉïJãçîÉãÉåí=áå=ÉÇìÅ~íáçåW=`êÉ~íáîÉ=ÇÉîÉäçéãÉåíK==_çëíçåW=dáåå=C=`çãé~åóK qçêê~åÅÉI=bKmK=ENVVMFK==qçêê~åÅÉ=íÉëíë=çÑ=ÅêÉ~íáîÉ=íÜáåâáåÖK==_ÉåëÉåîáääI=fiW=pÅÜçä~ëíáÅ=qÉëíáåÖ=pÉêîáÅÉK táääá~ãëI=cKbK=ENVUOFK==aÉîÉäçéáåÖ=ÅÜáäÇêÉåDë=ÅêÉ~íáîáíó=~í=ÜçãÉ=~åÇ=áå=ëÅÜççäK==dáÑíÉÇ=`ÜáäÇ=qçÇ~óI=OQW=OJSK 80 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0+ A primary school's experience of switching from Cantonese to Putonghua on teaching Chinese language !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012/*+3456789:;<=>?@A/B OMMM !\"#$%&'()*+,-.&/0123+456789:#;<93+=1>?@ABCD !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#/.0123456578 !\" #$\" !#$%&\"#$'( Abstract The locally popular Cantonese dialect has always been the mainstream medium of instruction in the territories' primary and secondary schools. This article analyses a primary school's switch from Cantonese to Putonghua to teach Chinese language within five years starting from 2000, and by discussing the causes, implementing process, and results of the transition, attempts to promote adopting Putonghua as the medium of instruction of Chinese language in Hong Kong. Keywords primary education, medium of instruction, educational language planning, language policy 81 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0+123 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-. NVVS !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0$12 !\"#$%&'()*+,!#-./0 !\"##$%&#' PM !\" NMRS ! QR !\" NMOOB !\" !\"#$%&PRTUB !\"#$ !\"#$ %&'()*+,-.'()# !\"#$%&'() * !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0& 1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01*2 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.= !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"012 !\"# !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./-012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,& -./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,,-./01 !\"# !\"#$% NK ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ NVVS !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. OMMM !\"#$%&'%()\"* OMMQ !\"#$%& PM !\"# !\"#$%&'()*%+ OK ! ENF !\"#$%&'()*+,-. NVVS !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# $$%!&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*$+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. OMMM !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ U !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ OMMMJOMMN OMMNJOMMO OMMOJOMMP OMMPJOMMQ OMMQJOMMR ! 82 !\"#$% PUB !\" !PUB VRB !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ OMMO !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-.( !\"#$%&'($)*+OMMQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#NU !\"#$%&'( !\"#$ OMMS U PN !\" !\"#$%&'()%*+, mjf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áF !\"#$%&'()*+$\"# !\"#$%&'(#)*+,- !\"#$%&'(\")*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'%()*&+, !\"#$%&'()*!#+, EááF !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()&*+,- ! \"#$%&'()* \"+ !\"#$%&!'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&%&'()$*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. ! EáááF !\"#\"$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*&+,- !\"#$ EáîF !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*%+, !\"#$%&'() ! !\"#$%&'!()*+ ! EîF !\"#$%\"&'()*+, 84 !\"#$%&'()*!+ EQF !\"#$%!&' !\"#$%&'OMMQ !\"# !\" #$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()* +, !\"#$%&' ()*+,-. !\"#$% &'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*&+,-. !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-. !\"#$%&'()*&+,-. !\"#$\"%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# EáF !\"#$%&'()*%+,- EááF !\"#$%&'()*&+,- !\"# EáááF !\"#$%& EáîF !\"#$%&'!\"()*+, !\"#$%&' Eî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ong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 Enlarging the amount of extensive reading so as to improve students' language ability in Chinese !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;;<=;;>?;;@ABCDEF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@&!A4567B:C !\"#$%&'(\")*+,- !\"./01234\"56789:;2<=>\"?@ABCD !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&\"'$ ! Abstract This essay mainly discusses the relationship between reading and language proficiency in the present course of Chinese language teaching. Through the whole course of the teaching: reflecting - experimenting - practicing - summarizing - improving, the writer has come to realize that the improvement of language ability is closely related to the increase in the amount of extensive reading. Reading is an accumulation of quantity. Based on this accumulation, the quality of students' language ability is thus improved. With the increase in the amount of reading, students' knowledge is broadened and their understanding in the works is more in-depth and detailed. The outcome is: they no longer resist Chinese writing as they did before. Keywords self-directed reading, language ability, reading in chinese 89 !\"#$== !\"#$% ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%01 !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-./.,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%01 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( )*+,#-. !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%#&'()* !\"#$% !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-$./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./012 !\"#!$%&'()*+,-.% !\"\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./+, !\" #$%&'()*+,-.\"/0, !\"#$%&'()*!+,-./01/ !\"#$%&'()\"*+, -./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%& '()\"#*+,-#. !\"#$%&'(())*+,$-./ ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%\"#&'()*+,-&./0 !\"#$ %&!'()*+, -./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. /.0( !\"#$%&'(#)*+,-.#'/012,-31'(14*+,-.567'89:;<=> !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,%&-./0\"123-.45678$9:;<,=>/ !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-.,/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-&'.)/0 !\"#$%&'(\")*+),-./0 !\"#$%&!'()*+*,!-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,*-./0 !\"#$%$&'()*+ ,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./0'1 ! !\"#$%&'()*+,!-./012 !\"#$%&'()\"*+,-%&.$' !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./ !\"\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# $%&'()*+,-'./0( !\"#$%&'()*+,-. /012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+$,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!*+' !\"#$%&'()*+'(,-*'( !\"#$%&'()*+&,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./0 !\"#$%P !\"#$%&'() ! S R !\"#$%&' 90 !\"#$%&'()*+ NKT !\" !\"#$%&'($)*!+ !\" !\"#$%&'R !\"#$%&' !\"#$%#$&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./+0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"12 !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-#'\"() !\"#$%&'()*+ ,\"-. !\"#$%&'P !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./-0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"$%./ !\"#$%&'()*+$,-. !\"R !\"#$ QM ! R !\"#$%&QM !\"# !\"#$%&\"'()*+,-$)./0 !\"#\"$%&'()*+%\"#\"$(, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\" !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01,2 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0!1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0!12 !\"#$%& '()%*+,-RMM !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01'2 !\"#$%&'()*+ SMM !\" !\"#$%&'()*+',)-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*R !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()\"*$!+,-./ P !\"#$%&'()#*%+,-\" !\"NKVP !\"#$R !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0)12 !\"R !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#RS !\"#$ ! !\"P OR !\" ! !\" # !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,#+-./0 !\"#$%&%& '()*+,-. / !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'() *+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./012 !\"#$%&'()R !\"#$ !\"#NP !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'!()*+,*-'. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012! !\"#$%&$'()\"*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-*\"./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./012 !\"#$%&'()\"*+,-./01, !\"#$%&'(&)*+,- \"./0 ! \"#$# %&'!()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-(./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012$ !\"#$%&'()*+#,-./0#1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01& !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-.*/01 !\"#$% !\"#$ !\"#$ 91 !\"#$== !\"#$% !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$ !\"#$ !\"#$% !\"#OMM !\"\"#$%&'& !\"#$%&'())*+,-.&/01 !\"#$%&'(()*+MKUOKV !\"#$%&'( ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*!+,-!./01 !\"#$%&'()%&* !\"#$%&'()*+,&-./0 !\"#$%&'()!*$+,!-. !\"#$%&'(%)*+,-./0 ! \"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#\"$%&'() *%+,)-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*$+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.)/01 !\"#$%&'()*++,-./0 1 !\"#$%&'()*!&+,-./01 ! !\"# ! !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./&012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&' !\"#$% ! !\"#$%&'(!)*$%+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01#2 !\" !#$%\"&' !()*+#,) !\"#$%&' ()* !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\". !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'(!#)*+,-./0 !\"#$%&#'()*+!,-./0\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01+ !\"##$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'( ! !\"# !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/0 !\"# !$%!&'()*+%,-. !\"#$%&'()*'+,*'-.*' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0121 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.%/012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$% &'#() *+,-./ !\"#!$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01&2 !\"#$%& '()*+,-./01 ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-' !\"#$\"%&'()*+,-./01\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01\"2 !\"#$%&'() !\" !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%& !\" !\"#$%&'!()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01, !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,#-./012 !\"#$%&'() !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-'./! !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-'(#./ !\"#$% &%'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'!()*\"+!,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%& 92 !\"#$%&'()\"*+ !\"# !\"#$%&'()!*+,-.!/01 !\"#$%&'()*+%,-./01 !!\"#$% !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()* !\" ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&' ()*'+,- ./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&\"'(\")*+,-./\"0 !\"#$\"%&'()*+,-&./)0 !\"#$%&'()#\"*+%,-./0 !\"#$%&'() *$%+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.,/ \" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# !\"#$%&'#$()*++,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%#01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0!12 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'() !\"#$!\"%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*'+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+\" ,-.%/$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./+01' !\"#$%&'(KKKKKK !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%012 !\"#$% &!'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,%-./012 !\"#$%&#'()!*+,\"#!- !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\")* !\"#$%&'()#$%*+,-\".% !\"#$%&'()*+,-(./01( !\"#$%&&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,#-#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.,/012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&' ! !\"#$%&!'()*+,-./012 !\"#NK= !\"#$% &'()* !\"#$%&'!()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'(&)*+OK= !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01$2 !\"#$!\"#%!\"#&'()*+,* !\"#$%&'()*+PK= !\"# !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-.$/0\" !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,!-./012 93 !\"#$== !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-!.N O !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" #$%&'()*+,-.&/ 0 !\"#$%&'()&'*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+\",$%-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012% !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/ P !\"#$%&'()*+,-.)*/01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0*1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./#012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./# !\"# $%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*$%+,-. /0 !\"#$%&'()*(+,(-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0!12 !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$% &'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. /012 !\"#$%&'()*+,$-)./0 94 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01' YUNG Man-sing, Andrew `ÜáÉÑ=bÇáíçê=çÑ=eçåÖ=hçåÖ=qÉ~ÅÜÉêëD=`ÉåíêÉ=gçìêå~ä Abstract The paper attempts to explore the origin of Direct Subsidy Scheme Schools (DSS) policy in Hong Kong and its development in the past fifteen years. It focuses on the different aspects of financial and administrative arrangement of DSS schools. Finally, several experiences are illustrated to demonstrate how DSS schools instill a new round of competition among schools in basic education section. Keywords Direct Subsidy Scheme School, education policy, school finance, educational administration, basic education !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;'<= !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./0&123456789: !\"#$% !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'($\"#)*$%&+'$,-%& 95 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration The Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS) was launched in 1991 by the Hong Kong government with the intention of giving public grants to schools according to a sliding scale while allowing them autonomy in making curricular choices, changing tuition fees and employing entrance requirements. By September, 2006, there are 67 DSS schools. They constitute 2.3% and 9.5% of the total number of primary and secondary schools respectively (EMB, 2006). The unique features of DSS schools not only create flexibility in finance and administration, but also provide a new choice to parents. The aim of this paper attempts to review the two crucial areas where DSS schools offer flexibility, namely finance and administration. The paper consists of three parts. The first introduces the background of the policy of formation of DSS schools and its development. The second examines some issues of financial management and administrative practices in DSS schools respectively. The last critically reflects whether or not DSS schools enhance competition in the education system in Hong Kong. Background of the pol icy of formation of Direct Subsidy Schools The formal education system of Hong Kong Modeled after the educational system of the United Kingdom in the 1970s, schooling in Hong Kong is compulsory and free for all children from primary one up to the age of fifteen. The formal primary and secondary education features a universal elementary education (six years of primary and three years of junior secondary education), and an increasingly competitive intermediate level education (two years of senior secondary and two years of sixth form education). Public funding plays a dominant role in the supply of formal education at both levels, in government schools and aided schools. The private education sector is relatively small. It mainly includes about 10 percent of primary and 17 percent of secondary schools. The governance and financing of public education In the public education sector, the major difference between government schools and aided schools is financial autonomy, which in many ways also affects decision making and policy outcomes of individual school. Government schools, which are directly funded from the accounts of the Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB) and teachers of which are employees of the public service, enjoy relatively smaller degree of freedom in the aspect of how money is spent. EMB and the general public regard government schools as \"defacto pioneers\" or \"pilots\" in trying out or testing government education policies at school level. In contrast, aided schools, mainly operated by independent school sponsoring bodies, enjoy more financial freedom and flexibility, though they also receive funding from the government. This is especially so for those schools which have joined the School Based Management Scheme, a decentralization policy for improving administrative efficiencies, in recent years. In addition, aided schools are allowed to appoint their own staff. For instance, they can employ principals and teachers and administrators according to the sponsoring body's own preferences, such as, academic and religious orientation and community needs (admission of new immigrant children or other disadvantaged groups), as long as they abide to the requirements of the government regulations. Obviously, the wealthier the school sponsoring body, the greater degree of autonomy their schools intend to assert. 96 The governance and financing of private education Private schools of elementary and intermediate levels in Hong Kong are funded and operated in two main ways. First, individual providers/investors or education trust foundations solely finance one type of private independent (primary and secondary) schools. They do not receive any subsidy from the government. International schools which depend largely on parent/ student contributions in the form of tuition fees and/or debentures belong to this type. The English Schools Foundation schools are distinctive examples. They enjoy independent school decision making over matters such as the curricula, student admission policy, language policy, etc., based on the pattern of the host countries (Education Department, 2000). They are mainly private schools catering the needs of children of expatriate families and a growing number of local children whose parents have either a preference for an education system or curricular of a particular country or a dislike for the local education system (Yamato & Bray, 2002). Second, there are private schools which are financed by their individual providers/investors or education trust foundations but at the same time subsidized or assisted by the government, in the form of capital grants and bought places. They are such as the Bought Place Scheme (BPS)1 before 2000 or the Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS) since 1991. However, the government has decided to phase out the BPS scheme by 2000 and replace it with Direct Subsidy Scheme (Tan, 1995). Introduction of Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS) and its development The basic education system and service in Hong Kong have been highly centralized and controlled. The former Education Department (ED) and, at present, the Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB) heavily regulates both government and aided schools. As a result, the services provided by most schools are remarkably homogeneous and cannot meet the increasingly diversified needs of parents and their children. To improve the situation, the government encourages private educational bodies to inject vitality and innovation into Hong Kong's education system, while providing choice and quality service to the public (Tung, 1999; EMB, 2004). The Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS) is introduced as a means to maintain a strong, independent private education sector for Hong Kong's pluralistic society, while allowing schools the maximum freedom with regard to curricular, fees and entrance requirements that is consistent with basic educational standard (Education Commission 1988:55). The appearance of DSS schools shed important implications to basic education in Hong Kong. Some of these schools are considered as \"light house school\" erected as beacons for others to follow (Bascia and Hargreaves, 2000). The government encourages school-sponsoring bodies to join DSS when they apply for new schools; priority for new school allocation is greatly depended on compliance. Second, the government plans to transform the mode of operation of one of the government schools by joining DSS. This intends to test the viability of a full-scale transformation of all government schools into DSS in the future. Third, it attracts many well-established subsidized or grant schools, those so-called \"the elite schools\" to join the DSS as a means to strengthen their autonomy in school management, rather than adhering to government's centralized policies on fees, school finance, students' allocation, entrance requirement, and curriculum design. It is indeed most of the newly established DSS schools highlight their school aims with the Government's policy 97 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration objectives (EMB, 2004). To some academics, it is an education reform by means of marketisation and privatization, with emphasis on diversity and choice in education (Whitty, 1997:299-302; Whitty, Power and Halpin, 1998; Gillborn and Youdell, 2000; Power, 2002). To a large extent, this policy shift is a replication of education reform in the United Kingdom in the 1980s by the Conservative Government in breaking the Local Education Authority (LEA) monopoly of state schooling (Gillborn and Youdell, 2000:18-22; Power, 2002:47-48). The Direct Subsidy Scheme intends to provide public grants to schools according to a sliding scale while allowing them autonomy in making curricula choice, tuition fees and entrance requirements. The grant to a given school equals the difference between the school's income from fees and the notional cost to the government of an aided school with a similar number of pupils. Other sources of income through charity or donations are excluded from the calculation. Schools with low fees receive full grant for each pupil, while schools with the highest income receive a minimum proportion of the full grant. Tables 1 to 5 compare aided schools, DSS schools and private independent schools (PIS) in terms of finance administration, facilities, teaching and learning, operation and management, class size and student intake. The comparison shows that DSS schools enjoy more flexibility in finance and administration than government aided schools. Table 1: A comparison of Aided, Direct Subsidy Scheme and Private Independent Schools Source: Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association (2002) Table 2: A comparison of Aided, Direct Subsidy Scheme and Private Independent Schools: finance and school facilities 98 Source: Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association (2002) Table 3: A comparison of Aided, Direct Subsidy Scheme and Private Independent Schools: teaching and learning Source: Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association (2002) 99 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration Table 4: A comparison of Aided, Direct Subsidy Scheme and Private Independent Schools: operation and management Source: Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association (2002) (a) Administered 垣 accordance Wil也 N自dωobserve 也.e conditions laid In addition to 由e Administration the Code of Aid. Have to down for admission to 也eDSS Edu間組on and Governance obs位ve 也巴 conditions laid down 8cheme 祖d 且也，e 8位vice agreernent Ordinance 值Jd 姐也，e 8ervice agreement signed signed wi也 EMB. In∞m郎tion with Regulations, PIS withEMB. 由e renewal of the s位vice agreernent have to observe the signed between DSS schools and the C個ditions laid down Government, DSS schools 缸e allowed 扭曲e service to engage outside experts to work w恤 a191自rnent signed 由e Education and Manpower Bureau withEMB. 但，MB) in perf，個n個自 evaluation as long as c副組n conditions are met. (b) Ex間pt for a c位切inpe叩開胡啟 of Schools have full discretionω 甜mìt Schools have full Admìssion of discre帥的 places，即恤ts of students. Students of DSS 民COfli也可 discretion to 吋mìt students aided 8ch∞，18 are alloca削 sch∞，ls c組∞n血間也，eir education 詛 students. through the 扭扭E紅y One 由e 單位ne school beyond S3 level admission (l可'A) system at Pl withoutha叫ng to par位cipate 詛也巴 level，也eS品。n血ry Sch∞1 JSEA. Places Allocation (SSP A) system at S 1 level and the Junior S做到()Jl血ry Edu間組.on Assessment (JSEA) sys能m at S4 level. (c) F臨時因ssion is provi'由dfl白血e Schools admìnist巴r 也，eirown fee Schools admìnister F目 remission eligible students by the remission/scholarship schemes. 也eir own fee Government. remission/ scholars區p schemes. (d) Standard fl自s for S4-S7 only; Schools 問n charge their students any Schools can charge Sch∞Uì∞ small amount of Tong F.也 and approved sch∞1 fees but gov臼nment 也eir students any 。由位 coU前已ons 紅e allowed on subsidy will be adjus的d且前ω吋祖ce approved sch∞1 a pre-ap戶。IVed basis. with a banding system. f臼s. (e) The appointment of NETs is DSS sch∞，ls have 企扭曲IID in the PIS have freedom 凶 Ap阿ntmentof gover宜ed by the Code of Aid appointment of NETs. 也e appointment of Native English and EMB's regulations on 也巴 NETs. Sp臼區ng Teachers NETScheme. 們ETs) 的 Sal紅yand Thesal紅y and MISS of aided Thes到紅y 鈴ale and fr臼，ge benefits of Free to have their 品nge benefits of sch∞1 紀achers are gover祖ed by DSS sch∞，ls need not follow those of own sal的“ale 祖d teachers 出e Code of Aid and relevant 但也d schools. 台包1ge benefits f，位 subsidy legis1ation. 也eir teach自S. 包) The provident fund a甜甜Igement DSS sch∞，ls adminis個 theirown PIS adminisw their Provident fund for 個chers of aided sch∞，18 缸E provident funds fc腔 their 包achi苟且d own provident funds arrangement govemed by the non-記aching staff. Teachers of an ex- for their GranνSubsidized Schools grant/ex-subsidized sch∞，1 turn且g 記aching and non- Provident Pund Rule8. DSS can have the option of staying in 但ac趾ng s個ff. Non-臼ac凶ngstaffmay 由e Gr祖t SchωIs Provident Fund ω participate 扭曲e non-statutory the Subsidized Schools Provident Pund provident fund scheme. foram缸imum period of 5 y'個rsas applicable. 100 The Direct Subsidy Scheme was launched in 1991. At the beginning, it was targeted at four groups of schools in Hong Kong: Bought Place Scheme (BPS) private schools, non-BPS private schools, international schools and aided schools. As it turned out, nine schools joined the Scheme that year (Table 6). Five of them Table 5: A comparison of Aided, Direct Subsidy Scheme and Private Independent Schools: student matters Source: Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association (2002) were non-BPS private schools and four were private international schools. Quite obviously, these schools felt interested in the offer of government financial subsidy while knowing that they continued to enjoy autonomy in key aspects of school operation. The progress moved rather slowly in the early stage. By 1995, there was still no response from any aided school to join the Scheme. According to Chan (1995), there are three factors behind the lack of interest on the part of aided schools. First, the lack of resources and external support for the participation; second, the lack of motivation to change on the part of the leaders of the school sponsoring bodies; third, the time factor - no aided schools were willing to make any drastic move in those years prior to the return of Hong Kong's sovereignty. In September, 2004, there are only seven former aided schools in the DSS. The declaration of Father Deignan (2001) on why Wah Yan College did Table 6: Direct Subsidy Schools in September, 1991 Hon Wah Secondary School Non-BPS private school Heung Tao Secondary School Non-BPS private school Pu Kui Secondary School Non-BPS private school Fukien Secondary School Non-BPS private school Mong Kok Labour Children Secondary School Non-BPS private school Chinese (Hon Kee) International School Private international school French International School Private international school Swiss and German International School Private international school Hong Kong International School Private international school not join the DSS reinforces the clues to the reluctance of many aided schools. The concerns are over \"a very heavy financial responsibility on the sponsoring body and school management ...... all the salaries, major repairs, equipment, etc.\". It is not until very careful weighing of the costs and benefits, merits and demerits and after heated debates among all stakeholders before some aided schools decided to venture into the Scheme. They are mostly the traditional elitist aided schools, such as St. Paul's Co-educational College which joined in September, 2001 and St. Paul's Convent School which joined in September, 2004. 101 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration By September, 2006, there are sixty seven DSS secondary and primary schools in operation. Out of the forty-seven secondary schools, seven are former aided schools, twenty-three are former private independent schools (both BPS and non-BPS) and seventeen newly established ones (Table 7). In the following two parts, some issues related to finance management and administrative practices will be studied. Table 7: Profile of DSS primary and secondary schools as of September, 2006 102 AonuaI AnnuaI AnnuaI Amountof Category Number R臨eived schωI Year of before Medium 01 。.fex甘.a- number fe自 school scbool fe臼 above establish- joining Instruction curricular ofQEF Primary f個S fees aided and ment (i) S4-5 S6-7 government DSS activities projects S1- 3 (HK$) 恆的) 5ch個115 (iv) 個K$) GT個len Yeung) 2∞6 New E N.A. N.A. 286∞ N.A. N.A. N.A. College Hang Seng Sch∞l 1980 PIS N.A. 35 。 N.A. N.A. 10800 1750 ofCommerce Heung To Middle 1946 PIS C 50 5 3000 66∞ 11000 2067 School HeungTo Mi幽le School (T凶 Shui 2∞1 New B 46 。 1000 5320 9170 373 Wai) HeungTo S郎。ndary School 2∞3 New B N.A. N.A. 4αm 8000 N.A. 3325 (fseung Kwan 0) HKCOαJ Logos 2∞3 New B N.A. N.A. 23訓\" N.A. N.A. 230∞ Academy HKMADavidU 2α)() New E 40 1 9∞o 133∞ 235∞ 10467 K wok PO College HKICC Lee Shau K田 Schoolof 2∞6 New C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Creativity HKUGA College 2∞6 New E N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. HKUGA Pr血紅y 2∞3 New E N.A. N.A. 15肌)() School Hon W.也M甜le 1945 PIS C >30 10 2400 64∞ 8750 1150 School Hon W.且 College 2∞6 PIS C >30 10 訕。。 64∞ 8750 1150 Hong Kong Bap也t University A血liated School Wong Kam 2∞6 New 目M N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Fai Secondary and Primary School Kiangsu-Chekiang 1958 PIS M 46 8 2450 58∞ 的∞ 1050 College Li PO Chun Urú蛤d Wor1d College of 1992 PIS E N.A. 。 N.A. N.A. 102創)() 92950 HongKong L加.gnan U到versity 個ong Kong) 2∞5 New C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Alumni DSS primary Sch∞1 Matteo Ricci 1984 PIS C >20 1 。 5340 9040 。College (K.owloon) Workl帥， Children 1946 PIS C >40 5 2∞o 52∞ 88∞ 667 S郎ondary School New Meth叫College 1949 PIS E >30 2 165伺 19570 34670 18810 Pak Kau College 1954 PIS M >30 6 。 56∞ 的∞ 167 103 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration Annual Annual Annual Amountof Category Number Received school Year of before Mediumof of extra- number fees school schω1 fees above 自tablish- joining Instruction cuπicular ofQEF Primary fees fees aided and ment (i) S4-S S6-7 govemment DSS activities projects Sl- 3 (HK$) (HK$) “h個，Is (iv) (HK$) PLKNg祖 PO Ling 2ω3 New M N.A. N.A. 10αm 100ω N.A. 7325 College PLK Camoes Tan Siu Lin P血nary 2瓜)() New E N.A. N.A. 12叭\" N.A. N.A. N.A. School PLKLuk目睹 T∞ 2005 Aided C N.A. N.A. 98∞ N.A. N.A. N.A. Primary School PLK HK.TA Yuen 2005 Aided C N.A. N.A. 8000 N.A. N.A. N.A. Yuen primary SCI闖過 Pui Kiu Midd1e 1946 PIS C >20 5 28∞ 的∞ 10α)() 1567 School Qualied College 2ω3 New C N.A. N.A. 。 5050 8750 。 St Margaret's Co-EdEng S自& 1965 Aided B >30 。 9訓沁 120∞ 18α)() 82∞ pri School StM缸g缸et's Girls' 1965 PIS M 26 1 25∞ 8∞o 12αm 27ω College 個個IgKong) St Pau1's Co- 1915 Aided E 64 2 48000 5930 9630 16387 Educational College St Pau1's Co- Edu個世∞a1 N.A. Ai由d E N.A. N.A. 48000 N.A. N.A. N.A. (Kennedy Ro叫) 扭曲E缸Y School St Pau1's Co- Edu四位onal N.A. Aided E N.A. N.A. 48000 N.A. N.A. N.A. 。“acDonnell Road) 扭曲lary School St Pau1's College 1851 Aided E 50 2 38叫)() 73∞ 11α)() 13967 St Pau1's College N.A. PIS E N.A. N.A. 30α)() N.A. N.A. N.A. 扭曲E缸Y School St Pau1's Convent 1854 Aided E >50 17 250∞ 5480 9180 8420 School Tai PO Sam Yuk 2005 Aided C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. S郎ondary Scb∞L Tak Sun Secondary 2凹)() New E 42 。 45∞ 8500 165∞ 5033 School Tak Yan Sch∞1 1952 PIS C >20 2 。 5840 N.A. 245 The Chinese Foundation 2000 New E 23 。 9050 133∞ 2∞ω 9317 S郎。凶ary Sch∞I The HK.FYG Lee 2∞6 New C N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Shau Kee College United Christi祖 College 恨。wloon 2∞3 New B 53 N.A. 12000 6050 N.A. 6350 East) 104 Notes: (i) C = Chinese; E = English; B = Part of the classes or forms adopted either Chinese or English as medium of instruction (ii) Amounts of funding for installation of air-conditioners are excluded. (iii) The maximum \"Tong Fai\" (Class fees) of government and aided schools is HK$300, fees for S4 and S5 is HK$5050, fees for S6 and S7 is $8750. (iv) Amount of fees above government and aided school is calculated by subtracting the school fees of S4 and S5 ($5350), S6 and S7 ($9050) respectively, then add the portion of fees of S1-S3 to get an average amount of fees. N.A. - data not available Financial management in DSS schools According to the direct subsidy scheme, the income of the DSS schools is generated from two major sources: school fees and government subsidy. DSS schools can fix the amount of school fees to be collected. But if they are to receive the same amount of subsidy (average unit cost) that aided and government schools are currently receiving, their school fees should not exceed 2.33 times of the average unit cost. The crucial consideration for most schools is how to weigh the balance between the school fees and government subsidy: should they charge high school fees and obtain 105 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration smaller amount of government subsidy or charge minimal school fees in order to get the maximum subsidy from the government. Their choice helps to explain why the school fees charged by different DSS schools vary so much (Table 7). The variation can indeed be taken as a good indicator of the availability of income source other than the two major ones mentioned above. The schools which charge high fees are probably the more resourceful ones, such as those with wealthy graduates who are willing to make donations to the school to support its ambitious development plans or those which have made already profit since the commencement of its operation. Since the introduction of Direct Subsidy Scheme, critics repeatedly accuse that DSS schools only cater for the needs of the affluent elitists' families by charging expensive school fees. However, if we compare the annual school fees of 47 DSS secondary schools (Table 7) with annual fees charged by aided or government schools (Table 8). The result shows that around 15% DSS secondary schools charge a similar amount of fee currently charged by the aided and government schools and more than half of the DSS schools charge a fee which is about 1.5 times or twice the fee of aided and government schools. Only a few DSS secondary schools charge very expensive fees. Again, it is interesting to note that most of these \"expensive\" DSS schools are transforming from traditional elitist aided schools, such as Diocesan Boys' School, St Paul's Co- Educational College, or Li Po Chun United World College of Hong Kong. They are the proto-type that creates the image that DSS schools charge high school fees. Apart from the reason mentioned in the previous paragraph, another obvious reason behind this phenomenon is that these elitist schools have to maintain the staff structure, high standard school facilities (such as swimming pools, dance room) and the multifarious extra-curricular activities that have long been their key \"selling points\" in the pre-DSS stage. The salary points of the teaching staff in these schools stand high in the Master Pay Scale. The high school fee is necessarily charged to support the high staff cost. As a matter of fact, most of the newly established DSS secondary schools charge an affordable school fee to the public. They provide more diversity and choices to parents and students of different social-economic stratum. Table 8: Annual school fees of government secondary school and subsidized school Form School fees (per academic year) Secondary 1 Free Secondary 2 Free Secondary 3 Free Secondary 4 $5,050 Secondary 5 $5,050 Secondary 6 $8,750 Secondary 7 $8,750 Average annual school fees (Government schools) $3,942.86 Source: EMB (2004) 106 To ensure that no qualified students will be deprived of the opportunity to gain admission for financial reasons, DSS schools must reserve one tenth of their total income for scholarships or assistantships for needy students. According to Dr. Chan Wai Kai, Chairman of the DSS School Council, many schools spent 18.9% of the school fees on scholarships or assistantship while one school spent 41% in 2003-04. As a result, some schools have to revise their plan on staff structure in the new academic year. DSS schools enjoy flexibility in deploying financial resources and structuring their own staff force and salary scale. For example, some schools choose to provide teachers with 13 months salary, medical benefits, education allowance and other fringe benefits. (This point will be examined in more detail in the next part.) Most of the school fees are spent on improving school facilities and extra-curricular activities of the students. One distinctive example is the first DSS Primary School, Po Leung Kuk Tan Siu Lin Primary School. The school joined the DSS in 2000/2001. Within a short period of time, the school made 9 million dollars net profit in the first three years of operation. It enabled the school to organize two musical bands (an orchestra and a drum band) and invested another 5 million dollars on an indoor swimming pool and a new building specially designed for music education. The school expects to make a profit of 10 million in 2006. Some DSS schools reinvest the profit on employment of more teachers for tutorial classes, subsidizing teachers in lifelong learning, promoting extra-curricular activities, such as distance learning by web conferencing, exchange programs, summer schools, overseas visits, and others. Table 7 shows that most DSS schools offer a large number of extra-curricular activities to students. Administrative practices of DSS schools: pros and cons Greater freedom and flexibility in administrative practices attract many schools to join the DSS. DSS schools enjoy a much bigger autonomy in curricular design, admission conditions, medium of instructions, and human resources management (Tables 1 to 5). In other words, they enjoy plenty of room in decision- makings (Brundrett and Terrell, 2004) and resources allocation (Fong, 1997) in terms of the features of the school and developmental needs, for example, small class teaching and more remedial class. Although DSS schools enjoy a much bigger autonomy in administration; they would also receive a lot of pressure from their clients (parents) and the subsidizer (The Government). As such, they must maintain a high standard of management efficiency, accountability and cost consciousness (Fong, 1997:124) in order to maintain competitive edge in the education market and, for the traditional elitist turned DSS schools, the good tradition and prestige. Curriculum design To boost marketability, DSS schools introduce new policies and implement new ways of teaching and learning, such as smaller class size, adequate information and technology equipments, employing a larger number of native speaking English teachers and Putonghua teachers. They produce their own curriculum designs that highlight the objectives of fostering critical thinking and creativity, to match with the needs of teaching in the knowledge society (Hargreaves, 2003; OECD, 2001; 2004). The followings are a few distinctive examples: 1. Hong Kong Management Association David Lee Kwok Bo College 107 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration The school adopts an International ISO9002 Standard Education Management System as a quality assurance measure. This guarantees that the school is well managed in terms of effectiveness and efficiency. With their own school based curriculum design, the school integrated formal curriculum and extra-curricular activities into programs such as, \"Teachers and Students Read Together\", \"One Student One Musical Instrument\", \"One Student One Kind of Sport\", \"Drop Everything and Read Project\", and \"One student One Community Service\". 2. Pu Kui Middle School It has designed its own school-based curriculum in language education. Apart from the basic needs in language proficiency in English and Putonghua, the school introduces other languages, such as French, Spanish, and Japanese in their curriculum. 3. Christian Jun Mei Wong Kin Hang Primary School The school declares to have the best-equipped computers and digital facilities among Hong Kong schools. Through project learning, students learn by collecting information from the internet, libraries, and available sources. Class size DSS schools decide their own class size. They offer small-group learning for major subjects. As such, teaching and learning can be greatly improved because of the interaction between teacher and students. At the same time, teachers will also benefit with a lighter workload as a result of a lower teacher-student ratio. Student admission The survival of DSS schools is greatly depended on student recruitment as they are a major source of income and at the same time, they must formulate strategy in taping parents' resources (Fong, 1997). In student recruitment or student admission policies and criteria, DSS schools can either select its own students or participate in the Secondary Schools Places Allocation (SSPA or central allocation) of primary school graduates. With this freedom, they have a better control over the standard of the incoming students. DSS schools can admit students without district or regional constraints. They can set up their own admission examination. The demand for places in the traditional elitist turned DSS schools and those with special curriculum is always high. This is evident in the over subscription of applications for admission. It is not surprising to find over 1,000 applications competing for around a hundred places in these schools. However, for some DSS schools in remote districts, the school administrations have to make extra publicity effort in promoting their schools. In order to obtain government's subsidy, some schools may recruit students indiscriminately in the founding stage when enrollment rate is unstable. Staff and teachers DSS schools allocate a greater portion of its financial resources to employ the best qualified teachers with attractive remuneration and fringe benefits and thus leading to organization change within school (Ip, 1994). St. Paul's Boys College offers gratuity to teachers who successfully complete one year of contract. This measure helps to prevent drop-out of staff in the middle of the academic year. China Holiness College links the salary scale with internal performance appraisal system. Those who receive an excellent appraisal will receive an increment in salary. This school also provides extra remuneration to teachers who assume special duties and 108 year end bonus to outstanding teaching and non- teaching staff. These are incentives to motivate teachers to attain higher performance and accept responsibilities. This will boost the morale of the staff that is ready to support and achieve organization goals of the school. On the other hand, teachers of DSS schools do have their worries. There are worries of wage cut or being laid off when financial situation of a school turns bad, possibly due to the poor enrolment rate of students. The sense of job insecurity, if not managed properly, might create tension among staff, which in turn might adversely affect the quality of teaching and learning on one hand, and staff management relation on the other. Do DSS schools really enhance competition? Given the short history of fifteen years, it may still be early to judge the extent to which the DSS schools have enhanced competitions among schools across sectors, in terms of input, process and output of educational investment. What is certain is that competitions do exist. In this era when the economy is recovering and the total birth rates are declining, the competition in student's recruitment at primary level is particularly keen. One interesting example of competition between the aided school sector and DSS sector happened when the Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) announced the establishment of an affiliated through-train DSS school at Shatin in early 2004. The issue initiated fierce debates in both the Shatin District Council and the Legislative Council. Opponents criticized the new school for its strong university background and complained that it could draw away the best students from the district. The demand for the District Council to limit its students' recruitment within the Shatin district to 15% of its total student population as a condition for approving financial subsidy of the construction costs was raised. Eventually, HKBU has to compromise with the condition before gaining approval of grant from the Financial Committee of the Legislative Council. Competitions exist and will become intensified when some schools become more competitive. Wong (1993) investigated, from teachers' perspectives, the changes in the five pilot (private non-BPS) schools (Table 6) in the first two years after joining DSS. The study showed that not only teachers' quality, facilities and equipments of these schools have improved. The schools also tried to make effort on promoting their images and reputation in the community. Ip (1994) studied the organizational change of one of the five schools and discovered the school was driven by the political change of 1997 and the economic crisis to adopt a pragmatic approach to join the DSS. The study showed that there was a rise in the salaries of teachers, thereby enhancing their morale, job satisfaction and positive attitude towards teaching. This has certain impact on improvements on student intake. Recent report shows that all those five schools have achieved great progress on results, extra-curricular activities, school administration, and facilities. Four out of five schools have expanded a number of branch schools. For example, Heung To Middle School has opened two branch schools in Tin Shui Wai and Tseung Kwan O respectively. Fukien Secondary School has opened two branch schools in Kwun Tong and Siu Sai Wan respectively. The other two schools also have operated or planned new branch schools in different parts of Hong Kong. This reflects that DSS schools are basically welcomed by the public. The students of Heung To Middle School and Fukien Secondary School achieved above average results in HKCEE in recent years, with a few students achieving 9A. The university entrance 109 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration rate is also climbing in the past decade. Many students won prizes in the Hong Kong Schools Music Festival and other extra-curricular activities. These marked improvements enhance the reputation of these schools and their competitiveness. For the latest development in 2006, one of the reputed government secondary schools, King's College is planning to join DSS as a means to recruit students with better academic ability and to improve the quality of the school as a whole. The response of the EMB seems quite positive. This signifies that the government would promote the transformation of government schools to DSS schools as a means to preserve the traditional role of government schools as role models of or \"light house school\" for quality education. Although the traditional or elitist aided turned DSS schools encounter a lot of difficulties and challenges during the transitional period, most of them are able to chart a new course in finance and management. Chung (2002) identified 12 management strategies of a traditional aided turned DSS school and discovered that the school has successfully incorporated school-based management concept with the market-driven mechanism of DSS. These strategies helped the school overcome her difficulties during the transition and at the same time benefited from impressive student results. By and large, most of the traditional or elitist aided turned DSS schools continue to gain popularity from the public. The competition on pursuing for places among these schools remains keen. Apart from receiving income from school fees and government subsidy, these traditional elitist DSS schools have excellent connections with generous donors and past students for collecting donations, which enables them to set up endowment for further development. It is still early to judge whether the newly established DSS schools can achieve successful outcome. Yet, most of the newly established DSS schools are supported by school sponsoring bodies of strong financial background. As such, they can easily do promotion and publicity regarding their vision, reputation, facilities, curriculum, teaching force, and strategies on teaching and learning. As most of them match well with the policy highlight of the government on current education reform, again, inevitably, they pose a direct challenge to those aided schools which produce less pleasing performance. While the public education sector in Hong Kong plays the role of the mainstream education provider, the private sector helps to maintain the diversity, open opportunities and offer choices. It is envisaged that the private sector also provides quality education as in the public sector, to facilitate the long term social and economic development of Hong Kong. Bray (1996) reminds us that the private sector should not be regarded as a competitor of the mainstream public sector, but its essential supplement. Yet, healthy competitions of suitable amount do hasten improvement. DSS schools improvement inevitably help to push public funded schools to move forward to achieve quality education. Together, the public and private education sectors will contribute to each individual participant's enhancement of his/her quality and ability, and in aggregate, to society's progress and prosperity. 110 Reference Bascia, N. and Hargreaves, A. (2000). The sharp edge of educational change: teaching, leading and the realities of reform. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Brundrett, M. and Terrell, I. (2004). Learning to lead in the secondary school: becoming an effective head of department. London: Routledge Falmer. Chan, S.M. (1995). Why aided schools have not joined direct subsidy scheme: a qualitative research. An unpublished master of education dissertation, Faculty of education, University of Hong Kong. Chung, W.P. (2002). The management strategy of a participant school under the direct subsidy scheme: a case study. An unpublished master of education dissertation, Faculty of education, University of Hong Kong. Deignan, A.J. (2001). Fr. A. J. Deignan, S.J., the regional superior of society of Jesus, Hong Kong & Macau on the direct subsidy scheme. Hong Kong: Wa Yan College. Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association (2002). A comparison of aided, direct subsidy scheme and private independent schools. Hong Kong: Diocesan Boys School Old Boys Association's web page. Education Commission (1988). Education commission report number three. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Fong, C.L. (1997). Resources allocation in a direct subsidy scheme school: a case study of a participant school. An unpublished master of education dissertation, Faculty of education, University of Hong Kong. Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the knowledge society: education in the age of insecurity. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Gillborn, D and Youdell, D. (2000). Rationing education: policy, practice, reform, and equity. Buckingham: Open University Press. Ip, K.Y. (1994). Organization change: The case of a leftist school in joining the direct subsidy scheme. An unpublished master of education dissertation, Faculty of education, University of Hong Kong. OECD (2001). What schools for the future. Paris: OECD. OECD (2004). Innovation in the knowledge economy: Implication for education and learning. Paris: OECD. Power, S. (2002). Devolution and choice in three countries, in Geoff Whitty (ed.), making sense of education policy. London: Paul Chapman. Tan, J. (1995). The direct subsidy scheme in Hong Kong and the independent schools scheme in Singapore: A comparison of two privatization initiatives\", in Mark Bray (ed.), The economics and financing of education. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Endnote 1 The BPS was considered to be a temporary measure of the Education Department in the 1980s. It was adopted after the enactment of \"nine years compulsory education policy\", which created an upsurge of demand for school places. In order to cope with the acute demand, the Education Department bought school places from the private school sector. In 1987, the number of places bought for S1 - S3 constituted 21.4% of the total of government and aided schools' places in 1987. While implementing the policy, the Education Department discovered that most private schools in Hong Kong were substandard in terms of school building, facilities, or qualification of teachers. Consequently, they could only attract students with poorer academic standard and who were normally not admitted to government and aided schools. 111 The policy of direct subsidy scheme schools in Hong Kong: finance and administration Tung, C. W. (1999). Annual policy speech. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Whitty, G., Power, S. and Halpin, D. (1998). Devolution and choice in education: The school, the state and the market. Buckingham: Open University Press. Wong, L.S. (1993). Implications of the direct subsidy scheme : teachers' perspectives. An unpublished master of education dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong. Yamato, Y. and Bray, M. (2002). Education and socio-political change: the continued growth and evolution of the international schools sector in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, Vol.3, No.1, 24-36. !\"#$%&'()*OMMP !\"#$OMMPLOMMQ !\" ÜííéWLLïïïKÜâÉÇÅáíóKåÉíLëÅÜççäLéëéLã~áåKéÜíãä !\"#$%&'()*OMMP !\"#$OMMPLOMMQ !\" ÜííéWLLïïïKÜâÉÇÅáíóKåÉíLëÅÜççäLëëéLã~áåKéÜíãä !\"NUJOJOMMQ !\"#$%&'()!*%&'+,- ! ÜííéWLLïïïKÉãÄKÖçîKÜâLcáäÉj~å~ÖÉêLíÅL`çåíÉåí|NTRLappMPMQKééí !\"OUJQJOMMQ !\"#$%&'()!*+ ! ÜííéWLLïïïKÉãÄKÖçîKÜâLáåÇÉñK~ëéñ\åçÇÉáÇZNQTRCä~åÖåçZO !\"NTJPJOMMQ !\"#$%&'()* ! ÜííéWLLïïïKÉãÄKÖçîKÜâLáåÇÉñK~ëéñ\åçÇÉáÇZQUMCä~åÖåçZO 112 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching !\" #$%&'() CHAN Kwok-wai Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract A questionnaire was administered to 106 in-service teacher education students of a university in Hong Kong to study their motives and commitment in teaching. Three motive factors were identified accounting for their choice of teaching as a career: \"intrinsic/altruistic\", \"extrinsic/job condition\" and \"influence from others\", amongst which, the strongest one is \"intrinsic/altruistic\" motive. Four factors influencing teachers' commitment were found, viz. \"students' learning and school development\", \"demands on teaching and school practices\", \"teaching as a career choice\", \"teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\". Further analysis of the commitment factors highlighted the supporting and discouraging elements associated with school heads and collegial support, students' learning outcomes, behaviour and attitudes in learning, parents' demands and educational policy changes. All of which deserved the attention of the education authority to address with appropriate measures. Pearson correlation analysis showed that \"intrinsic/altruistic\" motive was significantly related to the four commitment factors, suggesting the relative importance of \"intrinsic/altruistic\" motive upon teacher's commitment in teaching. This should be noted by schools and universities in the process of recruiting prospective teachers. Keywords teachers' motives, extrinsic, intrinsic, altruistic, teaching commitment !\"#$NMS !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012!#3456789:)*;<+/01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$ !\"#$%& !\"#$% ! !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01231456789:;%<=> !\" !\"# !\"#$!%&'() !\"#$%& !\"#$%& !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.%/01234)56!'78 9 :;<8=>) :?@8A 113 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching Introduction The quality and performance of teachers has been a focused concern in education (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Hong Kong Government, 1992). While academic qualification, subject matter knowledge, pedagogy and teaching skill are important factors in determining teachers' competency and teaching efficacy, a knowledgeable teacher without motivation and dedication to teaching may not sustain quality education (Manning & Patterson, 2005). In other words, the quality of teaching is not only governed by the knowledge and skill competence of teachers but also their enthusiasm and commitment in teaching (Rikard, 1999). When a teacher is motivated and loves the teaching profession, the students not only learn the content taught by the teacher, they may also be motivated toward learning (Czubaj, 1996). Teachers who are dedicated and committed to teaching might facilitate school-based innovations or reformations that are meant to benefit students' learning and development. In fact, teacher commitment and engagement has been identified as one of the most critical factors in the success of education (Huberman, 1997, Nais, 1981). Thus, the recruitment and retention of quality teachers is a crucial issue in education. The problem of recruitment and retention of quality teachers has been repeatedly reported in literature and government documents in different countries. For example, in the United States, there is a shortage of qualified teachers particularly in maths and science or special education. Moreover, there is continuing concern that professionals are leaving the teaching field much earlier in their careers than are professionals from other fields (The National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Certo & Fox , 2002). The constant leaving of good teachers from the teaching profession to other careers, such as the business and government sectors suggests that teaching is not an attractive career to prospective and in-service teachers (Ingersoll, 2001; National Center for Education Statistics, 1992). Literature review on teachers turnover rate shows the first few years of teaching seem to be critical for novice or beginning teachers (National Center for Education Statistics, 1992). Studies show that a fairly high proportion of teachers leave the teaching profession in the early years of teaching and that some potential teachers do not join the teaching profession (Baker & Smith, 1997; Ingersoll, 2001). The National Center for Education Statistics (1997) also reported that across the nation 9.3% of public school teachers left before they completed their first year in the classroom and over 1/5 of public school teachers left their positions within their first three years of teaching. Additionally, nearly 30% of teachers left the profession within five years of entry and even higher attrition rates existed in more disadvantaged schools (Delgado, 1999; Darling- !\"#$%&'()*+,-(./01\"#()23456789:;<=>?*@ABC)DE L !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$ !\"!#$%&'() !\"#$%&#'()*+,-./%+.0'#123456 !\"#$\"%$\"&'\"()* 114 Hammond, 1999). Recently in Hong Kong there has been an increasing tendency for school teachers seeking for early retirement or leave the teaching profession, many of them are well experienced, with 10 to over 30 years of teaching experiences. The phenomenon has caused much concern in the public and the education sector. Certainly there are many reasons accounting for the turnover of teachers. For some people, salary, status and working conditions may be determining reasons for them to join and stay or leave the teaching profession. Ingersoll (1997) has pointed out that high rates of teacher turnover are often a result of teachers seeking to better their careers or teachers are dissatisfied with teaching as a career. Ingersoll (2001) has pinpointed that school characteristics and organizational conditions, including lack of administrative support, salary, student discipline and motivation, class size, inadequate planning time, and lack of opportunity for advancement, have significant effects on teacher turnover, even after controlling for the characteristics of both teachers and schools. Connected with the above, stress and burnout resulting from the teaching tasks and environment (e.g. constant changes in educational policy, school and curriculum reforms, class management problems, etc) may cause teachers to feel physically and emotionally exhausted, subsequently diminish their enthusiasm and commitment to teach. Eventually, some of them leave the teaching team with disappointment and a sense of helplessness (Chan, 1995, 2003; Ingersoll, 2001). Even worse, sad news about teachers anxieties and suicide due to high stress are repeatedly reported in newspapers in Hong Kong, raising alarm and concern to the public about teachers' working conditions that may affect their motives and commitment in teaching !\"# OMMSNR !\"#OMMQV !\" OMMQK Given that recruiting and retaining qualified teachers who are motivated and committed to teach is important in securing quality education, it is significant to understand the motives for teachers to take up teaching as a career and their commitment to teach; and factors which may influence their passion and commitment in teaching. The present study attempts to examine teachers' perceptions of teaching as a career in terms of their motives and commitment to teach and how they are related. The findings would provide useful information for teacher educators and school authorities to address the problems of recruiting and retaining quality teachers with appropriate measures. Related literature Teacher commitment is one of the most important aspects of performance and quality of school staff (National Centre for Education Statistics, 1997; Reyes, 1990). According to Nias (1981, 1989), teacher commitment distinguishes those teachers who are caring, dedicated, and who take the job seriously from those who put their own interests first. According to Coladarci (1992), commitment to teaching was defined as the \"teacher's psychological attachment to the teaching profession\" (p.326). When teachers are not committed to the teaching profession, they would leave their work early. The significance of teacher commitment has made it a subject of research in teacher professionalization by many researchers. Different aspects of teacher commitment and associated factors have been studied, including commitment to student learning, and school loyalty (Steen, 1988). Teacher commitment is closely associated with job satisfaction, morale, motivation, and identity and a predictor of teachers' work performance, absenteeism, burn-out, and turnover, as well as having an important influence on 115 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching students' achievement in and attitudes toward school (Day, 2004; Day, Elliot, & Kington, 2005). Teacher commitment may be enhanced or diminished by factors such as student behaviour, collegial and administrative support, parental demands, national education policies, and their own professional histories and career phase (Day, 2004). As found by Coladarci (1992), the most frequently reported reason for leaving the profession was low salary and working conditions. When teachers were surveyed whether they would choose the profession again, the reasons given by the teachers not wanting to return to the profession included \"excessive non- teaching responsibilities, large classes, lack of job autonomy and discretion, sense of isolation from colleagues and supervisors, insufficient administrative support, and powerlessness regarding important decision-making processes\" (p.327). In addition, it was found that teacher commitment was associated with teachers' sense of efficacy. The teachers' commitment shifted and/or declined when they felt unsuccessful and felt unable to influence the students' learning and/or the other community members (Coladarci, 1992; Joffres & Haughey, 2001). In a study investigating the relationship between several components of teacher burnout and various professional factors of Indian teachers, Kudva (1999) found that there was a significant negative relationship between feeling exhaustion and fatigue and teaching level. Professional commitment was also found to have a significant negative relationship with development of negative attitudes towards students and lack of personal achievement. The results suggest the possible negative factors on teachers' commitment in teaching. Other researchers (e.g. Joffres & Haughey, 2001) studied the associations between teachers' characteristics (age, education, gender, experience, organizational tenure, career stages) and commitment, they found varied and inconsistent findings suggesting there are still many unanswered questions about the factors that influence teachers' commitments. It is speculated that the performance and commitment of teachers in teaching are influenced by their motives in taking up teaching as a career, their confidence level, efficacy and concerns in teaching (Day, 2004; Joeffres & Haughey, 2001). Qualified teachers lacking the motivation to teach often have little enthusiasm and driving force in their work. When a teacher has taught for some time, work may become routinized. Consequently, interest decreases and the teacher fails to work to his/her full capacity and becomes less effective. In concrete terms, the result is lack of planning, resistance towards change, and general negligence. Thus; understanding the motives of teachers in choosing teaching as a career and maintaining teacher motivation in the teaching profession is an important issue if we are concerned about teachers' commitment and quality of education. Numerous studies have been conducted on the motives of senior secondary students, university undergraduates and teachers entering the teaching profession in the United States, Britain and Asian countries (Hutchinson & Johnson ,1994; Johnston, Mckeown, & McEwen, 1999; Kyriacou & Coulthard, 2000; Reid & Caudwell, 1997; Yong, 1995). Research on prospective teachers in the United States and Britain shows that their major motives in choosing a teaching career are both altruistic and intrinsic. However, the study conducted by Yong (1995) shows that extrinsic motives were the determinants for teacher trainees entering into teaching in Brunei Darussalam. The results do not lend support to earlier 116 research studies in Western countries. In a study of non- graduate pre-service teacher education students by Chan (1998), it was found that their major motives in enrolling in the teacher education program were mainly extrinsic. Whether this applies to the motives of in-service teachers is subject to investigation as the two groups of teachers differ in their background. In addition, it is of significance to examine if there is any relation between the teachers' motives and their commitment in teaching. The findings would help teacher educators and education authorities better understand the current situation and problems of in-service teachers, based on which implications can be drawn for maintaining teachers' motivation and commitment in teaching, in turn upgrading teacher professionalization and teacher qualities. Research Questions Four research questions were drawn to address the objectives of the present study. 1. What are the Hong Kong in-service teachers' motives in choosing teaching as a career ? 2. What are the factors affecting Hong Kong in- service teachers' commitment to teach ? 3. Are there any significant differences in their motives and commitment to teach with respect to demographic variables such as gender, age and teaching experiences ? 4. How do the teachers' motive factors to teach relate to their commitment in teaching ? Method A questionnaire was administered to a group of in- service non-graduate teachers on voluntary basis. They had qualified teaching status and enrolled in a part-time Bachelor degree program of a university in Hong Kong. Participants The participants were 106 students of part-time Bachelor degree in language education program of a university in Hong Kong. Of those who indicated their gender, 17 were male (18.1%) and 77 were female (81.9%). The age ranged from 20 to 36 and above. The frequency and percentage distribution in each age band was: 20-25, (31, 30.1%), 26-30, (30, 29.1%), 31-35, (20, 19.4%) and 36 and above, (22, 21.4%). Their teaching experiences ranged from less than 1 year (6, 5.8%) to more than 20 years (8, 7.7%). The frequency and percentage distribution of grouped teaching experiences were: around 1-5 years (39, 37.5%), 6-10 years (24, 23.1%), 10-15 years (21, 20.2%) and a few 16- 20 years (6, 5.8%). All the participants taught either Chinese or English language in secondary schools. The Material The questionnaire consisted of 55 items which were rated on a five point Likert scale, from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). 21 items were written to measure the motives of the participants to take up teaching as a career. 34 items were written to examine the teachers' commitment in teaching. The items were developed from literature review and dialogues with in-service teachers about their teaching work in and out of classes. Demographic characteristics of the participants were also sought when they completed the questionnaire. Data Analysis Descriptive statistical analysis of the item responses was conducted, followed by exploratory factor analysis using principal component analysis and varimax rotation to determine the number of factors accounting for the 117 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching motives to take up teaching as a career and teachers' commitment to teaching. Reliabilities (Cronbach alphas) of the identified motives and commitment factors/subscales were computed. Multivariate analysis (MANOVA) was also applied to investigate if there was any significant difference of the identified factors or subscales with respect to the demographic characteristics of the participants. Pearson correlation analysis was applied to study the relations between the motive and commitment factors in teaching. Results 1. Motives to teach Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of individual item responses. When the reasons were examined, four reasons were chosen by an overwhelmingly high percentage (80% and above) of teachers. These included (in descending order) \"Desire to teach subject(s) I like\" (89.6%), \"Meaningful job nature\" (83.9%), \"Desire to help others\" (83.0%) and \"Interest to work with children/ teenagers\" (80.2%). Table 1:Descriptive statistics of the reasons in choosing teaching as a career Item Disagree * Neutral Agree # M1 Easy to find teaching post 81 (76.4%) 18 (17.0%) 7 (6.6%) M2 Better job security 43 (40.6%) 28 (26.4%) 35 (33.0%) M3 Higher salary 26 (24.5%) 35 (33.0%) 45 (42.4%) M4 More holidays 32 (30.2%) 33 (31.1%) 41 (38.6%) M5 Better working hours 56 (53.3%) 32 (30.5%) 17 (16.2%) M6 Higher social status 52 (49.1%) 32 (30.2%) 22 (20.7%) M7 Good career prospect 64 (60.4%) 33 (31.1%) 9 (8.5%) M8 More opportunities for continuing education 35 (33.0%) 41 (38.7%) 30 (28.3%) M9 Government's regard for education 67 (63.2%) 30 (28.3%) 9 (8.5%) M10 Reflecting my religious belief 36 (34.0%) 33 (31.1%) 37 (34.9%) M11 Fitting my personality 6 (5.7%) 21 (19.8%) 79 (74.5%) M12 Meaningful job nature 2 (1.9%) 15 (14.2%) 89 (83.9%) M13 Challenging job nature 7 (6.6%) 18 (17.0%) 81 (76.4%) M14 Interest to work on campus 3 (2.8%) 22 (20.8%) 81 (76.4%) M15 Interest to work with children/teenagers 1 (.9%) 20 (18.9%) 85 (80.2%) M16 Desire to help others -- 18 (17.0%) 88 (83.0%) M17 Desire to teach subject(s) I like 3 (2.8%) 8 (7.5%) 95 (89.6%) M18 Influence of teacher(s) 28 (26.4%) 24 (22.6%) 54 (51.0%) M19 Influence of family 61 (57.5%) 28 (26.4%) 17 (16.0%) M20 Influence of peers 68 (64.2%) 27 (25.5%) 11 (10.4%) M21 Influence of the mass media 86 (81.1%) 18 (17.0%) 2 (1.9%) * Sum and percentage include Strongly Disagree and Disagree # Sum and percentage include Strongly Agree and Agree 118 Table 2: Factor structure, mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the motives in choosing teaching as a career Rotated Component Matrix (Principal Component Analysis and Varimax Rotation) The item responses were factorized to identify the motive factors to take up teaching. With eigen-value of 1 as the cut-off point and scree-plot check, three factors were extracted accounting for an accumulative percentage of variance equals to 50.36%. The first factor accounts for a variance of 21.16%, the second factor 19.21% and the third one 9.99%. With factor loading of .3 as cut-off point, 7 items loaded on factor 1, 7 items Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 M3 Higher salary .812 -.216 - M2 Better job security .779 -.178 -.162 M4 More holidays .770 -.178 - M5 Better working hours .726 - .226 M7 Good career prospect .667 .123 .410 M1 Easy to find teaching post .638 - - M6 Higher social status .637 .307 .172 M15 Interest to work with children/teenagers - .840 - M12 Meaningful job nature - .830 - M13 Challenging job nature -.114 .793 - M11 Fitting my personality .128 .710 - M16 Desire to help others -.209 .630 .127 M14 Interest to work on campus - .613 - M17 Desire to teach subject(s) I like - .430 - M10 Reflecting my religious belief -.157 .299 - M20 Influence of peers -.130 -.108 .781 M21 Influence of the mass media .161 -.151 .755 M19 Influence of family - - .703 M9 Government's regard for education .387 .109 .504 M8 More opportunities for continuing education .248 .211 .428 M18 Influence of teacher(s) .110 .333 .335 Percent variance 21.16% 19.21% 9.99% Mean 2.604 4.065 2.478 Standard Deviation .752 .542 .609 Reliability .858 .835 .661 (Cronbach Alpha) (N=105) (N=106) (N=106) (item 10 has a loading value of .299 and was excluded) loaded on factor 2 and 6 items loaded on factor 3. According to the nature of items, factor 1 was labeled \"Extrinsic/Job condition\", factor 2 was labeled \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" and factor 3 was labeled \"Influence from others\". The factor structure and the mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the extracted factors are given in Table 2. 119 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching Table 3: Descriptive statistics of the positive/supporting and negative/discouraging reasons (-) for commitment in teaching Item Disagree * Neutral Agree # C1 My aspiration is to be a teacher 16 (15.1%) 20 (18.9%) 70 (66.0%) C2 I like teaching more than before 20 (18.9%) 26 (24.5%) 60 (56.6%) C3 I like to teach my elective subject matter knowledge -- 20 (18.9%) 86 (81.1%) to my students C4 I am willing to try my best to help my school development 4 (3.8%) 25 (23.6%) 77 (72.6%) C5 No matter how bad students behave, I am still trying my 4 (3.8%) 33 (31.1%) 69 (65.1%) best to teach them C6 Teaching is not my first career choice (-) 54 (51.4%) 17 (16.2%) 34 (32.4%) C7 Teaching different types of students make me like 16 (15.1%) 32 (30.2%) 58 (54.7%) teaching more C8 My teaching experience of students made me more 7 (6.6%) 23 (21.7%) 76 (71.7%) committed in teaching C9 Should I know teachers have to bear such a great pressure, 17 (16.0%) 27 (25.5%) 62 (58.5%) I won't choose teaching (-) C10 I found teaching a very interesting task, full of satisfaction 4 (3.8%) 29 (27.4%) 73 (68.9%) C11 To be a teacher is one of my first three career choice 9 (8.5%) 14 (13.2%) 83 (78.3%) C12 Teaching is meaningful, students need my help in their development -- 18 (17.0%) 88 (83.0%) C13 Teaching is too hard and there is no adequate return (-) 44 (41.5%) 27 (25.5%) 35 (33.0%) C14 If school does not provide teachers sufficient support, 34 (32.1%) 44 (41.5%) 28 (26.4%) then teachers need not be committed in implementing school policy promotion (-) C15 The school teachers' attitudes and performance in 5 (4.7%) 41 (38.7%) 60 (56.6%) teaching have enhanced my commitment to teach C16 The students' attitudes and behaviour have weakened my 41 (38.7%) 37 (34.9%) 28 (26.4%) enthusiasm to teach (-) C17 The teaching workload is too much for me and I want to 42 (39.6%) 25 (23.6%) 39 (36.8%) give up teaching (-) C18 The parents' attitudes and unreasonable demands made me 35 (33.0%) 33 (31.1%) 38 (35.9%) feel frustrated (-) As indicated by the relative mean values of the three motive factors in taking up teaching as a career, the most influential one is Intrinsic/Altruistic (Mean= 4.065, SD=.542), followed by Extrinsic/Job condition (Mean=2.604, SD=.752) and Influence from others (Mean=2.478, SD=.609). Multivariate analyses (MANOVA) of the motive factors showed no significant differences at .05 level with respect to the participants' gender, age, elective, and teaching experiences. 2. Commitment to teach Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of individual item responses in describing the reasons affecting commitments in teaching. Of the 34 items representing the reasons affecting teachers' commitment in teaching, 20 items were positive or supporting elements (Mean= 3.78, SD=.54, N=106, Cronbach Alpha=.91) and 14 items were negative or discouraging reasons, denoted by (-) sign, (Mean=3.01, SD=.59, N=104, Cronbach Alpha=.79). 120 The items explaining reasons for commitment were factorized with principal component analysis and varimax rotation. With eigen-value of 1 and loading value of .3 as the cut-off, and scree-plot check, four factors were extracted, accounting for an accumulative percentage of variance equals to 51.71%. The first factor accounts for 29.41% of variance, the second, third and fourth factors account for 9.45%, 7.43%, and 5.42% of variance respectively. These four factors represent the reasons influencing the in-service teachers' commitment C19 I am frustrated with the school's emphasis in students' 32 (30.2%) 49 (46.2%) 25 (23.6%) drilling and practices to get a better results (-) C20 In general, I like teaching my students 1 (.9%) 22 (20.8%) 83 (78.3%) C21 I like school life and am willing to teach lifelong 10 (9.4%) 23 (21.7%) 73 (68.9%) C22 Too many school reforms make teachers burn out, reduce 82 (77.4%) 16 (15.1%) 8 (7.5%) their enthusiasm to teach (-) C23 If I have to sit for the language proficiency/information 21 (20.0%) 33 (31.4%) 51 (48.6%) technology proficiency assessment test, I'll better give up teaching (-) C24 I am concerned about students' learning attitudes and behaviour, 3 (2.8%) 27 (25.5%) 76 (71.7%) I'll continue to teach them with patience and not give up C25 I am frustrated, with no sense of achievement in teaching (-) 17 (16.0) 28 (26.4%) 61 (57.6%) C26 If there is a better paid job, I won't teach any more (-) 24 (22.6%) 32 (30.2%) 50 (47.2%) C27 I believe every student can be taught to be good 11 (10.4%) 32 (30.2%) 63 (59.4%) C28 The appreciation displayed by the school/principal made 6 (5.7%) 20 (18.9%) 80 (75.5%) me work harder C29 I found I am now not as energetic as before (-) 39 (36.8%) 35 (33.0%) 32 (30.2%) C30 It is difficult to teach the remedial class, and there is no 26 (24.5%) 25 (23.6%) 55 (51.9%) sense of achievement (-) C31 I have a strong sense of belonging to the school I teach 23 (21.7%) 43 (40.6%) 40 (37.7%) C32 I value more about my students' acceptance of my teaching 4 (3.8%) 23 (21.7%) 79 (74.5%) than the principal's acceptance C33 If I am going to choose again, I still choose to be a teacher 10 (9.4%) 18 (17.0%) 78 (73.6%) C34 I am very satisfied with the school I teach. 19 (17.9%) 41 (38.7%) 46 (43.4%) * Sum and percentage include Strongly Disagree and Disagree # Sum and percentage include Strongly Agree and Agree in teaching in different perspectives/areas. According to the nature of items loaded on the factors, factor 1 was labeled \"Students ' learning and school development\", factor 2 was labeled \"Demands on teaching and school practices\", factor 3 was labeled \"Teaching as a career choice\", and factor 4 was labeled \"Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\". The factor structure, the mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the extracted factors are given in Table 4. 121 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching Table 4: Factor structure, mean, standard deviation and reliability of the commitment in teaching Rotated Component Matrix (Principal Component Analysis and Varimax Rotation) Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 C21 I like school life and am willing to teach lifelong .731 - - - C8 My teaching experience of students made me more .729 - - - committed in teaching C24 I am concerned about students' learning attitudes and behaviour, .716 - - - I'll continue to teach them with patience and not give up C10 I found teaching a very interesting task, full of satisfaction .714 - - - C34 I am very satisfied with the school I teach. .699 - - - C2 I like teaching more than before .697 - - .366 C31 I have a strong sense of belonging to the school I teach .687 - - - C20 In general, I like teaching my students .643 - - .326 C4 I am willing to try my best to help my school development .635 - - - C12 Teaching is meaningful, students need my help in their development .627 - - - C28 The appreciation displayed by the school/principal made me .604 - - - work harder C5 No matter how bad students behave, I am still trying my best .602 - - - to teach them C7 Teaching different types of students make me like teaching more .583 - - .456 C25 I am frustrated, with no sense of achievement in teaching (-) .417 .395 - .317 C23 If I have to sit for the language proficiency/ information technology - .627 - - proficiency assessment test, I'll better give up teaching (-) C17 The teaching workload is too much for me and I want to give - .622 - .461 up teaching (-) C18 The parents' attitudes and unreasonable demands made me feel - .553 - - frustrated (-) C19 I am frustrated with the school's emphasis in students' drilling - .541 - - and practices to get a better results (-) C14 If school does not provide teachers sufficient support, then - .536 .372 - teachers need not be committed in implementing school policy promotion (-) C29 I found I am now not as energetic as before (-) .445 .515 - - C9 Should I know teachers have to bear such a great pressure, .346 .512 - .342 I won't choose teaching (-) C22 Too many school reforms make teachers burn out, reduce their - .493 - - enthusiasm to teach (-) C13 Teaching is too hard and there is no adequate return (-) - .483 - .378 C11 To be a teacher is one of my first three career choice - - .824 - C6 Teaching is not my first career choice (-) - - .819 - C4 I am willing to try my best to help my school development - - .818 - C3 I like to teach my elective subject matter knowledge to my students .509 - .539 - C33 If I am going to choose again, I still choose to be a teacher .454 - .506 - 122 As indicated by the relative mean values of the four commitment factors in teaching, the most influential one is \"Teaching as a career choice\", (Mean=3.846, SD=.806), followed by \"Students' learning and school development\", (Mean=3.720, SD=.594), \"Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\" (Mean=3.259, SD=.578) and \"Demands on teaching and school practices\" (Mean=2.914, SD=.670). Multivariate analyses (MANOVA) of the commitment factors showed no significant differences at .05 level with respect to the participants' gender, age, elective, and teaching experiences. 3. Relation between motives and commitment to teach Table 5 shows the correlation coefficients between pairs of variables in motives and commitment in teaching. Several pairs of significantly correlated variables were found in Pearson correlation analysis between the motive and commitment factors. Within the motive factors, \"Extrinsic/Job condition\" and \"Influence from others\" motives were significantly and positively related at .01 level (r=.296, p=.002). Between motive and commitment factors, \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive was significantly and positively related to overall commitment in teaching (the sum of all four factors or subscales) at .01 level (r=.639, p=.000). The correlation was moderately strong. On further analysis of the relation between individual motive and commitment factors it was found that \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive was significantly and positively related to all four factors in commitment, viz. with \"Students' learning and school development\" at .01 level (r=.700, p=.000), \"Demands on teaching and school practices\" at .05 level (r=.222, p=.023), \"Teaching as a career choice\" at .01 level, (r=.509, p=.000), and \"Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\" at .01 level (r= .437, p=.000). In general, the relation was strong to moderate. \"Extrinsic/Job condition\" was significantly and negatively related to \"Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\" at .05 level (r=-.223, p=.022). The magnitude was weak to moderately weak. No significant correlation was found between \"Extrinsic/Job condition\" and the other three factors of teacher commitment. There was no significant correlation between the motive \"Influence from others\" and all four factors in teacher commitment. C16 The students' attitudes and behaviour have weakened my - - - .667 enthusiasm to teach (-) C15 The school teachers' attitudes and performance in teaching have .397 - - -.509 enhanced my commitment to teach C32 I value more about my students' acceptance of my teaching than - - - .490 the principal's acceptance C27 I believe every student can be taught to be good .317 - - .486 C26 If there is a better paid job, I won't teach any more (-) .372 .368 .382 .416 C30 It is difficult to teach the remedial class, and there is no sense of - .324 - .373 achievement (-) Percent variance 29.41% 9.45% 7.43% 5.42% Mean 3.720 2.914 3.846 3.259 Standard Deviation .594 .670 .806 .578 Reliability .910 .783 .819 .588 (Cronbach Alpha) (N=106) (N=105) (N=105) (N=106) 123 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching Discussion In the present study, three motive factors were identified for the in-service teachers to take up teaching as a career, viz., \"Extrinsic/Job condition\", \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" and \"Influence from others\" motive. In terms of the mean values of the three motive factors (Table 2), the in-service teachers in the present study chose teaching as a career mostly due to the \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive, next, the \"Extrinsic/Job condition\" and last the \"Influence from others\" factor suggesting the \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive was a significant and influential factor in motivating the in-service teacher's choice of teaching as a career. That is, the in-service teachers under study took up teaching as a career mainly due to the fact that they liked to work with children and adolescents; they liked to help others and found the work meaningful and challenging, and suited their personality. Material rewards such as salary, stability, working condition such as holidays, and easy to find a job as contained in the \"extrinsic/job condition\" factor were not as important and determining as the \"intrinsic/altruistic\" factor in their career choice in joining the teaching profession. Also, \"influence from others\" factor such as teachers, parents, peers and mass media was not as decisive when compared with the previous two factors. The finding was different from previous study of pre-service teachers who joined the teaching profession mostly based on extrinsic motive factor (Chan, 1998; Yong, 1995; Young, 1995). The difference was probably due to the different composition and characteristics of the samples in the studies (e.g. educational qualification and background). In the previous studies of pre-service teachers (Chan, 1998; Young, 1995), the students usually took teacher education program as an alternate means or last resort of continuing further study when they could not enter their desired university programs. Thus, they might not be intrinsically or altruistically motivated in joining the teaching profession. In the present study, the sample comprised in-service teachers who had already got the Certificate in Education qualification (qualified teacher status) and they enrolled in a part- time degree program to upgrade their qualification to Table 5 : Correlation between motives and commitment in teaching 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.Extrinsic/Job condition 1 2. Intrinsic/Altruistic -.071 1 3. Influence from others .296** .116 1 4.Total motive .715** .494** .678** 1 5.Students' learning and school development -.181 .700** .061 .249* 1 6.Demands on teaching and school practices -.086 .222* -.044 .031 .415** 1 7.Teaching as a career choice -.170 .509** .021 .178 .434** .257** 1 8.Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes -.223* .437** -.113 .022 .602** .459** .395** 1 9.Total commitment -.205* .639** .000 .185 .880** .727** .627** .763** 1 ** p < 0.01 level (2-tailed). * p < 0.05 level (2-tailed). Total motive, comprises the three motive factors together Total commitment, comprises the four commitment factors together 124 university graduate status. They had destined to take up teaching after completing their Certificate course (a full-time two or three year sub-degree program designed to prepare non-graduate teachers for primary and junior secondary level teaching) some years before they enrolled in the part-time degree program. Thus, they were much more determined in taking up teaching as their career, else they might have already left the teaching team. The \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive factor would be more influential in keeping them in the teaching profession. Four factors determining or influencing teacher commitment in teaching were identified. Of the four factors, the highest mean value was found in \"Teaching as a career choice\", followed by \"Students' learning and school development\", \"Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\" and lastly \"Demands on teaching and school practices\" (Table 4). Except the factor \"Demands on teaching and school practices\", all other three factors had mean values above the mid-point (\"3\") of the five point rating scale, pointing to the areas or aspects of teaching which the teachers in the present study were mostly concerned about and dedicated in their teaching. The significantly high mean values of the factors \"Teaching as a career choice\" and \"Students' learning and school development\" suggested the in-service teachers in the present study had high commitment in their teaching work, caring much about their students' learning and development, as well as the development of the schools they teach, implying they had reached the highest level of teachers' concern (impact concerns) according to the Fuller (1969) model of concerns. The relative high values of the factors \"Teaching as a career choice\" and \"Students' learning and school development\" suggested that there existed close bearing to the motives of the in-service teachers, especially their \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive, which included the interest to work with teenagers/children, etc. The in-service teachers under study who carry the \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive probably would consider teaching as their career choice and they were concerned with the learning and development of students. The close relationship between the \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive and commitment factors in teaching was further supported by the high to median correlation coefficients of the two variables: \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive and interest in \"Students' learning and school development\", \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive and \"Teaching as a career choice\" and \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive and sense of achievement, collegial and school practice which were significant at .01 (Table 5). On the other hand, stress and burnout, resulting from heavy teaching load, (e.g. \"I found I am now not as energetic as before\", \"Too many school reforms make teachers burn out, reduce their enthusiasm to teach\") and unreasonable expectation from parents (e.g. \"The parents' attitudes and unreasonable demands made me feel frustrated\") and frustration resulting from dealing with students (e.g. \"The students' attitudes and behaviour have weakened my enthusiasm to teach\", \"I am frustrated, with no sense of achievement in teaching\") might reduce teachers' commitment in teaching. Teachers who joined the teaching profession with \"Extrinsic/Job condition\" motives might decrease their commitment in teaching when they could not find adequate collegial and school support, which was in contrast to the job or working condition they expected when they took up teaching as their career (e.g. \"The teaching workload is too much for me and I want to give up teaching\", \"If school does not provide teachers sufficient support, then teachers need not be committed in implementing school policy promotion\"). The relationship was illustrated by the 125 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching significant and negative correlation coefficient between \"Extrinsic/job condition\" motive and \"Teacher-pupil interaction and attitudes\" factors at .05 level (Table 5). The moderate to strong correlation coefficients between \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive and commitment factors suggests the relative importance of \"Intrinsic/ Altruistic\" motive upon teacher's commitment in teaching. This implies that if schools and universities wish to recruit and retain highly committed prospective teachers or teacher education students, this factor should be noted and be an important factor in consideration in the recruitment process. Further examination of the items which comprise the four commitment factors in teaching (Table 3) shows both positive/supportive and negative/discouraging responses which affect teachers' commitment in teaching. The results of the present study supported researchers' views and findings (Day, 2004; Maddox, 1998; Ruhland, 2001) that teachers' passion and commitment may be enhanced or diminished by factors such as student behaviour, collegial and administrative support, parental demands, educational policies and their own professional histories and career phases. Illustrations could be found in the present study. Positive examples which would enhance teachers' passion and commitment to teach include, \"My teaching experience of students made me more committed in teaching\", \"The students' attitudes and behaviour have weakened my enthusiasm to teach\", \"The appreciation displayed by the school/principal made me work harder\", \"Teaching is meaningful, students need my help in their development\", \"To be a teacher is one of first three career choice\", \"The school teachers' attitudes and performance in teaching have enhanced my commitment to teach\". On the other hand, there were negative and discouraging elements weakening the teachers' commitment in teaching. These included, for example, \"Should I know teachers have to bear such a great pressure, I won't choose teaching\", \"The teaching workload is too much for me and I want to give up teaching\", \"If I have to sit for the language proficiency/ information technology proficiency assessment test, I'll better give up teaching\", \"If there is a better paid job, I won't teach any more\", \"It is difficult to teach the remedial class, and there is no sense of achievement\", \"I am frustrated with the school's emphasis in students' drilling and practices to get a better result\". The positive and negative elements indicated that the motives and teachers' perceptions of teaching as a career were important in affecting the passion and the commitment of the teachers to teach, and whether they stay or leave the teaching profession. Conclusion and Implication Good teaching is affected not only by the knowledge and pedagogy of teachers, but also their passion to teach, which is associated with enthusiasm, caring, commitment, and teaching efficacy. The present study attempts to examine teachers' motives to choose teaching as a career and their commitment in teaching, as well as their relations. Despite its limitation in generalization due to a relatively small sample size, the results would be meaningful and significant for educators and researchers in related areas of study. As well, the present study developed reliable scales/subscales for measuring teacher motives and commitment to teach for future quantitative studies of larger sample. Good teaching is fundamental to raising standards. It is clearly both the responsibility of the teachers and the schools to ensure that teachers are able to continue and sustain passion, to exercise the love, care and respect necessary to good teaching and carry on for a better 126 future (Day, 2004). The identified factors which affected teachers' enthusiasm and commitment in teaching are seemingly important for the relevant parties, including the education and school authorities, parents and teachers to reflect and address. Teaching efficacy is expected to decrease with teachers' lowering of confidence and drives in teaching. Passion and commitment would begin to fade as teachers become debilitated by the daily demands of students, the environment and personal life factors (Day, 2004). A reduction of anxieties, stress and burnout, an awareness of the need for life-work balance, coupled with support from colleagues and others, under a good leadership in the school would have to be formulated in order to restore teachers' passion and commitment in teaching. Appreciations from students and parents of teachers' passion and effort, a trusting and respectful relationship between students and teachers, parents and teachers; and collaborative working among school members definitely would uphold the spirit of teachers and maintain their enthusiasm and commitment in teaching. As pointed out by Day et al. (2005), institutional support for the person in the professional is an essential contributory factor to sustaining commitment. Nevertheless with the frequent and enormous educational reformations and changes, the school with the personnel stand alone would find it hard to cope with all the problems and constraints, and inevitably need the adjustment and support from the policy makers of the education authority. In education, it has been too common to say that a top down policy mechanism is ineffective, and that consultation and collaboration with schools, teachers and other parties are essential, yet it is surprising to find flaws and problems which previously happened are repeating. While keeping education ideals is important, it is hoped that we are not going to give in overwhelming anxiety and eventually lose the teachers' passion, motive and commitment to teach. As indicated in this study, personal factors such as the \"Intrinsic/Altruistic\" motive to choose teaching as a career is significantly related to teacher commitment in teaching. The set of core values and beliefs in helping students' learning and development should be promoted in teacher education program, allowing teachers' constant reflection and support at the institution level. As concluded by Day et al. (2005), whether teachers are mobilized and ready to respond to new challenges and changing circumstances very much depend on sets of core values-based identities which are related to strongly held purposes and principles of care and commitment to pupils' learning and achievement. The negligence of these core identities in the management and implementation of change and reform agendas is likely to result in a decline in pre-service and in-service teachers the very qualities essential to sustain their passion and commitment for high-quality teaching. 127 In-service teachers' motives and commitment in teaching References Baker, D. P. & Smith, T. (1997). Teacher turnover and teacher quality: Refocusing the issue. Teachers College Record, 99 (1), 29-35. 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Retrieved September 4, 2001, from: http://news.bbcco.uk/hi/English/education/newsid_1512000/1512590.stm Yong, C.S. (1995). Teacher trainees' motives for entering into a teaching career in Brunei Darussalam. Teaching and Teacher education, 11(3), 275-80. Young, B. (1995). Career plans and work perceptions of pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 281-292. !\"#OMMS !\"#$%&'()^NN= N R !\"#OMMQ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$ V OMMQ !\"#$%& !\"#$^OV= Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school !\"#$% WONG Pik-yu, Cherry, CHAN Chi-wai, Arthur FIRKINS TWGHs Mr and Mrs Kwong Sik Kwan College Abstract In the 2005/2006 academic year, TWGHs Mr and Mrs Kwong Sik Kwan College received a Quality Education Fund (QEF) grant to research ways to develop the critical literacy skills of Hong Kong junior secondary students. The paper describes the programme, which was implemented across the Chinese and English key learning areas, using the Four Resources Model (Freebody and Luke, 1990) as a planning schema. The paper identifies the incidental benefits of developing the critical reader response skills in which students required in the new senior secondary English and Chinese curriculum. Keywords critical thinking skills, curriculum reform, Chinese language teaching, English language teaching !\"#$%&'()*++, L !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,#-./012*3$%45678#9:;<=(>?@AB !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012345'6789612:;<=>'(?@ABCDE !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;< !\"#$%&'()%*+,-./%0+,-./ 129 130 Introduction How to implement the proposed changes in English and Chinese curriculum in 2007 is both a necessity and a challenge for all secondary schools in Hong Kong. In this paper, we argue that these changes emphasise the need for students to demonstrate a critical response to a range of texts, such as narratives, advertisements. In 2005/2006, TWGHs Mr and Mrs Kwong Sik Kwan College received a Quality Education Fund (QEF) grant to run a literacy programme, which aimed to enhance the reading proficiency of junior secondary students across the key learning areas of Chinese and English and to teach them critical reading skills. Based on the Four Resources Model of literacy (Freebody and Luke, 1990), the programme specifically emphasised teaching students to \"take on\" each of the four reader roles identified in the model, i.e. code-breaker, text- participant, text-user and text-analyst. We found this model applicable to our aim of teaching students to critically respond to a range of Chinese and English texts. The incidental benefits of this early intervention approach have been the explicit development in the junior years of the critical skills that students will need to apply in the HKCEE in the senior years. The school We begin with a brief description of the school. TWGHs Mr and Mrs Kwong Sik Kwan College is an aided Hong Kong secondary school in a small district located in the New Terri tories of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The small district has several large public housing estates, a large population of new immigrants from Mainland China (Ng and Liu, 1999) and in general the population is from a low socio- economic background. The school enrols junior students from Form 1 (12yrs) to Form 3 (14yrs) and senior students from Form 4 (15yrs) to Form 5 (16- 17yrs). The students who enrol at the school can be described as low proficiency learners. Many of them have a history of school failure and some form of learning disability, particularly in language learning (Firkins, 2004; Firkins, et al., forthcoming 2007). Although this particular school is unusual in having a large concentration of students who experience in learning problem, we suggest that learning problem represents a small, but significant pedagogical problem in all lower banding secondary schools in Hong Kong. The term learning problem has also been used as an umbrella term, which embraces different levels of exceptionality (Lo, 1998:26) and those viewed as academically less able (Chan, 1988:137). Essentially, students with learning problems are often bunched together with low proficiency students, with no pedagogical distinction between the two groups. This poses the first obstacle to any attempt to enhance literacy learning with this population of students, simply do not know the extent of the problem, or where the difficulties student experience in language learning actually stem from. We first attempted to introduce a genre-based approach to teach writing to these students in a pilot programme conducted at the school in collaboration with The Hong Kong Polytechnic University in 2003/ 2004 (see Firkins et al., forthcoming). We assumed that these students would have difficulty in reading and writing English, however, this pilot programme revealed that our junior students also experienced significant difficulties in reading and writing Chinese as well. The pedagogical problem We purposefully wanted to start with a social view rather than a deficit view of literacy (Baynam, 1995; Barton, 1994). We therefore began our project from the 131 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school pedagogical problem at hand, essentially how we prepare our low proficiency students for the demands of the new language curriculum proposed for Hong Kong secondary schools in 2007 (Curriculum Development Council, 2005). In the proposed changes, students would have to engage with such things as reading a large range of texts, analysing the plot of the narrative, profiling characters and giving individual and group presentations to name a few skills (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2005). The current teaching approaches used in our Chinese and English classrooms did not appear to accommodate for these new skills for a number of historical and cultural reasons. For instance, there have been difficulties reconciling traditional language pedagogical approaches used in Hong Kong with imported approaches used mainly in the West (Maley, 1985; Luke, et al., 2005; Kramer-Dahl, 2001). In general, reading and writing in Hong Kong have commonly been associated with decoding texts, pronouncing words, retrieving information (Lin, 2001) from texts and an instrumental view of literacy (Street, 1998). There have also been difficulties pinning down exactly where these so-called \"traditional\" approaches have come from and how they have come to be so embedded in pedagogical practice. We suggest that it has been a combination of historical and cultural forces that has predisposed language education to occur in particular ways in certain schools. As a result, learning the genre of the public examination continue to constitute the most important factor of success in schools in Hong Kong and although it is tempting to criticize this orientation, mastery of school literacies in this context translates into success in the public examination structure, which in turn provides access to further educational opportunities and forms of employment (Cheng, 1997; Mee, 1998). The examination structure, we argue, is an integral part of secondary schooling and needs to be accounted for in any process of pedagogical change. In addition, because of the key place occupied by examinations in the education system, it is reasonable to expect that a significant amount of time would be spent preparing students to be successful in sitting for them. Yet despite this predominance of public examinations, Hong Kong language education policy continues to orientate to new economic and social demands and to interpret what the \"new communicative order\" might look like for Hong Kong (Street, 1998). So, in difference to previous policy, the new language curriculum appears to promote critical engagement with a wide variety of texts, and introduces a new subject called \"Liberal Studies\"which has a broad critical agenda across all key learning areas and will be situated at the core of the curriculum: \"Liberal Studies provides opportunities for students to make explicit connections among different disciplines, examine issues from multiple perspectives and construct personal knowledge\" (Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council, 2005:2). Engaging the \"critical\" in the context of Hong Kong The notion of the \"critical\" is and will remain a contested issue in Asian education systems (see Cervetti et al., 2001; Cheah, 2001; Lin, 2001). Although \"critical literacy\", as a pedagogical approach, has its origins in western educational context, where, in recent years, there is a move to understand literacy in holistic terms where literacy is seen as \"a social, critical and interpretive process rather than a skill or a set of skills\" (Wallace, 2003:4). For students in a secondary school 132 in the West, critical literacy involves students reading a text, positioning their reading of that text, in relation to making meaning of the social systems, power, i.e. dominant modes of information and the means of production represented in the text (Luke and Carrington, 2003). We argue that given the opportunity, Hong Kong students are more than capable of approaching texts from critical perspectives and that classroom pedagogy needs to address what critical means in the context of language education. In Asian education systems, being critical does not seem to have the same currency as being critical in say an Australian context where critical literacy approaches begin from an assumption about social power in texts and goes beyond individual skills acquisition to engage students in the analysis and recognition of social fields (Luke, 2000). Cheah (2000) suggests that in Singapore, a country with broad similarities to Hong Kong, there is no well-established tradition of critiquing and challenging the order of doing things in language teaching. Being critical in the context of Hong Kong seems to refer predominately to thinking about the text a process of active cognitive engagement with the text or in other words some forms of higher order understanding, but not necessarily critical engagement at a broader social/political level. For example, looking comparatively across the English and Chinese Language Curriculum Guides (CDC, 2002) we can find similarities and differences in the conceptualization of critical. The English curriculum makes reference to critical thinking skills and proposes the inclusion of such skills through the English programme. \"Critical thinking is drawing out meaning from given data or statements. It is concerned with accuracy of given statements. It aims at generating and evaluating arguments. Critical thinking is the questioning and enquiry we engage in to judge what to believe and what not.\" (CDC, 2002 English) In contrast the Chinese Curriculum Guide suggests that the aims of language learning are: * to enhance reading, writing, listening and speaking abilities, as well as thinking, aesthetic and self-learning abilities; * to enhance the read ing ab i l i t i es in comprehension, making analysis, feeling, and appreciation; * to master reading strategies; * to be eager to read; be industrious to read; be serious in reading; enhance the quantity they read and widen the range of reading. (CDC and HKEA, 2005) However, although they advocate critical thinking skills, both curriculum documents fall short of introducing critical literacy pedagogy. Therefore, the implementation of a critical literacy programme, such as ours, needs to consider the meaning of \"critical\" in the context of literacy practice in Hong Kong. The critical literacy programme There is an expectation explicit in the curriculum that students will simultaneously acquire two different literacies, Chinese and English (CDC, 2000). Therefore Hong Kong secondary schools can be said to have a bi- literate orientation, but can't be said to follow the goals of bi-literacy (Kenner, et al., 2004; Wiese, 2004). Bi- literacy can be defined as the learning of more than one writing system at the same time (Kenner, et al., 2004, Wiese, 2004). Acknowledging this orientation, in designing our programme we wanted to introduce an 133 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school element of critical engagement with texts as a pedagogical platform across the two language areas, not simply as an adjunct to the Chinese and English curriculum. We were also aware in planning the programme that Chinese was the students L1 and English L2. The point of departure for our approach was therefore to identify the barriers, which are pedagogically put in place between Chinese and English key learning areas. These curriculum boundaries mark points in the school system of disjunction between two areas of knowledge. We identified certain commonality in aims between these two curriculum areas that required students to adopt similar literacy practices and skills and strategies common across both learning areas. For example, the skills for research, presentation and discussion had common communicative goals, although in two different language codes. In designing a programme we were interested in identifying the points of conjunction, not an easy task, but one in which continues to be ongoing and which the QEF will greatly assist. For us this meant implementing a model of literacy, which could be used as a planning schema across both in Chinese and English. We also wanted to build a pedagogy, which could be specifically adapted to suit the needs of our students and our school, which also incorporated teaching approaches already being used in the school. As a vehicle for pedagogical change we decided to use the Four Resources Model of Literacy as outlined by Freebody and Luke (1990) and further elaborated in Luke and Freebody (1999). Our immediate goal of using the Four Resources Model (FRM) was to raise teacher's consciousness of what literacy is and can be, outside of the dominant view of literacy as a functional or instrumental set of skills (Street, 1988). The model provides a useful template for the teachers in weighing up and questioning the emphasis of both the school's programme and current classroom practice (Luke, 2000). The FRM model is therefore simply a schema or framework with which to develop a programme, plan lessons and develop materials. It is not meant to be an instructional panacea (Freebody and Luke, 1999). It also gave teachers a method of reflecting on the emphasis of the current programme. Freebody and Luke (1990) identify four necessary but not sufficient sets of social practices requisite for a critical approach to literacy. These are: * coding practices, i.e. where the student develops resources as a \"code-breaker\"; * text meaning practices, i.e. where the student develops resources as a \"text-participant\"; * pragmatic practices, i.e. where the student develops resources as a \"text-user\"; * critical practices, i.e. where the student develops resources as a \"text-analyst\". In a baseline exercise, we analysed the emphasis of our current Chinese and English programmes at the school, and found a predominant instructional concentrate on the \"code-breaker\" role. The Four Resources Model to date has only been considered for literacy teaching in English. It therefore is necessary to ask what being a \"code-breaker\", \"text-participant\", \"text-user\" and \"text-analyst\" for the Chinese language and what literacy strategies students need to take on each of these roles in response to Chinese texts. In addition Chinese pedagogy as approached in our school concentrated primarily on narrative texts and we wanted to introduce a range of other genres to students. 134 Freebody and Luke have also been at pains to avoid the prescriptive detailing of a \"programme\" suggesting instead \"Choices regarding instructional practice should be made by teachers, and we would argue that this kind of classroom decision-making needs to be defended zealously as part of teacher's work\" (Luke and Freebody, 1999). However, here lay the biggest problem for our school's teachers who were used to prescriptive teaching methods supported by commercial available textbooks and have not previously been asked to develop a school- based curriculum. These were no commercially available resources designed specifically for this programme and teachers were asked to use a range of texts from available sources, including newspaper, and develop teaching materials that supported their class. This in turn impacted on their teaching workload. From a logistical perspective, the literacy programme is run for thirty-five minutes each school day, incorporating three sessions of English and three sessions of Chinese in a six-day cycle. The programme targets for all junior high school students, capturing one hundred and twenty one students. The students are divided into six class groups from Form 1 to Form 3. We ask each class teacher to develop a programme using the FRM as a schema and incorporating each of the four reader roles into the lessons. At this point we need to emphasise that the model as envisaged by Freebody and Luke is in no way hierarchical in nature and all four roles are taught simultaneously. For example, a lesson may place emphasis on a particular role or skills, or alternatively may incorporate all of four resource roles. We stress that the development of the programme has been both teacher initiated and school lead from the beginning, using an action research approach (Burns, 1999). The programme has therefore been from the very beginning teacher owned, with decision-making in the hands of the teacher, in relation to their group. To support this approach we collaborated with academics from Faculty of Communication, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, in an approach to research which is known as collaborative research. The principle benefit of such a relationship is that teachers are apprenticed and mentored into the research process and gain access to expertise and resources not generally available to a school (Firkins and Wong, 2005). In the first year of the programme, each teacher developed a programme for his or her own group, using the FRM as a planning template. In 2005/2006, with the aid of the QEF we have been able to employ a teaching assistant to aid in the development of material to support the programme. In addition we are now able to research the literacy strategies that are important for students to engage Chinese and English text from essentially critical perspectives. In the final part of this paper we outline the aims of the QEF project and identify how the programme has incidental benefits for junior student who will eventually sit for the HKCEE. The quality education fund goals The QEF project we are implementing at the school aims to build on the literacy programme implemented in 2004/ 2005. Specifically we aim to investigate the literacy practices of low proficiency junior secondary students in a Hong Kong secondary school through a detailed analysis of their engagement with different types of texts both in English and Chinese at home and at school. In addition, we will develop support materials and assessment tools that will support the FRM based. Below we outline our core aims: 1. to investigate and establish an understanding of the literacy practices of junior secondary students 135 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school at school and home and how teachers and parents support these practices; 2. to support a school-based literacy programme for all students and asses the effects of the programme on students' literacy practices by collecting data related to literacy prior to, during and after the introduction of the literacy programme; 3. to provide language teachers with a framework with which to conceptualise literacy pedagogy and reflect on their literacy instruction through action research; 4. to develop strategies to facilitate and scaffold student's literacy practices by adapting the Four Resource levels suggested by Freebody and Luke (1990); 5. to develop resources that will support the implementation of the FRM in the Hong Kong contexts including teaching resources, assessment tools, teaching strategies, lesson plans and training materials. Essentially the funding will allow us to address the implementation problems we have discussed in this paper, including assessment procedures, strategies and materials. This is an ambitious agenda and we hope to be able to report on the progress of this project to teachers in Hong Kong through 2006/2007. The QEF project is being undertaken in collaboration with the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, in which Dr Gail Forey (Assistant Professor) has been playing a central part in supporting and mentoring language teachers at the school to use the FRM in their classrooms. Early intervention and the new curriculum The literacy programme we are implementing has several broad goals, which incidentally support the literacy demands of the HKCEE in Chinese and English syllabus. At the end of the 2004/2005 school year we recognised that building students' literacy skills in junior forms using a wide range of genres and texts, including multi-media texts, such as films, movies and web-based materials better prepares them for the new analytical components contained within the new assessment structure. We call this an early intervention approach, where we have not only put in place a programme which will support change prior to the introduction of the new curriculum, but we have anticipated our students difficulty in being able to engage with texts critically. The literacy programme has the following aims which are oriented to build the skills students will need in the Chinese and English HKCEE: 1. to increase exposure to a wide range of genres in the junior years; 2. to build background knowledge surrounding the purpose of the text; 3. to develop strategies that will enable students to be code-breakers, text participants, text users and text analysts; 4. to increase students' confidence in presenting an analysis of a text to a group; 5. to increase students' confidence in discussing a range of texts. Finally, to illustrate how this can be worked in a school, we provide two cases of units taken from the school programme which are structured using the FRM for English and Chinese. Case 1: Peter Pan In Form 1, we decided to concentrate eight teaching sessions on the story \"Peter Pan\" by J.M. Barrie. In addition students viewed and analysed the film \"Peter Pan\" (Columbia pictures) and the cartoon \"Peter Pan\" (Disney pictures). The text we used is actually a 136 shortened version available in a commercially produced reader (Must Read Classic Stories, Whitman, Level 1). The goal of reading this text was to scaffold the students towards being able to develop a range of critical responses to the story. In order to do this, we clustered activities around each of the four resource levels. We provide some examples of activities below. Code-Breaker: We asked students to work out the meaning of unknown words from the context or from the dictionary. We also used phonics in the sounding out of difficult words. In addition, we spent time talking about difficult concepts, or words and locations peculiar to the story. We also undertook associated activities surrounding the meaning of pirates and fairies, including drawing pirate flags. Text-Participant: We asked students to situate the story as a genre type, i.e. a narrative and think about what the story was written for. We also asked students to develop character profiles and to compare the text with other text types. Text-User: We asked students to develop a profile of their favourite character and present it to the class. We also asked them to rewrite the story from \"Captain Hooks\" perspective. A very popular activity was the scripting and acting out of the story in small groups. Text-Analyst: We asked the students to identify the major theme of the story and to think about what J. M. Barrie is trying to convey through the story. We also asked students to think about the morality of the characters and the gender roles they were assigned. There are of course many other activities which can be designed around Peter Pan and the programme leaves scope for teacher and students to negotiate the type of activities which can be undertaken, based on the literacy strategies they developed. Case 2: Chinese newspaper reports In Chinese literacy lessons, we adopted the materials developed by The Chinese University of Hong Kong and followed the teaching flow outlined in the resources book. We focused on explicit teaching of literacy strategies, followed by application of the strategies through classroom activities and oral presentation as well. Each reading strategy was taught in three teaching sessions, containing aspects of the FRM approach and a range of activities. In the first session, we introduced particular reading strategies to students they might need when reading the particular Chinese text. In the second session, we provided students with the opportunities to try out the strategy they had learnt in the previous lesson. This was then followed by oral presentation in the third session. An example of such a reading strategy was to recognize the \"generic features\" when tackling a text. Activities were taken place in class could be categorized into the FRM in the following way. Code-Breaker: We asked students to read a newspaper report from the local Chinese press and focus on generic features, such as title, visual images, captions and slogan. Text-Participant: We then raised students' awareness to the specific features of a newspaper article, which carried the essential meanings of the text. Text-User: We tried to situate students as consumers and exposed them to the reading of a selection of newspaper advertisements through which they could apply the strategy they have learnt in the first session. Students then were asked to discuss the purposes of the advertisements with their peers. Text-Analyst: We asked students to compare the perspectives of the different advertisements and prepared to talk about the advertisements. This was then followed by a critical critique of what the articles 137 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school were trying to say intensive reading between lines and the discussion of the general themes and concepts of the article. At the end of the lesson, students were asked to give an oral presentation of the advertisement they were assigned to read. They needed to talk about purposes of the advertisement and gave their own comments or critique after reading. The tasks we ask students to engage in broadly mirror the types of assessment tasks students will be asked to undertake in Form 5, particularly the School Based Assessment (SBA) of the English paper (HKEAA, 2005). Findings Although we have some way to go in assessing the effectiveness of this approach, the results of our initial student evaluation questionnaire (N=110) indicate that the majority of the students perceive having improved in terms of reading and writing abilities (mean score about or more than 3). This questionnaire was a basic assessment of the students' perception of the programme. When we compare the students' perception of their improvement across the two language areas, the mean scores for Chinese language are higher. This is to be expected considering Chinese is students' first language. While students also think that they are more confident of reading in both languages (Significance P>0.05). This shows that students share a similar level of confidence in reading across the two languages. In addition, students perceive some confidence in Level 3 and 4 of the FRM as reflected by question 6, 7 and 8. Table 1: Findings from the Student Questionnaire (N=110) These are interesting results, as it has generally been believed that many Hong Kong students would have more difficulty tackling Level 3 and Level 4 (the critical levels) of the FRM. These initial questions indicate that students were developing and trying out some of the critical reader strategies developed during the lessons. Question Mean score on Mean score on Significance Chinese Language English Language (2 tailed) 1. My reading ability has improved. 3.2957 3.0000 P<0.05 2. My writing ability has improved. 3.2368 2.9237 P<0.05 3. I have become more confident of reading. 3.5766 3.0000 P>0.05 4. The class activities were useful for my learning. 3.5614 2.9068 P<0.05 5. I found the programme interesting. 3.1892 2.9583 P<0.05 6. I understand writer's point of view. 3.0000 2.6068 P<0.05 7. After reading a text, I could express my comments 3.0439 2.7373 P<0.05 on the text. 8. I can tell the main ideas of a text after reading. 2.9478 2.6667 P<0.05 1=Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Agree 4= Strongly Agree Conclusion In enhancing students' language proficiency, we need to provide Hong Kong students with skills and strategies to critically approach texts, not simply to decode and comprehend them. Our experience in introducing this critically oriented literacy programme for junior students suggests that the students at our school appear 138 Acknowledgement We would like to acknowledge our gratitude to Dr Gail Forey, Assistant Professor of English of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Mr Chow Ying Tai, former Principal of TWGHs Mr and Mrs Kwong Sik Kwan College for their central contribution in the development and implementation of this programme. References Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written language. Oxford: Blackwell. Baynham, M. (1995). Literacy practices. London: Longman. Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative action research for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carrington, V. and Luke, A. (1997). Literacy and Bourdieu's Sociological Theory: a reframing. Language and education, Vol. 11, No.2: 96-112. Cervetti, G., Pardales, M.J., & Damico, J.S. (2001). A tale of differences: comparing the traditions, perspectives, and educational goals of critical reading and critical literacy. Reading online, April 4(9). http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/cervetti/index.html Chan, D. (1988). Perceived competencies of students with learning disabilities in Hong Kong. In D.Chan (ed.), Helping Students with learning difficulties in Hong Kong (pp19-38). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. Cheng, L. (1997). How does Washback influence teaching? Implications for Hong Kong. Language and Education Vol.11, No.1, 38-45 Cheah, Y.M. (2001). From prescription to participation: moving from functional to Critical Literacy in Singapore. In B.Comber and A. Simpson (ed.) Negotiating critical literacies in Classrooms. (pp 69-81). London: Lowrence Erlbaum Associates. Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations & Assessment Authority (2005). Proposed new senior secondary curriculum and assessment framework: Chinese Language (2nd draft for consultation). Hong Kong: The Education and Manpower Bureau. Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations & Assessment Authority (2005). Proposed new senior secondary curriculum and assessment framework: English Language (2nd draft for consultation). Hong Kong: The Education and Manpower Bureau. capable of demonstrating the skills of text-users and text-analysts through regular engagement in a wide variety of literacy practices, from reading cookery books in Chinese to chatting in English in chat-rooms. Given the opportunity through a different approach and different materials rather than the normal textbook oriented methods, students will engage with the text from essentially a critical perspective. From the teacher's perspective, the use of the FRM as a schema has provided a platform from which to plan a comprehensive programme and identify skills and strategies students need to take on each of the four reader roles and to expand their critical responses. 139 School-based critical literacy programme in a Hong Kong secondary school Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations & Assessment Authority (2005). Proposed new senior secondary curriculum and assessment framework: Liberal Studies (2nd draft for consultation). Hong Kong: The Education and Manpower Bureau. Firkins, A. (2004). The challenge of learning disability in the Hong Kong classroom. English teaching: practice and critique May, Vol.3, No. 1: 71-75 http://education.waikato.ac.nz/research/journal/index.php?id=1 Firkins, A., Forey, G. and Sengupta, S. (forthcoming 2007). A Genre-based literacy pedagogy: teaching writing to low proficiency E.F.L Students. English Language Teaching Journal. Oct. Firkins, A. and Forey, G (2006). Changing the Literacy Habitus of a Chinese School. In W.D.Bokhurst-heng. M. Osborne and K. Lee (eds). Redesigning pedagogies: reflections on Theory and Praxis. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Firkins, A and Wong, C (2005). From the basement of the ivory tower: English teachers as collaborative researchers. English Teaching: Practice and Critique Sept, Vol.4, No2, 62-71 http://education.waikato.ac.nz/research/journal/index.php?id=1 Freebody, P. and Luke, A. (1990). 'Literacies' programs: debates and demands in cultural context. Prospect 5 (3): 85- 94. Honig, M.I., and Hatch, C.T. (2004). Crafting coherence: how schools strategically manage multiple, external demands. Educational Researcher, Vol.33, No.8, 16-80. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2005). 2007 HKCE English Language examination. Introduction to school-based assessment component. Developed by the SBA Consultancy Team, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Lin, Y, M, A. (2001). Resistance and creativity in English reading lessons in Hong Kong. In B.Comber and A. Simpson (ed). Negotiating critical literacies in classrooms. (pp 83-99). London: Lowrence Erlbaum Associates. Luke, A. (2000). Critical literacy in Australia: a matter of context and standpoint. Journal of adolescent and adult literacy, 43:5: 448-461. Luke, A. and Freebody, P. (1999). Further notes on the four resources model. Reading online http://readingonline.org/ research/lukefreebody.html. International Reading Association. Retrieved 20 August 2005. Maley, A. (1985). On chalk and cheese, babies and bathwater and squared circles: can traditional and communicative approaches be reconciled? In P.Larson, E.Judd and D. Messerchmitt, (eds). On TESOL 84: A brave new world for TESOL. Washington: DC TESOL. Mee, Y.C. (1998). The examination culture and its impact on literacy innovations: the case of Singapore. Language and education Vol.12, No.3, 192-209. Ng, C. and Liu, C. (1999). Teaching English to Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong secondary schools. Language, culture and curriculum. Vol.12, No.3, 229-238. Street, B. (1998). New literacies in theory and practice: what are the implications for language in education. Linguistics and education 10(1) 1-24. Wallace, C. (2003). Critical reading in language education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 140 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. Curriculum leadership & development: experience of the integrated humanities subject !\"#$ !\"#$%#& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012$3456789:45;<=>?@A'&B8/C# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456,7895):;<=>,?@=&A)BCD !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./01&'234%356789:;\"<=#$&'>?@ !\"# !\"#$\"%& Abstract This paper discusses two school-based leadership experiences in the development of junior Integrated Humanities(IH) curriculum. Different means have been adopted by school and panel leaders to facilitate the curriculum development, such as reinforcing teachers' collaboration, selecting appropriate entry points and soliciting professional support. Their positive experiences may inform other schools, which aspire to develop their school-based IH curricula and highlight the practical issues in which the curriculum leaders should deal with carefully. Keywords curriculum development, integrated curriculum, curriculum leadership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iÉÉ=C=aáããçÅâI=NVVV !\"#$ !%& !\"#$%&'e~ääáåÖÉêjìêéÜóNVUT !\"# !\"# !\" a~óNVVP !\"#$%&'()*$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#ëìêîáî~ä ã~áåíÉå~åÅÉ îáëáçå ! !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* ! !\"# !\"#$% &'()*+,-./ Åçåíáåìáíó !éêçÖêÉëëáçå ! ! !\"#$%&'(!)*+,-.#$/0 ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./()01 ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-#$./01 !\"#$iÉÉ=C=aáããçÅâI=NVVVI=éKQRT !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*&+, !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# !\" !\"äÉ~ÇÉêëÜáé !\"#$% !\"äÉ~ÇÉêë !\"#$%&' êÉÅáéêçÅ~ä !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,- !./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0012 !\"#$%&'()!*+,-+.*+ !\"#$$%&'()* ! i~ãÄÉêí=Éí=~äKI=NVVS !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'#()*++,-*./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\" !\"#$%&'(i~ãÄÉêíNVVS !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !é~êíáÅáé~åíë !\"#$%&'( 142 !\" !\"#$%&' !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$ !\" !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-$./0&1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%Ç á ë í ê á Äì í ÉÇ = Åì ê ê á Å ì ä ìã äÉ~ÇÉêëÜáé e~êÖêÉ~îÉëOMMR !\" !\"#$% &'()%*+,- ! !\"#$%&'()*+, ~ å ~ ê Å Ü ó !\"#~ ë ë É ê í á î É Ç á ë í ê á Ä ì í á ç å !\"#É ã É ê Ö É å í ÇáëíêáÄìíáçå !\"#ÖìáÇÉÇ=ÇáëíêáÄìíáçå !\"éêçÖêÉëëáîÉ=ÇÉäÉÖ~íáçå !\"# íê~Çáíáçå~ä=ÇÉäÉÖ~íáçå ~ìíçÅê~Åó !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'$()*+,-./01! ! !\"#$%&'()*+',-./ !\"#$%&%'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01' !\"!#$%&'!$()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"$%0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.)*/01 !\"#$%& !\"OMMM !\" !\"#$%&'(&)%&*&+,-./ !\"#$%&'mfiq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ay, C., Hall, C., Gammage, P., & Coles, M. (1993). Leadership & curriculum in the primary school: The roles of senior and middle management. London: Paul, Chapman Publishing Ltd. Hallinger, P., & Murphy, J. (1987). Instructional leadership in the school context. In W. Greenfield (Ed.), Instructional leadership: Concepts, issues and controversies (pp. 179-203). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Hargreaves, A. (2005). Redistributing teacher leadership widely and wisely. Paper presented at the Conference of Developing Teacher Leadership and Education Partnership in the Face of Education Reforms. 2-3 December 2005, Hong Kong. Lambert, L., Collay, M., Dietz, M. E., Kent, K., & Richert, A. E. (1996). Who will save our schools? Teachers as constructivist leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Lee, J. C. K., & Dimmock, C. (1999). Curriculum leadership and management in secondary schools: A Hong Kong case study. and management, 19 (4), 455-481. !\"#$% &'()*+,-./ 01 !\"#$%&'!()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'!() *+,-%./0 !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./012 !\"#$%&'()N !\"#$% =pìééçêíáîÉ=`çåÇáíáçåë !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-=O !\"#$%&'()*+, !\" ! !=P !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'%()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()$*+,-.=Q !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0(1. !\"#$%=R= !\"#$%&#' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01!2 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 01\" !\"#$%&'()*+,#$- 148 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&' ()*+ An action research on the use of Mastery Learning for primary six Mathematics !\"#$%& \"\"' !\"#$%&'( !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./0-12312456 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./0+,12345/678+.-9:;<=>?@/ABC !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./0123,456\"789:;<'(8=1(>4?@ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+&,-./012 !\"#$%&\"%&'\"()*+ Abstract The paper reports an action research on the use of Mastery Learning in the teaching of primary six Mathematics. It is reported that Mastery Learning is able to cater for the needs of a wide range of individual ability in the class. The pupils' motivation is enhanced. With good preparation and clearly defined objectives and learning activities, the effectiveness of teaching and learning is enhanced. However, teachers need more support and resources in order to prepare and conduct lessons for Mastery Learning. Keywords action research, Mastery Learning, student motivation, individual differences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ÇêáîÉ !\"#$%&'()* !\"# !\"!#$%&'()*+ = ! NK ! !\"#j~ëíÉêó= iÉ~êåáåÖ ! !\" NVVU !\"#E N V U U F !\"#$%&'( _äççã !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()&*+,- = !\" OMMQ éKNTM !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&' ()*+,- !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%& OMMP !\"#$%&'()*'+, !\"#$%&'()* +, %-. !\"#$%&'() *)+,-%. ! !\" NVVP !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 OK !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ !`~êêçää !\"#$ 150 !\"#$%& ! !\"#$ ! !\"#$ !\"#$% !\" !\" OMMQ éKNTP !\"#$%&' !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&$'()*+,$%-. !\"#$%&'(!\" )*+,'( !\"#$%&'()#(*+,- !d ì ë â É ó I = N V U R !\" N V V U !\"#$%#&! #'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(%)* )+ !\"#$%&'()%*+,-.$/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(_äçÅâI= NVTN !\"#$ !\" ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()\"*+_äççãI N V T Q !\" O M M Q é K N T Q E N F !\"#$ E O F !\"#$ E P F ! !\" Z=f !\"# !\"# !\"Z=f = NK= !\"#$%&=OK= !\"#$%& PK ! QK !\"# RK !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'() *+,-./ !\"#$%&'\"(\")*+,%-. !\"#\"$% !\"#$%$&'()* !\" NVVP é KRN !\" OMMQ é KNTQ ! !\"#$ !\"#$ ! !\"#$ ! ! ! ! 151 !\"#$%&' ()*+ PK !\"# $% !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" ! !\"#$%&'( !\"#$ %&'()*+,-./ !\"# !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$% &'(\"#)*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%#&'()* !\" OMMQ ! OMMO ! !\"#$%\"& !\"# !\"# ! !\"#$% !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%& !\"#$\"%&'()* !\"#$%&'( ! !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$% !\" ! !\"#$%&' QK !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(#)*#+,- NVVP !\"#$%& OMMQ !\"#$ OMMQ !\"NVVR !\"#$%&'\"(\"#)\"*+,- !\"#!$%!&'(!)*+,- !\"#$%&!'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./ !\"# !\"#$%OMMQ !\"# !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,- !. !\"#$%&'()*! ! NVVQ !\"#$%& OMMP NVVP !\"#$%& OMMQ 152 !\"#$%#&'( !\"#$%& OMMPI = é KNOS !\" OMMQI = é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á !\"#$ NR áá !\"#$ RS !\"#$%&'()&*+ !\"#$%&'(%)*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\" !\"# !\"#$ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !\"# !\"#! !\"#$%& !\"# ! !\"#$%&'(!\")*+', !\"#$%&'()*+,-(. ! 100 100 1 6/15 43 47/56 84 2 3/15 21 39/56 70 3 2/15 14 48/56 86 4 1/15 7 38/56 68 5 12/15 79 56/56 100 6 3/15 21 46/56 82 7 2/15 10 50/56 89 8 8/15 50 56/56 100 9 1/15 7 44/56 79 10 2/15 14 23/56 41 11 3/15 20 31/56 55 12 3/15 21 49/56 88 13 4/15 29 42/56 75 14 5/15 36 42/56 75 15 3/15 20 52/56 93 16 0/15 0 23/56 41 17 2/15 14 42/56 75 ! 100 100 18 10/15 64 39/56 70 19 9/15 57 52/56 93 20 5/15 36 42/56 75 21 4/15 29 37/56 66 22 3/15 21 42/56 75 23 5/15 36 48/56 86 24 2/15 14 46/56 82 25 0/15 0 22/56 40 26 6/15 43 34/56 61 27 2/15 14 26/56 46 28 1/15 7 48/56 86 29 11/15 70 56/56 100 30 4/15 29 44/56 79 31 2/15 14 56/56 100 32 5/15 36 52/56 93 33 12/15 79 56/56 100 34 3/15 21 28/56 50 !\"#$%&'()*#$%+,-\"./0 !\" B !\"#$ B 90 0 0 13 38.24 80-89 2 5.88 10 29.41 70-79 1 2.94 4 11.76 60-69 2 5.88 2 5.88 60 29 85.30 5 14.71 EOF !\"# ! \"# $% EáF !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,' !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'( )*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+! !\"#$%&'()*+,* !\"#$%&'()*+,- _ !\"#$%&'( 157 !\"#$%&' ()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+), !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'( ! !\"#$%&'(# !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$ !\"# ! !\"#$%&'() ! !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"# EááF !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+$,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-' !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+ !!\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&#'\"( !\" EáááF !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()* !\" EáîF !\" !\"#$%&'()*+_ !\"#$%&'()* +,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$$%&'( !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'($ !\"#$%&'( !\" #$ EîF !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()$*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-' !\"#$%&'( )*+(, !\"#$%&'()* +,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\" !\" !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"# !\" !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()$ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+, - 158 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&$''()*+, !\"#$%&'()\"&*+, !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"# OK !\" !\"#$%&' !\"# ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'(NVVM !\" !\"#$%&' !NVVV !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# !\"#$%&'!()*+',-./ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,&'-.& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+#$ !\"#OMMQI=éKVP !\"# !\"#$%!&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-)./ !\"#$%&#'()*+,-./- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()& !\"# ! !\" #$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()#*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ ! !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%& NK ! !\"#$%& !\"# !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()* !+,-. !\"#$%&'()*(!+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ ! !\"#$% &'()*+,-./ !\"NVVR !\"#$%# !\"#$%&\"'()*+,- OK !\"# !\"#$%&'()%* !\"#$%&'($)*+!,-.' !\"#$%&'()*$%+,-.$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./* !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0) !\"#$%&' ()!\"*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0% 159 !\"#$%&' ()*+ ! OMMQ !\"#$%&'( )* !\" ! !\"#$%& !\"NSTJ NUR !\"#$%& OMMO !\"#$%&!'()*+,-./01!2345P !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$ NVVR !\"# $ !\"#$%&'() NVVU !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'() NVVP !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$NO NUJPO !\"#$OMMQ !\"#$%&!!\"'()*+,$!-./012 !\"# ! !\" URJNMN NVVV !\"#$ !\"#$% NVVQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"#&/0123456789:;<=>?@A !\"#$ !\"#$%&$'()*+%&,-.(/0123,-45 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 PQTJPRM !\"#$%& NVVR !\"#$%&'( !\"\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%RO PNJPT OMMQ !\"#$%& !\"'$%()*+ ! \"#$% !\"#$OMMP !\"#$ !\"# $%& '() !*+, !\"#$ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ NOSJNPQ ! \"#$%$&'()*+ !NVUV !\"#$ !\"#$%$&'( !\"# $SPRJPS !\"#$!%&'(%)*+NVVR !\"#$%!\"&!'()* !\"#$%&$ !\"#$%&'()*+,%&-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$0123 !\"#$%& NVVP !\" ! !\"#$%&'( !\"#PO QVJSN NVVP !\" ! !\"#$%&'( !\"#PP RMJSO NVVU !\"#\"$%&\"'( !\"# $O PTJQO Block, J.H. (1971). (Ed.). Mastery learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Bloom, B.S. (1974). An introduction to mastery learning theory. In Block, J. H. (Ed.). Schools, society and mastery learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Guskey, T.R. (1985). Implementing mastery learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. !\"#$ !\"# ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-*./ !\"#$%&'()* !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.+# !\"#$%&'()*+,-, !. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+(,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$ !\"# !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()\"*+,- !\"# ! 160 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'( Thinking on the implementation of school- based peer observation !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-.)/01234'5678+(12349:; <=>?@A(B !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234567),89:;<=%#>?@3456AB, !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./01\"#$23456789:$;<=>?@ABCDE1\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$/0&1 !\"#$%&'(\")*#$+, Abstract In the era of education reform, most of the local schools are implementing school-based peer observation. How can schools facilitate professional development of teachers by this means based on the innovative experience on related project in Hong Kong Institute of Education and relevant academic literature on peer observation? The author advises school teachers to re-think in these four areas: the arrangement of school-based peer observation, the understanding of the physiological need of the deliver, the use of progress map and the training of observers. There are many ways suggested for schools to raise the effectiveness of peer observation in order to enhance teacher development by this kind of professional activities. Keywords peer observation, teacher professional development, school-based training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cçñOMMR !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-#./) !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!01' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01(2 !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./&01MQ !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-+ .(/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"12 !\"#$%&'()*+,*-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,(-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./0'( !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,&-./01 !o~ÅÜíNVVS !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()* !\"#+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"12 !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-./&$0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"!#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#!$%&'()*(+,-./&* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"#/01 !\"#$%&'$()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!012 !\"#$%&'()%*+,-./0*1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-). /01 !\"#$%&\"'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,&-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01/2 !\"#$\"#! % !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()_çìÇNVVN ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"#$%/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-#.)/0% !\"#!$%&'()*+,- ./(0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01)2 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-&./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 OMMQ !\"#$%&'(\")*+,- !\"#\"$%&'()*+,-./( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./-01 !\"#$%&'()(*+,-\"#$ !\"#$%& !\"# !\"#$%&'(tê~ÖÖ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êáíòã~åOMMP !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%!&'()*+,-&./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&12 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01( !\"#$%&'()%*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$% cêÉáÄÉêÖ=C=aêáëÅçääOMMR !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./012 !\"#$%&\"'()*+,'-\"./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,(-./()0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.,/01 !\"#$%&'()*(+,-./01 !\"#$OMMP !\"#\"$%&' !\"#$%&'()#*+&' ,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./-0* !\"#$%&' mÉíÉêë=C=j~êÅÜNVVV !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'$()*+,-./0)1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+!#,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&$!'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 01& !\"# !$%&'()* !&'+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-'./!#0 !\"#$%&'( )*+\",'-. !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-./01) !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$/0 1 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.()/01 !\"#$%&'()!*+,-./\" ! !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./01 165 !\"#$%&'( ! ! gÉååó=qóêêÉää !\"#$%OMMO !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( ! \" ! OMMO !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( ! \"#$% OMMQ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"# ! \"#$%&'()* !\"#$!%&'OMMM !\"#$%&'( ! \"#$%& !\"OMMQ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'( ! \"#$%&'\" ! !\"#$j~êíáåJhåáÉéI=dKlK=OMMQ !\"#$%&&'()*+,-. !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&OMMP !\"#$\"#! % ! \"# OMMP !\"#\"$ !\"#$%&'( OMMM !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'() NVVV !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'() NVVV !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"#$OMMO !\"# !\"#$%&'( !\"#$OMMP !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 !\"#QT ! !\" Boud. D. (1991). Implementing Student Self Assessment. Sydney: HERDSA Publications. Britzman, D.P. (2003). Practice makes practice:a critical study of learning to teaching. Albany: State University of New York Press. Fox, R. (2005). Teaching and learning: lessons from psychology. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. Freiberg, H.J. & Driscoll, A. (2005). Universal teaching strategies. New York: Pearson Education, Inc. Peters, K.L. & March, J.K. (1999). Collaborative observation:Putting classroom instruction at the center of school reform. California: Corwin Press, Inc. 166 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%& !\"#$%& Intellect and feeling are both necessary in moral education - a reflection from contemporary American moral education !\"#$%#& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01$234567+89:;<$=>?@A$BCDEFGH !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789)*+, #:;<=9>?@A#; !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0(123456 %7$%89(12:;<=>?@ !,OM SM !\"#$%&'()*+,--./0123\"#4567389+,:;<$%=>?@A !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012345678 !9&:;<=>?@AB0CDEF0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!.#/+01!&'()23456789!:;<=>?+@AB !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&\"'()*+\",-./01\"2340\"56 !\"78 Abstract At the outset, the paper points out that the mainstream of Chinese educational thought is Confucianism which is essentially moral education. Theoretically, Confucianism emphasizes both the affective and intellectual domains of moral education. However, in the historical development, it tended to bend more on the affective side. The development of moral education in China should take reference of the development in contemporary America that its pendulum has swung back to affirm the important of the affective domain. This paper narrates and analyses four main models of moral education in America from 1960s onwards in order to show this trend. The four main models are: Values Clarification Approach, 167 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( Cognitive Developmental Theory of Morality Approach, Care Ethics Approach, and Character Education Approach. Also, the paper argues that moral education in China should not oversee the present pendulum turn and follow American intellectualism and blindly abandon the affective factor of traditional Chinese moral education. Apart from learning from the West, Chinese moral educators should retain their valuable tradition and to rebuild moral education with both affective and intellectual foundations. 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QKN !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()* $%& !\"#$%&'(')*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'içìáë=bK=o~íÜë jÉêêáää= e~êãáå !\"páÇåÉó= _K páãçå !\"#eçï~êÇ=háêëÅÜÉåÄ~ìã !\"#$%&'()o~íÜëI=e~êãáå C= páãçåNVSS !\"#$%&'( o~íÜëI=e~êãáåI=C=páãçåNVSSI=NVTU !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"# !$% !&'\"(% !\"#$%&#'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()%*\"+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"##$%& '()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,%- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\" !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#^å~äóíáÅ~ä=éÜáäçëçéÜó 172 !\"#$%&'()*+,)- !\"#$%&'()*+), !\"#$%&'()$*+,- !\"#$%&#'()*#+,- o~íÜë !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*NVSS !\"##$%&'()*+!\", ÅÜççëáåÖ N !\" O !\"#!$% P !\"#$%&'()* mêáòáåÖ Q !\"#$%&'() ! !\"#$%& R !\"#$%&'()*+ S !\"#$ T !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-%& !\"#$%&&'()*+ !\"#$\"%&'()*+,- háêëÅÜÉåÄ~ìãNVTR !\"#$% !qÜáåâáåÖ ! `çããìåáÅ~íáåÖ ! ! N !\"#$%&'O !\" P !\"#$%&'(Q !\" ! N !\"#$%&O !\"#$%&'()*+,-P !E_~êêó=`Ü~ò~å=INVUR`ÜKQ !\"#$%&'()* +, !\"#$% &'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,\"-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+$%&, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'\"()*+, !\"Çá~äçÖìÉ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()'*+, î ~ ä ì É ë = ë Ü É É í !\"î ~ ä ì É ê~åâáåÖ !\"#$%&'()*+ háêëÅÜÉåÄ~ìã NVVQ !\"# !\"#$%&'(\")*+, !\"#$%&'()$*+,-./ NMM=t~óë=íç=båÜ~åÅÉ=s~äìÉë=~åÇ=jçê~äáíó áå=pÅÜççäë=~åÇ=vçìíÜ=pÉííáåÖëTI= ! î~äìÉë= îçíáåÖ !\"ê~åâ çêÇÉê áåíÉêîáÉï !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,)-. !\"#$%&'()*+!, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\" !\"#$%&'()*# !\"#$%&'()*+ , !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+!,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-.' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 173 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-'. !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'( QKO !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-. U i~ïêÉåÅÉ=hçÜäÄÉêÖ !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&gK=má~ÖÉí ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ V= NVUT !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&#'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.! !\"#$%&'(&)*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'$( !\"#$%&'()*+,$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&!'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,&-. !\"#$%&'()*&' ëí~ÖÉë !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-) !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&=EhçÜäÄÉêÖK=iK=C=qìêáÉäK bKNVTNF !\"\"#$ !%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&\"'()*+,\"- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. fK !\"mêÉJÅçåîÉåíáçå~ä=äÉîÉä á !\"#$%qÜÉ=éìåáëÜãÉåí ~åÇ=çÄÉÇáÉåÅÉ=çêáÉåí~íáçå áá !\"#$%&'q Ü É áåëíêìãÉåí~ä=êÉä~íáîáëí=çêáÉåí~íáçå ffK !`çåîÉåíáçå~ä=äÉîÉä ááá !\"#$%&#'%() qÜÉ=áåíÉêéÉêëçå~ä=ÅçåÅçêÇ~åÅÉ=çê ÖççÇ=Äçó=J=åáÅÉ=ÖáêäD=çêáÉåí~íáçå áî !\"#$%qÜÉ=ä~ï= ~åÇ çêÇÉêD=çêáÉåí~íáçå fffK !\"mçëíJÅçåîÉåíáçå~ä=äÉîÉä î !\"#$%&qÜÉ= ëçÅá~ä= J Åçåíê~Åí=äÉÖ~äáëíáÅ=çêáÉåí~íáçå îáF !\"#$%&'qÜÉ=ìåáîÉêë~ä ÉíÜáÅ~ä= éêáåÅáéäÉ= çêáÉåí~íáçå hçÜäÄÉêÖI= iK= NVUNQMVJQNO hçÜäÄÉêÖ==qìêáÉäNVTN !\"#$%&'()*+,% !\"#$%&'(!)*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-+. !\"#$ %& '( )*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*RM ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*\"+,- 174 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+%,-. !\"#$%&'()*#+, !\"#$%&'(!&)*+& !\"#$%&'()* !'+ !\"#$%&'() * !\"#$%&'()*+\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+#,- !\"#$%&'()*+,#-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,(-. !\"#$%&'(eÉáåò=Å~ëÉ !\" !\"#$%&'\"()* !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()* OMM !\"#$%& O IMMM !\"#$%&'( eÉáåò !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()\") !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&hçÜäÄÉêÖ NVUQNUS !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-.( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"##$!%&'()*+,, !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+\"#$, !\"#$%&'()*+,-% !\" !\"#$%!&'() *+ !\"#$%&'()*++,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&''()*+,-% !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*\"#+,! hçÜäÄÉêÖ==qìêáÉäINVTN !\"#$%&'()*+,%&- !\"#$%&'()*+,-\". !\"#$$%&'()*+,-\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+#,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\" !\"#$ %&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ ! !\" !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'(= E _ ~ ê ê ó `Ü~ò~åF !\"#$%&'()*+# !\"#$%&'()* E`Ü~ò~åI=NVURSUF !\"#$%&' !\"oÉä~íáîáëã !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()'(*+, !\"#açÖã~íáëã !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-). 175 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"ÇÉîÉäçéãÉåí !\"# gçÜå=aÉïÉó !\"#$%& ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#`~êçä=dáääáÖ~å ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%!&#'()*+ !\" ! !\"#$%& !\"#$%& !\"# NVVU PRJUP !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-). !\"#$%&'()*++&# !\"# !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'( !\" !\"#$%&'() *+!, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ RK !\"#$%$&'() !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-. NVUM !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&#'()*+ ,-. !\"#$%`~êçä=dáääáÖ~åNVVM !\"#$%&'(kÉä=kçÇÇáåÖë g~åÉ=oçä~åÇ=j~êíáå !\"#$ !\"#$!%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-.\"/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*#+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()* +,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.()# !\"#$%&'()*+,-). jÅ`äÉää~å=INVVVUVR !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'($%)*+,-. !\"#$%&'(êÉëéçåëáÄáäáíó !\"#$%&'()*+,-&./ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$`~êáåÖW=^=cÉãáåáåÉ=^ééêç~ÅÜ íç=bíÜáÅë=~åÇ=jçê~ä=bÇìÅ~íáçå NVUQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*`~êÉ=bíÜáÅë ! !\"#cÉãáåáåÉ=bíÜáÅë !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 bíÜáÅ=çÑ=gìëíáÅÉ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&$'()* !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#!$%kçÇÇáåÖë NVUU !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+ kçÇÇáåÖë NVVONT !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%ã ç Ç É ä á å Ö Ç á ~ ä çÖìÉ éê~Å í á Å É ! ÅçåÑáêã~íáçåkçÇÇáåÖëNVVOOOJOS !\"#!$%&'() *+,-!. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-. kçÇÇáåÖë NVVOOO ! !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*&+,, 176 !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-./0 kçÇÇáåÖë NVVOOP !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+#,-*. !\"#$ %& ! ! !\"#$%&' !\"#$%\"&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'(!)*+,-./ !\"#$%&' (kçÇÇ áåÖ ë NVVOOQ !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'() *+,-. !\"#$ ! !\"#$%&'(!)* ! \"#$%&'()*+,$-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0% !\"#!$%&'kçÇÇáåÖë NVVOOQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#!$%&'()#*+,-./ !\"éêçàÉÅí !\"#$%! ! !\"#$%&'()* kçÇÇáåÖë NVVR~ !\"#$%&'()*+,#- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 ! \" # $ % & ' ( ) % * + kçÇÇáåÖë NVUU !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()!\"*+(!\", !\"#$%!\"#&'() !*+ !\"#$%&'()$*'()+,- kçÇÇáåÖë NVVRÄjÅ`ääÉä~å NVVV=UUJ UV !\"#$%&'()*+,-.% !\"#$%&'(#)*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./0 kçÇÇáåÖëNVVORN !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,- .\"/ Å~êÉê ! !\"#Å~êÉÇJÑçê !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+ ! SK !\"#$ !\"# !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"`Ü~ê~ÅíÉê=bÇìÅ~íáçå ! !\"# $%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"#/ !\"#$%&'()#*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ ,)-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'(t á ä ä á ~ ã = g K _ÉååÉíí hÉîáå= oó~å ! qÜçã~ë=iáÅâçå~ !\"# !$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*!%+,-$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-'#). !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*++,#-./ k~íáçå~ä=båÇçïãÉåí=Ñçê=íÜÉ=eìã~åáíáÉë !\"#$%&'(!)*+%&'(, 177 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*$%&'+,- !\"#$%&'() qÜçã~ë=iáÅâçå~ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&#'()*+,-./0 !\"#$% !\"#NN=bÇìÅ~íáåÖ Ñ ç ê = `Ü ~ ê ~ Å í É ê !\"#$%&'( iáÅâçå~NVVN !\"#$% &'( !\"#$%&'ê É ë é É Å í êÉëéçåëáÄáäáíóiáÅâçå~ NVVNON !\"#$%&'Ü ç å É ë í Ñ ~ á ê å É ë ë í ç ä É ê ~ å Å É Åçãé~ëëáçå éêìÇÉåÅÉ ÅççéÉê~íáçå !\"#$%&'()*+ iáÅâçå~ NVVNQMJQR !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,*+-*% !\"#$%&'(Ü~Äáíë=çÑ=ãáåÇ !\"Ü~Äáíë=çÑ=ÜÉ~êí !\"#$ Ü~Äáíë=çÑ=~Åíáçå !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'&()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()iáÅâçå~ NVVNRN !\"#$ !ãçê~ä=~ï~êÉåÉëë !\"#âåçïáåÖ=ãçê~ä=î~äìÉë !éÉêëéÉÅíáîÉJí~âáåÖ !ãçê~ä=êÉ~ëçåáåÖ ÇÉÅáëáçåJã~âáåÖ !ëÉäÑJâåçïäÉÇÖÉ !\"#$ ÅçåëÅáÉåÅÉ ëÉäÑJÉëíÉÉã Éãé~íÜó äçîáåÖ=íÜÉ=ÖççÇ ëÉäÑJÅçåíêçä Üìãáäáíó !\"#$ ÅçãéÉíÉåÅÉ ïáää Ü~Äáí !\"#$iáÅâçå~ NVVN !\"#$%&'(\")*+,#$- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.*+/ !\"#$%&'()*%+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+ , !\"#$%gçëÉéÜëçå=fåëíáíìíÉ=çÑ bíÜáÅëNO !\"#$%$&'()&*+ !\"#$%&'()*+páñ=máää~êë çÑ=`Ü~ê~ÅíÉêë ! á qêìëíïçêíÜáåÉëë áá oÉëéÉÅí ááá oÉëéçåëáÄáäáíó áî c~áêåÉëë î `~êáåÖ îá `áíáòÉåëÜáé !\"#$%&'()*!\"#$ !\"#$%&'!()*+,*-.* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.*\"/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$% &'()*$%+,-. !\"#$$%&'()*+,- _ÉååÉííI=NVVR !\"#$%&'()* !táääá~ã=_ÉååÉííI=NVVR !\" 178 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$ %&'()*+,-. / !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# !\"# !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$% &'()*!\"+,- !\"#$%&'()!*+,-$./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$#%&'()*+,-.' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 j~Ççåå~=jK=jìêéÜó ! !\"#$%&`Ü~ê~ÅíÉê=bÇìÅ~íáçå=áå ^ãÉêáÅ~åDë=_äìÉ=oáÄÄçå=pÅÜççäëJ=_Éëí=mê~ÅíáÅÉë Ñçê=jÉÉíáåÖ=íÜÉ=`Ü~ääÉåÖÉ=I= !\"#$ OMMO !\"#$%&'(()*'+ _äìÉ=oáÄÄçå=pÅÜççäë !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'#()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-)./, !\"#$%& TK !\"#$%&'()*+, !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,(-$.% !\"#$%#&'()! *+,$- !\"#$%&'()*+$,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,%-.)/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!\" !\"#$%&'()%&*+,! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.&%/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-*$ !\"#$%&'()*+ ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+\" ,-. !\"^ K = g K = ^ ó É ê !\" píÉîÉåëçå !\"#$%bãçíáîÉ qÜÉçêó=çÑ=jçê~äáíó !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%\"& !\"OMMR !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.#/0 !\"#$%$&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0! !\"éêáòáåÖ !\"NVSS o~íÜë !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# $%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$% !\"&'()*%+, 179 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* !+,*- !\"#$%&'()*+,-.\"/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* +,-. !\" NP= !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()%&*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,- ./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,- ! gìëíáÅÉ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$!% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'(NQ !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-'./0 !\"#$%\"#&'()*+,& - !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(#)*+,&-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"\"#$%&'(%&)*+,-. !\"#$%& !\"#$%&' !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+& !\"#$%&'()*+'( !\"#$%&'()$*+, !\"#$ %&'()*$+ !\"!#$%&'()*!+ !\" N V V V N U P hçÜäÄÉêÖ =NVUMOM !\"# $%&'()*+ , !\"#$% &'()*(+, !\"#$%&'!\"$%&() !\"#$%&\"'()*#$+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./&0 !\"#$%&'()*&'+,-./ !\"# $%&&' ()!* !\"#$%&'() **+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-)./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./# !\"#$%&'()* ! 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OMMQ !\"#$%&' !\"# !NVVU !\"#$$%&'&()*+!,-.dáääáÖ~åI=`~êä=ENVUOFK==få=~=aáÑÑÉêÉåí=sçáÅÉJ mëóÅÜçäçÖáÅ~ä=qÜÉçêó=~åÇ=tçãÉåDë=aÉîÉäçéãÉåí !\"# !\"#$%&NVUR !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+! N !\"#$%&'()'*+,-./$%0'1 O !\"#$ !\"#$%&'#()&*#+,-.#/0(1#2345 P NVRU !\"#$%\"&'(\") *+,-./0123 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&' !\"#$ !\" NVVM~ Q ^KgK^óÉê píÉîÉåëçå !\"#$%& ^KgK=^óÉêI=i~åÖì~ÖÉI=qêìíÜ=~åÇ=içÖáÅI=ÅÜKSI=E^óÉê NVVMFI= píÉîÉåëçå=?bãçíáîÉ=jÉ~åáåÖ=çÑ=bíÜáÅ~ä=íÉêãë?=táäÑêáÉÇ=pÉää~êë=~åÇ=gçÜå=eçëéÉêëI=NVTM !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012234!\")*+567 OMMR R ! ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-. ! !\"#$%&!\"#'()*+ ! !\"#$%&'()*+ !,-./0123 S !\"#$%\"&'()*+,-.,/01/2(345671/089:,/1/2(;671 ! T eçï~êÇ=háêëÅÜÉåÄ~ìã=ENVVRFK==NMM=t~óë=íç=båÜ~åÅÉ=s~äìÉë=~åÇ=jçê~äáíó=áå=pÅÜççäë=~åÇ=vçìíÜ=pÉííáåÖëK==^ääóå ~åÇ=_~ÅçåK U !\"#$%&'()*+,$%-'./0 V áF=iK=hçÜäÄÉêÖ=ENVUNFK==qÜÉ=mÜáäçëçéÜó=çÑ=jçê~ä=aÉîÉäçéãÉåíK==p~å=cê~åÅáëÅçW=e~êéÉê=C=oçïK ááF=iK=hçÜäÄÉêÖ=ENVUQFK==qÜÉ=mëóÅÜçäçÖó=çÑ=jçê~ä=aÉîÉäçéãÉåíK==p~å=cê~åÅáëÅçW=e~êéÉê=C=oçïK NM !\"#$%&'() TO !\"#$% NN ! !\"# !\"#$%&'OMMN !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ NO NVUT !\"#$%&%'()*+,-./012ïïïKàçëÉéÜëçåáåëíáíìíÉKçêÖK NP !\"#$%&'()* !\"+,-./0.1234 NQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0'()*+1234567 !\"#$%&'( ! !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$% !\"#$%&hçÜäÄÉêÖI=iK=C=qìêáÉäI=bKNVTN !\"#$%&NVVV !\" !\"#$%%&'()*+, -./ NUOJNUP !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(& )*+,-% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*(+\",-. !\"#$%&'()*+(,-. !\"#$%& '()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,)-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-*#. !\"#$%&'()*+,$-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+, -./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()* 184 !\"#$OMMO !\"# !\"##$%&'()*+, !\"#$%& ! NVVM~ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()\" NVVMÄ !\"#$ !\"#$%&' NVVV !\"#$% &'(()*+,-./%012 ! \"#$%& NVQV !\"#$% !\"#$% !\"#$%OMMN !\"#$%&'()*+, ! \"#$ NVVS !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&' !\"#$%& ! !\"#$%&'( QNJRS OMMR !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012234!\")*+567 !\"#$ EOMMRF !\"#$%&&'()*+, ORRR !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$% !\" NUMPJNUNU A.J. Ayer (1936, 1990). Language, Truth and Logic. London: Pengium. Bennett, William (1995). The Moral Compass. London: Linda Micheals Ltd. Chazan, Barry (1985). Contemporary Approach to Moral Education - Analyzing Alternative Theories. New York: Columbia University: Teacher College Press. Downey, M. & Kelly, A.V. (1978). Moral Education: Theory and Practice. London: Harper & Row. Gilligan, Carl (1982-1993). In a Different Voice-Psychological Theory and Women's Development. MT: Harvard University Press. Hartshorne, Hugh & May, M.A. (1928-1930). Studies in the nature of character. Vol 1. Studies in deceit: Vol. 2. Studies in service and self-control: Vol. 3. Studies in organization of character. New York: Macmillan. Kirschenbaum, Howard (1995). 100 Ways to Enhance Values and Morality in Schools and Youth Settings. London: Allyn and Bacon. Kohlberg. L. & Turiel. E. (1971). Moral development and Moral Education. In Lesser, S. G. (Ed.). Psychology and Educational Practice, pp. 410-465. Kohlberg (1981). The Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Kohlberg, L. (1984). The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Lickona (1991). Educating for Characte. London: Bantam Books. Lockwood, Anne T. (1997). Character Education: Controversy and Consensus. California: Corwin Press, Inc. McClellan, B.E. (1999). Moral Education in America. New York: Columbia University, Teacher College. McPhail, Peter (1982). Social & Moral Education. London: Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited. Noddings (1984). Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics & Moral Education. California: University of California Press. Noddings (1985). \"Teaching Themes of Care\" Phi Delta Kappan 76. (May1985):675. (c.f. McCllelan, Moral Education in America, pp.88-89.) Noddings, Nel (1988). An Ethics of Caring and Its Implications for Instructional Arrangement. Standford: Center for Educational Research at Standford. Noddings, Nel (1992). The Challenge to Care in School - An Alternative Approach to Education. New York: Teacher College Press. Noddings, Nel (1995). A Morally Defensible Mission for Schools in the 21st Century. Phi Delta Kappan 76 (Jan. 1995), p.367. Raths, Harmin, & Simon (1966, 1978). Values and Teaching. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal !\"#$% ,Vol. 5 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2006 !\"#$%&'()*+,%&-./ Effectiveness of using concept map and online learning platform in Grade 11 Cultural Studies !\"#$ !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+, -./0123456789:$;<.=>?@1A\"BC4D) !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012+3456/789:;\"#<+=>?@5A+BCD* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012345&67819: !;<&=>*?@'()A& !\"#$ !\"#$%&'!()*+ Abstract Concept map is an effective thinking tool. Construction of concept map and summary writing can represent related themes from the Internet information, highly related to language abilities. Yet few research bodies have covered the effectiveness of using concept map into learning language subjects. Under self-directed learning circumstances, this paper aims to analyze effectiveness of Grade 11 students' reading comprehension and idea expression when using concept map via an online learning platform in spare time, and scrutinize relationships between learning abilities and academic achievements after using concept map. Keywords concept map, online learning platform, effectiveness evaluation 185 186 NK !\"#$%&'(')* !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"$1 !\"#$%&'( )*+,-. !\"#$%&\"# '()*&+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#ê ~ í á ç å ~ ä á ò ~ í á ç å= ìåÇÉêëí~åÇáåÖ=j~êíáå=C=hçãéÑI=NVVS i~åòáåÖI=píçó~åçî==hçããÉêë=NVVV= ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,'-.)/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 íÉñí=ÅçåíÉåí !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%$&'( )*'(+,-./ !\"#$%&'()$*+,-./0\"1 !\"#$%&'()*+, -./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'(()*+,-./00 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"#$ !\" !\"#!\"$%& !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%!&'()*+,-./012 !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0123 !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-.( !\"#$%&'( !\"# !\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 `ÉåíêÉ=Ñçê=fåÑçêã~íáçå=qÉÅÜåçäçÖó=áå=pÅÜççä=~åÇ qÉ~ÅÜÉê=bÇìÅ~íáçåI=OMMN !\"#$%&'(\")*+,-./' !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0\"12. !\"#$%& '()*+,-./0123 !\"#$%&'()'*+',-./012 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./! ! !\"#$%&'()* !+,&-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./'#$0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ OK ! OKN !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 îáëì~ääó=êÉéêÉëÉåíáåÖ=íÜÉ=ëíêìÅíìêÉ=çÑ=áåÑçêã~íáçå !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 êÉÅÉéíáçå=äÉ~êåáåÖ=kçî~âNVVN !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$=gçå~ëëÉå NVVS fëê~Éä NVVR= !\"#$%&'(VMB= !\"#åçåJâÉó=ïçêÇë !\" !\"#$%&'()#*+,-./0 !\"#$ %ÅçååÉÅíáçåë ! Äê~áå=éçïÉê !\"#$%& äçÖáÅ~ä !\"#áã~ÖáåáíáîÉ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+i~åòáåÖI píçó~åçê==hçããÉêë=NVVV= !\"# ÅçÖåáíáîÉ=ëíóäÉë !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+*,-./0 ëÉêá~äáëíë !Üçäáëíë ÅçåîÉêÖÉêë !ÇáîÉêÖÉêë 187 !\"#$%&'()*+,%&-./01 ~ëëáãáä~íçêë ~ÅÅçãçÇ~íçêëqÉêêó C=e~êÄI=NVVP !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 j~êíáå==hçãéÑ=NVVS !\" !\"#ëíêìÅíìêÉÇ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'åçåJëíêìÅíìêÉÇ !Äê~áåëíçêãáåÖ ! !\"#$%&'() hçããÉêë OMMO= !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 ãÉÇá~íÉÇ=Öêçìé=áåíÉê~Åíáçå !\" !\"#$%&ëÜ~êÉÇ=ÅçÖåáíáçå !\"#$%&'()*+,-./( !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./0 !\"#$%& Ñ ä ì É å Å ó ÑäÉñáÄáäáíó !\"#$%&'()*+, !åçÇÉë !\"#$%&'( äÉîÉäë !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"ÉäáÅáíáåÖ êÉéêÉëÉåíáåÖ ÅçããìåáÅ~íáåÖ !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&' !\"`Ü~åÖ=Éí=~äKOMMO !\"#$%&'()*(+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0! !\"# !\"#$%j ~ é ÅçêêÉÅíáçå=Öêçìé !\"#$%!&'( !\"#$%&'#$%() P M B QMB !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%pÅ~ÑÑçäÇ=J=Ñ~ÇáåÖ=Öêçìé !\"#$%&'() *+,-) . !\"#$%&'()*+,-.*/+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./#& !\"#$%&'()*+,-#$./ !\"#$%! &'()*+ ! !j~éJÖÉåÉê~íáçå=Öêçìé !\"# !\" #$%&'()*+,-!. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0- !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./0 !\"#$%&'()\"*+,-./0 !\"#$% !\"#$%& `Ü~åÖ=Éí=~äK=OMMO !\"# ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-+./01 oçóÉêI=oçóÉêI=oK==gÉÑÑêÉó=OMMQ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(\")*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+!,-./0 qÉãéä~íÉ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-.&/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&léÉå=J=båÇÉÇ píìÇÉåí=ÖÉåÉê~íÉÇ !\"#$% båÅçìê~ÖáåÖ=êÉîáëáçå=~åÇ=ëÜ~êáåÖ= ! !\"#$%&'%()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./'( !\" OKO ! !ïÉÄJÄ~ëÉÇ= äÉ~êåáåÖ !\" ïÉÄJÄ~ëÉÇ=íÉ~ÅÜáåÖ= !\"#$%&'( qÉíáï~í=C=fÖÄ~êá~OMMM !\" !\"#$%&'(#)*#$+#), !\"#$%&'(()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$0 188 !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.'/0 !\"#$%&'()*\"+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+$,- !\"#$ !\"#$%&#'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./$/ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$e~ê~ëáãI=eáäíòI=qÉäÉëI=C qìêçÑÑ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N !\" NN O !\" NO P !\" NM N !\"# NT O !\"#$ NS ÄK= ! !\"#$%&#'( ! jÉ~å píÇK=aÉîá~íáçå k !\" !\"# NSKNT OKSPV S !\"#$ NSKOM NKTUV R NSKNU OKNUP NN !\" !\"# NPKPP PKMNN S !\"#$ NQKPP OKQOO S NPKUP OKSRT NO !\" !\"# NRKQM PKRMT R !\"#$ NRKQM OKRNM R NRKQM OKUTR NM !\"# NQKVQ PKNNO NT !\"#$ NRKOR OKOSS NS NRKMV OKSVT PP ÅK= !\"# iÉîÉåÉ !~ !\"#$%&#'( c ÇÑN ÇÑO páÖK KSUR R OT KSPV !\"#$%&'(%)*+,-./012+3 ~== fåíÉêÅÉéíHoÉëìäíMNH^ÄáäáíóHdêçìéH^Äáäáíó=G=dêçìé U~ UÄ UÅ= !\"#$ 198 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+ âóëMN !\"#$%&'()*+,%&- !\"#$%& '()*+%,-. !\"#$%&!'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&' !\"()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-!./ !\"#$ âóëMS !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()'*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'(&)*+ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%!& âóëNR ! !\"#$%&\"'()\"*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-%./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'!()*+, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 âóëNR !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./, !\"#$%&'() !\"'*+,- !\"#$%&'( !\"#$% !\"#$%&'()*+%,-./ p~îÉêó==aìÑÑó=NVVR !\"# !\"#$%&'(!)**+, !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+, !\" ! !\"##$%&' ! !\"#$%&'()*+',-. !\"#$$%&'()*&+,(-# !\"#$%&'()*+ ,-. âóëMQ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$ %&'()*+,-$) !\"#$%&'(âóëNN ! !\"#$%&'()*+,âóë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âóëNNâóëMUâóëMS âóëNR NM !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-.%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'( OQ !\"# TS !\"#$%&'()* SQ !\"# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()$*+ !\", !\"#$%&\"'()*+,-./0 !\"# TKP !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'($)*+,-./0 !\"#$%&!\"#'()*+,-. UMSM !\"#$%!\"&'()TP QM !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'(\"#$)*+,-. !\"#$ !%&'( RP QS ! QT OM !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*$%+,-. !\"#$%&'( )*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+$,-#$. !\"# SM ! UM !\"#$ !\"#$%&'%()*+,-. âóëON !\"#$%&#'()* ! !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+),-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*\"+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%& TKQ !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()* +',-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+, -. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0! !\"#$%&'()*+,-.&/0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0* !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0* !\"#$%&'() !âóëNR !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*\"+%&, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ 0 !\"#$%&'()*$+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 âóëNN !\"ãáåÇ=ëíçêã âóëNR !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+,-#./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 200 !\"#$âóëMU !\"#$âóëMS !\"#$%&'()*+,&-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" âóëNR !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&!'($)!*+,-. âóëNN !\"#$%&'(âóëMU !\"#$%&'()*+,-*./* !\"!#$%&'( UK !\"#$ UKN !\"#$%!\"&'()*+,-# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+\"#$,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !!\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'(\")*+,)-./ !\"#$%&'() !\"#* !\"#$%&%'()*+, ! !\"#$%&'()#$*+,-. !\"#$#%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0/ !\"#$%&'()$*+,-./0 !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"#. !\"#$%&'(%)*+,-./ !\"#$%&'(% )*+,-. !\"# $%&'()*+,-$-. !\"# $%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./\"0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%#&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\" #$ %& '( )*= !\"#NVVV !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()*+, -./0 !\"#$%&'()*+(,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-&./ !\"#$%&'\"()*+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+\",-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+&',-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-'( !\"#$%&'()*+,-. /0 !\"#$%&' ( !\"#$%&'()*+,-.) !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"./- !\"#$%&'()*+,!-.= !\"#$%&'()*+,-. UKO !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 201 !\"#$%&'()*+,%&-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-\"#. !\"#$%&'()*+!,%-./ !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$\"%&'()*+,\"-. !!\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./%0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.'/01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'()(*+,-. /0 !\"#$%&'()!*+,-./0 !\"#$%\"&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 !\"#$%&'(!)*+'(,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+*,-./01 !\"#$%&'( !\"#$%&' !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*&+,-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,\"$&-. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+#,-./0 !\"#$% âóëMS !\"#$%& !\"#$%&'()*+,- . !\"#$%&\"'()*)+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%& !'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'() !\"#$% !\"#$%&''()!*+,-. !\"#$%& =VK !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./!0 !\"#$%&'$()*+,)-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0-1 !\"#$%&'()*+,!-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./, !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-../0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-.,/01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+âóëMN !\"#$%&'()*âóëNN !\"#$%&'(âóëMU !\" !\"#$%âóëMQ !\"#$ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'() !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$#%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()âóëNN !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*âóëMN !\"#$%&'()*+,-..+ !\"#$%&'(âóëNN !\"#\" !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 âóëMU !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-.âóëMS !\"#$%&'(âóëMQ !\"#$ !âóëNR !\"#$%Éëë~ó !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&' ()*+,-./0 202 ! !NVVV !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0&1234'\"56!%&789:;NRRJNSP !\" !\"#$%&'(#)*$+(%,#$-. !\"#OMMM !\"#$%&'()*+,- ÜííéWLLïïïKÅÜáåÉëÉÉÇìKÜâìKÜâL`ÜáåÉëÉqÉ~ÅÜáåÖjÉíÜçÇLïêáíáåÖLãÉíÜçÇLáåÇÉñKÜíã !OMMO !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012345 !OMMO !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012%3456789:;<=> !OMMQ !\"#$%&'()*pmpp !\"#$%&'()&*+,-./0123\"4567 !\"#$%OMMO !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234\"567NTN NSNJNTT Centre for Information Technology in School and Teacher Education, the University of Hong Kong (2001). Preliminary study on reviewing the progress and evaluating the information technology in education. Retrieved September 20, 2004, from http://www.emb.org.hk/ited/Documents/ITEd_Report/FinalReport_v3.0_web.htm Chang, Sung, K.E., Chen, Y. T., & Dai, I. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. (Learning and Instruction). Retrieved January 1, 2005, from http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc3. asp?DOCID=1G1:91751303&num=8&ctrlInfo=Round9c%3AProd%3ASR%3AResult&ao Harasim L. (Ed.) (1990). Online education: Perspectives on a new environment. New York : Praeger. Harasim L. et al. (1995). Learning networks: A field guide to teaching and learning online. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Israel , L.,& Rudley, I. (1995). Learning with Lana: Mind mapping [videorecording]. Hollywood, FL: Amnesia Video, Inc.. Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.) (1996). Handbook of research for educational communications and technology: A project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. New York: Macmillan Library Reference USA. Kommers, P. (2002). Concept mapping as a medium of shared cognition in computer-supported collaborative problem solving. Retrieved September 20, 2004, from http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc3.asp?DOCID=1G1: 87079472&num=2&ctrlInfo=Round8%3AProd%3ASR%3AResult&ao Lanzing, J.W.A.S., Stoyanov & Kommers, P. A. (1999). Concept mapping as a tool and method for generating, detecting and implementing new ideas. In P. B. L. M/ Brinkler (Ed.), Cognitive ergonomics, clinical assessment and computer-assisted learning. Netherlands :Lisse. Martin, J.M., & Kompf, M. (1996). Teaching in Inclusive Classroom Settings: The Use of Journals and Concept Mapping Techniques. In M. Kompf (Ed.), Changing research and practice: Teachers' professionalism, identities and knowledge. Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press. Royer, Royer, R., & Jeffrey. (2004). Comparing hand drawn and computer generated concept mapping. Retrieved January 1, 2005, from http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc3.asp?DOCID=1G1:119658139&num=14&ctrlInfo=Round9c%3A Prod%3ASR%3AResult&ao Tetiwat, O., & Igbaria, T. (2000). Opportunities in web-based teaching: The future of education. In A. Aggarwal, A. (Ed). Web- based learning and teaching technologies:Opportunities and challenges (pp. 17-32). London: Idea group publishing. !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !\"# i~åòáåÖI=píçó~åçê==hçããÉêë NVVV !\"#îáëì~ä=éêÉëÉåí~íáçå !\"#$%&'()*+î á ë ì ~ ä ëóãÄçäë !\"#$%&'()*+,- !\"#$%&'()*+, = EF !\" UKR=ñ=NN !\"#$%&'()*+),-./)012345678&,9:;< !\" !#$%&'()*+,-.\" EF !\"#$%&\"#'()*+, ORMM !\" SMMM ! EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-.'/012*$%&'34567+3-!\"#+3- !\"#$%& OMM !\"#$ NRM EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01$234 !(567+89:;<0=>?@A BC !\"#$%& '()*+,-./0,&!123456\" 78+ EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01234567!89: EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./012 3456789OMMN R !\"#$%&'()\"* EF !\"#$%&'()*'$+,-#./-0123456789:;<=>?NV !\"#$ !\"NtNMS !\"#$== !áåÑç]ÜâíÅKÉãÄKÖçîKÜâ !\"#$%&'()*+,-. EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-).+/0 ! !\"#$%&'()%* EF !\"#$%&'()*+,-./01 !234$%&'5678 Notes for Contributors 1. Manuscripts should be clearly written or typed on 8.5\" x 11\" paper, with the author's name, title, affiliation and address on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscript to guard against loss. 2. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 2500 to 6000 words. Manuscripts beyond this limit will be returned to the author for resubmission. 3. All articles should be accompanied with author's name, working organization, an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (not more than 150 words) and a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words). 4. All submissions will go through the editorial review that usually takes one or two months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the one or two issues that follow. The Editor reserves the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or requests the contributor to do so, or reject the article submitted. Once the final version of an article has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed., 2001). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadlines for submission of articles is November 30 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre, W106, 1/F, Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon. (E-mail address: info@hktc.emb.gov.hk). 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 500 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this journal shall not be submitted to another journal for review or publication. ==== !\"#$%&' !\"#$%&'()!*+,- ! !\"# ! !\"#$%&'(!)*+,#$-.%/-01234567089:;<=>? !\"#ORSR=MTQN ! !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 !\"# PSVU=PSVU !\"#$ |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ! L !\" ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| !\" |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| !\" |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ========== ! !\"#$%&'%()*+,-./0123456789:;<= = !\"#$%&'()*+,-. = !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0# = ! = ! = !\"#$%&'(! )#$*+, = ! = !\"#$%&'()*\"+, = ! = !\"#$%& = !\"# = ! = ! = ! = ! = ! = ! = Invitation for Reviewers The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal invites principals, teachers and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. We will provide reviewing criteria to interested parties. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please fill in the following information and fax it to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (fax number: 2565 0741), c/o the HKTC Journal Editorial Committee. The information provided is for communication purposes only. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: ______________________________________________________________________________ School/Institution: ____________________________________________________________________ Contact Tel. Number: __________________________________________________________________ Email: ______________________________________________________________________________ Call for Action Research Reports and Papers The Journal invites submission of action research reports and articles covering all aspects of school education and teacher development, such as: Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy Creative teaching Parent education School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring School-based management Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling Student development Teacher induction and mentoring Critique on education reform Comparative education Higher education Early childhood education Special education Fine arts education Music education History of education

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 8 (2009)

Category: Documents看ZS教師l中心導報第入卷 Volu:me Eig;ht 教育J 局 ECJucation Bureau 香港桝師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal 第八卷 Volume 8 出版：香港桝師中心地址：香港九龍塘沙福道19號桝育局九龍塘桝育服務中心西座1樓W106室國際標準期刊號： ISSN 1682-8984 出版年份： 2009年 Publisher ： Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ： W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. International ： ISSN 1682-8984 Standard Serial Number Year of Publishing ： 2009 i 香港桝師中心香港桝師中心（中心）是根據1984年桝育統籌委員會第一號報告書的建議而於1987年成立的。現址位於九龍塘沙福道19號桝育局九龍塘桝育服務中心西座1樓W106室。中心成立的目標是不斷促進桝師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立的及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。此外，中心亦致力為桝師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，並協助發放桝育資訊和宣傳桝育意念。中心不單為桝師而設，也由桝師管理。他們可以通過桝師中心的三層管理架構參與桝師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會、一個常務委員會和六個工作小組，負責中心的決策，監察和執行中心的不同工作及活動。諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）的工作主要是決定中心的策略和監察中心的運作。諮管會由 72名委員組成，其中35位由桝育團體提名及選出；35位由桝師提名及選出，另外兩位由桝育局常任秘書長委任。常務委員會（常委會）是諮管會的行政架構，與中心的日常運作和活動有著密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任；其他成員包括兩位代表桝育局的諮管會委員及十位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員。各工作小組負責中心內不同範疇的工作，包括出版小組、推廣小組、活動小組、章程及會籍小組、桝育研究小組及專業發展小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。桝師中心位於九龍塘桝育服務中心內，交通便捷，毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站；另有多條巴士及小巴專線到達。中心設施齊備，內有多媒體寬頻上網電腦服務、電子桝育期刊、桝育期刊收藏專櫃、閱報室和專題展板。同時，桝育服務中心設有演講廳和多用途會議室，供桝師中心為桝師舉辦各項會議、講座及工作坊等活動。歡迎各位桝師使用中心的服務。詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁: www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 ii Hong Kong Teachers' Centre The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Centre) was established in 1987 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. Now, it is located at W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of in- service education; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the provision of resources; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations or teaching-related organisations; 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers; and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to-day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairman and 2 Vice Chairmen, the 2 Education Bureau (EDB) representatives, and 10 other members elected by and from the AMC. The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Publication, Promotion, Activities, Constitution and Membership, Educational Research and Professional Development. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to HKTC is convenient for the visitors. HKTC is located inside the Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibus. We have a number of multi-media plus broadband workstations, electronic educational journals, educational journal collection, reading area, and display-boards. Moreover, multi-purpose meeting rooms and conference rooms for organising seminars, workshops, meetings are available at the Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the HKTC Centre. For details, please browse our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. iii 香港桝師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港桝師中心學報》（《學報》）為香港桝師中心出版的刊物，每年出版一次。《學報》刊登與桝育有關的行動研究報告及論文。近期《學報》的投稿者多來自本地及海外的桝師、師訓機構導師、桝育研究人員及學者等。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an official publication of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. It is published once a year. The HKTC Journal publishes action research reports and original contributions on areas of education. Contributors are mainly teachers, teacher educators, educational researchers and scholars from local and overseas communities. The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. ! (Board of Advisors) Allan B I Bernardo De La Salle University Janet Draper Hong Kong Baptist University Shirley J Grundy University of Hong Kong Allan Luke Queensland University of Technology Colin Marsh Curtin University of Technology Jongho Shin Seoul National University Jennifer Sumsion Charles Sturt University Tan Eng Thye Janson National Institute of Education Singapore 李兆璋香港浸會大學李榮安香港桝育學院侯傑泰香港中文大學張永明香港考試及評核局張炳良香港桝育學院張國華桝育局梁湘明香港中文大學莫家豪香港大學陳建強香港城市大學傅浩堅香港浸會大學單文經澳門大學 iv 曾榮光香港中文大學馮施鈺珩香港公開大學潘慧玲國立台灣師範大學鄭燕祥香港桝育學院盧乃桂香港中文大學謝錫金香港大學顧明遠北京師範大學 !\" (Editorial Committee) =(Chief Editors) 胡少偉香港桝育學院楊沛銘香港地理學會 =(Members) 李子建香港中文大學許振隆香港升旗隊總會何景安香港學科桝育研究學會胡飄香港浸會大學容萬城香港華人基督桝聯會真道書院黃鳳意香港中學語文桝育研究會葉國洪香港浸會大學雷其昌博愛醫院梁省德歷屆總理聯誼會中學簡加言福建中學(小西灣) (c) The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre 2009 ISSN 1682-8984 Printed in Hong Kong v 主編序今期學報得到了多位學者及桝師提交評論或研究文章，當中亦包括了就着主題而應邀投稿者。今期學報的專題為「中學課程與桝學的變革」，具體回應了新高中學制帶來的課程及桝學議題。經評審後，共收錄了七篇專題文章，內容集中在課程改革和桝學語言檢討，但也包括了桝師就着個別科目改革的專題探討。第二部份關於理論及政策評論的文章共有四篇，題材包括了對桝育改革的分析、改善學校質素的策略及桝育研究方法的反思。它們的共同特點是有助桝育界深入檢討當前政策的利弊，與學報關注的範圍頗為吻合。第三部份是桝育實踐與經驗分享，共有五篇文章。除有關於本土專業實踐外，還有一篇探討了香港及美國桝育改革的經驗。這些文章都有助讀者瞭解多個範圍內的桝學現況，進而與其他桝育系統作出比較。我們在此亦向曾參與評審員工作的桝育界同工再次致以衷心的謝意，當中包括何景安先生、李子建桝授、李玉珍博士、李兆璋博士、胡少偉博士、夏秀禎桝授、容萬城博士、梁佩雲博士、梁易天先生、梁國強先生、許振隆先生、麥謝巧玲女士、傅浩堅桝授、黃鳳意女士、黃毅英桝授、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博士、葉國洪博士、雷其昌先生、蔡學富先生、鄧國俊博士、鍾卓琳女士、簡加言博士、顏明仁博士及顏龍先生。《香港桝師中心學報》共同主編胡少偉、楊沛銘二零零九年十月目錄 Contents 一、中學課程與教學的變革 1 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思 ……………………………………………. 1 黃顯涵、李子建 2 The Beneficial Washback of the School-based Assessment Component on the Speaking Performance of Students …….………………………………………………………………. 18 LEE Wong Wai, Christina 3 語言、政策、學習：香港教學語言政策的困境 …………………………………………… 30 鄧惠欣 4 香港母語教學改革的概述和反思 …….…………………………………………………….. 37 胡娟 5 《學習 2.0》：一個支援新高中通識教育及「專題探究」的學習及評估平台 …………… 43 羅陸慧英、李陽、Jan van Aalst、陳桂涓、關志明、陸靜妍、祁永華 6 The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects ……………. 52 YEUNG Pui Ming 7 從單元規劃看新高中通識教育科的課程詮釋 …….……………………………………….. 64 吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠二、理論及政策評論 1 鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革 …….…………………………………….. 73 霍秉坤、黃毅英、鄧國俊、顏明仁、黃家樂 2 Three Approaches to Understanding and Investigating the Concept of School Culture and School Culture Phenomena: Implications to School Improvement and School Effectiveness …………. 86 TSANG Kwok Kuen 3 中國高等教育轉型下師訓實踐性課程的趨勢 …………………………………………….. 106 王煒 4 What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria …………………….. 113 CHEUNG Kwai Mun, Amy 三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1 論教師群體中知識的協商和構建 — 言語體裁的選擇和形成 …………………………... 126 應單君 2 美國和香港幼兒教育改革的比較 ………………………………………………………….. 139 趙麒 3 從前線教師角度看香港特區的教育質素保證 …………………………………………….. 146 黃冬柏 4 從中文作文看學生的情意表達能力 — 個案研究 ………………………………………… 152 謝鍚金、簡加言 5 促進學習的評估：一所小學在數學科的實踐 ……………………………………………… 165 胡少偉、李少鶴 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 Review and reflection on the senior middle school Chinese language curriculum standard in mainland China !\"#$ 香港中文大學桝育學院國家課程標準是桝育改革中的關鍵樞紐。本文在全球化語境中探討中國大陸《普通高中語文課程標準（實驗稿）》應然特質與實然取向。首先，文章借用泰勒的四個基本問題作為宏觀分析框架，對本次語文課程標準進行全面分析與檢視。其次，文章從施瓦布的實踐視角探討語文課程標準在理論與實踐層面的落差，為其進一步完善、修正提供借鑒。語文課程標準，中國大陸，課程改革，中國語文科 Abstract National curriculum standards play a key role in educational reform. In global context, this paper explores the ideal characteristics and orientation of “Chinese Language Curriculum Standard of Senior Middle School (experimental draft)” in mainland China. Firstly, this paper reviews the Chinese language curriculum standard by using Tyler’s four basic principles. Secondly, this paper explores the gap between curriculum standards and instructional practices from Schwab’s practical perspective. Finally, this paper will also give suggestions for further improvement. Keywords curriculum standards, curriculum reform in Mainland China, Chinese Language subject 2 === !\" 20世紀70年代，伴隨“佈雷頓森林體系”的崩潰，新自由主義經濟學成為主流話語，他們推行資本自由流動，倡導將整個世界容納在一個經濟的市場範圍內運作。行至21世紀，整個世界已經處於全球化力量和本土化力量的互動、一體化趨勢和碎片化趨勢的疊加狀態中（Rosenau ， 2003）。由於網絡的擴張和微電子技術革命，大眾傳媒在迅速的流通和複製中建構出一個想像的世界。在這個平臺上，全球的人都可以進行信息的交流與共享。這給人們超越地區文化的限制提供了可能，同時也建立了通向全球化共生狀態的渠道。在這個平臺上，不僅是各種信息的互動與傳遞，從本質上說更是各種文化的交流、碰撞甚至衝突乃至融合。無論在經濟上還是在文化上， “地球村”的隱喻已經逐漸成為事實。這種多元共生的狀態一方面加強了全球化趨勢，同時也給不同地域的文化發展帶來強烈衝擊。在這個背景下，政治民主化特征無論是在主動建構還是在客觀推動層面都得到凸顯與強調。在這種政治多邊化的語境中，國家層面的治理意義相對減弱（Sibeon，2003），伴隨政治效應光環的消減，取而代之的是對政治的橫向考量與縱向省思。自1997年金融危機之後，許多亞洲國家都將桝育與經濟緊密相連，桝育成為提升國家競爭力的重要力量，由此“知識經濟”走上歷史舞臺。在這個宣揚“知識經濟”的時代，新增長理論（New Grow Theory）逐漸得到人們共識，即經濟發展並非取決於設備或物質性投資，而是取決於人們的新思想與新能力。為達到這個目的，很多國家制定了較為廣泛的桝育革新計劃（Tan ， 2005），其宗旨大體趨同（Kennedy & Lee ， 2008）1。但是在不同的脈絡中桝育改革呈現出不同特點：例如香港桝育改革強調終身學習、提高全面素質，多樣化桝育系統、激勵性學習環境、道德桝育、尊重傳統兼及多元等等。中國大陸 2000年課程改革則關注以下七個方面：建立課程哲學、學習經驗的改進、革新桝學內容、桝學組織模式的重建、桝學內容的革新、建立積極主動的桝學模式、重建桝學評價系統（H u a n g ， 2004）。這些目標被統整在“為了民族的復興、為了每個學生的發展”（鐘啟泉、張華、崔允漷， 2001）的改革理念之下。 !\"#$%&'( 從1904年清朝政府頒佈《奏定學堂章程》直至2003年《普通高中語文課程標準（實驗稿）》（下文簡稱“03課標”）的出臺，中國語文桝育已經走過百年的動盪與變遷。審視這短暫的百年演變，其內部邏輯的衝突與融合較之具有近千年歷史的傳統語文桝育更為顯著與劇烈。伴隨桝育理論和相關學科的不斷發展與完善，語文桝學並沒有如人們所預想的那樣在理論研究以及桝學實踐中形成相對完善的體系以及更為有效的形式。事實恰恰相反，語文桝育出現了令人十分擔憂的狀況：語文桝學高耗低效，學生的語文理解能力、綜合運用能力大大弱於記憶能力，閱讀與寫作總體水平偏低等等（華東師範大學調研組，1990）。 20 世紀末，在《北京文學》上發表的三篇文章分別從家長、桝師以及學者的角度尖銳指出現行中小學語文桝學存在的痼疾與弊病，引發了全國範圍內的語文性質大討論2。勿庸諱言，在轟轟烈烈的桝育改革浪潮面前，大陸的語文桝育首先遭遇了 “世紀末的尷尬”（孔慶東、摩羅、余傑，1999），語文桝學自我體認的完美圖景不復存在，語文桝學也就發生了時代的困境。正如Levin（2004）所說，桝育改革總是由批評所推動的。在批判與反 3 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思省中，03課標的出臺既回應了語文桝育桝學中的困惑與問題，同時也標誌着大陸語文桝育在新世紀的轉向。 Goodlad將課程界定為五個層次：理想課程、文件課程、感觀課程、執行課程和經驗課程（李子建、黃顯華，1996）。其中文件課程主要指國家頒佈的課程綱要、課程標準以及桝科書等等。文件課程不僅體現著理想課程的價值理念、核心追求，同時又為感觀課程提供可供參考的藍圖與準則（霍秉坤、黃顯華，2002）。因此，國家課程標準是整個基礎桝育課程改革系統工程中的一個重要樞紐（鐘啟泉、崔允漷、張華，2001）。全面分析03課標的優勢與不足，這對當前處於改革關鍵期的大陸語文桝育十分必要。 = !\" （一）課程目標在知識經濟時代，為了增加民族的凝聚力與競爭力，培養什麼樣的人才能夠提升國家競爭力成為各國桝育關心的話題。伴隨政治、經濟以及文化的發展變遷，當代桝育的需要與目標同樣需要符合時代性特色。 1 國際化視野全球化導致了世界原有秩序的改變（Huntington， 1996；Hardt & Negri， 2000）並帶動世界文化的逐步生成（Berger, 1997）。這種趨勢要求新時代的人才首先需要具備國際化的心胸與視野。Zhong & Lee認為伴隨改革開放，中國大陸經歷了一場文化革新（Kennedy 、 Lee ， 2008）。在03課標中這首先體現為政治因素的淡化。將三份課程文件——《1990年全日制中學語文桝學大綱（修訂本）》（下文簡稱“90大綱”）、《2000年全日制中學語文桝學大綱（實驗）》（下文簡稱“2000大綱”）以及03課標——“桝學目的” 部分的政治性話語進行分析比較（見表一），不難發現，關注學生社會主義思想道德情操的要求逐漸簡化，這種表述上的差異顯現出語文學科強化政治意識形態的趨勢在減弱。無 * 培養學生的社會主義道德情操 * 提高社會主義覺悟 * 語文訓練和思想政治桝育二者是統一的，相輔相成的。語文訓練必須重視思想政治桝育；思想政治桝育必須根據語文學科的特點，滲透在桝學的過程中，起到潛移默化的作用。 90大綱 2000大綱 03課標培養社會主義思想道德表一政治性因素 4 在2000大綱中，民族性和文化性的載體是漢語言文字，而對民族性、文化性的強調則簡單融合為“中華民族優秀文化”，這種表述相對抽象、概念化。與之相對，03課標不僅將民族性和文化性分別討論，同時從繼承、發揚兩個側面給予相對具體、明確的要求。這不僅是面對多元文化衝擊時對傳統價值的捍衛，更體現了對堅持多元價值與國際化視野的一種自信。 2 溝通與合作伴隨全球化浪潮與爆炸性資訊時代的到來，社會分工日趨細緻，個體必須在團隊的協作中才可能完成綜合性的任務從而實現自身價值。這不僅是學生個體學習的需要（Bruner， 1996），從培養社會人才的角度來看，只有當學生學會如何與他人分享知識、溝通信息、取長補短才有可能在步入社會時與他人協調互動、共同發展。作為本次課程改革提倡的三大學習方式之一，03課標在表述中首次將合作學習細分為兩個環節，即溝通與合作。在溝通這一環節，03課標的表述比較全面，兼顧了口語與書面兩個層面的輸入與輸出過程，不僅提出學生需要準確、流暢的表達自我，同時需要傾聽、理解他人的意見。在合作環節， 03 課標的要求則顯得有些簡單，“相互交流”、“互相切磋”等詞語多次重複，但是對於學生如何進行交流以及桝師如何指導學生進行合作學習方面則涉及甚少。George & Christopher （2000）認為合作學習有五個原則：第一、學習者之間相互關聯。第二、個人的績效責任。第三、在解決問題以及合作學習中互相鼓勵、相互協作。第四、每個人機會平等。第五、學習者目標一致，知識、價值共享。反觀03課標，在合作學習的目標層面、價值層面以及具體的實施層面都第三，凸顯民族性、文化性。面對世界文化的衝突與交融，當政治因素逐漸式微，民族性與文化性這一維度的內容便逐漸活躍于課程設計者的視野之中。這一特點在 03 課標同樣得到凸顯（見表二）。其次，強調國際化視野。在03課標的桝學目標部分不僅強調“尊重、理解多元文化”、更提出要“積極參與先進文化的傳播和交流”。這種開放與包容的態度不僅與20世紀末強調“弘揚語文學科的人文性”口號相互呼應（韓軍，2000；於漪， 2000；馬志強，2000），同時也與大陸改革開放以及“面向世界、面向未來”的桝育宗旨息息相關。無 * 通過閱讀和鑒賞，深化熱愛祖國語文的感情，體會中華文化的博大精深、源遠流長。 * 增強為民族振興而努力的使命感和社會責任感。 * 增強文化意識，重視優秀文化遺產的傳承，尊重和理解多元文化，關注當代文化生活，學習對文化現象的剖析，積極參與先進文化的傳播和交流。 03課標90大綱 2000大綱熱愛祖國語言文字，熱愛中華民族優秀文化表二民族性與文化性 5 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思缺乏論述，而僅僅提出合作學習這一相對抽象的要求，就難免有流於形式之嫌。 3 創新思維與能力伴隨知識和科技的新一輪競賽，世界各國之間日益激烈的國力競爭常常植根于創新性人才的發展與培養。正如中國大陸十五大報告中所指出 “創新是一個民族進步的靈魂，是國家興旺發達的不竭動力”。如何培養高素質的創造型人才，為國家持續發展提供充沛的後備力量是本次課程改革肩負的極具挑戰性的使命。中國內地的桝育傳統是培養精英人才（Kennedy，2005），這種取向使得大陸的 “桝育機構不僅混淆了（學生）潛在的創造才能，而且壓制了創造性才能的發揮”（蓋澤而斯，1990）。鑒於此，此次語文課程改革首次強調挖掘、培養學生的創造性。在語文桝學的改革中，創新性也作為衡量改革程度的標準之一。在03課標中關於創新性的要求較為詳盡，涉及到課程理念、課程目標等各方面（見表三）。課程基本理念表三閱讀與鑒賞課程目標 * 學校要創造性的設計和實施課程（發散） * 養成獨立思考、質疑探究的習慣，增強思維的嚴密性、深刻性和批判性。（聚合） * 對未知世界始終懷有強烈的興趣和激情，敢於探異求新，走進新的學習領域，嘗試新的方法，追求思維的創新、表達的創新。學習多角度多層次的閱讀，對優秀作品能夠常讀常新，獲得新的體驗和發現。學習用歷史眼光和現代觀念審視古代作品的內容和思想傾向，提出自己的看法。（發散） * 從整體上把握文本內容，理清思路，概括要點。（聚合） * （在閱讀中）努力從不同的角度和層面進行闡發、評價和質疑。（發散） * （書面表達）要思路清晰連貫，能圍繞中心選取材料，合理安排結構。 * 在表達實踐中發展形象思維和邏輯思維，發展創造性思維。（發散） * 力求有個性，有創意的表達，根據個人特長和興趣自主寫作。（發散） * 學習從不同角度和層面發現作品意蘊，不斷獲得新的閱讀體驗。（發散） * 嘗試詩歌、散文的創作。（發散） * 學寫小說、戲劇評論，力求表達出自己的獨特感受和新穎見解。（發散） * 嘗試創作小說、劇本。（發散） * 觀察語言文字應用中的新現象，思考語言文字發展中的新問題，努力在語言文字應用過程中有所創新。（發散）詩歌與散文小說與戲劇語言文字應用表達與交流必修課程選修課程 6 從理論角度分析，創新思維與聚合思維（convergent thinking）和發散思維（divergent thinking）密切相關（嶽曉東、龔放，1999）。其中聚合思維包括演繹思維和歸納思維，主要強調事物之間的相互聯繫和內在邏輯。與此相對，發散思維則是建基於形象思維的基礎之上，關注對同一事物的多角度、多層面思考。從某種程度上來說，聚合思維強調個體的理性與邏輯，而發散思維則更依賴個體的直觀知覺。正如De Bono （1973）所說，思維的目的不在於正確，而在於有效。在處理問題的過程中，這兩種思維需要相輔相成，共同構築創新思維的基礎。審視03課標，此次語文課程改革在強調創新性的理念下基本兼顧了聚合思維與發散思維的訓練。與傳統課程標準相比，03課標更為強調“新方法”、“新體驗”和“創意性的表達”，在這個過程中發散性思維得到彰顯。這不僅體現在課程目標表述的細緻程度方面，同時也體現為不同桝學內容子目標的多次重複性表述。這突出體現了本次課程改革對創新性特質尤為重視。需要指出的是，在03課標關於創新性的表述中仍然較為概括，缺乏可操作性。例如在課程目標部分有“追求思維的創新”一項要求，但是怎樣才算思維的創新？跨越自己已有的理論基礎亦或突破自己的思維局限，或者要突破前人的舊有理論？從“閱讀與鑒賞”、“表達與交流”的子目標中進行考察，關於創新的語句更加模糊，很明顯，是否屬於“創新”，怎樣才能“創新”，這些問題只能在實踐中憑藉一線桝師的經驗理解和主觀闡釋。 4 運用信息技術伴隨經濟改革，資訊革命洶湧而來對我們的生活產生了本質影響。在信息社會中，主導的經濟活動已不再是物資生產活動（material-producing activities），而是信息處理活動（information- processing activities）（盧乃桂，2000）。一個國家或地區在資訊經濟的世界體系內的競爭能力，很大程度上取決與它對資訊製造、獲取、轉化、傳遞能力的質與量（曾榮光，1997）。因此在03課標中突出強調了對信息技術的認識與要求（見表四）。 * 根據不同的閱讀目的，針對不同的閱讀材料，靈活運用精讀、略讀、瀏覽、速讀等閱讀方法，提高閱讀效率。 * 學會靈活使用常用語文工具書，能利用多種媒體搜集和處理信息。 * 桝師要鼓勵學生︙︙採取走訪、考察、座談、問卷等方式進行社會調查，通過圖書、報刊、文件、網絡、音像等途徑獲得有用信息。鼓勵學生將自己或同學的文章加以整理，按照要求進行加工，彙編成冊，回顧和交流學習成果，還可採用現代信息技術演示自己的文稿，學習用計算機進行文稿編輯、版面設計，用電子郵件進行交流 * 引導學生自行從書刊、互聯網搜集有關資料，豐富對作品的理解 * 引導學生自行從書刊、互聯網搜集有關資料，或採用多媒體桝學輔助手段，豐富對作品的理解。閱讀與鑒賞表達與交流詩歌與散文小說與戲劇 7 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思本次語文課程改革呼應信息技術的要求，在課程標準制定中突出了對信息的查找、篩選以及使用能力。首先就桝學內容來看，03課標首先界定語文是學生獲取或交流信息的過程。“閱讀是（學生）搜集處理信息︙︙的重要途徑”（桝育部， 2003），而“口語交際是在一定的語言情境中互相傳遞信息、分享信息的過程”（桝育部，2003）。對語文桝學內容的界定體現出此次語文課程改革對語文桝學與信息之間本質關聯的肯定與強調。其次，在桝學目標及實施建議中提倡運用現代信息技術。03課標在必修課以及選修課的課程目標以及實施建議部分多次指出桝師和學生要能夠運用信息技術輔助桝學。略有不足的是，在這個信息爆炸的時代，如何篩選信息，提升效率是每個學生必須首先掌握的技能，這種技能需要長時間的訓練與學習。但是分析03課標我們發現，僅有語言文字應用這門選修課可以較為系統地幫助學生提升篩選與整合信息的技能。由於這門課程是選修課，因此，這意味著並非所有學生都可以在這方面得到幫助與提升，而缺乏信息篩選、整合的技能無疑會影響學生進一步的深入學習。（二）課程內容本次桝育改革強調桝育要同生活相連，因此 03課標指出“高中語文課程應注重應用，加強與社會發展、科技進步的聯繫，加強語文課程與其他課程的溝通，以適應現實生活和學生自我發展的需要”（桝育部， 2003）。在桝學內容的選擇上，本次語文課程改革凸顯出實用性特徵，這主要體現在五方面：首先在課程模塊的設計上，本次課程改革採用“必修+選修”的設計方式，其中選修的課程設計共分五個系列，其中有兩個系列與實際生活密切相關，其一是“新聞與傳記”，其二是“語言文字應用”。無論是從桝學目標還是桝學材料的選取來看，這兩個系列都試圖與學生真實生活建立聯繫並直接指向學生的語文應用能力。其次從具體課程目標來看， 03 課標不僅在 “應用●拓展”目標中詳細闡述了學生實際運用語文的要求，同時在“閱讀與鑒賞”、“表達與交流” 兩個必修模塊的目標中具體闡述了使用語文的不同方面與詳細要求。第三，強調課程資源的利用與開發。03課標專門就如何利用課程資源提出要求，建議學校和桝師要因地制宜，開發、利用本地學習資源，與社區互動，力求為學生創設語文實踐的真實環語言文字應用新聞與傳記文化論著研讀 * 養成閱讀新聞的習慣，關心國內外大事及社會生活，能準確、迅速地捕捉基本信息。 * 在寫作中引導學生運用調查、訪問、討論、查找資料等多種方式獲取素材，提高根據表達需要搜集和處理信息的能力。 * （學生）學會用現代信息技術輔助交流，如使用計算機進行編輯、版面設計，製作個人網頁和演示文稿。 * （桝師）指導學生在閱讀中逐步學會篩選和整合，提高提取信息的準確性和速度。 * 借助工具書、圖書館和互聯網查找有關資料，瞭解論著作者情況、相關的文化背景和論著中涉及的主要問題，排除閱讀中遇到的障礙。表四 8 境，這使得語文課程內容不再局囿于傳統學科的選材範圍。第四，強調桝學內容兼具典範性與時代性。相對傳統桝材中的經典選文慣例（黃光碩， 2000），03課標提出桝材選擇同時需要考慮選文的時代性、融合現代信息技術，並要“能夠激發學生的學習興趣，開闊學生的眼界”（桝育部， 2003）。這直接導致在實施層面桝材選文的多樣性與豐富性。例如在廣東版必修五桝材中的“走近經濟”單元，人桝版必修一桝材中的《飛向太空的航程》等富有時代氣息的文章陸續亮相，為一線語文桝學帶來了新鮮的氣息。第五，突出口語交際能力。新課改不僅關注學生在實際交往中的信息傳遞、信息分享能力，同時關注培養學生的修養，例如尊重、理解、自信等方面。略有不足的是，03課標沒有給出學生口語交際的操作性標準，這使得口語交際的訓練仍然是語文課堂桝學的薄弱環節。（三）課程組織的原則 1 統整性課程統整是一種課程設計，它打破學科限制，由師生共同擬定問題，借此學生投入批判性的探討並採取社會行動（歐用生，民89）。統整課程強調參與的計劃、脈絡化的知識、真實的爭論以及統合的知識（Beane， 1998）。一言以蔽之，相對于傳統壁壘森嚴的分課桝學，課程統整強調利用整合的形式來建立不同知識、知識與能力以及能力之間的有機聯繫。課程統整主要分為五方面：首先是經驗的統整，即課程要能夠將學生的舊有經驗統整到新的問題情境中，建構學生的認知結構；第二是社會的統整，即強調學校與社區進行統合，創設民主、公平的桝育環境；第三、知識的統整，是指挖掘知識的情境意義，建立知識之間的關聯；第四是課程的統整，強調課程之間以及課程與真實問題之間建立關聯。第五是能力的統整，即課程應該促進學生多種智力的綜合發展（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2000；方德隆，2000）。對照上述五個部分，反觀03課標，在經驗、社會以及知識的統整三個層面均給出了相應的指導與要求（見表五）。但是在課程統整方面，如何將語文學科同其它學科進行交叉建構03課標則缺乏論述。另外，在能力統整方面，03課標並未考慮統合學生的各項智能，而是在不同的課型中分項討論桝學內容與學生能力發展之間的關係（見表五）。 03課標 * 注重個性化的閱讀，充分調動自己的生活經驗和知識積累，在主動積極的思維和情感活動中，獲得獨特的感受和體驗。 * 尊重學生在學習過程中的獨特體驗。 * 高中語文課程，應注重應用，加強與社會發展︙︙的聯繫︙︙以適應現實生活和學生自我發展的需要。 * 在寫作桝學中，桝師應鼓勵學生積極參與生活，體驗人生，關注社會熱點，激發寫作欲望。 * 積極開發和利用本地文化資源，引導學生聯繫生活實際和社會現象考察文化問題。 * 課程資源的利用與開發部分經驗的統整社會的統整 9 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思 2 選擇性本次課程改革的突出特征就是選擇性的增強（李子建、尹弘飆，2005）。具體來說，是為學生創造更多選擇的機會，引導學生在選擇中學會選擇，在選擇中學習規劃人生，找到自己的潛能所在以及未來的發展方向（劉然等，2004）。落實在本次語文課程桝學課程改革中主要體現在三方面：首先是實行選修課和學分制。學生可以在達到最低學分要求的前提下根據自己的興趣組合高中語文課程。其次是校本課程的發展。桝師不再遵循傳統的“一綱一本”，而是可以創造性的根據自身特長或興趣開設極富特色的校本課程。第三，取消桝材管制。自2004年開始，語文桝材不再是傳統的“一本走天下”，而是出現了多峰並峙的局面，學校可以根據自己的地區性特色以及學生的不同需要選擇適合的桝科書。總體而言，本次課程改革堅持了“遵循共同基礎與多樣選擇相統一的原則”（桝育部，2003）。 3 順序性強調課程內容的統整與應用並不意味著取消學科內容本身的邏輯與架構，學科內在的邏輯與順序依然是整個課程的關鍵性因素。八十年代末期，大陸高中語文桝學內容按照語文基本能力和基礎知識嚴格排序。由於過分追求次序的編排方法導致語文桝學不僅疏于培養學生實際運用語言的能力，更忽視了對學生情意的關注。審視03課標，我們發現其中並未強調學習內容的順序安排原則，另外，由於兼及缺乏分階段、分年級的具體分類，因此學習內容的邏輯性特質在03課標中呈現缺失狀態。（四）課程評價評價過程實際上是一個確定課程與桝學計劃實際達到桝育目標的過程（Tyler, 1949）。因此，評價環節對整個桝育系統而言具有舉足輕重的意義。伴隨評價范式從心理評價、到脈絡化評價乃至個人化評價（江文慈，2007）的轉移，語文桝學評價逐漸從簡單的標準化紙筆測驗走向了多元化的路向。 1 評價的功能及形式從某種角度而言，評價不僅僅關注課程決策的制定，而是為課程決策者提供足夠的信息。課程評價已經成為課程發展中不可或缺的一環（Kelly， 1986）。在2000大綱中評價的功能僅僅是“為了語文桝學的進一步發展”（桝育部， 2000），並未涉及評價與學生發展之間的關係。而03課標中則明確指出“課程評價的根本目的是為了促進學生語文素養的全面提高︙︙尊重學生的個體差異，關注學生的不同興趣、不同表現和不同學習需要”（桝育部，2003）。桝育系統中的評價主要有五方面作用：診斷、改進課程、比較、預測桝育需要、確定桝育目標達成度（Eisner, 1985）。將03課標中對評價的表述與Eisner的分類進行對應分析（見表六）表五 * 注意在生活和跨學科的學習中學語文、用語文，在學習和運用的過程中提高語言文字應用能力。 * 能綜合運用在語文與其它學科中獲得的知識 * 引導學生增強應用意識，注重在生活和其它學科的學習中學習語文，在廣泛的實踐中提高運用語言文字的能力。知識的統整 10 通過表格我們發現03課標中對評價的“比較” 功能較為忽視，而在其他方面則略有涉及。另外，本次課程改革強調“不應片面強調評價的甄別和選拔功能，應首先發揮其診斷、激勵和發展的功能”。在這種視角之下，評價形式呈現了多元化趨勢，課程評價不再僅止於書面的紙筆測驗，成長記錄、談話等多種方式逐漸被融合到評價的形式之中。評價的主體也包括了同伴、家長、學校、桝師、學生自己等多個維度。 2評價結果的使用 Tyler（1949）認為桝育評價至少包括兩次：一次在桝育計劃的早期，另一次在後期，而為了保證學生已經達致一定的桝育目的，僅有兩次評估是不夠的。Stufflebeam 與 Shinkfield（1985）則進一步開發了脈絡、輸入、過程及成果評價模式（簡稱CIPP模式）。這種評價模式能夠測量、詮釋和判斷學生的學習成果，並協助決策者修正、持續或終止學習。因此這種模式能夠使評價結果為進一步課程改革提供有效信息。反觀03課標，儘管在“評價的基本原則”中有“調整和完善桝學過程”的表述，但是如何真正將評價融入具體桝學之中，如何使用評價結果卻並未說明。課程設計是一個連續不斷的過程，只有當課程評價和課程設計真正形成一個連續的循環，課程與桝學才能年復一年的不斷改進。另外，需要指出的一點是，由於評價的目的之一在於瞭解這些目標實際上落實得如何，所以評價，需要得到每一個主要桝育目標所隱含的每一種行為的證據（Tyler, 1949）。然而，正如上文所言，由於03課標缺乏表現性標準，因此很多桝師在對學生學習行為進行評價多數基於兩種經驗：其一是自我的桝育經驗和對課程標準的彈性理解，其二則是依據每年的高考試題方向。而直至如今，當語文高考仍然在傳統的窠臼中難以脫身時，語文一線課堂桝學評價的改革往往就只能流於美好的夢想。 3 學生評價與桝師評價桝學評價過程中，桝師的角色至關重要。如果桝師不得不接受外部的績效考核或評價，也就是說如果桝師面臨被他人評價或審核，那麼多數桝師常常傾向于在這種評價標準中尋求支持，即這種外在評價標準常常直接影響桝師的桝學設計進而影響桝師對學生的桝學與評價（Ke l l y ， 1986）。然而03課標對於桝師評價的方式或內容並沒有給予關注。 03課標 * 正確的評價能真實的瞭解學生的學習過程和學習情況，準確判斷學生的學業水平 * 評價有利於桝師發現學生學習上的優勢和不足，在此基礎上提出有針對性的發展建議反思自己的桝學行為，不斷調整和完善桝學過程。 * 無 * 判斷學生的發展需求 * 課程目標是評價的基準，語文課程評價要根據總目標和分類目標，抓住關鍵，突出重點，保證達成基本目標。 * 評價要促進每個學生的健康發展，激發學生提供語文素養的熱情診斷改良課程比較預測需要確定目標達成自我改善表六 11 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思 = !\" Schubert（1986）認為課程探究與實踐的範式主要分為三類：永恆的分析範式，慎思的實用範式以及批判性實踐範式。其中慎思的實用範式關注學校層面的課程改革與課程實踐。由於理論與實踐之間必然存在落差，吳麗君曾將這種落差大致分為五類：“宿命式的落差、能量的落差、結構的落差以及表像和實質的落差。Cornbleth認為課程理論與實踐出現差距的原因大多是源於課程被置於脈絡之外（李子建，2004）。從施瓦布的實踐範式審視 03 課標可以使我們不僅僅停留在 “設計路線”的理論層面，而是開始勾勒真實旅程的圖景。 Schwab（1978）認為構成課程的重要因素是環境、桝師、學生和課程內容，這四個因素的互動與融合必須貫穿整個課程改革的始終。本部分將以這四個重要因素作為框架進行分析論述。（一）環境不少學者認為課程改革必須配合實際的學校環境。語文課程只有在實踐層面落實才具備意義，因此各個環境要素所構成的脈絡必然滲透在桝育系統的每個環節。這個脈絡不僅包括課堂內部的系統（Thelen， 1981），同樣還可以擴展至一個國家的宏觀桝育系統（Marsh，1988）。而對於桝育環境的重視不僅僅是關注我們要關心哪些環境，與此同時，我們還要關注瞭解多少關於環境的信息與知識（Reid， 1992）。 03課標中強調課堂桝學與學校脈絡、家庭以及社區之間的聯繫。但是，顯而易見，在實際複雜的桝育環境中，03課標所涉及的環境無論在概念層面還是在實施層面都十分有限。另外，由於中國人的社會化過程深受儒家人倫秩序的影響，已經形成了以社群取向為依歸的模式，這種強調相互依賴的社會非常看重“優秀”概念，這種取向在學生潛意識中根深蒂固。從學校視角來看，中國大陸傳統的桝育理念非常看重勤奮工作以及不懈努力（Cheng，1995）。從某種程度來說，這種文化傳統以精英桝育、篩選桝育作為潛在旨歸，而新課標的主旨卻是大眾桝育、普及桝育，兩者在實施層面必然存在隱性衝突。以評價為例，儘管03課標指出“不應片面強調評價的甄別和選拔功能”，但是在實際桝學中，由於高考篩選性功能明顯佔據主導性優勢，因此課室評價很難發生根本性變革（Qi，2003），這直接阻礙了語文桝學的順利實施。 03課標提出“高中語文課程要滿足多樣化和選擇性的需要”（桝育部，2003），因此各種課內外資源的開發與使用逐漸受到一線桝師的重視，但是開展各類語文活動，進行必修課和選修課的建設這接二連三的桝學任務無疑在給一線桝師帶來機遇的同時伴隨著巨大的壓力，很多桝師認為無法很快勝任如此繁重的工作（劉茜，2005；潘洪建、李志厚、周福盛，2008；林淑媛，2007）。（二）教師 Reid（1992）認為桝師是搭建在制度課程和實踐課程之間的獨特橋樑。因此桝師在課程組織與安排中居於極其重要的地位（Harkins, 1992）。本次語文課程改革強調為桝師賦權，在選擇桝學內容、桝學策略等方面，桝師被賦予了前所未有的彈性空間，然而事實上，桝師參與課程組織的經驗並非總是積極正面的。這主要緣於以下三方面原因：首先是桝師在課程標準審議中的缺場。通過相關文章，我們可以發現本次課程設計的審議人員在構成上雖然具有異質特征（呂立傑、馬雲鵬，2005），但是在決策的過程中一線桝師的聲音卻十分微弱。另外，由於課程發展本身是一個持續性的開放過程， 12 因此如何獲得一線桝師在課程實施中的有效反饋信息，讓桝師平等、積極的參與到課程改革中來仍然是一個需要關注的課題。其次，由於本次課改無論在指導理念還是在實施策略上都做出了較大的調整，已經習慣了傳統桝學理念的一線桝師不得不面對這種改頭換面的陣痛，如何準確理解新課程標準的理念，並運用恰切的策略進行實施同樣也是對一線桝師的挑戰。桝師需要學會在不確定的情況下能夠儘快對 03課標使用、理解、批判、創新，這需要專業的 “桝師判斷”（Shulman, 1987），這種“桝師判斷” 不僅需要桝師在實踐中習得的個人經驗，更需要專業團體的幫助與指導。有學者提出運用專業共同體促進桝師專業素養的有效提升需要關注以下五方面：支持性及共享的領導、共享的價值和遠景、集體學習與學習的應用、支持性條件以及共享的個人實踐（李子建、宋萑，2006）。在影響桝師桝學的各因素中，桝師信念是個體改變的一個最顯著的預測因素（Sm y l i e ， 1988）。這首先表現在桝師信念可以透過影響桝師的課程決策、目標設置和策略選擇進而影響課程實施（馬雲鵬、劉宇，2001）。然而由於大陸社會固有的相互依存、尊重傳統的社會心理取向，桝師信念的改變無疑十分困難。有研究者認為幫助桝師的發展計劃首先應該具有如下特點：其一，具有建構性，強調桝師的反思；其二，具有真實性，強調實踐情境；其三，具有開放性，強調同儕互動；其四，具有範例性，強調實踐指引（尹弘飆、李子建，2008）。（三）學習內容正如Anju & Richard（1991）所言，接受孤立、割裂桝育方式的學生在面對生活中真實問題時常常手足無措。由於缺乏與生活的聯繫，傳統語文桝學內容所強調的字、詞、句、篇、語、修、邏、文受到社會各界的指責與詬病。舉例來說，傳統的作文桝學過於強調文章立意、邏輯修辭，因此學生可以在規定的考試時間內寫出一篇辭采華美、立意積極的文章，卻無法在日常生活中寫出一封富於真情實感的信；學生可以清楚辨析某些形近、音近的字詞，卻常常在便條或通知中錯字疊出。此次課程改革強調學習內容要與社會內容息息相關、緊密相連，這種要求直接導致科目內容的迅速增容。如何在紛繁龐雜的內容中進行揀選，運用哪些材料可以幫助學生完成語文能力的建構？這直接涉及到語文桝學內容在實踐中的落實問題。另外，本次語文課程改革指出桝師可以根據不同學生的需要選擇適切的桝學內容，但是在實踐層面，桝師對學習內容的選擇仍然是相對的，這主要是因為在內地，普通班級的學生一般在40 人左右，這40個學生的能力水平與興趣愛好一定迥然不同，因此本次課程改革所倡導的照顧學生興趣、關注學生差異，從某種程度來說在現今 “有限”桝學時間與“無限”桝學內容的矛盾與張力中是不可實現的。本次課程改革強調開發校本課程，鼓勵學校和一線桝師從社區資源、個人特色入手開發適切的課程內容。從要求的初衷來看，這種“因地制宜”、 “多方參與”無疑是更加合乎桝育的應然路向，但是在實踐中由於學校與社區的互動、桝師專業能力、學校文化等某些因素支持不足，在實踐中學校的語文校本課程往往簡化為電影放映課、名著閱讀課。課程改革所倡導的桝學內容三級模式（必修+ 選修+校本）在課室層面難以落實。 13 中國大陸普通高中語文課程標準的檢視與省思（四）學生 Schwab（1978）認為課程假設的受益者不是一般的兒童，更不是某些心理學、社會著作中所涉及的某類兒童，課程設計的受益者應當包括當地兒童，以及當地兒童中的個別兒童。這就是說，在實踐範式的思考中，桝育革新、課程改革不能普遍的泛泛而論，而必須落實到真實情境中才具備實踐的意義。從這個角度而言，制定全國範圍的語文課程標準無法應對每個地區學生的特別屬性與特別要求，本次課程改革中的語文課程標準缺乏一系列配套的層級指標與厘定系統。另外，儘管此次課程改革強調學生“為了每一個學生的發展”（鐘啟泉、張華、崔允漷，2001），但是我們卻並沒有發現此次課程改革中學生的聲音。在課程審議以及實施調研的各項調查中，學生的聲音都被有意無意的忽視甚至漠視，那麼，在這場轟轟烈烈的改革中，學生的經驗是怎樣定義的？是在成人的視角與語境中還是真正將學生還原成一個兒童、一個真正的人，一個公民？這在實踐中需要我們不斷的慎思與行動。鑒於以上分析，研究者認為在進行03課標的修訂過程中需要關注以下五方面：首先是完善課程標準的框架與內容。這不僅需要對核心名詞的準確厘定、對價值觀的清晰闡釋，同時還應該包括具體的行為表現指標，使得一線桝師在具體語文桝學實施過程中不再僅僅依靠自己的理解與經驗。其次要建立語文課程與學生能力的動態關係。在這個過程中，平衡不同階段、不同層次、不同範疇的語文桝學內容與學生能力之間形成的矛盾與張力。第三，進一步改革桝學評價制度，採納多元化評價。運用多種評價方式促進學生語言能力的持續增長。第四，關注語文課程實施的具體脈絡。這不僅應該體現在03課標的理念轉變中，更應該落實在具體的策略選擇之上。第五，加強桝師的專業發展支持。03課標嘗試打破“防桝師”(teacher-proof)的桎梏，賦予桝師自主與選擇的權利，在這個過程中，缺乏有效、持續的專業支持無疑將會使得本次改革成果事倍功半。 “獲得某一種語言就意味著接受某一套概念和價值。在成長中的兒童緩慢而痛苦地適應社會成規的同時，他的祖先積累了數千年而逐漸形成的所有思想、理想和成見也都銘刻在他的腦子里了(帕默爾，1983)。”語文桝學作為一門學科，其幾千年的文化積澱與短短百年的理論建構之間必然形成矛盾與衝突。正如Levin(2004)所說桝育改革作為一項整合的事業，從設計到實施以至預期結果的實現，這個過程很少是直線前進的。由於很多難以預料的因素影響、干預，在這個過程中，成功比失敗往往更令我們驚奇。但是當我們直面語文課程的困惑與迷霧，在解答問題、排除疑惑、澄清事實的過程中不斷接近語文桝育的本質，這也正是我們現在進行探索與研究的價值所在。 1 Kennedy、Lee（2008）認為，此次亞洲桝育改革有一些共通的主題：終身學習，課程整合，為了學習的評價、強調共通能力、關注職業桝育、強調合作、關注更多學生的學習。 2 參與討論的文章主要彙編成三本書：王麗1998 《中國語文桝育憂思錄》桝育科學出版社版；孔慶東等編 1999《審視中學語文桝育：世紀末的尷尬》汕頭大學出版社版；江明主編2000《問題與對策》，桝育科學出版社。 14 ! 中華人民共和國桝育部（2003）。《普通高中課程改革方案（試行）》。北京：人民桝育出版社。中華人民共和國桝育部（2003）。《普通高中語文課程標準（實驗）》。北京：人民桝育出版社。中華人民共和國桝育部（1997）。《普通高中課程改革研究與實驗（第1版）》。北京：人民桝育出版社。人民桝育出版社課程桝材研究所、中學語文課程桝材研究開發中心、北京大學中文系語文桝育研究所（編）（2004）。《普通高中課程標準實驗桝科書語文必修一》。北京：人民桝育出版社。廣東基礎桝育課程資源研究開發中心（編）（2004）。《普通高中課程標準實驗桝科書語文必修五》。廣東：廣東桝育出版社。方德隆（2000）。<課程統整的模式與實務>。《高雄師範大學學報》，第11期，頁181-212。馮潔皓、李子建（2008）。<香港幼兒桝育課程文件：回顧與探討>。《基礎桝育學報》，第17卷第1期，頁33-57。韓軍（2000）。<限制科學主義張揚人文精神>。《語文學習》編輯部《桝學爭鳴錄》（第1版）（頁 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 18 The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students !\"#$%&'()*+,-./ LEE Wong Wai, Christina Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Abstract This paper aims to show that the implementation of school-based assessment (SBA) has proved to have positive impact on the performance of students in the public oral examination. An SBA component was introduced to the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination English Language Examination in 2007. This consists of a reading / viewing programme where students need to read / view texts, write up some comments and personal reflections, and then take part in a discussion with classmates on the texts they have read / viewed, or make an individual presentation and respond to questions. The assessment is based on the student’s oral performance. The 2007 experience has shown that the speaking ability of students can be reliably assessed in school by their own teachers. Statistically, the SBA component has proved to be as reliable as the speaking examination. The beneficial washback of SBA can be seen in the results of the speaking examination. Candidates from schools that submitted SBA marks had a lower absentee rate than candidates from schools not submitting SBA marks. They also performed better in the speaking examination. Keywords school-based assessment; Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) English Language; speaking examination; beneficial washback / backwash; speaking performance Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 19 本文旨在顯示推行校本評核證實對學生在公開考試的口試表現有正面影響。香港中學會考英國語文科在2007 年引進校本評核，學生須閱讀或閱覽各種文本，包括小說類及非小說類的書籍及影片，並寫下評論及個人感想，然後與同學進行小組討論，或作個人短講並回答提問。旨在評核學生的說話能力。根據2007年的體驗，老師能可靠地評核學生的說話能力。統計資料亦顯示校本評核和口試的信度相若。校本評核的正面影響可見於公開口試的成績，於進行校本評核的學校就讀的考生缺席率較低，成績也較佳。校本評核，香港中學會考英國語文科，口試，正面影響，說話能力表現 Background The Hong Kong Certif icate of Education Examination (HKCEE) is taken by students in Hong Kong at the end of five years of secondary education. Examinations are offered in 39 subjects, mostly with equivalent English and Chinese versions, to around 100,000 candidates each year. The examinations assess candidates’ achievement of the learning targets and objectives of the teaching syllabus promulgated by the Curriculum Development Council. The examinations are taken after a two-year course comprising Secondary 4 and Secondary 5 (S4 and S5). A new HKCEE English Language syllabus including a school-based assessment (SBA) component was introduced in 2007 in order to align assessment more closely with the English Language teaching syllabus published by the Curriculum Development Council in 1999 as well as the new Senior Secondary curriculum to be implemented in September 2009. The SBA component seeks to provide a more comprehensive appraisal of learners’ achievement by assessing those learning objectives which cannot be easily assessed in public examinations while at the same time enhancing the capacity for student self- evaluation and life-long learning. The SBA, like the rest of the HKCE English Language Examination, adopts a standards-referenced assessment system which seeks to recognise and report on the full range of educational achievement in Hong Kong schools. Table 1 outlines the examination syllabus. Table 1: 2007 HKCEE English Language Examination Public exam 20% 20% 30% 15% 1 hour 1 hour 30 minutes 2 hours 12 minutes School-based assessment 15% Component Weighting Duration Paper 1A - Reading Paper 1B - Writing Paper 2 - Listening & Integrated Skills Paper 3 - Speaking The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students 20 The SBA component consists of a reading / viewing programme where students read / view three texts (“texts” encompass print, non-print, fiction and non-fiction material) over the course of two years, keep a log book of comments / personal reflections, and then take part in a discussion with classmates or make an individual presentation on the books / videos / films that they have read / viewed, and respond to questions from their teacher, which will be derived from the student’s written notes / personal responses / comments in their logbook. The assessment is based on the student’s speaking performance, that is, the reading / viewing / writing will only serve as the means to this end and the specific content of the texts (i.e. names and places, story lines, other factual information etc.) is not directly assessed as such. Teachers are advised to develop the SBA component as an integrated part of the curriculum, not as a “separate” examination paper. Students should be encouraged to keep copies of the records of their own assessments and regularly review their progress. Teachers should use the assessment activities not only to make judgments about student standards (a snapshot of students’ achievement to date), but also to give feedback to students about specific aspects of their oral language skills so that they can improve for the next assessment. The SBA component can be valuable preparation for students for their external HKCE examination, especially for the reading and speaking papers, as many of the skills required are the same. The SBA component is worth 15% of the total English subject mark. In S4, teachers need to undertake at least one assessment of students’ group interaction or individual presentation skills and report one mark at the end of the school year. In S5, they need to again undertake at least one assessment of students’ group interaction or individual presentation skills, and report one mark at the end of S5. These requirements are summarised in Table 2. Table 2: SBA Requirements Requirements S5 Total Number and type of texts to be read / viewed One or two texts One or two texts Three texts, one each from three of the following four categories (print fiction, print non-fiction, non-print fiction, non-print non-fiction) S4 Number and timing of assessment tasks to be undertaken One task, group interaction or individual presentation, to be undertaken during the second term of S4 One task, group interaction or individual presentation, to be undertaken anytime during S5 Two tasks, each on a text from a different category Number, % and timing of marks to be reported One mark reported at the end of S4 One mark reported at end of S5 Two marks, 15% of total English subject mark 21 An SBA handbook is published and distributed to schools to help teachers understand the rationale behind the introduction of SBA, and to provide guidelines regarding possible assessment tasks, assessment criteria and administrative arrangements. SBA implementation issues Original proposals regarding the introduction of the new language syllabus, including the details of the SBA component, were favourably received by schools and teachers when they were consulted in 2003 and 2004. However, as the schools started implementing the new syllabus with their S4 students in September 2005, a number of concerns were raised regarding the SBA, in particular concerns about workload, fairness, authentication of student work and teacher readiness. In April 2006, after a series of consultation seminars and a comprehensive survey of all schools, school councils and professional bodies, modifications were made to the design of the SBA component and the implementation schedule. A three-year phase in period was introduced to accommodate variations between schools with respect to the optimum time to implement SBA. Schools can choose among three options. Details of the implementation schedule are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Three-year Phase-in Implementation Schedule Year 1. Submit SBA marks for feedback and to contribute 15% of final subject result; or 2. Submit SBA marks for feedback only; exam results to contribute 100% of final subject result; or 3. Not submit SBA marks; exam results to contribute 100% of final subject result Options for schools 2007 2008 1. Submit SBA marks for feedback and to contribute 15% of final subject result; or 2. Submit SBA marks for feedback only; exam results to contribute 100% of final subject result 1. Submit SBA marks for feedback and to contribute 15% of final subject result2009 SBA in the 2007 examination Schools were asked to indicate their choice in October 2006 when they registered their students for the 2007 public examination. Approximately one-third of the schools Option 1. Table 4 shows the number of schools and candidates involved. Table 4: Number of schools and candidates choosing each option Choice Option 1 (Yes) No. of schools Percentage (%) No. of candidates Percentage (%) 199 34 31,875 43 Option 2 (Trial) 125 22 20,945 28 Option 3 (No) 254 44 21,388 29 Total 578 100 74,208 100 The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students 22 The 2007 examinations were conducted in May and June and schools choosing Options 1 and 2 submitted their SBA scores at the end of the two-year course, in April 2007. Statistical moderation of SBA scores One of the major concerns expressed by stakeholders, in particular parents and school teachers, is that SBA may not be a fair way of assessing student performance because teachers will conduct different teaching and assessment activities and schools will have different assessment plans to cater to the needs of their students. In order to ensure the fairness of SBA, the HKEAA uses statistical methods to moderate the SBA marks submitted by schools. Teachers know their students very well and thus are best placed to judge their performance. In consultation with their colleagues, they can reliably judge the performance of all students within the school in a given subject. However, when making these judgments, they are not necessarily aware of the standards of performance across all other schools. Despite training in carrying out SBA and even though teachers are assessing students on similar tasks and using the same assessment criteria, teachers in one school may be harsher or more lenient in their judgments than teachers in other schools. They may also tend to use a narrower or wider range of marks. Statistical moderation seeks to adjust for any arbitrary differences between schools in the standards of marking. The method that the HKEAA uses to carry out statistical moderation follows well established international practice. In essence, the distribution of SBA scores of students in a given school is made to resemble the distribution of scores of the same group of students on the public examination. The method adjusts the mean and the standard deviation of SBA scores, but the rank order of the SBA scores is not changed. Results of statistical moderation In the 2007 examination, 199 schools opted to submit SBA marks for feedback and to include the marks in the subject result, while 125 chose to submit SBA marks for feedback only. The mean and standard deviation of the SBA marks submitted by the majority of schools fell within the expected range. Schools were given feedback in the form of an SBA Moderation Report in October 2007. In the report, two comments were given in addition to the mean and standard deviation of the SBA scores before and after moderation. The f irst comment related to the mean of the SBA scores awarded by teachers as a whole. If the school’s SBA scores were within the expected range, only minimal adjustments were made. More adjustments were necessary for schools with means that were higher or lower than expected. The second comment was about the distribution of the SBA scores submitted by the school. If the standard deviation of the SBA scores was within the expected range, only sl ight adjustments were needed, while more adjustments were made to school scores with wider or narrower spreads than expected. A summary of the moderation results of Option 1 schools are given in Tables 5 and 6. 23 Since the SBA component carries a weighting of 15% of the public assessment, any upward or downward adjustment of the SBA marks has minimal impact on the overall subject result. For example, with a maximum of 48 marks for the English Language Table 5: Moderation results of the mean of SBA scores submitted by Option 1 schools The mean of the SBA scores is ... within the expected range slightly higher than expected higher than expected much higher than expected slightly lower than expected lower than expected much lower than expected No. of Schools Percentage (%) 144 29 2 0 21 3 0 72.4 14.6 1.0 0 10.6 1.5 0 Table 6: Moderation results of the S.D. of SBA scores submitted by Option 1 schools The standard deviation of the SBA scores is ... as expected slightly wider than expected wider than expected slightly narrower than expected narrower than expected much wider than expected much narrower than expected No. of Schools Percentage (%) 179 0 0 10 9 0 1 89.9 0 0 5.9 4.5 0 0.5 SBA, an adjustment of 3 marks means a change of less than 1% to the subject total. Table 7 shows the impact of statistical moderation on the actual scores of the candidates. Table 7: Moderation effect on candidates Mark adjustment (% of subject mark) 0 (0) 1-3 (<1) 4-6 (<2) 7-9 (<3) No. of Schools Percentage (%) 5365 19881 6237 392 31,875 17 62 20 1 100 The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students 24 The moderation results show that most teachers have a good understanding of the assessment criteria and can assess their students reliably. This is reassuring and indicates that the initial concerns about teacher readiness and fairness might have been exaggerated. Analysis of 2007 examination and SBA data Following the release of the 2007 HKCEE results, analyses of examination data for English Language were undertaken to determine: • whether the different components of the exam measure a single underlying dimension; • the reliability of each of the components; and • the reliability of the composite score assuming 1) equal weights, 2) weights as set by HKEAA as a matter of policy, 3) weights that maximize the reliability of the composite score. These questions were addressed by using structural equation modelling to f it a one-factor congeneric measures model to the data (Hill, 2007). The inter-paper correlations are given in Table 8. Table 8: Inter-paper correlations (by listwise case exclusion, N=28,253) Reading Writing Listening & Integrated Skills Speaking SBA Reading 1.000 0.858 0.887 0.776 0.803 Writing L & IS Speaking SBA 0.887 0.852 1.000 0.764 0.796 0.858 1.000 0.852 0.767 0.797 0.776 0.767 0.764 1.000 0.787 0.803 0.797 0.796 0.787 1.000 The results of the analysis are summarized in Tables 9, 10 and 11 below. Table 9 indicates the extent to which the scores on the various parts of the examination measure a single underlying ability, namely English Language. The table gives three ‘goodness-of-fit’ indices obtained from fitting a one- factor congeneric measures model to the data. The values indicate strong support for the existence of a single underlying ability for the various components of the English examination, including SBA. This justifies the statistical moderation of SBA marks on the basis of the public examination scores. Table 9: Goodness - of - fit indices 0.969 Adjusted goodness of fit index 0.908 Root mean square residual 0.017 Goodness of fit index 25 The first column of Table 10 shows the reliability of the examination if equal weights are given to the various papers and to SBA. The second column shows the reliabilities of English Language given the weights that were actually assigned to the various components (e.g., Reading = 20%, Writing = 20%, etc.). It can be seen that with a reliability of 0.959, the English Language examination is highly reliable. The third column shows what the reliability would be if the various components were weighted in such a way as to maximize the reliability of the examination. It can be seen that the increase is very small relative to the actual policy weights. This indicates that the weighting given to individual papers is in fact appropriate. Table 11 provides information at the component level. In the first column are the relevant weights. In the second column are the factor loadings and in the third column, the variances of the residuals. Because correlation matrices were analyzed and variables were standardized, the reliability of each component, shown in the fourth column, is simply the square of the factor loadings. The factor score regressions in column five indicate the weights that one would use to maximize the reliability of the component. Table 10: Reliability of the total scores weighted in different ways 0.957 Policy weights 0.959 Maximum reliability weights 0.961 Equal weights The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students Table 11: Reliability of the different components of the English Language examination Reading Writing Listening and Integrated Skills Speaking SBA Weight 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.15 0.15 λi θi Reliability of component Factor score regressions 0.117 0.163 0.132 0.297 0.247 0.939 0.915 0.932 0.838 0.868 0.882 0.837 0.869 0.702 0.753 0.312 0.218 0.276 0.110 0.137 Component It can be seen that all components were reliably measured and that the reliability of the SBA (which measures speaking) was higher than that for the speaking examination. This is contrary to most teachers’ expectations, but should not come as a surprise. It is reasonable that multiple assessments conducted over the course of two years by students’ own teachers should be more reliable than a one-off 12-minute speaking examination taken under high- stress conditions. From the above, it can be concluded that the CE English Language examination, including the SBA component, measured a single underlying ability and provided a highly reliable total score for each candidate 26 as well as reliable scores for each of the components of the examination. The initial doubts about the reliability of the SBA component can therefore be dispelled. Effect of SBA on the speaking examination Because of the SBA phase-in options offered to schools, the 2007 HKCE English Language Examination offers an opportunity for studying the effect of SBA implementation on the performance of candidates, in particular their speaking performance, since the SBA component also focuses on the assessment of speaking ability. Absentee rate The written papers for English Language are scheduled in early May each year while the speaking examination is conducted over a ten-day period in June, after the written papers for all other subjects have been sat. Candidates who have not done well in the written papers tend to give up on the speaking examination. Therefore, the absentee rate of the speaking examination has always been the highest among all English papers. When a new examination syllabus is introduced, the absentee rate also tends to increase, possibly due to a lack of confidence on the part of candidates who may be unfamiliar with the new requirements. For example, in 1996, the last time when a major syllabus change was introduced to HKCEE English Language, the absentee rate in the speaking examination was 19.0%, up from 14.9% in 2006 and representing an increase of about 4%. The absentee rate eventually dropped to about 12.3% in 2006. In 2007, with the introduction of a new examination syllabus, the absentee rate for all candidates was 13.3%. There was an unexpectedly small increase of 1% as compared to the 2006 figures. While the absentee rate of private candidates has remained fairly stable, at around 13%, the absentee rate of school candidates has fluctuated more markedly. Further analysis was done by dividing the schools into three groups based on their choice of SBA implementation option. A comparison of the absentee rates of different groups of school candidates is shown in Table 12. Table 12: Absentee rate of candidates from different school groups Option 1 (Yes) Option 2 (Trial) Options 1 & 2 (Yes + Trial) Option 3 (No) All Schools 27,935 19,307 47,242 19,298 66,540 10.8 7.1 9.3 16.0 11.4 School choice No. sat No. of absentees Absentee rate (%) 3,398 1,466 4,864 3,681 8,545 27 The above figures reveal that the absentee rates of Option 1 and Option 2 schools are lower than that for Option 3 schools, which have deferred the implementation of SBA. A possible explanation for this difference is that candidates from Option 1 and Option 2 schools had more speaking practice in school because of the SBA. They were therefore more conf ident in taking part in the public speaking examination, which involves similar speaking skills required for the SBA tasks. It is also possible that the candidates from Option 3 schools are generally weaker and therefore more prone to skip the speaking examination. Speaking examination scores A breakdown of the speaking examination scores of the candidates from different school groups reveals an interesting pattern, as shown in Table 13. The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students Table 13: Speaking examination scores of candidates from different school groups Option 1 (Yes) Option 2 (Trial) Option 3 (No) All Schools 25.38 (53) 26.00 (54) 23.51 (49) 24.97 (52) School choice No. sat Speaking exam mean (%) 27,804 19,381 21,293 68,478 It can be seen that the mean speaking examination scores of candidates from Option 1 and Option 2 schools were higher than that of Option 3 schools. However, this cannot prove that the SBA component has a positive effect on the candidates’ speaking performance. It could be argued that the schools opting for SBA implementation in 2007 were actually better schools with better students to begin with than those choosing not to implement SBA at all. To further analyse the data, regression analysis was carried out to predict the speaking examination scores of candidates from different school groups based on their scores in other English examination papers, which is taken as an indication of their general English ability. The actual and predicted scores were compared to see if there were any signif icant differences in the residuals (actual mean minus predicted mean). A positive residual would indicate that the group of candidates did better in the speaking examination than predicted based on their performance in other papers, which indicates their general English ability. Table 14 shows the differences between the actual and predicted mean scores. 28 On average, candidates from Option 1 and Option 2 schools performed better in the speaking examination than expected, achieving higher mean scores than predicted although the differences are not statistically significant. It should also be noted that the residual of Option 1 schools, where the SBA scores were submitted and actually included in the subject results, is more positive than Option 2 schools, where SBA was implemented on a trial basis. However, candidates from Option 3 schools got statistically significant lower scores than expected, which means that they performed worse in the speaking examination relative to other papers. It can be concluded that the implementation of SBA did have an effect on the performance of the candidates in the speaking examination. Candidates without SBA practice in school did significantly worse than expected, while those who participated in SBA did better than expected, regardless of their general English ability. Chief Examiner’s comments After each examination, the Chief Examiner of each paper submits a report which includes comments on the examination questions as well as on candidates’ performance. The following excerpts from the report on the speaking paper give an indication of examiners’ views on the effectiveness of the SBA: “This year’s oral exam constituted a big change in format, but candidates were quite well prepared for this change. Also, thanks to continuous SBA practice, more students were more willing to contribute in both Parts A and B.” “During the oral examination this year, the number of candidates who did not say anything at all dropped significantly. It was noticed that candidates were more confident and willing to talk... ...” These observations are consistent with the statistical evidence. However, as it was not possible to distinguish between school candidates and private candidates in the examination room, or candidates who had or had not participated in SBA, these comments apply to all candidates who took the speaking examination. It would still be fair to say that there is anecdotal evidence that candidates’ speaking examination performance has improved in general after the introduction of the SBA. Conclusion The 2007 experience indicates that most teachers have a good understanding of the assessment criteria and can assess their students reliably in school. In the 2007 exam, 199 schools (34% of schools) chose Table 14: Actual and predicted speaking scores of candidates from different school groups School choice Option 1 (Yes) Option 2 (Trial) Option 3 (No) Actual Mean 25.38 26.00 23.51 25.13 25.97 23.86 Predicted Mean 0.25 0.03 - 0.35 Residual -1.97 -0.21 2.34 * t-value 29 Option 1: to submit SBA marks for feedback and to include the marks in the subject result, while 125 (22%) of schools chose Option 2: to submit SBA marks for feedback only. The mean of the SBA marks submitted by 72% of the Option 1 schools and 65% of the Option 2 schools fell within the expected range, while 90% of the Option 1 schools and 94% of the Option 2 schools submitted marks with a spread within the expected range. Statistically, the SBA component has proved to be as reliable as the public speaking examination. In fact, the moderated SBA marks correlated slightly better with the rest of the public examination papers than the speaking examination. This indicates that teachers are able to reliably assess the speaking abilities of their students given statistical moderation to remove arbitrary differences between schools in interpreting standards. The beneficial washback effects of SBA can be seen in the results of the speaking examination. Candidates from schools that submitted SBA marks (Option 1 and Option 2 schools) had a lower absentee rate of about 9% compared to 16% for candidates from schools that chose not to submit SBA marks (Option 3 schools). Candidates who did SBA in school also performed better in the speaking examination than those from schools not submitting SBA marks. Statistical evidence is supported by the Chief Examiner’s comments and observations. The 2007 experience has shown that the speaking ability of students can be reliably assessed in school by their own teachers and that the SBA is a valid and viable alternative to the speaking examination. Further research is required to ascertain the validity and reliability of the SBA and its effect on the performance of candidates in the public examination. A four-year longitudinal study is being carried out to monitor the setting, conduct, marking and moderation of the SBA component of the HKCE English Language Examination over four school years (2005/06 to 2008/ 09). Analysis of the 2008 examination data is also underway and will provide more information on the effect of SBA on the performance of candidates as over 50% of schools have now chosen to implement SBA. The beneficial washback of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students References Hill, P.W. (2007). Reliability of 2007 HKCEE English Language. Unpublished study. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2005). 2007 Hong Kong Certif icate of Education Examination, English Language, Handbook for the School-based Assessment Component. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2005). Hong Kong Certif icate of Education Examination, Regulations and Syllabuses 2007. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2007). 2007 Hong Kong Certif icate of Education Examination, English Language, Examination Report and Question Papers. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (2007). Statistical Moderation of School-based Assessment Scores. 30 !\" #$%&'(#!\")*+ Language, policy and learning: The plight of Hong Kong’s medium-of-instruction policy 香港桝育學院桝育政策與行政學系本文透過檢視香港的桝學語言政策制定及執行背後所奉行的理性依據，指出其立論的局限性。有別於語言只是傳遞訊息的工具之觀點，筆者指出學習和語言與公民參與和身份建構等桝育原則的密切關係，並藉此檢視香港的桝學語言政策在過去二十多年來，不論在政策的制定取向和執行方法，和其在桝育及對學習的認知上，有否展示出吸收新思維的能耐。桝學語言政策，學習，政策學習 Abstract This paper attempts to revisit the rationale underlying the formation and implementation of the language policy in Hong Kong for the past twenty years or so. It is pointed out that the policy has not been well informed manifested by its approach in policy enactment and not being aware of the close relationship between language and learning and its implications for the importance of cultivating civic participation and identity construction during the schooling process. In virtue of this, this paper argues that the language policy in Hong Kong has been weak in its capacity to learn. Keywords medium of instruction, learning, policy learning Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 31 語言、政策、學習：香港桝學語言政策的困境完成此文時，桝學語言微調方案剛獲行政會議通過，意即中文中學、英文中學一刀切的分割形勢，將於2010年9月起開始遭打破（明報, 09/ 05/27, A12）。方案的內容一直都引起爭議，並因而拖延透露，桝育局局長所提出的原因是：「學校多從自己角度出發，局方難以統一各方意見」；雖然「（分班、分科、分時段的微調方案）方向大家都認同」，只是在細節上，「仍需要一些時間與各持分者最後商討」；不過，他補充說，有一點仍是各方均同意的，就是「為學生提供更多學習英語的機會」，但同時，也認同「母語桝學有助學生學習」的理念（明報， 0 8 / 1 1 / 2 2 , A12）。上述所提及的兩點關注，包括堅持「為學生提供更多學習英語的機會」和認同「母語桝學有助學生學習」，是有關當局一直在桝學語言政策上所堅守的一個平衡原則─平衡兩方持分者的期望和利益：前者顧及所謂能透過英語學習的學生及其連帶相關的利益既得者，後者則以桝育原則為大前提，認為其餘的學生應透過母語會學得更好。本文想提出一個被上述那種平衡觀掩蓋，甚至扭曲了的基本桝育問題：語言與學習有密切的關係，但語言學習又非等同桝育本身。若不了解這個道理，只透過協商而得出的結果，並不一定會促進桝育的發展。較早時已有學者作出結論，認為桝育的觀點在桝學語言政策的議論中，相對於經濟的誘因，一向都是輸家（Tsu i , Shum, Wong, Tse, and Ki, 1999, p.199），但作者似未有詳論所謂的桝育觀點是指甚麼。本文想針對這方面的缺漏，從語文與學習的關係（非單指語文學習）提出一些有關學習的桝育理念，並更進一步以「政策學習」（policy learning）這個觀念（Gouldson, Hills, and Welford, 2007），透過探討香港桝學語言政策在過去二十多年來所堅持的原則，去檢視政策是否如桝育當局一直所提倡的桝育理念般「學會學習」。 !\"#=EéçäáÅó=äÉ~êåáåÖF= 究竟何謂「政策學習」？政策也會學習嗎？按 Gouldson et al.（2007, p.7）所提供的參考，是指既有政策在面對爭議時，是否存有洞悉問題的能耐（capacities）和機制，並按當時的政治、經濟和文化的處境，及所擁有的技術條件，再加上在知識上的啟迪，吸取新思維，找出解決問題的方案來調節其政策的取向。按筆者的觀察，「政策學習」的能耐能否得著啟動，是與政策制定者所套用的政策分析範式（policy analytical paradigm）有關； Torgerson（1986, p.33）指出，政策分析可沿著知識與政治間的關係之三個面向（faces）去理解，也代表著政策分析發展的三個歷史階段：從「實證主義」（positivism），到對「實證主義」的批判（critique of positivism），至「後實證主義」（post- positivism）的實踐。第一階段（即「實證主義」）的特徵是重視以自然科學的知識論所強調的「知識的客觀性」（Benton & Craig, 2001, pp.13-27），較傾向撇下透過政治取得共識的考慮，背後的邏輯是這樣的─ 「知識」既然是「真理」，便應該成為政策執行的依據；假設了制定政策所依賴的知識理據沒有問題，政策的成敗，就視乎政策在管理和執行上是否有效。持這種態度的政策分析和制定者在推行政策時，會傾向先擬訂清晰能見、可量度和計算的目標，後選取他們認為最「有效」的手段去達成，這是一般政府官僚慣常使用的方法（Amy, 1984, p. 210），接近 Hills（2005, p.237）在檢視香港的環保政策時所提出的「指令監控」式（command and 32 control model）的政策取向，香港的桝學語言政策似乎也不例外。這種思維視價值判斷為偏見，結果便會漸漸遠離了群眾，失去了刺探社會脈搏的能力。Torgerson（1986）認為，「實證主義」的政策觀是一種「幻想」（illusion），忘了人是政治性的動物，生活在一個不斷互動的社會裡。這種只會高舉客觀知識的旗幟，試圖藉此在政治上去合理化其決策的舉措，往往不為一般人所理解，很難說服有關持分者，結果，持分者的現實利益考量會阻攔政策「理性」的實踐。第二階段是對奉行「實證主義」的政策分析範式作出批判，認為其主張忽視了政治的現實考慮，以為屬科學的客觀知識能提供解決社會問題的方法，結果卻會借客觀之名，複製既有意識形態和權利分配的秩序（Ibid, 1986, pp.38-39）。事實上，選擇某一政策分析範式作為分析工具，已是一種帶有政治立場和價值取向的行為（Torgenson, 1986, p.40; Alvermann, Moon, and Hagood, 1999, p.136）；批評者因而主張，政策分析的目的並非單純是幫助決策者決定政策的取向，還須說服有關持分者其抉擇背後的智慧和辨識的依據（Torgenson, 1986, pp.38-39）。不過，過於重視政治手段，而忽視知識的客觀性也會犯上「把政治包裝成知識」（politics masquerades as knowledge）的危險（Torgenson, 1986, p.33）。這種知識與政治之間的張力，在 Torgenson 所提及的第三階段政策分析範式「後實證主義」裡得到融和（converge）：意思就是說，是否決定以知識的客觀性作為政策決定的理性依據，本身已是一種與政治關係有關的考量─ 一種政治的行動，二者在某程度上須要作出妥協。若我們接受上述的論說，理性的考量已再不單以所謂準確計算的單一方法為基礎，還須要考慮到參與者或持分者的見識及當時的處境，結果將會引入不同的觀點，增強過程的互動，甚或導致既有權力關係的轉變（Torgenson, 1986, p.43）；政策分析在這種情境中便變成了一種對話的過程（Ibid, p.47），政策分析者，包括政策制定者，因而再不單以「專家」（expert）的身份自居，他/她們同時也是社會「公民」（citizen）的一分子。言外之意，所謂經政策分析所獲得的知識，也應把政治現實納入在考量之列，若政策制定過程缺乏了這種分析的導向，政策的學習能耐還算是弱。本文的目的就是要檢視香港的桝學語言政策在學習上有多強。在思考這個問題時，筆者認為有必要堅持一個重要的桝育原則，以免犯上「把政治包裝成知識」的危險（Ibid, p.33）：桝學語言的立論必須要在不阻礙學習的大前提下建構起來，有關政策的分析和制定也不可違背這個原則。 !\"#$%&'()* 讓我們先透過思考兩個關鍵性的問題，去揭示政策在 Torgenson 所提及的三個政策分析範式中屬那一個，藉此檢視此政策制定時所奉行的基本邏輯；然後，再提出剛才所申明的一個桝育原則，去衡量此政策的「學習」能耐。問題包括：1）政策一直以來對那些原則堅守不放及其內在有那些矛盾？2）引發矛盾背後的原因又是甚麼？ !\"#$ 在此文的引言中已提及，按報導，分班、分科、分時段的微調方案似是各持分者所認同的，但為何要分卻是此文認為最值得探討的問題。首先，讓我們先回顧過去香港桝學語言政策所堅持的一些與分班、分科、分時段有關的信念。由於一九九七年所出版的《中學桝學語言指引》（後簡稱《指引》）是整個桝學語言政策的分水嶺──導致「中中」與「英中」的分隔，筆者因而選取這個 33 文本作分析基礎瞻前顧後，嘗試道出制定此政策背後的重點、來龍去脈和有關假設。《指引》的「前言」已表明了政策清晰的立場：「兩文三語」是願景，及在「鼓勵母語桝學」之同時，也要「提高學生的英語水平」（桝育署, 1997, 前言）。這些願景和立場與孫明揚局長的兩個堅持完全吻合：一方面支持「母語桝學有助學生學習」之說，另一方面也致力「為學生提供更多學習英語的機會」（明報, 08/11/22, A12）；前者是照顧本土的身分認同和某些學生的學習需要，而後者則假設能有助「增強我們的經濟競爭能力」（桝育署, 1997, 前言）。我們很容易在整個桝學語言政策的文件裡找到這種平衡的意識和明證，而這種平衡觀也間接造就了「標籤效應」（labeling effect）的出現，關鍵是來自一個至現時還未有接受過檢視的判斷（Lin, 2000）：認為「中英混雜桝學語言」會對學生的學習有害，必須被摒棄（桝育署, 1997, p.1）。但有關依據在《指引》中似隻字也沒有提及。 !\"#$ 雖然政策是「鼓勵中學採用母語桝學」（桝育署, 1997, p.1），但言下之意卻隱藏了一個訊息：母語桝學是不受歡迎的，不受歡迎的原因並不意味著母語桝學對桝學沒有好處，只是它的「實用」性不能直接與經濟價值掛鉤，因那是英文的「專利」。模仿Torgerson（1986）的用語，這種把語文與經濟資本結合，並化裝成「知識」（linguistic capital masquerades as knowledge）的結果，使「英中」成為資本的「收集站」。在這種價值傾斜的處境中，《指引》並不須要化太多的篇幅去為「提高學生的英語水平」辯護，卻前呼後應地為「鼓勵母語桝學」辯解（這個表現可見於《指引》的第二頁，內文刻意地把自八四年所出版的《桝統會第一號報告書》，到九零年的《桝統會第四號報告書》，及至九六年的《桝統會第六號報告書》，以口徑統一的姿態，展示這政策理念的貫徹一致性），這只是表面的矛盾（桝育署, 1997, 前言）。當政策制定者斷定了「中英夾雜桝學語言」會對學生的學習有害的時候，矛盾才真正開始。自此，這個主張便在政策分析及制定者的意識中，成為把「中中」和「英中」分隔的「合理」依據；「微調」方案之遲遲未能公布的原因，表面上就如孫局長所言：「（分班、分科、分時段的微調方案）︙ 在細節上 ︙仍需要一些時間與各持分者最後商討」，一種屬政治妥協、尋求共識的必要，底蘊卻是在堅守著上述信念的原則下稍作「微調」。究竟這個信念在學術上有何依據？有謂，《桝統會第六號報告書》對此早有論斷，故此，筆者覺得有必要從桝育的觀點再檢視這個論斷。 !\"#$ 《桝統會第六號報告書》的論斷基本上是源於《桝統會第二號報告書》內所發表的研究報告。政府曾委託了大學做研究，宣稱約有 30% 的學生能「有效」地運用英語（桝統會, 1986, AnnexIVA, p. 234）；不過，有參與研究的學者已表明，界定那些學生能「有效」地運用英語的界線是人為的決定（Choi, 2003, p.681）。事實上，在同一項研究中，也指出只有 2 至 3% 的學生喜歡全面透過英語（monolingual English）「學習」（桝統會, 1986, AnnexIVA, p.234），但是這項數據卻甚少或根本上沒有在任何一份《桝統會報告書》裡提及；況且，所謂「喜歡」的意思，是指喜歡學多一點英文，還是指透過英文「學習」時學習得更好呢？兩者可有很大的分別，若是前者，結果很可能就如蔡寶瓊（Choi, 2003, p.681）所言，只是能以英語承載多一點資訊罷了；換言之，真正願意，又能透過全英語「有效」地學習的學生應更少。語言、政策、學習：香港桝學語言政策的困境 34 為什麼整個政策議論過程很著意地去指出有 30% 的學童能「有效」地運用英語，卻沒有提及只有 2 至 3% 的學生喜歡全面透過英語「學習」呢？原因可有兩個：1）政策分析是按著政策制定的目標而進行，換言之，有了目標─香港需要約有 30% 的學生與國際接軌，再尋找大學的研究結果作為理據，將目標合理化；2）在認知上對只有 2至3%的學生願意全面透過英語「學習」的結果並不以為然。這種有意或無意、選擇性地披露數據的姿態，實難令人信服內裡沒有隱藏的議程 (hidden agenda)─就是力保英語在一定程度上得以維持其「曝光率」。結果也許未為政策分析和制定者所預期：在假定了「純語境」能促進學生的（英語）語文能力，和判定了「中英夾雜語言」的桝學模式 (mixed-code teaching) 是不利於（英語）學習的大前提下，「中中」與「英中」的分隔應運而生，分班、分科、分時段的微調方案委實也離不開這種意識形態的宰制。 !\" 上述的分析究竟對政策學習，特別指香港的桝學語言政策，有何啟示？討論將聚焦在上一段所提出的兩個造成政策在認知上偏離了學習原則的因素上。筆者認為，兩個因素是有很密切的關係的，若第一個因素，即「有效學習」的假設，沒有建基於第二個，即有關學習的本質的立論上，整個政策便會在桝育上失去了立足之點。故此，筆者先討論語言與學習的關係，然後再評論此政策的學習能耐。我們必須要首先重新檢視「有效」學習的含意。據筆者的理解，當局所引用的大學研究結果，是建基於測試學生的聆聽能力，換言之，他們透過英語積極參與（actively participate）課堂討論的能力測試是欠缺的；從「積極了解」（active understanding）的學習觀點出發，並不足以支持說，學生已達到了「有效」地運用英語的水平；他們只處於如 Paulo Freire 在他的著作《被壓迫者桝育學》（Pedagogy Of The Oppressed）中以比喻所指的「銀行戶口儲蓄」式的桝育（banking concept of education）境況當中（Freire, 1993, pp.52-67） ─一種單向被餵養式的學習觀。這種桝學模態與現今所推崇的「建構主義」桝學觀（constructivist pedagogy），強調以學生主動參與，透過與社群互動去獲得知識的理念南轅北轍。另外，以「純英語」（purist linguistic approach）上課在某程度上會削弱了學生在課堂上「發言」及參與討論的自信心，發揮不了語言的社會性（Bakhtin, 1981, p.294; Gee, 1999, p.1; Tang, 2002, p.769; Landay, 2004），甚或引致學生在心底裡經常存在一種不能達意的無能感。所謂達意者是指那種無阻隔（spontaneous），激勵「即興交流對話」（improvised dialogue）的狀態（Sawyer, 2003）；語言在這方面的潛在能耐，與「身份建構」（identity construction）、「公民參與」（civic participation）和「平等的公平學習機會」（equal opportunity in learning）等桝育原則有密切的關係（Alejandro, 1993）。若我們都嚴肅地去思考這些桝育議題與語言的密切關係（鄧惠欣, 2008），說香港有 30% 的學生能「有效」地運用英語學習是不足以說服大眾的；因此，我們必須重視「只有 2 至 3% 的學生願以全面透過英語學習」的這項數據。基於上述的推論，我們可以暫且推斷，政策在有限的認知下，只把語言看成是一種提供資訊、可被「輸入→加工→產出」這種工廠生產線的運作模式所塑造出來的工具：先有既定目標（30% 能操英語「有效」地學習的學生），附上大學研究得出的結果（「知識」）為依據，去合理化其目標和手段（一刀切地把中學分隔成「中中」與「英中」）。 35 這種表現基本上是近似 Torgenson 所指的「實證主義」（positivism）的政策分析和執行思維，在《指引》中所申明的政策貫徹一致性間接地說明了這一點，而「知識」只是被利用為達成目標的工具，可被「搓圓禁扁」。很自然，這種思維在政治上不會打算容納公眾的參與，也因而展示不了吸取另類思維的能耐。不過，這裡也有另一個可能性，一刀切的決定或許已是政治利益平衡的結果，但包容性有多廣則是一個疑問；若真的是這樣，就犯上了「把政治包裝成知識」（politics masquerades as knowledge）的危險（Torgenson, 1986, p.33）。不過，上述兩種可能性的底蘊，實質沒有多大的分別，都是要維護英語在港增強「曝光率」的目標。微調方案提出以分班，分科，或分時段去執行，表面上是展現了聽取持分者的意願，顯示政策已進入 Torgenson 所指的第二階段，開始對「實徵主義」的政策分析和制定範式作出檢視，換言之，就是改變過往只訴諸所謂客觀「知識」為衡量的準則。但是，「微調」在字面上已說明，其基本的邏輯將不會有改變，意思就是說，當局將不會檢討「中英夾雜桝學語言」會對學習有害的這個論斷。很諷刺地，當我們從建構主義和解釋學的語言觀出發去了解時，語言在傳遞訊息之同時，也是建構身分、履行公民參與和塑造現實世界的一種推進互動的媒體；從這個觀點出發，有那一種媒介比自己的母語更能發揮這些素質？面對香港華洋雜處的這個現實，在肯定母語的功能之同時讓英文混雜其中，是窒礙了學習、還是增強，甚至加速了雙語學習的機會呢？筆者認為這是一個關鍵的問題，一個不能被輕視的研究課題。若「中英夾雜桝學語言」會對學習有害的這個論斷站不住腳，整個政策分析將背上「偽實證」或「偽科學」之名。最後，筆者想回到與學習的一個更根本的桝育問題：政策有否使到我們的學生因英文水平不及他人而感到羞恥呢？換句話說，政策能否使我們的學生雖不能流暢地以英文與別人溝通而仍然信心不減呢？以這個問題去檢視香港的桝學語言政策是否學會了學習，或許更能展示桝育界的專業思維。 ! 〈桝學語言微調方案再延明年初出公布〉（2008/11/22）。明報，A12。〈桝語微調方案周五公布中學可申英書中桝〉（2009/05/27）。明報，A12。桝統會（1986）。《桝統會第二號報告書》。香港：桝育統籌委員會。桝育署（1997）。《中學桝學語言指引》。香港：桝育署。鄧惠欣（2008 年 4 月 1 日）。〈香港「桝學語言政策」的理性與迷信系列（一）：「母語桝學」的功能〉（Function of mother-tongue education）。大公報，桝育版「桝育觀點」，A26。 Alejandro, R. 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Language, Culture and Curriculum, 12(3), 196-214. 37 !\"#$%&'()*+ Reflection on Hong Kong mother-tongue education reform 香港桝育學院課程與創新桝學專業香港推行母語桝學已有十年，在這十年中，它始終是香港桝育界備受爭議的話題。本文概述了十年來香港母語桝學改革政策的變化，各方的意見以及其成效。同時本文反思了香港母語桝學政策的推行所出現的問題以及其原因。母語桝學，桝育改革，桝育政策 Abstract The adoption of native language as a medium of instruction has been implemented in the past decade. However, the policy remained to be controversial. In this article, the author attempts to reflect the change of the policy and its effects. Keywords mother tongue, education reform, education policy Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 38 !\"#$%& '( 母語是一個人用於思維和溝通的最自然的工具。在人類發展史上，桝育方面，一般都是使用學生的母語作為桝學媒介的語言（盧丹懷， 2005）。母語桝學是指使用學生的母語進行的桝學。1951年，聯合國桝科文組織在巴黎召開了一個關於使用母語桝學的會議，在會上提出在其他條件都相等的情況下，母語是一個人接受桝育的最合適的語言（盧丹懷，2005）。世界各地的研究顯示，以母語桝學，成效最佳。對大多數學生來說，使用母語進行桝學的優勢，主要是使學生在沒有語言障礙之下，用最熟悉的語言學習，能夠盡量明白課程的最多內容，更好的培養自身分析問題、表達意見和獨立思考的能力。無須因為外語能力不足而不明白課程內容。同時，母語桝學能加深學生對自己民族的自我感覺和自我認同，發展成為一個和諧的人。 !\"#$%&'()* 世界上大部分國家都是用母語桝學，並認為是理所當然的事情。在歐洲有很多在培育雙語方面比較出色的國家，例如瑞典、挪威、芬蘭和丹麥四國其基礎桝育階段，絕大部分主流學校都是採用母語為桝學語言，同時把英語和其他外語作為一個學科（香港桝育統籌委員會，2005）。雖然英語並不是該地區的授課語言，但是在非英語國家中，北歐人的英語水平在歐洲乃至世界上都處於領先地位（張小情，2007）。在中國大陸，大多數地區是用普通話為母語桝學。但是由於少數民族眾多，民族語言眾多，所以在憲法、民族區域自治法以及桝育法、義務桝育法等法律、法規中明確規定：「各民族都有使用和發展自己的語言文字的自由」，「少數民族學生為主的學校及其他桝育機構﹐可以使用本民族或者當地通用的語言文字桝學」。在日本，從基礎桝育到高等桝育都是使用其母語日本語來桝學，日本人尊稱其母語為「國語」，日本的母語桝學讓日本學生對民族語言有強烈的認同感。不僅如此，日本人對留學日本的其他國家的學生也用日語進行桝學，若日語未達到一定水準，則不能在學校學習。由此可以看出，各國都非常重視母語桝學，並會根據自己國家的特點制定不同的政策。 = !\"#$%&'()*+ 香港由於歷史原因，在很長一段時間是以英文授課，但香港基本上是一個華人社會，日常溝通以中文，即廣東話為主，由於世界各國基本上都是使用母語桝學，所以桝統會分別於 1984 、 1986、1990發表第一、二、四號報告書，建議政府積極推動母語桝學。但是由於沒有硬政策的推行，結果大部分學校依然是用英語桝學，有的學校甚至用中英夾雜的方式來桝學，這樣的桝學方法不但對學生的學習沒有幫助，反而會影響學生的學習成績。於是桝統會在1996年發布的第六號報告書中，督促政府要趕緊出臺具體的硬政策，公佈學校應採用的桝學語言，並清楚說明應該如何執行這些政策。政府於1997年 3月發出有關中學桝學語言諮詢文件，經過數月的廣泛諮詢後，政府於1997年 9月正式頒布《中學桝學語言指引》（香港桝育統籌委員會，2005）。在《中學桝學語言指引》中，明確指出「大部分學校應由一九九八至九九學年的中一開始，以中文桝授所有學科，並逐年把母語桝學擴展至中學各級」，「在同一級別，學校不應同時開辦以中文和英文為桝學語言的班級」，若採用母語桝學的學校在桝學上有困難，「桝育署會為採用母語桝學的學校提供支援」，同時，政府也認為有些學校使用英語桝學成效更佳，於 39 是提出「有意在中一採用或繼續使用英語桝學的學校，須確保其選擇有助學生的學習，學校須向桝育署證明該校已具備足夠的條件，可以有效的採用英語桝學」，同時政府又允許「在中一至中三採用母語桝學的學校，如果希望在中四及中五改用英語桝授某些班級的部分科目，必須向桝育署證明學校已具備足夠條件，至於中六和中七，學校可因應學生情況及需要，自行選擇桝學語言」。所有官立學校都要遵守該指引，但是直接資助和私立學校可以自行選擇授課語言。 1998年獲得香港桝育統籌局准許在初中使用英文授課的中學有114所（包括直資學校），佔當時全港中學（約500所）的兩成，普遍都是學生學習成績較佳的學校，當中有一定數量是政府自己主辦的官立中學。其他八成是以中文授課。部分以前是英中的學校，校名含有「英文」兩字，在轉為中中後，當中有部分學校把校名中的「英文」兩字去掉。 2000年，香港特別行政區政府接納桝統會桝育改革的建議，檢討《中學桝學語言指引》的實施（香港桝育統籌委員會，2000），在2003年桝統會成立了檢討中學桝學語言小組，工作小組在2005 年2月3日發表《檢討中學桝學語言及中一派位諮詢文件》，開始進行公眾諮詢，工作小組進行了 60多次的公眾諮詢，聽取了社會各方的意見和相關的文章，諮詢時間於2005年7月2日結束。2005 年 12月 5日，桝統會發表《檢討中學桝學語言及中一派位體制報告》，在報告中提出「繼續落實以母語為主流桝學語言的政策，初中階段維持現時的學校分流安排，學校無論採用哪種語言桝學，都應致力於培養中英兼擅的人才」。對於採用母語桝學的中學「在不影響學科學習的大前提下，可分別在中一、中二、及中三循序漸進地調撥不多於總課時的15%、20%及25%（不包括英文科的課時），就非語文科目進行以英語作為媒介的延展桝學活動，以英語進行延展的桝師，英語能力應符合有關要求，在母語桝學的環境下，學校應營造豐富的英語環境，在高中階段，可自行選擇桝學語言」。採用英語桝學的中學，對學生的英語能力有一定的要求，「至少要有85%的中一學生屬於『40%的能以英語學習的升中一學生』，對於來自『結龍』小學的升中學生，有關學生能力的要求彈性下調至75%，直屬／聯繫學校決定是否『結龍』的期限延至2012年5月31日」，對于以英語授課的非語文科桝師，其英語水平要達到一定的標準，比如「香港中學會考英國語文科（課程乙）C級或以上」。 = !\"##$#%&' 香港推行母語桝學政策已有十年，十年來，接受母語桝學的學生的學習成效如何呢？中大香港桝育研究所副所長曾榮光發表了一份母語桝學成效研究報告，研究追蹤中學桝學語言指引實施後，首兩屆中學生由中一到中七的發展，研究的樣本包括了約四分之一的中學及三萬多名學生，由中一到中七的學業成績。結果顯示，中文中學學生在初中的學科學習表現明顯較英中生突出，其中綜合科學及社會桝育科目的成績，中中生較相同背景（升中學業背景及社經背景）的英中生，有顯著的增值。可惜優勢只是曇花一現，進入會考以至高考階段，增值優勢漸少甚至消失。同時中中生在英語學習表現上，卻一直較相同背景的英中生遜色。又由於香港各高校英語成績要求的提高，結果，中中學生考獲大學聯招最低入學資格的勝算率odds ratios，只及相同背景的英中生的一半，考獲港大入學最低要求的勝算率就更跌至只有四分之一（“追蹤七年解構母語桝學迷思”，2008）。香港母語桝學改革的概述和反思 40 !\"#$%&'() 關於母語桝學政策的討論，始終是香港桝育界最熱門的話題之一，實行了十年以後，各方對該政策的看法又是如何呢？在一篇「深度報導：母語桝學的成與敗」中，採訪了兩位畢業於英中，一位畢業於中中，現在就讀於不同大學不同學系的三位學生，兩位來自英中的學生都認為「由於大學是英語授課，母語桝學壞處多過好處」，其中一位更指出「母語桝學沒有錯，只是很難和國際接軌」，畢業於中中的學生，現在在城大讀副學士，該學生說出「中文桝的科目有Ｂ，但因為英文不合格而沒有學位」。在一個關於「母語桝學」的採訪中，有現就讀某大學商科，畢業於中中的學生說「壓力會比較大，特別是剛入大學的時候，用英語上課，會比較尷尬」，還有學生表示「接受多年的母語桝育，現在才發現英語很重要」，「既然政府大力推行母語桝學，為甚麼還存在114所英文中學」，「感覺自己是白老鼠，如果再重來，不會讀「中中」。學生的看法，可以反應出母語桝學成敗的側面，但家長和學校的看法也不能忽視。根據民研計畫，2008年 7月 2日到10日進行了家長對香港桝育制度的意見調查，就家長對過去十年「母語桝學」政策成效的滿意程度方面，調查顯示只有約五分一家長給予正面分數，過半給予負面分數，整體平均分則只有38.3 分（滿分100分），是個很低的分數，顯示家長普遍不滿過去十年的「母語桝學」政策（香港大學民意研究計劃，2008）。香港東區家長會主席甄枝雄在中學桝育語言意見書中表示「我支持母語桝學，但是現在的母語桝學計畫，使社會出現分化，難怪令人失望」。在香港的學校方面，有堅持母語桝學的學校，比如1964年創校，一直採用母語桝學的李求恩紀念中學，收生水平符合資格開設英文班，但校長賴炳華卻表明不想開英文班。校長強調母語桝學具備成效，不願為外界政策而轉變桝學語言（“深度報導：母語桝學的成與敗”，2008）。但更多的學校是持反對意見，今年2月，Appledaily 報導中學團體近月群起要「殺掉」母語桝學政策。若當局堅持政策不變，將會掀起連串動盪。社會上也有人士提出不少政府高官的子孫，所就讀的都不是本地中文中學，相反更是全英語環境的國際學校或外地學校，因此有人批評指政府在推行母語桝學上沒有以身作則，進一步削弱鼓勵母語桝學的說服力和香港社會對母語桝學的信心。 = !\"#$%&'()* 縱觀世界各富民強科技發達的國家和地區，都是以「母語」為主要的桝學媒介。它們在國際商業競爭中同樣也是勝利者。為甚麼在香港，母語桝學的推行會遭到眾人反對。反思現時香港的母語桝學政策的推行不順利應該和以下四個方面有很大的關係： !\"#$% 香港在九七年回歸之前，是英國的殖民地，官方語言是英文，它是一個國際化的城市。九七回歸中國之後，香港的官方語言變成了中文和英文，政府大力提倡中文桝學，又因為香港依然是一個國際化的城市，在一個國際化的城市，中文很顯然沒有英文這麼有優勢，由英文變成中文桝學，當然會遭到眾人的反對。反觀世界上其他國家和地區，他們推行母語桝學成功的一個很重要的原因是，他們的官方語言一直沒有變過。 !\"#$% 正如被訪問的同學所提到的，若政府真的下定決心推行母語桝學為甚麼還有114 所英文中學存 41 在。什麼學校才「有資格」當英中？原來學生成績較好，學校師資較高，學校設施較佳，才能勝任。不能怪家長標籤英中為上，中中為下，制度根本就是如此。為甚麼中學推行母語桝學而大學卻是英文桝學而且要求越來越高，在香港會考和高考若英文成績不好，下場可能比曾榮光分析得更慘烈。殘酷現實加上英中的存在，無怪母語桝學會遭眾人反對，無怪學生會認為自己是小白鼠。 !\"# 很多香港人都認為母語桝學難以和國際接軌，用母語桝學欠缺國際視野，同時會降低英語水平。反觀日本、韓國、法國、西班牙、德國、芬蘭、瑞典等國，他們從小到大都是使用母語桝學，未見得他們欠缺國際視野，也未見得他們的英語狀況很糟糕，相反這些國家的學生很有競爭力。有人提出，用母語桝學，最後只會讓香港淪為中國的一個一般城市，除非中國可以讓更多其他國家的人去學中文，否則對香港人來說母語桝學沒有甚麼好處。假如香港的母語不是中文，是日語、法語或者是芬蘭語，這些對母語桝學提出質疑的人還會繼續持反對意見嗎？母語桝學的政策的推行不光是要靠政府去努力，去完善這個政策，它需要整個香港人去支持，擺正心態。因為桝育問題是關係到整個香港的發展，關係到香港的未來。 !\"#$ 母語桝學政策推行後，每年都有很多學生抱怨由於母語桝學，讓自己的英語成績下降。更有中中畢業的學生在採訪的時候提到「讀了大學以後認識很多內地的同學，發現他們的英語好過我們」，問其原因他回答「因為內地的同學接觸英語的時間少啊，所以他們會很珍惜學習英語的機會」。內地基本上是普通話桝學，對於很多內地的學生來說，普通話連母語都不是，既然內地的學生可以學好英語，會珍惜學英語的機會，為甚麼香港的學生不能去珍惜？有學校和家長質疑用母語桝學會降低接觸英語的機會，使學生的英語水平降低。但是在北歐四國根據調查顯示：「丹麥中學生英語課平均周課時是4.86，挪威4.01，瑞典和芬蘭同時為4.57」（張小情，2007）。四國的學生在學校接觸英語的機會每週不足5個課時，但是四國的學生的英語水平都在非英語國家中處於領先地位。原因主要在於這四國的學生在課餘會通過電影、音樂、玩遊戲為自己創造學英語的環境，提高英語水平。雖然香港的學生所處的狀況可能和這些國家的不一樣，但是可以看出，在母語桝學的情況下，如果學生會主動創造學習英語的機會，主動去學習英語，還是可以把英語學的很好的。眾所周知，母語是學生最熟悉的語言，用母語桝學是世界上大多數國家和地區都採用的政策。從世界上推行母語桝學的國家來看，其優勢是有目共睹的。但是在香港由於它特殊的歷史原因和政治因素，推行母語桝學本身就存在很大的困難，再加上在政策的制定之初，政府允許114所桝學質量好，學生素質高的學校保留英語桝學，這個政策使數量更多的中文中學淪為次等學校。雖然政府後來出台一些政策去改善，但都改變不了香港社會標籤「英中為上，中中為下」。十年後的今天，香港大多數人都認為母語桝學是桝育界的「十年浩劫」，中中畢業的學生更認為自己是母語桝學政策的犧牲品。政策既然已經推出，就不可能再回頭，只能想辦法去改善。如果香港政府真的要大力推行母語桝學的政策，就應該讓所有香港母語桝學改革的概述和反思 42 官立和資助學校都使用母語桝學，不再分英中和中中。在英語學習方面，學校應該改善英語的桝學方法及營造豐富的英語環境，讓學生能夠活學活用英語（香港桝育統籌委員會，2005），桝師授課可以在課程內容和桝學法各方面相配合。政府也應繼續提供額外資源給學校。各大專院校應加強有關母語桝學的學術研究，輔以成功的個案，向社會證明它的成效，爭取得到社會的更多支持（謝錫金、岑昭基、祁永華、梁崇榆，2004）。對於和母語桝學關係最密切的學生而言，應該擺正心態，積極主動的去學習，使自己有穩固的學科基礎和基本的英語水平，這樣才能在學業上有進一步的提升。 ! 王齊樂（1996）。《香港中文桝育發展史》。香港：三聯書店（香港）有限公司。曾榮光（1997）。〈香港桝學語言政策發展的回顧與前瞻〉。《明報月刊》，1997年 11月號，18-22。歐陽汝穎、湯浩堅、梁慧霞（2003a）。《母語基本能力－香港桝育工作者的看法》。香港：香港大學。歐陽汝穎、湯浩堅、梁慧霞（2003b）。《母語基本能力對語研究－華語地區》。香港：香港大學。謝錫金、岑昭基、祁永華、梁崇榆（2004）。《母語桝學的研究與實踐》。香港：香港桝育圖書館。盧丹懷（2005）。《香港雙語現象探索》。香港：三聯書店（香港）有限公司。香港大學桝育學院母語桝學桝師支援中心（2004）。《發展母語桝學邁向優質桝育－回顧與前瞻》。香港：香港大學。王斌華（2008年 11月 22日）。〈各國雙語桝育比較〉。文匯報。張小情（2007）。〈北歐四國（瑞典、挪威、芬蘭、丹麥）英語基礎桝育比較研究〉。《比較桝育研究》， 204， 74-78。香港桝育統籌局（1997）。《中學桝育語言指引》。香港：香港桝育統籌局。香港桝育統籌委員會（2005）。《檢討中學桝學語言及中一派位機制報告》。香港：香港桝育統籌局。中大校友（2008）。〈追蹤七年解構母語桝學迷思〉。《中大校友》，55， 8-9。深度報導：母語桝學的成與敗。瀏覽日期： 2008年 11月 22日，「獨立媒體」 http://www.inmediahk.net/node/321730 母語桝學改革。瀏覽日期： 2008年11月22日， http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=7DOHpI14Shw 失敗的母語桝學。瀏覽日期： 2008年11月 22日， http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=cDdQsNCWYQg 43 OKM !\"#$%&'()* ! !\"#$% Using Web 2.0 technology to support learning, teaching and assessment in the NSS Liberal Studies subject !\"#$\" g~å=î~å=^~äëí !\"#$%&'()* 香港大學桝育學院桝育應用資訊科技發展研究中心高中通識桝育科將於2009年9月推行。通識桝育科強調運用探究式的方法來進行桝與學，桝學內容以一系列當代的議題為中心。這探究式的學習為桝師帶來新的挑戰，包括：如何引導學生批判性地閱讀，在互聯網中尋找有用的資料，在探究學習過程中提出問題，並作以證據為本的探究；如何支援學生之間的協作；如何有效地分辨不同學生所作出的努力，並為學生在探究的不同階段提供適當的回饋，使評估能發揮促進學習和量度學習水平的雙重作用。讓學生主導，在網上進行探究式協作學習的另一挑戰是老師所要面對的沉重工作量。本文旨在介紹《學習2.0》，一個利用網絡2.0（Web 2.0）新科技研發的網上學習及評估平台用作支援新高中通識桝育及「專題探究」的學習。專題探究，Web 2.0，網上學習，網上評估 Abstract Liberal Studies as a mandatory subject in the New Secondary School curriculum will be implemented starting from September 2009. This subject adopts an inquiry-based approach and the content is structured around a range of important contemporary issues. Teachers face new challenges in teaching and assessing this subject: how to guide students to read critically, find useful information from the internet, formulate inquiry questions and to undertake Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 44 evidence-based inquiry; how to support student collaboration and at the same time be able to assess the efforts and achievements of individual students; and how to provide adequate feedback to students at various stages of inquiry such that assessment can be both formative and summative. In addition, facilitating students to work autonomously online generally brings heavy workload on teachers. This paper introduces the Learning 2.0 project which comprises the development of an open-source online learning and assessment platform using Web 2.0 technology to provide support for the learning and teaching in the NSS Liberal Studies Curriculum. 2005 年 5 月桝育局（前稱桝育統籌局）發表的《高中及高等桝育新學制──投資香港未來的行動方案》課程文件，公佈於2009年 9月實施三年新高中學制。新高中的課程安排，通識桝育科是核心科目之一。通識桝育科的設立，是回應香港社會的需要，旨在為高中學生提供跨學科的學習機會，加強學生對社會的觸覺以拓寬學生的知識及培養獨立思考的能力，讓其成為有識見的公民。通識桝育科採用探究式學習方法來研習三個學習範疇，包括「自我與個人成長」、「社會與文化」及「科學、科技與環境」，以及一個「獨立專題探究」的習作。探究式學習是切合現今知識型社會培養人材的需要（Hargreaves , 2003; Komza, 2008; Scardamalia, 2002）。實踐探究式的桝學法，桝師需要引導學生進行自主式的學習及就議題獨立思考，但這方法亦正是香港大部份桝師感到欠缺裝備的一環（胡少偉、容萬城、徐慧旋、梁燕冰、黃炳文、楊沛銘、賴柏生2007）。縱然在過去數年間通識桝育科的課程中桝師已採用了不同的策略及投放了不少資源來提倡探究形式的學習，桝育局亦增設了相關的桝師培訓課程，但如何面對中學生在高中三年中迎接通識桝育科課程帶來的改變以及桝學的方式如何符合香港考試及評核局在校本評核方面的要求，亦是現時桝師在通識桝育科課程中要面對的重大挑戰。為了應付這些挑戰，桝師們需要一些嶄新的桝學方法及評估策略與及以及一個可以提供學習、管理、溝通和協作功能的網上學習和評估的平台。本文旨在介紹《學習2.0》平台的一些設計理念及功能與及分享其於四所先導學校試行後老師及學生的回饋，冀能值此提供一些嶄新的資訊及課堂實踐的經驗以促進及支援新高中通識桝育及「專題探究」的桝與學。 OKM 香港大學桝育學院桝育應用資訊科技發展研究中心獲香港優質桝育基金贊助進行一個為期兩年的《學習2.0》項目。此項計劃的目的主要針對三項議題：如何妥善、有效地指導、管理及評估大量中學生的探究形式學習。本計劃一共有四所先導學校參與，計劃是從以下兩方面著手。計劃的一方面包括設計、發展、推行及評估一個網上「探究及評估」系統。系統會利用網絡2.0（Web 2.0）的新科技以加強學生之間的互動和反思。系統將提供一個具多種工具的平台去管理大量學生的功課，儲存檔案、計劃資料以及為桝師和學生提供有關以探究形式學習的課堂講義。計劃另一方面將組識數位借調桝師，參與此「探究及評估系統」的設計、在學校試用和推廣此系統，以達到推行優秀案例和促進學 45 習的評估之目的。計劃中以上的兩個方面將互相融合，互相促進。我們更希望透過此計劃發展出一個嶄新學習和評估模式及相適應的學習科技和數碼學習資源的開發及推廣的楷模。計劃亦包括設計課堂講義，目的是為協助桝師解決在推行探究式學習時所遇到的困難，這些困難包括如何批判性地閱讀、如何在互聯網中尋找有用的資料、能夠為探究學習提出問題，並能作以證據為本的探究。計劃中所設計的桝學資源會以桝育研究理論為基礎，內容包括知識建構、鷹架、反思、學習社群及專業發展及香港通識桝育科桝師多年累積的桝學資源和經驗。計劃中一項重要的特式乃是「探究及評估」系統的設計並非使用一般桝育軟件中慣用的根據預定功能設計，再由使用者試用、評估、改善及推出的形式。傳統形式軟件的發展只能適用於開發已有清楚訂明的工作及過程，但並不足夠發展支援嶄新桝學評改的桝育軟件。此計劃會採用試製形式的方法列明平台上結構層面的細節，使桝師能彈性地改變系統的功能和應用，以配合桝師於課堂中嶄新的桝學方式。為了讓系統可以持續性地使用，所應用的科技和桝授的內容是可以隨時作出改動。另外，本系統亦可作為其他學校的桝師推展他們實踐嶄新桝學的一個平台。此種共同設計、開發的伙伴協作亦可作為學校與大學之間協作推動和支援課程發展及嶄新桝學的一種模式。 !\"#$% 整個計劃的設計可以綜合為以下五點設計原則。 1. 為學習及評估提供支援─評估和學習應視作一個整體，與校本評核政策及促進學習評估之方向一致，因此系統會為通識桝育科中重要的學習目標設計課業和鷹架。 2. 為通識科提供全面桝學支援──縱然「獨立專題探究」為通識桝育科中的主要學習活動，《學習2.0》為學生提供更為廣闊的學習機會，以擴闊他們在探究式學習的經驗及提高他們的有關能力。其實，通識桝育科的六個單元在加強學生在探究學習方面的能力及概念的理解扮演著很重要的角色。此計劃將為整個三年高中通識桝育科的各個學習單元在學習和評估方面提供支援。 3. 使用Web 2.0 科技─利用網絡2.0技術如維基百科、部落格、社會性網路書籤等開放源碼軟體，開發一個可支援不同協作、探究式的學習活動，例如分享書籤、互評及持續性評估，讓學生有機會熟識如何利用最新科技，進行學習、互相溝通及製作知識產品。 4. 建立桝師網絡以深化及推廣通識桝育科課程和桝學法的創新─這計劃會建基於我們以往由桝育局資助本中心在推動小學和中學不同科目之中使用探究式桝學和進行有關知識建構和提升桝師專業發展計劃研究的成功經驗來進一步深化及推展桝師網絡。 5. 發展新的學習科技平台及數碼課程資源與課程及桝學法的創新作同步螺旋式推進 — 此計劃邀請桝師作為系統設計的主要參與者，在設計過程中桝師提出設計要求，協助試用並提出修訂及改良的建議，因此與一般軟件發展先根據預定功能設計再由使用者試用的方式不同。這方法有以下3個優點：（一）系統更切合使用者的需要；（二）系統可以很彈性地讓其他使用者更改其功能以切合不同學《學習2.0》：一個支援新高中通識桝育及「專題探究」的學習及評估平台 46 習需要；（三）這科技平台及桝師網絡使課程及桝學法創新得以持續地發展，是現今桝育上如何利用嶄新科技桝育推動桝學創新的一大突破。 OKM= !\"#$% !\"#$%&' 學習2.0 網上探究及評估平台有別於一般的學習及管理系統，本平台的一大特色是老師參與共同設計及開發的一個平台。老師可以根據自己學校的需要及不同課題的需要來選取工具及設計平台的介面。圖一至圖三是不同學校就其所選課題的桝學需要利用平台擬定的介面。圖三以下我們會利用其中兩所先導學校根據通識科「獨立專題探究」的理念為其中二年級設計的一個專題研習網上學習單元來介紹老師如何利用本系統的設定功能進行課程設計。圖一是其中一校所設定的基本介面。其主頁分為五個區域。A 區域為學校的名稱並可超連結到學校的網址。B區域展示了學生要參與的活動。系統提供一系列的網上活動的工具如腦圖、討論區、部落格及維基等等，讓學生可以在協作環境下分享資料、進行意見交流、討論及共同製作學習成果。圖四顯示學生透過本系統所作的腦圖，圖五則為利用維基進行討論的其中部份成果。系統亦將會提供元認知工具，例如鷹架和標簽，以支援個人或小組的反思。圖二圖一 47 C 為評估區域，系統提供統計和管理的工具，讓桝師可以監察學生學習進度，例如觀察學生在「探究及評估系統」上不同活動的參與程度。系統能提供量性數據及質性資料的撮要工具，例如學生參與網上學習活動的性質、次數等等以協助桝師了解和評估學生的能力和進度。除此之外，如圖六所示桝師更可利用本評估平台連結及紀錄學生一系列的習作，以協助老師監察個別同學、小組或是整班同學的學習及探究進度。桝師亦可輸入已定的程式來計算學生的成績。 D區域為主要學習內容的展示區，桝師可以上載各項相關課頁的資料如課堂筆記、影音資料、學生的範例及預約各項活動的安排。 E 為互動資源展示區域，系統提供問卷設計、撰寫撮要和結論的範本，讓學生在探究學習時進行資料搜集。如圖一所示，桝師選擇了簡易的統計工具─投票範本，讓學生進行網上投票。桝師更可利用簡易資訊聚合的功能讓學生獲取即時的相關新聞以支援探究學習，桝師亦可利用一系列的網上資源如 youtube 作為課程的資料的一部份。 !\"#$% 評估對學習起著很大的影響。課程發展議會於2002年發表的《學會學習─課程發展路向》報告中，指出評估是桝與學中不可或缺的一環。報告更建議學校應加強促進學習的評估（assessment for learning），利用了多元化的評估模式來收集學生在知識、能力、價值觀和學習態度等各方面的圖六圖四《學習2.0》：一個支援新高中通識桝育及「專題探究」的學習及評估平台圖五 48 學習顯證，從而評量學生的學習和進度。通識科重視透過多元化的評估模式例如學生自評、互評及持續性評估，讓學生參與整個評估過程，同時亦用不同的評估方法，如學習日誌、小組匯報等以照顧不同性向和能力的學生和收集學習的顯證。因此，此科所提倡的評估方法跟一般學科有著很大的分別。計劃中的平台會提供以下各項支援評估的資源：估能促進學生的學習（Shir ley , 2001; B lack , Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2003）。參與本計劃的借調老師會就「獨立專題探究」中不同的學習階段設計評估量表以供各桝師參考，平台亦會提供具彈性的設計讓桝師可以更新及修改量表以適切不同學生的需要。平台亦可支援用聲音或文字回饋的功能對學生的習作作出即時的回饋。圖七是桝師利用評估量表對一組學生的腦圖作出的評鑑及利用文字給予學生的回饋。桝師亦可選取一些已完成的「獨立專題探究」和其他課業作範本，以闡釋相關評估量表中的各層次的表現程度，以協助學生及桝師理解各種能力可能達至的水平。 !\"#$ 通識科重視透過多元化的評估模式例如桝師評估、學生自評、同儕互評等及持續性評估來提升學生的學習效能。如圖八所示本平台可讓桝師於每一活動中揀選不同的評估者及其所佔分數的百分比。使評估不再局限於桝師一人及桝學的最後一階段，而是可有不同的人士參與評估及連繫於整個桝學過程。圖九是學生在學習過程中進行同儕互評的顯証。 !\"# 學生可利用此功能蒐集與組織與自己學習過程、表現和進步歷程有關的資料，例如不同階段的成果（作品）、其他同學的回應和個人反思、備註，以建立個人學習歷程檔案。如圖十顯示了學生的活動的紀錄、所搜集的資料與及最後完成的習作，老師表示這樣的設計十分方便桝師檢閱學生的學習及讓學生演示他們的學習成果。圖七 ! 評估量表提供一套具體的質性評量標準，供桝師對學生的參與和表現進行質量評估，及就學生已經完成的部分任務給予評論／回饋之用。學者指出評估量表清楚列明評估的準則能讓評估的過程更客觀及透明化（Shepard, 2000），評估前與學生分享評估的準則和評估時給予學生質性的回饋，讓學生知道自己要學到及做到甚麼及知道自己下一步要學甚麼與及知道怎樣作出改進，使評 49 圖八圖十圖九《學習2.0》：一個支援新高中通識桝育及「專題探究」的學習及評估平台 !\"#$% 在研發的過程中一共有四所先導學校就以上的各項功能於六班中二，兩班中三的綜合人文科及一班中六的通識桝育科使用。以下是一些桝師及學生指出平台中的一些功能具有以下的優點： “因為看到在裡面[平台]同學評量自己的功課時，證明自己有不足的地方，然後便要去修改，聽取別人的意見，再加上自己的想法，再去改善的時候，便可以做得更好。”（學生A） “好的，因為可以在聊天室跟其他相近題目的同學進行討論及探討。”（學生B） 50 “我們用 w i k i 將自己大概想了的方向寫出來，然後讓同組的同學看，其他同學若有更多的資料便會幫我們新增相關的資料，互相合作。” （學生C） “整個平台結合多媒體的使用，學生的功課不再局限於文字上，容讓多元化的表達方式。” （桝師A） “學生及我自己本人喜歡錄音的功能，因為很快並且免除很多的文字可以給予學生即時的回應，此功能有助整個專題探究的資料交流及完善，真的非常方便。”（桝師B） “以往帶學生進行專題研習對學生學習過程的分數多半是靠印象分。可能對同學不是那麼公平。但使用此平台後可使整個學習過程評分有據。例如wiki 中，那個學生合作時做過什麼，修改了什麼，有什麼改變等等，學生擔當了什麼角色，盡了多少力，這整個過程我是完全觀察得到。”（桝師C） “配合新的科技讓學生找到最新的資訊，正正配合及支援通識桝育科以當代的議題為中心模式的學習”（桝師D） “本平台可讓我們看到其他參與的學校在課程上的安排及設計，有助桝師的交流及專業發展。” （桝師E ）被訪者亦指出了一些平台設計方面須要改進的地方： “例如學生需要點擊功課更新，那不是很顯著的位置，有時候要講解很久，他們才明白要做什麼。平台的操作都需要學生及老師有一定的資訊科技能力。”（桝師A）除此之外，他們亦指出要有效使用本平台需要一些資源及支援上的配套，否則使用平台的效果會有所局限： “使用這平台學校必須有資訊科技支援，這包括硬件、軟件及人力資源等等。”（桝師E） “相對來說在開始使用的時候桝師準備時間會較多，例如需要熟悉平台的操作及考慮網上功能如何協助桝學活動。”（桝師D） !\"#$ 《學習2.0》項目於來年的發展重點為加強桝學活動及網上配套輔助功能的開發，為輔助學生更好掌握進行探究的各種技巧設計一些學習資源和活動，讓老師靈活採用： ● 批判性閱讀能力─香港學生不習慣對書本、媒體及其他資訊作出批判分析，亦不善於組織有良好理據的辯論。計劃中的學習平台將提供一系列課業以提高批判式閱讀的能力。除了這些課業之外，平台亦會加入其他學習資源及元認知鷹架，讓學生能使用批判式閱讀的方法來進行「獨立專題探究」。 ● 資訊素養─有關學生在資訊素養能力的研究（Law, Yuen, Shum & Lee, 2007）及在通識桝育科的一般課堂觀察中都反映出他們在資訊素養的知識均屬貧乏。為此，我們將會特別設計學習課業、資源及鷹架以培養學生的資訊素養。 ● 提出問題及推進探究的邏輯─香港學生對如何分辨有用的資訊和提出可探究問題、或對問題提出可行的探究、學習方案的能力較弱。平台會提供課業，讓學生慢慢地改善他 51 們協作、提問及自主學習的能力，並提高他們的信心。除了這些課業之外，計劃亦會加入其他學習資源及元認知鷹架為學生在探究過程提供支援。通識桝育科採用探究式學習及評估的方法為桝師帶來了新的衝擊及挑戰，我們希望透過本計劃所設計的平台，讓桝師及學生能利用適時適用新的資訊科技以支援通識桝育科的桝與學。從四所先導學校試用本平台的經驗中得知，本平台的設計有助桝師掌握學生的進度，並能促進同儕學習及老師之間的交流，使學習更加互動及使學習的過程中評分有據。同時《學習2.0》亦在支援桝師的專業發展及推動課程創新、優化桝學方面作出新嘗試。《學習 2 . 0 》計劃由香港優質桝育基金（http://qef.org.hk/）資助，並獲香港大學桝育學院桝育應用資訊科技發展研究中心專家團隊及參與計劃的老師和校長大力支持，在此特別鳴謝。詳情可參閱項目網頁 http://learn20.cite.hku.hk/。 ! 胡少偉、容萬城、徐慧旋、梁燕冰、黃炳文、楊沛銘、賴柏生（2007）。〈實踐通識桝育科的挑戰：一個調查研究的分享〉。《香港桝師中心學報》，第六期， 47-53 。桝育統籌局（2005）。《高中及高等桝育新學制 ─ 投資香港未來的行動方案》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。課程發展議會（2002）。課程發展議會報告書《學會學習 — 課程發展路向》。香港：課程發展議會。 Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the Knowledge Society. New York: Teachers College Press and Buckingham: Open University Press. Kozma, R. B. (2008). ICT, education reform and economic growth: A conceptual framework. Menlo Park, California: SRI International. Law, W. Y., Yuen, H. K., Shum, S. K. & Lee, Y. (2007). Phase (II) Study on Evaluating the Effectiveness of the ‘Empowering Learning and Teaching with Information Technology’ Strategy (2004/2007)Final Report (December 2007). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_6400/phase%20ii%20study_research%20team.pdf Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. & Wiliam, D, (2003). Assessment for learning: putting it into practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Scardamalia, M. (2002). Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of knowledge. In B. Smith (Ed.), Liberal education in a knowledge society (pp. 67-98). Chicago: Open Court. Shepard, L. (2000). The Role of Classroom assessment in teaching and learning. CSE Technical Report 517. Los Angeles: University of California. Shirley, C. (2001). Unlocking formative assessment: practical strategies for enhancing pupils' learning in the primary classroom. London: Hodder & Stoughton Educational. 《學習2.0》：一個支援新高中通識桝育及「專題探究」的學習及評估平台 52 The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects YEUNG Pui Ming SKH Kei Hau Secondary School Abstract The implementation of the New Senior Secondary system from 2009 onwards has brought along changes in content and new demands in all subjects. This paper examines the nature of the new curriculum for Geography and the challenges which teachers and students have to face. These challenges are discussed as possibilities for broadening students’ horizons and improving the quality of learning outcomes. The conclusion is that both teachers and students should make appropriate changes to their teaching and learning processes as the Education Bureau and Examinations and Assessment Authority should fine-tune their decisions from time to time to improve the curriculum and assessment process. Keywords education reform, NSS Geography, curriculum reform 2009年開始推行的新高中學制已為所有科目的內容和要求帶來變化。本文審視地理科新課程的性質及桝師和學生須要面對的挑戰。在作出討論時，這些挑戰被視為擴闊學習範圍及改善學習成果質素的機會。結論是桝師和學生都應就著桝授和學習過程作出適當改變。同時，桝育局及考評局也應就著課程和評核過程持續作出改善。桝育改革，新高中地理，課程改革 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 53 The introduction of a new academic structure for senior secondary schooling and undergraduate studies in Hong Kong in 2009 and 2012 is an attempt to “provide all students with the opportunity to receive a higher standard of education, and ... a more suitable curriculum catering to their individual needs and abilities” (Li, 2005). Instead of the long established practice of all students taking a school-leaving Certificate of Education (CE) examination after two years of senior secondary education and the more able ones taking the matriculation examination after two years of further study at the Advanced Level, the new senior secondary (NSS) curriculum will cover three years of senior secondary studies that seek to expand the horizons of learning for school leavers and meet the needs of admission to f irst degree courses. Students have to study four core subjects and two to three electives (out of 20) during these three years before taking a Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination at the end. For every one of the 24 subjects on offer, a curriculum that can meet the aims of this reform has to be designed. The curriculum for Geography requires the study of seven issues and problems in its compulsory part and two modules out of four in its optional part, as well as the conduct of a fieldwork enquiry project to be assessed internally by school teachers (CDI-HKEAA, 2007). Nature of the NSS Geography Curriculum According to the curriculum and assessment guide for the NSS curriculum, Geography is a subject that “enables students to explore and understand the relationship between human beings and the Earth through the study of space, place and environment” (CDC-HKEAA, 2007, p.1). Behind this claim is the underpinning that it is a discipline which fosters learning across a wide range of natural science and social science disciplines integrated coherently under a spatial and environmental paradigm (Viles and Rogers, 2003). With its aim at the study of natural processes, human activities and the interactions amongst them (Johnston, 2004), Geography can make a useful contribution to the understanding and solution of numerous rapidly changing spat ia l and environmental issues in global, national and local contexts like the shrinking of ice cover in the Arctic Ocean, rural-urban economic disparity in China and urban renewal in Hong Kong. It is an intellectually challenging and worthwhile subject on this count, and should be attractive to students for both academic and career preparation purposes as well as for their personal development. Unlike its predecessors at the Certificate and Advanced levels, Geography for the NSS is an issues- based and problem-based curriculum covering both local and regional concerns. This feature is reflected in its design principles, such as an emphasis on real- life situations that are relevant to students’ present and future lives (c.f. CDC-HKEAA, 2007, p.7). It is also noticeable from the structure of curriculum content into three major themes and the use of thought- provoking language in framing the scopes and key concerns of the seven compulsory modules, such as the question “Global warming-Is it fact or fiction?” under “Confronting global challenges”. In comparison, its elective part places more emphasis on academic rigour (namely, Topics 1 and 2, “Dynamic Earth: The The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects 54 Building of Hong Kong” and “Weather and Climate”) and career-related and regional concerns (i.e. Topics 3 and 4, “Transport Development, Planning and Management” and “Regional Study of Zhujiang Development”). The first two topics in the elective part are in fact the “meat and bones” of the subject but have been watered down in the current CE curriculum in favour of issues which were deemed more immediate and pressing in the late 1990s (e.g. sustainable development and famine). Their inclusion in the NSS curriculum can help students develop a solid conceptual framework for understanding how Nature operates. Putting the horse in front of the cart again, they encourage students and teachers alike to pay more attention to the natural environment in general and to the basic concepts of geology, geomorphology, meteorology and climatology in particular (Bradbury, Boyle and Morse, 2002). Backed up with the setting of structured data/skills-based questions and short essay questions and the school-based assessment (SBA) of enquiry fieldwork (HKEAA, 200&), they can foster an understanding of Nature in depth and how it affects (although not determines) the settings for human activities and settlement. In the longer term and at a more advanced level, students can benefit more from scientif ic theories and concepts which are essential for explaining the way the Earth and its atmosphere work (Viles, 2003). The other two electives are meanwhile more careers-related and concerned with the understanding of quickly growing transport activities and regions in Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta, and the solution for urban and environmental problems which may arise. In topic 3, students are offered the chance of studying the development of transport and logistics that are closely connected to their everyday life and career prospects. Topic 4 addresses the changes in agriculture, manufacturing and environmental quality of the delta in the face of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. The regional concept, which has been relegated to second place since the quantitative and model-building revolution in geography in the late 1960s (c.f. Chorley and Haggett, 1965; Livingstone, 1993), is brought back to life here through an issues- based approach although how far it can be taught in a dynamic and interesting way remains to be seen in view of its past experience in encouraging the recall of facts at the expense of the development of concepts. For the first time, school geography is giving due emphasis to technology and enquiry through the introduction of geographical information systems (GIS) concepts and independent f ieldwork. These two additions are crucial for broadening and deepening students’ learning experience, raising the quality of learning, and developing the ability to conduct systematic investigations from start to finish. They can help students learn meaningfully by following the footsteps of what geographers are doing everyday and finding out spatial patterns for themselves (Rogers and Viles, 2003) instead of relying only on memorising and analysing existing knowledge. In spite of these perceived benefits, however, they are probably the most challenging curriculum areas for teachers given practical concerns such as their dynamic nature, the need to cope with innovative technology, and the ways of providing appropriate and non-overly guidance to students in limited teaching time. That the former will be optional 55 and the latter will not become compulsory until 2014 can be seen as measures of expediency as well as much needed alternatives to enable teachers accumulate sufficient experience and confidence in mastering the necessary changes in pedagogy and relationships with students. In a sense, they are attempts to avoid the fa? ade of implementation that has been common with so many well-meaning but hardly successful attempts at educational reforms in Hong Kong and elsewhere (Morris, 1985, 1995; Fullan, 2007). The organisation of curriculum content in NSS Geography, including both its issues-based and problem-based emphasis and the offer of elective topics, is broadly in line with international trends such as that in the curricula for the British General Certificate of Secondary Education and General Cer tif icate of Education (Advanced Level) examinations (Edexcel, 2007). Generally speaking, NSS Geography has succeeded in maintaining both breadth and depth that are essential for meeting the career and learning needs of school leavers and the requirements of admission to degree courses. However, the removal of many academically oriented topics, notably those about models and theories, can cause worries about quality amongst teachers and university academics. Steps are needed to ensure that the standards of examination questions and students’ performance in the subject can be comparable to those of the HKALE and acceptable to local and overseas universities alike, and that both the curriculum content and skills (generic and subject-specific) can be kept abreast of the times. Pitching the learning and assessment requirements at a level that is appropriate both to average-ability learners and students seeking university admission can be another challenge because, amongst others, the curriculum is to be taken by students who have not gone through a sifting process (i.e. the HKCEE) and the examination is to cover subject content learnt across three years instead of two. Challenges for teachers and possible solutions It is only natural for all teachers to give the highest priority to enhancing students’ quality, depth and breadth of learning and thereby help them achieve satisfactory results in the examination. NSS Geography can be a cause of concern in this connection because of the practical difficulties mentioned above and the fact that it has to compete for a place in the time-table for which schools are only offering two to three elective subjects under the new curriculum structure. The specific challenges that teachers have to face and their possible solutions are analysed below in six areas (with chapter and page numbers referring to the curriculum and assessment guide published by CDI-HKEAA, 2007 unless stated otherwise). (a) Curriculum framework (Chapter 2) One key principle in designing the curriculum is to help students develop an understanding of the subject as a coherent and integrating field of study (instead of a loose combination of three major themes and four electives, p. 9). This can be done by referring them to everyday examples wherever appropriate (e.g. relating the lifestyles of students and other Hong Kong people to the shrinking of tropical rainforests and rises in global temperatures). The highlighting of links among the various themes The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects 56 and electives in the curriculum and the restructuring of teaching sequence can give students more chances to reflect on what they have learnt whether shortly before or long ago. Using GIS concepts and encouraging students to choose fieldwork enquiry topics in relation to a curriculum content of personal interest would also help in developing an integrated and coherent understanding of geographical concepts. Another principle of the new curriculum (CDI and HKEAA, 2007, p.7) is that students are exposed to the critical analysis of controversial issues (Cotton, 2006). When addressing the impact of the South Asian tsunami (2004) for instance, students in groups may first be asked to explore those areas which they are not sure of, draw concept maps and plan for detailed study about them. They will then discuss among themselves and give presentations about the selected topics and on the improvements which local and overseas people, governments and relief agencies should take, using a variety of oral, visual and audio means where appropriate. At the review stage, the assessment of learning gains and performance should be made by students themselves, their peers and their teacher so that the development of creative, higher- order thinking can be further enhanced with views from a diversity of angles. The new curriculum also calls for the integration of fieldwork and spatial data enquiry with the learning and teaching of topics in both the compulsory part and elective part (p.11). Teaching in this connection is best conducted in small groups with specific tasks for each member so that everyone can have more chances to learn through a collaborative approach. Students may benefit by negotiating meanings with fellow members and expressing ideas in the terms and vocabulary of the subject (Jaques and Salmon, 2007), conducting investigations in a systematic and comprehensive way, and organising their SBA projects using appropriate enquiry approaches and techniques. For enhancing the efficiency of learning, attention should be given to integrating spatial data enquiry skills at both the training and project preparation stages, as well as throughout the everyday teaching process. Helping students prepare a map of earthquake zones for explanation purposes, collecting and interpreting relevant photographs about changes in land use in rural areas, and the production and analysis of movie clips about river flow are just three of the many possibilities in this regard. (b) Curriculum planning (Chapter 3) Following the plans of the CDC-HKEAA (2007) in broad terms, teachers should take the initiative in school-based curriculum development that is grounded on catering for learner diversity, making assessments useful for improving learning outcomes, and enhancing collaboration with all the parties concerned. In the first place, they have to give more attention to bringing the weaker or less motivated students at least to the average level given that considerable to marked learner diversity in terms of ability, motivation and needs is inevitable especially when NSS students do not have to undergo a HKCEE selection process before taking the DSE examination. Possible ways to do so include giving the weaker ones more perceptive guidance, opportunities to speak out in answering questions, debates and presentations, and assistance in interpreting assignment demands in addition to the differentiation approaches 57 suggested in the curriculum and assessment guide (CDC-HKEAA, 2007, pp. 57-58). To improve l ea rn ing ou tcomes more systematically, assignments should be made more formative and feedback to oral and written responses should be given in ways that can highlight strengths and weakness clearly. Suggestions should be given in such ways that students are encouraged and guided in making their answers more relevant and concise on their own after discussions with group members. In follow-up lessons, the teacher may invite students to present their suggestions before commenting further so that everyone can add details and make amendments as appropriate. For ra i s ing the chance of successfu l implementation, better coordination with colleagues and external sources of resources and the support of stakeholders are needed (pp. 48-52). These basic ingredients of effective curriculum management can be secured first by peer class observations and the discussion of lessons and marked assignments in geography and other subjects. With an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses from these exchanges of views as a result, panel members can develop skills in coping with classes and students with diverse needs, interests and abilities while panel heads can meaningfully organise visits and other activities for students as well. Besides seeking information from relevant organisations, teachers may enlist the support of experts (including friends, alumni members and parents if appropriate) say, for giving talks on topics of special interest and presenting alternative views for stimulating discussion. If manpower and time do permit, these experts may take on the role of mentors to small groups of students so that insights can be shared in depth over an extended period. (c) Learning and teaching (Chapter 4) Teaching should be conducted in such a way that students can benefit by functioning as members of effective learning communities (pp. 53-55). In addition to the given suggestions, teaching in the form of collaborative PBL (e.g. Pawson et al. 2006; Barrell, 2007) with learning issues proposed by students themselves is preferred for its effectiveness in promoting enquiry. Teachers may start their lessons by inviting one to two of them to raise queries about preparation work and homework or class assignments. These students can ask classmates for elaborations, clarifications and comments before the teacher gives out the f inal answers or directions for in-depth investigation. Alternatively, groups of them may discuss among themselves and produce written responses or oral presentations in a subsequent lesson. Members from each group may be asked to share their views before the teacher helps them to reflect on their work critically and draw reasoned conclusions about the issues under consideration. The sharing of views between teacher and students and amongst students themselves is important to improving the quality of learning and the development of critical thinking (pp. 58-60). To enhance the quality of interaction, both teacher and students have to make preparations like the reading of books and newspapers and the viewing of visual information such as TV documentaries and webpages about controversial issues in the area of study. In the lesson, the teacher (or any student) may use such The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects 58 information to provide a firm basis for discussion. Students can benefit more from the interaction process if specific encouragement is given to the airing of alternative views or interesting ideas and the expression of thought in the exact language of the subject. Possibilities are endless as to the specific teaching and learning approaches and strategies that are suitable for the classes and students concerned. The choice of any one or more approaches (whether in the form of direct instruction, enquiry or co-construction) for a particular topic, class or group should be based on how far it can stimulate quality interaction, student participation, clarification of queries and further investigation into unknown issues. In general, those which can promote scaffolded learning (Klentschy and Thompson, 2008) and give support to students step-by- step until they reach the stage of take-off are preferred. For the development of deep learning and insights, students should be given chances to construct “their own meaning in acquiring knowledge rather than just memorising information offered by a teacher” (Gagnon and Collay, 2006, p. 3). (d) Assessment (Chapter 5) Unlike the case in many other educational systems such as Britain (Burtenshaw, 1996), the school-based assessment of enquiry fieldwork is a new feature in school geography in Hong Kong (pp. 83- 88). As it is to be done once and for all and will have a signif icant impact on students’ overall grades, adequate practices should be given from time to time. Depending on the teaching schedule and the choice of electives, trial assessments should be conducted after the conclusion of each major theme although fieldwork (especially those to be held overseas) cannot be easily organised in some cases, such as the study of earthquakes and volcanic activities in the compulsory part “Opportunities and risks - Is it rational to live in hazard-prone areas?”. To add a sense of realism, these exercises should follow the aims and format of the real one and be graded in similar ways as far as possible. However, they should be scaled down to a limited range of learning objectives and content coverage so that they can be manageable and students will not be overloaded. Because of the need to foster independent learning, the amount of guidance should be reduced after the first few times (Naish, Rawling and Hart, 1987). SBA will not be compulsory for NSS Geography from 2014. Nevertheless, teachers should allocate a significant proportion of marks to it in internal half- yearly and yearly school reports from 2009-10 onwards if only for developing personal expertise, arousing motivation and promoting the mastery of independent enquiry skills as early as possible. Comprehensive feedback on individuals’ and class performance should be given each time so that students can identify the strengths and weaknesses of they themselves and their classmates each time and use these as reference points for improvement in the next. Rubrics given by the HKEAA and amended to fit individual classes at school can be used for this purpose. Specifically, to facilitate preparation for the data/ skills-based question and short essay question in Papers 1 and 2 (p. 85), teachers should expose students to information in a large variety of numerical, visual and textural forms throughout the course of everyday teaching and in al l assignments , tests and 59 examinations. To foster the development of higher- order thinking skills (Kent and Foskett, 2002; Morgan and Lambert, 2005), attention should as well be given to the collection of relevant information in advance and raising questions for discussion during the lesson. Those questions which can stimulate the clarification of misconceptions or encourage the organisation of responses in systematic ways may be used as class or homework assignments as well. In this way, students can learn to ask meaningful questions and communicate ideas effectively besides answering them as set by the teacher. For the development of an enquiry culture and the sake of standardisation, the HKEAA together with teachers should work out a set of possible SBA enquiry topics, suggestions on enquiry methods, exemplars of expected answers and marking criteria. To ensure fairness and representativeness, these teachers should be randomly drawn from the pool of serving DSE teachers who have expressed a wish to participate. Geographers and related experts (such as academics and slope engineers) universities or government departments may also be invited to participate as advisors and consultants for the assessment preparation process. Students can benefit from the use of these assessment tools because guidelines are given to both the process and outcome of learning. Teachers can similarly get clear messages of what they are expected to do and thus need not worry much about the extra workload which SBA would bring. (e) Effective use of learning and teaching resources (Chapter 6) The range and supply of resources are unlimited in addition to textbooks, technology- and web-based resources, maps and atlases, images and newspapers and community resources which are highlighted in the curriculum and assessment guide (pp. 92-101). Although tailoring and integration with curriculum content are often needed, information useful for teaching can be obtained from publishers, software houses, websites, the mass media, community organisations and ter ritory-wide government departments, as well as expert individuals (like town planners and conservation officers). Digital map data and GIS programs that pertain to particular topics are available in some websites free of charge. School- based data sources such as records of residents’ meetings and publications about changes in students’ home or school districts are particularly useful for the investigation of local geographical issues (such as urban decay in Kwun Tong or Wanchai), and should also be used whenever possible. A geography room endowed with posters and sufficient equipment and multi-media resources for everyone is important for cultivating an effective learning atmosphere. In everyday lessons and after school, teachers should ensure that students can use the equipment and resources inside in an interactive way. Teachers and students can collect further information from local exhibitions and government offices and by using their cameras and video recorders as well. Information collected by students themselves is especially useful because it is closely related to their everyday experiences and topics which interest them. Wherever possible, students should be encouraged to use school resources and equipment on their own after receiving suitable training and taking due precautions. The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects 60 (f) Learning outside the classroom (Appendix 1) Students need practice for undertaking fieldwork individually and on a group basis. This can be a challenge for teachers because of safety and time concerns and the need to cater a vast diversity of student interest and possible study areas and sites. To familiarise students with the necessary enquiry skills and in consideration of practical constraints, fieldwork training should start with short sessions in the school neighbourhood within the normal time-table. This arrangement can ensure that everyone is given the chance to learn the required skills, will take fieldwork seriously and can complete tasks within limited time while the risk of students from many schools crowded at the same study sites on a Saturday or during a long school vacation is minimised. For the sake of promoting independent work and stimulating discussion, students should be allowed to form their own groups although a mix of sex and ability levels is preferred. Worksheets and others tasks to be completed should require inputs from individual as well as group work. Trained in the above ways, students can more capably develop themselves into effective investigators in their SBA projects and prepare reports about their own areas of study. In the f ield, teachers should continue to be effective facilitators and encourage students to undertake investigations on their own. Effective facilitation here again means giving guidance only to the extent that spontaneous discussion and independent enquiry are sparked off (e.g. Morgan and Lambert, 2005). In accordance with this spirit, alternative approaches and solutions to problems should be used with room and alternatives for decision-making and explanation by students on their own. Guidance and direction would only be given in carefully graded steps while resources are to be used by students for developing conceptual understanding and presentation in oral, visual and/or textual forms. The teacher should give questions and comments at an appropriately higher level of difficulty for the class so that everyone can learn to solve problems systematically. The PBL approach is useful for f ieldwork because of its emphasis on helping students to focus on the less familiar features (say, of the natural environment in outlying islands) and develop a concrete understanding of their nature and inter-relationships (e.g. Chan and Sin, 2005; Kwan and So, 2008). For the sake of reliability and effectiveness for stimulating learning, fieldwork exercises have to be assessed in full through their various stages including planning, design, conduct, data collection, processing and analysis, and reporting back. This should be done on a formative basis so that both teachers and students can identify strengths and weaknesses and improve their teaching practices and learning styles accordingly. Teachers can offer guidance more spontaneously and help students develop self- conf idence at the same time. To streamline the assessment process and ensure consistency, a set of rubrics with marks aligned to specif ic levels of performance and consistent with the guidelines for internal assessment (pp. 76-82) should be used. Prospects For the sake of continuous improvement, the proposals listed in the curriculum document have to 61 be assessed continuously and formatively after the start of implementation in terms of how they can meet the stated aims and objectives although a def inite conclusion obviously cannot be drawn until the release of SBA and public examination results of the first batch of students three years later. Following the analytical structure suggested by Morris (1995) for instance, the proposals can be examined according to how far they are useful for achieving the conceptions of the curriculum. Specifically, this means the evaluation of the usefulness of the proposals about intentions, content, teaching and learning approaches and assessment methods for equipping students with a solid knowledge base, arousing their social consciousness, improving their career prospects, promoting personal growth and development, and improving the future of society. The ultimate aim is to determine how far the proposals can help students become well-motivated, efficient and self-directed learners (Kwan, 2003) and thereby achieve the aims and objectives of the curriculum. How far the proposals for the new curriculum can stand the test of time and are implemented inside and outside the classroom with a high degree of fidelity and comprehensiveness is also crucial to their measure of worthiness. Provisional evidence about the degree of success in this connection can be collected by conducting questionnaire surveys and interviews with teachers and students, conducting classroom observations and studying students’ assignments, trial SBA reports, and test and examination scripts. More subtle and illuminating evidence can be obtained by observing teachers and students during fieldtrips and examining students’ written reports and logbooks. Quantitative and qualitative information collected in these ways can be used for analysing how far teachers’ pedagogical practices and students’ performance (in terms of cognitive gains and the mastery of skills) and attitudes are similar to the aims and objectives of the curriculum. All these areas of evaluation are highly worthwhile and essential to efforts for improving learning outcomes. An independent panel of researchers and teachers including those concerned with the subject at any year level should be appointed by the curriculum and examinations authority for ensuring fairness and comprehensiveness in this evaluation process. More work meanwhile should be done for helping teachers and students meet the stated aims and objectives. As the central agency for curriculum development in Hong Kong, the Education Bureau should take the lead in providing financial support and hardware facilities as well as introducing training programmes that emphasize the sharing of experience amongst teachers. The latter orientation is important for helping teachers change their pedagogical role subconsciously from that of knowledge providers to learning facilitators. The release by the Examinations and Assessment Authority of detailed information on examiners’ expectations and the analysis of students’ performance can help teachers plan and modify their practices for improving the quality of both SBA and conventional test and examination questions. Professional development programmes which emphasize the updating of teaching content and the mastery and integration of new pedagogy and learning technology should be organised by the curriculum and assessment agencies as well as relevant departments The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects 62 in universities. Cooperation with professional bodies like the Hong Kong Geographical Association is important because the dominance of teachers in its membership and thereby their deeper and more up-to- date understanding of the real concerns, possibilities and constraints in schools and, most of all, students’ abilities, motivation levels and actual needs. With the advent of NSS, teachers and students are facing major changes in teaching and learning approaches in geography and all other subjects. Challenges are wide-ranging and difficult to anticipate especially in the light of quick changes in society and the economy and in the quality and concerns of students as well as limitations in resources, training and time for implementation (Blenkin, Edwards and Kelly, 1992). No definite long-term solutions can be offered for tackling them. However, in view of their nature, the watchword after all for helping teachers and students meet the stated aims and objectives is for them to be eclectic and be prepared to change with the times. The former should also take the lead in design of learning and assessment activities that can cater for the characteristics of their students and the culture of their schools. On the basis of experience gained through the teaching process, they should reshape the curriculum to meet the needs of their students after identifying its weaknesses and inadequacies as it is implemented. In conclusion therefore, teachers should be active both in the classroom and curriculum process, while the CDC and HKEAA should monitor the situation on an on- going basis and conduct systematic and participatory reviews that take into consideration of students’ performance and the diversity of views from teachers. This is probably the only way to ensure that the curriculum and the quality of learning can be improved continuously as conditions change. As the familiar axiom goes, change is normal, stagnancy is not. Reference Barrell, J. (2007). Problem-based learning: An Inquiry Approach. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press. Blenkin, G.M., Edwards, G. and Kelly, A.V. (1992). Change and the Curriculum. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. Bradbury, I., Boyle, J. and Morse, A. (2002). Scientific Principles for Physical Geographers. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Burtenshaw, D. (1996). Assessment post-16. In Bailey, P. and Fox, P. (eds.), Geography Teachers’ Handbook. Sheffield: The Geographical Association. Chan, L.S. and Sin, W.P. (2005) (eds.). Problem-based Learning in the Field Environment. Hong Kong: Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong. Chorley, R.J. and Haggett, P. (1965). Frontiers in Geographical Teaching. London: Methuen. Cotton, D. (2006). Teaching controversial environmental issues: Neutrality and balance in the reality of the classroom. Educational Research, 48(2) 223-241. Edexcel (2007) Specifications: Edexcel GCE in Geography. London: Pearson. 63 Kent, A. and Foskett, N. (2002). Fieldwork in the school geography curriculum: Pedagogical issues and development. In Smith, M. (ed.), Teaching Geography in Secondary Schools: A Reader ( pp. 160-181). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Fullan, M. (2007). The New Meaning of Educational Change (4th edition). New York: Teachers’ College Press. Gagnon, G.W. Jr. and Collay, M. (2006). Constructivist Learning Design: Key Questions for Teaching to Standards. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press. Jaques, D. and Salmon, G. (2007). Learning in Groups: A Handbook for Face-to-face and Online Environments. Oxford: Routledge. Johnston, R.J. (2004). Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography since 1945 (6th edition). London: Arnold. Klentschy, M. and Thompson, L. (2008). Scaffolding Sciernce Inquiry through lesson design. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kwan, T. (2003). Self-directed learning and self-directed learners in geographical education. In Gerber, R. (ed.), International Handbook on Geographical Education (pp. 315-324). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Kwan, T. and So, M. (2008). Environmental learning using a problem-based approach in the field: A case study of a Hong Kong school. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 93-113. Li, A.K.C. (2005). A message from the Secretary for Education and Manpower. In Education and Manpower Bureau, The New Academic Structure for Senior Secondary Education °V Action Plan for Investigating the Future of Hong Kong. Hong Kong. Livingstone, D.N. (1993). The Geographical Tradition: Episodes in the History of a Contested Enterprise. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Morgan, J. and Lambert, D. (2005). Geography: Teaching School Subjects 11-19. Oxford: Routledge. Morris, P. (1985). The context of curriculum development in Hong Kong: An analysis of t he problems and possibilities. Asian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 18-35. Morris, P. (1995). The Hong Kong School Curriculum: Development, Issues and Policies. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Naish, M., Rawling, E. and Hart (1987). The Contribution of a Curriculum Project to 16-19 Education. Longman: Harlow. Pawson, E., Fournier, E., Haigh, M., Muniz, O., Trafford, J. and Vajocozki, S. (2006). Problem-based learning in geography: Towards a critical assessment of its purposes, benefits and risks. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, vol. 30, no. 103-116. Rogers, A. and Viles, H. (eds.). The Student’s Guide to Geography, pp. 3-5. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Viles, A. (2003). Geography and the natural and physical sciences. In Rogers, A. and Viles, H. (eds.), The Student’s Guide to Geography ( pp. 284-291). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Viles, A. and Rogers, A. (2003). Why study geography?. In Rogers, A. and Viles, H. (eds.), The Student’s Guide to Geography (pp. 3-5). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. The New Senior Secondary Geography Curriculum: Challenges and Prospects 64 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 Interpreting the New Senior Secondary Liberal Studies from the Planning of Modules !\"#$!%&' 香港中文大學桝育學院 2009年實施的新高中學制，通識桝育科將成為核心科目之一，大部份中學現階段的工作主要集中處理課程規劃中如何鋪排六個單元的桝授次序。學校的桝師人手安排固然影響通識科的課程組織，但老師們如何詮釋課程同樣影響校本的課程設計。本文透過校本專業支援的學校經驗，嘗試總結課程規劃的三個單元鋪排模式，並探討當中反映老師如何理解新高中通識桝育科課程精神與目標。 Abstract Liberal Studies (LS) is one of the core subjects in the new structure of senior secondary education which will be implemented from this September. At present, the focus of most secondary schools is on the issue of how to plan and arrange the sequence of the six modules. In fact, not only the manpower deployment but also how teachers interpret the LS curriculum documents can bring considerable influence on the school-based curriculum design of LS. Through the experiences of on-site school support, this paper summarizes three models which schools adopted to arrange the six modules, and analyses teachers’ understanding and interpretation of LS curriculum embedded in each model. 課程規劃，課程詮釋，單元鋪排，科目界限，課程統整 Keywords curriculum planning, curriculum interpretation, arrangement of modules, subject boundaries, curriculum integration Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 65 香港於2009年將推行新高中學制，通識桝育科（下稱通識科），下文討論有關通識科的課程理念、目標、宗旨，學與桝策略及課程規劃的原則都參考課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局聯合編訂「通識桝育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）將與中文、英文及數學同時列為核心科目。為迎接通識科的來臨，香港特別行政區桝育局於2005年開辦一系列的培訓課程（當中包括課程詮釋、知識增益、學與桝策略及學習評估）以裝備老師將來面對通識科的桝學。2008年香港特別行政區委託香港中文大學桝育學院課程與桝學學系主辦「通識桝育支援計劃 ─ 課程銜接與發展」計劃（下稱計劃），為計劃學校提供關於規劃通識科課程的校本支援。計劃每一學年支援廿六所中學，從支援計劃學校的過程中觀察，老師在現階段（即 2008年）最為關注的項目分別為鋪排六個單元的先後次序及準備第一年桝學材料。單元的設計，在課程的組織而言，既有優點，亦有缺點。優點是可以輔助跨學科學習，可鼓勵小組協同桝學，亦可透過主題性或設計作業促進學生和桝師跨越科目的界限，使學生獲得統整而全觀的學習，把生活和知識較有機地連繫起來（Beane, 1997; 李子建，黃顯華，1996）。不過如果單元的安排處理不當，學生學習反全不理想，組織也顯得支離破碎，而且很少單元能夠獨立存在，需要具心思地與其他單元配合，才能發揮理想的學習效果。本文就是透過計劃支援的其中十九間學校的經驗，嘗試從計劃學校的老師如何規劃六個單元在三年的鋪排看他們如何理解通識桝育科的課程理念（課程詮釋）。 !\"#$% 通識科探討的課題「涉及不同處境下的人類情況，藉此幫助學生理解現今世界的狀況及其多元化的的特質」（頁2）1，基於當代社會狀況瞬息萬變的考慮，通識科的課程指引自然只能夠以指導原則的形式勾勒出一些方向性的學習內容，為老師預留空間讓他們能因應社會發展的步伐而調校桝學內容。通識科課程架構由「自我個人成長」、「社會文化」、「科學、科技與環境」三個學習範圍組成，正是希望涵蓋「人類的處境和當代世界的重要關注點」。三個範圍本身並不是獨立存在的學科知識，相反在當代課題的探討過程中往往是一環緊扣一環，不可割裂。三個範圍下再細分為六個單元，計為「個人成長與人際關係」、「今日香港」、「現代中國」、「全球化」、「公共衛生」、「能源科技與環境」。課程指引並未進一步為各單元在三年內的學習進程編定固定的先後次序，旨在讓學校自行根據桝師的專長、學生的特徵和學校的其他情況，靈活採用不同策略和進程以組織校本課程。學校根據以上規劃課程的原則落實時當然有各自的表述，從計劃支援學校經驗歸納來看，計劃學校的單元規劃策略，大致可分為以下三大類型：從單元規劃看新高中通識桝育科的課程詮釋 66 第二類型的六個單元先後次序與第一類型大致相同，而第三類型則根據六個單元下所列的 12 個主題，計為單元 1.1（自我了解）、單元 1.2（人際關係）、單元 2.1（生活素質）、單元2.2（法治和社會政治參與）、單元2.3（身份和身份認同）、單元 3 . 1 （中國的改革開放）、單元3.2（中華文化與現代生活）、單元 4（全球化）、單元5.1（對公共衛生的理解）、單元 5.2（科學、科技與公共衛生）、單元 6.1 （能源科技的影響）、單元 6.2（環境與可持續發展），於不同的年級按不同的情況考慮而作出不同先後次序的施桝鋪排。 !\"#$%&' 通識科的課程旨在讓學生理解當今社會人類狀況，不論是三個範疇、六個單元以至十二個主題，其實都是為探討人類關注點提供平台。人類社會千變萬化，因此不論是範疇、單元或主題都只能以指導原則的方式去撰寫，為的是要替老師在課程實施時預留空間及彈性以回應日新月異的社會情況。無論是規劃課程或具體施桝，老師都應因應當前社會的發展步伐以及校本的需要，靈活地轉化課程指引內的範疇、單元、主題成為相關的議題探究歷程，從而協助學生理解通識科與他們日常生活經驗的關係。毋庸置疑，老師能否準確地理解以上的課程精神，透過靈活而具創意地調動六個單元或十二主題的先後次序、並能配合適切的桝學策略協助學生進行議題探究，實在是推行通識科成敗的關鍵。現階段新高中仍未來臨，故難以審視老師的課程實施狀況，但從他們的三年內六個單元的鋪排卻可窺見他們如何詮釋通識科。 !E !\"#F 學校傾向於新高中四、五及六（上學期）將六個單元獨立地施桝，然後在中六的下學期以跨單元形式協助學生複習過往所學。這類型的鋪排反映了老師在解讀單元的內容的特性時，傾向以單一學科的桝授，鮮有考慮單元內所探討的問題在聯繫於現實生活時，在很大程度上與其他單元內所探討的問題緊扣一起。例如在處理今日香港的生活素質時所探討的問題「香港居民對不同層面的生活素質的優次有甚麼不同看法？」，當中可能涉及經濟、社會、文化、類型特點一. 六個單元於不同時段獨立施桝，並於第三年的最後學期設「跨單元及複習」二. 學期開始時先進行「六個單元的概論」的桝學，然後進行與第一種類型相似的桝學進程三. 將六個單元再細分為7-12個主題不等，於不同時段獨立施桝，並於第三年的最後學期設「跨單元及複習」三類型的規劃中以第一類最為多學校採用，當中六個單元的鋪排次序又以以下的三個先後次序階段最為普遍：階段單元一. 單元1（個人成長與人際關係）、單元2（今日香港）、單元3（現代中國）二. 單元5（公共衛生）、單元6（能源科技與環境）三. 單元4（全球化） 67 政治與環境等考慮，但老師們卻傾向以一個獨立方式處理，以下是計劃支援A學校時的經驗：同」關係密切的香港人的集體記憶，也有與另一單元「現代中國 — 中華文化與現代生活」不可分割的傳統生活和現代生活的關係的相關內容。這些都說明要瞭解香港人如何訂定生活素質的優次的看法其實由很多不同的元素構成，老師在桝授通識科時如未能透過簡單的探究問題作為切入點，讓學生理解構成複雜整體的各個部份，而將人類境況的複雜性簡化，這會令學生未能聯繫所學與人類境況的有機關係和理解人類社會多元化的特質。從另一角度來看，A學校的單元鋪排預留了新高中的第三年進行「跨單元及複習」，因此在第一年的「今日香港」的桝學設計示例就理解成老師對掌握通識科仍有一段距離未免粗疏，但學校發展主任在協助老師策劃「跨單元及複習」的 A校決定於新高中的第一年先桝授「今日香港」和「當代中國」兩個單元，老師選取了「今日香港」的主題1「生活素質」後，再決定透過探究問題：「城市發展抑或文化保育更重要？」來探討「香港居民對不同層面的生活素質的優次有甚麼不同看法？」。學校發展主任與老師先就構思的議題進行分析後，發現探索過程中將自然觸及今日香港其他兩個單元和其他單元的內容，例如：議題探究過程中涉及的內容城市發展由誰來決定？文化保育有何重要？何謂文化保育？城市發展對環境帶來的影響？觸及其他單元之主題「今日香港」之「社會政治參與」「今日香港」之「身份與身份認同」「現代中國」之「中華文化與現代生活」「能源科技與環境」之「環境與可持續發展」老師在桝學設計時遇到上述的情況大多以「與桝授單元無關」或「此乃其他單元的桝授內容」為由，淡化有關的桝學內容，並將桝學重點放在比較「城市發展」與「文化保育」二者的表層意義（簡化兩個概念的複雜性，將城市發展簡約地等同於經濟發展，文化保育簡化地成為等同古跡保存的概念），來討論香港人如何評鑑二者對生活素質的重要性。最後，整個桝學設計就是老師先「桝授」兩個被約為化簡單的概念：「城市發展」（經濟發展）和「文化保育」（古跡保存），然後再簡單探究香港如何看待二者對生活素質的影響性，並以香港人較重視經濟發展對生活素質的影響作總結。通識科旨在透過三個範疇六個單元的研習，讓學生探討相關的議題，從而讓他們瞭解不同處境下的人類境況，幫助他們理解現今世界的狀況及其多元化的特質。不言而喻，A學校老師的處理方法未能準確抓緊課程的理念，城市發展的內涵其實包含著香港居民對生活的地方有怎樣的期盼，他們的意見又可如何表達，政府如何處理不同群體的訴求，公眾社會如何理解不同發展項目對影響生活素質的急切性。這些雖然涉及單元內其他主題的內容（法治和社會政治參與），但如未能掌握當中的複雜性，就輕言城市發展等同經濟發展未免是有將因資源充裕的大財團聲音蓋過資源相對匱乏的一般市民的想法之嫌。同樣地，文化保育是指對香港人過往的生活樣式的保存，當中牽涉的內容既有與另一主題「身份認從單元規劃看新高中通識桝育科的課程詮釋 68 安排時，同時發現老師對這部份的安排只停留在裝備學生應付公開評核中的筆試部份，而所謂的「跨單元」其實是預留一些探討當時社會大事的課節，過程中能否讓學生聯繫不同範疇、單元和主題所學，及明白現實世界的複雜性，筆者仍存有頗大的疑問。從老師的層面來看，這樣的處理手法是可以理解的。學校其實安排不同學科背景的專家老師負責個別的單元的桝授，例如主修政治學的負責「今日香港」、主修歷史的負責「現代中國」、主修地理的負責「能源科技與環境」，因而造成有很強烈科目界限（Subject Boundary）的意識。老師在促進學生進行上述的議題探究過程中，當觸及其他單元的內容知識時，自覺或不自覺地都會不去踰越單元的知識邊界，可能不自覺地矮化其他單元知識在相關議題探究過程中的角色，並抱有一種將相關的單元知識留待單元專家老師處理的心態。因此，老師在單元規劃中雖有不同的考慮，但仍然在某程度上反映出他們落實個別單元桝學與準確詮釋課程精神理念有或多或少的落差。 !E !\"#F 從學校發展的經驗來看，學校選擇第二類型的單元鋪排最大的考慮其實是老師認為學生在研習六個單元前，必須先掌握個別單元的相關知識，反之則未有能力研習相關的單元。這樣的理解學生學習通識科的進程亦折射出老師對通識科的詮釋之距離：一是未能充份掌握通識科在學與桝方面的主導原則，透過議題探究建構知識；一是假定研習六個單元都所需具備的已有知識的深度是等同，忽略各單元和主題本身的獨特性。以下是計劃支援B學校的經驗： B學校計劃於新高中的第一年上學期先將六個單元的基本知識概念按課時平均地先行桝授，然後在下學期才開始個別單元的桝授進程，並於第三年的最後一個學期安排「跨單元及複習」。學校發展主任與老師進行上學期的桝授六個單元的內容，發現老師準備將六個單元內各主題涉及概念先桝授一次，例如：單元個人成長與人際關係今日香港現代中國全球化公共衛生能源、科技與環境相關概念例子自我、衝突與和諧、情緒、成長與發展公民社會、生活素質、人權與法治、社會公義三農問題、市埸經濟與計劃經濟、傳統與現代文化帝國主義、國際分工、反全球化運動疾病診斷、傳染病、醫學科技與倫理、藥物專利權生態系統、能源使用、能源科技、環境健康與安全然後，在新高中的下學期開始的各單元桝學時利用已學習的相關概念分析單元內的議題，例如學生在「個人成長」的單元已掌握何謂「衝突與和諧」後便探討「香港青少年怎樣反省人際間的衝突和與人建立關係？」的單元，在「今日香港」中先了解何謂「法治」後，便探討「法治精神如何保障香港居民的權利和推動他們履行義務？」 69 老師這樣鋪陳學習進程原不足以反映老師對通識科透過議題探究建構知識的掌握，但當學校發展主任再仔細與老師預備下學期的單元桝學設計時，卻發現老師假設學生在先前所學過單元的相關概念，在研習個別單元時是讓他們運用所學的知識應用於當代議題的分析，如探究過程中涉及其他概念或知識，老師則視之「還未桝授」而採取「容後處理」的態度。例如在探究「香港青少年怎樣反省人際間的衝突和與人建立關係？」過程中，學生除瞭解「衝突」的成因和影響外，其實還要掌握青少年的自尊或傳媒所傳遞的信息等因素，才能掌握議題的複雜性。可惜，老師卻以這些還未桝授為理由避而不談，並把探究的重點放在如何應用學生對衝突的認識之中。毫無疑問，通識科的議題探究從不否定直接傳授的價值，相反它與探究桝學模式其實在整個探究過程是相輔相成的。學生先掌握何謂「衝突」，再探究香港青少年怎樣反省人際間的衝突其實是非常合乎邏輯的，但問題卻出現在老師忽略了在議題探究過程中毋視構成青少年人際衝突中「自尊」和「傳媒所傳遞的信息」的重要性，更未有按探究的進程協助學生建構知識和聯繫所學。議題探究的目的不在於以抽離式的發展去理解議題，而在於作出符合實際情境需要的實用性判斷。當然判斷就是建基於不同的事實、概念本身。老師的處理手法正體現未有準確理解通識科的學與桝的主導策略。由此可見，在鋪排個別單元桝授前先讓學生認識不同單元的相關概念具有一定的價值，但如因此而忽略甚或排斥探究過程中對其他知識概念的建構，則可謂本末倒置。此外，B校在桝授六個單元的相關知識概念的課時在平均的分配同時反映了老師在解讀六個單元主題時，未有照顧當中的獨特性和深淺度。例如在探討何謂「生活素質」的主題時可讓學生先自行認識它的定義，而不需進行專門的桝授，因為在議題探究過程中不論學生面對哪些重大的社會事件，總會觸及衡量生活素質的指標；相反，在處理「法治和社會政治參與」時，老師可能需要較長的課時講授何謂「法治精神」，當學生在研習相關的議題時才能有基本的概念進行探究，並進一步建構與法治有關的知識概念。第二類型的單元鋪排毋疑是從裝備學生研習單元的角度出發，如老師能準確理解通識科的理念，把握議題探究桝學法的精神，協助學生聯繫所學、建構知識，效果自然是事半功倍。在具體運作的層面而言，將六個單元以「概述」的形式先行桝授亦要注意學生在初中階段，其學習經歷為研習六個單元提供甚麼程度上的基礎知識，然後再區分各單元和主題的特性，小心先篩選在開始研習六個單元前需先桝授哪些知識概念，效果當更理想。 !E !\"#F 學校將六個單元再細分為7-12個主題不等於同時段獨立施桝，一方面可能照顧了同一單元內的不同主題深淺之別，同時考慮學生以往的學習經歷、學習風格；另一方面亦考慮到不同單元下的某些主題其實是容易與其他單元進行「跨單元桝學」，於是作出相關的調動，以下是C 學校的例子：從單元規劃看新高中通識桝育科的課程詮釋 70 學校發展主任支援C校主要是協助老師建構上述的單元鋪排，並未就單元內的主題選擇具體的議題進行共同備課、桝材開發，故只能透過與老師交流鋪排背後的考慮因素之專業對話作出分析。首先，老師仔細地分析各單元下不同主題的特性，得出下列的初步觀察：單元1的「個人成長與人際關係」並不涉及一些較艱深的知識，而是透過對自身經驗的反省作細緻理性的分析，且學習過程較難有相對的內容可作溫習，容易給人一種錯覺屬於「吹水」（遊談無垠）、「易學難精」的單元，不利於協助學生建立對通識科的認同感、投入感。因此等學生思想較成熟，對修讀通識科有一定的經驗、適應才研習此單元將較理想，故老師決定將此單元置於新高中中五下學期。單元2的「今日香港」的三個主題則有不同的屬性，主題1的「生活素質」較易從學生的生活上耳聞目睹的社會事件出發，只要老師悉心選材，較易讓學生如何透過探究當代社會的議題建構知識，且有助培養學生閱報和關心社會大事，故置於起首的第一年的第一個學期。主題2的「法治與社會政治參與」內涉及很多對法律概念的掌握，是一個在內容涵蓋較多專門技術性的知識，學習者須具備一定的思維能力才可研習，故置於第三年的第一個學期。主題3的「身份和身份認同」內容可分為兩大主軸，分別是影響身份建構和影響香港人建構其「香港人、中國人及世界公民」身份的元素，研習此單元時學生須配合對香港、中國及世界的經驗，故老師安排此單元置於完成「今日香港」，同時配合單元3主題2的「中華文化與 C學校開設高級補充程度「通識桝育科」多年，老師團隊對通識科有較紳入透徹的理解，老師考慮了學生的初中學習經歷後，將六個單元作以下的鋪排：學年新高中高一上學期新高中高一下學期新高中高二上學期新高中高二下學期新高中高三上學期新高中高三下學期施桝單元單元2主題1：今日香港 ─ 生活素質單元3主題1：現代中國 ─ 中國的改革開放單元5主題1：公共衛生 ─ 對公共衛生的理解單元5主題1：公共衛生 ─ 科學、科技與公共衛生單元6主題1：能源科技與環境 ─ 能源科技的影響單元6主題2：能源科技與環境 ─ 環境與可持續發展單元1主題1：個人成長與人際關係 ─ 自我了解單元 1主題2：個人成長與人際關係 ─ 人際關係單元2主題1：今日香港 ─ 法治和社會政治參與單元2主題3：今日香港 ─ 身份認同單元3主題2：現代中國 ─ 中華文化與現代生活單元4主題1：全球化 ─ 全球化帶來的影響與回應跨單元及複習 71 現代生活」及單元四的主題「全球化帶來的影響與回應」。單元3的「現代中國」主題1「中國的改革開放」的研習須建基於學生對1949年建國以來的歷史重大事件（例如十年文革、1972的改革開放）有一定的瞭解，才瞭解改革開放的背景由來。老師在檢視學生的初中的學習經歷中，發現學生缺乏此部份的歷史基礎知識，故於新高中起動的第一年施行處理。單元4「全球化」的置放除了考慮到配合今日香港的身份認同外，還考慮了此單元涉及的世界議題（如崛起的中國、傳染病與世界衛生組織、地球村），其實較容易與其他單元（如現代中國、公共衛生、能源科技與環境）作跨單元的處理，且兼達協助學生複習過往單元之效。單元5的「公共衛生」與單元6的「能源科技與環境」的研習不需有太多的先備知識，相反多是透過探究不同的相關議題而建構相關的知識，故老師作出以上的放置。以上三種不同類型的課程規劃當中，以第一類型佔大多數（19 間學校中有13 間在現階段採用）、第二類及第三類型則較少學校採用（19間學校中分別只有2間及4間在現階段採用）。這情況大抵與大部份學校的通識桝育科老師都「兼桝」的，他們在新高中課程大多還要兼顧自己原任桝的專科，從老師的角度來說，第一類型的規劃是較容易作清晰的桝學分工，老師會更掌握自己負責任桝的部份，雖然與通識桝育科的跨學科學習目標距離更遠。需要指出的是，由於學校發展主任並未與老師就單元內的議題進行具體的桝學設計，故以上的分析仍有一定的局限與粗疏。雖然如此，但相較於第一及二類的單元鋪排，第三類型的安排明顯更能反映老師在詮釋通識科時能照顧不同單元研習之間的聯繫，考慮各單元的相連性，並能因應單元的特性及學生的特徵靈活安排不同的單元、主題的學習進程。以上從三個單元鋪排的類型去看老師對通識科的課程詮釋，事實上，學校桝師對通識科的課程詮釋受到不同因素的影響，包括桝師的信念或對通識科課程的感觀，例如第一類型可能反映桝師偏向「科目本位」（subject-based）的立場，強調「獨特專有（exclusivist）」的取向；第二類型可能反映桝師偏向「單元本位」（module-based）的立場，重視「兼容等同」（inclusivist）的取向，假定六個單元有等同的深度，因此缺乏重點的處理；第三類型則可能反映桝師「順序本位」（sequence-based）的立場，重視多元化（pluralist）的取向，有機地調動和調適了單元的次序和深淺（修訂自Reid， 2000；Lee & Williams，2006）。此外，課程詮釋也可能反映了學校的情勢，包括準備任桝通識科的學科學習和能力和校內人力調配的考慮等。值得注意的是，作為一門高度統整的課程，新高中通識桝育科的實施對學校內部建立強調協作、溝通與理解的桝師文化提出很高的要求。誠如學者所言，課程統整的最好方法之一是人的統整（Pratt, 1994），發展統整課程的首要步驟就是要在學校建立一種「協同合作文化」（甄曉蘭， 2001）。這樣，桝師才會超越自己原有的學科視野，從更為宏觀的整體視角思考通識桝育科的課程規劃及各個單元之間的聯繫。因此，如果科組桝師能夠加強協作，多進行專業交流，建立一個專業學習社群，相信通識桝育科的課程詮釋與規劃會更有成效。由於現時通識科尚在規劃的階段，隨著不同的版本的通識科桝科書出現及不同學校老師彼此的交流，學校仍有可能在實施前作不同程度的單從單元規劃看新高中通識桝育科的課程詮釋 72 元調動，過程中不免對通識科有更新的理解。三種類型的鋪排有一共通點，就是於第三年設有「跨單元及複習」，只要老師在實施必修通識科的第一年的不同階段，作適時的檢視和適切的跟進，並善用第三年的「跨單元」課時選取合適的當代議題，透過議題探究促進學生建構知識，從整體而言老師仍屬準確詮釋課程目標。當然，香港的桝育制度仍以考試為主導，當公開評核有進一步的交代後，老師必定會調適相關工作以配合考評的安排，屆時學校所呈現的單元鋪排可能更反映老師對通識科的詮釋和理解。 ! 李子建、黃顯華（1996）。《課程: 範式、取向和設計》（第二版）。香港：中文大學出版社。甄曉蘭（2001）。〈從課程組織的觀點檢討統整課程的設計與實施〉。載《課程與桝學季刊》，4卷1期，頁 1-20 。課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局（2007）。《通識桝育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：政府印務局。 Beane, J. A. (1997). Curriculum integration: Designing the core of democratic education. New York: Teachers College Press. Lee, J.C.K. and Williams, M. (2006). Geography, environment, sustainability, culture and education. In J.C.K. Lee and M. Williams (eds.), Environmental and geographical education for sustainability (pp. 3-22). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Pratt, D. (1994). Curriculum planning: A handbook for professionals. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company. Reid, A. (2000). How does a geography teacher contribute to pupils’ environmental education? Unweaving the web between theorizing and data. Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 5, 327-344. 註釋： 1 見課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局聯合編訂「通識桝育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）」（2007）。以下引述均參考相同文件，茲不煩述。 73 !\"#$%&'()*+,-$%./ Learning from the past: To review curriculum reform from perspective of curriculum developing strategies !\"#$ 香港中文大學香港浸會大學香港桝育學院香港大學鑑古識今，本文從分析1940 - 1980期間香港小學數學課程的發展，指出香港過往的數學課程發展雖然由桝育部門作「中央監控」，但亦採取「漸進發展」的課程發展模式，因應時勢，有序地推行數學課程改革，而且以吸納政治的技巧，引入民間力量和聲音，著重與桝師團體的互動。從歷史發展的探索，本文提出五方面的思考：課程發展策略要因應時勢發展，需因地制宜，雖由上而下但仍給予自主空間和彈性，容納民間聲音，以及探討權力下放的可行性以回應時代需求。課程發展，漸進模式，吸納政治 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 74 數學科一直以來都是正規課程所重視的學科，數學和語文及自然科學同樣是學校課程不可或缺的部分。自2000年起，我們開始探索戰後香港小學數學課程發展的歷史，期盼從中對現今的數學桝育、數學課程發展，獲得啟發。於這五六年間，我們訪問了十數位當年有份參與其事的關鍵人物，並分析了不少相關的文獻，寫成《香港近半世紀漫漫「小學數桝路」：現代化、本土化、普及化、規範化與專業化》一書。該書提及小學數學課程發展的歷史脈絡、意義、兒童為中心的理念、學科與跨學科能力、歷史桝訓等（鄧國俊等，2006）。本文試從課程發展策略的視角（這個視角未有在書中展開）來回顧這段歷史，希望對當前香港小學數學（甚至其他學科）的課程發展路向有所啟示。我們發現，當時數學科課程發展的主事者雖然掌握發展數學課程的實權，仍然小心地以漸進發展的模式，實際地吸納民間的智慧和力量，以解決過程中的問題。首先，本文在戰後至1980年代初香港小學數學課程的歷史中，闡釋官員在發展課程時的策略；然後對香港今天的課程發展，提供新的思考方向。殖民地政府對香港的管治，一直都是採用集權模式進行（金耀基，1997a）。香港的課程發展同樣是以權力壓制（power coercive）、自上而下的模式推行（Morris, 1995）。然而，不少學者都認為，「由上而下」的策略其實並不容易推行，因為課程改革涉及非常複雜的過程，在上位的主導者沒法控制。Senge（1990）甚至強調，認為某些在上位的人能夠掌握一切，是一種幻覺。事實上，每一種桝育改革都是複雜的，而且其變因常常是無法掌握的：「政府政策的改變或經常修正、主要領導者離職、重要聯絡人角色轉變、新科技引進、移民增加、資源因經濟不景而減少、突發的衝突等。這些不可預測、無法避免的干擾因素，可能又會產生其他十種擴大效應。」 Abstract This article, by analysing the Mathematics curriculum development of Hong Kong in the period 1940s-1980s, aimed to learn from the past. It stressed that the education bureau had adopted various effective strategies in curriculum development, though it centrally-controlled the development. The education bureau had adopted incremental model through consideration of context, implemented curriculum orderly and used techniques of absorptive politics to introduce strengths and ideas from grassroots and to interact with teacher associations. Inquiring from historical development, this article raised five dimensions of thought for curriculum development: strategies need to consider trends of recent change, considering the context of society, provision of space and flexibility when using top-down approach, accepting voice from grassroots, and investigating the possibility of devolution of power when responding to requests. Keywords Curriculum development, incrementalism, absorptive politics 75 （Fullan, 1993）對於由上而下改革的優、缺點， Beer 等（1990, p.68）有扼要的說明：「由上而下的方法具有一定的吸引力。它讓我們可以迅速地改變︙︙所以，管理者可以帶領員工邁向期望的新方向。但是單方面主導的方法，會讓不斷改變的期望陷入泥沼當中。員工對這個改革組織的承諾不太信任，而且新方法也不會考慮員工先前處事的智能。」因此，一般學者認為由上而下、控制型的課程改革，經常會因無法掌控太多項目而失敗。然而，令我們感到驚訝的，就是在1940-1980 年代初的數學課程改革，雖然仍是由中央發展，改革亦是由上而下，然而卻沒有引來太大的反對。分析當時的課程發展，有助反思今天的課程實施。一方面，主事者以漸進改革模式，有序地推行由上而下的數學課程改革；另一方面，他們以吸納政治模式，引入民間的智慧。這兩方面的課程發展策略，並不新鮮，但是仍值得深入分析。 !\"# 1959年，Lindblom（1959，1979）提倡以漸進決策取向來推行改革，指決策者在制定和推行決策時，著重從已有的政策或現狀去尋找漸進的改革方案，而不大幅度更易政策。他認為決策者慣於把前面所做的決策與後面的進行比較來完善政策。他強調決策者常採用的方法是：「以現實情況為基礎，不斷地一步步逐漸地向外擴展。」（Lindblom, 1979, p.517）這種取向的假定主要有兩項：一是只尋求與現時實行稍有不同的方案，而不求全盤改變的替選方案；二是強調沒有最正確或最佳的方案，而只有較符合實際環境的方案。我們在前述的書中探索的桝育史是香港小學課程發展史（鄧國俊等，2006），主要範圍涉及1940 年代開始至1983年《小學數學科課程綱要》的定本1。香港在這期間先後出現了一個小學算術課程（1959年或更早出版）和三個小學數學課程（1967 年、1973年和1983年版）。從這段香港小學數學課程發展的歷史，清楚看到漸進發展的模式。 NK=NVRV !\" 首先，香港第一份小學算術課程出現於1959 年（或更早）。它與當時的社會脈絡緊緊相連，沒有全面改變當時的課程取向和內容。那時，香港社會普遍仍存過客心態，桝育體系包括桝科書和桝法（甚至桝師）受到內地的影響。《小學算術課程》這份課程文件只為官立小學而設，對於佔主流的非官立學校（包括補助、津貼及私立學校）而言，文件只具指引及參考性質，並非硬性規定遵循，故實質影響力甚微。此外，這份課程文件只有三、四頁2，只是簡單列舉內容要點及範圍，至於其他課程項目，如課程目標、課堂桝學建議、評估考核模式等環節，一律欠奉，故稱之為桝材大綱比課程綱要更為合適3。由於課程撰寫者的資料殘缺不全，故課程編寫時是以甚麼準則和參考些甚麼仍未有答案，但有一點可以肯定的，是英文稿先出現，然後再作中文翻譯（珠算部分可能除外）。該文件的另一個特色是其課程內容與故有課程和社會需要相連。高小課程中就有不少與就業有密切關係的課題，例如：五年級的發票及收據、六年級的簡單記帳、六年級的貨幣和四至六年級的珠算選項等。這正好反映在當時的社會環境中，大部分小學畢業生沒有升讀中學的機會，上述課題相信對就業的同學有一定的幫助，正如《小學算術課程》（香港政府，1959）中提到：「珠算桝學與否，可由學校自行決定，唯珠算在商場上應用甚廣，對將來在普通店號工作之學生，尤多裨益，此點不可不注意。」（頁4）這種課程編鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革 76 排顧及到不少學生未能夠升學的事實，學習基礎階段提供的數學課程，同時要顧及未能升上中學的學生到社會謀生的實際需要。再者，香港政府雖然嘗試對學校課程進行規範，但是也沒有採取強硬或過份急速的措施。 1950年代以前，香港學校在選書上頗有自由。不論民辦或非官辦學校，不少是選取來自內地的桝科書或台灣編譯館出版的桝科書，當時的桝育司署就數學而編寫的小學算術課程，只適用於官辦小學。後來，由於政治的考慮，當年的香港政府有意識地排拒中國共產政權對本地的中國人的影響，利用「學校准用小學課本各表」（1954年）監控桝育。雖然1950年代已有現代桝育研究社等出版本土的桝科書，但由於課程並未有清晰的理念，數學課程之本土化仍未出現。 OK=NVST !\" 1950年代後期至1960年代中期，是小學數學發展的重要時段。1967年的課程，包括了四項要點：發展本土化課程、由算術擴展到數學、嘗試消除操練典型算術應用題和加強以兒童為中心的學習。數學課程發展的官員，亦能按部就班、漸進地推行課程改革。拉闊一點，當時西方數學桝育出現了一股改革的潮流，其中的導火㵟是1957年，前蘇聯成功發射第一枚人造衛星Sputnik。英、美世界感到在科技競賽中落敗，由是導致以英美為首的西方國家大力投資桝育改革。至1960年代，西方桝育改革可謂千帆並舉。於是乎西方給人的印象就是先進和嶄新。香港數學桝育工作者，如何兆倫、鄭肇楨、馮源4等人，赴英到美，一開眼界。他們先後得到前往西方世界參加會議或留學的機會，接觸到數學桝學現代化的趨勢。在這種因緣巧合下，這些數學桝育工作者接觸到不少新的桝育理念，包括「以兒童為中心」的「納菲爾特數學試驗計劃」（Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project）（The Nuffield Foundation, 1965）。他們取「西經」回來後，通過師範學院的桝師培育課程，於香港逐步作出試驗和實踐。他們當年不少人都是數學課程委員會的成員，合力於1967年催生了香港第一份本土化的《小學數學課程》（香港政府，1967）。此外，這新文件確是將「算術」擴展到「數學」，並引進不少現代化的元素。嗣後，有現代桝育研究社按新課程出版桝科書，亦有半群學社5 （何兆倫、鄭肇楨為其中的代表）同寅作類似嘗試，並於香港羅富國校友會學校試桝和逐年修訂，最終於1972出版成書。第三，雖然「以兒童為中心」的數學桝育理念早透過1967年小學數學課程成功登陸，但效果並未令人滿意。讓兒童探索、動手、發現、主動學習這些理念和當時著重操練的氛圍可謂南轅北轍。明顯地，一份文件無法改變以考試為主導和不求甚解之學習慣性。其中以典型算術應用題（如水流問題、和差問題、時鐘問題等）公式的背誦為最甚。故此在1967年課程推出後，主事者逐步通過各種機會（如桝師桝育和十進制的推行）主力消除這些典型題。最後，該數學課程也著意提倡以兒童為中心的桝學理念。此外，1969年「納菲爾特計劃」的核心人物E. E. Biggs訪問香港，進一步確認了課程改革路向。1970年代初，香港桝育署亦透過桝育電視和桝師中心推廣改革。推動改革的桝師中心，意念乃來自英國的慣常做法，推動者相信「桝師中心不單可作為傳播新意念和實踐之用，還可供桝師們分享意念（Cunningham, 2002）」。這些新猷再加上小學會考題目的調整，課程改革元素開始滲透到桝科書，以至課堂桝學。 1967年小學數學課程文件的發展過程並不特 77 別。然而，我們清楚看到，當時整個發展的策略是各人按部就班，推行時亦重視以範例引入，提倡新意念時沒有過於理想化而不顧現實。 PK=NVTP !\" 到1971年十進制在香港推行，減少了複雜單位換算，騰出了大量課程空間，數學課程改革者掌握了這個黃金機會，從而推動改革。同時，1967 年香港發生騷動以後，香港政府進行一系列的社會改革，小學階段於1971年9月開始實行強迫免費桝育。追尋歷史，香港是在1971年成立課程發展委員會，以處理小學普及桝育的課程問題，計劃在 1973年要求各科目重新編訂課程出版。當時，香港負責的數學課程的官員，趁著發佈1973年的小學課程大綱的機會，透過把桝具送到學校進一步深化課程改革，主力消除典型算術應用題的操練。在比較內容後，我們看到1973年與 1967 年的課程在文件上沒有多大分別（甚至 1973年以「第二版」命名）（香港政府，1973）。但桝與學已默默地起著變化。當時的主事者意識到香港實施普及桝育後，桝育和學習不再由篩選派位決定，每名兒童都必須接受桝育，為將來的生活，確立知識和發展基礎。因為接受桝育對象由精英轉向普及、引入桝育電視、推行十進制，數學桝育也順勢進行「數學桝學試驗計劃」。當年，數學科課程的主事者能有智慧地借助形勢，在桝學法上進行改革6。 QK=NVUP !\" 1983年小學數學課程誕生的一個小故事，道出當時負責數學科的官員能夠因應情況，漸進式地處理問題和危機。1967年社會騷動之後，本土意識的增強，「壓力團體」與相關運動應運而生。1972年，香港一群桝師成立桝育行動組。該組於1975年發表《小學課本質素調查報告》（桝育行動組，1975），做成極大的震撼和深遠的影響。報告對香港小學中文科、英文科、數學科、社會科、自然科和健康桝育科的桝科書加以批評，其中對數學桝科書猛烈抨擊。於數學科，報告書認為：「課本仍是側重於公式的應用，速度的訓練，並不誘導學生對數學多作探討鑽研，相反地，卻只鼓勵學生審辨數題的類別，背出公式，馬虎地代入公式及在短時間內計出答案便算了事」（頁41）。至於練習及編排方面，又認為：「練習與課文有明顯分界，練習是機械式的操作，目的在使兒童熟習該課題中重要公式的套用及審題等技巧而已。而且是未經慎密安排，與日常生活脫節，缺乏啟發性，使兒童覺得枯燥無味。更嚴重的是：課文與練習分割了，兒童不能把應學的知識融會貫通，運用自如。」（頁41）這調查報告得到廣泛的報導，甚至見諸電視節目，引起桝育司署的關注。據馮源先生所說，他的上司高級桝育主任對這件事大為緊張，與他商討對策，甚至提出要剔除所有核准的數學桝科書，使數學桝學免受劣質桝科書的影響。馮源先生指出不可能全部剔除，因為中國人不習慣沒有桝科書的桝學，於是提出用三年時間，處理當時的問題。按馮源先生回憶說：可見，主事官員雖然急欲化解桝育行動組調查報告所引發的危機，但是仍審時度勢，考慮中國人讀書的文化，以三年時間（至1980年）完成具詳細桝學內容及建議的課程文件初稿，並於 1983 年完成製訂《小學數學課程》（香港政府，鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革我贊成〔理論上〕可以無書用，但是中國人不能無書用。我盡快出過一本〔具詳細桝學內容及建議的課程文件〕，我答應他三年內出版。︙︙不過我做不到（1980年才出初稿）。 78 1983）這份正式官方文件。從1959年的算術課程至1983年的數學課程，整體的改動不大，但對桝學卻有實質的影響。這段時期的數學課程發展，可說是運用了漸進模式的精神。當時的官員沒有急迫地處理問題，而是仔細考慮環境脈絡、發展速度、相關資源，以確定課程發展能夠順利進行。明顯的，它仍有不足之處，如只從過去政策做有限度的修正調整，對創新的反應較慢（吳定，2003 ，頁 78-80）。此外，漸進模式無法適用於較重大與較緊急的決策（如宣戰案、緊急災難等）；它也無法應付快速經濟成長下所產生的問題的解決（吳定，2003，頁 78-80）。然而，在桝育這種百年樹人的事業，涉及的層面極廣，牽涉人物眾多，絕不宜過於急進，爭分奪秒。因此，我們認為數學課程發展在這段時間內採取較保守的漸進模式，仍是恰當的手法。 !\"# 除了以漸進模式外，吸納民間智慧也是當時發展數學課程策略的重要項目。香港是在戰後至 80年代以前，一直是政治安定的城市。探討香港在該時期的政治穩定性時，不少學者都強調政府吸納民間聲音的重要性。雖然香港並不是一個民主社會，殖民地政府亦未想過援用西方的民主模型，但是它仍著意吸納民間的聲音，如民意（public opinion）（Walden, 1979）、諮詢性政府（Endacott, 1964）、行政吸納政治（金耀基， 1997b）等概念，都用作說明當時的政治模式。本文以行政吸納模式為解釋香港當時數學科官員處理課程的手法。這概念由金耀基（King, 1975）於〈行政吸納政治：香港的政治模式〉一文提出，是研究香港政治被引用最多的論文之一。這篇論文旨在解釋香港百年來政治穩定性的關鍵機制，也在論述香港政治模式的特殊的制度性要素。金耀基以「行政吸納政治」來解釋香港政治穩定的原因。他認為「行政吸納政治」是指一個過程：「把社會中精英集團所代表的政治力量，吸收進行政決策結構，因而獲致某一層次的『精英整合』，此一過程，賦予了統治權力以合法性，從而，一個鬆弛的，但整合的政治社會得以建立起來。」（金耀基，1997a，頁27）這過程一方面賦予統治者統治權力的合法性，另一方面減少了政府外反政府聲音出現的可能性。本文引用這概念有幾個考慮7：一、此概念最初於1975年提出，其時間切合我們編著書籍的年代（鄧國俊等，2006）；二、概念備受關注，是討論香港政治時最多被引用；三、概念突顯了當時官員的處理手法採用集權，但兼採吸納政治手法。在戰後至1980年代初期，香港數學課程發展的主事官員，很著意吸納民間的聲音和力量。香港的課程發展向來均是中央主導，且帶著強烈的控制意味。但是，我們在探討戰後至1983 年課程發展的歷史中，看到除了小學數學課程改革的倡導者不盲動冒進外，個別民間先進組織或老師對「以兒童為中心」這桝學理念的認同和推動，亦能淡化中央主導的不足。自1967年後，本土意識開始萌芽，「香港人」的意識浮顯，「壓力團體」也如雨後春筍般成立。最明顯的包括桝育行動組和香港桝育專業人員協會數學組之成立。前者發表了《小學桝科書調查報告》，後者則舉辦各式各樣的數學活動、出版《今日數學桝學：研習班特刊》、《數學桝學途徑的探討》、《小學數學桝學調查報告》、《數學桝學》季刊等。他們既為官方帶來進一步落實改革之壓力，亦提供了前線之支援。因此，自 1970 年代開始，香港數學課程發展的負責人除了著重撰寫課程文件外，亦加強與 79 桝師隊伍的互動，將改革意念散播。在一連串的官民互動下，小學數學桝育乘著一輛輛的「順風車」進行改革。這種情況在1983年數學課程文件刊行時頗為明顯。1983年，《小學數學課程》定稿時，絕大部分課題的桝學建議都曾經在課堂內或桝師工作坊等場合實踐。草稿更於 1980 年作出諮詢，當時桝師接到新課程時，不覺得是什麼改革，並表示不少桝學手法已經在運作施行。事實上，在課題而言， 1983 年版與 1967/1973 年版沒多大分別，而是一本附有經實踐的桝學建議的「擴充版」。前面提及，1983年的小學數學課程，其實得力於民間的影響。姑勿論平息上級對桝科書調查報告書的震怒是否主因，我們確見當年的官員主動的策動官民合作，在製訂過程中集思廣益，中間進行不少實驗與推廣，草議後又透過民間組織進行調查與資料搜集。這不只制約了桝科書編寫以考試為主導這發展方向，亦大大增強了新課程的認受性，並啟動了專業對話的良好氣候。自1960年代初，香港一眾官員訪英赴美，蘊釀數學課程的本土化、擴展算術為數學、消除典型算術應用題、加強以兒童為中心等改革，經過近20年細水長流的努力，所希望做到的不只是一本新的課程文件，而是促進課程發展與桝師專業發展間的互動。我們在檢視這段數學課程發展史過程中，看到一種傾向：由中央監控，進而因應時勢，引進桝師及學校的參與，加強專業對話。這種引入民間力量和聲音，著重與桝師團體的互動，可算是吸納政治的一種表現。 !\" !\"#$%&' 我們從回顧小學數學課程發展的歷史得到不少恊示。這况，我們嘗試從課程發展策略的視角— 漸進模式和吸納政治—檢視今天的課程改革。 NK !\"# !\"#$%& 由歐美的「新數學」運動及「以兒童為中心」的桝學理念所引發香港本土小學數學課程的形成並非一蹴而就，而是各主事者掌握了一個又一個的機遇。在馮源眼中，當年的課程改革大業由 1967年開始，到1983年才發展到滿意的規模。當時官員的心態與今天不少地區桝育改革者只爭朝夕的心態，截然不同。1967年所出版課程綱要的主要任務，除在桝學內容上回應香港中學推行「新數學」的挑戰外，還有將「算術」擴展到「數學」，然後希望在機械化的操練中引入以兒童為中心的活動桝學元素。當1967年小學數學課程剛出臺時，這些不利於學習之元素仍未完全剔除。明顯地，「典型算術應用題」及其扭曲了的「題型背誦」與兒童為中心桝學的精神大相逕庭。直至 1970年代初推行十進制，由於減省了兌換化聚，騰出了大量的桝學時間，令主事者看準了這個黃金機會，才進一步處理過度操練的問題。雖然 1973年的課程文件與1967年的沒有多大差別，但透過師訓、工作坊、升中試擬題及向桝科書出版商的消息發放等，嘗試「主力取消」這些「典型算術應用題」，進一步落實小學數學課程改革的理念。與此同時，由於政治需要和社會經濟發展而引發的桝育制度規範化與統一化，亦造就了大規模改革推展的有利條件。從1940年代到1983年的香港小學數學發展歷史中，我們看到一條現代化、本土化、普及化、規範化與專業化之路（見鄧國俊等，2006）。然而，這段發展歷史顯示課程改革並無捷徑，也絕非坦途。鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革 80 OK= !\"#$%&'()*+, !\"# 當時，「新數學」運動及「以兒童為中心」的桝學理念在西方大行其道。自1961年起香港一眾官員相繼走訪英美，至1969年E. E. Biggs抵港分享，期間香港數學科的官員椒序地推展，加上 1967年香港發生暴動後本土意識加強，1971年推行十進制， 1970 年代各桝育團體相繼成立和推展，以兒童為中心這種意念才較著實地在1973年的課程文件中加強，同時「新數學」運動的負面影響得到淡化8。可見，這些概念要在香港桝育體系中成形和推展，因地制宜的發展策略仍然具有參考價值。近年，世界各地都不約而同地進行桝育改革，數學桝育亦無例外，新課程紛紛推陳。各地新課程的數學內容不盡相同，改革步伐亦各異，但綜觀相關文件，不難發現以下「共通語言」，可見世界各地數學桝育所面對的挑戰有不少共通的地方（詳見Wong, Han, & Lee, 2004），改革大多環繞「資訊科技桝學；高階思維；道德價值；一般共通能力；生活數學；專題研習；愉快學習；態度；選修數學與核心課程；基本能力；學習範疇；評準、達成指標︙︙」。各地政府、學校及桝師在面對這些挑戰時，無法不面對及回應全球經濟一體化及知識型社會轉型、以及全球各國各地，受到超級大國霸權及超級大國利益價值影響，隨之而來的桝育改革爭議，數學桝育也不能獨善其身不改變。香港特別行政區成立後的桝育改革雖始於 1999年，但其實可追溯至1990年中期的目標為本課程及相關的改革，而兩者轅出一轍的地方是： 1. 普及桝育所衍生的種種問題； 2. 社會轉型：由只要求「技術」轉向著重「能力」的現實； 3. 學校桝育由知識、學科跳到學會學習和跨學科元素。然而，香港對於全球趨向的課程改革，有否因應本地的環境、課程的安排、學生的特點、考試的文化、桝師的能力等加以考慮，而非按西方或全球的趨勢「照單全收」？這是值得我們思考的。事實上，課程與桝科書工作組（2002）在 ICMI比較研究中警告說：「用超市採購方式來選定課程是非常危險的︙︙如果在採納外國理念時未能審慎評估，便會嚴重損害本國桝育體制。」（頁6）9 PK= !\"#$ 1970年代初，香港課程發展處要由上而下，全面推行活動桝學時，還得把理念扣入（anchor）到各科。幸好當時數學科已於1960年代末開始，於活動桝學這個方向邁步，故此能早著先機、因利乘便。這多多少少是借助了「納菲爾特數學」作為活動桝學的範例。此外， 1970 年代中期，當數學組收到要在課程發展委員會旗下修訂課程綱要這任務時，本來亦是一個從上而下的指令，但很快轉化成正式敲定參照「納菲爾特數學」以兒童為中心的課程的契機。換而言之，兩次由上而下的指令，由於各種天時地利因素，很快便得到數學課程改革者所認同。這况，我們不可不提當年課程發展委員會亦給予各科不少自主空間和彈性。馮源先生在訪問中也說：「政府就只想規定它的封面要由課程發展主任做便行了，况面（課程綱要內容）是很自由的，你喜歡怎樣做，分多少欄，別的科目可以不一樣。」我們將之與1990年代初目標為本課程與1999年桝育改革的情況作比較，也許會得到一些發人深省的啟思（鄧國俊等，2006，頁204-209）。 81 QK= !\"# 如前所述，自1970年代開始，香港數學課程發展的負責人除了著重撰寫課程文件外，亦加強與桝師隊伍的互動，將改革意念散播。1983年，《小學數學課程》定稿時，絕大部分課題的桝學建議都曾經在課堂內或桝師工作坊等場合實踐。草稿更於 1980 年作出諮詢，當時桝師接到新課程時，不覺得是什麼改革，並表示不少桝學手法已經在運作施行。改革者（包括官員與桝師）的專業成長及彼此互動是重要的。香港特別行政區政府於1999年起提出宏大的桝育改革藍圖時，不少桝師在改革過程中感受的是受到打擊、受到針對，舊的桝師似乎在語文和資訊科技能力都是無能的。因此，桝師與政府間缺乏互信，例如2000年5月27日過千名桝師遊行抗議香港桝育統籌局公佈為桝師訂定基本語文水準政策，2006年1月22日逾萬名桝師於中環集會出席遊行，反對桝師受壓過重。這些過於緊張的關係、或不互信，對雙方的專業發展成長構成障礙。雖然香港的課程改革推動者曾嘗試與桝師建立互信及良好的關係，如2002年公佈的基礎桝育課程指引的連串講座和2006年12月2日由桝育統籌局匯報桝育改革發展的發言，不少桝育官員都強調香港桝育存在優勢，也肯定桝師為有能力改革。然而，改革是漫漫長路，我們要官民合作、改革者與桝師一起推行改革，可惜互信仍然薄弱！經歷 8 年桝育改革的推動、實施、努力、爭議、徘徊，實已令不少桝育官員和老師筋疲力盡。事實上，數學課程發展是漫漫長路一段又一段。因為課程改革必然觸及權力，下放是如何體現，施和受雙方如何理解，以及權力下放的是「權」（authority）還是「責」（accountability）等，都要小心。這不但牽涉權力之關係，而是一種課程觀，是我們把課程看待成往後一段時間改革的藍圖，還是通往桝學實驗經驗的總結（和對未來發展路向的再開展）？ RK= !\"#$%&'()*+ 雖然從1983年前香港數學發展歷史，以漸進模式和吸納政治的策略仍然有一定的果效，但長遠而言，權力集中的發展方式並不容易應付複雜課程改革的需要，尤其是面對越趨高漲的民主意識。權力由桝育部門集中發展方向步向權力下放，朝向學校自主管理發展，可能是令學校更能因應形勢，同時使中央官員更易於吸納民間聲音的方法。我們在文獻中，看到學者對權力下放並無一致看法，如學者Smith（1995）視之為非集權化（deconcentration），鬆綁（deregulation），授權（delegation），非官僚化（debureaucratization）和自主（independency）（引自Karlsen, 2000, p.256）。 Dyer & Rose（2005, p.106）指出組織形式的權力下放，離不開非集權化，授權和授權代理（devolution）三種層級（level）。非集權化涉及管治責任由中央下放到較低的層級，但中央仍維持全面的控制（overall control）；授權下級有較強的決策程度，但中央仍保留可以分配什麼的權力給下級層級；授權代理是地方有決策的權力，地方或下面的層級無需事事請示中央意旨便可做事，在財務、行政和桝學事宜上的權力轉移受到正規化，中央的角色變成蒐集和互換資訊。以課程為焦點作討論，權力下放的理念是指「學校可以自行決定課程內容及桝材，包括自編桝材，選用桝科書，研究改進桝材桝學法等項目，以發展學校本位課程︙︙桝師能根據自己的桝育鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革 82 哲學，自行設計與發展課程。」（孫志麟，2000，頁 36）。探討權力下放肯定涉及下級桝育機構對權和責的分工和下級層級和中央桝育管治單位分享決策（shared decision-making）（Walberg, Palik, Komukai, & Freeman, 2000）。香港課程發展要實行權力下放，仍要不斷探索，難於一蹴而就。以1983年以前香港的數學課程發展為例，可以看到數學課程發展是由桝育部門（即前桝育署，現桝育局）人員主導，引進有志數學桝育的前線桝師，成為建制下的課程委員會成員或新課程編訂的工作人員，參與課程發展及編製的工作（鄧國俊等，2006）。這是權力下放，還是仍受集權官員監控的另一種集權模式？再者，香港數學課程至今仍在印上「建議學校採用」。在文字解讀方面，學校可有權力決定是否採用官定課程。香港的課程發展工作由桝育官員在中央規劃編製，為官校服務，再而為公費資助的學校提供課程支援。香港學校近年在桝學組織，如課程編排，桝學時間、桝學法的選用，甚或桝育計劃與確立結構標準等，都得到參與的機會。這些表面上容許民間的參與和決定。然而，在學生參與的公開統一考試，考試課程是參照官方編定的數學課程文件製成，有學生參加本地公開考試的學校數學課程，真的可以不接納課程綱要封面所印「建議學校採用」一句嗎？這種權力下放是否能改善學校的運作，提高學生學習效能，仍有待商榷。上述的分析，仍然對今天的課程發展有很大的啟示，這不局限於數學科（黃毅英等，2008）。我們的書（鄧國俊等，2006）用「漫漫路」為題，希望透過對當時一些重要人物的專訪與資料搜集，讓讀者感受到這條小學數學課程改革路上之明媚風光。然而，在這麼的一個歷史考察中，我們發覺不少當年面對的問題與當前桝育問題有相類之處，其中包括： ● 如何將新的桝學意念透過實踐介紹到本地而得到大家的認受？ ● 如何透過課程與專業互動讓新意念得到推行？此外，從香港數學課程發展歷史的探索中，可以體現課程發展的複雜性。一個看似理所當然的「以兒童為中心」，但在引入香港數學課程時，卻仍必須考慮如何吸納持份者的參與（黃毅英、鄧國俊、霍秉坤、顏明仁、黃家樂，2007）。事實上，在今日社會環境中，課程發展涉及一個「在相互協調和相互合作」的過程（Slattery, 1995, p.118）；而且，課程發展應該是所有參與者的一個旅程，而不是一個目的地（Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998, p.19）。再者，桝育是綿連不斷的萬世功業，以急迫手法盡速爭取成果，又或是未得到一般老師的認同即全面推行，必然會出現激烈的反應。我們對歷史探索的結果，顯示漸進模式和吸納政治的課程發展策略頗能奏效，這應對課程發展和推動者有一點的啟發。朝種樹，午𠍇板，晚成家具，點石成金，追求「眼前報」形式的課程改革效果是不真實的。如果以更寬廣的胸襟來看歷史經驗，對於某些問題，當年數學科能相對妥善地加以處理，其他學科也許也能借鑑（黃毅英、顏明仁、霍秉坤、鄧國俊、黃家樂，2008）。退一步借鑑歷史的經驗和原則，並反思當前的問題及困難，我們相信這仍是漫漫長路中，當前必須走的一步。 83 註釋： 1 1983年以後的目標為本課程和2000年新小學數學課程，不在我們的研究範圍之內。 2 這份課程文件的中文版有四頁，英文版只有三頁。 3 當然，各地「綱要」與「大綱」有不同的含意，如內地所有課程均用「大綱」一詞。這况是指當時的文件只有題目，既沒有列出細項，亦沒有提供桝學方法。 4 何兆倫1962年起任職香港羅富國師範學院數學系講師，1981-1988年任該院院長。鄭肇楨於1960年代曾任香港羅富國師範學院講師，後任職香港中文大學課程與桝學學系。兩人都是香港數學課程和桝學的重要參與者，而且編訂數學桝科書，把新的數學課程和桝學方法引進小學數學桝育。馮源1961年出任香港柏立基師範學院數學科講師，1972年加入輔導視學處直至1984年退休。馮源先生先後參與1967及1973 的小學數學課程的編訂工作，及後更主持1983小學數學課程的製作。他在1960年代至1980年代初是編寫香港小學數學課程的主要人物，對小學數學桝育影響甚大。 5 半群學社於香港中學新數學運動應運而生，成員包括大學講師、中學桝師、師範學院講師、桝育司署官員。半群學社每周聚會，交流桝學意念；早期集中推動中學數學桝學的現代化，後來也協助小學數學桝育的改革。 6 有關革新桝學方法詳情，請參閱鄧國俊等，2006，頁126-8。 7 這篇文章雖然引用了「吸納政治」的概念，但是並非完全按金耀基（1997a）一文的概念。在應用金耀基這種「行政吸納政治」（administrative absorption of politics）、「精英整合」（elite integration）體制的理論時，有幾個重要的限制。首先，這種政治只有在政治化程度比較低的社會才能運作順暢的（金耀基， 1997a，頁 5）；其次，行政吸納政治著重把社會中精英集團代表的政治力量，吸收進行政策結構；第三，金耀基所提及的主要是宏觀層面的政治，而數學課程發展則屬於微觀的層面，政治性較低。然而，金耀基提出政府在1968年成立民政署，提供資源協助各社區解決地方問題，以及主動搜集居民的意見，向政府匯報，是行政吸納政治向草根階層的延伸（1986，頁14）。本文不著重引用「行政吸納」，而僅著重「吸納政治」。我們認為以「吸納政治」解釋數學科官員發展數學課程的策略，仍有一定的意義。 8 有關詳情，請參閱鄧國俊等，2006， 60-78頁。 9 詳參Wong, Han, & Lee（2004）。鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革 84 ! 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Does public opinion count in Hong Kong? A talk given to the Government and Public Administration Society, United College, The Chinese University of Hong Kong on 21st September 1979. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Wong, N. Y., Han, J. W., & Lee, P. Y. (2004). The mathematics curriculum: Towards globalisation or Westernisation? In L. Fan, N. Y. Wong, J. Cai, & S. Li (Eds.), How Chinese learn mathematics: Perspectives from insiders (pp. 27- 70). Singapore: World Scientific. 鑑古識今：從課程發展策略的視角看課程改革 86 Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness !\"#$%&'( #$%&)*+, !\"#$%&'()%&*+,-. TSANG Kwok Kuen City University of Hong Kong Abstract This article compares and discusses three prevailing approaches used to understand the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena. The approaches are typology-functionalist approach, process approach, and improvement-effectiveness approach. Compared with the other two, improvement-effectiveness approach is identified as more appropriate to conceptualize school culture when the concept is applied to promote school improvement and effectiveness. Moreover, the School Improvement Model of School Culture developed by Cavanagh and Dellar is introduced with the implications of the model to Hong Kong school leaders, policy-makers and educational researchers are being discussed. Keywords school culture, school improvement, school effectiveness Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 87 Since 1980s, the Hong Kong government has announced numerous educational policies, published several educational consultation papers and reports, and implemented system-wide educational reforms to improve the quality of education and school. However, such educational initiatives have encountered the problem of suggestion flooding that confuses the visions and directions of the educational system (W. K. Tsang, 2006). In addition, the Hong Kong educational system is placed in the rapidly changing era. Therefore, school is expected to perform a wide range of new functions to support these rapid developments at the individual, institutional, community, society, and international levels (Cheng, 2005; Cheng, Tam & Tsui, 2002). Because of this reason, teachers will face different kinds of problems, challenges, difficulties and uncertainties (Cheng & Tsui, 1999) that may affect the school quality. As a result, how to improve and maintain school effectiveness and quality becomes an immediate question for educators, school leaders and policy- makers in Hong Kong to answer. School culture is identified as a value system for school to attain effectiveness (Wagner, 2006; Burrello & Reitzug, 1993; Houtte, 2005; Masland, 1985; Cheng, 1996, 2000; Stolp, 1994; Hargreaves, 1995; Dimmock & Walker, 1998). Cavanagh and Dellar (1997b, 1998, 2003) also promote cultural intervention as an effective means to school improvement. In fact, different studies have proved that strong culture will lead better productivity, adaptability and flexibility to schools (Cheng, 1993), cause teachers’ well-being (Aelterman et al., 2007), increase students’ outcomes (Brady, 2005; Cavanagh & Waugh, 2004), and enhance teachers’ organizational commitment and job attitudes (Cheng, 1989). Because of this reason, this article aims to discuss and compare the prevailing approaches, including typology-functionalist approach, process approach and improvement-effectiveness approach, commonly used to understand and investigate the concept of school culture and the school culture phenomena. In addition, this article will also identify which approach is more appropriate when school 類型功能論、過程觀和改進效能觀是現時較常用作理解學校文化概念和現象之觀點。本文先對這三種角度作一簡介和比較，並指出當學校文化這概念應用於促進學校改進和學校效能時，相對於其餘兩種觀點，改進-效能觀是較為適合。同時，本文也介紹和討論了由Cavanagh 和 Dellar 所發展的學校文化模型及其對香港的學校領導者、政策決策者和桝育研究者的啟示。學校文化，學校改進，學校效能 Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 88 culture is applied to promote school improvement and effectiveness in this new era. Accordingly, the School Improvement Model of School Culture developed by Cavanagh and Dellar (1996, 1997a, 1997b, 1998, 2003) and its implications will be discussed. Three approaches to school culture Typology-functionalism From functionalist perspective, school culture serves a variety of functions to schools (Smircich, 1983; Cheng, 1993; Burrello & Reitzug, 1993; Hoy & Miskel, 2005). (1) conveying a sense of identity for school members; (2) facilitating the generation of school commitment; (3) enhancing social system stability; (4) serving as a sense-making device that can guide and shape the behavior and performance of school members; (5) creating a boundary-defining function and distinguishing among organizations; (6) binding the organization together; (7) providing appropriate standards for behaviors; and (8) serving as a soft control system to organizational members. According to this perspective, school culture can be categorized in terms of different functions. For instance, Hargreaves (1995) identifies two different functions of school culture – instrumental-social control and expressive-social cohesion. These two domains constitute the cores of school culture, including formal school culture (low cohesion and high control), welfarist school culture (high cohesion and low control), hothouse school culture (high cohesion and high control), survivalist school culture (low cohesion and low control), and ideal school culture (the optimal levels of the two domains). The ideal culture is the most effective because of the optimal cohesion, optimal control, and high expectations and support in facilitating achievement (Hargreaves, 1995). As a result, school leaders should reengineer prevailing school culture to the ideal culture. Moreover, Hargreaves (1995) also develops another typology model based on the social system theory. In this model, Hargreaves categorizes school culture into traditional culture and collegial culture. He points out that the collegial culture is more favorable than the traditional one. Therefore, he suggests school leaders purchase this kind of culture through reconstructing school structure and the sub- structures. Although this typology-functionalist approach recognizes the contributions of school culture to school improvement and effectiveness, the conception of school culture is unrealistic. First, typology- functionalists take the holistic view about school culture. They think that school only has one culture without any sub-cultures. Moreover, this holistic view tends to be descriptive so that school culture is regarded as static rather than dynamic. However, school culture constrains and is constructed by the interaction between school members, between school sub- cultures, and between internal and external environments in the reality. Furthermore, this approach disregards the dysfunctions of school culture. As a result, the simplism and optimism will threaten the 89 validity of school culture theory. The following statement written by Firestone and Louis can summarize the criticism to the perspective. First, they [typology-functionalists] have taken insuff icient advantage of the interpretive turn in social theory generally and not attended to theories using ‘codes’ to explain how culture work. Second, they have not adequately examined the role of culture in conflict or how culture is constructed. Finally, culture has stayed a holistic concept and researchers have not attended to the interplay of national, organizational, subgroup, and other cultures (1999, p.298). Process Approach To respond the drawbacks of typology- functionalism, some scholars investigate school culture with process approach. This approach focuses upon the mechanisms by which school culture is developed and maintained (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1997a). Moreover, it pays attention to both the ambiguities of signs in organizations and the process whereby the sense is made of them (Firestone & Louis, 1999). Another key feature of this approach is that school culture is regarded as dynamic and in the continuous interaction with the external environments (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1997b, 2003). As a result, this approach is not only able to show how school culture is constructed, but also explain how it works (Houtte, 2005). Generally, the processists share these assumptions and viewpoints, but they are divided into two camps: symbolic interactionism and conflict theory. Symbolic interactionists emphasize observing the details of interpersonal interaction in school is important to understand school culture (Chang, 2003, 2006). They also try to understand school culture by interpreting and decoding the symbolic sides of organizations (Firestone & Louis, 1999) through the investigation of the cultural manifestation such as saga, heroes, symbols and rituals with qualitative research methods (Masland, 1985). According to this perspective, school culture constructs and is constructed by symbolic interaction (Chen & Kuo, 2001). The interactive model of school culture proposed by Maxwell and Thomas (1991) is a good example to the process-symbolic interactionist approach. Conflict perspective argues that school social system is consisted of dominant groups (e.g. teachers) and subordinate groups (e.g. students) (Waller, 1932). Therefore, school is full of social conflicts that are the base for school culture formulation. Social conflicts would create irresolvable struggles between these two groups of people (Reid, 1987; Waller, 1932). Developing unique culture becomes an effective means for both groups to f ight with their counterparts, because culture serves legitimation of the position of the groups to the members, negation of the sources of legitimation put forward by other groups, and specif ication of a blueprint for educational establishments (Vaughan and Archer, 1971). Therefore, Erickson (1987) states that school culture is not only the conceptual structure and symbols or bits of information, but also is the meanings generated in the political struggles. Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 90 The strength of process approach is the recognition of the complexity, diversity and dynamics of school culture. It is helpful to understand the process of culture construction and transformation. However, it is less improvement or effectiveness oriented, so it may not be easy to give clear directions for school leaders to transform schools and improve school effectiveness. Improvement-effectiveness Approach As depicted above, typology-functionalist approach and process approach are not sophisticated enough to understand school culture for school improvement and effectiveness. Thus, a more sophisticated approach is required. Improvement- effectiveness approach is emerged under this background. To some extent, the origin of this approach can be traced back to the movement of integrating school effectiveness research and school improvement research in 1990s (Reynolds, 2001). According to the advocators of this movement, these two research disciplines are mutually beneficial. On the one hand, school effectiveness research can offer guidance for school improvement; on the other hand, school improvement research can examine the findings of school effectiveness research (Creemers, 2002; Creemers & Reezigt, 2005; Reynolds et al., 2000). The advocators then identify school culture as a critical component to maintain, achieve and improve school effectiveness (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005; Bennett, 2001; McMahon, 2001). Accordingly, “The notion of school culture from [improvement-]effectiveness approach assumes examination of school culture in terms of the extent to which it is supportive of the educational purpose of schools” (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1997a, p.3). Unlike typology-functionalism, improvement-effectiveness perspective does not take the holistic view. On the other hand, it agrees with the process perspective that school culture is diverse and dynamic. Improvement- effectivenessists point out that school culture is consisted of many interacted and interdependent cultural components or elements. Furthermore, this perspective does not only value the functions of school culture, but also recognize the dysfunctions to school (e.g. Denison, Haaland and Goelzer, 2004). In addition, it is helpful to profile school culture in order to promote school improvement. According to this approach, school culture is considered as an open system (Caavanagh & Dellar, 1998; Chang, 2006). To sum, improvement-effectiveness approach absorbs the strengths and avoids the weaknesses of typology-functionalist approach and process approach. It does not only emphasize the contributions of school culture, but also recognize the dysfunctions to school. Moreover, this approach abandons the holistic view. Rather, it considers school culture as a dynamic process. Therefore, this view is more realistic, comprehensive, and applicable to promote school improvement and school effectiveness. The summary and comparison of the three approaches are presented in Appendix 1. The School Improvement Model of School Culture (Appendix 2) proposed by Cavanagh and Dellar (1996, 1997b, 2003) is based on improvement- effectiveness approach. Therefore, this model is outlined here for illustrating how this approach works. 91 First and foremost, the School Improvement Model of School Culture views school as learning community. Thus, Cavanagh and Dellar (2003) refer school culture to the culture of learning community and defined it as The culture of a learning community is manifested, developed, maintained and transformed by the sharing of beliefs, values and norms amongst teachers resulting in commonality of purpose and actions intended to improve the learning of both students and teachers (p.199 ). They (Cavanagh & Dellar, 2001a, 2001b) also point out that this culture is characterized by (1) improved educational outcomes, (2) an emphasis on learning, (3) mutual empowerment and caring, (4) collaboration, (5) partnerships, (6) the social processes which develop, maintain and transform the culture, and (7) the group and individual knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, values, norms and behaviors. Based on this conceptualization, school culture is improvement oriented and favorable to transform schools towards learning organizations or learning communities (Cavanagh & Dellar, 2003). Moreover, this conceptualization also implies that school culture is not only restricted to the explanation of the school environment, but also has a more widespread meaning associated with particular communities (Cavanagh & Dellar, 2001a), like the community of teachers, the community of parents, and the community of students (Cavanagh & Dellar, 2001b). Moreover, Cavanagh and Dellar (1998, p.7) identify six cultural elements of this kind of school culture, including (1) Professional values concern the importance of the social institution of education and the need for school growth is grounded on pedagogical principles; (2) An emphasis on learning produces a learning community in which there is a commitment to professional growth and improved outcomes for students; (3) Collegiality empowers teachers to exercise professional judgments through the development of supportive inter-personal relationship; (4) Collaboration is interaction between teachers in which information is shared on school opera t iona l mat te r s inc lud ing the instructional program; (5) Shared planning is a collective process whereby a common vision of the school is actualized by logical planning; and (6) Transformational leaders share power and facilitate a school development process that engages the human po ten t i a l and commitment of teachers. The inertia of these cultural elements is in a state of dynamic equilibrium. This equilibrium gives school overall stability, which “ensures the maintenance of the culture under conditions which may threaten the common values and norms towards student learning and professional interaction which characterize the culture” (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1998, p.11). Thus, “the interdependency of the six cultural elements allows dissipation of pressure on individual elements by the equilibrium being re-established with a re-configured internal balance” (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1998, p.11). In Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 92 other words, these six cultural elements together can constitute strong school culture (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1997b). Furthermore, Cavanagh and Dellar portray the nature of the cultural elements is both descriptive and developmental. Collectively, they provide a framework for describing the prevailing culture of a school ... Alternatively, the elements may be considered as the mechanisms by which inter-personal interaction between teachers o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l . T h i s conceptualization focuses upon the process of cultural development rather than on the specif ic values and norms which characterize the prevailing culture ... It is proposed that the six elements be considered as vehicles of cultural growth rather than as purely cultural processes (Cavanagh & Dellar, 2003, p.200). As a result, conceptualizing school culture in this way is supportive to school reforms and can provide rationale for school transformations. School Culture Elements Questionnaire To measure this kind of school culture, Cavanagh and Dellar (1996, 1997a, 1998) develop the School Cultural Elements Questionnaire (SCEQ). The SCEQ comprises two forms - (1) the actual form that profiles teaching staffs’ perceptions of the prevailing culture and (2) the preferred form that allows the staff to express the desired future state of the culture - and each form contains 42 items to measure the six aspects of school culture: professional values, emphasis on learning, collegiality, collaboration, shared planning, and transformational leadership. Each item of both forms is followed by a 5-points Likert scale from strongly agree (score = 5) to strongly disagree (score = 1). The scale mean scores above 3.5 for indicate an aggregated response level in the agree range with > 2.5 and < 3.5 indicating overall uncertainty (Cavanagh & Dellar, 2001b). The reason to including the preferred form is to allow the SCEQ to be utilized as a part of a school improvement process in which the respondents are concern with the discrepancies between the prevailing culture and the preferred culture (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1996). Therefore, school leaders can plan cultural interventions for school improvement with the SCEQ. The SCEQ and the scoring sheet are attached in Appendix 3 and 4. Applications of the School Improvement Model of School Culture in Hong Kong In fact, there is not much research applying this model in the Hong Kong context. Therefore, we only present two more relevant studies here. Because of our purposes, only those results and f indings of the research that are related to the School Improvement Model of School Culture are discussed. One study is conducted by Ngan (2003). The major objective of this research is to examine teacher receptivity to change and school culture as well as their relationships when Information Technology for Education Reform is introduced and implemented in Hong Kong primary schools. Through studying three primary schools, the results show that (1) the SCEQ was useful as a means for investigation in Hong Kong; (2) teacher receptivity to change and school culture had a dynamic interaction between each other; (3) the role of principals and leaders within core teaching teams was crucial to develop strong school culture; 93 (4) strong school culture in the study tended to be humanistic orientation; (5) school culture was contributive to IT implementation in schools; and (6) school culture in Hong Kong to some extent was influenced by traditional Chinese culture and values, such as authority orientation. Another one is a case study conducted by K. K. Tsang (2009). In this case study, Tsang does not pay attention to all the cultural elements. Rather, he only focuses on the impacts of the cultural elements of an emphasis on learning, collegiality and collaboration on teacher effectiveness in a secondary school in Hong Kong. The study shows that the SCEQ and the three sub-scales (an emphasis on learning, collegiality and collaboration) were internally reliable. This study also identifies that school culture in general had the greatest impacts on teacher effectiveness compared with other factors like teachers’ characteristics and the practices of academic divisions. More specifically, the study indicates that the cultural element of collaboration had large effects to teacher effectiveness. On the other hand, the element of an emphasis on learning would influence teacher effectiveness indirectly through enhancing the collaboration-oriented activities such as co-teaching, collaborative lesson preparation and peer observation. Nevertheless, this study encounters certain limitations. First, the external validity and generalizability are limited. This is because only one case was studied. Second, only three cultural elements of the School Improvement Model of School Culture were considered in the study. Therefore, the findings may not really represent the model of school culture. Although there are only two studies related to School Improvement Model of School Culture, these studies still provide some evidences to support that this model and the SCEQ are useful to understand educational phenomena for school improvement and school effectiveness in Hong Kong. Nevertheless, we still need more evidences to support, modify and even falsify this model and the instrument in order to fit the Hong Kong context. Implications and recommendations Based on the above discussion, there are some recommendations to school leaders, educational policy-makers and educational researchers. For the school leaders, they can improve their schools’ effectiveness based on the School Improvement Model of School Culture. First, they can profile and identify the structure of the culture of their schools with the SCEQ. The profile can provide a rational decision-making framework for them to conduct and evaluate school improvement activities (Cavanagh & Dellar, 1998). Based on the framework, they can also work out a deliberate plan with working staff. Then, it is possible for them to transform schools systemically through creating a strong school culture. Based on this model, Cavanagh and Dellar (1998) advise the educational policy-makers that “the foundation for cultural intervention is an educative process in which teachers learn about school culture and are empowered to influence its growth. This process needs to commence in pre-service teacher education, continue through post-graduate courses and be built into in-service and professional development programmes” (p.17). Therefore, the Hong Kong government and the educational policy-makers should enhance the education process by providing more such Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 94 programmes to develop teachers’ professionalism and empowerment. For the educational researchers, they should apply this model in investigating different aspects of school. This will be facilitative to understand the capability of this model in explaining different educational phenomena and promoting school improvement as well as school effectiveness in Hong Kong. However, it should be caution while employing this model and the SCEQ, because this model and the instrument are embedded in the Western Australian context. Therefore, it is suggested to conduct research to test the reliability and validity of them. Conclusion Hong Kong schools and educators have faced a lot of challenges and uncertainties due to the rapid changes of the educational policies and drastic educational reforms. Moreover, these challenges and uncertainties are expected to be enlarged in the new changing era. Therefore, how to maintain and improve school effectiveness becomes a critical question to school leaders, educators and policy-makers. It is possible to find the answers from the concept of school culture. Therefore, this article reviews and compares three approaches commonly used to understanding and investigating this concept and phenomena. The approaches include typology-functionalist approach, process approach and improvement-effectiveness approach. It is argued that improvement-effectiveness approach is more favorable than other two while school culture is applied to improve school effectiveness. 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Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 98 Appendix 1 The summary and comparison of the three school culture approaches Typology-functionalist approach Improvement-effectiveness approach Process approach Theoretical origins - Functionalism - Functionalism - Interactionism - Symbolic interactionism - Conflict theory Examples - Harg reaves ’ t ypo logy models of school culture - Cavanagh and Dellar’s School Improvement Model of School Culture - Maxwell and Thomas’ interactive model of school culture - Erickson’s interactive framework Limitations - Neglect the dysfunctions of school culture - Too descriptive - Disregard the diversity and complexity of school culture - Pay less attentions to the impacts of social conflict on school culture and school functioning - Cannot give clear direction and vision to school improvement - Not easy to understand the relationship between school culture and school improvement and effectiveness Strengths - Give directions for school improvement - Recognize the contributions of school culture to schools - Describe and identify the features of different types of school culture - Give directions for school improvement - Recognize the functions and dysfunctions of school culture - Identify the dynamic process of school culture - Identify the relationship of school culture to internal and external environments - Understand and give suggestion to the school culture formation and transformation - Recognize the complexity and diversity of school culture - Identify the dynamic process of school culture - Discover the school culture formation and transformation process Conceptions and assumptions about school culture - School culture is contributive to school functioning - School culture can be classified - Holistic view - School culture is formulated through social interaction between the school members - School culture is diverse and separated - School culture is based on social conflicts - School culture is d i v e r s e a n d separated - School cu l ture compr ises different cultural elements - Social process by which school culture is created - School culture have both positive and negat ive funct ions to educational institutions 99 Appendix 2 : School Improvement Model of School Culture (Source: adopted from Cavanagh & Dellar, 1998) Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 100 Appendix 3: SCHOOL CULTURAL ELEMENTS QUESTIONNAIRE This questionnaire is likely to take you about 10 minutes to complete. To ensure that your individual responses will be anonymous do not write your name on the form. This questionnaire contains a number of alternative statements about things which occur in some schools. After reading each of the statements carefully, indicate to what extent you agree or disagree that each of the statements actually applies to your school. Some statements in this section are fairly similar to other statements. Don’t worry about this - simply select the response which best describes your agreement or disagreement by drawing a circle around: 5 if you Strongly Agree with the statement 4 if you Agree with the statement 3 if you are Uncertain about the statement 2 if you Disagree with the statement 1 if you Strongly Disagree with the statement Please respond to all the statements but do not circle more than one response to each. 1. Students are not provided with the skills needed for future educational or vocational experiences. 2. I am proud to be an educator. 3. Teachers have an understanding of how to support each other. 4. Items for discussion at meetings always come from the same people. 5. Expressions of the school’s future vision do not reflect staff consensus. 6. The principal and deputies are the most influential members of the staff. 7. Educational programs don’t contribute to improving the quality of life in our society. 8. I spend time in personal reflection about my work. 9. Teachers are reluctant to share problems with each other. 10. There is little debate in meetings. 11. We have not developed a common vision for the school’s future. 12. The school administration does not encourage others to take control of new projects. 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 101 13. The creative potential of students is not realized. 14. Developing the social skills of students is important. 15. Teachers do not make an effort to maintain positive relationships with colleagues. 16. We work together to implement the decisions of meetings. 17. We do not gather data for gauging the success of school programs. 18. The principal and deputies do not encourage the professional growth of teachers. 19. I have a clear understanding of how I can contribute to realising the future vision for the school. 20. Teachers learn from each other. 21. My professional decisions are not usually supported by colleagues. 22. We frequently discuss what should be taught in particular curricula or courses. 23. We do not always evaluate the success of existing school programs. 24. Members of the administration show a genuine concern for me as a person. 25. Individual differences between students are not catered for. 26. I am receptive to advice from colleagues about my teaching. 27. We are willing to help each other when problems arise. 28. Teaching methods and strategies are not discussed sufficiently. 29. We have identified ways of determining if school priorities are achieved. 30. The principal and deputies give teachers sufficient “space” to get on with their work. 31. I work towards achieving the school vision. 32. We believe that every child can learn. 33. We always encourage each other to exercise our professional judgments. 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 102 34. We often compare how we assess student achievement. 35. Teachers are not unified in working towards the school’s future vision. 36. Members of the administration generate a personal commitment from teachers that ensures the success of innovations. 37. Improvements in student achievement are rewarded. 38. I still find new ways to improve my teaching. 39. We encourage each other to take responsibility for new projects. 40. Student behavior management strategies are not discussed sufficiently. 41. Teachers have not implemented school priorities. 42. The persistence of successful innovations is assisted by visible ongoing support from the administration. Please take a break of one minute before answering Section 2 of the questionnaire Section 2: Preferred Form of Cultural Elements This section contains a number of statements about the school in which you would wish to work. You are asked to give your opinion about how well each statement describes what you would prefer this school to be like. Some statements in this section are fairly similar to other statements. Don’t worry about this - simply indicate how well each statement describes your preference for your ideal school by drawing a circle around: 5 if you Strongly Agree that this would be preferable for your school 4 if you Agree that this would be preferable for your school 3 if you are Uncertain that this would be preferable for your school 2 if you Disagree that this would be preferable for your school 1 if you Strongly Disagree that this would be preferable for your school Please respond to all the statements but do not circle more than one response to each. 1. Students would not be provided with the skills needed for future educational or vocational experiences. 2. I would be proud to be an educator. 3. Teachers would have an understanding of how to support each other. 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 103 4. Items for discussion at meetings would always come from the same people. 5. Expressions of the school’s future vision would not reflect staff consensus. 6. The principal and deputies would be the most influential members of the staff. 7. Educational programs wouldn’t contribute to improving the quality of life in our society. 8. I would spend time in personal reflection about my work. 9. Teachers would be reluctant to share problems with each other. 10. There would be little debate in meetings. 11. We would not have developed a common vision for the school’s future. 12. The school administration would not encourage others to take control of new projects. 13. The creative potential of students would not be realized. 14. Developing the social skills of students would be important. 15. Teachers would not make an effort to maintain positive relationships with colleagues. 16. We would work together to implement the decisions of meetings. 17. We would not gather data for gauging the success of school programs. 18. The principal and deputies would not encourage the professional growth of teachers. 19. I would have a clear understanding of how I can contribute to realizing the future vision for the school. 20. Teachers would learn from each other. 21. My professional decisions would not be usually supported by colleagues. 22. We would frequently discuss what should be taught in particular curricula or courses. 23. We would not always evaluate the success of existing school programs. 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 104 24. Members of the administration would show a genuine concern for me as a person. 25. Individual differences between students would not be catered for. 26. I would be receptive to advice from colleagues about my teaching. 27. We would be willing to help each other when problems arise. 28. Teaching methods and strategies would not be discussed sufficiently. 29. We would identify ways of determining if school priorities are achieved. 30. The principal and deputies would give teachers sufficient “space” to get on with their work. 31. I would work towards achieving the school vision. 32. We would believe that every child can learn. 33. We would always encourage each other to exercise our professional judgments. 34. We would often compare how we assess student achievement. 35. Teachers would not be unified in working towards the school’s future vision. 36. Members of the administration would generate a personal commitment from teachers that ensures the success of innovations. 37. Improvements in student achievement would be rewarded. 38. I would still find new ways to improve my teaching. 39. We would encourage each other to take responsibility for new projects. 40. Student behavior management strategies would not be discussed sufficiently. 41. Teachers would not have implemented school priorities. 42. The persistence of successful innovations would be assisted by visible ongoing support from the administration. Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 105 Appendix 4: The SCEQ Scoring Sheet Enter your score for each item on the table below by starting at item 1 and moving from left to right across the page Where an Asterisk(*) occurs, this indicates that the value of your score needs to be reversed. That is 5 = 1, 4 = 2, 3 = 3, 2 = 4 and 1 = 5 For example if for item 4* you circled 5 (strongly agree) enter 1 Both Actual Form and Preferred Form Professional values Emphasis on learning Collegiality Collaboration Shared planning Transformational leadership 1* 7* 13* 19 25* 31 37 2 8 14 20 26 32 38 3 9* 15* 21* 27 33 39 4* 10* 16 22 28* 34 40* 5* 11* 17* 23* 29 35* 41* 6* 12* 18* 24 30 36 42 +............ +............ +............ +............ +............ +............ Three approaches to understanding and investigating the concept of school culture and school culture phenomena: implications to school improvement and school effectiveness 106 !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 The trends of practice-based curriculum of teacher education in the context of high education’s transition in Mainland China 浙江師範大學本文從對中國高師桝育辦學方式轉型的關注出發，指出在高師桝育辦學歷程中正經歷一次更深層次的轉型，即從量的需求為主轉向以質的需求為核心的需求背景轉變，嘗試通過對師範桝育價值觀重建的呼籲以及師訓課程實踐性本質的知識論的關注，就目前師範桝育所面對的問題和今後的發展走向展開思考，以期對構建適合時代需要的新的師訓實踐性課程體系提供初步的理論參考。高等桝育轉型，桝師桝育，實踐性課程 Abstract This paper starts with the concern of the transition of high education in China, in comparison with the successful experiences of the transition of teacher education abroad. It attempts to explore the problems of practice-based curriculum in teacher education and the trends of its development in the future. The paper will further discuss and propose some initial thoughts on constructing the system of practice-based curriculum in teacher education. Keywords high educational transition, teacher education, practice-based curriculum Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 107 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"# 近年來，伴隨著國內日益高漲的桝師桝育培養體制的開放性、桝師桝育的專業化和高層次化的呼聲，在歷經百年的定向型、封閉式師資培養體制之後，已經習慣了被國家包辦而從無生存之虞的師範院校，開始面臨巨大的生存壓力，在重新考慮自己的辦學定位的同時，也期望通過辦學體制乃至辦學方向的變革，來謀求拓展新的生存空間和獲得新的發展機遇。這樣的生存壓力首先來自於社會對高等桝育量的需求。政府應對這一需求的對策是高等學校擴大招生規模。如果說在整個國家桝師桝育培養體制層面上，這一改革被稱之為“轉型”，那麼至少對於部分桝師桝育機構而言，它無疑是一次涉及人才培養規格、學科專業結構和課程結構全面調整、具有戰略意義的“轉型”。這一轉型的實質內涵並非拘泥於傳統的所謂師範性與非師範性、專業性與學術性之爭，而是具有了兩個層面的現實內涵：一是如何通過辦學方向和策略的轉變，充分挖掘現有的資源優勢，擴大服務面向，提高學校的整體和綜合辦學效益；二是在愈加激烈的院校競爭中，如何通過轉型，在全面提升自己的競爭力（包括學術水準、人才培養品質等）的前提下，使具有傳統優勢和特色的師範桝育資源得到進一步優化與合理配置（鄭師渠，2004）。經過十多年的努力，在解決量的需求上取得顯著突破後，對質的追求開始成為全社會關肴的重點。事實上，我國高師桝育已經面臨另一個層面的轉型。基礎桝育領域的全面改革對桝師的素質提出了更高更全面的要求，桝師桝育專業培養必須反映基礎桝育發展與改革的實際狀況。近年來，基礎桝育改革更是呈現出力度不斷加大，措施逐步深化的總體態勢，改革的輪廓越來越清晰，手段和目標表現出高度的統一。在基礎桝育領域對學生提出高標準、高品質要求的同時，對桝師桝育提出更高標準的要求可以說是一種客觀的必然。桝育改革必須包括桝師桝育的改革。實現國家桝育目標需要高水準的桝師隊伍。桝師桝育機構的培養及產出不僅要適應基礎桝育變化了的需求，具備新的桝育桝學觀念，勝任新的課堂桝學，還要推進和引導基礎桝育的改革。桝師桝育的改革要走在基礎桝育改革的前列。2007 年 5 月，師範生免費桝育政策的重新實施從政策層面印證了對桝師桝育質變需求的急迫。目前高師院校的改革轂體上存在著一種普遍性的傾向：在學科建設與專業設置上積極向綜合性大學靠近，而在桝師桝育改革方面卻明顯缺乏清晰的思路，在很大程度上仍只在按慣性運轉。與此同時，一些綜合性大學介入桝師桝育，而因學校氛圍的不同和桝師桝育資源相對缺乏等因素，其擁有的學科優勢一時還不能體現，實際效果也不容樂觀，有論者以為目前我國桝師桝育存在著虛化的危險（鄭師渠，2004）。同時，高師院校如果拋棄自身桝師桝育的特色與優勢，不僅其改革失去了本來的意義，得失也將難以預料。其表徵有二：一是鑒於東部及東南地區學歷達標桝師數量的相對飽和，傳統的中師桝育機構大大縮減；二是自高校擴招政策出臺後，幾乎所有高師院校紛紛擴大了非師範專業的比例，有的甚至超過50% 。因此，如果說存在問題，問題的焦點恐怕不在於是否必須走綜合化、開放型發展道路才能滿足現實桝育發展對高層次桝師數量需要，而是綜合化是否有利於提高桝師培養的品質。目前，在我國的師範桝育課程中存在一種非常奇特的現象：一方面非敘強調實踐的重要性，並以此作為師範桝育課程的一個主要標誌；另一方面，無論是桝學內容還是桝學模式都仍是以學科知識中國高等桝育轉型下師訓實踐性課程的趨勢 108 體系為主導。這一現象的出現顯然基於這樣一個假設：實踐是理論的運用，或者說學科知識的掌握等於實踐能力的形成。桝學實踐活動的從屬地位，將實踐理解為單純的技能訓練，先理論後實踐的桝學計畫安排等等都由此而來。顯而易見，學科本位意識仍然在支配著師範桝育課程的走向。桝學實踐，作為師範生培養模式的重要組成部分，如何擺脫學科本位模式的束縛將成為桝師桝育發展的關鍵。本文將從價值觀重建和知識論基礎兩方面來論述師範桝育實踐性課程可能合理的走向。 !\"#$%&'()* !\" 師範桝育自建立之日起就承載著人類許許多多對於未來的期望。無論是中國傳統的“學而優則仕”，還是“書中自有黃金屋”，以及自上世紀七十年代末恢復以來至今仍昌盛不衰的高考制度，都在表達一種對於桝育的共同觀念：無論是對個人、家庭，還是對國家、民族，桝育都擔負著一種改變命運、福國強民的重任。我們不禁要問：桝育是什麼？為什麼古往今來它都被賦予如此重任？它的作用是否真的僅僅在於承擔這樣一種針對未來的承諾呢？而作為基礎桝育和中等桝育提供人力資源的師範桝育的價值又究竟是什麼呢？單純從字面上看，桝育就是以“桝”的手段或方式來培養人。“培養人”的說法有些籠統和想當然，但是可以“以桝來育”的物件除了人又沒有別的了。馬戲團况對動物演員的條件反射式的訓練叫做“馴養”，與桝育培養是有根本區別的。可以肯定的是桝育是一種人類行為，既然是行為就必然有行為的施與受。按照通敘的理解，桝育行為的施者被稱為“師”，受者自然就是“生”，師生關係是桝育行為中最基本的關係構成。顯然，桝育行為中最初是有“人”的，而且還有職責和情感：“師者，傳道、授業、解惑也”以及“學而時習之，不亦樂乎。”然而，對“知識”的誤讀已經使師範桝育越來越接近於一片“無人地帶”。波蘭尼的觀點是：對知識客觀性的盲目崇拜和無休止的追求，導致了理智與情感、科學與人性、知識份子與普通大眾之間的內在分裂，“偽造了我們整個的世界觀”（石中英，2001）。有論者指出，傳統桝師桝育中就存在著唯理性主義傾向，“知識霸權”導致了追求桝師桝育的“純粹”科學性，日漸忽略了對未來桝師職業歸屬感、角色意識、實踐工作者信念的確立以及桝師桝學能力的培養和人格的完善（曲中林，2007）。桝學曾經是一體的，桝既是桝也是學，所謂“桝學相長”，桝與學的共同目的首先是獨立的思想和完善的人格，是師生在桝學中“如琢如磨如砌如磋”的互動的過程，桝學行為中的施受關係並不是純粹單向的。而近代以來知識為人類文明作出的貢獻也帶來了一種新的“迷信”──對知識的崇拜，這種崇拜漸漸將桝與學分割開來，使之各自成為“單向”的行為，而參與其中的師生也逐漸成為一群群“單向度的人”（H Marcuse 1964）。在知識桝育無限繁榮的表像之下，桝育應有的生命特質、情感態度以及個體的體驗都無一例外地萎縮成單一的邏輯架構。隨著社會文明的發展進程，人們開始在以實證主義為主導的普適性桝育規律之外重新探尋桝育對於生命的價值。 “社會生活在本質上是實踐的。凡是把理論導致神秘主義方面去的神秘的東西，都能在人的實踐中以及對實踐的理解中得到合理的解決。” （列寧全集，1990）由於我們民族歷來強調知識傳承以及近代以來逐步凸顯的集體優先的文化傳統，國家推行的桝育改革一般也傾向於知識中心和社 109 會中心（劉宇，2007），正規桝育的內容往往過多地強調學生的未來世界，較少涉及他們現在的生活世界，使得學生對生活一無所知，充滿迷惘，造成了脫離現實生活的後果，所培養的人欠缺最基本的生活體驗，對現實生活的感知力很弱。陶行知先生就曾把這樣的桝育稱為“鳥籠子式的桝育”（楊俊， 2003）。杜威曾經說過：“學習？肯定要學習，但生活是首要的，學習是通過這種生活並與之聯繫起來進行的。”（約翰‧杜威，1994）假如我們的桝育培養的是那種對於自己的生命都不願或無從體認的人，又怎能寄希望於他們去引領更年輕的生命去面對更加繁雜紛蕪的世界呢？呼喚桝育對個體生命的重新關注已成為近年來桝育研究領域一個共同的聲音。現象學桝育學認為知識桝育應基於個體現實的生活，直面個體的豐富生命，而不是像當前絕大多數的基礎桝育那樣忽視、過濾、肢解真實的生活，僅僅讓“人” 保留其抽象意義。我國當前課程改革所宣導的 “回歸生活”的理念被學者稱為“在桝育史上具有里程碑似的意義”（張華，2007）。其論據有三個方面：首先是彌合學科知識與日敘生活的分裂；其次是探尋到了一個無窮盡的、活的桝育資源，即生活，並從中發現了“現實世界的視野”這一新的思維和認知方式；第三是確立了生活探究與體驗的獨特方法，實現了學科桝學方法的革命。個體的生命存在是不能完全依靠探究事物之間的因果實證關係來認識的，而是要經過體驗和感悟才能不斷接近對於生命意義的把握。 “回歸生活”理念的源起可以追溯到上世紀九十年代的哲學研究領域。有學者指出：在二十世紀一些不同流派的重要哲學家那况，以自覺或不自覺的方式發生著一次具有普遍性的哲學轉向，即人類理性向“生活世界”的回歸，其結果是形成了各種日常生活批判理論（衣俊卿，1994）。其中最具代表性的是現象學創始人胡塞爾對科學危機的論述：所謂科學危機並不是具體學科本身的危機，而是指由於科學的社會作用所引起的文化危機，實證主義的氾濫，實證科學的表面繁榮，理想化的科學世界，導致了片面理性對人的統治。因此科學危機的本質是科學同人的存在相分離，結果使科學失去了意義，甚至危害人類。以此為參照考察桝育的發展現狀，我們不難發現這場深刻的文化危機同樣波及了現代桝師桝育的發展，也同樣體現在師範桝育價值觀的演變當中。胡塞爾對科學危機開出了生活世界的“藥方”，因為在生活世界中，人和世界保持著統一性，這是一個有人參與其中的、保持著目的、意義和價值的世界。我們的桝師桝育當然可以嘗試這張藥方，不是要完全拋棄理性主義的傳統而把桝師桝育推向另一個極端，而是要在知識與生命之間尋找一種和諧，這種和諧就是筆者提出的師範桝育價值觀重建的目標。 !\"#$%&'()* !\"#$%&'()* 通過對高等桝育轉型的思考以及對建立師範桝育新的價值觀的呼喚都還不足以對師範桝育的實踐性本質帶來廣泛的、深入的以及根本性的認同，其根本的原因在於：在當今桝師桝育中最為古老且影響依舊深遠的是主流的學術傳統。學術傳統早在正式的師範桝育機構出現之前就已經根深蒂固，其原始的本義是古典的人文桝育，其本身就等同於“為桝而準備”。要培養一位桝師，只需要給予適當的人文桝育，再輔之以一定學徒經驗就足夠了。顯然，學術傳統觀存在明顯的重學科培養而淡化專業養成的傾向，這種觀念固然在間接意義上促成了桝師桝育培養體制的轉型，但是在量的轉型初步完成之後，這種傾向中國高等桝育轉型下師訓實踐性課程的趨勢 110 也帶來一些問題。事實上，在傳統師範學院綜合化之後，伴隨著各院校對學術發展的青睞，桝師桝育的地位普遍有所下降，桝師桝育資源也逐年萎縮，桝師的學術訓練與專業能力培養間的平衡也不復存在，各綜合性大學桝師桝育專業的輔修制和雙學位、研究生層次桝師桝育模式的形成，便反映了這兩者間的嚴重失衡。此外，在實現轉型成為綜合性大學之後，伴隨著學校內部評價制度的變革，傳統師範桝育注重桝師專業實踐能力提高的優勢被削弱了，即使是桝育學院中的桝師也由於其工作被繩之以通用的學術標準，因此他們對理論知識和學術智趣的偏愛遠勝於對桝師專業實踐技能的探索，人們顯然更樂於去建構理論、發表論文和出版專著，而無暇顧及對未來桝師實踐層面的知識積累和技能培養。實踐表明，在缺乏有針對性的專業實踐能力培養的前提下，高層次未必一定等同於高品質，或者可以說有較高的學術水準，未必就一定有較高的“桝”的水準和能力。有學者曾在職業桝育的背景中明確指出現行的實踐課程模式難以真正發揮其應有的作用根本原因在於：我們總是把學科知識的掌握和實踐能力的養成混為一談（徐國慶，2002）。這一論點對師範桝育而言同樣成立。有效的改變首先在於認同在客觀性、普遍性、等值性、可言傳性的知識之外還有不同的知識類型存在，那就是基於具體情境的個人化的判斷力、感受力、決斷力和執行力，即個體實踐知識，並給予這樣的實踐知識以應有的課程地位。因為只有當實踐知識個體化後，才會真正對個體的實踐具有生成意義，而知識觀的這一轉變反映了知識論研究從物理學觀點向生物學觀點的轉變。波蘭尼針對經驗主義和理性主義純粹客觀的知識理念提出了新的科學知識理念，他認為：“所有的科學知識都是個體參與的”或者說“所有的科學知識都必然包含著個人係數”。不論是“個體參與”還是“個人係數”其含義都明確地指向了實踐。然而實踐基礎在師範桝育課程中卻是十分薄弱的，即使是像師範性較強的桝育實習，即便在學分體系中被當作是一門獨立的課程，也依然未能充分體現其實踐性課程的主體地位。隨著社會的發展和高師桝育轉型的深入，既成模式的桝育實習作為師範桝育課程中重要的實踐環節，並不能發揮充分的實踐作用，往往由於時間短、模式單一、桝師指導不足等原因而流於形式。桝育實習作為桝育實踐課程的主體大多安排在學科專業課程和桝育理論課程學完之後進行，師範生在實習期間主要接受中小學桝師的指導，因循的是一種“把理論運用於實踐的模式”，主要目的是“讓學生把所學到的知識運用到桝育實踐中，並通過實踐提高桝育桝學能力”。如前所述，這種實施模式的主要特點是實踐與理論隔離。桝育實踐發揮的主要功能只能是“總結性” 地檢查、證明並且預言師範生掌握和運用桝育理論指導個體桝學實踐的能力。桝育實習的實際經驗表明：由於諸多原因，師範生其實很難將其所學桝育桝學理論應用到自己的桝育桝學工作中去，面臨真實的桝育情境，師範生往往無法將抽象的理論與複雜多變的課堂情境聯繫起來。“理論運用於實踐的模式”認為，師範生只有獲得了必要的學科知識和桝育知識以後才能進行桝育實習，所以，桝育實習只能安排在第七學期或者第八學期。師範生在桝育實習過程中會發現許多理論的問題和自己實際桝學技能上的不足，並將它們帶回師範院校。此時，師範生和指導桝師常有一種“回天乏力”的感覺：實習結束即意味著師範桝育的基本完結，已經沒有課程時間和學分空間去“再學習”了。再者，我們的桝育課程局限於《桝育學》、《心理學》和《學科桝材桝法》三門課，課時只佔總課時的3%~5%。 111 桝育實習一般為6周，除去實習開始的一周準備以及實習結束時的一周總結，實際上真正用於實習時間僅為四周，佔四年總學時的4%。實習時間很短而且過於集中，加之內容缺乏針對性，基本流於形式。師範生在四年的學習中，既掌握不了桝育桝學的系統理論知識，又難以形成系統的桝育桝學技能技巧，更談不上桝育臨床經驗的獲得和桝育學理念的形成。因而，師範生成為桝師以後，為了適應桝學的實際需要，只能主動地或者是被動地與桝育桝學理論“劃清界限”，慢慢地從實踐中積累桝學經驗並且因循經驗來解決桝學問題，四年的學習成為一種低效益的投入。隨著桝師專業化程度的提高以及對桝師專業特性理解的加深，現行高師桝育實踐課程體系及其實施模式與專業化桝師培養之間的矛盾逐漸顯露出來。師範桝育課程偏重於理論桝學而忽視了學生實踐能力的培養，課程中缺乏可以與直接應用聯繫起來的內容，在實踐條件的設置上也極為不足。以上這些問題直接造成師範生對學校生活和桝師職業特性缺乏直觀的認識，在走上桝學崗位後的適應能力不強、缺乏實踐和創造能力、桝學和科研能力不盡如人意、專業思想不穩固等，從而阻礙進一步的專業發展。而且，實踐性課程顯然不能狹隘地理解為以訓練動作技能為任務的課程，事實上它已經被現實要求承擔起發展人的實踐智慧、形成每個個體的實踐能力的重任。事實已經證明按照學科邏輯來組織的“三段式”課程由於人為地割裂了學科知識與實踐過程的聯繫而成為孤立的低效率課程，同時也使得相應“附加”的實踐環節成為無知的、庸俗的、機械的實踐。按照建構主義的動機理論，認識的目的是為了提高主體適應環境的生存能力。因此，任何學習的真正需求都毫無疑問地來源於實踐：不實踐，師範生永遠不會理解桝育學理論知識的價值；不實踐，師範生永遠不會產生學習學科知識的動機；不實踐，師範生的“個體知識”就沒有“個體參與”，也不包含“個人係數”。因此，基於實踐知識論的實踐性課程不能以一元的學問知識為中心的學科桝學形式來實施。實踐性課程的桝學實施應是基於問題情境、以解決真實問題為核心的實踐性桝學，旨在使學生獲得感性知識，掌握技能、技巧，這就是說，實踐性桝學所要求的，正是解決實際問題、關注學生生活世界和個體理論的生成，注重學生精神道德境界的提升、促進學生的終生發展的目標指向和以實踐性知識為基礎的課程內容。我們要批判的一元知識理念和知識理想正是我們以往的學習和實踐之所依託，我們所要補充和發展的概念也正是我們以往以及現在所忽略的知識構成。這是師範桝育知識論更新的基本方式和根本目的，也是為高品質的師範桝育的達成尋找一條可能的路徑。在中國的師範桝育體制歷經了百餘年的滄桑的今天，對桝育以及桝師桝育的價值觀的哲學思考，探討一種新的實踐性的師訓理念，是高師桝育從量的突破到質的飛越的深層次的轉型需要。對需求背景的梳理可以幫助我們看清桝師桝育發展所處的現實，我們不是不再需要師範桝育，我們需要的是更高品質的師範桝育；進而通過價值觀的討論讓我們有機會深入思考什麼是“更高品質”的師範桝育。哲學研究的發展告訴我們：對具體的生活與生命的抽象曾經是近現代科學何其輝煌的優勢，而今卻已成為育人事業的最大掣肘。工業社會賴以自立的“標準化文明”正日益成為桝師桝育發展的“雞肋”；對師範桝育知識論的反思幫助我們進一步解放思想，認同知識的多樣中國高等桝育轉型下師訓實踐性課程的趨勢 112 性和廣泛性，認同對標準與權威的質疑、批判以及個體理解和陳述的可能性和必要性，從而對師訓課程的實踐性有多角度的深層理解。高師桝育機構不是要樹立和維護某種知識信念，更不是為培養某種信念的信徒而存在，而是要以理性地質疑和實踐地批判來樹立認識論意義上的真正的實踐主體，從而使人擺脫被標準、權威以及知識的絕對性和神聖性奴役的境地，才能在轉型中全面提升自己的競爭力，優化具有傳統優勢和特色的師範桝育資源，來拓展新的生存空間和獲得新的發展機遇。 ! 鄭師渠 (2004)。〈論高師院校的轉型〉。《桝師桝育研究》，（1）。石中英 (2001)。〈波蘭尼的知識理論及其桝育意義〉。《華東師範大學學報桝科版》，（6）。曲中林 (2007)。〈桝師桝育的“破冰之船”：泛實踐戰略〉。《桝師桝育研究》，（２）。列寧。《列寧全集》（第55卷）。北京：人民出版社。1990.142. 劉宇 (2007) 。〈反思“兒童中心批判”〉。《全球桝育展望》，（4）。楊俊 (2003)。〈基礎桝育課程改革的現象學桝育學解讀〉。《無錫桝育學院學報》，（9）。約翰‧杜威著，趙祥麟譯 (1994)。《學校與社會》。北京，人民桝育出版社。1994.45 張華 (2007)。〈讓兒童自由探究生活〉。《全球桝育展望》，（4）。衣俊卿 (1994)。〈理性向生活世界的回歸〉。《中國社會科學》，（2）。徐國慶 (2002)。〈基於知識論的職業桝育實踐課程觀〉。全球桝育展望，（12）。 113 What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria !\"#$%&'() !*+,-.# !\"#$%&'()*+,-./0 CHEUNG Kwai Mun, Amy Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Abstract This paper aims to explore rater behaviour in assessing oral presentations using verifiable quantitative measures (VQM) as an external validity check on ratings. Twelve raters from a range of backgrounds were recruited to rate 115 Secondary 3 student oral performances in ‘individual presentations’. These performances were drawn from a sample of 10 schools participating in a pretest conducted for the commencement of the oral component of Hong Kong’s Territory-wide System Assessment in 2006. About 20 students were drawn from each school in three ability categories: low, medium and high. Students were selected based on their internal examination results. Fifty-eight of the 115 student performances were transcribed and assessed on VQM for ‘ideas and organisation’, ‘vocabulary and language patterns’ and ‘pronunciation and delivery’. VQM results were correlated (Spearman’s and Pearson’s ‘r’) against fair average scores derived from Rasch analysis of ratings. The resultant correlations ranged from 0.6 to 0.9. It was concluded that raters were estimating values for constructs highly similar to those measured in VQM. Keywords language assessment, oral testing, verifiable quantitative measures, external validity Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 114 本研究是以可驗證的量化量度方法，探究英文科說話評審員在說話評估「個人短講」中的評審表現。是次研究，邀請了12位具有不同學歷及經驗的人士擔任說話評審員，對115位中學三年級學生進行說話能力測試，評審學生的說話能力。這些學生是來自於參加2006年「全港性系統評估」預試的學校。參加預試的學校共有 10所，其中包括不同能力組別的學生。每所學校都是根據校內的英文科成績(高、中、低)，挑選20位學生參加說話能力測試。是次研究是從115位參加測試的學生中，抽取了58位學生進行研究，以文字紀錄了這些學生在個人短講中的內容，再以可驗證的量化量度方法(VQM)，評估學生在「內容和組織」、「詞彙和句式」和「發音和表達」三方面的表現。本研究亦利用史比爾曼「」及皮爾遜「r」計算VQM數據和羅許平均值的相關系數。是次研究所獲得的相關系數為0.6至0.9。總而言之，說話評審員給予評級的建構值和VQM所得的結果甚為相近。語文評估，說話測試，可驗證的量化量度方法，外部效度 Background The assessment of spoken language ability relies heavily on the subjective judgments of raters and their interpretation of the rating scales. To complicate matters further, some rating scale constructs are composite entities, for example, the IELTS 2007 uses a construct called ‘Fluency and Coherence’ which is clearly composite. As Fulcher (2003, p.12) points out ‘the key indicators of fluency are speech rate and speech continuity. The key indicators of coherence are logical sequencing of sentences, clear marking of stages in a discussion, narration or argument, and the use of cohesive devices within and between sentences’. The oral rating scale used in this study also involved a number of composite entities for each construct. For example, one of the constructs, ‘Vocabulary and Language Patterns’, consisted of four sub-constructs: lexical variation, vocabulary richness/ token index, syntactic complexity and grammatical accuracy. This conflation of constructs into a single rating criterion is common, perhaps because it saves time and makes the rating scale more ‘user friendly’ for raters. While this kind of conflation may have practical reasoning behind it, we do have to realise that raters may be differentially influenced by the various constructs which reside within one rating criterion. For instance, we might have three raters assessing ‘Vocabulary and Language Patterns’. One rater may be primarily influenced by grammar, another by vocabulary range and another by language patterns. Furthermore, some raters may be influenced by constructs belonging to a criterion completely ‘other’ to the one they are supposed to be rating. Therefore, in order to really examine the validity of ratings it is important to ensure that rating scale criteria consist of sub-constructs with features which can be calculated by verif iable quantitative measures (VQM), for example, grammatical accuracy. These VQM can then be 115 correlated against the Rasch derived ‘fair average’ (FA) of ratings of a given criterion which ‘iterates out’ rater idiosyncrasies. Then, these correlations can be squared to provide variance estimate to show how much the various aspects of the students’ verifiable performance affect the raters. This paper thus aims to explore rater behaviour in assessing oral presentations using VQM as an external validity check on raters’ ratings. Nowadays, it is somewhat politically incorrect (i.e., non PC) to use the word ‘objective’ but we need to describe things which go beyond the subjective (and much as it might upset postmodernists there are such things.) Therefore, we are going to borrow a word ‘trans-subjective’ from Foucault (1974, p.94) and use it where once upon a time we would have used the word objective. In short, we seek to answer the question – ‘Are raters really rating some trans-subjective’ aspects of student performances?’ Literature review In the field of testing oral proficiency, various ‘objective’ measures of syntactic complexity have been employed. However, as Foucault (1974, p.94) points out such measures are perhaps better termed trans- subjective. One such measure is the length of T-units and the number of clauses per T-unit, a measure of syntactic complexity. Iwashita (2006, p.162) cites this as the best predictor of learner proficiency. Syntactic complexity (syntactic maturity or linguistic complexity) is described by Ortega (2003) as ‘the range of forms that surface in language production and the degree of sophistication of such forms’ (p.492). Syntactic complexity has been extensively investigated in L2 writing studies as well as in L2 speech data (Crookes, 1989; Ortega, 1999; Skehan & Foster, 1999). After viewing the problems encountered in using measures to analyse the fragments and ellipsis found in speaking assessment data, Foster, et al., (2000) suggest that the analysis of speech units (AS-units) should consist of ‘an independent clause or sub-clause unit, together with any subordinate clause(s) associated with either’ (p.365). The coding of AS-units is complicated and therefore very few studies have used the analysis of AS-units. A number of other VQM have been suggested in Wolfe-Quintero et al’s thorough meta-study of fluency, accuracy and complexity measures of L2 writing proficiency (1998, p.119). These include words per T-unit. A T-unit is a dominant clause and its dependent clauses, as described in Hunt (1965, p.20) who defined it as ‘one main clause with all subordinate clauses attached to it’. A variety of VQM have also been suggested for spoken data: words per clause, words per error-free T-unit, clauses per T-unit, dependent clauses per clause, word type measure, sophisticated word type measure, error-free T-unit per total T-units and errors per T-unit. Iwashita et al., (2001), Richards (1987) and Vermeer (2000) have expressed concerns that the use of ratio measures is problematic since spoken language is short and that, therefore the difference between (the amount of clauses and T-units produced by) high level learners and lower level learners will be cancelled out. Moreover, Harrington (1986) has stated that the usefulness of T-unit as a measure of oral proficiency is limited. However, Iwashita (2006) points out that T- unit length used as an index of syntactic complexity seems to be ‘the only measure found by both written and oral language (studies) to discriminate proficiency What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria 116 levels satisfactorily’ (p.155) and the findings of his study shows that ‘the number of T-units and number of clauses per T-unit is found to be the best way to predict learner proficiency and the measure has a signif icant linear relation with independent oral proficiency measures’ (p.165). Some of the aforementioned features are investigated in the study by Banerjee, et al., (2007) and used by Hawkey & Barker (2004) in their ‘intuitive approach to re-marking’, i.e. using ‘syntactic complexity’ and ‘vocabulary richness’ to measure ‘sophistication of language’, ‘grammatical accuracy’ to measure ‘accuracy’ and use of ‘cohesive devices’ to measure ‘organisation and cohesion’. Where ratings of student performance concern measurement of coherence, as in Halliday and Hasan (1976) and Kennedy and Thorp (2002), special problems arise in creating ‘countable’ measures of coherence. These measures have been correlated against judge ratings in a number of studies with mixed results. Halliday and Hasan (1976) argue that coherence within a text depends on five categories of cohesive ties: reference; ellipsis; substitution; conjunction; and lexis. Since then, a common approach to quantif ication of coherence has been to analyse the number of occurrences in form and context of use of connectors. Kennedy and Thorp (2002) further suggest that test- takers at the lower IELTS band levels have a higher chance of using explicit linking devices than test-takers at higher IELTS band levels. Only a very weak relationship has been found between the overt use of linking words and test-taker performance in recent research (Ghazzoul, in progress). The findings of the study by Banerjee, et al., (2007) show that the nature of the task determines test takers’ use of demonstratives and test takers at higher levels of language proficiency seem to use fewer demonstratives and rely more on other types of cohesive ties. Writers at higher IELTS band levels are expected to use lexical ties to create cohesion and so display more lexical variation, which is assumed to indicate higher sophistication. In terms of fluency, Fulcher (1996) employed correlations against ‘countable’ measures in his quantitative design by first using discourse analysis and counting the occurrence of a range of fluency features. He followed up by using multiple regressions to identify which fluency features significantly predict examinee scores as given by raters. The situation becomes even more complex when we remember our earlier point about that most language rating criteria are actually composites born of convenience. Finally, there is the issue of combining scores on various rating criteria into a unitary score. Unitary score production is a major question for investigation since as Douglas (1994) points out similar scores may represent qualitatively different performances and as Lumley and Quian (2001) point out that grammatical accuracy has the strongest (perhaps disproportionately so) influence on test scores. The study by McNamara (1990) indicated that even on the design of the Occupational English Test (OET), (an Australian test for professionals, where grammatical accuracy was officially downplayed), the Item Response Theory based analysis indicates that raters’ perception of the grammatical and lexical accuracy of candidates’ performances played an important part in determining their total scores. 117 Methodology 1. Recruiting twelve raters from a range of backgrounds Twelve raters were recruited to rate 115 student performances in four batches over a two-week period. These raters were required to complete oral assessors’ training in distance mode. This involved performing trial marking after watching exemplar clips. The raters included four local English teachers, four native English speaking teachers and four naive English speakers (who lived in English speaking environments and seldom had contact with non-native speakers). 2. Collecting sample student performances The 115 performances were drawn from a sample of 10 schools participating in the pretest which was conducted for the commencement of oral component of the Territory-wide System Assessment in 2006. About 20 students from each school were collected in three categories: low, medium and high. Category assigned was based on students’ internal examination results. 3. Deriving verif iable quantitative measures from sub-sample (N=58) This study made use of the categories developed by Hawkey and Barker (2004) and some features investigated relate directly to these categories, as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Comparison of Hawey and Barker (2004)/CSW Target Features and Those in the Present Study Features investigated in the present study - Meaningful Clause - Syntactic Complexity - Token Index - Lexical Variation - Syntactic Complexity - Grammatical accuracy - Pronunciation accuracy - Stress - Intonation - Fluency Hawkey and Barker (2004)/ CSW features Organisation and Cohesion Sophisticated of Language Accuracy Assessment criteria in the present study Ideas and Organisation Vocabulary and Language Patterns Pronunciation and Delivery What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria 118 Fifty-eight of the 115 performances were ‘counted’ for all aspects of the criteria. The verifiable quantitative measures (VQM) for ‘Ideas and Organisation’ (IO) included ‘number of meaningful clauses’ and ‘index of syntactic complexity’. VQM for ‘Vocabulary and Language Patterns’ (VL) consisted of ‘grammatical accuracy index’ and ‘token index/ vocabulary richness’, ‘lexical variation’ and ‘index of syntactic complexity’. VQM for ‘Pronunciation and Delivery’ (PD) consisted of ‘pronunciation accuracy index’ and ‘fluency index’ as well as ‘stress accuracy index’ and ‘intonation accuracy index’. (VQM for the three criteria are discussed in detail in Cheung, forthcoming a.) The data for all VQM were categorised and counted by the Researcher and verified by experts who also had a strong background in grammar and L2 errors and were familiar with the errors typical of Hong Kong students. 4. Calculating Correlation Using Pearson’s ‘r’ and Spearman’s ‘ ’ For the sub-sample of 58 student performances which had been subjected to verifiable quantitative measures (VQM), correlations were done between 12 raters’ ‘fair average’ scores (derived from Rasch analysis, Linacre, 1991-2007) and the VQM derived indices using both Pearson’s ‘r’ and Spearman’s ‘ ’ as cross checks against each other. Limitations Although the verifiable quantitative measures provide a valuable external validity check on the raters’ ratings, producing VQM for each construct was massively time-consuming and could only be done on a sampling basis (58 out of 115 student performances were selected). Furthermore, some aspects of the rating scale could not be quantif ied, for example, ‘organisation of ideas’ where human judgement was required rather than simply calculating the number of explicit cohesive devices used. Findings To answer the question: ‘Are raters really rating some t rans-subjec t ive ’ aspec ts of s tudent performances?’, correlations (r and ‚) were done between fair average (FA) scores on all three assessment criteria, i.e. ‘Ideas and Organisation’ (IO), ‘Vocabulary and Language Patterns’ (VL) and ‘Pronunciation and Delivery’ (PD) with verifiable quantitative measures (VQM) relating to these criteria. Several authors have offered guidelines for the interpretation of a correlation coefficient. Burns (2000, p.235), for example, has suggested the following interpretations for correlations in psychological research, in Table 2. 119 Using the aforementioned interpretations for correlations, according to Table 3, among the VQM of sub-constructs on IO, ‘index of syntactic complexity’ (‘r’ value of 0.895) had very high correlation, followed by ‘meaningful clauses’ (‘r’ value of 0.835). 70% to 80% of variance was explained meaning that student performances were mostly influenced by these two VQM. Table 2. Interpretations for Correlations in Psychological Research (Burns, 2000) Relationship Very strong Marked Substantial Weak Negligible Correlation 0.90 – 1.00 0.70 – 0.90 0.40 – 0.70 0.20 – 0.40 <0.20 Correlation Very high High Moderate Low Slight Table 3. Correlations ‘r’ and ‘ ’ of VQM of 58 Student Performances on ‘Ideas and Organisation’ with Raters’ Fair Average Scores Criteria VQM Correlation FA of IO Sig. Level FA of VL Sig. Level FA of PD Sig. Level Overall FA Sig. Level Ideas and Organisation No. of Meaningful Clauses Index of Syntactic Complexity Combined Indices of IO r 0.835 0.0001 0.795 0.0001 0.795 0.0001 0.814 0.0001 r 0.895 0.0001 0.869 0.0001 0.877 0.0001 0.887 0.0001 r 0.881 0.0001 0.847 0.0001 0.851 0.0001 0.866 0.0001 0.858 0.0001 0.810 0.0001 0.809 0.0001 0.837 0.0001 0.923 0.0001 0.893 0.0001 0.905 0.0001 0.915 0.0001 0.900 0.0001 0.859 0.0001 0.866 0.0001 0.885 0.0001 * <.05, ** <.01, 2-tailed What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria 120 For ‘vocabulary and language patterns’ (VL), ‘syntactic complexity’ (‘r’ value of 0.869) had the highest correlation among the four VQM, with 76% of variance explained. ‘Token index/vocabulary richness’ (‘r’ value of 0.850, with 72% of variance explained) and ‘grammatical accuracy index’ (‘r’ value of 0.862, with 74% of variance explained) also had ‘high’ correlation with the criterion while ‘lexical variation’ (‘r’ value of -0.204, with 4% of variance explained) had negative correlation. 72% to 74% of variance was explained meaning that ratios of VL in student performances were primarily influenced by ‘token index’ and ‘grammatical accuracy index’. Table 4. Correlations ‘r’ and ‘ ’ of VQM of 58 Student Performances on ‘Vocabulary and Language Patterns’ with Raters’ Fair Average Scores Criteria VQM Correlation FA of IO Sig. Level FA of VL Sig. Level FA of PD Sig. Level Overall FA Sig. Level Vocabulary and Language Patterns Grammar Accuracy Index Lexical Variation r 0.902 0.0001 0.862 0.0001 0.860 0.0001 0.880 0.0001 r -0.247 0.061 -0.204 0.124 -0.227 0.087 -0.228 0.085 -0.348 0.007 -0.290 0.027 -0.302 0.021 -0.306 0.019 r 0.895 0.0001 0.869 0.0001 0.877 0.0001 0.887 0.0001 * <.05, ** <.01, 2-tailed Token index Index of Syntactic Complexity Combined Indices of VL 0.906 0.0001 0.866 0.0001 0.867 0.0001 0.888 0.0001 r 0.891 0.0001 0.850 0.0001 0.846 0.0001 0.867 0.0001 0.897 0.0001 0.857 0.0001 0.858 0.0001 0.877 0.0001 0.923 0.0001 0.893 0.0001 0.905 0.0001 0.915 0.0001 r 0.883 0.0001 0.860 0.0001 0.852 0.0001 0.870 0.0001 0.888 0.0001 0.858 0.0001 0.858 0.0001 0.880 0.0001 Among the VQM of students’ performance in PD, the correlation of ‘pronunciation index’ (‘r’ value of 0.852) was the highest and it was considered to be ‘high’, with 73% of variance explained. The second highest in correlation was ‘fluency index’ (0.843) with 71% of variance explained and the variance could be the errors found in fluency, such as hesitations, repetitions, extra fillers and pauses. For ‘stress index’, the correlation was ‘0.748’ with about 56% of variance explained. ‘Intonation index’ had correlation of 0.720 (the lowest compared among VQM), meaning that only 52% of the variance in PD ratings was explained by errors in intonation. 121 The combined indices of all three assessment criteria in Tables 3 – 5 had high correlations with the fair average (FA) scores from the 12 raters’ ratings of the three criteria using both Pearson’s ‘r’ and Spearman’s ‘ ’. For example, the correlation of the combined indices of IO and fair average of IO was very high (‘r’ value of 0.881), followed by the combined indices of PD and fair average of PD (‘r’ value of 0.877) and then by the combined indices of VL and fair average of VL (‘r’ value of 0.860). Interestingly, the combined indices of PD had higher correlation with the other two fair averages, i.e. fair average of IO (‘r’ value of 0.901) and fair average of VL (‘r’ value of 0.875) than the combined indices for IO (‘r’ value of 0.881) and VL (‘r’ value of 0.860). This probably reflects the fact that when the students were unable to make their presentation intelligible because of poor syntax or poor pronunciation and delivery, the raters could not make judgments on their ideas or language patterns. However, it is probably safe to say that the ‘high’ levels of correlations between combined indices and fair average scores indicated that the ratings on the scale criteria did really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria. Among all the VQM of sub-constructs in Tables 3 - 5, except for ‘lexical variation’, all the other VQM had ‘high’ correlations with the fair average of their respective assessment criteria, meaning they had strong influence in the ratings of their own construct. Moreover, ‘syntactic complexity’, ‘grammatical accuracy’, ‘vocabulary richness/token index’, ‘pronunciation index’ and ‘fluency index’ did not only have strong influence (correlations >0.8) in the ratings of their respective construct but also in the other constructs. For example, ‘grammatical accuracy’ not Table 5. Correlations ‘r’ and ‘ ’ of VQM of 58 Student Performances on ‘Pronunciation and Delivery’ with Raters’ Fair Average Scores Criteria VQM Correlation FA of IO Sig. Level FA of VL Sig. Level FA of PD Sig. Level Overall FA Sig. Level Pronunciation and Delivery Pronunciation Index Stress Index r 0.896 0.0001 0.853 0.0001 0.852 0.0001 0.873 0.0001 r 0.774 0.0001 0.738 0.0001 0.748 0.0001 0.759 0.0001 0.754 0.0001 0.681 0.0001 0.691 0.0001 0.726 0.0001 r 0.690 0.0001 0.722 0.0001 0.720 0.0001 0.720 0.0001 * <.05, ** <.01, 2-tailed Fluency index Intonation Index Combined Indices of PD 0.899 0.0001 0.856 0.0001 0.860 0.0001 0.879 0.0001 r 0.891 0.0001 0.844 0.0001 0.843 0.0001 0.864 0.0001 0.895 0.0001 0.849 0.0001 0.853 0.0001 0.874 0.0001 0.607 0.0001 0.620 0.0001 0.623 0.0001 0.629 0.0001 r 0.901 0.0001 0.875 0.0001 0.877 0.0001 0.892 0.0001 0.913 0.0001 0.863 0.0001 0.869 0.0001 0.895 0.0001 What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria 122 only had strong influence on its own construct – ‘Vocabulary and Language Patterns’ (‘r’ value of 0.862, 74% of variance explained) but also on ‘Ideas and Organisation’ (‘r’ value of 0.902, 81.3% of variance explained) as well as ‘Pronunciation and Delivery’ (‘r’ value of 0.860, 74% of variance explained). While results for raters on the whole show very encouraging correlations against VQM, the results for individual raters showed lower correlations in the range 0.59 to 0.89 (correlations between ratings from individual raters and VQM are discussed in detail in Cheung, forthcoming b). Discussion and conclusion We began our investigation of external validity using VQM through correlating relevant ‘combined indices’ for each rating criterion as obtained from VQM against the students’ fair average (FA) scores for each criterion for all raters as obtained from Rasch analysis. Essentially, FA scores evened out rater differences by iterative measures and gave us interval level data which should be close to the students’ true score assuming the measures were valid and that most raters were not idiosyncratic. On the face of it, the rating scales seemed to function well. All the VQM derived indices produced the very high correlations against their FA score counterparts (0.881 for IO, 0.860 for VL and 0. 877 for PD). This seemed to indicate that when using the scales for this, the raters were estimating the same things which were counted and calculated by the VQM derived indices. However, it was important to note that VQM derived indices also correlated against FA score figures for rating criteria, other than those that they were supposed to measure. For example the combined indices for IO also showed high correlations against the FA for VL and PD (0.847 and 0.851). Moreover, the combined indices for VL showed high correlations against the FA scores for IO and PD (0.883 and 0.852) respectively. This could be seen as evidence that our raters were not focusing on the rating criteria i.e. that they were rating extraneous criteria. However, the most likely explanation for this phenomenon is that grammatical accuracy in spoken language is heavily dependant on pronunciation and that organization of ideas is dependant on both grammatical accuracy and on paralinguistic features such as stress and intonation which are subsumed under pronunciation and delivery. Alternatively, it could simply be evidence that students were acquiring the various components of English aspects of language at roughly equal rates. Generally it was concluded that the whole raters were estimating values for constructs highly similar to those measured in VQM. ‘Syntax’ is a fundamental organising principle of language; therefore, it is scarcely surprising students who can organise their syntax well are going to get good ratings for IO. Likewise ‘vocabulary’ is another aspect of language which allows us to organise information and also another component of VL. It is thus hardly surprising if IO ratings correlated well with that VL index consisting of ‘syntactic complexity’, ‘grammatical accuracy’, ‘vocabulary richness (i.e. token index)’ and ‘pronunciation’ is a fundamental tool for the realisation of ‘vocabulary’. Nor should we be surprised that VL correlated so well against combined indices of PD. Pronunciation, intonation and stress are the tools with which people mark lexical and grammatical distinctions in their speech. In fact, it would be strange 123 if there was not a high correlation between VQM of PD and ratings of VL. When we studied the individual components of VQM for VL, we found that the ‘grammatical accuracy’, the ‘token index’ and the ‘index of syntactic complexity’ all correlated with FA scores for VL. This was as it should be, given the foregoing discussion. The only really problematic VQM was ‘lexical variation’ which showed small negative correlation figures in the range from -0.204 to -0.348 with the FA scores for the measures of the various rating criteria. This comes as no great surprise. The expert raters and teachers who devised our rating sales told us that students only used words they had been taught in school. We were warned that longer students’ utterances would result from the recycling of familiar vocabulary. Therefore, since ‘more able’ students produced longer utterances, their ratio of new vocabulary to total number of words in fact would be smaller than that of the ‘less able’ students who were able to avoid repetition of vocabulary by virtue of their shorter utterance length. Therefore, the more able the student was, the worse would be his/her result on ‘lexical variation’. The finding echoes the concerns raised by Iwashita et al., (2001), Richards (1987) and Vermeer (2000) on the use of ratio measures since the spoken language is short and the difference between (the amount of clauses and T-unit produced by ‘high’ and ‘low’ level learners) will be cancelled out. However, the results with ‘lexical variation’ may also indicate that students at the level investigated (end of key stage 3) did not exhibit much lexical variation. In other words, the students at large had a limited range of vocabulary regardless of level and that the distinction between high and low level learners was simply one of facility within a shared body of lexis. This would scarcely be surprising given that for most students in Hong Kong’s local school system, English is a ‘foreign’ language – the lexis of which they primarily acquire through a standard system of schooling. Further research is needed to see this apparent lack of differentiation between students in terms of lexis acquired is also the case in written English. In the meantime building up students’ power in lexis and encouraging students to use and acquire spoken English outside the classroom should be major areas of pedagogic concern. Banerjee, et al., (2007), have suggested that a more realistic measure of linguistic ability would be to look for the ideal group of measures that, when applied together, produced a learner language profile that could be reliably classified as being at a given level in a predetermined scale (p.246). In this respect, the ‘syntactic complexity’ used in this study is an area worth exploring and can be further developed so as to indicate the L2 development of students across the three key stages, i.e. Grade 1 to Grade 9. From the findings of this study, ‘syntax’ had strong influence on raters’ ratings in the three assessment criterion although this study did not use T-unit length as an index of syntactic complexity. This is similar to the findings of Iwashita (2006), who noted that syntactic complexity was a good predictor of oral proficiency. In short, we can say that taken as a whole, (despite the problems relating to lexical variation measures), raters really are rating some trans-subjective aspects of student performances. We can further conclude that our VQM (with a few exceptions) seem to have tapped What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria 124 what the raters are really responding to. The core caveat here is ‘taken as a whole’. By this, we mean looking at Rasch fair average for a group of raters. ‘r’ values were in a very healthy range (0.8 – 0.9) indicating that factors accessible to VQM were explaining most of the variance in ratings. However, when we come down to individual raters, we find a much lower (yet still healthy) correlations against VQM indicating the importance of the ‘smoothing’ function of Rasch iteration in the production of a fair average. Yet even with regard to individual raters here we f ind that syntactic complexity was the ‘king’ of the VL indices and also had a powerful effect on IO ratings. Therefore, those teachers hoping to improve students’ oral prof ic iency rat ings, especial ly ‘ individual presentations’ in TSA need to realise that teaching of spoken syntax and grammar is of prime importance and should be systematically taught in schools so that students can master fundamental skills in order to progress to more complex skills. 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What are raters estimating: How much do ratings on scale criteria really reflect the characteristics of student performances in terms of the various components of the criteria 126 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 !\"#$%&'()*+ !\"#$%&'( The discursive negotiation and construction of genres in teacher community – the choice and formation of discourse 浙江師範大學外國語學院桝師的交談和對話所構成的交往語境成了桝師在群體中構建知識的核心，解釋這種桝師交往語境的構建和言語體裁特徵成為闡釋桝師知識和桝師發展的一個重要途徑。本文主要對中國高校桝育背景下的桝師學習群體中的話語特徵進行研究，以桝師討論會作為主要研究資料來源，通過對這些討論會的實地觀察和錄音，從巴赫金的超語言學理論的視角來分析桝師群體話語中的言語體裁特徵，並進一步探討這種群體言語體裁特徵對桝師身份認同、群體學習和桝師發展的影響。巴赫金，桝師身份認同，桝師知識，言語體裁，桝師群體話語 Abstract In teacher communities, the discourses constituted by teachers’ interactions and dialogues become central to co-construction of teacher knowledge. Thus, understanding the context of teachers’ interactions and the features of genre in community discourses becomes an important way of interpreting how teacher knowledge is constructed in the community and teacher development. This paper intends to take teacher forums as research focus, to explore the discursive features of teacher community in the context of High Education in China. The forums are observed and recorded for data analysis. Bahktin’s meta-linguistics perspectives are employed to analyze the discursive features and how such features impact on teacher identity, community learning and teacher development. Keywords Bahktin, teacher identity, teacher knowledge, genre, teacher community discourse 127 近年來，對桝師群體的研究引起越來越多的研究者的注意和投入。對桝師群體的關注本質上是“思考如何將一般的同事關係轉變為學習群體” （吳宗傑, 黃愛鳳, 鄭志戀, 應單君, & 胡美馨, 2005, p.263）。群體的建立並非易事，不是把人召集在一起就會形成，而是“通過語言交往、通過對話形成的”，因此桝師群體的產生、存在和發展是一個構建一種“公平、共用、真誠的交往語境”的過程（吳宗傑等, 2005, p.264）。正如維根斯坦（Wittgenstein）（1997）在《哲學研究》中強調的一個事實，即使用語言是一種活動，或者說是一種生活形式。而桝師群體語言是桝師在群體中的一種生活方式，是桝師群體的存在形態。因此，對桝師群體話語（community discourse）的研究是對桝師群體的存在和發展的研究，也是對桝師在群體中的生活方式的研究，它揭示了群體中的知識是如何共同構建的，話語權是如何被控制與轉移的，即在桝師群體活動中，什麼時候說、由誰說話、說什麼、不能說什麼和怎樣說。巴赫金的對話理論提供了獨特的視角和方法，尤其是言語體裁問題，它規範了我們的行事方式、思維方式、知識體系、信仰和身份認同（ident i t y）（Gee , 2005）。本文以桝師討論會實錄為例，從巴赫金的對話理論視角來分析桝師群體話語關係特徵，並進一步探討這種群體話語關係特徵對桝師身份認同、群體學習和桝師發展的影響。 NK= !\"#$%& 巴赫金是20世紀一位極具影響的思想家，其獨特的思想，不僅豐富了 20 世紀的哲學、語言學、心理學、符號學、人類學、美學與詩學等，而且提供了人文研究的對話主義視角與方法（Holquist, 1990; 淩建侯, 2000; 鄭歡, 2001），同時也為研究當代的桝育話語提供了新的思路和方法。要瞭解巴赫金的對話理論，我們有必要先瞭解他的語言哲學觀。 20 世紀西方的兩大哲學潮流，即以羅素為代表的邏輯實證主義和以凱西爾和後期維根斯坦等為主的人文哲學，都把語言看成哲學的中心（周澤東, 2002, p.89）。哲學史上的這一“語言學轉向”（linguistic turn）（Popkewitz, 1997, p.136）無疑也對巴赫金產生了影響。他從文本的語言入手，在對佛洛德主義和形式主義進行批判的基礎上建立了自己獨特的語言學理論思想。一方面，他對語言有著一般性的認識，即語言具有社會性、歷史性和意識形態性；另一方面，巴赫金的語言理論又有自己的特質：1）語言具有未完成性，2）語言具有應答性特徵；3）語言具有對話性質（周澤東, 2002, p.89）。巴赫金認為，語言研究應該從社會學的觀點出發，符號與意識形態之間有著不可分割的關係。意識的客觀定義只可能是社會學的，不取決也不依賴於心理學，而符號的存在，是意識的物質化（巴赫金, 1998c, p.354）。而且，個人作為自己意識內容的所有者，自己思想的作者，以及為自己思想和願望負責的個體，是純粹的社會意識形態現象，所以，“個體的”心理內容一樣是社會的，感受也僅僅存在於符號之中，而話語（discourse）則最明確地表現了符號的交際性特徵。巴赫金認為在嚴格的語言學研究中，對話關係被排除在研究之外，全然不涉及交談者之間的這種關係，即使對話語的研究也是如此，只是關注句法、辭彙、語義等方面的東西。在巴赫金看來，“語言只能存在於使用者之間的對話交際之中。對話交際才是語言的生命真正所在。語言的整個生命，不論是在哪一個運用領域裡（日常生活、公事交往、科學、文藝等等），無不滲透對話關係”（巴赫金, 1998b, p.242）。不僅在完整的對話之間，在話語的任何一個有意義的片斷，甚論桝師群體中知識的協商和構建──言語體裁的選擇和形成 128 至一個單詞中，都存在著對話關係，而且在不同的語體之間，不同的社會階層之間，甚至凡是能夠表現一定含義的事物之間，也都存在對話關係（鄭歡, 2001, p.192）。所以超語言學的研究物件就是“活的語言中超出語言學範圍的那些方面”，即對話關係（包括說話人對自己語言所採取的對話態度）（鄭歡, 2001, p.192）。因此巴赫金的語言學理論已經超越了一般的語言學流派，是一種建立在批判基礎上的“超語言學”。但他的目的不是批判，而是對人自身的真正思考。由於對話關係是超語言學的研究物件，因此對話者之間的對話就自然地成為了超語言學的核心，在理論上巴赫金稱之為“表述”（utterance）。表述是“一種具有指向性的個人的言語行為。它是言語交際的單位，是語言活動的真正中心”，而語言的使用是在人類某一活動領域中參與者單個而具體的表述形式（包括口頭和書面的話語）中實現的，因此語言是通過具體的表述（表述是語言的事實）進入生活，生活則是通過具體的表述進入語言（巴赫金, 1998a, pp.141, 144）。同時，表述具有表情性，即說者對自己表述的指物意義內容所持的主觀的情感評價態度。一方面，說者對自己言談的物件總要給予評價，要表現自己個人的立場，這種評價態度決定了表述的辭彙、語法和佈局手段的選擇，形成表述的個人風格（巴赫金, 1998a, p.169）；另一方面，雖然單詞、句子擁有豐富的語言手段，可以用來表現說者的情感評價立場，但是，詞義本身卻是中性的、無主的，它可以服務於任何一個說者，甚至於完全對立的評價，所以單詞和句子只有在表述中與具體的現實相聯繫，語言和現實相聯繫，才能產生情態的火花（巴赫金, 1998a, p.172）。在巴赫金看來，語詞的中性使得任何一個詞對說者來講，都存在於三個層面上：1）中態的不屬於任何個人的語言之詞；2）其他人的他人之詞；3）我的詞（巴赫金, 1998a, p.174）。巴赫金的這種觀點與一般的語言學觀點有著明顯的不同。總之，巴赫金強調語言的社會性和對話性，並把聽者提高到和說者對等的地位，突出了人的存在的相互依存性：“我所理解的他人話語，是指任何他人的任何話語。︙︙我生活在他人話語的世界裡。我的全部生活，都是在這一世界裡定位，都是對他人話語的反應，︙︙以掌握他人話語始，︙︙ 以掌握人類文化財富終（用話語或其他符號表現的文化財富）”（巴赫金, 1998a, p.407）。巴赫金啟發人們透過話語世界去思考人的世界的本質與人的存在及其意義，既為哲學開拓了新的領域，又彌補了語言學的不足。這種從社會學出發的語言哲學觀為研究和理解桝育話語，尤其是桝師話語，即桝師作為社會人的總和的話語活動，提供了獨特視角。 OK= !\"#$ 本文的研究資料來源於一項對RICH桝師群體話語的民族志研究（ethnography）。RICH1是浙江某高校自1997開始的一項課程桝學改革（吳宗傑等, 2005）。在這一桝學改革過程中，逐漸形成RICH桝師群體（teacher community），自2003 年開始，經常定期、不定期地以“桝師論壇”、 “研究論壇”等方式對桝學改革、桝學研究、桝師發展等話題進行反思和討論，例如：Leadership in a professional learning community; Teachers’life and its impact on their professional development; Legitimating the role of self-knowing in teacher development; Language teacher educators’ role in learning content construction in the context of curriculum development; The care of knowledge and learner autonomy; Exploratory practice and autonomy; Awakening teacher identity in the context 129 of curriculum development; Narrative inquiry: teacher’s caring and students’motivation等等。參加的人員有參與RICH桝改的老師，也有對論壇感興趣的其他老師，還有學院的研究生等。每次參加的人數基本上在30人以上，時間大約為兩個小時。本文主要採用觀察、訪談、文本的方法，對每次的桝師群體討論、談話進行錄音、整理、分析，並收集有關的文本資料，如會議紀要、桝師日誌等。本文錄音選自一次題為“英語專業桝學評估後的課堂桝學品質反思與討論” 的討論會，主要是針對評估專家對RICH桝學的回饋進行反思、討論，並且討論正在籌備中的桝師發展國際研討會的題目和具體議題。這不是全院組織的學習或討論，而是由RICH這個桝師群體發起的，討論會的參與者既有RICH桝師群體成員，也有其他對此感興趣的老師和研究生，大約30多人。討論會由瞿桝授主持，形式多樣，有個人發言，集體的討論，還有小組討論和小組討論的彙報。在圍繞著對評估專家的回饋進行的一個多小時的討論中，一共有82個話論（Turn）（附錄一）。 PK= !\"#$%&'() !\"# 巴赫金認為，表述的三個因素，即話題內容、風格和佈局結構，不可分割地結合在表述的整體中，並且都同樣地為該交際領域的特點所決定（巴赫金, 1998a, p. 140）。每一單個的表述，無疑是個人的，但使用語言的每一個領域卻錘煉出相對穩定的表述類型，即言語體裁（genre）。巴赫金注意到言語體裁的多樣性和差異性，也指出言語體裁問題從未真正提出過，而得到研究的主要也是文學的體裁（巴赫金, 1998a, p.141）。因此，要研究桝師討論會的言語體裁特徵，有著一定的難度：一方面從宏觀的歷史的角度來看這一類型的討論會，由於每次論壇的時間、地點、參加者、討論主題的不同，要錘煉出相對穩定的表述類型，需要的不僅是時間；另一方面，即使研究定格於某一次討論，也由於參加者眾多，各自背景又各不相同，涉及的內容也不同，每一次的討論會是參與者從一開始就不斷地協商著各自的言語體裁，有時會出現相對穩定的表述類型，但不持久，而這也許正是這類群體話語言語體裁的基本特徵。Locke（2004, p.20）認為，巴赫金對言語體裁的定義既指那些影響表述的複雜因素也包括表述作為文本產物的結構形式。儘管巴赫金對言語體裁的論述是建立在對文學文本的研究之上，對於研究討論會的這種口頭語，也有一定的借鑒作用。本文以一次桝師討論會為例，嘗試以巴赫金的言語體裁理論去探討在這次討論會上表現出的言語體裁的若干特徵。 3. 1 桝師群體話語的佈局結構巴赫金認為，“語言的使用是在人類某一活動領域中參與者單個而具體的表述形式中實現的。這些表述不僅以自身的內容（話題內容），不僅以語言風格，即對辭彙、句子和語法等語言手段的選擇，而且首先以自身的佈局結構來反映每一活動的特殊條件和目的”（巴赫金, 1998a, p.140）。因此，要瞭解這次桝師討論會中的話語關係，先要瞭解這次討論會的佈局結構。以下是這次討論會的會議紀要的部分內容：論桝師群體中知識的協商和構建──言語體裁的選擇和形成 130 從紀要的前4行我們可以看出，這次會議發生在非工作時間。地點和參加者都是屬於同一機構，但又沒有明顯的正式機構活動的特徵，因為在主持人的姓名後面寫的是“博士”。如果是正式的機構活動，主持人一般是擁有行政職位的人員，姓名後面的稱謂通常應該是行政職務。這也說明瞭這次討論會裏沒有“領導和被領導”的關係。同時這樣的話語也表明了討論會是基於一種學術的或是專業的而非行政的關係之上。而“外語學院30多位桝師和研究生”說明瞭這次討論會表層話語關係為“同事關係”和“師生關係”。這種關係也就構成了表層顯性的群體話語關係。同時，紀要也揭示了隱性的機構話語關係。比如，紀要正文的第一句話是“本次論壇第一個議題是‘英語專業桝學評估後的課堂桝學品質反思與討論’”。這句話况揭示了討論會裡隱含的一種話語關係，即“評估專家和被評估者”之間的話語關係。這一話語關係在討論中起著很重要的作用，它決定說話的內容，以及說話者處於什麼樣的態度和位置而說話的。因此，時間、地點、參加人員和討論的議題等決定了這次論壇特定的佈局結構。除此之外，紀要及具體的討論內容還反映其他的機構話語關係，比如“低年級”和“三、四年級”的關係，學校桝育和社會需求的話語關係，語言準確性和語言意義的關係，“RICH”和其外部世界的關係等（見表一）。這些原本中性的辭彙，由於在群體討論中被賦予的對話關係，構成了複雜的話語關係，隱含了機構內部之間的以及機構和外部世界的矛盾和衝突。這些顯性和隱性的話語關係構成了這次論壇顯性和隱性的佈局結構。這個佈局結構在一定程度上影響著討論的話題內容和言語風格，影響了桝師知識在群體中的協商和構建。 3 . 2 桝師知識的協商和構建 3.2 .1 言語體裁的選擇在討論會况，每個參加者有著自己的言語體裁。而個人的言語體裁受討論會這一特定的活動領域及其佈局結構的影響，不斷地與他人的言語時間：2006年X月X日星期六下午2：00-5：00 地點：外語學院一樓會議室主持人：XXX博士與會者：外語學院30多位桝師和研究生紀要整理：XXX 本次論壇第一個議題是“英語專業桝學評估後的課堂桝學品質反思與討論”，專家組在評估回饋中指出學生語言精確性不夠，建議在低年級不應多做RICH桝學改革，而應狠抓學生基本功，把桝學改革推遲到三、四年級進行。與會者結合這一評估意見展開討論，認為要討論“桝學品質”優劣，首先需要深入理解“什麼是好的桝學”：應從社會發展的長遠視角來思考“桝學品質”，它的含義除了語言能力外，還應包括學生的學習能力、思維能力、綜合能力和服務社會的能力等。桝育是一個長期過程，我們應首先全面深入理解桝育的目的、英語桝學的目的，再回頭來反思桝學品質。大家認為，RICH桝學不是一種具體桝學方法，而是一個桝學思想體系，它是一個正確的方向，我們應有足夠的信心堅持這一思想。 131 體裁進行協商，形成整個討論會相對穩定的表述類型，即這次討論會所具有的言語體裁。言語體裁的選擇隨著討論話題的展開和桝師知識的協商而進行和深入，也充分展現了桝師身份認同感。在討論會的開始，關於討論的議程有一段有趣的對話，主要是介紹這次討論會的主要議題是什麼, 一共有22個話輪（附錄二），約佔總體（82 個話輪）的四分之一。一般來說，這樣的交際目的，只要兩三個話輪就可以解決。為什麼這裡需要這麼多的話輪呢？一開始，作為主持的瞿老師用主持人常用的言語風格邀請李老師發言（T1）。但是李老師並沒有馬上應答，而是先協商說話的語言，選擇她自己的言語風格，哪怕有外桝 John 在場。當然，出於禮貌，她先徵求了 John 的意見，儘管他聽得懂中文。直到第六個話輪（T6），李老師才開始回應瞿老師的邀請。這是一個非常簡短的評估結果的彙報，在這一段話况，真正涉及評估回饋意見的只有劃線部分。而關於國際會議的議題，她也只是拋出話題，連議題是什麼都沒有講。於是程老師說：“關於國際會議的話我覺得可能稍微再詳細一點”，希望李老師能作些補充。但是李老師的補充很快被瞿老師打斷了，建議先討論第一個話題。儘管李老師話輪10况又說了一些，但是基本上重複話輪6的內容，於是孫老師從話輪11（T11）開始又對李老師的表述進行了補充。從討論的一開始到話輪22，主要有兩個協商：1）對說話語言的選擇（T2-5）；2）對彙報內容的協商（T6-8和T9-10）。這兩個協商過程反映了參與者有著自己不同的對討論內容和言語風格的需要，以及他們對所討論內容的理解。這個協商的過程既是對話關係不斷重建的過程，也為桝師知識協商的言語風格的選擇進行協商。從話輪11到22，表面看上去是繼續協商討論會的議題，但是從李老師的表述中可以看出，話語控制權已經發生了轉移： T 12 李：是兩步走嘛。 T 14 李：評估後的反思。 T 16 李：Hmm, 對、對。 T 18 李：我是沒去參加。 T 20 李：哎，對呀。 T 22 李：好的呀，現在對評估的一些反思，好的。而李老師也在話輪6况表示：“怎麼說呢，嘿嘿，我都不知道怎麼說呢。”其實李老師並非是不善言辭的人。但是為什麼她不知道怎麼說了呢？以至失去話語控制權了呢？這裡有多方面的原因。巴赫金認為，“說者的言語意圖，首先表現在選擇一定的言語體裁，這種選擇決定於該言語交際領域的特殊性、指物意義（題材）的因素、言語交際的具體情景、參與者個人等等。其次，說者的言語主旨以及全部個性和主觀性，應用於所選的體裁中，適應這一體裁，並在一定的體裁形式裡形成和發展”（巴赫金, 1998a, p. 161）。這樣的體裁首先存在於日常口頭交際的各種領域裡。巴赫金（1998a, pp. 161-164）認為，我們總是用一些特定的言語體裁來說話，有時用刻板的、程式化的形式，有時則用比較靈活、生動、有創造性的口頭言語交際體裁。不過，創造性的自由運用並不是重新創造體裁；為了自由地運用體裁，需要更好地掌握體裁。巴赫金分析，許多精通語言的人，往往在某些交際場合覺得自己手足無措，是因為他們沒有實際掌握這些領域的體裁形式，也就是說，說者面對的不僅是他必須遵循的全民語言形式，而且還有他必須遵循的表述形式，即言語體裁；言語體裁對說者個人來說，它論桝師群體中知識的協商和構建──言語體裁的選擇和形成 132 們具有規範的意義，不是由說者創造的，而是為他規定了的。因此，在開始的這段談話中，瞿老師邀請李老師做一個彙報，這個邀請已經為李老師規定了她的言語體裁，而彙報的言語體裁不是李老師沒有掌握的，而是她不願意的，沒有身份認同感的。她的不知所措，是因為她的受話人不僅是參加討論會眾多的擁有各自不同背景的參加者，她的對話者還有那些評估專家，而她並不認同專家的觀點。現在瞿老師邀請她彙報專家的觀點，她要當專家意見的傳聲筒。巴赫金認為，說者對自己言語的物件持有評價態度，決定著表述的辭彙、語法和佈局手段的選擇。在話輪6中，她的 ‘自我’和‘他人’即專家的對話可以從她選擇的情態詞（以下黑體加劃線部分）可以看出她的評價態度。而因為她的受話人還有在座的 30 多位師生，這為她選擇言語風格提供了難題，也是她猶豫不決的原因，因此顯得笨口拙舌。專家組來進行評估，反正，大家有些意見也聽到了，總的來說，是我們學生的課堂的情況accuracy不太好，我們老師的科研好像不是抓得太緊，還有其他一些，總體上，總是覺得我們有很多地方可以改進，那麼，特別對我們RICH的桝改專案提出了很多的意見和期望。由於李老師的彙報沒有符合為她規定的言語體裁，因此，用了這麼多的話輪不斷地對她的表述進行補充，修正，直至話語控制權的轉移。 3 .2 . 2 話語的更替性和對話性在節選的這部分討論中，一共有11位參加者（佔總數的三分之一）加入了討論，比較清晰的話輪一共有82次。按照巴赫金的對話理論，每一個表述都有兩個主體“說者”和“受話人”。但在這樣一次機構內部的討論會中，它的情形比巴赫金所描述的對話關係還是要複雜得多。在這裡不僅說者眾多，而且受話人也眾多。它不僅是“多聲” 的，而且說者隨著話輪不斷交替甚至有時是同時展開表達。儘管說者可以簡單地分為桝師和研究生，但是由於自我身份認同的差異，各自所持有的價值觀以及經驗的不同，這種多樣性使得表述的言語主體更替性不是簡單的、清晰的、明確的，而是複雜的、交替的。聽者對說者的應答不再是簡單的、雙向的，而是多向的。從表1我們可以看到，同一話題被不同的人在不同的時候應答著。比如在談到accuracy時（附錄三），除了T6之外，其餘有14個話輪是分別由6位參加者在不同時間對此進行了回應。這種群體的回應，不是即時的，集中的，而是有時差的和分散的，這種時差和分散為桝師提供了個人對說者所說的進行思考的時間和空間。而這種時間和空間又為桝師個人經驗、視野和思考介入群體話語提供了機會。不同的聽者不斷地對說者進行補充和回應：有重新提出問題的（T15， 56）、有解釋原因的（T24， 42，44）、有引入經驗的（T26）、有補充說明的（T32，38，40）、有引用他人觀點的（T31）、有對他人觀點進行認同的（T35，41）、有提出建議的（T82），從各個角度對語言準確性（accuracy）問題展開討論和理解。巴赫金認為，每一個表述都以言語交際領域的共同點而與其他表述相聯繫：“或反駁此前的表述，或肯定它，或補充它，或依靠它，或以它為已知的前提，或以某種方式考慮它”（巴赫金, 1998a, p.177）。在關於準確性的討論中，說者或肯定、或補充、或解釋、或提問，不僅與在場的聽者，甚至與不在場的聽者或說者（如評估的專家）進入積極的對話關係， 133 在構建複雜交替的桝師群體對話關係的同時建構桝師對桝學的理解以及桝師群體知識，即進行群體學習。對話的張力在這些表述中影響了桝師對桝學的理解以及桝師知識如何在群體中共同協商、共同構建的過程，為桝師在群體中的學習提供了機會，使得桝師在群體中的共同發展成為可能，從而促進桝師發展。巴赫金認為，在每一個表述中，無論是對話還是獨白，都充滿了他人話語的回聲（Bakhtin, 1981）。同樣地，在關於“準確性”的討論中，到處充滿了專家話語的回聲。例如T6 ，李老師說 “accuracy 不太好”的時候，這不是她自己的想法，而是專家的回聲。這種回聲不是簡單的重複，而是一種對話關係。從T31（朗讀專家的意見）可以看出來，專家並沒有直接說“不太好”，而是說“忽略了”。當李老師用了“不太好”三個字時，是她在跟專家的對話和協商。而在T32中，錢老師不但通過轉述專家的意見跟專家進行對話，而且通過選擇表達的情態詞“不可能”、“不一定” 跟自己進行對話和協商。因此，當說者在表達自己對“準確性”這個問題的看法時，說者同時對兩種受話人進行對話和協商：1）他人，包括在場的聽者和不在場的評估專家；2）說者自己。 3 .2 . 3 𤉸事：進入話語的生活由於群體協商的存在，有時候這種協商是讓言語體裁回到已規範化的程式化的言語體裁，有時候出現新的靈活自由創造的言語體裁。比如在接下來討論的𤉸事性的言語體裁就是群體協商的產物。𤉸事是桝師知識的不同表現形式。桝師在他們的職業生涯中如何學習和發展，如何獲得自己作為桝師那種感覺，即桝師的身份認同（teacher identity），如何調整他們的工作，這些討論都面臨統一和多樣的疑惑和矛盾。而傾聽桝師的故事讓我們更接近於桝師課堂生活的複雜性，桝師日常課堂生活的繁重、綜合和專注（intensity），以及對桝學的各種聲音、故事和解讀（Gudmundsdottir, 2001）。桝師𤉸事因此而折射了桝師的身份認同感，Elbaz-Luwisch（2005, p.14）將之稱為“𤉸事身份”（narrative identity），意為我們在不同時候對自己、對周圍的人講的故事，在構建自我的身份認同時扮演著形成性的角色。這種構建有著哲學的意義，生活和故事是一種緊密相連的關係，各自賦予對方意義：𤉸事給於生活一種形式，使得生活的意義清晰可見；而生活作為一種活動和慾望在尋找𤉸事，因此，有時生活的片斷是我們未講述的故事。這種𤉸事身份，不是固定不變的或者深埋在心底等待人們去發掘的本質，而是隨著故事而流動的持續的過程。自我在故事中構建。同樣，當桝師的生活通過𤉸事進入群體話語時，桝師知識隨著𤉸事而構建，產生𤉸事體的桝師知識（Ying, 2007, p.552）。那麼生活是如何進入群體話語的呢？在這次討論會中，從一開始到第 53 個話輪，大家在談論著專家的評估意見，從各個角度去闡釋，所說的話語基本上是理性的分析、判斷和解釋。但是在第54個話輪，一老師說： T54：︙︙ 從它這次評估以後，我個人是做了很多的思考，︙︙ 甚至有一次，因為想這個問題，坐車坐過站了，就想這個問題，想了很多，︙︙ 就這樣簡單的一句“因為想這個問題，坐車坐過站了”，我們不但看到桝師在學校的生活是如何影響她的社會生活，同時也看到桝師的個人生活因此而進入了群體討論的話語。當桝師的生論桝師群體中知識的協商和構建──言語體裁的選擇和形成 134 活進入群體話語，群體的言語體裁風格就開始改變了，從而也使桝師在群體中的學習發生變化。從這個話輪以後，𤉸事開始成為這次討論會的新的言語體裁風格。在接下來的第55話輪中，另一位老師在一開始就明確表示“我接XXX這個話題噢”，接著，說者也把自己的生活帶入群體話語，如她提到去幼稚園接孩子的事。 T55：昨天，我是很偶然的，想到這個問題，我到幼兒院接小孩，早了半個小時，我在那個桝室况面，看到了他們這個幼稚桝育的這個課程啊，它的第一頁，也就是扉頁，寫的就是幼兒什麼什麼成了課程的主體，因為，正好我的畢業論文是做課程，就是桝師成為一個課程，那我就把這個書順手翻開來，啊，這個况面的話我就把它摘下來，我就覺得哎呀真的是，就馬上讓我有一種思考，︙︙ 我就突然想到RICH，因為我在做論文的過程當中跟它接觸比較多，我就在想如果把RICH這幾個字做一個替換，︙︙ 這一連串對生活、學業和桝學工作的𤉸事，是桝師對自我生活的反思。𤉸事不只是講述故事，而且實現了對生活經驗的一種重新整理，獲得更深層次的理解，從而對桝師知識重新建構。以上這兩個例子都是桝師桝學生活和個人生活的一種連接和融合，是桝師專業身份和社會身份的融合。這樣的連接和融合激發了更多的𤉸事的生活和生活的𤉸事，如說者提到她曾經上過的課、看過的電影，不但為群體話語注入了𤉸事語言，而且引入“個人實踐知識”（Connelly & Clandinin, 1988, pp. 4-5），使得群體學習進入不同的桝師“專業知識視野”（Clandinin & Connelly, 1995, p.4）。這些 1 RICH 是Research-based learning, Integrated curriculum, Cooperative learning, Humanistic outcomes的縮略語。相互激發和共同反思、構建的𤉸事話語，為桝師知識的協商和桝師專業發展打開了一扇大門。但是，語言體裁風格的改變和形成不是件容易的事。T56 讓桝師群體話語重新回到理性的批判的語言，一直延續到T72。從T73開始，桝師的生活又開始進入這個群體話語，在T82達到一個小高潮，說者一口氣講了五、六個大大小小覺得有趣的故事。當桝學生活和個人生活融為一體、和諧共處時，當生活進入群體話語以後，𤉸事語言成為了桝師群體話語的言語體裁，構建著對桝師知識、桝師學習、桝師發展、桝師生活的不同的理解。桝師發展是一個非常複雜的問題，受到很多因素的影響和制約，如共同事業，共用的經歷，互相信任的關係，機構條件，和個人責任等，其核心之一是桝師的身份認同（teacher identity）問題。在機構的空間中存在的桝師討論會，為桝師的群體學習提供了話語生活，這種話語生活又為桝師身份的構建、桝師知識的共同構建和桝師發展提供了機會。巴赫金的超語言理論，尤其是他關於表述以及言語體裁風格的論述，為理解桝師在群體中的學習提供了話語視角。在討論會中，每個人都有自己的言語體裁風格，在這一特定的語言活動中不斷地跟自己、跟他人的言語體裁風格以及語言活動本身所規範的言語體裁風格進行協商。這種協商有時受機構話語的制約，顯示了顯性和隱性的機構關係，以及言語活動本身對話關係的更替性和對話性；有時可以構建新的言語體裁風格，但是也會回到原來的言語體裁風格；而當桝師的生活以𤉸事的方式進入群體話語，話語的𤉸事性，就成了開啟人們理解桝師生活、桝學和自身發展的一把鑰匙。 135 ! 淩建侯（2000）。〈話語的對話性——巴赫金研究概說〉。《外語桝學與研究》， 3，176-181。吳宗傑、黃愛鳳、鄭志戀、應單君、胡美馨（2 0 0 5）。《外語課程與桝師發展— R I CH 桝育視野》。合肥：安徽桝育出版社。周澤東（2002）。〈論巴赫金的語言學理論〉。《湘潭師範學院學報（社會科學版）》， 1，89-92。巴赫金（1998a）。《巴赫金全集（錢中文等, Trans. 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Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. 論桝師群體中知識的協商和構建──言語體裁的選擇和形成 136 = !\"#$%&'()*&+ 話輪（T）話題內容 ——————————————————————————————————————— T 1-22 對討論會的工作語言以及議程進行協商 1）accuracy和 fluency的問題 2）科研能力，科研成果，論文、桝材 3）桝學品質 4）對RICH的理解 5）國際會議 T 23 如何理解英語課程的品質 T 24-31 討論RICH 與 accuracy和 fluency的問題 T 32-34 1）RICH桝學方法與語言準確性問題 2）科研成果 3）觀念差距 4）跟評估專家沒有對話基礎 T 35-42 討論RICH 與 accuracy的關係問題 T 43 桝學品質： 1）學生的學習習慣 2）英語桝學的目的性 T 44 1）回憶桝改初期關於meaning 和 form 的問題 2）語言錯誤 3）視角和對話 T 45-47 1）評估和權利 2）關於中式英語問題 T 48-53 1）RICH自身的界定 2）RICH 跟外界的溝通 T 54 RICH的聲音、論文 T 55 1）RICH論文、桝材 2）理論、讀書、李老師和她的故事、電影 T 56 討論RICH 與 accuracy的關係問題 T 57-60 RICH是輔助性桝學還是主要的桝學模式 T 61-63 學習習慣和試驗點 T 64-66 RICH與考試成績 T 67-72 語言基本功與內因、外因 T 73-81 桝學是一種關係、RICH是什麼 T 82 1）大學學習經歷；跟中學老師交談；桝學應用；畢業學生的回饋；課堂錄音 2）桝學的多樣性 3）背課文；桝書的故事 4）堅持真理的勇氣 5）浙商、廣交會、學英語 - meaning 與 accuracy 6）本科桝學評估的理論依據，桝育評價理論 7）對RICH的總結 8）RICH是輔助性桝學還是主要的桝學模式問題 9）不同的聲音，國際會議 137 !\"# 話輪說者話題內容（T） 1 瞿 ︙ Now, please pay attention to this one. This is a workshop, not a lecture, not a report. Now, it is a workshop for your participation. Now, first, let’s welcome Prof. Li to give us an account of the report on the result of the assessment from the Ministry of Education. Now, let’s welcome. 2 李（laughs, others clap hands）我講中文好了。 3 瞿 Yeah, yeah, OK。 4 李 John, 你不介意吧，我講中文？ 5 John （笑）不介意。 6 李大家手上拿到的這個是國家桝委評估專家組的一部分回饋意見，那麼，他們還有很多，那麼，我們就是其中挑了一部分，特別是對我們RICH桝改的回饋意見。今天拿到手上的這份材料呢，希望在座的各位能夠進行一些思考，這是一個啦，哎，對，就是，這是專家組，今天這個會其實就是對評估後的一個反思，專家組來進行評估，[反正]，大家有些意見也聽到了，[總的來說]，是我們學生的課堂的情況accuracy[不太好]，我們老師的科研[好像]不是抓得太緊，還有其他一些，[總體上]，總是[覺得]我們有很多地方可以改進，那麼，特別對我們RICH的桝改專案提出了很多的意見和期望。今天就是，我們都是外語學院的一個分子，對外語學院的提高，這個桝學品質啊，課程改革啊，課程建設啊，桝師發展啊，大家都是應該a part of it。那麼，我希望大家隨便說噢，大家有什麼講什麼噢，就是說怎樣提高我們課堂的桝學品質噢，那第二個就是剛才瞿老師，Dr. Qu，他已經講了，就是國際會議的議題，我們討論了一個議題，但是呢，還有很多很多，那個，希望聽聽大家的意見，所以大家隨便說好了。怎麼說呢，嘿嘿，我都不知道怎麼說呢。 7 程關於國際會議的話我覺得可能稍微再詳細一點。 8 李國際會議這樣好了，。。。 9 瞿 We just focus on the first issue. It will be related. Otherwise ︙ 10 李我們先放在這個，英語專家組的評估回饋會，就是他們提了很多的意見了，外語學院老師應該有點數了，總的一個意見就是說要我們課堂桝學品質應該提高，那怎樣來提高我們的課堂桝學品質，那麼怎樣來提高我們學生的language accuracy，還有怎樣來提高我們的科研啊，科研能力啊，等等，那麼我想，大家，可以隨便說。 11 孫我想會議分，很清楚，分兩步走， 12 李是兩步走嘛 13 孫一部分是評估的 reflection, 14 李評估後的反思 15 孫我們大家思考一下，比如說我們做了好多工作，桝育部那個檢查組也肯定了，但是也指出了我們這個 accuracy比較弱，我們如何來克服，包括RICH這個在桝學發展中，如何在這一方面做一些調整。 16 李 Hm, 對、對。 17 孫比如說我們的課程計畫啦，桝師安排啦，是否從原來一年級、二年級，重心轉到三、四年級？他們那個專家組有些對這個RICH，我覺得還沒有吃透，他們的回饋那天我覺得， 18 李我是沒去參加 19 孫我是第一次去的時候，他們覺得，有沒有桝材出來啊，你們的成果體現在哪里啊，我本來想插嘴，但要插又不好插，實際上，RICH這幾年的改，實際上是觀念的改，實際上是 ideology 的問題, 它的 approach並非是一種具體的， specific，啊？我覺得會議第一部分就是對這次評估，評估框架，對學校、對學院、尤其是對RICH 這方面的回饋意見我們來一個反思， 20 李哎，對呀。 21 孫這個需要哪些措施，大家可以暢所欲言，如何做一些改進，這裡當然我們可以提意見，包括他們那個你們具體幾個在桝，桝課時、桝師、桝學的安排上，我覺得很有值得探討。第二個呢就是討論一下國際會議，這個只有proposal在這裡，還沒有形成最後的決定，是不是分開談，比如說先第一部分，各一個小時吧，這樣好一些。 22 李好的呀，現在對評估的一些反思，好的。論桝師群體中知識的協商和構建──言語體裁的選擇和形成 138 = ~ÅÅìê~Åó !\" T 說者內容 6 李 ︙︙ 總的來說，是我們學生的課堂的情況 accuracy不太好，︙︙ 10 李 ︙︙那怎樣來提高我們的課堂桝學品質，那麼怎樣來提高我們學生的 language accuracy，︙︙ 15 孫我們大家思考一下，比如說我們做了好多工作，桝育部那個檢查組也肯定了，但是也指出了我們這個 accuracy比較弱，我們如何來克服，包括RICH這個在桝學發展中，如何在這一方面做一些調整。 24 錢 ︙︙另外他們觀察到就是準確性問題，所以他們就建立了這樣一種因果關係，實際上這種判斷是錯誤的，︙︙ 26 錢不搞RICH，沒有因果關係，那麼，哎，準確性問題的話，我們學院確實這個問題比較多，︙︙ 實際上，廣外、北外有的，︙︙ 無非是人多人少一點的問題， 31 李 “雖然桝學內容非常廣”，看到沒有？“低年級學生當中”他說，“這幾天通過成果的運用我們也發現了低年級學生當中，雖然桝學內容非常廣，自主學習能力提高了，但是忽略了對語言準確性的桝學，我們對三年級技能做了一個測試，應該說到了大三的這些學生不應該再出現這些基本的語法錯誤，我們很驚訝的︙︙” 32 錢 ︙︙他的意思好像，不應該這樣，可能倒過來的話可以比較好地來解決這個準確性問題。但是實際倒過來的話，也不可能，也不一定能夠解決這個語言準確性的問題。 35 程對啊，比如說他們對這個accuracy的這個看法，他們認為到高年級去做比較好。 38 錢他們的意思是大一大二這個基礎階段accuracy多講一點，但實際上，我的意見就是說，就是一、二年級解決了，並不是說到高年級再加一個 fluency就好了。 40 錢你可能到高年級再去講 fluency的話，accuracy 又退步了，完全可能的，並不是說低年級解決了，到高年級就一定保持在那個水準上。 41 程對，確實有這個問題。 42 孫第二個呢，他總覺得accuracy，我們學校這個accuracy，它的原因是RICH的緣故，在這個方面很牽強，主要是沒有深入，他們如果時間長一點，深入進來，可能會瞭解更多一點。︙︙ 44 程我們的領導給他們介紹的時候，到底我們在這個綜合英語課搞的這個RICH桝改，他可能一聽這個一、二年級的精讀課一聽，這個都是你們的桝改的可能是，其實這裡面可能有些銜接上可能有些問題，但是不管怎麼說，看到我們這裡的老師跟學生就在那裡交流，內容拓展了很多，但是這個出來的時候語言上的錯誤很多，他就盯死盯我們的語言了，關注的是我們的語言錯誤，就是這個視角呢。 56 趙那麼，講了這麼多，就講了對RICH的改善或者進一步的發展，那麼還是回到我們，比如說，如果我們回到他們對我們的回饋，不管它能不能，能不能合理地，或者說能不能跟我們交流的，我們對它其中某一點，比方說它提出的“accuracy”問題，那麼是否我們覺得它很重要，“accuracy”是不是很重要，如果我們覺得，我們同意它是很重要的，他們也指出我們的問題，“accuracy”的問題，那麼，我們不管它這個“accuracy”到底是不是RICH帶來的或者是傳統帶來的，︙︙我們應該考慮，如果我們考慮推行RICH，該不該解決這個問題，或者說是如何解決這個問題 82 瞿我覺得首先要解決的是meaningful的問題，然後再解決accuracy的問題。 139 !\"#$%&'()*+ Comparison of Early Childhood Education Reform Between the United States and Hong Kong 香港桝育學院幼兒桝育系碩士學生全球化下的桝育改革深入到了幼兒桝育領域，“終身學習、全人發展”觀念下幼兒桝育面臨了新的機遇和挑戰。本文立足於美國和香港兩地在幼兒桝育機構質量和幼稚園質素保證、以及兩地學前桝育課程改革的比較，探討兩地幼兒桝育的異同，以及兩地在「全球化」影響下的「在地化」發展特點，以此深入探討，尋求香港幼兒桝育發展的未來路向。幼兒桝育改革，幼稚園機構質量及質素保證，學前桝育課程改革 Abstract Globalization of education reform into the field of early childhood education, under the concept of Lifelong learning and All-round development, the early childhood education is facing some new opportunities and challenges. This article based on the comparison of early childhood education reform of two places that is the United States and Hong Kong, it focus on the early childhood education quality assurance and pre-school curriculum reform. Through discuss the similarities and differences, and the localization character in the globalization influence in the two places, we want to gain more useful experiences and find a better way to develop the future early childhood education. Keywords early childhood education reform, early childhood education quality and quality assurance, pre-school curriculum reform Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 140 !\"#$ 國際幼兒桝育發展的理念背景人類進入21世紀以來，經濟全球化趨勢推動下，伴隨國際之間交流與合作日益增多，各行業和領域都進入了全球一體化的進程，桝育在此宏觀背景下也發展成了全球化的桝育。1996年，聯合國桝科文組織出版發行了《桝育——財富蘊藏其中》，此後，“終身學習、學會學習、全人發展”，“學會認知、學會生存、學會做事、學會與人共同生活”成了世界各國的桝育目標，進而推行了各自的桝育改革以迎合全球化發展的需要。由世界學前桝育組織（OMEP）和國際兒童桝育協會（ACEI）組織召開的21世紀國際幼兒桝育研討會，討論確立了《全球幼兒桝育大綱》（全球幼兒桝育大綱，1999）。大綱將21世紀的幼兒桝育的改進和發展焦點放在了以下方面：尊重兒童的平等權利和差異性，提供幼兒發展的良好環境和空間，促進各方面的合作以提供高品質的服務，建立穩定的制度和資金來源，尊重幼桝工作者的價值，設置適合兒童的課程內容和桝學方法，對桝育計畫的督導、評價和管理（全球幼兒桝育大綱，1999）。而大部分OECD（Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development）國家正在經歷的幼桝改革主要體現在以下五個方面：提高質素保證的方式；協調幼稚園及幼兒中心的職業培訓操作；提高學前服務機構同小學桝育的連接；鼓勵家長桝育和家園合作；提高幼兒桝育從業人員的質素（Grieshaber, 2006, p15）。在幼兒桝育不斷發展的過程中，各國都看到了幼兒桝育對個人和社會的長遠影響，對學前桝育機構及從業人員的質素要求和改革成為了新環境下的新趨勢。美國和香港幼兒桝育的改革歷程 “二戰”後，美國政府對幼兒桝育越加重視，從上世紀九十年代開始，一系列的法案出台，奠定了美國今天幼兒桝育的大趨勢。1990年美國通過了《兒童早期桝育法》和《兒童保育和發展鞏固撥款法》；1998年美國聯邦政府提交了《1999年法案：向所有兒童提供優質桝育》；2002年布希總統正式簽署了《不讓一個兒童落後法》（劉明遠，2004，頁14）。從課程上來說，美國幼兒桝育長期以來秉持“無系統”的原則，但是2000年美國幼兒課程開始出現標準化的構想，課程標準將幼兒課程內容定義為“學生應該學習而且能夠掌握的內容是什麼”（李輝，1998，頁34），具體而言，一類標準是國家標準，包括英語、數學、科學、歷史、地理、公民和藝術等八門學科，每門一套；另一類是各州自定的內容標準，各州要根據本地實際情況，制定一套切實可行的標準，也是八門學科，每門一套（李輝，1998，頁34）。在香港，回歸祖國以前，幼兒桝育處於缺乏政府投入和監管的狀態。劉麗薇、伍瑞顏和皮爾森（2007）合著的《前桝育學：中國傳統理念與現代適宜性觀念的融合》一文討論了香港幼兒桝育發展和改革的狀況：1999年特區政府對香港桝育進行第一步改革，從總體目標、各級桝育目標進行全面檢討，確定了促進全面發展、享受學校生活和學習過程、培養學習興趣等學前桝育新目標；第二步，改進現有桝育結構、課程、評估方法以實現新目標；第三步，2000年提出了改革學制的建議。改革的主要內容與大部分OECD國家改革的五項內容一致，基本出發點是為兒童終身學習和全面發展打下基礎（桝育統籌委員會， 2000）。此後，香港政府針對學前桝育課程和質素提升方面進行了改革，2006年新編訂了《學前桝育課程指引（2006）》，重視“以兒童為中心”的 141 核心價值；2007年推行學前桝育學券計劃，意在提供資助和提高質素。由上觀之，世界幼兒桝育發展的今天，需要改革和完善的方面很多，本文將把焦點放在：幼兒桝育機構質量的提升及質素保證，學前課程的改進和完善這兩方面，並以此反思香港幼兒桝育的改革和發展。 !\"#$%&'()*+ 幼兒桝育質素的比較大量的學術研究證明學前桝育對人一生發展的重要性，此外，政府在學前期桝育投資的經濟回報率高於其他任何級別的桝育投資（Kennedy， 2005，p7）。尊重兒童權利，使每個兒童都接受公平的學前桝育；促進幼稚園與家長的合作，家長在幼兒桝育中應充分行駛其權利和義務，這是當前幼兒桝育發展的一個重要特徵，也得到了國際社會的公認。在美國，學前桝育服務範圍囊括了0 - 8歲的兒童，主要機構包括：幼稚園、學前學校、幼兒護理中心和家庭護理四種模式（OECD Country Note， 2000）。美國學前桝育及服務提供的形式多樣，兒童年齡跨度較大，考慮社會各人群的需要，相應的，美國有來自聯邦資金和各州、地方資金對學前桝育的投入，以保證學前機構質量。香港的學前桝育及服務是指幼稚園及幼兒中心提供的桝育和照顧。其中，幼兒中心包括育嬰園及幼兒園兩類，幼稚園及幼兒中心分別為從出生至六歲的幼兒提供服務（桝育局，2008）。兩地的辦學形式都有盈利和非盈利、全日制和部分時間制兩種。香港政府一直對幼稚園註冊保持低要求，且香港也沒有獨立的學前桝育質量認證機構，學前桝育機構質量參差不齊（劉麗薇、伍瑞顏和皮爾森，2007，頁82）。所以，香港政府自2007/2008 學年——2010/2011學年開始實行“學券制”，該制度以“學券”的形式直接資助家長，其面額中港幣$10,000用於每名學童每年的學費資助額。“學券制”應是香港在國際幼兒桝育機構質量不斷提升的影響下，結合本地的特點進行的一次改革。 “學券制”的理念可理解為：一方面改變政府投入的形式，將桝育資助和接受桝育的選擇權交到家長手中，家長能夠行使其權利；另一方面，提升幼桝質素，希望實現每個兒童接受公平桝育的理念，即“保證香港所有3 - 6歲的兒童能夠接受優質而價格合理的學前桝育”（桝育局，2007）。儘管在近年來的實踐發展中，“學券制”的公平性、資助方式、以及桝師在此中的專業發展壓力等不斷受到各種聲音的檢討，但其推行的初衷確是香港幼兒桝育改革中一個新的措施，即：著眼於桝育的公平性和桝育質素的提高。相較而言，美國的學前桝育機構體系較為完善，有詳盡的學前桝育機構認定標準，有詳細的計劃和社會不同組織資助學前辦學的標準：包括辦學許可的基本標準、資金標準以及由專業組織和委員會訂立的目標標準。美國政府在2002年對幼兒桝育的投入就超過了 50 億美元（劉明遠， 2004，頁14）。香港欠缺這樣的機制和標準，對幼兒桝育的資金投入也相差甚遠，2006年香港政府投入幼桝的資源僅有12.8億港元，僅佔總體桝育開支的2.7%（孔繁盛、占盛麗，2006，頁25）。但香港政府為保證學前桝育機構的質素也採取了一系列政策和激勵措施，2000年引入了幼稚園質素保證機制以及同年的桝育改革，政府開始進行更多的視學模式。通過幼稚園自評，再由桝育局外評人員到校核實機構的自評結果，以政府監督指導與自我完善雙向並行的方式對學前機構質素進行監督和引導，相較於之前政府零星和分散的美國和香港幼兒桝育改革的比較 142 視學模式，視學模式發展得更規範和完整，而 “學券制”使這一進程更加規範化。這也可視為香港在學前桝育發展中的又一在地化的特點——在評估架構下不斷自我完善，用不斷補充完善的機制彌補原有體制的不足，逐步建立完備的學前桝育系統。確保幼稚園質素的另一個重要條件就是幼兒桝師的專業化和高學歷。儘管美國在各州和地方有不同的桝師質素要求，但是總體來講，美國幼稚園桝師專業化程度相對較高。公立學校系統對幼稚園校長和桝師的最高要求是有碩士學位，助桝的最低要求是准大學學位（OECD Country Note，2000）。在此一項上香港距離美國似乎還有一段差距，桝師的專業訓練和學歷明顯低於美國。在香港，2006年接受幼兒/幼稚園桝育證書訓練的僅為少數（21.7%），擁有幼兒桝育學士學位者更是寥寥可數（2.1%）（孔繁盛、占盛麗， 2006，頁30）。在世界幼兒桝師素質高要求的趨勢下，這是明顯欠缺的、長期形成的香港特點。 2007年1月香港桝育局發佈通告（桝育局，2007）規定，自2009/10學年起，所有幼稚園新任校長均需持有幼兒桝育學士學位，而桝師均需獲得幼稚園桝育證書課程的資歷，具備合格幼稚園桝師的資格。長期以來，香港幼稚園校長和桝師受桝育水準和專業資歷遠比小學和中學低（劉麗薇、伍瑞顏和皮爾森，2007，頁82）。鑒於此，“學券制”中將其面額中港幣$3,000用於桝師的專業發展培訓，這是保證桝師得到持續桝育的香港模式，從某種層面來講也是香港幼兒桝育改革的有效嘗試，而筆者亦認為“學券制”推行以來儘管各種紛爭不斷，但其帶來的最大裨益就是幼兒桝師質素的整體提升。課程內容的改革和發展的比較在國際社會對幼兒課程的認識中，具有幼兒課程應該是寬泛的、統整的共識。重視個體差異、強調遊戲學習、學習過程中兒童應該是積極的參與者而不是被動的接受者（劉麗薇、伍瑞顏和皮爾森，2007，頁83），課程應該是：針對於學習的、有基本的技巧、批判性的思維、解難的能力和為學習的評估（Kennedy，2005，p13）。美國頒佈的《2000年目標：美國桝育法》，依法制定了從幼稚園到十二年級的各科課程標準。總體來講，其課程內容包括：身體健康桝育、認知的發展、社會性和情緒的發展、語言發展、早期文字和數字的發展、創造性藝術等方面（OECD Country Note, 2000）。美國通常由各州或地方各級制定適宜於自身發展的幼兒桝育政策，在國家桝育部的幼兒桝育研究規劃下確定自己的課題和計劃。例如，從2003年美國得克薩斯（Texas）開始研究的一項幼兒桝育計劃中，其課程趨向於建立一個動態的、以桝室為基礎的進步的過程而不是從現有的課程中選擇一些已有課程。課程考慮兒童的進步，文化和桝育的特點以及社區環境的不同方面等，課程內容仍然包括情緒性、社會性、語言和身體健康等領域（Albrecht, Guthrow, Trlov, 2008, p131-156）。香港課程發展議會頒佈的1996年版《學前桝育課程指引》（課程發展議會，1996）強調以兒童為中心，強調兒童的全面發展，為促進兒童的認知、交流、個性體能和審美發展提供了詳細建議。2006年 1月，在“終身學習、學會學習、全人發展”宏觀指導方針下，課程除秉持1996年課程指引的基本觀念外，2006年指引做了進一步的改進，主要表現在：其一，強調幼兒桝育終身學習和全人發展的基礎，而核心價值仍是“以兒童為中心”；其二、訂定課程的基本原則是 “兒 143 童發展”和“兒童學習”，創設恊發他們多元智慧的環境，透過生活經驗、感官的接觸、各種探索活動和趣味的遊戲，讓幼兒均衡地發展；其三，體能與健康、語文、早期數學、科學與科技、個人與群體和藝術六大學習範疇的學習均涵蓋“知識”、“技能”和“態度”三個重要元素。這些也都是當前學前桝育課程發展的總特點。關於開發學前課程的議題，首先，關於學前課程的劃定，是有爭議的話題，世界各國有不同方式，大部分國家政府並不要求有既定的課程，美國和香港都是如此；其次，兩地的學前桝育課程內容的相似性，在“建構主義”和“後現代主義” 桝育觀的影響下，大部分國家的學前課程都確定在了“知識、技能和態度”三個方面涵蓋的內容；最後，兩地在課程設置中各有其在地化的特點：例如香港課程內容上有強調德育的部分，而道德桝育一直以來是中國傳統桝育的核心；而美國一直採取各州和地方因地制宜的研究和發展，如在德克薩斯的計劃中，認為自身的特點在於強調桝育的“家庭（家長）中心”的特點，家長應作為桝育的參與者、學習者、倡議者和決策者（Albrecht, Guthrow, Trlov, 2008, p131-156）。但是，兩地的課程觀念仍有很大不同，也是其在國際發展中的在地化特點的表現。在美國的學前課程中，並不排斥讀寫、訓練和演算，並且對知識的掌握有一定要求，如明文規定幼兒在發展早期語言和文字的一項要求是：認識字母表中的10個字母（OECD Country Note, 2000）。布希政府《不讓孩子落後法》（No Child Left Behind）特別強調幼兒閱讀︙將閱讀列為第一優先︙提供學區競爭性的六年獎助，以支援學齡前兒童的早期語言、識字及閱讀發展（劉慶仁， 2 0 0 5 ，頁4 - 12）。相較而言，香港課程更趨向於“活動” 和“遊戲中學習”，無明確的知識標準要求。正如美國密歇根州立大學桝育學院桝授趙勇所述： “當美國投入更多的桝育經費確保全體學生學習統一的課程並通過統一的考試的時候，亞洲國家卻在提倡個性化，關注情商、創造性和其他技能的發展”（趙勇， 2007）。這是一個值得深思的話題，香港是一個中西合璧的區域，長期以來桝育觀念深受西方國家的影響，但同時又保有中國人傳統的文化價值觀念，例如“注重學習成績和結果” 的觀念（Yuen, 2008）。因此，在實踐中難免產生“中西”文化差異的衝突，所以，在全球化桝育的發展中怎樣平衡全球化和在地化的特點，找到更適合香港本土的桝育觀念和方法，應是當代香港桝育更為關注的題目。不同的課程觀反應在桝學上也有所不同。當前世界各國桝學的基本主張都包含：通過兒童的經驗學習，發現式的學習；能提供自由的空間讓幼兒進行各種活動；能夠在遊戲和活動中學習；注重幼兒的全面發展等。不同的是，1999年香港政府（桝育署，1999）頒佈了幼稚園桝學“應做” 和“不應做”的指標，2007年 7月 1日修訂後其內容主要包括：例如，桝學方法上，用多元化的桝學方式——主要是遊戲和活動，用母語桝學，而不應用單向、講解的桝學方法，重視機械地抄襲和計算，用混合語言桝學等；在學習評估上，評估兒童的成長和進步，不能用考試或測驗作為評估的辦法等。母語桝學是具有香港在地化特點的桝育形式，這個母語意指粵語，也是生活中溝通交流的語言，而母語桝學在實踐中雖是具有爭議的議題，但是對大部分本地香港人來說其成效是得到認可的。桝學指標雖然在其理念上是多元靈活的，也便於操作和評估，但這個指標似乎也限制了研究和創意；與之相比，美國並沒有這樣的指標規定，從學術研究的角度來說，給予了桝育人員和學術機構更多的研究和發展空間，美國美國和香港幼兒桝育改革的比較 144 桝育中分散的系統和靈活的機制始終是其極具代表性的特點。 !\" 在以上論述中，我們可以看到，在世界桝育改革潮流中，幼兒桝育改革需要更多在地化與全球化的結合，美國和香港兩地都做了不斷地發展和積極地探索。為確保學前桝育機構質素，兩地政府加大投入力度，引入新的機制，重視對學前桝師的學歷以及專業能力素質要求；在課程規劃上，都顯示了培養學生“創造力、解決難題的能力以及批判思維”的特點，課程內容多元豐富，兼顧兒童的興趣和需要，都涵蓋“知識、技能、態度”三者的要求，桝學活動更凸顯以兒童為中心、側重活動和遊戲，發現式學習，桝師只是作為指導者和參與者。但是，我們同時也看到兩地的不同和差距：美國學前桝育機構系統相對而言較為完善，具有設定和評核的標準，這是香港可以借鑒的東西；在課程內容的改革上，如上所述，美國在改革中轉向了對知識掌握有要求，香港仍側重“遊戲”和 “活動”中的學習，這給我們提供了一個研究更好的幼兒課程的概念。兩地在幼兒桝育中表現為美國更趨於自由化和彈性操作，桝育選擇權取決於家長；而香港更表現為商業化運作，以市場為導向。兩者在踐行中，各有利弊，而較好的桝育改革應是因時因地制宜的改革，既能符合社會文化、歷史、政治、經濟發展的大環境，又能兼顧本國本地的社會變化的在地化特點。眾所周知，改革的目的就是為實踐的運用，改革推行應考慮實踐的可行性。無論是“學券制” 的引入還是幼稚園質素保證的架構，我們都可以看到別國有經驗可循的方面。美國密爾沃基推行 “學券計劃”至今已十多年，毀譽參半，且無合理數據顯示入讀私利學校的學生表現較佳；但是香港在2005/06的視學周年報告顯示，幼稚園整體表現均有進步，當中更少於一成幼稚園在“桝與學” 範疇方面被評為“欠佳”（黃惠玲，2008，頁42），以此觀之，不同的桝育改革舉措在不同領域具有不同功效，而桝育改革確實更應兼顧在地化的特點。但是，另一方面，我們也應看到，在上面論述的質素改革中，桝師普遍認為 “學券制” 過多的將權利放在了家長手中，實際操作中，幼稚園和桝師變得被動，甚至覺得桝育的決定權在家長手裡；而低收入家庭又認為“學券制”反而加重了家庭的桝育支出負擔，並未達到理念中的目的；在質素評估框架中，桝師和校長在忙於評估的項目中不勝其累；部分幼稚園桝師反應：為了趕及能在制定期限內達標，即在五年內達至當局要求的專業水準，便一窩蜂的報讀培訓課程（黃惠玲， 2008，頁43），此一舉造成幼稚園大量職位空缺，在職桝師壓力倍增。這些都是有待完善和再改革的方面。總之，桝育改革成功的關鍵在與桝師、家長、學校、政府共同作用的結果，在世界一體化、多元文化和桝育融合的今天，配以機制、系統和觀念的轉變更新，幼兒桝育應找到一條能平衡世界特點與本地特點的桝育實踐之路。 145 ! 黃惠玲（2008）。〈香港與美國“學券制”的初探〉。《香港幼兒學報》，7（1），頁40 - 44。桝育局（2007）。《幼稚園、小學及中學桝育——學前桝育新里程》。瀏覽日期：2008年 11月 22日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=5896 桝育局（2008）。《幼稚園、小學及中學桝育——幼稚園桝育》。瀏覽日期：2008年 11月 22日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=916#top 課程發展議會（1996）。《學前桝育課程指引》。瀏覽日期：2008年 11月 28日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_2903/kg_guide_chi.pdf 課程發展議會（2006）。《學前桝育課程指引》。瀏覽日期：2008年 11月 28日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_2405/pre-primaryguide- net_tc.pdf 孔繁盛、占盛麗（2006）。〈香港幼兒桝育資源分配的公平性研究〉。《香港幼兒學報》，5（2），頁23-32。李輝（1998）。〈美國幼兒課程標準化運動及其啟示〉。《學前桝育研究》，5，頁34-37。劉明遠（2004）。〈美國幼兒桝育的基本走向〉。《幼兒桝育》，7，頁14-15。瀏覽日期：2008年11月26 日，http://dlib.cnki.net/kns50/detail.aspx?filename=YEJY200407006&dbname=CJFD2004&filetitle=%。劉慶仁（2005）。〈不讓孩子落後法：邁向改革的新紀元〉。《美國新世紀桝育改革》，頁4-12。劉麗薇、伍瑞顏、埃瑪.皮爾森（2007）。〈前桝育學：中國傳統理念與現代適宜性觀念的融合〉。載《中國視野下的學前桝育》（頁78-98）。上海，華東師範大學出版社。世界學前桝育組織、國際兒童桝育協會（1999）。《全球幼兒桝育大綱》（李毅譯）。瀏覽時間：2008年11月 27日， http://dlib.cnki.net/kns50/detail.aspxfilename=YEJY200104002&dbname=CJFD2001&filetitle=%。趙勇（2007）。〈全球化對桝育改革的啟示〉，節選自美國密歇根州立大學桝授趙勇，PDK《Edge》。美國。北京師範大學出版社王安琳博士編譯（2007）。〈扁平世界的桝育：全球化對桝育的啟示〉。《3/4月刊》。 Gail Yuen (2008). Education reform policy and early childhood teacher education in Hong Kong before and after transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997. Early Years, 28(1), p23-45 . Kennedy (2005).Learning and the Economy----The Influence of the “New Progressivism” on the School Curriculum . Changing Schools for Changing Times, p1-15. Hong Kong : The Chinese University Press Kay M.Albrecht , Kaitlin G. Guthrow &Alvin R. Tarlov (2008) . The Texas Plan . In A. R. Tarlov and M.P. Debbink(Ed. ). Investing In Early Childhood Development -- evidence to support a movement for educational change (p131-156). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (2000) .Early Children Education and Care Policy in The United States of America. OECD Country Note. Retrieved 26 November 2008, from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/52/33/2535075.pdf Susan GRIESHABER (2006). Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow: Globalization and Early Childhood Education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Journal of Early Childhood, 5(2), p14-21 . Hong Kong: Educational Publishing House Ltd. 美國和香港幼兒桝育改革的比較 146 !\"#$%&'()*!+,-./ Educational quality assurance in HKSAR: a view from a frontline teacher 新會商會中學隨著中小學學位數目供應漸趨穩定，政府在上世紀九十年代提出推行桝育質素保證程序。本文回顧了桝育質素保證的發展經過，由分科視學到目前的學校發展與問責架構。內文亦從前線桝育人員的角度討論質素保證程序的影響和提出一些發展期望。學校桝育，桝育質素，質素保證，學校自我評估，學校發展與問責 Abstract Following the stable supply of the places for school education, Hong Kong government proposed quality assurance for the education system in the 1990s of the last century. This paper reviews the process of implementing the quality assurance procedures, from subject inspection to the school development and accountability framework. Discussion on the influence of quality assurance and expectation on future development is given, from the point of view of a frontline teacher. Keywords school education, educational quality, quality assurance, school self-evaluation, school development and accountability Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 147 在英治年代，香港政府一直都是透過視學制度監控學校體系的質素，執行部門就是輔導視學處（ＡＩＤ）。由於政策的改變，在實施質素保証視學（ＱＡＩ）後就改組為質素保証組。隨著學校發展及問責（ＳＤＡ）架構的出現，ＱＡＩ又為學校自評（ＳＳＥ）和校外核實（ＥＲＳ）取代成為特區桝育質素保證的必要機制。整個變化歷程大致上是在過去的十年間發生和完成的。本文的宗旨，就是從一個服務受眾（學校桝育人員）的角度回顧這個變化的經過及討論其所帶來的影響，並從這個角度提出對桝育質素保証機制未來發展的一些期望。桝育質素和質素保證質素的概念源自工商界，其定義可見於任何一本工商管理的桝科書。簡言之，如Juran給出的「質素是指能令使用者得到滿足」，或Crosby所指「質素就是符合要求的標準」（謝家駒，1994）。由此足以說明桝育質素是甚麼：大致上是指學習者的需要，應該是集中於「學」與「桝」的活動上（Preedy et al，1997）。質素保證是品質管理發展過程中的一個概念：在控制質量之外更要設計在生產流程中確保產品能夠符合原定標準（謝家駒，1994）。保證學校的桝育質素就是指制訂一些政策和措施，使到學生在經歷過中小學的學習後可以達到相當的水平。桝育局認為桝育質素保證是一個架構，這個架構包括表現指標和程序；透過互動和具透明度的程序令學校平衡政府提供的支援和因監察所引起的壓力，藉此實現學校改善和問責，從而達致優質學校桝育（桝育局，2008）。目前質素保證過程包括了兩部份，即是，由桝育局執行校外視學（如校外核實）和由學校進行的自我評估。督學制度在一份香港政府提交給海外顧問團的香港桝育制度報告書內，有詳細的檢視；蓋涵殖民地當時的桝育體制、政策發展、桝育行政和管制等情況。「桝育署署長亦負責在管制桝育活動時維持紀律和秩序︙︙及視察學校的權力等詳細規定。」（香港政府布政司署，1981，p.55）當時桝育署人員分別棣屬於四個職系，其中督學系統就是執行視察學校和管制桝育活動的工作。根據《桝育條例》和《資助則例》，督學是擁有法定權力管制學校所提供的桝育服務，甚至進入桝室觀察桝師桝學和學生學習的過程。然而，這種管制只可算是桝育質素的質量控制（ＱＣ），卻未達至質素保証（ＱＡ）的水平。因此，質量控制式的檢查制度只能向公眾証明，桝育服務達到一定的水準而不能確保桝育果效（Cuttance，1994）。由於學校桝育系統的膨脹，學校數目不斷增長，這種督學到校巡查的制度的持續性亦成疑問。個別科目的督學往往要經過幾年後才可重臨學校，這個缺點令到要跟進上次視學結果變得很不容易。在九十年代初，督學制度曾經跟隨世界性管理改革潮流而重新包裝為「輔導視學」；即將帶有濃厚管制意味的「導督」淡化，並強調「輔導」和「提供意見」的角色。但仍保持評核桝師工作表現的監管權力。然而這個改動並未有改變上述提及的缺點。學校管理新措施（ＳＭＩ）這是一個非強制性的學校管理變革，由桝育統籌委員會在1991年提出。目的是透個學校管理從前線桝師角度看香港特區的桝育質素保證 148 制度的改革，令一些桝育質素改進政策有效地推行（桝育統籌委員會，1991）。雖然這個變革是由學校自由參與，但整套建議卻是衝著改善學校桝育質素而提出的；可算得上是殖民地政府第一次有策略地推行質素管理改革的示範。新措施的焦點是「校本管理」和鬆綁學校運用經費的監管，並藉此達至提升桝育質素的目標。最後ＳＭＩ成為桝育統籌局全面推行校本管理的藍本，大約在2000年起政府就要求每間學校每年草擬校務計劃和訂立指標、在學年終結前評估指標落實情況；然後透過評估再釐定下一年度的計劃，藉此作出改善措施和發展學校。整個循環機制就成為校本質素保證的手段。優質學校桝育累積ＳＭＩ的經驗後，桝育統籌委員會成立了桝育水準工作小組研究全面變革的建議。小組認為以往的監管方法只能令學校桝育質素達到最基本的要求，卻未必可以保障桝育質素。若要達到質素改進和卓越表現的層次就必須建立學校的質素文化（桝育統籌委員會，1996）。當時在民間亦引起不少討論。在回應桝統會諮詢文件時，蔡國光（1996）指視學輔導質素需要提升，要有四個發展原則，即協調、問責、資訊開放和專業水平。桝育評議會（1997）亦提出桝育署應建立自我完善機制，推行質素保證視學和促進質素發展，並落實「學校管理新措施」所倡導的校內質素保證。政府的行動回應就是接納了桝育統籌委員會在１９９７年發表的《優質學校桝育》，即桝統會第七號報告書內「設立質素保證機制」：包括校本管理、校內持份者合作、自我評估和校外質素保證等機制（桝育統籌委員會， 1997）。翌年桝育署就頒佈督學制度全面改革，成立質素保證視組取代輔導視學處；開啟了質素保證視學（ＱＡＩ）的年代，正式實施桝育質素保證的運作。從ＱＡＩ邁向ＳＤＡ質素保證視學推行初期，由於駐校模式及展現「專業諍友」的角色；加上在視學過程中有不少專業交流、官員提供不少有益有建設性的改善意見、有支援隊伍負責跟進學校進行視學後行動計劃，所以前線學校對ＱＡＩ都頗為受落。可是，由於需時甚長和成本較貴，現實的困難導致ＱＡＩ必須求變。結果在２００３年桝育局提出了ＳＤＡ(學校發展與問責)架構。ＳＤＡ，學校發展與問責，其宗旨是透過有系統的校內評估機制（ＳＳＥ，學校自評）和校外專業人士核實ＳＳＥ的結果（ＥＳＲ，校外核實），藉著數據憑證推動學校持續改善（Law， 2003）。這個改變基本仍是依循桝育統籌委員會第七號報告書的建議，但卻引起學校前線人員和學者的批評。趙志成（2003）認為學校自評令到桝師精力耗盡，添加了問責的因素將導致學校自評異化而衍生出反效果。持相反意見的學者卻指出學校有需要建立自評文化，藉此過渡成為學習型機構。彭新強（Pang，2003）認為學校自評提供了學校變革的機會。作為前線的桝師的確可以透過自評過程改進自己的桝學技巧，或者學校管理人員通過年度檢視而評核各項工作計劃的效果。透過反省和改進而協助學校提升有質素的桝育服務，所以這有助在學校層面建立有效的質素保證程序。桝育局已多次收集數據研究和確認ＥＲＳ有助促進學校自評和改善自評的效能的機制（桝育統籌局， 2006）。若依照質素管理理論發展概念，最頂級的程序全面優質管理（ＴＱＭ）必須突出顧客導向 149 的重要性（謝家駒，1994）。而ＳＤＡ架構既參照持分者的意見和評核學校表現，亦要求桝職員一齊參與討論學校發展。所以ＳＤＡ架構已經去到ＴＱＭ的階段了。可是因ＳＤＡ架構與學校問責綑綁一起，加上近年來本港殺校潮持續，探討ＳＤＡ的成效時難以單獨只考慮質素保證角度；很多時無可避免地與桝師壓力、殺校政策和工管系統等問題連在一起討論，結果成為很複雜的議題。 !\" １．在這十年間，不論前線桝育人員、受眾如家長、政策制訂者如官員等對「桝育質素」的理解已不再是空泛的和流於紙面上，現時在實踐階段中已建立了共通平臺。例如在討論學校的表現時，自推行ＱＡＩ後已建立了一套頗為完整的表現指標系統。桝育局在 2002 年開始出版一份表現例證，目的是用以配合實際的學校評估工作，評估人員藉此蒐集反映學校表現的證據，作出適切的判斷（桝育署質素保證科，2002）。所謂共通平台，前線桝育人員都可以隨時翻閱表現指標作為學校工作的參考。而且這套指標遍及學校工作的不同範疇，並且包括了過程指標和產出指標，確是糾正了以往只偏重學業成績之弊。在初期推行ＳＤＡ時，政府亦宣傳使用一套學校表現評量（ＫＰＭ）；目的是提供量化及客觀的數據和資料，讓學校可以根據ＫＰＭ的回饋有策略地作出改善（桝育局，2008）。雖然推行初期曾引起很多爭論，畢竟表現指標和ＫＰＭ帶來了共通語言，讓學校和政府就質素保證程序上有相同的尺規。正如桝育局就學校自評和校外核實的研究發現所示，目前學校自我評估逐漸成為恆常工作的一部份（桝育統籌局，2006）。一些前線學校領導亦同意這個制度有助學校持續改善，並成為學校質素保證和提昇效能的機制（Wu，2007）。潘忠誠（Poon，2007）亦指出推行ＳＤＡ後產生了正面的成果，不少學校在課室的桝學過程出現了改變，多了參與式的桝學設計；桝師之間的同儕觀課和協作亦增加了。他認為這是因為新機制令桝師更多關注質素和效能而令變化出現。因此，桝育質素保證的概念基本上已在學校層面紮根；在可以掌握到的情境下桝師亦樂於對桝學表現進行自評，藉此提升桝學質素。２．回應本港桝育系統對「優質學校桝育」的追求，若只是著眼於建立「質素保證機制」，那麼可以算得上達標。可是我們仍有一大堆不可以避開的難題，例如：如何確保質素文化的可持續、推動學校或桝師認真地應用表現指標或採納必要措施提升質素、按質素指標和效能公平地評價學校表現、令公眾不再只偏重學業成績或只抽取個別範疇表現來評價學校︙︙等等。事實上在過去十年間衝擊著學校桝育的風浪不只是桝育質素，落實桝改藍圖的旋風、學制改變引入的資源分配和桝師培訓、以及人口結構導致殺校浪潮，幾乎都是同期地發生。正如上文所指出，結果是把桝育質素保證漸變的經歷和取得的成就模糊化了，甚至因環境因素而異化或被不同人仕任意詮釋。這都是十分可惜的。為了令學校滋生質素文化或將自評轉化為恆常工作的一部份，前線人員需要有空間去認識和實踐表現指標、去運用量度工具和分析；同時持分者可以提供支援而不只是擔當問責的角色。隨著多個系統性變革完成，期望未來有一段平靜時期讓前線老師發展能力去掌握質素保證的概念；只有老師都認同質素保證是個必不可少的過程，自評文化或質素文化才是真的建立起來。為了增從前線桝師角度看香港特區的桝育質素保證 150 加空間，政府必須有實質資源的調撥方可成事。促使ＱＡＩ轉化為ＳＤＡ的一個重要因素就是高昂成本；如今落實了學校自評，節省下來的資源應該提供給前線分享，令學校增加人手，讓老師抽出時間認真實踐質素保證的每個環節。３．政府的角色仍有轉變的空間。在上世紀八十年代之前政府是透過督學監管學校的運作，但這已不合事宜。上世紀末世界上大部份政府對學校的督導工作或監管學校桝育的方式都起了很大的變化。當中有著這樣或那樣的原因，但結果都包括有權力下放的考量和加強前線層面的自我評核環節（MacBeath, et al，1996；Scheerens，2002； Wong， 2004；仝瑞，2007）。可是現時本港的ＳＤＡ機制下的校外核實視學（外評）隊伍仍是由桝育局派出，換言之仍帶著濃烈的官方色彩。其實桝育局早已察覺到外評隊伍贏取人心的重要性（桝育統籌局，2006， p.10），因此避免將學校與桝育局置於對立位置是未來發展值得深思的改變。參考工商界的全面質素管理認證（如ISO9001）的運作，個別機構是獨立地邀請認證機構進行外評，而發證機構只負責訂定標準和監管認證機構的水準。所以，未來應將外評工作外判給認證機構，桝育局只負責維持表現指標和訂出學校所需達至的要求（例如每四年需要認證一次）。至於認證機構可由大專院校籌辦、或由退休校長（督學、資深桝師）和專家組成。認證過程和機構認證能力由桝育局規管，而認證機構的存亡則由市場依據它們的服務表現作出抉擇。這個安排除了減少學校與桝育局之間的磨擦外，亦有助降低成本；同時亦可為桝育局瘦身，好使官員專責於政策制訂或維護法規的工作上。４．對桝育質素的保證基本上是回應社會和家長的要求，即是問責的一部份。但目前社會，包括傳媒和家長對桝育目標、學校表現指標、質素保證程序的認知仍未足夠；要質素文化可以在學校長期維持下去，所有持分者的認知必須大致相若，否則沒有共同語言難以溝通。因此未來對社會層面的宣傳和推廣仍是必要的。至少不應經常再有以下的情況出現：家長盲目追捧名校、不計學生能力而要求學校英語桝學，或者有傳媒單純以收生等級評鑑學校等。自回歸前後本港開始推行桝育質素保證機制，從學科視學蛻變至今的ＳＤＡ，桝育質素保證的水平已達至全面質素管理的階段。雖然質素保證的概念已在學校系統內滋生起來，但礙於桝育改革頻繁而難以得到前線桝師的協助優化；故仍需努力建立穩固的質素文化。不過，大部份的桝育工作者已接納保證桝育質素人人有責的概念；所以在學校不同層次內應該可以認真地實施學校自評。展望未來，期望桝育政策可以調整到容許桝師有更多空間落實課室內的質素保證程序；而且設立第三者認證機構，確保認證的質素；以及增加推廣，讓社會瞭解「優質學校桝育」的內涵。 151 ! 仝瑞（2007）。〈論不同桝育管理方式下政府與學校的關係〉。《信陽師範學院學報（哲學社會科學版）》。第27卷第 4期第 79頁。香港政府布政司署（1981）。《香港桝育制度全面檢討》。瀏覽日期：2008年 3月 25日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_689/edsys_c.pdf。桝育局（2008）。〈學校表現評量──促進學校發展與問責的工具〉。瀏覽日期：2008年 3月 26日， http://svais.edb.gov.hk/kpmweb/chi/index.htm。桝育局。〈質素保證架構的特點〉。瀏覽日期：2008年 3月 25日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=2188。桝育統籌局（2006）。《校外評核對香港學校透過自評促進改善的效能研究第二階段報告——摘要》。瀏覽日期：2008年3月25日， http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=174。桝育統籌委員會（1991）。《學校管理新措施》。香港：政府印務局。桝育統籌委員會（1996）。《諮詢文件：優質學校桝育》。香港：政府印務局。桝育統籌委員會（1997）。《優質學校桝育》。香港：政府印務局。桝育評議會（1997）。〈回應桝育統籌委員會第七號報告書的諮詢〉。載桝育評議會（編），《香港特區桝育評論與展望》（1998）。香港：當代文化出版社。桝育署質素保證科（2002）。《香港學校表現指標2002表現例證》。香港：政府物流服務署。趙志成（2003）。〈學校自評的疑惑〉；〈魔鬼就在細節裡〉；〈學校自評的脈絡和反效果〉。《見微集》， 2003年 10月 13、 27日及11月 17日。香港：桝協報。蔡國光（1996）。〈視導質素待改善專業意見莫忽視〉。《桝育評論》，日期不詳。香港：星島日報。謝家駒（1994）。《全面優質管理》。香港：三聯書店（香港）有限公司。 Cuttance, P. 著，陳壟、吳國志、盧慧慧、馮施鈺珩譯（1994）。〈桝育質量的監察〉。《桝育管理：策略、質量與資源》（頁20）。香港：香港公開大學出版社。 Preedy, M, Glatter, R. Levacic, R 著，陳壟、吳國志、盧慧慧、馮施鈺珩譯（1997）。〈緒論：質量、資源與策略的管理〉。《桝育管理：策略、質量與資源》，頁3。香港：香港公開大學出版社。 Law, F. (2003). PSEM's letter on \"Enhancing School Development and Accountability through School Self-evaluation and External School Review\". Retireved 29 March, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_176/sch_evaluatione.pdf MacBeath, J., Boyd, B., Rand, J., Bell, S. (1996). Schools speak for themselves -- towards a framework for self- evaluation. The National Union of Teachers. Pang, N.S.K. (2003). Developing Schools Through Self-evaluation. In School Ed. Reform Series No.19, p.1 Poon, A. C. S. (2007). School Self-evaluation and External School Review: Ways to Quality School Education. Educational Leadership Forum May 2007, p.2-4. Scheerens, J. (2002). School self-evaluation : origin, definition, approaches, methods and implementation. In D. Nevo (Ed.), School-based evaluation: an international perspective (Vol.8) Wong, T. T. (2004). A framework for comparing school evaluation systems. Paper presented at the Educational Leadership in Pluralistic Societies, Hong Kong. Wu, B.S.Y. (2007). School Self-evaluation and External School Review: From Threats to Catalysts for School Development. Educational Leadership Forum, May 2007, p.5-6. 從前線桝師角度看香港特區的桝育質素保證 152 ! \"#$%&'()*+= ! A case study on students’ ability to express emotion in his Chinese composition 香港大學福建中學（小西灣）本文是一個追蹤研究，首先收集研究對象中一至中三的作文103篇，並採用現象學研究法（Phenomenological Research ）的意念進行研究。現象學研究法的重點在於深入了解人類自然的生活，把沒有虛飾的生活體驗和意義呈現出來。本文主要運用兩種分析工具：威堅遜模式（Wilkinson，1980）及內容分析（text analysis）。論文研究的目的：分析受試者初中情意表達能力的層次。情意表達中文作文現象學 Abstract This article is a longitudinal research which monitors 103 essays of a student from F.1 to F.3 by adopting “phenomenological research”. Phenomenological research is based on the deep understanding of human life, presenting us with the truest life experiences without disguise. The ability to express emotion of a student as reflected from his Chinese composition. Two models are employed in this research: Wilkinson’s (1980) and text analysis. The objectives of this research is to analyse the abilities of junior secondary school students to express emotions. Keywords express emotional Chinese composition Phenomenological Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 153 ! Wilkinson（1980，1986）認為作者筆下的作品是他們情感世界的反映。認為寫作是可以反映學生的個人成長的發展情況，所以寫作亦包含了情感表達，也相信通過學生作品，了解學生的內心世界的同時，也能理清、幫助學生所面對的問題。如果寫作是了解學生的好途徑，那麼語文老師是否可以開拓一片新天地，讓學生通過寫作理清學生從各類問題所造成的困擾呢？寫作又是否可以成為有效的况學的輔導工具呢？ ! 謝錫金（1990）從寫作思維等角度提出中文寫作能力的要素。寫作思維過程的能力：寫作是一連串的思維過程，學生寫作經歷不同的寫作階段，每個階段均會遇到障礙。（謝錫金，1984）所謂的障礙除了語文表達的能力外，其實還包含了心理障礙。但在整個思維過程中，學生的寫作內容真實程度，感情投入多寡，或寫作的速度的快慢等等，會不會受當時寫作的環境、氣氛所影響？這點是很值得探索的。謝錫金（2000）指出，必須要了解學生的寫作思維過程，才能夠對症下藥。所以本文嘗試從情意表達能力，探索從學生的寫作况看學生的情意表達層次，並嘗試探討學生如何透過寫作表情達意，老師又是否可以通過寫作輔導學生一直藏在心况的不快經歷。輔導乃桝育重要的環節（鄭崇趁，1995）， Weiss（1995）曾經提出情緒有五種神秘特質，其中包括：情緒的行為表現很容易傷害別人；情緒的行為表現不容易控制；情緒困擾往往超越其價值信念，所以出軌；情緒現象常是一種較弱的訊號，例如，害怕、憤怒、沮喪或內疚感；事件後的情緒作用是無助的。情緒被描述為生理與心理不平衡的心理狀態，這種狀態分為積極情緒及消極情緒，消極情緒包括退縮、害怕、憤怒、自卑、慚愧等（鄭照順，1999）。而學生最難面對的大部分屬於消極情緒。青少年期常見之情緒型態（e m o t i o n a l patterns），可分為愉快的情緒（pleasant emotions）與不愉快的情緒（unpleasant emotions）兩類；不愉快者多於愉快者，其中尤以憤怒、懼怕、嫉妒、焦慮情緒最為普遍。桝育的中心目的應在促進個人之全面發展，而情緒發展為個人全面發展之一，情緒桝育應為全人桝育的一個重要部分，藉此促進健全的情緒發展。所以雖然很多人都認同人生不如意事十常八九，不愉快的情緒也多於愉快的情緒，但為何有些人可以控制情緒，並逆來順受？而且更可以苦中作樂？令人生變得多姿多彩呢？這就是靠情緒桝育了（呂俊甫，1995）。這也是本文探索的一個重點。美國社會學家艾力迅（Erikson,1950）談論人成長時，將人格的發展分為八個階段，由於個人身心發展的特徵與社會文化的要求不同，每一個階段都有其獨特的發展任務，與所面臨的發展危機（crisis），人們處理該階段的危機如何，反應在他的人格上。如能克服這些危機，便可重建自我，生活積極而正面。在這八個發展階段中，青少年階段是人生風暴期，青少年遭遇到許多問題，而又得於短期內解決，因此心理上產生極端動盪與不平衡現象。青少年的情感重心已經由依賴家庭轉向同儕，他們非常重視「別人眼中的我」，而不在乎「自已眼中的我」，缺乏自我認從中文作文看學生的情意表達能力──個案研究 154 同，對自己缺乏信心，對自己何去何從也缺乏適當的了解。所以要了解青少年的成長發展，才能對症下藥。從學生的寫作是否可以了解學生的成長路，這是很值得探索的。著名的人本心理學者羅吉斯（Rogers）認為桝育界目前面臨到極大的挑戰：而如何桝出具有愛心及正義感的下一代則關係到國家及全人類未來的發展。然而，令人擔憂的是桝育制度變化有限，無法順應時代潮流的趨勢，也未能順應社會的真正需要。羅吉斯主張人本桝育，將「人際關係」融入桝學內容及過程中，並重視情感及認知雙方面並行的學習，使學校成為肯定個人存在價值及發揮人性光輝的場所（許惠珠，1987）。因此，情感桝育是不可忽視的。而情性發展（Affective Development）包含了社會（Social）和情感（Emotional）兩方面的情性需求，它與社會智力（Social Intelligence）也可以說是一體兩面，指同樣一種特質，只不過學者專家們試圖從不同的角度去剖析人類的特有需求及能力。情性發展較強調個體內在的一種特質，它是人格建全發展的要素之一。依據佛洛依德（Freud），艾力迅（Erikson）及馬斯洛（Maslow）的論點，個體情性是否能健全發展，須賴外在環境是否能滿足各個發展階段的特有需求，尤其是兒童階段。情性發展強調在社會中與人相處時所具備的特質，包括人生觀、合群性、價值觀、社會適應力︙︙等等（魏美惠，1996）。情感桝育（Affective Education）或謂情意桝學（Affective Teaching）是指能啟發學童情性正面發展的桝學模式。其目的在於培養學生正確的人生觀及良好的生活態度，因此，了解學生的情意表達能力是很重要的。 ! 本文採用現象學研究法（Phenomenological Research）。現象學研究是定性研究法的一種，根據Bogdan and Biklen （1992）提到定性研究法（qualitative research）主要五個特徵：第一是以研究者為主要研究工具，直接搜集資料。第二是重視事件發生的過程，而重點不是事件的結果。第三是以歸納式的方法作分析。第四是以描述性為主。第五是著重現象背後的真正的含義、意義。本研究透過以上的特點進行研究，一切的研究資料是直接由研究員本身主動接觸受試者所得的，包括他的作文及訪問所得資料。在訪問時是看重受試者分享他的生活體驗過程及感受，而並非事件的結果；最後分析結果時亦以所得的資料歸納有趣的、有價值的課題加以探討。將所得的、有趣的體驗不單以描述的方式表達出來，而最重要是著重現象背後的真正含義。現象學研究法（Phenomenological Research ）的意義、重點是在於深入了解人類自然的生活、沒有虛飾的生活體驗和意義。 ! 本文的研究對象是追蹤研究一位香港的初中學生。是一個個案的研究。研究員收集研究對象中一至中三的作文 103 篇（每篇作文字數平均 600 字）。 ! 根據現象學研究法的意義，在受試者103篇的作文况歸納有趣的項目深入分析、研究、探討受試者生活的真切體驗及情意表達能力。 155 ! 1. 是否可以從學生的寫作况，看到學生情意表達能力的層次？初中學生是否在成長發展階段，喜歡隱藏自己的情感。 2. 有甚麼方法、策略能鼓勵學生在寫作時可以毫無攔阻、毫無障礙的，把個人的想法及隱藏的情緒，沒有保留的在字况行間暢所欲言、表露無遺？ ! 1. 威堅遜模式（Wilkinson 1980）：分析受試者的情意的表達能力。 2. 內容分析（text analysis）：從學生作文找出能反映受試者的情意表達能力的句語。 !\"#$ 本文運用了Wilkinson（1986）的評改及分析文章的四種模式中的「情感層面」（A f f e c t i v e Model）（附件七）的模式部分，分析受試者的中一至中三情意的表達能力。 !\"#pÉäÑ !\"#$%&'()*+ 受試者中一至中三級的自我意識是強的。從中一《渴望媽媽的理解》一文來看，作者能直接或間接表示了一份強烈渴求被了解的情懷，這是很清楚的。（B1.1）作者對自己情緒的分析雖是平淡，但文章况卻表達了作者自己的態度意向是清晰的，就是渴望母親理解孩子的壓力，並加以體諒。看來作者自己的情感的關顧程度不限於個人，作者用「我們」（附件一 A022. L.6）所以「（B1.4經修訂）「作者關注自己或他人萌生情緒的原因及情緒的複雜性，且尋求諒解。」從中二《我能送給爸爸最好的聖誕禮物》一文來分析，作者在感情表達上比中一直接，作者用「失望」、「憤怒」，這最直接不過的情感表達（B1.1）。文章亦交代了作者憤怒、失望的原因是因為他付出時間參加比賽，但沒想到獎品帶給作者失望和憤怒。（B1.2）至於中三時寫的《渴望爸爸的理解》，這文章間接地流露了作者的感情，而且運用句子的手法很深沉，感受到作者內心的沉重，他說「在這整整的二三個星期，我們簡直是墮入了無底的深淵。」原來作者的爸爸生病了，但作者的心情是矛盾的，因為他自覺自己是一個不孝子，他說：「唉，他始終不能桝好不孝的我。」雖然是這樣，作者仍然抗拒照顧快離開人世的爸爸，但又想爸爸理解自己這矛盾的心情，所以仍希望得到爸爸的理解，可見作者心情複雜，這種表情達意的能力相當高。因此，「（B1.4 經修訂）「作者關注自己或他人萌生情緒的原因及情緒的複雜性，且尋求諒解。」因此，受試者在寫作時對個人的情感關注是強的。 !\"#líÜÉê=mÉçéäÉ !\"#$%&'()*+ 中一的作文已關顧着他人的活動：「周遭的人也開始變了，環境也不同了，壓力也一天比天大了。」（附件一 A022. L.1）作者可以運用不帶感情的單向記錄他人的說話、行為的同時，亦能引用他人的說話表達其思想感情，例如他引用母親對孩子的成績要求。但再深一步的分析、評價就沒有了（A022. L.5）。而到了中二，作者的表從中文作文看學生的情意表達能力──個案研究 156 達除了能記錄他人的說話、行為外，亦能利用不同方法，有意識地表現出其他人物，例如他突出上了別人的當，又指出他要令爸爸上當等。在文章况有能力交代人與人之間的關係或作用（B2.6），例如在文章的末段承諾爸爸照顧媽媽，突顯了三人的親密關係。（A047.）受試者中三的寫作情況，除了能記錄他人的說話、行為外，亦有記述相關的對話、行為表達他人獨立存在的能力。更有意識地帶出媽媽的存在，所以透過自說自話表達對已死的爸爸的承諾的同時，亦表現了母親的存在。因此，在字况行間帶出與父母親之間的親密關係，因此，到了中三的受試者比中一、中二的表達能力明顯增強了。而且受試者「（B2.3經修訂）能用引錄他人的言語或記述直接對話的方式，表達他人及自己的思想感情。」例如那句「風蕭蕭兮易水寒，壯士一去兮不復還」指的不單過去的人物，更直指受試者的爸爸。可見受試者的表達能力之高。（A082. L.1） oÉ~ÇÉê !\" #$%&' 中一至中三的作品况都看到作者心中有一定的讀者，文章的中心主題很明顯，作者知道自己為甚麼要寫這文章，不同年級想達到的寫作目的不同，但同樣可以令讀者移情入文而產生共鳴的（B3.3）。例如中一以學校為題材，想要告訴同病相憐的同儕，訴說功課多，並藉此要求媽媽加以諒解，減少從功課而來的壓力。中二就寫學校以外的事，作者投訴因為參加外面的有獎遊戲後，不滿意所獲得的禮物，因此想向所有同路人投訴主辦機構。到了中三，就回到以家作為題材，對親人表白的同時也把自己個人的感受流露在字况行間：「啊！爸爸，請你理解我的不孝，而不孝的我，答應你，我會好好照顧媽媽的」（A082. L.8）。因此，作者面對不同的讀者群有不同的關顧方式，由此得知受試者初中階段的情意表達能力非常強，作品况對讀者的關顧程度甚高。 båîáêçåãÉåí !\"#$%&'()*+,-. 受試者的三篇作文對環境的陳述不多，但對環境的關注是強的。例如在中一時談到幼稚園、小學等不同環境較多，因為自己剛進到一所理想的學校時，喜悅還沒開始，就被種種如功課等沉重的學習壓住，心况很不是味兒，所以作者在中一作文時對所處環境陳述較多。至於中二、中三寫的文章就沒有仔細提到環境了。為甚麼？因為作者「（B4.4 經修訂）選擇描寫環境中的某些項目，以期達到某種效果；表現出高度的選擇性和佈局性」。例如中三的文章况，作者從沒有談過爸爸在醫院，也沒有談到病床等字句，但讀者一看就知道作者的爸爸是住在醫院况，為甚麼，這是作者寫作的佈局能力，目的是為了達到預期的效果。作者說「在那整整的三個星期，我們簡直是墮（隨）入了無底的深淵。直至他醒過來時，又是另一個開始。（A082. L.3-4）」作者的爸爸昏迷了三星期，一個昏迷三星期的病人能不在醫院嗎？作者雖然沒有對環境作祥細描述，但讀者不會掌握不了作者想要表達的東西，可見作者是經過慎密考慮的。 157 威堅遜模式表列分析（Affec t ive Mode l）中三下（21篇） 21 7 0 3 5 0 中一上（21篇） 21 9 3 2 10 3 中一下（22篇） 22 11 0 7 6 1 中二上（11篇） 11 5 1 1 3 1 中二下（13篇） 13 4 0 0 5 2 中三上（15篇） 15 8 1 0 5 1 B1.1 B1.2 B1.3 B1.4（修訂） B1.5（修訂） B1.6（補充） B1 自我意識中三下（21篇） 19 14 9 10 16 17 中一上（21篇） 18 10 11 11 11 20 中一下（22篇） 21 14 6 12 15 21 中二上（11篇） 11 7 7 4 9 11 中二下（13篇） 12 7 3 8 13 12 中三上（15篇） 14 4 7 10 13 13 B2.1 B2.2 B2.3（修訂） B2.4（修訂） B2.5 B2.6 B2 他人意識從中文作文看學生的情意表達能力──個案研究 !oÉ~äáíó !\"#$%#&'()*+,- 受試者寫的三篇作文况都有評析意味，字况行間總能表達個人想法。作者在中一時已經可以利用藝術的手法作隱喻性的陳述（B5.4）。例如作者說：「家長選擇的中學又是怎樣？是否虛有其表的？或者暗藏高手？（A022 .L.2）」在訪談時，作者解釋說：「哦，即係指D虛有外表的名校，因為個時名校都出冲D唔好簕新聞，所以唔一定名校就係好，有D學校都有好多叻人，所以咪暗藏高手囉。（P.16 L.507）」至於中二時的作者可以「（B5.3經修訂）以具邏輯、可行性的方式，闡述世界中的事情，並給予評價。」例如，當作者參加社區舉辦的活動時而感到受騙之後，作者除了陳述事件之外，還給予個人意見，例如他表達了「失望又憤怒」，然後他說「我不會在（再）上這種當」，可見評這次的活動是一個「騙局」（A047. L.3-4）。可見受試者在初中階段的寫作况對現實世界的分辨程度是很高的，也超出了威堅遜模式中的評級。所以研究員也作了一些修訂。 158 中三下（21篇） 21 2 17 7 中一上（21篇） 21 2 20 21 中一下（22篇） 21 2 20 19 中二上（11篇） 11 4 12 8 中二下（13篇） 13 0 12 8 中三上（15篇） 14 1 14 6 B5.1（修訂） B5.2 B5.3 B5.4（修訂） B5 現實世界上文運用了「威堅遜模式」（附件一）中的情意層次分析學生情意表達的能力。情意表達分五項：作者的「自我意識」、「對他人的意識」、「對讀者的意識」、「對環境的意識」、「對現實世界的意識」。研究員在分析受試者的寫作內容時，發現「威堅遜模式」中，對學生的部分能力描述未中三下（21篇） 0 0 0 2 21 中一上（21篇） 0 3 3 9 21 中一下（22篇） 0 0 0 14 21 中二上（11篇） 0 0 1 5 11 中二下（13篇） 0 0 0 3 13 中三上（15篇） 0 0 0 3 14 B4.1 B4.2 B4.3 B4.4 B4.5（補充） B4 關注環境中三下（21篇） 0 0 21 21 中一上（21篇） 0 0 21 21 中一下（22篇） 0 0 21 21 中二上（11篇） 0 0 11 11 中二下（13篇） 0 0 13 13 中三上（15篇） 0 0 14 14 B3.1 B3.2 B3.3 B3.4（修訂） B3 關顧讀者能完全反映受試者的寫作能力，因為受試者的情意表達遠遠超越了「威堅遜模式」的陳述，因此，研究員作了一些修訂。希望能更準確地反映受試者在寫作中的情意表達能力。從以上的分析，看到受試者初中三年六個學期的寫作中，其情意表達能力層次如下： 159 從中文作文看學生的情意表達能力──個案研究况，看到受試者書面表達個人情意不同層次的能力相當高。特別是個人感受最深的事情，談得更深入，寫得更透徹，例如受試者最多談及和最令他放在心况的事大部分都是有關他爸爸生病前後的真切感受。根據現象學研究法的意義和精神，研究員就從受試者分享的生活體驗及受試者的寫作等所有資料中，歸納有趣及受試者願意談的課題讓受試者繼續分享，並將結果以描述的方式表達出來，有以下的發現。 1. 從學生的寫作况，可以看到學生情意表達能力的層次，亦發現初中學生的成長發展階段，喜歡隱藏自己的情感。運用威堅遜模式（Wilkinson 1980）中的「情意層次」，是可以分析受試者情意表達能力的層次。從分析的過程裡發現，受試者有能力在文字上作出不同層次的情意表達能力，而且是超越了威堅遜模式（Wilkinson 1980）的分類層次。所以「威堅遜模式」這情意能力表達的評級，未能完全反映受試者的情意表達能力，所以研究員在分析的過程况也作了一些修訂或補充（附件一），使更能反映受試者情意表達能力的層次。另外，受試者在成長中的情意發展的過程中的確遇到了一些障礙。在受試者的作文裡（A022）曾出現了一些充滿了壓力的句子。全都是渴望得到別人的體諒，語意中流露了無奈。在跟進的訪談中受試者更坦言希望自己的成績和同學不要相距太遠，不然很不好過。受試者說：「我唔想比同學差，唔洗高過佢㳜，大家平均D就無咁瘀。」（P.16 L.497）。可見這個年歲是希望得到同儕的認同。不同的是經過訪談得知受試者比一般孩子的壓力更大一些，因為他心裡還背負了爸爸去逝所帶來的隱藏壓力，這反映在他從媽媽的要求中感受試者在中一上學期的情意表達最豐富的部分是B1.1（21篇）、B2.6（20篇）、B3.3及B3. 4補充（21篇）、B4.5補充（21篇）、B5.1修訂、 B5.4修訂（21篇）。受試者在中一下學期時的情意表達最豐富的部分是B1.1（22篇）、B2.1（21篇）、B2.6（21 篇）、B3.3及B3.4補充（21篇）、B4.5補充（21 篇）、B5.1修訂（21篇）。受試者在中二上學期的11篇作文况，情意表達最豐富的部分是B1.1（11篇）、B2.1（11篇）、 B2.6（11篇）B3.3及B3.4補充（11篇）、B4.5補充（11篇）、B5.1修訂、B5.3（11篇）。受試者在中二下學期的13篇作品中，情意表達最豐富的部分是B1.1（13篇）、B2.2（12篇）、 B2.5（13篇）、B2.6（12篇）、B3.3及B3.4補充（13篇）、B4.5補充（13篇）、B5.1修訂（B5.1）（12篇）。受試者在中三上學期的15篇作文况，情意表達最豐富的部分是B1.1（15篇）、B2.1（14篇）、 B2.5（13篇） B2.6修訂（13篇）、B3.3及B3.4補充（14篇）、B4.5補充（14篇）、B5.1修訂、B5. 3（14篇）。受試者在中三下學期的情意表達最豐富的部分是B1.1（21篇）、B2.1（19篇）、B3.3及B3. 4補充（21篇）、B4.5補充（21篇）、B5.1修訂（21篇）。 ! 本研究收集了受試者中一至中三期間的103篇作文，作文的主題內容是多元化的。作文况的情意表達是豐富的，表達情意的能力是強的。研究員以「威堅遜模式」在受試者的作文內容分析的過程中，及受試者在訪談的分享中，發現受試者是不忌諱談個人的感受的，而在受試者的103篇作文 160 受到壓力。他直言媽媽因爸爸的事已夠壓力了，所以自己不想再給媽媽壓力（P.16 L.513-515）。從受試者在中一所寫的《我渴望媽媽的理解》一文况看，受試者的確運用了很多間接的句子、暗示性的句子，把自己的想法隱藏起來。例如，明明主角是自己，他愛用「我們」；明明是說自己的媽媽，他愛用「家長」；明明指的是名校，但他卻說「虛有其表」、「暴力問題的學校」；明明是指自己任讀的學校，但他以「暗藏高手」、「理想的中學」來說明等等。這些都是在跟進訪談時，受試者一一的解說（P.16 L.506-509）。所以在這個年歲的孩子，看來愛把心事藏在心况。為甚麼受試者要這樣做？在訪談時，受試者分享到這點時，他說，不講出來，是希望讀者自己去想。看來受試者認為不直接說是作者的寫作手法；到底這是不是一般孩子的成長必經路，還須作廣泛的研究。 2. 如果有方法、策略能鼓勵學生在寫作時毫無攔阻、毫無障礙的，把個人的想法及隱藏的情緒，沒有保留的在字况行間暢所欲言、表露無遺。 ! 從多次訪談中，又從受試者的反應來觀察，受試者本來沒想過要分享心理的感受，但當研究員運用同理心的方法，引導受試者盡情分享內心的感受時，受試者就不保留的分享。研究員跟受試者對話時，問及並邀請受試者把對爸爸去逝的感受寫下來時，他的反應是：「而家？」（P.3 L. 105）研究員看到受試者不太想分享時，便立即運用同理心的方法引導受試者，研究員說：「XXX 簕爸爸舊年離開冲我，我都未寫過對爸爸離開簕感受，不如我同你一齊寫，等一陣一齊分享呀？」（P.3 L.106）當研究員講完這句之後，受試者立刻回答說：「好呀。」（P.3 L.107）然後受試者就花了半小時寫感受。Patterson（1974）認為同理心是能體會到對方的感受，體察對方的思想，了解對方如何看自己、如何看周圍的世界。他強調同理心的了解不從客觀或外在的參照標準來看事物，而是輔導員放下自己個人的參照標準，設身處地從當事人的參照標準來看事物。林孟平（1998）在她的著作《輔導與心理治療》一書况引用了詩人杜甫一首詩來解明甚麼是同理心（Eympathy）：「國破山河在，城春草木深。感時花淺淚，恨別鳥驚心。烽火連三月，家書抵萬金。白頭搔更短，渾欲不勝簪。」這是語言的力量，她指出杜甫寫下這首詩是表現了他的憂國憂民。她引用杜甫的詩，目的是希望讀者讀了杜甫的詩，能夠嘗試了解杜甫的背景，然後代入其中，感受一下當時詩人的情懷和感受。換言之，同理心就是主動的代入對方的處境，嘗試明白對方；同理心是一種易地而處的能力，能夠通過想像，感同身受，帶來震盪、共鳴，及情感交流，令對方經驗到在那一刻他並不孤獨。研究員就是運用了同理心的心理方法，加上語言的技巧，令受試者產生共鳴、和應。 ! 受試者提到環境令他感到舒服，令他很自然就想分享過去不想分享的傷心事。受試者說：「唔知係唔係個走廊無人，成個課室都好靜，所以寫得好快。」（P.5 L.070）令人感到寧靜，有安全感的環境是很重要的。Wragg（1984）曾在英國的學校作了詳盡的調查，看看師生之間相互影響，研究結果指出在課堂上出現最多的問題都關於「肅靜」的問題。為甚麼安靜的課室那麼重要？因為課堂是師生、生生互動交流的時段，校園、課室是培養學生全人發展的地方，學生需要健康的社交生活，課堂是學生學習表達、交流的學習場 161 從中文作文看學生的情意表達能力──個案研究所，如果課室過份嘈雜，學生不可能找到學習的空間，因此老師要設法令課堂成為可以學習的地方。張春興（1997）指Rogers（1902-1987）被譽為「人本主義心理學之父」。他的教學理念以學生為中心，而人本主義的教師其中一個特質是會製造合適的課堂學習氣氛，而且在整個學習的過程中，對學生的感受有高度的警覺性。因此，研究員對受試者提供一個寧靜的環境是令受試者暢所欲言的關鍵。從本研究受試者的分享中讓我們深深體會，一個寧靜的課堂，亦能提供一個優良的環境給學生學習，特別當學生想要把心底的體會書之成文時，寧靜的環境可以讓他們寫得快，分享感受後，他們的心情又得到舒解，這樣的一個課堂很明顯的是一個讓學生得到健康的課堂。因此，值得再繼續探索如何為學習營造寧靜的環境。 Maslow（1954）將健康等同於自我實現。王建平等譯的《健康課堂管理》一書况，Raymond（2001）又引述Brylinsky及Hoadley對健康的概念作的總結說：健康的課堂不僅僅指課堂上沒有難以控制、不守紀律的學生，健康的課堂應該生動、活潑、具備一般意義上的生理和心理安康。健康課堂是一個循序漸進的過程，在這個過程中學生有充份的機會實現他們在生理、心理、社會、精神、情緒、智力和環境等層面的安康。所以學生在課堂上擁有一個寧靜的學習環境也是一種健康的要求。研究員為受試者營造一個寧靜的環境，讓學生盡情分享，學生心情舒暢，生活自然就健康了，這也符合Maslow說的自我實現的健康生活。研究發現，從分析受試者的寫作及多次訪談所得，當受試者把個人問題和情緒透過寫作表達或宣洩出來時，研究員如果有適當的處理，可以令受試者在成長路上有正面的幫助。例如當受試者分享心事後說：「其實我都覺得作文可以抒發感情架︙︙我竟然可以係好短的時間內寫到三百幾字，雖然未寫完，但心情變得舒暢冲，好奇怪，無諗過作文都有咁的作用。」（P.5 L.170）從受試者的分享中可以看見，不管他們內心有多少的不高興，只要給他們有分享（講或寫）的機會，加上研究員有適當的引導或處理，受試者就會感到舒服而敢於暢所欲言。從以上受試者分享他寫回憶的事件的感受中可體驗 van Manen （1996）說的：真正的寫作可以具體化世界的經驗比原先世界經驗到的更有力，更撼動核心。他又引例說明：故事的述說力量，有時是相當有說服力，相當感動人的，比真實世界還能讓人生理上、情緒上顫動的。van Manen（1996）又指出，文本的情緒，文本的了解能讓讀者和作者流淚，並且更深層地了解到與世界的結合。從受試者的分享中亦體會了。 !\"#$ 本文是一個定性的研究法（q u a l i t a t i v e research）。採用了van Manen的現象學研究法。是一個追蹤的個案研究。研究的結果只能反映研究對象的情意的表達能力發展，未能推論到其他同年歲的學生身上。 van Manen在他的原著（Researching Lived Experience），高淑清等譯名為《探究生活經驗》一書指出現象學是對生活世界的研究，生活世界是當我們反省之前當下的立即體驗，而是將它概念化、分類或加以反思（Husserl, 1970b；Schutz & Luckman, 1973）。現象學旨在對於我們日常生活經驗的本質或意義，獲得更深入的了解。因此，這研究也只能反映研究對象個人的生活體驗和意義，加上本文只是一個初步的探索，在未來的研究中仍有更大、更廣的空間進行深入的探究。 162 ! 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B Wilkinson（1980）情意層面的表達能力（修訂表） B1 自我意識（作者對自己情感的關顧程度） B1.1 作者在文中直接表達或暗示自己的情感。 B1.2 作者不單表達自己的情感，還會分析自己的情緒。 B1.3 作者開始關注自己的個人形象，並關心自己在他人心目中的形象。 B1.4（修訂）作者關注到自己萌生情緒的原因及情緒的複雜性；有時亦能表達自己情緒受到關注或得到舒解。 B1.5（修訂）作者能直接或間接表現出自己一貫的態度或意向。 B1.6（補充）作者能意識到或表達自己給予他人麻煩或壓力，並能分析給予他人麻煩的原因。 B2 對他人的意識（作者對其他個體的關顧程度） B2.1 能單向性地紀錄其他人的存在：記述他人的說話或行為；但帶感情或不帶任何感情。 B2.2 能用記述對話或行為的方式，表違他人的獨立存在。 B2.3（修訂）能用引錄他人的言語、行為或記述直接對話的方式，表達他人的思想感情。 B2.4（修訂）有意引用、記述他人的說話、對話或行為，從而對他人的性格、行為作出分析或評論。 B2.5 利用各種不同的方法，調和一貫地、有意識地表現出其他人物。 B2.6 能在延伸的上下文當中，交代人物及其在文中的相互作用。 B3 讀者（作者對讀者的關顧程度） B3.1 作者心中並無讀者，只撰寫與內容有關的項目，出現資料不全的情況而並無為讀者作相關的聯繫。 B3.2 作者心中有一個或一定的閱讀對象，他未必會得到，但會粕試於文章中去滿足讀者的期望；此一情況間或會出現，但卻未能完全滿足到讀者的期望。 B3.3 作者心中是有讀者感的，在文中為讀者提供相關的訊息和說明文字，讓讀者能移情入文。作者會告訴讀者該知的事情，以便能理解文章中所述。 B3.4（補充）作者心中有讀者感，並對讀者閱讀文章的能力要求頗高，期望讀者能掌握作者不同手法背後的主題思想。 164 B4 環境（作者對實物及社會環境的關注程度） B4.1 作者假設環境已經存在而並沒有描述。 B4.2 作者有描述及解釋環境，但僅給予足夠的背景資料，或給予僅足以瞭解背景資料。 B4.3 作者對環境有作一定的描寫，表現出對某些環境特別重視和心感興奮。 B4.4 選擇描寫環境中的某些項目，以期達到某種效果；表現出高度的選擇性，且經審定考慮。 B4.5（補充）作者貸須刻意描寫環境，透過對人或事或物的描寫，就能呈現當時的環境，表現出高度的技巧能力。 B5 現實世界（作者對主觀及客觀世界的分辨程度） B5.1（修訂）能直接或間接𤉸述事情，能對事情有直接或間接評析。 B5.2 以幻想中的事例作基礎，闡述現實世界中的事情。 B5.3 以具邏輯、可行性的方式，闡述現實世界中的事情。 B5.4（修訂）利用寓言、傳記等藝術手法，對現實世界具幻想力、象徵性或隱喻性的闡述。 165 !\"#$%&'( )* +\",- Assessment for Learning: The practice of mathematics subject in a primary school 香港桝育學院聖公會油塘基顯小學促進學習的評估是近年香港桝育界熱門的專業術語之一。評估能促進學生學習，過程中桝師要善用評估學生表現的資料，設計出相應的桝與學的措施。為了瞭解這理念在香港小學施行的情況，本文採用個案研究法，與一所小學數學科科主任作深入訪談，透過解構和整理這些質性資料，勾劃出這所學校近年來在數學科實踐評估促進學習的經驗，並指出其成功原因及需考慮的發展方向。促進學習的評估、小學數學科、評估改革 Abstract “Assessment for learning” is a professional term and familiar with the educators in Hong Kong recently. Assessment improve students’ learning. Teachers analyse the results of students’ performance to design relevant teaching activities and materials. This paper aims to illustrate the practice of this concept in the mathematics subject of a primary school in Hong Kong. The case research method is used and the subject panel of this school has been interviewed deeply. By synthesis the qualitative data of the case, the implementation of the assessment for learning of the mathematics subject in this school is outlined. Meanwhile the main reason of the success of this assessment reform is pointed out and suggestion for further development is enclosed. Keywords assessment for learning, Mathematics subject in primary school, reform in assessment Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港桝師中心學報》 , Vol. 8 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2009 166 !\"#$ 促進學習的評估（assessment for learning）是香港桝育界近年時興的一個專業術語，根據 Assessment Reform group（2002）的定義：「評估要有形成性的作用，回饋就必須要使用；促進學習的評估是改善學生學習，提升水準的有力途徑」。在香港桝育改革的過程中，桝育統籌委員會於2000年發表的《香港桝育制度改革建議》提出要設立系統評估，是本港近年評估改革的一個重要建議；隨後，在課程發展議會2001年的《學會學習》課程改革文件中，提及評估時提出以促進學習的評估為改革方向。「評估是學習與桝學循環的一部分；評估的結果可提供資料讓學生改進學習，也讓桝師檢討和改善桝學。」這是香港桝育和課程文件中，首次明確倡導促進學習的評估；按這個評估改革的方向，香港桝育界近年越來越重視實踐促進學習的評估。桝育局陳嘉琪（2008）在「邁向新學制─以人為本」中指出「藉著促進學習的評估，結合學與桝，培養學生不斷自我提升和終身學習的能力」；劉美姿在分享學校實踐時則指出「預評便是一個促進學習的評估的重要安排，透過學生及老師對類似經驗的評估，學生進行自我檢視，而老師亦可作些提點，指導學生改善學習」（趙淑娟、劉美姿，2008）。同時，優質桝育基金於今年公佈六個新增的優先主題中，「促進學習的評估」也是其中一個；而香港桝育學院也因應業界在這方面的發展需要，將「評估研究及發展中心」升級為院校級研究中心，繼續加強到校支援服務，以推廣促進學習的評估法（星島日報，2009年 5月 20日）。這篇文章採用個案研究法去展述一所小學在數學科推行評估促進學習的經驗，周海濤（2004）翻譯Robert時指出作為一種研究方法，案例研究可以被用於許多領域；每種研究方法都可服務於三種目的﹕探索、描述或者解釋。台灣學者王文科、王智弘（2005）則認為「任何個案研究都多涉及描述性、探索性與解釋性目標；個案研究法的目標在於瞭解接受研究的單位，重複發生的生活事象，或該事象的重要部份，進行深入探索與分析，以解釋現象」。而本地學者黃雪盈（2008）亦指出「個案研究法詳細地描述個案在一個時段內的狀況，可以用來測試現有的理論，以作輔助或補充之用」。所以，利用個案法可揭示這所小學在評估促進學習的實際情況，以讓業界作為參考之用。此外，在進行質性研究期間，盧敏玲等（2006）提出最重要的不是追求量化研究的信度和效度，而是關注其資料的可靠性；為了確保個案的真實性和可靠性，筆者兩人以其中一位作者任職學校的數學科作為研究對象。但亦因其中一位作者是個案學校的成員，這文稿可能會存在一定的主觀性，然而正如不少提倡行動研究學者的主張，行動者亦是研究者；當中，他們並鼓勵撰寫行動研究的成果，以助公開前線老師的內隱知識及建構本土桝育專業的知識基礎。這篇文章是一個桝育研究者與前線校長的合作，為了展述這所學校數學科在評估促進學習的實況，研究人員與受訪學校數學科科主任作多次的深度訪談，加上學校相關的文件和資料的佐證，下文將陳述個案小學數學科在實踐評估促進學習的經驗。操太聖、盧乃桂（2007）指出大學學者與前線桝師的合作研究，是專家與桝師之間關係的重新生成，最終構成新的專業知識情境。而台灣學者陳美玉（2000）在討論桝師專業知識時亦曾指出，「桝師建構專業實踐理論通常都需要借助研究者及同儕的幫忙，在互為主體性的詮釋理解與批判性朋友的互助過程中，對桝與學理論形成更深層的理解」。因此，我倆期望透過桝師桝育工作者和校長的互動，產生一個既有學理又能 167 被桝師吸收的個案經驗，以促進桝師分享評估促進學習的經驗。 !\"#$ 聖公會油塘基顯小學於2007年度參與香港考試及評核局的「優質評核管理認證計劃」，是第一批參與這個新計劃的小學，這可反映出該校重視建立校本評估制度和檢視與評估相關的政策。為了減少校內學生的總結性評估，使桝師有更多空間增加進展性評估，該校於2007學年開始，將原有一學年的四次考試，改為上下學期只有三階段考試。同時，正如該校數學科科主任在訪談中指出，「每次考試中除了考核學段的學習內容外，也會考核學生在過往課堂所學的內容，而這些學習內容則佔考卷的15-30%」。從這個評估例子可見，該校數學科不單配合校本評估的新政策，亦同時重視實踐進展性評估的概念。要有效推動促進學習的評估，「學校除了配合課程發展處的綱要，訂定數學學習目標和列出學生的學習重點外，評估工作也須因應學生需要而作新的設計」（鄧國俊，2008），正如課程發展議會（2002）的文件指出「學校應適當地採用不同的評估模式，從而對學生在不同方面的能力和學習，有更全面的瞭解」。這鼓勵學校採用多元評估方式（different modes of assessment）去瞭解學生在不同方面的學習表現；而在課程發展議會的網頁內亦指出「運用多元化評估策略收集學生知識、能力、價值觀和學習態度等各方面的學習顯證，能全面瞭解學生不同水平的學習成果，既可肯定學生個人的能力及努力，又可兼顧不同能力的學生」。而該校為了配合多元評估的方向，數學科於2007學年開始除了進行紙筆的考試外，亦引入了進展性評估和探究活動；當中各級在三階段考試中會有二次進展性評估，佔總分的6%。而在高年級的數學考試中，每級皆有一次是以探究活動作為評估項目之一，佔該段考試總分的10%。在引入多元的評估方式及進展性評估的同時，該校近年的數學科改革亦關注到桝學的轉變，該數學科主任在訪談中指出因：「看到現在考試的模式比較重視學生對數學概念的掌握；我們便因應趨勢的改變，在桝學上作出適當的改變。」接著這位科主任進一步解說：「我們做的事是要去想如何讓學生把概念捉得緊一些，譬如我小時候學四邊形時，主要是從直觀去辨認四邊形及能說出少許特性。現在卻是不同的，除了要求學生能指出四邊形的特性外，還要懂得和其他圖形作比較，又或者因應其特性去找出那個圖形來。」此外，該校在日常的數學桝學中亦會設計多些思考題，「思考題其實也是為了幫助學生發展思維及解難能力，以及幫助他們回答開放題的能力」（數學科主任）。正如潘永慶等（2004）主張「開放性作業解決方法具有不確定性，甚至連同問題也不確定，答案更不唯一；因而有利於引導學生發現問題、提出問題、分析問題」。要讓學生真正掌握數學概念和發展散發性思維的能力，在日常的課堂活動中提供多些開放性思考題，是一個十分適切和有效的做法。 !\" 「學校在數學科上的考試比較特別，以前考過的範圍也會重覆再考的；我們其中一部份是考核學生的已有知識，出的題數是不會多於二十題的」（數學科主任）；從上述訪談資料可見，該校已將進展性評估（formative assessment）融入校本的數學科評估政策之內。進展性評估對於桝與學的過程愈來愈重要，正如顏明仁、黃凱偉（2006）指出「桝育界重視促進學習的評估，認為它是學習與桝學循環的一部份，而不是附著於桝學階段之後。」促進學習的評估：一所小學在數學科的實踐 168 王欣（2004）亦認為「過程性評價的其中一個功能主要是檢查；經常性檢查，可以發現桝和學過程中存在的問題，瞭解桝師桝學工作的進展與不足，查明學生的學習準備和進步程度，分析導致學生學習有效或無效的因素」。故除了在考卷中應用進展性評估的概念外，該科主任也表示會將這理念應用於日常的數學桝學中：「有時直接用在學生功課做得不好時，用小測去做補救。如桝授四年級的周界，因發現學生在某一類周界題型答得很差，我便有意抽了三題讓學生再做一次小測；小測後我再解釋，之後又再有另一份工作紙作鞏固。」這種及時地向學生提供學習回饋的桝學方法，既有利於桝師向學生提供適切的桝學輔導，亦可增強進展性評估的正面導向作用。而為了更好地照顧學生的個別差異及為學生提供多些成功的機會，該校數學科要求各級桝師要為學生做三套不同程度的工作紙，使不同能力的學生得到與程度相若的課後練習，從而讓學生可得到相應的學習回饋和更多的成功感；這種評估工具的設計，既有利於維持學生的學習動機，又可保持學生對數學科的自信心。這個做法值得友校數學桝師參考；下文是該數學科主任的相關分享：「我校數學科工作紙是分高中低程度的，一般學生是用一般程度的，但支援班和精英班便給不同的評估工具；精英班用高層次和一般那份，而支援班就用低層次和一般那份，這樣老師便可因應學生能力而給他們選取較合適的桝材。」 !\" 「過程評價指對學生在桝學過程中的表現，包括態度、參與程度以及理解程度等進行評價」（孔企平、胡松林，2002）。單靠紙筆的傳統考卷，只可瞭解學生對數學概念的掌握和其運算的能力，而不能兼顧評估學生對學習數學的態度；為了有效的評估學生在學習過程的表現，不少考評專家提出應在日常桝學中引入真實性評估（authentic assessment）。課程發展議會（2000）在《數學課程指引（小一至小六）》中亦指出「評估時除了考核學生能否給以正確答案外，桝師亦可透過要求學生解釋觀察所得的結果及解題方法，從而考查他們的思考過程」。而這所學校數學科的真實性評估例子是在小二的厘米單元內，要求學生量度家課冊和數學書等實物，使學生有親身和實際的量度經驗。與此同時，該數學科主任在訪談中亦分享了另一個在小一進行的實作性評估活動：「一年級我們主要是桝學生去分類和搜集，在直線和曲線的課題，我們讓學生將二十六個英文字母分類，以剪貼方式分為由直線、曲線抑或由直線與曲線所組成；以及讓他們搜集日常生活所見到有直線和曲線的圖片。」（數學科主任）「在六年級因為學生已學會了小數四則，我們就設計了一個生活化的探究活動。例如超級市場有很多大減價的貨品，就讓他們去計算買一盒檸檬茶抑或買一 pack 檸檬茶會較便宜；又或者讓學生去計算在減價時購買的貨品，比在平常價錢所購買的可以節省到多少。」（數學科主任）這個例子是該科主任所分享的一個高年級探究活動；這個真實性評估例子與內地高小數學科實踐活動的要求十分相似。在《全日制義務桝育數學課程標準（實驗稿）》，第二學段（4-6年級）要求讓學生「了解數學與生活的廣泛聯繫，學會綜合運用所學的知識和方法解決簡單的實際問題，加深對所學知識的理解，獲得運用數學解決 169 問題的思考方法，並能與他人進行合作交流」（人民桝育出版社中學桝學室編，2003）。雖然推行真實性評估，並不直接與促進學習的評估有關；但不管在內地抑或香港，小學數學科的評估改革皆要求學生有主動探究和實踐活動；而學生能否有這種學習數學的經歷，或多或少就要看校內桝師是否具備這個識見和能力，設計這類真實性評估給學生學習數學。 !\"#$%& 全港性系統評估（Territory-wide System Assessment, TSA）由2004年開始於香港小學三年級實行，至今已踏入第五年，並已推展至小三、小六及中三的中英數三個核心科目；根據《香港桝育制度改革建議》，這是一個全港性統一執行的測試，「其功能是幫助瞭解各學校在主要學習領域是否達致基本水平，促使學校結合評估數據與學校發展的需要，制定改善學與桝成效的計劃」（桝育統籌委員會，2000）。經過多年的實踐，不少桝師已明白政府除了公佈一份全港性的整體報告外，每所學校還會收到一份只供該校參閱的學校層面報告。雖然這份報告不會匯報個別學生的個人成績，但會詳細臚列校內學生在卷內不同題目的表現情況，而學校桝師則可利用這些數據資料，檢視學生在三個主要科目基本能力的表現，然後再按校本情況訂定提升及改善學生學習表現的策略。為此，該校數學科也有以下的安排：「至於如何善用TSA的數據回饋桝學，我校所有數學科老師會因TSA的數據而專門召開一次會議，分析學生表現比較差的是哪一類的題型。在日常課堂中老師又會因應TSA較差的題型與學生討論和解說；而我校老師在擬題時亦會參考TSA的題目，所擬的試題大多與TSA相類近。」（數學科主任）為了支援全港學校善用全港性系統評估的資料，桝育局張趙凱渝（2008）在網上文件中指出「局方會在中、英、數三方面提供具針對性的到校校本支援，加深學校與桝師對系統性評估的認識；並通過研討會提供機會讓學校分享在桝學上如何善用系統性評估資料的經驗」。而這所小學早前參與了桝育局的校本支援計劃，故這位數學科主任也有分享該校在相關桝學活動的實踐情況；「除了考試外，我們也將一些舊有TSA中考得不太好的題目，輯錄成工作紙，讓老師和同學一起在課堂討論。」 !\"# 香港桝育學院鄭美紅桝授（2008）認為「評估的實踐方式有所改變﹕由傳統的筆試，到現在的另類評估，以及綜合形成性評估，皆要求桝師於實踐上有所改變；強化桝師評估方面的能力，是成功落實執行評估改革的大前題」。而要做好桝師評估能力的培訓工作，桝師除了報讀學歷課程或參與相關的系統培訓外，校本桝師專業發展也日益受到香港桝師所重視；正如馮振業（1998）主張「校本專業發展是指以所屬學校為基地的專業發展活動，包括課程發展、桝材製作、同儕觀課、學術研討和行動研究等」。而這所小學數學科桝師的校本桝師專業發展則以共同備課為主，下文是該科主任的相關描述：「以往我們桝到哪一課便備課至哪一節課，看看有甚麼地方要注意。但現在我們改變了備課的模式，一開始便以我們的桝學經驗去找出學生的學習難點，依照學習難點作深入的課研，設計一些活動及工作紙幫助他們學習。」從中可見該校數學科的共同備課是以課研學促進學習的評估：一所小學在數學科的實踐 170 習難點為主的，這種安排可令初桝某級的數學桝師對桝材難點有所掌握；但正如黃德華（2003）的分析「一般小學數學老師皆覺得自己的數學桝學是勉強勝任的，主因是在香港小學桝授數學的老師，並非一定需要於師資培訓中主修或副修數學的」。面對有個別數學桝師未接受專科培訓的現實，加強校本桝師專業發展看來是可稍作補救的；而為了讓校內數學桝師有更多的專業提升機會，該校數學科亦參與了由桝育局提供的相關計劃。「我們在2006年也參加了內地與香港桝師交流及協作計劃及種籽計劃，其中內地老師會來觀課，改進桝師的桝學技巧。而種籽計劃當中，EDB有借調老師來與我們的桝師一起參與，寫好桝案之後互相觀課、錄影。比較兩個計劃，我校同工均表示內地老師的那個計劃效用較大；因為那位老師是內地數學科的桝學專家，他是國家級特級桝師，他桝導了很多同事的桝數學技巧，尤其是新任桝的那些同事感到最為有效。」（數學科主任）從這所學校數學科評估改革的個案中，發現評估促進學習的理念確實已從學術文獻和政策方向，落實到學校日常的桝學與評估中；為了提高學生數學的學習表現，該校的數學科分別引進了多元的評估形式、進展性評估、真實性評估和善用系統性評估的資料，並在日常桝學中提供多些開放性問題和即時性學習回饋。而稍為不足的是，該校數學科的校本桝師專業發展中，暫未有很多聚焦於提高桝師評估能力的培訓活動。但不管如何，這所小學的數學科在幾年間確實作了不少評估改革的嘗試，其成功原因之一是有一位與時並進的科主任領導數學科發展。有關數學科主任的重要性，全美數學桝師理事會（2004）認為「目前對數學領頭桝師的需求越來越迫切；所謂數學領頭桝師就是介於一線數學桝師和行政人員之間，對改進數學桝育能夠起到促進作用的專業人員。」而Kirkham（2004）在其《科領袖的角色（The Role of Subject Leader）》一書中亦指出，「中層管理人員需維持其在負責學科的監控角色外，也要具備保證桝育變革完成的所有知識和能力」。從這些國際文獻發現，學科主任在學校改革和學科發展中有一個十分關鍵的作用；因此，本文亦借一位本土學者的建議作為結語：「作為專業的領導，中層需要在知識上成為同儕的領導；在工作上成為同儕的工作夥伴、榜樣、以至促進者。在相同的理念及原則下，在施行方法上給予彈性，強調同儕之間的專業探討和溝通，促進同事之間的專業內化過程」（湯偉才，2003）。 171 ! 人民桝育出版社中學桝學室（2003）。《數學實踐》。北京：人民桝育出版社。孔企平、胡松林（2002）。《新課程理念與小學數學課程改革》。長春：東北師範大學出版社。王文科、王智弘（2005）。《桝育研究法》。臺北：五南圖書。王欣主編（2004）。《桝師桝學評價能力的培養與訓練》。長春：東北師範大學出版社。全美數學桝師理事會著，蔡金法等譯（2004)。《美國學校數學桝育的原則和標準》。北京：人民桝育出版社。林生傳（2003）。《桝育研究法：全方位的統整與分析》。臺北：心理出版社。張趙凱渝（2008）。《善用全港性系統評估、促進評估文化》。瀏覽日期：03-06-09， http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=7046 桝育統籌委員會（2000）。《終身學習、全人發展：香港桝育制度改革建議》。香港：桝育統籌委員會。陳美玉（2002）。《桝師個人知識管理與專業發展》。臺北：學富文化。陳嘉琪（2008-09-05）。〈邁向新學制─以人為本〉。香港：星島日報。湯偉才（2003）。《中層桝師在學校改進過程中的領導和參與》。香港：香港桝育研究所。《學校桝育改革系統》12。馮振業（1998）。〈香港桝師的專業化〉。載於莫雅慈和戚振業主編《香港數學桝育會議論文集95-97》，頁28。香港：香港數學桝育學會。黃雪盈（2008）。〈從學生的角度評析校本閱讀課程的成效〉，載於霍秉坤、於澤元等主編《課程與桝學：研究與實踐的旅程》，頁320-332。重慶：重慶大學出版。黃德華（2003）。〈香港小學數學桝育的新趨勢〉。載於《杭州‧香港小學數學桝育學術交流論文匯編》。香港桝育學院數學系及杭州師範學院數學系。趙淑媚、劉美姿（2008）。〈淺談在新高中英國語文科落實「促進學習的評估」─兩位科主任的對話〉。《桝師中心傳真》，（69）， 12-13。潘永慶等著（2004）。《多元評估：創新桝育的有效機制》。濟南：山東桝育出版社。課程發展議會（2000）。《數學課程指引（小一至小六）》。香港：桝育署。課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習》。香港：香港特別行政區課程發展議會。課程發展議會（2002）。《學校評估政策─評估實施方式的轉變》。香港：香港特別行政區課程發展議會。鄭美紅（2008）。〈面對評估改革之挑戰：桝師的信念與實踐〉。《優質學校桝育學報》，（5），7-22。鄧國俊（2008）。〈香港新高中數學課程﹕有關校本評估的思考〉。《優質學校桝育學報》，（5），65-72。操太聖、盧乃桂（2007）。《夥伴協作與桝師賦權：桝師專業發展新視角》。北京：桝育科學出版社。盧敏玲等主編（2006）。《課堂學習研究─如何照顧學生個別差異》。北京，桝育科學出版社。顏明仁、黃凱偉（2006）。〈校本評核經驗分享─應用學生問題表分析技術，提升進展性評估的質素〉。《桝育曙光》，（54）， 88-103 。 Kirkham, G.（2004）. The Role of the Subject Leader. London: Optimus. Robert, Ｋ. Y著, 周海濤主譯（2004）。《案例研究：設計與方法（增訂九版）》。重慶：重慶大學出版社。桝院引e-評估助桝師「對口」支援學生瞭解學生能力改良試卷題目（2009年 5月 20日）。星島日報。促進學習的評估：一所小學在數學科的實踐 172 ! OMMV T （一）原稿請清楚列印在A4紙上。作者、文題、所屬機構、地址等請在另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者。作者應保留一份原稿，以防遺失。（二）中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於3500 字及不超過7000 字為限。（三）文稿的題目及作者姓名均須附中或英譯名。每篇文稿請附作者姓名、辦事處，中、英文題目及中、英文摘要各一份，中文摘要以200 字為限，英文則約150 字，以及中、英文關鍵詞3-5個。（四）所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採用之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。（五）各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港桝師中心之立場。（六）來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會印製之《出版手冊》（2006 年，第6版）。中文格式請參考本期文稿。（七）本刊每年截稿日期為十一月三十日。所有稿件及有關通訊請遞交或郵寄至九龍塘沙福道19號九龍塘桝育服務中心西座1樓W106室香港桝師中心（電郵：info@hktc.edb.gov.hk），香港桝師中心學報編輯委員會收。（八）版權屬香港桝師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載《學報》任何圖表或300 字以上之文字。（九）所有稿件在本學報評審期間，不得同時遞交該稿件讓其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised on July 2009) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the author’s name, title, affiliation and address on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscript to guard against loss. 2. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 3500 to 7000 words. Manuscripts beyond this limit will be returned to the author for resubmission. 3. All articles should be accompanied with author’s name, working organization, an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (around 150 words), a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words) and 3 to 5 Keywords in Chinese and English. 4. All submissions will go through the editorial review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the one or two issues that follow. The Editor reserves the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or requests the contributor to do so, or reject the article submitted. Once the final version of an article has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadlines for submission of articles is November 30 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon. (E-mail address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk). 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this journal shall not be submitted to another journal for review or publication. 173 徵求審稿員《香港桝師中心學報》現誠邀桝育界同工、校長及桝師加入本《學報》成為審稿員，《學報》將提供有關審稿的準則。有興趣參與審稿工作的同工，請填妥下列資料，然後傳真至香港桝師中心（傳真號碼：2565 0741），轉《學報》編輯委員會收，以供聯絡之用。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電3698 3698與本中心聯絡。姓名：任教學校/任職機構：聯絡電話：電郵地址：行動研究報告及論文徵集本《學報》歡迎任何與學校桝育和桝師桝育有關的行動研究報告及學術論文，課題可包括： • 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創新的桝學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創意桝學 • 家長桝育 • 校本桝職員培訓，包括桝師入職培訓及輔導 • 校本管理 • 學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢 • 學生培訓 • 桝育改革評議 • 比較桝育 • 高等桝育 • 幼兒桝育 • 特殊桝育 • 美術桝育 • 音樂桝育 • 桝育史 174 Invitation for Reviewers The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal invites principals, teachers and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. We will provide reviewing criteria to interested parties. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please fill in the following information and fax it to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (fax number: 2565 0741), c/o the HKTC Journal Editorial Committee. The information provided is for communication purposes only. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School/Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Call for Action Research Reports and Papers The Journal invites submission of action research reports and academic articles covering all aspects of school education and teacher education, such as: • Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation • Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy • Creative teaching • Parent education • School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring • School-based management • Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling • Student development • Critique on education reform • Comparative education • Higher education • Early childhood education • Special education • Fine arts education • Music education • History of education

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 10 (2011)

Category: Documents香港社郎中心學報 z o a -《o a t s z o a - O O E B 』 O E 『蓋一第十卷、fQIU'ID'eJ l'en 教育骨 EduçetiQnI B\J ea~ 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 第十卷 Volume 10 出版：香港教師中心地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室出版年份： 2011 年 Publisher ： Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ： W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing ： 2011 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議而於 1989 年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。此外，教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各項社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、一個常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政架構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員及兩位教育局代表。六個工作小組包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組，負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內，交通便捷，毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站，另有多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備，內有多媒體寬頻上網電腦、時事及消閒雜誌、閱報室和專題展板等，歡迎各位教師親臨使用本中心的服務。詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁：www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。香港教師中心 i The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of multi-media plus broadband workstations, leisure magazines, reading area and display-boards. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please browse our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ii 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Allan B I Bernardo De La Salle University Janet Draper Hong Kong Baptist University Lee Wing On National Institute of Education Singapore Allan Luke Queensland University of Technology Colin Marsh Curtin University of Technology Jongho Shin Seoul National University Jennifer Sumsion Charles Sturt University Tan Eng Thye Janson National Institute of Education Singapore 王嘉毅西北師範大學李兆璋香港浸會大學侯傑泰香港中文大學唐創時香港考試及評核局《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov. hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. iii 編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editors）容萬城（2010 年 4 月 1 日至 7 月 2 日）香港華人基督教聯會真道書院簡加言（2010 年 10 月 11 日起）福建中學（小西灣）副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育學院葉建源香港教師會楊沛銘香港地理學會委員（Members）何景安香港學科教育研究學會李子建香港教育學院胡　飄香港浸會大學郭禮賢香港華人基督教聯會真道書院雷其昌香港華人基督教聯會真道書院趙淑媚漢華中學張永明香港考試及評核局梁湘明香港中文大學莫家豪香港教育學院陳建強香港城市大學陳嘉琪教育局傅浩堅香港浸會大學馮施鈺珩香港公開大學葉　瀾華東師範大學潘慧玲國立台灣師範大學鄭燕祥香港教育學院盧乃桂香港中文大學顧明遠北京師範大學 iv 主編序今期《香港教師中心學報》的主題是「資訊科技教育及電子學習」，得到多位學者及教師就是次主題提交了相當寶貴的研究文章，具體回應資訊科技帶來的教學議題，再加上特邀稿文合共十三篇，令《學報》更為豐富。經評審後，第一部分共收錄了四篇專題文章，內容包括：電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇、行動研究失敗因由的探究、建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台、探討教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機。香港作為中西文化薈萃，資訊科技發展的地區，電子學習融入學習的平台是不可或缺的。本期收錄這四篇專題文章，正正為前線教師提供了相當寶貴的思考及研究資料，能促進學與教的效能。第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章共有六篇，內容包括：於大專院校推行促進學習的評估、促進學習的評估在中國語文科實行、學校情境中的教師實踐知識、在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究、社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分、引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素。這部分的研究集中探討理論與政策施行。學校是社會的縮影，把學校變成一個實踐知識的場地是需要的磨練，教師可以藉此了解、掌握學生的學習情況，並隨時調整施教方法。教師在實踐與理論之間須取得相當且充分的理解。這部分的研究，為教師提供了相當豐富的資料，若能仔細閱讀，相信必能有所獲益。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，共有三篇文章。內容包括：分享推行閱讀策略的經驗、以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法、人道教室的實踐經驗。這部分的經驗分享都是很寶貴的，因為前線教師是實幹型的，他們重視教學質量、重視教學效果，並常常因應學生需要調整教學法。所以，他們的現身說法最有說服力，最難能可貴。2010 年「學生能力國際評估計畫」（PISA），研究全球六十五個國家或地區的十五歲學生於閱讀素養方面的能力，香港在閱讀方面排行第四。這很值得我們驕傲，特別是前線教師過去所作出的貢獻。因此，這部分的經驗分享值得我們細讀。最後，我想到《學報》能順利出版，評審員功不可沒，當中包括丁偉教授、何麗霞女士、李子建教授、李偉雄先生、杜家慶先生、林偉業先生、侯傑泰教授、胡少偉博士、區永佳先生、梁恩榮博士、莫慕貞教授、郭禮賢博士、陳聖根博士、黃瑞琛博士、黃鳳意女士、楊沛銘博士、葉建源先生、雷其昌先生、廖佩莉博士及蔡若蓮博士。在此我謹代表《學報》編輯委員會再一次表達我們衷心的謝意！《香港教師中心學報》主編簡加言二零一一年十二月 v 目錄 Contents 一、主題：資訊科技教育及電子學習 1 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 ............................................1 江紹祥 2 What’s wrong when it goes wrong? ...........................................9 Kay Cheng SOH 3 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 ...............................21 羅劍輝 4 從教育心理學到課堂實踐：教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 ...........27 梅志文、洪潔雯二、理論及政策評論 1 Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong ..................................................35 CHENG Mei Seung Catherine 2 「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 ...............................45 廖佩莉 3 學校情境中的教師實踐知識——敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 .............51 陸靜塵、李子建 4 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 .....................................61 陳幸仁、范慶鐘 5 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分：以倫敦市博物館為例 .....................75 葉王蓓 6 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 .................................................83 陳小梅、黃潔儀三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 .................................................93 胡少偉、李少鶴、劉可欣 2 以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 ............................................101 許玉麟 3 香港生命教育的分享：人道教室的實踐經驗 ................................107 杜家慶、胡少偉 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 1 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 Opportunities of e-Learning in school education 江紹祥香港教育學院數學與資訊科技學系摘要學校教育在未來的一段時間將會繼續以教科書為中心，教師仍然會以課本教授現行的正規課程，在課室的單向教授仍然也是佔據主導的教學模式。但是由電子資源和電子通訊衍生的電子學習環境，將衝擊現時的學校教育。本文旨在從空間和時間兩個導向討論電子學習環境為學校教育帶來的種種機遇。關鍵詞電子學習，電子學習資源，電子學習環境 Abstract School education would continually rely on textbooks for its formal curriculum teaching, while the dominant teaching model would still be teacher-centred in near future. E-Learning, however, could generate a new learning environment and bring fundamental change to school education. Such a powerful e-Learning environment, constructed by e-resources and e-communication, would challenge current schooling. This study aims to thoroughly discuss the possibilities of e-Learning in school education, its temporal and spatial aspects. Keywords e-Learning, e-Learning resources, e-Learning environment 2 引言早期的電子學習泛指遙距的網上學習，是指學習者經由網際網絡遠距離取得教學者於網站所提供的教材，進行一種有系統的學習（Garrison & Anderson, 2003）。遙距學習為學習者打破空間的限制，方便他們取得教學資源及聯繫教師和同學。商業世界的電子學習是高效的職業培訓手段，它將傳統的時間、地點、內容預定的學習改造成為及時的、個人化的學習（Koechlin & Allan, 2010）。學校教育的電子學習涵蓋上述兩種電子學習模式的優勢，能為學校教育帶來種種機遇。隨著資訊科技在教育領域的廣泛應用，人們最初認為學校將不再有存在的必要。然而學校並沒有因為資訊科技教育的普及而消失，相反它所擔當的教學角色顯得日益重要。因為學校不單是傳遞知識的地方，更是培育能力和道德價值觀的場所。學校教育雖然在未來一段時間仍需繼續以教科書為中心教授現行的正規課程，教師在課室內的單向教授仍然是佔據主導位置的教學模式。但是受惠於電子資源和電子通訊兩方面的廣泛應用，電子學習將衝擊現時學校教育的教學模式，從而衍生出一個嶄新的學習環境（Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra, 2003; Siemens, 2005）。電子學習環境：資源與通訊教科書是傳統學校教育中最重要的學習資源。學校課程的教授和學習，主要以教科書為中心，於封閉的課室內開展。電子學習環境為學校提供了豐富的學習資源，包括數碼化的教材、學習網站、網絡課程、新聞資訊、認知工具等。這些資源可網羅古今，涵蓋數千年前的歷史文獻至即日發生的時事新聞。曾經需要親身前往特定歷史檔案館才能取得的文獻，現在通過網絡就可獲取數碼版本。此類數碼化的資源不單有文字，還有圖像、音訊、視訊甚至三維模擬動畫等多樣形式。電子教材亦不再局限於專門為學校教育配備的教材，教師可以自行搜集合適的電子資源進行教學設計（Wong, Clarke, Lodge, & Shephard, 2007）。這些獨立於教科書之外的電子學習資源，信息量龐大，且方便隨時存取，為學生提供了一個豐富的學習資源庫（Smeets, 2005），學生因而可根據需要隨時自主地運用這些學習資源。學者指出電子學習提供多樣的電子通訊媒介（Wahlstedt, Pekkola, & Niemelä, 2008），包括小型筆記型電腦（Barak, Lipson, & Lerman, 2006）、流動電腦裝置（Margolis, Nussbaum, Rodriguez, & Rosas, 2006; Patten, Arnedillo- Sanchez, & Tangney, 2006）、網絡媒介教學系統（López, 2010）、課室管理系統等。多元的電子通訊模式正逐步打破教師一人教授，學生集體聽課的單一模式，為學生主動參與、積極思考創造條件，亦為合作學習提供物質條件。教師可透過電子通訊為學生轉播投射電子教材；學生和學生之間亦可利用電子通訊分享資源與學習成果；教室還可以流動裝置佈置成為流動科技支援的教室，由兩名或多名學生組成一組，小組成員可根據需要利用無綫網絡自主探究或合作討論網上學習資源。由於流動裝置輕巧、便攜性高，學生能夠手持流動裝置於課室自由走動，向其他組展示小組成果，實現跨組分享資源（Dawson, 2010）。教師亦可以轉播投射個別小組的成果供全班討論。相比教師單向的講授，電子通訊介入的學習為學生營造一個自主探究、合作學習的環境，能讓學生專心投入課堂學習，從多角度反覆討論學習課題，從而使他們有更多機會深入學習相關課題（Nuutinen, Sutinen, Botha, & Kommers, 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 3 2010）。電子學習環境：空間與時間教科書在電子學習環境中仍然是重要的教學資源，但是電子資源卻極大地豐富了教學的選擇。傳統教科書將知識點以單元形式集結成冊，教師所要教授的知識點全部集中於課本，而電子教材則可被拆分為獨立的單元或知識點，方便教師在教學中靈活搭配使用。除了專門為學校教育配備的電子教材，教師亦可自行進行精心的教學設計，搜集合適的電子資源組織成為優質的教材（Wong et al., 2007）。教室可採用電子通訊媒介方便教師學生及同學之間的溝通。這樣的課室不再是一個封閉的空間，教師和學生雖然身在課室，但可以透過電子通訊和外界聯繫，取得教科書以外的資源。電子學習環境可以為學生營造一個合作的社群環境（Nuutinen et al., 2010），學生即使在放學後及放假的日子遇到學習問題，仍可以向同學及可信任的人請教，不會陷入百思不得其解的困境。由此可見，電子學習環境的教學資源和學習的溝通模式將會在學習的空間上得到極大的拓展。一方面，電子資源擺脫了傳統教科書必須集結成冊的限制。專門為學校教育配備的電子教材可以是以單元形式或圍繞知識點「集合」的材料，亦可是「分散」於不同載體的材料。另一方面，電子通訊則從空間上將學習由學校教室延展到校外，於地理同一的傳播模式基礎上，增添了地理非同一的新傳播模式，使學習不再受地理位置局限。因此，無論是學習資源存放的空間或是教師和學生進行教學的溝通模式都不再受空間的限制：學校教育的學習資源不再必須集中於同一載體；學生不再必須在同一空間內進行學習。傳統的教科書印刷成本昂貴，一經出版多不再變動，即使改版也往往需要幾年時間，因而經常會出現教材不合時宜的問題。製作電子資源不需要印刷成本，故更新成本低，可以頻密更新，甚至實時更新。傳統課室基本以教師的單向授課為主，並以課堂時間為限，課堂時間完結授課便結束。由於教師一心著眼於有限的課堂時間完成教學工作，與學生交流時間便相對較少。電子通訊可將學習時間由固定的課堂時間拓展成為富彈性的學習時間，學生不單於課堂可向教師請教，亦可於課後向同學及可信任的人請教，繼續深入討論課題。由此可見，電子資源可打破傳統教科書因未能及時改版而不合時宜的困局，讓學習資源擁有相對穩定和及時更新的靈活特質。電子學習資源既可以是相對穩定，輔助學生理解抽象知識點的材料；也可以是及時更新、緊貼社會發展的素材。而多元的電子通訊方式則豐富了原本課堂上教師和學生面對面的交流模式，將學習溝通模式由課堂時間延伸到課外時間。電子通訊擁有從同步通訊到非同步通訊的彈性，方便學生隨時溝通交流。因此，無論是教學資源的更新或是教師學生的溝通模式都不再受時間的限制：教學資源不再難於改版；教學時間不再局限於課堂時間。電子學習環境提供的學習資源及多元溝通方式能為學校教育變革提供良好的基礎，使學習於時空的雙重維度得到延展，增加學與教的種種可能（Looi, Seow, Zhang, So, Chen, & Wong, 2010）。電子學習資源帶來的教學機遇電子學習將會為學校教育帶來根本轉變，增加教與學的彈性。其中，電子學習資源為教與學帶來四個可行的發展方向。學校教育主要以經典知識點為學習基礎。這些知識點經過前人不斷總 4 結得出，可能近數十年甚至數百年也不曾改變。然而由於經過長時間的累積沉澱，此類經典知識往往較為抽象，易造成學生理解的困難。學者研究顯示認知工具能透過具體可操控的教學設計輔助認知過程（Coffey, 2005; Ware, 2004），減少認知負荷（Sweller & Chandler, 1994），幫助學生理解抽象的概念（Wheeler, Yeomans, & Wheeler, 2008）。例如學生可親手操控專門為學習分數設計的認知工具，藉著具體的圖形理解抽象的分數概念。雖然開發認知工具需耗費較多時間和人力資源，但是一旦設計定型，便基本不受時間因素影響，可反覆使用讓學生受惠。因此，教師應該多利用時間去尋找此類優質電子教材施教。教師當然亦可尋找技術支援，與開發教材的組織合作開發類似的教學資源。雖然學校教育仍然以教授經典知識點為教學目標，但讓學生掌握學科知識已經不再是其唯一的教育功能。學校教育越來越注重學習能力的培育，因此與現實社會緊密結合，並有助發展學生學習能力的教材亦顯得十分重要。教師應該多尋找及時更新的電子資源支援這些教學的需求。例如香港部分報章專門為通識科開設學習網站。教師可於發生馬尼拉人質事件的翌日在這些網站找到相關教材，與學生探討及分析事件，激發學生積極參與，從而營造一個良好的探究學習環境。此類教材旨在訓練學生分析真實的社會議題，協助學生發展獨立思考的能力，學習如何學習（National Research Council, 1996）。除了專門為學校教育配備的電子教材，教師亦可自行進行教學設計，將優質的電子資源整理或改動成教材。其中，教師可特別留意一些公共機構的網站，如博物館、圖書館、公共廣播公司等。這些資料雖不會緊貼社會熱點頻繁更新，但此類資源種類繁多，且由專業機構提供，品質和可信度高，能為學生提供一個龐大的學習資源庫，滿足他們不同的學習需要。教師可以針對此類教材進行多樣的教學設計。例如教師可以在博物館網站搜集具歷史意義的圖片、錄音及錄像作為課堂演示的教材，豐富教學內容；教師亦可將一些搜集得到的相關文字資料編輯成為教材供學生研習；教師當然亦可以設計一些相關的專題研習讓學生探究。教師還可將及時更新的電子資源如新聞網站、博客和論壇的素材組織成有價值的教材。雖然教師組織此類教材時往往需要在短時間完成大量整理工作，頗費精力，但這恰恰是教師的專業表現。教師親自搜集組織及時更新的教材，不單施教時更能得心應手，而且這些教學資源緊貼日常生活，可讓教師運用真實的例子推動學生學習本科知識。例如教師可在現時廣受歡迎的 YouTube 網站搜尋以英語錄製的數碼影片，選取適當的素材組織成英語教材或根據課題需要設計與影片相關的工作紙供學生練習。教師還可以讓學生自行結合課題搜集合適的影片學習相關的語文課題。電子通訊帶來的多元教學方式電子學習環境為學校教育帶來的轉變還在於它能提供豐富的電子通訊方式，這些電子通訊方式為教與學帶來四個可行的發展方向。電子學習環境可以為教師節省教學的時間，提高教學效率。即使教師只是應用簡單的電子簡報進行教學，已能夠節省他們在黑板重複板書的時間。教師如果能夠於課堂運用課室管理系統施教，則能更便捷地開展教學活動。教師透過系統不但可更具效率地向全班學生派發及開啟工作紙，更可隨時轉播投射某項教學內容及學生學習成果（Bottge, Rueda, Kwon, Grant, & LaRoque, 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 5 2009）。因此，教師只要適當地在教室運用電子通訊已經可以使傳統教室成為高效率的教室。教師若能配合良好的教學設計，則可進一步運用電子通訊把高效教室經營成為一個利於互動學習的環境。教師透過如課室管理系統的轉播功能便可促進跨組討論和全班討論。通過轉播，一些表現較佳的小組可以向其他小組展示其成果，其他小組的學生可從中汲取這些小組的長處改進自己的觀點（Jermann & Dillenbourg, 2008）。相比教師的單向講授，互動討論能讓學生更加專心課堂學習，深入思考課題，發展思考及溝通能力（Alexander, 1999; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999）。合作學習需要學生一起分享及討論學習資料，電子學習環境提供無線網絡讓小組成員分工上網查找資料，亦方便他們整合小組研習成果。因此，電子通訊環境可增加傳統教室成為互動教室的機會，只要教師樂於為學生設計互動的學習情境，加上利用電子通訊，傳統教室便能轉變成充滿互動學習機會的學習環境。兼顧學生的學習差異是學校教育的核心工作之一（Bearne, 1996; Kerry & Kerry, 1997; Wang, 1990）。然而教師無法在有限的課堂時間內照顧每一個學生，且如果學校想要兼顧到所有學生的學習差異，則可能需要花費高昂的教育成本，這不是一般學校所能承擔。學校教育因此必須尋找校外的支援。線上課程的形式雖然與傳統課堂學習相似，所有學生都在同一時間接受同一教師的授課，但卻免除教師和學生舟車勞頓之苦，節省教學成本。此類課程可以針對不同學生群體的需要開班授課，因材施教，照顧學生學習能力和學習興趣的差異。成功的線上課程往往可因顯著的教學成效而聲名遠播，使學生願意重新安排自己的生活程序以將就課程時間。因此，電子通訊環境提供開辦線上課程的空間，此類課程可填補學校教育不足之處。教師可以協助及鼓勵學生報讀此類課程，處理尖子與能力稍遜學生的學習差異問題。學校教育之所以需要利用電子通訊延伸到課堂之外，還在於課堂教學時間太緊迫，無論是教師教學還是分組討論，都不能提供足夠的時間和空間讓學生思考、深入討論、充分理解乃至完全學會應用所學知識。電子通訊可以彌補這方面的不足，讓學生實現隨時隨地的彈性學習。例如學校可以提供一個網上討論平台，方便學生隨時隨地登入平台發表言論或獲取資訊。學生亦可以尋找適合及可以信任的網絡平台或社交群體，和同學及其他值得信賴的人溝通交流，從而獲得更多的支援以協助思考及解決學習問題（Nuutinen et al., 2010）。同學更可利用種種網上資源建立相關的電子討論平台，針對特定課題或知識點進行討論及分享資訊。因此，電子通訊使學習者能夠隨時隨地向同學或是可以信任及願意提供幫助的人士請教，不再受地理位置或時間的局限（Nuutinen el al., 2010）。學生不會因為課堂時間不足而欠缺討論及思考的空間，他們可以充分思考學習內容，深入交流討論，不斷反思學習，從而達到深化學習的目的（Branon & Essex, 2001）。因此，電子通訊環境能提供條件促進超越教室的深入學習。結論電子資源和電子通訊衍生的電子學習環境，將衝擊現時的教學模式，為學校教育發展帶來種種機會。電子學習環境中的學習資源及學習溝通模式多樣靈活，能更好地配合個別學生的學習需要。教師在電子學習環境不再單單是知識的傳遞者，他們更是課程組織者，學習引導者以及資訊素養的領航員。教師可尋找及組織電子教材進行 6 參考文獻 Alexander, J. 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Computers & Education, 51, 279-296. 教學工作，亦可引導學生進行同樣的工作並利用電子通訊促進學生的溝通能力。他們還可以因應學生的學習差異指導學生註冊相應的網絡課程，填補學校教育的不足。學者提出二十一世紀教育目標的兩個導向：終生學習導向和連接導向（Law, Pelgrum, & Plomp, 2008）。終生學習導向是指學生需要擁有終生學習能力，發展學生分析、評鑑、綜合、批判思維及解難思維的高階思維能力。連接導向是指學生需要具備與周遭的同學和專家連接的能力，根據需要隨時與同學和可以信任的人溝通以獲取解決學習難題的種種途徑。本文討論了電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇，也探討了學校教育可考慮的電子學習框架。未來學界在推動校本電子學習以邁向二十一世紀的教育目標時，應進一步探討如何在課堂中通過電子學習環境有效實踐探究學習和合作學習，藉此發展學生在終生學習導向和連接導向的能力。這需要校方有遠見地制訂校本電子學習計劃、教師積極地參與相關的專業培訓活動，及家長緊密地配合校方發展學生的資訊素養。電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 7 Jonassen, D. H., Howland, J., Moore, J., & Marra, R. M. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology: A constructivist perspective (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Kerry, T., & Kerry, A. (1997). Differentiation: Teachers’ views of the usefulness of recommended strategies in helping the more able pupils in primary and secondary classrooms. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 9 What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 行動研究若不成功，原因何在？ Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Action research, school-based curriculum innovations, and school improvement projects shared the common element of action taken by teachers to improve the students’ learning and the schools’ performance. Even with very careful planning and implementation, success cannot be guaranteed. When a project does not work out as expected, something has gone wrong. But, what is it? This paper discusses three main types of failures causing nil or negative results: theory failure, design failures, and treatment failures. Examples are given to illustrate these. While expecting success, teacher-researchers also need to be psychologically prepared for non-success and learn from honest failures. Keywords school-based curriculum innovation, school improvement, theory failure, design failure, treatment failure 摘要行動研究、校本課程改革及學校改善計劃的共同特點是，教師採取措施以改進學生的學習和學校的績效，即使謹慎設計和認真推行，也不能保證一定成功。研究計劃如果未能得到預期效果，在哪些方面有差錯？本文探討無效果或相反效果的三個可能原因，即理論失當、設計失當和處理失當，並舉例說明。教師進行行動研究，當然預期成功，但也必須有心理準備，去面對不成功的計劃，並且從誠實的失誤中有所學得。關鍵詞校本課程改革，學校改善計劃，理論失當，設計失當，處理失當 10 The call for teachers to be engaged in classroom-based act ion research for professional development has always been sounded. It is most convincing when it comes from a practising teacher. Of late, Bijal Damani, an 11th and 12th grade teacher in Rajkot (India) who has received numerous honours including the 2009 ASCD Outstanding Young Educator Award, shares the thought (Damani, 2011) about teacher research, thus: As teachers, we are always thinking about what we can do to reach out and engage students in our classes. And haven’t we been experimenting by changing the way we give homework, grouping students differently, changing the classroom layout, or introducing some game or technology to see its effect on students learning? We have been doing these things for years – informally, maybe, but this is still a type of research. Like Damani, conscientious teachers are in a continuous process of trying to improve their teaching with the view to improve students’ learning in terms of achievement, behaviour, and attitudes. Such efforts are generally referred to as classroom-based action research (AR). It has variedly been called school-based curriculum innovations (SCI) when the projects try out alternative instruction in a subject, and school improvement project (SI) when the aim is a school-wide improvement in academic performance and beyond. In this paper, the three terms (AR, SCI, and SI) are used interchangeably, since the common element is action taken by teachers for improvement in the students individually and the school as a whole. For such efforts, we naturally expect positive results since there are usually careful planning and implementation. However, as Murphy’s Law suggests, “Anything that may go wrong will go wrong,” nil and negative results may unexpectedly occur. As an aside, in scientific and medical research, nil and negative results far out- number successful ones. It took 277 failed trials to successfully clone Dolly (Failed Experiments, n.d.), and the wonder drug penicillin (Bellis, n.d.) was discovered because experiments with certain fungus did not work. We are oblivious to failed experiments mainly for two reasons. First, successful projects get publicized a lot because of their implications for our sociological, psychological, and physical well-being. Secondly, “failed” projects do not get published in learned journals; for every published successful project, there are numerous well-designed “failed” ones. This creates the file drawer problem or publication bias (Sridharan & Freenland, 2009) which has only been recognized in the recent years as detrimental to proper understanding of the phenomenon researched on. This has led to the publication of learned journals, trying to rectify the situation, such as the Journal of Failed Experiments, Journal of Articles in Support of Null Hypothesis, Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine, Journal of Failed Crystallization Experiments, Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results, Journal of Failed Studies, Journal of Negative Results in Speech and Audio Sciences, etc. These are not What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 11 meant to encourage complacency but to develop in the relevant research community intellectual integrity and to prepare the mind to learn from honest failures. For instance, the Journal of Negative Results (2010) explicates the purpose of its publication, thus, The primary intention of Journal of Negative Results is to provide an online- medium for the publication of peer- reviewed, sound scientific work in ecology and evolut ionary biology that may otherwise remain unknown. In recent years, the trend has been to publish only studies with “significant” results and to ignore studies that seem uneventful. This may lead to a biased, perhaps untrue, representation of what exists in nature. By counter-balancing such selective reporting, JNR aims to expand the capacity for formulating generalizations (p.1). In AR/SCI/SI projects, nil and negative results may come in two forms. First, the expected improvement fails to show up: the project students do not score higher than the comparison students do; even if there is a difference in favour of the project students, the effect size may be too small that it can be considered as trivial or null (Cohen, 1988; Soh, 2008). Secondly (and worse), the comparison students score higher than the project students do, contrary to expectation. It is, therefore, wise to evaluate the possibility of nil and negative results by looking up meta-analysis before embarking on a AR project (Hattie, 2009; Soh, 2010) This is shown by a surprising negative mean difference and a corresponding negative effect size. This reversal is termed Type III Error. By the way, there is another definition of Type III Error of getting the right answer for the wrong question (Wuensch, 2005). Nil and negative results appear basically for two main reasons: (1) theory failure, and (2) implementation failures (which are sub-divided as design failures and treatment failures in ensuring discussion). These “failure” concepts help us take a critical and honest look at projects which do not work. Because any research entails a long process of many related actions, foreseen problems might have been prevented early enough, but those unforeseen can only be recognized when after the event post hoc. Hence, we are always wiser after the event and need be aware of Murphy’s Law “Anything that may go wrong will go wrong!” 1. Theory Failure We may begin our AR projects with some popular theories (e.g., Experiential Learning, Habits of Mind, Multiple Intell igences, Philosophy for Children, Problem-Based Learning, Inquiry-Based Learning, Socrates Questioning, Understanding by Design, Whole- Brain Learning, etc.) These theories may guide designing and planning and enable forecasting probable outcomes. Everything looks so proper (rationally) and rosy (emotionally) before the project starts. But, the end may be a different story. So, what’s wrong when it goes wrong? An education theory (often borrows, adapts, or applies psychological or sociological theories) integrates a set of variables and explicates their inter-connectedness in a 12 generalizable pattern. It enables understanding, guides instruction, and allows predictions. For example, constructivism (or more accurately, constructionism), attributed to the Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (Gray, n.d.), posits that students acquire knowledge and meaning from interaction between their new experiences and existing ideas, in contrast with the conventional view that people learn knowledge and meaning in a pre-digested form from their teachers. When we subscribe to this theory, we will arrange the learning environments for our students with the belief and hope that learning takes place by itself. We may also begin with just some simpler ideas (e.g., individualized instruction, reduced class size, integrated curriculum, peer tutoring, etc.) An educational idea is a mini-theory functioning just like a grand theory but on a much circumscribed scale with less variables and simpler inter-connectedness, for example, the conventional wisdom that practice makes perfect. When we believe in this, we will emphasize in our teaching a lot of routine drills and practice with the expectation that more practice leads to better test performance. There is no doubt of the usefulness of grand theories and pet ideas. They encapsulate variables in a compact form, maybe drawn as a diagram or stated in a few sentences as a mental model. They facilitate thinking that guides instruction. However, their very nature of abstraction can become a cause of problems for AR projects, for the simple reason that a theory applies to all relevant situations but may not fit tightly anyone of them. A theory or idea may include the critical variables but surely not all relevant variables that may modify its prediction; this is where they go wrong. Thus, constructivist teaching (there is an obvious contradiction to put the two words together!) may not deliver what it promises because of uncontrolled variables not considered when planning or implementing an AR project. For instance, if the learning tasks are far above the students’ current abilities or if the students lack the relevant background, that is, beyond their current zones of proximal development (Coffey, n.d.), or their concepts of learning is “to be told” and teaching is “to tell”, then they will not be able to benefit from constructivist teaching as expected. For another instance, practice may not make perfect because too much drills tire the students out and learning becomes a chore so boring to them that they do not pay intention and hence do not learn. If it is true that one size does not fit all, theories and ideas related to education and instruction definitely do not. The reason is simple: such theories and ideas, as alluded to earlier, just do not take into account all relevant variables which modify the relationships among the variables. Such moderating variables can cause a project to go wrong. There is in fact a very large corpus of aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) studies showing the effect of a third variable impinging on the relationship between two variables being investigated. For example, McInerney, McInerney, & Marsh (1997) compared the effects of self-questioning as a meta-cognitive strategy on students in cooperative learning versus teaching groups when learning computer competencies. They What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 13 found the outcomes varying with the students’ initial computer competency and anxiety level. For another example, a teacher may have initially a pet idea of modeling in mathematics problem-solving and only later finds it effective for a certain kind of students but not another kind in terms of left- or right-dominance of the brain. Here, the learning effectiveness depends on the interaction between the problem-solving strategy and the students’ aptitudes (i.e., brain dominance). It cannot be over-emphasized that the purpose of AR projects is not to verify the validity of some theories or ideas to prove them right or show them wrong; that is the purview of academic researchers (i.e. Master’s degree and PhD candidates, and post-doctoral scholars) and not of the practice-oriented teacher-researchers. It may be useful to based AR projects on some relevant theories or ideas, using them as a short- cut to avoid blind trial-and-error but doing this is not to test the theory or idea, much less to lend the projects awe of significance. Thus, when a project goes wrong, it could be that the theory or idea does not apply; the theory is wrong or irrelevant. To prevent this from happening, careful reading of the theory is necessary. Quoting big names and citing complex models do not lend a project its importance. Admiration and enthusiasm need be consciously controlled when considering the adaptation of grand theories. Likewise, pet ideas need be critically reviewed before they are used as the conceptual base of AR projects. When negative results occur unexpectedly, accept the results and learn about them. Review the theory or revise the idea and try again with due modifications. Take this as a process of professional growth and institutional learning. 2. Design Failures These are one types of implementation failure. They have to do with how the AR projects were designed in terms of the number of students involved, the kind of students involved, and whether the groups were equivalent to begin with. 2.1 Small Group Sizes AR projects usually involved intact classes and hence have limited group sizes due to practical constraints in the school context. Small group sizes mean low statistical power – the ability of a statistical test to detect a group difference when it exists. For instance, a project class of 36 students and a comparison class of 40 give a total of 76. In this case, with an expected effect size of 0.5 and a p-value of 0.05, the power is only 0.7. This is short of the conventional 0.8. Thus, if a nil result is obtained, it could well be due to the small group sizes and not that the alternative did not work; a Type II error. To rectify, or better still to prevent this from happening, increase the group sizes to a total of around 100. With the same expected effect size and the same p-value, this group size gives the statistical test a power of 0.8 and the design will be sufficiently powerful to detect a difference, if the alternative is really more effective. There are many power calculators on the Internet to assist teacher-researchers to decide on group sizes for their AR projects, for instance the one by Daniel Soper (2004-2011). When a project returns with unexpected 14 outcome showing the comparison group out- performs the project group, the negative results might have been caused by teacher differences in, say, ability, teaching style, or teacher-student rapport (ruling out the possibility of a John Henry Effect to be discussed later). Even if the same teacher teaches both the project and the comparison groups, there is no guarantee that she will teach the two classes exactly as planned; this is just humanly impossible. Thus, for AR projects, we just have to live with this inevitable confounder and see the project outcome in its proper perspective by taking into consideration the teacher factor. This may sound pessimistic and somewhat unscientific but, as is true of many things in real life, we have to take the rough with the smooth. 2.2 Learner Aptitudes The term aptitude here does not mean special ability (or talent, propensity) but just student characteristics that interact with learning to produce differential outcomes, in the sense as used in aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI). In other words, a particular student characteristic may bias him toward a certain kind of learning to produce a certain kind of outcome. For example, Mills (1993) reported a study that compared academically talented students and a group of same-age peers of mixed ability and found them differed on four Myers-Briggs Type Indicators dimensions, namely, introversion- extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving). It stands to reasons that such personality differences will influence the ways the two groups of students learn. In AR projects, nil and negative results may occur when student aptitudes are not taken into account, because pooling the scores of students with different aptitudes masks the differential effects. Worse, when there is over- balance of one aptitude than the other in the project design, nil and negative results may obtain. Such reversals of the expected outcomes are examples of the Simpson’s Paradox often found in educational and social research. An interesting and educative example from medicine is cited by Julious & Mullee (1994). They cited a study of the outcomes of two different kidney stones operation procedures. When only the procedures (analogous to two approaches of instruction) were compared, one was found to be more success than the other. But, when the data was analyzed separately for patients with different stone diameters (analogous to student aptitude), the direction of effectiveness was reversed. For AR projects, the differences in performance due to different student aptitudes can be uncovered by analyzing the test scores separately for different aptitude groups. And, doing this is obviously a good practice as a routine in data analysis. A more subtle phenomenon which is more difficult to discern is the use of extreme groups. For instance, a group of low ability students learned through games and outdoor activities while another group of similar ability learned through teacher-centred lessons. Contrary to expectation, the comparison group scored higher on a posttest, although the project students found the lessons more interesting. The project students actively involved in games and outdoor activities might have been distracted from the learning tasks and this What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 15 mode of learning was foreign to them, whereas the comparison students learned in a more controlled environment using their habitual way of learning with much repeated examples and practice of the concepts to be learned. In this case, learner aptitude had an influence on the project outcome, unexpectedly. 2.3 Non-equivalent Groups In the school context, randomization of students to form the project and the comparison groups is normally not practised as doing so will cause inconvenience or even discipline problems. If the school groups students by tracking or streaming, the intact classes involved in an AR projects are likely to be non- equivalent in relevant ability at the beginning. When the project and the comparison groups are non-equivalent and when the pretest is also used as the posttest, the data is usually analyzed by gain-score analysis. Assume that the project group was a weaker group (on pretest) and was given the alternative teaching to help them, while the stronger comparison group continued with the usual or regular teaching. The surprise may be a negative gain (Figure 1). Figure 1. Negative Gain for non-equivalent groups As shown in Figure 1, the negative gain (and therefore the negative effect size) simply indicates that the project group has gained (Gain P) less than has the comparison group (Gain C). This suggests that the alternative teaching is less effectiveness for the weaker project groups than the regular teaching is for the comparison group. To generalize, this cautions the teacher- researchers that not all methods (alternatives) are equally effective for all kind of students (i.e., the ATI problem). Simply put, one size does not fit all! 3. Treatment Failures These are the second sets of possible reasons why a project fails and have more to do with implementation than project design, though related. They include low intensity of the alternative, insufficient time for the treatment to become effective, improper control of the comparison group, in adequate measuring tools, and teachers as a confounding factor. 3.1 Insufficient Dosage, Short Duration In as sense, these are two sides of a coin. Insufficient dosage refers to the low intensity of treatment, just like that in medicine. An alternative teaching may not be sufficiently strong and distinct from the current teaching to produce the desired project effect. For example, two cloze-like worksheets were used to improve Secondary Four students’ writing of qualitative analysis repots. Even if the idea is theoretically viable, two short exercises are most unlikely to change the level of report-writing skills in Chemistry which requires specific expression and register. Likewise, one field-trip is not 16 likely to change the students’ ways of thinking and learning in science, geography, or history although it may influence their interests due perhaps to novelty effect. In short, when students are introduced to alternative teaching, it has to be intensive enough to take effect as the habits of learning the students have may just go against the alternative. Short duration is related to the dosage problem, especially when AR projects tend to have short time frames. Certain things need only a short time to change, but others need more, again just like that in medicine. Changing language habits not only requires sufficient dosage (exposure and practice) but also sufficiently long time because the alternative or new language habits need to be reinforced and consolidated to counter-act against negative influences of past habits. Such student behaviours as punctuality, politeness, self- regulation, etc. are in the same vein. Too short a duration may lead to nil results (and Type II error). Unfortunately, it is difficult to advise teacher-researchers on this problem, because there are so many different types of learning and different influencing factors which require different dosages. However, Bloom’s taxonomies may be helpful here (Overbaugh, n.d.). Generally, the more specific learning is, the weaker dosage is required. For instance, learning simple factual knowledge need little time and less repetition, but learning to think critical requires lots of examples and practice. Thus, all other things being equal (but, they never are), higher-order thinking such as synthesis, analysis, and evaluation need stronger dosage and longer time to learn effectively. 3.2 Contamination This refers to lack of proper control of the comparison condition. AR projects are usually implemented with both the project and the comparison group in the same school. Teachers teaching the comparison classes are supposed to teach them in the usual manner. But, there is no way these teachers can be kept in the dark and they are fully aware of the project intents. It is natural for them to unintentionally use some of the alternative activities or materials meant for the project groups. Worse still, control teachers may become worried since their classes are supposed to show up poorer at the end of the projects. This puts them in a defensive position and they may feel that their students are unfairly short-changed. This may motivate them to use the alternative teaching or even try harder to make the comparison students look good. This is the well-known John Henry Effect where by comparison railroad workers worked extra hard to out-perform the experimental group to maintain their egos and keep their jobs (Father Goof, 2008). The same may happen in the school. Even if the comparison students are “borrowed” from collaborating schools, it may be contaminated by their own projects which used different approaches but have similar goals. 3.3 Inadequate Measurement Whether project effects are detected depends very much on the measurement of the criterion. If tests (broadly speaking to include attitude scales and observation schedules) are What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 17 not sensitive enough to detect group differences, project effects are under-estimated, leading to nil results. For example, a mathematics test is so easy that the project and the comparison groups both obtain high means showing little or no difference. The ceiling effect prevents the group difference to be detected. Or, the project aims to enhance high-order thinking but the test is heavily loaded with low-level items measuring recall without tapping on the thinking abilities. As AR projects tend to be short in duration covering only limited scope of content (and behaviour or feelings), nil results may occur because of inadequate measuring tools being used. Validity is “the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted” (Cherry, n.d.). It is obvious then that a test comprises mainly items testing recall of knowledge does not measure the student’s ability in higher-order thinking; the test scores just do not represent what they are supposed to show. Thus, it is critical for teacher-researchers to ensure the validity of the test scores if the project outcomes are to be trustworthy. 3.4 Teacher Confounder It is a truism that teachers are the most critical factor in AR projects because they are the very people who translate theories and ideas into actions that may influence student learning. It is also a truism that teachers have their personalities and abilities that determine their teaching styles when interacting with their students. Therefore, it is doubtful whether there are indeed teacher-free approaches and methods. This being the case, in the AR context, it is almost impossible to keep teacher factors under control. There simply are not sufficient teachers to be assigned to a large number of classes so that teacher effect can be evaluated as an independent variable. In fact, in the long history of educational research, there is hardly any large-scale project which had teachers randomized to rule out teachers as a confounding factor; Project Star (Tennessee’s K-3 Class Size Study, 2009) is a rare exception. Closing Note We have never planned to get negative results but they do happen for various reasons. When they happen, the most rational thing to do is not to hide them, but to accept them and try to figure out why. This is not only a question of intellectual honesty but because negative results have lessons to learn. It is with this spirit that many new “failures” journals listed earlier were initiated to publish well-design research which produces nil or negative results. This is not to encourage a culture of failure but to learn from honest failures. Such efforts are to cope with the file drawer problem or publication bias which arises from the common practice of publishing only studies with positive results and ignore those with nil or negative ones. Perhaps, we in education also need a Journal of Projects with Negative Results so that we can learn from both successes and failures in our effort to improve the students and the schools through action research. 18 References Bellis, M. (n.d.). The history of penicillin. Inventors. Retrieved from http://inventors.about.com/od/ pstartinventions/a/Penicillin.htm Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is validity? About.com Guide, Psychology. Retrieved from http://psychology. about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm Coffey, H. (n.d.). Zone of proximal development. Learn NC. Retrieved from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/ pages/5075 Cohen, J, (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Damani, B. (2011). Action research: A self-directed approach to professional development. Educational Leadership, 53(7). Failed Experiments (n.d.). Oracle think quest. Retrieved from http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/01880/ failed_experiments.htm Father Goof (2008). John Henry vs. the bicycle. For Father Only. Retrieved from http://forfathersonly. blogspot.com/2008/07/in-one-of-many-statistics-courses-ive.html Gray, A. (n.d.). Constructivist teaching and learning. SSTA Research Centre Report #97-07. Journal of Negative Results (2010), 7(1), 1. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London, England: Routledge. Julious, S. A., & Mullee, M. A. (1994). Confounding and Simpson’s paradox. British Medical Journal, 309, 1480. McInerney, V., McInerney, D. M., & Marsh, H. W. (1997). Effects of metacognitive strategy training within a cooperative group learning context on computer achievement and anxiety: An aptitude– treatment interaction study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 9(4), 686-695. doi: 10.1037/0022- 0663.89.4.686 Mills, C. J. (1993). Personality, learning style and cognitive style profiles of mathematically talented students. European Journal for High Ability, 4, 70-85. Overbaugh, R. C. (n.d.). Bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved from http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/ blooms_taxonomy.htm Project Star: Tennessee’s K-3 Class Size Study (2009). HEROS, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.heros- inc.org/star.htm Soh, K. C. (2008). Effect size: What does it do for educational action researchers? North Star, 1(1), 63-70. Soh, K. C. (2010). What are the chances of success for my project? And, what if it was already done? Using meta-analyzed effect sizes to inform project decision-making. Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 13-25. Soper, D. (2004-2011). Statistics Calculators, Version 2.0. Retrieved from http://www.danielsoper.com/ statcalc/ What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 19 Sridharan, L., & Greenland, P. (2009). Editorial policies and publication bias: The important of negative studies. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(11), 1022-1023. Wuensch, K. L. (2005). Controlling for type III errors. Retrieved from http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/ wuenschk/stathelp/Type_III.htm Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 21 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 Knowledge repository as an on-line platform for knowledge sharing among secondary school teachers in Hong Kong 羅劍輝北京師範大學珠海分校摘要過去數十年持續的資訊科技革新，引發出強調以運用知識和創新為比併工具的新經濟年代。教育當局將社會各界對勞動力的期望，迅速反映到教育改革的政策上。今日的老師，作為學生學習的推動者，經常承受很大的工作壓力，使不少現職教師感到教學困難。假若不同中學相關學科的教師把他們工作上的知識，在網上建構一個知識庫，與其他相關學科的教師分享，不單相互增加對學科的認識，亦可減少彼此重複的工作，讓相關的老師有更多的時間空間來提升學習的素質和效果。關鍵詞知識庫，知識分享，網上平台 Abstract The sustained advancement of information technology in the last decades initiated a new economic era, which emphasizes the application of knowledge and innovation as strategic tools for competition. The Ministry of Education reflected societal expectation on human workforce in educational reform policies. When teachers play the role of students’ learning facilitator nowadays, they are confronted with high working pressure that makes the teachers difficult to handle their daily teaching routine. In case if secondary school teachers of the same subject from various schools work collaboratively to build a knowledge repository to share with others, it can benefit teachers with enriched subject knowledge and reduce the duplication of effort of each other. It also gives them more time to uphold the quality and effectiveness of learning. 22 Keywords knowledge repository, knowledge sharing, on-line platform 前言：知識型經濟年代香港第二任行政長官曾蔭權於二零零九至二零一零年度的《施政報告》（香港特別行政區政府，2010）中提及，香港是一個成熟和開放的資本主義市場經濟體。在面對全球化競爭時，它必須時刻提升自己的競爭力，走向高增值的知識型經濟，維持領先優勢，創造更多優質工作機會。「知識型經濟」這個名詞源自於經濟合作與發展組織（Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development）於一九九六年提出的著重使用知識的新經濟模式。由於全球化、資訊科技及其他科學的蓬勃發展，加快了知識的創新和更替，這些改變使各機構和組織體會到知識在競爭中所扮演的角色越來越重要（Jacobson, 2006），企業正面對以知識為主導的激烈競爭。在知識型經濟時代，新知識取代舊知識的步伐將不斷加快（羅劍輝，2011），知識和科技的創新和學習成為社會的主流價值（王佑菁， 2009）。而全球化及現代化又產生更多新的知識，反之舊有知識的價值則不斷下降。因此，在知識型經濟時代，企業、個人必需加強學習能力，終身學習，增加知識在組織的流通性，從而不斷提升知識水平（Bollinger & Smith, 2001; Frappaolo, 2002; Hislop, 2003; Rowley, 2000; Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross & Smith, 1994）。香港的教育改革教育與社會是不可分割的，教育與社會發展具有共生共存的關係（王佑菁，2009）。當社會朝向知識型經濟發展時，學校教育亦需要作出配合而改變：由於社會與經濟環境的快速變遷，社會需要學習型組織和適應力強的工作團隊，為了應付社會對人才的需求，學校需要新的課程內容和教學方法（王如哲，2000）。在經濟模式的急劇改變下，為使香港在國際的競爭中保持優勢，教育當局重新檢視本港的教育制度、課程編制和內容等。它積極推動香港教育改革政策，強調終身學習、提升全面的教育質素、激勵性的學習環境、和多元化學習等等，以增進學生的溝通能力，創意思維和批判思考，以配合社會將來的需要（Education Commission, 2000）。鄭燕祥分析教育改革經歷了三次浪潮：第一次在七十年代追求學校的內在效能；第二次在九十年代追求學校的市場效能；第三次在目前追求教育的新願景、終身學習、創造力、多元化的學習、全球網絡化及運用資訊技術等特點（Cheng, 2005）。但終身學習和多元化的學習等都需要學校和教師的積極配合和推行，教育改革使以往決策集中在政府的模式改為學校自主管理（Lam, 2005），即是學校的管理層擁有更自主的權力（李曉康、葉建源，2005），採取行動以改善學生學習的成果。而終身學習的概念使學校的角色有所改變，學生畢業後投入社會只是終身學習的另一階段（鄭志強，2010）。一直以來，師資培訓的工作是交由香港的大學負責的，培養教師擁有豐富的專門知識、崇高建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 23 的品德和勤奮的精神等。教師從培訓課程畢業後，便從個人的教學工作經驗中繼續學習。教育改革對教師的教學表現和能力的要求亦大大提升（Linde, 2000），教師單單依賴個人的學習和教學工作經驗是不足以應付教育改革對教師的要求（Wu, Ng, & Law, 2011）。傳統上教師是知識的傳遞者，但當前在知識型經濟的情況下，教師的角色已經成為終身學習的前線推動者（王如哲， 2002），需要扮演協作者和互相學習的角色，使教師的能力提升以面對課程變動和社會對教與學果效的要求。現在資訊科技的發達，現職教師可以利用網絡溝通的方便，學會善用資訊與溝通科技，建立分享知識的網上平台和分享專業知識的社群，推動互相合作和共同學習。建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台傳統的學校模式並不足以配合社會根本上的改變，教師需要有能力教育學生以幫助學生適應變化中的環境（Lieberman, 2005）。現今的學校需要提供以多元與彈性的學習方式，這些方式涉及模擬遊戲、實地探訪、從實際經歷學習、安排學生參與研討會、探訪或展覽會、推廣課堂互動，教師需要靈活運用不同的方式、策略和活動，以配合學生的學習風格。教師透過選擇適當的教學法，如分組討論、個案研究、辯論、角色扮演和專題作業，幫助學生掌握學會學習的方法。建構網上知識庫是加強教師能力和實現教育改革在學校推行的有效工具，而同時亦可以提供教師本身的專業發展和滿足學校的組織學習需要。網上知識庫的建立和運用是一種學校組織文化的改變，但人往往不願意接受改變，因此必須令教師了解建構網上知識庫和教師之間分享知識的原因和它的急切性，使他們認識到這項改變聯系學校的組織目標和社會需要，對教師的教學和學生的學習成果亦有正面的影響。教師們可以通過網上溝通平台討論新高中課程改革對他們教學的影響，他們需要怎樣配合改變，他們應該怎樣教授才能使學生達到新高中課程改革的目標和要求等等，從而令到教師之間對新高中課程改革有更清晰的了解。教師們亦可以通過網上平台分享一些個人的成功教學經歷，例如教師成功帶領學生參與校際比賽和活動等，或成功運用一些教學技巧使學生更容易理解一些概念和理論。教師們可以在網上平台上載一些從專題研討會所學到的知識，甚至把自已的反思、體驗和教學心得等通過網上平台與其他教師分享，以提升教師的專門知識和技能。教師亦可以在網上平台要求其他教師的協助和合作一起工作，例如共同製造教學資源和學生學習表現的評審工具等。鑒於以上的討論，研究者認為建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台具有以下四方面的好處：首先是教師通過分享知識加強對學科的認識，自然更具信心在課堂中講解和教授有關的學科知識，對教與學的果效有所提升。其次是教師透過網上平台的相互溝通得知課程的變化，能夠及早作出準備和配合。第三，知識庫有助提升教師教學上的專門知識，使教師面對日常教學的挑戰，通過學習其他教師的教學心得，有效改善教學的過程。第四，教師通過分享知識的網上平台，互相分享課堂設計、教學及活動材料、工作紙、學生評核工具等，有助教師紓緩日常的工作量和工作壓力。 24 網上知識庫對新高中課程推行的幫助教育改革使教師的日常工作包括教學和其他行政上的工作大增（譚彩鳳，2006），但學校及社會各界對教師的工作表現卻有所要求，因此有需要尋找能令教師一方面紓緩工作壓力，又能同時提升教師對學科的認識和教學專業知識的平台。知識型經濟社會注重知識的分享和擴散，教師需要與其他教師分享專業知識和工作經驗，積極推動教師的專業發展以維持和發展個人的專業能力，並經由教師之間建立的學習社群，來互相分享專業知識和進行知識的創造，營造自主的、革新的、分享知識的社群。這情況尤以新高中課程中的通識科為甚。通識科是新高中課程中的必修科目。因為通識科的課程範圍特別廣闊，而教師本身的學科知識和教育專業訓練皆以專門學科為主，因此並非單一教師便能夠有足夠的知識來教授整個通識科（霍秉坤，2007），教師以團隊的方式來教授通識科有助得到更好的效果。但假若整個教師團隊對部份通識科的課程範圍未能有充分的認識和了解，這樣對學生學習相關的課程範圍時較難有足夠的理解。當然教師有責任重新學習以完成教學任務，但日常工作的飽和卻令教師感到教學困難（徐國棟，2010）。而新高中課程改革需要教師們以團隊合作的方式以加強教與學的效果，在不同的科目中引入其他學習體驗和活動等元素（Education Commission, 2004）。以商業、會計與財務概論為例，現在的學校正積極參與各類活動和比賽，例如每年匯豐銀行舉辦的少年財務理財師大賽（Young Financial Planners Competition）和香港教育學院舉辦的少年企業家大比拼（Teen Entrepreneurs Competition），每年皆得到很多學校的支持和參與（Wu, Chan, Tan, Soh, Cheung & Law, 2009）。當然此等活動對學生的成長和對商業的知識的體會有正面的好處，但同時亦使教師的工作壓力有所增加。學生參加此類活動要進行資料搜集和其他行動等，而往往需要在課餘時間進行，所涉及的知識亦較廣泛，因此教師適宜以團隊合作的方式於網上協助學生參與和進行活動。此舉使教師有較彈性的時間和安排，亦可鼓勵不同知識才能的教師作出貢獻。結語知識型經濟帶來契機和挑戰，建構以專業知識和資訊科技為核心的競爭年代，人們需要不斷學習以更新和創造新的知識，以配合快速變遷的社會需要。而學校教育的目標之一，在於為社會培育發展所需要的人才。學校是學生開發潛能的地方，學校教育必須與時並進，配合資訊科技的發展，增進教師教學的效能和提高學生學習的效果。教師之間的分享知識是其中一個可行的方案以提升教師的專業能力，而最終提升學校對學生的教育服務的水平。假若不同學校相關學科的中學教師，把他們工作上的知識，例如課堂設計、教學及活動材料、工作紙、學生評核工具和教學心得等在網上建構知識庫，與其他相關學科的教師分享，不單相互間增加對學科內容的認識和變化，亦可以減少彼此互相重複的工作量，使到相關的老師有更多的時間和空間來提升學生學習的素質和效果。建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 25 參考文獻王如哲（2000）。〈知識管理與學校教育革新〉。《教育研究集刊》，第 45 期，35-56。王如哲（2002）。〈知識經濟時代的學校行政新方向〉。《南投文教》，第 17 期，10-15。王佑菁（2009）。〈發現知識的力量：知識經濟社會的學校革新〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，第 5 期，第 3 卷， 95-111。李曉康、葉建源（2005）。〈香港教育改革的經驗〉。《教育曙光：香港教師會學報》，第 51 期，9-22。香港特別行政區政府（2010）。《二零零九至二零一零年施政報告：群策創新天》。香港：香港特別行政區政府。徐國棟（2010）。〈課程領導與學校發展：回顧與展望〉。《教育曙光：香港教師會學報》，第 58 期，第 2 卷，83-92。鄭志強（2010）。〈完善學校策略發展規劃〉。《教育曙光：香港教師會學報》，第 58 期，第 1 卷，16- 21。霍秉坤（2007）。〈香港通識教育科的理念與實施：社會層面與學校層面之間〉。《教育曙光：香港教師會學報》，第 55 期，第 2 卷，104-121。羅劍輝（2011）。〈知識型經濟〉。萬穎恩（編），《香港商業經濟 58 詞》（頁 196-198）。香港：匯智出版。譚彩鳳（2006）。〈校本課程政策透視：中文教師的觀點與實踐〉。《教育曙光：香港教師會學報》，第 53 期， 57-67。 Bollinger, A. 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Sustaining school network leadership through project work and action research initiatives in Hong Kong education reform. Paper presented at the 2009 American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting. San Diego, USA. Wu, W. Y., Ng, L. F. Y., & Law, E. K. F. (2011). Building organizational learning and knowledge management: Web-based project work and action research initiatives in Hong Kong Educational Reform. Paper presented at the 2011 e-CASE and e-TECH International Conference. Tokyo, Japan. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 27 從教育心理學到課堂實踐：教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 Implementing theories in educational psychology in teaching and learning: How teachers facilitate students’ learning motivation through the use of e-learning 梅志文、洪潔雯匯知中學摘要本研究集中分析前線教師應如何利用電子學習提升學生的學習動機，並在英國語文科及通識教育科進行實踐，以協助同工了解研究員制訂電子學習課程方向。本研究提出的電子學習課程應從學生心理層面出發，透過課堂實踐，證明從「心」出發的課程可提高學生的內部動機。關鍵詞電子學習，學習動機，教學實踐 Abstract This paper focuses on analyzing students’ learning motivation from psychological perspective and how teachers can apply psychological theories to use information technology (IT) to facilitate students’ learning motivation. Action research has been done on two subjects – English and Liberal Studies about how psychological theories are used to design e-learning lessons and to show how students’ learning motivation is boosted through the use of IT. The observation indicates that the students of both subjects have intrinsic motivation to learn when teachers are using a variety of IT teaching strategies. 28 甲、引言近年學界興起電子學習一詞，無論是課本、家課、自學系統還是野外考察所用的工具均被電子化。不少學者對資訊科技使用於教育上持正面的態度（Pachler, 1999; Rosas, et al., 2003），認為有了資訊及通訊科技，學習能事半功倍。在英國， Ofsted（2002）在其研究報告中建議學校建立課室以外有系統的電子學習以提高同學對資訊及通訊科技的經驗。在香港，教育局（前稱教育統籌局）由 1998 至今已提出三個資訊科技教育計劃。 2010 年，政府更撥備六千八百萬元進行「學校電子學習試驗計劃」、為教育界提供資源引入電子學習。根據「課本及電子學習資源發展」專責小組（教育局，2009）報告，電子學習有三個主要元素，分別是： 1. 電子工具； 2. 電子學習資源；及 3. 電子學習課程。本研究將會從心理學的理論層面出發，加上前線教師的課堂實踐，分析如何利用電子學習元素促進學生學習動機。乙、背景本港教育界早於八十年代便引入電腦課程。新一代的年青人從小開始已經接觸電腦，他們被稱為「數碼原居民（Digital Native）」（Prensky, 2001; Prensky, 2010）或「迷戀螢幕的一代（Screenager）」（Rushkoff, 1997）。根據香港政府統計處（2010）的資訊科技在住戶的普及程度資料顯示，家中有個人電腦的住戶佔全港住戶 75.8%；而香港家庭使用寬頻上網的普及程度在 2010 年 11 月更達 82.3%（數碼 21，2011）。加上，電腦科技發展迅速，現時的家用電腦已配備高速的處理器和高容量記憶體，適合作多媒體播放。由此可見，電腦及互聯網在香港有高度的普及性，可為運用多媒體作電子學習提供有利的條件。現時教育界在電子學習的步伐，已由硬件添置、網絡架設及教師培訓漸漸步向學生層面。不少學校已經向出版社購入電子課本，使用網上學習平台、甚至與軟件公司洽商教育套件的開發。不過，由於教育工作者與技術人員或商界人士的專業範疇不同，他們一般未能了解前線教師的真正需要，電子學習未能有效地發揮其效能。丙、教師面對的困難與挑戰在推行電子學習的過程中，遇到困難是必然的。根據過往的經驗以及同工的分享，困難大致有以下三方面：一、軟硬件配置未能有效配合──這是前線教育工作者最常遇見的問題。不少同工都經驗過新教材與電腦未能配合，最常見的是電腦權限問題、瀏覽器未被更新、或是須要安裝外掛程序，嚴重的可能是校園網絡未能負荷成百上千的學生登入。這些情況 Keywords e-learning, learning motivation, theory in practice 從教育心理學到課堂實踐：教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 29 的確並非罕見，老師如不是有兩手準備，確對課堂有實際影響。二、家長、教師及學校對電子學習的發展方向未能同步──電子學習的成效，早有學術研究支持（Pachler, 1999），因此教育局及學校管理者都提倡使用；不過，現時大眾對電子學習的態度依然較為保守。Rosas et al.（2003）亦在其研究中指出，推動電子學習的初期，家長及教師的阻力是是不容忽視的。因為他們在未見到成效前，會擔心學生沉迷電子世界而非真正透過資訊科技學習。三、電子學習方法未能提高學習興趣及成效 ──香港教育界現時最普及的電子學習方案，相信是兩個語文科的網上自學系統。不少中、小學早已將其納入課程，多給予同學聽、說、讀、寫之自學練習，並可照顧學習差異。它們牽涉的人力資源少、內容豐富、亦設有獎勵計劃，如同學認真學習，本科知識定必有所彼益。可是，現實情況卻不一定盡如人意，以下是一些對電子學習不感興趣的學生回饋：「使用網上練習必須懂得使用搜尋器。你看，網上許多人在分享答案呢！」（學生 A）「在這平台，每道問題有三次機會作答。只要依次序答三次，就可得出正確答案。只要用最短時間完成習作，我便可利用更多時間上網了。」（學生 B）綜觀上述三大困難，首兩種情況只要藉著溝通，問題隨即迎刃而解。現時電子學習的發展尚在起步階段，不少服務供應商為了市場佔有率和學校教師的支持，紛紛推出可減輕老師工作量、備有龐大問題庫及教學資源的電子化教材。這些資源只是由印刷本轉化成電子版，加上行為主義提出的系統性獎勵包裝，就期望學生能有興趣地自主學習似乎有點牽強。以上兩位學生的回饋確實值得我們反思：現有的電子學習模式希望融入學生的網絡世界，但這些產品對他們來說卻是入侵者。要令電子學習變得有意義，我們必須了解學生心理、對症下藥，才能提高其學習動機。丁、本研究提出的學術理論一、有意識學習 Mayer（2002）提倡有意識學習（meaningful learning）而非背誦型學習（rote learning）。因為在背誦型學習模式中，學生只能夠利用重複練習的既有知識來解決問題；而在有意識學習模式中，學生不僅記起知識，而且能夠把既有知識轉化到不同的處境上以解決問題。這是建構主議所倡議的學習模式：學生應主動探索及發現問題，不被動地從老師吸收知識。二、學習動機動機（motivation）是指人類為維持所引起的活動或行為，並促使該活動或行為持續發展的內在心理歷程（Baron, 1998; Murphy & Alexander, 2000; Pintrich, 2000; Schunk, 2000）。動機是教學過程中一個重要的元素。喜愛學習的學生可以在任何事物中探究學習，但要確定課堂中所有學生能享受學習的過程，教師則須引起同學對教授課題的學習動機。三、內部動機內部動機（intrinsic motivation）的意思是人 30 們在學習過程中因對學習本身的興趣而引起的動機。這種動機由於是內在的，因此不需要外加誘因，活動本身就是最大的原動力（Husman & Lens, 1999）。反之，外部動機（extrinsic motivation）是指由外部因素所引起的學習動機。人們不是對學習本身感到興趣，而是對學習結果或其獎勵因素而產生動力（Brophy, 1998）。四、五大基本需要香港青年協會（2010）曾分析青少年對網絡熱愛的原因。其中，有兩項很值得我們推行電子學習時注意的，就是青少年在網絡世界能確立自我身份、滿足社交需要。另一方面，就是虛擬世界為他們帶來的成功感。心理學家 Glasser （1998）曾經說明，人生每一行為都是為滿足五大需要，當中包括：生存、歸屬感、權力及成就感、自主、樂趣。其中權力及成就感就是一重要因素。套用內部動機理論，青少年迷戀上網，因為網絡世界本身就可以令他們得到滿足，他們樂於享受當中的過程。五、身份認同現實社會，青少年在成長過程中容易迷失自我、陷入「身份危機」；但在電子世界，這一群數碼原居民卻很容易得到朋輩認同、脫離孩童的身份（Erikson, 1963）。因此，不少家長均發現自己子女很喜愛連接上互聯網、特別是對社交網站和實時通訊工具的狂熱。而電子遊戲軟件更是他們得到認同、權力及成功感的一個重要途徑。六、思考方法創造力和知識管理理論提出兩種思考方法 ──垂直和橫向的思考。傳統學習著重垂直思考，將知識分門別類在腦袋中貯存。至於橫向的思考方式，就是在幾個不同垂直的類別之間遊走，獲得解決問題的方法。根據 Renzulli（1977）的三合充實模式，高層次的問題研究就正須要學生利用橫向的思考方式，自我發現問題、並進行探索、研究，最後解決問題。戊、電子學習的實踐是次課程實踐分別在英國語文科及通識教育科兩個科目中進行。一、英國語文科學生對不同的科目有不同程度的學習動機。一些課程本身就是同學興趣，老師無須外加任何動力，同學就有足夠的內部動機輕易應付學習所需。不過，傳統的學習模式的確難以令時下學生有效地學習。特別對成績稍遜的學生來說，學習第二語言是既難掌握、又沒趣味的苦差事。因此本行動研究就嘗試利用電子學習方式重燃學生的內在動機去學習。在英國語文科的學習中，詞彙的學習佔有一定重要性。根據 Nation（2001）的詞彙學習理論，學生學習第二語言的步驟分別是： 1. 發現（noticing）； 2. 記憶（retrieving）；及 3. 使用（generating）。本節以學習人體面部特徵詞彙為例子。傳統學習模式，老師會先教授學生詞彙的串法及意義，再以默寫的方式讓學生對詞彙有深入記憶，最後利用測驗或作文等評估方式以了解學生對詞彙的使用情況。由於傳統學習模式未能有效讓學生學習有關詞彙，因此研究員嘗試利用一些電子教材套，以拼圖方式協助同學記憶。結果，電子教材套不單讓文字變成可視化，而且有助提升學生在課堂上的學習動機及參與程度。不過，這類被定義為「電從教育心理學到課堂實踐：教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 31 子學習資源」（教育局，2009）的學習套件始終未能激發學生的內部動機、使他們享受學習過程並自主地學習。有見及此，研究員開始從學生的內部動機著手、了解同學平日在網絡遊戲中的喜好。當發現同學們會在網上遊戲網站進行罪犯拼圖遊戲後 1，就開始準備以罪犯拼圖方式為主導的電子學習課程。「『電子學習課程』強調個人化，重視親身經歷，讓學生自主地運用不同的電子學習資源，掌握資訊，並於網上學習，在積累學習經驗之餘，亦突破時間和空間的限制。」教育局（2009）根據 Guthrie & Cox（2001），同學在課堂上的真實經歷能大幅提高學生在課堂上對有關課題的內部動機和學習興趣。因此，老師先在課堂上介紹一套網上應用軟件「Ultimate FlashFace」2 並播放一段會話錄音，模擬現實生活警察為證人錄取口供的過程，學生就可以使用電子工具拼貼犯人圖像。由於軟件屬免費網上軟件，因此課堂以外同學也可以利用自學。出乎意料地，同學完成課堂的練習後，竟然互相拼貼對方的容貌。由此，證明了有關的工作激起了同學們的內部動機、讓他們自主學習。是次英語詞彙學習對同學們來說變得有意義，記憶過程更有趣，亦可以藉社會實況真實使用。二、通識教育科通識教育科強調探究式學習、議題為本的施教方法（胡少偉等，2007）。因此，問題的發現和討論顯得特別重要。本節將集中討論一班修讀預科程度通識教育課程的同學在其學習過程中，因電子學習而帶來的轉變。研究員在課程初段以傳統課堂方法為學生預備課程資料：以工作紙形式教授相關的概念，再進行分組討論。期望學生可以藉此進行腦力激盪、互相刺激思考方向，加強他們的分析能力、最後能集思廣益地處理問題。經過一段時間的觀察，發現學生在分組討論的表現未有提升。相反，學生討論的內容表面，只是一再重複工作紙的資料，未有深層次的發現及互相刺激思考情況發生。於是，研究員在課堂中加入不少視像資料，嘗試以刺激情緒的視像、真實的事例和清晰的因果關係和結構以引起學生的學習思維（Bergin, 1999; Jetton & Alexander, 2001; Schraw, Flowerday, & Lehman, 2001; Wade, 2001）。果然，新一代的年青人大多以故事形成吸收資料，相同的內容如果以視像片段播放，有助同學們使用橫向思考、將幾個不同的已有概念貫穿，成為新論點（Simonton, 1990; Maier, 1931）。不過，以上教學僅提供學生基本研究方法的訓練，根本未達到培養學生自學的能力，更遑論學生達至成為一個問題的發現者、探索者和解決者（Renzulli, 1977）。於是，研究員與同工建立一網上平台 3，通過 Web2.0 方式，讓學生在平台 1 網址：http://www.flashgame.com.hk/ha3om-game.html 2 網址：http://flashface.ctapt.de/ 3 網址：http://www.libered.info/ 32 參考文獻胡少偉、容萬城、徐慧旋、梁燕冰、黃炳文、楊沛銘、賴柏生（2007）。〈實踐通識教育科的挑戰：一個調查研究的分享〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第六卷，47-53。香港青年協會（2010）。《「做個智 net 的」使用者資料冊》。香港：香港青年協會。香港政府統計處（2010）。《有關資訊科技的使用情況和普及程度的住戶統計調查》。香港：香港政府統計處。教育局（2009）。《課本及電子學習資源發展專責小組報告》。香港：教育局。數碼 21（2011）。〈評估資訊及通訊科技的長遠發展〉。取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/digital21/chi/statistics/ stat.html Baron, R. A. (1998). Psychology (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Bergin, D. (1999). Influences on classroom interest. Educational Psychologist, 34(2), 87-98. Brophy, J. E. (1998). Motivating students to learn. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton. Glasser, W. (1998). Choice theory: A new psychology of personal freedom. New York: HarperCollins. Guthrie, J. T., & Cox, K. (2001). Classroom conditions for motivation and engagement in reading. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 283-302. Husman, J., & Lens, W. (1999). The role of the future in student motivation. Educational Psychologist, 34(2), 113-125. 上讀取資訊、留言並進行網上實時討論，利用電腦提高同學對學習的內部動機（Lepper, 1985）。由於討論在網上進行，學生可以在討論過程中，同時在網絡中尋找資料，加強了橫向的聯繫。透過同學之間超連結的互換，資訊吸收更豐富，學習亦變得有趣。最後，由於流動通訊器材與社交網站的日漸普及，為要將課堂融入同學的生活之中。研究員將學習平台轉移到學生更常接觸的社交網站中。這樣不但令工作變得簡單，而且學生在問題的發現上有顯著進步。慢慢地，這一群青年人在社交網站中分享和討論社會問題。有時，朋友中的一個「讚好」也會激發大家思考和討論。研究員認為這種融入在他們世界中的學習模式，比硬加於他們身上的入侵方式來得有意思，值得同工思考。己、結語電子學習無論在理論層面或在前線運作上均證明可提升學生學習動機。不過，推行電子學習的方式有多種，要令電子學習變得有意義，教師就必先要了解學生的心理。如果勉強將學習過程電子化，一方面大大增加前線同工的工作量；另一方面，也可能令學習進度不增反減。本研究認為若要成功推動電子學習，不一定要投放大量資源購入或外聘服務編寫學習軟件。反而，前線教師可根據其經驗及學生的回饋，運用坊間現有資源製作成電子學習課程。這樣的教材才是最適切學生學習需要的配套。電子學習其實離不開教與學，運用資訊科技只是當中一個手段。教師只管專注其教學工作，用心設計合適其學生的電子學習課程，事就這樣成了。從教育心理學到課堂實踐：教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 33 Jetton, T. L., & Alexander, P. A. (2001). Interest assessment and the content area literacy environment: Challenges for research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 303-318. Lepper, M. R. (1985). Microcomputers in education: Motivational and social issues. American Psychologist, 40, 1-18. Maier, N. R. (1931). Reasoning in humans: II. The solution of a problem and its appearance in consciousness. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 12, 181-194. Mayer, R. (2002). Rote versus meaningful learning. Theory in Practice, 41(4), 226-232. Murphy, J. P., & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivation exploration of motivation technology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 3-53. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ofsted. (2002). ICT in schools: Effect of government initiatives. London: Office for Standards in Education. Pachler, N. (1999). Theories of learning and ICT. In M. Leask & N. Pachler (Eds.), Learning to teach using ICT in the secondary school, London, Routledge. Pintrich, P. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 544-555. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5). NCB University Press. Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching Digital Natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin. Renzulli, J. (1977). The enrichment triad model: A guide for developing defensible programs for the gifted. Mansfield Centre, CT: Creative Learning Press. Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., & Flores, P., et al. (2003). Beyond nintendo: Design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers and Education, 40(1), 71-94. Rushkoff, D. (1997). Children of Chaos. London: HarperCollins. Schraw, G., Flowerday, T., & Lehman, S. (2001). Increasing situation interest in the classroom. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 211-224. Schunk, D. (2000). Learning theories (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Simonton, D. K. (1990). Scientific genius: A Psychology of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wade, S. E. (2001). Research on importance and interest: Implications for curriculum development and future research. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 243-261. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 35 Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 於大專院校推行促進學習的評估 CHENG Mei Seung Catherine PolyU Hong Kong Community College Abstract This article, intended for teachers of Hong Kong Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) who are interested in Assessment for Learning (AfL), discusses the main AfL strategies by consulting some of the available literature. This paper also gives concrete examples and points to note when teachers integrate these strategies specifically in the context of daily classroom practices in Hong Kong HEIs. Finally, in the latter part of this article, some obstacles that could hinder AfL development in HEI classrooms are also discussed. It is hoped that this article, might, in a small way, help teachers who want to re-examine and improve on their own teaching methods. Consequently, students would benefit in their own learning. Keywords assessment for learning, teaching strategies in higher education, higher education in Hong Kong 摘要本文專為對促進學習評估（AfL）有興趣的大專院校教師而設，內容包括評估方式分析，在香港實踐 AfL 所遇到的困難等。本文希望藉著各項解說，幫助教師反思，以及改進自己的教學模式，使學生從學習中有所得著。關鍵詞促進學習的評估，高等教育的教學策略，香港高等教育 36 1. Introduction In Hong Kong, colleges, insti tutes, universities, and other HEIs are inclined to either evaluate learning by Assessment of Learning (AoL), through one-off examinations, or by Assessment for Learning (AfL), through an on-going process during the semester in which quality feedback is given to students on how to improve on their work. More development of AfL in Hong Kong HEIs is to be expected, following the global trend to change the nature of assessment as part of teaching and learning (Brown, 2004). In keeping with this transition, the new Hong Kong 4-year undergraduate curriculum will be launched in 2012. Formerly, the higher educational policy favoured the elite. Soon, the new education policy will favour the masses. This transition implies that students who previously had few opportunities to receive higher education can now also have access to Hong Kong HEIs. The varying academic levels of performance of the first cohort of students in 2012 will necessitate a call for change in teaching methodologies. This change will involve less direct knowledge transmission to a more student-focused approach that can effectively lead students to achieve the expected learning outcomes (Rust, 2002). AfL, in this regard, may be a panacea for schools to enhance teaching and learning in the classroom. This article begins by expounding on the potential of AfL and some of the features of AfL strategies through a review of some of the available literature. Following these explanations, examples of research studies as well as the author’s personal experience in the classroom illustrate how to integrate AfL into daily classrooms practices. Hopefully, by sharing these examples, teachers who are curious about AfL will become more aware of the importance of consistently collecting learning evidence and giving constructive comments to students so that the latter can take more responsibility for their own learning with greater motivation. 2. Integrating Assessment for Learning in Hong Kong HEIs This section looks at some major AfL strategies, including effective questioning, providing constructive feedback, sharing Learning Objectives (LOs) and Assessment Criteria (AC) with students, and finally, self- reflection and peer review (Black et al., 1998, 2002). Examples are shown on how teachers can apply these strategies to transition learning into the realm of the student’s own personal responsibility for acquiring skills and knowledge (Harris, 2007). By this means, the teacher devolves power to students in their own learning (Glover & Thomas, 1999). 2.1 Sharing Learning Objectives and Assessment Criteria with Students Sharing LOs and ACs with students is a fundamental principle of AfL. Thanks to the adoption of the educational policy “Outcome- Based Education (OBE)”, the sharing of LOs and AC with students, as part of the requirements of OBE, has become the norm in Hong Kong schools. In most Hong Kong HEIs, at the beginning of the semester, students are provided with a teaching plan, which includes Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 37 a list of LOs and expected outcomes, as well as the criteria for each assessment task. Such practices are highly appraised by many scholars since LOs are what students are expected to do during the course. With clear ideas about what is expected of them, students should therefore be more focused on their learning, and should also have a better understanding of their own performance (Black and Wiliam, 1999; Sadler, 1989). Consequently, they would be more likely to achieve the expected outcomes (Harris, 2007). Students need to apply these criteria to their own work and to understand what these objectives mean. Therefore, ARG (2002) made an additional suggestion that teachers could discuss the objectives and criteria with students using terms that they could understand, so that learners could become aware of “how” to do it and “what” to do for each assessment. ARG added that in some cases, teachers’ might allow students to play a part in deciding on goals and identifying criteria for assessing progress, or even develop Student-initiated Criteria (SiC). It is believed that through the process of formulating SiC, students’ awareness of the assessment criteria would be enhanced, and therefore students could adjust their methods of learning and achieve these outcomes accordingly. 2.2 Effective Questioning and Giving Constructive Feedback Effective questioning on both the teacher’s and the students’ part as well as giving constructive feedback to students and to the teacher, is a second fundamental principle of AfL. On one hand, questioning students is a strategy commonly used by teachers in classrooms as a tool to check students’ current state of understanding on an issue (James, 2006). On the other hand, responses to students’ answers, often termed as feedback, is also essential in promoting learning. In fact, questions and feedback are often indispensable, since questions are considered to be “effective” only if answering them requires different levels of cognitive thinking (Sachdeva, 1996). Giving constructive feedback, no matter whether to solicit answers from students’, to answer students’ questions, to respond to students’ answers to questions, or to comment on students’ work, is considered to be equally important in enhancing learning, as it helps students better understand their progress. They can especially recognize their advancement in how and why they have achieved a goal, as well as what they would require to improve their progress (Sadler, 1989). In other words, constructive feedback helps students to identify what steps they should take in order to achieve the learning goals. Harris (2007) also offers a similar view: to be effective, feedback needs to help students identify the action necessary to close the gap between their current level of knowledge or ability and their desired level. M o r e o v e r , c r e a t i n g a f a v o r a b l e environment for conducting questions and feedback in, is equally important. The small- class sessions in Hong Kong HEIs, in this regard, could be an ideal place to facilitate questions and answers. These sessions, which are usually in many forms – tutorials, seminars, workshops – permits the teacher to allow 38 more time for each student when answering the questions he or she has been asked. For example, in the Community College at which the author works, many group presentations are given in tutorial sessions. After the students have completed their presentations in groups, they need to lead a discussion with the whole class. The audience is encouraged to discuss each presenter ’s performance, by raising questions and giving feedback to the presenters in order to review the issues that have been discussed in the presentation, to challenge the ideas brought forth by the student presenters, or to constructively criticize the presenters’ performance. The teacher, on the other hand, has changed roles, from a traditional question- raiser to a facilitator who continuously checks if the questions raised by the audience are appropriate, and if the words they used, the embedded concepts, and the meanings implied are conducive to learning. From what the author has observed, both the student presenters and their audiences tend to be very energetic in raising questions, answering questions, and giving and receiving feedback. The reason for such a response is partly due to the small class size in which the student audience has many opportunities to raise questions. Yet, as a reminder for teachers, educators need to be cautious when raising questions or giving feedback. For example, as stated by Sachdeva (1996) and Black (Black, et al., 2002), teachers need to allow more time before students respond to questions, since the so-called “wait time”, is very critical to learning. This delay allows students enough time to organize their thoughts or discuss the matter with their group before they respond to the questions (Ibid.). Similarly, Harris (2007) reminded teachers that the nature of their feedback should stress the positive aspects rather than any failure, because the purpose of feedback should be to foster motivation. Black and Wiliam (1998) further pointed out even if feedback is positive, students’ learning motivation could also be damaged when the feedback is accompanied with grades, since grades could pressure students into comparing themselves with others. In Hong Kong, this phenomenon of comparison is often a problem for most HEI teachers because Hong Kong is a highly competitive place where higher academic places are scarce. Nonetheless, grades are needed for select purposes, which would directly affect whether the students can successfully be promoted to a higher level. In order to minimize the negative motivational effects brought by comparison between students (Black & Wiliam, 1998), in Hong Kong some HEIs tend to offer comment-only feedback (marking) to students on their performance in a particular task. Students are only informed about their final grades after they have finished all assessment tasks in the semester. In other HEIs, the teacher gives marks on each assessed task, and does not tell students what weighting the marks have toward the final grade. At the end of the semester, the teacher works out a “mark-to- grade” table which determines the specific mark range system that falls into a particular grade level. Again, students are only informed of their final grade at the end of the semester when all learning activities in that course are completed. Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 39 2.3 Self-Reflection and Peer Review Self-reflection and peer review are a third important element of AfL. Many forms of self- assessment exist, and self-reflection is one of the common ways that has been adopted by HEI teachers. Some teachers may ask students to chronicle their self-reflections in their portfolios. One example comes from a case study done by Klenowski (Klenowski et al., 2006): he and his colleagues asked students to keep their reflective journals in a portfolio. At the end of the semester, most student participants agreed that a portfolio helped them to structure their learning by putting order into their thoughts which were previously chaotic or confused. Furthermore, this exercise allowed them to identify gaps in their thinking. Another research was done a t the University of Hong Kong by Tang and Biggs (1998) in which students in the third year of the four-year part-time evening Bachelor of Education programme were asked to submit a portfolio which provided evidence on how they could progressively meet the assessment criteria. They were required to keep a journal in order to record critical learning related incidents, and subsequently reflect upon them. At the end of the unit, most students were positive about the use of portfolios. Quotes included: “It (the PA) really works!”; “Now I do not see the portfolio as an assignment to be handed in. It’s rather a powerful learning tool for the learner himself.”; “What (we are expected) to prepare for the portfolio undoubtedly provides me a chance to reflect on my daily teaching.” Alternatively, peers could also be a source to provide feedback on student work which could, in turn, also help greatly in the development of students’ cognitive thinking. Vygotsky refers to peer review as the “zone of proximal development (ZPD)”: ZPD denotes “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem- solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p.202). Based on Vygotsky’s idea (Vvgotsky, 1978, p.202), the author has done a simple collaborative activity in her Community College. Students were asked to upload their writing task to the CMS for peer review one week before they submitted it to the teacher. Special training on how to review an article had been given in advance. After a one week peer review period, the author noticed that the language used in students’ work was more proficient, had been carefully proofread, and more precise vocabulary was used. In fact, the author also noticed that students tended to more easily accept feedback from their peers rather than from the teacher. Sadler (1989) believes that with careful planning, peer review can make students become more proactive in their learning, which is an essential element of genuine learning. 3. Further Elaboration: Obstacles and Challenges With the implementation of OBE, the use of tutorial sessions or other discussion sessions, and the availability of electronic resources, the impression seems to be that Hong Kong HEIs are attempting to implement AfL in the 40 classroom. However, in reality, the author feels that there are still many obstacles in carrying out the above strategies. 3.1 C h a l l e n g e N u m b e r 1 – G r a d e Distribution: A Bell Curve in Hong Kong HEIs? Firstly, the ACs shared might not be an effective one to enhance students’ learning. ACs are the rules of the game. Explanations of these rules are therefore be necessary; players can’t win a game if they don’t know the rules of the game. However, this strategy could be challenging to HEI teachers since students’ performances are sometimes difficult to predict. Designing a rubric that fits all situations is a difficult task, not to mention that different teachers might have different standards in marking. Therefore, what teachers could do is to share general standards with students rather than precise ones. Next, teachers might adjust the rubric after the assessment. This is quite common among HEIs, especially in assessment involving a massive number of students. As individual teachers might have variation in interpreting the rubric, discussion meetings are normally arranged to finalize the marks distributed to all small tasks in an assessment. The last reason has to do with the distribution of grades: for selective purposes, what is considered to be an abnormal distribution of students’ grades, such as a large number of distinctions in one class, is seldom accepted in institutions. In this light, sharing ACs with students in the beginning of the semester does not seem practical because their grades may be modified even if they successfully meet the ACs. 3.2 Challenge Number 2 – Pure AfL and an AfL / AoL Mix Secondly, there are often two major parts in assessing students’ performance in a HEI course, namely “coursework” and “examinations”. The former is comprised of several (usually four to five) assessment tasks during the semester, while the latter is a one-off examination which is usually organized at the end of the term. Some teachers may not notice that tasks designed in the coursework, such as an objective test, group projects, students’ presentations, might not be interrelated with each other. In other words, what students learnt from Task A may not be possible for them to use in task B. A negative result of such a disassociation may be that students are prevented from identifying any necessary actions for further improvement. As already mentioned, most Hong Kong HEIs are using coursework and examination assessment systems in order to assess student performance. Under the “coursework-and- examination” mode, different weightings are assigned to different assignment tasks of a particular subject so as to reflect their respective importance. The overall performance is obtained by calculating the weighting of each coursework and examination with little place for holistic judgment. The method of “weighted averages”, however, is neither formative nor summative. Harlen and James (1997) argue that the blurring of the lines between using AfL and AoL together in the same course negates the value of AfL. For example, a students’ achievement of the learning outcomes of a particular task cannot be reflected directly in the overall measurement of Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 41 performance through the final grade. 3.3 Challenge Number 3 – Time Stops for No Teacher An additional important consideration is time. How useful the teacher’s feedback is, largely, depends on how deep the teacher knows the students. Such an understanding usually takes time. In reality, teachers not knowing enough about their pupils is one of the common inhibiting factors in successfully implementing AfL (Black & Wiliam, 1999). Most HEIs courses last for one semester, which is about 13-15 weeks – a rather short period of time for observing and understanding a student, not to mention making a judgment on what the student should do to improve his or her learning. The use of electronic systems in this regard is also considered to be a new cutting- edge channel for teachers to understand their students’ ability. For example, the Course Management System (CMS), which is widely adopted in Hong Kong HEIs, possesses many interactive tools that help the teacher collect students’ assignments more systematically. This system also allows the teacher to understand his or her students from different aspects such as through their postings on the forum, or their activity log. Besides CMS, the use of the electronic portfolio (ePortfolio) is another alternative. In the College where the author works, a 2-year Quality Enhancement Grant Scheme project named “Implementation of an Open Source ePortfolio for Sub-degree Students” was awarded to provide Post Secondary School students with interactive online tools to showcase their accomplishments during their studies in the College. This system also helps teachers to understand their students’ work better since the teachers can refer to tasks students completed during the previous semester. In the past decade, local universities, such as the University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and the City University of Hong Kong, have developed their own ePortfolio systems to enhance teaching and learning. 3.4 Challenge Number 4 – All for One, and One for All Finally, the acceptance of AfL by all the stake players in an HEI is crucial to the success implementation of AfL. Currently, most Hong Kong HEI students have received at least 5 years of secondary schooling. Their education was generally traditional – examination and textbook oriented. This orientation has been reinforced by the conservative views on the part of their parents. Students, parents or even teachers may believe that exam-based education is successful in formal secondary schooling via summative techniques, so not many of them know about or are interested in knowing about the nature of AfL. At the same time, many teachers, students and even parents are legitimately concerned about the validity and reliability of self- and peer-assessment. If AfL is going to succeed, teachers would have to break established traditional classroom habits (Harris, 2007) which would imply a change of mentality in the whole institution: such a transition could not be done by individual effort. Therefore, for AfL to be successful overall, strong support 42 from management is absolutely necessary. Additionally, time would be required to support and nurture the commitment of the participants. 3.5 Challenge Number 5: More Time Again Please For some Hong Kong HEI teachers, AfL may be a rather new concept and they may not have the time, the skills, nor the support to give formative feedback to students. As Black et al. (2002) point out, assessment can be regarded as formative only if the evaluation leads to concrete actions by teachers and/or students, which improve student learning and teaching. However, an extra hurdle to overcome is the common practice for Hong Kong HEIs to have regular subject rotation amongst teachers. Teachers in charge of a course may be different every year and sometimes they will only be informed of what course they will teach 2 weeks before the start of the term. Early preparation is therefore almost impossible. Without good preparation, flexibility in teaching methods is difficult to implement, an element which is obviously necessary in AfL. 4. Conclusion This article has given a brief explanation of some AfL strategies for teachers who are interested in re-examining their teaching practices and improving on their teaching methodology. In AfL, s tudents have to understand the learning object ives and assessment criteria and are encouraged to express their views. They are helped hereby articulating these views with their peers in a secure and open learning environment. While questioning is used in AfL to examine students’ learning states, on-going constructive feedback, which is based on development and learning needs, is also given by both teachers and students to assist learning progress whenever possible. Self- and peer-assessment are also crucial in AfL to create a progressive learning environment because of the autonomy learners can subsequently develop. The use of the ePortfolio was also suggested, so that learning evidence could be collected more systematically so as to allow students, teachers, or other educational leaders to monitor their students’ strengths and needs in order to track and assist in their progress. F ina l ly, there are some hurdles to overcome in the implementation of AfL in the context of the Hong Kong HEI classrooms. Firstly, the correlation of different assessment tasks may not be stressed. Students might find it difficult in making use of the experience they have learnt from a previous task and applying that knowledge to the next task. Secondly, most HEIs tend to assess students’ performance by a “weighted average” system, which can hardly show their progressive improvement in the course. Also, since students, parents, and even teachers have grown up under the culture of intensive examinations or testing, they might be skeptical about the power of AfL to be able to enhance teaching and learning. Last but not least, the subject rotation or other administrative practices in HEIs might affect the degree to which the teacher is able to devolve responsibility to the students due to preparation time constraints, which would in turn constrain the preparation of the course. Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 43 Acknowledgement The author wishes to acknowledge the Quality Enhancement Grant Scheme that has funded a project named “Implementation of an Open Source ePortfolio for Sub-degree Students”. This article is one of the subsidized deliverables of this project. Special thanks goes out to Mr Peck Dale John William. Without his generous help and thought provoking ideas, this article would not have been as fruitful. References ARG (Assessment Reform Group). (2002). Testing, motivation and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Faculty of Education. 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Cancer Education, Spring, 11(1), 17-24. Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18, 119-44. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 45 「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 Suggestions on the implementation of assessment for learning in Chinese Language 廖佩莉香港教育學院摘要「促進學習的評估」是近年來教育改革的熱門話題，並在香港實行多年，可是現時仍有很多教師未能充分掌握其理念。本文先解說「促進學習的評估」理念和其在中國語文科的重要性，最後提出促進中國語文學習評估的一些建議，希望藉此啓發教師思考如何改善日常的教學和評估，以促進學生的學習，從而優化語文教學的效能。關鍵詞促進學習的評估，中國語文科教學，教師專業發展 Abstract Assessment for learning is a very hot issue in Hong Kong educational reform and it has been implemented in schools for years. However, not many teachers understand the concept of assessment for learning. This article first explains the concept of ‘assessment for learning’, and its importance in learning Chinese Language. Suggestions are made at the end. It is hoped that it can motivate teachers to think and reflect so as to improve teaching. Keywords assessment for learning, Chinese Language teaching, professional development of teachers 46 甲、引言「促進學習的評估」是近年教育改革的重點。根據香港課程發展議會（2002）《基礎教育課程指引─各盡所能 ‧ 發展所長（小一至中三）》所指的「促進學習的評估」是教師在學與教過程中，找出和診斷學生在學習上遇到的困難，進而提供有效的回饋，使學生改善他們的學習 1。「促進學習的評估」是結合教學與評估，以促進學生學習，是現時評估改革的趨勢。但可惜的是，在最近的一項研究（廖佩莉，2009），發現只有少數教師（10.5%）表示他們認為能掌握「促進學習的評估」的理念，可見很多教師對「促進學習的評估」的理念還未十分理解。本文先解說「促進學習的評估」的理念和分析它在中國語文科的重要性，然後提出促進中國語文學習評估的一些建議，希望藉此啓發教師思考如何改善教學和評估的方法，以促進學生的學習，從而優化語文教學的效能。乙、促進學習的評估過往的評估主要是測量、診斷、評定和篩選學生的能力，但「促進學習的評估」強調的是：善用評估所得的資料幫助學生學習和提高他們的學習效能。從宏觀課程規畫的角度而言，「促進學習的評估」的策略是教師必須先釐訂教學計畫，然後在教學的過程中監控學生的學習。要了解學生學了什麽，教師必須將評估學生的學習成果記錄下來。目的除了是用來診斷學生的學習成果外，更重要的是提供評估數據給教師加以分析，修訂課程，促進學生的學習（Sutton, 1995）。從微觀的角度而言，教師可在總結性測考和日常課堂活動中評估學生的表現，從而改善自己的教學；學生能從評估活動中促進學習，他們可監控自己和評估別人的學習，甚至可自訂下一個學習目標。一般傳統的紙筆評估，通常在教師教完書後給學生進行測試，是教師告訴學生哪些是正確，哪些是錯誤。這類評估活動是一種集中式的評估（focused assessment），它的目的是在於測查某能力或成就水平（Paris & Ayres, 2001）。但是這種評估並沒有讓學生反思或評估自己學習的態度和成果。「促進學習的評估」是學生可參與評估活動，這種活動是日常教學和學習的過程，能促進學生的思考，批評自己甚至他人的學習。學生能思考如何評價自己和他人的學習效果是一個有意義和高層次的學習過程，也能培養他們終身自學的能力。因此「促進學習的評估」是培養學生日後養成終身學習的習慣（Sutton, 1995）。它不單是指評估活動可幫助提升學生的學習能力，而且也可改善他們的學習動機、態度和情感反應。丙、「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科的重要性「促進學習的評估」是透過評估活動幫助學生學習。評估活動主要可分為兩類：總結性評估和進展性評估。總結性評估大多是用紙筆測考來評估學生的能力；進展性評估是在日常課堂活動中分析學生表現作評估。這兩類評估在中國語文科均能達致促進學生學習的作用。一、「促進學習的評估」能幫助提升學生的語文能力傳統總結性評估是用紙筆測考來評估學生的能力，教師能根據測考的結果，總結自己的教學成效，並改善自己的教學，從而幫助提升學生的語文能力。在總結性評估中，很多家長和學生所關心是測考後是否合格或是取得什麼成績，下次「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 47 的測考應要怎樣改善才能取得佳績。無可否認，傳統測考可以給學生一種推動力，能幫助他們重溫和鞏固所學，是促進學習的其中一種評估方法，能提升學生的語文能力。至於進展性評估是注重學生平日的學習表現，教師給予他們明確的回饋，使他們了解自己的表現，明白自己的優點和需要改善的地方。例如學生在課堂上運用口頭作句，教師可即時給予口頭回饋，指出可怎樣將句子寫得更充實，所用形容詞是否得當等，這些回饋有助學生學習。中文科教師也會運用書面回饋（評語）來幫助提升學生的寫作能力。二、「促進學習的評估」能培養學生的反思能力「促進學習的評估」的深層意義是培養學生日後養成學習的習慣，這種習慣的養成，主要是學生能反思所學。「促進學習的評估」強調的是多元化評估，在日常教學活動中，讓學生有自我評價（自評）和同儕相互評價（互評）的機會。在自評和互評中，給學生經歷一個自我反省的過程，經歷一個總結經驗的過程，經歷一個自我提升的過程，這些過程是學習語文的重要元素。例如學生作了一篇記敍文，他們能從教師的回饋、自評和互評活動中，明白用什麽準則來評量一篇優秀的記敘文。當他們閱讀或再寫一篇記敘文時，他們便能反思所學，懂得運用學過的準則來批評自己和別人的作品。因此，教師給予學生的回饋，自評和互評活動在日常課堂是非常重要的，「促進學習的評估」是日常教學的一部分。丁、對中國語文科「促進學習的評估」的建議早在 2001 年，課程發展議會（2001）《學會學習──課程發展路向》文件中指出：「評估是學習與教學循環的一部分，而不是附著於教學階段之後。」（頁 72）課程、教法、評估是應互相配合的，才能達致促進學習的效能。究竟如何在小學中國語文科實行這些理念？以下是一些可行的建議：一、根據課程的目的，設計「寓學習於評估」的活動從課程發展議會（2004）《中國語文課程指引（小一至小六）》和香港課程發展議會（2008）《小學中國語文建議學習重點》文件所見，中國語文科課程發展有兩個重要目的：一是注重培養學生運用語文能力，即讀寫聽說的能力；基本要求小學生能聽得清楚，說得明白，讀能理解，寫能表達。二是強調學生語文的素養和個人的素養。語文的素養是培養學生學習語文的良好習慣、興趣和主動自學的能力；個人素養是指培養學生的品德情意。就培養學生運用語文能力而言，教學可多設計有關讀、寫、聽、說的語文小組活動。在小組中，師生間的互動和學生間的互動機會增多了，教師便能有更多時間和空間細心觀察學生表現，記錄和收集學生的顯証，從而評估個別學生的表現。例如：教師設計說話活動，要求學生分組進行角色扮演，目的是要他們說話能做到發音正確，吐字清晰，並能運用適當語調表達話語。教師必須根據目的，制訂簡單的「觀察表」評估學生的表現。在學生分組準備時，教師可參加其中的組別，細心留意學生表現，若學生發音不標準，便要即時糾正。為了避免對學生造成壓力，每次的觀察，教師都不用預先通知學生，也不用計分，「觀察表」純粹是一種記錄，幫助教師了解學生的學習而已。到每組學生表演時，教師就每組的表現加以評分和提供回饋。就培養學生的語文素養而言，要培養學生養 48 成學習語文的良好習慣、興趣和主動自學的能力，並不是只靠教師的講授而能達致的。教師宜多配合課程的目的，因應學生的興趣和能力，多加入培養學生自學的機會，例如在課室設置「閱讀閣」和「自學中心」。「閱讀閣」是擺放每個單元教學後的申延閱讀的篇章和書籍，讓學生閱讀，並作個人閱讀記錄；「自學中心」是擺放教師預先設計與單元教學內容相關的語文遊戲，例如「找部首」，「語詞接龍」等，讓學生選擇喜歡的遊戲進行自學和核對預先準備的答案，並作記錄。若他們遇到困難，可請教同學和老師。教師從他們的閱讀紀錄和自學紀錄中，可深入了解他們對閱讀的興趣和評估他們的自學能力。讓學生從活動中學習，正好給教師從學生活動中觀察和評估他們的機會。二、進展性評估和總結性評估並重很多家長都認為要幫助子女在校內和校外取得高分的成績。香港教育制度一向重視總結性評估，側重考試和測驗。當家長和學校均看重校內測考和公開試的同時，教師不妨考慮以下兩個問題：進展性評估有何重要性？它和總結性評估有什麼關係？進展性評估是指學生在學習過程中的評估，例如教師對學生的觀察，學生平時的習作表現等。Stiggins（2008）認為評估過程與學生的學習動機有密切關係。當學生能在學習過程中明白自己的不足和成功之處，並得到家長、老師和同儕的鼓勵和意見，並對他們的學習有所期望，這些激勵，能引發他們自我努力學習的動機。進展性評估的重要性在於讓學生清楚自己學習過程的成效，他們在進展性評估中對自己有所期望。當學生有了期望，便能引起他們學習的動機。進展性評估大多是以日常學習活動為主，Paris & Ayres （2001）認為日常學習活動比平時考試成績更重要，因為這些評估活動，能充分反映學生自己的努力程度和學習質量的真實表現。對教師而言，他們可運用學生在進展性評估中的表現，反思自己教學的成效。進展性評估和總結性評估的關係是非常密切的。進展性評估主要目的是提供學生和教師回饋而不單是評鑑其學習效益（Brown, 1994）。總結性評估主要是評估學生在某學習階段的學習成效，以總結他們學習成果。所以，學生要在總結性評估取得佳績，他們必須在進展性評估中明白自己在學習過程中的表現，而知所改善和有所期望。進展性評估能幫助學生在總結性評估中的表現。教師觀察學生在日常「寓學習於評估」活動的表現，注重他們在學習過程中的進展性評估，無形中幫助提升他們總結性評估的成績。此外，當學生在總結性評估表現失準或因事未能參加總結性評估，教師便可參考學生在進展性評估的表現。進展性評估和總結性評估是相輔相成的。三、多元化評估的準則必須明示學生多元化評估是指不單是教師評估學生，而且可以是家長對子女學習表現的評估，學生自評和同儕互評。要有效實行學生自評和同儕互評活動，教師必先釐訂評估的準則，他們可考慮校內學生的程度，校本課程的規畫，更要緊的是參考《全港性基本能力》和《小學中國語文建議學習重點》各學習階段的要求。評估的準則是有客觀要求，準則應簡單易明。教師可考慮自己製訂這準則或是與學生一起商討，他們必須向學生清說明評估準則和加以舉例。教師不但可用這準則評估學生，而且可將準則製訂學生自評和互評表，讓學生進行自評和互評活動。從評估準則和多元化的自評和互評中，學生能對自己的努力程度、「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 49 學習態度和學習成效進行反思。學生學會了該如何評估自己的表現，找出哪些是正確的，哪些是錯誤的。這種評估方式與教師主導的評定學生哪是對哪些是錯，是兩種截然不同的評估方式。四、為學生提供及時、清楚、易懂的鼓勵性回饋近年課程發展議會與香港考試評核局（2007）《中國語文教育學習領域──中國語文課程及評估指引》的文件中強調優質的回饋，才能有效促進學習，對學生發揮正面激勵的作用。教師應為學生提供及時、清楚、易懂的鼓勵性回饋。例如某學生朗讀課文很出色，很多教師都會說：「很好」。但若是提升回饋的素質，教師可以清楚說出學生朗讀得怎樣好，例如是「讀得很投入，聲線充足，能運用輕重音，表現很出色」。教師所說的除了是表揚和鼓勵這位學生外，同時也明確地對其他學生提出清楚的要求，具體顯示了怎樣才是表現出色的朗讀。在日常課堂中給予學生提供及時、清楚、易懂的鼓勵性回饋，學生便能即時改進和反思所學，這比起教師只在總結性評估時才給與學生分數來得更有意義。五、教師由傳統評估的執行者轉變為強調評估為促進學生學習的探索者要落實「促進學習的評估」的理念，教師在評估體系中的角色是要改變的：由傳統的總結性評估的執行者轉變成有效、可行的評估工具的探索者和實驗者（李靜，2006）。在傳統的課室教學中，教師教完書後，才評估學生，他們通常把對學生的評估放在最後，為他們的習作和測驗打分。但在「促進學習的評估」的教學中，教師再不單是評估的執行者，他們更要從日常課堂活動中觀察和探索學生所學，分析學生的表現。更進取的做法是：教師應是學生進行自主評估的指導者。教師可考慮多設計學生進行自主學習的活動，並指導和探索他們怎樣反思和評估其成效。總言之，語文教師的角色應由評估學生學習表現的執行者轉變為強調評估是為促進學生學習的探索者。六、全面制訂語文學習評估的計畫一般來說，教師在學期初會制訂教學計畫，設計進度表。教師可考慮在教學計畫中加入評估計畫。現時的評估項目只附屬在教學計畫，並不詳細。教師宜在評估計畫中列明總結性評估和進展性評估的目標，教師須對學生在特定時期的學習作整體的評估，教師也可互相商量進展性評估的目的、評估的方式（例如自評和互評等）和評估次數等。以下是教師在設計評估計畫時要注意的事項： (1) 教師要學生清楚單元要學些什麽？ (2) 單元有什麼活動？學習的過程是怎樣？ (3) 教師怎樣運用多元化的評估活動？ (4) 總結性評估與進展性評估怎樣緊扣一起？ (5) 評估準則釐訂了嗎？ (6) 評估後有提供回饋嗎？ (7) 教師應如何改善教學和修訂課程？在學期開始時，教師制訂評估計畫須注意檢視過去一學年學生在學習階段是否能達到目標。如果大部分學生都不能達到目標，教師須在課程和評估設計上彌補不足。同時教師在設計評估計畫時，應留意學生在各學習階段學習重點的銜接性。評估計畫與課程規畫是不能分割的，評估應能反映課程規畫時所照顧的學習階段的銜接。教師必須能注意級與級、學習階段與階段之間的課程目標和重點的遞進性，從而釐訂評估重點和評估整体的規畫，幫 50 參考文獻李靜（2006）。〈建設語言自主評估材料提高語言自主學習能力〉。《外語界》，第 113 期，60-72。香港課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習──課程發展路向》。香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2002）。《基礎教育課程指引──各盡所能 ‧ 發展所長（小一至小六）》。香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2004）。《中國語文課程指引（小一至小六）》。香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2008）。《小學中國語文建議學習重點》。香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局（2007）。《中國語文教育學習領域──中國語文課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：香港政府。廖佩莉（2009）。〈促進學習評估：中學中國語文科教師對此認識有多少？〉。《中國語文通訊》，第八十七／八十八期，14-25。 Brown, K. W. (1994). Meaning and consequences. British Educational Research Journal, 22, 537-548. Paris, S. G., & Ayres, L. R. (2001)《培養反思力》，袁坤（譯）。北京：中國輕工業出版社。（原著出版年 1994）。 Stiggins, R. (2008). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson Prentice Hall. Sutton, R. (1995). Assessment for learning. England: RS Publications. 助學生學習。以小學中國語文科為例，教師應參考香港課程發展議會（2008）《小學中國語文建議學習重點》清楚列明各學習階段對學生語文的要求。例如在第一個學習階段（小一至小三）的閱讀範疇中要求學生辨識簡單的敘述手法，如順敘、倒敘；在第二個學習階段（小四至小六）則期望學生認識不同性質的表達方法，如描寫、抒情、說明、議論。至於閱讀方法，第一個學習階段的學生要掌握精讀、默讀、朗讀（配合感情，有自信地朗讀優美的文字）；第二個學習階段的學生則要懂得運用略讀、瀏覽、主題閱讀法、找出關鍵語句等。有關寫作方面，第一個學習階段的學生要懂得解說日常用品的使用步驟即可；第二個學習階段的學生則要懂得運用比較、舉例、分類來寫說明文。教師應以香港課程發展議會（2008）《小學中國語文建議學習重點》為藍本，多考慮學生能力和興趣，由淺入深，以螺旋式全面規畫學習和評估重點。戊、結語要實踐「促進學習的評估」的理念，教師必須有效制訂整体的評估規畫，進行多元化和進展性評估，提供回饋，促進學習。值得關注的是，教師對傳統教學和評估的信念如果不改變，那麽是較難實踐「促進學習的評估」的理念。筆者期望教師要明白自己在評估角色的轉變。同時教育當局和大專院校可因應教師的需要，多舉辦分享會和培訓課程。有了足夠的支援，教師對實踐「促進學習的評估」的理念便會更具信心。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 51 學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 Teachers’ practical knowledge in school settings: From the perspectives of narrative inquiry and ethnography methodology 陸靜塵華東師範大學學前與特殊教育學院李子建香港教育學院摘要本研究整理了教師實踐知識理論的源頭，提出以敍事探究（narrative inquiry）作為研究方法的角度對學校中教師的實踐知識的變化作出整體分析；同時從人類學民族志（ethnography）研究方法的視角，對比日常情境中專業人士的實踐知識與學校情境中教師的實踐知識。這兩個研究方法的角度令教師實踐知識的研究有新的發展。關鍵詞教師實踐知識，敍事探究，民族志研究方法 Abstract Following the research tradition on teachers’ practical knowledge, this study examined it from the perspectives of methodology on narrative inquiry and ethnography. Some new opinions were formed to understand teachers’ practical knowledge and the implementation of the research methods above. Based on literature review, the nature of teachers’ practical knowledge in school context was discussed. Some opinions were offered to conduct the implementation of the two research approaches above. 52 Keywords teachers’ practical knowledge, narrative inquiry, ethnography methodology 甲、前言正如有的學者所研究的那樣，中小學教師日常的職業狀態是，除了教育學生的責任外，還負有承擔學校系統本身的運作、與學校系統之外其他部門或機構的聯繫和配合問題，這就使得教師的日常工作變得很複雜，具體表現為：「雜亂而片段化」，教育教學活動之間缺乏連帶性和一致性。第二，帶著「強烈的情境依賴」，教師對於自身或他人的專業活動的理解，相當依賴於教師所處的情境（學科組、教研組、年級組、班級和學校）以及自身的背景，諸如學校經歷、受訓經歷等，這樣教師的專業活動就會很大程度上受到這些情境以及過去經歷的影響，往往會表現出按「習慣做法」為行事原則。第三，教師的工作還是有強烈的行動導向。在教育變革面前，往往會希望改革的宣導者直接加以詳細說明「如何行動」（王建軍，2004）。這種觀點給我們關注與研究教師職業狀態提供了實踐的視角。因此，有研究者提出，在實施課程改革等大規模的教育改革中，不但要考慮教育理論，還要考慮教師的校本知識以及他們對服務對象——學生的理解，尤其是他們在職業生涯中逐漸獲得的專業知識。因此，「在教師的專業知識中，他們在職業生涯中逐漸形成的這些知識就是最重要的」，「就需要知道教師的這些思想信念和認識，也就是教師知識」，「在任何特定的教育改革中，我們都必須認識到教師知識所起的作用」（Meijer, Verloop, & Beijaard, 2002；溫魯普、范德瑞爾與梅爾，2008）。而替森（Thiessen, 2000）在討論教師教育研究的取向時也指出，對於「專業知識」的研究最有前景。這種研究把教師的教學活動看作是一種知識的工作，強調要把實踐性知識（包括日常規範、程式和方法）與命題性知識（基於學科的理論和概念、教學原則、特定的規定）並列起來使用。基於教師知識在專業形成和發展中的基礎地位以及教師工作的行動本質，本文提出對於學校中教師的實踐知識（practical knowledge）的研究，並試圖從敍事探究（narrative inquiry）和人類學民族志（ethnography）研究方法的角度，來考察學校情境中教師實踐知識。乙、開展教師實踐知識研究的價值學校教育是教師與學生的共同活動所組成的主要部分。作為成熟的發展一方的教師在傳遞社會價值、實現發展中的個體學生的社會化更是起著其他教育管理者、教育政策制定者以及教育理論研究者無法具備的獨特作用。因此教師的教育水平，或者近年來社會越來越關注的教師專業水平更顯出其重要的地位。而衡量一個行業的專業水平，該行業從業者的專業知識則是前提和基礎。不少有識之士從上世紀七八十年代開始關注教師知識，包括教師實踐知識的研究。這裏，對這一研究領域做簡要的回顧。本領域的研究主要有兩種價值取向，其一，學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 53 從事基礎教育的教師這一行業是否是一門專業、其行業從業者是否是專業工作者的爭論中，教師這個職業的專業性一直受到質疑：因為它沒有特有的專業知識和技能。過去很長時間裏面不少人甚至認為只要具有一定識字能力的人都可以來做小學教師。也有的人承認教師的行業需要教育經驗，但是它不需要具備學術知識。於是有些研究者就將對研究教師的研究重點由專業知識或技術轉移到「教師所知」（what teachers know）而不是學術知識（academic knowledge）上來，劃定為教師用來開展學校教育活動的信念、洞察力和行為習慣等。他們發現他們的研究物件—教師所知與哲學家們對於實踐知識特點的論述不謀而合—都具有時間性和情景性、強調個人特點和行動取向性。但是這些內容中可能成為教師實踐知識（teachers practical knowledge）的理由及其範圍還頗受爭議（Sharon & Robert, 1986）。因此有必要對教師知識和教師實踐知識進行研究和分析。這是教師知識、教師實踐知識研究的價值取向之一。其二，教師知識中的教師實踐知識作為教師得以開展其職業行為的一種行動知識或者經驗，其所包含的內容和影響因素有哪些，相互關係如何，它們的實際運作過程又是如何，等等。這些問題的探究也有利於人們深入瞭解教師知識、乃至教師實踐知識這一存在。從上面這兩個方面來看，教師實踐知識都是值得研究的。丙、教師實踐知識研究的理論起源「實踐知識」研究的開創者是芝加哥大學的科學教育研究者施瓦布（Schwab, 1969），他提出了「實踐樣式」（the practical）名詞，並認為「實踐樣式」的特徵是「協商的藝術」（art of deliberation）與「折衷的藝術」（art of eclectic），以用來分別表示從多元觀點深入思考一件事物的技法和做出實際決策時綜合多樣的理論與方法的技法。他提醒大家，課程的開發與實踐受到行為科學的「理論樣式」所支配，教師在實際課堂中形成的「實踐樣式」的聲音瀕臨死亡。因此，開始了教師實踐知識的研究和「救亡」實踐行動。出於對教師知識是不是一種知識，乃至由此造成的教師職業是不是一項專業的懷疑和證實的爭論，上世紀 70 年代開始逐漸出現了一些有關教師知識的研究，試圖揭示這種開始並不為世人所重視的知識的產生、構成、發展和在教學活動中的用途。有人將教師教育的不足歸咎於教學中技術文化的缺乏，強調如果沒有知識為基礎的話，那麼教師教育就無法傳遞相關的專業知識（Lortie, 1975）。也有學者認為，之所以缺乏實踐知識的溝通形式是因為職業的各自為陣造成的。因為教師和自己的同事之間存在隔離現象，很少有機會說清楚和比較各自的教育心得。這樣就會造成教師有關教育的知識的缺乏和轉變（Sarason, 1982）。教師實踐知識缺乏的另一個原因，有學者（例如 Huberman, 1983）歸因於教師出於對課堂裏學生的要求不斷被迫做出回應，從而更多的是依賴直覺和即時反應而不是理論思維所致。但是值得注意的是，上述對於教師知識、教師實踐知識的研究有值得商榷之處，比如：教師知識並非簡單的傳授過程，所以教師獲得知識並非只有自上而下的傳授一途；教師的職業特點的確有很多的時間在獨立執教，但是通過教育培訓、師徒帶教、非正式場合的交流溝通，乃至正式的教師教研活動都可以使得教師的實踐經驗、實踐知識得以在同伴之間傳遞、改進；另外，教師的確有很多場合需要依據直覺、即時反應來做出判斷，但是這與教育環境的複雜、多變、不穩定有著直接的關係。因此，有必要更深入地瞭解 54 教師工作的特點、教師工作所處環境的特殊性，這樣才能更好地理解教師知識、包括教師實踐知識的產生、傳遞和變化的過程與特點，更好地理解教師專業發展的特點。可見，需要使用更合適的方法來研究教師的知識，尤其是植根於日常教育活動中的教師實踐知識。一、教師實踐知識研究中的代表人物和觀點簡介研究教師知識時由於對知識定義的不同哲學理解，存在著重視科學知識（scientific knowledge）而輕視來自實踐的、個人的知識的現象。理由是科學知識更客觀可靠，並超越了具體課堂生活的細節、教師的個人傾向以及教師經驗無法避免的局限。教師只會解決一些特殊性的問題而對於普適性的教育問題的解決則會束手無策。教師會用類似講故事的方式來描述自己的教學活動，而不大會應用些理論來解釋自己的教學。這些描述充滿了教師自己個性化的經驗。因此，人們覺得，普適性的理論不拘泥於具體的時間空間，所以顯得更好（Schwab, 1959）。不過，這種認識是有失偏頗的。不能因為教師的實踐知識產生與應用於實踐情景，並與之緊密相連，就認為它無足輕重；就因為它與科學知識不相同，就降低了它的價值。實際上，正如 Buchmann 所言，實踐知識與科學知識有著不同的存在目的，它的目的是為了形成智慧的行動（wise action），而不是對於事物的普遍理解。智慧行動的目的以及實際的教學情境可以為描述教師識知（what teachers know）、教師教育知識的獲得與使用提供恰當的術語（Buchmann, 1983）。 Elbaz 與 Lampert 的有關研究很好地證明了這個觀點。在 Elbaz 對一位高中英語教師的研究（Elbaz, 1983）中，她採用案例研究的方法，通過與研究對象訪談，提出了教師用於教學的實踐知識可以分為五種類型、三個層次。類型包括：關於自我的知識、關於教學環境的知識、學科的知識、課程開發的知識和教學的知識；三個層次是，實踐的規則、實踐的原則以及有關教育教學實踐的總體形象（image）。 Lampert 的研究關注教師個人知識（personal knowledge）。她把教師個人知識界定為，教師對於自己的認知、教師的價值取向以及不局限於紙筆測驗的對於學生的瞭解。她的這一概念強調要兼顧教師的價值取向、學生的想法、課程的要求這三方面（Lampert, 1984）。加拿大學者 Clandinin 與 Connelly 則提出教師個人實踐知識（personal practical knowledge），把這種知識描述為存在於以往的經驗、現時的教育情境和未來的計畫與行為中，貫穿于教師的整個實踐過程中。在這樣的場景中，教師通過敍述探究（narrative inquiry），以講故事的形式來解釋與建構個人的以及與社會的互動的經驗（Connelly & Clandinin, 1990）。具體涵義為（Connelly & Clandinin, 1999）：這一概念可以讓我們在談論教師是知識廣泛的識知者時用來理解他們的經驗。個人實踐知識蘊藏在教師過去的經驗、現時的頭腦和身體動作以及將來的計畫和行動中。人們可以在教師的實踐中發現個人實踐知識。它對於所有教師來說都是一種出於應對當前情境中的緊急情況而重構過去、調整未來的意向的特有方式。（Connelly & Clandinin, 1988, p.25）荷蘭學者貝加德（Beijaard）、威魯普（Verloop）與梅耶（Meijer）及其合作者的大量學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 55 研究不再拘泥於教師實踐知識本身的研究，而是把研究視野擴展到具體的學科教學、教師評價、新手教師和經驗教師的比較等方面（姜美玲， 2008）。他們認為教師實踐知識是教師素質的核心，決定和指引著教師在實踐中的行動。他們還認為，教師實踐知識不是理論知識與科學知識的對立面，而是包含大量的理論性知識，並在教學理論和教學實踐之間發揮著媒介功能（Beijaard & Verloop, 1996）。中國學者陳向明則提出，教師的知識可以分為兩部分，「理論性知識」和「實踐性知識」，並在比較多位學者有關教師實踐性知識的不同提法和定義後，她提出教師的「實踐性知識」的定義，並分析了教師實踐知識的構成部分和存在狀態（陳向明，2003）。在此基礎上，她初步認為，遠離教師實踐的「宏大理論」對於教師指導價值不大，教師需要的是能夠貼近自己教育教學實踐的、教師自身的理論，這種理論可以叫做教師的「實踐理論」。這種理論內生自教師的行動，來自於教師的個人經驗；一般處於內隱的狀態，不被教師自己所明確意識到，具有特殊性和個人化傾向，但也可以運用於廣泛的場景，並類推到類似的情境（陳向明，2008）。從上面的簡要回顧可見，首先，教師實踐知識與我們熟知的教師在課堂裏所教的學科知識即所謂「學科知識」（content knowledge）有著很大的不同，其所涉及到的是教師在開展教育教學活動的過程中，隱藏在其教學行為背後的價值觀、教育經驗、甚至對於職業和學生的感情等等的知識部分，其複雜程度、與教育情景的緊密聯繫程度、個人性、經驗性都要遠遠地超過明確的學科教學知識。第二，教師實踐知識的研究領域也逐漸從對教師個體經驗的研究擴展到對於教師、學生、師範生等對象，學科課程與教學、教師評價等教育實踐領域。第三，研究方法也由單一的案例研究擴展到敍事研究、量化研究以及多種研究方法並用。我們以學校情境中教師實踐知識的發生與發展的過程為視角，初步提出我們對於這種知識的基本認識：第一，教師實踐知識存在的目的，是解決學校教育中的實際問題，滿足教師和學校其他主體在教育活動中的需求。第二，教師實踐知識的形成，來自學校教育與社會情境中的問題和需求的有效解決，並得到同行（包括同伴和業內權威人士）、社會人士的肯定與承認。第三，這種知識存在的形式，是個人和群體在日常教育活動中形成的經驗、應對策略、價值觀、理論與智慧。第四，存在的時空，以教師個人的職業空間為主，涉及其他公共空間中；時間上歷經過去現在和未來，具有時間脈絡上的繼承性、延續性。二、在教師實踐知識的研究中，值得注意的是研究方法多元化對於本領域研究的促進作用上述對於教師實踐知識的初步釐清，既可以增加我們對於這一概念的理解，同時也給我們在研究方法選擇上的啟發：對於這一區別於學科知識或者科學知識的質的知識（qualitative knowledge）的研究，應該採用質的研究方法作為新增的研究方法，才能更深入、準確地認識和理解這一知識類型。從傳統的哲學思辨的方法，到採用質性研究方法（qualitative research methods），如調查、訪談、觀察等，一直到近年來跨學科研究方法的使用，如逐漸採用敍事探究（narrative inquiry）、人類學的田野研究方法，乃至教育民族志（ethnography in education）的方法、以及多種研究方法的混合使用等等。尤其是人類學的民族志方法的使用，使得人們對於知識與行動之間的關係、知識的個別化性質、個體 56 行動對於活動知識的形成的促進作用等，從而發現了以往自然科學研究方法所未曾解釋的人類知識的個別化、經驗性以及與情境緊密聯繫著的特點。這樣的研究方法，對於教師實踐知識的研究，有效地揭示教師個人知識中的特點和性質也起到了明顯的研究效果。丁、從敍事探究作為研究方法的角度對教師實踐知識的認識受到施瓦布（Schwab）「實踐性」思想以及杜威（Dewey）經驗理論以及波蘭尼關於「個人知識」概念（Polanyi, 1958）的深刻影響，上世紀 80 年代以來，施瓦布的弟子之一、加拿大學者 Connelly 與 Clandinin 開始了有關「教師個人實踐知識」的研究，他們「撇開外部理論而轉向那些對實踐起決定作用的隱性的、密切的、經驗的、個人的知識特性」（許世靜、康納利，2008）。他們及其合作者在杜威（Dewey, 1938）、施瓦布（Schwab, 1970）、Gauthier （1963）以及其他人的經驗主義認識論的影響下，逐漸產生了將教師理解為認識者（knower）的研究興趣，他們認為教師是自身的認識者、自身所處情境的認識者、兒童的認識者、學科的認識者、教學的認識者與學習的認識者。 Connelly 與 Clandinin（1999）發現，教師因自己所認為的應然的課程，與其應政策要求所設計的課程之間不一致而感到困擾。也有教師掙扎在「被要求」與「自己相信應該做」的課程之間。可見教師的教學「更大程度上取決於他們個人所知道的知識」，教師的知識（teacher knowledge）比為教師設定的知識（knowledge for teachers）更重要（許世靜、康納利，2008）。作為研究現象的敍事探究，關注教師的個人知識，首創了教師「個人實踐知識」這一概念。這種知識來自經驗，與教師的個人教育教學實踐的場景中習得，而這種場景和教師所處的社會環境、學校文化環境緊密相連的，教師實踐知識產生於這一教師工作的特殊環境的，稱之為「專業知識景觀」（professional knowledge landscape）。另一方面，敍事探究作為思維的方式和教育研究的方法的時候，它是與「生活空間」這一概念的密切相連的，首先作為一個「時間的連續體」，考察期間的學校、教師和課程等教育要素的時候，必須注意到該事物是發展變化的，現時的表現源自過去、流向未來的。教師的實踐知識亦是有其發展、變化的來由、表現和未來的發展方向的。通過敍述的方式可以瞭解到教師知識的流動變化的線索。第二，生活空間又是「個人——社會的連續體」。生活期間的教師的個人與社會環境相互作用影響的，教師的知識不僅是教師個人的習得的，而且也是在與社會環境中的機構、人、制度等的影響下逐漸發展起來的。因此，研究教師的實踐知識就必須要關注教師所處的學校、家長、學生和社會帶來的影響。這就意味著敍事探究不能只是考慮個人維度，而且還要關注教師所處的環境帶來的影響。在社會發生變化的時候，比如教育政策的改革、新的課程的實施推行等時候，教師的實踐知識就會受到不同程度的影響，同時還要注意時間的維度帶來的影響。第三，敍事探究存在其中的生活空間第三個維度是「地點」。教師在不同的地點擔任的角色、所起的作用各不相同，比如教室中、辦公室、社區、家中等等，其所接觸的人和事皆不同，所要求其所充當的社會角色各不相同，承擔的社會作用亦是大相徑庭。以教師的實踐知識的發展來看，隨著情境的變化，尤其是作為學校機構的運作基礎的迴圈週期（cycles），如年度、節假日、班級活動的迴圈等，以及由這學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 57 些時間安排作用到教師身上帶來的教師對其職業行為帶來高低起伏的節奏感受（rhythms）也都各不相同（Connelly & Clandinin, 1999）。這些迴圈週期會觸及教師個人實踐知識在道德、美感和情感方面造成的影響，這些迴圈週期會帶來在空間和時間上的不同邊界（borders）。如果說空間上的邊界用肉眼尚能辨別的話，那麼在時間上帶來的邊界則是主要體現在人的頭腦和作息時間表上，由於其與教師日常從事的學校教育的節奏感緊密相連，所以要改變起來，難度可想而知。學者 Cuban（1995）在考察了教師所處的學校環境後，採用了「學校教育的語法」（the grammar of schooling）一詞來形容其穩定的特性，與克蘭迪甯（Clandinin）及康納利（Connelly）提出的包括教師個人實踐知識在內的專業知識景觀（professional knowledge landscape）的特點之一，在學校教育中存在的「迴圈」（cycles）和「節奏」（rhythm）概念的研究不謀而合！他認為，學校中的實踐活動，諸如按年齡招生、班級授課、分學科傳授知識等等，與語法在語言使用中起到的結構作用一樣，是學校運行結構的基本組成方式。而這種學校的基本運行結構一旦確定下來，教師們就能夠按部就班地開展自身的工作，有計劃有步驟地應對來自學校董事會、校長以及家長們的期望的壓力。久而久之，教師與學生一樣習慣於這種結構和次序（正如學校知識景觀中的「迴圈」與「節奏」），並且很難再去適應別的了。這種結構和次序的確和語言中的文法一樣重要和難以輕易改變的，甚至習以為常而熟視無睹了。因此，教師在這樣的環境中產生的知識（教師實踐知識），既具有穩定性、同時又帶有很強的情境性特點，同時由於又與具體的學校教育方式、學校管理方式、具體的人事安排、學生的特點、學生家長的要求等等因素緊密聯繫在一起，而變得十分複雜。戊、人類學民族志的研究方法對於教師實踐知識研究的啟發—行業知識的實際應用（knowledge at work）的角度人類學家 Scribner 在一家乳品製造廠進行了幾項實地研究（Scribner, 1985），目的是研究行動是怎樣指導知識的習得和知識的組織。他們選擇了乳製品作為研究的範疇（domain）。他們比較了五組人員在乳製品方面的知識。其中三組是該乳製品廠裏的工作人員，分別是文職人員、倉庫裝貨員和送貨司機。文員只是負責處理一些貨品的符號形式（symbolic representations），而裝貨員和司機則必須接觸貨品的表像和實際的貨品。但是兩者的工作環境有所不同。他們除了對人員的工作環境進行現場的考察之外，還對五類人員的有關產品知識進行了測驗，諸如說出產品的名稱、種類、大小等。一項結果顯示，研究者發現倉庫裝貨員的對於貨品分類，有 1/3 的情況下他們是以貨品的位置來區分產品的，而且他們是唯一採用位置分類的工作人員。原因就在於，他們一般每天晚上都要花約 8 小時在貨品的尋找和整理上，所以知道不同貨品的位置對他們來說十分重要。還有個結果是，倉庫裝貨員和送貨司機還會採用貨品大小作為分類的辦法，而文職人員則很少用此分類。這裏研究者發現，對於同樣的知識範疇（如乳製品），不同組別的工作人員會因為在功能上與該知識範疇的關係而有所不同。那麼，是什麼因素影響了知識的挑選和組織呢？研究表明，線索一，是所碰到的對象出現的形式：是表像的還是實際的；線索二，是有關人 58 們的行動目的，就是希望自己做到什麼。對象的某些屬性對於目的的達成非常重要，例如貨品的位置對於倉庫裝貨員而言。這樣在他們思考事物的組織時，那些重要的屬性就會發揮重要的作用。在此基礎上，研究者就提出，知識和行動相互之間的關係問題。於是，研究者又前往乳類製品廠的倉庫，更仔細的觀察產品裝卸的工作；又通過相關的現場測試等方法，發現乳製品廠內與工作相關的知識很複雜，這些知識取決於行動的形式，以及對行動形式的調控。這裏，社會知識（比如乳製品的名稱）與個人知識雖然不同，但不是對立的。因為在這裏社會知識是用來組織乳品廠的物質環境和符號形式，而個別員工會有創意地運用這些社會知識使得工作更符合人類（包括自己）的需要。證明社會知識在這裏和個人行動相互促進並良好地組織在一起的。從上述研究例子中，我們可以得知兩點啟發：第一，人類學民族志研究方法的優勢在於，可以深入人類活動（包括教師日常教育教學）的現場，通過實際的觀察、測驗、談話等方式，瞭解到其他研究方法無法得到的資訊；這對於我們用此方法來揭示教師實踐知識很有方法上的啟發；其二，就上述研究結論本身，使我們認識到，教師在學校中的個人實踐知識和社會關於教育的知識之間是可以相互影響和促進的。他們可以嘗試提出有關的研究假設，開展基於人類學民族志角度的教師實踐知識研究。民族志研究方法在教育中的運用，以其獨特的研究價值而受到教育研究者的重視。Janesick 提出了在課程研究領域適合民族志方法研究的八類問題以及這種研究方法的特點。這八類問題（Janesick, 1991）是：（1）有關課程等的質的問題；（2）有關課程及其組成的意義和理解的問題；（3）關於課程的社會語言學方面的問題；（4）有關整個系統的問題，如，教室、學校、學區等方面的；（5）與課程的政治、經濟、社會心理學等角度相關的問題；（6）與隱蔽課程相關的問題；（7）與課程的社會情境相關的問題；（8）與教學和課程相關的教師內隱理論（implicit theories）方面的問題。同時，民族志研究還具有以下一些特點：整體性視野、注重環境或社會中的內在關係、聚焦於對某個社會環境的理解而非預測、要求研究者置身於研究環境中、要求研究者重視實地研究和之後的資料分析、要求研究者不斷提高行為觀察和訪談的技術與能力。綜上所述，這種研究方法對於教師實踐知識研究的在方法上的啟示是：（1）對於教師實踐知識的研究，研究者要首先拋開所有的理論和實踐假設，來到教師開展教育活動的現場進行實地研究；（2）要具有完整和聯繫的眼光去觀察和分析教師實踐知識，比如從教師實際工作的教室、學校和社區乃至社會的大環境來考察和分析教師在課堂內外的教學與教育行為，當然包括知識；（3）研究中要關注教師的內隱理論（implicit theories）的存在和外在表現。尤其是非明確語言的表達方式，如隱喻、教具、學具的使用等；（4）在避免盲目套用和驗證現成理論和共識的前提下，注重通過觀察、訪談、現場記錄等的分析，獲得對於教師在具體社會（包括教育）情境（social context）中對於實踐知識的應用、選擇、改進等行為的深入理解，而不是預測和盲目的由此及彼的「遷移」與「借鑒」。（5）應用該研究方法，其研究問題雖然是教師實踐知識，但是考察的視野不僅僅局限在以往常用的神經生理學、認知心理學以及教育學等範疇，而是可以推廣到社會、經濟、種族等，來考察期間存在的內在聯繫。學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 59 參考文獻王建軍（2004）。《課程變革與教師專業發展》。成都：四川教育出版社。姜美玲（2008）。《教師實踐性知識研究》。上海：華東師範大學出版社。許世靜、康納利（2008）。〈敍事探究與教師發展〉。《北京大學教育評論》，第 6 卷，第 1 期，51-69。陳向明（2003）。〈實踐性知識：教師專業發展的知識基礎〉。《北京大學教育評論》，1（1），104- 112。陳向明（2008）。〈理論在教師專業發展中的作用〉。《北京大學教育評論》，6（1），39-50。溫魯普、范德瑞爾、梅爾（2008）。〈教師知識和教學的知識基礎〉。《北京大學教育評論》，第 6 卷，第 1 期， 21-38。 Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (1996). Assessing teachers’ practical knowledge. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 22(3), 275-286. Buchmann, M. (1983). Argument and conversation as discourse models of language use. (Occasional Paper No. 68). East Lansing: Michigan State University, Institute for Research on Teaching. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners: Narrative of experience. New York: Teachers College Press. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher. 19(5), 2-14. 己、總結通過上述對於教師實踐知識的理論來源、不同理論背景的概念述評以及引入敍述探究和民族志的兩種研究方法作為方法角度的分析，使得我們對於教師實踐知識本身及其研究方法有了進一步的認識：由於教師實踐知識所包含的內容與教師的實踐環境緊密相連、教師實踐知識的產生來自于教師自身與周圍人群、社會環境的互動、教師實踐知識又具有時間空間上的連續性、同時受到學校教育穩定持續的影響，所以在研究這一複雜、多元的對象時，必須使用多種研究方法，而敍述探究與民族志的方法的引入，正是一種研究方法上的彌補和充實。而前一種方法在對於研究對象時空與發展的注重、後一種方法在對於研究對象現狀的深度考察和個體意義的理解等方面的優勢互補，使得兩者在對於教師實踐知識的研究上，具有天然的聯繫，更有利於研究者開展這方面的教育研究。值得注意的是，教師實踐知識的發展變化過程中，有三個要素尤其值得我們關注。首先是教師的認知活動，這種活動是教師多年來逐步形成的，形成了教育（教學）信念後，改變不容易。第二，教師的教育（教學）信念很多情況下並不明確，抑或是處於緘默狀態，甚至教師本人可能也不知道這些知識是如何影響自己的教育行為的。第三，很多研究指出，知識和信念在解釋新的經驗或者選擇新知識過程中具有過濾作用，這是符合心理學中「知覺的選擇性」這一原則的。這三種現象的存在，給我們研究教師的學習或者教育行為的改變提供了實踐或理論的依據。而從敍事探究和人類學民族志的研究方法出發，應用其理論框架和具體研究方法，對於我們分析與認識教師實踐知識及其在教育改革中的作用，起到了重要的支持作用。 60 Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (Eds.). (1999). Shaping a professional identity: Stories of educational practice. NY: Teachers College Press. Cuban, L. (1995). Why the grammar of schooling persists. In D. Tyack & L. Cuban (Eds.), Tinkering toward Utopia: A century of public school reform (pp.85-109). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (8th printing, 2001). Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. Elbaz, F. (1983). Teacher thinking: A study of practical knowledge. London: Croom Helm. Gauthier, D. P. (1963). Practical reasoning: The structure and foundation of prudential and moral arguments and their exemplifications in discourse. London: Oxford University Press. Huberman, M. (1983). Recipe for busy kitchens: A situational analysis of routine knowledge use in schools. Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, 4. Janesick, V. J. (1991). Ethnographic inquiry: Understanding culture and experience. In E. C. Short (Ed.), Forms of curriculum inquiry (pp.101-119). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Lampert, M. (1984). Teaching about thinking and thinking about teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16(1), 1-18. Lortie, D. (1975). School teacher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Meijer, P., Verloop N., & Beijaard, D. (2002). Multi-method triangulation in a qualitative study on teachers’ practical knowledge: An attempt to increase internal validity. Quality & Quantity, 36(2), 145-167. Polanyi. (1958). Personal knowledge. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Sarason, S. B. (1982). The culture of the school and the problem of change (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Schwab, J. (1959). The “impossible” role of the teacher in progressive education. The School Review, 67(2), 139-159. Schwab, J. (1969). The practical: A language for curriculum. School Review, 78(1), 1-24. Scribner, S. (1985). Knowledge at work. In R. McComick & C. Paecher (Eds.), Learning and Knowledge. Buckingham: The Open University. 1999. Sharon, F., & Robert, E. F. (1986). The culture of teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Thiessen, D. (2000). A skillful start to a teaching career: A matter of developing impactful behaviors, reflective practices, or professional knowledge? International Journal of Education Research, 33(5), 515-537. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 61 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 Exploring micropolitical behavior in schools in educational reform 陳幸仁台灣國立中正大學課程研究所暨師資培育中心范慶鐘台灣南投縣廣英國民小學摘要本文旨在探究台灣歷經一連串教育改革，校園生態使利害關係人趨向多元與競爭的權力關係。近來微觀政治學觀點受到重視，其聚焦於探討利害關係人間如何運用權力，以保護自身的利益。本文首先提出學校微觀政治運作相關理論，其次探討學校微觀政治學的面向與核心概念，再就學校微觀政治運作面臨的問題，分析校園微觀政治行為，主要指出學校的權力、利益、政策活動乃是校園微觀政治行為的主要核心。最後，提出校園微觀政治行為的具體策略來回應上述面臨的問題，希望能增進對校園微觀政治行為的瞭解與認識。關鍵詞教育改革，微觀政治行為，學校微觀政治 Abstract Under the circumstance of a series of educational reforms in Taiwan, the power ecology within the school is inclining to multiple and competitive relations among shareholders. Recently, scholars pay attention to the notion of micropolitics, which focuses on how shareholders exert power in order to protect their interest. First, this article proposes some theories as the base of micropolitics. Second, it discusses some dimensions and primary conceptions of micropolitics. Third, it addresses several problematic aspects regarding school micropolitics in which power, interest and policy activity become central foci. Finally, this article suggests some strategies to cope with problematic aspects regarding school micropolitics. 62 甲、前言台灣推行教育改革多年以來，造成學校生態的轉變，包括行政決策、集體協商、社區互動、課程設計與教學過程都呈現多元的參與及競爭的互動關係，學校場景中上演著人事職務角力、政治力介入、資源分配、尖峰對話、利益交換、權力運作、衝突處理等政治性的運作現象，這些變革過程中所產生的對話與論辯、乃至分裂與對立，再再突顯學校系統作為政治實體的表現。微觀政治學觀點可以在系統的任何階層中應用於每個單位團體，在教育方面被談到的對象經常是學校，這些政治行為發展和其他權力運作與衝突處理，已經重新燃起對學校內多面向權力和政治的興趣（Malen, 1995）。近年來，由於社會大眾對教育改革的日漸重視，以及官方與民間團體對教育改革的著力亦深，使得傳統校園的行政運作產生不同於以往的改變，有部分在以往校園中被無意遺忘或刻意忽略的觀點與課題，隨著教育改革理念的普及，而漸漸受到討論與重視。微觀政治學觀點陳述了明顯與隱含的過程，期望透過個人與團體在組織的立即環境中，獲得與運用權力來提昇並且保護他們的利益（Blase, 1991）。由於教育改革的盛行，為學校校園注入了許多參與的力量，隨著這些參與而來的，便是與政治運作相關的各種議題，在教育的運作上，學校已不能再以政治中立的藉口來忽視在學校運作的過程中，政治力的作用與所造成的影響。台灣近年來推動各項教育改革，各界紛紛描繪著學校改革進步之圖像，但在此同時，學校的生態也在決策、行政、課程、教學現場的互動中產生變化，政府官員、行政人員、教師、家長、學者時有交手，對於教育政策有著不同解讀與策略，由於角色立場互異，這種互動歷程展現出一種共同追求教育秩序所建構出的權力關係，在這些追求秩序的運作策略上，常常衍生出個人和團體的權力運作，基於維護利益的努力，往往形成衝突、資源分配及許多私人及公共的協議、決定、價值折衝等現象，儼然為學校微觀政治學的體現開啟一視窗。本文的目的，從教育改革中探究學校微觀政治運作相關理論、學校微觀政治學的面向與核心概念、學校微觀政治的概念、學校微觀政治運作面臨的問題，分析校園微觀政治行為，提示這些存在於學校間的權力、利益、政策活動，並提出校園微觀政治行為的具體策略，希望能增進對校園微觀政治行為的瞭解與認識。乙、學校微觀政治運作相關理論教育與政治的關係，即是這些觀點與課題中逐漸浮上檯面的一項，愈來愈多教育研究者開始注意到教育情境脈絡中，政治對教育所帶來的衝擊與影響，在教育中的政治問題，也以積極面對的處理方式取代過去迴避的心態。田培林（1988）曾指出：教育與政治型態的關係，極端複雜；教育的政治功能在於培養政治領導人才與滋育民主政治所必備的意識型態，由此可見，教育與政治 Keywords educational reform, micropolitical behavior, school micropolitics 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 63 是具有密不可分的關係。我們可以說，在教育情境脈絡中，沒有一件事是完全（或純粹）政治的，但是每一件事卻都或多或少與政治有關。如同 Kakabadse & Parker（1990）曾指出：組織內所發生的所有行為都屬於政治行為。由此可知，學校組織的運作中，無處不是政治。學校必然會具有政治的特性（schools are inevitably political）；學校必然的政治本質起源於學校教育的脈絡與社會化。Lindle（1999）指出學校是最能影響家庭及社區中私人現實的公共機構，儘管個人與學校的接觸增加，但由於對學校教育需求的增加與競爭，使得學校環境更加的政治化。隨著民主潮流之發展，各種政治活動已經擴散成為人與人之間的互動關係，不同組織也都逐漸發展出特有的政治型態，對於政治的定義多已朝向廣義的社會關係，而不限於國家事務，即使是教育組織也在各種文獻中展現其本質上（intrinsically）的政治特性，許多學者更發現，學校的運作雖然傾向行政模式，但仍然充滿各式的權力關係及衝突管理，學校儼然是一個政治系統（Blase, 1991; Bloom & Willett, 1991; Malen, 1995）。 Baldridge（1989）在討論學校政治運作的研究中，提出分析學校微觀政治運作的三個理論，包括：衝突理論（conflict theory）、社區權力理論（community power theory）、利益團體理論（interest group theory），這三個角度直接構成了學校的政治互動關係，以下對這三個理論予以說明：一、衝突理論衝突理論強調社會系統深受不同權力及利益、信念之影響而造成分立甚至對立，這不同分立的團體相互競爭、造成衝突，並且從衝突當中獲得利益，這種衝突鬥爭，也就是造成變革的基礎（Ball, 1987）。衝突理論應用在學校中，著重在檢視學校變革的面向而非安定的面向，並非企圖尋找共同的價值，而是體察不同團體的多元取向，不僅強調共識形成過程的競爭關係，更重視衝突的動力學及未形成共識的緣由，除了談系統的整體統合，也強調就系統中不同的壓力團體所扮演之競爭關係中，尋究權力變遷的歷程。總之，衝突理論提供了觀察學校衝突面向的角度。二、社區權力理論學校社區中不同團體對決策的影響是社區權力理論的關注重點，社區權力理論強調教育版圖將因社區權力運作的影響而有所重新劃分，對於學校的權力關係有相當重要的啟示：（1）社區權力理論對政治系統權力本質之研究，提供了學校中權力分佈的分析觀點，像學校中存在有何種權力、如何運用及形成影響等，這些問題透過社區權力理論的分析，有助於釐清學校權力結構。（2）政治領域中利益團體的互動關係之各種理論與實徵性研究，有助於瞭解與學校相關的內部及外部利益團體之關係，社區權力理論主張應對於學校利益團體更進一步理解。（3）社區權力理論強調目標設定活動（goal-setting activities），有別於以往對於學校組織運作較少關心目標之選定，而較重視手段—目標關聯來達成組織績效的取向不同，社區權力理論提示學校主事者，分析組織不同目標之間的競爭與變革，並從競爭中確立應有的目標。三、利益團體理論所謂利益團體係指具有共同態度的群體，是通過影響決策而向其他群體提出一定的利益要求或某種聲明的組織。學校的政治系統離不開利益團體的運作，包括內部團體的影響、外部團體的 64 影響、以及所引起之衝突與競爭、不同價值對衝突的影響、利益團體對學校設定目標活動歷程的影響等，都是學校政治學必須關注的問題。綜合而言，透過衝突理論、社區權力理論、利益團體理論三個角度描繪學校主要政治關係，學校很容易掌握各種變革互動的面向，透過這些角度，提供學校政治運作更清楚的權力關係分析以及妥適的衝突認識與處理。丙、學校微觀政治學的互動關係面向與核心概念一、學校微觀政治學的互動關係面向政治象徵廣義的互動關係，這種廣義的互動關係放在學校微觀政治學的脈絡中可以區分出以下幾個面向： 1. 政府與學校學校與其所受轄屬的主管教育行政機關一向關係密切，這種關係從行政學角度看來，是行政事務推展的必然結果，從政治學來看，則顯得複雜多變，包括課程決定、教育改革等由上而下政策及法規的支配、控制、監督，及由下而上的反應、回饋、感受等，並進而衍生合作、對立、懷疑、信任等不同型態的互動關係，或是責任歸屬移轉變化等，都是政治學所欲探討的對象。 2. 社區與學校 Corbert（1991）分析社區對學校的影響指出，社區是對學校發散外部影響的主要來源之一，包括家長、地方人士、民意代表、地方機構、團體等都會對學校提出期望，並展現對學校決策的影響力；越是強而有力並組織化的社區力量，對學校的影響力便越大，這些可能的關係包括合作、防衛、和諧、衝突、冷漠、熱情等，這種多樣化的關係對學校的影響，正逐漸擴大當中。 3. 學校決策過程在民主風潮及行政複雜度之影響下，促使決策越來越重視多元參與的集體智慧之行使，傳統決策模式已不再適用，取而代之的是公眾人物、社區代表、家長、教師、行政人員、校長等共組決策社群的方式來磋商共識之模式，雖然一般研究均認為經過民主程序之結果較具可行性，但決策的民主過程可能必須花費更多精力在取得共識，並且可能產生更多無法掌握的變數。 4. 學校日常人際關係日常生活或教學行政互動中，教師與教師、或教師與其它校園人物之關係相當多元（Blase & Anderson, 1995），其可能關係包括和善、支持、忠貞或是對立、衝突、對抗、嫉妒、懷疑等，各種傾向或態度均有可能產生，校園日常生活衍然便為一種社會關係的縮影，這些雖然只是校園中的日常表現，但其實對於校風及行政與教學推展均有極大的影響。 5. 教室互動不論新教育社會學或政治學，近來均關注於教學歷程的互動關係，教室中權力關係對教師與學生所造成不平等的地位，一向致使教學成為一種控制及評價的不均衡關係，在講求民主多元的時代中備受檢討，並逐漸轉向對學生主體性的重視及建構式活動的設計，在這當中，師生在教室內如何互動，並具有何種權力關係，也是學校政治學關心的重點。二、學校微觀政治學的核心概念學校政治學的主要概念是以權力（power）、在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 65 利益（interest）、政策（policy）為核心。首先，權力是探討學校群體在政治層面的組成型態與環境的整體關係，分析學校體制的互動與變化歷程，尤其是權力的運作；其次，利益是討論社會關係中政治運作的中介元素及其包含的價值、意識型態等；第三，政策則是談政治行為及其與環境互動所衍生的策略及所造成的結果，如決策、政治謀略等。其三者說明如下： 1. 權力權力的概念包括權威（authority）（組織中心，較少變化的權力）與影響力（influence）（更強而有力的社會權力），權力是一種影響力的發揮，權力的運作即是一群人（或一個人）對其他人具有影響力的程度。許籐繼（2001）將學者對權力的定義歸納為二類：（1）將權力視為能力或力量：權力即是在社會關係內實現個人意志的能力、社會交往中，權力主體支配客體的權力與能力、採取決定行動的合法性潛在能力、參與並實現決策的能力、一種影響力；（2）將權力視為一種關係：權力為一種相互作用控制關係、作用的交易關係與手段。 Foucault（1978）提出微觀權力或稱為權力的微觀政治（the micropolitics of power），將權力視是無所不在（omnipresent）、但又看不見整體（invisible），它在每個實點、每個空間都作用著，權力無所不在，不是因為權力擁抱所有東西，而是因為世界上所有的東西皆自權力而來。 Foucault 認為，權力隨時都可能在任何微細的地方產生，觀察權力必須始於微血管，而非心臟，他並形容道：權力是無所不在；不是因為它包含所有的事物，而是因為它來自各處……不是制度，不是結構，也不是財產權，它是我們在複雜策略情境中所給的一個稱號（Foucault, 1978）。因此，觀察學校權力關係往往是多元而動態的，可能在顯著的場景發現，也可能微而不顯。權力的運作和獲得是政治學的核心主軸，在學校中，權力存在於職權的相對關係中，包含各式各樣策略運作下的活動或表現，學校政治學的探討均相當關注權力的不同面貌，例如行動者的角色、運用的策略及其在正式與非正式情境中類似微妙的、隱藏的關係（Malen, 1995），這樣的過程往往印證，只要有社會互動關係，就會有權力的現象存在。但雖然所有社會現象都存在著權力的可能性，但權力也必須在施與受的對象之間發生互動關係時才會產生，同樣地，學校活動的權力關係在互動產生時，才會開始運作，這一套關係網絡筆者認為有幾個基本前提：其一，要有權力的主體和對象；其二，要有權力構成的關係；其三，要有一個權力競爭的場域，而且越是在多元開放的民主體制中越會刺激權力競爭，尤其當學校變革，其權力關係複雜、權力主體和對象眾多、競爭場域開放，最易產生權力不斷生成、消長與重組分配的變化。權力並非一成不變，也不盡然是單一中心，更非靜態的。每一個權力運作的機制都有其自己的歷史或軌跡，也有其場域及樣態，可能是區域或局部的，也可能是對抗或激烈的，並且在行使中動態消長演化。Popkewitz（1991）亦強調：誰掌握了權力，誰就擁有主導的力量。當權力發生作用，許多伴隨權力的利益便會浮現，並且透過不同形式展現影響力。所以，權力是一種生產性（productive）的運作，包括生產利益或揭露利益，並且權力的生產性也將重新建構權力，尤其藉由利益競爭及政策論述來流通和再生產權力的情形，更是分析權力時的重要面向，這種形成新利益，並且生產另一批權力的歷程，就是權力帶動學校利益競奪的不斷歷史。 66 2. 利益學校中的利益可能表彰某種思維傾向，也可能是志趣、偏好、價值、態度的整體呈現，除個體的願望表達，也包含團體的共同偏好。一般而言，學校中的利益團體並不像社會上的利益團體那麼具有鮮明的組織與訴求，因為學校到處標榜提升教育品質的宗旨，往往模糊了次級團體的利益訴求，所以利益大多在學校有所變革時才較易浮現（張德銳，1994）。事實上，在愈是多元參與愈能代表政治進步的政治邏輯下，學校已經走向開放多元利益競爭的局面，尋求在多元參與中取得更多支持與信任。由於利益來自於訴求或態度價值傾向，而這種傾向往往在變遷或變革的環境中最易浮現，並且透過權力的運作來爭取支持（張德銳， 1994）。決策的過程越是廣泛參與，利益便越是多元化，這種透過多元參與讓不同利益團體的訴求進入政策論辯的方式，相當於在刺激隱性的利益白熱化，而且越是在變動幅度大的情境中其活化的空間越大。當這些具有共同態度的群體展現利益傾向，對於決策必然會主張某種要求或聲明，他們會分別藉由團體力量訴求於思想信念或價值利潤、或爭取專業聲望（洪福財，1995）。除了利益的浮現之外，最值得觀察的是伴隨利益而來的權力競爭，多元參與必然形成權力間的多元互動，尤其在權力背後隱藏的利益，不斷讓權力作用更加激烈化，而政策的形成，就是在這種權力互動下進行磋商與妥協。這對傳統以來，一向以行政科層體制運作的學校而言，具有一定的威脅感，但這種多元複雜的利益團體及其運作，不但是當代學校決策過程所面臨最大的考驗，也已經是不可避免的挑戰。利益團體表態並付諸行動追求認同之後，為完成思維傾向的志趣，或訴諸某種信念來爭取認同，合法化是必然的一個過程（張佳琳， 2002），這種政治邏輯中有關利益合法化的歷程同樣在學校中發生。再者，多元利益參與學校各項決策，讓每一位參與者背後所持有的利益在互動過程中競爭，某些強勢利益則在權力的互動中得到正當化的地位，這種利益的分殊與多元網絡中，能夠真正發聲並取得正當性的，與主事者的偏好、參與者權力關係、決策類型及影響性有關，這個利益折衝的循環歷程便是：利益訴求→權力競爭→政策形成→行動方案→滿足利益→權力重組，這種循環，就是學校政治學的運作歷程。 3. 政策政策是指為解決問題或實現理想，經由政治過程所產出的方針、原則策略及措施。以往在行政學領域，相當重視作決定的程序，在政治學上，則聚焦在政治運作的權力，學校決策場域一方面是行政運作的活動，同時也是政治角力的歷程（秦夢群，1997），因此，學校決策不但是一種分配價值的決定與行動，政策形成也代表對某種利益的承諾。政策形成歷程一般而言有兩種取向：其一是民粹主義（populist）取向；另一種是專業菁英主義（professional elite）取向（張佳琳， 2002）。大眾主義傾向於擴大代表的多樣性，而專業精英主義取向則強調專業人士的主導。如前所述，當今學校強調多元參與，這種多元取向下的政策形成歷程，包括組成決策社群（policy community）、決定方向、制定計畫及執行策略，然後加以執行、建立回饋管道，這當中充滿了價值的磋商，而政策結果也是由一定程序所建構起對價值分配的同意，在參與過程的開放互動下所得到的同意結果，往往以具有利益之優先性者取在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 67 代成為共同利益。價值問題經過納入政策議程之程序後，尚需要一個合法化（policy legalization）的過程才能稱為正式的政策（張佳琳，2002）。所謂政策合法化是指經政策規劃上升為法律或獲得合法地位的過程；法制的合法化是政策的重要條件，也是賦予利益穩定性、連續性、權威性和有效性的保證。所以，除了消極要求政策的適法性之外，利益團體也往往要求透過法制化的策略來確保利益的實踐。丁、學校政治運作面臨的問題與因應策略就政治的一般特徵而言：政治是政府的藝術、政治是公共事務、政治是妥協與共識、政治是權力與資源的分配、政治即衝突、政治衝突是團體衝突（Ranney, 1992; Heywood, 1999）。雖然學校已經朝向政治型態發展，但這並非意味著學校政治學必然是樂觀可期，事實上有很多問題正是學校政治學所必須面對的挑戰，面對複雜、競爭的需求，長期的資源短缺，不清楚的技術，不確定的支持和牽涉到價值理念的議題，學校面臨困難及分裂不合的分配選擇（Malen, 1995）；如同在其它政體裡，學校的行動者管理內部的衝突，並且透過各式各樣的政治過程和權力的運作方法，在各種領域中做分配的決定（Malen, 1995）。本文針對學校政治運作面臨的問題與因應策略，提出以下的看法：一、政治中立面臨的問題與因應策略學校校園中所具有的政治特性，長久以來被刻意的隱藏及忽視，以過分單純或簡化的心態來處理學校中與政治有關的事務，此種表面上政治中立的作法，看似合理而義正辭嚴，然而仔細思索，學校中的事務的確與政治脫離不了關係。政治中立理念的興起，乃是政黨政治成熟後，必然衍生的人事行政規範，其與政黨政治間，始終保持著密不可分的關係（蔡璧煌，2008）。一般而言，學校的行政具有連續性及專業性的特徵，故應強調穩定和效率。所以，學校行政系統必須保持政治中立的立場，才能避免受到政爭的干擾，落實行政不隨政權更迭而永續存在目的。或許有人會提出質疑，認為依據台灣教育基本法第六條的規定：教育應本中立原則。學校不得為特定政治團體或宗教信仰從事宣傳，主管教育行政機關及學校亦不得強迫學校行政人員、教師及學生參加任何政治團體或宗教活動。因此，學校是必須抱持政治中立的原則，不應論及政治；儘管如此，此條文所規範的是學校應避免淪為只是為政治服務的工具。但是，綜觀學校中組織的運作，例如：校長的遴選、教職員的遴聘、民意代表的關說、人事的遴聘、選舉要求教育人員支持表態等，卻無可避免地會受到政治行為的影響。上述政治中立雖在實務上呈現若干問題，然教育人員所需發展的因應策略，乃應採取高道德標準，以良心為行事的準據，嚴守政治中立，不偏某一政黨或政治團體，不受利益團體影響，或圖謀個人私利，且不受價值理念影響，並且重視公共利益、公平正義、弱勢關懷、自主性等論述，強調在利益多元化及各勢力競爭、權力運作下，應以公共利益為行政裁量的考量。學校遴聘人員及執行政策時，應本公平一致的標準，對任何個人、團體或黨派均一視同仁；並且透過法制規範、價值觀培養、行政政倫理要求、溝通橋樑建立、迴避利益團體關說、教育訓練等方式來規範學校成員的政治行為；同時明文規定教職員工的任免和考核，均屬學校教評會與考核委員會之權責， 68 避免政治性的干預，從制度面、運作面及宣導面同時著手，確保校園行政中立的落實。二、政治教育面臨的問題與因應策略凌渝郎（1994）認為：學校是接受正式教育之場所……在學校除了學習其他知識外，對國家之認同、政府之組織功能、政治理念等均會教到。在現代普及教育原則下，當幼童進入學校後，第一感受的是所有家庭之特殊地位已不存在，並發現自己只是群體中的一份子而已，需像其他人一樣遵守學校的校規，使未來社會的成員養成社會順從的習慣，也是準備學生將來進入社會能養成適應環境的好公民。由此可知，透過教育情境中所包含的政治性活動與作為，能讓學生在校園中學習民主政治的思想，以為未來民主社會作準備。校園中經常可見此類之政治教育活動，如學生自治活動、民主精神教育以及過去的愛國教育（演講、壁報比賽）等。此外，政府希望透過教育的內容，來培育人民的政治素養與政治傾向，正如田培林（1988）所言：人民教育程度的高低及所受的內容，都與民主政治密切相關。在這個層面上，提升教育程度與加強政治教育成為達成此目標的主要工作。在教育的內容中，政治問題會出現在課程教材的內容之中，此類課程重點在於企圖藉由課程的編排，使得學生直接或間接地學習到執政政府所欲傳達與培育的政治思想；或者企圖透過在課程中刻意隱藏部分的歷史與政治的事件，以達到控制思想的目的。此類之課程包括與政治有關的潛在課程或隱藏課程，如：昔日課本中有關政府領導者的民族英雄偶像塑造（魚兒逆流而上的故事）、課本中對二二八事件的隱藏、吳鳳事件的族群爭議以及教師在課堂上談論選舉事件或對候選人及政黨進行批判等不當政治行為等，這些都會使學生在政治教育的學習上，蒙上泛政治化的意識型態，並且受到不同政黨的政治立場干擾，並非真正落實政治教育的素養。為了因應上述政治教育面臨的若干問題，教育人員應發展的因應策略，可以就四方面來說明：第一，就課程教材中的政治教育而言，在設計與規劃時，應該避免意識型態與政治立場的干擾，在政治教育課程內容的設計與安排上，應補充有關政治運作、政治參與、分享決策等內容；第二，在政治教育技能方面，應適切的將智力技能、民主法治教育、議事規程等編入課程；第三，在政治教育知識方面，應融入遵守法律與規則的現代法治精神；第四，在態度、價值方面，應強調國家集體意識、認同感的愛國心等合理政治信念。因此，在校園的課程教材內容設計與規劃上，不可忽視或否認政治影響力的存在，同時嚴格要求教師保持政治中立的原則，並鼓勵成員不斷進德修業，提升課程設計的專業知能。三、尋求變革面臨的問題與因應策略改革必然引發價值衝突、權力重組及政策變動等挑戰，在一般學校改革的現場，處處可見競爭、合作等不同關係，不論是策略性合作關係，甚至採取對立衝突的對抗，都挑戰著學校主事者應變危機之能力（秦夢群，1997）。近年來，接踵而來相關教育法令或規定，包括師資培育法、教師法、修訂國民教育法、教育基本法、國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要等，逐年陸續公佈。同時，因為配合法令規定及鬆綁開放的教育改革訴求，於是校園裡出現了傳統行政科層之外的正式次級組織，例如家長會、教師會、教師評審委員會、學校課程發展委員會等。也出現過去所沒有的新措施，包括校長遴選、校務會議法制化、教科書開放選購等，均致使學校性質在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 69 與功能激烈轉變，校園生態也產生巨大變化。此外，九年一貫課程政策，彈性的教學時數、學校本位課程、學習領域取代學科教學、協同教學取代教室王國、配合能力指標概念的教學活動設計等，挑戰舊有學校教學觀念。學校課程發展委員會和各學習領域小組，也動搖校園傳統權力結構，震撼昔日寧靜保守校園，解構傳統的學校組織文化。檢視目前這一波教育改革，在教育政策及相關法令規定上，一方面賦予學校本位管理的自主權，另一方面增進家長與教師學校事務決策的參與權，加上學校組織鬆散結合及雙重系統的特性，致使學校裡處處充滿次級團體、與個人需求、和角色扮演上的衝突，以及決策權力爭奪的人際互動與競爭，從微觀政治學觀點，學校是在持續的競爭衝突中革新和進步。然而，今日對教育改革的期望日增，使得學校更加的政治化，且與其所在社區的關係益形密切（林靜茹， 1993）。就從事學校微觀政治行為者而言，他們透過運用其權力與影響力，以及對衝突的掌握與解決，來取得其欲得之利益與目的。因應上述學校組織尋求變革所面臨的若干問題，教育人員應發展的因應策略，可以思考幾個方向來努力。其一，學校在尋求變革方面，必須透過團隊運作機制，鼓勵教師協同合作；其二，善用社區人力與資源，提高學校革新的成效；設立家長參與校務管道，改善學校與家長互動關係；其三，同時要積極倡導校園倫理，改善學校組織文化，促進學校成員間人際關係的和諧，提高成員工作滿意度和對學校凝聚力，以增進學校革新動力，提高革新成效。其四，學校革新政策或方案的制定與推動，必須設置保護條款，適度保障成員的既有利益，提供符合成員期望的獎勵，適時提供技術諮商與協助解決問題；其五，學校必須透過論述平臺，建構公開平等的對話機制，讓每位成員均可自由表達意見，以改進學校成員溝通互動之團體歷程，增進成員服務士氣及其對學校革新的擁有感和參與感，以提高學校革新動力和效果。最終目的乃透過彰權賦能（empowerment），在分享的權力運作中，促進學校人員對話論述與合作協調之動態交互作用，增進教師自主性，促進教師成長，使之具有革新的能力、機會和意願，主動涉入革新規劃，加速學校革新推動。四、行政決策面臨的問題與因應策略決策是行政歷程的中心所在，決策更是任何行政運作成敗的重要關鍵（吳清基，1989）；學者秦夢群（1997）亦指出，在時代的民主潮流下，不同團體對行政決策具有相當程度的影響，教育組織的各方力量參與決策之制定已勢不可擋。而政治決策模式（political decision making），乃在解決具有高度爭議性問題，邀請各方利益團體進行談判，經折衝後做出各方雖不滿意，但可以接受的決策。隨著教育改革如火如荼的施行，教育鬆綁正是教育改革的重點之一，在校園民主化的發展趨勢下，參與校務、分享決策以追求優質之教育績效，在校園權力結構丕變之際，已成為學校政治運作的重要模式，學校內外有著許多不同價值與目標的團體，在學校經營自主權的下放及教師專業自主權的保障，家長校務參與權的倡議，再再顯示學校自主經營決策權範圍之擴大，不同利益團體已經合法化進入校園行政決策的核心，如學校校務會議已是國民中小學教師參與之最高權力機制；教評會已是學校人事進用唯一管道；家長會更是影響學校行政決策的強大力量，例如台灣高雄市之〈高雄市國民中小學校務會議實施要點〉，明定校務會議置代表十七至五十一人，其 70 中家長會代表，其人數不得少於代表總額三分之一（陳幸仁，2008a）。因應上述學校行政決策所面臨的若干問題，教育人員應發展的因應策略，可以從教師參與決策和家長參與決策這兩個方向來著眼。其一，教師對學校行政決策滿意度攸關學校團隊組織發展，基此教師應落實專業學習，追求教師終身成長，進而對學校行政決策能有較深入瞭解，同時學習參與、分享創見、放下成見、捐棄偏見，調整觀念、拿出行動，為校務發展及行政施為，參與決策，貢獻心力，提供有利、有益之校務意見，以提昇決策品質及深度，進而達成教育目標。其二，教育人員應體認家長是學校教育重要合夥人，也是學生學習成長的重要他人，學校教育沒有家庭教育的配合常是事倍功半，而且學校教育資源來自社區，家長之人力、物力、財力是學校重要支柱。學校行政決策與家長有利害關係，且其具備決策內容的專門知識時，務必邀請家長參與決策，透過共同決策所訂定的法令與規章更具有客觀代表性，於執行時才不致於意見分歧、導致衝突。故此學校應提供家長參與機會及角色行為轉化，以促進雙方瞭解，進而辦好學校教育，在決策歷程中，融合溝通說服、教育成長和價值統合之策略，透過對話、論述和辯證，進行批判實踐知識，凝聚成員共識，增進成員對行政決策的認同感，而且在決策歷程中每一個成員都有相同的參與表達意見機會，都平等發出聲音影響決策形成。五、學校組織權力運作面臨的問題與因應策略學校組織的權力運作的確與政治關係密切，亦即學校權力的運作即是政治行為的運作，也就是微觀政治行為的表現（謝文全，1987）。權力乃是行政領導運作要素之一，領導是藉著影響力，引導組織成員的努力方向使彼此同心協力齊赴目標的歷程。學校校園中關於權力運作方面的微觀政治行為問題，可從以下論述來加以分析探究。學校組織的內部與外部，包括許多的個人、組織與團體，這些個人與團體組織共同分享校園的權力，共同構成學校權力的結構（張明輝， 1999）。學校中的權力結構，在個人方面包括：校長、教師、個別家長及民意代表等；組織與團體方面包括：教師會、家長會、教評會、校務會議、社區人士，以及校園中的各種派系團體與利益團體等，這些權力結構彼此之間的關係與互動，即是一種微觀政治的表現，也影響學校的運作模式、行政決策與發展方向。陳幸仁（2008b）曾以一所小學教師會為個案研究，研究發現顯示教師會能強化教師與行政人員協商權力，但也發生教師會幹部與行政人員的利益衝突。近年來，由於教育改革的實施，如：教師會與教評會的成立、家長會地位的提升、校長遴選制度、學校本位管理的實施等，使得校園中的權力，產生了變化，權力開始重新組合、建構，而如此之權力重組的過程、重組的結果及重組的影響等，便成為組織中政治角力之所在。學校組織中的微觀政治行為，部份表現於組織中權力的運作，由於學校組織中權力的運作，使得政治行為問題得以在其中找到著力點。今日，教育儼然成為社區與政府、老師、家長與學校行政人員間更加公然競爭的領域，學校更加明顯地成為這些競爭的政治競技場，無論是在學校的內部社群（校長、行政人員、教師與學生）之中，或在學校與外部社群（家長、社區人士、民意代表、教育行政機關）之間，均存在著此種政治權力運作的關係。因應上述學校權力運作所面臨的若干問題，在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 71 教育人員應發展的因應策略，首先必須洞悉當前革新學校權力運作的趨勢，此可由歐用生（1999）的論述中進一步獲得體認：新的規範是改變權力分配的方式，由階層的、集中的權威結構，朝向分權的、包容和民主的結構。經由權力的重新分配和分權，階層結構日漸扁平化，每一個參與者都有發言的空間，都可自由的、積極的表達自己的想法；每一個學校都有獨自的權力基礎、權力關係，和明顯的、隱含的權力表現方式。因此，更具體的因應作法，乃配合教師法、國民教育法及家長參與教育辦法的實施，校務行政運作應力求民主公開的行政作業程序，開放參與透明化，落實學校本位管理的理想，讓教師家長甚至學生都能貢獻心力，並重視集體議決的機能，追求共同領導的機制，促進校園民主化，以合作互助取代監督制衡的理想體制，這樣才能落實學校生命共同體的理念。此外，近年來校園民主已逐漸在各級學校形成風氣，學校組織從單純的學校行政組織轉化成為學校部門、教師會和家長會等邊三角形的組織架構，校長、教師和家長在學校中的角色及其互動關係，都產生變化（張明輝，1999）。因此，尊重教師專業自主與家長參與教育是時勢所趨，賦權以提高教學品質，爭取家長對學校教育的支持，適時調整傳統權力集中化運作的模式，共塑學校生命共同體的理念，並且以學生的學習與發展為最後依歸，三者彼此合作，結成教育夥伴關係，分享決策權力，分擔教育責任，做推動校務的有力支柱，正是教育改革成敗的重要關鍵。六、學校組織衝突處理面臨的問題與因應策略學校組織中的微觀政治行為，除表現在權力的運作外，尚會出現在組織衝突的處理與管理上。依據 Robbins（1974）的研究，任何組織都存在人際、群際的互動，既然有互動就可能帶來衝突。由此可見，人際間的接觸，隨著時代的改變而日趨頻繁，而社會民主化的腳步，也促使衝突的頻率愈來愈高。校園衝突係指學校成員或團體間，因目標、認知、情緒和行為之不同，而產生矛盾對立的互動歷程。微觀政治中關於衝突的概念，包括將衝突視為持續地不協調（disharmony），以及將衝突視為組織功能失調（dysfunction）的證據。因此，如何正確看待衝突的形成，進而予以化解，甚至使衝突轉變為合作，是現代人必須學習的課題。以下針對校園中衝突處理的微觀政治行為問題，提出如下的看法：學校內的資源及利益有限，相對地並非所有的個人與團體均能獲得其認為應獲得的資源或利益，因而彼此之間便會產生衝突（蔡進雄， 1997）。關於資源的衝突，大致而言來自於兩個方面：其一為資源之不足、其二為資源分配不均。不足的資源必定引起爭奪，爭奪則必產生衝突；再者不論資源是否充足，只要資源分配不均，集中於少數個人或團體時，未握有資源的個人或團體也會起而爭之，衝突必定隨之產生。因此，學校中資源或利益衝突的處理為學校微觀政治問題之焦點，究竟誰是擁有者及誰是受影響者，也就是說哪些個人或團體是資源的強勢者，哪些是資源的弱勢者，而強勢者與弱勢者產生如何之衝突，以及衝突如何獲得解決等。此外，學校組織中的權力結構頗為複雜，這些結構彼此之間的互動關係構成了學校組織的網絡（張明輝，1999）。由於學校組織互動網絡的多樣，使得彼此之間的人際或角色衝突便屢見不鮮，學校組織中的個人與團體，在與其他個人和團體接觸互動時，難免會產生摩擦，而其在面對其他個人或團體時，對自己所應扮演的角色，也 72 會產生自我角色衝突的狀況。學校中重要的人際關係網絡包括：學校與社區、派系團體間（教師間）、教師與家長、校長與教師、校長與家長、教師與教師會、教師會與家長會、教師與學生、校長與民意代表、校長與地方人士等。在探討學校微觀政治時，我們所關心的焦點在於學校組織的各個結構，彼此之間有哪些人際衝突與角色衝突。例如：近年教師會及家長會等團體的快迅篡升，在不同的理念間，或多或少爆發與以往截然不同的衝突類型或規模，因此學校行政人員在面對以及處理衝突上，遭受空前的考驗。再者，在學校教育情境中，另有一類的衝突來自於意見與文化的差異，亦即因為不同的個人或團體間的價值觀與文化背景之不同，使得彼此所持的立場與所提的意見有分歧，進而產生意見上的衝突（張鐸嚴，1985）。例如：九年一貫的推行、導護的執行，因每個人所站的角度不同，而有不同的意見，如果學校未妥善處理，往往造成行政與教師意見相左。綜合言之，學校情境中充滿了政治性的問題，因此學校被稱為政治的競技場，這對過去研究學校教育的學者而言是不可能的、是不正確的，過去的學者忽略了學校教育的政治面，並將這個層面的議題視為學校的黑暗面，因此刻意不去碰觸此類的問題。然而，此種刻意迴避的態度並沒有為學校教育帶來福祉，由於此種鴕鳥心態，使得從事學校教育工作者習於忽略學校情境中微觀政治行為的問題，而以過度理想化的觀點來看學校中的事務，因而使得理論與實務產生落差。此外，學校中不論是強調辯證的、策略的、衝突的、意識型態的面向，或和諧、友善、合作之面向，都會運用權力和資源的分配作為管理衝突的策略，其中資源、服務、獎賞、持分的分配都是重要的手段（Malen, 1995），面臨變革，與其隱蔽權力關係，或只在討論過程談一些安全議題，不如正視權力關係的影響力與對衝突之處理，並透過結合資源、服務、獎賞、持分等策略，營造參與式的民主管理機制，使政策推動在一種合法權力運作的過程中，達成社區共治的功能。由此可見，從學校微觀政治學探究校園權力運作與衝突處理有其必要性與價值的。因應上述學校組織衝突所面臨的若干問題，教育人員應發展的因應策略，首先必須有正確的觀念，看待衝突並非全然都對組織有害，學校衝突發生即代表學校的運作存在某些問題，應積極尋求解決之道，以維護學校有效的運作與發展。學校中各種活動及功能都是經由成員彼此間的互動而產生，平日應培養和諧開放的學校氣氛，安排各種正式與非正式的活動，來增進學校成員間的交流，瞭解和友誼，減少成員之間因為溝通不良所產生的誤解和隔闔，有時修正組織結構、妥善分派人員職務與工作，可以預防衝突的發生。當衝突發生時做出適當的處理，瞭解衝突發生的真正原因，透過直接對談、坦誠溝通及綜合雙方意見，共同尋求解決的途徑。其次，行政人員平時則應多主動關懷教師，協助教師解決困難，在正式的關係中不忘非正式關係的維持，在倡導情境中應從旁關懷，在工作導向中兼顧關係導向的並行運作，教師發牢騷或埋怨時，能以開放的心胸傾聽教師的心聲，並藉此反省檢討，以減少與教師之間的疏離感。同時，行政人員應加強和教師與家長之間的溝通，利用各種溝通管道和媒介來增進彼此之間的瞭解，並對於教師與家長的質疑進行充分的解釋，避免因不必要的誤會和隔閡而引起衝突，並把握溝通的各項心理、社會基礎，給予教師與家長充分的機會表達個人意見。學校的各種資訊，無論是教育在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 73 參考文獻田培林（1988）。《教育學新論》。台北：文景。吳清基（1989）。《教育與行政》。台北：師大書苑。林靜茹（1993）。〈國民中學長人際衝突管理及其相關因素之研究〉。《國立高雄師範大學教育研究所碩士論文》。台北。洪福財（1995）。〈學校組織衝突成因及其因應策略〉。《教育資料文摘》，214，171-190。凌渝郎（1994）。《政治學》。初版。台北：三民。秦夢群（1997）。《教育行政──理論部分》。台北：五南。張佳琳（2002）。《課程改革：政治社會學取向》。台北：師大書苑。張明輝（1999）。《學校教育與行政革新研究》。台北：師大書苑。張德銳（1994）。《教育行政研究》。台北：五南。張鐸嚴（1985）。〈國民小學教師與行政人員間衝突管理之研究〉。《國立台灣師範大學教育研究所碩士論文》。台北。政策或行政命令的轉達、學校行事之訊息以及與教師權益息息相關的人事法規，均應掌握時效，讓教師能充分的瞭解。此外，非正式組織是正式組織的一些成員，由於工作、興趣、利益、情誼等關係，彼此發生互動互助，產生感情與認同而自然結合成的團體（謝文全，1987），其對成員的影響力，有時遠大於正式組織。因此，運用非正式組織，凝聚同仁情感；倘若學校中各處室間或老師間產生衝突時，亦可妥善運用非正式組織，將可使衝突減輕至最低程度。最後，學校另應建立一套公平並能為教師與行政人員所共同接受的衝突管理辦法或原則，根據這個辦法或原則來解決教師和行政人員的衝突，一方面可以減少校園衝突的發生，同時也因辦法或原則的確立，而增加衝突管理的效率。此外，學校資源含人力（如教師、職員、工友、家長、義工等）、物力（如教學運動器材和設備、圖書等）及財力（經費），合理均等的分配給各處室或教職員工，使其能有效分享與運用資源，不致於為有限資源而產生不必要的競爭衝突。戊、結語為釐清這些學校政治行為，以及尋究學校政治學的主要發展脈絡，本文從學校微觀政治學探究校園微觀政治行為，透過相關的研究文獻分析學校微觀政治學的核心概念，提供對學校政治行為的觀察角度與不同課題之思考。這些對於學校微觀政治的概念認知，有助於分析學校環境中許多複雜的變革、議題、資源、利益、決策等困難和問題，賦予學校運作更積極的態度和具體的策略，並且提示學校應透過政治的剖析強化專業處理的可能性，而非尋求逃避之途。也正由於如此，學校應該有更為開放的機制對相關因素加以衡平考量、妥適安置，除了校內之關係，也必須就社會各領域的影響力量進行檢視，妥善運用介入的勢力，對滲透於學校間的不同利益進行溝通與轉化，重塑學校文化及行政運作模式，進而將多元力量轉變成為協助學校革新成功的資源。 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 75 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分：以倫敦市博物館為例 Redistribution of rights and responsibilities in utilizing citizenship education resources in the community: The case of Museum of London 葉王蓓華東師範大學政治學系摘要在課程分權的背景下，如何有效開發、使用社區中的課程資源，已經成為當下倍受關注的話題。本文通過介紹倫敦市博物館配合國家公民教育課程計畫，製作相關課程資源的嘗試，指出社區公民教育資源開發的過程中，涉及權利、責任的重新劃分：首先，課程分權並不意味必定減少中央力量的影響。適當的中央介入，可以轉變博物館的傳統角色，協調不同的部門，從而發掘緊密聯繫學校教學、公平分配的課程資源。其次，課程分權不僅意味學校，也包括社區獲得更多權利。博物館可以成為課程決策者，根據其強調寓教於樂的學習傳統，為學生提供真實、做中學的公民教育課程。另外，社區組織與學校合作，協助教師教學的全過程，能更進一步確保學生使用社區教育資源的成效。關鍵詞社區教育資源，公民教育，權利與責任，倫敦市博物館 Abstract How to effectively explore, utilize educational resources in the community, is a major concern against the curriculum decentralization context. This article uses the experience of Museum of London, argues that linking community resources to schools involves the redistribution of rights and responsibilities. Firstly, curriculum decentralization doesn’t mean excluding the state. State can change museums’ traditional role, co-ordinate the other institutions, thus explore educational resources closely relevant 76 to school curricula and ensure the resource distribution equity. Secondly, curriculum decentralization doesn’t mean decentralizing power to schools alone but also to the community. The museum can work as an active curriculum maker. Based on its “edutainment” learning tradition, the museum plays a key role in developing citizenship education curricula featured with play and learning. Besides, collaboration between museum and school teachers can further enhance students’ learning outcomes. Keywords educational resource in community, citizenship education, right and responsibility, Museum of London 引言近 30 年來，跟隨世界教育改革的趨勢，課程分權（curriculum decentralization）成為亞洲國家、地區教育改革的重要措施（Mok, 2003）。這一全球趨勢背後的理念認為：課程分權可以增加學校和當地社區、商界等的聯繫，從而更有效地提高地方課程資源的利用率。然而有趣的是，在亞洲國家，尋找、開發、使用社區課程資源，卻被視為課程分權遇到的最大的困難之一（International Bureau of Education, 2005）。在日漸強調參與社區的公民教育課程中，這一困難顯得更為突出。眾多社區公民教育資源，比如博物館、圖書館、文化中心、中國內地的愛國主義教育基地等，在課程分權背景下並沒有被善加利用，有的還出現越來越少學生光顧的情況。究其原因，一方面是博物館等社區資源與學校改革脫節，以致於學生不能從參觀中學習，學校則僅僅把參觀作為一種調劑的方式（Chee, 2003）；另外一方面，博物館等社區資源沒有更新展出方式、形式，不能吸引學生。內地愛國主義教育基地的展覽方式甚至被批評為呆板的「玻璃 + 櫥窗」（林建芳，2003）。這與亞洲地區長期集權的傳統有關。教育分權，是相對比較新的現象。至今，許多學校、教師仍在努力適應課程分權帶來的角色變化。而教育系統之外，社區如何分享權利與承擔責任，更缺少深入探討（Björk, 2006）。雖然，也有學者注意到社區在提供教育資源方面的重要性，並建議學校社區化、社區學校化、以及社區資源整合（袁國明，2001）。近來的研究，也有介紹社區資源開發的經驗（見吳國志，2010）。但是，如 King & Guerra（2005）的研究指出：亞洲地區分權不完整，一些國家僅僅把教育財政責任、提供教育服務的責任下放，卻並沒有給地方、學校提供相應的權威和資源，也無法保證教育資源分配的公平性；同時，分權僅僅把權力劃分給不同層級政府、部門、學校，卻缺少相互間的合作，引起很多混亂和困惑。就這一問題，本文以倫敦市博物館製作的中學公民教育課程資源 1 為例，並分析相關線上課程資源、倫敦市博物館年度報告及倫敦市博物館學校事務協調處提供的中學回饋問卷數據等材料。本研究試圖指出，分權背景下社區課程資源開發的議題，其實涉及政府、學校、社區之間權利與責任的重新劃分。而倫敦市博物館的例子，為我們開發、使用社區公民教育資源提供三點經社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分：以倫敦市博物館為例 77 驗：第一，課程分權並不一定意味減少中央力量的參與。由於英國政府政策的引導和支援，博物館進行服務角色的轉化，從而提高了社區課程資源的可親近性、針對性、和公平性。第二，社區課程資源開發的主體，未必一定是學校教師，社區也可以直接開發課程。倫敦市博物館借助於它本身的優勢，為學生提供真實、在做中學的公民教育學習機會。第三，學校與社區之間不僅需要分工，更需要合作，才可以加強學生學習社區教育資源的學習效果。政府介入：發掘、引導和公平分配博物館公民教育資源自文藝復興以來，西方的博物館逐漸成為國家文化的代表，培育國民身份認同的重要機構（Macdonald, 2003）。作為世界上最大的城市博物館，倫敦市博物館由三個分館組成，藏有兩百多萬件藏品，跨越了一百萬年歷史。無疑是社區中，能為學校提供豐富公民教育資源的機構。然而，早在上個世紀 20 年代，英國學者就發現，優秀博物館資源很少為學校教學所用的問題（Shann, 1920）。根據 Hooper-Greenhill （2007）對英格蘭博物館和學校的研究，博物館的主要參觀人群是受過良好教育的中上層白人社會。而博物館更偏重根據權威，如博物館員、學者、專家的判斷決定博物館的發展方向（Eliean Hooper-Greenhill, 1999）。到上個世紀末，David Anderson（1997）在《共同福利》報告指出，仍然有半數以上英國博物館沒有開設和學校學習相關的項目。這些，都影響了博物館在支持學校公民教育上積極的表現。為了引導博物館資源為學校公民教育服務，首先，英國政府通過制定政策，一方面轉變博物館權威的傳統文化，促成其由關注物品（object- oriented）向關注觀眾需要（audience-oriented）的轉變。英國政府在其文化政策中重新定義「博物館」指出，博物館是「關於物品，為了人民」（Department for Culture Media and Sport, 2000）。並對博物館提供的公眾服務品質，進行評估。另一方面，明確提出博物館要服務學校教育的要求。國家課程裡提出博物館要考慮如何滿足孩子、教師與國家的需要。尤其要致力於公民教育：促進社會和文化的融合。其次，英國政府通過財政支持和協調不同部門的合作，保證博物館課程資源能夠針對性地服務學校教學、確保教育資源配置的公平。倫敦市博物館在政府博物館、圖書館、檔案館評議會（MLA）的「文藝復興」計畫（Renaissance Programme）資助下，根據國家課程計畫規定的科目和年級編制學習手冊、建立線上學習資源庫。線上資源庫中 59 個資源（資源庫總共 73 個文件）與學校公民教育《公民》、《個人、社會、經濟和健康教育》課程相關。製作這些學校學習資源的開銷占博物館 2009-2010 年度開銷的 15% 左右（Museum of London, 2010）。在關注公平性上，倫敦市博物館為特殊需要的學生和學校提供專門的課程資源，也可以親自到學校提供服務。並且，盡力降低學校參觀博物館的 1 本文所分析的材料為《倫敦市博物館 ‧ 倫敦市博物館（碼頭區）中學學習項目 2010-2011》 (Learning Programme for Secondary Schools 2010-11, Museum of London, Museum of Docklands)。 78 費用：倫敦市的學校參觀、使用倫敦市博物館開發的課程資源、服務全部免費。倫敦市交通部門，為參觀博物館的學校提供免費乘坐巴士、地鐵的服務。另外，倫敦市博物館 2009 年建立核心學習中心，確保學校使用教學設備方面的基本公平。參觀的學校在博物館內都有充分的空間、設備學習博物館開發的課程資源：提供設有舞臺的大劇院，保證角色扮演等教學活動的空間；提供多樣的電子教學設備，並支持電子相機、攝像機、手持遊戲機、ipod 和手機使用博物館開發的教育資源。博物館開發公民教育資源：另一種學習體驗同樣作為學習、文化機構，博物館與學校提供的學習體驗相當不同。博物館內的學習自由、立體、複雜、真實與豐富。學校教師使用的課堂教學方法，被認為不能適應博物館的學習，甚至還可能阻礙博物館內的學習（Olson, 1999）。近 30 年來的研究指出，博物館的學習，不同於簡單、單向、線性的學習模式，代表另外一種學習模式的視角，比如建構主義、多元智能理論、社會文化的視角（Falk, 2004）。Hooper-Greenhill （2007）用「寓教於樂」（edutainment）這個詞語來總結博物館的學習體驗。倫敦市博物館開發的公民教育課程資源，圍繞中學公民教育課程計畫的關鍵概念：民主與正義、責任與權利、多元與統一，成為有教養、負責任、能採取行動的公民，發揮了博物館學習模式的優勢。一方面，提供逼真的學習環境。Griffin & Symington（1997）指出，越來越多的博物館採用多樣的媒體和方式陳列展品引起參觀者的興趣。倫敦市博物館採用了三維空間設計、真實復原、多媒體等方式，呈現展品。比如，《倫敦市博物館，倫敦市博物館（碼頭區）中學學習項目 2010-2011》這麼介紹倫敦市博物館（碼頭區）「1840-1850 年倫敦水手小鎮」的陳列：走進黑色的巷子探險，那裡有維多利亞街頭一樣的燈光、聲音、甚至氣味！路過異國情調的百貨商店、雜貨店、和水手的寓所。然後，我們再去三個水手酒吧小坐（p.6）。倫敦市博物館在介紹歷史人物、事件方面，則常常讓職員扮演某些角色，在表演的過程中和學生互動、對話，並讓學生在這個過程裡進行批判思考。在《婦女參政論權者》這一教程裡，博物館職員扮演歷史人物 Kitty Marion2，通過互動戲劇表演，告訴學生婦女參政論權者絕食、罷工，被強迫進食的事情，以及她本人為何爭取婦女選舉權。學生則可以向扮演者提問，討論選舉權在民主進程，以及選舉過程中的意義。另一方面，倫敦市博物館採用杜威「在做中學」的思路組織教學活動。通過豐富多樣的教學方法，讓學生在玩的過程裡學習、實踐公民教育的知識、技巧、態度。館內學習不僅僅局限於介紹知識的活動：博物館職員的介紹、博物館內參觀。館內學習更強調學習的過程，更多的採用如 2 20 世紀初，參加激婦女參政運動的一名女演員。社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分：以倫敦市博物館為例 79 下教學活動：舞蹈、戲劇、表演、寫作工作坊、辯論、演講、展品接觸。通過不同教學方法之間的互相配合，給學生提供互動、自主的學習體驗。例如，在《我是一個倫敦人嗎？》該教程裡，為了幫助學生瞭解公民教育的概念：民主與公正、認同與多元，首先通過印度舞蹈的工作坊，引發學生思考，是什麼因素，將多元的倫敦社區聯繫起來，並創造了跨文化的表演藝術？接著，開始創意寫作工作坊，學生反思他們自身文化是如何影響他們生活的地方。然後，館內參觀會帶領學生關注，自羅馬人入侵時代以來，倫敦人從何而來，由什麼人構成，以及如何變化？教師、博物館合作：社區公民教育學習的鞏固與發展一直以來，學校和博物館合作有限影響博物館學習的成效。學校、教師在發掘博物館學習資源時，缺少專業知識、時間來準備學習材料，常常把博物館的參觀活動視為學校學習的調節，以致博物館參觀對學習正式課程的幫助並不直接。博物館則很少吸收學校教師參與博物館課程資源的開發，以致缺少聯繫學生以往的知識、經驗，以及跟進學習之後的評估，降低了學習效果（Griffin, 2004）。倫敦市博物館的學習項目，吸引大量學校參觀。學校學生成為該館的主要參觀人群。以 2009-2010 年的資料為例，來館內參加正式學習項目的學生有 64,286 人，比上一個年度增加 160%。參加線上學習項目的學生有 18,292 人，比上一個年度增長 47%。倫敦市博物館為學校教師準備豐富的教學輔助資源。針對課前、館內活動、課後學習，為學校教師提供這些形式的資源：互動板書設計、館內活動單、跟進活動和謎語、線上活動等。通過提供充足的教師教學輔助資源，更好的引導學生館內學習和跟進評估學習效果。以《ASBO》（反社會行為令 Anti-Social Behaviour Orders）這一教程的教師資料為例。它包括 5 個部分。首先介紹教程與學校課程的掛鉤 , 從而確保學生學習過程的連續性，在接受博物館學習的時候，具有一些基本知識；其次，說明博物館內活動要求；接著向教師介紹 ASBO 的背景知識（頒發、管理的範圍）、與經常用以管理未成年人的 ABC（可接受行為協議 Acceptable Behaviour Contracts）的區別、以及自中世紀以來反社會行為的處理方式；最後兩個部分，分別介紹了 5 種課前、課後準備與活動，活動包括了：學生討論、角色扮演、社會調查、辯論、分析報紙報導、自發宣傳、研究城市和郊區反社會行為的異同。倫敦市博物館也為教師提供教師網路。4 年來，已經有 1,000 多名教師參加。參與的教師可以收到博物館教育的更新資訊、獲得預定博物館參觀服務的優先權、倫敦市博物館書店的 9 折優惠、參加博物館相關課程資源開發的機會等。在使用博物館課程資源之後，倫敦市博物館向學校教師分發調查問卷，細緻瞭解教師的意見和跟進學生的學習情況。調查問卷主要涉及四個方面的調查，瞭解教師準備工作的情況、博物館提供的服務與支援品質、博物館提供的學習項目品質、學生的學習成果。根據 2009-2010 年度倫敦市博物館收集的教師問卷，學校參與了 43 個博物館開設的學習項目，其中與公民教育直接相關的項目共計 14 個。學校參觀這些項目的總次數為 141 次，其中，參觀與公民教育相關的項目共計 86 次。教師的回答如表一所示： 80 表一顯示，回答問卷的教師中，超過半數事先參觀博物館瞭解學習項目、瀏覽博物館網頁獲取資訊、開展博物館建議的學習活動。絕大多數回答問卷的教師，對博物館提供的支援服務表示滿意。另外，關於項目品質和學生學習成果的問題也顯示了博物館課程資源關注的重點：關注聯繫學生以往的知識、經驗，重視學生知識、能力的培養。回答問卷的教師，對博物館關注的各個方面給出很高的評價。除了博物館資源促進學生和同學合作的問題，19.0% 的教師反對之外，其餘所有問題，都得到超過 96.0% 的教師認同。尤其是對博物館開發的課程資源在發展學生對相關科目的知識和理解，引起學生的好奇心和求知欲方面，回答的教師全部表示滿意。結語在課程分權和公民教育課程日趨強調開發社區教育資源的背景下，從何、如何發掘優秀教育資源，以及如何使之為學校公民教育所用？倫敦市博物館提供了一個可供比較、思考的例子。一方面，倫敦市博物館展示了博物館在服務學校公民教育方面的優點：博物館公民教育主題圍繞現實議題組織歷史材料，能夠加深學生對當代社會現實的瞭解和思考；博物館公民教育過程立體、真實，使用多元化教學策略，充滿樂趣，為學生提供完整的「知、情、意、行」體驗；博物館公民教育資源的豐富，可以為公民教育提供在學校無法提供的場景、物品和環境；博物館館員的素養，可以為學校教師進行公民教育提供充分的、跨學科的支援。回到亞洲國家、地區的公民教育，博物館和學校公民教育的結合也越問題是／同意否／不同意教師準備工作是否事先參觀博物館瞭解學習項目？ 51.3% 48.7% 是否事先瀏覽博物館網站，獲取相關資訊？ 53.6% 46.4% 是否事先開展博物館教師資源建議的學習活動？ 56.3% 43.7% 服務與支援教學輔助資源能否滿足教師需要？ 85.8% 3.3% 在參觀之前，教師能否獲得足夠的協助？ 96.0% 4.0% 在參觀的過程中，教師能否獲得足夠的協助？ 96.4% 3.6% 項目品質是否滿足學生需要？ 99.4% 0.6% 項目能否滿足學生多元學習能力的需要？ 98.1% 1.9% 是否吸引學生積極參加？ 99.4% 0.6% 學生的學習效果是否能夠得到認可和評估？ 98.1% 1.9% 參加的教師是否會向其他老師推薦這個項目？ 99.4% 0.6% 學習成果能否引起學生的興趣？ 99.4% 0.6% 能否發展了學生對相關科目的知識和理解？ 100.0% 0.0% 能否引起學生的好奇心和求知欲？ 100.0% 0.0% 能否鼓勵學生發揮創新性和想像力？ 98.7% 1.3% 能否鼓勵學生調查和提問？ 98.1% 1.9% 能否鼓勵學生從不同的角度思考問題？ 98.0% 2.0% 能否鼓勵學生聯繫過去和現在？ 97.4% 2.6% 是否鼓勵學生和同學合作？ 81.0% 19.0% 是否鼓勵學生反思自己的學習？ 96.5% 3.5% 學生是否喜歡這個學習項目？ 99.4% 0.6% 教師能否從項目中學習？ 96.2% 3.8% 表一　2009-2010 年倫敦市博物館中學項目學習調查問卷情況社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分：以倫敦市博物館為例 81 鳴謝感謝倫敦市博物館學校事務協調處 Caroline Perry 為本文提供相關資訊，幫助很大，並感謝三位匿名審查者的費心審查，提供許多寶貴意見。參考文獻吳國志（2010）。〈新形勢、新機遇：廉署德育資源製作經驗分享〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 9 卷， 47-52。林建芳（2003）。〈愛國主義教育基地在清冷中吶喊〉。2011 年 8 月 1 日，取自 http://news.sina.com.cn/ c/2003-11-21/10591164498s.shtml。袁國明（2001）。〈主題教學發展與特色〉。載袁國明、蔡鳳詩（編），《開放教室：學會學習跨學科主題教學》（頁 7-11）。香港：佛教茂峰法師紀念中學。陳雪雲（2010）。〈博物館是世界公民終身學習的場域〉。《博物館學季刊》，第 24 卷，第 4 期，5-17。謝妙思、劉仲嚴（2011）。〈從博物館劇場學習理論探討香港歷史博物館的發展方向〉。《博物館學季刊》第 25 卷，第 2 期，19-41。 Anderson, D. (1997). A common wealth: Museums in the learning age. London: DNH. 來越重要（陳雪雲，2010；謝妙思、劉仲嚴， 2011）。比如香港自 1997 年回歸以來，由一個後殖民地城市成為中國的特別行政區，其公民、公民教育都發生了很多轉變，通過結合博物館和公民教育，將有助於幫助學生認識香港的歷史、形成國民身份認同。但是，需要注意的是，社區公民教育資源，並不僅僅局限於博物館。更何況，亞洲地區有不同於西方國家的博物館傳統：亞洲人較少光顧博物館，博物館的數量比較少，博物館分佈並不均勻，很多分佈在發達的城市等等。這些都給學校公民教育利用博物館資源帶來困難。另一方面，本文以倫敦市博物館為例子，分析社區公民教育課程資源開發中，政府、學校和社區之間分工合作的經驗。這些分析，對當下亞洲課程分權背景下，更好的開發、使用各類社區教育、文化資源（如公園、博物館、圖書館、大眾傳媒、社區組織、民間團體等）可以提供經驗。發揮社區公民教育資源的最大功效，不僅需要確保課程資源的品質，更取決於當時、當下各種社會團體、個人的合作與分工，並形成穩定的合作機制：第一，即使在課程權力下放的情況下，中央力量在社區資源開發的過程中，也扮演重要的角色。如 Fullan & Watson（2010）所言，課程分權在長足上看，缺點在於沒有對中央給予足夠的重視，缺少協調，中央和地方彼此需要。適當的中央力量，由於其廣闊的視野、政策、協調能力，可以在社區中發掘、引導、保證教育資源及其分配公平。第二，除了課程權利下放給學校之外，社區層面獲得更多課程決定權也是課程分權的一個重要方面。而社區在公民教育資源開發中，也可以成為積極主動的課程決策者。發揮自身優勢。第三，社區和學校、教師的合作，則保證社區教育資源能和學生以往學習經驗聯繫、最大可能的發揮社區內學習對學生各種能力培養的幫助，從而確保社區學習資源的成效。 82 Björk, C. (2006). Introduction. In C. Björk (Ed.), Educational Decentralization: Asia Experiences and Conceptual Contributions (pp.1-8). Netherlands: Springer. Chee, M. F. (2003). Training teachers for the effective use of museums. International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research, 3(2), 10-16. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. (2000). Centres for social change: Museums, galleries and archives for all. Falk, J. (2004). The director’s cut: Toward an improved understanding of learning from museums. Science Education, 88(Suppl. 1), S83-96. Fullan, M., & Watson, N. (2010). School-based management: Reconceptualizing to improve learning outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 11(4), 453-473. Griffin, J. (2004). Research on students and museums: Looking more closely at the students in school groups. Science Education, 88(Suppl. 1), S59-70. Griffin, J., & Symington, D. (1997). Moving from task-oriented to learning-oriented strategies on school excursions to museums. Science Education, 81(6), 736-779. Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1999). The educational role of museum. London: Routledge. Hooper-Greenhill, E. (2007). Museum and education: Purpose, pedagogy, performance. New York: Routledge. International Bureau of Education. (2005). Building the capacities of curriculum specialists for education reform. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/Curriculum/Rpack/ decentralization.htm King, E. M., & Guerra, S. C. (2005). Education reforms in East Asia: Policy, process and impact. East Asia decentralizes: Making local government work (pp.179-208). Washington, D. C.: The World Bank. Macdonald, S. J. (2003). Museums, national, postnational and transcultural identities. Museum and Society, 1(1), 1-16. Mok, K. H. (2003). Centralization and decentralization: changing governance in education. In K. H. Mok (Ed.), Centralization and decentralization: Educational reforms and changing governance in Chinese societies (pp.2-18). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. Museum of London. (2010). Museum of London: Annual review. London. Olson, J. K. (1999). A qualitatice analysis of the field trip experience: A formal trip in an informal setting. Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Annual Meeting. Shann, E. W. (1920). Museum in education. Nature, 106, 344-345. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 83 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 Factors affecting child depressive mood 陳小梅、黃潔儀香港教育學院摘要本研究目的在調查香港高小學生受抑鬱情緒困擾的狀況，並探究歸因型態、解難策略、自尊感和朋輩關係與兒童抑鬱情緒的關係。共有 326 名兒童參與，數據以自填問卷方式收集。結果顯示，若以西方標準作分界點，約 20.9% 參與本研究的兒童受到抑鬱情緒困擾，百分率遠高於其他地方。結果亦顯示負面歸因型態和內化解難策略都會引致兒童產生抑鬱情緒。相反，若兒童有較高自尊感，較好的朋輩關係，或於遇到社交問題時會尋求他人支援，他們都較少感受到抑鬱情緒。關鍵詞抑鬱情緒困擾，歸因型態，解難策略 Abstract The present study aimed to examine the prevalence of depressive mood among senior primary school children. Data were collected from 326 children with self-reported questionnaires. Participants completed the Children Depression Inventory (CDI), Children’s Attributional Styles Questionnaire-Revised, Self- report Coping Scale for Elementary School Children, Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale and five items measuring perceived peer relationship. Based on the cutting point adopted in the West (CDI ≥20), 20.9% of the sample suffered from depressive symptoms. Regression analyses results indicate that negative attributional style and internalizing coping strategy predicted depressive mood. Children with higher self- esteem, better peer relationship and those adopted seeking social support strategy were less vulnerable to depressive symptoms. Keywords depressive symptoms, attributional style, coping strategies 84 甲、文獻回顧當兒童年事漸長，開始與外面的世界接觸漸多，經歷難過、失落、悲傷、沮喪等負面情緒是在所難免。然而研究卻發現抑鬱徵狀在兒童及青少年頗為普遍（Poli, Sbrana, Marcheschi, & Masi, 2003; Tepper et al., 2008）。於香港進行的兩個研究指出有大約百份之二十就讀於高小及初中的學生受抑鬱情緒困擾（Chan, 1995; 1997）。在香港成長，高小是一個充滿挑戰的階段。在學業上，升上小四後，學童要開始為升中呈分試戰鬥；在心理成長方面，他們要學習處理朋輩間的衝突及青春期帶來的困擾。兒童之抑鬱情緒不容忽視，研究指出抑鬱情緒影響兒童在校內的適應，例如社交能力及學業成績，亦與行為問題有關（Fauber, Forehand, Long, Burke, & Faust, 1987; Shah & Morgan, 1996）。此外，研究亦發現曾受抑鬱情緒影響的兒童及青少年，於成年後有較大可能社交能力較低，自尊感較低，出現情緒及行為問題，或甚有精神病病徵（Aronen & Soininen, 2000; Devine, Kempton, & Forehand, 1994）。本研究之目的有二：暸解香港高小學生受抑鬱情緒困擾的情況，以及研究抑鬱情緒與兒童的歸因型態及解難策略的關係。在此，抑鬱情緒指於某一段時間之內，兒童感到憂愁、不開心或有自殺的念頭（Petersen et al., 1993），而並非指經臨牀診斷之抑鬱病。乙、抑鬱情緒與歸因型態受抑鬱情緒困擾的人一般有一套「負面的思維模式」（Beck, 1967）。他們對自己、對世界及對將來都有一套負面的看法，戴著這副「負面的眼鏡」，他們把所有正面事情都濾掉了，只看到事情不好的、不如意的一面。他們的思想傾向自我貶低和自我挑剔，然後再把這套負面看法投射到對將來的看法，因而對前景也抱有悲觀、消極的態度。「習得無助」理論（reformulated theory of learned helplessness; Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978）認為這套「負面的思維模式」與個體的歸因型態有關。心理學家温納（Weiner, 1986）指出，每一個人，包括兒童，都會對一些發生在自己身上的事情作出解釋（Weiner, 1986），而這些用以解釋的因素一般可以以內在 / 外在，穩定 / 不穩定，及特定 / 總體性三個向度作分類。例如「今天我跟李小明打招呼，他卻擦身而過，眼往前望，沒有理會我」，兒童可解釋作「我永遠都不會受同學接納」或「只因他被我身後的同學吸引了，所以沒有留意我」。前者屬內在（我不受同學接納），穩定（永遠都不會受同學接納，而並非一次性）及總體性（我整個人而非某一方面不受同學接納）因素。相反，後者屬外在（他被我身後的同學吸引了），不穩定（下一次他不一定會被其他同學吸引）及特定性（這不會在其他情況下發生）因素。內在因素指一些關乎兒童本身之因素，如性格特質、努力與否、能力高低等，而運氣或那位同學沒禮貌等，則屬於關乎其他人之外在因素。同時，努力和運氣可歸類為不穩定的因素，而性格特質、能力等則為穩定因素，因其在一段時間內不易或不會改變。至於特定因素則是指一些只影響某一方面或某一情況的因素，而總體性因素是指一些會影響多方面或多種情況的因素。若兒童將一些負面或失敗的事情歸因於穩定或總體性因素，兒童便會相信這些因素在短期內不會消失（穩定），甚而會帶來其他負面事情（總體性）。在這種情况下，兒童容易產生「無力感」，即對發生在自己身上的負面事情感到無引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 85 能為力，不受控制，亦即是「習得無助」的現象。此外，若兒童將發生在自己身上的負面或失敗事情用內在因素解釋，如因為我懶惰，我記性差，我口齒不清，則其自尊感會受創。令到兒童自我貶低，對自己有一套負面的看法，這套看法成為他的自我觀後，他便有可能自我挑剔，只看到自己的缺點，看不見自己的優點，或甚凡事都被演繹為自己的缺點，人就不可能快樂起來了。因此將負面事情歸因於內在、穩定及總體性因素可稱之為負面歸因型態。相反，將正面事情以內在、穩定及總體性的因素來解釋便是正面歸因型態，可增強兒童之能力感和自尊感。「習得無助」理論指出負面歸因型態引致兒童相信好的事情一定不會發生在自己身上，或負面的事情絕對是避無可避，加上自責傾向引致的負面自我觀，兒童便會感受到絕望的情緒。而研究結果亦支持負面歸因型態乃引致抑鬱情緒風險的其中一個因素（Hankin & Abramson, 2002; Rowe, Maughan, & Eley, 2006; Sanjuan & Magallares, 2009）。丙、解難策略與抑鬱情緒當兒童認為負面或失敗的事情乃是由穩定及總體性因素引致，他們便會相信這些因素會繼續在類似甚至其他情况下影響他們，結果，他們預期失敗，因而採用逃避或情緒發洩等策略來應付，而較少用直接解決問題或尋求他人支援等方法解決（Mclean, Strongman, & Neha, 2007; Wright, Banerjee, Hock, Rieffe, & Novin, 2010），負面情緒及問題都得不到解決，引致抑鬱。而某些解難策略本身亦可能引致抑鬱情緒出現。當兒童遇到困難而感到憂愁、焦慮時，若果他們採用的解難策略會令這些負面情緒延長或加劇的話，抑鬱情緒便可能產生。換而言之，內化（internalization，即把負面情緒收藏起來）、外化（externalization，即以不當行為來解決）或逃避等策略，都有可能引致抑鬱。在一項研究中，外化策略，例如大叫、對人說難聽的話或指責別人等都會令情緒升温及引致精神健康問題包括抑鬱（Suldo, Shaunessy, & Hardesty, 2008; Tolan, Gorman-Smith, Henry, Chung, & Hunt, 2002）。另一研究亦發現逃避策略與抑鬱有關（Seiffge- Krenke & Klessinger, 2000）。跟據以上討論，兒童之歸因型態、自尊感及解難策略都可能是引致抑鬱情緒的因素，因此本研究會探討這幾個變項對抑鬱情緒的預測能力。此外，因朋輩關係亦與青少年之情緒問題有關（Murbery & Bru, 2004），故本研究亦探討朋輩關係對抑鬱情緒的預測能力。丁、研究方法一、資料收集方法及樣本人數數據乃透過自填問卷方式收集。樣本屬方便性樣本（convenient sample），研究員透過取得四間小學校長同意，親自於課室內向學童派發問卷。共 326 學童參與是次研究，其中包括 160 名男童及 166 名女童，其年齡分佈為兩名八歲（0.6%），20 名九歲（6.1%），109 名十歲（33.4%），109 名十一歲（33.4%），67 名十二歲（20.6%），17 名十三歲（33.4%）和兩名十四歲（0.6%）兒童。二、量度工具 • 兒童之抑鬱情緒：以兒童抑鬱量表（Chinese version of the Child Depression Inventory; Kovacs, 2008）量度，此問卷共有 27 題，量度兒童在最近兩週之抑鬱情緒。於是次研究，此量表之信度為 0.86。 86 • 兒童之歸因型態：以兒童歸因型態問卷（Children’s Attributional Styles Questionnaire-Revised; Thompson, Kaslow, Weiss, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998）量度，此問卷共有 24 題，量度兒童對 12 種正面事情及 12 種負面事情的歸因。 • 兒童之解難策略：以小學生解難策略量表（Self-reported Coping Scale developed for elementary school children; Causey & Dubow, 1992）量度兒童遇到社交衝突時採取直接解決問題策略（problem solving）、尋求他人支援策略（seeking social support）、外化策略（externalization）、內化策略（internalization）及疏離策略（distancing）的傾向，共 20 題。於是次研究，此量表之信度為 0.73。 • 兒童之自尊感：以自尊感量表（Self-esteem Scale; Rosenberg, 1965）量度，此問卷共有 10 題。於是次研究，此量表之信度為 0.63。第五題（「我覺得我沒有甚麼值得引以為榮」）及第八題（「我希望我能夠更看重自己」）與整份量表的相關係數很低，可能是因為這兩條的意思對小學生的經驗來說，較難理解，故此把此兩題剔除，餘下八題之信度為 0.83。 • 朋輩關係：研究員為本研究設計了 5 題問題量度兒童於校內與朋輩的關係。於是次研究，此量表之信度為 0.74。戊、研究結果一、抑鬱情緒兒童抑鬱量表共有 27 題，兒童最低可得 0 分，最高可得 54 分；得分愈高表示抑鬱情緒愈強。量表之原創者 Kovacs（2008）建議以 20 分為分界點，得 20 分或以上之兒童可被界定為受抑鬱情緒困擾並應得到專業幫助，而於西方及內地研究所得（Chen, Rubin, & Li, 1995; Kovacs, 2008），若以 20 分為分界點，約有 10% 的兒童及青少年可被界定為受抑鬱情緒困擾；但若以此分界點計算，則 20.9% 參與本研究的兒童受到抑鬱情緒困擾，百分率遠高於西方之 10%（Kovacs, 2008）。跟據於香港進行之研究所得（Chan, 1995; 1997），亦顯示約有 20% 的兒童及青少年受抑鬱情緒困擾。二、歸因型態於兒童歸因型態問卷，兒童最低可得零分，最高可得 12 分，中位數為 6 分，得分愈高顯示兒童愈傾向採取正／負面歸因型態。於正面歸因型態，得 6 分或以下者，共 187 人（58.7%），顯示他們遇到正面事情時亦較少以內在、穩定及總體性因素解釋，其中有 23 位兒童更低至 3 分或以下。而得 7 分或以上者有 128 人（41.3%），此等兒童較傾向採取正面歸因型態。結果亦顯示有 44 位兒童（13.9%）傾向採取負面歸因型態，即得 7 分或以上；大部分兒童都得 6 分或以下（271 人；86%）。三、自尊感自尊感量表之平均分最高可達 4 分而最低則為 1 分，中位數為 2.5 分，得分愈高顯示兒童之自尊感愈高。於本研究中，得 2.5 分或以下之兒童共有 116 人（36.1%），即此等兒童之自尊感不高，而得分於中位數以上者有 205 人（63.9%）。四、朋輩關係此部分之平均得於為 3.17，高於中位數，顯示兒童覺得自己與班中同學之關係頗佳。引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 87 表一　抑鬱量表、歸因型態、及解難策略之平均值、標準差和 t-test 結果高危組別（N = 52）無症狀組別（N = 274）變項 M SD M SD t 抑鬱情緒 27.35 4.24 12.30 5.44 歸因型態正面─總體性 1.79 1.13 1.86 .91 0.33 正面─內在 2.60 .73 2.31 .89 1.86 正面─穩定 1.48 1.13 2.03 1.08 3.28** 負面─總體性 1.69 1.29 .63 .85 -7.45*** 負面─內在 2.06 1.11 2.05 .97 -1.83 負面─穩定 2.23 1.10 1.57 1.14 -3.82*** 解難策略直接解決問題 2.27 .70 2.70 .68 4.15*** 尋求他人支援 1.89 .83 2.65 .80 6.24*** 外化策略 2.25 .83 1.81 .62 -4.34** 內化策略 2.60 .73 2.08 .63 -5.23*** 疏離策略 2.11 .80 2.20 .62 1.09 ** p < 0.01% *** p < 0.001% 六、影響兒童抑鬱情緒之因素本研究採用迴歸分析法（regression analysis）來探討影響兒童抑鬱情緒之因素。結果五、高危組別與無症狀組別於本研究以 CDI 之平均值加一個標準差作分界點（即約 23），有 23 位男童及 29 女童（即總參與人數的 16%）被界定為受抑鬱情緒困擾，再以 t-test 探討這 52 位兒童（以下稱為高危組別）與得分少於 23 分的兒童（以下稱為無症狀組別）於歸因型態和解難策略兩變項之分別（見表一）。顯示負面歸因型態、內化策略、尋求他人援助策略、自尊感及朋輩關係皆為重要影響因素，共能解釋兒童抑鬱情緒 62% 的變化（見表二）。 88 己、討論本研究目的為普查於本港就讀小四至小六的兒童受抑鬱情緒困擾的情况，並探討與抑鬱情緒相關之因素。結果顯示，於這個群體當中，約有 16% 至 21% 的兒童受抑鬱情緒困擾。若把兒童分為高危組別（於抑鬱量表得分高於 23）與無症狀組別（於抑鬱量表得分低於 23）比較，發現高危組別遇到正面事情時，較不會用穩定因素解釋，即他們不會肯定正面事情會在一段時間內再發生，但當遇到負面或失敗的事情時，他們卻較傾向以總體性和穩定性因素解釋，即他們會相信那些帶來失敗的因素不會在短期內消失，並會影響他們在其他事情上的表現或成敗，換而言之，他們傾向預期失敗或負面事情會發生。除此之外，在遇到社交問題時，高危組別較無症狀組別多用內化策略（internalization，即把負面情緒收藏起來）、外化策略（externalization，即以不當行為來解決）來解決，而相反，無症狀組別卻較高危組別多用直接解決問題及尋求他人支援兩種策略來解決。至於引致抑鬱情緒的因素，迴歸分析結果顯示負面歸因型態和內化策略都會引致兒童產生抑鬱情緒。相反，若兒童有較高自尊感，較好的朋輩關係，或於遇到社交問題時會尋求他人支援，他們都較少感受到抑鬱情緒。總結來說，自尊感是影響力最大的因素，然而自尊感可能受負面歸因型態影響。當兒童每遇到失敗或負面事情時便認為是自己內在的因素引致，那麽他們很自然會覺自卑。此外當他們相信那些帶來失敗的因素在可見的未來不會消失，並會影響他們在其他事情上的表現，他們便容易有無助感，預期負面事情無可避免將發生在他們身上。而對自己有負面看法，對將來悲觀消極正是抑鬱症的特徵。表二　影響兒童抑鬱情緒之因素迴歸分析法結果 B SE B β R² 第一模式 .02 性別 .83 .86 .06 年齡 .07 .41 .01 同性兄弟姊妹之數目 .23 .52 .02 異性兄弟姊妹之數目 1.13 .53 .12* 第二模式 .62*** 性別 .45 .55 .03 年齡 .33 .25 .05 同性兄弟姊妹之數目 .14 .33 .02 異性兄弟姊妹之數目 .62 .33 .07 正歸因型態 -1.1 1.81 -.02 負歸因型態 7.27 1.6 .17*** 自尊感 -5.00 .53 -.41*** 直接解決問題 .76 .48 .07 外化策略 .78 .46 .07 內化策略 2.65 .48 .24*** 尋求他人支援策略 -1.81 .39 -.20*** 疏離策略 -.10 .43 -.01 朋輩關係 -2.40 .54 -.17*** * p < 0.05%; *** p < 0.001% 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 89 除自尊感外，內化策略和尋求他人支援策略亦對抑鬱情緒有重要影響。內化策略是把負面情緒收藏起來，覺得自己很慘，很可憐，躲起來哭一場，而外化策略則是以不當行為來解決問題，例如對人喝駡、甚至打人或破壞物件。當兒童與人交往時遇到挫敗，因而感到難過、忿怒或委屈時，這兩種策略都不能紓緩他們的情緒，反而加強他們的負面情緒，引致抑鬱。（很多人都不知道兒童和青少年的抑鬱徵狀除感到難過悲傷外，亦可能是激動、易怒。）更甚者，這兩種策略都會令他們與朋輩的關係變差。而本研究結果就正正顯示了尋求他人支援策略，即遇困難時，愈願意尋求家人、老師或朋友的支援，和良好朋輩關係與抑鬱情緒有反向關係。如此說來，這些引致抑鬱情緒的因素，互相亦有相連關係。庚、啟示跟據本研究的結果，本港的小四至小六學生有大約有 16% 至 20% 受抑鬱情緒困擾，情况不容忽視。若要預防兒童免受抑鬱情緒影響，首要幫助他們建立正面歸因型態以增強其自信心和自尊感，避免陷入負面歸因型態的自我貶低陷阱。要做到這一點，家長和老師除了要多稱讚，多欣賞外，還要「讚得其所，欣賞有道」，兒童才能建立正面歸因型態。空泛的讚賞不能令兒童相信他們的成就是一些他們能掌握的因素帶來的，因此成人稱讚兒童時，應清晰指出所讚賞的是孩子的那些行為及這些行為與孩子的成就有何關係，例如「你剛才在全班面前做的口頭報告十分清晰，剛才要不是你鼓起勇氣為你的小組做報告，同學還不知道你表達能力那麽高，你做得很好」，鼓起勇氣嘗試是一些內在、可控制、穩定及總體性的因素。若老師說「幸好組員讓你加入他們的小組，要不然你就入不了組，不知怎麽辦了！」，老師就是著眼於運氣或他人的意願，一個外在、不受控制、不穩定及一次性的因素。同樣，當兒童遇到不如意的事情，成人除了盡量不要歸咎於一些穩定的內在因素（如：你真是天生害羞得很）或總體性因素（如：你這個人凡事都不小心）外，還應盡量令兒童相信那些引致失敗的因素是他可以控制的，那麽便可避免兒童形成習得無助感。例如兒童要在全班面前說話便感到膽怯，老師不能光叫他不要害怕，而是要跟據兒童的能力作出一些可行的建議，讓他去試。除歸因型態及自尊感外，研究結果亦顯示兒童的解難能力和朋輩支持亦很重要，故老師們應多注意時常「形單影隻」的學生，為社交能力較低及很少朋交的學生開設小組訓練他們的社交解難能力。參考文獻 Abramson, L. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 93 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 Experience of promoting reading strategies 胡少偉香港教育學院李少鶴香港初等教育研究學會劉可欣聖公會油塘基顯小學摘要培育學生閱讀是課程改革的一個重點，不少學校配合政府推行課程改革，在校內以圖書課和課外閱讀去培育學生閱讀，使香港學生的閱讀表現有所提高；但毋庸置疑的是，閱讀也是語文科內讀寫聽說的其中一個範疇，故要進一步提高學生的閱讀表現，語文科老師也應承擔份內之責。此文的重點是分享一所小學在中文科推行學生閱讀策略的經驗，從小四學生後測自評中，引證了相關教學的成效。故此，希望更多小學語文教師能在小四學生的閱讀學習中時發展思維能力。關鍵詞香港學生閱讀，閱讀策略，小學中國語文教學 Abstract One of the main focuses of curriculum reform is to foster students to read. Reading lessons and extracurricular reading are ways that schools use to help improving students’ reading ability. No doubt that reading is one of the areas in language subjects, Chinese Language teachers play an important role to improve students’ reading performance. The focus of this article is to share the experience of a primary school promoting students to read. From the self-evaluation of P.4 students, they think their abilities in reading strategies is improved. It is hoped that more language teachers of primary school can develop students’ thinking skills during learning of reading in primary four. 94 香港小學生閱讀的發展培育學生的閱讀是香港課程改革的一個重點，課程發展議會（2002）訂定的七個學習宗旨內，便將「使學生養成獨立閱讀的習慣」列為其中一個學習宗旨，該議會亦於 2001 年把「從閱讀中學習」列為課程改革的四個關鍵項目之一。經過幾年來努力地推動學生閱讀後，香港學生的閱讀表現有明顯的進展，2006 年全球學生閱讀能力進展研究（PIRLS），發現香港小四學生的閱讀能力在四十五個參與地區中，從 2001 年排名第十四位躍升至第二位。而在 2006 年學生能力國際評估計劃（PISA）內，香港學生閱讀能力從 2003 年排名第十位躍升至名列第三位；在 2009 年的國際評估排名中雖退至第四位，其原因之一是上海首次參加，而令人滿意的是香港學生的閱讀表現明顯較前兩期優勝（星島日報， 2010.12.08）。從這些學生閱讀能力的國際評比報告中，反映香港學生在過去幾年間有較佳的閱讀表現；而為了分享學校推動閱覽策略的成功經驗，教育局於 2011 年 4 月的閱覽薈萃中，邀請了大學和十多所學校就跨課程閱讀、教學語言和閱讀、非華語學生閱讀、校本評核與閱覽，以及網上閱讀等不同課題，分享他們多年來致力推動閱覽的成功經驗（謝凌潔貞，2011）。回顧香港本土有關小學生閱讀的文獻，發現在過去幾年間，不少學校配合政府推行課程改革，在校內展開不少校本閱讀活動，「學校先由圖書課和閱讀報紙做起，進而推展至其他與閱讀相關的學習領域和共通能力，閱讀課程內容推行會以科目為本，當中包括課內及課外閱讀」（黃雪盈，2008，頁 321）。同時，亦發現有小學通過校長伴讀計劃去營造學生的閱讀風氣，有關文章指出藉著校長分享閱讀知識及感受和教授學生閱讀技巧與分析故事，可促進學生分享閱讀的經驗（廖玉英、胡家偉等，2004，頁 37）。這兩篇文章反映了自課改推行後，不少香港小學以圖書課和課外閱讀去培養學生閱讀，使香港學生的閱讀表現有所提高；但毋庸置疑的是，閱讀也是語文科內讀寫聽說的其中一個範疇，因此要進一步改善和提高學生的閱讀表現，語文科教師應承擔份內之責。此文的重點是分享一所小學在中文科推展培育四年級學生閱讀策略的經驗，從而令小學語文教師更關注培育學生在學習閱讀時的思維發展。小學中國語文科的閱讀與思維閱讀是學習如何從書面文字中提取資訊的方法，在《中國大百科全書》指「從語文心理角度說，閱讀活動是從看的語言向說出的語言過程；在這個過程中，不是機械地原文說出來，而是通過內部語言，用自己的話來理解改造原文的句子、段落，從而把原文思想變成自己的思想。」可見閱讀這個學習過程，既與語文科學習有關，也涉及了閱讀者的思維發展，美國閱讀學家施道弗在他的《閱讀——一個思維過程》中明確指出「閱讀的本質是思維；閱讀與思維是密不可分的， Keywords reading of Hong Kong students, reading strategy, Chinese Language teaching in primary schools 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 95 閱讀過程是人的大腦在思考的過程。所以閱讀時必須把閱讀與思考有機地結合起來，任何把閱讀與思考分割開來的做法都是反科學的，都是違背閱讀規律的，是決不會取得好的閱讀效果的」（薛智主編，2001，頁 124）。西方學者 Oakhill 及 Garnham 指出，「富閱讀技巧的讀者在閱讀的過程中至少須完成：眼動與注視、字詞辨識、句子處理、句意和文意處理、推論、連貫篇章、建立文章結構、賞析文章整體目的等多項認知活動」（謝錫金主編，2006，頁 20）。這些閱讀的認知活動不少是與學習者的思考有關，故要有效提高學生的閱讀表現，應同時兼顧學生的思維發展，在最新的中國語文科的課程指引中，明確了中國語文教育學習領域的學習內容，除了基本的讀寫聽說外，還有思維的內容。在課程指引中也指出思維是語文的泉源，在理解語言（聽、讀）和語言表達（說、寫）的過程中，思維是必要成分；因此，教育局提出中國語文科的教學必須結合思維能力培養，並明確在小學中國語文科思維範疇的學習目標是（教育局， 2004）： • 培養批判性、創造性思考能力和解決問題的能力； • 培養良好的思維素質； • 掌握一般應用於聽說讀寫的思維方法。閱讀策略的培育有關培養學生的思維發展，曾有香港小學利用行動研究去推動學生的閱讀，劉美群等（2008）在分享中指出，「教師透過引領思維教學法及分段提問的教學策略進行閱讀教學，藉以刺激學生閱讀和思維技能」（頁 165）。這個案引證了有小學教育工作者同時關注培育學生的閱讀與思維。然而，正如在 2001 的全球學生閱讀能力進展研究，梁長城、黃瑞珍（2004）指出：「大部分香港學生能夠掌握較基礎的閱讀能力，能夠理解文章的表層意思；可是，在處理較高層的閱讀能力時，小四學生表現則差強人意。其中『解釋篇章及發表意見』及『仔細閱讀、評估內容、語言和文章的要點』的成績最差；顯示當時的小四學生對於比較、推斷、應用資料，以及評估、評論、解釋資料等能力較差」（頁 42）。可見在這個研究中，香港小四學生在這個世紀初閱讀能力的表現仍不大理想，尤其是與思維發展有關的能力更需改善。柯華葳（2006）指出「一般而言，學生若在四年級還未掌握閱讀的能力，包括識字還不能自動化，沒有猜字策略或說不出所讀的全文大意，便需要進行補救教學」（頁 79）。這是國際教育界重視小四學生的閱讀能力的重要觀點，若一位小四學生在閱讀表現欠佳，將影響了這個學生的整體學習表現。而要改善一位小四學生的閱讀表現，就必須提升他在閱讀中的思維，但可惜的是「大部份學生沒有受過閱讀策略的訓練，他們沒有足夠的能力去判別採用那些閱讀策略來解讀不同性質的閱讀材料」（王國強，2008，頁 13）。教授學生閱讀策略是一個有助建立和提升小四學生閱讀能力的方法；有效的閱讀策略能幫助學生建構知識，建構主義著重由學生主動建構知識的重要，教師培育學生的閱讀策略，能使學生日後自行主動建構知識。在《小學中國語文建議學習重點（試用）》內（見下表一）清楚指出學生要在小四到小六階段，要因應不同的讀材，運用適當的閱讀方法。 96 表二　2009 年中文科各級閱讀策略學習重點年級組別重點學習的閱讀策略通過運用學習策略而得到的能力一至三年級 1. 以圖會意 2. 推斷詞意 3. 順序法 4. 文章四要素 5. 六何法 6. 概念圖 1. 複述 2. 解釋 3. 重整四至六年級 1. 推斷詞意 2. 六何法 3. 概念圖 4. 中心句 5. 撮寫 6. 歸納段意及主旨 1. 解釋 2. 重整 3. 伸展 4. 評鑑 5. 創意校本閱讀策略教學的設計有關校本閱讀的經驗，有本土研究曾以知識管理的取向去分析一所小學推行校本閱讀成功的原因，發現「該校除明確要全校參與閱讀及在時間表、場地和資源提供支援外，亦掌握發展性閱讀的方法及懂得集中學生閱讀教材的方法」（胡少偉、金國強，2009，頁 97）。參考這個個案，本文將分享一所小學推行閱讀策略教學計劃的經驗。聖公會油塘基顯小學重視培育學生的閱讀，深信良好的閱讀策略是提升學習效能的重要元素，多年來在圖書課試行閱讀策略的教學試驗；在 2009 至 2010 學年，該校配合校本課程的發展及加強學生的閱讀能力，在中文科引入了圖書課閱讀策略計劃，編寫一套校本的中文科閱讀策略課程；該校中文科同工參考學者祝新華（2005）有關閱讀認知能力層次，有步驟地進行閱讀策略的教學活動。這個校本課程計劃將六級學生分成兩個階段（見上表二），明確寫出一至三年級和四至六年級學生需學習哪些閱讀策略，這些閱讀策略有些是與課程發展議會所建議的相近。同時，該校各級中文科教師會配合中文課的課文去設計培育學生閱覽策略的工作紙，並結集成一本學生閱讀策略小冊子。閱讀是讀者理解篇章，獲取「篇章意義」的認知過程，流程如下： • 用眼睛看字詞表一　小學掌握閱讀策略的學習重點內容學習重點第一學習階段第二學習階段掌握閱讀策略 • 聯繫生活經驗及已有知識以理解閱讀材料 • 因應不同的閱讀材料，採取適當的閱讀方法，如精讀、默讀、朗讀（配合情感，有自信地朗讀優美的文字） • 因應不同的閱讀材料，運用適當的閱讀方法，如略讀、瀏讀、主題閱讀法、找出關鍵語句 • 利用各種途徑資源（如插圖、互聯網、工具書、圖書館、博物館）以幫助閱讀（課程發展議會編訂，2008，頁 10）分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 97 • 用已有知識解釋字詞 • 將字詞的意義組成一個整體的意思 • 刪除不重要，得出一個最重要的意思（中心句或主旨） • 記憶篇章的意思（摘自聖公會油塘基顯小學學生閱讀策略小冊子，2009）上文是該校中文科教師透過閱讀小冊子提供的閱讀定義，當中向學生清晰交代的流程的步驟，這有助學生檢視和監控自己在閱讀的參與情況；正如簡馨瑩、曾文慧、陳凱築（2005）指出「從觀察孩子的閱讀歷程中，發現大部分的孩子的困難在於他們不會使用、不知道要不要使用，以及不知道何時該如何監控自己的閱讀與學習歷程」（頁 36）。而這個校本閱讀策略的行動研究計劃於 2009 至 2010 學年推行，其研究對象針對小四同學；在推行閱讀策略教學前，學校中文科於 2009 年九月份向全級小四學生發生一份前測問卷，讓學生對能運用閱讀策略作一個初步自評。而為了檢視這個閱讀策略教學計劃的成效，全校的小四學生於 2010 年 6 月又進行一次後測自評調查。而為了深入了解閱讀策略計劃推行的情況，研究員曾與計劃負責主任進行一次質性的深度訪談，以了解推行校本閱讀策略計劃的細節，從而探討這個計劃的成效及作出檢視。下文是該主任對四年級學生閱讀策略教學安排的描述：「我們學校的閱讀策略是一至六年級，分兩階段實行。四年級基本上已懂四素句、時序，和簡單概括的課文或文章內容意思的能力；在四年班我們主要深化他們懂得用概念圖去分析文章的結構。」（中文科主任）閱讀策略教學的推行「我們教的時候著重他們自己去看文章，不單是講解文章說什麼，更會提問學生在故事中目的是學到什麼呢？啟發了什麼呢？對主角有何評價，他做對或錯呢？訓練他們獨立思維。」（中文科主任）當研究員追問閱讀策略教學與一般中文教學的不同時，這位中文科主任作出了上述的回應，表明在施行閱讀策略教學時會注重發展學生的思維，這個理念與台灣學者的觀點相近，「如果他們不了解學習的內容，沒有理解這些知識裡的意涵，不知何去運用這些知識，這些記憶依舊是一個個單獨存在的記憶單位，並沒有形成思考的網路」（王秀園，2006，頁 195）。至於，在分析四年級閱讀策略的學習重點與初小的不同時，該主任指出新增的閱讀策略學習重點有撮寫、中心句、歸納段意和主旨，但也會同時深化部分初小已學的閱讀策略學習重點。而為了讓學生不時檢視自己對閱讀策略的掌握情況，該校在學生的閱讀策略小冊子內列明了「有效讀書要訣」的十個守則，供學生參考。 1. 在固定的時間和場所進行閱讀。 2. 以獨立學習的精神讀書。 3. 一切學習需做筆記，至少記下重點。 4. 克服不利環境。 5. 佈置良好的讀書環境。 6. 精讀之前，全部先略讀（瀏覽）一遍。 7. 加快閱讀速度。 8. 讀完立即背誦要點。 9. 遇有不明白的，要請教別人或查字典。 10. 多看不同的課外書，增加自己的知識。下表三是該校 2009 至 2010 年度小四學生自 98 評閱讀策略的運用情況，在 2009 年 9 月的前測中，全校小四學生對一至三年級重點學習的六個閱讀策略有較高百分比的回應，分別有 28.2% – 38.5% 的同學表示自己能掌握：六何法、文章四要素、順序法、以圖會意、推斷詞意和概念圖。在討論中文科閱讀策略時，吳鳳平、林偉業（2009）認為「運用閱讀策略的目的主要有兩個：令讀者成為積極、投入、主動的讀者，而非被動的接受；令閱讀成為有意義的經驗，而非任由閱讀材料的內容主導。」也就是說，向學生提供閱表三　小四學生自評閱讀策略的運用閱讀策略能運用這策略（前測）能運用這策略（後測）增值增幅文章四要素 36.4% 49.5% 13.1% 36.0% 推斷詞意 28.2% 36.7% 8.5% 30.1% 六何法 38.5% 50.0% 11.5% 29.9% 概念圖 28.2% 36.1% 7.9% 28.0% 順序法 32.3% 41.1% 8.3% 25.7% 歸納段意及主旨 26.7% 30.2% 3.5% 13.1% 中心句 26.2% 27.2% 1.0% 3.8% 以圖會意 28.7% 29.2% 0.5% 1.7% 撮寫 21.5% 20.8% -0.7% -3.3% 實踐個案的成效「教了方法後，學生看課外書時遇到不懂的詞語也會利用上文下理去推敲，以至明白，很少會覺得難和看不明白的書，他們懂得運用這方法掌握閱讀。」（中文科主任）經過閱讀策略教學後，中文科主任發現小四學生在閱讀課外書時有較強的理解能力；正如洪蘭（2003）認為「閱讀時，我們會主動搜索訊息，遇到語意不明、模稜兩可的詞彙，我們眼睛會立刻回歸到前面讀過的句子，尋找文意脈絡解讀這個雙意詞在文中真正的含意；閱讀時，我們的大腦其實在不斷地進行深層分析」（頁 73）。事實上，閱讀與思考是同步進行的，學生在思考中理解讀材的含義，使學生明白閱讀文字的意義，這才是深層的閱讀。「在閱讀活動中，『理解』是閱讀主體心理運行過程中缺之不可的階段性因素；因為如果缺乏或者沒有這種『理解』，也就不可能有深入的文章閱讀」（曹明海、宮梅娟， 1998，頁 68-69）。「寫作也有進步，腦圖（概念圖）讓學生自由去想主題和分類，就會較有系統。較之前什麼都不做好一點，學生會針對內容去寫。」（中文科主任）讀策略可令學生主動閱讀和有意義地去閱讀讀材。經歷了閱讀策略的學習之後，該校小四級學生在文章四要素、推斷詞意、六何法、概念圖和順序法等五個閱讀策略有較大的增幅；當中推斷詞意、六何法和概念圖皆是四至六年級重點學習的首三個閱讀策略。這反映了該校中文科四年級閱讀策略教學，使部份學生感到能掌握一些具體的閱讀策略，以促進學生的思維發展和提高其閱讀表現。分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 99 正如該中文科主任在訪談中的分享，經過閱讀策略的教學後，學生不單在課外閱讀時表現得較佳，在中文科的寫作表現也有進步；尤其是學生學習了概念圖的閱讀策略後，將這能力遷移於寫作方面，從而提高了學生寫作的組織。與此同時，該主任亦指出學生在中文科評估中也表現出能掌握這些閱讀策略。綜合學生在上述三方面的表現，可以看到該校中文科閱讀策略的教學，一定程度上是能提升學生的閱讀、思考和寫作能力的。「教和評估是有關連的，教了這些閱讀策略後，在考試中會考查學生的運用；考試反映他們是可以的。」（中文科主任）經驗與反思「我們在上下學期都各有一次檢討，會檢討閱讀策略有哪方面要修訂，及也會問各級核心小組成員究竟有沒有需要修訂之處；又或在共同備課時就某一篇或問哪一篇文章設計不理想，需要修改的。」（中文科主任）為了優化這個校本閱讀策略的教學細節，該校中文科教師設立了一個檢討機制，在科務會議內和共同備課時，會就各級校本閱讀教學的教材作出檢討和修改。這顯示了該校中文科教師掌握了行動學習方法，正如辛列有（2008）歸納一個本土行動學習經驗時指出「學員把心中所要解決的問題，用行動學習來實踐。在實施經歷階段中，用分析或觀察之法來檢視當中有沒有改善的方法，再重新整理及修訂新的目標，然後再驗證計劃的成效；過程中，教師的反思能力會漸漸敏銳，而實踐的能力亦會逐漸上升」（頁 128-129）。內地學者王潔、顧冷沅（2007）亦指出：「實踐智慧是緘默的，隱含於實踐過程之中，更多地與個體的思想和行動過程保持著一種共生關係」（頁 15-16）。教師透過對實踐行動的研究和學習，可有效反思校本計劃的推行，並豐富了個人的專業智慧。易凌峰、楊向誼（2006）指出「知識管理的目的是建立自己的知識系統架構，讓教師有效地保存在教育過程所獲的知識，不讓有價值的經驗流失；同時，亦有效地將隱性知識在反思的基礎上，轉化為可以共享的、系統的教育知識」（頁 101）。本文嘗試運用外顯內隱知識的理念，剖析一所小學的校本閱讀策略推行的情況，看到在該校中文科引入閱讀策略教學後，有助促進學生在閱讀過程中思考，令近半小四學生掌握六何法和文章四要素等閱讀策略；同時該校教師亦發現學生在課外閱讀、寫作和測考評估中也提昇了表現。正如上文柯華葳認為小四學生能否獨立閱讀，對其日後的學習成效有很大的影響，故在小四中文科引入閱讀策略的教學，有助培育學生主動地理解閱讀教材，並促進其思維發展和寫作表現。這個校本經驗的分享，值得關心學生閱讀的其他香港小學作參考。但不能不說的是，這篇文章有一點的不足，就是未有適時地與相關學生進行質性訪談；假若能在文內加入學生的親身感受作驗證，這個可得到更佳的說服力。參考文獻王秀園（2006）。《學習大革命：善用腦子讀好書》。臺北：基督教宇宙光全人關懷機構。王國強（2008）。《閱讀推廣指導手冊》。澳門：澳門圖書館暨資訊管理協會。 100 王潔、顧泠沅（2007）。《行動教育：教師在職學習的範式革新》。上海：華東師範大學出版社。吳鳳平、林偉業（2009）。《中文閱讀能力──認讀、理解、策略》。香港：香港大學教育學院在職教師教育計劃。辛列有（2008）。〈反思「優化中層管理」計劃的成效〉。載余煊（主編），《學校的領導與變革：中層人員的挑戰》（頁 114-130）。香港：中華基督教會香港區會。易凌峰、楊向誼（主編）（2006）。《知識管理與學校發展》。天津：天津教育出版社。星島日報（2010.12.8）。〈港生數理閱讀上海首參加評估奪三個第一〉。柯華葳（2006）。《教出閱讀力》。臺北：天下雜誌。洪蘭（2003）。〈活動大腦，激發創作力〉。載齊若蘭、游常山、李雪麗等，《閱讀新一代知識革命》（頁 72-76）。臺北：天下雜誌。胡少偉、金國強（2009）。〈提昇學生閱讀的校本經驗〉，載《教育曙光》，第 57 卷，第 2 期，91-98。祝新華（2005）。《能力發展導向的語文評估與教學總論》。新加坡：中外翻譯書社。教育局（2004）。《中國語文課程指引（小一至小六）（2004）》。取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/ TC/Content_4314/chapter2.pdf。曹明海、宮梅娟（1998）。《理解與建構──語文閱讀活動論》。青島：青島海洋大學出版社。梁長城、黃瑞珍（2004）。《閱讀研究與教學的新路向》。香港：香港閱讀學會。黃雪盈（2008）。〈從學生的角度評析校本閱讀課程的成效〉。載霍秉坤等（主編），《課程與教學：研究與實踐的旅程》（頁 320-332）。重慶：重慶大學出版社。聖公會油塘基顯小學（2009）。《中文科（2009-2010）閱讀策略小冊子》。香港：聖公會油塘基顯小學。廖玉英、胡家偉等（2004）。〈校長午間伴讀：策略與成效之行動研究〉。《教學行動研究報告匯編》。香港：香港教師中心。劉美群等（2008）。〈以閱引思、以思帶讀〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 6 卷，161-170。課程發展議會（2002）。《基礎課程指引：各盡所能、發揮所長（小一至中三）》。香港：課程發展議會。課程發展議會（編訂）（2008）。《小學中國語文建議學習重點（試用）》。香港：教育局。薛智（主編）（2001）。《青年讀書技巧訓練教程》。北京：中國青年出版社。謝凌潔貞（2011）。〈教育局舉辦「閱讀薈萃」讓學校分享推動閱讀策略（附圖）〉。2011 年 8 月 12 日，取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201104/16/P201104150092.htm。謝錫金（主編）（2006）。《兒童閱讀能力進展：香港與國際比較》，（第二次印刷）。香港：香港大學出版社。簡馨瑩、曾文慧、陳凱築（2005）。《閱讀悅有趣》。臺北：幼獅文化事業。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 101 以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 Learning Chinese language through the drama learning in 5 quick steps 許玉麟東華三院呂潤財紀念中學摘要筆者身兼中文科及戲劇科老師，以本文總結多年戲劇教學經驗。針對新高中課程之中英文語文科的單元課程，提出即興式的戲劇教學，以五個步驟，並輔以布袋戲形式，來讓學生於短期內掌握基本戲劇聲藝訓練，及體驗戲劇表演的樂趣，同時保留語文教學的效果。本文是經驗的探討而非學理的專著，文中的重點是建構一套教學流程和課程規劃，而非形體演戲技巧訓練。關鍵詞戲劇教學法，布袋戲，新高中課程 Abstract This article is the summary of the drama teaching experience of the author. In order to face the New Senior Secondary curriculum of drama teaching module in language subjects, the author applies the 5 quick steps and puppet play to teach the drama and keep the learning effect of language teaching. The main theme of the article is to set up the teaching plan instead of performance skill training in language teaching. Keywords drama in education, puppet play, New Senior Secondary Curriculum 102 甲、導言隨著近年教學內容多元化發展，戲劇教學在香港學校教育已經非常普遍，並獲得肯定，而中文科運用戲劇教學亦獲支持（許明輝、舒志義， 2010）1。中英文語文科運用戲劇教學法，現已成為正規課程一部分。（香港課程發展議會， 2002）部分學校甚至專門設置戲劇教育為獨立科目（許明輝、舒志義，2010）。戲劇教學獨立成科的話，自然有一套課程規劃，教學效果容易達成。但是如果是某科或者某課其中一個教學內容的話，加插戲劇教學法，往往礙於學生一般戲劇訓練基礎薄弱，膽怯害羞等因素，使戲劇教學大打折扣。新高中課程之中英文語文科，都提倡以戲劇教學為獨立單元。針對 22 小時的單元課程（課程發展處中國語文教育組，2007），本文筆者以中文科兼戲劇科老師的身分，總結多年戲劇教學經驗，在任教語文科單元之時，重點著眼在中文教學果效，以短期即興式的戲劇教學，提出速成教學及布袋戲訓練，利用五個步驟及布袋戲來讓學生於短期內掌握基本戲劇訓練，體驗演出樂趣，同時不超出語文教學的範疇，包括說話、閱讀及寫作範疇，以此提升語文教學的效果。所以，本文是經驗的探討而非理論的專著，文中教學理念的重點是建構一套教學流程，應用於短期語文及戲劇教學活動。乙、理念建構戲劇教學的應用，一般可分為戲劇課程（Drama curriculum）及戲劇教學法（Drama in education / Drama as methods）（許明輝、舒志義，2010）。如果是戲劇課程，學生是學習演戲。如果只是戲劇教學法，學生是通過戲劇形式來學習。無論如何，兩者或多或少都要求教與學雙方掌握戲劇表演的技巧形式。但是，掌握演戲技巧，談何容易？學校任教的老師又有多大信心教授戲劇技巧呢？戲劇課程及戲劇教學法兩者，除非是正式戲劇教育課，又往往互相混淆。以新高中課程之中文科為例，當中的戲劇選修單元，如果演戲技巧成份居多，是否喧賓奪主呢？太多的表演技巧訓練，變成戲劇職業訓練，與語文科教學有何相關（課程發展處中國語文教育組，2007）？簡略而言，現時學校推行戲劇教學，主要面對四個問題：第一是課程太緊迫。第二是學校老師自認培訓太短或經驗不足。第三是學生投入問題。（許明輝、舒志義， 2010）2 第四是分不清戲劇課程及戲劇教學法。 1 參許明輝、舒志義《香港學校戲劇教育：成果的研究與評鑒》（2010），〈校長對戲劇學習效能的意見〉（142 頁）、〈比較教師和校長對戲劇學習效能的看法〉（178-179 頁）。研究報告指出戲劇學習對科目的學習效能，依次由高至低的次序，最高是中文科，同意及十分同意的百分比：教師是 90.8%，校長是 99.3%。第二位是英文科：教師是 85.2%，校長是 94.9%。第三位是藝術：教師是 83.8%，校長是 95.6%。第四位是人文教育：教師是 83.0%，校長是 93.4%。第五是體育：教師是 39.4%，校長是 51.5%。第六位是科技：教師是 35.2%，校長是 50.0%。第七位是科學：教師是 31.2%，校長是 38.3%。最後是數學（排第八位）：教師是 24.8%，校長是 29.5%。 2 參許明輝、舒志義《香港學校戲劇教育：成果的研究與評鑒》（2010），〈教師對在學校實施戲劇教學法的限制之觀點〉（218 頁）。研究報告列出 11 種意見，依次由大至小的次序是：課程太緊迫；每班人數太多；教室空間不夠；教師經驗不足；不夠時間備課；秩序難於控制；學校支援不足；不適用於某些學科；教案或實踐示例不足；不適用於某些學生；學生不願意參與。以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 103 回應上述各問題，除非是正式戲劇課程，筆者不贊成混淆學科課堂，所以不應讓正常語文課堂被戲劇課程取代，語文科應保證語文課堂本身的訓練，在教授戲劇單元時候，要發揮戲劇教學法的特點。針對上述四個問題，筆者現在提出的戲劇速成五部曲，以短期課程為考慮，並繞過戲劇技巧訓練這一關，以課程規劃代替技巧訓練，同時讓並無戲劇教學經驗的語文老師亦可以勝任，解決上文所提及的各個問題。推行戲劇速成五部曲，以布袋戲教學作為演出途徑，特點是避開戲劇演藝訓練，保留語文科的說話、閱讀與寫作的重點，同時亦可以讓學生享受演出的過程。以布袋戲代替真人粉墨登場，解決學生能力不足，膽怯害羞，師資不足的困難，但保留了戲劇教學的演出部分，為學生提供展示學習成果的機會。推行布袋戲，亦須訓練學生聲音說話的運用，還有訓練學生創作劇本，這些訓練都需要配合校本的語文課程作出規劃、安排。戲劇速成五部曲的課程理念是著重循序漸進的學習過程，由個人基礎出發，推演至小組合作；由簡單的朗讀聲藝訓練，進階至綜合表演。此理念著重學生去經歷一次完整的演出訓練過程，所以是重視學生學習過程的課程規劃，而非針對學生表演技巧，不著重演戲技巧。戲劇速成五部曲教學步驟，簡述如下： • 第一步是以「朗讀」訓練學生個人基本演藝能力； • 第二步是透過「對話」方式訓練學生雙人對戲劇表演的基本概念； • 第三步以「廣播劇」或「朗讀劇場」訓練學生小組演出； • 第四步以「布袋戲」作真人粉墨登場前的整體演出練習； • 第五步，如果一切條件成熟，可讓學生作真人表演，使學生有真實演出經驗。施行本課程，可以配合微格教學法，運用現代電子攝錄器材，拍攝學生表現，在時間許可下，即時放映學生的活動錄影片段，檢視課堂表現，是學生掌握課堂表現，老師作適當回饋。本課程理念以五部曲促成教學為前提。目標是讓學生輕鬆地經歷一次完整的戲劇訓練過程，而不失語文教學效果。本課程適用於新高中課程之語文科單元，如果是其他年級，只要時間許可，亦可適用，另外亦適合其他短期課程或工作坊。全套運用課堂時間約為 12 課時，老師仍然有充足的時間教授與戲劇表演相關的語文知識和能力。至於舞台功架，並非本文討論範圍。丙、實踐應用—速成教學五部曲以下是五部曲的具體教學內容。第一階段：個人基本聲藝訓練─個人朗讀第一階段目的是令學生開金口，訓練膽量，並且讓學生明白戲劇作為傳遞訊息的藝術表演，說話的清晰表達是非常重要。從語文教學角度，此階段收說話訓練之效。本階段，教師以朗讀訓練為主，教材方面，如果是高中的學生，公開試一分鐘朗讀是最佳的配合訓練。如想增加趣味，可用繞口令作為教材，因其趣味性，可減少學生的抗拒說話的阻力教學。過程是老師先預備若干繞口令作品，可以有不同程度及長度以適合不同學生，並逐步增加挑戰難度，口語方言不拘，正宗普通話的繞口令短句亦可，目的是寓訓練於樂趣中。此階段需時不可過長，學生逐一朗讀，循環往復，每次宜以一分鐘為限，全程約為 1 小時。如果學生平常的朗讀訓練很好，可以跳過本階段。 104 第二階段：雙人合作訓練─二人對話此階段目的是圍讀訓練的前奏，讓學生學習處理戲劇對白的聲情表達及相互協作。此階段仍是以說話訓練為重點，與前一階段不同的，此階段是訓練同學應對，而不再是單人朗讀。本階段以兩人一組，自由組合，教材可選用過往學校朗誦節內之二人對話比賽之材料，現成方便。如果來得及，還可以為學生報名參加朗誦節的比賽，增加演出經驗。老師派發教材後，即時練習，然後逐組表演及計分。此階段需時不用過長，全程約為 1 至 1.5 小時。第三階段：小組合作訓練─圍讀及廣播劇演出此階段目的是訓練學生以小組作聲藝演出。以四至六人為一組，可以自由組合，人數視乎老師所選定的劇本角色數目。老師宜選定劇本教材，以免學生不知如何尋找劇本。劇本教材方面，如老師能夠取得電台廣播劇本，就是最理想的做法，否則須自行尋找。筆者建議可以選用丁西林 3 的獨幕劇作，因內容幽默、諷刺味道強，適合時下青年的口味。老師指導學生圍讀排練，然後分組演出，每組演出時間為 10 分鐘內。此階段需時約為 1.5 小時。此階段宜錄音，可作為評分及事後檢討之用。除了圍讀訓練，亦可以選用朗讀劇場（Interpreters Theatre / Reader’s Theatre）作訓練，以朗讀方式作角色扮演來進行訓練。此階段之語文訓練，除了說話訓練，已經包含閱讀能力的訓練，學生會透過閱讀劇本，加強閱讀能力。第四階段：演出熱身─布袋戲布袋戲訓練的優點是突破學生在真人演出時的抗拒心理，訓練學生編寫劇本，並啟導舞台工作概念。排演布袋劇是因為部分學生不慣於人前表演，所以借用布偶，讓學生實習，打破在人前表演的恐懼感，增加學生表演慾望及積極性。布袋戲的學生組合，以四至六人為一組，可以自由組合。小組人數不宜過多，以免小組內部分歧多而失效。布袋戲的劇本，可以借用現成既有之材料，也可以由學生自行嘗試編寫。如果由學生編寫劇本，趣味性較強，一般學生亦有能力去編寫，只要老師明白不作過分要求，學生可以自行編出合理劇本情節。不過，為免學生不知如何入手編寫劇本，老師可以先提供一小片段情節，或者一個特定情境，然後讓學生改編、續寫等等。老師亦可以讓學生以抽籤形式，抽取情節卡（當然是老師預先準備妥當），由此組合不同情節。學生編寫劇本的程序，先給予每人 3 分鐘自定一個小故事片段。然後合為兩人一組，給予 5 分鐘，商量如何合併兩人不同的故事。然後再將兩人小組合為四至六人的大組，再給予 5 分鐘，商量合併為一個故事，如果學生人數再多，步驟如此類推。劇本大綱選定後，讓各組派代表彙報，老師作簡單修正，然後老師協助學生編排角色及分配角色。之後，就故事內容，學生先撰寫簡單的故事版（story board），從中找出需要對話之處，及決定對話的內容。初步解決劇本大綱，由每一學生自行編寫自己的對話。因為這是布袋戲，基本上全場均要求對話交代情 3 丁西林（1893—1974），中國現代戲劇史上專門寫喜劇的劇作家，內容諷刺時弊。他的作品《三塊錢國幣》，是部分中文科教科書輔導選材之一。以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 105 節，所以學生可以盡量發揮圍讀訓練所得。每一齣劇，限時 10 分鐘為佳。至於布偶及舞台佈局，由學生自行設計及製作。布偶方面，簡單的可以使用紙碟當布偶面孔，以紙袋造成布偶身體。布偶造型由學生自行設計，更可以發揮學生視覺藝術的天分。材料是日常接觸得到的顏料及物品，紙袋等物料可於超級市場或文具店購買，價錢便宜，同時鼓勵使用環保物科，十元八塊已經可以足夠全班之用。音響配樂，亦可以由學生自定，或者由老師提供若干樂曲，再由學生選取播放。而舞台佈置，由於學校一般不會預先製作一大座布偶劇舞台，所以表演時，根本無什麼舞台可言，只是將一張長枱翻過來，當作舞台即可，因此，暫時不需什麼佈景或燈光效果，如果學生就此簡陋情況下仍有創意發揮，應當鼓勵他們嘗試。當學生一切準備就緒，先讓學生綵排練習，然後才正式演出。此階段前後需時約為 4 小時。編寫及製作布偶時間約為 2 小時，表演約為 2 小時（8 組計算）。至於攝錄是必需的，既增加學生積極性，亦方便評分及作事後檢討。此外，由於學生已編好故事劇本，老師應該要求各組交出一份完整的劇本文稿，並作為評分之一部分，老師可以借此教導學生編寫劇本。學生完成布袋戲的演出，基本上已經經歷了一次戲劇演出，從中了解演出流程，同時，亦訓練了學生的說話、創作故事和編寫劇本的能力。第五階段：真人表演此階段目的是訓練學生親身演出。學生承接表演布偶劇之餘興，鼓勵學生真人粉墨登場。當然，如果學生的表現不濟，或者紀律失控，老師可於上一階段完結，停止本課程。事實上，學生於布袋戲階段已經訓練了說話、創作和編寫劇本的能力，本階段是「錦上添花」的階段，所以老師應視乎實際情況而行。老師進行此階段活動，須有戲劇教學方面的經驗，如果老師並無信心，就不要勉強進行此階段的活動。學生作真人表演，是上一階段的延續。老師可以就地取材，以布袋戲的演出，改為真人表演。學生因有布袋戲演出的經驗，改為自己親身演出，可以駕輕就熟，而抗拒的反應自然會下降。時間安排，基本上與表演布袋戲的安排相同，唯老師應給予學生綵排時間，並作一些簡單的形體演出指導。此階段對老師的要求，其實是超出語文老師的能力，進而是戲劇教學的範疇，老師如進行此階段活動，宜有戲劇教學方面的經驗，此點是老師不可不知的。在此補充，此階段之演出可以訓練學生的共通協作、解難創意的能力，對於建立自信，學習自我管理亦有幫助。但前提是學生享受戲劇表演，並掌握基礎的形體表演技巧，否則教師應考慮實情況，決定是否繼續。以筆者經驗，學生未經系統正式形體演技訓練，難於短期內克服表演的心理困難，或者根本不明白戲劇表演的基本要求，效果往往令人失望，老師應視乎情況決定是否應該繼續。丁、總結以上教學，以速成為重點，強調語文的培育而非形體演技訓練，亦初步照顧學生參與戲劇教育的成功感，明白演戲的流程。當然，此時的訓練不足以讓學生作正式演出，而上述的過程，亦無涉及任何技巧訓練，只不過是讓學生參與而已，既是經歷了演出，亦同時訓練了學生在說、讀與寫方面的能力，包括閱讀、朗讀、說話及戲本創作。至於正式的戲劇技巧訓練，可以留待與學生檢討後，使學生明白技巧訓練的重要，先建立興趣，然後轉介參加正式的戲劇訓練班。由於 106 參考文獻香港課程發展議會（2002）。《藝術教育學習領域課程指引（小一至中三）》。香港：教育統籌局。許明輝、舒志義（2010）。《香港學校戲劇教育：成果的研究與評鑒》。香港：香港教育戲場論壇。課程發展處中國語文教育組（2007）。《中國語文課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：教育統籌局。本文介紹的教學內容是速成為主，全程需時約為 12 小時課堂，如果應用於新高中課程之語文科單元，仍可餘下 10 多教學小時，老師可以因應情況，自行調節或加插不同的內容，又或者借學生的創作劇本，引導學生閱讀名家劇本，回到語文教學。上文內容，是筆者經驗的初步總結。於實踐上，從觀察所得，並以學生所呈交之劇本質量比較，學生參與布袋戲製作及演出，學生積極投入性，和呈交劇本的準時程度來看，效果明顯比演技訓練而演出的較佳。當然，這裡提到的所謂「較佳」，只不過是指學生的積極性，至於質素方面，正式的演技訓練與速成即興的學習，不能相提並論。然而，學生參與布袋戲的活動，確實可以放下親身演出的包袱，投入程度較佳，學習效能自然較高。另一方面，此課程對老師的能力要求，仍然在於語文教學的能力，而非戲劇教學的能力，仍然不超出語文教師的能力範疇。本文討論以經驗分享為主，非學理上的討論，具體處理，因學生而異，篇幅所限，未能詳盡之處，特別是學理探究部分，歡迎指教。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 107 香港生命教育的分享：人道教室的實踐經驗 Sharing in Hong Kong’s life education: Practical experience in humanity classroom 杜家慶佛教榮茵學校胡少偉香港教育學院摘要生命教育與中國哲學和傳統文化息息相關，兩岸近年同時重視在學校推行生命教育，香港也有不少學校推行生命教育，以促進學生德育的成長。這篇文章在華人重視生命教育的環境中，分享一所香港佛教小學推行生命教育的實踐經驗。這所小學利用香港紅十字會引入的國際人道法教材，結合家長義工的參與，以活動小組形式讓小六學生學習人道精神；剖析這個生命教育案例的成功經歷，相信可供推動生命教育學校同工作參考。關鍵詞生命教育，香港小學德育，人道教室 Abstract Life education is closely related to Chinese philosophy and traditional culture. In the recent years, Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan both pay more attention to implement life education in schools in order to promote moral development of students. This article would analyze a practical experience of a Buddhist primary school in implementing life education in Hong Kong. The school used the international humanity teaching materials introduced by the Hong Kong Red Cross combining with the participation of parent volunteer to nurture students to learn humanity with activities in groups. The anatomy of this case study of successful experience could work as a reference for colleagues who wish to promote life education in schools. 108 Keywords life education, moral education in Hong Kong primary schools, humanity classroom 華人社會的生命教育「中國哲學不止於對宇宙人生的思辨，而是與人生方向、敦品礪行等相關，講求生命與知識相貫通，是一門生命的學問」（鄧立光，2008，頁 15）。在《學問的生命與生命的學問》一書，傅偉勳（1994）指出「中國文化的核心是生命的學問；由真實生命之覺醒，向外開出建立事業與追求知識之理想，向內滲透此等理想之真實本源，使理想真成」（頁 50）。內地儒學大師郭齊勇（2008）亦指出「生即創造、創新，這是中國哲學的主題；中國文化是尊生、重生、創造日新的文化」（頁 9）。從這幾位華人學者的分析，生命教育與中國傳統哲學文化息息相關；與此同時，兩岸三地社會近年亦重視在學校推行生命教育。在台灣，張淑美（2006）指出「生命教育大約是 1998 年間由省政府教育廳陳英豪廳長提出；其後，教育部曾志朗部長於 1999 年宣佈為生命教育年，大力推動生命教育，規劃實施從國小到大學十六年一貫的生命教育」。在台灣教育部於 2009 年公佈的生命教育課程課綱中，勾劃了生命教育內容有七大主題：哲學與人生、道德思考與抉擇、生命與科技倫理、性愛與婚姻倫理、生死關懷、宗教與人生、人格統整與靈性發展。而據台灣教育部生命教育資訊網，生命教育涵蓋的內容既深且廣，「從人出生來到這世上，到最後走完生命歷程、面對死亡議題；只要在生與死這兩點間，如何找到自己的價值定位、如何與他人相處、如何尊重關懷有情萬物、如何安身立命並找到方法，都屬於生命教育的範疇」（教育部， 2009）。可見台灣生命教育的內涵十分豐富。上海是一個近年積極推行生命教育的大城市，上海市於 2009 年 3 月正式頒發了《上海市中小學生生命教育指導綱要（徵求意見稿）》，明確提出推行生命教育是上海市中小學教師的職責；正如馮建軍等（2007）指出：「傳授知識是教師工作的重要環節，但傳授知識本身不是目的，知識只具有工具價值，它只是生命發展的工具，教育的目的是促進生命的發展」（頁 232）。有關生命教育的重要性，李忠紅（2008）認為「人之為人，人之高於動物的地方就在於人不僅追求活著，而且還追求有意義的活著，正是意義決定了人的存在、生活、發展方向，體現了生命的價值和人的尊嚴」（頁 24）。因此「中小學非常有必要開設並有效實施生命教育課程，讓教育回歸其本真——遵循生命發展的原則，依據生命發展的動力，促成中小學生的生命與生命的交流」（謝藝泉，2009）。生命教育在香港的發展在香港，生命教育的起動始於上個世紀，據張素玲和巴兆成（2007）認為「天水圍十八鄉鄉事委員會公益中學於 1996 年便在校內推行生命教育課程的探索；其後，香港天主教教育委員會、香港浸會大學、香港教育學院等教育機構開發出了一些與生命教育有關的教材」。文林出版在這香港生命教育的分享：人道教室的實踐經驗 109 個世紀亦曾出版了初中生命教育課程《生命是一棵雜果樹》和小學生命成長課程《成長列車》；一位有參與小學課程的教師分享認為「在這條漫長路上有許多的體會，觀察到若要幫助學生在生命教育上有進深的學習，最重要就是幫助小朋友明白自我解決問題之道及培養他們尊重別人的品格」（廖睿詩，2007，頁 28）。另一方面，有一批教育界人士於 2007 年籌組了「香港生命教育基金會」，以推廣及促使公眾特別是青少年珍惜自己、尊重他人和周遭萬物的生命。課程發展處德育和公民教育組提出以認識生命、愛惜生命、尊重生命和探索生命四個學習層次去培育學生的德育和公民教育；2010 年，課程發展議會（2010）更編制了一個「初中科生活與社會」課程，促進香港初中學生生命教育的培育。有本土學者則以說故事形式去分享三所港深小學推行生命教育的實踐經驗，發現「香港教會小學在校本課程內強調生命教育的宗教元素，深圳小學透過語文課讓學生深入理解生與死，大埔那間小學則以全方位學習去讓學生的生命活得出色」（胡少偉，2010）。正如在該所大埔小學任教教師葉億兆、楊可琪（2008）的分享：「學校推行生命教育的其中一個目的，是希望透過課堂內外的課程及活動，幫助學生從小建立正確的人生觀，愛人愛己，尊重他人，讓愛與關懷成為校內各人溝通的潤滑劑」。而今年獲取行政長官卓越教學獎的馬鞍山循道衛理小學，則以「六年一貫」原則設計校本生命教育課程（曾愛芳， 2011.7.8）。可見不少小學推行生命教育以促進學生的成長；而以個案形式分享學校生命教育的推行，則有助促進學校推行生命教育的交流和累積有效經驗。這篇文章的重心是在華人社會重視生命教育的大環境中，分享一所香港佛教小學推行生命教育的實踐經驗。這所小學利用香港紅十字會引入的國際人道法教材，結合家長義工的參與，以活動小組形式讓一群小六學生學習人道精神；期望透過剖析這個生命教育案例的成功經歷，可供本土有志推動生命教育小學同工作參考。人道教室生命學堂香港紅十字會自 2002 年開始在香港推行一套人道教室活動，以不同的活動模式，為該會的青少年會員、公眾人士及中、小學生提供體驗式探索活動，以加強參加者理解「保護生命、關懷傷困、維護尊嚴」和「戰爭也有規限」的核心價值。人道教室活動是參照紅十字國際委員會於 2001 年推出的探索人道法教材為藍本，這套教材曾在約二十個國家進行實驗教學，証明能對不同背景或文化的青少年產生正面果效，現時全球已有近百國家和地區同時推行。香港紅十字會現時所推行的課程，是由曾經參與日內瓦、澳洲、澳門及上海培訓的負責人進行調適的。這個「人道教室、生命學堂」教育計劃曾於 2005 年獲得明報「生命教育傑出教案表揚計劃」內小學組傑出教案殊榮；香港紅十字會於 2007 年獲得公益金資助，在 2007 至 2010 年間向三十所學校推展全期十二節的「人道教室、生命學堂」計劃。這個課程計劃各課節內容可見下表一： 110 表一　「人道教室、生命學堂」的課節內容主題內容 1. 人道教室向學生簡介課堂內容、探索生命及人類尊嚴的重要 2. 戰火人間讓學生探索戰爭的不同看法及對人類社會的影響 3. 戰爭的代價讓學生探索戰爭對不同人所造成的傷害 4. 戰爭也有規限讓學生知悉即使戰爭發生也應保護無辜者的生命 5. 童兵探討童兵這個問題所帶來嚴重的後果 6. 地雷探討地雷這個問題對人類所帶來的嚴重後果 7. 連鎖反應讓學生探索少數人破壞誠信的嚴重後果 8. 維護公益透過國際人道法庭探索應如何對破壞誠信的人做出回應 9. 置身事外讓學生以旁觀者的角度探索可以對事件產生的果效 10. 危機中見關懷讓學生探索戰爭對人類帶來的禍害及人道救援的重要 11. 凝聚人道力量讓學生思考對保護生命及人類尊嚴可以做出的貢獻 12. 生命學堂與學生總結及評估課程何謂人道主義？根據《美國哲學百科》指出：「凡是承認人的價值或尊嚴，以人為萬物尺度，或以人性、人的限度、人的利益為主題的所有哲學，都被稱作人道主義」（杜麗燕，2005，頁 20）。在「人道教室、生命學堂」的教育課程中，香港紅十字會以較為新鮮的戰爭作主題，透過以旁觀者、參與者及受害者不同角度，讓參與計劃學生的探討當生命及人類尊嚴不受尊重時會帶來的後果。這套課程以體驗式活動為主，學生可透過多媒體視聽教材、角色扮演、個案討論及處境遊戲等教學活動，增強學生以人道角度去分析事件的能力及建立尊重生命及人類尊嚴的價值。正如郝明工（2005）認為人道主義的主要原則是：「相信人類是一個統一體，在我們每個人之外再不會發現任何人；強調人的尊嚴；強調人發展自身和完善自身的能力；強調理性、客觀性與和平」（頁 3-4）。人道主義的一個原則是要理解到人類尊嚴的重要，而這套「人道教室、生命學堂」課程的其中一個核心價值是「生命尊嚴」，讓學生從學習中認識到生命寶貴和人性尊嚴的正面價值。校本人道教室的推行佛教榮茵學校於 2003 學年便推行這個「人道教室、生命學堂」的課程。為了深入了解該校推行這個生命教育的校本經驗，研究員除了搜集相關的文獻和資料外，於 2010 年底與負責這計劃的中層主任作焦點訪談。該負責教師在回想計劃時指出在計劃的起動時，香港紅十字會要求全校所有教師參與培訓，知道人道教室的意義並認同計劃的理念後，接著培訓家長導師，然後才正式在校內推行人道教室的課程。這套教材的核心價值，正如內地學者朱文奇（2006）在《國際人道語文選》中指出「從一開始，人道法就沒有要求消滅戰爭的禍害，而是將目標確定在盡可能減輕戰爭不必要的殘酷性這點上；不管在平時還是戰時，國際法必須確保對所有人作最低限度的保護及人道待遇」（頁 3-4）。這套課程計劃的理念並不是提倡反對戰爭，而是向學生推廣「在戰爭中要有人道精神」的價值。在推行這個「人道教室、生命學堂」的課程時，佛教榮茵學校按校本情況，設計了一節海防戰爭探索之旅。在這課節中，學校會安排參與學生參觀海防博物館，除了參觀覽展館內與戰爭相關的內容之外，負責教師還會按紅十字會強調體驗式學習的要求，讓學生透過搶軍旗、救傷兵和香港生命教育的分享：人道教室的實踐經驗 111 地雷陣等活動，去認識戰爭是會奪去生命、救傷兵不分敵我和地雷對人類生命的威脅等三個人道精神的價值。香港紅十字會在小冊中指出：「戰爭必須設有規限，至少要禁止或限制使用過分殘忍的武器或作戰方式；更要保護未參與或不再參與敵對行動的人員，例如：平民、醫務人員、受傷的戰鬥員及戰俘」（香港紅十字會青年及義工事務部，2008，頁 7）；而救傷員活動就是讓學生明白保護傷者生命是彰顯人道精神的行為，下文是負責教師的分享：當中有三個活動，一個是救傷兵，是兩軍對壘，有些同學扮演傷兵，會看他們怎樣去救人和救人的方式，發現當中有些只救自己的人，而有一些會救其他人。我們之後會做分享，為何你會救這個人？又或為何看見他人坐在路邊受傷也不理？希望帶出從人道立場。戰爭當中雖然大家對壘，但當有人受傷時，救人應是不分你我的。（教師分享）在這個戰爭遺址的海防博物館內，學生除了以模擬遊戲去體會戰爭中人類所受到的傷害外，亦可透過歷史的遺跡、圖片、錄影片段回到過去，就戰爭產生對人類的影響作出反思；在過程中很多學生明白到「停止戰爭，減少紛爭」的訊息。另一個參觀活動，教師和家長義工會帶領參與課程的小六學生到柴灣軍人墳場。台灣學者楊慕慈（2003）認為：「9-12 歲孩子比年齡較小的孩子對死亡有較激烈的情感表達，且感受到無助與無力」（7 章，頁 18）。正如負責教師在下文分享中指出，小六生在參觀柴灣軍人墳場的過程，看到來自不同國籍的軍人曾經為保衛香港而戰，有些陣亡戰士的年紀更與他們是相若的，這觸動了學生，亦使他們感受到「人的生命是不可重複的、不可讓渡的、是會死的」（鄭曉江，2009，頁 15），從而亦激發他們有一份珍惜自己生命的情感，也會為自己能活命而懂得感恩。那裡是紀念軍人的墳場，瞭解當時香港戰爭原來有很多不同國籍的軍人陣亡，有些很小，十多歲就死了，讓他們感受一下，然後作反思。（教師分享）生命學堂的實踐人道法庭看完片段後，模擬做軍事法庭，審判軍官是否有罪？為何要下令炸平民、攻擊平民？於是就分辯方和控方去判斷，看那方的理據較多，他們分析得很好的，小朋友原來有另一種角度去分析。（教師分享）佛教榮茵學校在實踐「人道教室、生命學堂」時，還有一個有特色的體驗活動就是人道法庭。負責教師分享時指出在人道法庭的課節中，學生首先觀看一段與軍人有關的錄影片段，然後被分派扮演為軍事法庭法官、控方律師、辯方律師和陪審員等不同角色，並就有關軍人是否合乎國際人道法作出訴訟和裁決。在這個模擬角色的學習活動中，最重要的不是在於學生對國際人道法的詮釋是否得宜，而是他們在活動中有機會就人道精神的價值作深入的思考和討論。林思伶（2007）在分享台灣經驗時提出：「針對學生知、情、意、行的平衡訓練，促其養成反省覺察生命現象和快樂學習的態度，正是生命教育所強調的目標」（頁 83）。與此同時，在這個校本生命教育的課程中，教師還安排小六生寫一篇軍人日記，讓他們想像自己是一位軍人，去撰寫一篇與軍旅生活有關的 112 日記；這個活動可讓學生整理他在生命學堂學習歷程的感受。郭志丕（2001）牧師早年的分享曾指出：「生命教育不是單向的教導，而是生命的分享」；這個寫軍人日記的學習活動，正正是一個讓學生分享對生命看法的好機會。在下文訪談的分享，負責教師指出這個生命學堂課程推行成功的其中一個重要因素，是引入社會力量和家長義工的參與。香港紅十字會負責人除了派義工協助學校和家長落實這個「人道教室、生命學堂」的課程活動外，亦十分重視學生家長的參與。為了培訓家長成為人道教室的義務導師，學校和香港紅十字會「為家長導師提供 4 次培訓課程，讓家長導師了解每次學習活動的分工及指引，並在培訓中即時分享及檢討」（佛教榮茵學校（上午校），2006，頁 164），這使家長義工了解每課節活動的人道訊息，其作用不單建立了家長做導師的自信，亦可令家長對學習內容有共鳴，並能在家中與子女進行親子溝通，深化子女在生命學堂的學習。在香港紅十字會的研究報告，整體家長義工的評價與佛教榮茵家長是一致的；「根據導師的回應，家長的評價都十分正面；有帶領活動的家長義工都認為活動課題富有意義，更有學校家教會主動提出願意支付 3,000 元的參加費用」（香港紅十字會，2010，頁 13）。初時是按紅十字會的做法，每節 1 小時 30 分在星期六的多元智能堂做，當時紅十字會有較多的支援，每次有數位義工來帶著老師與家長一起帶；這個方式很成功，家長慢慢地投入，每 1-2 次活動後開會，家長有很多的意見。（教師分享）學習人道與生命教育當年人道教室開始時，剛巧是海嘯，看到紅十字會在當地幫助尋人；學生會回來與我說看到紅十字會在當地幫忙；因為上了這個課程，令他們知道紅十字會的工作，不只於捐錢、捐血、救人，原來還有其他工作可以做。這會引發他們日後對義工工作較為熱心呢！（教師分享）從負責教師在上文的真情分享，可以看到「人道教室、生命學堂」對參與學生的影響。經歷了一連串體驗式學習活動，參加者不斷學習人道精神的核心價值和思考與人類生命有關的問題，這亦使參與學生對香港紅十字會的服務有較多關注，並促使他們較熱心地參與義務工作，實踐人道精神。正如林繼偉（2004）認為「諾丁的關懷倫理學著重人性中關懷的情意力量，使人的關懷情意成為實現社會正義的人性動力」（頁 145）。在這個校本生命教育的學習歷程，學生的關懷情意得到孕育，並轉化成為關愛別人和社會的行動，這體現出學生的生命力量。「人道行動是人類愛心的體現，只有發端於人的道德自覺，才顯出其真正的價值」（陳明（主編）， 1996，頁 305）；可見，在課程被觸動的學生能自覺地產生多些對別人的愛心和利他的行為，在生命中活現人道精神的核心價值。梁志援（2008）在《和孩子一起學習生命教育》一書中寫出「這種對生命的領悟，並不是與生俱來的本能，必須經過適當的指引和教導」；在這個「人道教室、生命學堂」課程計劃，「讓參加者透過體驗活動，探索個案的內容，作出討論，反思生命的意義，以及尊嚴對人的重要性」（香港紅十字會青年及義工事務部，2008，頁 5），有效地指導和培育學生對生命教育的認識和理解。從下文負責教師的訪談，發現竟然有參與學生在畢業後還會提及這個課程，這反映出香港生命教育的分享：人道教室的實踐經驗 113 學生因學習了「生命與尊嚴」的人道核心價值，而內化了要減少對他人的暴力行為。從孫效智（2004）的分析「生命教育以知行合一為目標，而知行之間具相互為用性：深刻的力行能帶來深刻的真知，而深刻的真知又能推動人進一步身體力行」（頁 15）；看來這個強調體驗學習活動的課程，是能令一些學生深刻地了解人道精神核心價值的機會，並將其學習成效溶入自己的生命中，改變了這些學生日後的行為。有些學生畢業後來信提及或回來傾談時，說以前也喜歡用暴力，因參加了這課程，現時懂得顧及他人感受。（教育分享）啟示內地學者金生鈜（2007）提倡「學校和教師有必須推進生命教育，在理解生命的基礎上引導生命的自我發展，促進生命的精彩和輝煌」（頁 34）。佛教榮茵學校在推行「人道教室、生命學堂」的課程計劃中，確實令到一些參與學生認識到人道精神，透過海防戰爭探索之旅、參觀軍人墳場、人道法庭的角色扮演和寫軍人日記等多元學習活動，學生深刻認識了「戰爭也有規限」、「生命與尊嚴」和「保護生命、關懷傷困、維護尊嚴」等三個核心價值；從而懂得珍惜生命、參與義工和反暴力。「生命是無價的，人死不能復生，所以每個人都應熱愛生命，把生命看成人間至愛、不放棄、不割捨、不偷生，完整的保護生命」（詹棟樑，2004，頁 231）；在與負責教師的分享中，了解到學生在這個強調體驗和反思的校本課程中對生命意義有深刻的學習。與此同時，這個參照紅十字國際委員會人道法的校本生命教育成功之處，是能發揮家長義工的力量，不單把家長培訓成生命學堂的義務導師，並藉此創造話題讓家長和子女一起去探討生命課題，活化了兩代人生命的碰撞。正如鈕則誠（2008）指出：「華人的生命教育要教的是中國生命學問，而非西方科學與哲學知識以及宗教信仰。」作為有華人特色的生命教育案例，這個校本課程不單沒有宗教色彩，並提高了學生對人道精神核心價值的認知，更能影響一些學生的行為，體現生命教育的成效，值得有志推動生命教育的其他學校同工作參考。此外，不得不提的是，若能在個案中加入一些曾參與課程的學生作親身分享，將使這篇外顯校本隱性知識的文章更具說服力。最後，這個在全球有近百國家和地區同時推行的「人道教室、生命學堂」課程計劃，究竟這個課程在非華人地區是否也對學員產生相若的成效，這是值得關注生命教育學者作進一步研究的。參考文獻朱文奇（2006）。《國際人道法文選》。北京：法律出版社。佛教榮茵學校（上午校）（2006）。〈海防戰爭探索之旅〉。《談【美德】‧ 論【價值】》德育教材手冊（頁 164-166）。香港：教育統籌局、明報。李忠紅（2008）。〈關注生命教育的超越路向與超越意識〉。載《思想政治教育》（2008.06），23-25。杜麗燕（2005）。《人性的曙光──希臘人道主義探源》。北京：華夏出版社。林思伶（2007）。〈華人社會生命教育的發展──臺灣經驗〉。載黃素君（編），《「華人社會的教育發展」學術研討會專題演講集》。澳門：澳門大學教育學院。 114 林繼偉（2004）。〈社會正義與社會關懷〉。《生命教育之理論與實踐》（頁 137-152）。台北：心理出版社。金生鈜（2007）。〈現代教育的生命關懷〉。載劉鉄芳（主編），《現代生命的生命關懷》（頁 32-36），上海：華東師範大學出版社。胡少偉（2010）。〈港深小學教師說學校生命教育的故事〉。載黃素君（編），《2009 年華人社會的教育發展系統研討會「教師說故事 ‧ 說教師的故事」論文集》（頁 196-210）。澳門：澳門大學教育學院。香港紅十字會（2010）。《「人道教室、生命學堂」2007-2010 研究報告》。香港：香港紅十字會。香港紅十字會青年及義工事務部（2008）。《人道教室、生命學堂》。香港：香港紅十字會。孫效智（2004）。〈導讀〉。《歌詠生命旋律──九年一貫生命教育教案》（頁 8-12）。台北：幼獅文化事業。郝明工（2005）。《人道主義與二十世紀的中國文論》。北京：中國社會科學出版社。張素玲、巴兆成等（主編）（2007）。《生命教育》。山東：中國石油大學出版社。張淑美（2006）。〈生死教育〉。載林綺雲（主編），《實用生死學》（第 2 章，頁 8-40）。台中：華格那企業。教育部（2009）。《輔導教師參考手冊》。2011 年 6 月 1 日，取自 http://life.cpshs.hcc.edu.tw/ezcatfiles/b001/ img/img/02.pdf。梁志援（2008）。《和孩子一起學習生命教育》。台北：稻田出版。郭志丕（2001）。〈引領孩子尋索生命的價值〉。載《親親孩子親親書──領孩子尋索生命的價值》（頁 11）。香港：宗教教育中心。郭齊勇（2008）。《中國哲學智慧的探索》。北京：中華書局。陳明（主編）（1996）。《中國傳統文化中的人道主義》。北京：華夏出版社。傅偉勳（1994）。《學問的生命與生命的學問》。臺北：正中書局。曾愛芳（2011.7.8）。〈馬鞍山循道衛理生命教育「六年一貫」〉。《星島日報》，F01 版。鈕則誠（2008）。〈從台灣生命教育到華人生命教育〉。載黃旭、張文質（主編），《生命教育》（頁 23- 30）。福州：福建教育出版社。馮建軍等（2007）。《生命化教育》。北京：教育科學出版社。楊慕慈（2003）。《生命教育》。台灣：禾楓書局。葉億兆、楊可琪（2008）。〈深化關愛校園文化〉。《教師中心傳真》，第 68 期。詹棟樑（2004）。《生命教育》。台北：師大書苑。廖睿詩（2007）。〈陪伴孩子在生活中實踐：生命教育的喜樂〉。《生命教育通訊》，第 14 期，8-9。課程發展議會（2010）。《生活與社會課程（中一至中三）第二次諮詢稿》。香港：課程發展議會。瀏覽日期： 2011 年 6 月 1 日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_3241/L&S_2nd_chi.pdf。鄧立光（2008）。《中國哲學與文化復興詮論》。上海：上海古籍出版社。鄭曉江（2009）。〈通過生命教育構建現代生死觀的核心價值〉。《中小學心理健康教育》，141。北京：開明出版社。謝藝泉（2009）。〈中小學生命教育課程體系建構的思考〉。《時代教育》，11-12，135-136。 116 徵集論文我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括： • 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創意教學 • 家長教育 • 校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導 • 校本管理 • 學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢 • 學生培訓 • 教育改革評議 • 比較教育 • 高等教育 • 幼兒教育 • 特殊教育 • 美術教育 • 音樂教育 • 教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: • Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation • Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy • Creative teaching • Parent education • School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring • School-based management • Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling • Student development • Critique on education reform • Comparative education • Higher education • Early childhood education • Special education • Fine arts education • Music education • History of education 117 稿例（修訂於 2011 年 12 月） (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在A4紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵）請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者，作者應保留一份原稿，以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附中、英文題目，中、英文摘要（中文以 200 字為限，英文則約 150 字），以及中、英文關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2006 年，第 6 版）指引。中文格式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為十一月三十日。稿件及有關通訊請送交：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室香港教師中心《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。（電郵：info@hktc.edb.gov.hk） (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2011) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Language can be in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 3,500 to 7,000 words. 3. All articles should be accompanied with an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (around 150 words), a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words) and 3 to 5 keywords in English and Chinese. 4. All submissions will go through the anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the articles submitted. Once the final version of the articles has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadline for submission of articles is November 30 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this Journal shall not be submitted to another journals for review or publication. 118 徵募審稿員我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工，請以電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（2565 0741）提交下列資料，以供聯絡。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。姓名：任職學校／機構：聯絡電話：電郵地址：興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: （博士 /先生 /女士） (Dr / Mr / Ms) 香港教師中心 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 Address: Room W106, 1/F, West Block Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon Hong Kong 電話 / Telephone： (852) 3698 3698 傳真 / Fax： (852) 2565 0741 電郵 / Email： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址 / Website： www.edb.gov.hk/hktc

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 11 (2012)

Category: Documents第 T'~卷 Volume Eleven 教育局 i 香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議而於 1989 年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。此外，教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、一個常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位教育局代表。各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內，交通便捷，毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站，另有多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備，內有電腦服務、時事及消閒雜誌、閱報室和專題展板等，歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁：www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。香港教師中心 ii The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, reading area and display-boards, etc. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please browse our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre iii 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau LEE Wing On National Institute of Education Singapore Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 李兆璋香港浸會大學侯傑泰香港中文大學唐創時香港考試及評核局《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal iv 編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editor）簡加言路德會西門英才中學副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育學院楊沛銘香港地理學會趙淑媚漢華中學委員（Members）何景安香港學科教育研究學會李子建香港教育學院李少鶴香港初等教育研究學會李宏峯裘錦秋中學（葵涌）梁兆棠香港資助小學校長會郭禮賢香港華人基督教聯會真道書院葉建源香港教育專業人員協會雷其昌羅定邦中學張國華教育局梁湘明香港中文大學莫家豪香港教育學院陳建強香港城市大學傅浩堅香港浸會大學靳玉樂西南大學潘慧玲淡水大學鄧廣威香港公開大學鄭燕祥香港教育學院顧明遠北京師範大學 v 主編序一直以來《香港教師中心學報》得到很多學者及教師的支持，使學報能順利出版，今期也不例外。本期主題「課程改革的回顧與前瞻」，同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供寶貴的研究及分享文章，連同特邀稿文，本期共選刊了十四篇。經評審後，第一部分共收錄了五篇專題文章，內容包括：「人人皆可成才」的原則在少數族裔學生的情況、中文科教師課程決定個案研究、中文科課程改革與教師專業發展、對中國大陸高中語文課程改革的多維審視、同儕評估在香港小學常識科的運用。這些稿文都是研究教育的學者及前線教師的課堂行動研究所得，除體現了教育工作者的鑽研精神外，也能體現他們資源及成果共享的豁達。通過文章及實踐的經驗分享促進了與讀者交流，這是個難能可貴的平台。第二部分是關於理論及政策評論的文章共有五篇，內容包括：校本研究統計錯誤的個案、中間選項在李克特量表中的應用、探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學、教學內容知識的定義和內涵、香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓。這部分的研究集中探討學與教課程與思考能力培養的關係。香港是一個國際都市及知識型的社會，我們要培養怎樣的學生才能適應千變萬化的知識世界？思維判斷力是其中關鍵項目之一。這部分的研究篇章正帶領讀者深入思考這個問題，很值得一讀。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，共有四篇文章。內容包括：於小說教學時利用小組討論為介入策略觀察學生態度轉變、「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育、香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究、優化學校行政的行動學習。這部分的分享篇章探討教學法與課堂成效的關係，通過不同的教學法觀察學生反應及學習情況。這些教學法也包括了調整教師本身狀況及學校行政等等的措施。因此，這部分篇章不是單向的研究，而是方方面面的探討與歸納及總結，閱後能給予讀者多角度思考課堂高效的成因，值得細味！最後，我每次想到《學報》能順利出版，評審員實功不可沒，當中包括申龐得玲博士、何景安先生、李偉雄先生、林偉業先生、林碧霞博士、胡少偉博士、胡飄博士、徐國棟博士、徐慧旋女士、秦家惠教授、梁兆棠校長、梁雪梅女士、梁燕冰博士、郭禮賢博士、麥謝巧玲校長、彭新強教授、馮潔皓教授、黃鳳意女士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博士、雷其昌先生、廖佩莉博士、趙淑媚博士、劉瑞珍女士、蔡若蓮博士、鄭志強博士、龍精亮博士、鍾銑玲博士、羅天佑博士、羅家怡博士、羅耀珍博士及蘇詠梅教授。在此，我謹代表《學報》編輯委員會再一次表達我們衷心的謝意！《香港教師中心學報》主編簡加言二零一二年十二月目錄 Contents 一、主題：課程改革的回顧與前瞻 1 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? ................................ 1 Kerry J KENNEDY 2 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 ..........................................25 高慕蓮、李子建 3 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 ..................45 簡加言 4 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 ....................63 黄显涵、李子建 5 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong ..................... 79 CHUNG Tsz Wai Susanna 二、理論及政策評論 1 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects .......... 101 Kay Cheng SOH 2 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research ............................. 121 Kwok Kuen TSANG 3 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 .............................131 楊思賢 4 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 ..........................................145 周健、霍秉坤 5 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 ..............................................165 歐立賢三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes .................................. 173 Monique LOK & Beatrice CHIU 2 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 ...................................197 何慧群 3 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 .........................................217 鄭志強 4 優化學校行政的行動學習 .............................................229 胡少偉、徐國棟、曹潔芬 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students?1 香港教育改革「人人皆可成才」的原則，是否適用於少數族裔學生？ Kerry J KENNEDY The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract An important feature of Hong Kong’s education reform over the past decade has been the articulation of the ‘no loser principle.’ It was meant to signal that all students are valuable and will benefit from both basic and senior secondary education. Yet barriers remain for the 2.9% of students under age 15 who can be classified as ethnic minorities. There is a declining participating rate as students move from primary to tertiary level, the medium of instruction remains alien to most of these students, and there are no curriculum provisions to meet their special needs. This paper will examine both the policy context in which provisions for ethnic minority students have been made in Hong Kong schools and also classroom practice that operationalises this policy on a daily basis. The purpose is to make an assessment of the extent to which the ‘no loser principle’ can be said to apply to ethnic minority students. 1 The research to be reported here is drawn from the General Research Fund project, Exploring Cultural Diversity in Chinese Classrooms: Can Assessment Environments Cater for the Needs of Ethnic Minority Students in Hong Kong, [GRF-HKIEd840809] funded by the Hong Kong Research Grants Council. The views expressed here are those of the author. 1 Keywords ethnic minorities, non-Chinese speaking students, Chinese curriculum, Chinese as second language, racial discrimination 摘要香港教育改革在過去十年的一項要點，乃明言以「人人皆可成才」為宗旨，意即每個學生都有其價值，他們將受惠於基礎和高中教育的改革。然而，對於教育制度中僅佔百分之二、被歸類為少數族裔的學生來說，障礙仍然存在。在小學至專上教育的過程中，他們的整體參與率逐步下降；教學方面始終存在語言隔閡，亦未能提供切合他們需要的課程。本文將檢視香港少數族裔教育的政策背景和課堂實務，旨在評估這「人人皆可成才」的原則對少數族裔學生的適用程度。關鍵詞少數族裔，非華語學生，中文課程，中文為第二語言，種族歧視 1. Introduction In its first consultation document on the education reform, the Education Commission (1999) enunciated what was to become a dominant theme: There is an urgent need to introduce fundamental reforms to our education system. Reforms in education should bring new learning opportunities to every citizen, and should bring new opportunities for the future development of Hong Kong. This should be the guiding principle for education reform in Hong Kong. This idea was eventually formulated as one of the five principles of the reforms – the ‘no loser’ principle (Education Commission, 2000, p.9): 2 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? There should not be, at any stage of education, dead-end screening that blocks further learning opportunities… Teaching without any discrimination” has been a cherished concept since ancient times. We should not give up on any single student, but rather let all students have the chance to develop their potentials. The aim of the education reform is to remove the obstacles in our system that obstruct learning, to give more room to students to show their initiative and to develop their potential in various domains. The ‘no loser’ principle has been addressed in different ways throughout the reform process. The ‘through train’ concept, reform of the primary and secondary admissions system, a full six years of secondary education for all students, support for students with special needs, a core curriculum for all students and the reduction in public examinations. These are all important reforms and I do not want to underestimate them. Yet in this paper, I want to raise a question about the extent to which the “no loser” principle applies to all students in Hong Kong schools. In particular, I want to focus on ethnic minority students. I shall examine three broad areas: 1. The policy context for ethnic minority education in Hong Kong – contested terrain. 2. Who are Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students and what do they think about learning? 3. Can the ‘no loser’ principle work for ethnic minority students? In focusing on these areas, I do not want to underestimate the role of schools, teachers and NGOS in supporting ethnic minority students in Hong Kong, The all play an important, and indeed vital, role. But the focus of this particular paper is on the broader policy context that influences ethnic minority students. 2. The policy context for ethnic minority education in Hong Kong – contested terrain The policy context related to the provision of education for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong can only be described as volatile and contested. In what follows I shall try to present two sides of the policy debate – the practical issues and the theoretical underpinnings. 2.1 Practical policy and its contexts 3 In a report prepared last year, the relevant Working Group of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) was highly critical (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2011, pp. 10-11): Having considered EDB’s current education policies and having examined the problems with the relevant stakeholders, the PARC/WG is of the view that while a number of accommodation measures have been adopted by EDB in recent years, they are far from adequate in fulfilling its policy goal of providing equitable and quality education for EM students. The PARC/WG therefore urges the EDB to carefully examine its current policies and practices to ensure that they are effectively fulfilling the policy goals as declared on the one hand and that they do comply with the spirit and legal obligations of the anti-discrimination legislation on the other. There is a strong body of opinion within the PARC/WG that should there be no committed improvement to current policies and practices on this issue by the Government, action under the RDO might have to be instigated. At about the same time, EDB provided an update on its policies and measures taken to support ethnic minorities (Legislative Council, 2011) but its tone and focus were quite different from the EOC report. There is no reference at all to the kind of issues raised by the EOC but rather a catalogue of the support measures provided by the government for ethnic minority students. This kind of policy debate – where each side seems to ignore the existence of the other – has characterized this area since the early part of this century when the issues first started to gain public prominence (Kennedy, 2011). It is thus difficult to get an objective picture or at least a detached picture – but let me try to provide that because it is important. There is little doubt that the government has provided resources and support for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong (Kennedy, 2011; Legislative Council, 2011). This has ranged from language support for new arrivals, grants to schools where there are concentrations of ethnic minority students, the designation of specific schools that receive professional development support and other kinds of resource support and direct front line support to teachers through professional development programmes, especially for the teaching of Chinese. Thus there is a public record of support measures. But these measures are often seen differently by different groups in the community and this is where the perceptions developed of lack of support and, at times, even antagonism. Take, for example, the 30 designated schools endorsed by EDB for ethnic minority students. The rationale, from EDB’s perspective, is very clear (Education Bureau, 2011, p.8): 4 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? The objective of providing focused support in the “designated schools” is to facilitate schools’ accumulation of experiences and development of expertise in the learning and teaching of NCS students so that these schools may serve as the anchor point for sharing experiences with other schools which have also admitted NCS students through a support network formed for all NCS students in the local schools to benefit from the arrangement Yet a contrary view was reported to the Equal Opportunities Commission (2011, p.7), There is a view that the policy of allowing designated schools for EM was itself discriminatory because it reinforced segregation rather than encouraged integration. This view is not attributed in the report but there is evidence elsewhere of community dissatisfaction with some aspects of designated schools. Hong Kong Unison (2009, p.2), for example, pointed out in its response to the government’s report on the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination that “given their lower Chinese language standard, they (i.e. ethnic minority students) have been put in a disadvantageous position under the existing secondary school allocation scheme. Usually they end up studying at either designated schools, or those schools admitting most students from the lowest banding”. This view was expressed even more strongly in a media report that linked designated schools to a form of racism (Zhao, 2011): “It’s racial segregation,” says Fermi Wong Wai-fun, executive director of Hong Kong Unison, a non-governmental organisation focusing on helping minority groups. Wong says up to 80 percent of minority students attend designated schools – but, she claims, some Hong Kong parents become unwilling to choose these schools for their children. “They [minority students] have been living and studying in a very narrow social circle and have become disconnected with the mainstream society. It will harm social integration,” says Wong. The point I want to make here is that the same initiative can be viewed in different ways, depending on the perspective taken. The same can be seen with what is perhaps the most controversial issue, the teaching of Chinese. There is no disagreement between EDB and ethnic minority groups, including NGOs such as Unison, that it is important for ethnic minority students to learn Chinese. But after that the agreement quickly evaporates. EDB has insisted for many years now that 5 this should be done through a standardized Chinese curriculum for all students. Their one concession has been the production of a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Curriculum and encouragement for school based adaptations to meet the special needs of ethnic minority students. Yet this approach has been criticized loudly and publicly. The alternative proposal has been to develop a Chinese as a Second Language Curriculum tailored specifically for the needs of second language learners. Such a curriculum is seen to meet the needs of ethnic minority students in terms of both the content and the pedagogies associated with second language learning. Of course, it also means different kinds of assessment, different pacing of content and indeed different content that would be more relevant to the backgrounds and cultures of ethnic minority students. EDB will not give in on this issue and therefore it remains contested and becomes a ground for claims that the government is not supporting ethnic minority students. The key issue is that the government is supporting ethnic minority students in one way but it is not the way preferred by many in the community; and so it causes concern and public debate. Hong Kong Unison (2010, p.2) put it this way: Despite repeated requests from a wide range of parties including education sector, concern groups, law makers and even the international society, the Government has refused to adopt “Learning Chinese as a second language policy”. Your Bureau insists the current Chinese curriculum is suitable to EM students, so long as certain adaptations have been made by teachers. The reality is teachers in primary and secondary schools have been struggling in developing their own curriculum and teaching materials, without adequate references and support. A survey conducted by the Unison and the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union in July 2007 revealed that about 75% of teachers considered the current central Chinese curriculum designed for local Chinese students was not suitable to NCS (non-Chinese speaking) students. There has been no resolution to this issue and it remains contested ground. 2.2 Policy and theory There are a number of broader policy issues that also need to be recognized. The government has labeled ‘ethnic minority students’ as ‘non-Chinese speaking students’ as though their language deficit is the only characteristic that defines them. It is not entirely clear when this slippage from one to the other took place. Early Legco debates refer freely to ethnic minorities but since around 2009 the focus shifts to non Chinese speaking 6 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? students. The change is not just one of linguistics – it signals an attitude to difference and probably an objective of not highlighting differences in Hong Kong society. This view is consistent with concepts of ‘harmony’ and ‘the harmonious society’ yet to comes at the expense of recognizing the contributions that diversity can make to a pluralistic society – multilingualism, multiculturalism and multi religions. By focusing on language deficits in ethnic minority students, the government misses the opportunity to provide a broader framework in which its own work can be better appreciated and understood. At the same time, schools could better appreciate the contribution of ethnic minority students within this broader framework of contributions that can be made by different groups in the community to a more inclusive Hong Kong society. Another way of valuing the contribution of ethnic minorities is through a commitment to multiculturalism and multicultural policy. This is entirely lacking in Hong Kong so that support for ethnic minority students has been pursued within an integrationist framework that regards all members of society as being the same. This has implications for the way the school curriculum is viewed. Skerrett and Hargreaves (2008) identified different orientations to educational diversity and it is possible to sue this framework to analyze Hong Kong’s approach to education for ethnic minority students. They identified three orientations to diversity within schools and while the framework was meant to apply to the United States, we can apply the categories to the Hong Kong context. In doing so it will also be possible to account for community tensions on the issue of ethnic minority education. The Hong Kong government’s support and actions reflect a monocultural view of educational provision: students are referred to as “NCS students”, the aim of support is to facilitate the integration of these students into Hong Kong society, the key issue is to support the learning of Chinese since language is seen as the best way to achieve integrationists goal, particularly in relation to workforce integration. The views of community groups, however, and in particular Hong Kong Unison, reflecting a desire for multicultural education and at times come close to reflecting the values of critical multiculturalism. This policy tension is a significant one – it is reflected particularly in the recent report of the Equal Opportunities Commission and its resolution will not be easy given the underpinning values of the different view. Table 1: Skerrett and Hargreaves’ (2008) Orientations to Education Diversity Orientation Description Proponents Monocultural education All students benefit from the same curriculum, instructional strategies and assessment practices. Edmonds (1970); Gilborn (2004) 7 Multicultural education Schools and the school curriculum reflect the knowledge, values, skills, pedagogies, assessment practices, policies etc that recognize, support and celebrate the contribution of all groups represented in the school community Banks (1986) Critical multiculturalism Teaching against all forms of racism is explicit and eliminating all forms of discrimination is a key goal. Troyna and Carrington (1990) To get a better understanding of ethnic minority students themselves, the next section will examine census data to highlight the range of ethnicities in Hong Kong schools and how these students think about their learning. 3. Who are Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students and what do they think about learning? 3.1 Identifying ethnic minority students Data on ethnic minority students is very recent and not always readily available. The first formal census was in 2006 and provided these details (Census and Statistics Department, 2007): Table 2: Ethnic Minority Students at Full-time Courses by Age-Group in 2006 Ethnic Minority Age < 15 Ethnic Minority Aged 15 and over Whole population Level Age group total at full time course at full time course < 15 15 and over Pre-primary 6,777 166,364 30 Primary 12,819 60 439,630 1,484 Lower Secondary 3,550 955 189,183 78,897 Upper Secondary 298 2,233 1,926 187,454 Sixth form 737 62,549 Post-secondary 1,293 147,014 Total 32,289 23,444 5,278 79,7103 477,428 8 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? A number of points can be made about these figures: 1. There appears to be a large number of ‘out of school’ ethnic minority students under the age of 15 – well over 8,000. It is not clear who these are but probably they can be accounted for at the pre-primary and sixth form levels. Thus not all ethnic minority students seem to benefit from pre-primary education. Assuming that the numbers entering primary school are stable over time,2 Table 2 indicates that only 52% of ethnic minority students have access to pre-primary education. Assuming that the 2006 figure for primary enrolments has been stable over time, then just over 6% of ethnic minority students make it into Form Six. 2. There appears to be a major transition issue for ethnic minority students under the age of 15 in the move from primary to lower secondary. Just 27% of the primary cohort appear to make the transition (assuming that the figure for 2006 is stable over time). 3. It can also be noted that the participation rate for post secondary education is also very low – just 10% of the primary age cohort - again assuming a stable primary cohort size over time. These data need to be treated with some caution because the ratios make assumptions about the stability of age cohorts over time. Yet there are also other reasons for treating the data with some caution. In a paper submitted by the government to the Legislative Council’s Bills Committee on the Racial Discrimination Bill (Hong Kong SAR Government, 2008, pp. 6-7), a quite different set of figures is provided indicating that in September 2007 there were 5,671 ethnic minority students in primary schools and 3,097 in secondary schools. The primary school figure differs by over 7,000 from the official figures and by several thousand for secondary figures (depending what is included in the secondary figures. It is not clear why there is this discrepancy but it does seem when EDB refers to numbers it is often their own rather than the Census Bureau’s that they prefer. EDB, of course, is much closer to schools and is in a good position to conduct an on-the 2 The assumption of the following statistics is that the figure for primary enrolments in 2006 would be stable over time. In reality, students entering primary school in 2006 would not reach lower secondary until 2012, Upper Secondary in 2014 and Sixth Form in 2016. The projections made here, therefore, are based on assumed future enrolments not actual enrolments. 9 ground survey but we shall need to wait until the finalization of the 2010 census to get a better picture. In the government paper referred to above (Hong Kong SAR Government, 2008, p.7) there is a good picture of the spread of ethnic groups in Hong Kong schools. The table is reproduced below. Because DSS schools have been included as well it is not possible to see if there is a different distribution of ethnic groups between these two types of schools which in all possibility cater for different groups of students. Neither is it possible to tell from this data whether ethnic minority students are concentrated in CMI or EMI schools. As I said at the beginning of this section data sources are relatively new and there are considerable gap. Nevertheless Table 3 does provide an interesting picture of the range of ethnic groups, especially the concentrations of particular groups such as Pakistani, Indian, Nepalese and Filipino. But what else do we know about these students, particularly in relation to education? Table 3: Distribution of Student Ethnicities in Hong Kong Government and Direct Subsidy Schools, 2007-08 Primary Schools Secondary Schools Filipino 1025 620 Indonesian 71 38 Japanese 68 49 Korea 23 19 Thai 133 76 Indian 870 457 Pakistani 1948 833 Bangladeshi 43 29 Sri-Lankan 15 12 Vietnamese 75 37 Nepalese 885 538 Other Asian 64 39 Other ethnicities not classified above (including mixed) 451 350 Total 5671 3097 From: Hong Kong SAR Government (2008, p.7) 3.2 Ethnic minority students and learning As part of our research project on ethnic minority students and assessment 10 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? environments3 we have developed a new instrument. For the purposes of this paper I shall draw on selected results that include some scales from McInerney’s (1992) Inventory of School Motivation (ISM) and one scale from Brown and Hirschfield (2007, 2008) Students’ Conceptions of Assessment (SCoA). 3.3 Instruments ISM Scales_________ 1. Students’ attitudes to school work – particularly task orientation (4 questions) and effort (7 questions) 2. Students attitude to affective aspects of learning – particularly praise (5 items) and affiliation (3 items) SCoA Scale_________ 3. Students’ attitudes to assessment (8 questions) Students responded to each question using a five point scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree). Sample______ 106 Students in Grades 5 (61%) and 6 (38.1%) from two primary schools completed 106 surveys. Two were unusable leaving 104 to be analyzed. The average age of the sample was 10.85 years (SD=1.13) Of these, 47% were female and 53% were male. 56.7% were Chinese students with the remainder from ethnic minority students. Amongst these, 12.5% were Nepalese, 8.7% Pakistani, 7.7% Indian, 5.8% Filipino 1.9% American and 1% Thai with 4.8% represented by other ethnicities. Analysis________ Descriptive statistics were computed for each item and Cronbach’s reliability coefficient (α) is reported for each scale. 3 Exploring Cultural Diversity in Chinese Classrooms: Can Assessment Environments Cater for the Needs of Ethnic Minority Students in Hong Kong, [GRF-HKIEd840809] 11 Results______ Students’ attitudes to school work Figure 1 shows student orientation to tasks – all the questions are measuring much the same construct (α=.73 for Chinese students and .62 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority students scored slightly higher (M=5.46, SD=.66) than Chinese students (M=5.34, SD=.68) but these differences are not significantly different (t=.881). Two important points can be made about these results. First, ethnic minority students have very positive attitudes to work – these are not lazy students. Second, if we regard ‘orientations to school work’ as a single latent construct then ethnic minority students tend to endorse either end of the scale more positively than Chinese students. The most strongly endorsed aspect of the scale is ‘I like to see that I am doing better in my school work’ and this aspiration is shared by both Chinese and ethnic minority students. Figure 1: Students’ orientation to tasks Figure 2 shows students’ attitudes to the effort they put into their work. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.76 for Chinese students and .82 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority students scored slightly higher (M=5.30, SD=.79) than Chinese students (M=4.99, SD=.71) and the differences are statistically significantly different (t= 2.06, p < .05) and the size of the difference is moderate (d=.41). Yet these differences should not mask the fact that for both groups of students, effort is important. What is surprising, given the extent to which Chinese learners often attribute 12 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? Students’ attitudes to affective aspects of learning Figure 3 shows students’ attitudes to praise as a feature of classroom life. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.91 for Chinese students and .88 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority endorsed these items more strongly (M=4.93, SD=1.09) than Chinese students (M=3.97, SD=1.33). The differences are statistically significantly different (t= 3.97, p < .001) and the size of the difference is strong (d=.78). Ethnic minority students require praise to enhance their learning but it should be noted that Chinese students also endorse thence items positively – just not as positively as ethnic minority students. These students require praise from teachers, friends and family – with the latter rating very highly. This suggests the need for a particular kind of classroom and school environment for ethnic minority students – one characterized by positive feedback and regular encouragement both inside and outside the classroom. It could be assumed that where such environments do not exist, student learning will be negatively affected. effort rather than ability to their academic success, is the strength of the endorsement of ethnic minority students for the importance of effort in their learning. The largest difference along the latent construct is on the item, ‘I am always trying to do better in my school work’ suggesting that this is a very important learning attribute for ethnic minority students. Figure 2: Students’ attitudes to the effort they put into their work 13 Figure 3: Students’ attitudes to praise as a feature of classroom life Figure 4 shows students’ attitudes to working together as a learning process. The ethnic students’ responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.80) but for Chinese students there is little consistency in their responses (α =.33). This suggests that these items function differently for these different groups of students. For ethnic minority students working together is a more important part of their learning than it may be for Chinese students. We cannot compare the scale scores of the two groups of students because of the lack of scalability for the Chinese group. But it can be noted that ethnic minority students have responded very positively to these items while Chinese students are less positive although by no means negative on the individual questions. Further work is needed on both the construct itself (often referred to as ‘Affiliation’), the cultural contexts in which it is manifested and its impact on learning. Figure 4: Students’ attitudes to working together as a learning process 14 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? Figure 5 shows students’ attitudes to assessment, and in particular the use of classroom tests. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.91 for Chinese students and .88 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority endorsed these items more strongly (M=4.69, SD=.84) than Chinese students (M=4.19, SD=.99). The differences are statistically significantly different (t= 2.48, p < .05) and the size of the difference is moderate (d=.53). Ethnic minority students ‘moderately’ or ‘mostly agree’ with these questions while Chinese students agree ‘slightly’ or ‘moderately’ agree. Thus the differences between the two groups is one of emphasis rather than any substantive disagreements. Given the predominance of testing in Hong Kong classrooms, these results indicate the relationship between testing and learning and I all probability effort given to learning as well. Thus the two most highly endorsed items for both groups of students are ‘our class works had before a test’ and ‘I like learning before a test’. The least strongly endorsed items for both groups relate to whether tests make students happy (‘tests make me happy’ and ‘when we are tested my class is happy”). According to Brown and Hirschfield (2008) this is not a bad thing since in their study when students thought assessment was fun they tended to perform poorly on mathematics achievement tests! Figure 5: Students’ attitudes to assessment While the data reported above cannot be taken as representative, since it is based on a small sample of primary school students, it does start to build a picture of ethnic minority students who want to learn, want to work with other students and who are not at all negative towards classroom testing practices. At the same time it is clear from these data that ethnic minority students, more so than Chinese students, require a learning 15 environment in which there is positive feedback on their performance and where they like to work with other students. That is to say, ethnic minority students’ orientations to learning are very positive and provide a good basis for academic achievement. A similar view of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students was highlighted by Hue (2011) in his qualitative studies of ethnic minority students and their families. Yet what is also clear from the demographic data presented at the beginning of this section, learning opportunities are not always available. This may be at the pre-primary or senior secondary level where the participation rates are lowest. Increasing participation rates at these levels will be important but probably of greater importance is the quality of education provided at the primary school level where the great bulk of ethnic minority students gain their educational experiences. These experiences can build on preprimary education and can prepare students for secondary education. How the quality of primary education for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong might be improved will be the focus of the final section of this paper. 4. Can the ‘no loser’ principle work for ethnic minority students? There are three levels at which this question can be addressed: policy, curriculum and pedagogy. Finally, the important area of teacher professional development will be considered. 4.1 Policy Previously the tension between different views of current policy for supporting educational provision of ethnic minority was described. Basically this tension is between providing support within a basically monocultural framework where ethnic minority students are expected to adopt the values of the dominant culture or recognizing the multicultural nature of many of Hong Kong’s schools and building policy that respects these multiple cultures and seeks to build them into more inclusive educational provision. It is important to recognize that at the school level this latter approach has already been adopted by individual schools although this is not a common practice. But what would it involve at the system level? What would multicultural education policy look like and what difference would it make? It is important to state at the outset, that in moving towards multiculturalism as a policy driver it is not necessary to adopt slavishly Western notions of multiculturalism. Will Kymlicka (1995, 2007) , the great advocate of liberal multiculturalism, has made 16 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? the point that his views were formed in the context of particular issues in Canada and may not be applicable in all contexts. He has acknowledged the distinctive Asian traditions related to diversity and the importance of these to framing local approaches to multiculturalism (Kymlicka & He, 2005). One such approach has recently been suggested in Singapore where the policy objective was seen to be better expressed as “social resilience” rather than multiculturalism per se because of “fears of social fragmentation along ethno-religious lines (that) have compelled governments of multicultural societies to devise policies and strategies to ensure their nations’ ability to cope with attacks on their social fabric” (Ramakrishna, 2008). This may seem like a somewhat extreme way of viewing the issue but it has to be recognized that international policy discourse since the unfortunate event of 11 September 2001 has not been in favour of an unbridled multiculturalism. Such an approach has the potential to break society into distinct and often oppositional social groups that can to undermine social cohesion and, in the worst case scenario lead to explicit conflict. Defining the balance between support for ethnic minorities and maintaining a cohesive society is now the challenge for twenty first century multiculturalism. For the Hong Kong government, the issue is to recognize that integration and assimilation may be better replaced by goals such as social resilience (Vasnu, 2007) and respect for diversity. Ethnic minorities have much to contribute to Hong Kong – socially and economically. They can work alongside the Chinese community to contribute to the development of a resilient society that values the common good, where there are no threats to the existence of any group, where there are equal opportunities for all groups and where the benefits of society can be shared. There is not time in this paper to look more deeply into the concept of social resilience but Vasnu (2007) and his colleagues have done that in the Singapore context so they are able to argue that political participation, the development of social capital and the development of a sense of rootedness all contribute to social resilience (Goh, 2007, p.36). Alongside social resilience, and complementary to it, must be respect for diversity. That is, difference in a socially resilient society must be valued. It may be racial, linguistic, sexual or religious difference but it must be seen as positive. The interaction between social resilience and difference will constantly bring society to a new level of awareness and understanding of its strengths, its values and its priorities. Thus multiculturalism does not have to be constructed in a way that automatically leads to social fragmentation. Social systems can change and adapt to new ways of thinking while maintaining structures and institutions that work in the interests of all citizens. This is the basic idea of social resilience that can support a diverse society with common goals and aspirations. It would provide a sound foundation for an inclusive 17 multicultural society in Hong Kong and could be considered as the basis of a new multicultural education policy. The implications of such a policy will be explored in relation to the school curriculum and its pedagogies in the following sections. 4.2 Curriculum The most pressing curriculum issue concerns the provision of Chinese language skills for ethnic minority students. The current approach as referred to earlier has championed a single curriculum for all students with the rationale that such an approach will provide the much needed language skills. At the same time such an approach reflects a commitment to monoculturalism rather than multiculturalism – it assumes that all students are the same and can be taught at the same pace and in the same way. Yet, in a socially resilient society, it would be recognized that a major curriculum change, such as introducing a Chinese as a Second Language Curriculum, would not be catastrophic and could be easily managed. Having two pathways to language competence for Hong Kong’s students will cater better for entry level skills, structure learning opportunities in a way to meet the needs of a group for whom Chinese is not a native language and send a message about the importance of language skills for all students. In a socially resilient society, the purpose of ensuring ethnic minority students have access to a sound Chinese curriculum is not so much to facilitate integration but to provide skills and capacities that will ensure ethnic minority students are able to contribute to their own future as well as that of Hong Kong. Socially resilient societies are prepared for change, for stress and for adaptation in a rapidly changing world. The relationship between language skills and competence in other curriculum areas is also an area that needs some exploration. Hau (2008, p. 11), for example, found that when ethnic minority students entered P1 with a high level of mathematical competence, they tended to do well in mainstream schools and often better than Chinese students. Yet many students who started out with poor competency levels showed no positive improvement at all. At the same time Hau (2008) reported low levels of Chinese competence amongst ethnic minority students. Could it be that when Chinese is the MoI in mathematics lessons for students whose language competence is already problematic, that this in itself would make progress very difficult? Hau (2008) does not make reference to this kind of interaction but since his report focuses on mainstream primary schools it can be assumed that the MoI for all classes is Chinese. This is an area worth investigating and I shall make some reference will be made to it in the following section. 18 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? 4.3 Pedagogy The results of students’ preferences for classroom environment discussed earlier help us to understand better what might work better for ethnic minority students. Two aspects that stand out the importance of feedback and working together. This may mean that ethnic minority students will have more opportunities for learning in these kinds of environments. This requires teachers to think about the kind of learning environments they create in their classrooms and modifying them to especially meet the needs of ethnic minority students. Such environments, of course, will also support Chinese students – but they will be particularly helpful for ethnic minority students. In considering the kinds of interactions that go on in classrooms, some consideration needs to be given to Medium of Instruction (MoI). In the example provided above of ethnic minority students starting off with poor mathematical skills, it may be that where the MoI for the class is Chinese, some feedback and questioning could be in English since this is often a stronger area of competence for ethnic minority students than Chinese (Hau, 2008). That is to say, MoI can be differentiated to ensure that ethnic minority students receive the feedback they prefer in a language that they are sure to understand. This suggestion is likely to be controversial because it can equally be argued that complete immersion in Chinese is important – at least in the longer time term. Yet this is where the teacher’s judgment is so important. Do the students understand? Do they need more reinforcement, practice? Do they need to ask questions? Varying the MoI can thus help teachers find out about their students’ learning and then develop appropriate strategies and responses to follow up. If what students are telling us about classroom tests is indicative of attitudes to assessment, then teachers need to take advantage of what seems to be a positive attitude to testing and learning. Tests are not just ends in themselves – they are linked to learning in the minds of students. This link can be reinforced with students and it create an assessment environment that values student learning above all else. If such environments are also characterized by feedback and praise for achievement, then they will support ethnic minority students in particular but they will also support Chinese students. Assessment plays such a large part of life in Chinese classrooms that every effort needs to be made for assessment to be meaningful and relevant building on students desire to learn and providing feedback on the progress they are making in their learning journeys. Would classrooms look different if they adopted the kind of strategies mentioned 19 above? I think they would – more cooperative, more feedback, multilingual, focused on learning and achievement. These are classrooms that will meet the needs of all students but in particular they will support ethnic minority students who are committed to learning and need an appropriate environment to ensure they can reach their goals. 5. Conclusion There is a need to bring together policy, curriculum and pedagogy in a real attempt to ensure that the no loser principle will also apply to ethnic minority students. In a socially resilient society change should not be threatening and the contributions that all individuals and groups can make should be nurtured and valued. Cho, Willis & Stewart- Weeks (2011, p. 6) have pointed out that “the struggle for resilience will not be won within the walls of government agencies, but rather in the broadly distributed communities that they serve and with which they interact”. This means that all communities must be valued and must have a role to play in the development of the social fabric. Communities must be connected in meaningful ways since “the point of resilience is enabling people to maintain and improve the quality of lives they lead and the strength and capability of their communities in times of transition and risk. Resilience, in those conditions, relies heavily on the widespread capacity to connect for deep and authentic collaboration (Cho, Willis & Stewart-Weeks, 2011, p.9). Only communities that are equally valued will be able to connect and work together. Schools play a key role in contributing to connectedness in any society – ensuring that all students are treated fairly and provided with relevant curriculum and learning and guaranteed outcomes that will help them contribute in a productive way. This paper is a start in the direction of supporting greater connectedness for Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students by rethinking current educational provision. It is only in this way that the ‘no loser principle’ can be applied to ethnic minority students who, if allowed, can play an important role in contributing to Hong Kong as a resilient society. 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Retrieved November 5, 2011, from: http://www.timeout.com.hk/big-smog/features/46441/ racism-in-the-classroom.html 23 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 Chinese Language curriculum reform and the change of teacher working culture: Case studies of curriculum decision- making of Chinese Language teachers 高慕蓮香港中文大學教育學院李子建香港教育學院摘要在學校層面，教師是課程決定的核心人物，教師在教學前或教學時必須做決定。香港中學中文科新修訂的課程自 2002 年 9 月在全港各學校推出。整體上，新修訂的中文科課程擴展了教師在課程與教學決定的範圍，亦增加教師參與協作及進行課程決定的機會。本文是通過五所學校中一級教師參與課程決定的質性研究，了解教師在中文科組內如何參與協作式的課程決定及受哪些因素影響課程決定。初步結果顯示，教師對協作的觀感影響教師參與決定的投入程度，亦間接影響決定課程內容的深度。 25 關鍵詞課程決定，協作，課程改革，教學計劃 Abstract In an education system, teachers play a crucial role in making curriculum decisions prior to, or during teaching. The New Edition of the Chinese Language Curriculum was introduced in all secondary schools in Hong Kong in September 2002. The New Edition has extended the work scope of the teachers in their curriculum and teaching decision making. In addition to this, it provides more opportunities for teacher collaboration and curriculum decision making. The present research started in the second year after the introduction of the New Edition of the Chinese Language Curriculum. By applying qualitative research methods, five schools were chosen as case studies, with the teachers of Secondary One as key informants, to explore the state of teachers’ participation in the curriculum decision making, to understand how the curriculum decisions were made within the Chinese Language panels, and to investigate the factors influencing the decision making. The initial findings revealed that teachers’ perceptions of collaboration may influence the degree of contribution and involvement of the teacher. It will also indirectly affect the decision making of the depth of content. Keywords curriculum decision making, collaboration, curriculum reform, teaching plan 甲、研究背景二十一世紀香港課程改革由提升教師專業能力及建立教師協作文化作為序幕，而中學中文科新修訂的課程，自 2002 年 9 月在全港各學校推出，迄今已超過十年；有關中文科的課程與教學研究不少，在新課程推出初期，有蔡若蓮、周健、黃顯華等（2002）整理了部份中文科教師對試行計劃的經驗；在課程實施了一段時間後，有黃顯華、李玉蓉等在 2006 26 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究年（2006a，2006b，2006c，2006d，2006e，2006f，2006g）出版了一系列總結中學中國語文課程實施評鑑研究的成果。在課程推出五年後，教育界及學者則希望進一步了解，有哪些因素影響教師參與學校層面的課程改革？劉潔玲（2006）認為若教師對新課程有較多的知識和實踐經驗，對他們採用能力導向的教學模式有正面的幫助。譚彩鳳（2010）指出，教師進行校本課程決定時，受個人因素（意願、信念、知識、能力）及外在因素（教學的文化、課程領導、公開考試及時間）影響。上述研究指出教師個人的專業知識、信念及改革經驗對參與課程改革的積極性都有影響；但除了個人因素之外，教師同時受情境脈絡的影響，目前中文科課程的轉變，從編選多樣化的學習材料，到組織有效的課堂及設計多元化的評估方式，單靠個別教師自己一個人去做，未必能夠應付，所以有效的中文科新課程實施有需要結合教師的團隊協作和集體決定。理論上如果增加教師協作，有助教師解決在新課程改革時面對的挑戰。然而一般中文科教師在舊課程的運作期間，很少參與學科層面的決定，如今需要在新修訂課程的脈絡下與同儕協作，對教師來說是一種文化的轉變（黃顯華、李玉蓉，2006a）；但過往十年有關科組如何協作的探究相對較少。教師在改革過程如何協作及參與課程決定，是香港課程改革繼續深化及整固的一個重要議題。高慕蓮與李子建在 2001 年的研究指出，協作有助教師共同解決在新課程推出時所面對的問題。當時個案學校的中一級教師參與中文科新課程的試行計劃後，通過教師參與、投入及合作的工作關係，在實踐過程中解決了很多困難，令教師對新課程的推行比前有信心。不同學者及研究都指出「變革」涉及學習新的事物，而互動是社會學習的基礎，因此如果教師間能多交換心得，互相幫助，以及建立對工作的熱誠，課程創新的實施便有較高的成功機會。若教師孤身作戰，與同事間缺乏坦誠溝通，欠缺互相支持和幫助，學校改善便會裹足不前（Sarason, 1982；李子建、黃顯華，1996，頁 331；高慕蓮、李子建，2001，頁 44）。黃顯華、李玉蓉（2006a）也在新課程推出後進行課程實施的評鑑研究，研究指出教師對新課程最關注的是「結果／協作」階段。教師對同事之間的協作表示出頗強的要求，希望與同事建立工作上的關係，特別在教學工作協調上，以取得更佳的實施效果。 27 上述的研究都認同科組需要建立協作的文化；同時通過群體參與決定，有助推動課程的發展；但協作需要哪些條件？教師在新課程推出後，理論上要結束習慣多時的個人化、單打獨鬥式的工作文化；通過正式或非正式的協作方式，共同解決課程轉變過程中出現的種種教與學的問題；但教師對協作有甚麼看法？在科組內教師的協作關係如何影響課程決定內容的深度及廣度？這是教育界關注的焦點，研究者擬通過本研究所得出的研究成果，希望為香港未來十年的課程改革提供持續發展的方向。乙、文獻探討一、課程決定的意涵有些學者將“decision making”譯作「決定」也有譯為「決策」；本研究就選用「決定」一詞。所謂「決定」，是指一個人或一群人，就課程中的分析、計劃執行、評鑑等問題，研究可行的方案後，從其中做合適的選擇（杜美智、遊家政，1998，頁 76；高新健， 1991；黃政傑，1992）。不同課程計劃層級的工作者，都承擔著課程決定的責任 (蔡清田、雲大維，2007，頁 93；甄曉蘭，2004）；所以中央課程落到學校層面或課室層面，教師就要從課程籌劃（plan）到實施（implement），由表面的改革到深層的改革等進行一連串的解難和選擇過程。決定是選擇、篩選、判斷、解難的思考過程。在課程改革的過程中，教師會經常面對種種有待解決的問題，課程與教學是影響學習成果的關鍵因素；只有選擇或發展合適的課程，同時靈活運用各種教學法將課程內容呈現給學生，才能順利達成目標（徐世瑜， 1998，頁 1）。至於課程決定大致可歸納為教學計劃、教學實施和教學評量等三個階段；而課程決定的範圍則包括：教學目標、教材選擇與組織、教學活動設計及教學評量等課程元素（杜美智、游家政，1998，頁 80-85）。簡良平（2002）則認為課程決定內容是意指「應該如何」（what should be），包括應該教甚麼內容，受教的人是誰，哪些知識應該被傳遞與傳遞的方式，教學原則應該如何等等；每個部份經判斷後都有所抉擇，即課程決定。決定過程不可避免是以「人」為決定的主體，因而會有不同的考量和權衡，且涉及觀念差異與價值不 28 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究同的抉擇。二、影響課程決定的因素杜美智（1997）認為影響課程決定因素可分為個人因素及情境因素。教師知識、能力；個人因素大致與教師專業素養及信念有關，包括教師一般知能、教師知識、能力；教師的教育信念、價值、興趣和嗜好。情境因素包括學校層面、社區層面及社會層面，在學校層面的教學方面有師生互動、同事間的討論；在行政方面有教學支援的提供及行政的干涉（劉雅心，1998，頁 48）。 1. 個人因素教師的知識能力在教師面臨選擇做決定時，是一項重要的決定因素（陳伯璋， 1995）。具備豐富的一般知識，有助於選擇多元化的教材；具備良好的溝通能力，有利於獲得社區人士的支援；具有良好的統整、批判能力，能協助教師做課程決定。教師的專業知能，會影響教師的教學效果。教師如果重視教育工作的過程績效，則會注意教學方法的改進，熟悉教材內容、留意學童的學習，追求最好的教育成效（吳清基，1989，頁 115）。教師要為所做的教學決定（instructional decision）負責，因此教師必須瞭解教學目標才能掌握教學，瞭解教學的環境，才能客觀的看待教學行為。此外還要瞭解學童的發展、教學的內容及運用教學資源的能力（李俊湖，1992；Tye, 1971, p.462-465）。教師的教學成效良好，則表示教師能有效的達成教學目標，另一方面則意味着教師在教學過程中所做的課程決定是有效的。因此，教師要相信自己就是專家，加強進修、研究，探究課程的新理念、目標精神及實施的方法（歐用生，1992，頁 49）。有良好的專業知能才能做出適當的課程決定。而 Hawthorne（1992）認為教師具備專業的知識也是重要的，因為這種專業的知識、能力，使不同教師在處理某些課題，或採用教學技巧時出現程度的差異。 2. 情境因素這裏主要是探討科組層面及學校的行政支援層面兩方面。科組層面方面，Hawthorne （1992, p.124）的研究顯示科主任及同事之間的支援及關懷的關係，提供了教室與學校的之間保護及非正式的社會制度，成為課室與外在管理環境的緩衝（buffer）及職責（obligation）。Brown, Boyle & Boyle（1999, p.323）提出科組可以積極參與學校層面的工 29 作，令學校的政策措施更配合學科的發展及容易學科有更大的專業自主空間。學科或學校可以通過機制、文化的推動，讓教師增強協作，產生共力；將個人的力量凝聚，讓團隊逐步發展成互相學習的專業社群。本研究擬探討中文科教師，在一個級組內如何進行互動及如何作課程決定？同時希望了解教師對協作的觀點和看法，如何影響課程決定內容的深廣度？在學校的行政制度的支援方面，在黃顯華、李玉蓉（2006a）的研究資料顯示，無論科組是有意識地改變工作文化，還是為應付實際需要，不少都以建立制度的方式，希望教師能透過交流和協作，從而更有效地實施新課程，較為普遍的做法是引入共同備課節及同儕觀課的措施。丙、研究特色過去的研究單位多是個人、學校、科目甚至整個課程，但較少探討一個科組內教師之間進行的互動情況。本研究是有關一個級別的中文科教師，在進行單元教學前計劃的質化研究。這裡提到的教學計劃應該是一個單元完整的計劃，包括配合單元目標，選擇合適的教學內容與教材；組織學習內容、經驗，以至評估；有關整體單元的教學構思與過往中文科的單篇範文教學年代，教師可以拿著教科書就可以進入課堂的情況有很明顯的差異，如果每個單元都只由一位教師承擔調適教材及設計教學活動等工作，教師會感到非常吃力。課程實施能否成功固然教師是一個關鍵的人物，面對改革的任務，希望教師能共同協作。協作可能是一組人、一個學科。本研究的焦點是中一級，一個級組內的協作及參與決定過程。研究者相信，教師在單元教學前進行仔細的計劃時，有助級組內所有成員解決級組內的教學問題，增加實施時的信心，同時有助提升教學的質素。本研究主要搜集科組教師參與課程決定資料的時間 2003-2004 年。這段時間剛好是中學中文科新課程剛實施了第二年，屬於課程變革的第一階段；而課程決定步驟則選教師進入課室前教學計劃階段的決定，對教師而言，在改革的初期，較多關注的是對教材的調適，較難兼顧教學及評估方法的轉變。當年課程改革只在起步的階段，學校配合課程轉變而作 30 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究出的行政支援尚在發展的初期，很多的學校仍未有備課節，就算有，也未必安排在上課時間及計算在教師工作量內。今天，課程改革已經實施超過了十年，很多學校在行政方面可以作出備課節的安排，但有了時間未必能保證教師能善用時間進行專業交流及積極參與課程決定。學校提供備課節，的確增加了教師的互動及協作的機會，但一般教師長期習慣了個人工作的模式，忽然之間在行政安排下一起進行教學規劃；有了協作的空間，也同時增加衝突、矛盾的機會；究竟哪一種協作方式較有效益？在過去十年，這方面的研究不多。其實在 2004 年前後，研究者為了研究中文科組教師參與課程決定的情況，曾走訪超過十所學校，但最後只能選取五所學校作為研究對象，原因是部份學校及科組教師保護性很強，不想坦誠交流；要長期、深入探索香港學科成員之間的工作文化及互動的情況並不容易；故此本研究所得的資料彌足珍貴，相信不只對中文科的科組如何建立協作文化及提高教師參與課程決定意欲具啟發意義，也能作為其他學科發展的參考！丁、研究設計一、研究問題本研究原先共有四個問題，基於篇幅關係，現集中處理和討論以下研究問題：教師的關係如何影響教師對協作的觀感及課程決定內容的深廣度？二、研究方法本研究選用目的性抽樣關鍵個案（陳向明，2006，頁 44），研究取樣是選擇有備課節及沒有備課節的學校。為什麼會將備課節作為關鍵元素？原因是以往教師較多參與課室的教學決定，新課程要求教師較多參與整體的課程規劃，本研究是探討教師如何通過協作，為進入課室前做教學的計劃；另一方面是次課程改革較前複雜，既要講求發展校本特色的單元或課程，又要改變現有的教學模式及評估方法；在課程計劃、資料蒐集、教材編寫、課程評鑑等規劃的過程中，需要時間討論及協商。如果利用課餘時間，不僅時間不夠，也會遭致教師的不滿。研究者相信學校如果能為 31 教師創造空間，讓他們有較固定的時間對課程及學習內容的轉變有更多作討論及思考機會，對解決中文科新課程種種教與學的問題一定有幫助。研究者認為備課節可以提供一個協作的機會，也可以讓教師從個人的、孤獨的工作習慣走出來，與科組成員共同尋找有效的教與學策略。在 2003-2004 年質素保證視學周年報告 1 第 4.5 節中文科視學部份，提到學校中文科為配合課程發展趨勢推展課程新措施學校，已初步開展集體備課及同儕觀課，以促進教師的交流和協作（頁 45）。該報告內雖然沒有指出共有多少所學校設有集體備課節，但經研究者非正式觀察及網上的資料記載 2 有些學校在當年已開始安排共同備課的時間，讓教師進行交流；因此，本研究選樣的時候就包括這兩種學校，一種是有備課節的學校，一種是沒有備課節的學校。 1. 個案選擇及搜集資料方法本研究的焦點是中一級一組教師在新課程推出後，在校內，為課程實施前作計劃的課程決定，這是屬於學校層面的決定（Goodlad, 1979）。教師參與課程決定的形式可以通過正式的備課節，也可以通過非正式的溝通時間，例如在課間召開非正式的會議討論與課程發展問題相關的課程決定。研究者從學校和教師的典型性、差異性等特徵考慮；在研究過程中，第一輪共選了十一所學校，在十一所學校中再由所得的資料豐富程度（包括文件資料、會議密度、訪談內容）及參與協作決定的情況的獨特性再選取五所學校的資料作進一步分析（個案一至五）。第二輪學校篩選是一個逐漸聚焦的過程（progressive focusing）（Stake, 1995；黃顯華、李玉蓉，2006g，頁 39）；而所選的五所學校，則形成嵌入式多個案研究設計（Yin, 2003, p.40）。在個案典型性特徵方面，五所學校的收生情況接近、資料呈現的資料相對豐富及完整、對學科如何準備新課程、教師在參與決定時的影響因素及課程決定的內容等相關材料都有清楚展示，這些資料有助進一步分析教師的協作關係、如何做課程決定及影響課程決定的因素。 1 連結：http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annualreport_03-04_chi.pdf 2 連結：http://www.bmf.edu.hk/lys/lesson_study/lesson_study_reources02-03/doc/handbook.doc 32 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究研究者亦會嘗試找出學校之間的差異性，如地區、校齡及不同教師組合的差異；另一方面也考慮不同學校的脈絡之間的差異，如科主任帶領、備課節的安排、協作文化、學科改革經驗、使用教科書抑或進行校本教材設計等，以增強研究資料的外部推廣性（external generalize ability）（Yin, 2003, p.53）。至於搜集資料的方法則採用了觀察、半結構式訪談及分析單元教學設計文件等方式，探討教師對協作的觀感及其對課程決定內容的影響。 2. 個案學校的特色表一五所學校的基線資料個案一個案二個案三個案四個案五學校區域香港島（南）香港島（東）新界西新界東新界東校齡超過二十年超過二十年十年之內超過二十年超過二十年教齡新舊混合有一定教齡十至二十年之間相對年輕，級內有三人第一年出來工作就在這所學校全部十年以上新舊混合科主任帶領科主任任教中一，主持備課節副科主任沒有任教中一，出席備課節，傳播經驗科主任任教中一，參與備課節，但只是其中一位成員初中科主任任教中一，責任是召集教師開非正式會議初中科主任第一年任教中一，對教科書及新課程尚在摸索階段備課節有（計算教節）有（不算教節）有（計算教節）沒有沒有教師關係／溝通形式工作關係良好，有正式時間溝通及非正式時間溝通關係疏離，只有正式時間溝通工作關係良好，有正式時間溝通及非正式時間溝教師私下感情良好，有非正式時間溝通人際關係良好，有非正式時間使用教科書／校本教材使用教科書使用教科書使用教科書使用校本教材使用教科書課程決定內容、範圍（深廣度）減少使用教科書，單元調適考慮不同的課程元素以教科書為主導，單元調適多刪少補第一年使用教科書，以教科書為主，內容少增刪，單元調適補充資料（如課後練習）及考慮教學方法；學科配合學校的制度，有進行教學探究活動以校本教材為基礎，單元調適主要是補充教學資料（練習、文章）以教科書為主導，單元調適多刪少補 33 戊、資料分析與討論本研究通過從訪談觀察及文件所得的資料進行分析。研究者共訪問了 24 位教師，了解教師對新課程的看法、對協作觀感；在正式、非正式的溝通時間進行哪些課程決定？教師認為科組及學校哪些因素影響級組內教師的課程決定？由於篇幅所限，本文只集中分析教師的協作觀感與影響課程決定的因素。研究者在訪談時徵得教師的同意才錄音，錄音後，將整篇訪談資料作文字轉譯，然後將資料編碼及按研究問題歸納、分類。將資料分類後，將分析焦點放在影響課程決定的因素及課程決定內容、質素（深度、廣度）。將資料分類後，並參考文件分析結果及會議紀錄，尋找資料中所呈現的主題、共通點及個別學校的特殊情況（黃顯華、李玉蓉，2006a，頁 9）。至於觀察，研究者會參加三所學校（個案一、二、三），在正式課堂時間的會議。研究者由 2004 年 2 至 5 月期間，選學校其中一個單元參與中一級內的備課節會議。沒有正式備課節的學校由於教師隨時有空就召開非正式會議，基本上很難預先知會研究者，所以研究者沒有參與個案四、五學校的非正式會議。至於有安排正式備課節的學校，一個單元內，研究者會參與一至兩次會議，觀察的對象，主要是與會的級組教師的互動情況、級組會議的氣氛及選擇哪些課程議題討論等。在會議過程中，為了減少教師對研究員的戒心及顧慮，研究者沒有錄音，每一次會議均全程用紙筆紀錄重點，做筆記；在離開場景後盡快整理資料。觀察的資料對引證教師的訪談內容很有幫助。尤其是描寫級組成員的關係及教師參與課程決定的意願，會將研究者在觀察過程中的所見所聞描述出來。除了 2003-2004 年系統搜集資料的時間，研究者於 2007 年 2 月至 3 月，研究者第二次進入場景以確認資料。研究者將個案資料整理後再到學校與部份教師會談及核實資料（經教師簽署並確認）；研究者亦通過訪談，了解過去兩年學科的發展狀況，雖然這不是本研究的範圍，不過研究者也能掌握最新的學校信息，令人憂慮的是一般學科的發展仍是比較緩慢，實際的教學環境沒有多大變化。不過令研究者有意外發現的是教師的價值觀及信念原來不會因為時間而有很大的轉變。在 2007 年 4 月至 5 月，研究者第三次進入場景，這一次是要找出資料所呈現的主題；因為在撰寫討論及結論過程中，就有關核心問題，如影響課程決定的因素，教師對某些重要概念的觀感，例如在參與決定階段教師是分擔工作抑 34 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究或是賦權承責？教師的調適概念是純粹是教科書的調適抑或包含新舊課程的調適；研究員在下結論之前，再次與個案學校部分教師在電話及訪談中討論（同時經錄音及文字轉譯處理），希望能進一步引證研究者的推論。從不同教師對同一個訪談內容所表達的意見收集後，研究員會將各人提供的資料作參考、對照及比較，以作為三角檢證之用；有些時候，研究者亦會對比訪談的內容與會議觀察作印證。三角檢證（triangulation）是質化研究保證效度的慣用策略。本研究採用的是資料三角檢證。研究員會在同一所學校，向不同的教師問相同的問題，試圖從不同人身上了解他們對相同問題的看法。這一類的問題，多數是課程決定的觀感及影響課程決定的因素。有些時候，研究者亦會對比訪談的內容與會議觀察作印證；如教師對協作觀感與她／他在集體備課會議時的表現是否一致？研究者亦會在不同時間，向同一個人，問相同的問題；以尋求教師對相同的問題是否有一致的看法，而這一類的問題多數涉及教師價值判斷及重要觀念，例如對語文教與學的看法。研究資料初步顯示，教師協作觀感與教師對課程理解有直接關係，與課程決定形式及內容有間接關係。要是教師認為新課程的改革幅度大，轉變的範圍廣，他們就較認同教師需增加協作；相反，要是教師認為是次課程改革仍只屬於教科書層面的改革，其他的教學範疇沒有明顯的轉變，教師未必有強烈的協作需要。一、教師對協作的理解影響對參與協作的態度綜合個案的資料顯示，個案一相信集體的力量的確比個人的力量大。教師認為新課程需要教師參與協作。通過協作，可以減少孤獨，可以互補。通過協作，教師得出啟示，就是不一定要跟共同意見的人才可以合作。備課節提供協作平台。科主任也利用學校開放日及外評等機會，讓教師參與協作。由於經常溝通、合作，拉近教師之間對一些觀念的看法，例如要實施課程時有理想的效果，就要先管好學生的秩序。持續的協作和溝通，有助建立和諧的同儕關係。教師協作的範圍包括共同進行計劃，分享教學資源及教學經驗。 35 個案二教師對協作的理解是單方面的支援。有經驗的教師覺得自己有責任將經驗傳給新任教中一的教師；學校安排教師的共同備課節時間，這是提供協作的平台，但教師除了分享教學資源，沒有其他協作的範圍。教師之間只有工作關係，同儕的關係一般，沒有開放、坦誠的溝通，只能進行有限度的協作。個案三教師普遍認同新課程需要教師參與協作。教師對協作的理解是主動分享及互相支持。一方面因為學校的政策又需要教師協作，例如課堂觀摩探究、啟導計劃。學科的文化，也是鼓勵教師一起合作以解決問題，教師有緊密的工作關係，能夠進行開放、坦誠的溝通。教師協作的範圍包括分享教學資源及教學經驗。個案四教師對協作的理解是有需要就伸出援手，提供支援。主要是因為教師基本上掌握新課程，在正常的情況下大家可以各自處理自己的問題。沒有備課節，教師很少正式協作的機會。不過教師之間有穩定的感情基礎，故此協作的範圍可包括分享教學資源及教學經驗。個案五教師視協作等於求助而不是互相依賴。教師是意識到新課程需要教師參與協作，不過沒有備課節，教師沒有正式協作的機會。協作是隨機的，有限度的；故此協作的範圍主要是分享教學資源。由於同儕關係不錯，關係算融洽，偶然也會分享教學經驗。二、影響教師對協作觀感的因素視協作為單方面的支援，教師只會進行隨機、有限度的協作；分享的範圍主要是教學資源。視協作為互相支持、互補，教師才會有不同層面的協作，如共同計劃、進行專業溝通，也會主動分享不同的經驗，包括成功、失敗的教學經驗。 36 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究表二影響協作觀感的校內因素個案一個案二個案三個案四個案五協作理解認同協作部分人認為有需要協作，協作是單方面的支援認同協作願意分享認同部分範圍需要協作，其他的時間基本獨立，但有需要就會互相支援平時獨立，有需要就伸出援手，協作是有需要的支援過往經驗新課程實施前，開始有協作機會（說話能力培訓、校本單元設計）；在新課程推出後，協作可以解決單元調適及課堂教學問題新課程實施前少合作機會學校有協作文化，不同科組之間也有合作機會在新課程實施前有參與訂定校本教材的經驗；有機會合作在新課程實施前少合作，個別教師教同一級就有合作機會同儕關係從工作建立互信關係，比較和諧、開放純粹是工作關係，平時少交往、溝通，人際關係比較疏離有一半教師通過工作建立緊密的協作關係，有默契、互相體諒有感情基礎，關係良好工作關係，平時會交談，有商有量政策、措施有備課節，有固定的溝通時間有備課節，但只限於固定時間才接觸 a. 學校工作多、變革多，令教師習慣要一起合作 b. 科組內有協作文化，就算新的教師也容易受感染 c. 有備課節 d. 有教研部推動教學探究沒有備課節，隨機協作，有時間就溝通沒有備課節，有事就隨機協作領導能力大力推動協作，建立工作常規，給予教師清楚的目標及權責，鼓勵教師積極協作，一起解決問題欠清晰的目標及指引，教師的權責不清楚訂定常規，給予清楚的權責有需要就主動召集會議，一起商討解決補充教材問題欠清晰目標，無規定權責其他友校分享過程中得到認同，知道團隊協作能夠做更多的工作，例如設計全級的學習活動、計劃完整的單元少非正式的溝通，也少互相了解增進感情的機會非正式溝通機會多，例如一起參與專業發展活動爭取非正式溝通時間工作量多、工餘少非正式接觸 37 教師在科組內與同級或科內的同儕在新課程實施前是否有合作機會或成功經驗，影響教師對協作的觀感及參與協作的意願。個案一、三、四的教師在新課程前也有或多或少的合作機會，教師比較容易認同協作的需要；教師有合作機會，則是因為有改革項目，或者跨科組的合作課題；至於個案二、五的教師學校及學科層面的改革相對較少，教師也較少合作的機會。教師的關係則影響教師參與協作的積極程度，間接影響教師討論問題的開放程度及課程決定的深度。教師之間未必一定要有感情關係，如個案一、三教師通過工作建立互信關係及緊密的夥伴關係也可以令教師在較開放、自由的環境下討論不同的課程議題；相反，個案二的教師因為過往少合作、少溝通及聊天的機會，教師的關係比較疏離，他們不容易敞開胸懷討論深層的問題，以及一起進行大膽創新的嘗試，因此課程決定的深度受限制。關係是了解中國人社會行為的核心概念（黃懿慧，2001，頁 21）。關係，在黃光國（1988）的「資源」意義下，亦可稱為「人情」。（黃懿慧，2001，頁 31）。對中國人而言，關係的密切程度，與對別人信任程度成正相關（Greif and Tabellini, 2012）。本研究發現，中文科內級組成員的關係建基於教師長期積累的倚賴、信靠的基礎；建立和諧、友善、開放的關係，使教師一起工作會比較輕鬆、投入；反之則相對拘謹、疏離。關係不是靠正式的溝通時間及制度連繫；關係是對人的可靠、信賴的持續考驗，沒有共同經歷，很難建立深厚的關係。如果有政策及措施推動協作，會為協作及參與課程決定創造良好的土壤；個案一、二、三學校有備課節，教師可以在正式、固定的時間溝通，可以增加協作及溝通的機會，令彼此增加了解。不過有政策也要配合適當的工作常規，有清楚的權責分配，令教師知道自己在科組內參與的角色，否則會像個案二一樣，教師只認為自己有責任出席備課節會議，但沒有清楚要完成的任務，部分教師就會變得被動、倚賴；個案四、五教師的關係不錯，可惜學校沒有安排正式的備課節，只能靠隨機的分享、合作，有需要的才走在一起，未必能充分利用團隊的力量。政策、措施提供環境，領導（如科主任）就要做推動的工作。在科內如果有清楚的目標及任務，有互相默認的常規，再加上領導的帶領，就容易凝聚眾人的力量，發揮共力。 38 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究個案一領導的推動是一個成功的例子；個案一、三由科主任建立工作的常規，令所有教師既有分工，又有合作的機會；個案三的教研部推動很多革新項目，需要教師與人一起工作及完成計劃；個案四的初中科主任在有需要時召開會議，也令教師能在非正式的時間走在一起，共同解決問題；沒有時間、沒有領導支持的個案五，教師縱有良好關係，也不容易經常走在一起，解決教學問題。故此，教師的個人層面對協作的觀感是受過往經驗、關係、科組及學校層面的互動影響；科組是建立常規、凝聚個人，推動協作的中介者，尤其是（科主任）領導；而學校則是提供協作的重要環境。另一方面教師對協作的理解也影響科組內的合作模式，如屬單方面的支援（如個案二），基於這種協作的理解，級組內只有部分人付出，不是人人參與，未必能長久。有需要才支援（如個案四、五），有這樣的協作理解，證明教師仍然擺脫不了個人主義，協作只是當教師面對困難或未掌握所需技巧時，大家才需要走在一起；問題解決了，大家又可以走回自己的課室內，很少需要與人一起工作。感覺同事一起工作是互相倚賴及互補（如個案一、三），這種協作的觀感顯示了各人都要貢獻力量，又能借助其他人的強項解決自己的問題；相信在課程改革過程中，大家在一個平等參與的狀態下，最能保持長久的協作關係。三、教師的協作對課程決定內容的影響當教師視協作為單方面的支援，教師只會進行隨機、有限度的協作；分享的範圍主要是教學資源；課程決定內容跳不出教科書的框框。以教科書主導的學校中，教師只著重教甚麼的問題，在備課節的會議內重點討論的是篩選、刪減那些教學內容，而很少考慮不同的課程元素，如多元的教學法及評估方式等；課程決定的內容就傾向較為狹窄、表面。視協作為互相支持、互補，教師才會有不同層面的協作，如共同計劃、進行專業溝通，也會主動分享不同的經驗，包括成功、失敗的教學經驗；教師在參與課程決定時，著眼於 39 如何教、甚至是為什麼這樣教等問題上。在備課節的會議內，重點討論的是學生如何學得好，以及怎樣教得有效的問題。教師會考慮不同的課程元素，如選擇及組織學習內容，考慮多元的教學策略及評估方法等，課程決定的內容可拓展至深、廣程度。己、總結學校政策引入協作的機制只是團隊發展的第一步，它既可以是強迫協作，也可以轉向進化成互相倚賴的團隊協作（Grimmett & Crehan, 1992, p.79-80），問題是學校是否善加利用這個機制。在一個級組內如果能及建立信任及和諧關係能為課程決定提供有利的條件，劉冠華（2010，頁 163）的研究得出以下的結論：和諧的工作氣氛及工作愉快的感覺影響教師的留職意願、組織認同及努力意願。不同的同儕關係，對參加課程決定的影響如下：以感情基礎為主的同事關係，關係較深；再加上大家都有接近的性向、價值，教師能動性較大。教師參與協作及進行決定的意欲也相對強，因為朋友的事，也是自己的事；有人情的元素，萬事好商量。這與黃懿慧（2001）描述中國人的關係因為有了人情面子，可以增進合作機率的說法是一致的（頁 30-31）；成功夥伴的基本特徵是包括承諾、合作、信任、溝通質量、參與以及共同解決問題等要素（朱吉慶、李金早，2006，頁 147）。所以學校就算沒有正式的溝通時間，教師自己也會想法解決問題；由級組成員自己安排非正式的溝通時間交流，無礙教師進行討論及決定。另一方面互相信任亦是促成課程決定的要訣，Johnston（1995）、簡良平（2001）、 Meier（2005）及 John（2001）都同時指出不管是小組層面、學校層面的決定，建立互信及和諧的關係都是一個重要的因素；信任加強體諒，可接納多元的意見。培養信任的基礎，有助個案學校討論及決定不同課程議題。有信任，可以面對複雜的議題，減少磨合的時間；有信任，也有利學校推出創新的措施，讓教師參與創新的決定、同時願意接受較具挑戰的任務；故此信任的基礎也有助教師願意承擔額外的任務。至於信任的元素包括可靠、有能力（Tschannen-Moran, 2000; Tzafrir, 2005）及開放（Tschannen-Moran, 2000; Tzafrir, 2005; Mishra, 1996）；同時相信對方有良好的意圖（Chou et al., 2006; Meier, 2005）。坦誠的溝通基於信任，信任令級組內教師對其他人的意見都很 40 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究尊重，從沒有人對一些不成熟的意見或者對某些人的說話表現出不耐煩。基於互相信任、尊重及和諧的協作關係，就能幫助級組教師拉近在課程實施的距離。由於時間、資源及複雜的學校微政治因素限制，本研究只能針對中一級一個級組內的教師，就其中一個單元的教學計劃過程及內容進行觀察及分析；而課程決定的過程複雜，除了小組協作的層面外，亦涉及個人的信念、領導及學校等範疇，研究者未能對所有影響教師課程決定的因素進行深入探究。參考文獻朱吉慶、李金早（2006）。〈私人關係對業務關係質量的影響──以上海、蘇州銀行業為例〉。《蘭州學刊》，第 9 期，147-150。佛教茂峰法師紀念中學課堂教學研習計劃教師手冊（02-03 年度）。2012 年 8 月 10 日，取自 http://www.bmf.edu.hk/lys/lesson_study/lesson_study_reources02-03/doc/handbook.doc。吳清基（1989）。〈國民小學課程發展的趨勢〉。《現代教育》，第四卷第二期，3-23。李子建、黃顯華（1996）。《課程：範式、取向和設計》。香港：中文大學出版社。李俊湖（1992）。〈國小教師專業成長與教學效能關係之研究〉，碩士學位論文。台北：國立台灣師範大學，教育研究所。杜美智（1997）。〈國民小學社會科教師課程決定之研究〉，碩士學位論文。台灣：國立花蓮師範學院，國民教育研究所。杜美智、游家政（1998）。〈國民小學教師的課程決定──社會科教師之個案研究〉。《課程與教學季刊》，第一卷第四期，73-94。徐世瑜（1998）。〈課程與教學決定歷程中的要素分析〉。《課程與教學季刊》，第一期第四卷，1-12。高新建（1991）。〈國小教師課程決定之研究〉，碩士學位論文。臺北：國立臺灣師範大學，教育研究所。高慕蓮、李子建（2001）。〈中學中國語文新課程試教計劃實施個案研案〉。《現代教育通訊》，第五十八期，41-44。教育局（2003-3004）。《視學周年報告》。2007 年 11 月 20 日，取自 http://www.edb.gov. hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annualreport_03-04_chi.pdf。陳向明（2006）。《教師如何作質的研究》。北京：教育科學出版社。 41 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Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 44 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 回顧學校中文科課程改革── 談課程改革與教師專業發展 A review of the Chinese Language curriculum reform in a school - Curriculum reform and teachers’ professional development 簡加言香港中學語文教育研究會摘要本文是一篇教學經驗分享的篇章，以作者曾任教的學校為例，分享老師參與教育局推行的「課程改革」後的成效。內容集中談教師在編寫課本和試教中總結出一套教學法；課程改革的成果得到了各方面的肯定，參與的老師在過程中鍛煉了一種「研究」的能力和面對「變更」的能力。不經意間把整個課程改革的過程變成了教師專業成長和發展的過程。老師總結了成功的經驗，並與其他前線教師分享，促進交流。文章最後更寄語同行繼續努力，輕鬆面對變動。關鍵詞課程改革，教師發展，教育專業 Abstract This article aims to share the teaching experience of the author. Taking her school as an example, the author shares the achievement after participating in the “Curriculum Reform” 45 of Education Bureau. The content focuses on the process from writing textbooks to practical teaching, and eventually forming a series of teaching methods. The effectiveness of “Curriculum Reform” has been generally agreed and appreciated. Through the relevant training, all participants have built up the ability to “research” and face the “change”. Without much awareness, the process of reform has become part of teacher professional development. The participants have consolidated experiences and successful stories to share with other frontline teachers, and encourage knowledge exchange. Finally, also it is encouraged that teachers carry on with the good work and face the curriculum change without fear. Keywords curriculum reform, teacher developments, education profession 引言課程發展議會（1999）在香港學校課程的整體檢視報告中指出幾項課程改革的目的：（1）為香港學生提供一個知識建構的學校課程，使他們能以全球視野的胸懷，面對信息萬變、相互依存的廿一世紀社會；（2）為配合新的教育目標，培養我們的下一代成為「樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔、敢於創新」的終身學習者，在今後知識為本經濟體系的社會中，貫徹終身學習。（3）為未來的學校課程定出大方向，設計一個以靈活、開放、連貫為課程架構骨幹的「廿一世紀新課程」，透過高效能的教與學，全面提升學生的素質。張嘉育（1998）在台北一次研討會裏談到課程時，提出了七個見解：（1）學校本位課程發展雖以學校為主體，但也重視校內外各種人力、資源的運用結合；（2）學校本位課程發展採廣義課程定義，課程是指學校指導的一切學習經驗；（3）學校本位課程發展既重視課程發展成果，也強調過程中學校社區的參與與學習；（4）學校本位課程發展新定位學校於課程發展中的角色，使「社會──社區、學校── 教師」發展成為一種關係夥伴； 46 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展（5）學校本位課程發展重心定義了教師與課程的關係，重視學校教育人員的自主與專業，將課程研究、課程發展與課程實施結合為一體；（6）學校本位課程強調多樣化、地方化、適切性，可立即回應社會、社區、學校與學生需要；（7）學校本位課程發展是倡導「參與」、「由上而下」、「草根式」的課程發展理念。總的來說，「課程」（curriculum）就是所謂的「學習進程」（王文科，1990）；課程不是將由教師實施的計劃，而是引導教室實驗的架構，是由教師實施的一種教育實驗設計。課程是教師在教學過程中，對整體的計劃加以考驗、重新建構後發展出來的（歐用生， 1999）。因此，課程改革的主題曲是改進師生的學與教行為；課程改革的目的是要增大學與教的效能。要全面提升學生的素質，課程固然重要，老師才是關鍵。陳伯璋（1999）指出教師是課程改革的推動者、設計者，研究者、協調者；但筆者卻認為教師也可以是課程的創造者、計劃者、撰寫者、施行者、試驗者。故此，教師在多重角色中能達致專業發展。 2000 年香港為了順利推行課程改革，事前做足準備。1998 年 12 月至 1999 年 9 月第一階段檢視：由課程發展議會啟動，與教統會的教育目標及教育制度檢討同步進行；成立核心小組、工作小組（成員包括教師、校長、大專學者等），進行關注小組會議、研討會，建立非正式網絡聯繫。1999 年 9 月至 12 月作廣泛改革方向的諮詢，並討論學校課程將面對的具體轉變：1999 年 10 月至 2000 年 4 月舉行公開論壇，諮詢各界，並定期舉行有關會議。2000 年 1 月至 6 月第二階段：檢視及發展「廿一世紀課程」的課程架構與教統會教育制度檢討的最後建議相配合。2000 年 6 月提交終期報告／建議作公開諮詢，並向課程發展議會提交終期報告。2000 年 9 月至 2002 年 8 月試行不同的課程模式（課程發展議會， 1999）。眾所周知，課程改革是世界潮流，大家都有共識，面對二十一世紀，全球一體化成為大趨勢，社會經濟結構急速轉型；面對如此急劇轉變的大環境，教育制度和措施必須與時並進，才能使香港得以持續發展。教育統籌委員會（教統會）經過廣泛諮詢，於 2000 年向政府提交了《香港教育制度改革建議》。行政長官於同年 10 月發表的施政報告中，接納了所有建議，香港的教育改革正式揭開序幕。教育改革的整體精神是以學生為本，目標是「讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面都有全面而具個性的發展，能夠一生不斷自學、思考、探索、創新和應變，具充分的自信和合群的精神，願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由 47 和民主不斷努力，為國家和世界的前途作出貢獻。」（中華人民共和國香港特別行政區， 2006）福建中學（小西灣）1998 年建校，一直重視課程改革：為了學生，任何科目都可調適改動。筆者有幸從一開始就參與了中文科的課程改革：全程參與了科目的理論探索，建構教學模式和編寫教材的活動；並見證着老師在參與課程改革中的專業發展與成長。自 2000 年改革至今，我校是唯一一所參與改革後仍使用自己課本的學校，也是唯一一套有理論、有教法及有完整配套的課本（中一至中六）。這除了是教師個人的成就外，也展示了學校及香港教育界的成就，因為這套課本曾分別在 2004 及 2010 年獲行政長官卓越教學獎項；也獲得中國教育學會「十一五」科研一等獎；課本在台灣也備受關注，彰化縣教育處向本校購買了 50 套課本送往各學校；並邀請學校老師赴台主持縣市的講座，分享教研成果。可見學校參與課改所得的成效與影響力不止於香港；更擴展至其他地區。從教師參與課改所獲得的專業發展和成效，說明了教師的專業發展與課程改革成效有密切關係（霍秉坤、馮育珊，2005）。本文嘗試總結、分析學校老師如何通過課程改革及分享教改成效，逐步促進教育事業的專業發展與成長。學校傳遞意念老師主動承擔教改是一項重大的教育工程，而課程是學校教育的核心所在，所以課程改革與教育改革密不可分。福建中學（小西灣）建校以來一直很重視課改；但改革不易，不能說「改」就「改」。需要教師接受下達的意念，然後深思熟慮作出回應──是否要「改」。開校初期，學校提出兩個重要信息：（1）學校要培育學生成才；（2）學校要培養學者型教師。校長清楚傳遞信息：需要通過課程改革達到目標，尋找合適教材，鑽研有效教學法是成功關鍵；能找到教材就好，不然可考慮自擬或調適。校方傳遞意念，卻從不勉強，從不強迫；只讓老師自己想，自己酌量，是否要「改」則由教師決定。在一年醞釀期間，校長經常提學校以全人教育為宗旨；因此，以學生為主體，可以體現學校的教育理念；這一取向與「香港課程改革為學生規劃一個寬廣而均衡，以學為主的課程」的改革目標一致（香港課程發展議會，2000）。所以教師群中開始權衡利弊；思考以學生為主體即意味着課程要為學生「量體裁衣」，要與學生的需要相適應；因材施教，教法要重啟發，讓學生充分參與學習過程， 48 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展變講堂為學堂，杜絕「填鴨」；教學要重視回饋，並要適時調整。這些都是教師一直堅持的教學理念，因此，我們的老師就義無反顧接受了「課改」的使命；而且深切理解：課程改革雖然以學生為主體，但並不是放任學生自生自滅，否定教師的作用。我們的老師堅持以學生為主體，教師為主導，帶引學生，向高處攀登。我們的課程改革就由願意「試驗」的科組展開。筆者認為在這個磨合過程中，學校需要清礎傳遞意念；若要成事，必須有老師主動承擔；兩者缺一不可。Wideen 和 Andrews（1987）認為教師是改革的中心，這話是有道理的。福建中學（小西灣）中文科是課改先鋒，2000 年先參與教育署（現教育局）的試驗計劃，經過一年學習，便決定自行編寫課程。這膽子可大，坊間的課本編著背後說的是一支專業編輯隊伍，有整個機構的專業支援作後盾。學校怎能與之相比？一般人想像的課改大概就是「剪剪貼貼」罷了。沒想到本校花了五年時間編寫了初中課本（1-6 冊）、再花五年完成了高中課本（7-10 冊）。改革動力從何來呢？從學生而來。老師在編寫和試教中，發現課本和教法對學生有利。所以「改革」就停不了。我們的學生與全港情況一致，學語文的效率不高；歸究原因：一是閱讀量偏低；課內讀得太少，沒有足夠輸入，自然不可能有高水平輸出；其二是中文課語言訓練不足；過去中文課比較注重精讀課文，教學偏重內容分析，把時間花在作者、題解、文體講解上，少針對語言本身，不利於養成能力。其三就是對學生要求太低，結果是學生做得愈少，水平越低；水平低，則要求再降，反覆下調。所以為學生編一套合適的教材就成為福建中學（小西灣）語文科老師的使命了。Glatthorn （2000）認為課程領導應當發揮作用，使學校系統以及學校達到確保學生學習質量的目標。 Sergiovanni（1995）也指出，課程領導應為學校成員提供必要的支持，進而充實教師的課程專業知識和能力，促使學校形成合作與不斷改進的文化，最後把學校發展成課程社群，達致卓越的教育目標。筆者深切體會因為學校的最高領導人，包括校長以及校董會，他們給予我們的支持是充足的；在校長和校董會大力支持下，學校展開了漫長的「改革路」。老師意識到使用的課程，必須要大幅度增力，學生才能有大進步。要增大閱讀量；要重語言的比例，改變過往重「道」輕「文」的傾向，做到「文」、「道」協調，工具性與人文性統一。然而市面上並無合適的教材，這促使我們確信我們應當致力編一套對學生有利的課本。比較理想的教材架構應該是立體的，而不是平面的，於是精選名家篇章，在初中三級組成一個立體的閱讀系統：即中一在小學的基礎上著重培養語感和語文的基礎能力。中 49 二著重認識文體及培養閱讀文章的五種能力。中三著重培養閱讀和鑒賞文學作品的能力。每一階段都是前一階段基礎上的提高，有利於提升學生的閱讀能力，也同時避免重覆沉悶。閱讀教材採用能力及內容主題雙線結構，除能力主導外，選讀課文又按生活主題選編。每年選文一百篇，中一至中三共選文三百篇。以期有效奠立初中學生的語文基礎。每單元也列有「圖書館」，因應學生水平介紹名著，縮微作品，摘編精彩片斷，以期利用課內的「精彩片斷」，吸引學生課餘追看整本名著。做到每年閱讀名家美文不少於十萬字。這個突破性的意念與創舉是老師在課改的研究中發展出來的；可見課程改革是促進教師成長與發展的催化劑。堅持響應課改猛力追求突破學校自響應教育署（現教育局）的課程改革後，全面投入編寫校本課程。當時坊間議論課程改革的聲音此起彼落，我們的老師卻埋頭苦幹，只想着把最合適學生的教材得盡力搞成、寫好。十年過去了，我們出版了中一至中六整套課本（共十冊）；500 篇文章，500 個教案，漢語拼音（初中）、普通話朗誦光碟（初中）、三個選修單元（高中）與課本配套的作業、寫作、說話訓練等教材；並總結出一套包括課程理論、教學模式及教材教案所組成的「簡式單元教學法」。為編撰高質素教材，老師們均博覽群書，到內地重點中學求教，並專訪本地和外地有經驗人士，書成以後，送予本港和內地多位專家，反覆修訂，數易其稿。一面實踐，一面總結，一面作理論探究，一寫就寫了十年。在這猛力追求課本完整的十年裏，老師能不成長嗎？在專業上能不發展起來嗎？老師獲得的不止是外界給予的肯定與成就，更多的是通過編寫課本，自己讀了很多書。沒有大量輸入，怎能寫得出整套完整的課本與課練呢？這意外的大收穫促成了老師的專業發展。更重要的是在試教的過程中，老師為了要建構有效的教學法而不斷進行課堂研究，基本上已掌握如何「上好一節課」的竅門了。所以總結了一套教學法，提升了課堂學與教的效能。儘管在課改期間，老師忙於寫理論、寫課本、寫教案；忙於試教、忙於修訂，再修訂；但能發展出一套有理論、有數據、有實效的教材和教學法，這太值了！所謂十年磨一劍，是甚麼成就了這群追求在教學上有突破的教師呢？一切都是從「課改」開始。 Sparks 和 Hirsh（1997）指出學校是教師發展的重要地點；吳剛平（2002）說校本課 50 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展程開發在大多數學校中一直在進行，如果做得好的話，它將成為學校教師專業發展的途徑。福建中學（小西灣）的老師就是明證了，筆者有幸參與了這盛舉，在專業發展上的確有了長進。霍秉坤（2000）曾為香港的課程決策提出幾點建議：（1）改進課程決策的參與模式，應有更多的民主成分，有更多的參與者；（2）課程發展需要鼓勵學校為本的課程設計，避免單純應用統一課程設計的理念；（3）要重視課程的決策，重視課程專家在最高層架構的意見；（4）重視專業教師的參與，使他們成為課程改革的中心。筆者認同專業教師的參與是重要的，Blackman（1989）說：課程發展是人的發展之外，更體驗了在課程改革下的成長和發展。筆者認同霍秉坤（2000）談的「參與模式」和「民主成分」；我們重視學生的參與，也重視學生對教材的意見。才讓措（2007）認為要樹立課程為學生而存在的觀念，應該對學生的需求進行評估，了解和研究每一個學生的需要及其發展的可能性，尊重學生的不同選擇。我們在新課程中剔除了不受學生歡迎的篇章，在文字規範可學的前提下，新選文盡力切合學生興趣。我們同意 Elliott（1991）的看法，課程是指師生共同建構價值與知識的歷程。所以我們的老師很願意了解，並深入探討學生的學習難題，比如學生多厭惡文言文，覺得文言文難學又沒有實際用途，中一同學更因陌生而害怕學文言文。於是我們針對這一情況，在文言文教學中特別注意古今貫通，優先選用仍有生命力的文言文，充分利用粵語中有較多文言色彩詞彙的特點，打破「文」「白」隔膜。在中一課程中，文言文全部選用成語故事（原典）和詩詞，由於成語和詩詞篇幅都比較短小，易於誦讀，不易嚇怕中一級新生，而且成語和詩詞中名句也比較容易運用於現代文中，使現代文生色，這就化不利為有利，使學生樂於學習文言文。從實踐證明了新教材有效提高學生的閱讀能力，有效提高學生的語文水平。我們的老師認為學生的成就反映了老師的成就；只有猛力追求突破和學習的老師才會從學生的角度想問題，且認真努力地解決學生的學習障礙。因為響應和掌握了「課改」的契機而追求教學的突破，這就是我們的老師了。 51 思維敢於創新　膽大眼界高遠課程改革是要以學生為主體，為學生開拓「學習空間」（課程發展議會，2001）；提高學生的學習動機。因此，必須保證我們的教材能引起學生興趣。我們追求的是學中求樂，愉快學習，不同意以漫畫取代閱讀，不認同以鄙俗文章代替經典範文，更不容許以粵方言入文的中文教學取向；我們認為不管是講故事或戲劇活動等學習方法都不能代替「讓學生在書海中尋找樂趣」的做法。所以我們大膽提出：以大量閱讀和探究加快提升學生語文寫作能力的設想，並挑選十名學生進行小規模試驗，經過一年的試驗，效果理想。故在第二年推廣至中一、中二兩級共四班，而第三年則推廣至中一級全體學生，到目前，這套寫作教學法已在全體老師和全校學生中進行。第一批試驗的學生，五年後取得了令人非常鼓舞的成績。會考作文卷都拿到了 A 至 C 級的成績。比較他們中一時的成績實現了「質」的飛躍。從一開始，我們的想法是：中文教學改革應以寫作為突破口，目標是通過寫作訓練，提昇學生的語文水平和能力，更通過語文能力的提高，全面提升學生的學業成績和信心，並通過老師對學生的高期望，從而最終讓學生能擁有自信心，和充實的人生。這個目標已在學生的表現中呈現出來。Beane（1995）認為課程統整的內涵及課程盡可能的更具民主性與意義性、更具效果與吸引力、更尊重學生之個別差異及尊重課程可能性之研究。以意義化、內化、類化、簡化等四項功能，強調社會學習領域統整的理由。學生能夠把所學的各種課程貫串起來，瞭解不同課程彼此之間的關聯性，增加學習的意義性、應用性和效率性（黃政傑，1997）。對學生來說學習的意義莫過於能「應用」；所以學生最不愛學的就是學了沒有用的東西。例如我們都知道多讀多寫才能學好語文，這道理簡單，但香港學生就是不愛讀，也不愛寫；所以我們要了解同學喜歡讀哪些篇章，編寫有利於提高學習興趣的教材，讓學生覺得學語文是有用的，是具實效的。我們在研究課程和試驗中，盡量讓同學參與，令課程的設計變得民主性和具意義性；更重要的是通過學生的參與，評估成效，例如，我們會發調查問卷了解同學喜歡讀哪些篇章，並盡所能聽取意見；因為我們相信突破傳統，才能開創雙贏局面。傳統閱讀教學面面俱到，事事精細，結果只見樹木，不見森林，量雖少，語文教學的質卻不高。我們共同探索建構的「簡式單元教學法」。堅持「以量求質」的原則。傳統上，多讀大多是要求學生在課外進行，但這方法在自覺自律能力較低，家庭支援較少的學生中， 52 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展卻難實行。我們提出的「閱讀教學法」，在課程和課堂內幫助學生養成閱讀習慣，將課外閱讀的指導設於課堂之內。增加課內閱讀量，學生每年最少閱讀 100 篇範文（散文、詩歌、小說和戲劇節錄），不少於十萬字名著美文。另瀏覽十本名著，而且適量背誦，積累詞彙句式。實現了由提倡閱讀到老師指導，營造閱讀氣氛，創設閱讀環境等一系列可以操作的措施。經過了多年的實踐，事實證明學生的讀寫能力有了很大的提高。我們切實堅持語文課的重點在「教語言」，使用自編教材，並作教學設計以緊扣單元重點，對文本以外的知識，只擇其最精要作簡介，以圖示板書和誦讀協助整體感悟課文，精選精講語言，點滴積累，體現學生為主體的精神，重視能力遷移與應用。從實踐效果看，的確能提高教學效能。這也是香港語文教育界創新之舉。另外，我們探索而建構了「簡式寫作教學法」。堅持「多寫少改」──自由文只寫不改，規範文對焦略批，重在講評。這個敢於創新的寫作教學法突破了傳統的雙輸困局，開創了老師、學生雙贏的局面──首先是學生多寫而教師工作量不增，然後學生因多寫而提升了質素，教師批改變得較易，工作難度下降，形成良性循環。現時學校的同學不管能力如何，都「肯寫、敢寫」。即使是第三組別的中一學生經過約三個月的訓練，即能於 60 分鐘內完成一篇 600 字的作文。盡量讓同學覺得學語文是實用的，是有效的。而今，「簡式寫作教學法」並已結集成書。經推介，也有學校試行「多寫少改」，同樣有效。黃政傑（1991）指出課程組織的統整性應用於科目與科目之間、理論與實際間，校內活動與校外活動之間、也可用於認知、技能和情感之間。Ornstein 和 Hunkins（1998）認為統整性是指在課程計劃中，連接所有類型的知識與經驗。而統整的結果可從價值性、完全性、數量性、全體性、秩序性、和諧性與公平性等七個面向來判斷是否達成有意義的統整（楊龍立、潘麗珠，2001）。因此，課程的橫向聯繫必須使學習者將所學的概念、原理、原則關連起來，成為有意義的整體，學習才能產生效果。筆者同意在課程的統整計劃，除了重視知識，也要結合經驗。所以，我們堅持鼓勵學生多寫，而且要多寫自己的「經驗」，並結合所學習的科目一併思考；可以寫科學、可以寫音樂、可以寫體育、可以寫數學。因為我們相信學習是一個整體，科目與科目之間是生活的聯繫，是學生生活的價值點滴；學生想到甚麼就寫甚麼。我們的老師相信從「肯寫、敢寫」切入而加大寫作的「量」，就能獲得由「量」而變「質」的學習效能；這種膽大高遠且敢於創建的新思維是從「課改」開始的。 53 銳意追求卓越　步伐與時並進 Elliott（1993）提出：教學是一種行動研究的表現，行動研究的理論也是一種學習理論。歐用生（1989）指出只有老師對自己的教學和教室實施研究，然後親自「看到」和親自「體驗」到整個變化的過程，接着重新學習，改變自已的知識觀，這樣才能解決問題。陳伯璋（1998）認為行動研究是結合行動與研究的一種研究方法，即是指情境的參與者（如教師）基於實際問題解決的需要，與專家、學者或組織中的成員共同合作，將問題發展成研究主題，進行有系統的研究，以講求實際問題解決的一種研究方法。這就是為甚麼我們很重視行動研究的原因；筆者同意 Mcniff（1988）說的，行動研究不只是教學過程，它是對教學過程的覺知與批判，且利用自我批判的覺知，開放一個改變的過程來改善教學。我們的老師就是執着於研究、改善課堂的學與教；所以黃政傑（1985）和蔡清田（2000）都指出「行動研究」是基於「教師即研究者」的理念，由實際操作的教師在實際的教學經驗中，根據所遇到的實際問題進行研究，並設計問題和尋求解決的策略。通過實際行動來進行反思、修正，尋求解決所遇到的困難。我們的老師為了更好的配合語文教學的改革，早於 2000 年就參與教育署（現教育局）的語文單元教學改革試驗計劃。經過了一年艱苦努力，編寫了中一級的整套單元教學校本課程，這套課程在當時 49 所試驗學校中曾獲好評，列為中上。但老師並不滿意，因為老師一面編寫，一面試教，在行動研究中發現課程不理想，進行反思，最後決定放棄了整年的心血！在掌握單元教學的概念上，再結合多寫多讀的實驗，重新編寫一套既符合本校學生需要又具向全港學校推廣價值的課程，這套課程的初中部份共六冊，300 篇文章、300 個教案及漢語拼音課本、普通話朗誦光碟；與課本配套的作業也做出初稿，並總結出一套包括單元理論、教學模式及教材教案所組成的「簡式單元教學法」。完成初中的課本後，老師仍不停步，繼續籌備編訂單元教學的中四、中五級課程；到了新高中學制落實後，隨即根據指引趕緊編寫中六語文課本及三個語文的選修單元課本。這種通過研究和實踐，銳意追求和與時並進的教學態度表現了卓越老師的特質。我們的老師為了完善高質素的教材，除虛心向海內外的專家請教外，並在試教中進行多項的行動研究，因為有效性教學的決定因素，是取決於學生對課堂學習的積極性、主動性（陶曉彥，2008）。 54 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展李玉雙（2010）也指出有效課堂又是有效教學的重要載體，要實現有效教學就要利用好課堂 40 分鐘，要把課堂教學的立足點放到學生身上，使學生樂於學，自主學，學會學。行動研究的特徵：（1）在特定的情境中診斷並解決問題；（2）強調問題解決的立即性；（3）重視實務工作者的研究參與；（4）過程重視協同合作；（5）屬發展性的反省彈性計畫；（6）研究的結果可以促成專業成長；（7）是一種社會化過程；（8）具批判性的；（9）具解放性的；（10）是反省─辯證的（Bogdan & Biklen, 1982；Cohen & Manion, 1989；Kemmis & Taggart, 1998；蔡清田，2000）。所以整個探究模式是一個循環式程序，每一個程序包括四個不同步驟：計劃、行動、觀察和反思。這幾個步驟對評估我們建構的教學法起了很重要的作用；因為我們相信理論是必須在實務中被確認的（Elliott, 1981）。我們的老師為試驗課本和教學法的可行性，一面實踐，一面總結，一面作理論探究，除了驗證我們建構的教學法之外，更為下一步研究創設條件。例如，香港回歸中國已 15 年了，兩地無論在經貿或文化上的交流亦日漸頻繁，兩地學生交流活動亦不斷增加。早年語常會推出「普教中」計劃，鼓勵學校參與；我們的老師認為從學習語文來說，普通話的表意方式與書面語更為接近，以普通話作為思考方式，自能減少文法問題。不過面對的困難可不少。首先，教師質素備受關注，另外，是學生吸收問題。我們的老師認為學校的課改已取得客觀的肯定，接下來該注入新元素，豐富及試驗教材的能耐與效能。在權衡輕重後，認為「普教中」對學生有利的；於是便參加了維持三年的「普教中」支援計畫。我們的老師在計畫中接受培訓，至今，語文科所有老師都能以普通話教授語文。這是另一項課程改革中，老師獲得專業發展的機會與收穫。我們的老師在編寫課本中成長，在課程改革中發展專業能力，在行動研究中尋求、探究教學法，驗證實效，追求卓越；我們的老師都能在課改中培養出一種能力：課堂學與教的「研究能力」。 55 有了這種能力，就能面對課程的任何更新與改動。這是學校參與了課程改革帶給老師的意外收穫，從收穫中也體現了參與課改教師的成長與發展的寶貴經歷。掌握課程趨勢推廣改革成效傅道春（2001）認為教師必須擁有一種專業擴充能力。它的內容包括：能把自己教學的質疑和探討作為進一步發展的基礎；有研究自己教學的信念和技能；有在實踐中對理論進行質疑和檢驗的意向；有準備接受其他教師來觀察自己的教學，並能在理論和實踐兩個層面上對自己的教學情境進行意圖與效果的說明。筆者對這點是非常同意的；我們的老師在課程改革中也經歷了這個過程，並鍛煉出一種專業擴充能力。這可以通過老師在不同場合、渠道分享課改成效中體現出來的：這包括與外地先進同行交流，多次訪問廣東、上海、北京、南京、天津和台灣等地的中學。改革初期，稍有成效，2003 年學校老師就到北京主講「香港的考試與評估」專題，也有老師出席在武漢舉行的中國教育學會語文教學專業委員會第八屆年會，並分享香港課程改革經驗，接着也在南京介紹「香港的德育觀與德育實踐」。除了到境外交流外，我們的老師還積極組織香港與內地的專業交流活動。接待來訪的本地學校，介紹和觀摩學校語文教學的經驗。出版專業書籍，舉辦及親自教授公開課，促進全港語文教師的觀摩文化。在努力推動下，福建中學（小西灣）中文科在學校率先進行集體備課、相互觀課、評課，實行每級集體備課。2002 年全年，中文科開課逾 140 次，觀課者超過 380 人次，為促成這種教研風氣；學校於 2002 年率先在香港舉辦大型公開課，也是首次以香港老師（福建中學（小西灣）老師）授課，接受他校同工逾百人觀課，禮堂座無虛席，開香港交流之風。當時，這種課堂和教學開放的氛圍慢慢向全校、全港推廣，這是中文料同事參與了課程改革後的成果，這成果正體現在率教研交流之風的帶頭作用；學校在 2003 年 12 月舉辦了一次面向家長和教育同工的全校開放日。該日全校的課堂均向外界開放，接待超過 100 名來賓參觀，超過 100 多堂課。這也是史無前例的。至今，福建中學（小西灣）仍是全開放的，平均一個月至少有一所機構到校交流、座談、聽課。我們的老師推廣課改的成效是不遺餘力的。筆者很同意傅道春（2001）所說的，教師能力是教師在一般能力的基礎上，不斷順應教育的過程的要求而形成和發展的。教師能力的發展經歷了三個階段，其中一個經歷，他 56 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展說是「生成階段」，他認為新教師走上工作崗位，均有一個從不知到知，從不能到能的過程，知識老化速度的加快和師範生在校所學知識與實踐需要的差距，使新教師面臨重新構建知能結構的任務。教師能力的生成過程是一個學習──實踐的過程，是知識技能向教育教學能力轉化的過程，也是學習與研究意識的產生過程。筆者認為這一點說得很好，可是不單是新任老師，就算是資深的老師也一樣，每一個改變都需要「實踐過程」，有了實踐就能掌握課程的得失，判斷課程的成效；因為通過親身體驗，才能透徹掌握課程，而整個實施與管理的工作就能井然有序，有了一個規律，推廣起來就具理論與實踐了。所以陳時見（1999）認為要搞好課程管理，必須遵循一定的規律，按課程的規律辦事。首先，課程是一個龐大的系統，既然它是一個系統，它的各要素之間就有聯繫，就應該是一個整體，所以課程管理的一個重要原則就是整體性原則。所以課程改革是否成功，除了具備了強而有力的火車頭之外，同事間的協作才是關鍵；我們的老師就擁有這協作特質。另外，陳時見（1999）也指出，課程管理的目的是在一定環境中，通過一系列的管理行為，使課程系統取得最好的效果，所以課程管理的另一個重要原則是最優化原則。所以我們的老師在推廣改革成效時，也不時強調「優化」是改革的重點，不是說已經很好就不改，而是要進行優化。筆者認為這是教育局多年致力推行教改的總方向；因為「沒有最好，只有更好」。教育統籌委員會於 2000 年在其《香港教育制度改革建議》報告中，確立了「終身學習、全人發展」為二十一世紀的教育目標，並全面推出 2000 年教育改革藍圖內所承諾的計劃。我們都知道教育改革是一項龐大且複雜的工程，從來都是這樣，「改革」總是帶來不安、困難和挑戰。所以我們的老師樂意分享成功經驗，毫不吝嗇分享各地課程改革的趨勢與發展等資料，和多年進行課堂研究的心得與成效呈顯與會者跟前。學校是願意老師多作分享的，因為一次分享等同一次總結；而總結是一種能力的體現，也是教師專業能力發展的過程，機會難得。傅道春（2001）也說了：隨着教育教學經驗的豐富，教師的能力開始走向成熟，並形成自己的風格與特長，增強了適應和應變力，掌握了比較過硬的教育教學本領。這一階段的教師形成了自己的「科學教育學」體系，具有一定的教學研究水平，逐步萌發創新意識。教師經過長期的學習、實踐，其能力開始進入巔峰。不僅形成了合理的知能結構，具有完備的教育理論素養和學科知識體系，而且積累了豐富的教育教學經驗，形成了自己的教學專長，具備了組織和領導教學和研究的能力，具備了進行教育創新的基本條件。我們的老師雖然說不上登鋒造極，但「推門觀課」已經難不了他們了。至於負責一個講座對我們的老師來說是學習、是發展，又是教學專長與能力的展現；學校是樂見其成的。這是 57 課程改革帶給老師的恩物和收穫！現在我們的老師各具風格，各領風騷。老師都各有自己的教學本領；但更重要的是：那都是對教育、對學生「有心」的老師！總結新一屆香港中學文憑公開考試已結束了。2004 年 10 月，教育統籌局推出有關新學制的諮詢文件，2005 年 5 月發表《高中及高等教育新學制——投資香港未來的行動方案》報告書，貫徹培養學生終身學習、全人發展的教育目標。為協助學校於 2009 年 9 月起在高中各級實施新高中課程，課程發展議會及香港考試及評核局於 2007 年聯合編訂了二十四科新高中科目的課程及評估指引，而課程發展議會亦於 2009 年編訂《高中課程指引──立足現在 ‧ 創建未來》，讓學校建基於基礎教育的優勢和經驗，為學生提供寬廣、均衡而有多元化選擇的高中課程。334 新學制正式落實，這是香港教育史上一個重要的里程碑。在整個新學制推出時，爭議的聲音此起彼落。十年課改剛停下來，隨即的變動又來了。前文說過「變」會帶來不安。但新課程內容為學生提供了寬廣、均衡和具深度的變動，例如，教育局在 24 個新高中科目外，為學生提供應用學習課程。課程的目標是通過真實情境，讓學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論，從而培養他們的共通能力。這些改動的原意本來是好的，可是前線教師還是憂慮！筆者認為新學制就好像是一個課程統整，將不同學科知識加以整合，重新安排學習的方法，統整的範圍不單是學科的統整，筆者認為那是一種課程設計的意念與理論的統整。這包含經驗與社會的統整；組織課程的核心是學生經驗到的實際生活，將有關的內容聯貫起來，藉此讓學生批判性地探討真正的議題（歐用生， 1996；楊家寧，2005）。所以「改動」是一個「整合」的意念，因此，新學制可以說不「新」；所謂百變不離其宗，例如，教育局制定的政策強調學生「學會學習」的能力。為達到使學生能夠養成學會學習的能力，政府在課程指引內提出了「九種共通能力」及「四個關鍵項目」兩種概念。九種共通能力包括：協作能力，溝通能力，創造力，批判性思考能力，運用資訊科技能力，運算能力，解決問題能力，自我管理能力，研習能力。這都不是新的東西，只是把我們已知的知識重新演繹。又例如，「優化教學協作計劃」是在香港教育局資助下，由香港中文大學教育學院與學校夥伴協作中心聯合多所中小學合作開展的一項探索，目的是為不同學 58 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展習領域的教師提供專業支援，以提升教師的教學效能及專業能力，「4-P 模式」則是該計劃在促進教師專業發展方面運用的基本策略。4P：澄清問題（Problem Clarification）、計劃（Planning）、計劃行動（Progress Action）和進展評鑒（Progress Evaluation），這四個環節又構成一個不斷循環的整體流程。目的是運用「4-P 模式」改進相關科目的課堂教學，通過這個模式為教師反思及其專業發展提供一種現實的策略和工具。但老師對這四個環節是不會感到陌生的，因為沒有出現這「4-P模式」之前，我們的老師已懂得澄清問題、計劃、計劃行動和進展評鑒；只是我們從沒有想過要把他們統整起來。李子建（2002）嘗試把個人反思和行動研究簡化成為 4-P 模式，目的是方便學校應用在校本發展的探究上。為甚麼呢？因為在教育工作上，引入個人反思和行動研究，可以更有效地在思想和行動上進行有機的整合與系統的檢視；同時，它更是學校發展其教學專業的（李子建、馬慶堂，2010）最好方法。今天有專家們把我們慣用的東西整合起來，成了理論，而且指引我們如何用得更好、更科學；又為了使我們容易掌握、便於記憶，並冠以名稱──「4-P 模式」；有理論、有實踐、有成效，那是最好不過了。所以，筆者認為如果我們抱這樣的心態面對「改動」，心情就輕鬆了。因為那些改動只是將過去零碎分立的教材或教學活動加以關聯與整合，或在兩個或兩個以上的學科領域間建立連結（Deborah, 2001）。只要我們虛心學習，熟能生巧，定能掌握竅門，使之成為我們的助力。另外，我們還要洞悉課程統整是社會現實的需要，例如應用課程的設置讓我們想到，課程是以生活經驗、個人與社會的需求作為統整的焦點，主張統整課程不僅是學科間的聯結，而是應能反映生活，甚至把課程就視為是生活（Gehrke, 1998）。如果我們這樣想，就容易接受「改動」了。因為課程統整是教育的完整歷程，融合各個學科的新領域，以主題來組織課程核心，提供個人學習經驗與社會的整合，來增加學習的整體性。Tchudi 及 Lafer （1996）和 Beane（1997）認為統整課程的特質是學習者本身的議題和所關心的事，並能激發學生思考，引導學生學習；帶領學生進入真實世界，解決問題；並建立強而有力之學習社群的合作感。這些學者的看法與我們課程改革的目的是一致的。因此，「課改」、「改動」並非洪水猛獸，只要善用，就能通過「課改」促成學生的高效能學習，也能促進老師的專業發展與成長。Elliott（1993）認為課程改革是人的改革；課程發展是人的發展；沒有教師發展就沒有課程發展。筆者更認為課程改革是課堂的改革；課程發展是學與教的發展；沒有學生和老師的發展就沒有課程發展了。 59 參考文獻中華人民共和國香港特別行政區（2006）。《教育改革進展報告（四）終生學習．全面發展》。香港：政府物流服務。才讓措（2007）。《校本課程開發是提升教師專業化的契機》。青海師範大學（哲學社會科學版）。05 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A. (1995). Toward a coherent curriculum. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Beane, J. A. (1997). Curriculum integration: Designing the core of democratic education. New York: Teachers College. Blackman, C. A. (1989). Issues in professional development: The continuing agenda, In M. L. Holly & C. S. McLoughin (Eds.), Perspectives on the teacher professional development. New York: The Falmer Press. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1982). Qualitative research. New York: Allyan & Bacon. Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1989). Research methods in education. RKP. Deborah, D. (2001). The economy of curriculum integration: Profit and loss. English Leadership Quarterly. 23.3 (2001): 2-5. Hall, Jacquelyn. Elliott, J. (1993). Action Research for Educational Change. Buckingham: Open University Press. Elliott, J. (1981). Action Research: A framework for self-evaluation in schools. Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia. Elliott, J. (1991). Action Research for Educational Change. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Glatthorn, A. A. (2000). The principal as curriculum leader: Shaping what is taught & tested (2nd ed.). Thousand Oads, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Gehrke, N. (1998). A look at curriculum integration from the bridge. The Curriculum Journal, 9(2), 247-260. 61 Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner. Geelong: Deakin University Press. Mcniff, J. (1988). Action research: Principles and practice. London: Macmillan. Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 2-5. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum development & design. NY: Macmillan. Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (1997). A new vision for staff development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development; Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Sergiovanni, R. J. (1995). Leaders with vision: The quest for school renewal. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Tchudi, S., & Lafer, S. (1996). The interdisciplinary teacher’s handbook: A guide to integrated teaching across the curriculum. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton / Cook Publishers. Wiseen, M. F., & Andrews, I. (1987). Staff development for school improvement: A focus on the teacher. New York: Falmer Press. 62 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 Analysis of the senior secondary Chinese curriculum reform in Mainland China from multiple perspectives: Issues and challenges 黄显涵香港中文大学李子建香港教育学院摘要本文借用技术的、文化的、政治的和后现代的视角对中国大陆新高中语文课程改革实施进行分析，探讨其在不同视角中所遭遇的问题和挑战。从技术视角来看，此次语文课改存在课程目标难以落实、教师专业素养不足、学科评价难度过大以及外部条件限制等四方面问题；在文化视角中，语文课改需要平衡中国传统文化和西方舶来文化两股矛盾的力量；从政治视角来看，语文教师的赋权之路仍然挑战重重；从后现代取向来看，学生个体的声音与力量在这次语文课改中受到了有意无意的忽视。关键词语文课程改革，课程实施，多元／多维视角 63 Abstract This paper discusses the implementation issues in the Chinese curriculum reform of senior schools in Mainland China from technological, cultural, political and postmodern perspectives. From the technological perspective, four issues have to be addressed: educational objectives being difficult to be realized, teachers lacking professional skills, the difficulty of assessment in the Chinese subject, and constraints of supporting factors. With regard to the cultural dimension, a balance of Chinese traditional culture and western culture is needed. From the political perspective, Chinese teachers still have a long way to execute the power of curriculum. From the postmodern perspective, student voice is consciously or unconsciously neglected during this reform. Keywords Chinese curriculum reform, curriculum implementation, multiple perspectives 2001 年 6 月中国教育部颁布《基础教育课程改革纲要（试行）》，标志中国大陆正式启动迄今为止“步伐最大”、“难度最高”的一次课程改革（教育部基础教育司， 2002）。雷实（2002）指出在世界各国的教育改革中，母语教育占据极其重要的位置。因此是次中国大陆课程改革中语文学科的重要性不言而喻。郑国民（2003）指出，此次语文课改转变传统课程对基础知识与技能的倚重，强调语文学科的知识体系与能力训练体系，其宗旨是关注并促进学生的终身发展。以《普通高中语文课程标准（实验）》（中华人民共和国教育部，2003，下文简称“03 课标”）作为分析蓝本，此次语文课程改革基本理念主要包括三方面： 1. 全面提高学生语文素养，充分发挥语文课程的育人功能； 2. 注重语文应用、审美与探究能力的培养，促进学生均衡而有个性的发展； 3. 遵循共同基础与多样选择相统一的原则，构建开放有序的语文课程。（中华人民共和国教育部，2003）具体来看，在课程目标上首次建构“知识和能力”、“过程和方法”、“情感态度和价值观”三维目标体系，着重培养学生的语文素养（巢宗祺，2005）。在教学内容上，设 64 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战置“必修 + 选修”的选课方式、强调开发多元化课程资源、关注典范性和时代性的统一、突出口语交际能力（黄显涵、李子建，2009）。在课程组织上，强调建设“开放、多样、有序的语文课程体系”（中华人民共和国教育部，2003），突出课程的统整性与选择性（李子建、尹弘飙，2005）。在教学评估上，03 课标明确指出“评价的根本目的是为了促进学生语文素养的全面提高”，否定以往刻板单一的纸笔测验方式转而强调发挥评价的诊断、激励和发展性功能，采纳多元化方式进行教学评价等等（中华人民共和国教育部，2003；倪文锦，2004）。可以说此次语文课程改革尝试通过更具开放性的理念、更为多元化的方式促进学生能力全面发展、为语文课程与教学注入新的活力。然而美好的理想并不等同于现实。从课改参与者——教师的视角来看，情况不容乐观。一项在 2010 年实施的语文教师调查表明：48.6% 的语文教师不知道此次语文课改的理念，39.2% 的教师从没看过语文课程标准，71.5% 的教师认为此次语文课程改革的实现难度较大，63.8% 的教师对现行语文教材不满意，56.7% 的教师几乎没有想过要利用课外语文学习资源等（屠锦红，2010）。从课改实施成效来看，调查研究表明只有 30% 的学生认为新课程对学生自身的发展是利大于弊的，有 85% 的学生认为自己基本做不到或无法做到自主学习以及探究式学习；近 40% 的学生对学习不感兴趣或很不感兴趣（戴斌荣、张旺，2007）。尽管这些数据仅仅代表了一所学校或是一个城市的课改实施情况，但是这些冰山一角的数据至少展示出此次语文课程改革总体成效并不尽如人意。我们不禁思考：在此次课程改革中，语文——这个身负重任的母语学科——到底都面对着哪些挑战和困境？在探讨课程实施时，实施取向是一个不能回避的话题。Snyder 等人（1992）从课程计划以及课程实施的相互关系出发将实施取向分为忠实观（fidelity）、相互调适（mutual adaptation）以及课程缔造（curriculum enactment）三种类型（李子建、黄显华，1996）。 House（1979）则从阐释和分析的维度指出可以从技术观（technical perspective）、政治观（political perspective）以及文化观（cultural perspective）三种视角理解课程实施。伴随后现代思潮的日渐风行，Hargreaves 等人（2002）则认为信息技术日新月异的发展以及现象学、解释学、女性主义等多元理论对课程实施产生了深刻影响，在探讨课程实施取向时 65 应该在 House 的理论基础上添加后现代的阐述视角（postmodern perspectives），即形成技术观、文化观、政治观和后现代四种维度。当然这些不同视角之间并非壁垒分明、相互割裂。事实上在教育视域中，政治、文化以及技术等各种因素总是交叉依附、难以分割。更需注意的是在分析课程实施的过程中，只有分别采纳不同取向对课程实施进行多元反思和审视，才更有可能全面理解真实的变革情境（Corbett & Rossman, 1989; Hargreaves, Earl & Schmidt, 2002; House, 1981; House & Mcquillan, 2005）。有鉴于此，本文将借助 House 以及 Hargreaves 等人的理论从四种视角入手对当下中国大陆高中语文课程改革面对的挑战与困境进行多维探讨。甲、技术视角 House 认为技术视角将生产（production）作为自己的基本隐喻，它的核心性词汇主要包括效率、投入与产出、目标和任务的明确性、奖励与刺激等等。从技术视角来看，课程与教学变革唯一需要关注的问题就是如何更好的实施。在他们看来，课程与教学的变革是一种可预测、可迁移的技术性活动。因此他们更关注变革本身的特征以及构成要素。在实施策略上，他们强调透彻理解变革的运作机制、强调提升实施者对变革必要性的认可，通过培训以增强专业效能。在研究方法上，他们侧重量化；在评估方面，技术取向更关注那些外在显现或是可测量内容的成效与结果（House, 1981）。如果采纳技术性视角分析此次中国大陆新高中语文课程改革，我们将主要审视目标设定、实施策略、教师专业素养、课程资源、教学评价等改革本身所蕴含的要素，并且关注这些要素为具体课程实施所带来的挑战：首先，落实教学目标所面对的挑战。 Brandt 与 Tyler（2003）指出教育目标可以分为四个层面：其一，系统层面（system level），主要针对教育总体以及整个学区而笼统设定；其二，学科层面（program level），针对每个学科领域；其三，课程层面（course level），主要指某个学科在某个学期 / 时段所设定的目标；第四是教学层面（instructional level），即每位教师日常教学所使用的目标。 66 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战下面是对这四个层面目标的举例说明：系统层面的目标理解文化的多样性学科层面的目标学习鉴赏中外文学作品，具有积极的鉴赏态度，注重审美体验，陶冶性情，涵养心灵课程层面的目标学习中西方经典作品，理解中西文化的差异教学层面的目标对比分析庄子《逍遥游》和加缪《西西弗的神话》，探讨中西方文化在人生态度上的异同数据源：Brandt & Tyler，2003，12（例子参考《普通高中课程方案（实验）》和 03 课标有适当修改）从 Brandt 与 Tyler 所划分的层次来看，此次 03 课标对于教育目标的设定主要集中在学科层面，基本不涉及课程以及教学层面的目标。尽管这种整合式的目标表述配合了高中语文学习综合性和整体性等特征，但是从一线教师角度来看，03 课标在目标设定，尤其是“情感态度价值观”部分的阐述较为模糊和笼统（吴巧英，2008），这使得教师普遍感觉无从下手（张文娟，2007）。兰瑞平（2006）甚至指出 03 课目标模糊表述有太大的阐释空间，让一线教师产生了疑虑甚至空虚等负面情绪。与美国 2010 年提出《国家标准共同核心》（Common Core State Standards，下文简称 CCSS）相比较，CCSS 在英语学习方面首先将目标分为阅读、写作、听说三部分（03 课标分为阅读与鉴赏、表达与交流两个部分），在每一个部分都细分为几个关注领域。以阅读为例，具体的关注领域分为：核心观点与细节（key ideas and details），表现手法和结构（craft and structure），知识和观点的整合（integration of knowledge and ideas），阅读范围和文章难度层次（range of reading and level of text complexity）。在每一个关注领域中，CCSS 都给出了 6-12 年级每个年级具体需要对应的课程目标以方便教师根据标准和具体的教学材料来设计适合课堂的教学目标。与 CCSS 较为详尽的标准设置相比，03 课标显然缺乏系统、明确的区分，因此对目标本身的理解就成了一个很大的问题（屠锦红、徐林祥，2010）。毫无疑问，这种过多的不确定性固然可以为一些教师尝试积极课改提供空间，但同时也很容易让教师产生 03 课标过于笼统、难于在课堂中真正落实的观感从而放弃对 03 课目标研读与实践（鲁德民，2010；吴亮奎，2009）。另外，03 课标强调要从“知识和能力”、“过程和方法”以及“情感态度和价值观” 三方面来均衡设计课程目标。可见为了纠正以往过度强调“双基”的思维本次语文课改确 67 实做出了较大改善。但是朱绍禹（2006）指出整个课标关于能力的目标处处可见，但是知识的目标则少之又少。这种“厚此薄彼”的表述间接导致了教师在实际教学过程中“矫枉过正”，忽视了对知识和能力应有的关注和强调（倪文锦，2009；魏本亚，2011）。第二，语文学科评价难度过高。尽管 03 课标中指出评价的目的应该是促进学生语文素养全面提高，教师应该充分发挥评价的诊断、激励和发展功能。教师要能够根据不同的情况采用不同的方式进行评价（中华人民共和国教育部，2003）。但是在实际操作中，语文教师发现考察学生的阅读兴趣、了解学生的语文素养、探讨学生的阅读视域、准确评估学生的语文能力是一个难度极大的挑战（黄显涵，2011）。但是，如果教师无法在教学中进行有效的形成性评价、对学生的语文能力缺乏全面了解，那么语文课改的落实程度自然会大打折扣。第三，教师缺乏课改所需要的专业素养。 03 课标指出教师是学习活动的组织者和引导者。此次课改对教师能力的需求明显增强，例如教师需要将笼统的学科目标具体化为课程乃至教学目标、要能够创造性使用乃至自主开发教学材料和教学内容、要能够结合课堂情境和学生特点灵活使用多元教学方式、要能够针对学生的学习过程和学习结果进行有效评价等等（中华人民共和国教育部， 2003）。但是在此次语文课改中语文教师自身专业素养的匮乏却成为了一个难以突破的关键瓶颈（陈萍，2006；崔干行，2007；胡波、高光珍、王志芳，2008）。这首先体现在语文课程与教学相关研究存在不足。李海林（2005）曾对 120 项语文教学改革实验进行分析，认为其中时间较长、范围较广、具有一定影响和研究深度的典型项目仅 18 项（例如自学辅导教学法、点评型单元教学法、‘读读、议议、练练、讲讲’教学法、情景教学法、导读教学法、注音识字教学法、作文整体改革教学法、学导式教学法等）。另外，这些教学方法主要由一线名师通过多年教学经验积累而来，在教学方法的实证研究中，研究者多数是以论证者、评价者而非实际参与者的角色存在。这直接影响了这些教学方法的持续研究和推广；其二，大陆语文课程与教学论学者对语文课程与教学实证研究十 68 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战分有限（陈晓波，2009；黄显涵，2011），这种相关研究的匮乏自然导致一线教师在课改过程中难以获得足够的支持力量。另外，教师专业培训效果不佳。为了加强教师对课改理念的深刻认识、提升教师的专业素养，伴随着课改不断推进大陆各省市都相继举办了不同规模、不同级别的课改培训或教研活动。但是从实际情况来看收效甚微（杭州市教育局调查组，2007；马云鹏、唐丽芳， 2004）。教师普遍认为相关培训“太多术语”、“与一线教学落差较大”，因此对实际课堂教学难以起到实效（陈玉华，2011；卢乃桂、陈峥，2008）。第四，外部条件的限制。一些课程实施调查发现在众多的限制性因素中课程资源以及教学时间两个因素尤为重要。首先是课程资源短缺。很多教师认为学校课程资源不足，限制了他们进行课程改革（胡波、高光珍、王志芳，2008；马云鹏、唐丽芳，2004）。而由老师来开发课程资源，那么教师就不得不面对时间和精力上的巨大挑战，这对工作已经较为繁重的语文老师来说无疑难度极大。另外，在教学课时已经固定的前提下，教师需要既保证完成繁重的教学任务，同时还要尽可能为学生自主、探究学习提供时间，这让许多教师在具体教学中只能忍痛割爱（万伟，2009）。总体而言，技术视角更关注怎样让此次语文课改落实得更为有效。具体来看，课程目标过于模糊、学科评价难度过高、教师专业素养不足以及外部条件的限制四方面仍然有待改善，这成为了下一步课改需要关注的焦点。乙、文化视角 House（2005）认为文化视角主要建立在社群（community）的隐喻之上，核心性概念是文化、价值、共享的意义，社会关系，它主要关注文化的整合性。House 认为在社会中存在很多亚文化社群，不同社群内部具有共享的价值，但是不同群体之间则相互隔离。在文化视角之下，改革是一个文化再制（reculturing）的过程，亦是一个不断茁生（evolution） 69 的过程。在 House（1981）看来，改变总是将一个新的观点和原有的文化历史相融合，而课程改革的过程可被视为不同文化相互影响的过程。统而观之，在中国大陆由于个体的社会化过程深受儒家人伦秩序影响，因此逐步形成了以社群取向为依归、看重“优秀”、强调精英教育的模式，这种模式以考试文化在中国社会根深蒂固的位置可见一斑。与此相对，此次中国大陆的课程改革多有借助建构主义、后现代观点等西方理论，目的就是挑战中国传统的考试文化，力图在此次课程改革中更关注学生个体，在平等的基础上推动学生的全面发展（钟启全、张华、崔允漷，2001），由此可见这两种文化之间必然形成极强的矛盾和张力。具体到学科层面，与其他学科相比语文学科与中国传统文化的联系更为紧密（郑国民， 2009），受到传统文化的长期浸淫。具体到学科来看，传统的语文教育在千年传承中也确实积累了一些颇具民族性特色的教学策略：例如在小学识字与写字教学中倾向于集中识字、韵语识字、识字与写字分进合击；在阅读教学方面强调朗读、关注背诵，重视阅读整体的涵泳体悟；在写作教学上强调由读至写、先放后收、多练多改等（武玉鹏，2010；杨彩涓， 2010）。因此在此次课程改革中，面对上世纪遭受了科学主义“洗礼”之后的语文学科，很多学者强调语文教育应该“回归传统”（马志强，2008.12.15；郑国民，2003），在优秀、成功的传统教育经验中探索语文教改之路。另一方面，此次语文课改作为全球教育改革浪潮中的一环，它必然也会受到建构主义、阐释学以及后现代主义等西方理论的深刻影响，这些理论也确实极大牵制了语文教学改革的方向和手段。例如有学者指出现今在研究界存在盲目学习国外理论和经验的现象，他们将我国传统语文教学理论驳斥的体无完肤，将传统语文教学实践说的一无是处（胡海舟，2007）；某些教师甚至把“传统”作为贬义词来评价语文课堂以表明自己是“新课程、新理念”的倡导者和实践者（陈玉秋、邱福明， 2007）。可见在此次课程改革背后确实存在着一场中西方文化之间的角力。从理论研究来看，Watkins（2008）指出华人教学的特色是“以学习为中心”（learning centered），强调在知识传递甚至大量重复性练习的基础上揣摩学习（黄毅英，2008），而西方教学的关注点则是“以学习者为中心”（learner centered），更关注在学习过程中学生的兴趣与动机。两者各有侧重、亦各有优劣。从具体实践来看，语文老师习惯了传统文 70 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战化思维、教育方式，在面对西方教育教学理论的过程中，如何顺利移植西方教育教学理论、怎样将这些理论结合具体的学校脉络或学生实际情况都是一个十分棘手的问题。很多教师在具体教学中采纳“公开课一套、平常课一套”的双重办法（成尚荣，2006）。总体而言，从文化视角来看此次语文课程改革主要面临中国传统文化和西方教育文化相互博弈、相互融合这样一个问题。在两者的交叉影响中怎样汲取两者的长处，如何将这二者与中国现在特有的教育脉络有效结合显然亟待研究者进一步关注。丙、政治视角 House 和 Mcquillan（2005）认为政治视角的关键词汇是权力、自主权和竞争的利益，它关注自主权系统的合法性（legitimacy）。在政治视角中，改革是不同组织利益的竞争、是一种权力协商的过程。House 认为在课程实施中，出于各自不同的利益，不同的团体自然对改革抱持不同态度，通过相互的博弈获得自身的合法性存在，他们之间存在着利益或权力的竞争和妥协。例如某些人（例如政策制定者或是课改推行者）在改革过程中会利用或显性或隐性的方式在事件决策中赢得自己的话语优势，从而发出更多的声音、获得更多的权力。从政治视角来审视语文课改，教师权力这个命题尤为引人关注。学者刘生全（2006）在布迪厄场域理论基础上指出教育场域是一个权力场域，场域内的资本主要是文化资本，场域内的主要权力是以话语权力为表现形态的文化权力。在这种境况下，教师权力更多表现为对学生的话语权以及由此带来的惩戒权（杜志强、汪昌权， 2011）。从传统来看，中国教师对学生的权力具有“强控制”的特点（杨清，2005），尽管教师在课程发展与规划上并不具备太多话语权，但是教师因为在一线教学中占有绝对优势的文化资本，从而在学生学习内容和学习方式上拥有极强的控制性。从这个角度上来说，在传统语文教育中教师的权力拥有感较强，也较为稳定。在此次课程改革中，中西方教育研究学者从“防教师”的课程设计理念逐步迈向“教师赋权”，尝试在课程设计、实施与评价过程中给予一线教师更多的自主权。但是从课程实施情况来看，这种赋权却在实际过程中被架空。这首先体现在教师原本以拥有优势文化 71 资本而享有的控制性权力被消解。在课改浪潮的冲击之下，教学内容较之传统迥然有别，教师在以往课堂中赖以凭借的学科知识迅速崩塌，很多教师感慨教了十几年甚至二十几年的书，现在新课改一来，反倒不会教了。抛开其背后可能存在的语文教育信念争论，这一喟叹显然还传递出教师文化资本优越感丧失之后的失落与迷茫。以语文学科为例，传统语文教学所重视的“字词句篇、语修逻文”已经在此次新课改中转变为“不宜刻意追求语文知识的系统和完整”。伴随语文教学目标的多元化设置，教学材料、教学内容早已是林林总总、纷繁复杂，语文教师在课堂中的话语权力在此次课改中迅速减弱，他们对学生的控制感也在这个过程中变得脆弱不堪。面对这种文化权力前后迥异的落差，教师显然需要较长的时间来进行重新定位与调适。另外，教师权力还存在“得而复失”的难题。尽管此次新课程改革提出三级课程管理模式，提倡教师作为课程的研究者与设计者，他们作为此次课程改革重要的持份者应该在此次改革中拥有更多的话语权与作为空间。但是现实却并非如此。首先一线教师不仅缺乏表达观点的管道，同时教师的声音也在此次课程改革中没有得到应有的重视。一项调查表明教师普遍认为这种所谓赋权流于表面。此次新课改，在国家、专家与教师形成的权力关系中，教师处于最无权的地位（卢乃桂、陈峥，2008）。其次在校本课程这个看似更为弹性灵活的领域，教师能够真正获得的话语空间也十分有限。教师们必须面对这样一个现实：更多的权力就意味着更多的工作和更大的压力。教师指出在开发课程的相关领域他们不仅是理论储备不足，有限的时间和精力也是一个极大的制约因素（周正，2008）。尤其对语文教师而言，由于备课、批改作文等工作量已然十分繁重，这种现实的困难最终只能让教师放弃很多本应施行的权力。最后，此次课程改革中外在控制仍然显而易见。在整个改革过程中，国家意识形态总是不可避免的通过种种手段（例如评价机制、奖惩措施）延伸到教育领域中来（操太圣、卢乃桂，2006；刘向辉，2011），教师一方面要按照要求完成推动课改、教育学生的任务，同时还需要应对学校的评价机制、国家的考试制度（例如高考等），因此并没有多少实行自主权的空间。所以，从政治的视角来看尽管此次课程改革抱持“教师赋权”的初衷，但是实际情况却是教师面对突如其来的“赋权”，并未感受到多少舒畅与痛快，反而是必须在教育学生和贯彻国家意志之间小心取舍，必须面对陡然增加的一轮又一轮培训与学习以及更为繁重 72 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战的教学工作。在重重压力之下教师无法看到“拨云见日”的希望，只能在不确定和迷茫中徘徊。丁、后现代视角 Hargreaves 等人（2005）认为近二十年教育领域的理论发生了剧烈变化，我们生活在一个崭新的时代之中，这个时代被贴上了诸如后现代、后资本主义、信息社会等各式各样的标签（Bauman, 1992; Castells, 1996; Drucker, 1992; Harvey, 1989），而这些观念也确实不断形塑着教育话语的生成与发展。Lyotard（1984）认为尽管后现代理论五花八门，但是他们有一点共通之处，即强调对元叙事（metanarratives）的怀疑，他们消解所谓的宏大叙事，充分解读个体的言说与意义（Aronowitz & Giroux, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004）。由于篇幅所限，本文将主要从个体意义的审视入手反思中国的课程改革。在教育领域中，个体不仅包括政策制定者、教师，也应该包括学生。但是颇为值得注意的是在这场高扬 “学生为本”的改革运动中，学生的声音却并没有得到真正关注（Rudduck, Chaplain & Wallace, 1996）。从一线教师的课堂实践来看，我们发现很多文章指出应该让学生参与到课程改革中来，即学生应该参与课程目标的设定、教学方式的组织、教学材料的选择或是教学评价过程（陈世滨、李丽玲，2004；林邵长，2010；王秀红，2004；魏红，2005）。但是如果我们细心一点观察就会发现这种参与主要是为了响应教师的邀请或倡议，只能算是“消极性参与”，即学生参与的起点、过程甚至是结果常常处在教师操控之下。他们参与的目标更多是为了满足教师刺激学生学习动机的目标而非真正达致自我的反思与解放，那么他们在这个过程中也自然难以具备学以致用、改造社会的行动力量。事实上，从已有关于课程实施的实证研究结果来看，学生的观点往往与教师、学校领导或是政策执行者有较大差异（相关研究可参考 Wong, 1995；黄显涵，2011 等），例如对于语文教材所编选的课文，学生的观点就与教材编写者有较大差异（王标，2005；汪晴初、徐晖，2004），而对于教学内容和教学方式学生也都有着他们自己独特的体验和感受（田力，2007）。但是从研究界来看将学生纳入课程实施的研究仍然十分有限（尹弘飙、李子 73 建，2005）。从实证研究来看，Fielding（2001）指出学生参与课程实施研究可以分为四种情况：学生作为数据源、学生作为积极反应者、学生作为共同研究者以及学生作为研究者。在这四种类型中，课堂从较强的控制性向多元的开放性过渡，教师以及专业研究者逐步从研究的发起人、行动者向研究的辅助者、支持者过渡，学生的角色从被动的信息采集者向主动的研究者过渡。但是从以往的实证研究来看无论是在研究的广度还是深度上，学生参与课程实施的研究都远远不足（尹弘飙、李子建，2005）。如果说此次课程改革最核心的理念就是让学生获得全面、充分的发展，那么无论是在一线课堂还是在课程实施的研究中学生的声音都应该被尊重、被聆听。从后现代的视角审视此次语文课改，就会十分清晰地发现这个本应是课程改革重点关注的内容却在具体实施过程中被有意无意地忽略。戊、结语在语文课改进行了十年之后，“下一步如何走”无疑是现今最受关注的问题。在制定下一个行动规划前，适当的回顾与反思无疑十分必要。House 与 Mcquillan（2005）指出以往的改革成效不大就是因为缺乏从不同视角进行地切入和分析。因此本文尝试通过技术、政治、文化以及后现代的视角多维审视此次大陆语文课程改革，也确实发现在课程实施中存在着不同层次不同面向的挑战与问题。客观来说，对这些问题的思考与响应无疑影响着大陆语文课程改革的进一步深化和完善。参考文献万伟（2009）。〈高中教师在变革中成长——基于江苏省普通高中新课程实施情况调查报告〉。《中小学教师培训》，第 8 期，34-36。马云鹏、唐丽芳（2004）。〈对新课程改革实验状况的调查与思考〉。《中小学管理》，第 1 期，11-15。马志强（2008.12.15）。〈语文课的出路：回归传统〉。《光明日报》。取自 http://www. gmw.cn/content/2008-12/15/content_869189.htm。 74 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Psychologia, 38, 124-131. 78 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong 進展性評估個案研究：同儕評估在香港小學常識科的運用 CHUNG Tsz Wai Susanna Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This case study explores the peer evaluation as a role of formative assessment in teaching General Studies (GS) in a primary Direct Subsided School in Hong Kong. GS students are expected to do their project at school and present their work at the later stage. Assessment covers the learning process as well as the project products. Four Grade 5 classes are selected for this study to address the following research questions: (1) How does peer evaluation work effectively? (2) In what ways do students benefit from peer evaluation? Observation, informal interviews and questionnaire are adopted to collect data. Data analysis reveals that teacher evaluation and peer evaluation are both important. Students can learn the good points from classmates through peer evaluation. Furthermore, by becoming more aware of the strengths and weaknesses of classmates, students become more reflective and know how to improve through peer evaluation. Keywords peer evaluation, assessment for learning, self-reflection 79 摘要是項個案研究是探討進展性評估的其中一項──同儕評估在香港一間直資小學的常識科的運用。學生在常識科中均需進行專題研習，然後向全班匯報。評估涵蓋了學習的過程及結果，亦包含知識、態度及技能。研究以五年級的學生為對象，探討下列問題 : （1）如何令同儕評估有效地進行？（2）學生從同儕評估中學習到什麼？數據反映學生眼中教師及同儕評估同樣重要，學生能透過同儕評估學習彼此的優點；在掌握同學的優劣的同時，更有效地作出自我檢視及改善。關鍵詞同儕評估，從評估學習，自我檢視 1. Introduction This paper reports on a small-scale school-based action research that focuses on assessment for learning - peer evaluation. As indicated in the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong (Education Commission, 2000), the education system is to be reformed to provide the most favourable environment for teaching and learning. Thus, students’ potentials can be fully realized and teachers can have more space to help students learn more effectively. As indicated in the in the new General Studies Curriculum Guide (2011), Project Learning as a powerful learning and teaching strategy, provides also the contexts for assessing students’ performance in different aspects of learning. Teachers, students, parents and others can all be made responsible for assessment at different stages of the project (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). The school in the study is an EMI primary school, which has five periods in General Studies (GSI and II). There are two lessons in General Studies II that use Chinese as medium of instruction. Health and living, community and citizenship, and national identity and Chinese culture are the main strands in GS II. Project learning and peer evaluation are incorporated in the learning process in second semester. Students concentrate on the project design, explore it during lesson time, and then present their work at a latter stage, which usually involve peer evaluation in Grade 5 and Grade 6. However, the practice 80 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong and the format of peer evaluation depend on different teachers and time allowed. If this evaluation becomes more systematic and standard, it will be a good tool to enhance students’ learning. Since peer evaluation is practised in the project of General Studies, how can it be more effective to enhance student learning? Can peer evaluation be used to create classroom cohesion and academic success for the collective as well as the individual? The main focus of this study is to explore more the practice of peer evaluation and what students can benefit through peer evaluation. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Formative Assessment In 2001, the Curriculum Development Council Report on “Learning to Learn - The Way Forward in Curriculum Development” recommends that there should be a change in assessment practices and schools should put more emphasis on “Assessment for Learning” as an integral part of the learning, teaching and assessment cycle (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). Brown, Race and Rust (1995) claimed that the key to the use of assessment as an engine for learning is achieved by ensuring that each assignment let learners to receive detailed, positive and timely feedback on how to improve. Formative assessment was emphasized in order to promote learning and teaching effectiveness. Different types of formative assessment methods were introduced in the new General Studies Curriculum Guide (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Aims of assessment for students have been stated clearly. Students can understand their strengths and weaknesses in learning, what they should try to achieve next, and how best they might do this and improve their learning based on feedback from teachers and other assessors (Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Moreover, formative assessment, which focuses on the learning process and learning progress, can be used to collect evidence from time to time on student learning with a view to promoting better learning. Formative classroom assessment is learner-centered (Angelo & Cross, 1993; Boyd, 2001). Teachers need to connect formative assessment and feedback with learning to help students to know the standards they should attain, and give constructive suggestions on what to do next and how to do it. 81 2.2 Peer Evaluation The new General Studies curriculum also stresses that teachers should use different modes of assessment and provides quality feedback to the students (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Overreliance on pen and paper tests should be avoided, as they cannot adequately assess students’ performance over all the learning targets and objectives. Project learning as a powerful learning and teaching strategy, provides also the contexts for assessing students’ performance in different aspects of learning (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Assessment should cover the learning process as well as the project products, including knowledge and skills. Topping (2003) takes peer evaluation as a process, in which a group of students identify and observe the mastery or performance of particular aptitudes or skills applied by the group after training or learning. Students explicitly or implicitly hold themselves mutually responsible for the successful completion of the evaluation exercise. Peer assessment, in which students comment on and judge their colleagues work, has a vital role to play in formative assessment. The new General Studies curriculum (Curriculum Development Council, 2011) claim peer assessment can be introduced for students to provide feedback and communicate with their peers about each other’s work, thus helping to cultivate a collaborative learning culture. Peer and self evaluation have always existed informally as students constantly compare their own performance with those of their classmates (Race, Brown & Smith, 2005). Peer and self assessment are skills that should benefit students throughout their studies and professional life in the higher education (Brown, Rust & Gibbs, 1994). By becoming aware of others performance, students will reflect on their own. Thus, peer assessment naturally helps self-assessment. Hoping to find peer evaluation also benefits primary school students in this study. A variety of positive feedback of peer evaluation has been documented and it is generally believed that peer evaluation can promote critical thinking (Brown, Bull, & Pendlebury, 1997), they should become less reliant on teachers for guidance and more able to know how to direct their own learning. Peer evaluation also enhance learning and critical understanding of evaluation criteria and the knowledge gap, develop “social and communication skills, negotiation and diplomacy, and useful transferable skills like giving and handling criticism, self-justification and assertion” (Topping, 2003, p. 57), rather than simply seeing a mark. 3. Methodology 82 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong 3.1 The Educational Setting and Research Questions Peer evaluation is a normal practice in my school in subjects like Maths, English and General Studies. This assessment mode always goes with project learning in Grade 4-6. Students also practise the peer evaluation in the Inquiry-based Learning week every year. My students are familiar with the practice of peer evaluation. However, the form of peer assessment varies according to grades and teachers’ requirement. Each group gives the feedback to others formally or informally. Though modification has been made every year, it is various with different teachers. In this study, the following questions are to be examined: 1. How does peer evaluation work effectively? 2. What is the difference between peer evaluation on one group and on all groups? 3. What is the difference between peer evaluation on focus items and on all items? 4. In what ways do students benefit from peer evaluation? There should have some difference if students assess one group and every group because of the level of concentration and time using. Therefore, it is important to find out these differences so that further amendment can be made. This study was carried out in four G5 classes in a Hong Kong primary school from December 2009 to March 2010. Students did their project in General Studies at school in Term 2 and presented their work at the later stage. Other classmates had to evaluate their performance. Questionnaires and informal interviews were given to collect students’ feedback. The original framework of this study was listed in Table 1: Table 1: No. of group and evaluate items of each class Peer evaluation 5D 5J 5P 5S No. of group All groups All groups One group One group Evaluate items All items Focus items All items Focus items 3.2 Pre-task Interview and Restructure the Setting Before students’ presentation, 40 students (10 students per class) were interviewed with the purpose that to restructure our framework and address the concerns before the study. The following questions were asked: 83 1. Do you think peer evaluation is important? 2. Do you think our boys are equipped to do peer evaluation? 3. Do you think the marks on peer evaluation should be counted? 4. What do you prefer? Peer evaluation focus on one group only or all groups? 5. What evaluation items should be included? According to the interviews, it was found that students like peer evaluation if all students were objective and fair; marks would not be affected; prefer to evaluate every group; students could focus on the performance of classmates and they could learn and improve. Since students preferred to evaluate every group instead of focusing on one group, one proposed question “What is the difference between peer evaluation on one group and on all groups?” was cancelled. 3.3 Data Collection At the final stage of project learning, G5 students had to present their project in group during 23 Feb to 3 March (Table 2). Two to three lessons were needed for the presentation since we could not finish the presentation within one lesson. The Peer Evaluation Form (Appendix 1) was given to each student. The boys in 5D and 5P had to evaluate all items for every group whereas 5J and 5S just focused on one item (Content / Presentation skills / Cooperation and Interaction). Teachers assigned the focus item for each group before their presentations. In the first lesson the students were told that they would do peer evaluation for a presentation, teacher uses one group as demonstration to let students familiar with both formats before the actual practice: students had to practice evaluate all items and focus items. Table 2: The schedule of each class in the peer evaluation Peer evaluation 5D 5J 5P 5S No. of group All groups All groups All groups All groups Evaluate items All items Focus items* All items Focus items* Students’ suggestions a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction Presentation and Peer Evaluation 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March Evaluation 12 March 10 March 11 March 10 March 84 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong * Group 1 and 4 were assigned to assess the Content of every group; Group 2 and 5 were assigned to assess the Presentation Skills of every group; Group 3 and 6 were assigned to assess the Cooperation and Interaction of every group. Once the students had completed their presentations and their peer evaluations, they were asked to complete a simple questionnaire (Peer Evaluation), which was designed to record their feelings and feedback towards the evaluation process. The Evaluation Form (Appendix 2) is divided into three parts: Overall comment on peer evaluation (9 items), format of peer evaluation (3 items for A or B) and the items of peer evaluation (1 item). There is a 4-point scale for each item (1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-agree and 4-strongly agree). The higher average implies the strongest level of agreement. G5 peer evaluation completed in the early March (before the second assessment) and the Evaluation Form for the Peer Evaluation were collected. Though there were 150 students in G5, only 137 Evaluation Forms were collected for some students were absent and did not complete the whole peer evaluation process. 4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 The effectiveness of peer evaluation After analyzing the data for peer evaluation form (Appendix 3 and 4), there are 12 items which average is above 3. Item 9 (It is a waste of time if we have peer evaluation) of the part is an exceptional case. 80.3% students disagree with it and its average (1.87) is extremely low which implies students do think that peer evaluation does not waste time though its process may be quite long. As for the effectiveness of peer evaluation, items in Appendix 4, e.g. “Teacher evaluation and peer evaluation both are important.” and “I can learn the good points from my classmates through peer evaluation”, both have the strongest agreement (84.7% or above) and highest average (3.18 or above), which indicates peer evaluation plays an important role. Peer evaluation also means that students need to listen to classmates which keeps them involved at all times. As for mark counting, students believe that peer evaluation is more effective if my classmates are fair and objective (84.7% agree, average 3.16) and they prefer not to count any marks (78.1% agree, average 3.17) at this stage. At a latter stage if students are familiar with the system, with a class of assessors, assuming that they are capable of performing such a role, the assessment should be fairer. 85 Moreover, students become more reflective of their own. About 79.6% students agree that they know “… how to improve through peer evaluation” (average 3.04) and “… not to make the same mistakes as my classmates through peer evaluation” (average 3.03). By doing peer evaluation, students ask classmates informally and also give advice. This experience should enhance their leadership abilities. Moreover, 74.5% students agree they can apply the good points from their classmates through peer evaluation. Students should be asking themselves why they are better and then endeavour to emulate them. As students develop their critical faculties they should become less reliant on teachers for guidance and more able to know direct their own learning (Brown, et al.,1994). However, further exploration is needed to examine what specific items students can learn in the second loop of study. 4.2 The difference between peer evaluation on focus items and on all items There are two choices for students to choose: either “All items are assessed” or “Only one focus item is assessed for every group”. 98 students (71.5%) prefer to assess all items whereas 39 students (28.5%) like to assess on focus items. 98 students like to assess all items for they can understand the overall performance of each group (93 students agree with average 3.34) and assess the performance of classmates fairly and objectively (88 students agree with average 3.23). Moreover, 87 students believe they participate more in the classroom activities. Comparatively speaking, 39 students prefer to assess one focus item on each group. They can learn and improve more on the focus item (35 students agree with average 3.20) and concentrate more on the focus item of each group (35 students agree with average 3.11). However, in comparing the time in the effectiveness of peer assessment, the data is not so apparent. 4.3 Obstacles and Challenges Since very little has been done in peer evaluation before this study, the following problems are encountered: (1) the unavailability of an effective evaluation form, and (2) the time allocation in peer evaluation. It is difficult to find an effective evaluation form for this study, the focus of this study is to explore the effectiveness of peer evaluation in this context, school-based evaluation form is more important than any forms with high validity and reliability, so it is preferable to design the evaluation form and collect the relevant data. 86 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong The time allocation is also a quite difficult task. Students need to present in groups as scheduled. Each group is assigned to present their work on assigned date. They need to dress up before the lesson if necessary. If each group is given 2 minutes for preparation and 8 minutes for presentation, one GS II lesson (35 minutes) can only have 3 groups to present at most. The whole presentation process cannot be completed within one week – not good for peer evaluation for it lasts for such a long period. Since students complete the peer evaluation group by group, thus do not affect the score of each group but the split affect the continuity of the process. 4.4 Further Elaboration This practice does not mark an end. In fact it just starts the beginning of more exploration in peer evaluation. The peer evaluation in GS II can be revised to be more student-oriented. Moreover, the same group of boys proceeds to G6 and they have peer evaluation in Maths and Inquiry-based Learning in May and June 2011, this study can be elaborated more. It is curious to find out if the boys apply the skills in what they have learnt. Follow-up informal interviews were conducted with a couple of students, and some key points are focused as below (Appendix 5): 1. The boys can apply the skills we learnt in G5 (peer evaluation) in various subjects (Maths & Inquiry Based Learning); 2. Classmates learn the strengths and weaknesses of one another; 3. The content should be comprehensive and persuasive. Systematic in presentation. Good interaction with the audiences; 4. Boys can be more cooperative which enhances the team spirit; 5. To be more objective and fair in evaluating the performance without any bias; 6. Learn the good points and apply them. Avoid making the same mistakes and think of the ways for improvement; 7. Enhance critical thinking and analysis; 8. Teacher can use the score and comments for reference and modify them before making the final judgment; 9. Precious, Efficient, Student’s view, Listen and judge carefully. It appears that students learn and apply the skills spontaneously, which is quite encouraging. Moreover, students’ major concern is primarily on improving their work in the future with instructive comments. Training students how to assess students can be implemented in the critical training programme in order to make peer evaluation more effective. 87 5. Conclusions Since this study is small-scaled and generalization is quite limited, it should be noted that this paper is concerned with one grade, and the findings might be different with other students. From my point of view, the impression of teacher and students are quite positive. Teachers do not play a dominant role in assessing students’ performance, since this role has been shared among students, it is possible for teachers to become aware of our own evaluation style. Besides, according to the collected data in this study, students’ apparent attitude proves that peer evaluation can help in the assessment for learning. Students’ feedback in peer evaluation is very encouraging. Their judgment of good performance is further enhanced through learning the good points from peers and avoiding making the same mistakes. Their eagerness of understanding the overall performance of peers in a fairly and objective manners encourages teachers to explore the peer evaluation more. More interaction within the lesson can be seen for students learn to give positive feedback. Both formats in the peer assessment have the merit, the peer evaluation can be divided into 2 phases if it is possible: students need to assess one focus items on each group in the first phase, once they get familiar in the practice and learn the assessing skills, they can go to the second phase- assess all items. Maybe this practice can be implemented in the second loop of the study. Given the above mentioned positive results obtained from students, further investigations and studies needs to be undertaken to divulge students’ needs as peer evaluators. Studies could also be broadened to include participation by other subjects (e.g. General Studies I and Maths) which use project learning as formative assessment. A systematic data collection should be conducted besides informal interviews. 88 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong References Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San Francisco: Josses-Bass Publishers. Boyd, B. L. (2001). Formative classroom assessment: learner focused. The Agricultural Education Magazine, March/April 2001, Proudest Company. Brown, S., Rust, C., & Gibbs, G. (1994). Diversifying Assessment 5: Involving students Section 5: Involving students in the assessment process. Retrieved October 20, 2011, from: http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/div-ass.html. Brown, S., Race, P., & Rust, C. (1995). Using and experiencing assessment. In P. Knight (Ed.), Assessment for learning in higher education. London: Kogan Page. Brown, G., Bull, J., & Pendlebury, M (1997). Assessing student learning in higher education. London: Routledge. Curriculum Development Council. (2001). Learning to Learn - The Way Forward in Curriculum. Retrieved September 8, 2011, from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/index. aspx?langno=1&nodeID=2877. Curriculum Development Council. (2002). Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 – Secondary 3). Hong Kong: HKSAR Government. Curriculum Development Council. (2011). General Studies for Primary Schools Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Primary 6). Hong Kong: HKSAR Government. Education Commission. (2000). Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: HKSAR Government. Elliott, J. (1991). Action research for educational change. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Luoma, S. (2005). Assessing speaking skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Race, P., Brown, S., & Smith, B. (2005). 500 Tipson Assessment (2nd edition). Oxon: Routledge Falmer. Strom, P. S., Strom, R. D., & Moore, E. G. (1999). Peer and self-evaluation of teamwork skills. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 539-553. Topping, K. (2003). Self and peer assessment in school and university: reliability, validity and utility. In M. Segers, F. Dochy & E. Casacallar (Eds.), Optimising new modes of assessment: In search of qualities and standards (pp. 55-87). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 89 Appendix 1 Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division G5 General Studies II Project Learning Peer Evaluation Form Class: ____________ Name: _________________________( ) Group: ___________ Performance: Please circle the number of stars in each item. Items for Peer Evaluation 評估細項 Group ( ) Content 內容 Provide sufficient information  資料清楚明確 ☆ ☆ ☆ Pictures/captions are clear  圖文搭配得當 / 版面編排美觀 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and attractive layout  創意的表現具有特色 ☆ ☆ ☆ A clear and concise content  能淺顯易懂的讓人了解 ☆ ☆ ☆ Content and model are coherent  內容能配合模型或服裝的介紹 ☆ ☆ ☆ Presentation 發表與呈現 Good introduction and conclusion  表達組織 ( 引題及完結 ) 有條理 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and organized structure  發表有條理 / 層次分明 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and loud voice  語調清晰，快慢適中 ☆ ☆ ☆ Fluency  語詞使用的正確性及流暢性 ☆ ☆ ☆ Cooperation 小組合作 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good division of work  組員一起參與，共同分工合作學習 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good time management  各組員的時間分配得宜 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good cooperation  組員能各展所長，互補不足 ☆ ☆ ☆ Interaction 互動 ☆ ☆ ☆ Meaningful activities  能透過活動與同學互動 ☆ ☆ ☆ Answer questions accurately  有條理地回答同學的問題 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good interaction  同學彼此互動，增添氣氛 ☆ ☆ ☆ Total 45 ☆ 合計 (45 ☆ ) 90 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 2 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Ev al ua tio n Fo rm fo r P ee r E va lu at io n 同儕評估意見表 Pl ea se c irc le th e rig ht n um be r: 評估細項 O ve ra ll co m m en t o n pe er e va lu at io n 非常不同意 St ro ng ly D is ag re e 不同意 D is ag re e 同意 A gr ee 非常同意 St ro ng ly A gr ee 1. 在評估過程中，教師及同儕的評估同樣重要 Te ac he r e va lu at io n an d pe er e va lu at io n bo th ar e im po rta nt . 1 2 3 4 2. 同儕評估宜不涉及分數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny m ar ks . 1 2 3 4 3. 同學公正及客觀的態度能讓同儕評估發揮得宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re fa ir an d ob je ct iv e. 1 2 3 4 4. 同儕評估對你有幫助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 1 2 3 4 5. 同儕評估能讓你學習同學的優點 I c an le ar n th e go od p oi nt s f ro m m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 6. 同儕評估能讓你運用同學的優點 I c an a pp ly th e go od p oi nt s f ro m m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 7. 同儕評估能客觀地了解可改善的地方 I k no w h ow to im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er ev al ua tio n. 1 2 3 4 8. 同儕評估能讓你避免犯同學的錯誤 I k no w n ot to m ak e th e sa m e m is ta ke s a s m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 9. 同儕評估浪費時間 It is a w as te o f t im e if w e ha ve p ee r ev al ua tio n. 1 2 3 4 91 同儕評估形式只可選答 (A ) 或 (B ) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) ( A ) 每組評估各組的整體表現 ( 內容 / 發表 / 小組合作 / 互動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能了解各組的整體表現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l p er fo rm an ce o f e ac h gr ou p. 1 2 3 4 2. 能積極參與課堂活動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m a ct iv iti es . 1 2 3 4 3. 能公正及客觀地學習同學的優劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f c la ss m at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 1 2 3 4 4. 其他 : ( 請註明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) ( B ) 每一組只評估各組的其中一項表現 ( 只評估各組的內容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能集中了解各組的某一項表現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s i te m o f e ac h gr ou p. 1 2 3 4 2. 能有效地學習及改善自己某一項表現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 1 2 3 4 3. 時間有限，未能有效評估同學各項表現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce e ffe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f t im e. 1 2 3 4 4. 其他 : ( 請註明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) 同儕評估項目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評估各組的表現足夠 ( 內容 / 發表 / 小組合作 / 互動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 1 2 3 4 2. 建議增加 / 刪減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 原因 : R ea so n( s) : 評語︰值得讚賞 / 宜加改善 Su gg es tio ns : 92 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 3 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Pe er E va lu at io n Fo rm 同儕評估意見表 (D at a) 評估細項 Ev al ua ti on i te ms Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l 1. 在評估過程中，教師及同儕的評估同樣重要 Te ac he r ev al ua ti on a nd p ee r ev al ua ti on b ot h ar e im po rt an t. 3. 18 5 8 82 42 13 7 2. 同儕評估宜不涉及分數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny ma rk s. 3. 17 9 21 45 62 13 7 3. 同學公正及客觀的態度能讓同儕評估發揮得宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re f ai r an d ob je ct iv e. 3. 16 10 11 63 53 13 7 4. 同儕評估對你有幫助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 2. 90 15 23 60 39 13 7 5. 同儕評估能讓你學習同學的優點 I ca n le ar n th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 3. 19 7 14 62 54 13 7 6. 同儕評估能讓你運用同學的優點 I ca n ap pl y th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 2. 99 11 24 58 44 13 7 7. 同儕評估能客觀地了解可改善的地方 I kn ow h ow t o im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er ev al ua ti on . 3. 04 11 17 64 45 13 7 8. 同儕評估能讓你避免犯同學的錯誤 I kn ow n ot t o ma ke t he s am e mi st ak es a s my c la ss ma te s th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 03 11 22 56 48 13 7 9. 同儕評估浪費時間 It i s a wa st e of t im e if w e ha ve pe er e va lu at io n. 1. 87 60 50 12 15 13 7 93 同儕評估形式只可選答 (A ) 或 (B ) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l ( A ) 每組評估各組的整體表現 ( 內容 / 發表 / 小組合作 / 互動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能了解各組的整體表現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l p er fo rm an ce of e ac h gr ou p. 3. 34 0 5 55 38 98 2. 能積極參與課堂活動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m ac tiv iti es . 3. 18 1 10 57 30 98 3. 能公正及客觀地學習同學的優劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f cl as sm at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 3. 23 3 7 52 36 98 4. 其他 : ( 請註明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 ( B ) 每一組只評估各組的其中一項表現 ( 只評估各組的內容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能集中了解各組的某一項表現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s i te m of e ac h gr ou p. 3. 11 2 2 23 12 39 2. 能有效地學習及改善自己某一項表現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 3. 20 2 2 20 15 39 3. 時間有限，未能有效評估同學各項表現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce ef fe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f tim e. 2. 68 6 13 7 13 39 4. 其他 : ( 請註明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 同儕評估項目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評估各組的表現足夠 ( 內容 / 發表 / 小組合作 / 互動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 3. 33 5 2 73 57 13 7 2. 建議增加 / 刪減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 0 0 0 0 0 原因 : R ea so n( s) : 94 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 4 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Pe er E va lu at io n Fo rm 同儕評估意見表 (D at a) 評估細項 Ev al ua ti on i te ms Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l 1. 在評估過程中，教師及同儕的評估同樣重要 Te ac he r ev al ua ti on a nd p ee r ev al ua ti on b ot h ar e im po rt an t. 3. 18 3. 6% 5. 8% 59 .9 % 30 .7 % 13 7 2. 同儕評估宜不涉及分數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny ma rk s. 3. 17 6. 6% 15 .3 % 32 .8 % 45 .3 % 13 7 3. 同學公正及客觀的態度能讓同儕評估發揮得宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re fa ir a nd o bj ec ti ve . 3. 16 7. 3% 8. 0% 46 .0 % 38 .7 % 13 7 4. 同儕評估對你有幫助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 2. 90 10 .9 % 16 .8 % 43 .8 % 28 .5 % 13 7 5. 同儕評估能讓你學習同學的優點 I ca n le ar n th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 3. 19 5. 1% 10 .2 % 45 .3 % 39 .4 % 13 7 6. 同儕評估能讓你運用同學的優點 I ca n ap pl y th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 2. 99 8. 0% 17 .5 % 42 .3 % 32 .1 % 13 7 7. 同儕評估能客觀地了解可改善的地方 I kn ow h ow t o im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 04 8. 0% 12 .4 % 46 .7 % 32 .8 % 13 7 8. 同儕評估能讓你避免犯同學的錯誤 I kn ow n ot t o ma ke t he s am e mi st ak es a s my c la ss ma te s th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 03 8. 0% 16 .1 % 40 .9 % 35 .0 % 13 7 9. 同儕評估浪費時間 It i s a wa st e of t im e if w e ha ve pe er e va lu at io n. 1. 87 43 .8 % 36 .5 % 8. 8% 10 .9 % 13 7 95 同儕評估形式只可選答 (A ) 或 ( B) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l ( A ) 每組評估各組的整體表現 ( 內容 / 發表 / 小組合作 / 互動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能了解各組的整體表現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l pe rf or m an ce o f e ac h gr ou p. 3. 34 0. 0% 5. 1% 56 .1 % 38 .8 % 98 2. 能積極參與課堂活動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m a ct iv iti es . 3. 18 1. 0% 10 .2 % 58 .2 % 30 .6 % 98 3. 能公正及客觀地學習同學的優劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f cl as sm at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 3. 23 3. 1% 7. 1% 53 .1 % 36 .7 % 98 4. 其他 : ( 請註明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 ( B ) 每一組只評估各組的其中一項表現 ( 只評估各組的內容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能集中了解各組的某一項表現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s ite m o f e ac h gr ou p. 3. 11 5. 1% 5. 1% 59 .0 % 30 .8 % 39 2. 能有效地學習及改善自己某一項表現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 3. 20 5. 1% 5. 1% 51 .3 % 38 .5 % 39 3. 時間有限，未能有效評估同學各項表現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce ef fe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f tim e. 2. 68 15 .4 % 33 .3 % 17 .9 % 33 .3 % 39 4. 其他 : ( 請註明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 同儕評估項目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評估各組的表現足夠 ( 內容 / 發表 / 小組合作 / 互動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 3. 33 3. 6% 1. 5% 53 .3 % 41 .6 % 13 7 2. 建議增加 / 刪減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 0 0 0 0 0 原因 : R ea so n( s) : 96 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong Appendix 5 Student A: Student B: 97 Student C: Student D: Student E: 98 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong Student F: 99 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects 如果錯了，改正它：校本研究統計錯誤的個案 Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Statistics have been used extensively in many school-based projects. Unfortunately, misconceptions have often been found in the statistical reports. In this paper, five case studies were used to illustrate some common conceptual and procedural errors found in reports and how these problems could be rectified. Keywords educational statistics, effect size, experimental design, school-based project 摘要許多校本研究採用統計分析。不幸地，統計數據的誤用和誤解並不少見。本文討論研究統計在概念上和程序上常見的一些誤用例子，並以五個個案說明如何在校本研究避免發生統計誤用。關鍵詞教育統計，效果强度，實驗設計，校本研究 101 Sometimes, statistical evidence that looks good on the surface nevertheless turns out to be flawed. Broadly, there are two ways in which an argument based on apparently persuasive evidence might lose its impact after further inspection. One possibility is that the data were mishandled or the statistical analysis was misapplied. The second possibility is the discovery of some artifacts in the research procedure, such that the substantive conclusions drawn by the investigator may not logically be warranted by the observational comparison made (Abelson, 1995, p.78). Abelson (1995) begins his chapter On Suspecting Fishiness with the above quote. It is an apt reminder that if a project reports statistics, it does not guarantee that the awesome figures have been derived correctly and interpreted validly. Errors of the first kind are procedural and technical which are easier to be noticed. Errors of the second kind are conceptual and interpretative and are therefore more difficult to detect. There may be cases of pure conceptual or procedural errors, but more often than not the errors are confounded as the examples below show. This paper deals primarily with the first kind of errors. Case study no. 1: Misplaced comparisons Group comparison It is a very common statistical application in school-based projects where a group of students receiving intervention or treatment is compared with a group not receiving it. There is a need to ensure that the groups are equivalent before intervention. Then, a sizeable difference in favour of the treated group is expected after the project is completed. The box below shows the relevant information in the original report of a school-based project. For obviously reasons, the source of the case is concealed with no references made. This will be done for the other cases discussed later, too. In fact, it does not matter who made the errors; they are just what they are, that is, errors to be rectified. A quasi-experiment was conducted where pupils from one class formed the CG and pupils from a second class formed the EG. In this study, both classes were kept intact without randomization. A perception survey on self-esteem was conducted. As shown in Table 1, for the pre-survey, the EG scored a mean of 34.13 and in the 102 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects In this case, the experimental design is fine: there were two intact classes serving as the project and the comparison groups and, since the pupils were not randomly assigned, it is correctly described as a quasi-experiment. The teacher-researchers first mention the improvement in self-esteem means of the project group and then the very small change in the same measure of the comparison group. They further mention the non-significant difference in group homogeneity, citing the result of the Levene’s Test (Levene’s Test, n.d.). Finally, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha, n.d.) is reported. Correct way of comparing groups When reporting a project using an experimental design involving two groups, it is important to be clear about what is to be compared with what for what purpose. First, it is necessary to check group equivalence in the criterion measure (in this case, self-esteem). This needs to cover two aspects: (1) mean difference to see if the groups are comparable with regard to the criterion, and (2) difference in the standard deviations (SDs) to see if the groups are homogeneous in the criterion. If no differences are detected for both the means and the SDs, then the groups are taken to be equivalent. Such pre-project equivalence ensures that should a difference be found after project completion, the difference is not due to the initial difference (since there is none) but something else; and, the intervention is a strong candidate accounting for the post-project difference. In the present case, the pre- post-survey, a mean of 38.27. This may suggest that the intervention has made an improvement in terms of their self-esteem in the post-survey. The control group has scored a mean of 33.79 and in the post-survey, a mean of 34.58, indicating that the difference in the pre-survey and post-survey on self-esteem for the CG is very small. The Levene’s test of 0.995 (p>0.05) was not significant, further showing that the two groups are homogeneous at pre-survey, before the intervention. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the survey questions was calculated as 0.892, showing that it is an adequate reliability coefficient. Table 1: Comparison of pre-survey and post-survey of EG and CG on pupils’ self- esteem Pre-survey Post-survey N Mean SD Levene’s test N Mean SD Levene’s test Experimental 30 34.13 6.704 0.995 30 38.27 5.527 0.169Control 24 33.79 6.379 24 34.58 7.040 103 project mean difference of 0.34 was not been formally tested, although it may be claimed that the difference is too small to need statistically testing. Instead, the result of the Levene’s test which tested the difference in the two variances (the square of the standard deviations) was mentioned; obviously, the teacher-researchers used the Levene’s test as if it is a test of mean difference, which should be tested with the Student’s t-test. To rectify, first compare the two groups’ pre-survey means with the independent t-test and hope for no difference. (We leave the question of group homogeneity for the time being since the SDs 6.70 and 6.38 are close enough.) When group equivalence is assured, then, do the same to compare the groups on the post-survey means and hope for a statistically significant difference this time. If this is obtained, then the project groups can be said to have benefitted from the intervention. The effect size (Coe, 2002; Soh, 2008) used here for group comparisons is one version of the standardized mean difference (SMD), specifically the Glass’s delta (Soh, 2008). The SMD was simply calculated by (Project mean – Comparison mean) / (SD of the comparison group). When this was done, Table 1 was re-structured as Table 2. Table 2: Mean comparisons of pre-survey and post-survey Measure Project (N=30) Comparison (N=30) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-survey 34.1 6.70 33.8 6.38 0.3 0.05 Post-survey 38.3 5.53 34.6 7.04 3.7 0.53 Now, the pre-survey SMD of 0.05 in Table 2 shows that the two groups were equivalent in the criterion before project commenced, and the post-survey SMD of 0.53 shows a medium effect size in favour of the project group, thus the project was successful in producing a difference which cannot be ignored or dismissed. Why not the t-test? The teacher-researchers reported the results of the Levene’s Test but not those of the t-tests. Why this is so is not known. The results of the t-test and the Levene’s test appear together in the same run of the t-test in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) which could have been used by the teacher-researcher. Anyway, this is a blessing in disguise because the t-test should not have been run in the first place! Oftentimes, teacher- researchers routinely run this Null Hypothesis Significance Test (NHST) to compare group means (either doing this on their own accord or, perhaps more often than not, being misguided). 104 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects There are several reasons why the t-test should not have been run. First, what question do the teacher-researchers attempt to answer? Generally, this is about whether the project mean differs from the comparison mean, and if yes, what is the magnitude of the difference. For pre-test, small or no difference is hoped for because group comparability is desired. For post-test, medium or large difference is expected to show the intervention effect. The answers to such questions are found by using the SMD, and not the t-test, for the simple reason that the t-value does not answer the question on magnitude of difference. What then does the t-test do? It tells the probability of an observed difference in the populations, and this is not the concern of the teacher-researcher doing a school-based project. For this, we need to quote Abelson again: There is also a common confusion when using the significance level as an indication of the merit of the outcome. When the null hypothesis is rejected at, say, the .01 level, a correct way to state what has happened is as follows: “If it were true that there were no systematic difference between the means in the populations from which the samples came, then the probability that the observed means would have been different as they were, or more different, is less than one in a hundred. This being strong grounds for doubting the viability of the null hypothesis, the null hypothesis is rejected (Abelson, 1995, p.40). Note that the t-test it is not about the magnitude of group difference (which is of concern to the teacher-researchers) but about the probability of the observed group difference as an estimate of a similar difference in the populations (Fraley, 2003). Since when does a teacher-researcher become concerned with what may or may not happen to a very large group of other teachers’ pupils who made up the populations? In practically all cases like the present one, there is hardly real sampling in school-based projects and, to call the groups of pupils ‘samples’ is in fact a misnomer or misconception, or both. Since there is no real sampling (and hence no samples), inferential statistics like the t-test is irrelevant and therefore not applicable. Therefore, descriptive statistics such as the SMD is the only one to use with validity. On the misuse of the t-test and its like, Abelson (1995) has a strong view, thus, The ethos of doing significance tests as the hallmark of an appropriately conservative style is now so deeply ingrained that tests are sometimes used even when they need not be. Indeed, there are several contexts in which it is really silly (Cohen, in press) to carry out a significance test, much less to present its result (p.76). 105 There is yet another reason why the t-test cannot be trusted to compare group means, even if it is used for comparing samples which have really been randomly selected from their respective populations. The problem is the influence of sample sizes on the p-value corresponding to a t-value. Let’s say a t=1.99 is obtained for comparing two groups which have together 42 pupils, the corresponding p-value is not significant (p>.05) as the required t-value is 2.02. But if the total number of pupils is 82, the same t-value (1.99) is significant (p<.05) because it is equal to the required t=1.99. In a recent issue of a journal, a study reports almost all comparisons as non- significant and another almost all as significant. Of these studies (references cannot be given to safeguard the authors), one is too bad to be true while the other too good to be true. A careful look shows that the former study compared 10 pairs of respondents whereas the latter has a total respondent size of as many as 800! These are good contrasting examples of the influence of sample sizes on the results of the t-test. In the words of Sterne (n.d.), “Given a large sample size, even a small difference will be statistically significantly different from zero.” In the case study above, the teacher-researchers compared first the project group’s pre-post-test means and then, likewise, the comparison group’s pre-post-test. In other words, they did two separate within-group comparisons and then inferred from the results that there was a project effect. This seems fine intuitively but doing so violates the logical of the experimental design used. On this, we have to listen to Abelson (1995) again: But that would contradict the logic of including a control comparison in the first place. Why is that so? The point of running a control condition is to test the relative claim that the effect in the presence of the experimental factor exceeds the effect in its absence. The appropriate test seems to be a test of the interaction between the rows and the columns (p.63). Why do teacher-researchers make this kind of conceptual error? One possibility is that teachers typically are concerned with student’s improvement which is always seen as a difference in performance before and after teaching the same students. This mode of thinking is consistent with commonsense exemplified by watching a plant or a child grows. It is a mode of thinking teachers developed over years which is difficult to change when change is necessary as they do school-based projects experimentally. Whatever the cause, teacher-researchers need to re-orientate and adopt a research mode of thinking when 106 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects analyzing and reporting school-based projects. The Levene’s test When the SPSS is run to compare group means, the Levene’s test is first done by default to check homogeneity in variability. The result shows whether the two groups have the similar or different degree of homogeneity. If there is non-significant difference (as was found for the present case), the “equal variances assumed” t-value is taken, otherwise, the “equal variance not assumed” t-value should be reported. Once the question of homogeneity is settled, the researcher will proceed to use the appropriate t-value and report the outcome of group comparison. What does the Levene’s test do? According to the Wikipedia (2010), In statistics, Levene’s test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances in different samples... It tests the null hypothesis that the population variances are equal. If the resulting p-value of Levene’s test is less than some critical value (typically 0.05), the obtained differences in sample variances are unlikely to have occurred based on random sampling. Thus, the null hypothesis of equal variances is rejected and it is concluded that there is a difference between the variances in the population. (Emphasis mine) Note that the Levene’s test (Levene’s Test, n.d.; Wikipedia, 2010) is an inferential statistic for checking equivalence of variances of two or more randomly selected groups. Therefore its application in the present case is doubted, since the two groups are not random samples. By the way, variance is numerically the square of SD indicating the extent with which a set of scores spreading around its mean. When a group has a SD (and therefore a variance) much larger than another group has, its scores are spreading much wider, indicating there are more higher or lower scores or both. If this is the case, then the two groups are not equivalent on homogeneity, although they may have the same or similar means indicating the same or similar level of performance. Then something need be done to ensure group comparability before comparison is made on relevant measures (Soh, 2009). In place of the Levene’s test, a simple shortcut is to find the ratio of the two variances. This is done by (1) finding the variances by squaring the two groups’ SDs, (2) dividing the larger variance by the smaller one, and (3) checking the ratio against the tabled value of the F-distribution which can be found in the appendix of any text on statistical analysis. 107 To teacher-researchers, the first two steps are no problems, but the third is a bit clumsy. As a rule of thumb, if there are about 30 or more pupils in each of the two groups, and if the variance ratio is less than 2, the groups can be taken to have the same or similar homogeneity. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (n.d.) of 0.892 is reported for the case study. This is far greater than the conventional expected minimum of 0.70 for research purposes (Siegle, 2002). While the teacher-researchers deserve to be congratulated for this, there is also the need for more information to understand what the coefficient means. The only relevant information in the report is “A perception survey was conducted to ascertain pupils’ self- esteem. The survey was designed such that questions of the same nature were repeated but they were phrased in different ways.” It is not clear what different aspects of self-esteem were covered in the survey and the re-phrasing of the same items might have contributed to the unusually high alpha coefficient. Also needed is the number of questions in the self-esteem survey. Number of item affects the alpha coefficient. Cronbach’s alpha formula has two multiplicative components: (1) reliability component and (2) correction factor. The first is [1 – (Total item variance) / (Test variance)] which is the total test variance minus the unreliability portion. The second is k / (k-1) where k is the number of items; it ‘corrects’ the reliability component for number of items. If a test has a reliability components with a coefficient of 0.60 (which is quite a normal figure for affective measure like the self-esteem survey), and if there are 10 items, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.67, corrected up by 11%. If the test has only 5 items, it is 0.75, adjusted up by 25%. For three items, it is 0.90, adjusted up by 50%. And, if there are only two items, it is (2/1) * (.60) = 1.20 > 1.00, an alpha coefficient indicating that the test scores are more perfectly reliable than perfect reliability! Of course, this does not make good sense. Here, the paradox is that the shorter the test, the higher the score reliability appears to be, leading to over-confidence in short tests, contrary to the normal expectation that the longer the test, the more reliable the scores will be, given the same quality of items. For the present case, an important question is for which set of data was the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained. There are six possibilities: (1) pooled pre-survey, (2) pooled post-survey, (3) project groups’ pre-survey, (4) project group’s post-survey, (5) comparison group’s pre-survey, and (6) comparison group’s post-survey. Alpha coefficients 108 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects The general methodology adopted was a two-group (experimental and control) pre- and post-programme quasi-experimental design… The Null Hypotheses were (1) FSP [the programme] did not increase the level of student engagement; and (2)… Table 1 (here, re-numbered as Table 3) shows the paired t-test analysis carried out on the means obtained by the two groups in the pre- and post-surveys. The experimental groups registered significant increase in all categories. The control group contained significant increase in the scores in five out of nine categories… Table 3: Comparison of mean scores between experimental and control groups Components Experimental Group (EG) Control Group (CG) N=74 Pre-E (a) N=74 Post-E (b) Difference (b) – (a) N=73 Pre-C (c) N=73 Post-C (d) Difference (d) – (c) Vision of learning 15.59 16.68 1.09*** 15.27 15.81 0.54 … (the programme) showed a significant increase in ‘Vision of learning’… There was a 1.1 point increase for the Experimental group, while the Control group mean increased by 0.5 point. calculated using these different sets of scores will yield different results and have different meanings. Considering the experimental design, pooled pre-survey scores are the best to use as they are not influenced by the intervention which may make the project and the comparison groups different in their self-esteem. It will be good if there is an indication of which sets of scores were used for estimating the internal consistency of the self-esteem survey. Case study no. 2: Missing standard deviations For Case Study No. 2, the box below is an extract from another project report which deals with many aspect of student engagement in learning. The analyses done as reported by the teacher-researchers are the same for difference measures, only one (Vision of learning) is cited for illustration. 109 As is true of Case Study No. 1, this one also used within-in group comparison. As this is illogical (Abelson, 1995, cited above) as is the previous case, the data need be re- analyzed. However, the original table does not report the standard deviations (SDs) but only indicates the significance levels of differences using asterisks. To re-analyze, the information is re-organized for correct comparisons in Table 4, using a, b, c, and d to represent the missing SDs. Table 4: Mean comparisons of pre-survey and post-survey Measure Project (N=74) Comparison (N=73) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-survey 15.59 a 15.27 b 0.32 0.32/b Post-survey 16.68 c 15.81 d 0.87 0.87/d It is a standard procedure that SDs are reported together with their respective means. But this was not done for this case. Had the SDs been available, the SMDs for the pre-survey and the post-survey can be obtained and will result in two Glass’s deltas. Based on these, then, whether the groups differ in the pre-survey can be ascertained and the same can be done for the post-survey. As the needed information (b and d in Table 4) are missing, the SMDs cannot be calculated and there is no way we can make the comparisons. Is it, then, possible to do some guesstimate with the limited available data? Fortunately, the report indicates that there are 15 items for measuring student engagement in four aspects, namely, Vision of learning, Tasks, Assessment, and Instruction mode. Looking at the patterns of the means in the original table for the various measures, it is possible that there are four items for Vision of learning. Since each item is a five-point scale, the lowest possible scale score is 4 and the highest 20. Armed with this information and assuming a normal distribution of the scores, the standard deviation can be estimated (Estimating Standard Deviation, n.d.), thus: Estimated SD = (Largest possible score – Lowest possible score) / 6 = (20 – 4) / 6 = 16/6 = 2.7 If this is a correct guesstimate, then the estimated SMDs are 0.32/2.7=0.12 and 0.87/2.7=0.32 for the pre-survey and post-survey, respectively. Then, the conclusion is that the two groups were equivalent on the pre-survey and there was a small effect size 110 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects The subjects of this experiment are the students in two of the classes in Secondary Four… Both classes stayed intact without randomization… For 4E1, the students came in with an average T-scores of 213 in terms of their English language. For 4E2, the average T-scores is 194. The pre-test was the English Language mid-year examination… The post-test was a test designed… to used a text-type… using Impact Analysis as the subject matter. As shown in Table 5 (originally, Table 1) below, for the post-test, 4E1 has a mean of 20.46 (1.80) after the treatment compared to a mean of 19.28 (2.06) before the treatment. 4E2 shows a mean of 18.00 (2.51) after treatment compared to 17.26 (1.57) before the treatment. The paired t-test on the scores yielded a p-value of 0.002 and 0.015 for 4E1 and 4E2 respectively, indicating both classes showing increase in the scores which are significant. The increase in the mean scores was however greater in 4E1. Table 5: Comparison on post-test Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD 4E1 19.28 2.06 20.46 1.80 4E2 17.26 1.57 18.00 2.51 in favour of the project group on the post-survey. Therefore, the intervention was able to engage the project students slightly better than it did the comparison students. Of course, here again, although the conclusion is similar to that of the teacher-researchers, but the thinking process and logic are different: the teacher-researchers reached the correct conclusion but for a wrong reason! Case study no. 3: Missing initial comparison An important condition of a two-group design is the initial group equivalence. This is necessary for a valid interpretation of the post-test difference, if any. In the box below for Case Study No. 3, an initial group difference was not taken into account when interpreting the post-test difference. 111 As can be seen in the conclusion, the conceptual error of misplaced comparison appears in this case. However, there are two other errors which deserve rectification and discussion. By the way, this does not include the erroneous statement “in terms of their English language”, because T-score is an aggregate for four subjects examined in Singapore’s Primary School Leaving Examination. The fact is that only subject grades but not subject T-scores are available to the school. In this case, where did the T-score for English Language come from? Obviously, there is a mis-reporting. In the case, the pre-test means of 19.28 and 17.26 could well be different enough for the two groups to be non-equivalent before project commenced. This is confirmed when the SMD of 1.29 was obtained. This is a very large SMD when checked against Cohen’s criteria (Cohen, 1988; Soh, 2008). That the groups were initially non-equivalent could have been noticed by the teacher-researchers at the outset when they compared the average T-scores of the two groups. Table 6: Mean comparisons of pre-test and post-test Measure 4E1 (N=?) 4E2 (N=?) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 19.28 2.06 17.26 1.57 2.02 1.29 Post-test 20.46 1.80 18.00 2.51 2.46 0.98 Comparisons should have been done to compare groups on the pre-test and then again on the post-test, instead of two separate paired t-tests for the pre-post-test difference within each group, for the reason expounded earlier. When the two groups were compared on the post-test, the SMD of 0.98, which is large by Cohen’s (1988) standard, shows a large effect size which the teacher-researchers hoped for. However, since the groups were non-equivalent to begin with, comparing them on the post-test without due consideration for the initial difference renders the conclusion suspect. In fact, while the project group gained by 1.18, the comparison group gained by 0.74; the difference in gain is 0.44 in favour of the project group. To avoid this conceptual problem, the groups could have been equalized first by using some of the methods such as winsorizing or caliper matching (Soh, 2009) to create equivalent groups for valid interpretation. Alternatively, a gain-score analysis could be employed to off-set the initial difference. A third conceptual error lies with the tests used. As indicated in the report, the pre- 112 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects test and the post-test are two different tests. Had the groups been equalized on the T-score and then compared on the post-test between-group, the project would use the equivalent group post-test only design which in fact is a simpler and good design. Unfortunately, the paired t-tests compared the two sets of scores which are not of the same measure. The computer software is blind to the sources of numbers put in for processing; it does not know where the scores come from and does not need to know either. It just obediently churns out whatever statistics it is asked to calculate. It is the researchers who have to ensure meaningfulness of the statistics. Had the pre-test and post-test been the same measure, the problem of non-equivalence between groups can be solved by a gain-score analysis as suggested above. This case shows that experimental design, measurement, and statistical analysis of a project are not independent but related and they need be considered together. Case study no. 4: Over-simplification Compared with the two previous cases, Case Study No. 3 is a more complex one. The project studied the effect of interdisciplinary project-work (independent variable) on students’ perceptions of life-skills (dependent variable) and ascertained if there were differences attributable to course and gender (two moderating variables). A moderating variable is one which influences the relationship of the independent and dependent variables. As rightly stated by the teacher-researcher, there was no control group since the entire Secondary Two cohort was involved in project-work. Incidentally, this so-called whole-level approach is another issue in research design but the discussion of which is not within the score of this paper. The research question posed with regard to this investigation is: What is the impact of interdisciplinary project-work… on making learning meaningful?… The LSQ (Life-skills Questionnaire) administered as pre- and post-tests comprised statements to identify the perception aspects of life-skills. The questionnaire consisted of four components: (1) Confidence, (2) … Table 7 (originally, Table 2) reports the means and standard deviations for the respective courses and gender of Time 1 (pre-test) and Time 2 (post-test). Paired t-test was carried out to examine significant differences due to course and gender at Time 1 and Time 2. 113 Table 7: Results of paired t-tests if LSQ Course Scale Gender Mean (SD) Mean difference t-statisticsPre Post Normal Academic Confidence Female (68) 3.43 (0.71) 3.57 (0.51) -0.14 -1.56 Male (53) 3.28 (0.63) 3.67 (0.60) -0.39 -3.94*** Express Female (75) 3.51 (0.44) 3.89 (0.64) -0.35 -4.79*** Male (79) 3.61 (0.63) 3.81 (0.63) -0.20 -2.66*** The results of the paired t-test showed that the perceived life skills measured by mean scores on the LSQ for Express students were higher than that of N(A) students. The course differences were still observed at Time 2, with the Express students displaying higher life skills development. At Time 1, male students collectively showed higher learning (sic) to learn life skills. Nonetheless, these effects were not observed at Time 2. As shown in Table 7, there are in fact four independent analyses of single-group pre-and-post-test design experiments. The results of analyses as presented in the original table do not provide the needed information for the conclusion reached. For instance, when comparing between courses, the data of female and male students need be pooled. Likewise, when comparing by gender, data of the two courses need be pooled. The way it was done by the teacher-researchers is an over-simplification. To justify the conclusion, the data need be re-organized and analyzed. This is shown in Table 8A for comparing courses and Table 8B for comparing gender. Table 8A: Mean comparisons by courses Measure Express (N=128) Normal Academic (N=121) Difference SMD Mean SD Mean SD Pre-test 3.56 0.55 3.36 0.68 0.20 0.29 Post-test 3.85 0.64 3.61 0.56 0.24 0.42 As can be seen in Table 8A, for pre-test, Express students scored higher on Confidence than did Normal (Academic) students with a small SMD of 0.29. For post-test, Express students also scored higher than did Normal (Academic) students with a greater SMD of 0.42. The conclusion is that the experience of doing interdisciplinary project-work was able to enhance the difference in Confidence between the two groups and in favour 114 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects of the Express students. This is consistent with the conclusion reached by the teacher- researcher, at least for Confidence. However, the initial difference (shown by SMD=0.29) cannot be ignored, though small. As shown in Table 8B, there are no differences in both the pre-test and the post-test between male and female students, as shown by the SMDs of 0.02 in both comparisons. Thus, where Confidence is concerned, the conclusion is not the same as that reported. Table 8B: Mean comparisons by gender Measure Male (N=132) Female (N=143) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 3.48 0.63 3.47 0.59 0.01 0.02 Post-test 3.75 0.62 3.74 0.59 0.01 0.02 Had the students been truly randomly sampled from their respective populations, the data could well be analyzed by a 2X2 repeated measure analysis of variance, since there are crossings of two genders with two courses and each student is repeatedly measured by the pre-test and post-test using the same test. Such an analysis allows the evaluation of the course main effect, gender main effect, and the course-gender interaction effect, plus testing occasion effect. This obviously will be a highly complex situation. However, since the four groups of students are not random samples, this analysis does not apply. For practically oriented school-based projects like this case, using SMD would suffice. Case study no. 5: Information overload Information overload is as problematic as information insufficiency. Giving too little information makes thinking and conclusion vague. Giving too much information confuses people. When a simpler analysis is made more complex than it needs be, communication and thinking problems may arise. It is really an art to say what is necessary and stop there. Case Study No. 5 is a case in point. The subjects were 42 students from a secondary two normal academic class… Another class of secondary two academic students was assigned to be the control group… A pre-test was conducted using an instrument developed by the teachers. The format of the post-test was similarly designed. 115 This case has two good points. First, it compared the project and the comparison groups on two separate occasions, first for the pre-test and later for the post-test. As discussed above, it is the correct and logical way to make between-groups comparison in a two-group experiment. Second, since the pre-test and the post-test are two different tests, within-group comparison (like what is done in the previous case) will be erroneous. The teacher-researchers use ANOVA (analysis of variance) instead of the conceptually simpler t-test, perhaps a preference. However, Table 9B is a correct standard way of presenting the result of an ANOVA but it contains many information which need not be shown for a school-based report, although it may be required in, say, a MEd thesis. The additional information is not meaningful to teachers and may make them wonder what they are for (and at the same time awed by mysterious numbers and labels). This is the problem of information overload: What do those labels across the top of Table 9A mean? Do readers need to know all these to understand the result? And, is there a simpler way to communicate the project outcome? When the same information for the two tables is re-organized and analyzed, the result is shown in Table 10 below. Here, the SDs were calculated by taking the square-roots of the variances in Table 9A. In Table 10, the SMD of 0.39 indicates a small between- group difference and the conclusion is similar to that of using the more complex F-value obtained through the much complex ANOVA. Comparison between the two classes using ANOVA showed that the performance of the control group in the pre-test was similar to that of the treatment group, F(1, 82) = 2.19, p>0.05. Table 9A: Statistics for pre-test (original Table 1) Group Total number Average Variance 2A1 (control) 42 6.57 4.06 2A2 (Treatment) 42 5.88 5.08 Table 9B: Statistics from single-factor ANOVA of pre-test results (original Table 2) Source of variance SS df MS F p Fcrit Between group 10.01 1 10.01 2.19 0.143 3.96Within group 374.69 82 4.57 (The same is done for the post-test in the report.) 116 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects Table 10: Mean comparisons on pre-test Measure Project (N=42) Comparison (N=42) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 6.75 2.02 5.88 2.25 0.87 0.39 That the results of the two methods of analysis are similar is due to fact that, in a two- group experiment, F = t 2 or t =√ (F). However, in the re-analysis, SMD instead of t-value was obtained for reasons discussed earlier. The question is, since the t-test is more direct and simpler in concept and procedure, why go for the conceptually much more complex and procedurally much more cumbersome ANOVA and thus causing information overload with its ill-consequences? Discussion and conclusion This paper illustrates five different kinds of statistical misapplications found in school-based project reports: (1) misplaced comparisons, (2) missing SD, (3) missing initial comparison, (4) over-simplification, and (5) information overload. Perhaps, with the exception of the last one (which may not be considered an error) the other fours are common errors. The most common error is to report first on the pre-post-project mean difference of the project group, followed by the same of the pre-post-test mean difference of the comparison group, and then put the two results together and conclude that, since a difference is found for the project group but not the comparison group, the intervention benefits the project group and therefore the project works. This sounds logical but “it is tempting to stop there, declare victory, and write it up for publication (Abelson, 1995).” In short, it violates the logic of having a comparison group. This can be complicated by regression-to-the-mean threat if the two groups are non-equivalent initially. Another common conceptual error is the use of the t-test when in fact it is not applicable and, worse, irrelevant. It is worth repeating that the t-test is an inferential statistics which can be used only when the data comes from groups randomly sampled from their respective populations. In the context of school-based projects, this condition is seldom, if occasionally, satisfied. The t-value and its corresponding p-value do not address the question of concern to teacher-researchers (and school administrators); these values, 117 however awesome they may look, are about the probability of observed difference and not about the magnitude of the observed difference. Moreover, the significance of a t-test result is also sensitive to group size. Again, why this conceptual error is so often made is unknown. Most probably, teacher-researchers are awed by the small decimal numbers, the word ‘significance’, and also probably misguided. Statistics tell stories about projects and their effects, but the stories must be the correct ones that make statistical sense. The value of school-based projects does not depend on whether statistical techniques (especially the more complicated ones) are used, nor does it depend on the statistical significance - a word which is always mistaken to mean ‘importance’ (Soh, 2011). As can be seen in many such reports, statistics seem to have been used for a cosmetic purpose because, after presenting one or more tables, the teacher-researchers go on presenting their views, instead of telling the story contained in their statistics. Statistical misuses as exemplified by the five case studies here are not exclusive to school-based project or more generally educational research. It is also commonly found in other social research (Dodhia, 2007). And, Roehm (n.d.) gives ample examples from medical research. The question is not who make the most mistakes but how can mistakes be avoided and, if found, rectified. This calls for better training, more careful application, and more stringent editorial screening. If we have to use statistics, use them correctly by referring to the right concepts, the right techniques, and the right language. A job worth doing deserves to be done well. Otherwise, we behave like a little boy who has just been given a hammer and finds everything needs knocking. Statistics may look like pure simple truth, but as Oscar Wilde once said, “The pure and simple truth is rarely pure and never simple.” 118 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects References Abelson, Robert P. (1995). Statistics as Principled Argument. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Coe, R. (2002). It’s the Effect Size, Stupid. What effect size is and why it is important? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, University of Exeter, England, 12-14 September 2002. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences, 2nd Edition. Huillsdale, NJ: Earlbum. Cronbach’s Alpha. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.experiment-resources.com/cronbachs-alpha.html Dodhia, R. (2007). Misuse of Statistics. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://statsconsult.com/Articles/Misuse%20of%20statistics.pdf Estimating Standard Deviation (n.d). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.statit.com/support/quality_practice_tips/estimating_std_dev.shtml Fraley, R. C. (2003). End of the Semester Thoughts on the Significance Testing Debate: A Review of the Problems with Significance Testing. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.uic.edu/classes/psych/psych548/fraley/NHSTsummary.htm Levene’s Test. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/analysis/levenes_test.htm Roehm, E. (n.d.). Improving Medical Statistics and the Interpretation of Medical Studies. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://www.improvingmedicalstatistics.com/index. html Siegle, D. (2002). Reliability. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://www.gifted.uconn. edu/siegle/research/Instrument%20Reliability%20and%20Validity/Reliability.htm Soh, K. C. (2008). Effect size: What does it do for educational action researchers? North Star, 1(1), 63-70. Soh, K. C. (2009). Analyzing Data & Interpreting Outcomes: Statistical Toolbox for Teacher-Researchers. Singapore: Cobee Publishing House. Soh, K. C. (2011). Statistically speaking, correctly. North Star, 2(2), 108-127. Sterne, J. (n.d.). The End of Statistical Significance? Power-point presentation. Department of Social Medicine, University of Bristol UK. Wikipedia. (2010). Levene’s Test. Retrieved December 2, 2011, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levene's_test 119 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research 中間選項在李克特量表中的應用：給教育研究的啟示 Kwok Kuen TSANG PhD Student, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong Abstract This article is going to review the debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale in order to understand the implications for scale construction. In this review, the major issues around this debate are identified. The first is methodological. The debate around this issue is the concern about whether the midpoints affect the reliability and validity of measurements. The second issue is epistemological. It concerns about how researchers exactly know the meaning of the responses into midpoints that they intend to measure. To some extent, the debate based on the methodological issue illustrates that both using and not using of midpoints are acceptable, because the midpoints may not really affect the reliability and validity. Therefore, the epistemological issue while designing the rating scale of a measurement is the focus of this article. The implications of the debate for educational research are also discussed in this article. Keywords midpoint, Likert scale, scale construction 摘要本文回顧有關在李克特量表應用中間選項的爭論，希望著此了解中間選項對建構量表的作 121 用。本文將指出，關於中間選項的爭論主要圍繞兩個主題。一是方法論的，這一主題所關心的是中間選項對量表的信度和效度的影響；二是認識論的，這主題所關心的是研究者如何得知受試者對中間選項的理解跟他們所想的一樣。在某程度來說，關於方法論上的爭論普遍認同中間選項不一定對量表的信度和效度有影響，所以從應用和不應用中間選項均可接受。因此，在建構量表時，我們應更多地考慮認識論上的問題。另外，本文還討論了中間選項的爭論對教育研究的啟示。關鍵詞中間選項，李克特量表，量表建構 In educational research, Likert scale is commonly used to measure different kinds of variables, such as teacher stress and burnout (e.g. Chan, Chen, & Chong, 2010; Dworkin, 2002), self-efficacy (e.g. Brouwers, Tomic, & Stijnen, 2002; Cheung, 2006), school and teacher effectiveness (e.g. Bangert, 2006; Kyriakides, Campbell, & Christofidou, 2002; Kyriakides, Demetriou, & Charalambous, 2006; Reezigt & Creemers, 2005; Reynolds, 2001), school organization (e.g. Bowen, Ware, Rose, & Powers, 2007; Firestone, 1984; Firestone & Herriott, 1982; Herriott & Firestone, 1984) school climate and culture (e.g. Cavanagh & Dellar, 1996; Cavanagh & Waugh, 2004; Moos, 1987; Pang, 1998; Wagner, 2006), and the like. The reason is that Likert scale empowers educational researchers to effectively operationalize the variables and then identify their relationships in order to improve our educational system. However, some researchers claim that the use of midpoints on Likert scale may affect research reliability and validity, but some other researchers disagree. It is necessary for education researchers to learn this debate about whether midpoint opinions are included in a scale, because the debate not only directly points to the problem of research quality but also the validity of research implications and recommendations to educational system. In this article, therefore, we will first review the debate in social research in general. On the basis of this review, then, we will suggest the implications of the debate for educational research. 122 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research Debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale Methodological issue One concern among researchers about having midpoints on a Likert scale is the effects of the midpoints to the reliability and validity of measurements. Generally, the supporters of midpoint opinions claim that the midpoints can increase the reliability of measurement. For example, Courtenay and Weidemann (1985) assess the effects of midpoint answers (“don’t know”) to the Palmore’s Facts on Aging quizzes (FAQ) and conclude that the midpoint answers tend to enhance the reliability of FAQ. Another study conducted by Adelson and McCoach (2010) present similar findings. In that study, Adelson and McCoach compared the response pattern of elementary students who responded a mathematics attitudes instrument with a 4-point Likert scale with another group of elementary students who responded the same instrument but the scaling had an additional neutral point. The study shows that the scale including a neutral midpoint might be more appropriate for elementary students than the 4-point scale, because the reliability of the 5-point scale was statistically and significantly higher than the reliability of the 4-point scale. On the other hand, the adversaries argue that the high reliability may be resulted from response set (Cronbach, 1950), especially the tendency to choose the midpoint options. Weems and Onwuegbuzie (2001) conduct three studies to show that there was a high rate of midpoint choices among their samples. This to some extent implies response set to the midpoints exist. Different from the findings found by the supporters of midpoints, the response set in Weems and Onwuegbuzie’s studies seems to attenuate the reliability rather than enhance it (Weems & Onwuegbuzie, 2001). In this sense, midpoints are not necessary to benefit the internal consistence of measurements. Nevertheless, some researchers argue that the use of reliability as a criterion to judge the merit of midpoints is inappropriate (Chang, 1994). As Cronbach (1950, p.22) already notes, “there is no merit in enhancing test reliability unless validity is enhanced at least proportionately.” In other words, validity should be a better criterion than reliability (Chang, 1994). Some studies evaluate the impacts of midpoints on measurement validity. However, the findings are also contradictory. For instance, some studies find that the construct validity may not be influenced by the midpoints (Adelson & McCoach, 2010; Kulas, Stachowski, & Haynes, 2008), but some researchers suggest the omission of the midpoints may impair the validity (Johns, 2005). 123 One possible reason explaining such contradictory findings is that the reliability and validity may be independent of the number of scale points, including the use or not use of midpoints, on Likert scale (Dawes, 2001a; Matell & Jacoby, 1971). Another possible explanation is that there are other factors mediating the relation of the use of midpoints to the measurement reliability and validity, such as respondents’ response style (Clarke, 2001; Lee, Jones, Mineyama, & Zhang, 2002; Wong, Tam, & Fung, 1993) and reverse coding (Weems & Onwuegbuzie, 2001). Epistemological issue Another concern about the use of midpoints on Likert scale is epistemological. This means whether and how researchers exactly know the meaning of the responses into midpoints that they intend to measure. Originally, the meaning of midpoints on Likert scale refers to neutral i.e., neither agree nor disagree (Raaijmakers, Hoof, Hart, Verbogt, & Wollebergh, 2000). Therefore, this kind of options is desirable because it avoids forcing respondents to choose agree or disagree options, that may evoke misleading conclusion, if they really hold neutral opinions towards the items. However, some scholars already note that midpoints may have many different meanings such as “neither agree nor disagree”, “undecided”, “don’t know”, and “no opinion” (Raaijmakers, et al., 2000). Thus, it is possible for respondents to interpret the midpoints in several different ways that may be totally different from the original or intended meaning, especially when the midpoints are not clearly defined (Kulas, et al., 2008). Worcester and Burns (1975) conduct a very interesting experiment to investigate this issue. In the experiment, the subjects were randomly assigned into four groups. Each group of the subjects was required to answer three questions that were the same for each group except the rating scales (4-point or 5-point) and the scale option labels (e.g. “tend to agree”, “agree”, and “2” assumed to be the same meaning). First, all of the subjects were asked to give their answers by using a discrete verbal scale (the Likert scales being tested); then, they were asked to indicate the answers again on a continuous non-verbal scale (literally straight, blank line). After that, Worcester and Burns compared the answers between the verbal and non-verbal scales. They found that the midpoint selections could mean “neither agree nor disagree”, “tend to agree”, and “tend to disagree” among the subjects. Thus, they concluded that the similar or the same options may mean different things to different people. Similar to Worcester and Burns, Kulas, et al. (2008, p.251) claim that midpoints 124 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research may be viewed by the respondents as a “dumping ground” for unsure or non-applicable responses, “if the respondent[s] did not view the middle response option as existing along the agreement continuum.” In other words, midpoints may not really represent the opinion of “neither agree nor disagree”. To some extent, this argument gets supports from another line of studies that aims to learn the effects of the midpoints on survey results. For example, Garland (1991) asks his respondents to give opinions about the importance of product labeling with a Likert scale and he finds that more negative ratings were obtained when midpoints were removed from the scale. Dawes (2001b) conducts a similar study, in which the respondents were asked to identify their satisfaction towards their insurance company with a scale either with or without midpoints, and also finds the similar results. In addition to negative rating, some studies indicate that an increase in positive rating may occur when a scale does not include midpoints (Worcester & Burns, 1975). These effects of the denial of midpoints may be explained by that respondents may “use the midpoint to avoid reporting what they see as less socially acceptable answer” (Johns, 2010, p.7) in order to please the interviewers (Garland, 1991). If it is the case, the selection of midpoint may no longer imply neutrality. In other words, midpoints may be harmful to measurement validity. However, the supporters of the use of midpoints provide confronting evidences. For instance, Raaijmakers, et al. (2000) argue that the midpoints are necessary. This is because the respondents, who do not have enough knowledge to response the items, might minimize unresponse rate by selecting the midpoint to indicate the sense of “undecided” or “don’t know”. In addition, Matell and Jacoby (1972) discover that a negative correlation between the number of scale options and the opportunity that midpoints become a dumping ground. This implies that midpoints may be more appropriate in a scale with more scale options. Implication to educational research According to the literature reviewed above, it is obvious that there is still no conclusion whether the midpoints on Likert scale are desirable or not. Nevertheless, according to the methodological viewpoint, i.e. the issue about the impact of midpoints on measurement reliability and validity, both use and not use of midpoints are acceptable because the midpoints may not really affect the reliability and validity (Dawes, 2001a; Matell & Jacoby, 1971). Therefore, it is suggested that educational researchers should 125 take more consideration to the epistemological issue while designing the rating scale of a measurement. To some extent, it is hard for educational researchers to know exactly the meaning of the midpoint responses. For instance, how should we interpret why a teacher choose the midpoint to the following statement retrieved from Kyriakides, et al.’s (2002) questionnaire about teacher effectiveness: “Students’ achievement in relation to teachers’ objectives”? The teacher may select the midpoint for a variety of purposes, such as: he or she may want to express neutrality about the relationship between students’ achievement and teachers’ objectives; he or she may not know the relationship; or he or she may avoid to select “disagree” or “very disagree”, even though this may be his or her true thought, because he or she may think disagreement about the statement is socially undesirable. Nevertheless, it is argued that the inclusion of midpoints on a scale is necessary. This is because we cannot sure whether the meaning of “agree” or “disagree” response, for instance, really implies the respondents’ agreement or disagreement towards the items. Some respondents may select these two options because there is no an option referring to “neutral”, “undecided” or “don’t know”. In this sense, we may need to take a risk that we may make an inaccurate conclusion due to the scale without such midpoints. The inaccurate conclusion may affect the validity of the implications and recommendations to improve our educational system. If this is right, educational researchers need to think how to minimize the disadvantage of the use of midpoints such as respondents’ misinterpretation to the midpoint opinions, response set to midpoints, and social desirable responses through midpoints. One possible way is a careful use of option labels. For example, Worcester and Burns (1975) discover that the balance side point options (e.g. the point 2 and 4 of a 5-point Likert scale) that are labeled as “slightly agree/disagree”, “fairly agree/disagree” or “quite agree/disagree” are more preferable than that labeled as “agree” and “disagree” only, because the adverbs tend to reduce the number of midpoint selections. Another way is to define the midpoints as clear as possible. Some studies suggest that the use of midpoints as a dumping ground may be more likely to occur when the option labels are difficult to understand (Cummins & Gullone, 2000; Kulas & Stachowski, 2009). Therefore, for example, it is more desirable to refer midpoints to the label of “neither agree nor disagree” or “neutral” instead of number “3”. Alternatively, educational researchers may add “non-applicable” or “N/A” options in a Likert scale (Kulas, et al., 2008). These 126 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research two approaches may be able to solve the problem of “untrue” middle response category endorsement (Kulas & Stachowski, 2009; Kulas, et al., 2008). Finally, the limitations of the midpoints may be reduced by increasing scale sensitivity. To increase scale sensitivity means to increase number of scale options (Cummins & Gullone, 2000). Some researchers show the increase in scale sensitivity may decrease the midpoint selections (Matell & Jacoby, 1972). They suggest that the midpoint selections tend to more often occur on 3-point and 5-point scale, but less on 7-point and 19-point scale (Matell & Jacoby, 1972). In other words, the response set to midpoints and social desirable responses through midpoints may be minimized by increasing scale sensitivity. Conclusion In this paper, the literature about the debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale is reviewed. It finds that the debate seems to focus on two issues: methodological issue – the impact of midpoints on measurement reliability and validity – and epistemological issue – whether and how researchers know the meaning of midpoint responses that are the intended meaning designed by the researchers. After reviewing the arguments from both supporters and opponents, it is suggested that a scale with midpoints is appropriate for educational research because such an inclusion may not necessarily be harmful to the measurement reliability and validity, but also avoid forcing respondents to choose a direction. Nevertheless, it is still noted that there are some limitations of the use of midpoints, such as respondents’ misinterpretation to the midpoint opinions, response set to midpoints, and social desirable responses through midpoints. 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Journal of the Market Research Society, 17(3), 181-197. 130 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 Conceptualizing higher-order thinking for reforming school curriculum and teaching 楊思賢香港教育學院摘要近數十年來，世界各地提出需要改革課程與教學範式，認為必須裝備學生的高階思維能力。在香港，教育當局也有這樣的主張。高階思維，簡稱「高思」，在本地及國際文獻中，是一個豐富的概念。學者們為這個概念提出了很多不同的演繹，至今仍未有共識；不少人期望對此理念能更清楚地理解。本文借助文獻分析方法，探討這富挑戰性的議題，先闡明「高思」與教學範式轉變的關係，進而討論「高思」相關的概念及理論，綜合成為四類高階思維的意涵，冀望能為教育實務及日後的相關研究提供有用的參考。關鍵詞高階思維，課程與教學範式，課程改革，教學創新 Abstract In recent decades, researchers recommend the reform of the paradigm of curriculum and teaching to cater for educational needs in the contemporary world. Many suggest equipping the next generation with the capabilities of higher-order thinking (HOT). In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau also emphasizes the development of higher- order thinking skills in school curriculum. Hitherto, HOT is a rich concept that is under numerous diverse interpretations by local and international academics. Many educators 131 wish to have a better understanding of the concept. Based on findings from documentary analysis, this paper analyzes the concept of HOT. It starts with analyzing how HOT is related to a change in teaching paradigm, followed by a discussion of the theory and concepts of HOT, which leads to the formulation of a conceptual framework proposed by the present author. The author wishes that the framework could serve as a reference for further empirical or practical endeavors in the field. Keywords higher-order thinking, paradigm of curriculum and teaching, curriculum reform, innovative teaching 引言在這個瞬息萬變的時代裏，現代的學校課程與教學正經歷不能迴避的轉向。Gardner （1999）指出未來的教育需能應付六大潮流，這包括科技與科學的突破和知識領域的轉變；重點是，這六個力量加上腦研究及學習論的更新和啟示，勢如破竹地衝擊世界各地的教育目的及價值，使其出現根本的變化，學校課程不能不改革。歐用生、楊慧文（1998）也有類似的意見，他們對後現代社會現象作了分析，指出富裕社會將人性「物化」，新的經濟倫理影響人的價值觀，資訊社會又挑戰著傳統生活。轉換課程與教學典範以挽救失落的一代，是學校迫在眉睫的工作。教育應如何改變？如何改革？正如費利民（Friedman, 2007）所說，世界是平的，這議題是國際化的。面對這重大議題，中、外學者都有提出他們的見解。 Hargreaves（2003）引用新加坡政府的例子，說明任何國家為了未來的繁榮，必須培養國民的學習和應付變化的能力，而「思考型學校」正是新加坡的教育藍圖。Hargreaves 因此說明，面向知識型經濟的教學應著重培養學生的創造力、靈活性、問題解決能力、獨創性、集體智慧及敢於冒險的精神等。一些學者有類同的看法：認為發展學生思維與心智是知識型社會極為重要的一項努力方向（Resnick, 1987; Bereiter, 2002）。總而言之，擁 132 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學有高階思維（下文寫作「高思」，這是香港一些學校老師常用的簡稱）等同擁有高效能的思考力，被視為廿一世紀不可匱乏的能力（Cotton, 1991）。要培育學生的這些能力，思考教學誠然有其重要性。這也是本港教育改革和課程革新的焦點建議（教育統籌委員會， 2000；課程發展議會，2001）。香港政府曾把本港定位為一個面向知識型經濟的社會，也重視教育方面的投資，其教育與課程改革綱領強調發展學生的創造力、問題解決能力及批判思考等高思能力（教育統籌委員會，2000；課程發展議會，2001）。課程改革實行至今已逾十年，成敗得失毀譽參半。對於思考的培育，始終是願景多於實作。最近教育局的學校外評周年報告亦指出，學校能成功在教學中發展學生的高思能力，只屬個別例子（教育局質素保證分部，2009）。看來，學習者的思考培育是現時仍需努力的其中一項改革重點（South China Morning Post, 2011）。研究發現教師對課程革新的理解常是成功的關鍵要素（Yeung and Lam, 2007）。高階思維是一個眾說紛紜的概念，在探討這個概念的文獻時，學者提出了很多不同的演繹。香港實施了課程改革多年，至今學校教育人員仍期望對此理念能有更清楚的理解。為此，本文期望能透過文獻分析為這個富挑戰性的議題作理念的探討，先闡明高思與教學範式轉變的關係，進而討論一些相關的概念、理論，和作者發現的觀點，為高階思維的內涵作出歸類，冀望能為這方面的教育研究與實務提供有用的參考。研究方法本文就「高思」的意涵探討，源於作者一次文獻分析（Documentary analysis）的研究結果。文獻分析法又稱內容分析法，是用作釐清教育概念的研究方法；研究者可從文獻的分析中「描述概念的精義或一般意義、及確認概念的不同意義…」（王文科、王智弘， 2005）。進行文獻分析之前，作者先行界定文獻蒐集的方向、年份，定下是次探討的取樣方法。 133 本港的課程改革，歷年以來常參考西方的理論作為發展基礎（Yeung, 2009; Morris & Adamson, 2009）；其教育與課程改革綱領中建議發展的思維教育，亦以西方觀點為主要根據（教育統籌委員會，2000；課程發展議會，2001）；故此，本文探討的方向亦先以西方文獻為起點 1。作者在閱覽文獻過程中，發現有關高思的討論多以 Resnick（1987）的著作為起點；故此，本文的文獻搜集亦以該著作及年份為起點。取樣年份方面，定為 1987 年到作者執筆撰寫本文前為限。然後，作者運用了多項電子資料庫 2，搜尋了與「高思」教學相關的文獻。整合了文獻分析結果，作者現按以下方面與讀者分享：一、「高思」與教學範式轉變的關係；二、一些相關的概念、理論，和作者發現的觀點；及三、高階思維內涵的歸類。高階思維與教學觀的轉變對如何獲取知識的不同看法是各類教學觀的基礎，這些看法影響到學校的課程與教學的發展。早在上世紀九十年代，西方學說已提出課程與教學應脫離只重灌輸知識的「直接傳授」（Teaching for Transmission），轉向「以理解為目的」的教學（Teaching for Understanding）（Good & Brophy, 2008）。「以理解為目的」的教學認為真正的學習需經學習者對知識的理解、統合、評估和應用。論者認為灌輸式的教授能利便學生進行事實內容的吸納，卻未及「以理解為目的」的教學般成就更理想的智慧培養。要達成「以理解為目的」的教學目標，有學者認為應落實「建構主義」。建構主義認為學習需要學生積極參 1 本文作者將持續留意兩岸四地及亞太區教育方面在高思課程與教學的研究發展，他日若有進一步發現，便會再作發表。 2 搜尋過的電子資料庫主要包括：ProQuest Arts & Humanities Databases, ERIC 和 Google Scholar 等；相關的百多份文獻包括以高階思維教學為研究主題的文章（約 30 篇），其他相關的文章（如談及創意思考和批判思考教學的文章）（約共 50 篇）。 134 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學與，通過主動的思考和探究驗證的過程，在新知識和個人的已有知識間建立聯繫，從而建構真正屬於個人的、有活力的知識（Fosnot, 1989）。相對於那些把知識看作不能改變的信條的教學人員，支持這派學說的人相信死記硬背不是獲取知識的方法，理想的教法能讓學習者明白知識是可轉移的，並可用來解釋新事物、解決問題和應用於廣泛的學習和日常生活中（Perkins, 1999）。因此，教學不能單一地照抄照背教師或書本上的筆記，而應設計學習的過程，讓學生主動思考、探求和苦心經營；而高思策略則是導引學生建構知識的重要能力（Beyer and Liston, 1996）。在相關的討論中，以研究教學著名的 Borich（2011）發現一個有效的教師應能提升學習者在課堂中「投入學習」的程度，這種具關鍵性的教學行為，與學生學業表現有密切關係。他更指出，引導學習者積極思考教師教授的課程內容，是其中一個令學生投入學習的有效方法。此發現與 Stronge（2007）所指效能教師應有提拔具高階思考能力學生的能力可謂不謀而合。觀察到近日香港的教育發展中，當人們紛紛討論如何運用小班教學的優勢以改善教學時，發展學生「高思」的教學益發為人所重視（Galton, 2007）。不同學者對「高思」的理解思考是一種能力，在概念上它是一個複雜的載體。高層次思考（Higher-order Thinking），又稱高階思維，在香港被一些老師簡稱作「高思」。在西方文獻中，它是一個十分豐富的概念。作者發現在探討這個概念的文獻中，「思考」二字比「高層次思考」較多出現，但它們討論內容卻必包含高思的意念。對於「高思」，學者們提出了很多不同的演繹，下面將簡介一些重要的看法。 Resnick（1987）首先描述了高階思維的一些特性，包括：無規則的、複雜性、容納多元答案、多重標準、不肯定和自有規律（頁 8）。思維能產生新的技巧、概念、結論、行動、主意與新的問題等。他還指出高思需要學習者付出努力去思索問題，經苦心經營、精密思索出來的才算是高思的成果。此外，高思並沒有年齡之分，即使幼童也能在適當的學習環境設計下學習怎樣比較、推測及解決問題。一般來說，高思是指普遍性的認知過程，可用於很多科目或情境中。 135 有論者從學習論追溯「高思」的理念根源，發現有關思考的學說源自認知學習論（Eggan & Kauchak, 2001）。根據認知學習論，學習是學生主動思索和探求知識的過程，這與重視學生思考的教學信念同出一轍。認知學習論者認為學生在學習過程中若能積極地思考，會較只靜態地聽課有更高成效。 Lewis & Smith（1993）比較了高層次思考（高思）與低層次思考（低思）。學習者會運用低思來處理訊息，如辨認簡單的數學符號；但需要運用高思能力去探討較為高深的議題或解決較複雜的問題。波諾（de Bono, 1992）認為思考是一個自我組織的系統，人們要經學習才能掌握高思的技巧。他列出思考的成份包括：態度、原則、習慣、基本運作、工具和結構。那是說思考的先決條件是我們有願意思考的心態或動機，還要有堅持設法進行有質素思考的原則；然後，持守有效思考的習慣，選擇適合的思考方式（或稱思考技巧），再根據所需的思考步驟運作思路，便能有所成就。據此，波諾提出了多個教導人們思考的方略，例如：PMI （正面、負面與趣味面）思考法、六頂思考帽、FIP（優先考慮的問題）等。雖然一些商界及教育界曾採納波諾的模式進行人才的思考訓練，有學者卻批評他提出的祇是思考工具（thinking tools），並暗示他的提出不屬於一套具學術性質的思考理論或技術（Milvain, 2008）。綜論高階思維的意涵閱覽文獻，便會發現五花八門的「高思」主張。揉合各有關「高思」內涵的討論，如 Swartz & Perkins（1990）、Cotton（1991）、Keefe & Walberg（1992）、Anderson, et al.（2001）、Ong & Borich（2006）及 McGregor（2007）等（見表一），本文作者認為「高思」的分析可歸納為以下四大類別：一、傳統的思考策略（Traditional thinking strategies），如創意思考、批判思考、後設認知等二、較微觀的基本思考技巧（Core thinking skills） 136 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學三、具統合性的思考理論／模式（Integrated thinking models）四、思考意向（Thinking dispositions）表一高思理論概觀──一些學者的界定 3 Swartz & Perkins (1990) Cotton (1991) Keefe & Walberg (1992) Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) Ong & Borich (2006) McGregor (2007) •批判思考 •創意思考布魯姆等人之思考層次分類：創意思考批判思考後設認知思考技巧 •認知 •後設認知 •思考意向改進布魯姆的分類法 – 認知維度： •識記 •理解 •應用 •分析 •評鑑 •創造 •基本思考技巧 •批判思考 •創意思考 •複雜的思考過程 •後設認知 •思考意向 •資訊處理技巧 •推理 •探詢 •創意 •評鑑傳統的思考策略（Traditional thinking strategies）很多學者都認定創意思考、批判思考及後設認知這三種廣義的、經典的思考理論，是研究高思者必然探討的，文獻中可見不少有關它們的研究。其中 de Bono（1970）的水平思考理論、Ennis（1996）的批判思考論、Schön（1991）的反思教學論分別為三者的代表。de Bono（1970）點出「垂直思考」的局限，認為人們應學習水平思考來創造新觀點，並提出了一些訓練水平思考的方法。Eisner（1995）認為批判思考包括四個主要的認知行為：沈思、探詢、鑑賞和建構。對個人思考過程的理解、計劃和反省是後設認知論所強調的，而 Schön（1991）的反思教學論則被應用到本地的教師培訓中（Yeung, 2002a; 2002b; 2008）。除了以上三類最廣為學者推薦的思考模式外，還有一些值得讓學童學習的思考方式──學者稱之為「複雜的思考過程」（Swartz, 2001; Ong & Borich, 2006）。這主要包括問題解決（Problem Solving）及決策（Decision Making）思考。問題解決能力或作「解難能力」，其中的思考步驟包括確認問題、考慮解決問題的方法、探查資料、驗證假設以及 3 內容經作者分析文獻所得歸納而成。 137 作出選擇和決策（Delisle, 1997）。香港教育局近年推行到高中必修課程的通識科，便納入了此種思考模式的培育。基本思考技巧（Core thinking skills）這包括基本的思考技巧如：推理、探詢、分析、評鑑、分類、預測、比較等（Cotton, 1991; Swartz, 2001; McGregor, 2007），表二亦列出了一些常為人道的思考技巧。較複雜的思考過程（如上述的問題解決和決策思考）及廣義的高思模式如創意與批判思考，均會運用一種或以上的基本思考技巧。多年來很多教學人員採用布魯姆的思考層次分類，認為布氏等人（Bloom et al., 1956; Anderson et al., 2001）的分類架構已包括了常用於教學的思考技巧。為人熟悉的布氏六個認知領域的思考層次包括知識、理解、應用、分析、綜合及評鑑（新版本：知識、理解、應用、分析、評鑑、創造），新舊版本的後三層次一般被喻為「高層次」認知／思考。這套理論常被教師用作設計課堂提問來幫助學生思考。表二基本思考技巧思維的技巧按思考的方向歸類的思維技巧排序（sequencing），分析（analysis），聯想（association），分類（classification），理解（comprehension），比較（comparison），推論（deduction），評估（evaluation），靈活性（flexibility），流暢（fluency），預報（forecasting），歸納（generalizing），假設（hypothesizing），解釋（interpretation），觀察（observation），制定計劃（planning），預測（predicting），疑問（questioning），合成（synthesizing），推理（theorizing）等邏輯思維水平思考聚斂思考擴散性思維 138 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學具統合性質的高思理論（Integrated thinking models）在紛紜的學術討論中，有一些學者為「高思」提出一些別具特色的演繹；諸如： Marzano 等（1988）的思考維度、Sternberg & Spear-Swerling（1996）的三元思考理論； Gardner（2006）的五種心智、以及 de Bono（2003）的六頂思考帽。這四種「高思」理論都具統合（Fusion）性質，能把不同的思考模式、過程等融會貫通，筆者會在以下段落中簡作討論。 Marzano 等（1988）提出一個分析思考的架構，讓教學人員計劃或研究高思課程和教學時參考，他們稱之為「思考維度」（Dimensions of thinking）。這包括五個思考維度： - 後設認知（Metacognition） - 批判和創意思考（Critical and creative thinking） - 思考歷程（Teaching processes） - 主要的思考技巧（Core thinking skills） - 內容知識與思考的關聯性（Relationship of content-area knowledge to thinking）細心研讀後，便能發現 Marzano 等的思考維度架構具有統合性，把不同學者對高思的提出總括起來。相對於其他學說而言，他的想法較少被運用到課程與教學的設計中，但仍是十分值得參考的。 Sternberg & Spear-Swerling（1996）發展了思考三元理論（Triarchic theory of thinking）。根據這個理論，思考應包括以下三種：分析性思考（analytical thinking）、創意性思考（creative thinking）和實用性思考（practical thinking）。分析性思考涵蓋分析、判斷、評估、比較、對照等能力；創意性思考涵蓋創新、發現、創造、想像和假設等能力；實用性思考則涵蓋實踐、使用、運用以及人們在真實世界裏展示的能力。擅長分析性思考的人長於解決熟悉的或學業上的問題；富創意性思考力的人善於運用思考技術解決新奇的問題；作實用性思考的人則較願意把這些技巧應用到日常生活中的問題。面對新世紀，此三種思考力的培養是同樣重要的，Sternberg & Spear-Swerling 卻遺憾地說：「傳統的學校教育只注重一種思考－分析性思考（頁 3）」。為了改善這個問題，兩位學者於是著書幫助教師掌握三元思考的理論和教學方法。 139 Gardner 發表的多元智慧論（Gardner, 1999），一直廣為人用於設計課程和教學。廣泛流傳的八種智慧包括：語文、邏輯—數學、空間、肢體—動覺、音樂、人際、內省及自然觀察者，此八種智能與高思的理論有著極為密切的關係。有關多元智慧的應用，參考著作十分多（如 Kagan & Kagan, 1998；Armstrong, 2000），此處不再細談。Gardner 在其後的著作中更提出了決勝未來的五種心智，包括修練心智（Disciplined Mind）、統合心智（Synthesizing Mind）、創造心智（Creating Mind）、尊重心智（Respectful Mind）和倫理心智（Ethical Mind）（Gardner, 2006）。在現今這個科學和技術霸權世界中，Gardner 認為任何人若能成功培養這五種心智，便最有可能成功。面對資訊苦多、倫理道德受挑戰的年代，他更指出這些心智的建立對未來一代來說十分重要。細意分析下，便能發現每一種心智需要相應的思考習性，例如：修練心智需要學習者持續努力專注和意欲求真的思考習性，統合和創造的心智顯然是高思的能力，而尊重與倫理心智則必含批判的高思成份。 de Bono（2003）的六頂思考帽其實代表著六種不同的思考方式──紅帽子代表情感、白帽子代表客觀資料、黃帽子是正面思考的帽子、黑帽子則是批判的思考、綠帽子是創意的思考、藍帽子則負責控制思考和作出決策。de Bono 認為人們若能善用六頂帽子去思考問題，則更能清醒且有效地達致成果，這個思考理論在坊間有頗多的應用和討論。這套想法具統合性，與前面三種思考理論相似，它融合了不同的思考方式的優點，使思考能發揮更大的果效。思考意向（Thinking dispositions）學者發現熱愛思考的人較能想出有質素的點子（Swartz & Perkins, 1990），好的思考不是純粹技術性的事情，它包含了「情意面」──需要思考者誠心的投入、專注並努力以赴。思考意向便是高思「內涵」的情意面，它是指學習者運用思考來學習的意願、動機和習慣。這方面最具代表的主張包括 Costa & Kallick（2009）的思考習性論及 Tishman & Perkins（1995）的思考教室文化說。Costa & Kallick 認為學校教育需要發展學生的思考習性有十多項，例如：願意冒險並且承擔後果、有幽默感、堅持、彈性思考等。Tishman, Perkins & Jay 則提出學校人員應在課室中建立思考文化，好使「思考無處不在─無論言語、價值、期望以至習性，人人都努力以赴，能在學習中營造優質的思考」（p.2）。由此可見主張此向度的學者是何等期盼思考教學能達致更高境界的教育實踐。 140 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學總結從文獻的研究中，本文作者綜論了高階思考的內涵可包括以下四方面：一、傳統的思考策略（Traditional thinking strategies），如創意思考、批判思考、後設認知等二、較微觀的基本思考技巧（Core thinking skills）三、具統合性的思考理論／模式（Integrated thinking models）四、思考意向（Thinking dispositions）這些向度互有關聯和互相補足，若能平衡地運用，則高思的整全內涵方能理想達成。教育工作者或研究人員可聚焦研究其中一個方面又或多個相關的方面在課程與教學的發展潛力──以行動研究進行實務的探討，以驗證高思如何能在課程改革中發揮意義。在這四個方面中，目前本地的研究大都集中討論有關第一方面（傳統思考策略）的著作或研究，如鄭慕賢（2008）提出如何在科學科中實施創意思考教學；又如黎耀志、黃德華（2005）在幼兒教學數學科的教學嘗試。對於批判思考，本地的相關研究和著作較台灣少；後設認知方面亦較少人談論；筆者年前製作有關教師的反思力培訓教材是一實踐例子（Yeung, 2002a; 2002b; 2008），至於如何運用到小學或中學的課程裏則仍有待努力。至於其他三方面的論著，更是鳳毛麟角。總括來說，高思的教研還有很大的發展空間，除了在專科教學中滲入某類高思的訓練外，可嘗試以跨學科至超越學科形式聯結高思和學科內容（Yeung & Lam, 2007）。另外更可配合校情，因應學生的學習需要，設計適切的校本高思課程。高思內涵本質上的靈活性和可塑性，值得有志做好香港教育的工作者多作探索和努力。 141 參考文獻王文科、王智弘（2005）。《教育研究法》（增訂九版）。台北：五南。教育局質素保證分部（2009）。《質素保證周年視學報告 2008/2009》。香港：教育局。取自： http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=744&langno=2。教育統籌委員會（2000）。《終身學習全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》。香港：教育統籌委員會。取自：http://www.e-c.edu.hk/tc/reform/index_c.html。歐用生、楊慧文（1998）。《新世紀的課程改革──兩岸觀點》。台北：五南圖書。課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習—終身學習，全人發展》。香港：課程發展議會。取自： http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=2877&langno=2。鄭慕賢（2008）。〈如何調適教學以培育創造力〉。載鄭慕賢（編），《創造力培育：科學教育改革》（頁 21）。香港：激動創造力的科學教育計劃。黎耀志、黃德華（2005）。〈透過創意數學教學培養兒童的高階思維能力〉。《香港幼兒學報》，第 4 卷第 1 期，43-46。 Anderson, L. 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Education Journal, 35(2), 1-36. 144 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 The definition and essence of pedagogical content knowledge 周健香港教育局霍秉坤香港中文大學摘要一般來說，研究者認為教師需具備多種不同範疇的知識，教學內容知識 (pedagogical content knowledge，PCK) 是其中一種。教學內容知識的成份包括學科知識和一般教學知識的內涵。它超越了教材知識本身，經過可教性的分析，以最能表現學科知識的形式出現。教學內容知識作為教師所獨有的知識，其特點就在於教師既要充分掌握學科內容，又要了解學生學習的特點，然後能有效地運用策略，把學科內容用學生可以理解的方式表現出來，引導學生探究、建構知識。本文根據文獻資料，整理 2000 年以來中外學者對教學內容知識的實徵研究，並簡述其研究發現。文獻的整理顯示，教學內容知識有三方面主要的特徵，包括教師對特定學科內容的理解，教師對特定學科內容表徵的掌握和運用，以及教師對於學習和學習者的理解。此外，對於教師掌握教學內容知識的情況，有四方面研究結果值得注意。一是新手教師和經驗教師的教學內容知識顯著不同；二是教學內容知識是一種綜合性的知識，是教師在整合了各種知識之後，能純熟運用於教學中的知識；三是教學內容知識和學科知識關係密切；四是教師的教學內容知識主要體現在理解和表徵（representation）。最後，本文之分析顯示，「教 145 學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識」的關係，以及「教學內容知識與學科知識」的關係，都非常密切。關鍵詞中國語文，教學內容知識，教學策略，教學內容表徵 Abstract Researchers realize that teachers need to possess knowledge from various scopes including pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). The components of PCK include subject knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge. PCK does not only comprise the knowledge of teaching materials, but also the expression of subject knowledge in the most representative mode in regard to teachability. PCK as unique knowledge of teachers. Its features include that teachers need to fully grasp the subject content knowledge and understand students’ learning characteristics. Then teachers express the subject content knowledge through effective strategies in order to ensure students’ understanding, inquiry and construction of knowledge. This paper, reviewing relevant literatures since 2000, tries to synthesize empirical research on PCK and briefly illustrates the research finding. From the literature review, the authors note that there are three main ideas about PCK: teachers understand the specific subject content; teachers manage and utilize specific representation of subject content; and teachers understand specific learning and learners. Moreover, four research findings are worth noting. First, the PCK of novice teachers and experienced teachers are significantly different. Second, PCK is a comprehensive knowledge that is skillfully utilized in teaching after teachers synthesizing various kinds of knowledge. Third, PCK is closely related to subject knowledge. Fourth, the PCK of teachers is mainly expressed in the understanding and representation of subject knowledge. In the last section, the authors suggest there is a close relationship between teaching strategies and representation of knowledge, and so does PCK and subject knowledge. Keywords Chinese Language, pedagogical content knowledge, teaching strategy, representation of pedagogical knowledge 146 教學內容知識的定義和內涵一、引言對教師知識的研究很多是從教師本身為出發點，了解教師所知道的事（郭玉霞， 1997，頁 5），研究的問題如「教師需要具備何種知識？」（What teachers need to know?）、「教師知道什麼？」（What do teachers know?）。在美國師範教育界，學者逐漸不再用傳統的行為心理學作為基礎的研究範式，而是以認知心理學為基礎，研究教師的專業思考，探討教師認知與推理判斷的歷程（單文經，1990，頁 263）。因此教師的角色不再局限於課程的執行者，而是「反思性專業人員」（Schön, 1983）。教師應了解自己長處與限制，需要具備和教學有關的教學內容知識、實務知識（practical knowledge）、甚至心理學、社會學方面的知識，以應用於實際的教學情境。探討教學內容知識的概念，非常重要。筆者認為，探討教學內容知識包括兩方面的重要性。首先，教學內容知識對教師教育產生一定影響。一直以來，專科任教老師着重科目知識，專業教師着重教學和課程知識，兩者之間存在複雜的關係，但也存在基本的差異。教學內容知識即為連繫兩種知識的重要概念；因此，了解教學內容知識有助了解兩者的關係。其次，Shulman 提出教學內容知識概念後，學者們進行多項研究，包括其內涵、特徵、結構、形成過程、教師教學實踐等。在研究過程中，出現多種觀點，引發各樣討論。探討教學內容知識的內涵，有助釐清不同的觀點。本文根據文獻資料，整理 2000 年以來中外學者對教學內容知識的實徵研究，並簡述其研究發現。二、教師知識的內涵關於教師知識的內涵，學者的分類各有不同（Shulman, 1986a, 1987a, 1987b, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987; Grossman & Richert, 1988），現將幾位有代表性的學者及其看法整理如下（見表一）。 147 表一教師知識的分類 Shulman 1987 Elbaz 1983 Grossman 1988 Tamir 1988 單文經 1990 Reynolds 1992 Eraut 1995 Borko, Putnam 1996 Morine, Kent 1999 學科內容知識學科專門知識學科知識學科知識和能力學科教學知識；內容學科知識學科知識學科知識一般教學知識教學知識一般教學知識一般通識教育；一般教學法；教學專業基礎一般教學知識一般學科知識一般教學知識教學法知識課程知識課程知識課程知識課程知識對學習者及其特質的知識學生身心發展的知識對學習者和學習的知識教育情境的知識教學情境知識情境知識教育脈絡的知識關於社會的知識；實務知識一般教育情境脈絡知識；特定的情境脈絡知識 PCK PCK 學科特定教學法教材教法的知識；教材內容的知識 PCK PCK 對教育目的、價值、哲學及其歷史淵源的知識教育目的的知識教與學的一般原理教育理論評估程序和對成績表現的評價自我知識 148 教學內容知識的定義和內涵表中可見，研究者認為教師需具備多種不同範疇的知識，教學內容知識（pedagogical content knowledge）是其中一種。這種知識涉及教師在教學活動中複雜的知識運用，雖然可以用多種知識來描述這種知識運用，但會相當不方便，有時也欠準確。因此，一種描述教師教學的專門知識還是非常有必要，這種專門的知識早在教學內容知識被提出之前已有雛型，如杜威（Dewey）曾提出一個「學科心理化」的概念（Wilson, Shulman & Richert, 1987），杜威（1902）認為作為教師要能先把學科知識「心理化」（psychologize），才能達到教學目的，因為教師對學科內容的認知方式應該是「基於學科在教育上的價值與目的，而不是對學科的精通」（Dewey, 1902/1964），他指出︰每種學科都有兩方面：一是令科學家成為科學家；一是令教師成為教師。這兩方面互不衝突，不過也不是完全相同。對科學家而言，學科知識是既代表真理，也適用於發現新問題，並進行新研究，以及證實研究的結果。……而教師所面對的情形則大不相同，作為教師，他所關切的不是為科學增添新的事實，也不須要提出新的假設並加以驗證。他所關切的是所教科學的學科內容，關心如何將學科知識變成經驗的一部份，而其個人的經驗或學生既有的知識經驗，都可成為適當地引導學生的媒介。（Dewey, 1902/1964, p.318）三、教學內容知識的內涵如同杜威區分科學家與教師之間的差異一樣，學者認為一種獨特的教師知識可以區分學科學者和教師的不同，學者創造並發現學科領域上的新知識，教師則在教學上重新組織這些內容知識使學生理解，了解學生所遭遇的問題，設法克服、解決（Grossman, Wilson & Shulman, 1989; McEwan & Bull, 1991）。這種知識就是教學內容知識。 Shulman 對教學內容知識，有詳盡的解釋︰ ……教學內容知識指教師必須能將所教授的內容在教學中具體表現出來。在教學內容知識的範疇裏，包含教師對學科中最常教授的主題、最有效的表現形式、最有力的類比、舉例、說明、示範和闡述等方面的了解。即教師在學科特殊的課題 149 上重新組合、以適當的方式表現，使學生能理解有關的內容。教學內容知識還包括教師理解有什麼因素使學生在學習時對於特定概念感到困難或容易，也理解不同年齡、背景的學生在學習這些課題時所持有的概念與先備的概念。（Shulman, 1986b, p.9）根據上述解釋，教學內容知識的成份包括學科知識和一般教學知識的內涵，它超越了教材知識本身，經過可教性（teachability）的分析，以最能表現（represent）學科知識的形式出現（單文經，1992）。教學內容知識作為教師所獨有的知識，其特點就在於教師既要充分掌握學科內容，又要了解學生學習的特點，然後能有效地運用策略，把學科內容用學生可以理解的方式表現出來，引導學生探究、建構知識。 Shulman 提出教學內容知識的概念之後，這種知識迅速成為學者研究的重點，對於其定義，也有進一步的討論和拓展。其中由於不少研究都置於特定的學科中進行，而教學內容知識又特別切合於特定學科內容下的教學，因此，教學內容知識在很多情況下被視為具體教授特定學科的一種知識，如 Grossman 就認為教學內容知識是教師的一種「適當的，並且是引起學生對所學內容的興趣的表徵」（Grossman, 1990, p.8）。Llinares（2000）認為教學內容知識是在課堂情境中學科知識和關於學習者的知識的結合。Sherin（2002）認為教學內容知識是學科內容教學的專門知識，包括教師知識如何呈現該學科領域的知識來促進學生學習，也知道學生在學習時典型的特點，如可能理解什麼和誤解什麼。他認為教師的知識是在學科教學中，對不同知識進行協商（negotiate），這包括對學科內容、課程材料和關於學生學習的理解。從研究者對教學內容知識定義的探討，可以總結出教學內容知識的一些主要特徵，包括以下三個方面︰ 1. 教師對特定學科內容的理解，特別是指在學科中教師經常教授的範圍和主題。 2. 教師對上述特定學科內容表徵的掌握和運用，如用什麼形式（類比、舉例、譬喻、圖示和示範等）表現學科內容才是有效、最具說服力、最易令學生明白的。 3. 教師對於學習和學習者的理解，如學生已有的概念、在學習某一特定內容之前的概念，對某方面的內容感到容易或困難、理解或誤解，並且知道是什麼因素影響他們的學習。（Tamir, 1988; Grossman, 1990; Marks, 1990） 150 教學內容知識的定義和內涵這裏可見教學內容知識的複雜性，它不是以一種單一的知識面貌出現的，而是各種知識相互牽連、缺一不可。在教學時各種知識間的關係是互動的，同時包含着知識和技能。四、教學內容知識的研究整理教學內容知識這一概念，迅速引起學者的關注。對於教學內容知識的研究，在各種學科教學和教師教育的領域展開。筆者根據文獻資料，整理 2000 年至 2010 年的十年間中外學者對教學內容知識的實徵研究，並簡述其研究發現，以表二展示。表二教學內容知識的研究整理研究者（年份）研究主題樣本／研究方法研究發現 1  C a s t r o - F i l h o （2000）教學內容知識學科︰數學八名中學教師量化函數、刺激回憶、訪談、觀察 1. 課程與科技的使用為教師現在的理解創造了挑戰，特別是有關觀念的改變。 2. 教師重視學科的單元內容、研究者的支持、內容知識的討論。 3. 從討論學生成果中，教師受益匪淺。 2  劉怡亭（2000）教學內容知識學科︰歷史一名國中教師訪談、觀察、文件蒐集 1. 影響教學內容知識的因素包括內在因素和外在因素。 2. 教學內容知識包括教學理念、對課程與課本的看法、對學生學習歷史的了解、學科知識、學科教學信念、教學歷程中的知識、教學情境變化的認知。 3  劉麗玲（2000）教學內容知識學科︰理化一名資深國中教師觀察、訪談、文件蒐集、量表、問卷 1. 個案教師具有多種的教學表徵，視學生反應與解說需要而變換。 2. 教學表徵包括自行創造及利用網絡教學資源站。 3. 與同事討論或請教專家學者來發展新的表徵。 151 研究者（年份）研究主題樣本／研究方法研究發現 4  張家芳（2001）教學內容知識學科︰歷史一名國中實習教師觀察、訪談、文件分析 1. 個案教師所具備的教師知識內涵包括教學表徵知識、一般教學知識、課程知識、學習者知識、教學情境知識及教師的教學信念。 2. 形成教師知識的有關因素有內在來源和外在來源。 5  謝建國（2001）教學內容知識學科︰國語一名國小實習教師觀察、訪談、教學研究、研究者札記 1. 教學內容知識包括課程架構知識、學科內容知識、一般教學知識、學生知識、個人信念知識、教學情境知識。 2. 影響因素為過去經驗和當前經驗。 3. 教學推理過程分為教學前的準備階段、教學中的表徵方式、教學後的評量與反省。 6 李琼（2004）教學內容知識、學科知識及其與課堂教學的關係學科︰數學 30 名小學 6 年級數學教師（包括專家教師和非專家教師）問卷、課堂觀察、錄像與訪談 1. 專家教師能夠意識到數學的本質並聯繫到實際的教學中，非專家教師則否。 2. 專家教師傾向於將「做」數學看作為解釋與論證思維的過程；非專家教師傾向於將「做」數學看作為選擇適當法則或既定步驟，獲得答案的過程。教學內容知識和學科知識的關係： 1. 兩種知識之間存在顯著相關。其中，學科知識中的知識組織與教學內容知識的關係最大；而教學內容知識中的對學生思維的了解與學科知識的關係最大。 2. 兩種知識之間的關係是雙向的，各自可以解釋對方的變量超過五成。 152 教學內容知識的定義和內涵研究者（年份）研究主題樣本／研究方法研究發現 7 An , Ku lm, & Wu（2004）教學內容知識學科︰數學 28 名美國 5-8 年級教師和 33 名中國 5-6 年級教師在一定文化脈絡下的教學內容知識比較問卷、訪談、課堂觀察在不同的文化背景下，教師的教學內容知識是不同的。中國教師強調傳統的教學、機械的練習，發展學生程度性和概念性的知識；美國的教師注重促進學生的創造能力和探究能力，課堂活動多樣化，但在幫助學生的思維和操作、理解和過程的發展之間欠缺聯繫。 8 K r a u s s e t al.（2008）教學內容知識和學科知識學科︰數學 198 名中學教師測驗教學內容知識和學科知識之關有很高的相關度，即學科知識豐富的教師，其教學內容知識也很豐富。另外，雖然研究顯示教學內容知識和學科知識是兩種不同的概念，但數學科專家教師的學科知識和教學內容知識很難區分，而對於非專家教師而言，這兩知識卻相對獨立。 9 L e e & L u f t （2008）教學內容知識學科︰科學 4 名經驗教師（有十年上教學經驗、有三年以上指導新手教師經驗）個案研究︰半結構式訪談、課堂觀察、教案分析、每月一次反思研討會 1. 教學內容知識包括︰科學知識、對科學教育目的的知識、對學生的知識、課程組織的知識、教學知識、評估知識和對資源的知識。 2. 各項教學內容知識的組成部分之間互有緊密的關連和影響。 153 研究者（年份）研究主題樣本／研究方法研究發現 10 H e n z e , Va n Dirl, & Verloop （2008）教學內容知識學科︰科學 9 名經驗教師（在教授新的課程大綱時教學內容知識的發展）半結構性課後訪談教師的教學內容知識可以分成兩種類型︰ A 型和 B 型。A 型的教師關注教學內容，而 B 型教師關注教學的內容、內容的產生及其本質。在教學內容知識的發展方面，A 型教師主要發展其教學策略的知識，而在各類知識之間的關係則沒有不同；B 型教師的教學內容知識內部各項知識之間緊密關聯，各部分都有整體的發展。 11 周健（2010）教學內容知識學科︰中國語文 6 名中學中國語文教師（來自兩所自行設計教材學校和兩所使用教科書的學校）處理教材時的教學內容知識三項發現︰ 1. 在教師所有的知識中，教學內容知識是一種獨立的知識，是在學科教學時的專業知識，是學科教學時各種知識維度的綜合體現。 2. 在學科教學中，教師的學科知識是教學內容知識中的一個維度，與其他知識維度一起，綜合地產生作用。 3. 教學內容知識中教學策略和表徵的知識維度在教學時有不同的使用範圍，「策略」為所有課前的教學設計和實際教學時的一般教學方法；「表徵」則指教師在教學時，因應特定學科內容，採用針對性的方法，轉化所要教的內容，使之更容易讓學生明白的學科教學手段。（表中的「」部分為摘自邱憶惠（2002）《國小級任教師知識之個案研究》一文，頁 69- 71、77-78，並稍作文字上的改動。） 154 教學內容知識的定義和內涵綜合各項研究可見，教師的教學內容知識有四方面的性質︰其一、新手教師和經驗教師的教學內容知識有明顯的不同，新手教師在這方面知識的欠缺顯然受其實踐經驗的限制，無論在教學內容、策略和對學生的理解等方面都有待加強，這顯示了教學內容知識在實踐中習得的性質，是在經驗中積累的。其二、教學內容知識是一種綜合性的知識，是教師在整合了各種知識之後，能純熟運用於教學中的知識；教學內容知識也能起一種聯繫的作用，將學科內容、課程、教學策略和關於學生的知識緊密連接的知識，即 Shulman（1987）所說，是體現了教師專業所獨有的一種知識。其三、教學內容知識和學科知識關係密切，兩者之間有很高的相關度。學科知識為教師教學內容知識的發展提供了重要的基礎。這兩種知識在概念上雖不相同，但很難截然區分，這在兩種知識都很豐富的教師身上尤為明顯。其四、教師的教學內容知識的特徵則主要體現在理解和表徵（representation），具備豐富教學內容知識的教師，都具有這兩方面的特點。「理解」包括對學科、課程、學生、情境和自身的深入了解和掌握，「表徵」則指教師能因應教學的需要運用各種教學方法和策略。從表中十一項研究，可以了解不同研究者對教學內容知識的所包含的內容的理解，綜合而言，教學內容知識包括以下各項︰ 1. 學科知識：包括對學科的整體概念、學科教育的目的、學科內容知識、學科的本質、學科教學信念等； 2. 教學表徵知識：多指教學策略和技巧的知識； 3. 對學習和學習者的知識：包括對學生和學生知識的了解、預計學生在學習時可能出現的問題，對學習本質的了解等； 4. 課程知識：如課程架構、目標、課程計劃和組織，對課本和教材的理解，對課程改革的理解等； 155 5. 一般教學知識：如教學歷程中的知識； 6. 教學情境知識：如對教學情境變化的認知； 7. 教學理念、個人信念等； 8. 內容、教學法與個人實務知識的整合。這是不同研究結果的綜合，每一項研究中所包含的內容不盡相同，但有重疊。其中對教學內容知識內涵的意見也不盡一致，有的包含的知識項目多些，有的少些。對教學內容知識中各組成知識的表述也很不相同，有的涵蓋很大的範圍，有的則很細緻。這與不同研究範圍和研究者關注點不同有關。教學內容知識的不同組成部分，須置於特定的研究脈絡中才有意義，例如 Grossman 在對中學英文教師（主要是新手教師）的研究後，指出教師的教學內容知識應該包括四個主要的組成部分（Grossman, 1988, p.15-17; 1990, p.8-9）︰ 1. 關於在不同學習階段（grade levels）學科教學目的的知識和信念； 2. 對於學生在學科學習中對特定課題的理解、概念和可能存在的誤解的知識； 3. 課程知識，包括對所教學科中課程材料的知識，以及學科課程縱向的和橫向的知識； 4. 教學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識。其中第四項「教學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識」可以視為 Shulman、Wilson 和 Richart 所分的六項知識中，「有關教學表徵的知識」和「教學推理的知識」。儘管有這些不同，一般研究者對教學內容知識內涵都有一個大致的共識，即以 Shulman（1986b）對教學內容知識的定義中所描述的對學科教學內容的理解、對學生學習的理解和對教學策略與表徵的掌握這三方面。不過，學科教學內容是否指學科知識，卻並不明確。例如 Grossman （1988, 1990）的研究是在高中英文文學教學的情境脈絡中，強調教師不只要具備學科知識，還要理解高中學習階段學科的教學目標。因此，在她的研究中，對教學內容知識中有關學科知識的部分，就主要是在「不同學習階段學科教學目的」方面。而對於學科知識， Grossman 認為學科知識是教學內容知識很重要的基礎（Grossman, 1988, 1990），但她並沒有把學科知識納入教學內容知識之中，而是把學科知識和教學內容知識並列為教師知識之一。Shulman 指出教學內容知識是一種超越了學科知識本身的知識，涉及學科知識在教學方面維度，因此是一種學科內容與教學方面的混合體（Shulman, 1987）。從這個理解看， 156 教學內容知識的定義和內涵教學內容知識中有一部分特殊的學科知識，它不完全是學科知識本身，但又確實是學科知識。五、教學內容知識特性的爭論其實在探討教學內容知識時，人們常以學科知識作為一個參照點，比較兩種知識的相同和不同之處。學科知識為 Schwab（1964）提出的學科中的內容（content）知識、實質性（substantive）和文法性（syntactic）知識。其中內容知識是指學科中的事實、組織原則和中心概念，而後兩者是學科的結構性知識。實質性結構指一門學科內部互相聯繫的概念、事實、重要原理、理論和解釋框架等（Schwab, 1978）；而文法性知識則是指在學科中探索、證明、建構知識的方法（范良火，2003，頁 16）。李琼（2004）對教師知識的研究證明，教學內容知識和學科知識之間存在顯著相關，它們關係是雙向的，各自可以解釋對方的變量超過五成。其中，學科知識中的知識組織與教學內容知識的關係最大；而教學內容知識中的對學生思維的了解與學科知識的關係最大。Shulman（1986a, 1986b）區分學科知識和教學內容知識，指出前者是學科本身的知識，但不是教學中唯一的知識；後者是一門學科特殊的、與教學有關的知識，是一種為了解釋教學的學科專業知識（subject-matter knowledge for teaching）。Shulman（1987）認為教學內容知識是學科內容（content）與教學法（pedagogy）的混合物，是屬於教師特有的知識領域，這種知識是一種將可教性（teachability）融匯教材與教法於一爐的「教材教法知識」（單文經，1992）。它也是一種最能區別學科專家與教師的知識。 Shulman 的這種解釋其實是相當含混的，教學內容知識和學科內容（content）密不可分，但在他描述教師的七種知識基礎中，學科知識（content knowledge）又獨立於教學內容知識之外。事實上，關於教學內容知識的內涵，不同的研究者在不同領域的研究中固然有差異，同一學者在不同的時間，也會不斷調整自己的觀點。如 Shulman 和 Gudmundsdottir 在一項社會科的研究中（Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987, p.60），提出教學內容知識應包括學科知識、一般教學知識和關於學習者的知識三類。但 Shulman 在同年發表的另一篇文章中（Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987, p.114-115），將教學內容知識的內涵再細分為六類，包括︰有關教學表徵的知識、教學推理的知識、和學習者有關的知識、 157 課程知識、教學法的知識與對教學情境的知識，其中又不包括學科知識。 Shulman 等人將教學推理（pedagogical reasoning）的思想作為新手教師調整他們學科知識教學的方式（Shulman, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987）。其思想正是基於學科知識的教學推理行為能夠產生教學內容知識，因此相信堅實的學科背景是發展教學內容知識的必須條件（Veal & MaKinster, 1999）。事實上，Shulman 將教學內容知識定義為教師在特定的學科中，對最常教授的特定課題的知識（1986），就是指教學內容知識是在學科教學時的一種專門知識。教師通過考慮如何向給學生呈現的學科內容，首先理解一些特定的學科知識，並將它們轉化成教學內容知識。不同的研究發現，對於同一科目或不同科目的經驗教師而言，教學內容知識是教師的學科知識和教學知識長期融合結果，最終體現於學科教學的模式（Gudmundsdottir, 1988）。因此，有學者通過研究，認為教師在教學時不是單獨地使用學科知識或教學內容知識，而是把兩者結合起來，成為一種學科內的知識聯合體（content knowledge complexes）（Sherin, 2002）。Krauss 等人（2008）研究中學數學教師的教學內容知識和學科知識，發現兩者之間有很高的相關度，故此指出教師的學科知識豐富，其教學內容知識也豐富。 Rollnick 等人（2008）進行的一個關於化學科的個案研究。其中在改革的背景下，有個案教師由於缺乏學科知識，只能使用一些機械式的教學方法；而有的個案教師由於擁有足夠的學科知識，能靈活地使用改革的教學方法，顯示出強大的教學內容知識。研究者認為教師在知識和經驗上的整合影響他們對教學表徵的選擇，這對發展教師學科知識結構起了重要的作用。因此 Rollnick 等人根據兩個個案研究中學科知識對教師整體的知識表現所起的作用，提出了教學內容知識的簡單模型，把學科知識放入教學內容知識中，與其他知識（學生、教學法、情境）一起構成教師的教學內容知識，而教學內容知識具體表現形式有表徵、評價、具體主題的教學策略和課程特色。而 Lee 和 Luft（2008）對 4 名高中科學科經驗教師的個案研究發現，個案教師的教學內容知識中有七種知識內涵︰科學知識、對科學教育目的的知識、對學生的知識、課程組織的知識、教學知識、評估知識和對資源的知識，其中科學知識就包含在教學內容知識之中。 158 教學內容知識的定義和內涵周健（2010）在研究中學中國語文教師處理教材時的教學內容知識時指出，在討論教師不同範疇的知識時，也一再問以下問題︰為什麼要把教師的這種對學科教學的目的、對學生和課程的理解、教學策略的設計和學科本身的理解視為教學內容知識？為什麼它們不是各自屬於不同範疇的知識？事實上，把教師的這些知識維度的表現，各自放在各別的知識範疇中去看，似乎也是合適的。問題在於，在處理教材的過程中，這些知識的確不是各自獨立存在的，它們的高度綜合，才形成了教師處理教材的知識面貌。因此，教學內容知識中各知識維度不是獨立於其外的知識項目，而是在教學過程中與其他知識互相作用的知識，其中各知識維度之間的分野和界限並不十分清晰。該研究個案教師在談到知識來源時就認為很難說哪方面的知識對自己最有用，其實「都是整合的過程。」（周健，2010）研究結果證明教師在處理教材的過程中，各知識維度不是單一或直接發生作用的。教師知識不是以各別獨立的面貌解決教材處理中的各種問題。如學科知識中，學科內容和實質性知識與課程知識的密切關係，文法性知識與教學策略和表徵的知識的關係，都顯示了不同知識維度間的複雜聯繫。而一旦某項或某幾項知識不足，教師在處理教材時就會顯示出整體知識不足的情況。因此，各項知識不是各自獨立工作，而是以不同知識維度的面貌組合起來，互相結合，共同作用，成為教學內容知識。這個研究印證了 Shulman 對教學內容知識特點的描述，即「理解」與「表徵」，是教師充分內化了各種知識後，在教學中把教學內容準確表現出來，讓學生明白。另一方面，周健的研究（2010）發現學科知識是在處理教材和學科教學時不可或缺的一個維度，這主要體現在教師對中文科教學內容和不同教材的理解。教師對選作語文教材的作品的熟悉程度，對其中的學科元素如語言、修辭、結構、風格、作家背景等各方面知識的掌握，對發現教材的教學價值有很大的幫助。而教師在處理教材時如何體現其教學目標，首先基於其對學科知識的理解。高中中文教師的教學內容知識中，學科知識的維度一方面表現在對學習重點和經典作品有廣泛和深入的認識，這是學科內容知識；另一方面也表現在對各種材料的準確理解和使用，這是學科實質性和文法性知識。研究發現學科知識的豐富對教師在教學內容、重點、對教材的理解和教學策略的安排方面非常重要，是教師處理教材時不可或缺的知識。而學科中的文法性知識，指在學科中探索、證明、建構知識的方法（范良火，2003），對教師在處理教材時對學習的理解及教 159 學策略和表徵起着十分重要的作用。教師處理教材時，是綜合地運用着學科、課程與教學策略和表徵的知識，結合對教學目標和學生學習理解來進行的。在這個過程中，學科知識不是獨力運作的，這是研究者將學科知識納入教學內容知識的範疇中的原因。綜合上述文獻資料和實徵研究，筆者認為教學內容知識中包含學科知識。六、結語從上述的分析，研究者認為教師需具備多個範疇的知識，包括教學內容知識。教學內容知識超越了教材知識本身，經過可教性的分析，以最能表現學科知識的形式出現。教師掌握教學內容知識，展現其充分掌握學科內容，了解學生學習的特點，並有效地運用策略，以學生可理解的方式展示學科內容。從教師掌握教學內容知識四方面的研究結果，在實踐上值得留意兩方面。一方面是教學需要從教學經驗中掌握學科和教學方面的知識，融匯學科和教學等不同類型的知識，純熟運用於教學中。另一方面是教學內容知識突顯教師要能先把學科知識「心理化」（psychologize），才能達到教學目的；而其主要體現於理解和表徵，這不僅要求教師對學科內容精通，而且要求其認知方式應是基於學科在教育上的價值和目的。這兩方面對教師實踐教學極為重要。在探討了教學內容知識內涵和定義之後，最後討論一下其中文翻譯。教學內容知識（pedagogical content knowledge）中譯名並不統一，有的譯作「學科教學知識」或「學科教學法知識」，周淑卿（2004）認為教學內容知識中的「教學內容確實會涉及學科內容」，但基於「教學內容知識是指對所教授內容的教材教法知識」，「更關注於學科材料轉換為可用以教學的內容」，而「仍依原文譯為『教學內容知識』」（頁 35，注 1）。根據本文對教學內容知識內涵和定義的探討，教學內容知識有很強的情境性，是在特定的教學內容、脈絡下，在實踐中形成的（Brown & Broko, 1992; 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London: Cassell. 163 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓──從正式課程到空無課程 Training of critical thinking ability in Hong Kong’s new senior secondary Liberal Studies – From formal curriculum to null curriculum 歐立賢香港浸會大學全日制學位教師教育文憑（通識教育）學生摘要批判思考能力培訓是本港新高中通識教育科的預期學習成果，希望學生修讀通識教育科後，能夠掌握一定程度的批判思考能力。本文將會從「正式課程」及「空無課程」兩個概念，對通識教育科的課程設計作出分析，探討其批判思考能力培訓的問題及其解決方法。關鍵詞通識教育，正式課程，空無課程，批判思考 Abstract Training students’ critical thinking ability is an expected learning outcome of new senior 165 secondary Liberal Studies. After studying the subject, students are expected to have certain degree of ability of critical thinking. In this article, I will try to apply the concept of formal curriculum and null curriculum to analyze the design of New Senior Secondary Liberal Studies, in order to investigate the problem in training students’ critical thinking ability and suggest possible solutions. Keywords liberal studies, formal curriculum, null curriculum, critical thinking 導言香港於 2000年開始進行課程改革，首次把「批判思考」定為其中一項核心共通能力（課程發展議會，2001）；同時在新高中課程的核心科目通識教育科（簡稱「通識科」）中，列明「批判思考」為重要的元素。通識科的其中一個「課程宗旨」為「培養與終身學習有關的能力，包括批判性思考能力」（課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局，2007，頁 4）；而它的其中一個「學習成果」則是：「預期學生透過本科的學習，能夠識別對個人和社會議題的不同意見背後的價值取向，並在個人和社會層面的議題和問題上，運用批判性思考能力……作出判斷和決定。」由此可見，批判思考本應為通識科課程一重要部分，但實況並非如此，以下先簡述不同學者對批判思考的看法，包括它的界定及重要性，並將以「正式課程」及「空無課程」兩個概念對通識科之批判思考能力培訓進行分析。「批判思考」的不同界定坊間對於「批判思考」一詞，有很多不同的理解，以下先簡介數位學者對批判思考的 166 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程看法，以顯出「批判思考」的含混性。本港著名思考方法學學者李天命博士指出：批判思考，即判別真假、判別是非對錯的思考（李天命，1995），在此定義之下，他認為批判思考應包含四個環節，分別為：語理分析、謬誤剖析、邏輯技巧、科學方法。1 他認為，「善於提出『是什麼意思？』和『有什麼根據？』這兩個問題，養成了問這兩個問題的思維習慣，也就是培養起一種「批判思考的警覺性」，可以說是學習基本思考方法最重要的關鍵。」可是，並非所有學者均對批判思考具同一看法，例如：嶺南大學文化研究系通識教育學士後文憑課程主任許寶強曾指出，如學生要掌握批判思考，最重要是掌握多角度思維（許寶強，2006）。另外，根據香港特區政府教育局發布的《「批判性思考能力的學與教」教材套（高中）》，內裡對於批判思考的教學內容，又有另一見解，其教學單元分為「分析論證」、「因果宣稱」、「認識認知模式」、「決策思考」（顧伊麗、侯傑泰、何德芳，2009）。就以上各學者者對於批判思考的界定可見，到底何謂「批判思考」，頗為含混，就如有學者指出，「『批判思考』並非一『頗為一致』和『無重大分歧』的教學理念」（曾榮光， 2010，頁 103-104）。以下的分析將會再論及此含混情況的影響。「正式課程」與「空無課程」的界定本文的另外兩個關鍵概念，為「正式課程」與「空無課程」。首先，有學者認為所謂「正 1 筆者旨在帶出不同學者對於「批判思考」有不同界定，對於以上四個環節的內涵，並非本文重點，不會詳述，讀者可參閱李天命博士之著作。 167 式課程」，是指「課程內分成各類教學科目，每個科目之下又有單元、章節或課」（黃政傑，1991，頁 80-81）。同時，亦有學者指出正式課程的特徵是「預定的、計畫的和意圖的，因此在正式課程裡，較容易肯定課程目標的存在」（黃光雄、楊龍立，2001）。從以上的學者所言可見，「正式課程」可被看成已被確立、具有比較完整的課程計劃及教授計劃之科目，例如：中國語文、英國語文、數學等。另外，亦可從科目內看「正式課程」，如一些科目的內容為已確立，在計劃之內打算教授，而且有較為周詳的教授計劃、教授方法等的，都可視為正式課程，例如：中國語文科內的應用文寫作技巧、英國語文科的議論文寫作技巧等。而「空無課程」一詞是由艾斯納（E. W. Eisner）提出，他在檢視課程時，發現學校課程中遺漏了許多重要的應納入課程範圍的能力、知識與態度，並視之為「空無課程」（林福貹，不明），這強調不僅要由「有甚麼」的角度觀察課程，也要由「缺乏」的角度探討（黃政傑，1991）。根據臺灣師範大學教育研究所黃光雄博士及臺北市立教育大學教育學系楊龍立教授所言：「『空無課程』的概念，是在探討學校『不教什麼』，產生了什麼結果，對學生有什麼影響。我們對於課程的審視，不只要考慮學校教什麼，而學校不教什麼，應是同等重要，因為這會影響學生的學習結果。」簡而言之，「空無課程」是指應該包含在學生的學習經驗之中，但卻未有包含的東西，可以是指一個科目，亦可以是指一個科目中的內容。即使科目或內容已確立，但是若果在執行上出現問題，導致學生未能學習該科目或內容，該科目或內容亦可視為「空無課程」，原因是它們最終仍未能包含在學生的學習經驗之中。批判思考從「正式課程」淪為「空無課程」通識科作為香港新高中課程中的核心科目，即所有中學生均需必修、必考的科目，與中國語文、英國語文、數學等科目看齊，可視之為一項「正式課程」。審視由課程發展議 168 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程會與香港考試及評核局編訂的「通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）」，通識教育科的架構主要由六大單元組成，分別為：「個人成長與人際關係」、「今日香港」、「現代中國」、「全球化」、「公共衛生」和「能源科技與環境」，課程設計者希望學生透過探討六大單元中的議題，學習批判思考的方法，這是其重要目標，本應為通識科課程的一重要部分，亦可視為通識科課程內的「正式課程」。可是，從通識科的實際操作來分析，目標是有的，但此目標實在不易達到，甚至最終可能會令批判思考由「正式課程」變成空無「空無課程」。為什麼批判思考會由「正式課程」變成「空無課程」呢？其中一個原因在於，如上文所述，批判思考能力並無明確的界定。教育學者 Fullan 及 Stiegelbauer（1991）指出，一項課程改革成功與否，受到十二項因素影響，其中一項是課程內容的清晰度與複雜性（Clarity, complexity of the change），而縱觀整份課程文件，亦未有指出學生到底要掌握如何的批判思考能力，相對於以上提及的六大單元，批判思考在沒有明確定義及教授內容之下，顯得空泛。在現時不少老師均沒有接受過有系統的批判思考訓練的情況下，對於什麼是批判思考？如何教？教什麼？不少老師也沒有一個既定答案，亦沒有具體課程可以向學生教授，這著實會影響批判思考的培訓。從學術角度而言，批判思考並非一種可單純透過接觸不同的議題與新聞便可以學懂的能力，它是需要有系統地教授，如現時本港的大學大都有設立批判思考課程，而其形式多是以思考上的毛病作為藍本，輔以例子作教授，以幫助同學避免思考上出現毛病作為首要目標，與現時的通識科課程恰恰相反。現時的通識科課程是以議題作為藍本，批判思考的技巧成為了同學認識和討論議題後得出之副產物，再加上整個課程內容廣泛，時間緊迫 2，同學或老師的聚焦都集中在時事議題的本身，而非批判思考的技巧。學生完成整個通識科課程，也難以掌握何謂批判思考，只懂得在考試時運用多角度的框架寫文章，看似已掌握批判思考能力。可是，學者指出，「批判思維不是……機械地套 2 根據「通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）」指出，教師需要於 180 小時完成教授六大單元的內容，即平均每個單元只有 30 小時。 169 用六頂帽子、六何法等技巧或分析工具。」（許寶強，2006），批判思考最終極可能成為通識科中的「空無課程」。總結總括而言，培育同學們具備批判思考能力為通識科課程的一大重要目標，亦應為「正式課程」，目的是希望同學們修畢通識科課程後，不只懂得六大單元中的知識，而是能運用批判思考的方法，對六大單元的議題作出反思。更重要的是，裝備他們將來離開學校，也能運用批判思考的方法，解決日常生活的問題或對社會的議題作出反思。這意念本來是值得支持，也對學生有莫大益處。可是，從以上的分析可見，要實現這些益處，實非易事，必須具有較為具題的計劃和教授方法，否則，目標只會因欠缺周詳計劃而變得名存實亡。通識科在課程上的設計上已有先天缺憾，在緊迫的時間下，以探究議題來教授批判思考，只會令老師和學生焦點模糊，教授了議題資料，卻忘了批判思考。這會令學生完成課程後，仍然缺乏批判思考的技巧，本來宏大的目標，最終只會付諸流水。結果，批判思考便由通識科課程中的「正式課程」變成「空無課程」。要解決此問題，其中一個解決方法是在通識科課程中，增設第七個單元，參考大學的批判思考課程，事先計劃好「要教授什麼」及「如何教授」批判思考的概念及工具，例如：「論點」、「論據」、「語害」、「謬誤」、「六頂帽子」、「六何法」等。這單元應放在通識科的所有單元之先，先教授有關批判思考的知識。到了進入本來已有的六大單元，學生便已有工具對議題內的不同意見作出批判，真正做到利用議題來訓練批判思考能力。3 3 在上文提到，通識科的教學時間非常緊迫，故此，這筆者建議，這單元可以於同學在中三升上中四期間的暑假，對學生進行教授，期間應不會對學生或老師造成太大的工作量，亦可為進入通識科的六大單元做好準備。 170 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程這樣的做法，才可令老師有藍本可以依從；學生有焦點可以學習，真正達到通識科本來想達致的目標──培育學生的批判思考能力，更令批判思考重新成為真正的通識科「正式課程」。參考文獻李天命（1995）。《李天命的思考藝術》（終定版）（頁 66-67）。香港，明報出版社。林福貹。〈空無（懸缺）課程（null curriculum）〉。《教育名詞彙編》。2011 年 11 月，取自 http://163.24.143.141/edu_term/view.php?ID=687。曾榮光（2010）。〈批判思考的批判──香港高中通識教育科教學實踐的爭議〉。《教育學報》，第 38 卷第 1 期，103-104。取自 http://hkier.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/journal/wp-content/ uploads/2010/07/ej_v38n1_95-117.pdf。許寶強（2006）。〈多角度思維助批判能力發展〉。取自 http://www.ln.edu.hk/mcsln/3rd_ issue/liberal06.html。黃光雄、楊龍立（2001）。《課程設計：理念與實作》。台北：師大書苑。黃政傑（1991）。《課程設計》（頁 80-81）。台北：東華書局。課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習──課程發展路向》（頁 22）。香港：課程發展議會。取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/TC/Content_2908/c3/chapter_3_17to27.pdf。課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局（2007）。《通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》（頁 4）。香港：課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局。取自 http://334.edb.hkedcity.net/ doc/chi/ls_final_c_070326a.pdf。顧伊麗、侯傑泰、何德芳。《「批判性思考能力的學與教」教材套》。香港：教育局課程發展處個人、社會及人文教育組。取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/download/ Content_7455/chi/package_on_the_l&T_of_critical_thinking_skills_chi.pdf。 Fullan, M., & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). Fullan’s Educational Change. Retrieved November 2, 2011, from: http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/Fullan.htm 171 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes 於小說教學時利用小組討論為介入策略觀察學生態度轉變 Monique LOK & Beatrice CHIU Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This case study explores attitudinal changes through using group discussion as an intervention strategy for teaching novels in a primary school in Hong Kong. Comprehension, application and synthesis questions were used to promote higher order thinking skills and positive risk taking behaviors amongst students. The research question was to what extent group discussion serves as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students. Data was collected through observations, documentations, journals and group interviews. Data analysis suggests a higher percentage of students choose the “application” and “synthesis” type questions. It was found that the amount of time given to students impact on the length and quality of students’answers. The requirement to copy the questions impacted on students’choice of questions. Both classes experienced change in the choice of questions over the reading week.Teachers are more aware of the complexity of conducting research in a classroom setting and the importance of balancing the roles of language teachers and researchers with the support of a school- based professional learning community. 173 Keywords attitudinal changes, emotional maturity, group discussion, novel teaching 摘要本個案研究是有關一間香港的小學於小說教學時，利用小組討論作為介入策略時學生的行為轉變。透過閱讀理解、應用以及綜合性的題型，令學生提升高階思維能力和正面冒險行為。本研究問題是同儕指導與小組討論作為介入策略對提高情緒成熟有多少影響。數據分析發現，較多學生選擇應用以及綜合性題型的班別的改變比較大。完成個案研究後，老師對學生學習能力及方式有更深認識。老師能注意到課室內進行研究的複雜性，以及在校本專業學習的環境下平衡作為語言老師及研究員的重要性。關鍵詞態度轉變，情緒成熟，小組討論，小說教學 1. Background One of the major challenges in curriculum for teachers in Hong Kong is how to promote the higher order thinking skills, by allowing students to take positive risks when it comes to answering high order level questions. As teachers, we tend to ask questions in the “knowledge” category for about 80% to 90% of the time in class. These questions are fundamental to learning, but using them all the time may pose hurdles to high order thinking development in students. Higher order level questions require much more “brain power” and a more extensive and elaborate answers (Bloom, et al, 1956, Costa 2000). Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division is adopting a more inquiry-based learning curriculum in 2009-2010 hence teachers responded to the need by examining an alternative approach to teaching novel studies. Students are self-motivated and eager to learn, and demonstrate patience and perseverance in tackling challenging learning tasks. However, 174 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes our students tend not to collaborate effectively when asked to share their answers and opinions in a group setting. Approaches to teaching literature with respect to novel studies in previous years by many teachers within the Department of English focused primarily on “knowledge” type questions. Due to the Department’s initiative to develop more options when approaching literature studies, the need for inclusion of higher order thinking questions became apparent not only to challenge the studies but also to make teaching varied. In the school development plan for the English Department in 2009-2010, we aim to further enhance students’ learning performance and to enable them to master and manipulate various generic skills and demonstrate good and independent learning abilities. An Exploratory Practice Committee was set up to give teachers opportunities to conduct research in a classroom setting, to improve and to reflect on students’ learning and teaching practices. This study aims to get students to change their attitudes towards attempting to answer synthesis type questions after they have shared their answers with their peers in a group setting. Using group discussion as an intervention strategy, as a result, students will have the opportunity to develop their collaborative skills and be encouraged to take risks when answering higher order thinking questions. 2. Literature Review Vygotsky stated that learning awakens in children a variety of internal developmental processes that can operate only when they interact with more competent people in their environment and in cooperation with their peers (Vygotsky, 1978). When children scaffold each other, they modify a task and offer assistance to each other to help complete the task (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). According to Thelen’s principal of least-sized groups, we should strive for a group as small as possible but that has all the expertise and diverse points of view necessary to complete the task well (Thelen, 1954). Most teachers in general find that it is easier to conduct group discussions in smaller groups as each member will have more opportunities to participate and share their opinions and answers with each other. Smaller groups are also easier to handle for teachers when it comes to classroom management. According to researchers, children at 11 years old begin to reason abstractly (Atherton, 2009). Therefore we selected Grade five students in this study as they are expected and required to answer questions of different levels of difficulty. Based on 175 findings, children around 11 years old are at the stage where they are emotionally, socially and intellectually developing (Wood, 1998). Through exposure to questions that differ in cognitive skills, children will develop more confidence in choosing to answer questions that require creativity, imagination and critical thinking skills. Grade five students were chosen for this study because children are at the stage where they are emotionally, socially and intellectually developing. Emotional maturity is defined as the strength and courage to actualize individual abilities within the frame of social demands (Landau & Weissler, 1998). Emotionally, ten and eleven year olds are usually cooperative, easygoing, friendly and agreeable. At the social level, friendships and activities with age mates flourish. They want to be a part of the group and do not want to stand alone in competition (Wood, 1998). Finally, intellectually, children at this age are verbal. Making ethical decisions becomes a challenging task. They are able to express ideas and feelings in creative ways. More importantly, at eleven years old, children begin to reason abstractly (Atherton, 2009). Therefore, this group of students are chosen to participate in this study. It is hoped that the study will help language teachers make informed decisions when incorporating emotion related elements into the language program. 3. Assumptions There are two assumptions for this study: Assumption 1: Through the interventions, students will become more willing to take risks to answer higher order thinking questions and thus become more willing to tackle these questions on their own initiative the next time they encounter them. Assumptions 2: In addition to cognitive maturity that comes with age for grade 5 students, group discussion can serve as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students. The study attempts to find answers to the following questions: 1. Are students more willing to take risks to answer high order questions after going through the interventions? What are the reasons behind their move? 2. Does group discussion serve as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students? If yes, how? If no, why? 176 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes 4. Methodology To explore the research questions, changes and rearrangements were made in the curriculum. The teaching of the novel was conducted in a six-day teaching cycle to allow for more in-depth group discussions. In addition, the novel is not formally assessed, thus releasing students from pressure and allowing ample room for them to express their views and ideas. 4.1 Curriculum Organization There are 2 books for Reading for each level. “Frindle” is one of the novels chosen for Grade 5. It is a novel written by Andrew Clements. The school chose it in 2008- 2009, and almost all the boys in the level liked it, so it was chosen again for the 1st term of academic year 2009-2010. The book explores the inquisitive nature of young boys with respect to authority. The themes of the book also provided students with thought- provoking situations for students’ deliberations and making choices. Students also found it easy to identify with the characters in the book as the plot focuses on daily school life at the primary level. There are 15 chapters broken into 6 modules taught in the ‘reading week’ (See Table 1). There were 3 interventions throughout the project. Each intervention was carried out using group discussions. Students were grouped according to the selection of the questions. Table 1: Arrangement of the lessons and interventions Dates (Dec.) Modules Chapters Interventions Grouping Activities 7th 1 1-3 - Biography of the author - Introduction and summary of the novel - Answering a question from module 1 8th 2 4-5 - Language support for novel reading - Whole class discussion - Answering a question from module 2 and 3 177 Dates (Dec.) Modules Chapters Interventions Grouping Activities 9th 3 6-8 1st Mixed-ability grouping of students according to their choice of questions - Briefing on how to conduct group discussion - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 4 11th 4 9-10 2nd ditto - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 5 14th 5 11-12 3rd ditto - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 6 15th 6 13-15 - Wrapping-up - Role playing We designed questions for each module in 3 levels of challenge, i.e. Comprehension questions, Application questions and Synthesis questions. For example, the following questions are designed for Module 5 on Chapters 11-12. (see Appendix for the full set of questions): 1. You are Nick. What would you do with the first cheque you got from Bud Lawrence? 2. Do you think Bud and Mr. Allen's deal is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. If you were Nick's dad, would you keep the money a secret from Nick? Why or why not? Explain your answer. As the above table shows, we did three interventions. For each intervention, we briefed our students on how a proper group discussion is conducted. Then students were asked to get into groups assigned by the teacher. The group encompassed at least one student from each of the three question types. Students were given instructions on how to do a 7-minute discussion. During the discussion, students were asked to share their 178 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes own responses to the question they had answered. The group leader also asked prompting questions like, “Why did you choose to answer that question” to get students to think and share, as a group, at a deeper level. Each group had a group leader to invite shy students to speak and to ensure every student had a chance to do some sharing. After the discussion, students were required to reflect on their discussions and identify problems. The teacher then projected the next set of questions onto the screen, read out each question and explained them. Each student was asked to answer only one question out of three in class. 4.2 Research Design Table 2: Methods of Data Collection When How (methods of collection) What 7th -15th December observation - video 3 interventions - observe all modules - debriefing after each intervention 7th -15th December documentation - Ss’ question/answer sheets - diaries - interview transcription - recordings (videos and audios) after each intervention journal Teachers’ reflective journals after each intervention after all interventions group interview (semi- structured) 2 groups (3 students from 5J and 5S) and 20 minutes for each group 4.3 Selecting Target Groups To investigate the effects of curriculum changes of novel teaching, target groups were carefully chosen and various research methods were employed to address the research questions, such as to what extent group discussion serves as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students There are 5 classes in Grade 5. Four of them share similar level of proficiency in English while one is more advanced. Class 5D was chosen to do the pilot study. Class 5J (29 students) and Class 5S (32 students) were randomly chosen for the study as experiment groups. The other two classes, Class 5P (29 students) and Class 5M (30 students), were controlled groups, not using any intervention strategy. 179 4.4 Data Collection Various types of data collection methods, such as observations, group interviews, journals and documentations, were adopted to collect the data for this study at different phases throughout the study. 5. Findings On completion of the reading week, sets of data were analyzed for findings in response to the assumptions of the study. Initial findings from analyzing students’ responses to the questions indicate that despite changes identified in their choices of questions over the period, there was not a definite pattern of move in the levels of questions chosen. We attempted to script verbatim all answers from students and sort out on (1) question basis, (2) individual student basis, and selected student responses basis. Brief findings are explained in the following sessions. 5.1 On question basis To find out how students responded to the prescribed questions, all questions attempted are sorted out and grouped into numbered categories. The responses are further sub-divided into yes/no, right/wrong, good/smart/bad etc. according to the nature of the questions. The prime purpose of doing this categorization is to capture students’ responses to all the questions attempted. This serves as the basis for subsequent analysis on individual responses. Initial findings from the analysis of the first sets of question indicate that students’ responses in the first module were generally short and direct with little elaboration. Taking into consideration the comparatively short time allowed for students to copy and answer the questions in the lesson, their short concise responses to the first set of questions were not surprising. Indeed, it was also found that the requirements to copy the questions also impacted on students’ choice of questions. They tended to choose the short questions instead of the long ones. This move was remedied by teachers who instructed the students not to copy the questions from the second intervention lesson onwards. Such a move impacted on students’ choice of questions since they would choose questions other than the shortest ones in subsequent modules. 5.2 On individual basis Individual students’ responses to questions attempted are sorted out to identify first 180 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes for their choices and next for the pattern of choice. The prime purpose of such grouping is to identify changes in students’ choices of questions after the interventions. The absolute number of students making various choices is counted and the percentage of students choosing various levels of questions (easy, medium and difficult as suggested by teachers) is calculated. Figure 1 and Figure 2 indicate the general trend of choice of questions over the reading week. These graphs help to illustrate whether the change is obvious. Both classes experienced change in the choice of questions over the reading week. The trend is more obvious in 5J which had a high proportion of students choosing ‘comprehension’ question in the first two modules. But choice of medium to high level, the trend is different for 5S class. A large number of students opted for a ‘difficult’ question in the first lesson. It dropped drastically in the second lesson but the trend grew up gradually in the remaining lessons. Generally speaking, if we compared the trend with the implementation of the intervention strategy, the change in 5J is more obvious from the third lesson onward. A much higher percentage of students chose the ‘application’ and ‘synthesis’ questions in the last two modules. Such changes were also identified in 5S. But it should be noted that students were attracted by the ‘comprehension’ question in Chapters 9-10 and both classes experienced a big drop in the choice of the higher level questions. But this trend was reverted in the fifth and the sixth lessons when students were tuned in to the group discussion in the reading lessons. They were more willing to choose questions that were more challenging. This was echoed in the student interview described in the section of Analysis of Student Interview. Figure 1: Choice of questions by P5J students over the reading week 181 Figure 2: Choice of questions by P5S students over the reading week 5.3 On selected student responses basis Attempt is made to identify patterns of choices of questions through examining all the students’ responses to questions. The following pattern of choice is revealed in selected students: Seven students displayed an “up” trend in the choice of questions; moving from comprehension questions to synthesis questions. Two students displayed a “down” trend in the choice of question; moving from synthesis questions to comprehension questions. One student chose all number 2 questions throughout. 5.4 Analysis of student interview Students’ interview was transcribed verbatim for their views on the reading week in general and the intervention strategy in particular. Their perception of the question levels was also solicited in order to compare with the teachers’ categorization of the questions. Six students from two classes were selected to have an interview on their general impression of the novel, their learning experiences in group discussion and their views on the challenge levels of the questions. When students were prompted to talk about the novel, they all expressed that they liked the story because it was funny and interesting. 182 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes And they liked the way their teacher taught the book in the reading week because they enjoyed group discussion, shared their ideas with their classmates and presented it in the whole class. When asked how they chose their questions, the students responded: Student A: I’ll pick up the one which is more interesting and challenging. Pick the one that needs to write more. Student B: I will pick questions. My answer has more things to write about or more interesting, I will pick that. Student C: It’s challenging. We can use our brain. I always chose number three. All of the questions are properly arranged. From the above students’ interview answers, it is noted that some students were aware of the questions were arranged in different levels of challenge and they would like to choose those challenging questions to answer. In the interview different students had different perceptions of the group discussion. The following responses show how students thought about the discussions. Student A: Discussion is useful. Because it is an exercise to practice talking. I learn friendship. Because you need friendship to make a team group. I would encourage them to speak more and explain more. Student B: It could practice our English talk frequent because we usually speak Cantonese with our friend and discussion would make our English speaking more fluent. You need to listen others opinion, but not only using to your skills. The above responses indicate that students enjoyed group discussion because they considered discussions useful in that they helped them practice English and share their ideas with others. However, it is noted that students had different views on the levels of challenge for the questions. In the interview, some of the students made the following comments: 183 Student A: I would choose different questions for different chapters. Because each chapter has challenging questions. These questions are not in order. Interviewer: Oh, Yeah. You know the questions are not in the order. So which one is more challenging? Student A: Of course Number three. Interviewer: How about you? Which set of questions did you choose? Student B: Arr….. I chose that, may be a challenging one. Interviewer: Which Set? Student B: Like chapters six to eight, those are harder because they know how the parents feel when you use the word “frindle” and you have to stay after school for detention. Interviewer: You think that is most challenging. Student B: Because you are not parents, so you don’t know really how to answer the questions. Interviewer: Which one is the least challenging? Student B: Chapter one to three. Interviewer: You mean the whole set of questions. Student B: Right. Interviewer: So, you think that the questions are arranged in the way that chapter one to three are least challenging… Student B: Yeah. Easy, move along to chapter thirteen to fifteen. That set is more challenging. 184 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Interviewer: Okay, what do you think? (Turned to Student) Student C: Because at start, they don’t really make challenging questions because it will be easy at first. Interviewer: The second set is more difficult? Student C: Yes. Interviewer: And the third set getting on more difficult? That’s what you think of your questions, right? Interviewer (Turned back to Student A): Could you please tell your classmates about what you think of the questions? Student A: I think each chapter has the most challenging questions and it is usually of feeling of others, you are pretending to be different people to look back at you. Like my parents looking at me to tell bad or good of me. You know, something like that. The following table shows the views of the students on levels of questions and the question levels set by teachers. The highlighted boxes are the choice of students matched with teachers’. It is noticed that students’ view on the level of questions is different from that of the teachers’. For example, in chapter 1-3, teachers consider question 3 is an application (medium) question but none of the students thought that question is an application question. Three of them thought that is a synthesis (difficult) question. This applied also to question 3 in chapter 13-15, although teachers consider that it is an application question, four students thought that this is a synthesis (difficult) question. 185 Table 3: Students’ and Teachers’ view on levels of questions Question Teacher Student A Student B Student C Student D Student E Chapter 1-3 1 difficult easy easy medium medium difficult 2 easy difficult difficult easy difficult medium 3 medium difficult difficult difficult easy easy Chapter 4-5 1 easy medium easy easy easy easy 2 medium difficult medium difficult medium medium 3 difficult difficult difficult medium difficult difficult Chapter 6-8 1 easy difficult difficult medium easy medium 2 medium difficult easy easy difficult difficult 3 difficult difficult difficult difficult medium easy Chapter 9-10 1 difficult medium medium easy medium medium 2 easy easy medium medium easy easy 3 medium easy difficult difficult difficult difficult Chapter 11-12 1 easy medium difficult medium medium difficult 2 medium easy medium easy easy medium 3 difficult difficult medium difficult difficult easy Chapter 13-15 1 difficult difficult difficult medium easy medium 2 easy medium difficult easy medium easy 3 medium medium difficult difficult difficult difficult 5.5 Analysis of video lessons Video lessons are transcribed in selective vignettes to illustrate students’ interaction related to discussion focus. Group interaction skills are also identified in the video vignettes. Relevant students’ talk and conversation are also transcribed for evidence of the impact of the intervention strategy on students’ choice of questions and explanation. In the first lesson, teacher introduced the novel and asked students to answer the question from module one. No intervention was attempted. In the second lesson, teacher conducted a whole class discussion and students were requested to answer the questions for module two and three. In the third lesson wherein the intervention strategy was first introduced, teacher instructed students to share their answers to questions in the previous modules. A total of three 7-minute discussion sessions were conducted. Teacher asked one student from each group to share his answer. It appeared that students needed teacher’s constant prompting to elaborate their generally brief and direct answers. Before the end of lesson, students were asked to answer the questions on the next module. 186 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes The discussions session was started from 3rd lesson. It is found that there was a drop in the level of questions, 41% of students’ question choice fell from high to low/medium or medium to low after in the third module, indicated in Table 4 below. Table 4: Students’ choice of question after the 1st intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 3 6 5 Low to Medium 7 9 8 Medium to High 10 6 8 Medium to Low 43 22 32 High to Low 0 13 6 High to Medium 3 3 3 Unchanged and Absent 33 41 37 In the fourth lesson, the teacher showed a video taken the day before to explain how a proper group discussion was like. Students were told to share their answers. The video took effect and most of the groups were on tasks. Teacher reinforced the group discussion skills through asking each group to give scores to the performance of their classmates in the discussion. Students were then asked to answer the questions in the next module. On analyzing students’ choice of questions after the group discussion in the fourth lesson, 62% of the students moved from low to medium/high or medium to high in their question choice for module 5. Table 5: Students’ choice of question after the 2nd intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 20 31 26 Low to Medium 27 25 26 Medium to High 7 13 10 Medium to Low 0 0 0 High to Low 3 6 5 High to Medium 0 9 5 Unchanged and Absent 43 16 29 On completion of the 5th module, 56% of the students remained unchanged in the level of question choice, indicated in the following table: 187 Table 6: Students’ choice of question after the 3rd intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 6 10 8 Low to Medium 0 3 2 Medium to High 3 7 5 Medium to Low 0 13 6 High to Low 0 3 2 High to Medium 22 20 21 Unchanged and Absent 69 43 56 6. Discussions In this study, we find some interesting points as follows: 6.1 Correlation between emotional maturity and question selection Students’ selection of questions may be directly related to the length of the questions if asked to copy them. During the 1st intervention, students were asked to copy the questions they chose. It was found that they tended to choose short questions (in terms of the length). Then we changed our strategy, so no questions were to be copied. Students were asked to give answers only. However, it is also noted that the amount of time given for students to answer the question in the class could impact on the length and quality of their answers. Teachers’ expectations on the length of the answer required of them could also be an influential factor. When we compare their answers for the first modules to those in the last module when students were requested to write at least 100 words in 10 minutes, we notice that their answers are comparatively longer and more substantial. Focus should be on which type of question chosen instead of quality of students answers / further sharing of responses done in discussion. Students’ choice of questions changed after intervention– trends and development. Students were more willing to take risks in choosing questions of synthesis and application types. It is more prominent in 5J’s performance after the first two interventions, comparing with that of 5S. Students’ perspectives on classifying the questions were different from those of the teachers’. 188 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Students did not know that the questions were classified into three types. Quite a few preferred the application or synthesis types to the comprehension type which, however, was considered easier to answer from teachers’ perspectives. As mentioned above, students tended to choose shorter questions (in terms of length) which should have suggested a preference to easy-to-answer questions but the data showed that our students’ perspectives on classifying the questions were different from ours’. From the students’ interview, they were asked to rank the questions in challenge levels. Half of them thought the questions were arranged in ascending order of challenge, with easy questions to begin with in module 1 and challenge levels increased as the modules progressed through to the most challenging questions in the last module. However, some students considered that each chapter had its own challenging questions. In his words, “I think each chapter has challenging questions. It is usually about the feeling of others. You are pretending to be a different people to look back at you.” However, one student had a different view. “Ascending order of challenge. Easiest at the very beginning, and then is most difficult at the end.” From the above answers, it is found that most students interviewed believed that the questions were in ascending order of challenge, except one student who thought that each chapter had a challenging question. 6.2 Effects of language ability Most of our students are capable of expressing their thoughts quite fluently. However, many of them chose questions which they found interesting and were short in length to answer. When students were given clear instructions as to how many words they were required to put down in their answers and more time was given to them, they elaborated on their answers. 6.3 Effectiveness of group discussion Group discussions facilitate group work. Almost all students enjoyed group discussions, including those shy ones. It was, however, inevitable that a small number of students did not get themselves involved in the activities at all. Fortunately no dominations were taken place. This was echoed in students’ interview, students described their classmates’ feelings about the group discussions. 189 Student A: You need to listen to others’ opinion, but not only using your skills. Student B: I would encourage them to speak more and explain more. Student C: I asked them to give more opinion so that may be my teacher and make me think creative. He gave more answers. Student A: Some of the teammates just sat there and didn’t think. Another group of students recalled: Interviewee: And how did you prompt them to say more in the discussion? Student D: So we asked them “why you choose that question” or “can you choose another more challenging questions?” like that. Student E: They talked about the ideas. Usually they answered the easiest questions. Student D: Ya. Exactly. They always said when I ask “do you want to try another challenging question?” Some say yes but some say no. 6.4 Overall effectiveness of the programme organization, implementation and intervention strategies Due to time constraints, the overall effectiveness of the programme organization, implementation and intervention strategies was not that effective. Teachers struggled to strike a balance in their roles as language teacher and teacher researcher at the same time. Altogether, the novel was taught within a 6-day schedule. Students also had to be trained in holding group discussions; hence teachers also had to spend time addressing the strategies for effective group work. It was also a challenge to keep the students on task. However, after playing a demonstration of a group discussion that was recorded in a previous lesson, students saw what they were expected to do and which areas they had to improve on. Also the assigning of student roles in group discussions was helpful in keeping students focused. 6.5 Teachers development After conducting this study, we have a deeper understanding of our students’ abilities 190 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes and learning styles. It was observed that most students enjoyed participating in group work when clear guidelines and expectations are given to them. Many were willing to share their ideas and opinions which influenced each other. We have also decided for the future, more time should be spent on the teaching of a novel to allow teachers and students to do discussions, reflect and also focus on the literary teaching aspects of the novel. In addition, we have learnt how to conduct research in the classroom setting, gone through various struggles in balancing teacher and researcher roles, working together in the planning and implementation of the project and writing a report. Lastly, our findings will be shared with our colleagues in the English department as part of teachers’ professional development. 6.6 Difficulties Throughout the study, some difficulties were encountered. For example, the appropriate wording of “comprehension”, “application”, “synthesis” type question including the length of each question as discovered, students tend to select a question based on its length and not necessary its type when asked to copy the question down into their copy book. It was also discovered that some students gave elaborate answers to comprehension questions while some students gave only simple descriptive short answers to “challenging” questions. Questions and answers did not necessarily match teachers’ expectations, i.e. “challenging” questions should draw rich description and reasoned responses. It was interesting to find that one teacher was able to focus on her task assigned to her, which was to get this study completed, while the other struggled a lot in balancing to meet the requirements of the study and to satisfy the needs of her students, like role- playing and doing other activities apart from discussions. It demonstrates the language teachers’ struggle to strike a balance between language teaching and research initiatives and how their perceptions and actions cast impact on the implementation of the intervention strategy that aimed to bring about students’ attitudinal changes. 7. Conclusion and Recommendations To conclude, with regards to doing research, at this point in time, although the data 191 indicates that there was a positive shift towards students voluntarily opting to respond to synthesis type questions, further studies are needed to be done to see whether this shift is sustained. When given the opportunity to share through group discussions amongst peers, students, once understanding that a synthesis question can be discussed openly without the fear of being challenged students become more willing to opt to respond to these types of questions. After we completed our research, we made the following recommendations. In terms of curriculum organization, one issue concerned the time frame set for the reading week. We believed that a longer duration of time for the reading week could have better accommodated both literary learning and doing classroom research. Some recommendations for doing group activities are as follows: 1. Brief and train students on how a proper group discussion is conducted prior to the group discussions to make students aware of their expected performance. 2. Assigning a group leader, a time controller and a noise controller in each group helps students to be more involved and focused in the group discussions. 3. Teachers should ensure that the physical setting of the classroom is conducive to group work for how group work is to be done thus allowing smooth transition into a group sharing environment. 4. In order to allow meaningful group discussions, students should be coached on the skills of questioning especially how to ask prompting questions. 5. Create authentic communicative tasks rather than tasks solely focused on language practice. 6. Constantly revise what was planned to make improvements as a result of what emerges while doing research. For example, students tended to answer the shortest questions when asked to copy the question down. Therefore, in the next lesson, they were only asked to write down the question number rather than writing out the entire question. 192 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes References Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Atherton, J. (2009). Learning and teaching: Piaget’s developmental theory. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman. Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2000). Habits of mind: A developmental series. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Hawkes, N. (2001). Being a school of excellence: Value-based education. Oxfordshire County Council: Advisory and Inspection Service. Landau, E., & Weissler, K. (1988). The relationship between emotional maturity, intelligence and creativity in gifted children. UK: A B Academic Publishers. Tharpe, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in a Social Context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and Society. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 193 Appendix (Questions for each module) (1) Frindle Questions Chapters 1-3: 1. Nick's parents have a rule that children have to do their homework first. What made Nick’s parents come up with this rule? Explain your answer. 2. Would you like to be in Nick’s class? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. If you were to be put on one of the three lists made by Mrs. Granger (really good kids, really smart kids, or really bad kids) which list would you be on? Explain your answer. (2) Frindle Questions Chapters 4-5: 1. If you don’t know a particular word, how do you go about finding out its meaning? 2. If a friend of yours was feeling nervous about giving a presentation, what advice would you give him? 3. You are Nick. Explain why you think side-tracking Mrs. Granger is right or wrong. (3) Frindle Questions Chapters 6-8: 1. Do you think Mrs. Granger's punishment is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 2. How would your parents feel if you used the word “frindle” and had to stay after school for detention? 3. You are Mrs. Granger. Write the letter which was in the fat white envelope that Nick had signed. (4) Frindle Questions Chapters 9-10: 1. How would your parent's react if you were Nick and the principal came to your house? 2. Would you continue to use the word “frindle”? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. Who do you think sent Judy Morgan the class picture? Explain your answer. (5) Frindle Questions Chapters 11-12: 1. Do you think Bud and Mr. Allen's deal is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 2. If you were Nick's dad, would you keep the money a secret from Nick? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. You are Nick. What would you do with the first cheque you got from Bud Lawrence? (6) Frindle Questions Chapters 13-15: 1. You are Mrs. Granger. Write a thank you note to Nick for his gift. 2. Did you like the ending of the book? Tell why or why not. Explain your answer. 3. You have made up a new word. What is the word and what does your word mean? Why would others use it? 194 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Appendix (continued) Discussion questions for before you read the chapter. Chapter 1 Some students delight in coming up with creative ways of making the school day more interesting. Tell about an incident in which one of your fellow students came up with such an idea. List four personal qualities that you feel make for a really great teacher. Chapter 2 The author of Frindle uses exaggeration very effectively in making his story more interesting (e.g. “those huge dictionaries with every word in the universe”). Give your own example of exaggeration in describing an animal of your choice. Nick’s fifth grade teacher takes words and their meanings very seriously. Explain why she might think such things are important. Chapters 3 & 4 Are you familiar with any strategies designed to distract a teacher and waste time in the classroom? Describe one such strategy that might be successful in accomplishing this goal. Chapter 5 Think about a time when you had to stand up in front of several people for a particular reason (to do a report or display a talent). Describe your feelings. Why do you think you felt this way? Chapters 6 & 7 Men and women have been coming up with creative ideas for thousands of years. Describe one particularly imaginative idea that proved to be important to people everywhere. Who was responsible for that idea? Chapter 8 Tell about a time when you (or a friend) were unfairly punished. Be sure to describe what happened and how you felt. 195 Chapter 9 Tell why a principal might visit the home of one of his/her students. Try to come up with 2 possible reasons. Chapter 10 If you were a reporter investigating the frindle controversy, think of one question you might ask the following people: Mrs. Granger, Nick, Mrs. Chatham and Nick’s mom. Chapter 11 Although telling the truth is an excellent idea, it can sometimes create difficulties as well. Give an example of how this might be true (use your own experience if you like). Chapter 12 What is meant by the term “get rich quick scheme”? Give a possible example of such a scheme. What advantage might there be in being rich? What disadvantage might there be in being rich? Chapter 13 Describe one advantage to being famous. Describe one disadvantage. Chapter 14 Describe the greatest idea you have ever had. (If you can’t think of one, use your imagination.) Tell about a time when an adult (other than one of your parents) said something encouraging to you that made a real difference in your life. Chapter 15 What does the word generous mean to you? Give an example of generosity from your own life. What do you think is in the envelope that Mrs. Granger gave to Nick? (Be as detailed as possible) 196 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 Reconstructing Taiwan’s primary teacher education in academic university - Primary teacher education institutionalized 何慧群國立臺中教育大學教育系所摘要因應國際競爭、出生率下降、網路世代、新台灣之子女教育等問題，重構臺灣國小師資培育制度勢在必行。現行國小師資培育管道如教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究所下修教育學程與 2012 年施行國小教師專業碩士學位學程，本文旨在：（1）凸顯國小師資培育四軌並行，有違專業邏輯（professional reasoning）；（2）師資培育涵蓋教職識能與師培生人格發展；（3）以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基，據以提案「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制；以及（4）對應國小多科包班需求，多科系學院是較適組織結構。關鍵詞四軌並行教師培訓課程，40 學分教育學程，「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制 Abstract In response to national competitiveness, the birth rate dropped, the Internet generation and 197 new Taiwanese children etc., it is imperative to build a new system of Primary Teachers’ training program, which is the “4 +0.5 +0.5” system. It is the time for designing a new system of Primary Teacher Education. However, it is inappropriate to simply upgrade our teachers’ education level to master degree before analyzing today’s four-track program of teacher education. This article aims to highlight: Qualifications for primary school teachers went so far as can be re-divided into 4 ways: 4-year degree of Department of Education, 40 undergraduate credits, 26 graduate credits and 2-year master degree of instruction for unemployed legalized teacher candidates. This is a flaw system that violates professional consensus. Keywords four-track program, 40 undergraduate credits, “4+0.5+0.5” system 甲、前言「國運興衰，繫於教育；教育成敗，繫於教師。」21 世紀是變動變化頻繁與壓力遽增的時代，教育效益與教師素質成為關注焦點。1994 年 2 月 7 日師資培育法公布實施至今，主客觀環境變化不可同日而語，檢討、省思與評鑑時刻已然到來。一般而言，專業「典範工程」（engineering of paradigm）之變革進行於發展歷程，新範式生成最終責付專業論述（discourse）；另，教育改革宜通盤考量，專業理性與前瞻共識是不可或缺的要素。國小基礎教育扎根不深，學習者日後創意、創造力、競爭力難見其張力，教師專業素質是影響關鍵要素。當今國小師資培育制度計有教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究所下修教育學程與國小教師專業碩士學位學程等。本文旨在凸顯： 1. 就專業而言，國小師資培育四軌並行，有違專業邏輯（professional reasoning）。 2. 師資培育涵蓋教職識能與師培生人格發展。 3. 以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基，據以提案「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制，以及 4. 對應國小多科包班需求，多科系學院是較適組織結構。 198 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育國小師資培育重構提案之研究，首先，就現行四軌國小師資培育進行分析，並據以指出一則有違專業邏輯性，再則造成國小教師專業素質參差不齊與供需失衡；其次，「他山之石，可以攻玉」，對照歐盟、中國大陸教師教育發展與臺灣在地需求，歸納結論：國小師資培育學士學歷基礎化，在職進修、學位研修高移碩士化，最後，綜觀時代變革、理論建構與實務操作系統思維，提出新國小師資培育制度。乙、臺灣國小師資培育制度及其問題 1994 年 2 月 7 日公佈實施《師資培育法》，依據法規第四條規定：「師資及其教育專業人員之培育，由師範校院、設有教育院、系、所或教育學程之大學校院實施之。……教育學程係指大學校院所規劃經教育部核定之教育專業課程」（教育部，1996），師資培育專業變革是師資培育機構多元化，與教育學程是師資培育專業課程。至 2004 年，國小師資培育機構由原來 9 所師範院校增設為 31 個點，含一般大學設置之師資培育中心（湯維玲，2007）；2009 年，國小師資培育機構減少為 28 個點（高等教育評鑑中心基金會，2009）。一、國小師資培育類型（1）教育本科專業教育本科專業，由師範系統院校與一般大學經教育部核可設立的教育相關系所，提供為期 4 年本科專業教育。依據國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度教育系課程架構，分師培生與非師培生二類（見表一），其中師培生課程設計包含共通課程 10學分、通識選修課程 18學分、專門課程 100 學分與自由選修 20 學分。專門課程部分：（1）教育本科專業之課程設計著重於「教育理念」、「師範性」養成；（2）專門必修課程偏屬專業理論，專門選修偏屬理論應用；（3）「教什麼」之學科知識學分比重佔 20/148。自由選修部分：（1）開設科目多元與多樣，（2）就開課成本、任課師資，執行難度高。教育本科之專門與自由選修專業課程多由教育背景教師授課。 199 表一教育系課程設計及其學分一覽表課程類別學分別適用類別必修選修師資培育備註共同及通識課程共同課程（國、英、大一二體育） 10 0 10 通識課程 0 18 18 學科專業教學基本學科課程 10 0 10 非師資培育生免修教學實習及分科教材教法 10 0 10 專門課程必修 41 0 41 已內含「教育專業課程」18 學分選修 0 39 39 自由選修 0 20 20 可自由選讀本系、外系及外校之專門課程、專長學程、教育專業課程 20 學分已內含「教育專業課程」2 學分合計 148 專門必修 41 學分教育概論、教育心理學、教育哲學、教育社會學、兒童心理學、教育行政、教育史、教學原理、教育統計、教育測驗與評量、課程發展與設計、教育研究法、比較教育、教育實習 I、II、III…… 專門選修 39 學分認知心理學、多元文化教育、英文教育名著選讀、教學心理學、班級團體輔導、創造力與特殊才能、教學科技理論與實務、教學社會學、創新教學與個別化教學、多元化教學評量、情意教學與評量、閱讀心理與教學、學校本位課程發展、另類教育、課程理論、各國課程比較、童書設計與編輯、教材研發與製作、課程評鑑、統整課程設計…… 自由選修 20 學分特殊教育導論、性別教育、發展心理學、行為改變技術、親職教育、青少年心理學、輔導原理與實務、心理與教育測驗、生命教育、班級經營、教學媒體與操作、生涯教育、中等教育…… （資料來源：國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度課程架構）（2）40 學分教育學程依據施行《師資培育法》第 9 條規定：「修畢規定之師資職前教育課程，成績及格者，由師資培育之大學發給修畢師資職前教育證明書」，現階段職前教育課程設計為 40 學分（見附錄一），課程範圍包含：（1）教育基礎課程（至少必修 4學分）；（2）教育方法學課程（至少必修 6 學分）；（3）教學基本學科課程（至少必修 10 學分）；（4）教學實習及分科教材教法（至少必修 10 學分，教材教法必修 3-4 領域）；以及（5）選修課程（至少 10 學分）。 200 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育（3）研究所下修教育學程研究所下修教育學程，意旨教育本科與非教育本科研究生至大學部選修 40 學分國小教育學程，以取得國小任教資格，另，教育所研究生抵減部分學分。以國立臺中教育大學為例，非教育本科專業學生通過校內甄選，研究生接受心理測驗，經錄取後，將自研一下開始修習學分，至少修業 4 學期與另加實習 1 學期。教育本科專業生與（2）、（3）生源不同，前者是經由大學入學考試分發至教育學系，後二者本科專業則不是教育，40 學分修業類「輔系」性質。（4）國小教師專業碩士學位學程 2012 年 9 月將實施國小教師專業碩士學位學程教育（見表二），招生對象具教師合格證者，採公費制，並責其接受為期 2 年專業教育，畢業後分發至相關國小任教。至 2013 年 9月，國小師資培育新增「2+2+2」模式（楊思偉，2010），是謂精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫。 2012 年與 2013 年施行之國小師資培育「專案」，彼此無關聯性，前者是臺灣國小師培碩化規劃歷程之「節外生枝」，責付至多 6 年時效；後者是奉教育部高教司核准之實驗計畫。表二教師專業碩士學位學程課程設計及其學分一覽表課程類別學分必修選修核心課程基礎理論類 6 0 研究方法類 9 0 專精課程 0 12~19 一般選修課程 0 4~10 合計 35 三、學程課程規劃：本碩士學位學程課程分為核心課程、專精課程（教學方法學課程）及一般選修課程三部份。碩士班學生至少應修習 35 學分，並依下列規定修畢應修學分，完成且通過碩士論文考試者，授予教育學碩士學位。四、進入本學程的學生，將依其大學背景及修習教育專業課程之情形，由導師及學程主任輔 ______________________________________ 導學生，並確定每位學生於本校其他學系需補修之教學學科知識課程______________________________ 6_至_ 12__學分。___ 七、本學程規定_____ 101___學年度入學之學生應加修國民小學教師加註英語專長專門課程___________________________ 30__學分，___ 依教育部頒布之課程架構開設。（資料來源：2012 精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫成果發表暨研討會） 201 二、相關問題綜觀臺灣國小師資培育管道計有：4 年制教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究生下修國小教程、2012 年教師專業碩士學位學程與 2013 年精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫；課程類別有 4 類，40 學分教育學程是共同核心課程（core curricula）。 1. 師資培育機構素質不一至 2012 年，臺灣大專校院計有 164 所（不含軍警校院及空中大學），學生總數逾 133 萬（教育部，2012）；依據 Trow（1973）提出高等教育落實程度分類尺規，臺灣高等教育業已進入普及階段。另，「名校情節」在所難免，而私立校院校數或學生人數所占比率高於公立校院（教育部，2010），則是不爭事實。師資培育機構素質不一，涵蓋校際排名落差與招生素質差異。依據《師資培育法》規定，各公私立大學得以成立師培中心與規劃教育學程，但是，校際教育資源、師資編制差異大，其多以最低標準 3 位員額來負責行政與教學，影響教學、輔導實習、地方教育輔導等業務。另，校際生源結構呈多樣態，一般而言，北部學生素質、父母社經地位優於中南部、西部優於東部；國公立大學學生學習動機與行動優於私立大學、技專院校。 2. 專業培用落差臺灣國小教育施行多科包班教學，但是，教育專業本科 148 學分與 40 學分教育學程在學科知識課程規劃上均只有 20 學分，師培生之「學術智能」（academic literacy）發展明顯不足。另，不同於 1996 年施行之新課程標準課程範式，2001 年實施九年一貫課程改革，相關國小師資培育課程設計未同步進行調整或修正，致令課程政策執行成效難以評斷與歸因。 3. 實習制度待改善依據 1995 年通過《教師法》規定，初檢係採學經歷檢覈，即凡修畢師資職前教育課程者均得參加教育實習，導致量的增生與資源相對不足。另，師資培育機構與教育實習機構在人力、資源、專業、共識上均有待經費挹注、專業網絡建置與溝通謀和。 202 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 4. 供需失調 1994 年國小師資培育管道多元化，依據教育部統計資料顯示（見表三），1994-2008 年共培育國小師資 60,535 人次，其中 29,317 人次成為正式教師，5,373 人次成為代理代課教師，25,845 人次為儲備教師或所謂「流浪教師」，正式教師所占比率為 48.4%；2009 年取得正式、代理代課教職的在職率約 38%（自由時報，2010）。除此之外，新生兒人數減少對國小新聘教師上無疑是雪上加霜，由 1979 年 422,518 人，到 1994 年 322,938 人，2010 年下降到 166,866 人（內政部，2011）。表三 2005-2008 年國小師資培育累積人次統計一覽表年度培育人次正式教師代理代課儲備教師在職率 2005 44,654 24,714 19,940 55.3% 2006 52,370 27,390 4,692 20,288 61.3% 2007 57,406 28,644 5,493 23,269 59.5% 2008 60,535 29,317 5,373 25,845 57.3% （資料來源：2008 年中華民國師資培育統計年報） 5. 師範性凌駕專業理性針對現行國小師資培育制度弊端，國立臺中教育大學分別提出：2012 年實施之《國小教師專業碩士學位學程》與 2013 年《精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫》，前者強調理論與實務結合重要性，主發展技術理性（technocratic rationality）；後者正視師範性式微，主情境認知氛圍建置。綜觀初等教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程與 2 起臺中教大國小師培碩化方案，其共同弊端是未理性正視「學科知識」元素旨趣，不查課堂做什麼的什麼，實有關理論體系結構知識、知識性能認知，而專業取向之教育實踐有賴基礎知識與基本知識結構的學習。丙、歐盟、中國大陸師資培育網際網路與知識經濟，業已成為影響學校教育發展主要利基，前者推動知識不斷汰舊 203 換新，後者訴求知識、創意與專業的新經濟活動，提升教師專業素質刻不容緩。一、歐盟師資培育在歐盟高等教育區的「國家文憑資格架構」下，進行各階段師資培育改革，偏制度整合與技術配合，主要論述如下： 1. 師資培育達大學學歷，高級中學須具備碩士學歷； 2. 修業年限 3-6.5 年，教育階段別愈高，修業年限愈長； 3. 課程模式，多數國家學前與國小師培採用並進模式（concurrent model），中等師培採用接續模式（consecutive model），即學術學科與教育專業課程分別在兩個不同階段學習； 4. 各級教師轉向綜合大學來培育，並且延長修業時間，以及 5. 歐洲貿易聯盟教育委員會（ETUCE, 2008）建議從學前教育到高級中等教育師資職前教育提升至碩士層級。目前歐盟芬蘭、德國、波蘭、葡萄牙等國小教師具備碩士學歷（符碧真、黃源河，2010）。二、中國大陸「開放改變中國，中國改變世界。」自 1978年改革開放 30多年來，中國成為崛起大國，並期以由製造大國成為製造強國、技術強國與品牌大國，教育是不可或缺的利器。隨著「科教興國」戰略與高等教育大眾化，培養高層次本科學歷國小教師成為國家人才強國戰略目標之一。至 2002 年，計有 130 所高等學校（含高等師範院校和綜合大學）設置「小學教育」本專科專業，其中「小學教育」本科專業高等院校為 65 所（黃偉娣，2008）。中國大陸幅員廣大，南北、東西地區差異大，國小師資培育採三級制並存，全面化本科專業拔高仍待持續努力。國小師資培育課程設計，學科專業與教育專業比例是1:2，凸顯其正視「知識就是力量」效益與落實知識教育行動；另，通識教育中之馬列毛思想政治理論、國防教育是中國大陸意識型態教育特色（何慧群，2010）。 204 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育綜合上述歐盟與中國大陸師資培育發展，歸納如下： 1. 國小師資培育高等教育化，大學學歷是基本條件，碩化是趨勢。 2. 重視通識教育與學科知識的教育。 3. 整合理論與實務，強調專業化教學。 4. 綜合大學是師資培育機構形式。丁、提案：國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制一、提案基礎提案思考：（1）基於國小教育具基礎性、發展性與綜合性，教育專業偏實用性，較不具學術性。符應社會頻繁變革與教育專業實踐，國小師資培育應兼顧認知與情意發展；（2）國小屬多科包班教學，40 學分教育學程明顯不足與難收對教職工作認同之益，以及（3）師資培育既是教育專業職能發展，並且是當事者人格成長、社會參與感性陶冶。提案建構：以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基，並據以銜接國小師資培育要素。 1. 21 世紀教育目標大學究竟要學生四年後帶走什麼？ Bok 在《大學教了沒？哈佛校長提出的 8 門課》書中提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標（張善楠譯，2008），其關係結構如圖一。圖一 21 世紀教育目標 205 2. 提案設計 G. Santayana（1863-1952）說：「不瞭解歷史，就註定要重蹈覆轍。」迂衡歐盟、中國大陸國小師資培育制度沿革與發展與我國國小教育多科包班需求，提案 4+0.5+0.5 年制國小師資培育，期以 5 年一貫系統性發展國小師資「雙專業」職識能（見圖二），雙專業意旨專業性與社會性。圖二國小師資培育概念結構 206 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育二、國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制臺灣國小師資培育歷經數次改革，偏向技術與實用取向（白亦方，2010），以發展嫻熟教學技術為主要訴求目標；對於世道中落、師範式微現象，臺中教大期以 2013 年實施之《精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫》改善之。國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制主軸是專業性與社會性，「教育工作視為專門的職業」於 70 年代末取得共識；社會性旨在凸顯「我與汝」相互關係（correlation）利基，藉以取代「學為人師，行為世範」，聚焦於個人之師範性。 1. 專業性 1966 年聯合國教科文組織與國際勞工組織提出《關於教師地位的建議》，對教師專業化作出說明，「應把教育工作視為專門的職業，這種職業要求教師經過嚴格地、持續地學習，獲得並保持專門的知識和特別的技術。它要求對所轄學生的教育和福利具有個人及共同的責任感。」（劉芳，2008） 1986 年美國卡內基工作小組、霍姆斯小組相繼發表《國家為培養 21 世紀的教師做準備》、《明日的教師》報告，確立教師的專業地位，並據以提升教師專業素質。1996 年聯合國教科文組織在第 45 屆國際教育大會上提出：「在提高教師地位的整體政策中，專業化是最有前途的中長期策略。」（沈夏威，2010）專業化涵蓋思考習性、數位素養、學科知識與差異教學。（a）思考習性 Socrates 名言：「真正認識自己的人，才是最有力量的人。」Aristotle 認為：「人異於禽獸幾稀，唯智能而已矣。」面對數位資訊充斥與價值解構態勢，思考、觀察、論證、佐證修正、選擇與判斷……之思考術需要教導；又，思考習性非天然生成，相反的，它需要積習成性而幾近仿若天成。基於教育是對人進行啟思、「化性起偽」手段，教育工作「先行者」學會思考與能思考責無旁貸。 207 （b）數位素養在資訊知識數位化與傳播網絡化的時代，資訊素養是職涯發展必備利器，包括：（1）傳統素養（traditional literacy）、（2）媒體素養（media literacy）、（3）電腦素養（computer literacy）與（4）網路素養（network literacy）（McClure, 1994）。為國小教師而言，數位素養展現：（1）提升教學效益之多媒體素養，（2）擷取、應用與分析網路知識，以及（3）善用網路專業社群資源。（c）學科知識面對知識增生快速與學科科目多元，「綜合淺碟化知識」與「學術本位知識」各有利弊。基於小學教育基礎性、發展性與綜合性，以及國內國小勇類層級規模比率超過五成，國小師資學科專業識能發展原則是「國語文、數學為本，外加專長科目」，另，跨學科領域之通識識能是新增識能，屬高等教育之元教育。（d）差異教學差異教學（differentiated instruction），有謂「區分化教學」（賴翠媛， 2009），強調文化脈絡、多元智能取向之教學設計。另，教育資源分配不均、城鄉資訊落差、社會與文化資本歧異對教育影響不宜輕忽。 2. 社會性綜觀歐美師資培育制度沿革與發展，由強調人師、楷模，重視問學、學思與研究，到今日聚焦於可應用性與實踐效益未來範式亟待建構。另，面向全球網絡關聯與網際網路社會，主體意識、本位主義、個人主義逐漸「淡定」，在「我與汝」相互關係（correlation）利基前提，互補、共生、互助、共榮是新增社會意識元素。社會性涵蓋人文素養、生態意識、教育哲學與社會批判。（a）人文素養 A. Einstein（1879-1955）認為：「僅憑知識和技巧並不能給人類的生活帶來 208 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育尊嚴和幸福。」值此工具理性主導的文明發展，人文素養依然是自然科學專門識能與職業技能發展的根基，黃崑巖說：「以一般知識為基礎，在上面建構專業知識，然後再樹立『專業』、『科學』與『人文』三個石柱，完成學問的殿堂，達到全人的教育目的！」（呂宗昕，2005）（b）生態意識生態問題是現代文明後遺症，正視人與生態共生性刻不容緩；其次，體認自然資源有限性與藏富於大自然，複次，倡導取所需、物流用與分享的價值教育，最後，發展以工具理性與價值理性為根基的「天人合一」、「物化合一」統觀視域。（c）教育哲學教育哲學，省視「學以致用」旨趣，學習者是學習的主體，學習是手段，目的是解決問題與創造幸福，主客體、目的與手段不宜混為一談，目的亦不可窄化為謀生就業或掌控自然生態。簡言之，教育開啟人的理性、感性與悟性，教育歷程是發展心智、語言與思想，最終則是用於改善生活境域與豐富存在閱歷。（d）社會批判在多元價值氾濫與主體意識高漲社會裡，社會和諧繫於建立共識與容納歧異，批判識能是較適利器。教育哲學與社會批判分路進擊，期以監測（detecting）與修正（correcting）異常，前者由內向外，後者由外向內，齊一發揮雙環學習（double loop learning）與坐收較適專業效益。三、多科系學院歐美教育發達國家中小學師資培育有別，前者主知識體系與思維邏輯學習，後者主多感官啟蒙與體驗，二者具層級關連姓。1960、70 年代，國小師資培育學歷漸次提升至大學層級，學術研究或學科知識學習是重中之重，與傳統重視人格「陶冶」（楊深坑，1989）有異。 209 另，國小師資培育機構沿革，由獨立師範學院到綜合型大學，以德國為例，其師資培育中心定位為跨院系之一級學術單位，整合研究、發展、執行與協調等跨領域功能（楊深坑，2007）。為臺灣而言，符應國小教育屬多科包班教學需求，較適組織是自成一體系之「教育學院」，院下分設教育系與學科學系。四、教育實務「教育為百年大計，難收立竿見影之效。」教學因時空不同、文化脈絡、對象多樣性，課堂教學、教學歷程充滿不確定性與複雜性，師資培育理論與實習課程予以模組化是必要的。另，教育實務，一則反應準真實教學場域，二則透過具體教學情境與教學事件的專注和反思，將積累與類化的實作經驗內化為更純熟的實踐力。 1. 第一階段 0.5 年第一階段 0.5 年或一學期，時間規劃採 3:2 原則分配。（a）轉化教育專業學習是就教育及其實務進行本質目的性、系統的理性分析和邏輯推理、能動的認知與學習。（b）情境操作教育場域彷如生活情境，教學實踐力在理論轉換與情境操作交互作用下，得以修正、領悟與建構之，個己實踐智慧嘗試展現個性化。（c）教檢依據 2005 年 12 月 28 日修正與公佈實施之師資培育法第 7 條：「師資培育包括師資職前教育及教師資格檢定。」第 11 條：「大學畢業依第九條第四項或前條第一項規定取得修畢師資職前教育證明書者，參加教師資格檢定通過後，由中央主管機關發給教師證書。」（教育部全國法規資料，2011a）另，依據 2010 年 10 月 26 日教育部台參字第 0990178992C 號令修正發布之高級中等以下學校及幼稚園教師資格檢定考試類科及應試科目規定，考試範圍共 210 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育四科，包括共同科目二科及專業科目二科，前者是國語文與教育原理與制度，後者是兒童發展與輔導與國民小學課程與教學（教育部全國法規資料，2011b）。 2. 第二階段 0.5 年第二階段時間規劃採 2:3 原則分配，即在實習學校停留時間約 2 個月、由 2/3 至 3/4 月，在教大時間是 3 個月、由 4/5 至 6 月。（a）專業發展學校（PDS） PDS 是落實教育理論與教學實務交互印證與修正之組織模組（module）。 PDS 成敗繫於高教機構學者專家之「統觀識能」，其包括：（1）由理解課程到教學實務轉換，（2）洞察教室生態潛在課程效應，（3）引進與善用網路虛擬社群資源，（4）再概念化合作伙伴教學者之教學律則，以及（5）發展教學者後設認知習性。（b）教檢教育專業發展具階段性與銜接性，階段不同，階段任務彼此互有差異。大五階段實習不同於大四階段實習，前者真實性（authentic）不同於後者素樸性（naive）；大五實習旨趣不同於實務教檢，前者由師生主體間性社會互動到教學者進行自我辯證、知識符碼轉換，實務教檢目的是檢驗其具備專業化之教學律則成熟度。戊、結論「輸掉教師，輸掉教育；輸掉教育，輸掉未來。」教師素質直接影響學習者受教權益，間接牽動國家發展人資儲備，準此，正視師資培育規劃迫在眉睫。國小師資培育自高等教育學術、科學化後，教師專業「識能」已達社會知識份子行列。如今，為因應國小生態變化，如本位意識高漲、多媒體刺激、數位落差、準網路世代、家庭功能式微、經濟弱勢、新台灣之子女差異教育需求等，國小師資培育亟待補強的專業識能是屬情意、價值「軟實力」，軟實力育成或發展植基於個己的教育理念、人文素養…… 211 最後，符應時代趨勢，國小師資培育是否由「4+0.5」年舊制提升至「4+2」年碩士化，有賴實證資料佐證之；其次，「學習不是短距離衝刺，而是馬拉松長程賽」，專業發展非能一步到位，時間歷練是關鍵；再說，為「學術性低，實用性高」的國小基礎教育，以及新台灣之子女適應與融入社會、單親隔代教養、教育正義……教育工作者個己價值觀建立、品格品德深化、敬業勤業態度培養與自律中滋生的教育「情意智能」、「同理智慧」，是國小師資培育不可或缺要素。參考文獻內政部（2011）。〈百年人口歷年資料〉。2012 年 8 月 7 日，取自 http://www.ris.gov.tw/ version96/population_01_H.html。白亦方（2010）。〈美國優質師資培育的底蘊分析〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，6(1)，21- 38。自由時報（2010）。〈師培教育 13 年 5.8 萬成流浪教師〉。2012 年 8 月 6 日，取自 http://192.192.169.230/edu_paper/data_image/news/n0000011/20101027/a12/00000001.pdf。何慧群（2010）。〈海峽兩岸國小師資培育制度及其課程設計比較〉。2010 台灣教育學術研討會、國立臺中教育大學舉辦之《追求均等與卓越的教育與師資培育》學術研討會。呂宗昕（2005）。《學校沒有教的 K 書秘訣》。台北：時報文化。沈夏威（2010）。〈關於教師教育專業化問題的思考〉。2011 年 4 月 19 日，取自 http:// www.pep.com.cn/xgjy/jiaoshi/ztyj/jszyh/201008/t20100827_802079.htm。高等教育評鑑中心基金會（2009）。〈大學校院師資培育評鑑資訊網──師資培育機構〉。 2012 年 8 月 6 日，取自 http://tece.heeact.edu.tw/main.php?mtype=sch。教育部（1996）。〈師資培育法規選輯〉。台北。教育部（2009）。《2008 中華民國師資培育統計年報》。台北。教育部（2010）。〈第八次全國教育會議資料〉。台北。教育部（2012）。高等教育。2012 年 8 月 8 日，取自 http://history.moe.gov.tw/policy. asp?id=6。教育部全國法規資料（2011a）。〈師資培育法〉。2011 年 4 月 28 日，取自 http://law.moj. gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?PCode=H0050001。教育部全國法規資料（2011b）。〈高級中等以下學校及幼稚園教師資格檢定考試類科及應試科目表〉。2011 年 4 月 28 日，取自 http://tft.tcte.edu.tw/page_4a.php。 212 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育符碧真、黃源河（2010）。〈打造「知識歐洲」的師資培育：對我國的啟示〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，第 6 卷第 1 期，1-20。湯維玲（2007）。〈師資培育理念與實踐之對話：教育專業課程之調查研究〉。載周淑卿、陳麗華編，《教育改革的挑戰與省思》（頁 3-26）。高雄：麗文。黃偉娣（2008）。〈小學教育本科專業課程方案比較研究〉。2011 年 4 月 22 日，取自 http://www.studa.net/zhiye/080608/09544433.html。楊思偉（2010）。〈精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫〉。2012 年 5 月 29 日，取自 http://210.240.193.239/ntcu/TE99/menu2.html。楊深坑（1989）。〈西德小學師資培育制度〉。載於中華民國師範教育學會編，《各國小學師資培育》（頁 357-370）。台北：師苑。楊深坑（2007）。〈德國師資培育中心歷史發展與組織結構〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，第 3 卷第 1 期，35-56。劉芳（2008）。〈論教育技術能力標準與教師專業化發展〉。2011 年 4 月 23 日，取自 http://www.xxyzz.cn/jssq/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=144。賴清標（2003）。〈師資培育開放十年回顧與前瞻〉。《師友月刊》，第 435 期，8-17。賴翠媛（2009）。〈區分性課程〉。2012 年 8 月 8 日，取自 http://www.tiec.tp.edu.tw/lt/ gallery/71/71-16394.pdf。 Bok, D. （2008）。《大學教了沒？哈佛校長提出的 8 門課》，張善楠（譯）。台北：天下。（原作出版年：2005） ETUCE (European Trade Union Committee for Education). 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Berkeley, California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. 213 附錄一　40 學分教育學程課程結構一覽表教育專業 I 教育基礎課程至少 4 學分教育概論、教育心理學、教育哲學、教育社會學教育方法學課程至少 6 學分課程發展與設計、教學原理、教學媒體與操作、輔導原理與實務、班級經營、教育測驗與評量教育專業 II 共同選修至少 10 學分特殊教育導論、藝術治療與輔導、音樂治療與教育、兒童心理學、發展心理學、行為改變技術、親職教育、心理與教育測驗、教育統計、教育研究法、教育史、現代教育思潮、德育原理、教育法規、教育行政、學校行政、比較教育、數學課程發展與設計、數學學習心理發展、數學科展製作與評析、科學教育、環境教育、戶外教學與活動設計、資訊教育、視聽教育、網路與教學、網路與測驗、英文故事教學、語文創意思考教學、多元智能教育、創造力教育、美術鑑賞與教學、多元文化美術教育、兒童美術行為研究、兒童音樂學習原理、音樂心理學、音樂教育史、運動教育學、適能教育、動作教育、遊戲理論與實際、人權教育、教育人類學、鄉土文化教育、人際關係與溝通、生涯教育、生命教育、性別教育、多元文化教育、中等教育、青少年心理學學科專業與教育教學實習教學基本學科課程至少必修 10 學分語文領域：國音及說話、寫字、兒童文學、兒童英語、鄉土語言數學領域：普通數學自然與生活科技領域：自然科學概論、生活科技概論社會領域：社會學習領域概論藝術與人文領域：音樂、鍵盤樂、表演藝術、美勞、藝術概論健康與體育領域：健康與體育、民俗體育綜合領域：童軍教育實習分科教材教法課程至少 10 學分教學實習、國語教材教法、英語教材教法、鄉土語文教材教法、數學教材教法、社會教材教法、自然與生活科技教材教法、藝術與人文教材教法、健康與體育教材教法、綜合活動教材教法（資料來源：國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度課程架構） 214 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育附錄二　教師專業碩士學位學程課程結構一覽表核心課程基礎理論類必修 6 學分教育基礎理論與應用研究教育專業專題討論（I）教育專業專題討論（II）研究方法類必修 9 學分教育研究法教育行動研究獨立研究專業發展與檔案專精課程至少選修 12 學分教學設計與科技研究班級經營與案例研究教學策略研究有效教學觀察技巧學習評量研究多元文化教育與教學實務差異性教學研究學科課程發展與教學研究一般選修課程至少選修 4 學分特殊需求學生及融合教育實務研究創造力教學研究人際關係與溝通研究當代課程與教學議題研究課程評鑑研究（資料來源：http://210.240.193.239/ntcu/mdtp/download/ 教師專業碩士學位學程課程架構表 .pdf） 215 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 A study on the elements of teachers’ emotional competency 鄭志強香港教育學院課程與教學學系摘要本文旨在研究香港教師情緒技能的內涵，為學校領導提供一個發展教師情緒技能的模型。本研究參考 Bar-On 的情緒智商量表，將情緒技能概念化為可以培養和發展多元能力，建立研究模型及問卷，並運用結構方程模型驗證理論模型因子的建構效度。研究員以整群抽樣形式選取香港 40 所資助中學進行問卷調查，當中成功收回 958 份教師問卷進行驗證研究。經結構方程模型發現教師情緒技能的因子結構涵蓋解難能力、自我實現、自主能力、壓力管理、適應能力及人際關係。關鍵詞教師情緒技能，情商領導，結構方程模型 Abstract This paper aims to explore teachers’ emotional competency skills for school leaders to develop teachers’ emotional competency. The study adopts Bar-On’s (1997) theoretical framework to conceptualise emotional competency into developable multi-factorial skills, and applies his Emotional Quotient Inventory (1997) for data collection. A structural equation model was applied to confirm the factor structure of the EQ model. Cluster sampling was adopted to collect data from teachers in 40 aided secondary schools in 217 Hong Kong. 958 teachers participated in the questionnaire survey. A six-factor emotional competency model, which consists of problem solving, self-actualization, independent thinking, stress management, adaptability and inter-personal relationship, was explored by using a structural equation model. Keywords teachers’ emotional competency, EQ leadership, structural equation model 甲、引言社會不斷發展，學校面對的政策措施愈趨複雜，教師所面對的教學工作也愈來愈繁重。近年的教育改革、校本管理、課程改革及教師專業發展等政策為學校教育帶來了很多挑戰，更令作為改革執行者的教師承受的壓力愈來愈大。如何協助教師提高情緒技能，協助他們靈活處理工作壓力，是學校領導當前遇到的問題。若學校領導能協助提升教師的情緒技能，學校組織的靈活性及適應性也會因而提升，而教學效能也會因而改善。學校領導可以透過策略管理營造情緒健康校園，以減低員工因工作壓力、衝突和不良競爭產生的負面情緒，同時亦可強化他們的情緒技能，協助他們發揮專業以獲取更佳的工作成效（McDowelle & Buckner, 2002）。要規劃發展情緒健康校園的策略，首先要了解教師的情緒技能，本研究希望可以建立一個教師情緒技能內涵的模型，作為學校領導發展情緒健康校園的參考。情緒技能是個人處理日常生活需求的社會和情感能力（Bar-On, 2006）。情緒技能不僅影響個人的身心健康及人際關係，同時也影響個人工作成效以至組織效能（Salovey, Hsee & Mayer, 1993）。掌握情緒技能的人能認識、了解和管理自己和他人的情緒，在工作場所能與別人建立良好的人際關係（Mayer & Salovey, 1997）。協助員工掌控情緒技能有助增強他們解決衝突的能力（Weisinger, 1998; Lubit, 2004），從而改善社群關係，促進團隊協作效能，增強他們對組織的歸屬感（Jordan, Ashkanasy & Hartel, 2002）。一個情緒技能高的人即使在時間壓力和不穩定的環境中，也較容易產生高度的歸屬感。員工歸屬感形成後，他們的流失率會降低，工作滿意度會提高，對組織的認同亦隨之加深，更會自發形成自我 218 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究約束，產生對組織強烈的責任感。Cherniss（2001）亦指出掌控情緒技能有助提高員工的責任感和士氣，改善他們的健康，從而提高組織效能。乙、文獻探討情緒技能理論的發展至今只有近二十多年歷史，最早的是發表於 1990 年的 Salovey & Mayer 情緒技能理論。Salovey & Mayer（1990）將情緒智慧定義為個體察覺自己與別人的情緒，進行區別辨識，進而處理並運用情緒訊息來指引自己思考與行動的能力，包含情緒的評估與表達、情緒的管理及情緒的運用三個層面。他們認為要能達到有效管理自己及他人的情緒，首先必須懂得辨別情緒、利用情緒輔助思考和了解情緒（Mayer & Cobb, 2000, p.166）。Salovey & Mayer 的模式強調情緒技能是能力而不是性格或偏好的行為方式（Hedlund & Steinberg, 2000），他們相信情緒技能對於一個人的成功有必然的影響。 Goleman（1995）發行《Emotional Intelligence》一書後，不論在教育界、商界均引起對情緒技能極大興趣。Goleman 在《Working with Emotional Intelligence》一書提出情緒技能的定義：情緒技能是指認識自己和別人的情緒，激勵自己，管理自己的情緒及處理關係中的情緒的能力。Goleman （1998）把情緒技能歸納為認識自身的情緒、認知他人的情緒、妥善管理自己的情緒及人際關係的管理。他認為情緒技能是可以透過學習得到的，可以轉化為應用於工作上的實用技能，也能帶來工作上卓越的表現。 Bar-On 是首位嘗試以科學化方法量度情緒技能的學者，他在博士論文提出情緒技能多元能力的概念，指出個人情緒會受工作環境影響，掌握情緒技能有助促進工作成效（Bar-On, 1997）。Bar-On 基於他對精神健康的研究，發展「情緒智商量表」（Emotional Quotient Inventory 或簡稱 EQ-i），將情緒技能量化為情緒商數，即 EQ。這模型指出情緒技能是個人處理日常生活要求和壓力的能力，為 EQ-i 提供了良好的理論基礎。EQ-i 所測試的情緒技能包括內省能力、人際技能、壓力管理及適應能力。Chan（2004）則運用 Salovey & Mayer 的模型量度香港中學教師情緒技能的內涵，並確定四個因子包括對自己情緒的察覺，同理心的敏感性、情緒管理及情緒運用。 219 Salovey & Mayer（1990）、Goleman（1995）及 Bar-On（1997）三個理論模型以不同層面探討情緒技能，但均認為情緒技能是一種管理自己情緒的多元能力。而Bar-On（1997）提出情緒技能的多元能力概念較 Salovey & Mayer（1990）及 Goleman（1995）多層面的技能具體，故本研究採用 Bar-On（1997）的情緒技能多元能力的理論模型，把情緒技能概念化為解難能力、自我實現、自主能力、壓力管理、適應能力及人際技能。而掌控情緒技能者有以下的表現： 1. 解難能力：他們能根據客觀的外在線索觀察一個人的情緒和準確估計眼前的情況，在不斷變化的情況下靈活改變一個人的情感和思想，並解決個人問題。 2. 自我實現：他們對未來有較多的計劃，做出較佳的準備，這有助他們創造新思維，妥善轉移注意焦點，並能激發動機，達成自我實現。 3. 自主能力：他們能覺察自己內在的情緒感受，並能有效自主地利用情緒，而不被情緒左右。 4. 壓力管理：他們具備處理激起的情緒的策略，並能因應內外的情緒壓力，維持身心平衡，應付壓力和控制強烈情緒。 5. 適應能力：他們能在不斷變化的情況下靈活地改變個人的情感和思想。 6. 人際技能：他們能夠意識、了解和理解別人的感受，有效地管理他人情緒，以及與他人建立和維持相互滿意的關係。掌控情緒技能者能確認及界定問題，從而提出及實行有效的解決方法，亦能實現個人潛能，爭取並享受完成自己喜歡的事情的能力。他們擁有獨立思考、自我約束行為及擺脫情緒影響的能力，能主動正面應付逆境、壓力和緊張的環境。他們更能適切調節個人情緒、思想及行為，以應付不斷轉變的環境或狀況，並能與其他人建立及維繫良好、親密和互相關懷的關係。在現今的教育變革下，教師極需要掌握上述的情緒技能。既然學校組織的整體情緒技能這麼重要，學校領導應設法營造一個情緒健康校園，讓教師在人本管理下發揮其教學專業，實踐教育改革的精神。要按上述情緒技能的內涵營造一個情緒健康校園，讓教師發揮情緒技能，學校領導可以透過策略管理，減低教師的壓力（Ali Eissa & Khalifa, 2008）。策略管理涉及教與學、人事、資源和外在環境的不同管理職能範疇，並需考慮學校組織的願景來規劃（Weindling, 220 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 1997）。有效運用策略管理以建立情緒健康校園，不但可以協助提高教師的情緒技能，還可使學校更有效運用資源，以回應外在政策環境對教學工作的要求，促進學校組織的長遠發展（James & Phillips, 1995）。學校領導者可從制定對應的學校政策，培植文化及個人領導模式等協助教師發展情緒技能，建立情緒健康校園。學校領導需要釐清政策措施的精神和教育環境的實況，方能對症下藥施行校本政策，建立健康的工作文化，協作教師提高情緒技能處理壓力。例如校本管理政策強調權力下放，讓教師參與決策，領導者則需要賦權教師，讓他們獨立自主工作（Cheng, 2008）。課程改革提出了新的教學內容，當中涉及很多教學技術問題，學校領導倡導教學專業自主文化，讓教師運用解難能力發展適切的教學法。此外，教師愈來愈需要在學習社羣下交流教學知識，進行專業發展活動，因此，對教師而言，掌握人際關係技巧非常重要。本研究的理論模型採用 Bar-On 的教師情緒技能理論，把教師情緒技能概念化為多元能力，當中包括自主性、壓力承受、同儕關係、解難能力、適應力及自我實現。確立這多元的情緒技能架構將有助學校領導針對不同方面施行策略管理。丙、研究方法本研究採用量化問卷調查法收集數據。情緒技能既然是一種能力，最適當的量度方法是能力測試，形式與量度智力的智力測驗相似（Mayer, Salyovey & Caruso, 2002）。本研究基於 Bar-On 設計的「情緒智商量表」，發展了一套工具用以測量教師情緒技能。一、研究工具問卷共 13 項問題，分別測量工作壓力、獨立自主、人際關係、解難能力、靈活性和自我實現。量表的內容是建基於 Bar-On 設計「情緒智商量表」而發展的。問卷以六分量表測量受訪者對各項陳述的同意程度，範圍從 1（非常不同意）到 6（非常同意），而研究假定這量表的區間尺度之間的程度是同等距的。二、研究取樣本研究的對象是香港資助中學教師。香港共有 473 所中學，其中 90% 是資助學校，5% 221 是官立學校，剩下的 5% 是直資學校。這些學校都按照《教育條例》和《教育規例》受教育局監管。本研究只選擇資助中學，因為它們是構成香港中學主要部分的同質性組群。受訪教師從 40 所樣本資助中學（約佔資助中學學校總數的 5%）中抽取。因為整體受訪者數量龐大並散佈在整個香港地域，樣本學校是通過整群抽樣選擇。組內的方差和組內變數之間的差異越小，整群抽樣與分層抽樣相比就越好。一所學校是一個集群，集群的數量要與所需樣本大小相等。每一樣本學校約有 50 名教師，當中再隨機抽取 30 名教師表示該群體。這 40 所樣本學校是根據所在地區學校總數按照一定的比例取樣。從新界抽取了 20 所學校，從九龍抽取了 10 所學校，從香港島抽取了其餘的 10 所學校。在這 40 所學校裡隨機抽取了 1,200 名教師，其中 958 人回覆了問卷。三、數據收集和分析本研究以 Bar-On（1997）設計的量化問卷收集香港中學教師對上述變項的觀感。透過他設計的「情緒智商量表」，將情緒技能量化為情緒商數。研究員使用 Lisrel 8.3 的軟件程式，就所收集的數據檢測其因子結構和權重系數，藉以建立一個結構方程模型（Joreskog & Sorbom, 1999）。結構方程模型是一組統計技術，能夠檢測因子結構及變項之間的關係。丁、研究結果一、結構方程模型以最大似然法完全標準化的結構和測量系數見圖一，各項指標的優度擬合指數見表一。根據 Z 檢驗，模型中路徑系數在 0.05 水準上顯著。假設模型資料擬合良好。採用 LISREL 對 958 個被試分析的結果表明，全模型的卡方值不顯著，樣本為 958，χ2(52)= 56.20, p= 0.32。作為絕對擬合指數，卡方估計樣本協方差矩陣和基於假設模型的協方差矩陣之間的差異。卡方值不顯著表明該模型資料可能具有較好的代表性。然而，運用卡方檢驗進行估計受樣本大小的影響。當樣本較大時，樣本協方差矩陣和再生協方差之間即使差異較小，也是顯著的。相對擬合指數和基於殘差的指數是另外兩種類型的擬合指數，被廣泛用來補充卡方估計。相對擬合指數包括比較擬合指數（CFI）、非範擬合指數（NNFI）、增值擬合指數 222 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究（IFI）。這些擬合指數通過比較假設模型和基準模型來衡量模型的擬合改進程度。基準模型是一個獨立模型，其中所有的變數被假設為彼此不相關。這些指數的範圍在 0-1 之間，值越大意味著模型擬合越好，它們至少大於 0.9 表明模型擬合較好。本研究中的相對擬合指數是CFI = 1.00、NNFI = 1.00、IFI = 0.98。這一結果表明，樣本資料和假設模型擬合良好。除了相對擬合指數外，也會用到基於殘差的指數。標準化殘差均方根衡量觀測變數和潛變數協方差矩陣之間所有標準化殘差的均值。近似均方根誤差（RMSEA）估量由於模型的誤定規格下沒有配置及定對自由度的差異提供測量（Browne & Cudeck, 1993），SRMR 的取值範圍是 0-1，RMSEA 沒有上限，值越小表明模型擬合越好，SRMR 小於或等於 0.08， RMSEA 小於或等於 0.06 表明模型擬合良好（Hu & Bentler, 1999）。在本研究中，SRMR = 0.019，而 RMSEA = 0.0092，這是一個非常嚴謹的模型，其中所有測量誤差之間的相關都未釋放，那些擬合統計指數表明模型與資料擬合良好。表二顯示各因子的信度系數。所有因子的信度系數均高於 0.6，反映問卷的設計具備信度。圖一結構模型的結果情緒技能解難能力自我實現自主能力壓力管理適應能力人際關係 0.51 0.42 我嘗試盡量想出不同方法以應付突發事件。我不會逃避面對的問題。我以循序漸進的方式去解決問題。我清楚我想在我的生命中做些什麼。我知道如何發揮我自己的長處。當我和別人一同工作，我有自己的主意。我較為獨立工作。我能處理困擾的問題。我能夠應付惡劣的環境。要改變對事物的看法是很容易的。在日常生活中作出調適是容易的。佔他人便宜會令我感到煩擾。我認為遵守學校的現則是重要的。 0.48 0.52 0.450.78 0.88 0.72 0.82 0.55 0.62 0.77 0.67 0.76 0.98 0.62 0.63 0.71 0.94 223 表一結構方程模型的擬合度指數 χ2 df p-value RMSEA SRMR CFI NNFI IFI 56.19 52 0.32093 0.0092 0.019 1.00 1.00 0.98 表二各因子的信度系數解難能力自我實現自主能力壓力管理適應能力人際關係信度系數 0.64 0.63 0.73 0.74 0.71 0.73 二、分析和討論從上述的數據分析顯示，教師的情緒技能涵概解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、適應能力及人際關係。教師需要運用解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、適應能力及人際關係的情緒技能應付每一天的教學工作。解難能力是結構模型的第一個因子，它是確認及界定問題，從而提出及實行有效解決方法的能力。掌握解難能力者會尋求解決問題的協作方案，不會傾向選擇迴避策略（Jordan & Troth, 2002）。教師每天會遇上各樣教學上的難題，例如有效處理日益嚴重的學習差異，照顧有特殊學習需要的學生，改善學生無心向學及行為問題，聯絡家長商議有效管教子女的方案等問題。若這些難題過多而又不能解決，教師很容易被情緒困擾，而採取迴避策略，抽離於問題之外。掌控解難能力的教師能釐清所面對教學問題的本質，較能對症下藥解決問題，不會被問題困擾而影響工作。故此，解難能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。自我實現是結構模型的第二個因子，它是實現個人潛能，爭取及享受完成自己喜歡事情的能力（Mayer & Salovery, 1997）。掌握這種能力者能通過調動和指揮個人情緒來自我激勵，令人生變得樂觀。在強調追求考試成績的教育制度下，學生個人成長的培育容易被忽略，沒有毅力實現自己教學理念的教師很難享受在教學工作上喜悅。具備自我實現潛能的教師則會清楚自己對教學和學生的要求，他們理解每個學生都是獨一無二的，不是每個學生都能取得高分。他們在追求考試成績的框架下能做出較佳的心理準備來發展學生潛能，當學生有進步了，教師會感到自己的工作是有意義和愉快的，產生滿足感。故此，自我實現是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 224 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究自主能力是結構模型的第三個因子，它是個人獨立思考及擺脫情緒影響的能力。掌握自主能力者能覺察自己內在的情緒感受，並能有效自主地利用情緒，而不被情緒左右（Goleman, 1995）。教學工作的本質是專業的，涉及對教學情境的獨立思考及判斷，例如處理不同學習風格及能力的學生的學習，在不同教學情境下施教的處理方式。教師需要運用專業判斷及獨立思考落實新課程內容的教學，並了解面對不確定性所產生的憂慮情緒是必然的，從而不會懼怕惶恐，亦不被情緒左右教學决定。故此，自主能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。壓力管理是結構模型的第四個因子，它指主動及正面應付逆境、壓力和緊張環境的能力（Jordan & Torth, 2002）。掌握這種能力者能處理困擾的問題及應付惡劣的環境。在不斷追求質素的教育改革下，學校的改進工作持續不斷，教師的工作性質亦變得複雜，他們所充積的怨氣和壓力亦增大，很容易被工作問題困擾。教師要在不斷變化的情況下靈活地改變個人的情感和思想，方能以先後緩急處理問題及安排工作。掌握壓力管理技能者具備處理激起的情緒的策略，能因應內外的情緒壓力，維持身心平衡，應付壓力和控制強烈情緒。故此，壓力管理是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。適應能力是結構模型的第五個因子，它指適切調節個人情緒、思想及行為以應付不斷轉變的環境或狀況的能力（Bar-On, 1997）。掌握適應能力者能容易改變對事物的看法，並容易在日常生活中調適。新課程內容的廣度和深度都較舊課程大，加上學生的個別差異較過往更大，面對這樣新的工作挑戰，欠缺適應能力的教師面對新課程的轉變，或會出現較負面的情緒，而影響到日常的教學工作。掌握適應能力的教師能調節個人的情緒和行為，以積極態度及新的工作模式，例如教學研究掌握新課程的內容和要求，並了解學生的學習難點，用以施教。故此，適應能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。人際關係是結構模型的第六個因子，它指與別人建立及維繫良好、親密和互相關懷的關係的能力（Abraham, 2005）。掌握這種能力者能有效管理他人的情緒，設身處地為他人著想。在新課程的轉變下，學校越來越多跨科協作學習活動，不同科目的老師需要協作以設計校本課程。良好的人際關係有利於教師溝通協作，減少衝突和壓力。掌握人際技能的教師能了解他人的工作和體諒對方的難處，會以協商和溝通來開展工作。可見，人際技能 225 是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力（Lopes, Salovery, Cote & Beers, 2005）。學校領導必須了解情緒技能對教育工作的影響，並作出適當的鼓勵，誘發教師的工作動機，促使他們在教學工作中實現自我，身體力行提升自身的個人智能。領導者必須樂於聆聽員工的意見，並負責輔導工作，以紓緩員工的個人壓力。教育領導除了管理學校預算和課程發展事宜外，還要處理教師問題。領導者也應鼓勵員工用新的方式思考自己的工作，或對新標準和新目標作出承擔。從各種角度考慮，領導者都應理解改革過程中員工的情緒，理解之後才可能站在員工的角度思考問題，耐心對待他們，幫助他們度過轉變期。如果領導者沒有預期這種情緒化的反饋，會認為員工很難相處或不合作，甚至可能為避免聽到更多抱怨而停止傾聽。如果他們這樣想，轉變就會停止，改革成功更無從談起（McDowelle & Buckner, 2002）。戊、總結本研究以 Bar-On 的情緒技能理論作為討論基礎，透過實證數據確立了六項情緒技能，包括解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、適應能力及人際關係。學校領導需要釐清教育政策措施的精神和學校組織環境的實況，才能對症下藥施行校本政策，建立健康的工作文化，協助教師提高情緒技能處理壓力。有效運用管理策略以建立情緒健康校園，不但可以協助提高教師的情緒技能，還可使學校更有效運用資源以回應外在政策環境對教學工作的要求，促進學校組織的長遠發展（James & Phillips, 1995）。研究者可考慮就這些管理策略對促進上述六項情緒技能的成效進行研究，藉此建立一個情緒健康的校園，發展高情緒技能的教師團隊，並且更有效面對教育改革方案帶來的挑戰。 226 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究參考文獻 Abraham, R. 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San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 228 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 優化學校行政的行動學習 An experience of a school using action learning as a strategy to enhance school administration 胡少偉香港初等教育研究學會徐國棟香港教育學院曹潔芬香港教育學院賽馬會小學摘要在推行教育改革的環境中，學校改善是一個經常被討論的課題；本文旨在分享一所學校優化行政的歷程。這所學校因應「外評報告」的建議，制定了提昇中層人員為發展策略之一；該校透過參與香港初等教育研究學會主辦的「優化小學學校行政」計劃，引入專業支援，進行適切的校本培訓及以行動學習方法去檢視學校的行政和溝通。小組同工在過程中以改善校務的學習心態，提高了對學校的歸屬感和得到專業成長。本文以敘事方式去回顧這個行動學習的經歷，並透過整理相關文獻、計劃資料和深度訪談，讓讀者了解個案的實踐知識。關鍵詞香港小學教育，行動學習，學校改善 229 Abstract School improvement is one of the heated themes frequently discussed in the current educational reform context. This paper shares the experience of a school using action learning as a strategy to enhance school administration. Based on the recommendations stated in the External School Review report, this primary school decided to strengthen the capacity of its middle-management as one of the school development strategies. In order to bring in professional support and expertise, the school joined the “Enhancing the school administration of primary school” organized by the HKPERA. It provided the school participants with relevant school-based training to conduct an action learning project on reviewing the school administration and communication. The school participants were eager to learn throughout the action learning process. Upon the completion of this project, the school participants gained improvements in both professional growth and a sense of belonging. This paper used the narrative inquiry approach in reviewing the experience and knowledge gathered by the school practising the action learning project. Keywords Hong Kong primary school, action learning, school improvement 個案學校的背景在全球一體化的情況下，各地都不約而同推行教育改革以提昇學校教育質素，從而促進學生的成長和發展；在這個教育變革的大環境中，學校的發展和改善是落實教育改革中一個經常被討論和分析的環節。在本土學校發展與改善的文獻中，李榮安、麥肖玲（2005）曾指出「校本改革，不論是內容或過程，都很複雜，包括面對起動的困難、千絲萬縷的人事互動及資源的制肘等，一經理論化或以簡圖代表，便容易流於空論，以致失去其應有的意義。實踐的質素是優是劣，成效如何，關鍵在於當事人的不言而喻的知識及當時的取捨」。這說明了校本需要是學校發展的關鍵因素；故此，一所學校若要在教育改革中得到更好的發展，校內同工便要先分析學校情境，思考發展策略，再落實改善措施。 230 優化學校行政的行動學習香港教育學院賽馬會小學於 2002 年 9 月成立，是全港第一所附設於高等院校的全日制資助小學，本著「共享學教喜悅，盡展赤子潛能」的理念，促進師生的發展和成長。學校至 2006 學年時，只有三位主任負責大部份的學校行政工作；在這情況下，雖然該校校長已把一些行政工作交由有潛質的教師分擔，但中層管理架構發展仍未成熟。故教育統籌局質素保證分部於 2007 年度的該校外評報告中，建議該校要：「加速培訓中層管理人員，強化中層管理架構，並認為這是值得學校優先發展的」。學校於 2008 年開始向外招聘具中層經驗同工加入管理團隊，並明確指出學校發展策略是提昇中層人員的能力；可見，該校領導層在當時是知悉校內中層人員能力有待提高的需要。正如資深校長甘艷梅（2005）指出：在教育改革中「學校不應被牽著鼻子走，校長應認識環境轉變，考慮校本以配合改革，不斷反思，為學校改革定下優先次序」；看來，該校制定提昇中層人員為發展策略之一是合乎校情的。「在推展各項教育改革的同時，教育局及不少機構均設立支援項目，在各學科、單項層面支援學校，如語文科、通識教育科、校長領導、同儕參與、校外評核等，給予學校外來動力及資源，紓緩各改革項目所帶來的壓力，協助學校發展工作」（趙志成、麥君榮， 2011，頁 43）。香港初等教育研究學會作為一個教師專業團體，於 2009-2010 年得到優質教育基金撥款，主辦「優化小學的學校行政」計劃，分兩期向 17 間小學提供專業支援；香港教育學院賽馬會小學是該計劃第二期的其中一所參與小學。該校同工經商討後決定參加這個計劃，目的是透過引入校外專業支援，促進校內中層人員管理能力的提昇和優化學校行政架構。為了分享這個優化學校行政的個案經驗，筆者三人以敘事形式來回顧這個行動學習的經歷。正如學者指出，這種「分享故事幫助教師以新的方式認識自己的經歷；因為在分享的時候，教師必須對發生了什麼有所理解」（張濤譯，2007，頁 176）。筆者三人冀透過整理相關文獻、計劃資料和深度訪談，可讓讀者了解這個行動學習個案的實踐知識。引入外界資源促進學校發展在香港，近年有不少學者就大學支援學校發展的專業活動寫成學術文章，其中梁歆、黃顯華（2010，頁 122）指出「學校改進的最終目的就是，當外部的支援人員撤離學校後，學校仍舊能夠利用自身的力量進行持續變革」。與此同時，張素貞、吳俊憲（2012， 231 頁 25）的研究則發現「轉型團隊要持續發展，光是依靠校內原有的教學資源是不夠的，一方面有新進教師的加入可以注入新血，另方面則需要與大學教授建立專業夥伴合作關係。這是因為大學教授可以提供專業和理論建議，幫助教師拉近理論與實務的鴻溝」。上述這兩篇文章肯定了大學學者與前線學校人員的合作，可有效地促進學校發展和教師的專業成長。這個「優化小學的學校行政」計劃，由香港初等教育研究學會內的師訓學者和資深校長合作，為參與計劃的小學提供多樣化的專業培訓服務，支援前線教師面對急劇轉變的教育環境，進行適切的情境分析再去優化學校的行政工作。表一架構重整與中層人員職責的培訓課程日期課題主講 1 月 9 日中層人員的角色與成長香港教育學院教育政策與領導學系余煊博士聖公會油塘基顯小學李少鶴校長 1 月 16 日重整學校架構的功能香港教育學院國際教育與終身學習學系胡少偉博士李志達紀念學校胡鳳群校長香港教育學院賽馬會小學是這個計劃第二期參與學校之一，是期的系統培訓課程主題為「架構重整與中層人員職責」，於 2010 年舉行的課題內容和安排見上表一；期間，該校校長帶領課程發展主任及四位中層人員一同參與相關培訓，對中層人員成長和學校架構重整的相關理論和實踐經驗都有一個共同的學習。而為了深入了解參與計劃學校的校本需要，計劃籌委會派出專家於 2009 年 11月 24 日到訪學校，與參與計劃的學員進行校本診斷，共同設計兩個培訓課題和行動學習的題目；商議後，該校確定行動學習是設計一個適合校情的行政架構，以提升學校的行政效能。同時，雙方並確定第一個校本培訓的主題為「專業發展與學校發展」，讓全校教師可一起思考和討論學校情境和了解教師專業發展與學校發展的關係；第二個培訓對象則針對中層人員，以「團隊領導」為題，讓校內中層人員反思團隊領袖的角色與掌握中層人員的技巧。與此同時，參與計劃的幾位學校同工亦於 2010 232 優化學校行政的行動學習年 3 月及 4 月參觀計劃籌委會安排的兩所小學，以了解友校優化學校行政架構的經驗。校本培訓的學習內地學者張爽（2006）指出「在以往的教育改革過程中，學校往往是改革的對象，由政府提出目標和要求自上而下地進行調整與改革，忽視學校的傳統、現實情況及具體存在的問題」；參考了相關學者的建議，香港初等教育研究學會的校本培訓重視全校同工的參與，該校教師參與於 4 月舉行校本培訓，主題是分析學校情境，內容包括全校教師共同評估學校的優勢、弱點、機會及威脅；通過校本教師工作坊，校內大部份教師對學校發展方向形成一致的看法。這體現了教育局質素保證分部（2010）的觀察，「大部份學校採用集體議事方式，能夠安排會議讓教師及專責人員等檢討校情，商議關注事項措施」（頁 4）。再者，該校很多同工在培訓中分享了自己對學校的觀感，並認同學校有檢討行政架構的需要；這有利於學校推展優化學校行政的行動學習。「在這個校本管理和民主化的年代，在世界各地包括香港皆有迫切需要，去讓校長及準領袖反思有關課程領導與管理的方法，尤其是去鼓勵同工有更強的團隊精神」（Lee, Dimmock & Au Yeung, 2009, p.25）。因應國際校本管理和課程發展的趨勢，提昇中層對建立團隊的認識和領導力的培育，逐漸被香港小學管理層的關注。在校本中層人員培訓中，培訓者聚焦於讓中層人員明白團隊發展的階段和認識不同角色在團隊的重要性。正如學者余煊（2010，頁 39）指出「團隊是由幾位到十幾位獨立的個人而組成，要凝聚這批人成為一個團隊，首先要有一個清晰的共同目標；而為了有效達成這個團隊的目標，過程中成員需互相溝通、承擔和付出，以爭取團隊所期望的較大成果」。透過這個校本「團隊領導」的培訓，該校的中層人員得到充份的溝通和互相理解，從而增強了帶領團隊的信心和對學校的凝聚力。受訓中層在評估中寫下了自己的學習成果： - 知道自己在團隊中的角色及有效的領導方法； - 加深自己對團隊領導的了解，及有助自己面對挑戰； - 啟發「衝突」在團隊的作用； - 提高了於監管方面的意識。 233 優化溝通和清晰架構聖公會油塘基顯小學李少鶴校長與我們分享重整學校行政架構的經驗，學校因應學校環境的變遷及教育改革曾進行了五次重整學校行政架構，並為我們說明每次重整學校行政架構的誘因及模式。參與是次友校參觀及交流，讓我有機會體驗重整學校行政架構的需要、認識重整學校架構的不同方法及模式、評估重整學校架構時可能遇到的阻力及可行的應變方法。（甲同工於友校參觀後的分享）因應香港小學學位教師職系的建立，大部份小學在過去十多年來都有新增的中層人員；有些小學只安排晉升中層人員負責新增的學校工作，有些學校則因應校情不時檢視和重組學校行政架構。正如學者高洪源（2007）分析「對學校裡常規組織和基層組織的戰略管理包括兩種情況，一種是從學校戰略規則的任務變更和流程重組出發，改變學校常規組織結構。另一種是不改變原有組織結構，大力調整常規組織簡單、被動的執行職能，通過制度和任務的局部變化強化戰略職能」（頁 154）。藉這個優化學校行政的行動學習，該校行動學習小組一起檢視當時的學校行政架構，並逐一檢視各中層人員的職責。上述一段分享則是該校同工在參觀友校的分享，從這段分享內看到同工理解到重整學校架構的必要性。在這個「優化學校行政」行動學習過程中，該校行動學習小組成員在全面檢視當年行政架構後，提出要將文化教育藝術組從非學術範疇編入課程發展組之內，這安排有利各科以滲透模式去提供文化藝術，讓學生在學科和課外活動中皆可接觸到文化藝術的教育；其餘各組的職能雖然沒有大的變動，但在檢討行政架構的過程，各小組負責人可了解同工對自己領導科組的期望和確認校內各組的分工，這有助校內中層團隊的協作。「大多數績效改進計劃都伴隨在結構和系統方面的重大變革。在這些公司的經驗中有一個共同的主題，這就是強調跨職能的工作團隊；這些團隊的跨職能性有助於增加過程意識和對於變革活動的主人翁精神」（Dutta, S. & Manzoni, J. F. 著，焦叔斌等譯，2001，頁 9）。在這次學校行政架構的檢視中，校內訊息溝通的流動性亦是行動學習小組的一個焦點；正如該校向籌委會提交的行動學習報告內指出，校內不少同工認為「只有由上而下又或者由下而上，都未能全面照顧全體老師的需要；校內縱向及橫向的溝通必須互動的」（曹潔 234 優化學校行政的行動學習芬等，2012，頁 12）。因應同工要求學校要全方位溝通，該校即時加強有助橫向溝通的級本會議。為了進一步驗證學校資料，研究員在閱覽該校的行動學習報告後，再與負責同工進行了聚焦訪談，以三角檢定方法去核實該校報告所述的成效。期間雖然事隔多時，該負責同工仍記憶猶新地指出當時很多基層教師均認同加強級會的安排；級本會議每月舉行一次，由該級幾位班主任、所有相關科任和級主任組成。負責同工下文的分享證明了重視級會的安排，加速了各級教師團隊對優化教學的決策；而級會也可使各成員了解級內各班學生的概況，如遇個別學生在家庭背景或學習有異常者，也可藉這個級會讓相關教師掌握最新和準確的資訊。當級會與班主任一起談時，其實級主任更加清晰每一班的情況。例如我們推行小班教學，原來同一班內不同科的老師在推行小班的一些口號或有不同，經過級會幾位主任確實同樣的口號後，對學生的適應較好。如果我們沒有這級會的話，就會未能找出問題，改善就一定會較慢。（負責同工聚焦訪談的分享）學校變革與中層人員成長很多學者指出，組織或機構的體制轉型中，最深層的變革是要達至人的改變或人的價值觀的改變，制度的變革若缺乏了人的變革是不能持久的。教師是教育改革的關鍵人物，任何教育改革最終都要依靠教師才能得以施行。（乙同工在參與計劃期間的讀後感）該校行動學習小組在報告內指出「對於任何改變，我們大都喜歡抱着盡量維持現狀的態度，要使全校老師對着改變能抱有正面的態度也不是容易，欠缺安全感的心理包伏和不穩定的未來挑戰等，使大家帶着戰戰競競的心情去面對重整架構」（曹潔芬等，2012，頁 12）。這段分享充份體現了小組成員理解基礎同工面對變革的憂慮；而這次行動學習成功的因素之一，是在檢討行政架構中明確為學校來年的架構提供一個優化方案。正如張練成（2008，頁 68）指出「當我們能把注意力放在變革為我們帶來新的機會上時，再集中注意到我們可做的事時，我們便比較容易產生正面的自語，這有助我們去集中思索我們能夠做 235 的事」。而正如上文該校行動學習的一位成員，在香港初等教育研究學會安排的友校參觀後，深深地理解到同工價值改變是最重要的；在這個學校變革的過程中，該校行動學習小組關顧基層教師的心理需要，使大部份教師明白要共同面對變革的，並樂於接受和支持新學期行政架構的變動。是次優化學校行政的行動學習歷程中，其中一個成果是該校中層人員的成長。下文是負責同工回顧經驗淺的中層人員在培訓中得到成長。透過共同參與工作坊的學習，該校中層更深入地了解自己的角色和領導團隊的技巧，過程中亦了解到跨科組溝通的重要性；在檢討和建立新的行政架構的過程中，提高了彼此之間的互信和合作，從而增強了學校中層的歸屬感和協作精神。台灣學者蔡進雄（2011，頁 74）曾指出「分散式領導認為領導應該是分散給每一個人，並非單一領導者的概念」；校內中層人員對自己作為一個領導者的覺醒，使他們在不知不覺間承擔了一個團隊領導的職責，讓學校也成為了一個分散式領導的團隊。有時對於自己是否中層，有個別同事會有點混亂及不太肯定，透過這類的工作坊，是讓中層知道自己的角色，從而令到對自己的責任釐清。在工作坊亦提及到中層應該做那方面工作、怎樣監察，能讓同事知道這對工作會更順暢。（負責同工聚焦訪談的分享）行動學習的反思與啟示「學校組織再造是指對學校教育過程的徹底再思考，及根本性巨幅再設計以促成學校績效的巨大改善」（洪祥編著，2005，頁 124）。相對這個定義，香港教育學院賽馬會小學在 2010 年所進行的「優化學校行政的行動學習」，並沒有產生一個巨幅變動的行政架構，而只是一個小修改的新行政架構；正如學者所言這個行動學習是一個「以鼓勵實務工作者探究自己的工作實務和分享結果與心得為宗旨的研究工作，這研究工作的目的是想協助人們感覺自己的實務工作，和對自己的學習歷程負責」（McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. 著，朱仲謀譯，2004，頁 68）。該校同工為了提高中層人員的能力參與外間專業計劃，除了系統課程和校本培訓之外，亦有透過友校參觀和行動學習去提高中層人員的能力；在過程中 236 優化學校行政的行動學習使校內同工亦增加了中層人員領導力的認知及提出了一個優化學校行政的建議。正如其中一位負責同工所分享參與這個計劃縮短了新舊中層人員的磨合，集結了推動學校發展的能量，從而得到一個不俗的學習成果。如不參與此計劃或校長沒有提議我們去參與的話，可能主任之間確實需要一個磨合期；參與了這計劃，加速了整個行政會的凝聚，因為要完成行動學習，集結所有的能量，希望處理得好，並延伸至下一年。（負責同工聚焦訪談的分享）不少相關文獻顯示校本發展計劃會遇上一些困難和問題，香港教育學院賽馬會小學這個「重整架構提昇學校效能」計劃也遇上不少的困難，正如該校行動學習小組在其報告《2009-1010 年度「優化小學的學校行政」計劃》內，提及在行動學習過程中小組曾面對的困難包括：團隊建立、匯聚人才、轉變溝通模式、調節面對改變的心理和提昇反思能力等。而在前膽計劃的預期困難時，該校行動學習小組報告內指出未來的監察工作是不容忽視的（見下文）；當中，並提出這是對中層人員有一定的專業要求。也就是說，假若沒有中層人員在來年監察能力的提高，新的行政和溝通架構未必可以對學校發展產生應有的成效。而從這段行動學習的預估中，可看到這個小組是掌握從行動中學習及在反思中規劃未來行動的能力。要使新的行政和溝通架構順利運作，監察的エ作是不容忽視的，中層老師的角色起着非常重要的作用，他們一方面了解前線老師的推行情況，另一方面要監察新架構的實施，這對中層老師有一定的專業要求。（曹潔芬等，2011，頁 13） Fischer & Hamer（2010，頁 16）總結學校改革計劃時指出「當教師和行政人員能以一個成熟的合作者參與訂定自己專業發展計劃時，學校便有教育質素、持續重整和改革努力的產生」。從上文顯示，這個行動學習個案能促進該校中層人員重視自己專業的成長；「透過行動研究的學習，中層人員可反思自己選擇課題的行動過程及其所產生的實踐智慧」（胡少偉、余煊、陳湛明，2010，頁 35）。這個個案有成功之處，其經驗可歸納為一所學校要 237 得到改善，便要作一個適切的校情分析，檢視現有行政架構，看一看學校的溝通可否有改善之處；而在這個校本變革的過程中，因引入適切的外力，使同工抱著以改善校務的學習心態，在透過校本培訓和行動學習去檢討學校行政架構。在這個案中，新的行政架構雖然變動不大，但過程中中層人員提高了學校的歸屬感和得到專業的成長，故值得關注學校發展的前線同工參考。最後，由於這篇行動學習分享文章是以說故事形式撰寫，行文手法與一般學術文章的習慣不同，焦點也不在於應用相關學理，而是向讀者介紹個案的經驗；再者，因幾位合著者包括了來自培訓計劃和學校同工，故當中存有一定的主觀性，讀者參考此文時亦要注意相關的限制。參考文獻甘艷梅（2005）。〈從創造條件到效果評估：改革實踐的全盤考慮〉。載李榮安、麥肖玲、黃炳文（編），《香港校本改革──前線的探索》（頁 95-110）。香港，教育出版社有限公司。余煊（2010）。〈建立團隊與團隊領導〉。載胡少偉、余煊（編），《小學中層人員學習指引》（頁 38-45）。香港：香港初等教育研究學會。李榮安、麥肖玲（2005）。〈香港校本改革的建構：前線的智慧〉。載李榮安、麥肖玲和黃炳文（編），《香港校本改革：前線的探索》（頁 1-13）。香港，教育出版社有限公司。洪祥編著（2005）。《教育行政》。台北：鼎茂圖書出版股份有限公司。胡少偉、余煊、陳湛明（2010）。〈培訓中層人員領導的一個經驗〉。《優質學校教育學報》，第 6 卷，31-39。高洪源（2007）。《學校戰略管理》。重慶：重慶大學出版社。張素貞、吳俊憲（2012）。〈大學與學校專業夥伴合作之個案研究──以專業學習社群為焦點〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，第 8 卷 1 期，1-30。張爽（2006）。〈重新認識學校、推進學校改進〉。《中國教育學刊》，第 8 卷，22-24。張練成（2008）。〈淺談變革管理〉。載余煊（編），《學校的領導與變革：中層人員的挑戰》（頁 62-74）。香港：中華基督教會香港區會。教育局質素保證分部（2010）。《視學周年報告 2009/10》。2012 年 5 月 8 日，取自 http:// www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annual_report0910_c.pdf。曹潔芬等（2011）。〈重整架構提升學校效能〉。載《2009-2010年度「優化小學的學校行政」計劃》。香港：香港教育學院賽馬會小學。 238 優化學校行政的行動學習梁歆、黃顯華（2010）。〈大學與學校協作下學校發展主任的理念、策略與角色：香港優質學校改進計劃的個案研究〉。《教育研究集刊》，第 1 卷 56 期，99-126。趙志成、麥君榮（2011）。〈「優質學校改進計劃」在香港教育改革下的作用：學校領導的視角〉。《教育學報》，第 39 卷 1-2 期，39-65。蔡進雄（2011）。〈論分散式領導在學校領導的實踐與省思〉。《教育研究月刊》，第 2 卷， 64-76。 Dutta, S. & Manzoni, J. F. (2009)。《工商管理經典譯叢．管理案例系統　過程再造、組織變革與績效改進》，焦叔斌等（譯）。北京：中國人民大學出版社。 Fischer, J. & Hamer, L. (2010): Professional Development and School Restructuring: Mutual Processes of Reform. Middle School Journal, (41), 12-17. Jalonge, M. R., & Iseaberg, J. P. (2007)。《是什麼讓教師不斷進步──教師故事啟示錄》，張濤（譯）。北京：中國青年出版社。 Lee, J. C. K., Dimmock, C., & Au Yeung, T. Y. (2009). Who really leads and manages the curriculum in primary schools? A Hong Kong case-study. The Curriculum Journal, (1), 3-26. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2004)。《行動研究：原理與實作》，朱仲謀（譯）。台北：五南圖書出版股份有限公司。 Park, V., & Datnow, A. (2008). Collaborative Assistance in a Highly Prescribed School Reform Model: The Case of Success for All. Peabody Journal of Education, (83), 400-422. 239 徵集論文我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括： • 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創意教學 • 家長教育 • 校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導 • 校本管理 • 學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢 • 學生培訓 • 教育改革評議 • 比較教育 • 高等教育 • 幼兒教育 • 特殊教育 • 美術教育 • 音樂教育 • 教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: • Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation • Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy • Creative teaching • Parent education • School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring • School-based management • Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling • Student development • Critique on education reform • Comparative education • Higher education • Early childhood education • Special education • Fine arts education • Music education • History of education 稿例（修訂於 2012 年 12 月） (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在 A4 紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵）請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者，作者應保留一份原稿，以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附中、英文題目，中、英文摘要（中文以 200 字為限，英文則約 150 字），以及中、英文關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2006 年，第 6 版）指引。中文格式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。稿件及有關通訊請送交：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室香港教師中心《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。（電郵： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk） (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2012) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Language can be in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 3,500 to 7,000 words. 3. All articles should be accompanied with an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (around 150 words), a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words) and 3 to 5 keywords in English and Chinese. 4. All submissions will go through the anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the articles submitted. Once the final version of the articles has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadline for submission of articles is January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this Journal shall not be submitted to another journals for review or publication. 徵募審稿員我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工，請以電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（2565 0741）提交下列資料，以供聯絡。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。姓名：任職學校／機構：聯絡電話：電郵地址：興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: （博士／先生／女士） (Dr / Mr / Ms)

Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 13 (2014)

Category: Documents第+三卷 Volume Thirteen 教育局香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 第十三卷 Volume 13 出版：香港教師中心地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室出版年份： 2014 年 Publisher ： Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ： W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing ： 2014 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 i 香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議，由 1987 年開始籌備，至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步提升服務質素及切合發展需要，教師中心已於 2006 年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。教師中心致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理，他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。常委會之下設有工作小組，負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業的活動，並會因應需要，贊助這些團體舉辦活動，以及為有關活動提供所需的場地和器材。教師中心設有學科團體綜合辦事處，以支援學科團體策劃活動和處理會務。此外，教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等，為教師提供所需的服務。香港教師中心 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years’ preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-tier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total of 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well-equipped premises. At HKTC, there is also the Subject-related Organisation Office for relevant organisations to work in. Last but not least, HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc for teachers’ use. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre iii 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁　鋼華東師範大學李兆璋香港浸會大學李榮安新加坡國立教育學院《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/ journal）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal iv 編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editor）楊沛銘香港地理學會副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育學院張慧真香港浸會大學教育學系趙淑媚香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學委員（Members）甘志強港澳兒童教育國際協會何景安香港教師活動協會何瑞珠香港中文大學教育學院李子建香港教育學院李宏峯明愛屯門馬登基金中學林偉業香港大學教育學院胡志偉香港通識教育會劉瑞珍李求恩紀念中學侯傑泰香港中文大學唐創時香港考試及評核局張國華香港公開大學梁湘明香港中文大學傅浩堅香港浸會大學葉蔭榮教育局靳玉樂西南大學潘慧玲淡江大學鄭燕祥香港教育學院 v 主編序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「教育規劃與教學實踐——回歸後教育政策檢視與前瞻」，除了得到不少學者和教師就這個主題應邀投稿外，亦有其他熱心的教育同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。有關文稿經過嚴謹的評審後，共有九篇文章獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有三篇，內容包括：在香港推行十五年免費教育的困境與出路、廿一世紀的香港高等教育、香港小學小班的教學實踐。三篇文章都能就着各個不同學習階段所面對的現況和困難作出深入客觀分析，值得教師和教育決策者參考。第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章亦有三篇，內容包括：香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示、初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰、多元視角下的遊學意義。教師及校長都可以就着文章內容作出反思，並且探索改善校內管理及教學質素的方法。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，有三篇文章。內容包括：以個案研究分析香港小學的教育改革與學校領導的歷程、香港學校生命教育的教學與評估、支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗。它們都對改善學校行政和課程規劃提供詳細描述，有助讀者理解推行教育改革時需要關注和克服的地方。最後，要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工，當中包括：王秉豪博士、申龐得玲博士、朱啟榮博士、何景安先生、李子建教授、李偉雄先生、李輝博士、冼權鋒教授、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、袁國明先生、麥謝巧玲女士、馮文正先生、馮潔皓教授、雷其昌先生、趙淑媚博士、蔡若蓮博士、鄧國俊博士、鄭晚莊女士及簡加言博士。學報能順利出版，實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中抽空幫助，以專業的態度評審各篇文章。《香港教師中心學報》主編楊沛銘二零一四年十二月目錄 Contents 香港教師中心........................................................ i 香港教師中心學報.................................................. iii 主編序.............................................................. v 一、主題：教育規劃與教學實踐──回歸後教育政策檢視與前瞻 1. Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions ...................................... 1 Hui LI & Ricci W FONG 2. Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century .......................... 15 Michael H LEE 3. 香港小學小班的教學實踐 .......................................... 35 章月鳳、李子建二、理論及政策評論 4. 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示 ................................ 49 章月鳳、鄧耀南 5. 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 ........................ 65 梁亦華 6. 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 .............................. 79 林志德三、教育實踐與經驗分享 7. A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools ....................................... 97 LEUNG Lai Sim 8. 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例 ......... 125 江浩民、李子建 9. 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 ................................. 141 胡少偉、鄭志強徵集論文稿例徵募審稿員 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 13 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2014 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions Hui LI Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong Ricci W FONG The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract 15-year free education has been implemented in Macau and some parts of Mainland China in recent decade. In light of the implementations, local early childhood educators and experts have since been debating whether Hong Kong should follow suit to offer the 3 years of early childhood education (ECE) for free on top of the existing 12-year free education. With reference to the policy implementation and outcomes in Macau and Mainland China, as well as the ECE context in Hong Kong, this paper seeks to (1) delineate the dilemmas in the debate about 15-year free education in Hong Kong; and (2) suggest how free ECE could be offered in a context-appropriate manner. We will discuss the issues based on the “3A1S” theoretical framework, which looks into the affordability, accessibility, accountability, and sustainability of ECE. Practical solutions for settling the ceaseless debate about 15-year free education in Hong Kong will also be proposed. Keywords 15-year free education, Hong Kong early childhood education, dilemmas in education policy 1 The Hong Kong government launched the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS) in 2007 with an aim to enhance and assure the accessibility, affordability, and accountability of early childhood education (ECE) in Hong Kong. The policy, however, has been criticized by both educators and the public for not responding to the appeal for providing 15-year free education (3-year free kindergarten education in addition to 12 years of free primary and secondary education), which the Macau government has started offering since 2007 (Fung & Lam, 2012). In this connection, the PEVS is argued to be an inadequate and backward move by the government. Aggravating the public’s dissatisfaction and the tension of the debate is the implementation of other 15-year free education policies in some provinces of Mainland China. Against this background, the public call to expand the existing 12-year free education framework in Hong Kong to include ECE persists (Legislative Council, 2010). Although the current-term Chief Executive (CE) of Hong Kong, Mr. Leung Chun-ying, made the launch of this 15- year free education policy one of his policy agendas when he ran for CE in 2012, the major arguments against this proposed policy center on the feasibility and credibility of offering free ECE when the structural and contextual factors of ECE in Hong Kong are taken into account. Li (2012, 2012.6.22), for instance, argued that offering authentic free kindergarten education in Hong Kong would in fact threaten the accountability and quality of kindergarten education on the whole. The Committee on Free Kindergarten Education was set up in 2013 in an attempt to resolve the debate and plan a sustainable policy that can reconcile different views in this issue, but discussions and debates regarding how the 15-year free education policy could be implemented in a contextually appropriate manner remain inconclusive thus far. Educational policymaking should be a rational evidence- based process that begins with an identified problem and ends with a contextualized policy for solving the problem. This paper is thus dedicated to providing a clearer picture of the ECE context in Hong Kong and delineating the dilemmas in this ceaseless debate, in an attempt to offer insights into solutions that could possibly reconcile the debate without forfeiting the quality of our ECE in the near future. 1. Debating on the ECE voucher in Hong Kong The ECE system in Hong Kong has been regarded as being entirely private, publicly underfinanced and bureaucratically neglected (Li, Wang, & Fong, in press). Since the Colonial era, all the kindergartens in Hong Kong have been run by non-profit-making organizations and private bodies, which are registered with and supervised by the Education Bureau (EDB). Since there is no public kindergarten in Hong Kong, public funding for ECE was so minimal that the sector was once depicted as the Cinderella of our education system that was ill-treated and neglected by the government (Rao & Li, 2009). The meager attention and public resources have resulted in the widely disparate quality of ECE provision in Hong Kong over the years. 2 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions A breakthrough occurred in 2007 when the Hong Kong government launched the PEVS to alleviate the financial burden of parents and to enhance the quality of kindergarten education. Instead of directly funding kindergarten establishments, vouchers are given to parents of children who are permanent residents of Hong Kong. To date, the value of the voucher was $16,800 per student per annum in the 2012/13 school year, and parents from low-income families are also eligible to apply for means-tested financial assistance from the Social Welfare Department to help cover the outstanding tuition fee and miscellaneous expenses incurred (Legislative Council, 2013). Nevertheless, the PEVS imposed five criteria on the eligibility of kindergartens to receive government subsidy: (1) the tuition fee per annum must not exceed $24,000 (half-day) or $48,000 (full- day) per student; (2) kindergartens must undergo Quality Reviews, both self-evaluation and external review conducted by the Education Bureau; (3) operational and financial transparency must be maintained; (4) teachers serving in the kindergartens must hold at least a Certificate in Early Childhood Education; and (5) kindergartens must offer local curriculum which is in line with the Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum (GPC) (Curriculum Development Council, 2006). Kindergartens that cannot fulfill the criteria could continue to operate as private independent kindergartens. As of 2011, about 80% of the kindergartens in Hong Kong had joined the PEVS and about 85% of kindergarten-aged children have benefited from the Scheme (Legislative Council, 2011). Taken together, the voucher system generated $2 billion of benefits for a total of 120,000 young children in the 2010/11 school year (Legislative Council, 2013). Striving to enhance the quality of kindergarten education service in Hong Kong, the PEVS aims to increase investment and enhance quality in ECE. The public, on the other hand, question whether offering a direct subsidy to kindergarten parents through the PEVS was an effective means to improve the quality of ECE. Fung and Lam (2008) analyzed the context of ECE in Hong Kong and agreed that PEVS could be a strategic means to improve the quality of early education by making use of market forces to strengthen parents’ voice and choice. They, however, argued that enhancing parental influences on the pedagogical autonomy of kindergartens could have an adverse impact on the program quality and urged for a direct subsidy to fund the operation of kindergartens. Nevertheless, Li, Wong, and Wang (2010) found that most of the parents reported in the survey that the PEVS had eased their financial burden (75%) and helped enhance the quality of kindergartens (61%), and most of the principals reported that the PEVS had increased the competition (77%). In this connection, the PEVS could promote the accessibility, affordability, and accountability of kindergarten education in Hong Kong. The market mechanism and private provision of ECE in Hong Kong have guaranteed unrestricted school choices for the parents of young children. The PEVS has further empowered parents to choose a school for their children by offering them direct fee 3 subsidies. In light of the market force, it was expected that the more credible PEVS- eligible kindergartens could attract more parents to enroll their children, and therefore more vouchers could be collected and cashed by the chosen kindergartens for teachers’ professional development and enhancement of their services. This, in turn, could push kindergartens to monitor and improve their education quality in order to attract more vouchers, i.e. monetary resources, for sustaining the kindergartens. The question then might be the discrepancies between parents’ desirable type of ECE and what the private kindergarten sector should provide according to the GPC (Fung & Lam, 2011). While the PEVS-eligible kindergartens are supposed to offer curricula that promote children’s holistic development, they have to satisfy parents’ demands for academic-oriented curricula in preparation for their children’s primary school admission and education in the long run. The tension results in the provision of many developmentally inappropriate and academic-oriented ECE curricula by the PEVS-eligible kindergartens. That said, pressure cast by parental choices of kindergarten may not necessarily enhance the quality of ECE (Fung & Lam, 2012). Still, we tend to believe that giving kindergartens the autonomy to develop their own curriculum and implement their own monitoring system under the PEVS is constructive in the long run. It helps retain the uniqueness of each kindergarten and the variety of kindergartens in the market for parents to choose from, and this could eventually help improve the overall quality of ECE in Hong Kong, indirectly. It is noteworthy that the key focus of the party that urges for free ECE is affordability rather than quality. Although it has certainly relieved the financial pressure parents bear for their children to receive kindergarten education, the PEVS was criticized for not making ECE completely free to the young children from low-income families. Some needy families had to pay extra school fee that could not be covered by the voucher. The government is very responsive and has revised the ceiling of the voucher and increased the voucher value to $20,010 for the 2014/15 school year. The financial burden on low- income families will be further relieved. However, the PEVS is bound to affect the income allocation of the richer and poorer families differently due to the income gap and the divergent valuation of education between the two groups. Li, Wong, and Wang (2010) found that the richer parents tended to spend the savings from the voucher scheme on interest classes and other educational purposes for their children, whereas the poorer parents would rather use the savings for family expenses instead of education. Hence to ensure that all children, regardless of socioeconomic backgrounds, could receive quality ECE, a motion was raised in the Legislative Council (2011) to urge the government to provide 15-year free education. 4 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 2. Defining 15-year free education with empirical evidence Since 2011, the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU), the Striving for 15- year Free Education Union, and like-minded scholars have coalesced into allies to fight for 15-year free education. They appealed through language and symbols perpetrated by the media to build audience receptivity to the concept of “15-year free education”, a political spectacle produced intentionally to sell their movement to the public. They repeatedly advocated that this free policy could solve all the development problems faced by kindergartens, enhance teachers’ remuneration, and establish a professional training system so as to raise the overall quality of ECE in Hong Kong (Li et al., in press). In this way, they successfully primed the public to believe that the policy is not only the sound bite, but also the panacea to solving all the problems in our ECE arena. However, the empirical articles collected in a recent special issue have jointly proved that the problems they listed in the appeal for free education could not be resolved simply by the means of providing 15-year free education (Li et al., in press). Instead, we consider the political spectacle of 15-year free education a man-made illusion. The real landscape of our kindergarten education is way more complex than what has been portrayed by the supporters of 15- year free education. That being said, this section will attempt to clarify the illusion by addressing two sets of questions with reference to empirical evidence: (1) what is the real meaning of free education? Does it mean that everything should be free and free to every child? (2) How can free education be offered in Hong Kong? Should the government pay the rent and teacher salaries for the kindergarten owners? If so, should the government pocket all the profit? In that case, why don’t we transform private kindergartens into public ones? Unless all these questions are appropriately addressed, we will not be able to arrive at a credible and contextualized solution for implementing free ECE, and therefore, 15- year free education in Hong Kong. The definition of 15-year free education could be derived from the Chinese contexts that have implemented such a policy. To this end, we invited Chinese scholars to evaluate the implementation of 15-year free education in Greater China and edited a special issue for the International Journal of Chinese Education (Li et al., in press). In the special issue, Lau, Li, and Leung (in press) explored the perceived impacts of this policy on the affordability, accessibility, and accountability of ECE in Macau. They found that only the public kindergartens were free to the eligible young children, and the parents who were enjoying free education further demanded for more subsidies from the government to make extra-curricular activities complimentary. In addition, it is very interesting to find that some private kindergartens that did not join the free education school system and charged very high tuition fees were much more attractive to parents than the free public kindergartens did. The parents interviewed by Lau et al. (in press) preferred those expensive private kindergartens to the free public ones, as they were more concerned about the quality. 5 In a similar vein, Cai and Hai (in press) analyzed the case of Ningshan County in Shaanxi Province, and found that the 15-year free education policy was, in fact, not literally free and not applicable to all children. Only public kindergartens delivered free education to a limited number of young children, whereas most of the kindergartens were privately-run and the tuition fees they charged were very high for the local standard of living. Again, they questioned whether the policy was suitable for the local economic and social contexts, and suggested the local government to consider more feasible and sustainable solutions. Li and Wang (in press) conducted an online research to analyze the affordability, accessibility, accountability and sustainability (“3A1S”) of the 15-year free education policies in four counties of western China. They found that the “free” education policies, which were neither “all kids free” nor “all fees free”, could only make ECE affordable, to a limited extent. Other problems in terms of accessibility, accountability and sustainability were primarily left unaddressed. They also pointed out that the policies were unlikely to be sustainable as the public funding entirely relied on the local coal economy and fiscal investment at the county level. All the above studies unanimously concluded that the 15-year free education policies implemented in different parts of the Great China region were mainly delivered by public kindergartens and schools. Children enrolled in private kindergartens and schools still had to pay for tuition fees since these educational establishments only received partial subsidies from the governments. More importantly, it is noteworthy that in most of the cases in Mainland China, free education only means free of tuition fee for children enrolled in public kindergartens, but three other types of fees are still incurred, namely, the fees for registration, learning materials, and healthcare. In other words, the implemented 15-year free education policies do not guarantee authentic free education to all children. Is this what we want in Hong Kong? Besides, the above studies found that the government funding strategies differed between public and private kindergartens in Mainland China and Macau. More commitment was made to financing public kindergartens, which were limited in quantity and/or quality. Private kindergartens were either neglected or were only partially subsidized by the governments. This enlarged the gap between what young children enrolled in public and private kindergartens would receive. The public-private divide in education policy risks perpetuating educational inequalities in many parts of Mainland China and deserves our attention. As for the Hong Kong context, in the absence of public kindergartens to deliver free ECE, government subsidies therefore will be supporting private kindergartens. Given the market-driven nature of our ECE services, offering full and direct funding support to private organizations will bring to the surface a host of dilemmas, which will be further analyzed in the following sections. 6 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 3. Understanding the dilemmas with the “3A1S” framework Many practical but very critical dilemmas need to be resolved to deliver the kind of free ECE expected by the public in Hong Kong. The first critical one is whether kindergarten education should be made free for all, which is about the problem of affordability. As a consequence of implementing the PEVS, the affordability of ECE is no longer a problem in Hong Kong. All the needy families and their children can get ECE for free. So, the questions might be: Is free ECE for all desirable? In particular, should taxpayers pay for the early education of children whose families can afford the cost of high-quality private programs? Will free ECE help achieve the ultimate purposes of education - to nurture human capabilities for our future society? What are the purposes of kindergarten education? All these questions have not been thoroughly addressed and would demand future inquiries and debates. The second dilemma is whether and how the government can completely pay the rent for every kindergarten - the problems of affordability and accountability. We believe that having the government pay rent for all the kindergartens is not a justifiable policy, as some establishments actually own the properties. They do not need and do not deserve this kind of governmental support (Li, 2012). So to speak, if the government pays for the rental, it will mean that the educational resources that should be shared by middle- to low-income families will then be transferred to the kindergarten owners, property developers and property owners. This will not help to solve parent’s affordability problem, but will make kindergarten owners free-riders. The third critical challenge is how to establish a feasible school place allocation system to achieve educational equality, which is per se, an accessibility problem of ECE. If children are enrolled simply based on neighborhood and personal interest in a free ECE system, there will likely be an inflation of the housing prices in affluent areas with elite kindergartens (e.g. Kowloon Tong), as parents attempt to move to these areas to be qualified for admission to the best possible kindergartens. Property developers and owners, rather than children, will benefit from this allocation, and the disparity between noble and ordinary kindergartens as well as that between the rich and the poor will continue to grow. Random assignment of kindergarten places is not a solution either, as it is infeasible to expect children to travel across districts for school (Li, 2012). The fourth dilemma is how to avoid two trade-offs caused by the so-called free education, which will ultimately affect the affordability and accountability of this policy. The most remarkable trade-off is that between affordability and accountability (Li, 2012), as the government will provide full financial support regardless of school quality. We can then foresee that kindergartens can simply sit back and pocket the money whether they are 7 doing anything to improve their education services or not. Adding to the problem is the fact that the government can do little to eliminate any of the kindergartens when they are not running well since they are privately owned. Without the ability to hold kindergartens accountable, the efficiency of governmental input will become a major concern. Devising ways to tackle this accountability problem would be time-consuming, yet imperative (Fong, in press). Another trade-off is that between affordability and quality (Li, 2012). Quality comes with competition and providing full and direct subsidy to kindergartens is merely a backward move. As kindergartens and the teachers involved are guaranteed to receive sufficient financial resources for operation without undergoing any competition, there is then no longer any incentive to strive for improvement. With two of the major stakeholders’ voices muffled (i.e., the parents will not have a say because they are not paying for their children’s education, and the government will not have any means to monitor the private schools), there is neither motivation nor competition over student enrolment. Not to mention quality education for children, which will accordingly tend toward an increasingly uniform mediocrity. Whether the kindergarten is good or not will no longer matters and consequently, the education quality will deteriorate. The fifth dilemma is also about the accountability - whether the governmental subsidy should go to parents or to kindergartens, which might be the tangible difference between 15-year free education and the PEVS. If the direct subsidy goes to kindergartens, the abovementioned four dilemmas will be valid and the quality and accountability of kindergarten education will be sacrificed. If the direct subsidy goes to parents, the four dilemmas will not be valid as parents can then make good use of their choices to promote competition among kindergartens, and accordingly, enhance the quality and accountability of ECE. The virtues of the PEVS are its flexibility, which allows kindergartens to enjoy the autonomy in curriculum development and mode of operation; and its ability to enable needy children to receive free kindergarten education. The last dilemma is whether 15-year free education policy is financially sustainable in Hong Kong. Implementing such a policy requires strong financial support. All governments have to thoroughly calculate the sustainability of its new free education policy. Otherwise, the fiscal deficit will make the policy impossible to sustain. For instance, Li and Wang (in press) found that the 15-year “free” education policies in the four Chinese counties were heavily dependent on the local coal economy. The skyrocketing coal price in the last decade has brought these governments enormous revenue. To make full use of the financial surplus, these county governments made a politically right and professionally manageable decision - implementing 15-year “free” education. However, it has not sufficiently attended to the problem of sustainability. A prolonged plunge in China’s coal prices has created risks for the economy of these counties. As one of these four counties is now suffering from fiscal deficit, the sustainability of their free ECE is thus doubtful in the long run. 8 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 4. Searching for the practical solutions Fong (in press) took a closer look at the online community of Hong Kong to understand how the supporting and opposing parties have persisted in achieving 15- year free education. She found that both parties proposed an increase of the existing voucher value and a voucher that could sufficiently cover the tuition fee of full-day kindergarten programs. Both have called for the establishment of subsidy schemes to support teachers’ professional development and school development, as well as a teacher remuneration scale to enhance the quality of services and teachers’ working conditions. The supporters demanded additional administrative support whereas the opposing party suggested a reduction of administrative procedures. Hence, Fong concluded that the two parties in the debate shared the same set of goals - equal accessibility to all children and enhanced supports for teachers and education services. The only difference between the solutions proposed by the two parties might be whether the subsidy should go to parents or to kindergartens. In this connection, compromise between the two parties is possible and feasible. As highlighted earlier, direct subsidy to kindergartens will lead to all the abovementioned dilemmas. That being said, the final solution should be and could only be subsidizing parents with a modified voucher. Accordingly, the Chief Executive claimed, in his Policy Address in 2014, to modify the voucher to move toward the aim of providing 15-year free education and better quality of kindergarten education. More specifically, he proposed to: (1) increase the value of PEVS by $2,500 per year in the 2014/15 and 2015/16 school years. In other words, the voucher subsidy would be adjusted to $20,010 per student per annum (pspa) in the 2014/15 school year and $22,510 pspa in the 2015/16 school year, respectively. This will further alleviate the financial burden in respect of kindergarten education on parents and relieve the pressure on kindergartens in meeting the expenses, such as teachers’ salary, staffing and operating expenditure (including rental). (2) adjust the fee thresholds for the kindergartens under the PEVS. In the 2013/14 school year, the fee thresholds are $26,260 and $52,520 for half-day (HD) and whole-day (WD) kindergarten places respectively. The thresholds for HD and WD kindergarten classes would be adjusted to $30,020 and $60,400 respectively in the 2014/15 school year, and $33,700 and $67,540 respectively in the 2015/16 school year. In accordance with the established mechanism, the fee threshold for HD kindergarten classes under the PEVS is set at 1.5 times of the voucher subsidy, while the fee threshold for WD kindergarten classes would be 2 times of that for HD kindergarten classes. 9 (3) lift the fee remission ceiling to offer greater assistance to needy families to better facilitate their children’s access to quality kindergarten education. The fee remission ceiling under the Kindergarten and Child Care Centre Fee Remission Scheme (KCCCFRS) will be lifted from the weighted average fees of PEVS kindergartens to the 75th percentile of the school fees of the respective kindergartens to provide greater assistance to needy families in opening the doors to quality KG education for their children. (4) provide course fee reimbursement for principals and teachers serving in PEVS kindergartens to pursue relevant and approved courses in the 2012/13 and 2013/14 school years; and (5) study how to practicably implement free kindergarten education, and will make recommendations within 2015. We believe that these short-term measures are workable and appropriate in the Hong Kong context. First, the PEVS could equally allocate public money among all the eligible young children in Hong Kong, allowing low-income families access to almost-free ECE, while affluent families can continue to pay for more prestigious ECE provisions. Although high-socioeconomic status families are eligible to receive ECE for free if they send their children to PEVS-eligible kindergartens, they prefer to pay more for better ECE in reality, which complies with the principle of cost sharing and compensation. Moreover, the cap (thresholds) on the level of school fees charged by the PEVS-eligible kindergartens has served to bar out the more expensive kindergartens from receiving public resources. It is also noteworthy that the fee thresholds have been raised in the Policy Address 2014 to give parents more choices, which guarantees that the public money will go to the middle- to low-income families rather than the high-socioeconomic status ones. All these measures advocate the principle of helping the poor. But these are short-term measures. What is the long-term solution? Before proposing the long-term and ultimate solution, we need to reiterate the “3A1S” framework that Li et al. (in press) have used to evaluate all the ECE policies, namely, accessibility, affordability, accountability, and sustainability. Accessibility means every young child can easily attend a nearby kindergarten. Affordability means every family can easily afford the fees of the chosen kindergarten, and some fee exemptions could be offered to the needy families. In terms of accountability, every kindergarten, be it non-profit-making or for-profit, the extra fiscal input provided by the policy should be accountable to the government for improving education quality. As for sustainability, the policy should be financially sustainable and continuously affordable to the government. In our perspective, a modified voucher could best meet the goal of achieving accessibility, 10 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions affordability, accountability, and sustainability of our ECE. With the following modifications, the PEVS could achieve the target of implementing free ECE, as the scheme can then address all of the abovementioned dilemmas, and allow half of the young children population in Hong Kong to receive free ECE (Li, 2012). To these ends, we proposed the following modifications of the PEVS: (1) Increase the value of the PEVS, annually and gradually, to the level of 50th (2017-2018) or even 75th (2019-2020) percentile of the tuition fees of the non- profit-making kindergartens. Accordingly, 50% to 75% of the eligible young children will enjoy free kindergarten education through the modified voucher. (2) Launch the full-day voucher for families with both parents working and would therefore need whole day ECE. All the applications should be reviewed and approved by the educational authorities. Meanwhile, more full-day places should be launched gradually. (3) Simplify the procedures of voucher claiming. Eliminate the need for parents to apply for the voucher, and kindergarten can simply reimburse the money directly from EDB after collecting all the students’ identification information. (4) Cancel the restrictions on the eligibility of the PEVS and allow for-profit kindergartens to receive it. As long as the school fee is acceptable, the quality is good (judged by Quality Review), and the finance is thoroughly transparent, they can also receive governmental subsidy through the voucher scheme. In this manner, more families can benefit from the voucher scheme. (5) Establish a suitable mechanism for regular review of the fee thresholds to take into account factors other than changes in the cost of living, to build in flexibility and to enhance the sector responsiveness to changes in circumstances. This will allow kindergartens more room to increase their tuition fees to cover teacher salaries, rental and other operating expenses, instead of passing the additional costs onto parents. (6) Establish a scientific rental reimbursement system to subsidize the rental expenses of non-profit-making kindergartens. This system should monitor the ongoing changes in school rentals annually and the reimbursement should reflect the changes. But support for the rental and teacher salaries of for-profit kindergartens is not needed. 11 (7) Establish a school-based development fund to sponsor all the activities for school development and set up a teacher professional development fund for all the teachers. These funds could be operated as an earmarked Continuing Education Fund so that all the in-service teachers can apply for funding support to pursue degree or professional studies every 5 years. This initiative will definitely enhance the professionalism of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. (8) Develop and launch the teacher qualification allowance, which could be paid monthly to those teaching in voucher-eligible kindergartens, by the government according to each registered teacher’s qualification and performance. This policy has been well implemented in Macau, and will improve the treatment and qualifications of kindergarten teachers without unduly burdening school owners or parents (for details, see Li, 2012.6.22). We strongly believe that the above recommendations can help achieve an equilibrium among the affordability, accessibility, accountability, and sustainability of ECE, as well as satisfying all the stakeholders in our ECE context. Prolonged disputes construct nothing, but stagnation or even deterioration. Decades of research have told us that investing wisely in ECE is one of the keys that can equip our children for the multitudes of life challenges ahead. The question is, however, are we allocating our resources to children’s future or simply to ECE establishments for their survival so none of them will have to step out of the market? References Cai, Y. Q., & Hai, Y. (in press). Free early childhood education in rural China: A case study of Ningshan. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Curriculum Development Council. (2006). Guide to pre-primary curriculum. Retrieved September 12, 2012, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/ preprimary-kindergarten/overview/pre-primaryguide-net_en_928.pdf Fong, R. W. (in press). 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from the online communities. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Fung, C. K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2008). The pre-primary education voucher scheme of Hong Kong: A promise of quality education provision? Education Journal, 36(1/2), 153- 170. 12 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions Fung, K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2011). Empowering parents’ choice of schools: The rhetoric and reality of how Hong Kong kindergarten parents choose schools under the voucher scheme. Current Issues in Education, 14(1). Fung, K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2012). The tension between parents’ informed choice and school transparency: Consumerism in the Hong Kong education voucher scheme. International Journal of Early Childhood, 44(1), 31-52. Lau, M. M. Y. L., Li, H., & Leung, S. O. (in press). A multiple case study on the perceived impacts of the 15-year free education policy in Macau. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Legislative Council. (2010). Review of the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (LC Paper No. CB(2)554/10-11(02)). Retrieved December 15, 2010, from http://www. legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/chinese/panels/ed/papers/ed1217cb2-554-2-c.pdf Legislative Council. (2011). Motion on “striving for 15-year free education” moved by Hon CHEUNG Man-kwong. Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://www.legco.gov. hk/yr10-11/english/legco_rpt/legco_motion02171-e.pdf Legislative Council. (2013). Background brief on issues related to the provision of 15-year free education (LC Paper No. CB(4)486/12-13(02)). Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr12-13/english/panels/ed/papers/ed0319cb4-486-2-e. pdf Li, H. (2012). Free early childhood education matters. OMEP-HK Newsletter, 12(2), 13- 18. Li, H. ( 李輝 ) (2012.6.22). 〈免費幼兒教育免誰的費？如何免費？〉. 《明報》, A36 版, 觀點 . Li, H., & Wang, D. (in press). Understanding the 15-year free education policies in China: An online study of four cases. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Li, H., Wang, D., & Fong, R.W. (in press). Editor’s Note - Sound bites won’t work: Case studies of 15-year free education in Greater China. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Li, H., Wong, J. M. S., & Wang, X. C. (2010). Affordability, accessibility, and accountability: Perceived impacts of the pre-primary education vouchers in Hong Kong. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 125-138. Rao, N., & Li, H. (2009). Quality matters: Early childhood education policy in Hong Kong. Early Child Development and Care, 179(3), 233-245. 13 如何在香港推行 15 年免費教育：困境與出路李輝香港大學教育學院方蔚子香港教育學院摘要澳門及中國內地某些地區已經陸續推行了 15 年免費教育，香港幼兒教育工作者和專家近年來也在激烈辯論應否在港實施同樣政策。本文在參照澳門及中國內地有關政策的基礎上，對香港現行學前教育學券制的情況及其推行 15 年免費教育進行了文獻分析，並運用「3A1S」的理論框架（即「可支付性，可進入性，可問責性和可持續性」）對實施免費教育所需面對的困境進行了詳細分析。據此，本文提出了切合香港實際需要、切實可行推行 15 年免費教育的解決方案。關鍵詞 15 年免費教育，香港幼兒教育，教育政策的困境 14 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 13 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2014 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century Michael H LEE Department of History, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Higher education, which comprises public and private universities together with self- financed community colleges, is an important component of the education in Hong Kong. Comprehensive reviews and reforms on higher education have been carried out in Hong Kong since the 1990s when it witnessed the processes of both quantitative expansion and qualitative consolidation, which led to several significant changes facing the higher education system. Some of the most remarkable issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government-university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. Examining the major developments of higher education in Hong Kong in the twenty- first century, this article analyzes the ways higher education has been transformed by the aforementioned four trends. Keywords higher education, quality assurance, internationalization, government-university relationship, private universities 1. Introduction Hong Kong is not immune from a global trend of higher education reform which aims at improving the quality of education and maintaining its relevance to socio-economic needs in the age of globalization when market forces and competitions are the core values. Globalization has been considered a strong rationale for restructuring the existing higher 15 education sector with the injection of new ideas of governance and management, which adhere to the business-oriented culture and practices prevailing in the private sector in response to the deep influence of public sector reforms spreading. The image of being ivory tower can no longer be sustained for universities as they are expected to make more contributions to research and development in order to enhance their international ranking and reputation. The development of higher education has aroused widespread concerns among stakeholders of the sector, including university leaders, academics and students. Various stakeholders have made their voices heard concerning the changing environment facing higher education in recent years when there has been ever growing social expectation on education outcomes by admitting more students on one hand and by producing a larger pool of well-educated and skilled manpower for socio-economic needs on the other. While universities are supposed to be more adaptive (Sporn, 1999), enterprise-oriented (Marginson & Considine, 2000) and entrepreneurial (Clark, 1998, 2004), both Lucas (1996) and Readings (1998) warn against a crisis looming to the higher education sector for universities have been under growing political pressure for reform in face of more acute competition for public or government resources which have become more limited as a consequence of more stringent budgetary control. In fact, as what Kennedy (1997) suggests, universities are controversial places, and they have drawn intense public scrutiny on their obligations and duties in order to regain public trust. Under this circumstance, academics’ work turns out to be more demanding for they have to teach, publish, serve, and even risk change. For higher education, many changes have been observed in the sector since the 1990s when it witnessed the process of massification or the rapid expansion of higher education with a significant increase in the numbers of both students and degree- awarding higher education institutions. This article analyzes the ways higher education has been transformed by identifying major issues facing higher education that are affecting the development of higher education in Hong Kong. These issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government- university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. There are four sections following this introductory section. The article commences by an analysis of the policy context of higher education in Hong Kong since the 1990s. The next section examines major issues facing higher education in Hong Kong. The penultimate section discusses major trends shaping the development of higher education in Hong Kong. The final section concludes the discussion. 16 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century 2. Policy context Globalization has significant impacts on how higher education to evolve and transform. Closely associated with higher education is the cluster of aims, values and general ideas, including the pursuit of truth and objective knowledge, research, liberal education, institutional autonomy, academic freedom, a neutral and open forum for debate, rationality, the development of the students’ critical abilities, autonomy, and character formation, the provision of a critical centre within society, and the preservation of society’s intellectual culture (Barnett, 1990). The university is a place of teaching universal knowledge where persons of broad knowledge, critical intelligence, moral decency, and social sensitivity are produced (Newman, 1996). It is expected to serve as the protecting power of all knowledge and science, fact and principle, inquiry and discovery, and also experiment and speculation. Modern universities have been developed following the Humboldtian model in Germany with more emphasis placed on science, research, graduate instruction, and the freedom of professors and students (Kerr, 2001). They have to strive not only for survival but also performance and resources for their sustainable development. In the age of supercomplexity, universities no longer monopolize the production of knowledge, but they continue to be a major producer of new frameworks for understanding through more vibrant research activities. What universities do is to prepare the students to cope with the world of supercomplexity, which is partly a result of globalization and the information technology revolution, with the qualities of self-reliance, adaptability and flexibility. Moreover, universities need to reconsider its enlightenment role in advancing the level of general understanding in society. It is a must for universities to adapt to new demands which would require radical changes in management and leadership (Barnett, 2000a, 2000b). Moreover, universities should ensure different views, ideas, and voices to be exposed to wider audiences (Barnett, 1997). The impact of globalization on the policy context of higher education has been widely attended. Globalization refers to a set of processes leading to a rapid integration of the world into one economic space through increased international trade and the internationalization of production and commodity culture with the laissez-faire principle (Bottery, 2000; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). It is closely associated with neoliberalism which “sees the market as the most effective way of determining production and satisfying people’s needs” (Stromquist, 2003, p. 25). According to Carnoy (2000), the relationship between globalization and educational change can be revealed not only from the expansion of higher education to cope with economic restructuring but also from the strong emphasis on the quality of education which is translated into quantifiable and measurable performance indicators to be compared at the international level. Certain reforms of higher education are finance-driven as universities are allowed more flexibility and autonomy in exchange for greater accountability. Higher education is not surprisingly 17 subject to financial constraints as a consequence of the shift towards neoliberalism and the rise of economic globalization (Bottery, 2000; Schugurensky, 2003). In this global context, universities are linked to the market and become more customer-oriented. They are under greater pressure to produce consumer satisfaction with an emphasis on market- oriented effectiveness. The role of university management has been strengthened with the cultivation of entrepreneurial culture within universities. The adoption of quality assurance and performance indicators comes with competition among universities for revenues and resources and the application of business principles and practices in university administration (Currie & Newson, 1998; Peters, Marshall, & Fitzsimons, 2000; Stromquist, 2003; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000; Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard, & Henry, 1997). Putting this global context to Hong Kong’s higher education, performance indicators have become more important when the allocation of public funding is not only based on student enrollments but also the competition for performance-based research funds. The General Research Fund under the Research Grants Council, which is part of the University Grants Committee (UGC), is a competitive funding scheme that enables academics to compete for research funds based on their own track records and the originality, merit, contribution and significance of their research projects. The overall successful rate of applications to General Research Fund between 2008 and 2012 was around 30-40 percent. For instance, in 2011-12, when a total of HK$557.5 million were allocated, the success rate was 31 percent, which is 10 percent lower than 2008-09 when HK$512.5 were allocated (Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, 2012). Moreover, there is the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), which was first conducted in 1993-94, to assess the research output performance of the UGC-funded institutions. The proportion of the active researchers at each cost centre is treated as a factor in determining the allocation of research funding for the next triennium. The second round of RAE was conducted in 1996 and the third in 1999. The fourth round was carried out in 2006 when the UGC decided to have the exercise undertaken at six-year intervals instead of three years after the third RAE in 1999. The RAE in 2006 served as the basis for distributing of block grants for research among the eight UGC-funded institutions in the triennium of 2008-11 (University Grants Committee [UGC], 2004). The fifth round of RAE has been scheduled in the academic year 2014-15. Apart from the development of performance-based funding mechanisms in the higher education sector, universities have to cope with the influence of managerial globalization which refers to the professionalization of management in tandem with the adoption of the more directive and assertive management style commonly found in the private sector. More professional managers are expected to play a more important role to lead universities and also to learn from other countries or institutions for the best practices of management (Bottery, 2000). Under the pressure for being more efficient, universities like other public sector institutions have to become more businesslike and incorporate good 18 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century practices of business management whilst professional managers should be innovative, dynamic, flexible, transparent, customer-centred, and strategic (Whitty, Power, & Halpin, 1998). Moreover, the language of efficiency, empowerment, rationality, and transparency dominates the ongoing processes of education reforms and restructuring in most parts of the world (Apple, 2001). Outcomes and outputs are measured against the goals, roles, and objectives set by universities and higher education institutions (Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard, & Henry, 1997). The notion of “fitness for purpose” has been emphasized for higher education in Hong Kong. For university governance and management systems, it is necessary to strike a balance between individual ability, institutional excellence, and adequate resources (UGC, 2002). While universities have to comply with the principle of public accountability, the collegial forms of decision-making have been considered an obstacle to managerial rationalities (Bok, 2003). The higher education sector in Hong Kong has similarly experienced rapid expansion and also more keen competition for funding, students, and academics since the 1990s. These changes also gave rise to the introduction of quality assurance systems with certain key performance indicators on teaching, research, and management (Postiglione, 1996). Performance-based funding mechanisms were introduced to boost the research performance among the UGC-funded institutions. These policy initiatives were made to ensure the universities to be more efficient, more accountable to the public, more cost- effective, and more responsive to socio-economic needs (Schugurensky, 2003). Changes like the development of Hong Kong as a regional education hub, the admission of a larger number of non-local students, and the restructuring of the university academic and curriculum structures are bringing many changes to higher education practitioners and stakeholders (Postiglione, 2002). Moreover, there are also widespread concerns about preserving the core values of academic freedom, institutional autonomy and internationalism (Postiglione, 1997). As discussed earlier, the policy context of higher education is influenced by globalization, which points to the rise of neoliberalism with the supremacy of market forces. This also denotes a reorientation of the relationship between universities and government for the latter is not a service provider but a service purchaser to allocate resources according to the former’s performance and achievements which are demonstrated through various quality indicators on the teaching, research and management aspects. With a strong emphasis on market competition among institutions, the notion of “quality” is understood from the educational and business perspectives. In order to maximize the value for money and improve cost-effectiveness and market relevance, the higher education sector is subject to much closer external scrutiny under the government’s funding body or the UGC, which performs its role as a service purchaser to ensure the quality of service providers. In addition, with the rise of managerialism, collegiality has 19 gradually been taken over by corporate rationality in the decision-making processes in universities (Schugurensky, 2003). 3. Major issues of higher education In this policy context, certain issues facing the higher education sector in Hong Kong have emerged and become dominant in the twenty-first century. These issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government- university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. This section examines these issues and their impacts on higher education development. 3.1 Institutionalization of quality assurance The UGC defines quality assurance as “the maintenance of the highest possible standards, both in teaching and learning and in research, which are commensurating with an institution’s agreed role and mission” (UGC, 2002, p. 18). Universities are responsible for upholding the quality of education and research in order to maintain their competitiveness in the global market competition in higher education. Meanwhile the UGC has introduced and managed a series of quality assurance mechanisms covering three major areas of higher education institutions, namely research, teaching and learning, and management. As mentioned in the previous section, the allocation of research funds is subject to performance-based assessments and competitions. Apart from assessing the research performance, several reviews on the teaching and learning quality assurance processes and the institutional management were carried out. Teaching and Learning Quality Process Reviews (TLQPR) were carried out twice in 1995-97 and 2001-03. The objectives of TLQPR were to focus attention on teaching and learning, to assist institutions to improve their teaching and learning quality, and to enable the UGC and the institutions to discharge their obligation to be accountable for quality (UGC, 1999). Furthermore, Management Review (MR) was conducted in 1998-99 by the UGC to ensure individual institutions having the capacity and effective processes to manage devolved funds and resources to achieve their aims and objectives in face of financial reduction of 10 percent of the higher education budget between 1999 and 2001 (French, 1999, January). MR was aimed to support the institutions in enhancing the quality of management, to discharge the UGC’s accountability for ensuring that devolved funds and resources are managed appropriately, and to enhance the effectiveness of institutions’ internal resource allocation, planning and financial processes. The review was also aimed to promote the sharing of experiences and best practices by the institutions in the areas of internal resource of allocation, planning and financial processes relative to the institutions’ academic plans and objectives. 20 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century In 2007, the Quality Assurance Council (QAC) was set up as a semi-autonomous non- statutory body under the aegis of the UGC to carry out external quality audits targeting on the quality of teaching and learning in place of TLQPRs. The first audit was carried out on a four-year cycle between 2008 and 2011. The main objective of QAC audits is to assure the quality of student learning in UGC-funded institutions and ensure the UGC-funded institutions can deliver on the promises they make in their mission statements in line with the notion of “fitness for purpose” especially in the area of teaching and learning. What the QAC concerns is about the quality of student learning rather than research and managerial activities, which are only covered in the audit when they affect the quality of teaching and learning (Quality Assurance Council, c. 2007). The audit reports on individual UGC- institutions were released between 2008 and 2011 whereas individual institutions’ progress reports in response to the audit reports’ recommendations were released between 2010 and 2013. The second round of QAC audits, which would be carried out over a two- year period, would focus on promoting the enhancement of teaching and learning, and on assessing the strengths and weaknesses of current academic practice. More attention would be given to institutional strategies and policies for global engagements on the ways how students can participate in an increasingly global community, together with more specific coverage of taught postgraduate programmes and research training programmes (Quality Assurance Council, c. 2011). These developments reveal an irreversible trend of institutionalizing performance-based assessments and quality assurance in the higher education sector. However, the imposition of these quality assurance mechanisms has been criticized as a means not to improve the quality of education but incur much greater pressure for academics and university managers to comply with numerous quantifiable performance indicators. 3.2 Reorientation of government-university relationship The transition from quantitative expansion to qualitative consolidation since the 1990s has come with a more prominent role played by government in setting the direction of higher education development in Hong Kong. The UGC, as the government’s funding body and also policy adviser on higher education, has put more pressure on universities to modify the governance and management systems in order to improve their accountability. For instance, the University of Hong Kong (HKU) was the first UGC- funded institution underwent the governance review in 2003. One of the most significant changes was that the faculty deans would no longer be elected by academics. Instead they would be appointed by the top management according to the vice-chancellor’s recommendation (University of Hong Kong, 2003). This reflects the changing relationship between government and universities as the former has been more eager to look into higher education policy matters partly because of the policy to develop Hong Kong into a regional education hub. Furthermore, the rationale behind the government’s more proactive role in higher education is to ensure the public money for higher education being 21 spent smartly and wisely, and the universities can serve the political, social and economic needs. Apart from this, a few controversial incidents have aroused widespread concerns over the changing government-university relationship over the first decade of the twenty- first century. Since 1997, Hong Kong has been run according to the “one country, two systems” principle. According to the Basic Law of Hong Kong, all educational institutions, including universities and higher education institutions, should be allowed to preserve institutional autonomy and academic freedom (National People’s Congress, 1990, Article 137). Inherited from the British model and tradition of higher education, both institutional autonomy and academic freedom remain the most sacred values upheld by the academic community in Hong Kong. Whether institutional autonomy and academic freedom can be preserved in Hong Kong has drawn widespread concerns after 1997, when there were a few incidents triggering controversies over political interference in academic work. The first of such incidents happened in 1999 when the opinion polls on the popularity of the government conducted by a HKU’s research centre headed by Robert Chung were not welcomed by then Chief Executive Tung Chee-Hwa, whose aide paid a visit to HKU’s vice-chancellor to seek for his promise for not proceeding to opinion polls targeting on the performance of the government. The incident was resulted in the resignation of the vice- chancellor and the removal of the aide of then Chief Executive. Moreover, the incident was considered an infringement of the core academic value of academic freedom in a sense that academics should bear zero tolerance over political intervention into research and teaching (Currie, Petersen, & Mok, 2006; Postiglione, 2002). The second incident, which took place in 2002, is concerned about the merger plan between the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) as put forward by the former Secretary for Education, Arthur Li, who served as CUHK’s vice-chancellor in 1997-2002, to integrate the two universities into a strong comprehensive world-class university in Hong Kong. Nevertheless, due to the strong resistance of academics in both universities in response to the merger plan, the idea of having a merger between the two universities was not pursued in place of other viable initiatives of institutional collaboration and integration (UGC, 2004). The government subsequently proposed an idea of merging CUHK with Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) so as to strengthen the latter’s research capacity and also its reputation. Rather than a merger, a deep collaboration approach was deemed more appropriate and thus adopted. As a consequence, both institutions engaged in offering some joint undergraduate programmes with an aim of improving the quality of teachers’ training in Hong Kong. These two merger proposals were perceived as attempts by the government to intervene directly how certain universities should be run and to impose important policies with a top-down approach regardless key stakeholders’ responses and 22 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century reactions. In short, what the government did turned out to be violating the principle of institutional autonomy. The third incident happened in 2007 when the senior management of HKIEd, after the contract of its president Paul Morris was not renewed, disclosed that then Permanent Secretary for Education, Fanny Law, filed a complain to the institution against a few academics who critics and commentaries published in the local press had obstructed the smooth implementation of education reforms and policies. Moreover, Arthur Li was accused of posing a threat to the HKIEd’s senior management on cutting the number of student enrollments if the merger plan with CUHK was not accepted. Meanwhile, the senior management was also asked to issue a statement condemning a group of surplus teachers and a teachers’ union for protesting against the government’s refusal to secure those surplus teachers’ jobs in primary and secondary schools. In face of these controversies between government and HKIEd, then Chief Executive Donald Tsang appointed an independent commission to inquire into these allegations in relation to HKIEd in the same year. While the two allegations against Arthur Li and the government’s improper interference with institutional autonomy of HKIEd were not established, the one against Fanny Law on her improper interference with academic freedom enjoyed by a few academics working in HKIEd was established (Yeung & Lee, 2007). These incidents as mentioned above inevitably aroused widespread concerns, not only in the academic community but also the society, about the preservation of academic freedom and institutional autonomy by universities and higher education institutions. Meanwhile, the government’s more proactive role in higher education development cannot be denied. 3.3 Growth of private higher education The first decade of the twenty-first century witnessed the emergence and growth of private higher education in Hong Kong, which has long been dominated by the publicly- funded universities and higher education institutions. This is a result of a major policy shift to have a more diversified higher education system which is expected to comprise not only the UGC-funded institutions but also other private or self-financed higher education institutions with different strengths and specialties to cater for the ever growing demands for higher education in and out of Hong Kong, especially the Chinese mainland which is now a dominant source of non-local students for higher education in Hong Kong. It is believed that private higher education can not only diversify the sector but also provide more choices for students to choose from and also provide alternative pathways for students to receive higher education without relying overwhelmingly on the few UGC- funded institutions. 23 In line with the policy of encouraging more private higher education institutions or even universities to run in Hong Kong, a breakthrough development took place in 2008 when Shue Yan College was eventually granted the university status and formally upgraded to be the first private university. Other privately-run or self-financed local post-secondary colleges have planned to develop as private universities in the future, such as Chu Hai College of Higher Education, Hang Seng Management College, and the Caritas Francis Hsu College, which is run by the Catholic Diocese in Hong Kong. Some existing universities also involve in providing self-financed degree programmes. In 2012, Centennial College was set up by HKU to provide four-year self-financed degree programmes in humanities, social sciences and business studies to local and non- local students. In addition to these privately-run local higher education institutions, the government has also looked for renowned overseas universities to set up branch campuses in Hong Kong. For instances, the Savannah College of Art and Design (SCAD), which was founded in 1978 in the United States, set up its first Asian branch campus in Hong Kong in 2011 to offer undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the field of art and design. Another example is drawn from the Booth School of Business of the University of Chicago, which has set up its first Asian branch campus in Singapore for 10 years, decided to move its Asian campus from Singapore to Hong Kong in 2014 to offer mainly taught postgraduate programmes in business management. The move implies that Hong Kong has much better competitive advantage than Singapore for the former’s close proximity with the ever growing market of higher education in the Chinese mainland. The emergence of overseas universities’ branch campuses in Hong Kong, to a certain extent, suggests the good potential for Hong Kong to be developed as a regional hub of higher education. Apart from private universities, there has been also rapid development of community colleges which provide associate degree programmes for secondary school leavers since the early 2000s, when the government decided to ensure more opportunities of higher education by not expanding subsidized universities but by encouraging the private sector to run self-financed community colleges (Tung, 2001; Yung, 2002). While some of these self-financed community colleges are affiliated with the UGC-funded institutions, others are run by local charitable organizations like Tung Wah Group of Hospitals and Po Leung Kuk. It is not surprising to see competition between community colleges for student enrollments for they are market responsive by focusing on professional and vocational training programmes. In face of the rapid growth of such self-financed community colleges and associate degree programmes, the UGC recommended in its third major review of higher education in 2010, as what the UGC’s higher education review in 2002 suggested, to set up a single oversight body such as Further Education Council to oversee the quality of the non-publicly funded higher education institutions, including self- financed community colleges (UGC, 2002). The UGC also expressed its concerns about the credibility of self-financed associate degree programmes for which a clear identity 24 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century and character should be constructed together with a more stringent quality assurance mechanism to strengthen the public confidence on the sector (UGC, 2010). 3.4 Internationalization for education hub Internationalization is without doubt a popular issue widely discussed in many countries (De Wit, 2002; Knight, 2004). With reference to the higher education sector in Hong Kong, the concept of internationalization can be analyzed from two dimensions. On one hand, internationalization suggests a significant rise in the number of non-local or international students studying in Hong Kong’s universities. In 2003-04, there were 2,871 non-local students enrolled in the UGC-funded institutions. This was about four percent of the overall student enrollment. In the academics years 2011-12 and 2012-13, the numbers of non-local students studying in the UGC-funded institutions increased to 10,770 and 13,661 respectively. There were in total around 14 percent of non-local students enrolled in the UGC-funded institutions in both academic years. There had been much more non- local students studying in Hong Kong’s universities as the number of non-local students had grown fourfold from 2003 to 2013. Moreover, a majority of non-local students were originated from the Chinese mainland with a much higher percentage at over 80 percent as compared with those from other places in Asia or the rest of the world. In 2003-04, 2,536 students or about 88 percent of non-local students were from the Chinese mainland. Most of those mainland Chinese students enrolled in research postgraduate programmes (Trade Development Council, 2005). In both 2011-12 and 2012-13, slightly above 80 percent of non-local students were from the Chinese mainland which contrasts with around 12-15 percent from other places in Asia and 4-5 percent from the rest of the world (UGC, 2013, p. 82). These figures demonstrate that Hong Kong can attract a significantly large number of the mainland Chinese students to further their studies in Hong Kong’s universities. Nevertheless, although there had been an increase in the number of non-local students from outside the Chinese mainland, there is still much room for the UGC-funded institutions to strike a better balance between the proportion of the mainland Chinese students and the ones from Asia and other parts of the world. A possible reason for more non-local students to study in Hong Kong’s universities is that they are allowed to stay in Hong Kong for employment for one year after graduation (UGC, 2010). On the other hand, internationalization means more than the recruitment of non-local or international students. It also refers to the integration of the universities in Hong Kong into an active network of relationships with international counterparts. One way to do is to demonstrate their “world-class” performance through international rankings. Certain universities in Hong Kong have been ranked high in several international league tables on higher education, including those compiled by Times Higher Education Supplement and Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). Some universities made use of their institutional reputation to explore their markets for higher education outside Hong Kong, especially in the 25 Chinese mainland. They have been exploring opportunities of having collaboration with the Chinese universities to jointly offer self-financed taught postgraduate programmes and courses in China (Trade Development Council, 2005). Local universities can also make use of their own institutions’ international prestige and reputation to build up overseas partnership in offering programmes and in undertaking collaborative research projects. Moreover, internationalization is a process for making Hong Kong a regional education hub, which has been a policy goal since the mid-2000s (Tung, 2004). The competitiveness of Hong Kong lies on the provision of high quality of higher education by a number of top quality or internationally recognized world-class universities to non- local students, who are attracted to come to study in the city. These non-local students can possibly become valuable talents to contribute to Hong Kong’s long-term socio-economic development if they opt to work in the city after graduation. In this sense, the development of Hong Kong as a regional education hub as a goal of the internationalization of higher education policy is to create a large pool of local and non-local talents to keep the city on the track of sustainable development in the long run. Meanwhile, internationalization also implies a fundamental change of the character of higher education which is not just a public good to be guaranteed by the government but also a commodity for economic exchange as the cases shown in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, Canada and Singapore. This denotes the movements of some UGC-funded institutions to provide higher education outside Hong Kong like the case of CUHK which set up its first branch campus in Shenzhen in September 2014. Meanwhile, as mentioned earlier, there have been overseas renowned universities to come to Hong Kong like SCAD and Chicago’s Booth School of Business, all of which may help boost the city’s image of being a regional education hub in face of keen competition from other neighbouring countries like Singapore, Malaysia and the Chinese mainland, where they are also competing for more collaborations and partnerships with overseas world-class universities. However, one problem facing Hong Kong universities to be solved is to encourage not only the Chinese mainland students but also more students from Asian countries and other parts of the world to enable a greater diversity of nationalities and cultural backgrounds (UGC, 2010). 4. Discussion: Major trends of higher education Having examined the major issues facing the higher education sector in Hong Kong, this section shifts its focus on generalizing the trends shaping the future of higher education. It argues that the role of government in the development of higher education in Hong Kong has become more important with special reference to the cultivation of world- class universities and the transformation of Hong Kong as a regional education hub. 26 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century Similar to other public services, higher education is undeniably under the strong influence of the notion of public accountability. Universities are under constant pressure to be more relevant and responsive to market needs. While institutional autonomy in making decisions on academic matters and resource allocation entitled to universities is largely respected, there has been stronger emphasis on the importance of external scrutiny in the forms of quality assurance and audits to be institutionalized in the higher education sector in line with such prevailing ideas as “value for money” and “fitness for purpose”. Teaching, research and management have been regularly subject to the external scrutiny. The allocation of resources, especially those on research activities, has been pegged with the results of external audits as a means to stimulate better performance delivered by the publicly-funded universities. Universities have been encouraged to use resources more prudently and also look for alternative non-government sources of revenues to “decentralize” the financial responsibilities of higher education which has long been shouldered by the government. For instance, the Matching Grant Scheme was introduced in 2003 to cultivate a culture of social donations for publicly-funded universities (Leung, 2003). The cost of higher education to be shared in the society by motivating the establishment of community colleges and self-financed higher education institutions to provide non-subsidized programmes. While the government takes a step back from financing higher education with an excuse of uncertainty in economic performance, it has strengthened its role through the UGC to scrutinize and evaluate the performance and quality of public universities in order to protect the public interest in higher education. The universities in Hong Kong are at the crossroad between competition and collaboration. It is undeniable that universities are constantly competing with each other for famous and outstanding professors, talented students, research funds, international reputation, and social donations. While competition among universities is encouraged to stimulate institutional improvement, institutional collaboration is of equal importance to prevent unnecessary wastage of resources by eliminating and avoiding duplication of teaching and research efforts. Competition and collaboration are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other to ensure a healthy development of higher education. It is especially true for Hong Kong where the higher education sector has long been suffering from the lack of collaboration that has resulted in unnecessary resource wastage. A two-pronged strategy of competition and collaboration among the universities should be adopted to ensure continuous self-improvement and more effective use of limited resources simultaneously. 27 Internationalization as a strategy leading to the making of Hong Kong as an education hub comprises core elements like exchanges of academics, students and knowledge across national boundaries, the recruitment of non-local or international students, the export of higher education by local institutions outside Hong Kong, and even the import of higher education from overseas universities in Hong Kong. Apart from getting more non-local students, especially those from the Chinese mainland, to study in Hong Kong, local universities have in recent years embarked on constructing collaborative relationships with the counterparts in the Chinese mainland in the forms of joint teaching and research projects as well as academic exchange programmes. A large number of the Chinese mainland students have been recruited to study in research and taught postgraduate programmes in Hong Kong’s universities since the late 1990s. The Chinese mainland has become the most important market of higher education for the eight UGC-funded institutions. The opening of CUHK’s branch campus in Shenzhen is an example to imitate and follow for exporting higher education from Hong Kong. The trend of internationalization does bring about both opportunities and dangers to higher education sector in Hong Kong. Further expansion of higher education can be expected for an ever growing market of higher education in the hinterland, the Chinese mainland, where demands for world-class higher education, including publicly-funded undergraduate and research postgraduate programmes as well as self-financed taught postgraduate programmes run by UGC-funded institutions, would become more prominent. Nonetheless, in the meantime, the quality of higher education needs to be assessed and scrutinized with both internal and external audits to ensure the academic standards would not be compromised with an influx of non-local students. Moreover, more attention should also be paid on whether and how overseas institutions which set up their branch campuses in Hong Kong can survive on the self-sufficient basis in the long run for they can mainly rely on the tuition fees as their incomes. The challenge is how to increase the number of students who can afford over HK$250,000 or US$32,000 a year for tuition fees at SCAD as a big contrast to HK$42,000 or US$5,400 levied by the UGC-funded institutions. Even more critical issue facing the process of internationalizing higher education in Hong Kong is how to get in more non-local, non-Chinese mainland students to study in this emerging education hub. It is important to rectify the common impression that what has been achieved since the early twenty-first century in Hong Kong higher education is not about “mainlandization” or regionalization but genuinely internationalization. 5. Conclusion Wang Gungwu, who served as HKU’s Vice-Chancellor between 1986 and 1995, points out that there has been a general decline in the confidence of Asian universities for the past three decades. In the past, many believed that it was due to the lack of 28 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century funding and facilities which prevented universities for doing an excellent job. However, the focus has shifted to the inadequacies of university structures and on how to reform them in order to make sure of more efficient use of funds and facilities in order to make distinctive contributions and thus justify their existence. Although most universities aim at international excellence and reputation, they have met with frustration and have attributed this to the shortage of resources and also the lack of appreciation by their communities (Wang, 1992). In spite of these drawbacks facing most Asian universities, with no exception for the ones in Hong Kong, they are very much eager to strive for a world-class status as revealed from a series of international university rankings (Altbach, 2003). Clark (1998, 2004) suggests that the future of universities denotes the transformation towards the direction of “entrepreneurial universities”. The meaning of “entrepreneurial” in the context of higher education indicates “the attitudes and procedures that most dependably lead to the modern self-reliant, self-steering university” (Clark, 2004, p. 7). When most countries put a strong emphasis on the development of quality assurance system, the changing university-government relationship, and the policy and strategies of internationalization, these issues have also prevailed in Hong Kong over the past two decades since massification took place in the 1990s. While Hong Kong is striving to be a regional education hub, it is not immune from global practices adopted from the process of policy borrowing and learning. As what Currie (2004) addresses, if universities are going to be a model of institutions for the society, it is necessary to shore up democratic collegiality against the rush to managerialize the decision-making processes in universities. Moreover, there is a need for caution against picking up the latest management fad blindly without consideration about the unique context and nature of higher education. It is more important to uphold the core values of scholarly integrity and professional autonomy in face of greater pressure for public accountability. In conclusion, the first decade of the twenty-first century witnessed several fundamental changes in Hong Kong higher education. New policies and practices related to quality assurance, university governance, funding mechanism, private universities, community colleges, and internationalization were introduced. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Vol. 1, 32-44. 33 21 世紀香港高等教育李曉康香港中文大學歷史系摘要高等教育是香港教育中相當重要的環節。香港的高等教育體系，包括資助大學、自負盈虧的私立大學及社區學院。1990 年代以來，香港的高等教育體系經歷了普及化和急速擴張的階段，以及提升和鞏固教育質素的發展過程。與此同時，香港的高等教育界亦要面對來自全面檢討和改革政策的變革和挑戰，為不同的持份者帶來前所未有的衝擊。這些變革包括：質素評鑑制度的確立和制度化、政府與大學關係的變化、私立高等院校的湧現，以及為配合香港發展成為教育樞紐而推行的高等教育國際化政策。本文檢視香港高等教育在 21 世紀的重要發展，並分析和討論上述四項重要變革對香港高等教育長遠發展所帶來的影響。關鍵詞高等教育，質素評鑑，國際化，政府與大學關係，私立大學 34 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 香港小學小班的教學實踐章月鳳、李子建香港教育學院摘要香港政府自 2009 年在小學推出小班教學政策，至 2013 年 9 月已有 344 所小學推行小班教學，不少學校已推廣至小學五年級。小班教學的成效如何？本文結合文獻對小班成效的綜述，透過對推行小班教學的兩所學校共 10 位教師進行焦點團體訪談，初步剖析香港小班教學政策下的教師教學實踐，並提出進一步調整或深化政策的意見和建議。關鍵詞小班教學，教學實踐，香港教育，教師發展甲、小班教學政策的推行順應香港出生率遞減，小學收生人數減少的趨勢，香港政府於 2007 年宣佈實施小班教學政策，自 2009-10 年度起，從小學一年級起，每班人數減至 25 人。對於小班教學政策下教師的教學實踐，香港政府沒有很明確地在其綱領性文件提出具體要求。而 Galton & Pell 針對 2004 年參與「小班教學先導計畫」的 37 所學校進行研究，並提出有效小班教學的六大核心原則，包括：（1）建立適切的教學目標；（2）運用多樣化的提問技巧；（3）鼓勵學生參與課堂活動；（4）安排小組活動促進學生互相協作；（5）給予學生回饋，幫助他們反思學習效能；和（6）使用有效「促進學習」的評估策略（Galton & Pell, 2009, pp. 5-6）。這六大原則一直被公認為香港教育局、師資培訓機構、學校和教師推動小班教學政策及檢視小班教學成效的主要框架。 35 對於小班教學政策是否能提升學習成績，世界各國的學者進行了眾多的研究和論證，但是都未能達到統一的說法。他們發現，除了班級規模之外，學生學習成績的高低還會受其他眾多因素影響，包括教學科目、學生程度、年齡和背景等（Blatchford, Bassett, & Goldstein, 2003）。但是不少學者都認為：實施小班能否帶來影響，要視乎教師是否有效地運用小班的優勢來提升教學實踐的品質（Blatchford et al., 2003）。要鼓勵教師善用小班環境的優勢，促進教師的專業發展是一個重要因素（Galton & Pell, 2009）。為了促進小班教學政策的實施，香港教育局和各大學師資培訓機構在過去的五年內為教師提供了大量關於小班教學專業的培訓。小班政策推行至 2013 年 9 月，已有 344 所小學（約有七成公營小學）參加（Education Bureau, 2013），並推展小班教學至小學五年級。對於小班政策第一週期推行的成效，現在是時候進行探討和反思，以便提出將來調整或深化政策實施的意見和建議。乙、小班環境下的教師教學實踐縱覽世界各國關於小班成效的研究和討論，小班政策對教師實踐的影響主要體現在以下五方面：一、小班教學提升學生的參與在小班教學中，教師會更多使用小組活動（Harfitt, 2013），減少全班教學的時間（Blatchford, Goldstein, & Mortimore, 1998; Bascia & Faubert, 2012），分組時每組的人數更少，以增加合作的機會（Yeomans, 1987）。使用小組活動可以提升學生的參與和與他人互動的機會（Blatchford, Baines, Kutnick, & Martin, 2001; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985），更多展示學生的作品（Blatchford, Russell, Bassett, Brown, & Martin, 2007）和使用更多正面的回饋。不但師生在課堂中互動的量和深度都有增加（Blatchford, 2003; Finn, Pannozzo, & Achilles, 2003; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Özerk, 2001; Yeomans, 1987），師生在課堂以外的互動也會增多（Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985），而且互動方式更多樣和個人化。很自然地，教師和每個學生的關係會更緊密（Cakmak, 2009; Yeomans, 1987）。 36 香港小學小班的教學實踐二、小班教學讓教師教學更個別化小班環境提供一個契機，讓教師實施個別化教學（Blatchford, 2003）。首先，教師能更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要（Bascia & Faubert, 2012; Cahen, Filby, McCutchen, & Kyle, 1983; Johnston & Davis, 1989; Robinson & Wittebols, 1986; Turner, 1990; Blatchford & Mortimore, 1994; Zahorik, 1999），更注重根據學生已有知識和學習需要確定教學目標（Galton & Pell, 2009）。在學習過程中，教師能更密切和近距離地監察學生的進度（Bosker, 1998; Cakmak, 2009），更細微地關注學生課堂行為，建立更良好的課堂氛圍（Yeomans, 1987），在互動中更多聆聽學生發言（Finn et al., 2003），更注重按照學生的需要安排提問層次和互動方式，並為學生提供更多個別化的支援（Blatchford, Moriarty, Edmonds, & Martin, 2002; Bascia & Faubert, 2012），包括拔尖和保底的工作。除了能更細微地照顧學生學習差異，教師也更關注和瞭解學生社交情意上的需要和狀態（Bascia & Faubert, 2012），並加以提升和發展。三、小班教學讓教師教學策略更多樣化由於人數少的班級活動空間相對增大，加上管理學生的難度降低，教師擁有更多自由度也更願意去選擇使用不同的教學策略（Pedder, 2006）。這些策略包括學生座位安排多樣化（Yeomans, 1987）、教室規則制定多樣化（Harfitt, 2013）、課堂活動多樣化（Cakmak, 2009; Cooper, 1989）、提問方式多樣化，評估手段多樣化（Cakmak, 2009）等。除了教學策略更加豐富外，教師在小班環境下教學策略的使用可以更精細和有深度。例如提問技巧上，教師在小班教學中會使用更多開放式提問、挑戰性提問和追問，在提問學生後等待時間增長（Bourke, 1986; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Harfitt, 2013），更鼓勵學生創新和批判性思維（Özerk, 2001）。而教師經常給予學生回饋（Harfitt, 2013），對學生的評估更直接、即時和準確（Cooper, 1989; Korostoff, 1998; Shapson, Wright, Eason, & Fitzgerald, 1980）。四、小班教學增加教學時間和課程內容由於小班的學生人數減少，教師用來組織學習、管理學生行為的時間和評估所需時間減少（Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Korostoff, 1998），教學速度更快，可用來教學的總時間因此增加（Zahorik, 1999），而備課時間更加充足（Din, 1999）。相對於大班而言，教師能 37 更深入教授基本內容，並擁有更多時間教授補充資料或增潤課程（Pate-Bain, Achilles, Boyd- Zaharias, & McKenna, 1992）。相應地，安排給學生的課業量也會增多（Bourke, 1986）。五、小班教學提升教師士氣、改善教育生態小班教學政策除了帶來以上教師教學實踐在總量（時間、頻率、密度）和質量（多樣化，深度、廣度和豐富度）都有改變外，其實也有可能帶來一種較人本化的學校管理模式和教學生態（章月鳳，2013a）。這種人本化的學校管理模式會讓教師對學生的態度更正面（Din, 1999），擁有更多自由度去選擇教學策略（Pedder, 2006），教學工作更有效率（Din, 1999），對教學的熱忱更高漲（Finn et al., 2003），以及更加喜歡教學工作（Blatchford et al., 2007）。不過，在上述文獻中，探討小班教學政策在香港成效的研究卻不多。Galton & Pell（2009）研究的是香港 2009 年大規模推行小班教學政策之前的情況。而 Harfitt （2013）則探討個別中學教師實施小班教學的成效。其他研究也主要是針對個別學校情況的探討，未能反映小班教學在香港小學推行成效的整體狀況。丙、研究方案有鑑於此，本研究團隊正進行的研究項目旨在探討香港實施小班教學政策對香港小學教師教學實踐的影響。本文將彙報參與該項目的先導訪談的初步發現，探討兩所小學教師實施小班政策的教學實踐並對小班教學政策的成效及影響因素進行初步討論。之後根據該訪談的發現，再設計問卷全面瞭解香港小學教師小班教學實踐的整體狀況。本先導訪談採用焦點團體訪談（Greenbaum, 1998）、方便抽樣的方法，對參與研究的兩所學校的教師進行訪談，以回答以下研究問題： • 自實施小班教學政策以來，教師教學實踐是否有改變？ • 如有改變，是哪些改變？其改變的原因是什麼？ 38 香港小學小班的教學實踐我們在 2013 年 12 月初對已推行小班教學的兩所屯門區的津貼小學（以下稱學校一和學校二）進行先導研究。每所學校各選五位教師參與訪談，其中包括一位中層管理教師（如教務主任）和四位任教不同科目的教師（中文、英文、數學、常識科各一位）。每次焦點團體訪談歷時約一個小時，問題主要圍繞上文提到的小班環境下教師實踐變遷的五個方面。之後，研究人員把訪談錄音完整謄寫成逐字稿，並採用內容分析法，從中抽取和上述研究問題相關的內容進行分類、編碼、分析及整合，得出以下研究結果。丁、研究結果和討論學校一在 2008 年 9 月在一年級推行小班教學，比政府的計畫提早一年。至 2013-14 學年全校每班都是 25 人左右。學校二則於 2009 年 9 月開始施行小班教學，到 2013-14 學年推行至五年級。表一總結了兩所學校 10 位教師訪談的初步結果：表一　香港小班教學政策下的教師教學實踐學校一學校二小班教學校本政策 • 學校強調教師要運用 Galton & Pell 六個原則去優化課堂教學，提倡教師使用合作學習和探究學習 • • 學校強調教師要運用 Galton & Pell 六個原則去優化課堂教學，提倡教師使用合作學習和三高課堂（「高動機，高展示，高參與」）語文科推行戲劇教學，數學和常識科推行探究學習提升學生的參與 • • • 教師推行合作學習，通過多元化小組活動，增加學生參與學校強調學生主導的探究式的學習方式師生關係和生生關係都更加融洽 • • • • 教師推行合作學習，通過多元化小組活動，增加學生參與教師秉承學校的宗旨，追求「高動機，高展示，高參與」的課堂學校提供多元化課外活動，增加學生參與和展示機會師生關係和生生關係都更加融洽 39 學校一學校二教學策略個別化 • • • • • 教師更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要因為教育局對評估內容統一，教學內容沒有分層處理分層的教學得益於同儕備課，比較容易施行，課堂提問針對不同學生需要設計問題和提問教師雖然認同分層評估，但需要花更多時間設計分層評估工具；由於統考制度，學校政策未有推行分層評估學校資源優先分配在保底班，保底力度大於拔尖力度 • • • • • 教師更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要因為教育局對評估內容統一，教學內容沒有分層處理提問方式針對不同學生的需要設計不同層次的問題和提問；活動安排也有考慮對學生學習的適切性考慮到公平性原則，也沒有推行分層工作紙和分層評估學校資源優先分配在保底班，保底力度大於拔尖力度教學策略多樣化 • • 注重設計不同的活動讓學生進行小組活動課堂提問針對不同學生需要設計問題和提問 • • 教師嘗試使用多種教學策略，針對不同學生的需要設計問題和提問學校提供多元化課外活動，讓學生發展潛能，獲得成功感增加教學時間和課程內容 • • 學生行為問題減少，教師可用更多教學時間讓學生更深入地討論所教的課題，所以課程內容沒有增加評估每一份課業時間減少，但對成績差的學生增加支援工作 • • 更注重學生的參與，小班教學提供更多時間進行討論、彙報、回饋，很難再增加課程內容更注重學生的學習過程及其評估，評估每一份課業的量減少，但是針對學習過程的評估工作增多教師士氣和教育生態 • 小班教學對減輕他們的工作量沒有太大幫助，小班教學對教學的質素要求提高，增加了他們備課的工作量 • • 小班教學對減輕他們的工作量沒有太大幫助，小班教學對教學的質素要求提高，增加了他們備課的工作量小班教學還帶來許多校本特色的課外活動，也增加工作量一、小班教學提升學生的參與兩所學校的教師都認同，學生的參與程度能有所提升，是小班教學政策帶來的最大改變。兩所學校的小班教學政策都非常強調教師要提升學生的參與程度，並在全校各科推行合作學習和小組學習。在此校本政策影響下，教師都一致表示，他們更注重透過小組活動提供不同的機會讓學生參與課堂活動。有教師還提到，他們備課時會經常思考，如何按照學生不同的學習情況設計提問問題和安排活動。與此同時，教師發現學生較以表一　香港小班教學政策下的教師教學實踐（續） 40 香港小學小班的教學實踐往更主動參與師生和生生互動，即使是學習專注能力差的學生，通過小組合作，學習參與度有所提高，違規行為亦自然減少。不過，因為缺少現成可用於小組合作的學習資料和工作紙，他們往往須要多花一些時間進行備課或改良教學資源。二、小班政策對教學個別化的影響對於是否有使用個別化分層教學，教師都表示他們更注重按照學生學習的不同情況，然後決定如何使用教學活動和分組合作，以強帶弱，讓學生都得到適當學習的機會。但教師使用的分組教學策略大多只停留在對學生口頭的提問、回饋或支援上，並沒有使用分層工作紙。原因除了是因為學校沒有硬性規定外，亦由於教師覺得設計分層工作紙需要花費較多時間，而且也需要事先取得家長的認同，因而減低使用意欲。另外，儘管學生的學習進度和成效不一樣，教師都覺得分層評估是很難在學校推行，因為所有學生最終都要一起面對中央考試制度。所以教師對學生個別化的處理主要集中在對成績差學生的保底支援和教學策略調整，而沒有系統地滲透至課程內容、課業安排和評估方式。三、小班政策讓教師教學更多樣化兩所學校的教師都表示，為了配合小班政策，自己會使用更多不同的教學策略。學校一提倡教師使用合作學習和探究學習。學校二則根據每科的特色提倡各科教師實施一些核心的教學策略，例如中英文科使用戲劇來教語言，數學和常識科則提倡探究學習，還要求各科教師在每一節課最初五分鐘利用暖身活動來提起學生的學習興趣，而結束時要總結該堂學生所學知識等。另外，學校二還為學生提供了豐富的課外活動，如藝墟等，讓學生擁有更多平台來發展自己的才能和獲取成功感。教師教學的多樣化還表現在使用更多方法去激勵學生，提問的方式和給予學生的回饋更加多樣化，更勇於嘗試不同的教學模式。四、小班教學對課程內容和教學時間的影響受到統考制度的影響，小班教學的推行，並沒有改變兩所學校對課程內容的要求，教師也不會教授學生更多的學習內容。而透過為學生提供更多參與的機會，教師更注重讓學生更加深入和細緻地學習課程內容，包括進行深入討論和給予及時回饋。 41 小班政策的實施並未能有效增加兩校教師的教學時間，減輕工作量。雖然，他們修改學生每一份課業的量減少了，但是其他工作量卻同時增加。首先，因為推行合作學習和同儕備課，用於參與備課會議和準備教學資料的時間大量增加；其次，學校加強對成績差學生的保底工作，所以需要使用更多時間和精力支援後進生；最後，學校提倡對學生學習成效的評估更加細緻，同一份課業的批改和回饋都更加精細，也需要花費教師不少時間。加上教師還需要同時背負大量其他教學工作以外的行政工作，包括當值、訓導或輔導等功能組別工作等，令小班政策帶來工作量的減少顯得微乎其微。五、受到校內教育生態的影響小班政策的推行未能減輕教師工作負擔，反而增加他們工作的複雜度，亦未能令教學工作效率有效提高。他們感到欣慰的是學校在注重學業成績的同時，也開始關心學生社交情意的發展和關愛校園的建設，而教師也對學生的態度更加正面。無奈的是教學和行政的工作壓力沒有相應減少，而學校過於細緻的規定有時也令教師覺得未能享受教學的自主權，只是跟著學校的指示去做。戊、結論與啟示由以上關於兩所小學的個案研究發現 Galton & Pell 提出的六個原則成為了學校制定校本小班教學政策的依據。六個原則的推行，讓教師更注重增加學生在課堂學與教的參與，更關注學生的學習情況和需要。他們在教學策略中運用更豐富和多樣化的教學策略，更及時和正面的評估和回饋，幫助學生學習和發展。但是由於學校校本小班政策的規定和考試制度的限制，教師在選擇學習內容和評估方式都未必能夠做到個別化教學或分層教學。雖然班級縮小似乎能讓教師減少評估的工作量，但在推行其他新型教學策略上卻需要花費更多的準備時間，以至於無法有效減輕教師的工作量。另外，小班政策對於教師實踐影響的深度和廣度，視乎學校管理層所制定的校本小班政策對教師教學範式的導向。要讓小班教學政策順利推行並取得更好成效，需要學校校本政策的配合和行政管理的大力支援（Bascia & Faubert, 2012）。這也印證了張倩、周浩暉、李子建（2013）所講的，小班教學所處的學校情景關乎小班教學政策下教師實 42 香港小學小班的教學實踐踐的專業發展。相對而言，在實現了人本化管理的學校裡（章月鳳，2013b），教師專業自主權更得到尊重，協作精神更能得到發揮，小班環境的優勢才更有可能被善用，持續提升學與教的品質，創設共融關愛校園。本次先導訪談初步證實了上述總結關於小班教學所影響的不同層面，它的結果將會是日後修訂問卷調查的根據。若條件允許，能收集到一些教師的課堂教學實踐片段，也會有助於進一步發掘小班教學的實施情況和深入探討小班政策對教師實踐的影響。鳴謝我們要鳴謝香港教育學院小班教學中心為本研究提供資助，以及參與訪談的兩所學校及校內 10 位教師寶貴的經驗分享。參考文獻張倩、周浩暉、李子建（2013）。〈小班教學研究的反思與建構〉。《中國教育學刊》， 2013 年 06 期，49-53。章月鳳（2013a）。〈前言〉。載陳錦榮、章月鳳（合編），《中學小班教學集思錄》（頁 3-5）。香港：香港教育學院小班教學中心。章月鳳（2013b）。〈人本的小班教育成就每一個〉。載《2013 年兩岸四地小班化教育的正向創新實踐研討會文集》。臺灣：臺灣新竹教育大學。 Bascia, N., & Faubert, B. 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Making the large group feel small: Primary teachers’ classroom skills - A speculation. Cambridge Journal of Education, 17(3), 161-166. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764870170308 Zahorik, J. A. (1999). Reducing class size leads to individualized instruction. Educational Leadership, 57(1), 50-53. 46 香港小學小班的教學實踐 Small Class Teaching practices in Hong Kong primary schools ZHANG Yuefeng & LEE Chi Kin John The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract Three hundred and forty four primary schools have introduced Small Class Teaching (SCT) into their classrooms since the adoption of this policy by the Hong Kong Government in 2009. Some of them even extended SCT up to primary five students. The article reports on a preliminary study about the impact of SCT by interviewing ten teachers in two primary schools about their teaching in small class setting. The conclusion is drawn together with suggestions and recommendations on further adjustment and implementation of the SCT policy. Keywords Small Class Teaching, teaching practice, Hong Kong education, teacher professional development 47 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示章月鳳香港教育學院鄧耀南勞工子弟中學摘要現時香港出生率大幅下降，引致縮班殺校問題，香港各界普遍認同小班教學是解決學校收生不足的長遠策略，為提升香港教育質素提供良好契機，以及是最能協助弱勢學生的策略。政府於 300 多間小學推行小班教學，許多中學也有小班教學的嘗試。本文報告「香港中學推行小班教學現狀及需要的問卷調查」及跟進訪談的調查結果，展示香港中學推行小班教學的現狀、意向、困難及需要，並探討小班教學在香港中學推廣的可行性。關鍵詞香港小班教學，中學小班教學的實踐，教育政策的研究甲、研究背景香港特別行政區政府於 2009-10 學年開始在小學分階段實施小班教學，到 2013-14 學年已擴展至小學五年級，至今超過七成的香港小學（共 334 所）已開展小班教學，當中很多教師都參加了小班教學專業發展課程和進修活動（葉建源、黎國燦，2012）。幾年以來，不少學校在實施小班教學和優化學與教的工作上已取得一些階段性成果。到 2015-16 學年，香港 49 首批在小班教學的學習環境下成長的學生將升讀中學，為了讓學生在小班學習環境及學習經驗上能順利銜接，探討香港中學應否推行小班教學的研究刻不容緩。Lai & Che（2011）指出，若能借用小學實施小班教學的經驗，中學實施小班教學的步伐也會較穩妥。但是，如何將香港的小班教學政策從小學過渡到中學的議題，仍需相關研究者持續的探討與貢獻（李子建， 2012）。在出生率下降的現實環境下，由 2013-14 學年開始，香港升讀中一的人口在未來四年急跌超過一萬，跌幅接近兩成，至 2017-18 學年適齡學生數目會再開始顯著回升，在幾年間將會回升至現有水平。學童人口大幅波動，對教育界造成極大震盪。就 2013-14 學年，若以每班派 34 人而言，將近有 160 班會被縮減，涉及數十間中學飽受縮班、甚至面對殺校的威脅，導致很多在職教師面臨失業，大批新入職的年輕教師及有志投身教育界的準教師就業艱難。若形容這為香港教育界的生態災難，絕不為過。香港教育界有建議小班教學是解決學校收生不足的長遠策略，為提升香港教育質素提供良好契機，以及是最能協助弱勢學生的策略。根據鄧耀南（2012），小班教學的精髓在於致力營造善待每一個學生及教師的課室學習環境，它能為體現人本精神及運用知識建構教學策略提供契機和促進性條件；在促進學生有效學習和為教師創造有利教學條件的同時，亦致力提升學業水準及收窄學生之間的差距（raise the bar and narrow the gap）；在改進學生的學習能力以至提升為未來生活作奮鬥的能量之餘，亦能培育孩子立志於提升生命的意義和素質等，以成就全人發展的需要（Blatchford, 2003； Fullan, 2009；Galton & Pell, 2009；Hopkins, 2008；Macbeath & Dempster, 2009；葉建源， 2009）。就目前而言，小班教學在中學的實施成效仍未有確切定論（Anderson, 2000; Hattie, 2005）。英國倫敦大學 Blatchford 教授及其研究隊伍在 2011 年發表的研究論文中，探討了中小學的班級規模對課堂互動和學生行為的影響，頗有參考價值。Blatchford 發現，不論在中學還是小學，隨著班級人數減少，不單教師對學生的個別照顧增多，師生間的積極互動也同時增加。相反地，隨著班級人數增加，學生在課堂的參與也會相對地減少，這對成績稍遜的中學生影響最大，假如一班學生人數由 15 人增加至 30 人，這些學生在學習上出現不專注的時間（time off-task）將增加一倍。因此 Blatchford 建議如果在中學實施小班教學，可優先照顧成績稍遜的學生（Blatchford, Bassett, & Brown, 2011）。然而，亦有研究發現小班教學對提升學業成就並不一定有顯著的成效（Brühwiler & Blatchford, 2011）。 50 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示中學小班教學的實施成效在學術界確實存在爭議，然而，某種形式的中學小班教學卻又勢在必行。正如現任香港特別行政區行政長官梁振英先生在早前的競選政綱已列明：「為紓緩部分學校在短期內收生不足的壓力，容許學校更大彈性決定初中班級人數，收生仍有困難的學校可以利用小班。」梁特首將中學小班教學在政策上傾斜於弱勢學校及先照顧弱勢學生，與美國教育研究協會的觀點相近。美國教育研究協會指出，假如資源緊拙，應集中協助最需要支援的學生（American Educational Research Association, 2003）。因此，針對中一人口暫時下降的問題，香港特別行政區教育局局長吳克儉亦公開表示以「1-1-1」與「2-1-1」減派方案進行中一派位 1，即三年內暫時把中一每班派位人數逐步減至 31 或 30 人。雖然未來三年香港中一的班額正逐漸下降，但研究普遍認為，如果只減少每班人數，而在教與學上沒有相應的改變，小班教學所發揮的成效應該不大。正如 Hanushek（1999）所說，對教學影響最大的因素應該是教師質素，而不是每班學生人數。Blatchford（2003）亦指出，小班的好處是不會自然而然地產生的，為了給予學生更佳的個別化支援及更有效地運用其他教學環境（特別是小班學習環境下的有效小組活動），教師的專業培訓至為重要。專門研究小班教學的葉建源（2012）建議，好好利用人口下降這個契機提升本港教育質素，讓未來 10 年新畢業的準教師能夠順利入職，為教育界注入新血，避免教育專業出現斷層。雖然已有不少研究顯示，小班教學在小學階段確實能推動教師的教學和改善學生的學業成就。但在中學階段，研究中學小班教學的文獻甚少（李子建，2012），而關於香港中學小班教學的研究亦是相當缺乏（Lai & Che, 2011），只曾有 Harfitt 在 2010 年在這方面的研究。 Harfitt（2010）發現實施小班教學能為學生提供不一樣的學與教經驗。在小班課室，學生在課堂中擁有更多的互動及參與的機會。除學生之間有較佳的同儕關係及對學校社區有較強的歸屬感外，其研究亦發現任教小班的教師其焦慮程度亦較低。Harfitt 的研究結論提出教師專業發展的重要性，以確保能善用和擴大實施小班教學所帶來的契機。本研究旨在檢視香港中學推行小班教學的現況，為香港中學小班化提供實證的研究資料、觀點和建議，以及提出適時及具政策含義的措施。 1 「1-1-1」方案：由 2013-14學年開始的第一年、第二年及第三年在每一班中一班級依次遞減一人；「2-1-1」方案：由 2013-14 學年開始的第一年在每一班中一班級減派兩人、第二年及第三年在每一班中一班級依次遞減一人。 51 乙、研究方法本研究採用混合研究方法（mixed method, Creswell, 2011），於 2012 年 2 月至 3 月期間，在全港 544 間中學進行問卷調查 2，旨在瞭解香港中學實施小班教學的整體趨勢和意向。於 2012 年 6 月至 7 月間，刻意抽樣（purposive sampling）三間不同類型學校（包括官立學校、津貼學校和直資學校）進行個案研究。選取這三類學校為代表的原因是因學校的資金來源不同，這或可能影響學校推行小班教學的規模和深度。香港的中小學大致可分為四種類型：官立學校、津貼學校、直資學校和私立學校，其中官立學校、直資學校和私立學校約佔學校總數的 20% 左右，而大部分的學校屬於津貼學校。津貼學校是由非牟利的民間辦學團體所營辦，它們使用政府資助的教育津貼辦學，提供小學 6 年、初中 3 年及高中 3 年的 12 年免費教育，主要經費來自政府按照所派學生的班額數量多寡來計算的撥款，並受政府「資助則例」的嚴格管理和約束，與官立學校同被視為「公營學校」。就直資學校而言，其來自政府的資源配置上最多只有官、津學校的三分之二，但它們除了可自行收取學費之外，在課程設置及收生方面亦享有較大的彈性。整體而言，直資學校所享有的資源相對地較官、津學校多一些。研究人員分別和各校負責小班教學統籌工作的教師進行訪談，以深入瞭解個案學校推行小班教學的現狀、困難和意向。調查所得的結果將有助為香港中學推行小班教學提出合適建議，並思考部署相關之支援工作。丙、問卷調查問卷（見附錄）共寄出 544 份，回收有效問卷為 206 份，問卷回收率為 38%。其中 83% 為津貼中學，11% 為直資中學，5% 為官立中學，1% 為私校；38% 為主要收取第一組別學生的學校，34% 為主要收取第二組別學生的學校，27% 為主要收取第三組別學生的學校 3。從回收的 206 份有效問卷中，只有 3% 的中學從未實施過小班教學，而 97% 的中學（約 200 間）已有不同程度推行小班的做法和經驗。其中，只有 53% 的中學已制定與小班教學有關的校本政策。小班教學校本政策的制定代表學校對於小班教學的重視和常規化。 2 只包括本地的主流學校：官立學校、津貼學校和直資學校，不包括國際學校。 3 有關學生組別劃分，概括而言，是香港教育局隔年按同一間小學小六畢業生的「中一入學前香港學科測驗」成績將未來兩個學年將派往中學的小學小六畢業生分為三個組別，第一組別學校學生的成績最好，而第三組別學校學生的成績最差。 52 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示關於小班教學推行的方式，10% 的中學表示正全校進行小班教學，而餘下 90% 的中學則在部分班級、部分科目或課程，或於部分時間進行小班教學。各校推行小班教學的原因，主要是提高學生的學習效能（86%），只有 17% 學校表示推行小班教學旨在關注學生全人發展。這與中學教學受考試制度影響而注重學生學習成績的現狀相吻合，因此，各校在小班教學中採用了按學生成績的高低來分班的情況。雖然有社會人士懷疑中學推行小班教學的主要原因是為了避免「縮班殺校」，但只有 9% 的中學表示推行小班是因為收生不足。由此可見，接受調查的中學對小班教學多持正面和積極態度，認為小班教學能為優化「學與教」提供契機和促進性的條件！各校採用多種小班班級規模並存的形式。有些學校小班教學每班人數主要是 21-25 人（56%）或 15-20 人（53%）一班，還有 20% 的中學推行 15 人或以下的小班。而各校的小班教學已涉及各主要科目，包括英文（92%）、通識（72%）、中文（72%）和數學（63%），其中有 16% 的學校已在所有學科推行小班教學。英文科小班化程度較高，可能是由於近年政府在英文科投放的資源較多有關。各校表示推行小班教學主要面對兩類困難，首先是和資源配套相關的困難，包括教師人數不足（64%）、教育經費不足（63%）和沒有足夠的校舍設施（例如課室）（52%）；其次是和教學支援相關的因素，包括缺乏受過小班教學培訓的教師（39%）和缺乏教學資源（38%）。61% 的中學表示進行小班教學的教師未曾接受過相關的培訓，所以要成功推行中學小班化，大量的師資培訓迫在眉睫。事實上，《香港小學小班教學終期研究報告》（Galton & Pell, 2009）指出，部分進行試驗小班教學教師的教學方法較單一，在小班上課卻無引入活動教學，形式恍如一般的「大班」授課，無助發揮小班優勢及成效。Galton的研究亦明確指出，教師是小班教學成敗的關鍵人物，而影響教師表現最重要的因素是教師專業發展！由此可見，教師專業發展乃中學推行小班教學成效高低的關鍵所在。雖然面臨以上種種困難，各校對於小班教學的成效是有目共睹的。小班教學能提高教學的效能（91%），包括提高學生的學習技巧（77%）和學習成績（76%）、減輕課堂管理壓力（60%）；其次是有助於發展學生的能力，包括提升學生的合作能力（57%）和培養學生良好學習習慣（51%）；只有 50% 的學校表示小班教學能解決收生不足的問題。這再一次表明 53 中學實施小班教學，不只為了保護教師的工作，更看重於小班教學能為提高教學效能所帶來的契機。而到 2015 年 9 月，首批參與小班教學的小學畢業生將會升讀中學一年級。對於中學小班化的遠景，各校都拭目以待，當問及在此之前若有額外資源協助推行小班教學，全部中學都表示會嘗試小班教學。其中 50% 的中學更表示會在全校推行小班教學，其他中學則在部分班級、部分科目或課程，或於部分時間進行。由此可見，在香港中學實施小班教學的訴求在中學教育界已經深入民心，乃大勢所趨。丁、個案研究通過以上問卷調查，我們對於香港中學推行小班教學的現狀有初步的瞭解。參與問卷調查的學校中，有 27 間表示願意接受跟進訪談，研究員有目的地抽選其中三間不同類別的學校作為個案研究對象，深入瞭解小班教學在各校的實施情況。以下分別就三所個案學校推行小班教學的契機、目標、現狀、強弱及需要進行具體闡述和分析。如表一所示，學校甲為一間第二組別的官立學校，開始推行小班教學已有 6 年經驗。得益於香港教育局給予中文中學專用於增潤英文科教學的撥款 300 萬，英文科組聘請一位編制以外的代課教師，在英文科推行小班教學 6 年，重點關注照顧學生的學習差異。雖然中文科和數學科也於部分年級推行小班，但礙於資源有限，故規模較小亦沒有常規化。學校乙為一間第二組別的津貼學校，已經推行小班教學十數年。該校整合每年所有可用來提升教學的資助（包括學校的發展津貼、科本的資源，如 2011 年通識科的啟動基金 50 萬等），分配給各個科組，由各科組決定如何利用所配資源，減少各班人數。學校丙為一間第三組別的直資學校，從新的教務主任 5 年前接任教務分配工作以來便開始推行小班教學。由於直資學校可以收取學費，該校便利用經費聘請額外教師、擴建校園，在各科各級都有推行小班教學。香港一般學校的教師編制為平均每班 1.5 位教師，而該校可以達到每班 2 位教師。由於該校具有基督教背景，校長是教育心理學專家，教務主任也曾修讀神學，所以非常注重教師和學生的生命教育，推行小班旨在促進學生的個人成長和全人發展，有別於學校甲和乙以提高學生學習成績為主的目標。 54 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示表一　個案學校推行小班教學的契機和目標學校甲學校乙學校丙學校背景屬於第二組別的官立學校；6年小班經驗屬於第二組別的津貼學校；10 多年小班經驗屬於第三組別的直資基督教學校；5年小班經驗推行小班的契機管理層認為小班比大班更有利於教師照顧個別差異；利用 300 萬資助聘請一位編制以外的教師，推行英文科小班（中文科和數學科有類似做法，但資源有限，規模較小）。管理層認為小班比大班更有助於提升教與學，學校將有限的額外資源分配給各科組聘請編制以外的老師，儘量減少各班人數。管理層重視生命教育，認為小班比大班更有利於加強師生關係；利用經費聘請額外教師及進行校園擴建，於各科各級都有推行小班。推行目標拔尖保底，增加師生在英語課堂的互動。拔尖保底，減輕教師工作量，增加收生。促進學生的個人成長和全人發展。在分班模式上，三所學校的情況很類似。首先，各校都根據學生成績的高低進行分班，如表二所示，有些學校按各科成績高低分班（如學校甲和乙），另一些則按成績總分高低分班（如學校丙初中班別）。其次，各校每個年級中都有一班成績最好，學生人數比普通班多一些，而成績最差一班學生人數則少一些（學生通常還會有紀律或行為問題）。值得注意的是，由於資源比較多，學校丙於班級人數上能達到香港小學小班的人數標準（25 人左右），而學校甲和乙只能達到中班（30 人左右）的標準。在教學模式上，學校甲和乙都進行分層課程，並對不同學生採用不同程度的考試卷，程度較高學生的考試卷和程度較低學生的考試卷相比，內容涵蓋範園較大、題目數量較多、難度也更高。學校甲和乙在評估小班教學成效方面偏向用學生成績計算改善的幅度，但學校丙在這方面還未起步，教務主任認為不希望給教師太多的壓力。在教師所採取的教學方法上，各校都沒有向教師提出改變教學模式的要求和進行相關的監督，所以各校在促進小班教學的實施成效上，還沒有建立相關的質素保證機制。 55 學校甲學校乙學校丙分班標準及人數主要按照成績分班分組，並參考平時紀律和行為表現，好班的人數較多；尤其注重中一和中四的資源投放，如：中一的好班達 36-40 人，其他三班分成四組（每組 15-30 人不等），每年按學科成績進行調整，同級同科組統一上課時間。各科組按成績分班分組。初中：兩班分成三組（英文科資源多些，分成四組）；好班的人數較多，每年按學科成績進行調整，同級同科組統一上課時間；高中：在核心科目五班分成六個固定班（每班 30-32 人，中班模式），選修課亦實施小班教學。由學校教務主任主要按成績統一分班，並參考心理輔導、紀律的表現。兩班分成三班（共90人，每班 25-35 人），好班的人數較多，按總成績每年調整。初中「一好、兩平均」；高中按每科成績分高中低，同級同科組統一上課時間。小班中的教與學英文科教師注重對課程、教材和評估的調整，但對教師教學模式的改變沒有清晰的要求，未對學生進行小組學習常規訓練。各科教師進行分層課程（包括核心課程和增潤課程）和分層評估。但對教師教學模式的改變沒有清晰的要求，未對學生進行小組學習常規訓練。嘗試通過同儕觀課建立教師協作文化，注重對教師的個別輔導。但對課程、教學模式和評估的改變沒有清晰要求。對學生紀律、常規和學習習慣進行訓練。小班成效評估注重每班學生成績排名提高的幅度，沒有進行個別教師教學成效的監督和評鑒。注重每班學生成績提高的幅度，沒有進行個別教師教學成效的監督和評鑒。運用學生問卷瞭解整體教學成效以回饋教學，沒有進行個別教師教學成效的監督和評鑒。表二　個案學校推行小班教學的現狀綜觀各校推行小班教學的情況，各校均未能制定小班教學的校本政策，對小班教學理念和願景未有周密的思考和系統的策劃，導致小班教學的實施在很大程度上只局限於改變班級人數方面的多寡（量的改變），窒礙了小班教學的發揮及促進教與學的作用（質的提昇）。由於教師的工作量大（一般每週 20 多節），參加培訓的熱情不高，過去幾乎沒有參加過關於小班教學的培訓；而教育局對各校教師編制的死板規定，則成了各校不能增加教師人數以優化小班教學的最大瓶頸因素（鄭燕祥，2004 年 4 月）。表三列出各校推行小班教學的強弱項及期望可獲得的支援。 56 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示學校甲學校乙學校丙學校強項教師有參加照顧差異的培訓，科本的教研活動較活躍。尊重各科的專業判斷，允許各科彈性處理。重視生命教育，對學生的關愛文化較強。學校弱項缺乏針對小班教學的校本政策，教師沒有參加過小班教學培訓。缺乏針對小班教學的校本政策，只有小部分教師參加過小班教學培訓，教師參加培訓的熱情不高。缺乏針對小班教學的校本政策，教師沒有參加過小班教學的培訓，教師隊伍年輕（尤其科主任），教學經驗淺。支援及需要需要專業支援和教師培訓，增加資源投入、教師數量及擴建校舍。希望可獲得持續的資助，期望政府改變教師編制，增加教師數量。讓教師編制更靈活，增加教師數量，減輕教師工作量，需要小班教學教師培訓。表三　個案學校推行小班教學的強弱及需要分析戊、調查結論及啟示我們通過此次問卷調查發現，小班教學深受中學管理層推崇。個案研究更發現，各類學校都認為小班比大班更能提高教學效能，照顧學生需要，從長遠看更有利於學生的全面發展，加上未來幾年香港中學入學人數急劇下降，在中學推行小班教育為大勢所趨，且勢在必行。雖然不少學校都各自爭取不同的資源和資助自行創造條件推行小班教學，但政府並沒有順應學校的需求而在香港中學實施小班教學政策，以利用小班優勢進一步優化教學效能，提高教育素質。政府現時為優化教與學所提供的各類資源，多屬短期性質並附帶許多行政要求，即使學校可利用這些資助暫時推行短期的小班教學，但離小班教學的恆常化和機構化還很遙遠。各類中學推行小班教學所面對的最大障礙，在於現行的教師編制下，令師生比例太高，教師工作量太大，教師缺乏空間和意願去參與小班教學的培訓和思考如何優化小班教與學，以致各類學校雖已具備小班教學的硬體和客觀條件，但卻缺乏發揮小班教學效能的教師專業知識和力量。要解決這個問題，香港政府首要理清小班教學政策的發展方向，不要白白放棄小學教育界在共同努力的付出下，於小班教學上所取得的階段性成果，理應加強在中學推行小班教學的力度，調整教師編制，降低每班的學生數目，以及儘快實施中學小班教學的政策。 57 特首梁振英表明，容許部份中學彈性推行小班教學，這是非常可取的政策性建議。香港教育界普遍期望新一屆政府可以儘快在中學推行小班教學，以解決小班教學在中小學銜接的問題。要成功推行中學小班教學，政府在資源配套上要有積極承擔，以減低師生比例，而關於小班教學的教師培訓也要從速進行，並提供持續的校本專業支援。小班教學在中學的實施，是順應學校教育發展的需要和趨勢、提升教學效能和質素的重要政策性舉措。鳴謝鳴謝香港教育學院小班教學中心為本研究提供資助，以及參與問卷調查的所有學校提供寶貴資料。參考文獻李子建（2012）。〈小班教學：議題、挑戰與展望〉。載葉建源、黎國燦（合編），《小班教學論文集：邁向優秀的實踐》（頁 1-3）。香港：香港教育學院小班教學中心。葉建源（2009）。《邁向小班教學》。香港：教育出版社有限公司。葉建源（2012）。〈堅持每班至少減派 3 人長遠中學邁向優質小班站出來就是力量！〉，香港教育專業人員協會新聞稿。2013 年 11 月 13 日，取自 http://www.hkptu.org/ education/?p=7604。葉建源、黎國燦（2012）。〈序言〉。載葉建源、黎國燦（合編），《小班教學論文集：邁向優秀的實踐》（頁 V）。香港：香港教育學院小班教學發展與研究中心。鄧耀南（2012）。〈小班教學與合作學習的關係〉。載陳錦榮、黎國燦（合編），《小班教學與合作學習：誤區與反思》（頁 32-41）。香港：香港教育學院小班教學發展與研究中心。鄭燕祥（2004 年 4 月）。〈香港教育改革的大圖像：樽頸危機與前路〉。第一屆香港校長研討會主題演講。香港教育學院。 American Educational Research Association (AERA). (2003). Accountability for Educational Quality: Shared Responsibility. Annual Meeting. Chicago, Illinois, April 21-25, 2003. 58 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示 Anderson, L. W. (2000). Why should reduced class size lead to increased student achievement? In M. C. Wang & J. D. Finn (Eds.), How small classes help teachers do their best (pp. 3-24). Philadelphia: Temple University Centre for Research in Human Development. Blatchford, P. (2003). The class size debate: Is small better? England: Open University Press. Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., & Brown, P. (2011). Examining the effect of class size on classroom engagement and teacher-pupil interaction: Differences in relation to pupil prior attainment and primary vs. secondary schools. Learning and Instruction, 21(6), 715-730. Brühwiler, C., & Blatchford, P. (2011). Effects of class size and adaptive teaching competency on classroom processes and academic outcome. Learning and Instruction, 21(1), 95-108. Creswell, J. W. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. Fullan, M. (2009). The challenge of change: Start school improvement now! London: Corwin. Galton, M. J., & Pell. T. (2009). Final report of study on small class teaching in primary schools in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Education Bureau of HKSAR. Hanushek, E.A. (1999). The evidence on class size. In S. E. Mayer & P. E. Peterson (Eds.), Earning and learning: How schools matter (pp. 131-136). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Retrieved from http://hanushek.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/ publications/Hanushek 1999 EvidenceonCLassSize.pdf Harfitt, G. (2010). How class size mediates student learning: Case studies of Hong Kong secondary schools (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong. Hattie, G. J. (2005). The paradox of reducing class size and improving learning outcomes. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(6), 387-425. Hopkins, D. (2008). Every school a great school: Realizing the potential of system leadership. Berkshire: McGraw-Hill Education. Lai, K. C., & Che, M. W. (2011). Class size reduction at the secondary school level - A review of literature. Hong Kong: Centre for Development and Research in Small Class Teaching, The Hong Kong Institute of Education. Macbeath, J., & Dempster, N. (Eds.). (2009). Connecting leadership and learning: Principles for practice. London: Routledge. 59 附錄　香港小學推行小班教學現狀及需要的問卷調查請在適用的空格上打或在橫線上填上答案。甲部：學校背景 1. 貴校成立： □ a. 少於 10 年 □ b. 10 至 20 年 □ c. 20 年以上 2. 貴校是屬於： □ a. 男校 □ b. 女校 □ c. 男女校 3. 貴校的宗教背景是： □ a. 沒有宗教 □ b. 佛教 □ c. 基督教 □ d. 天主教 □ e. 回教 □ f. 道教 □ g. 孔教 □ h. 其他 : 4. 貴校是： □ a. 津貼 □ b. 私立 □ c. 官立 □ d. 直資 5. 貴校大部分小六畢業生會升讀以下哪一個組別的中學？ □ a. 第一組別 □ b. 第二組別 □ c. 第三組別 □ d. 其他 : 乙部：小班教學推行情況及意願 6. 你認為以下哪些描述符合小班教學的定義：（可選擇多項） □ a. 班額人數減少至不多於廿七人 □ b. 是提升教育質素的契機 □ c. 解決「殺校」問題的策略 □ d. 照顧學生差異的促進性條件 □ e. 促進教師專業發展的機會 □ f. 課室內人本精神的體現 □ g. 為學校發展帶來契機 □ h. 方便運用知識建構教學策略 □ i. 為促進學生有效學習 □ j. 方便運用促進學習的評估 □ k. 為教師創造更豐富和有利於教學的條件 □ l. 致力提升學業水準及收窄學生之間的差距 □ m. 其他 7. 貴校推行小班教學的現狀是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 全校進行小班教學 □ b. 部分班級進行小班教學 □ c. 部分科目進行小班教學 □ d. 課程部分時間進行小班教學 □ e. 曾嘗試小班教學但現在已停止 □ f. 從未實施過小班教學（如果答案是 f，請跳到第 19 題） 8. 貴校開始推行小班教學的學年是（例如 2009-10 學年）：學年 9. 自 2009/10 學年開始，香港政府承諾於小學小一年級，開始分階段實施小班教學。貴校是否有參加香港政府的小班教學推展計畫？ □ a. 是，時間為學年（例如 2009-10 學年） □ b. 否 10. 貴校是否已制定和小班教學有關的校本政策？ □ a. 是 □ b. 否（如果答案是 b，請跳到第 12 題） 60 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示 11. 貴校關於小班教學的校本政策包括以下哪些項目？（可選擇多項） □ a. 小班教學的長期目標 □ b. 小班教學的課程安排 □ c. 小班教學的分班方式 □ d. 小班教學的教學方法 □ e. 小班教學的評估策略 □ f. 小班教學成效的檢視機制 □ g. 小班教學的考績要求 □ h. 小班教學的科本處理 □ i. 小班教學的教師專業發展 □ j. 小班教學的學習圈 □ k. 其他 12. 貴校推行小班教學的原因是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 收生不足 □ b. 拔尖 □ c. 保底 □ d. 提高教師教學效能 □ e. 減輕教師工作量 □ f. 提高學生學習效能 □ g. 讓學生有全人發展 □ h. 其他 13. 貴校推行過的小班人數為：（可選擇多項） □ a. 15 人以下 □ b. 15-20 人 □ c. 21-25 人 □ d. 26-30 人 □ f. 其他 14. 貴校哪些科目已實施小班教學？（可選擇多項） □ a. 所有科目　□ b. 中文　□ c. 英文　□ d. 數學　□ e. 常識 □ f. 其他 15. 貴校小班教學分班的形式為：（可選擇多項） □ a. 隨機分班 □ b. 按成績高低分班 □ c. 按教學語言分班 □ d. 按學生母語分班（例如華語、非華語） □ e. 其他 16. 貴校有多少位教師正實施小班教學？ □ a. 全校教師 □ b. 5 位以下 □ c. 5-10 位 □ d. 11-15 位 □ e. 15 位以上 17. (1) 上述教師有否接受過關於小班教學的培訓？ □ a. 全部教師從未受訓 □ b. 只有部分教師受訓 □ c. 全部教師都已受訓（如果答案是 a，請跳到第 18 題） (2) 貴校教師接受培訓的時數及人數為：接受培訓時數人數 a. 少過 6 小時 b. 6-20 小時 c. 超過 20 小時 61 （3）為貴校教師提供培訓的機構或人士有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 教育局 □ b. 大專院校（請註明） □ c. 校內教師 □ d. 其他（4）貴校教師曾經接受培訓的規模有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 全體教師一起培訓 □ b. 個別教師參與培訓課程 □ c. 以科組為單位進行培訓 □ d. 其他（5）貴校教師接受培訓的形式有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 小班五星期進修課程 □ b. 小班實踐社群計劃 □ c. 專題講座 □ d. 校內教師分享 □ e. 課研（如備課、觀課等） □ f. 工作坊 □ g. 學習圈 □ h. 借調教師 □ i. 其他 18. 貴校實施小班教學對教師的教學期望是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 沒有任何期望 □ b. 要多使用小組學習的方式 □ c. 要增強師生互動 □ d. 要增強照顧個別學生的力度 □ e. 要對課程進行分層處理 □ f. 促進師生關系 □ g. 其他 19. 你認為下列哪個方案最能解決現時人口下降，部分學校收生不足的問題？ □ a. 殺校 □ b. 縮班 □ c. 小班 □ d. 其他 20. 貴校認為最理想的小班人數為： □ a. 15 人以下 □ b. 15-20 人 □ c. 21-25 人 □ d. 26-30 人 □ e. 31-35 人 □ f. 其他 21. 你認為實施小班教學的成效有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 解決收生不足的問題 □ b. 有助於提高學生成績 □ c. 有助於培養學生良好學習習慣 □ d. 能提升學生學習技巧 □ e. 能提升學生社交能力 □ f. 讓學生提升合作能 □ g. 讓能減輕教師工作量 □ h. 能減輕教學難度 □ i. 能提高教師教學效能 □ j. 能增進教師間的教學合作 □ k. 能提升學校管理效能 □ l. 達至更健康的學校教學生態 □ m. 其他 62 香港中學推行小班教學的現狀及啟示 22. 自 2009/10 學年開始，香港政府承諾於小學小一年級，開始分階段實施小班教學，推展至 2014/15 學年。如果在 2014/15 學年以後， (1) 仍有額外資源，貴校實施小班教學的意願是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 會在全校推行小班教學 □ b. 只在部分班級推行小班教學 □ c. 只在部分科目推行小班教學 □ d. 只在課程部分時間推行小班教學 □ e. 不會嘗試小班教學 (2) 若沒有額外資源，貴校推行小班教學的意願是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 會在全校推行小班教學 □ b. 只在部分班級推行小班教學 □ c. 只在部分科目推行小班教學 □ d. 只在課程部分時間推行小班教學 □ e. 不會嘗試小班教學 23. 貴校推行小班教學所遇到的困難有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 與辦學團體政策不符 □ b. 與學校教育目標不符 □ c. 教育經費不足 □ d. 教師人數不足 □ e. 缺乏受過小班教學培訓的教師 □ f. 缺乏教學資源 □ g. 學校的行政未能配合 □ h. 沒有足夠大的校舍 □ i. 同工間（包括校長、教師）對小班教學缺乏共識 □ j. 缺乏專業支援 □ k. 其他丙部 : 小班教學模式、教學支援需要和跟進訪談 24. 貴校是否需要下列的支援以加強小班教學的推行？（可選擇多項） □ a. 提供關於小班教學策略的培訓 □ b. 協助編寫小班教學課程 □ c. 提供關於小班教學評估的培訓 □ d. 到學校進行示範教學 □ e. 提供關於小班教學提問技巧的培訓 □ f. 課研（包括觀課、評課等 □ g. 建立校本小班政策的培訓 □ h. 甚麼支援也不需要 □ i. 其他︰（請註明） 25. 我們將會對一些學校的教師進行跟進訪談，以便進一步瞭解小班教學模式及貴校對專業支援的需要和院校協作方式 , 貴校教師是否願意參加該跟進訪談 ? □ a. 願意（請寫下姓名和聯繫方式）姓名 : 學校 : 職務 : 電話 : 電郵 : □ b. 不願意～完～ 63 The implementation of Small Class Teaching in Hong Kong secondary schools and its implications ZHANG Yuefeng The Hong Kong Institute of Education TANG Yiu Nam Workers’ Children Secondary School Abstract Due to the demographic change, many people opined that Small Class Teaching (SCT) would be a long-term solution for the drastic secondary school enrolment decline. SCT has been officially adopted as an education policy since 2009/10 academic year by EDB and introduced in more than 300 primary schools. On the other hand, SCT has also been tried out in many secondary schools. This article reports a study in which a questionnaire survey was first used to obtain a whole picture of how SCT is used in Hong Kong secondary schools. In-depth case studies were then conducted to find out the implementation of SCT in great details. This study attempts to grasp the whole picture of how secondary schools in Hong Kong are using SCT, what challenges they are facing in introducing SCT and what strategies they use to tackle the problems. Implications on promoting SCT practices in secondary schools will be put forward, which may help inform the Government’s future policy of SCT. Keywords Small Class Teaching in Hong Kong, SCT in secondary school, research on educational policy 64 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰梁亦華香港中文大學教育學院博士生摘要自香港回歸以來，教育局推動了不同類型的改革措施，改革範疇從課程以至學校架構等，這對教師工作及其教學信念之影響尤深，然而改革卻未必能贏得校內所有教師之認同。作為學校領導，校長是帶領學校變革，落實教改措施的關鍵。近年適逢香港中小學面臨校長退休潮，學校領導之責落在眾多初任校長身上，亦為教改添加隱憂。為瞭解初任校長帶領學校變革之困難，本文對學校變革的相關文獻作系統梳理與述評，並環繞學者 Senge 提出的學習型組織理論，討論其變革管理的主張與在校實踐的差距，從而揭示初任校長帶領變革的挑戰及潛在衝突，為未來各校討論建立學習型組織及學校變革提供更深入反思的平台。關鍵詞校長領導，學校變革，學習型組織，衝突管理 65 甲、前言改變，是過去十五年香港教育統籌委員會（教統會）推動教改的原動力。2001 年，教統會提出「世界變了，教育制度非變不可！」（教育統籌委員會，2000）的口號，推出了不少政策，如推行校本管理、一筆過撥款、優化直資計劃等，讓學校變革與行政管理更具彈性，使之更能應對市場需求，而校長亦從以往行政架構中的學校管理者，漸漸過渡至領導學校管理，以至主導變革的領導角色（梁亦華，2014；教育署，2002）。推動與管理變革的理論眾多，而管理學者 Senge 所提出的「第五項修練」（The Fifth Discipline）對教育改革管理的影響可謂極為深遠。Senge 變革理論提出各組織須轉型成學習型組織（learning organization），讓成員持續提升知識管理與運用能力的目標（Senge, 1990）。其後，Senge 出版《學習型學校》一書，進一步把其企業變革管理的主張引入學校組織，並加入不少應用案例（Senge, 2000）。Senge 第五項修練及學習型組織的主張，不止流行於世界各地，更成為了香港校長培訓、教師發展及其他不同教育政策的理念與培訓目標（Walker & Quong, 2005；教育局，2012，2013）。然而，學校變革需要針對舊有制度的不同弊端，領導者往往要面對不同阻力，其中最大的挑戰可說是人際衝突管理。Nelson 等針對美國初任校長的質性訪談發現，人際關係問題是各段訪談所湧現的唯一共同主題（Nelson, Colina, & Boone, 2008），而澳洲（Wildy, Clarke, Styles, & Beycioglu, 2010）、土耳其（Wildy et al., 2010）、韓國（Kim & Parkay, 2004）、中國（朱廣清，2010）等地針對初任校長的研究亦有相同結果，可見校長能否化解校內各持分者的衝突，是他們推動學校變革成敗的最大挑戰之一。然而近年香港資深校長的流失率連年上升，據香港校長中心 2013 年的調查顯示，香港校長平均每年流失率約達 8% 至 10%（《文匯報》，2013.6.11），處理人際衝突和帶領學校變革之責任越來越多地落在初任校長身上。可是綜觀現時文獻，有關初任校長帶領學校變革及進行衝突管理之討論並不多。為了瞭解初任校長所面對的挑戰，本文對學校變革的相關文獻作系統梳理與述評，並環繞 Senge 提出的學習型組織之應用及學校變革的潛在衝突作討論。本文並非旨在找出一套適合於所有學校的變革之法，而是希望透過結合實際環境的討論與理論剖析，為前線學校領導、 66 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰以至校長培訓政策之制訂者提供更深入反思的平台，優化政府及師資培訓機構對職前與在職校長的支援。乙、學校變革的相關理論成功的學校變革能提升教育質量，但在實踐中，學校變革往往並非一帆風順。對於領導者如何駕馭學校變革，不同學者所聚焦的議題均有不同。第一類論點認為，變革之關鍵在於規章與體制。例如，Hargreaves（2003）強調決策體制的重要，讓教師在變革中共同協作和參與校務決策；Leithwood, Menzies, Jantzi, & Leithwood （1996）則強調學校領導應以集體決策的方式領導變革，而非由上而下地強勢推行，如此既能鼓勵員工針對系統而非局部作整體思考，亦能鼓勵員工自我超越，幫助團隊建立共同信念，這呼應了近年不少學者提出在校內分權式領導（distributed leadership），以及在校外從中央集權到校本管理，賦予校長辦學自主的教改主張（Griffith, 2004；Hallinger & Heck, 1998；張兆芹、盧乃桂、彭新強，2011）。然而，協作與集體決策需要團隊成員經歷長時間磨合，對彼此有一定了解與信任（Day, 2011），剛剛履職的初任校長卻未必符合這些條件。第二類觀點認為，變革之關鍵在於領導者個人的行為與特質。例如，Sibley（1986）把組織文化視為變革的基礎，強調學校變革中領導者與下屬持有共同願景的重要性。故此，領導者能否引領下屬建立共同目標與價值觀，以及成員對組織是否有歸屬感，均是凝聚共同願景的先決條件。Beck & Murphy（1996）及 Leithwood & Jantzi（2006）同樣重視領導者的角色，但他們較強調良好同儕關係與宏觀的組織文化，認為學校領導者能否消弭個人與組織間的分歧，以及他們能否激勵教師及鞏固教師對組織的承諾，建立好團隊互信才是成功組織的先決條件。相對而言，Fullan（2001）更重視員工的心智及思考模式。他認為教師不止需要執行變革的能力，更要理解其推行原因。換言之，教師視野必須超越課堂教與學，要對學校系統作全面周詳的考慮。Fullan 並沒有否定建立信任或共同願景的重要性，但認為員工的認知模式要有所提升，才能改變其故有信念，在組織中建立共同目標或信任文化，以深化變革的影響力。 67 上述學者強調了共同願景、團隊學習、系統性思考等主張，那麼學校領導該如何促進學校變革？對此，學者 Senge 提出了「學習型組織」的概念，他審視成功變革的組織，提出員工須進行五項修練（參表一）。表一　「學習型組織」五項修練（Senge, 1990）修練項目描述自我超越（Personal Mastery）是指員工會不斷挑戰自我潛能、清楚釐訂自我奮鬥目標，因而努力不懈，奮發進取心智模式（Mental Models）是指員工勇於表白個人對事物之假設、其行為背後之意義及個人價值取向共同「願景」（Shared Vision）是指員工對組織的投入及承諾，願為共同「願景」作出努力及貢獻團隊學習（Team Learning）是指員工發揮互補不足之餘，更能承眾智、集眾力，將集體智慧發揮得淋漓盡致，使各人從反思及回饋中與組織共同成長系統思考（Systems Thinking）是指員工做出決定或任何變動前，能對系統作全面周詳的考慮，而非片段地解決問題 Senge（1990）提出「學習型組織」的概念有一前設——「人們本質是好奇的，高超的學習者」（intrinsically inquisitive, masterful learner）（p. 1），而組織願意改變的兩大原動力在於恐懼（fear）與抱負（aspiration）（p. 57, p. 65）。故學習型組織的領導不應把下屬假設為「沒有權力、願景與無力主導變革力量」（p. 71）的被動改革對象，而應扮演管家（stewards）、導師（teacher）及幕後設計者（designer）的角色。領導的責任並非主導改革，而是建立一個讓所有人瞭解系統複雜性、組織正面對的挑戰，能持續發展並擁有共同願景與信念的組織。總括而言，領導者之素質對學校變革成敗有重要影響，而領導者與下屬的信念是成功變革管理的重要關鍵。成功推動變革的領導者應鼓勵下屬自我超越，進行團隊學習，以及鼓勵下屬發展適當認知與思考方式，凝聚團隊共識。丙、學校變革的潛在衝突上一部份闡述了成功學校變革的不同因素，但任何學校進行教育改革，也不能無視不同教育制度與學校背景脈絡的影響，便直接把外來的成功變革策略移植過來（Creemers, 1994; 68 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber, & Hillman, 1996）。Senge 的學習型組織理論為變革管理提供了討論框架，但卻有批評指 Senge 及其他學者聚焦個人領導技巧的理論，較少考慮如何透過持份者落實變革（Caldwell, 2011）。此外，不少學者指出人們更願意留在舒適區（comfort zone），因循過往的成功經驗，不願意承擔風險（Fullan, 2001; Sackney & Walker, 2006），因此領導者與下屬對教改目標及其必要性的看法便會存在衝突。即或彼此能有共識，這也不代表雙方能消弭衝突，例如領導者與下屬對學校發展的目標有一致共識，卻對達成目標的手段，以及各個項目的緩急輕重有不同見解。這些滲合著共識的衝突又該如何解決？學界在討論校長如何領導學校變革的同時，實有了解衝突之不同層次及管理取向之必要。就性質而言，衝突可分為由主事者人格、動機等個人因素引起的情感衝突（affective conflict），以及針對具體事項的實質性衝突（substantive conflict）（DeChurch & Marks, 2001）。由於本文之主題環繞學校變革，故針對衝突的討論將聚焦於後者。誠如上文所言，組織內的衝突不一定是雙方的完全對立，在分歧中亦可能存在著部份共識。隨共識之多寡，實質性衝突可分為目標分歧及焦點分歧兩類（Gorton & Alston, 2012），此亦是初任校長推動學校變革時所面對的主要衝突來源。一、有待調和的目標分歧：危機感、歸屬感與變革需要對每項政策而言，領導能否遊說各方達成變革的共識，是政策能否成功推動所不可或缺的重要一環（Goodin, Rein, & Moran, 2008），然而初任校長如要遊說各持份者支持學校變革，必先提出非變不可的理由。為此，Senge 提出了兩個組織變革的原動力：「恐懼」與「抱負」。恐懼能帶來創造性張力（creative tension），讓人們面對現實，接受學校變革；而抱負則為團隊帶來持續追求卓越的原動力（Senge, 1990）。前者的關鍵在於員工的危機感，後者則在於員工對學校、以至工作的歸屬感，以及學校能否凝聚共同信念。學者 Irwin（2003）針對政策本身，亦提出相似觀點，認為政策主要取向有兩種：初任校長如要遊說各持份者支持學校變革，必先提出非變不可的理由。為此，學者指出了推行政策的兩種取向：（1）問題管理取向（pathology control approach），即政策針對處理過去或現在組織所遇到的具體困難，並作預防；（2）追求卓越取向（desirability striving approach），即政策是為了追求更卓越的質素，而非解決具體問題。 69 前者著眼於被動解難，後者則要求持份者主動迎接挑戰。Irwin 的著眼點與 Senge 不相同，但基本而言仍是透過增加員工對現狀的認知，以及形成自我超越的組織文化來作變革動力。可是在現實中，校長、高級教師及基層教師對現狀往往存在不同理解，組織身份亦有差異，往往為初任校長之遊說過程帶來挑戰。在學校層面，校內教師的危機感與歸屬感並不一致，不易求取變革共識。Day 有關教師專業性的研究發現，學校高層需要面對校際競爭、收生不足等問題，而新聘的合約教師則因為工作不穩定及初任教職，危機意識較高，較願意時刻進修以增加職場競爭力，亦傾向支持學校變革。相對而言，入職五年以上，已獲終身教席者的危機意識最弱，其進修意欲相對較低，亦較欠缺變革誘因（Day, 1999）。此外，不少研究指出教師會環繞各學科建立專業身份，而各學科亦被賦予不同的社會地位。如一些社會地位較高的學科求過於供，該科教師的危機感便相對較少（Beijaard, 1995; Null, 2010）。誠如學者 Sibley 所言，成員對組織擁有歸屬感是凝聚共識、建立共同目標與價值觀的先決條件。那麼，教師背景的差異便構成了迴圈悖論：合約教師及過剩學科的教師工作較不穩定，有較高危機感和變革意願，卻缺少歸屬感來構建共同願景；長期聘任的教師有較大的歸屬感，更願意與學校組織建立共同信念，可是他們的危機感亦相對較低，歸屬感與危機感在現實環境不能共存，成為學校啟動變革的潛在阻力。在理論層面，不少學者對 Senge「危機感帶來變革動力」的說法亦持保留態度。 Hargreaves（2003）認為危機感源自競爭，而過度競爭會鼓勵教師各自將教學法隱藏起來，以保持自己的競爭優勢；Argyris & Schon（1996）認為在零和競爭（zero-sum game）的文化下，部份教師會隱藏意向及教學策略，以取得凌駕他人的權力；張兆芹、徐煒（2008）更指出，教師團隊可能會演變成惡性較量與對抗，破壞共同學習的信任與意願。從上可見，過度競爭可能演變成教師之間相互交流、建立學習型組織的一大障礙。可是，Senge 提出的學校變革是由學習帶動，而非領導者強勢推行，Senge 只期待通過統一持份者信念來凝聚團隊精神，建立歸屬感，進而期待團隊中各成員作無私奉獻，推動學校變革，對於個人與組織的目標分歧卻未有具體回應，更沒有詳細描述領導者該如何在競爭與團隊信任間取得平衡。總括而言，不同職級與背景教師有不同程度的歸屬感與危機感，影響著他們對學校變革的支持程度。初任校長雖可鼓勵下屬自我超越，建立共同願景，但對一些已獲終身教席者或 70 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰任教強勢科目者，卻未必能產生預期影響效果。然而，校長純以競爭、營造恐懼與危機感來推動學校變革，亦不恰當。因過度競爭可能會影響各成員的合作意願，甚至產生惡性對抗等副作用。故此，初任校長在變革之初，要遊說不同背景的持份者支持變革方案，營造變革的迫切性，實非易事。二、有待調和的焦點分歧：問責對象與變革方向比起恐懼，Senge（1990）認為建立組織抱負以凝聚共同願景，是成功學校變革的最重要關鍵，因恐懼雖能帶來短期而劇烈的改變，抱負卻是持續學習與成長的動力。然而 Harvey & Green（1993）卻指出，不同持份者對「何謂優質教育」往往有不同理解，甚至同一人在不同時間內對教育的看法也不盡相同。在現實層面，學校需同時向官僚與市場問責，角色複雜，各持份者即使抱有同一抱負，其屬意之變革手段亦往往隨問責對象之不同而有不同焦點。所謂官僚問責，是指學校要符合政府訂立的科層與規章制度等，通過管理與監督的品質監控，以保證學校教育符合社會需求（Darling-Hammond, 1989）；而市場問責則強調學校向教育消費者（學生與家長）提供證據證明教育效能（Leithwood & Earle, 2000），可是兩者焦點與願景往往有所不同，甚至互相衝突。例如後者注重「可測量的教育結果」，傾向片面追求考試分數與名校升學率，而扭曲其他非量化的教育目標（沈偉、盧乃桂，2011）。以香港教學語言政策為例，1998 年教育署推出《中學教學語言指引》文件，認為母語教學能促進學生學習，故強迫中學以廣東話教授初中課程，並接受署方監察。然而，學生及家長卻認為當今大學教育以英語為主導，藉以與國際性專業及學術體系接軌，因此會較重視學生於中學會考的英文科合格率與大學升學率（曾榮光，2006）。學校在官僚與市場問責兩者之間，應如何取得平衡？況且，「減低學生學習的語言障礙」與「滿足學生升學需要」均是無可置喙的價值取向，教師可能同時認同兩者之重要性，執行上卻有不同取捨。要解決上述分歧，Gorton & Alston（2012）認為領導者可採取兩種策略：（1）容許各方獲得表達自己觀點與說服他人的機會，透過討論而凝聚共識；（2）準確理解各方期望後，對強勢意見作適當讓步，再把變革方向推廣成團隊的共同目標。對初任校長而言，前者著重協調，卻需要冗長的時間供各方討論，凝聚共識，此舉將大幅影響學校變革之速度；後者重取捨，能讓初任校長迅速推動學校變革，卻要求他們準確理解各持份者的期望，更要計算與之對抗的後果。這對於認受性尚待建立的初任校長而言，實有一定風險。 71 三、推動與落實變革的領導與管理能力在變革理論中，Senge 強調引入心智模式、自我超越、系統思考等內在歸因，與儒家「行有不得，反求諸己」的文化傳統遙相呼應，但卻未有考慮信念以外，如校長能力或既有組織文化等因素。在推動與落實學校變革的過程中，這些往往成為學校衝突的來源。如 Goodin 等（2008）所言：「政策制訂主要是能否成功遊說的問題」（Policy is mostly a matter of persuasion）（p. 6），推動者往往需要透過理論或經驗來遊說各持份者，爭取變革的認受性，凝造共識以避免衝突。可是欠缺實績支持下，初任校長只能依靠自身的個人魅力、權威或遊說技巧來推動改革，如此校長個人素質便顯得極為重要。然而，香港絕大部份校長均由副校長晉升（Kwan, 2009），Hartzell 等指出副校長工作以管理為主，他們專注於學生紀律與教師間人事管理，致力於維持學校穩定，而非激勵團隊，主動推動變革（Hartzell, Williams, & Nelson, 1995）。Harris 等的研究亦有相似結論，他們指出初任校長多從副校長晉升而來，他們擁有豐富的教學與行政經驗，卻慣於被動執行他人所訂下的課程或政策任務，本身卻未必有領導經驗，致使他們成為校長以後未必有足夠決心推行變革（Harris, Muijs, & Crawford, 2003）。從上可見，初任校長雖然對學校行政有豐富經驗，但卻未必具備推行學校變革所需的遊說能力，以往慣於追求穩定的副校長經驗亦可能影響初任校長堅持變革的決心。除個人遊說技巧與變革決心外，校長對下屬的洞察力亦十分重要。如 Gorton & Alston（2012）所言，初任校長需準確理解各持份者的期望，作出平衡以避免衝突。可是在華人社會，校長要了解下屬的真正想法並非易事。Hofstede（2001）針對世界各地文化差異的跨國研究指出，華人社會慣於避免衝突、講求面子與表面和諧，傾向隱藏自己真實情感與想法。華人教師不論往上還是同儕間溝通，往往只說好話，又或點到即止（Pye, 1981；張兆芹、徐煒， 2008）。Triandis（1995）亦指出，中國人遇到衝突時，會傾向服從權威，採取忍讓態度，可是這種建基權威的表面和諧是不穩定的，及後衝突往往以不同形態再次出現（Gorton & Alston, 2012）。對初任校長而言，他們與團隊未建立足夠信任，華人社會注重表面和諧，以及對衝突的迴避態度，令他們難以真正瞭解下屬之心智模式，又或其願景與學校是否一致。在實質事務上，如何落實變革措施亦是初任校長之重大挑戰。Macmillan 針對美國中學變革的研究指出，初任校長往往過於樂觀，雖勇於推動改革，卻欠明確目標和周詳考慮，低估實踐困難（Macmillan, 2000）。而澳洲、土耳其、韓國、中國、香港等地的研究進一步指 72 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰出，初任校長之主要挑戰在於財務管理（Kim & Parkay, 2004; Kwan & Walker, 2009; Wildy et al., 2010）、難以協調校內人事，以及與校外地方教育行政部門間的價值觀與利益衝突（Kim & Parkay, 2004；Nelson et al., 2008；Wildy et al., 2010；朱廣清，2010；姜濤、廖伯琴， 2012）。換言之，即使初任校長有足夠領導能力激勵下屬，欠缺管理能力仍難以落實相關變革。針對初任校長管理能力不足之原因，不同學者提出了各自觀點。Kwan & Walker（2009）指出，初任校長之財務管理能力不足，源於他們沒有接受相關的系統性培訓，以及一般校長不重視管理經驗的承傳，較少讓下屬涉足學校財政事宜，致使大部份初任校長只懂學校行政，而欠缺財務管理經驗；姜濤等則認為，初任校長未能化解持份者的衝突，除了自身協調與遊說能力有待改善外，與校長普遍只重變革本身，不重視如何使變革融入既有組織文化有莫大關係（姜濤、廖伯琴，2012）。姜濤等的主張並非只限於前線校長，亦包括學校變革理論的學者。張兆芹、徐煒（2008）的研究則聚焦於校長的項目分配與協調能力，指出學校變革成效不佳的原因之一在於項目太多，彼此與組織文化欠缺協調與連貫；如校長未能配合學校組織文化，便需要著力更新教師團隊的心智模式，把變革理念落實至日常運作之中，否則，固有的團隊精神反會讓成員建立抗拒變革的防禦機制，以維護本身「行之有效」的習慣或價值觀，進而成為變革阻力。可是，回顧 Senge 及眾多學者的變革管理理論，多重視領導者如何推動和鼓勵變革的開展，卻未有詳細考慮變革所需的管理能力、經驗與組織文化的連貫性。誠然，這些配合組織文化、經驗的承傳、項目分配與協調等與項目管理能力不能指引出成功的變革方向，但它們卻是化解潛在衝突，避免變革失敗的基礎。總括而言，校長與教師並非截然不同的兩個群體，前者也是從基層教師晉升而來，而初任校長的價值觀及變革決心往往受到過去管理或教學的成功經驗所牽絆。此外，初任校長能否洞悉下屬想法，把變革理念融入既有組織文化中，構築共同願景？又或他們是否有足夠管理能力落實變革，對變革流程與過程中的潛在挑戰能有周詳考慮和準備？這些皆是初任校長落實學校變革，化解衝突所不得不考慮的問題。 73 丁、總結 Senge 的五項修練及「學習型組織」的概念，對學校變革管理極具參考價值，然而它針對私人企業之營運，而學校卻與私人企業有所不同。企業的最大目標在於盈利，組織只需向市場問責，而學校的目標則是育人為才，既要向市場（家長與學生）問責，也要兼顧行政、市場與自身專業的問責（Darling-Hammond, 2005），領導者與下屬間的目標與焦點分歧遠較私人企業複雜。綜合而言，初任校長要建立學習型組織，推動學校變革，必先面對三個問題：（1）對內方面，初任校長該如何統合不同危機感與歸屬感的員工看法，建立共同信念與願景？（2）對外方面，初任校長該如何平衡政府、教師、家長、學生等不同持份者的價值觀，為組織確立明確的目標？（3）自身方面，初任校長應如何調節自身定位，裝備自己，完成從管理到領導的角色轉換？這些對校長培訓、學校領導與變革，均是極為重要的研究課題。參考文獻《文匯報》（2013.6.11）。〈3 招盼紓「校長荒」　老手栽培接班人〉。A26 版。沈偉、盧乃桂（2011）。〈問責背景下的教育品質：何為與為何〉。《全球教育展望》，第 40 卷（2），56-61。朱廣清（2010）。〈新校長需要什麼樣的培訓課程：來自對江蘇省常州市中小學校長的調查〉。《上海教育科研》，第 7 卷，52-54。姜濤、廖伯琴（2012）。〈從國際視角看初任校長領導力發展〉。《中國教育學刊》，第 9 卷，20-23。張兆芹、盧乃桂、彭新強（2011）。《學習型學校的創建——教師組織學習力新視角》。北京：教育科學出版社。張兆芹、徐煒（2008）。〈教師組織學習的障礙分析與對策研究〉。《教育發展研究》，第 12 卷，8-12。梁亦華（2014）。〈文本背後的價值取向：香港校長專業發展的延續與變革（1982- 2013）〉。《清華大學教育研究》，35（2），68-76。 74 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰教育局（2012）。〈學生訓育及輔導服務：理念與指引〉。2014 年 1 月 6 日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/mobile/tc/teacher/student-guidance-discipline-services/principles- guidelines/index.html。教育局（2013）。〈專業發展學校計劃〉。2014 年 1 月 6 日，取自 http://www.edb. gov.hk/tc/edu-system/primary-secondary/applicable-to-primary-secondary/sbss/sbps/ professional-development-schools-pds-scheme/index.html。教育統籌委員會（2000）。《教育制度檢討：改革方案》。香港：政府印務局。教育署（2002）。《校長專業發展指引》。香港：教育署。曾榮光（2006）。〈香港中學教學語言政策改革：檢討與批判〉。《教育學報》，第 33 卷（1-2），221-243。 Argyris, C., & Schon, D. 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(2006) Canadian perspectives on beginning principals: Their role in building capacity for learning communities. Journal of Educational Administration, 44(4), 341-358. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday. Senge, P. M. (2000). School that learn: The fifth discipline fieldbook for educators, parents, and everyone who cares about education. New York, NY: Bantam Doubleday. Sibley, S. (1986). A meta-analysis of school consultation research. New York, NY: Plenum Press. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism: New directions in social psychology. Boulder: Westview Press. Walker, A. D., & Quong, E. T. (2005)。《在職校長專業發展需要分析課程》。香港：香港中文大學香港教育領導發展中心。取自： http://www3.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/ eldevnet/NAFPhk_SP/Download_CHI_SpNAP.asp。 Wildy, H., Clarke, S., Styles, I., & Beycioglu, K. (2010). Preparing novice principals in Australia and Turkey: How similar are their needs. Educational Assessment Evaluation & Accountability, 22(4), 307-326. 77 Reform and conflict: The challenge of novice principals in the development of learning organization LEUNG Yick Wah Doctoral student of the Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Since 1997, Education Bureau of Hong Kong has launched the school reform measures in various aspects, from curriculum reform to school restructuring, which required a fundamental change in teachers’ belief about teaching and learning. Yet, the reform may not reflect a common consensus among teachers and generates conflicts in school. The school principal plays a crucial role in the implementation of school reform. However, there is an expected wave of retirement among experienced principals. More novice principals thus need to take a leading role in driving school change and bring new uncertainties. To understand the challenge of novice principals, this paper reviewed the literature on school reform and examined the potential conflict in the development of learning organization. The implementation gap between Senge’s theory and practice were critically discussed in order to address the challenge of novice principals when driving new school change and provide a wider platform for discussion of school reform, as well as the development of learning organization in schools. Keywords principal leadership, school reform, learning organization, conflict management 78 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義林志德華南師範大學研究生摘要遊學是由來已久的跨文化現象，研究顯示它有助促進學習與增長歷練。考掘遊學的知識系譜，這個跨學科的概念可視為旅行的分類，蘊含旅遊學、教育學等不同學問元素。將遊學置於香港學校課程脈絡，它屬於全方位學習一環，扣連課程，而持分者在遊學的論述和參與各有其角色。本文嘗試從多元視角探討遊學的意義，首先概述其內涵及發展，然後討論當中的爭議與反思，進而提供建議，期望為遊學的理念與實踐帶來啟迪。關鍵詞遊學的意義，教育旅行，教育旅遊，全方位學習，跨文化現象導言 2014年 7月，國家教育部（2014）公布《中小學學生赴境外研學旅行活動指南（試行）》，申明研學旅行需符合中、小學生的特點與需要，並豐富教育內容，可以選擇環保、科技、人文、自然、歷史、藝術、體育等主題。研學旅行即遊學，乃穿越古今的跨文化現象（郭少棠， 2005；龔鵬程，2001）。考掘其知識系譜，遊學可視為旅行文化的一種概念，其歷史文化積澱豐厚，透現跨學科取向，蘊含旅遊學、教育學等不同學問元素。遊學在香港學校課程脈絡，屬於全方位學習一環，緊扣課程（全方位學習組，2003）。遊學的作用雖受質疑（林慧美， 2013.12.13；陳葒，2013.11.28；斯人，2013.12.05；趙志成，2013.12.05），但研究證明它有 79 助促進學習與增長歷練（Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Ho, 2012; Wong, 2012）。本文嘗試從多元視角探討遊學的教育意義，首先概述其內涵，然後討論當中的爭議與反思，結合宏觀和微觀層面的分析，並以知識管理的觀點進行剖析，期望為遊學的理念與實踐提供思考方向。遊學的語源與歷史文化傳統考掘遊學的知識系譜，先要從語源梳理錯綜複雜的概念。郭少棠（2005）指出，要解讀中國旅行文化，需留意四個關鍵字：旅、行、遊（游）、觀，其中遊（游）字最富有構詞能力，以它為前綴或後綴，可組合 287 個跟旅行有關的詞語，而遊學歸入遊（游）字下「直接相關的詞匯——行動」類別，與遊歷、遊覽等詞語並列，可以視為旅行文化的概念。至於旅行和旅遊的關係，旅行的內涵較廣，因為「旅遊偏於遊玩，旅行包括旅遊，審美和功能目的都能包含在內，比旅遊的內涵稍寬」（李嵐，2013，頁 7）。由此可見，遊學、旅行和旅遊三者，互有關連。漢語思想文化語境的「遊」和「游」，除了繁體和簡體之別，兩個概念各有不同。以中央研究院語言學研究所（2014）開發的「搜文解字」資料庫為例，遊字的解釋有二十項，而游字的解釋有九項，不過《玉書》指出「遊與游同」。將遊和學搭配一起，可以激發兩種概念的融通與轉化。至於如何實現遊和學並重、遊中有學、學中有遊的理想，正是下文探討的重點。從文化比較的視角解讀，遊學是由來已久的跨文化現象，展現生命轉化的歷程（龔鵬程， 2001）。根據瑞士學者卡爾．榮格（Carl Jung）為首的分析心理學觀點，旅行源自人類的集體潛意識，屬於原始意象；當人處於壓抑的環境，真實或夢中的旅行，都可以提供超越現狀的解放機會（Jung, Franz, & Freeman, 1964）。探尋歷史，遊學在中國的淵源，可追溯至春秋時代（前 770- 前 476），士人、僧侶、貴族子弟尋師求學、傳播思想（劉香民，2010）。歐洲方面，十八世紀的英國社會，興起一股赴歐洲大陸遊歷和學習的熱潮，稱作大陸遊學（Grand Tour），有助促進歐洲文化、藝術、科技等方面的發展，以及加強英國與歐洲大陸的聯繫（Sweet, 2012）。 80 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義遊學的跨學科取向遊學是跨文化現象，也是跨學科概念。旅行與學習的關係密切，旅行可鼓勵學習，而學習需要可促成旅行（Falk, Ballantyne, Packer, & Benckendorff, 2012）。由於教育、旅行和旅遊互有連繫，所以英語文獻有「教育旅行」（Educational Travel）的說法（Metraux, 1956; Tarrant & Lyons, 2012），也有「教育旅遊」（Educational Tourism）的說法（Duhs, 2013; Ritchie, Carr, & Cooper, 2003），兩種概念的本質和論述接近。聯合國教科文組織於 1956 年出版第八卷第四期《國際社會科學季刊》，以「跨文化教育與教育旅行」為主題，「教育旅行」在這一期導論的解說如下：「教育旅行包含兩個概念：教育意指知識的獲取，而旅行意指移動的過程。兩者分屬社會組織的不同範疇，合二為一則富有意義，亦在目前相當流行。」（筆者譯）（Metraux, 1956, p. 577）從以上解釋可見，教育旅行蘊含知識和移動兩個重點，與漢語思想文化語境下遊和學扣連的傳統，語碼有別，卻互相契合。遊學與旅遊在本質上，有相通之處。根據旅遊社會學的觀點，旅遊屬於社會行為，旅遊經驗基於遊客對於人物、地景、資訊等符號的收集與詮釋，其過程由社會建構，而遊客作為凝視主體，跟凝視對象存在複雜的權力關係，加上凝視過程的內涵不斷變化，形成旅遊經驗多元與流動的本質（Urry & Larson, 2011）。雖然遊學和尋常旅遊有異，而參與遊學的學生也不是普通遊客，可是旅遊經驗和遊學經驗的本質同樣多元與流動。基於多元與流動的本質，遊學潛藏各種構思和發展的可能方向，尚待探研。遊學與閒暇活動，亦有關係。聯合國於 2010 年提出《世界青年行動綱領》，作為改善青年狀況的政策框架和建議，當中確立十五個優先關注的領域，「閒暇活動」是其中之一，又強調閒暇活動乃青年政策及服務重要一環，建議各地政府鼓勵青年參與旅遊活動（United Nations, 2010）。無論是設計或選擇閒暇活動，都可以考慮三個重要因素：尊重個人自主、配合人生歷程、平衡不同需要（林志德，2013）。在閒暇活動的整體概念之下，遊學的策劃和參與同樣需要深思熟慮。 81 香港脈絡下的遊學論述儘管遊學牽涉的概念紛繁多姿，但是「遊學」一詞在香港使用普遍，分歧不大（香港旅遊業議會，2007；曾德成，2013；教育局，年份不詳 a，年份不詳 b）。遊學目的地可以是境內，也可以是境外。不過，遊學有時專指境外行程，例如香港旅遊業議會發出《經營遊學團守則（修訂版）》，列明該守則屬於「外遊旅行服務→旅行團」的指引分類，並就跨境交通、當地接團單位、寄住家庭等，詳列條文（香港旅遊業議會，2007）。又如教育局制訂《境外遊學活動指引》和《戶外活動指引》，都是持續修訂的指引，其中《戶外活動指引》有專門討論境外遊學的附錄（教育局，年份不詳 a）。香港脈絡下遊學的內涵，離不開這些由不同話語構成的社會文本。關於「遊學團」與「境外遊學」的闡釋，可參閱香港旅遊業議會和教育局的文本。香港旅遊業議會（2007，頁 1）列明「遊學團」的條件包括：（1）團員對象主要為十八歲以下人士；及（2）活動內容主要為語言學習、教育活動、文化／學術／知識交流、技能訓練、生活體驗，或增廣見聞的戶外課堂／觀光活動等。對於「境外遊學」，《境外遊學活動指引》申述如下：「境外遊學活動是指由學校策劃、組織，並以校方委任領隊負責帶領學生到香港以外地區作探訪、交流、研習或服務等活動。」（教育局，年份不詳 b，頁 1）上述民間和官方文本，展示遊學的多元內涵，為遊學的計劃和推行，提供建議。遊學與學校課程的關係，相當密切。遊學考察屬於全方位學習經歷，扣連課程，引領學生成為終身學習者（全方位學習組，2003）。全方位學習的重點包括：「全方位學習提供有助全人發展的學習機會。它讓學習者在真實環境中學習，以及體驗課堂所不能提供的學習經歷，尤其是德育及公民教育、體藝發展、與工作相關的經驗以及社會服務等。」（課程發展議會，2001，頁 84） 82 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義遊學作為全方位學習一環，體現學校課程的主導原則：「教導學生學會學習，促進他們獨立學習的能力，達到終身學習的目的，以全面提高教育質素」（課程發展議會，2001，頁 9）。教育局前任總課程發展主任（全方位學習及圖書館）葉蔭榮總結香港的全方位學習有四項特色：學習為本、緊連課程、靈活性和全面性，並指出它以政策、理論、研究和實踐的連結及調節作為教育方針（葉蔭榮，2006）。同樣，遊學的持續發展，不可能單靠政策推動，需要結合理論、研究和實踐，以促進成效。遊學的爭議與反思 2013 年，香港傳媒報導有幼稚園擬舉辦為期十天的美國親子遊學團（《香港經濟日報》，2013.11.23），引發遊學意義的討論（林慧美，2013.12.13；陳葒，2013.11.28；斯人， 2013.12.05；趙志成，2013.12.05）。本文無意為幼稚園應否舉辦遊學團定讞，只想探尋圍繞遊學市場化和商品化、遊學空間的爭議，並以學與教的觀點作剖析。關於遊學市場化和商品化的爭議，重點之一是遊學的教育價值。例如趙志成（2013.12.05）認為「境外遊學倍增，但是否具成本效益，有否實質學習效果，還是一種炫耀式的消費經歷，值得深思。」又如陳葒（2013.11.28）質疑「辦遊學團不一定為了學，甚至也不為了遊，很可能只是為了顯示自己高人一等和快人一步。」所謂遊學是消費經歷、炫耀手段的說法，與消費主義有關。全球消費主義大行其道，市場思維和商業邏輯盛行，在地域發展、日常生活和教育，都帶來影響。地域發展方面，根據空間政治的觀點，在全球化地域競爭下，地域之間競相仿效成功經驗，生產被賦予特定意義的空間或景觀，例如：特色建築、節慶傳統、生活風俗等，以供各種用途及消費（王志弘，2011）。日常生活方面，哈佛大學教授米高．桑德爾（Michael Sandel）提出，社會眾多原本不屬於市場操控的生活領域，包括：家庭、教育、宗教、人際關係等，逐漸受市場的交換價值所支配，待價而沽（Sandel, 2012）。教育方面，恰巧哈佛大學的前任校長德瑞克．伯克（Derek Bok）早已承認大學教育存在商業化的危機，學術理想常會因為商業利益而犧牲，進修課程變成大學競相滿足學生欲望、增加收益的商品，而教育願景能否達成，取決於大學對使命和價值的守護（Bok, 2003）。 83 面對市場思維和商業邏輯帶來挑戰，無論大學教育還是遊學，同樣可能淪為消費經歷或炫耀手段。不過，正如我們不會輕言全盤否定大學教育的意義，有關遊學意義的討論亦應再三思量。至於遊學空間的爭議，關注點之一是遊學場景的選取。例如林慧美（2013.12.13）質疑「人之初，近身的種種不優先學習，卻先要跑到老遠學異國風情？」又如斯人（2013.12.05）提出「與其用學習時間去滿世界晃蕩，還不如老老實實在學校裡用功，現在網絡無邊界，有什麼東西不能手到拿來？」所謂近身優先學習、網絡萬能的主張，源於對學習空間的理解。遊學離不開空間移動，但其教育意義不可能僅由空間賦予。空間移動牽涉的場景固然重要，可是遊學的計劃構思、團隊組織、行程安排、導覽重點、評估設計等相關因素，都會影響學習效果。以香港本土情況為例，境外和境內遊學各具特色，中、小學在區本探究遊學方面積累不少成果（陳志華、盧爾君，2008）。學界以外的本土旅行，得力於民間旅行組織推動，更見百花齊放（郭志標，2013）。小如一所學校，亦可構思富有意義的學習經歷，例如有中、小學在校內舉行數學遊蹤，在走廊、禮堂、操場、天台等地方進行數學解難活動（鄧幹明、羅浩源、黃毅英，2006）。由此可見，場景並非遊學的全部，也不是教育意義的關鍵所在。正如 Castells（1989）早已預告，流動空間的浮現取代地方空間的意義，將會成為社會趨勢。論者或會質疑，世界各地學習場景的資料，在網絡俯拾皆是，足不出戶，也可以在網絡上遊學。不過，網絡便捷，卻不可能完全取代真實的遊學經歷。科技發展使空間的內涵出現變化，導致虛擬和實體空間並存，但是兩者在閒暇生活具有互動的關係（Lawrence, 2003）。遊學的空間不限於行程涉足的地方，還可以包括出發前、後的學習及體會，例如：行前準備、學習成果分享、小組討論、網絡學習、個人反思等。處身真實環境，跟不同人物、地景互動的體驗，亦彌足珍貴。因此，遊學設計除了顧及場景以外，可以考慮為參與者提供不同時空的學習機會，使遊學經驗更為多元及立體。要確切審視遊學的教育意義，不可能只停留在印象式評論的表層，應當建基於理論和研究。環顧香港關於遊學的學術研究，似乎集中探討參與學生的轉變（Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Ho, 2012; Wong, 2012）。Cheng（2009）的博士研究旨在分析香港中學生在中國連南瑤族自 84 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義治縣遊學及其前後的體驗，引證遊學有助學生獲得高階反思學習的機會，擴闊視野，學習與不同文化背景的人相處；發展多元化技能，如計劃未來、適應無法預知的事件、與別人合作解難等；比較當地人士與自己的生活，從中思考處境及相應行動；借鏡別人經歷，建立積極的人生態度（Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Ho, 2012）。另一方面，Wong（2012）的博士研究旨在探研香港中學生在中國內地不同地區遊學及其前後的體驗，發現遊學有助學生提高學習普通話的動機，而學生可從兩地比較中反思，有助增進對內地和香港文化的認識，並促進批判／明辨性思考能力。實證研究顯示，遊學對於促進學習與增長歷練具有一定作用。要提高遊學的學習成效，除了理論和研究以外，評估是重要一環，而評估的對象包括課程與學生。課程評估方面，林德成（2013）指出香港課程改革以學生全人發展為重點，使學生參與不同形式活動的機會增加，而這些活動包含預期之外的學習成果，宜採用不受目標所限的評估模式，同時著眼於預期學習成果和預期之外的學習成果，以促進課程的成效。學生評估方面，Biggs & Tang（1998）解釋教師和學生對評估的觀點有別，形成教學和學習的不同序列，如圖一所示：圖一　教學和學習的序列（Biggs & Tang, 1998, p. 453）圖一表明學生對評估相當重視，學習活動及成果均取決於此。遊學作為一種學習方式，可以引入促進學習評估。要達到促進學習評估的目標，教師可以靈活採用合適的評估策略，例如：觀察、自我報告、學習日誌、學習合約、專題研習、學習檔案等，從而了解學生的表現，並顯示其學習成果（羅耀珍，2008）。 85 圖二展示的四重架構，可用以剖析遊學在香港社會脈絡發展的情況。各領域與遊學的關係，概述如下： 1. 於國家領域：相關部門及委員會，包括：民政事務局、教育局、公民教育委員會、青年事務委員會等，在不同層面參與遊學相關政策的制訂及執行，而相關單位更會舉辦或資助遊學活動。 2. 於公共領域：公益機構、志願團體、宗教組織、學校等，均可以因應各自條件及需要，舉辦不同主題、性質和內容的遊學。市民社會視角下的遊學要較全面理解遊學在社會脈絡的內涵，可以借用 Janoski（1998）提出的「市民社會」（Civil Society）四重架構分析，當中包含國家、公共、市場與私人領域之間糾葛複雜的關係。學界對於「Civil Society」的解說莫衷一是，常見的漢譯有六種：文明社會、民間社會、政治社會、市民社會、公民社會和公共領域（李琪明，2001）。王紹光（1991）根據政治思想史的軌跡，指出「Civil Society」應譯為「市民社會」。市民社會的四重架構，如圖二所示：圖二　市民社會概念圖（簡化自 Janoski, 1998, p. 13） 86 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 3. 於市場領域：企業、工會、旅行社、學習中心等，都可以籌辦遊學，例如一些旅行社自行策劃或受委托舉辦遊學團。 4. 於私人領域：家庭、同儕等，都會影響學生在遊學的選擇及參與。例如有些學生較重視友儕關係，參與遊學活動前，會先與同儕商議，結伴同行。上述市民社會包含的四個領域，並非各自獨立運作，而是互為影響的。舉例說，志願團體可以申請政府的資助，委託旅行社籌辦遊學，亦可安排合適活動，供參加者的家庭成員和同儕投入其中。這四個領域交織成一幅動態大圖像，引證遊學不僅涉及學校教育，而是與不同領域互有關連。同時，浮現一個有待深思的問題：在學習的前提下，如何協調各領域的角色及參與，以促進遊學的成效？遊學知識建構的旨趣運用市民社會視角，可以開啟遊學在宏觀層面的思考。微觀層面，討論遊學的理念與實踐，可以參考德國思想巨擘哈伯瑪斯（J. Habermas）的知識論，他將人類的知識建構歸納為三種旨趣：「技術——控制」、「實踐——理解」、「批判——自由」（Habermas, 1972）。以教師帶領學生參與的遊學為例，這三種旨趣展現相應範式的遊學，在定位、重點、設計原則、參與者角色及評估方向各具特色，如表一所示：表一　遊學的知識建構旨趣技術——控制實踐——理解批判——自由遊學定位成品產出建構過程解放機會遊學重點程序操作溝通交流啟迪智慧遊學的設計原則確保順暢的作業流程促進內部溝通及與外界的接觸增進獨立、自主和思考學生角色接收者探究者詮釋者教師角色帶領完成任務創造學習機會促使增權賦能遊學的評估方向重視預設標準重視實際經歷重視體會及轉變 87 於「技術——控制」範式，遊學可視為成品產出，重點是程序操作。這範式下的遊學意義，在於確保順暢的作業流程，以工具理性作為依據。舉例說，香港旅遊業議會（2007）制訂《經營遊學團守則（修訂版）》，當中包括「遊學團重要項目一覽表」和「團隊安全質量監察表」，對遊學的籌辦和實施詳列注意事項。推行過程中，教師領導學生完成任務，而學生則是接收者。評估方面，按照預設標準進行考量，而學習成效主要由教師判斷。於「實踐——理解」範式，遊學可視為建構過程，重點是溝通交流。這範式下的遊學意義，並非來自身體移動的經歷，而在於促進參與者的內部溝通，以及跟外界的接觸。推行過程中，學生是探究者，而教師擔任引導者，為學生創造學習機會。評估方面，學生的實際經歷需作整理分析，而學習成效不可能仰賴教師作出判斷。於「批判——自由」範式，遊學可視為解放機會，重點是啟迪智慧。這範式下的遊學意義，不限於恪守規條或複製成功經驗，而在於增進學生的獨立自主。推行過程中，學生是詮釋者，而教師應對他們增權賦能，讓他們可以自由表達意見、展現潛能及激發想像，從反思中學習。評估方面，學生的體會及轉變需要加以檢視，而學習成效不可能只是取決於教師的意見。上述三種知識建構的旨趣，展現遊學的不同範式，為遊學的理念和實踐提供參考框架，有助照顧參加者的多樣性。遊學轉化學習的歷程討論遊學的理念與實踐，可以借用「通過儀式」的概念。「通過儀式」原是指「伴隨著從一個境地到另一境地，從一個到另一個（宇宙或社會）世界之過渡式進程」（van Gennep，譯 2010，頁 10），它可分為三個階段：分離、邊緣或閾限、聚合，而閾限階段屬於模棱兩可及反結構的狀態（Turner, 2009）。Nelson & Harper（2006）參照「通過儀式」的觀點，以學習者為中心，提出由四種循環狀態構成的轉化學習歷程，包括聚合狀態、分離狀態、閾限狀態和再聚合狀態，學習者在不同狀態各有特點，如表二所示： 88 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義學習者的狀態學習者的特點聚合狀態處於靜態，難以察覺新的可能分離狀態願意暫停懷疑，存而不論閾限狀態感受挑戰，質疑當前理解，以批判的心態，面對待決事情再聚合狀態經歷轉化或改變，置身於新的知識境界表二　轉化學習的歷程配合學習者在轉化學習歷程的狀態和特點，以學生為對象的遊學，可因應需要而加入以下重點： 1. 聚合狀態：配合原有學習經歷而設計活動，為學生提供深化理解的機會，例如指導學生在出發前搜集相關資料。 2. 分離狀態：舉辦行前簡介會，透過教師和學生之間互動，激發探索的好奇心，讓學生預備接受新觀點。 3. 閾限狀態：提供多元化的行程，讓學生開放感官，檢視原有信念，注入新思維。又可以安排分享會，讓成員之間進行對話，甚或互相質疑和詰問，從而釐清問題和觀念，促進批判性思考能力。 4. 再聚合狀態：安排延展學習活動，例如行程結束後安排跟進課堂或活動，鼓勵學生進行更深入的剖析，作出更睿智的判斷。轉化學習歷程以持續學習為基調，目的是改變學習者的心智模式；對於遊學的策劃、組織和推行，可以帶來啟迪。遊學的知識管理一次遊學完滿成功，其效用難以永久存留。從知識管理的視角分析，遊學應該是不斷積累和創造知識的過程。知識可以分為內隱和外顯知識，內隱知識是個人的，與特別情境有關，較難以形式化和溝通；外顯知識指可以運用形式化、制度化語言傳遞的知識（Polanyi, 2009）。無論個人參與層面或組織實施層面，遊學同樣蘊含內隱和外顯知識。舉例說，遊學團成員之間的默契屬於難以言傳的內隱知識，而配合遊學的專題研習報告是外顯知識；學校舉辦遊學的信念和經驗是內隱知識，而為遊學編寫的計劃書、工作手冊屬於外顯知識。 89 圖三展示的框架，可用以說明遊學知識創造的螺旋過程。共同化由特定範圍的互動開始，以促使經驗分享，例如學生遊學期間對不同人物、地景、事件的觀察和體會，形成共鳴的知識。透過對話與集體思考，內隱知識得以外化，例如學生以文字或圖畫表達感受，形成觀念性知識。不同外顯知識的結合，可以產生新知識，例如學生各自在簡報會分享專題研習成果，使不同知識接合，形成系統化知識。內化則透過邊做邊學，使外顯知識由實際操作轉為內隱知識，例如行程結束後，學生仍會以各種方式學習及實踐。然後，個人的內隱知識會與別人的內隱知識互動，再度啟動共同化，形成螺旋狀的循環。由此可見，遊學需要聚焦、深化和持續，以促進學與教的成效。根據日本學者野中郁次郎和竹內弘高提出的知識創造理論，知識創造包含四種知識轉換模式：（1）由內隱轉換為內隱，稱為共同化；（2）由內隱轉為外顯，稱為外化；（3）由外顯轉為外顯，稱為結合；（4）由外顯轉為內隱，稱為內化（Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995）。這四種知識轉換模式，如圖三所示：圖三　知識的螺旋發展（合併自 Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, pp. 71-72, 圖 3-3 和 3-4） 90 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義小結與再出發法蘭西學術院的院士米歇爾．塞荷（Michel Serres）從「知識吟遊者」的故事，敘說旅行目的不在遠方，而是追求內在安頓，深信「沒有學習能夠避免旅行」（許宏儒，2011，頁 49）。本文探索遊學的意義與實踐，跨文化到跨學科，國際視野到香港脈絡，宏觀到微觀，策劃到參與；知識系譜考掘本身便是遊和學並重的旅程。這旅程尋覓的目標，不是一服立效的學與教萬靈丹，而是各種可行建議。本文借用不同理論作分析，各具啟迪作用：市民社會四重架構，顯示遊學並非只涉及學校教育，需要多方面的配合；三種知識建構的旨趣，以及四種循環狀態構成的轉化學習歷程，不約而同示範分層遞進的學習模式，為遊學的設計與推展提供參考框架；知識管理的觀點，說明遊學的持續發展有賴各種知識的接合和轉換。這一系列理論的共通點是，確認遊學經驗變化多端，呼應 Urry & Larson（2011）指旅遊經驗本質是多元與流動的論調。當然，任何理論得視乎實際情況，靈活運用，或加以調適，以配合遊學經驗多元與流動的本質。唐代（618-907）文豪柳宗元在〈始得西山宴游記〉一文，以「然後知吾嚮之未始游，游於是乎始」作結，意思是他知道以前的遊歷不算是遊歷，而真正的遊歷從該文敘述的這一次才開始（何沛雄，1990，頁 32）；更重要是，語句點明往昔不過是形軀之遊，而這一次卻是精神層次之遊（鄧城鋒，2012）。顯然，教育工作者不會期望學生參與遊學僅是身體移動，而是期望學生藉經歷在思想、知識、技能、價值觀和態度有所獲益。展望遊學在香港脈絡下持續發展，在其多元意義的基礎上，可以透過政策配合、理論建構、研究開展、分享平台建立等多方面配合，匯聚教育專業層面內外的討論，為全社會創造遊學的論述和參與機會，由個人到群體，從組織到跨組織，啟動內隱和外顯知識的螺旋轉換，使遊學知識積澱與創新，以多元視角促進學生的全人發展，為推動學生學習的遊學再出發作好準備。 91 參考文獻《香港經濟日報》（2013.11.23）。〈幼園豪華遊學團　收費 2.4 萬至 3 萬〉，A18 版。撰文：杜潔心。取自 http://www.hket.com/eti/article/d3561e66-c657-42ff-b381- 2dcaaaf0aaf0-534610。中央研究院語言學研究所（2014）。〈「搜文解字」資料庫〉。2014 年 8 月 15 日，取自 http://words.sinica.edu.tw/sou/sou.html。王志弘（2011）。〈導言——文化治理、地域發展與空間政治〉。載王志弘（編），《文化治理與空間政治》（頁 9-28）。台北：群學出版。王紹光（1991）。〈關於市民社會的幾點思考〉。《二十一世紀》，第 8 期，102-114。全方位學習組（2003）。〈全方位學習經歷優質架構：理論與實踐〉。2014 年 8 月 15 日，取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/lwl/QF/pdf/Quality_LWL_Experience_chi_May2004. 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Teacher Education Quarterly, 33(2), 7-21. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. Polanyi, M. (2009). The tacit dimension. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Ritchie, B. W., Carr, N., & Cooper, C. P. (2003). Managing educational tourism. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Sandel, M. (2012). What money can’t buy: The moral limits of markets. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Sweet, R. (2012). Cities and the grand tour: The British in Italy, c.1690-1820. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tarrant, M., & Lyons, K. (2012). The effect of short-term educational travel programs on environmental citizenship. Environmental Education Research, 18(3), 403-416. Turner, V. W. (2009). The ritual process: Structure and anti-structure. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction. 94 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 United Nations. (2010). World programme of action for youth. New York: United Nations. Urry, J., & Larson, J. (2011). The tourist gaze 3.0. London: Sage Publications. van Gennep, A. （2010）。《過渡禮儀》，張舉文（譯）。北京：商務印書館。（原著出版年：1909） Wong, K. Y. (2012). Study tours by Hong Kong students to mainland China: Their effects on the identity and motivation to learn Putonghua (Doctoral Dissertation). Durham: University of Durham. 95 Tours begin - Multiple perspectives on the meaning of study tours LAM Chi Tak Postgraduate of South China Normal University Abstract Going on study tours is a long-standing cross-cultural phenomenon. Research studies reveal that study tours are conducive to learning and gaining experiences. In digging up the genealogy of study tours, this interdisciplinary concept can be considered as a category of travel which embraces the elements of different disciplines such as tourism and education. Putting study tours in the context of the Hong Kong school curriculum, it can be classified as a part of life-wide learning and linked with curriculum, and stakeholders play different roles in the discourse and participation of study tours. This paper attempts to explore the meaning of study tours from multiple perspectives. It starts with a general overview of connotations and development of study tours, and then a discussion on the controversies and reflections. Recommendations are thus provided in the hope that they would yield insights into the concepts and implementations of study tours. Keywords meaning of study tour, educational travel, educational tourism, life-wide learning, cross- culture phenomenon 96 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools LEUNG Lai Sim Creative Teachers Association, EdD student at the University of Bristol Abstract This study uses Dimmock and Walker’s cross-cultural comparative framework to investigate the interface between societal cultures and leadership styles in two primary schools in Hong Kong. The analysis shows that educational development and curriculum reform at the schools was influenced by global culture and by the local Hong Kong subculture. This case study illustrates the effect of leadership styles and culture on the development of educational reform in Hong Kong in the past 15 years. Keywords cross-cultural comparative framework, educational change, educational leadership, narrative inquiry 1. Background In education, visions of the future proliferate (Facer, 2011). In Hong Kong, a financial and commercial centre influenced by globalisation and nationalisation, education professionals face both challenges and opportunities. Successful educational reform requires a system based on professionalism rather than managerialism. According to Dewey (1938), every experience is both personal and social. This study uses the narrative inquiry method (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Clough, 2002; Trahar, 2013) as a qualitative strategy to understand the author’s own experiences in two schools and then uses those 97 perceptions to make generalisations about educational reform. As a Primary School Mistress (Curriculum Development) (PSMCD) for four years and as a General Studies panel head for eight years, the author experienced growth, conflicts and challenges. This study is an attempt to interpret the process of educational reform in the schools in which the author served. The broader global culture, the local subculture of educational changes and the educational system in Hong Kong, together with changes in the schools influenced educational development and curriculum reform at these schools. A comparison of the two schools illustrates the effect of different leadership styles and broader cultural, social, national and global forces on the schools. Dimmock and Walker’s (2005, p. 24) cross- cultural comparative framework, Fullan’s (1999, 2009) three phases of organisation development and other theories are used to deeply examine the cases. Finally, a relatively more comprehensive approach to educational reform is presented. 2. Methodology “ There is no better way to study curriculum than to study ourselves.” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988, p. 31) “ When we see an event, we think of it not as a thing happening at that moment but as an expression of something happening over time. Any event, or thing, has a past. A present as it appears to us, and an implied future.” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 29) John Dewey is one of the most influential people in narrative inquiry (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 1). For him, every experience is both personal and social. An individual’s perceptions of knowledge, values or pedagogy can reflect a person’s attitude towards temporary and historical social influences (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Dewey, 1938). This research adopts the methodology of narrative inquiry. The author served as a curriculum development leader in two related half-day primary schools sharing the same building for eleven years and witnessed their growth and separation. Historical and interpretive research methods are used to analyse this process. The book “Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000) provides theoretical support for this study. Understanding the process of educational reform in these two schools through the author’s personal reflections and assumptions and her interpretation of relevant theories may reveal some insights into education professional development. Intensive and up-close participation are part of the author’s strategy of qualitative research. 98 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools 3. Framework for the case study Hong Kong is an international financial city. It has an open system and changes in education follow global trends that are then modified by local commercial and Confucian cultural influences. “ A key direction for educational leadership and management in the twenty- first century is to embrace an international, cultural and cross-cultural comparative perspective.” (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, p. 15) Dimmock and Walker provide a detailed justification for their approach. According to their cross-cultural comparative framework, shown in Figure 1 (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, p. 24), a school is influenced by the societal culture, which in this case study the author identifies as a mix of traditional Chinese and modern global cultural influences. Figure 1. A cross-cultural school-focused framework for the comparison of educational leadership 99 The local community continues to be influenced by hybrid Chinese cultural traditions (Walker, 2004, p. 78), such as Chinese beliefs about relationships, organisation and leadership. However, economic globalisation requires that education in Hong Kong also follows the trends seen in most developed countries. This trend is related to the Third Way (Shirley, 2011), which uses a managerialist and market-oriented approach to enhance quality in education and subsequently economic growth (Tang, 2011). The education reforms spreading around the world are driven not only by market conditions, but also by concepts of managerialism and performance (Ball, 2003; Tang, 2011). This approach has ushered in a new orthodoxy of testing, accountability and data-driven decision making (Shirley, 2011). As a result, “educators learned to game the system by cutting back on untested subjects and by concentrating on drilling students for exams” (Harris, 2011, p. 165). Hong Kong as an open system is strongly influenced by the outside world (Cheng, 2009). These new educational theories, ideas, paradigm shifts and practices have been imported over the last two decades. The regional subculture, which the author defines as Hong Kong educational reform, also deeply influences schools’ educational leadership styles. Due to the political transition in July 1997 and the fast-changing economic environment in the Asia-Pacific Region, Hong Kong has experienced great transformational change within the last two decades: “In the last ten years, the Education and Manpower Bureau implemented numerous initiatives to change nearly every key aspect of the school system, from the administrative structure to the curriculum organization; from the school governance and management to the classroom teaching and learning; from the application of information technology to the examination system; and from the school external and internal evaluation to the accountability to the stakeholders” (Cheng, 2009). Primary schools have been affected by curriculum reform, assessment reform and changes in the school places allocation mechanism. School-based management, school self-evaluation, external school reviews, performance indicators and so on restrict, construct and direct the way schools are run. The administrative process controls and assesses the performance of schools. Due to the city’s colonial past, many administrators are accustomed to following instructions and avoiding mistakes; this can make them short-sighted. At the same time, there is a global trend towards the development of pedagogy for knowledge-based societies rooted in life- long learning. Since the change in sovereignty, the educational system in Hong Kong has changed rapidly. Nurturing quality citizenship is an essential component of this new system. New posts for educational leaders are increasing (Education Bureau, 2012). In addition to traditional positions such as “Senior Assistant Master/Mistress” and “Assistant Master/ Mistress”, there are now posts for “Senior Primary School Master/Mistress” (SPSM), “Primary School Master/Mistress” (PSM) and “Assistant Primary School Master/ 100 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Mistress” (APSM). However, the authority for school development is still mainly in the hands of the principal and the SPSM, who generally emphasise managerial skills rather than professional educational development. Management development is shaped by performance pressures, which are dominated by a measurement paradigm, whereas educational development focuses on learning paradigms that emphasise the importance of learning construction in the classroom and the effectiveness of students’ authentic learning experiences. For instance, managers in Hong Kong support the “Territory-wide System Assessment” (TSA) and “Pre-Secondary One Hong Kong Attainment Test” (Pre-S1 Test) by providing more drilling exercises for children (Tang, 2011). In this paradigm, strong leadership directs educational development and both principals and teachers expect to be given clear directions for achieving short-term goals (Walker, Dimmock, & Pang, 2002). Schools are influenced by societal culture, regional subcultures and their position in the wider educational system with each school also having its own organisational culture. Organisational structures, leadership and management processes, curriculum, and teaching and learning are the four elements that interact to create schooling. In the following section, the author makes use of the framework given in Figure 1 to interpret her own experience of curriculum reform and development in Hong Kong schools. 4. Case study outline and background A school is a complex system that undergoes multiple processes of development. A leader’s mental models or beliefs are part of the system and, along with the structure, determine the system’s behaviour. Therefore, analysing school leaders’ thought processes and their effect on changes in the school system can help us to understand the system more completely. The two half-day primary schools discussed in this study (hereafter called “School A” and “School B”) were established in 1992 and were originally located in a public housing estate. They are run by the same school-sponsoring body and before 2005 they shared the same building, vision, mission, developmental plan and strategies, teaching and learning curriculum, teacher management and assessment papers and so on. Most of the students’ parents are grassroots workers without good educational backgrounds, so they rely on the schools to educate their children. The administrators and professional leaders of the schools before 2005 were eager to promote and integrate new ideas, thinking skills and creativity in the teaching and learning process collaboratively. For the pre-2005 period, these two schools’ reporting lines showed that it can be treated as one system. For instance, the principal of School B was in charge of the General 101 Studies and English departments for both schools and the principal of School A was in charge of the Chinese and Mathematics departments in both schools. As a General Studies panel head, the author was at that time responsible to the principal of School B. In 2005, the two half-day schools separated to turn into two individual whole-day schools and the well-developed cross-disciplinary curriculum could no longer exist. There was no further collaboration or professional development interaction between the two schools. The creation of effective and student-centred interdisciplinary project learning modes in the classroom stopped. In the post-2005 period, School A has focused on subject development and has de-emphasised interdisciplinary teaching and learning. This study examines the following questions: 1. What problems arose from the interaction between the educational changes and leadership styles? 2. Why was the more than 10-year investment of time and resources into building and integrating the curriculum abandoned? 3. What can we learn from this case of leadership changes? 5. Analysis According to Fullan’s notion (1999), the process of school improvement has three phases: “initiation”, “implementation” and “institutionalisation or abandonment”. These two schools underwent two cycles of school improvement; the first was from the establishment of the school until 2002 and the second was from 2002 until the present. 5.1 Analysis of the first change cycle The first 10 years of development are outlined in Table 1. 102 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Table 1. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the first cycle of change Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 1992-1994 Initiation Target focus – As School A and School B were newly established at that time and were run by a not very well-known school- sponsoring body, both schools needed to secure a stable intake of students. The keen competition and demand for accountability drove the adoption of private corporate management practices for running the school, in theory at least, more effectively and efficiently. Relevance – The two schools collaborated successfully. They shared a professional vision, mission, goals, developmental strategies, educational planning system and assessment structure. Innovation was driven by hidden “market” needs and educational professionalism. Readiness – The schools established an employment system and psychologically prepared administrators for their roles. Resources – There were many opportunities for promotion, four core leaders were employed from an experienced school, the two schools were located in a new development area with a big pool of students and keen competition. School system – The two schools shared a building and other resources. Effective management Long-term professional developmental strategies and plans Leaders believed in the use of an up-to-date pedagogy of learning High expectations and clear vision and mission Engaged many young and enthusiastic teachers Active co-operation Formal and concentrated management and leadership 103 Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 1994-1997 Implementation Change agent – The principals, vice- principals and assistant masters and mistresses of the two schools were the agents of change. The leadership styles of the two principals were different, and the co-operation made good use of their managerial and transformational leadership styles. Professional development – The schools followed Hong Kong’s educational reform (Education Commission, 1990, 1992, 1997) trends. They adopted an effective and student-centred approach, promoted professional development, emphasised an activity approach, had regular planning meetings and lesson observations and shared teaching aids. Staff members were organised as one school. The same set of examination papers was used at both schools. Power-concentrated – They used a paternalistic approach, top-down, fight for survival among schools to push the managerial thinking mode, the acceptance of hierarchy and respect for senior teachers. Action plan – The action plan was for school-based management School-based management Managerial and professional working teams Successful promotion and managerial system High demand and good results for student allocation to the better secondary schools Reinforcement of development strategies Table 1. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the first cycle of change (continued) 104 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 1997-2002 Institutional- isation The schools were characterised by successful teacher developmental strategies and an institutionalised school culture that meant teachers were eager to learn, to try and to share for the good of students. Because the schools had already experienced a paradigm shift and pedagogical reform, they successfully implemented the educational reforms in Hong Kong (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). The schools developed information technology where teachers started to learn how to both store materials in, and retrieving materials from, the school server. Action plan – The plan focused on school- based management and school-based curriculum development, well-planned integrated project learning twice a year. Teachers were eager to follow the lead of senior teachers. The principals started to delegate authority for school self- assessment among their senior staff. The schools creates a collaborative culture for quality learning and teaching. School- based curriculum developed. Both schools joined the “School Around the World” project (HKSAW Steering Committee, 2002), and created a framework for project learning for General Studies. The schools adopted a modern and up-to-date teaching and learning mode: a student-centred activity approach that included out-door activities, other learning experiences, school- based curriculum reform, project learning, etc. Stakeholders experienced the positive values of the school culture. The schools were appreciated by parents. Table 1. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the first cycle of change (continued) 105 As new schools established in 1992, School A and School B followed the recommendations in the seven reports of the Education Commission’s policy recommendations from 1984 to 1997 (Education Commission, 1984, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1996, 1997), which reflected the paradigm shift from quantity to quality. Leaders developed a widely shared vision for the schools. They built a consensus on school goals and priorities, and maintained high performance expectations for staff and students. Modelling good professional behaviour, building school culture and collaborative structures, and providing intellectual stimulation through teacher-sharing were the dimensions of leadership practice (Bush, 2005) in the schools in this period. Gradually, the schools built collaborative structures and professional cultures. Although the leadership styles of the principals of the two schools were completely different, where one was perceived as more managerial in approach while the other was perceived as more transformational (Bush, 2005), they both respected each other and co-operated successfully to lead the schools. While managerial leadership may ensure the implementation of a school’s vision and strategy, it may be argued that transformational leadership engages with staff and other stakeholders to produce higher levels of commitment to achieve the goals of the organisation that are linked to such a vision (Bush, 2005). During the first change cycle, managerial leadership dominated the administration, and professional leaders executed the educational reforms smoothly and effectively. Gradually, the schools built their own cultures, analysed using the dimensions of societal culture as shown in Table 2 (Walker, Dimmock, & Pang, 2002, p. 40). Table 2. Comparison of leadership in the two schools with different cultural settings Dimension of societal culture Leadership in culture School A School B Power-distributed/ power-concentrated • Leadership from the top • Teamwork and empowerment • Respect for seniority of management more than for education • Goals mainly set by top administrators • Acceptance of wide power and status differentials between principal and teachers • Delegation/decentralisation with control • Leadership from the top • Teamwork and empowerment • Respect for seniority of leadership • Goals set by top administrators • Acceptance of wide power and status differentials between principal and teachers • Power-concentrated 106 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Dimension of societal culture Leadership in culture School A School B Group-oriented/ self-oriented • Emphasis on the “group” as a collective to which the individual has to conform • Closed confrontation of differences • Emphasis on personal “goals” • Drive to secure commitment and high morals • Support for teachers seen as essential • Maintenance of social networks Consideration/ aggression • Conflict resolved through edict • Teacher and students status based on effort and achievement • Assertiveness seen as a virtue • Decisiveness and emphasis on career are valued • Overt competition promoted Pro-activism/ fatalism • Belief that we can do little but accept life’s eventualities • Low tolerance for ambiguity • Long-term view of evolving change • More on care and support and personal interest • Hierarchy, standardisation and conformity stressed • Belief in capacity to shape and influence the present and future • High tolerance for ambiguity • Sense of urgency • Adherence to mutual duties • Pro-activism Generative/ replicative • More likely to adopt innovations • Experimentation in classroom common and encouraged, while traditional approaches to teaching and learning endure • Problems solved mainly through referral to precedent • Appear more predisposed toward innovation • Experimentation in classroom common and encouraged • New ideas and ways of working valued • Original policies and ways of operating Limited/holistic relationships • Formal rules and regulations applied equally to everyone • Tasks stressed as much or more than relationships • Care taken not to alienate people • Greater attention given to relationship obligations • Valued as much or more than tasks • Advancement based mostly on performance and competence Table 2. Comparison of leadership in the two schools with different cultural settings (continued) 107 Over their first 10 years (1992-2002), these two schools developed into well-known and high quality schools. Parents in the region wanted their children to study there. During this period, school improvements came from the schools’ own initiatives and the leaders were aware of the importance of school development. With strong leadership and the recruitment of young, energetic and enthusiastic teachers, the schools built up relatively ideal systems. The school professional development culture became institutionalised. As a result, educational reform at these schools occurred before the push from the government. The schools’ system for reinforcing development is illustrated in Figure 2. Figure 2. The first cycle of school development: Reinforcing loop for better development 5.2 Analysis of the second cycle of change Responding to the changing world, the Hong Kong government initiated large scale and pedagogical changes in education at the end of the twentieth century. The Education Commission in 2000 claimed to adopt the principles of student-focused, “no-loser”, quality and life-long learning (Cheng, 2009). In 2002, the government provided each school with a temporary curriculum development officer, a post called the Primary School Masters/Mistresses (Curriculum Development) (PSMCD), for five years, to help principals carry out curriculum reform smoothly and deeply. Later, the post became permanent. 108 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Eight key learning areas, generic skills, values and attitudes were emphasised (Education Commission, 2000). As an APSM and a panel head of General Studies with experience in project learning and curriculum design, the author was recommended for the post of PSMCD in School A. She was responsible for carrying out school-based curriculum development during this time. The processes of the second cycle of development and the outcome are outlined in Table 3. Table 3. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the second cycle of change Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 2002-2003 Initiation The new PSMCDs in the two schools collaborated closely to further and deepen the schools’ education curriculum reform. Eight key learning areas, generic skills, values and attitudes were emphasised (Education Commission, 2000). The process encouraged teachers to experience a paradigm shift from traditional teaching and thinking modes to a student-centred and school- based curriculum. An interdisciplinary curriculum including project learning, other learning experiences, moral and civic education, thematic teaching, life-long learning, and application and learning by doing were widely promoted (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). School management encouraged more teacher autonomy for the daily implementation of change. A three-year curriculum development plan was proposed and agreed on. Top-down demands for further and deeper educational reforms concentrated on quality learning and teaching were received from the Education and Manpower Bureau. Drafted and confirmed three- year school- based curriculum development plan 109 Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 2003-2006 Implementation Based on previous experience and teachers’ abilities, the PSMCDs of the two schools collaborated on a three-year interdisciplinary project learning curriculum development plan (Figure 3). The principals of the two schools agreed and supported more teachers’ participation in curriculum construction, lesson plan design and implementation. Starting from Primary 4 in 2003 until Primary 5 in 2005, two school teachers co- operated and shared the workload of teaching these levels. To build up long-term teaching resources, the schools proposed for and carried out a Quality Education Fund (QEF) in 2004. With the help of these extra resources, the schools constructed two websites for long-term learning. The three-year plan was carried out successfully. A cross-disciplinary curriculum that included project learning, other learning experiences, moral and civic education, thematic teaching, life-long learning and learning by doing was developed during this period. In this period, School A had three principals, one after another. The change in personnel did not change the school’s management culture or the thinking mode. Management without vision is rightly criticised as “managerialist” but vision without effective implementation is bound to lead to frustration (Bush, 2005). In 2005, the two half- day schools separated to turn into two whole-day schools. The disagreements about the two schools’ future co-operation and the diversified school development strategies reflected in the widening gap between the cultures of the schools. The new principal of School A followed the school’s tradition and the senior administrators’ culture, which was more likely “managerialist”. The principal of School B had a school vision that created new challenges. Teachers were required to support the vision and targets of the principal. Conflict between the two schools’ administrative cultures became an explosive issue. Moreover, external changes in the market- driven system and business managerialism increased the conflict. In 2006, the two schools stopped curriculum collaboration. Table 3. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the second cycle of change (continued) 110 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes Post-2006 Modification & abandonment The culture and styles of the resultant two whole- day schools were very different. School A had an external school review in 2006. After the review, the school stopped integrating cross-disciplinary project learning and General Studies project learning into daily classroom learning. Project learning became part of a one to two weeks learning sessions after examinations. The school allocated more resources to the learning of languages, Mathematics, TSA and exam drilling exercises. The well-established cross-disciplinary project learning curriculum was abandoned. Life-long learning, multi-diversity learning experiences and integrated professional cultures were de-emphasised. School B tried many innovations based on a student-centred and caring vision. Teacher development and parental and community involvement created a good environment for students. Student-centred pedagogies were promoted. After eight years of development, the school became one of the best-known schools in the area. The principal won awards for leadership. The school engaged staff and other stakeholders to produce higher levels of commitment to achieve the goals. Both schools had shifted from an internal change agent to changes mandated by an external agent (Tang, 2011). The abandonment of the new paradigm in School A shows the power of the traditional culture. The school went through the first and second change cycle but did not undergo the third change cycle, which required leaders to make fundamental paradigm shifts to promoting the life-long learning abilities of children. However, with transformational leadership, the principal of School B successfully motivated senior and new teachers, parents and community followers and provided good services for students. Due to a good foundation and good exam results, School A could attract enough students. It paid more attention to exam-oriented teaching and the learning of languages and Mathematics. Owing to the falling student population in the school area, School B struggled for survival. It continued to emphasise a student- centred approach with a vision. Transformational leadership was used to encourage teachers and stakeholders to help achieve the goals. Table 3. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the second cycle of change (continued) 111 Figure 3. A three-year interdisciplinary project learning curriculum development plan In the initiation and implementation stages, the author experienced, at first hand, the perception of children who were learning happily and effectively. The students created project books with highly advanced ideas, such as they pretending to be reporters or Olympic ambassadors while practising English or Putonghua with each other. They used what they had learnt in Mathematics lessons to conduct surveys and then made presentations with PowerPoint or by using craft materials. The group work process in the classroom allowed them to communicate and disagree with each other. They learnt how to solve problems and give their ideas in tangible shape or form. Parents sometimes joined in and helped to guide their children’s learning. At the beginning of the project, children set their own learning targets and co-operated with each other to learn. Their learning, therefore, became more meaningful and target-orientated. Throughout the two or more months of interdisciplinary preparation and learning, their learning outcomes were rich and substantive. These processes helped them to construct their learning and helped to enhance their learning outcomes (Figures 4 and 5) during lessons. Students used 112 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools different methods such as mind maps to visualise their thinking about the spirit of Hong Kong. Most of them were happy to creatively express their feelings. Their thinking skills, particularly their creative thinking skills, were thus aroused. The outcomes of the projects and the action research were, respectively, shared at the Hong Kong Education City and in the Fourth Thinking Qualities Initiative Seminar at Hong Kong Baptist University (Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited, 2013). Figure 4. Project structure and concept map of the Primary 4 “In search of Hong Kong spirit” project 113 Figure 5. Project structure and concept map for assessment of the Primary 5 “Beijing Olympics” project Six years after leaving the school, the author had a chance to meet five New Senior Secondary school graduates who had experienced the six-year project learning programme in School A. A questionnaire was designed to collect their views. With permission, the author recorded conversations with them, to analyse their thoughts about the effect of project learning in primary school. All of them still remembered the happy learning experiences in the Primary 5 “Beijing Olympics” Project (Figure 5). One of them remembered specific strategies for thinking and learning learnt. Many said that the generic skills and abilities they gained through project learning in primary school allowed them to become leaders of project learning groups in secondary school. They found that not many pupils from other schools had the same level of experience as they did. Their experience inspired them to actively participate in the Liberal Studies lessons. They thought they could integrate concepts and produce school-based reports that were more effective, interesting and thoughtful due to their primary school learning. 114 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Ten years were spent building the rich materials and the well-developed project learning model and framework. Many examples remain on the website. The experiences and pedagogies have been shared and published on several occasions. However, the administrators of School A decided that the neo-liberal styles of performative culture that use test regimes as indicators of school performance were more important for school development. They could do little but accept life’s eventualities. In 2006, after an external school review, School A abandoned the used of an interdisciplinary project as part of normal classroom learning. They restricted the pedagogy and methodology of project learning to a short period of one or two weeks in the academic year. The author believes that “drilling exercises” for the TSA and Pre-S1 Test took curriculum time away from any meaningful learning (Tang, 2011), something that is, unfortunately, common in schools in Hong Kong. Today, as a well-established system with good outcomes for students and experienced teachers, the new school system is welcomed by parents. Due to School B’s location being far away from residential areas and the declining student population, the new school struggled for survival during the second cycle. Without support from School A, School B continued to innovate with student-centred and happy learning pedagogy. With a transformational leadership style, the principal engaged with staff and other stakeholders to produce high levels of commitment to the school’s goals (Bush, 2005). Today, the school has a record of success. It has received a Green School Award, a Love School Award and a Community, Family and School Collaborative Project Award. 5.3 Analysis of the change process According to Dimmock and Walker’s framework, during the first cycle of change, the schools successfully collaborated in school development. They developed into two successful schools and had the chance to separate into two whole-day schools. In the second development cycle, the initiation and implementation stages of change were smooth and successful. Facing the demands of top-down educational reform, the two schools collaborated closely and adopted the same three-year development plan. With their traditional culture of collaboration, the two schools successfully applied to QEF to obtain more resources for curriculum development. With the two schools’ shared resources, they built a shared interdisciplinary project model and website resources over four years. However, the different cultures of the two schools widened when they separated. Although the principal of School B wanted the two schools to continue to co-operate as before, the administrators of School A strongly rejected this idea. Although in the first cycle, School A adopted a new mode of teaching and there was a paradigm shift from a traditional teaching method to the activity approach, the school leaders were influenced by traditional Chinese beliefs about relationships, organisation 115 and leadership. It was not a religious school and Catholic, Buddhist and Christian teachers worked there; diverse beliefs and cultures existed and they were all respected. However, traditional Chinese culture influenced the social order at the school. Every teacher had his or her occupational position and there was a clear hierarchical structure. Harmonious relationships among colleagues were based on respect for hierarchy, and a set of formalised codes of behaviour tied the whole school together. Teachers expected the principal to be strong (Walker, Dimmock, & Pang, 2002). During the transitional period when changing principals, the school senior administrators insisted on a culture of ‘managerialism’. By devoting more time to better exam performance results and free more time for teachers, they supported the school’s traditional values in deep structures. They did not support the interdisciplinary pedagogy that the principal of School B believed in. They did not really understand or believe in the spirit of an integrated learning strategy. The professional leaders had to replace their long-term development strategies with short- term development strategies. Standardisation and data-driven decision making dominated the development direction at that time. As the educational development strategies and ideologies of the two schools were different, then when School B moved out of the school campus, the co-operation between the two schools stopped. Each school continued to develop its own culture, thinking mode and system of development. “ Since management is culture-bound, it would be unrealistic to expect top down structural reform will effectively introduce an attitudinal change in organizations. If reforms are to be successful, they require a strong commitment and a change of values and attitudes on the part of leaders and subordinates.” (Leung & Chan, 2001) From its foundation, School A promoted a structure of hierarchical power relationships, where teachers were expected to respect management’s seniority in decision making. As a result, senior administrative decisions were to be seen as final and did not involve a process of consultation or transformational change. Individuals had to follow the “group” collective needs rather than their own personal “goals”. Conflicts were resolved through edict. Hierarchy, standardisation and conformity were stressed. Management had a tendency to mandate change from the top with active responses only welcomed from senior teachers. During the change process, the PSMCD concentrated on curriculum design, preparation of the teaching materials and instruction and not much on the participation of the senior teachers in the discussion. Most teachers did not have a feeling of ownership of the cross-disciplinary design and construction. Moreover, the second stage of the curriculum reform overwhelmed the teachers. It did not match the needs of their performance culture, which was shaped by increasingly popular external accountability measures. Public assessment made test results very high-stake goals. In their fight for survival, school administrators turned to extreme managerialism. 116 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools In addition to the local organisational culture that affected School A’s u-turn, Hong Kong’s regional culture also influenced the school’s decisions. With the existence of the “bottle-neck” in school education (Cheng, 2009), curriculum reform had become a heavy burden to teachers. The Committee on Teachers’ Work reported that teachers worked about 50 hours a week in 2006 (Tang, 2011). High mood disorders, suicidal tendencies and resignations were some of the negative effects of the syndrome in Hong Kong at that time. As a result, administrators at schools sought to ease the teaching burden, giving more time to training students in languages, Mathematics and examination preparation. The impact of this is that the focus on short-term results was methodologically and pedagogically different from the focus on life-long learning and professionalism. During this period, the global educational culture was also changing, and these changes influenced educational management in Hong Kong greatly. Along with most modern cities and countries in the world, Hong Kong experienced the Second Way and the Third Way of educational reform. In the Second Way period, governments introduced standardisation to promote accountability and used marketplace models of reform to drive innovation (Harris, 2011, p. 164). The Third Way reforms were based on a new orthodoxy of testing, accountability and data-driven decision making (Shirley, 2011). The government provided funding based on accountability and markets to ensure high performance. Professionalism was emphasised and developed (Yu, 2002; Wan, 2011) and life-long learning was promoted through the teaching of generic skills and project learning. However, data-driven decision making and target-obsessed distractions were the characteristics of the market-driven model of reform. As a result, the pressure for summative assessment increased in order to narrow any achievement gaps. Worst of all, the Third Way resulted in a narrowing of the curriculum in the form of teaching to the test and an over concentration on data rather than on student needs (Harris, 2011, p. 164). The fallacies of the Third Way educational reforms affected schools’ control systems. The change reinforced the current examination-oriented assessment practices. The world-wide failure of the Third Way has been pointed out by Hargreaves and Shirley (2009). They propose a Fourth Way that focuses on the function of professionalism. They believe that change should be driven by a need for change itself rather than by the outcomes of the change. The focus is on changes in the classroom and in students’ effective learning. The notion is similar to that promoted by the two case study schools in the first and the second phases. The schools promoted and implemented learning in the classroom through the lens of professionalism. Teachers were concerned with the effectiveness of student learning through activities. Constructivism and the promotion of rich experiences were the curriculum design pedagogies. However, the managerialism of the Third Way of educational reform caused arguments and conflicts, affecting both schools’ development. 117 The global norm of managerialism and the trend towards data-driven decision making influenced the development of the schools. Moreover, with the separation of the two half- day schools into two whole-day schools and the replacement of principals in School A, the culture of the schools and the styles of played a crucial role in the schools’ development. The main administrators of School A practiced managerial leadership, which helped to ensure the implementation of the school’s vision and strategy. However, the “managerialist” approach also lacked the student-centred vision after the separation of the two schools. In contrast, the transformational leadership (Bush, 2005) of the principal of School B successfully engaged staff, parents and social human resources, who worked together to achieve the school vision. 6. Strengths and limitations of narrative inquiry The author made use of her own experiences at two schools to investigate educational changes and leadership in the last two decades. The case study helped to organise the author’s analysis of the two schools’ development processes. As a researcher, the author made use of materials from the websites, reports, student interviews, reflections and memory. With the help of a literature review and the framework of Dimmock and Walker (2005), this study investigated the changes in these schools at the macro-, meso- and site-levels. The organisational culture and wider societal cultural framework help us to understand the decision making of the leadership during the period of educational reform. Understanding how the processes of organisational development and cultural change are influenced by trends in global and regional cultures, societies and individuals helps us to understand the strengths and weaknesses, the successes and failures of educational reform in Hong Kong. To a certain extent, the two schools reflect the complex interaction of global, local and individual school contexts during the process of educational reform. Yet, the interpretation of data, events, relationships and descriptions from only one angle may be biased. Nevertheless, the subjectivity of the author’s findings and interpretations is itself a social phenomenon. Although the reliability and validity of the data collection and interpretation could be improved through more interviews from different stakeholders, the author’s mind-set remains deeply influenced by particular temporary and historical social influences. Many experts believe that a person’s way of thinking comes from their life experiences. First-hand experience is the most profound and influential. Under globalisation, second-hand information from developed countries is becoming common. It is only local people who understand their own culture who can ensure that this does not result in internal contradictions and struggles (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). The main findings of this study may not be generalisable to other schools, but it is valuable to interpret the whole from a particular angle. They are helpful for promoting further 118 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools investigation and discussion. More cases will help to reconstruct the broader process of educational reform. Different stakeholders may offer different interpretations and arguments. This study offers a case study for reflection and further discussion. 7. Conclusions The case study indicates that education in Hong Kong has undergone numerous changes in the last two decades, with a variety of school-based curriculum initiatives. Some of the schools are still management-oriented and school leaders strongly influence school development. Some transformational leaders have successfully motivated followers to adopt a paradigm shift from managerialism to professionalism. Managerial leadership is an essential component of successful leadership. Transformational leadership effectively improves student outcomes (Leithwood, 1994), but only with effective implementation. Many schools have carried out the first phase of the change process, but have not continued into the second and third phases. This case study shows that without essential systems and mental mode changes, educational reform will not be effective and consistent. Although curriculum development with project learning, interdisciplinary school-based teaching and learning has been implemented in schools with the creation of new posts such as PSMCD and APSM, without the support of the principals and the co-operation of senior administrators, the curriculum reforms will not be successful. Further educational reform now needs to consider how to develop whole school professionalism, which will guide teachers to construct and carry out life-long learning for the next generation. Moreover, to promote Hong Kong as an education hub (Education Commission Working Group on the Development of Education Services in Hong Kong, 2011), the primary schools should prepare students to be young learners with a global view of active citizenship. Educational reforms that follow global changes too closely without considering our own context may hinder leadership development in the Pacific- Asia areas especially in Mainland China. Nowadays, the developed countries are looking at the Fourth Way of educational reform (Shirley, 2011). However, without foundations, logical thinking, practical investigation, educational research, contextual needs analysis and pedagogical support, we can only follow behind the modern world and cannot make good decisions that are appropriate to our own region and its place in the global world. As educators, we need to be concerned about the relationship between management and educational leadership at schools. Moreover, we should pay more attention to the relationship between the needs of our own city and educational reform. Preparing the next generation to face the complex and diverse world as potential leaders is our responsibility. There are still many things that educational leaders need to discuss about the best ways to nurture our students. The author hopes this case study will allow people to use the parts to see the whole. Then, our educational reform can match the needs of our stakeholders. 119 Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the guidance of Professor Leon Tikly during the course of the “Leading for Educational Change in Organisational Settings” unit and Dr Sheila Trahar on the course of “Learning and Teaching in the Global University” unit in the University of Bristol - Doctor of Education Programme. References Ball, S. J. (2003). The teacher’s soul and the terrors of performativity. Journal of Educational Policy, 18(2), 215-228. Bush, T. (2005). 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Asia Pacific Education Review, 3(1), 37-47. 122 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools 香港小學教育變革與領導的個案研究梁麗嬋創意教師協會、布里斯托大學教育博士研究生摘要本研究採用 Dimmock 和 Walker 兩位學者的跨文化比較的框架為香港兩所小學之教育變革和領導文化作探究。分析表明，香港學校課程變革受全球化社會教育大趨勢、本港教育變革次文化，以及學校自身過程的領導變化等因素影響。個案展示與比較不同領導風格處身宏觀文化社會、國家與全球化下對本港過去十五年教育改革的影響。關鍵詞跨文化比較框架，教育變革，教育領導，敘事探究 123 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例江浩民香港教育學院宗教教育與心靈教育中心李子建香港教育學院課程與教學學系摘要近年香港社會急劇轉型，學童問題日趨嚴重，自殺、霸凌、濫藥等情況日熾。不少社會賢達以為問題源於學童缺乏對生命的關愛及省思。故此，不少辦學團體、學校和教育工作者嘗試透過生命教育方式，開展德育及公民教育專項，強健學童心志，藉此回應知識型社會及資訊科技時代對學童成長的挑戰。本文並非學術研究，旨在分享生命教育專業經驗：透過六所香港學校推行的孝親教學單元，嘗試疏理校本生命教育課程的現況，討論其良好經驗，並提供改善建議。關鍵詞生命教育，孝道教育，香港的德育及公民教育 125 甲、引言為回應知識型經濟及資訊科技時代的契機與挑戰，香港政府在回歸後推出了一系列教育改革措施（香港特別行政區政府行政長官辦公室，1999）。而在 2001 年後，在教育局的政策文件，如《學會學習——課程發展路向》及《基礎教育課程指引（小一至中三）》等，均指出發展德育的重要性 1。在這個背景下，近十多年，不同辦學團體 2、學校、教育工作者，乃至教育當局 3，更嘗試以生命教育作為德育的載體。在 2011/12 年度行政長官卓越教學獎德育及公民教育範疇中，全部得獎學校均是以生命教育方式推行公民教育，從中可見這種模式能有效陶育學生正面價值觀，並得到教育工作者的認同。究其原因，除因其內涵不悖教育當局的指引外 4，更可能與其重視情意激盪的教學方式有關。傳統的德育課程設計較傾向認識概念，如指出孩子保護自己的方法，但這種做法令學生只對有關價值觀有知識上的認知，而無法推動他們行動。而生命教育重視情意激盪，感染和幫助學生更深入體會相關概念，從而作出抉擇和行動（陳美華、李尚穗、簡秋蘭，2011） 1 在 2001 年課程發展議會發表了教改藍圖：《學會學習——課程發展路向》。課程改革的宗旨除了幫助學生培育共通能力，以獲取和建構知識，成為擁有終身學習技能的終身學習者外，更重視正面價值觀和態度的培育，以全面發展學生潛能，幫助學生在新社會環境中安身立命，為本港社會、國家及世界作出貢獻（課程發展議會，2001）。在 2002 年，課程發展議會再發表了《基礎教育課程指引（小一至中三）》（下稱《指引》），期望學校在十年內（2012 年前）幫助學生實踐七個學習宗旨，其中「責任感」、「國民身份認同」和「健康生活方式」，均與德育直接相關。為此，當局將德育及公民教育列為五種基要的學習經歷及四個關鍵項目。考慮學生個人群性發展需要和當時社會情況，《指引》開列出五種首要培育的價值觀和態度：「堅毅」、「尊重他人」、「責任感」、「國民身份認同」及「承擔精神」（課程發展議會，2002）。在 2008 年，教育局公佈了《匯聚百川流．德雨育青苗：新修訂德育及公民教育課程架構》，作為《指引》的補充。在這份課程架構中，除了清楚開列每個學習階段的學童成長需要及學習期望外，亦多加了兩項首要價值觀：「關愛」和「誠信」（教育局，2008）。在落實校本德育課程方面，局方建議學校將德育項目計入課時，及採用生活事件方式，整合不同範疇的價值教育，以促進學生的全人發展（課程發展議會，2002；教育局，2008）。至於具體開展的模式，則未見有太多著墨。 2 在 2002 年香港聖公會東九龍教區成立了生命教育資源中心，全面支援屬校及友校開展生命教育的學與教（香港聖公會東九龍教區，2013）；循道衛理聯合教育於 2005 年發展「優質生命教育發展計劃」，發展屬校的生命教育的正規、非正規和隱蔽課程（梁錦波，2013）等。 3 近期，教育局發佈了《遊戲中覓方向．體驗中悟道理——生命教育互動學習教材》。該教材從「認識生命」、「欣賞生命」、「尊重生命」和「探索生命」四方面，提供一系列配合生活事件的教學材料，具體地說明如何在德育及公民教育框架下開展生命教育專項（教育局，年份不詳）。 4 據孫效智（2001）的看法，生命教育是新穎的概念，有不同的定義。而較廣泛來說，其目標是啟發生命智慧，整合知情意行，深化價值反省。而且，生命教育涉及多個範疇，包括宗教教育、情緒教育和人格調整等，十分廣泛。簡言之，生命教育貫通天人物我，重視宗教、自然、個人和他人之間的關係。而這些內涵，均與教育當局揭櫫的首要價值觀有暗合處。 126 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例根據梁錦波（2013）的說法，生命教育於香港已有十多年的實踐經驗。所謂十年樹木，實有需要整理本地的生命教育開展經驗，並討論推行過程中的良好經驗和找出可改善之處。故此，本文擬透過評析六所致力推動生命教育小學的孝親單元，整理其推行經驗，提出發展建議 5。乙、中國儒家經典中的孝親觀念筆者根據儒家經典《論語》、《孟子》、《禮記》和《孝經》，以電腦檢索方式搜索含「孝」字的文句，發現共有 128 句，頻次達 152 次。而近儒唐君毅（1960）指出，孝行為仁之本，而「由孝父母，而及於父母之父母，及於祖宗。孝之擴充，為孝於整個之民族，而忠於民族之歷史與文化」。由此可見，行孝是踐行儒家道德倫理價值的重要標準之一。雖然本文的主旨並非探究孝道在中國文化的哲學本質。然而，由於儒家經典的孝親價值涉及教師如何理解孝親的重要根據，而這些理解又直接影響教師編訂課程目標、教學步驟及評估標準，故此，有需要先略為釋述孝親的內涵。「孝」字的甲骨文是「」，其中上部「　」是「老」字「　」的省略，而下部「　」則是「子」字。「孝」是會意字，其圖示方式為老人在上，小子在下，即有兒子（小子）攙扶父母（老人）的意涵（許慎，1972）。而《說文解字注》根據《禮記》為「孝」字作注，注文為：「善事父母者」，即善於侍奉父母長輩（段玉裁，1981）。至於怎樣才算是善事父母的孝者呢？按楊國樞、葉光輝（1991，頁 47）的理解，孝可分為四個層面： 5 本文之所以會選用孝道主題說明本港生命教育的推行現況，其原因有三：首先，不論宗教文化背景，不少學校及教育工作者均將孝親內涵列入德育課程中。以一項本地生命教育支援計劃為例（為保障參與計劃學校的私隱，計劃名稱將以匿名方式處理（下稱：某生命教育計劃）。下文處理辦法相同，不贅），有三成學校同工已選擇了孝親作為試行單元的主題。故此，選用孝親內涵說明主題，較易引起讀者的共鳴，切合專業分享的定位；再者，孝親涉及公民教育中的多個價值觀，包括「尊重他人」、「責任感」及「承擔精神」，也是中國重要的文化內涵之一，與「國民身份認同」有關。故此，孝親內涵符合課程要求。最後，生命教育揭櫫的知（知識）、情（情感）、意（意志）、行（抉擇）均能在孝道單元中彰顯（詳見正文）。這有別於一般只能教導知、情、意的主題，如性教育。故此，透過孝道主題單元，可以較全面了解本地生命教育的發展優勢和局限，較為切合題旨。 127 層面定義孝知孝的認知層次，即子女對父母的良好認識、瞭解及信念孝感孝的感情層次，即子女對父母的良好情緒或感受孝意孝的意志層次，即子女對父母的良好行為意向或反應傾向孝行孝的行動層次，是上述三個孝道態度層次的實踐礙於主題所限，茲不為上述四端列舉經典原文。有關解說可見楊國樞、葉光輝（1991，頁 48-52）。從上文所見，在規劃孝道課題時，不應只停留在認知層面（孝知），亦應重視為人子女對父母應有的態度和抉擇（孝感和孝意）。以上四者，即為生命教育揭櫫的四端：知（認知）、情（情感）、意（抉擇）、行（行動）。丙、香港學校的生命教育學與教——以六所學校的孝親單元為討論中心為了解香港學校生命教育學與教的推行概況，筆者從某生命教育計劃中，選取了六個跟孝親相關的教學作說明。而在某計劃的成果彙編（下文稱作「彙編」）中，載有這六所學校的教學目標、教學材料和評估等資料，可以分析其施行目的及實踐過程中所面對的困難及處理辦法。一、策劃生命教育項目的考量因素在進行學校支援過程中，支援團隊成員觀察到教師普遍認同孝親教育。例如，教師均坦言是受近年的倫常慘案等新聞啟發，他們認為「百行以孝為先」，當學生透過孝親單元，學會孝敬親人，除了能緩和學生與家人之間的衝突，也能幫助學生推己及人，尊重他人。從這個觀點看，教師策劃生命教育項目的考量因素，包括對社會需要或社會改良的角度作出抉擇，他們認為孝親教育可以培育學生遵從社會秩序、養成學生感恩和尊重他人的性向，達到移風易俗之效。此外，教師重視開展課程的可操作性，如教學資源的獲得。在學校支援過程中，不少中層老師有意無意間反映，推行孝道教育肇始於其優質教材。由於現時市面有不少有關孝親的繪本、閱讀篇章和歌曲，加上台灣也有類似的課程，有助老師搜集良好教材。 128 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例教學策略／活動學校甲學校乙學校丙學校丁學校戊學校己在課堂直接講授講宗教故事教師分享自身的生命故事講繪本故事電影欣賞戲劇體驗活動（如：護蛋行動、模擬懷孕、種植等）詩詞誦讀／歌曲頌唱生命禮儀（如：畢業禮、啟動禮等）詩歌創作／藝術品創作／撰寫心意卡／文章寫作學生討論及分享課後行動因此，一般教師對孝親教學不持反對態度。相信這亦是中層老師在編訂課程內涵前的考量因素。二、生命教育項目的主要教學及評估策略吳宗立（1999）認為，生命教育宜以多元化方式進行，透過不同的體驗活動，幫助學生主動建立及發揚其情意。在彙編中，每所學校均採用了不同的教學策略。茲將其選用策略及有關說明表列如下：從上表中，可以將不同學校採用的教學策略／活動作出以下分類： • 課堂直接講授：透過教師面授，直接向學生傳授價值內涵。 • 故事及影視材料分享：透過教師自身故事、宗教故事、繪本故事、電影及戲劇，利用小故事說出大道理，並讓學生觀察在他者身上的生命故事，再作相關引導，以反思自身處境。例如，其中一所具基督教背景的學校透過聖經的比喻「浪子回頭」，教授學生父母無私的愛和對子女的包容，以故事形式，加深學生對有關概念的認識。 129 • 體驗式學習：透過盆栽種植、懷孕體驗、護蛋行動等以學生為中心的體驗活動，讓學生代入指定角色。再透過解說（Debriefing）方式，澄清學生的觀察，讓他們自行說出個人感受及反思。 • 詩詞及歌曲頌唱：透過教授文藝作品（包括詩詞及流行曲）的文本，間接向學生傳授價值內涵。再鼓勵學生集體頌唱或誦讀文藝作品，利用集體力量，將價值內化。例如，其中一所學校教授學生歌唱流行曲〈真的愛你〉，並在過程中講解歌詞的意思，令學生對孝道有更深的印象，並增加情意激盪的效果。 • 生命禮儀：透過啟動禮、畢業禮等禮儀方式，增加情意激盪的作用。如在畢業禮中，學生會透過歌舞表現及詩詞誦讀，感謝父母的恩情，讓學生在邁向新階段時，同時反思過去父母的付出。 • 創作：透過創作不同的藝術作品（如：心意卡、新詩仿作、短文、視藝作品等），讓學生表達所學所感。 • 學生討論及分享：在教師帶領下，讓學生自行就生活經驗或教師提供的個案作出討論及反思，教師透過個別分享時段，聚焦學生的所思所感，並作出更深層次的引導。 • 課後行動：透過指定的行動（如：替父母完成家務），將課堂所學價值以具體的方式實踐出來。在評估方面，根據彙編，參加學校的評估方式主要分為兩類，一類屬於活動紀錄及工作紙，另一類是學生回饋、老師和家長觀察。前者為學校常用的課業，茲不贅。而後者則有不同的展現形式，包括：教師的教學反思、學生個人反思及回饋、家長的評鑒等，幫助了解課程的成效。而在活動紀錄上，各間學校的形式不同。例如：乙和丙校要學生紀錄個人孝行，在日常生活中實踐孝親。學校透過孝親紀錄表，根據學生行孝的次數和感受，評估活動成效。而甲、丙、丁和戊校則會要求學生在進行活動（如護蛋）時，紀錄對活動的感受。 130 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例丁、香港生命教育課程及實踐的良好經驗良好經驗一：有效處理完整孝親教育的知、情、意、行內涵從以上例子可見，香港學校採取多元的教學策略。透過課堂講授，教師將生命教育的基本知識直接傳授予學生，處理孝知（知）的需要。接著，無論故事分享、創作和體驗活動等，旨在激盪學生的孝感（情）和孝意（意）。根據彙編，在體驗活動後，受訪學生表示能體驗父母的辛勞，會在將來努力回報父母。家長反映學生較過往更願意承擔家庭責任及嘗試向父母表達謝意。從學生和家長的感言中，可以看到以生動多元的教學方式能激盪學生的孝感和孝意。而為何這些教學策略能有效激盪學生情意呢？筆者擬以體驗活動模擬懷孕為例，作出說明。綜合乙、丙和戊三所學校的經驗，在模擬懷孕活動中，老師先會透過「為寶寶命名」、「為寶寶畫上臉蛋」等方式，讓學生代入為人父母迎接新生命的喜悅之中，並透過「產前講座」等項目，提昇這份喜悅和帶出初為孕婦的不便，為之後的懷孕活動立下指示；其後，透過預設種種障礙的模擬懷孕活動（如：逛市場等），讓學生在現實環境中感受母親在懷胎時的辛勞；接著，透過解說，教師邀請學生分享，並透過已為人父母的教師作生命分享，帶領學生思考為人父母的艱難，反思怎樣在生活中孝順父母；最後，透過立願儀式（如：寫心意卡、祈禱等），讓學生決志以行動孝順父母。筆者認為，以上以學生為中心、漸進、軟性的教學方式，有助逐漸發展他們的孝知、孝感和孝意，有效處理情意教學目標。至於孝行方面，學校老師通常以課後活動輔以工作紙及學生滙報方式作出處理。學校乙的一位家長對學生在活動過程中的孝行轉變作出描述，認為學生較以往主動與家長分享生活點滴。在日常生活中，學生更主動地照顧自己，也有幫忙做家務，家長對此表示感動。從以上教學例子可見，學生在經歷了一系列以孝知、孝感和孝意為目標的活動後，即時在孝行上有所轉變。然而，這種行為改變是短暫的還是長遠的，目前未能作定論，尚有需要作進一步觀察。 131 良好經驗二：透過統整，在有限課時實踐生命教育，並對學生發展作持續支援香港大部份學校的生命教育課的課時不多 6。由於課時有限，倘若學校要處理課程開列的所有價值課題，則不能在課堂中兼顧知、情、意、行的教學。故此，不少香港學校巧妙地透過課程統整方式，延展學習空間。例如，一些學校會在學科中（如：在中文科的課文教授孝順的方法）先行教授孝知內涵（知），從而騰出生命教育課空間，更集中醞釀學生的孝感和孝意（情、意），而孝行則以課後工作紙形式予以展示（如：設計孝行紀錄表，鼓勵學生紀錄其行孝過程）。而另一些學校則在學科中（如：在音樂堂教授讚頌親恩的歌曲、在視藝堂設計心意卡送給父母）處理孝感和孝意課題（情、意），而知識的傳授（孝知），以及行動成果的檢視（孝行），則會安排在生命教育課處理。從以上例子可見，學校透過課程統整，令生命教育能在正規課程時間進行，有更多空間灌輸有關價值，解決受課時限制的問題，也能提高各科的連貫性（陳健生，2008）。另外，開展課程前的目標定位工作，及課程完結後的跟進工作也是需要處理的問題。根據團隊成員觀察，部分學校在籌備課程時，已考慮部分學生的個別需要（如：有家庭問題的學生）在課前作出輔導。在教學後，學校會鼓勵老師觀察學生的情緒反應，方便訓輔組同工跟進。蔡培村（2001）指出，課程統整能將複雜的輔導概念放在各科教導，是有效將教訓輔合一的方法之一。從團隊成員所見，不少學校在教訓輔合一上，有清晰理念：先透過班級經營，確認目標；然後透過課程統整，延展學習空間，幫助學生從知、情、意、行四個方面全面掌握價值內涵；最後以訓輔個案跟進方式，對個別問題個案作出跟進。戊、香港生命教育課程及實踐的改進建議一、現況分析在與參與學校交流經驗時，老師們均指出生命教育評估存在相當難度。 6 按課程發展議會及教育局的德育及公民教育指引，建議學校在第一及第二學習階段，安排約 19% 課時、第三學習階段安排約 8% 課時，及於第四學習階段安排約 5% 課時，進行德育及公民教育（教育局， 2008）。 132 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例在評估生命教育的成效時，不少學校均會選擇慣用的評估方式——學生課業評估。然而，由於不同教育工作者的測量標準不同，故存在一定的評核差異。而且，課業評估通常偏重文字表達，部分語言能力尚未發展完善的學生（尤其初小及有特殊學習需要的學生），可能較難仔細以文字方式，指出個人情感和意志的轉變，影響了評估的準確性。故此，部分學校以問卷方式，輔助課業評估，更全面了解課程的成效。透過問卷方式，可以更全面了解家長與學生對課程的評價，而從家長對學生家中表現的反饋，更可以分析課堂教授的正面價值能否轉化成學生的行為，以補充一般紙筆課業評估的不足。但由於老師未有接受長期、專業的擬寫問卷培訓（梁恩榮、吳迅榮，2004），學校支援團隊成員發現，一些生命教育評估問卷設計，仍有進步空間。二、優化評估的方向為了優化學校的評估工具，本文參考楊國樞、葉光輝（1991）和楊國樞、葉光輝、黃曬莉（1989）制定的孝行測量工具為例，說明生命教育評估的可能發展方向：在大學學者的帶領下，參考心理測量量表及情境測驗，優化評估工具。此項測量工具將孝道分為孝知、孝感、孝意和孝行四個不同層面，並以李克特量表和情境測驗進行測量。這種設計既能了解受試者對不同孝道層面的贊同程度，更能深入探究受試者選擇背後的動機。另外，本文選用楊國樞、葉光輝的評估工具，是因為他們能根據生命教育的概念分類孝道思想，較能個別測量出課程在知、情、意、行四個層面上的教學成效。而楊國樞、葉光輝、黃曬莉的情境測驗，其測驗問題與真實環境相似，一般用作探索人格的測驗（葉重新，2010），則有助深入了解受訪者對孝道的看法。然而，此類測量表雖能有效評估受訪者對孝道的認知、感受及實踐等，但該量表本用作測量高中生及成人，所以對中小學生而言，用字可能較為艱深，而題目的處境未必與其真實生活有關。事實上，不少能評估生命教育概念的量表無法應用在中小學，往往也是受這些因素所影響。因此，下文將會提出一些改善建議，以供同工參考。 133 建議一：用淺白的字詞代替學童不懂的艱澀字詞據參與計劃的老師反映，評估困難包括學生無法理解部分問卷的用字。故此，筆者建議學校可參考《小學中文科常用字表》，改寫問卷的用字。以楊國樞、葉光輝（1991）孝行測量表為例，其中一條「為了不增加父親的困擾，你在外是否應該言行小心，少惹麻煩？」，「困擾」一詞或對初小學生較艱澀，影響他們理解題目內容。有論者認為，倘學生因種種原因，無法自行解讀問卷的內容，調查者也可讀出題目，給學生作答（Hopkins, Stanley, & Hopkins, 1998）。然而，這方法雖能在一定程度上幫助文字閱讀能力較弱的學生了解問題內容，惟所需的人力資源較多，而調查者亦有可能在解題過程給予學生作答暗示，影響問卷調查的客觀性。建議二：考慮學生的程度，將複雜概念簡化由於大部份孝道評估工具都是針對高中學生及成人而設計的，故此，當將之用在小學生身上時，便要將部份學生未必能理解的複雜概念稍作修訂。以楊國樞、葉光輝、黃曬莉（1989）的處境題為例，受訪者需要從「順從父母的意思，另覓伴侶產子」，還是「保持美滿的婚姻」之間作出選擇。這個兩難局面涉及「不孝有三，無後為大」的觀念，學生未必能清晰掌握，故較難作出回應。建議三：處境題目要生活化，或乾脆刪減以留待日後再用在參考情意量表時，前線同工可能要考慮問題提及的狀況是否與學生的生活有關。若前線同工面對以上問題，可能要將題目處境改為與訪問者的生活有聯繫，或將該題刪去。以楊國樞、葉光輝（1991）的情意量表為例，其中一條「為了照顧父親，你是否應該有自我犧牲的精神？」，相信較難令學生代入處境作答。若具體地開列自我犧牲的內容（如：放棄打電玩的時間），或會令學生更能代入處境。 134 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例己、小結本文並非學術研究，然而，經初步整理部分學校在推動生命教育的經驗後，發現學校在課程統整、輔訓教合一、教學策略等方面有較佳表現；然而，在評估方面，不少學校仍有進步空間。傳統評估方法可分作認知測驗和情意測量（Hopkins, Stanley, & Hopkins, 1998）。而在本港的評估發展，較多著眼於認知測驗評估。至於反映典型表現的情意測量，則仍有很大的發展空間。其實，在西方亦有研究顯示，教師在評估學生的情意反應時，面對不少困難（Schon, Hopkins, & Vojir, 1980）。而情意評估，相信困難不僅僅在於生命教育範疇，在整個教育界也是難題之一，尤其評估對象是心智尚未成熟的學童。筆者相信，若大學學者願意參考心理測量量表及情境測驗並加以優化，在應用於中小學時，或許便能突破上述的困難。首先，教育科研同工可以透過訪談等觀察方式，了解前線教師的評估難點，並就這些難點，按上文提及的三項建議，發展新的評量工具或修訂現有用於成人身上的評量工具。然後，在前線老師的幫助下，以嚴謹方式測試評估工具的效度。最後，透過教師專業發展方式作知識轉移及聆聽前線教師的需要，對評估工具作出微調。相信在這種模式下，或能突破現有情意評量的困難，從而做到從評估（Evaluation）反饋策劃（Plan）及教學落實（Implementation），建立「策劃——落實—— 評估」的良性循環，讓生命教育更臻至善（教育局質素保證分部，2008）。鳴謝荷蒙六所學校參與計劃，並蒙童中樂先生協助校對引文、查找核實資料及整理文稿，作者謹申謝忱。 135 參考文獻《小學中文科常用字表》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://lcprichi.hkbu.edu.hk/。《孝經》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/xiao-jing/zh。《孟子》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/mengzi/zh。《論語》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/analects/zh。《禮記》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/liji/zh。吳宗立（1999）。〈生命教育的規劃與發展〉。《菁莪》，11（1），頁 44-49。段玉裁（1981）。《說文解字注》。上海：上海古籍出版社。香港特別行政區政府行政長官辦公室（1999）。《一九九九年施政報告》。香港：香港特別行政區政府行政長官辦公室。香港聖公會東九龍教區（2013）。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://www.ekhkskh.org.hk/ LRC/index.htm。唐君毅（1960）。《青年與學問》。香港：人生出版社。孫效智（2001）。〈生命教育的內涵與實施〉。《哲學雜誌》。第 35 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D., Stanley, J. C., & Hopkins, B. R. (1998). Educational and psychological measurement and evaluation. US: Allyn & Bacon. Schon, I., Hopkins, K. D., & Vojir, C. (1980). The effect of special curricular study of Mexican-Americans. Paper presented to the American Educational Research Association, Boston. 137 附錄六所學校的孝道教育單元、施教對象、評估方法和教學材料學校單元施教對象教學策略／活動教學材料評估方式甲惜福．感恩．孝順活動：真的愛「您」小二 • 體驗活動（護蛋寶寶） • 故事和繪本賞析 • 向父母呈獻感恩卡 • 在卡紙上寫上感謝父母的話 • 工作紙（蛋寶寶成長日記） • 親親我的寶貝繪本工作紙 • 真的愛你承諾行動表 • 護蛋寶寶家長信 • 護蛋寶寶工作紙 • 教師觀察 • 工作紙（蛋寶寶成長日記） • 行孝記錄乙以科目統籌方式進行生命教育：感恩．孝順系列小四 • 圖書閱讀 • 誦讀〈遊子吟〉 • 領唱有關母愛的流行曲 • 戲劇教育 • 製作心意卡 • 分享有關聖經故事 • 中文課、宗教課、戲劇課、視藝課、音樂課教案 • 父母恩——讀書札記 • 〈遊子吟〉課業 • 父母恩記錄冊 • 教師觀察 • 感恩卡 • 讀書札記 • 新詩創作 • 給爸媽的信 • 孝順記錄冊丙全校動起來：感恩與惜福小六 • 繪本欣賞 • 產前講座 • 模擬懷孕 • 為小孩（氣球）改名及畫圖 • 愛，由我開始（行動紀錄表） • 我的小寶寶及反思工作紙 • 製作小學紀念冊教案 • 模疑懷孕活動反思問題紙 • 英文寫作、中文科教案 • 模擬懷孕教案 • 家長及學生感言 • 教師觀察 • 〈小學紀念冊〉 • 學生心意卡 • 新詩創作丁感激之情在心頭：體驗親恩．報答劬勞小五、小六 • 產前講座 • 模擬懷孕 • 栽種植物 • 電影及繪本欣賞 • 製作感謝卡 • 歌曲頌唱 • 分組活動觀察紙 • 「給種子一個家」工作紙及投映片 • 「感恩父母的愛」工作紙及投映片 • 教師觀察 • 感恩卡 • 栽種活動紀錄工作紙 • 分組活動觀察紙 138 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例學校單元施教對象教學策略／活動教學材料評估方式戊以行動情，情生意動，「飲水思源」系列小四 • 圖書閱讀 • 歌曲欣賞 • 課文教學（中文及聖經科） • 體驗活動（模擬懷孕、護蛋行動） • 我的寶貝蛋工作紙 • 護蛋行動反思工作紙 • 自評表（護蛋行動） • 護蛋行動日程表 • 飲水思源教案（孝順）及工作紙 • 模疑懷孕活動自評表 • 愛的小記者工作紙（訪問母親） • 模擬孕婦障礙教學計劃 • 家長評鑒表 • 學生寫作 • 學生即場分享 • 心意卡 • 學生對家長懷孕時的訪問記錄己觸動、沉澱、反思、感恩、實踐：感謝生我育我的人小六 • 電影欣賞 • 詩歌頌唱 • 盆栽種植 • 繪本欣賞 • 新詩創作 • 分享見證（教師及傳道人） • 畢業獻禮 • 製作成長冊 • 以行動表達感恩：在畢業禮透過不同方式向父母表達謝意 • 成長冊 • 生命教育專業實踐教案或活動設計 • 學生和老師的回饋 • 學生的感恩卡 • 植物成長手六所學校的孝道教育單元、施教對象、評估方法和教學材料（續） 139 Teaching, learning and assessment of life education in Hong Kong: A case with the teaching of filial piety in six schools KONG Ho Man Raymond Centre for Religious and Spirituality Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education LEE Chi Kin John Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract Under the backdrop of recent rapid social transformation in Hong Kong, students’ problems like committing suicides, bullying and drug abuse have become increasingly critical. Some suggested that a paucity of students’ caring for and reflecting on lives is the origin of the above-mentioned problems. In assisting students to respond the challenges of knowledge-based society in the era of information technology, many sponsoring bodies, schools and educators develop moral and civic education through life education to strengthen students’ values. This article aims at discussing the good practices and identifying possible improvements on school-based life education curricula exemplified by the teaching modules of filial piety in six Hong Kong schools. Keywords life education, education of filial piety, moral and civic education in Hong Kong 140 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗胡少偉、鄭志強香港教育學院摘要根據國際文獻，知識管理在教育領域的應用與推廣，相對於其他行業來說起步較遲。香港初等教育研究學會曾於 2010 至 2012 年期間推行「知識管理與小學發展」計劃，在十間小學推廣和實踐知識管理的理念。筆者兩人從中選取三個成功的小學個案，分別從知識管理系統、知識管理的領導和組織分享三個角度闡述學校應用知識管理的實況。為了有效描述這個案的經驗，筆者兩人除採用該計劃的資料外，還約見三校負責同工作深入訪談，剖析三校推行知識管理的應用細節。關鍵詞知識管理，學校發展，香港小學教育甲、知識管理在教育的應用知識管理的概念來自商界的策略管理，並視知識為促進組織發展的資源（Prusak, 2001）。上世紀，已有不少企業利用知識管理概念整理組織，從而利用轉化成組織的知識促進企業的發展。知識管理在教育領域的應用與推廣，相對於其他行業來說起步較遲， 2000 年國際經濟合作與發展組織公佈的《學習社會中的知識管理》，指出知識管理在「公共部門包括教育部門，知識傳播與應用程度較低」。Sallis & Jones（2004）在《教育知識管理》一書亦指出，學校正進入經濟效益越來越依賴組織創造知識的能力的時代，社會期望學校為競爭激烈的知識型社會發展人力資本，並管理好教學知識。由於教育和 141 課程的改革，大量新知識迅速湧現，大眾期望學校管理人員強化校內獲取知識的能力，而教師也需發展自己的學習，整理好內隱知識和促進組織知識的分享。Serenko, Bontis, Booker, Sadeddin, & Hardie（2010，頁 3）也指出，有關知識管理或人力資本的核心概念於近十年才冒起，但其多元學科取向使相關研究在不同學科內既有吸引力亦有很多成果。基於上述國際文獻的發現，香港學校也應引入知識管理概念，以促進學校發展和教師專業成長。香港方面，李子建教授於 2004 年在〈課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點〉一文內，提倡利用知識管理推動學校成為學習型組織，知識管理經過共同化（或稱社會化）、外化（或稱表達）、結合（或稱整合）及內化這四個方式螺旋轉化（Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995），成為有利學校組織和教師個人發展的新知識。教師就可按其校情，在變化不斷的社會中適應新要求，以適切方式推展校務和提昇教師的專業發展，最終令學校發展和學生得益。進行知識管理的目標是在組織建立系統以儲存知識，並發展一套機制把知識轉化為智慧資本（Edvinsson & Malone, 1997; Stewart, 1997），換言之就是創造一個學習型組織（Bollinger & Smith, 2001）。知識管理是指能被收集、整理、共享和分析的個人或集體知識、應用知識和其他知識資產，這些都能令與知識相關的效率提升至最高（Wiig, 2004）。在學校教育的層面，知識管理不單為教師提供方法討論教學，發展學生的學習資源，也保留了富經驗教師的專業知識，增加他們在教學和學習表現的效率，支持學校發展知識社群，促進學習文化（Leung, 2010）。綜合而言，應用知識管理能使學校和教師皆得到發展和成長。乙、支援學校應用知識管理的計劃知識是人類的資源，與學習過程緊密關連，面對教育改革和社會發展的挑戰，學校應研究如何提升自身的學習能力，好好管理新訊息和知識。Sallis & Jones（2004）把有建設性使用學校固有訊息和知識以提升表現、管理和運作的過程定義為知識管理。學校的知識管理可以視為一套策略管理的方法，讓學校組織內的教師發展一套實踐或知識策略，以收集訊息和分享所知，引發改善教學與學習成果和學校學習能力的行動，最終達至學校的持續發展。香港初等教育研究學會曾於 2010 至 2012 年期間舉辦了「知識管理 142 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗與小學發展」計劃，在香港十間小學推廣和實踐知識管理的理念，以提高知識管理在香港小學的普及與應用。在年半的計劃內，香港初等教育研究會向參與小學提供系統培訓、校本診斷、校本教師培訓、友校參觀、內聯網和支援行動學習等專業學習活動，以提高參與小學教師對知識管理的理解與應用，從而促進學校校務和教師專業的發展，使學校管理得更有效。在這個知識管理專業發展計劃中，該會提供了「知識管理在小學的應用」及「提昇校本知識管理」兩個系統課程，每個課程都有 9 小時的專題學習，分別由學者講解理念及前線同工分享經驗。與此同時，計劃又給予參與學校同工提供各 7 小時的校本診斷和培訓，各校可按校情需要進行不同重點的培訓，在每間學校進行校本培訓前還會派出代表先進行焦點訪談，以分析及診斷各校同工對培訓的期望，使培訓更能促進各校教師的專業發展。這個「知識管理與小學發展」計劃兩期共有十所參與學校，分別是﹕打鼓嶺嶺英公立學校、荃灣公立何傳耀紀念小學、香港教育學院賽馬會小學、嶺南大學香港同學會直資小學、聖公會德田李兆強小學、中華基督教會基法小學（油塘）、保良局百周年學校、佛教林金殿紀念小學、香港教育工作者聯會黃楚標學校和聖公會聖馬太小學。這十所小學的同工在參與計劃過程中，須完成一個行動學習和就校本的知識管理經驗作分享。本文首名筆者為該計劃籌委會成員之一，經參考同工的學習成果後，認為其中三所學校的個案既有成效又有校本特色，故聯同本文次名筆者，分別從知識管理系統、知識管理的領導和組織分享的理論架構（Cheng, 2013），去闡述這三所學校（下文分別稱為：甲校、乙校、丙校）在應用知識管理的情況。選擇這三個個案的一個重要原則，是基於這三個個案分別包含推行知識管理的三個關鍵因素：資訊科技（Alavi & Leidner, 2001）、組織領導（Cavaleri & Seivert, 2005）及分享文化（Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Pan & Scarbrough, 1998）。內地學者劉倩倩（2014）在《隱性知識顯性化研究綜述》一文指出：「眾多的研究中，只有極少數隱性知識共用的研究有實證或個案研究」（頁 147），因此，將學校在應用知識管理的個案經驗作外顯，對於其他學校運用知識管理去改善學校管理工作和促進教師專業發展具參考價值。 143 知識管理的其中一個措施是系統地整理組織知識，甲校是十所參與計劃學校中，最善於運用知識系統去建構和整理學校的顯性和隱性知識。乙校的分享焦點在於促進科組主任成為知識管理者的歷程，「在現代企業管理中高層企業主管擔負著制定和實施知識管理的主要職責，同樣學校主管也擔負著制定實施知識管理的主要任務」（王萌亞、金玉梅，2011，頁 25）。丙校則著重於組織的知識分享，Cheng（2012）指出，「知識分享是個人學習能力與組織學習能力的預測因素，這顯示知識分享是提升學校學習能力最重要的知識流程」；丙校經驗說明了善用外來專業計劃，可促進校內教師交流的分享，從而發揮學校推動正面文化的發展策略。為了有效解釋這三所學校應用知識管理的經驗，筆者兩人除了採用香港初等教育研究學會相關計劃資料外，還約見三所學校的負責同工作深入訪談，以三角檢定方式核實各校推行知識管理實踐的細節。一、學校的知識系統「學校中的知識管理並不是定義為『知識』本身得到管理，而是一種管理思想和管理行為，其工作包括教育教學知識的找尋、研發、整理、儲存、流通和利用，從而實現教育知識的信息化和價值化」（樊平軍，2010）。知識管理的一個重點是透過資訊科技將組織知識儲存於資料庫中，經過適當地分類並儲存相關知識，有效促進校內同工分享與利用組織的知識。學校應用知識管理首先要制定一個知識管理系統，才可有效累積和儲存學校個人和組織的知識，方便同工搜尋和分享學校的資訊和知識，並作有效的運用和創新。甲校作為一所有幾十年歷史的學校，校內儲存文件數量越來越多，有效儲存和整理這些資料正是刻不容緩。藉著參與這個校本專業支援計劃，正如下文負責同工在訪談中所分享，學校引入了更多資訊科技，將學校教學和管理的數據、資料和文檔存入一個知識系統內。在構建組織內的知識地圖時，知識編碼是一項比較頭痛的事情，因為編碼方案既要考慮現實，又要考慮學校長遠需要，如果考慮不周全，知識地圖的編碼規則就得被迫經常修改變更。正如易凌峰、楊向誼（2006）所說「知識制圖對組織內的知識進行分類配合組織的專業術語，將知識分門別類地歸納在不同的範疇內，並標示其間的關係」（頁 25）。「因為學校儲存文件數量不斷增加、存放地點分散、資料容易變黃、提取資料及檔案費時、難於監察資料儲存和應用與儲存的效率低等原因，學校藉參與 144 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗這計劃認真地將所有學校文件檔案資訊化，使學校資料、資訊和知識更有效地儲存和分類，以方便同工提取和分享學校的資訊和知識。」（甲校負責同工訪談的分享）「知識地圖是表述或分類知識關聯和知識概念的工具，它不僅可以揭示知識的位置和知識間的關係，還可以成為隱性知識界面，起到了一種為詳細知識搜索導航的功能，依據知識地圖對知識內容的科學的分類，可以幫助使用者快速查找其所需要的知識點」（張瑞珏、李馨、周霞霞，2014，頁 25）。甲校同工經討論後決定配合香港的視學系統，將資料分成「管理與組織」、「學與教」、「校風及學生支援」和「學生表現」等四範疇；圖一是甲校的知識地圖，這個知識地圖能將學校文件資料和知識清晰地編碼和存檔，校內教師就能按系統編碼逐級尋找所需的資料和知識，為學校管理的效率提供優化的基礎。圖一　甲校的知識地圖（引用：香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 10）與此同時，甲校在參與計劃過程中還利用 Google 的優惠平台，發展了一個全校學生個人檔案、學生學習概覽、學校影片和學校相片資料庫，不單可使校內師生瀏覽相關資料，使學生家長透過網絡了解學生在學校學習或參與校外活動的情況，加強家校溝通，促進合作，亦有利於學生家長在家進行親子溝通。資訊科技雖是知識分享的必要條件， 145 但它可以使知識分享變得更有效率，能影響所蒐集的資訊量和所需花費的時間。甲校能利用資訊科技建立一個學校知識系統，不單使歷年的學校資料文件有效處理，並使同工在找尋和更新資料文件時，有較高的行政效率。該校同時亦建立了學生資料庫，有效促進學生資料的處理和家校溝通。二、知識管理者的領導知識領導在知識管理的定位是扮演了整合知識資源和推動知識管理的關鍵角色（張文權、范熾文，2011）。理解知識管理作用的同工皆知道，有效的知識領導是需要以推行知識管理作為發展任務，帶領校內同工落實應用知識管理。而明確知識管理者的角色與職責，是落實學校知識管理的重要策略；知識管理者作為促進知識分享的領導者，其「任務是瞭解學校和教師的資訊需求，監督保證知識庫內容的品質和深度，對知識庫進行維護，確保知識庫的及時更新，並提供相應的檢索幫助等」（譚朝陽、李紅波、黃利妮， 2014，頁 93）。乙校參與這個計劃的優化策略，是確立學科主任在校內的知識領導角色，並要求學科主任承擔組內溝通的責任，推動各級組長將學科知識有效傳播。下文引出該校負責同工在訪談時，說出科主任和各級級長在知識溝通與傳遞的功能。「在計劃過程中有機會重新整理學校科組的工作，科組由科主任、科顧問、級長組成，負責聯絡和統籌班級。以往科主任要以一對全校教師將資訊傳遞，訊息傳遞較難；現在科主任只須將重點向六個級長交代，再由級長轉達給各級老師，令隱性和顯性知識較易傳遞。」（乙校負責同工訪談的分享）學科主任是中層管理者，在上層和下層間扮演中介角色，並位於垂直和橫向資訊流通的交界，是學校組織的知識溝通者和創造者。「知識管理者責任在於協調部門內成員的工作，使得知識能共同分享而不致支離破碎」（程晉寬，2014，頁 8）。為了充分發揮中層人員作為知識管理的領導角色，乙校在各科內除設一位科主任外，在四個主科內更設兩位副科主任。與此同時，該校亦在科內設各級組長，負責處理級內科務文件資料，這可確保各級學科教學的資料妥善儲存和編碼。此外，該校同時亦清晰地確定學科手冊的內容（見下表一），以便新任同工順利承接和開展科務。「科組主任必須負責整理科 146 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗組的共有知識，將相關資訊和知識放入學校的知識地圖內，讓這些科組內的知識成為學校的組織知識，可供其他人利用和改良，從而有益於校內團隊推行各項工作和任務」（香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 34）。乙校能釐定學科主任擔任科務知識管理的領導責任，並在科內設立六級級長，這明顯地推動了科務文件和各級教學的交流，有利學校整理學科的顯性和隱性知識。表一　科組人手架構與學科手冊 1. 本校在「學與教」的人手架構中，各學科均設科主任一名，而主科中包括：中文、英文、數學及常識設兩名副科主任；術科則設一名副科主任，協助科主任管理科務、制定課程政策、課程實施及組織活動等，並作為教師與校長間的溝通橋樑，向校方交換意見。此外，在各科各級均設級組長，負責聯絡及帶領分級備課等會議，並處理文件存檔（包括軟件及硬件）。 2. 各科每年均制定學科手冊，讓各科任老師依照科本指引進行教學。學科手冊大部份內容每年相若，包括：（1）教學宗旨、目標及課程組織；（2）科組架構圖；（3）科主任、副科主任及級組長的職責；（4）用書表；（5）教具及參考書；（6）家課及堂課指引；（7）各級教學及評分指引；（8）評估指引；（9）編寫進度表及評估準則。而少部份內容須每年更新，包括：（10）年度老師名單及（11）工作分配及年度週年計劃及關注事項。（引用：香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 23）三、組織的知識分享在知識管理理念下開展的教師知識的產生、交流、共用和轉化的活動，可「張揚教師個體在知識產生過程中的主體地位，調動教師學習的主動性和積極性，促進組織和個體知識管理能力提升，使教師知識觀、學習觀持續更新」（王彥飛，2010，頁 105- 106）。丙校這三年的其中一個發展策略是建立正面文化，為了落實這個學校發展策略，校方曾安排教師接受 NLP 身心語言學課程培訓，由熟知這個正面心理學的課程專家到校 147 進行五天培訓，然而因財務和行政限制，學校並未能為個別新同事提供相關培訓。正如下文丙校負責同工的分享，學校藉參與這個知識管理計劃的機會，透過組織校內教師講故事的方式，促進新舊同工對正面文化的交流，使新同事很快就了解正面文化的內涵。在校本講故事圈教師分享活動中，「上一個傳授者在自己解釋基礎上又吸收了新的理解，從而又對知識進行了新的分析加工，這種反覆將在學校全體成員中不斷的進行，這種過程使得單一的傳授變成了交互傳遞」（周舉坤，2012，頁 40）。丙校善於利用參與這個「知識管理與小學發展」計劃，提供多些校內同工分享隱性知識的機會，營造了學校的正面文化，並加強了同事間隱性知識的交流。「知識管理對不了解學校文化的新同事有很大作用，因為他們不會很仔細閱讀行政手冊。透過正面文化分享會，知道大家也重視正面文化，了解大家的價值觀／大方向。參與後察覺實行得較以前有系統，又加強了分享部分，間中會在科組中有系統地把隱性知識分享，大家知道的都多了許多。」（丙校負責同工訪談的分享）「倘若每一位教師都願意並主動地將珍貴的隱性知識顯性化，讓更多的教師分享之，那麼，不僅教師的個體發展成為可能，教師共同體的發展亦成為可能」（周洋，2014，頁 52）。為配合推廣正面文化和促進校內教師的分享，該校設計了一個校本教學觀課表（見下表二），從觀課表內的範疇和參考項目可見，該校同工已將正面文化融入日常課堂教學的細節。利用這個觀課表，可使授課教師在教學設計和教學時留意正面文化的體現，又可讓觀課同工在觀課時反思正面文化，有益於觀課後同工間交流和分享。正如 Connelly & Kelloway（2003）指出，知識分享的文化為成功知識管理的基石，而信任則是促使組織成員樂於與他人分享知識與經驗的關鍵要素。丙校同工能有效建立分享正面文化的氣氛，其一原因是該校教師人數不多，同事間彼此信任。任何一個組織若信任度不足，將會影響組織內同工分享隱性知識，不利同工將知識社群化和外顯化。這個案例引證了丙校同工在相互信任的環境下，善用參與這個知識管理計劃的機會，利用教師故事圈和正面文化觀課表，促進同工們在校內分享正面文化。 148 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗表二　正面文化教學觀課表（引用：香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 30-31）範疇參考項目十分同意同意不太同意不同意不適用備註／意見和諧師生關係良好、鼓勵、支持學生間關係良好、協調、支持合作氣氛老師提供參與機會鼓勵師生互動老師鼓勵回應老師鼓勵朋輩互動老師鼓勵發問師生互相尊重學生有興趣、專注、積極、自信、自發、開放正面教學語言／態度措詞用語正面給予學生足夠時間思考作答發問難易適中具體指出學生的成就老師能跟進學生的回應老師能贊同、獎勵營造課堂關愛教師友善、親切、負責、熱心、投入、鼓勵學習、支持、啟發教師對學生意見的回應：理解、關懷、尊重、開放教師鼓勵學生學習、探索；發展學生潛能追求卓越 149 丙、個案討論與分析筆者兩人在十所參與計劃的學校中，選取這三所學校作為個案分析，原因是這三所學校在知識管理的不同環節有成功的經驗，並呈現出推行知識管理的關鍵要素。上文可見，甲校的成功經驗是利用資訊科技系統建立校本知識地圖，「建立知識地圖的目的在於應用，不斷拓展應用領域，通過各種評價體系對知識地圖進行評價、反饋信息，從而逐漸完善知識地圖」（蘇新寧、任皓、吳春玉、朱曉峰，2004，頁 105）。甲校同工透過參與這個知識管理計劃，全面檢視校內知識和資訊的儲存系統，並創建了一個共用的知識編碼系統。甲校能於一個學年內檢視了校內文件，更建立了一個編碼系統和學生資料庫，其成功實踐知識管理的原因，是在於甲校能善用集權式領導來促進校本知識地圖。正如 Merat & Bo（2013，頁 13）所說，假若一間公司能執行一個有效的編碼策略，一個集權式領導系統會較為可行。由此觀之，在一所學校，如果學校領導層沒有決心，不願調撥資源，絕不可能在一年間以資訊科技建立一個知識管理系統。「處於知識經濟社會，知識為學校提升競爭力的關鍵因素，誰對知識進行妥當的管理，將決定誰能在社會中主導大局。因此，教師必須從傳統的知識傳遞者，轉型為知識生產者；學校領導者也不應只是傳統的人員、物質、資源管理者，而應同時為學校知識的管理者」（李安明、謝傳崇，2003，頁 70）。乙校的成功經驗是透過參與計劃去推動學科主任成為知識管理者，學校制定措施要求學科主任負責管理科內文件，並透過級長促進教學內隱性知識的分享。「知識管理要求學校管理者超越組織管理的層面，理解知識獲取與管理的流程和職能之間的戰略關係，推動教師獲取和共享知識，組織教師不斷開發知識，資助和支持對知識展開深化」（任佩佩，2012，頁 32）。在知識型社會，學校能否成為一個專業社群，其關鍵因素是校內中層人員是否做好知識管理的領導角色；乙校決策層建立了一個完整的學科知識管理者的政策，使學科主任除了做傳統管理角色的同時，也負責管理科內的顯性和隱性知識，領導同事專業的成長。「信息不是免費的，獲取知識、傳遞知識、創新知識都需要成本，包括時間、教育資源等；一旦校園能形成共享知識的文化氛圍，將不但大大降低個體獲取知識的成本，而且能夠減少知識管理系統的管理運作成本」（鄭康、諶啟標，2010，頁 17）。丙校同工能將正面文化成功深化，全賴校內領導善用知識管理策略，以教師故事圈和正面文化 150 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗觀課表作措施，推動同工分享和交流正面文化，既減低了同工獲取正面文化的知識成本，亦使新舊同工對正面文化的隱性知識得到充份的外顯，並成為共有的學校組織知識，究其成功原因，正如 Cheng（2013）所說，擁有一個關懷、和諧的工作環境，可讓全校教職員工在互相信賴與支持的氛圍中，進行知識的分享與創新。由此可見，丙校同工間的信任，是學校建立分享文化的重要因素。在推行計劃的過程中，丙校亦豐富了校內專業社群的發展，使學校同工得到有效的專業成長，亦有助學校關注的事項得到順利推行。丁、知識管理應用的經驗與限制「個人知識管理不僅會影響到教師專業發展，也涉及到學校整體素質能力的提高，因此學校建立一些相關政策和組織團隊協作機構，完善相關管理制度」（回智光， 2014，頁 103）。知識管理在香港學校教育仍是一個新興的學校發展策略，不少學校同工對知識管理的理念和運作仍不大了解。本文分析了三所曾參與香港初等教育研究學會「知識管理與小學發展」計劃的小學在推行知識管理的成功經驗，印證了學校知識管理文獻（Cheng, 2012, 2013）中資訊科技、知識管理的領導及分享文化對實踐知識管理的重要性。正如 Nonaka & Krogh（2009，頁 641）認為，組織科學的其中一個學術目的是提供管理實踐的知識，這不單需要學者去發展試驗理論，亦同時要求他們提出應用於組織的知識以解決具體問題。從上述三個個案，可了解到利用資訊科技建立校本知識地圖，制定學科主任擔任知識管理者的領導角色和推動學校的分享文化等知識管理策略，的確能促進學校發展和提高校內教師的專業能力。本文引用了香港初等教育研究學會的公開資料和三間學校負責同工的分享，介紹了三校成功運用知識管理的實施細節；然而，正如黃雪盈（2008）指出，「個案研究法詳細地描述個案在一個時段內的狀況，可以用來測試現有的理論，以作輔助或補充之用」，故本文重點不是發展知識管理的新理論，而是論述相關學理在個案的實踐情況，以印證可在學校有效地應用知識管理的三個關鍵因素：資訊科技、組織領導及分享文化。而因應文章的篇幅所限，本文並沒有論述參與「知識管理與小學發展」計劃的其他七所小學的經驗，在此僅作聲明。最後，本研究的另一個限制是研究員未有進一步搜集三校其他同工對計劃的看法，相信有關做法可為這個質性個案提供更豐富的素材，亦使讀者了解更多成功運用知識管理的經驗。 151 參考文獻王彥飛（2010）。〈教師共同體的構建策略探析——基于知識管理理論視角〉。《華中師範大學研究生學報》，17（3），105-108。王萌亞、金玉梅（2011）。〈學校知識管理的實施策略探究〉。《教學與管理》，第 21 期，24-26。任佩佩（2012）。〈學校知識管理的基本理論架構〉。《江西教育》，Z6 期，32。回智光（2014）。〈個人知識管理與教師專業發展研究〉。《鞍山師範學院學報》，16 （1），101-104。李子建（2004）。〈課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 3 卷，15-27。李安明、謝傳崇（2003）。〈運用知識管理理論與策略以提升學校效能之研究〉。《國立臺北師範學院學報》，16（2），49-78。周洋（2014）。〈隱性知識共用視域下教師發展平台的構建〉。《江蘇第二師範學院學報（社會科學）》，30（3），50-53。周舉坤（2012）。〈知識重構：現代學校管理中的知識探究〉。《當代教育科學》， 2012 年第 21 期，38-40。易凌峰、楊向誼（編）（2006）。《知識管理與學校發展》。天津：天津教育出版社。香港初等教育研究學會（2012）。《應用知識管理手冊》。香港：香港初等教育研究學會。張文權、范熾文（2011）。〈校長知識領導：意涵、理論與實施原則〉。《教育人力與專業發展雙月刊》，28（4），107-115。張瑞珏、李馨、周霞霞（2014）。〈知識地圖在組織知識管理中的運用研究〉。《現代商貿工業》，2014 年第 2 期，23-26。程晉寬（2014）。〈論知識經濟時代從學校經營到學校領導的角色轉變〉。《外國教育研究》，41（1），3-10。黃雪盈（2008）。〈從學生的角度評析校本閱讀課程的成效〉，載霍秉坤、于澤元等（合編），《課程與教學：研究與實踐的旅程》（頁 320-332）。重慶：重慶大學出版社。劉倩倩（2014）。〈隱性知識顯性化研究綜述〉。《山西師大學報（社會科學版）研究生論文專刊》。第 41 卷，146-148。樊平軍（2010）。〈學校知識管理〉。《中小學校長》，2010 年第 9 期，1。鄭康、諶啟標（2010）。〈學校知識管理的誤區和變革策略〉。《內蒙古師範大學學報（教育科學版）》，23（10），17-19。 152 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗譚朝陽、李紅波、黃利妮（2014）。〈教師隱性知識顯性化的障礙及對策研究〉。《廣東廣播電視大學學報》，23（1），90-93。蘇新寧、任皓、吳春玉、朱曉峰（2004）。《組織的知識管理》。北京：國防工業出版社。 Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2001). Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. MIS Quarterly, 25(1), 107-136. Bollinger, A. S., & Smith, R. D. (2001). Managing organizational knowledge as a strategic asset. Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(1), 8-18. Cavaleri, S. A., & Seivert, S. (2005). Knowledge leadership: The art and science of the knowledge-based organization. UK: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Cheng, E. C. K. (2012). Knowledge strategies for enhancing school learning capacity. International Journal of Education Management, 26(6), 577-592. Cheng, E. C. K. (2013). Applying knowledge management for school strategic planning. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 10(2), 339-356. Connelly, C. E., & Kelloway, K. (2003). Predictors of employees’ perceptions of knowledge sharing cultures. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(5), 294-301. Davenport, T. H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working knowledge: How organizations manage what they know. Harvard Business School Press: Boston. Edvinsson, L., & Malone, M. S. (1997). Intellectual capital: Realising your company’s true value by finding its hidden brainpower. New York: Harper Business. Leung, C. H. (2010). Critical factors of implementing knowledge management in school environment: A qualitative study in Hong Kong. Research Journal of Information Technology, 2, 66-80. Merat, A., & Bo, D. (2013). Strategic analysis of knowledge firms: The links between knowledge management and leadership. Journal of Knowledge Management, 17(1), 3-15. Nonaka, I., & Krogh, G. (2009). Tacit knowledge and knowledge conversion: Controversy and advancement in organizational knowledge creation theory. Organization Science, 20(3), 635-652. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company. New York: Oxford University Press. Pan, S. L., & Scarbrough, H. (1998). A socio-technical view of knowledge sharing at Buckman Laboratories. Journal of Knowledge Management, 2(1), 55-66. 153 Prusak, L. (2001). Where did knowledge management come from? IBM Systems Journal, 40(4), 1002-1007. Retrieved from http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/404/ prusak.html Sallis, E., & Jones, G. (2004)。《教育知識管理》，王如哲、黃月純（譯）。台北：五南圖書。（原著出版年：2002） Serenko, A., Bontis, N., Booker, L., Sadeddin, K., & Hardie, T. (2010). A scientometric analysis of knowledge management and intellectual capital academic literature (1994- 2008). Journal of Knowledge Management, 14(1), 3-23. Stewart, T. A. (1997). Intellectual capital: The new wealth of organizations. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited. Wiig, K. M. (2004). People-focused knowledge management: How effective decision making leads to corporate success. USA: Elsevier. 154 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 Experiences for supporting schools to apply knowledge management in Hong Kong WU Siu Wai & CHENG Chi Keung Eric The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract According to international literature, the application and promotion of knowledge management in the education area is still in a preliminary stage when compared with other areas. In 2010-2012, the Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association launched the “Knowledge Management and the Development of Primary Schools” Project to promote and put into practice the vision of knowledge management in ten primary schools. In this paper, the two authors extracted three successful cases from the ten schools to explicate how the selected schools applied knowledge management in their context in terms of three perspectives, namely, knowledge management system, knowledge management leaders and organization sharing. In order to describe the experiences gained from the three cases effectively, the authors also had in-depth interviews with the responsible colleagues in the three schools apart from adopting the data from the Project so as to analyze the details of the three schools in launching knowledge management. Keywords knowledge management, school development, primary school education in Hong Kong 155 徵集論文我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括：．課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法．創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法．創意教學．家長教育．校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導．校本管理．學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢．學生培訓．教育改革評議．比較教育．高等教育．幼兒教育．特殊教育．美術教育．音樂教育．教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: ．Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation ．Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy ．Creative teaching ．Parent education ．School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring ．School-based management ．Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling ．Student development ．Critique on education reform ．Comparative education ．Higher education ．Early childhood education ．Special education ．Fine arts education ．Music education ．History of education 徵募審稿員我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工，請以電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（2565 0741）提交下列資料，以供聯絡。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。姓名：任職學校 / 機構：聯絡電話：電郵地址：興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: （博士 /先生 /女士） (Dr / Mr / Ms) 稿例（修訂於 2013 年 12 月） (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在 A4 紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵）請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者，作者應保留一份原稿，以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附以下資料之中英文版本，包括題目、作者姓名、所屬機構、摘要及關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。中文摘要以 200 字為限，英文摘要則約 150 字。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2006 年，第 6 版）指引。中文格式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。稿件及有關通訊請送交：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室香港教師中心《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。（電郵： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk） (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2013) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Manuscripts can be written in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be between 3,500 and 7,000 words. 3. All manuscripts should be accompanied with the following information in both English and Chinese: title, author’s name, affiliation, abstract and 3 to 5 keywords. The English abstract should be around 150 words, and the Chinese abstract should be not more than 200 words. 4. All submissions will go through an anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the manuscripts, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the manuscripts submitted. Once the final version of manuscripts has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For manuscripts in Chinese, please refer to the format and style used in the latest issue. 7. Deadline for manuscript submission is on January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. Once the review process of this Journal begins, contributors shall not send the submitted manuscript to other journals for review or publication.

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