Search Result

14 記錄Export Results

香港教師中心學報第三卷 ( 2004年 )

分類: 文件

!\"#$ $ % $&#'() *)( \" i 香港教師中心香港教師中心（中心）是根據1984年教育統籌委員會第一號報告書的建議而於1987年成立的，中心的總部位於北角百福道四號，由前身為一所小學的建築物改建而成，於1989 年 6月開幕，是一所多元化和多用途的中心。中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立的及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。此外，中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，並協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念。中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過教師中心的三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會、一個常務委員會和六個工作小組，負責中心的決策，監察和執行中心的不同工作及活動。諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）的工作主要是決定中心的策略和監察中心的運作。諮管會由72 名委員組成，其中35位由教育團體提名及選出；35位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育統籌局常任秘書長委任。常務委員會（常委會）是諮管會的行政架構，與中心的日常運作和活動有著密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任；其他成員包括兩位代表教育統籌局的諮管會委員及十位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員。各工作小組負責中心內不同範疇的工作，包括出版小組、圖書館及教學資源小組、活動小組、章程及會籍小組、教育研究小組及專業發展小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。目前，有153個教育團體登記為中心會員。中心除了單獨主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港的教育團體合作或贊助團體籌辦推動教育專業的活動。在2003年至2004年度，中心已經與多個教育團體合辦超過150項有關教師專業發展和康樂的活動，參加人數超過2萬人次。香港教師中心（北角會所）位於香港北角百福道四號的香港教師中心（北角會所）佔地約九百平方公尺，設有一間大型演講室 /展覽室、一個會議室、三間講堂、一間資訊科技教育室、一間教育團體綜合辦事處、一間教育專業圖書館和一間休息室。歡迎學校、教育團體預訂借用。 ii Hong Kong Teachers' Centre The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (Centre) was established in 1987 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. Its base or headquarters, a multi-facet and multi-purpose Centre housed in a former primary school building at 4 Pak Fuk Road, North Point, was opened in June 1989. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of in-service education; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the provision of resources; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duites and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations or teaching-related organisations; 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers; and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education and Manpower. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to-day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairman and 2 Vice Chairmen, the 2 EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) representatives, and 10 other members elected by and from the AMC. The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work in the Centre. They include Publication, Library and Teaching Resources, Activities, Constitution and Membership, Educational Research and Professional Development. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC . At present, 153 educational bodies are registered members of the Centre. Apart from organising activities by itself, the centre also jointly organises or sponsors activities with non profit-making educational organisations for teachers in Hong Kong. During the financial year of 2003 to 2004, the Centre has organised, jointly with many educational organisations, more than 150 professional development and cultural activities for teachers, with a total attendance frequency of more than 20,000. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point) The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre (North Point), with a total area of about 900 square metres, has a large seminar / exhibition hall, a conference room, three lecture rooms, an information technology education room, a composite office for educational organisations, a multi-media professional library and a lounge. Schools and educational organisations are welcome to use these facilities on a booking basis. iii 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)為香港教師中心出版的刊物，每年出版一次。《學報》刊登與教育有關的行動研究報告及論文。近期《學報》的投稿者多來自本地及海外的教師、師訓機構導師、教育研究人員及學者等。以下為《學報》第二及第三卷之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an official publication of the Hong Kong Teachers' Centre. It is published once a year. The HKTC Journal publishes action research reports and original contributions on areas of education. Contributors of Volume 1 to 3 are mainly teachers, teacher educators, educational researchers and scholars from local and overseas communities. The advisors and editorial committee members of Volume 2 and 3 are listed as follows. 《學報》顧問團 (Board of Advisors) Mark Bray University of Hong Kong Ronnie Carr The Open University of Hong Kong Christopher Day University of Nottingham, UK Andy Green University of London Andy Hargreaves Boston College Paul Morris Hong Kong Institute of Education Tan Eng Thye, Jason Singapore National Institute of Education Gareth Williams University of London 丁　鋼華東師範大學朱小蔓中央教育科學研究所李榮安香港教育學院李學銘香港理工大學馬慶強香港浸會大學張斌賢北京師範大學教育學院梁貫成香港大學莫家豪香港城市大學陳伯璋台灣淡江大學教育學院陳湛杰香港浸會大學陸鴻基香港教育學院傅浩堅香港浸會大學閔維方北京大學馮治華香港浸會大學 iv 黃錦璋香港大學黃顯華香港中文大學潘慧玲國立台灣師範大學鄭燕祥香港教育學院盧乃桂香港中文大學鍾宇平香港中文大學蘇肖好澳門大學顧明遠中國教育學會編輯委員會 (Editorial Committee) 主編 (Chief Editors) 李子建香港中文大學容萬城香港浸會大學委員 (Members) 何景安香港學科教育研究學會胡少偉香港教育學院梁兆棠香港教育工作者聯會黃楚標學校黃冬柏新會商會中學葉國洪香港浸會大學雷其昌博愛醫院歷屆總理聯誼會梁省德中學顏　龍中華基督教會基道中學 (排名按筆劃先後次序排列) (In alphabetical order) 執行秘書 (Executive Secretaries) 陳啟彬香港教育統籌局陳嫣姍香港教育統籌局趙清淮香港教育統籌局邵佩兒香港教育統籌局 © The Hong Kong Teachers' Centre 2004 ISSN 1682-8984 Printed in Hong Kong v 主編序由一九九九年起，我們便參與香港教師中心《學報》創刊號的工作，擔任籌備委員會委員及執行編輯的工作，與一群教育界同工一起探索《學報》發展的方向。創刊號出版後，我們又繼續參與《學報》第二卷的編輯工作。在籌備《學報》第三卷時，編務委員會決定採用「雙主編」制分擔《學報》之事務，以減輕工作量。當《學報》編輯，工作雖是較為細碎，但卻甚為重要，尤其當要安排合適的評審員評審文稿時，往往涉及多次工作會議、通訊聯繫、反覆校對與訂正；如遇文章論點有爭論時，還要尋求不同學者的意見，務使文章在刊登前得到充份的修正。雖然這些工作需時六至八個月，但有賴編委會各委員和評審員利用工餘時間評審，同時也有賴編委會秘書處勤奮、盡責的同工支援，編務工作才得以完成。在此感謝各同工付出的努力。香港教師中心《學報》在這幾年慢慢成長，文章質素也逐漸提高，投稿更見踴躍。以第三卷為例，中、英文稿件數量能取得平衡，各佔一半。現在《學報》逐漸廣為學界認識，今期有幸邀請了兩岸四地及國際知名學者加入成為編輯顧問，務求提高水平，爭取《學報》成為一份理論與實踐並重、具審查制度的亞洲地區學術期刊，這也是編委會在創刊時的目標之一。在《學報》第三卷的工作進入最後階段之際，我們在此謹向曾參與評審員工作的人士及協助修訂文稿中、英語文的大學或學院講師，致以衷心的謝意，當中包括Ms Christine Anne BRUCE、Dr Victor FORRESTER、何文勝博士、李子昂博士、李怡老師、李家和博士、李傑江校長、李潔冰博士、周昭和先生、周淑娟老師、林嘉妮教授、胡　博士、施敏文先生、梁柏偉先生、許俊炎校長、陳淑安女士、黃顯華教授、楊善錦先生、葉淑儀老師、雷其昌校長、董學平先生、蔡達香博士、潘玉嶋博士、鄧兆鴻校長、鄧國俊博士、楊兆榮先生、鮑偉昌博士、謝均才教授及譚肖芸博士。第四卷《學報》將以「高中學制與課程改革」為主題，並計劃於二零零五年十月出版。藉此希望對這課題有認識的前線教師、教育研究人員及學者踴躍投稿，與大家分享對這嶄新課題的觀點。《香港教師中心學報》主編李子建、容萬城二零零四年十一月目錄 Contents 一、理論及政策評論 1 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: …................... 1 Argument, Indicators and Implications KWOK Lai-yin, Percy 2 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點 …………………………………………….... 15 李子建 3 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」……………………………………………............ 28 容萬城二、實證研究 1 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: ……………………................................. 37 An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives ZHONG Caishun, WU Zongjie 2 Problem-based Learning: a problem with Education? ………………………………............ 48 Victor FORRESTER 3 Teacher Professional Development: ……………………..................................................... 56 In-service Teacher’s Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching CHAN Kwok-wai 4 香港初中推行公民教育的現況 ………………………………………………...................... 72 吳迅榮、梁恩榮 5 教育及課程改革的思潮下：………………………………………………........................... 85 香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序沈劍威、陳運家、夏秀禎三、行動研究 1 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes ………………………………............ 91 CHAN Kam-wing 2 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback …….. 98 and Its Implications for Writing Teachers CHIANG Kwun-man, Ken 3 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject …………………………………………………. 116 CHEUNG Sze-hung, Queenie 4 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 ………………………………………………… 128 郭思穎、林少雯、趙明明四、經驗分享及其他 1 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms ……………………………….......... 141 WONG YU Lai-wah, Teresa 2 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思 ……..................................................... 155 賴柏生、胡少偉 3 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長 …………………………………………. 162 歐凱鑫 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications KWOK Lai-yin, Percy Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract The paper highlights the determinants for demand for private supplementary tutoring and their interrelationships in a case study of Hong Kong. Reviews of past local and international literature reveal several research gaps related to tutoring studies and lack of theoretical explanations for the emergence of tutoring demand. Based on relevant interview and survey data, some socio-economic and socio-cultural patterns of tutoring demand are depicted in terms of a multi-level socio-cultural argument for its nature and determinant relationships via some conceptual indicators. New issues and challenges to various educational fields are finally addressed. INTRODUCTION Past comparative and international research on examining educational systems (Dore, 1976, 1997; Eckstein & Noah, 1992; Little, 1984, 1997) realized that private tutoring is, to a large extent, a by-product of examination-oriented learning or examination-driven school curricula. Other past social or sociological studies like Dore (1976, 1997) and Little (1997) indirectly touched the 'hidden' educational phenomena at national level and in comparative perspective when examining the pervasive phenomena of 'diploma disease' or 'credential inflation' in lately developing societies. As private tutoring was not their research focus, there was a gap in theoretical explanation for emergence of 'diploma disease' or 'credential inflation' and demand determinants, or causal links among their determinants for tutoring in single countries or comparative perspective. Among the existing works on private tutoring, Bray (1999) stood out as an important and broadly- focused comparative work on both of its demand and supply sides and drew policy-making implications and his following works (2003) pinpointed the adverse effects of private tutoring upon mainstream schooling, societies and economies, based on five case studies in Asia and Africa. Other studies (de Silva, 1994; Foondun, 1992; Zeng, 1999) hinged upon pervasive 'hidden' educational phenomena in African countries or Asian regions without any inter-regional contextual 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 2 comparisons. And all of their works lacked a detailed the oretical analysis of causal relationships among demand determinants. Methodologically speaking, there are logistic difficulties for doing research on tutoring, due to its subtlety, complexity and irregularity. The subtlety of private tutoring lies in its hidden scale, subject to intangible nature of tutoring services in socio-economic perspectives (Hua, 1996, p.5). Its complexity comes from inexact causal relationships between formal daytime schooling, family and tutoring in socio-cultural and socio-economic dimensions. Its irregularity is derived from governments' difficulties in controlling its growth, censoring or monitoring the functioning of tutorial schools, owing to some socio-cultural and socio- political reasons (Bray, 1999, pp. 37-41 & 74-83). Such three characteristics often lead educational policy- makers or researchers to pay little attention to tutoring. It is because there are more thorny educational problems in pressing policy agendas and other urgent research issues. Through a multi-level analysis, the paper endeavors to portray how some educational and social phenomena at micro (individual), meso (institutional) and macro (system) levels are related to the pervasive phenomenon of private tutoring at all secondary levels (Secondary 1-7 / Grade 7-13) of schooling in Hong Kong. It also puts forth some theoretical arguments for causal relationships between social, educational changes and demand determinants, and conceptualizes a socio- cultural argument, accounting for the emergence and nature of demand for tutoring in Hong Kong. Subsequently, its far-reaching implications for further research will be drawn. LITERATURE REVIEW Comparative studies on examining educational systems When doing cross-national comparisons of educational systems, some researchers have detected the widespread phenomena of 'diploma disease'. Theoretically speaking, Dore's 'diploma disease' (1976, p.72) thesis and Little's modif ied term (1997) 'credential inflation' have contended that the later the development of societal modernization, the more widely will be credential uses for occupational selection, or the more rapid will be the rate of credential inflation. As a result, schooling will become more examination-oriented and educational certificates will turn to be problematically stressed, devaluating the true values of schooling. When considering strategies for combating 'diploma disease', Little (1984, pp. 202-228) has observed that there will not be much impact on reducing demand for or changes in value beliefs about tutoring, and emergence of diploma disease does not necessarily entail occurrence of pervasive tutoring phenomena. For instance, despite commonly suffering from diploma disease, some lately developing countries like China, Egypt, Japan and Sri Lanka had a large scale of the 'hidden' educational phenomena whilst others such as England and Tanzania did not have such pervasive phenomena of tutoring in 1990s (Little, 1997, pp. 5-21). Single-society or cross-national studies on tutoring Past comparative researchers on tutoring (Bray, 1999, 2003; Chew & Leong, 1995; de Silva, 1994; Foondun, 1998, 2002) realized that the phenomena of private tutoring are complicated. Its possible multi-level demand determinants can be related to various arenas of education (Baker et. al, 2001), society and heritage 3 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications culture (Sorensen, 1994). Macro-level social factors include credential inflation, favorable economic prosperity, big income differentials and limited job opportunities (de Silva, 1994). Meso-and macro-level educational factors are signif icance of high-stake examinations for upward social mobility, national government's ineffective censorship, ineffective daytime schooling (Bray, 1996; de Silva, 1994), peer group influence (Hua, 1996) and uneven access to higher education (Stevenson & Baker, 1992). Micro-levels social factors are students' personal characteristics (Hua, 1996) and their families' socio-economic status (George, 1992) and no free academic guidance from families (Kim, 2000; Polydorides, 1986). On evaluation, causal relationships among such social and educational factors articulated by past researchers have not been fully conceptualized into a unified theoretical framework in single societies or cross-societal perspective so far. And there has been no investigation about overall impacts of determinants upon students' or their parents' determination to seek tutoring in intra-societal and inter- societal perspectives. Other pieces of past single-society or cross- national research (Akiba & LeTendre, 1999; Chew & Leong, 1995; Foondun, 1998) lacked a clear definition of private tutoring and a systematic classification of its types, resulting in inaccurate analysis or invalid comparisons. Single-country past research literature on tutoring (Fenech & Spiteri, 1999; Harnisch, 1994; Rohlen, 1980; Yoon, 1997) merely investigated the intensity or scope of demand for tutoring without bridging the gaps between micro-level and macro-level determinants. Tutoring research in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, most past studies (Lee, 1996; Liu, 1998; Man, 1998; Tseng, 1998; Wong, 1998) on tutoring were quantitative research reports, depicting the span and intensity of demand in statistical variations or patterns. For instance, reasons for seeking or not seeking tutoring, distributions of tutoring fees, duration of tutoring, types of supply at primary (Primary 1-6 / Grade 1-6) or secondary levels (Secondary 1-7 / Grade 7-13). They lacked detailed educational and social explanations for those descriptive demand variations and patterns, and no in-depth investigation was focused on lower secondary (Secondary 1-3) levels. In particular, Tseng (1998) hypothesized possible impacts of high-stake examinations and credential inflation upon tutoring without sufficient qualitative data support. Yeung (2000) articulated qualitative patterns of teachers' value beliefs towards private tutoring at middle secondary (Secondary 4-5) levels through teacher interviews. On the supply side, Tong (2001) detected the supply of private tutoring as a commercial commodity in massive scales in Hong Kong and Taipei without any scrutiny of the supply- demand mechanism or theoretical socio-cultural explanations for the supply. On the whole, past research in Hong Kong did not cover conceptual and theoretical issues concerning demand or supply for private tutoring. In other fields of education, previous researchers in Hong Kong tended to underestimate the significance of private tutoring or indirectly touched it without penetrating studies, despite its widespread existence at primary and secondary levels of schooling. For example, Yiu (1996) only depicted a case of how mass tutors helped tutees make preparation for economics at advanced level. Facing the new syllabus, an economics teacher was so helpless that he borrowed lecture notes indirectly from those tutees. Moreover, little attention was paid to household expenditure on private tutoring 4 in some studies of financing of basic education (Cheng, 1992; Kwan, 1992; Wong, 1992). Past researchers on social stratif ication (Post, 1994; Postiglione, 1997) focused on gender variations or ascription over achievement in educational opportunities and the influence of social classes (or status groups) and families resources upon students' educational attainments (or learning outcomes). They neglected possible effects of tutoring on educational outcomes. Other bodies of sociological research done by Post (1993) and Tsang (1993) concerned more about the tensions between the government and educational policies and internal mechanisms of policy implementation e.g. the impacts of nine-year free, compulsory education policies implemented at primary and lower secondary levels since 1978 mentioned by (Wong, 1997). Noteworthy, additional effects of social stratification induced by demand for tutoring have not thoroughly been investigated in their studies. NAT U R E , PAT T E R N S A N D DETERMINANTS With all these research gaps and limitations, the author strives to undertake a multi-level social analysis of students' demand and to build up a unified theoretical framework, accounting for the nature and emergence of the demand in Hong Kong as a case study (Kwok, 2001). Such case study qualitatively explores into causal interactions of its possible demand determinants and their interrelationships, in socio-cultural and socio- economic senses. Its research foci lie in the nature and socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns of secondary school students' demand for private supplementary tutoring in Hong Kong from 1 September 1997 to 31 August 2000. The marketing mechanism of its supply side will not be scrutinized in the paper. Multi-level educational and social determinants for the nature and such patterns of demand for private tutoring and their causal inter-relationships will be formulated in terms of theoretical argument and pattern indicators, based on interview and survey data. A definition of private supplementary tutoring Private supplementary tutoring, throughout the paper, refers to a kind of extra, fee-paying academic teaching or drilling for full-time students studying in regular school instruction programs or syllabuses at all levels of education. It necessarily has three characteristics: • academic oriented • monetary transfer (from tutees or their parents / guardians to tutors) • tutoring content or mastery of some cognitive skills being in line with tutees' day-time schooling. Private supplementary tutoring can complement and repeat what tutees (full-time students) have learned in their daytime schools. It can help them revise their daytime lessons and deepen their understanding of the underlying concepts or theories through drilling exercises. Its main functions are to help students cope with examinations and to improve their academic achievements. There are various types of tutoring: individual, group (2-8 tutees per group) and mass (more than 8 tutees in a class) and their geographical locations can be in tutees' or tutors' residential areas, day-time school campus or even in commercial buildings. Its massive scale can partially be reflected on the supply side by heavy advertisements of various types of tutoring in streets, popular public areas and through mass media, 5 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications and by an increasing number of registered mass tutorial schools in Hong Kong. On the demand side, indicators are its high occupation rate of students' spare time and rough statistical figures reflected by some past studies done in Hong Kong (Lee, 1996; Tseng 1998). Socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns A student questionnaire survey (containing semi-open multiple-choice and five-point Likert-scale optioned statements concerning degrees of agreement / disagreement) was conducted in six conveniently sampled secondary schools of 630 respondents in Hong Kong in the school year 1998-1999. One class was randomly selected from each of form range: Secondary 1-3 (S.1-S.3), Secondary 4-5 (S.4-S.5) and Secondary 6-7 (S.6-S.7), with the permission of the school heads and assistance of the school administrators. Items were written in Chinese language and tested and modified after a pilot study conducted in another secondary school in April 1998. Criteria for determining families of low, middle and high socio-economic status (SES), father's, mother's or (inclusively in logical sense) guardian's occupation were classified into blue-collar / unclassified types, white-collar types and professional / executive types respectively. The following socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns of tutoring demand are depicted, in triangulation with interview data, collected from snowball samples involving various types of stakeholders in Hong Kong: • Emergence of nuclear families: The average household size (including tutoring and non-tutoring respondents) was 4.52 and the average number of schooling children per family was 2.28 respectively. Their nuclear families (of average size 4.52) in general had great academic concern. For detail, variations over studying forms can be found in table 1. Such nuclear family structure would increase the likelihood of seeking tutoring, as educational expenditure (including tutoring costs) focused merely on 1-2 schooling children per family. Table 1 Distributions of mean numbers of family members, school children per family Groups of students Tutoring students Non-tutoring students Various studying forms S.1 - S.3 S.4 - S.5 S.6 - S .7 S.1 - S.3 S4 - S5 S6 - S7 Mean no. of family members (including 4.40 4.26 4.28 4.75 4.82 4.39 the respondents) (FN) Mean no. of schooling children (including the 2.15 1.96 2.09 2.54 2.45 2.47 respondents) (SN) Note: all numbers are round off to 3 sig. figs. 6 • Affordability of tutoring fees: It was found that in families of low socio-economic status (SES), students' participatory rates in private tutoring were 24% at S.1 - S.3, 47% at S.4 - S.5 and 61% at S.6 - S. 7 levels whereas in high SES families, the rates were 63% at S.1 - S.3, 55% at S.4 - S.5 and 68% at S.6 - S.7. Among one f ive-opinioned statement concerning decisions tutoring fees over quality, affordability of tutoring fees was one decisive factor for seeking tutoring, especially in low-income or middle-income SES families, in tutees' perceptions in table 2. Table 2 Distributions of opinion about affordability among tutoring students Affordability is more Parents’ or Guardians’ Parents’ or Guardians’ Parents’ or Guardians’ important than quality when considering Low SES Middle SES High SES current forms of tutoring (blue collars, (while collars) (professionals or no occupation, executives) or unclassified) Strongly agree (14 / 132) 11 % (7 / 51) 14 % (12 / 123) 10 % Agree (32 / 132) 24 % (12 / 51) 24 % (22 / 123) 18 % Neutral (44 / 132) 33 % (14 / 51) 27 % (39 / 123) 31 % Disagree (33 / 132) 25 % (13 / 51) 25 % (36 / 123) 29 % Strongly disagree (9 / 132) 7 % (5 / 51) 10 % (14 / 123) 11 % Note: all percentages are round off to whole figures. Table 3 Distributions of parents’ or guardian’s educational qualifications Parents' or guardians' educational qualifications Demand for Primary Junior Upper Matriculation University or Proportion tutoring education or Secondary Secondary above out of total below respondents No (126/195) (101/182) (59/125) (19/58) (19/70) (324/630) 65% 55% 48% 33% 27% 52% Yes (69/195) (81/182) (66/125) (39/58) (51/70) (306/630) 35% 45% 53% 67% 73% 48% Proportion (195/195) (182/630) (125/630) (58/630) (70/630) (630/630) out of total 31% 29% 20% 9% 11% 100% respondents Note: all percentages are round off to whole figures. • Insufficiency of free academic guidance from elder family members: Survey data illuminated that the higher educational qualifications of tutees' parents or guardians, the greater would be the demand for tutoring, despite the fact that they could teach tutees freely by themselves in table 3. Qualitative data reflected that the busy daily working schedule of tutees' elder family members was the most probable reason. 7 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications • Relationships between consuming tutoring types and nature of curricula: Both qualitative and quantitative data reflected that the lower the secondary level, the more popular would be individual home tutoring and multi-functional tutoring (provision of lesson revision, examination preparation and homework guidance). The higher the level of upper secondary (S.4-S.7), the more popular form would be examination-oriented mass tutoring. One-to-one residential tutoring and multi-functional tutoring were relatively more common at lower levels of secondary schooling than upper levels. Interview data also revealed that upper secondary curricula were less flexible without catering for individual learning differences than lower ones. Student tutoring at upper secondary levels of schooling were accommodated to open examinations whilst tutoring at lower secondary levels of schooling focused more on individual learning differences, in line with less rigid school curricula. • Examination-oriented school culture: In the survey, examination pressure was the biggest reason for seeking private tutoring at upper secondary levels of schooling whilst it was only the fifth big reason at S.1-S.3 level. The more senior the studying forms, the higher were the participatory rates in private tutoring: 35% at S.1-S.3 level; 47% at S.4-S.5 level; 70% at S.6-S.7 level. Among extra learning needs identified by students, examination skills were the most common. So examinations dominated surveyed students' learning, and tutoring students sought private tutoring in order to cope with examination pressure. The situation was more serious at the upper level of secondary schooling (i.e. S.4-S.7). This implied open examination-driven upper secondary curricula in the mainstream sector of Hong Kong (Hong Kong Baptist University & Hong Kong Examinations Authority, 1998). • Selective functions or screening effects of the secondary educational system: The earliest starting time to seek private tutoring was mostly at P.4-P.6 level for tutoring and non-tutoring students during the survey time, regardless of their current studying levels in the survey. The second peak starting time was at S.4-S.5 level for S.4-S.7 students. Qualitative data indicated the screening effect or selective function of the educational system where some junction points were found between upper primary and lower secondary levels and between upper secondary (S.4-S.5) and matriculation (S.6-S.7) levels. • Social significance of some popular tutoring subjects: Popular tutoring subjects were Mathematics and English. These two subjects were major ones in the whole S.1-S.5 curricula and also important for tutees' future careers. One of the common mass tutoring subjects at S.6-S.7 level was Use of English, which was a compulsory subject for university entrance examination, playing a decisive role in their future career. Despite the transfer of its sovereignty to Mainland China with Chinese as her official language since 1997, English itself is still an international and official language for maintaining prosperity of the Hong Kong society. In the six schools, there was a higher proportion of Science tutees in particular than Arts ones at S.4-S.7 level, because of greater expected rates for receiving tertiary education or better job prospects after graduation. 8 • Societal credentialism and meritocracy: Among the 5-optioned statements, the majority (strongly or just) agreed to the statements that education was the most potent means for upward social mobility and that private tutoring was regarded as a kind of educational investment. Qualitative data provided the underlying reason. Upper secondary students near the graduation time had more time to think about their future career and naturally higher expected rates of return when seeking tutoring. THEORETICAL ARGUMENT FOR TUTORING DEMAND AND THEIR DETERMINANT RELATIONSHIPS Through cross-method and cross-data triangulation (Neuman, 2000), a comprehensive picture of how a combination of multi-level demand determinants acted upon each other during the research period is portrayed as follows: I. The ultimate causative forces lied in rapid social modernization with corresponding economic growth and technological advancement, facilitating the marketization of various types of tutoring and affordability of tutoring fees at the societal level. II. Education was the major screening device for upward social mobility, in line with some salient features of Confucian-heritage culture. And credentials were used for elite selection and job allocation in such a meritocratic society of Hong Kong. As a result, credential inflation or qualification escalation was involved at societal level. III. At educational policy level, there was little effective censorship or monitoring of quality education in mass tutorial schools. At societal level , marketization of mass tutorial schools was prevalent through mass media and their locations were geographically located in urban areas with convenient access by means of public transport systems. IV. At school level, examination-oriented upper secondary curricula and dominating summative assessment reinforced students' and teachers' heavy stresses on academic achievements. Students faced considerable studying pressure and peer group pressure when crossing over 'hurdles' at upper secondary and matriculation levels. They were accommodated into rigid school curricula, without catering for their individual learning differences. As a result, their learning problems increasingly arose, in case of insufficient academic guidance from teachers, their questionable pedagogy and tight studying schedules. V. At nuclear family level, elder family members' heavy daily workloads or inappropriate educational qualif ications rendered little free academic guidance for students. VI. Subject to the above I-V, secondary school students would seek tutoring, in case of unfulfilled basic or extra learning needs from family, peers, teachers and ineffective self-learning in Hong Kong. Conceptual indicators and determinants relationships To trace out interrelationships among demand determinants for private tutoring, three key conceptual indicators were articulated as accessibility, affordability and insuff iciency. Accessibility referred to the availability of various types of tutoring, promoted through mass media or other promotion means under the state's policy governance. Socio-economically, affordability concerned whether tutees or their families could afford certain types of tutoring whilst 9 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications insufficiency in socio-cultural sense, pointed to the dissatisfaction of basic or extra learning needs initiated from daytime schools and lack of free academic guidance from tutees' elder family members, school teachers, peers and self-learning. In fact, there were three sets of determinant patterns. Firstly, big socio-economic changes led to marketization of various types of tutoring in a multi- service economy and establishment of convenient public transport system after fast technocratic changes under the state's ineffective policy censorship towards various types of tutoring. This came to accessibility of demand for tutoring. Secondly, affordability of tutoring fees was mostly resulted from emergence of nuclear families with 1-2 schooling children on average. The underlying reasons were high economic growth in the 1980s, successful control of birth rate since 1970s (Ng, 1978) and parental willingness of spending education for students' future, under great societal competitive pressure in the late 1990s. Thirdly, facing credential inflation and social selective functions of educational system under heritage Chinese culture, students (key stakeholders) regarded education as the most potential means for upward social mobility. In some cases, low quality in school education and rigid school curricula created extra learning needs or basic learning problems for some students, which could not be satisfied freely by their elder family members, school teachers, peers or solved by themselves. In short, this referred to insufficiency of free academic guidance from students' social circles. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES There are two major contributions of the study. Firstly, it provides a multi-level theoretical argument accounting for socio-cultural and socio-economic demand patterns for tutoring and demand pattern indicators help explicate determinant relationships. Secondly, socio-cultural and socio-economic patterns of tutoring demand help imply further advancement in several fields of educational research. School effectiveness and improvement Based on research findings, lack of alternatives for satisfying extra learning needs of schooling children from families and schools reflect unresolved problems in school quality education, intended curricula implementation and family education. This poses a great threat to the normal functions of formal schooling, in view of enormous demand for private tutoring in Hong Kong and other societies with similar development. Educational researchers on school effectiveness and improvement (e.g. Neville, 1995) and local policy- makers (e.g. Education Commission, 2000) often regard daytime schools as a standard unit of analysis at meso level. However, the influence of mass tutorial schools or home tutoring upon schools and students cannot be neglected, because of the supplementary role of private tutoring. Therefore, notions of 'school effectiveness' and 'learning effectiveness' need to be revitalized, facing the joint effects of day-time schooling and part-time private tutoring on students' learning outcomes. Economics and financing of education Reflected from interview data, some tutees or their elder family members regarded private tutoring as a kind of educational investment for upward social mobility, under great meritocratic and credential pressure. The notions of 'private or social rates of return' to both formal and informal education (Carnoy, 1995; Psacharopoulos, 1994) should include allowance for considerable 10 financial figures spent on private tutoring in the societies with pervasive phenomena of private tutoring. Theorists who advocate formal education as a screening mechanism (Groot & Hartog, 1995) need to consider the effects of seeking private tutoring on students' overall academic achievement. Under peer group pressure and higher studying motivation, high-achievers seek more affordable tutoring lessons with fruitful academic returns than lower-achievers, reflected from survey and interview data. As a result, screening effects are reinforced in such a way that more academically talented or able students can survive at the top of schooling systems. So more theoretical discussion on 'screening models' and empirical studies on 'rates of return' need to be rectified. Sociology of education On the one hand, cultural capital, investigated by the pioneer sociologist Bourdieu (1977, 1997) and his followers such as Brown (1997) and El-Bilawi (1982) needs to include considerable monetary expenditure upon private tutoring at household level in those countries with pervasive phenomena of private tutoring. On the other hand, social capital in the creation of human capital, which is proposed by some sociologists like Coleman (1997), should incorporate some resources attributed to subsidized or charged types of private tutoring from some commercial enterprises or voluntary community organizations. Such resources are not negligible when considering community or household financing of education (e.g. Bray, 1996, 1998, 2002). Further, the supplementary roles of tutoring will complicate the educational inequality and social inequity issues. Inequalities of educational opportunities and qualities in educational input and teaching and learning processes will be aggravated by students' unequal accesses to different types and extent of tutoring. In table 3, those students with high parents' or guardians' educational qualifications tended to indicate greater demand for tutoring than those with low qualifications, besides quality considerations in tutoring. In particular, heavy demand for individual residential tutoring or taking numerous mass tutoring subjects might cause financial burden to low-income families revealed by qualitative data. Other blackmail cases of 'moonlighting' teachers towards their day-time students and idol tutors' illegal release of open examination trends are also unfair to the majority of examination candidates during educational assessments (Bray 2003; Greaney & Kellaghan, 1995). Cultural issues Some past culturists (Cheng, 1997; Zeng, 1999) argued for the influence of 'Confucian-heritage culture' over the massive demand for private tutoring in East-Asian countries. They speculated some commonalties such as meritocratic drive towards nation-wide examinations (similar to examinations recruiting civil servants in ancient times of China), working through hardship and studying by diligence rather than inborn abilities, and repetitive, holistic approaches to learning. All these salient features exhibited distinctive characteristics of heritage Chinese cultures, uncovered by some researchers in educational psychology (Dahlin & Watkins, 2000; Watkins & Biggs, 1996). On evaluation, such cultural argument seemed to lack rigorous cross- cultural data support. It was because some non-Chinese heritage societies with pervasive 'hidden' educational phenomena might have similar inter- or intra-societal tensions, similarly articulated in the above socio-cultural argument (de Silva, 1994; Foondun, 1992, 1998, 2002; Hua, 1996). And large-scale cross-societal studies like 11 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications TIMMS 1995 and TIMMS-R 1999 have not scrutinized any correlations between intensity of tutoring demand (except some parameters such as time spent on after- school lessons in Leung, Yung & Tso, 2002, p.37) and features of societal cultures. Nor have follow-up comparative studies pinpointed any causal relationships between cultural features and intensity or span of tutoring demand (e.g. Baker et. al., 2001) when comparing East Asian societies with African, European, North American and South American counterparts. Hence, more cross-national or cross-societal qualitative studies should be conducted in future to articulate how heritage cultures constitute or reinforce schooling students' demand for tutoring under those inter- and intra-societal tensions in the above socio-cultural argument. CONCLUSION In the above, a multi-level socio-cultural argument for the emergence of demand for tutoring has been articulated. And demand determinants and their causal interrelationships have also been conceptualized in terms of indicators like accessibility, affordability and insufficiency. Further research recommendations are made to academic f ields of school effectiveness, economics and financing of education, sociology of education and cultural studies in education. Note: Earlier versions of the paper were presented at the Annual Conference of Comparative International Education Society (CIES) in Toronto, Canada in 1999 and Annual Conference of Hong Kong Educational Research Association (HKERA) at the University of Hong Kong in 2000. References Akiba, M., & LeTendre, G. (1999). Remedial, Mixed and Enhancement Systems: An Analysis of Mathematics Achievement and Extra-lessons. An unpublished conference paper presented at the Comparative International Education Society (CIES) in Toronto, Canada, April 14-18, 1999. Baker, D. P., Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Wiseman, A. W. (2001). Worldwide Shadow Education: Outside-school Learning, Institutional Quality of Schooling, and Cross-national Mathematics Achievement. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23 (1), 1-17. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage. Bourdieu, P. (1997). The Forms of Capital. In A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P. Brown, & A. Stuart -Wells (Eds.), Education: Culture, Economy and Society (pp.46-58). Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. Bray, M. (1996). Counting the Full Cost: Parental and Community Financing of Education in East Asia. Washington D.C.: The World Bank in collaboration with UNICEF. Bray, M. (1998). Financing Education in Developing Asia: Patterns, Trends and Policy Implications. Working Paper for the Study of Trends, Issues and Policies in Education. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Bray, M. (1999). The Shadow Education System: Private Tutoring and Its Implications for Planners. Paris: UNESCO / IIEP. Bray, M. (2002). The Costs and Financing of Education: Trends and Policy Implications. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre & Manila: Asian Development Bank. Bray, M. (2003). Adverse Effects of Private Supplementary Tutoring. Paris: UNESCO / IIEP. 12 Brown, P. (1997). Cultural Capital and Social Exclusion: Some Observations on Recent Trends in Education, Employment, and the Labour Market. In A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P. Brown, & A. Stuart-Wells (Eds.), Education: Culture, Economy and Society (pp.736-749). Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. Carnoy, M. (1995). Rates of Return to Education. In M. Carnoy (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Economics of Education (2nd ed.). Oxford: Pergamon. Cheng, K. M. (1992). Financing education: An International Perspective. In Y. P. Chung & Y. C. Wong (Eds.), Economics and Financing of Hong Kong Education (pp.257-282). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. Cheng, K. M. (1997). Quality Assurance in Education: The East Asian perspective. In K. Watson, D. Modgil, & S. Modgil, S. (Eds.), Educational Dilemmas: Debate and Diversity. Volume 4: Quality in education (pp. 399-410). London: Cassell. Chew, S. B., & Leong, Y. C. (Eds.) (1995). Private Tuition in Malaysia and Sri Lanka: A Comparative Study. Kuala Lumpur: Dept. of Social Foundations in Education, University of Malaya. Coleman, J. S. (1997). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capitals. In A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P. Brown, & A. Stuart-Wells (Eds.), Education: Culture, Economy and Society (pp. 80-95). Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. Dahlin, B., & Watkins, D. A. (2000). The Role of Repetition in the Process of Memorizing and Understanding: A Comparison of the Views of German and Chinese Secondary School Students in Hong Kong. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 65-84. de Silva, W. A. (1994). Extra-school Tutoring in the Asian Context with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Maharagama: Dept. of Educational Research, National Institute of Education. Dore, R. (1976). The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification and Development. London: George Allen & Unwin. Dore, R. (1997). Reflections on the Diploma Disease Twenty Years Later. Assessment in Education, 4 (1), 189-206. Eckstein, M. A., & Noah, H. J. (Eds.) (1992). Examinations: Comparative and International Studies. Oxford: Pergamon. Education Commission (Sept. 2000). Learning for Life Learning Through Life: Reform Proposals for the Education System in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Government Printer. El-Bilawi, H. H. (1982). Schooling in Industrial Society: A Critical Study on the Political Economy and Cultural Capital Theories in the Sociology of Education. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh. Fenech, N., & Spiteri, C. (1999). Private Tuition in Malta. Unpublished B. Ed. dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Malta. Foondun, A. R. (1992). Private Tuition in Mauritius: The Mad Race for a Place in a 'Five-star' Secondary School. IIEP research and studies programme, monograph no.8. Paris: IIEP. Foondun, A. R. (1998). Private tuition, a Comparison of Tutoring Practices at the Primary Level in Mauritius and Some South East Asian Countries. Bangkok: UNICEF East Asia & Pacific Regional Office. Foondun, A. R. (2002). The Issues of Private Tuition: An Analysis of the Practice in Mauritius and Selected South-East Asian Countries. International Review of Education, 48 (6), 485-515. George, C. (1992). Time to Come out of the Shadows. Straits Times, April 4, Singapore. Greaney, V., & Kellaghan, T. (1995). Equity Issues in Public Examinations in Developing Countries. World Bank Technical Paper No. 272, Asia Technical Series. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. 13 Emergence of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, Indicators and Implications Groot, W., & Hartog, J. (1995). Screening Models and Education. In M. Carnoy (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Economics of Education (pp.34-39). Oxford: Pergamon. Harnisch, D. L. (1994). Supplemental Education in Japan: Juku Schooling and Its Implication. Journal of Curriculum Studies 26 (3), 323-334. Hong Kong Baptist University, & Hong Kong Examinations Authority (Dec.1998). Review of Public Examination System in Hong Kong: Final Report. Hong Kong, Volumes 1 & 2. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist University. Hua, H. (1996). Which Students Are Likely to Participate in Private Lessons or School Tutoring in Egypt? (A multivariate discriminant analysis). Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, Harvard University. Kim, I. (2000). Private Tutoring in Korea: A Cultural Analysis. Unpublished conference paper presented at the Comparative International Education Society (CIES) 2000, San Antonia, Texas, USA, March 8-12, 2000. Kwan, K. P. (1992). The Costs of Secondary Education. In Y. P. Chung, & Y. C. Wong (Eds.), Economics and Financing of Hong Kong Education (pp.199-224). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. Kwok, P. (2001). A Multi-level Social Analysis of Demand for Private Supplementary Tutoring at Secondary Level in Hong Kong. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Lee, C. (1996). Children and Private Tuition. Youth Poll Series No.34. Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups, Hong Kong. Leung, F. K. S., Yung, B. H. W., & Tso, A. S. F. (2002). Secondary Analysis of the TIMSS-R Data for Hong Kong: A Report for Hong Kong in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study-repeat (TIMSS-R). Hong Kong: Hong Kong IEA Centre, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Little, A. W. (1984). Combating the Diploma Disease. In J. Oxenham (Ed.), Education Versus Qualifications?: A Study of Relationships between Education, Selection for Employment and the Productivity of Labour (pp. 197-228). London: George Allen & Unwin. Little, A. W. (Ed.) (1997). The Diploma Disease Twenty Years on. Special Issue of Assessment in Education, 4 (1). Liu, P. K. (1998). Private Tuition for Primary Students in Hong Kong. Unpublished B.Ed. (Primary) project report, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Man, K. K. (1998). The Private Tuition in Hong Kong. Unpublished P. C. Ed. Assignment. Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Neuman, W.L. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Neville, M., (1995). School Culture and Effectiveness in An Asian Pluralistic Society. International Studies in Educational Administration, 23 (2), 29-39. Ng, P. (1978). Family Planning, Fertility Decline, and Family Size Preference in Hong Kong: Some General Observations. Occasional paper No.70. Hong Kong: Social Research Centre. The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Polydorides, G. K. (1986). The Determinants of Educational Achievement at the End of Secondary Schooling: The Case of Greece. Unpublished conference paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), San Francisco, CA, April 16-20, 1986. 14 Post, D. (1993). Educational Attainment and the Role of the State in Hong Kong. Comparative Education Review, 37 (3), 240-261. Post, D. (1994). Education Stratification, School Expansion, and Public Policy in Hong Kong. Sociology of Education, 67 (2), 121-138. Postiglione, G. A. (1997). Schooling and Social Stratification. In G. A. Postiglione, & W. O. Lee (Eds.), Schooling in Hong Kong: Organization, Teaching & Ssocial Context (pp.137-154). Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong Press. Psacharopoulos, G. A. (1994). Returns to Investment in Education: A Gobal Update. World Development, 22 (9), 1325- 1343. Rohlen, T. P. (1980). The Juku Phenomenon: An Exploratory Essay. Journal of Japanese Studies, 6 (2), 207-242. Sorensen, C. W. (1994). Success and Education in South Korea. Comparative Education Review, 38 (1): 10-35. Stevenson, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow Education and Allocation in Formal Schooling: Transition to University in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 97 (6), 1639-1657. Tong, T. S. L. (2001). Education As a Commodity: Private Tutoring in Hong Kong and Taipei. Unpublished M. Ed. dissertation, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Tsang, W. K. (1993). Educational and Early Socio-economic Status Attainment in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies. Tseng, J. (1998). Private Supplementary Tutoring at the Senior Secondary Level in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (1996). The Chinese Learner: Psychological and Pedagogical Perspectives. The Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. Wong, A. (1998). The Private Tuition in Hong Kong. Unpublished P. C. Ed. (part-time) assignment, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Wong, H. W. (1997). Compulsory Schooling: System and Curriculum. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press [Chinese]. Wong, K. F. (1992). Private and Social Rates of Return to Investment in Education. In Y. P. Chung & Y. C. Wong (Eds.), Economics and Financing of Hong Kong Education (pp. 17-38). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. Yeung, N. K. (2000). Upper Secondary School Teachers' Attitudes Towards Private Tutoring in Hong Kong. Unpublished B. Ed. (in language education) thesis, The University of Hong Kong. Yiu, J. M. T. (1996). A Study of Curriculum Change in Hong Kong: the Case of Advanced Level Economics. Unpublished M.Ed. dissertation, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. Yoon, J. L. et. al. (1997). Research on the Actual Condition of Extracurricular Lessons. Seoul: Korean Educational Staff Association [original script in Korean, translated into English by Y. J. Lee]. Zeng, K. M. (1999). Dragon Gate: Competitive Examinations and Their Consequences. London: Cassell. 15 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點李子建香港中文大學摘要隨著知識經濟時代的來臨，知識社會逐漸形成，新型態的知識工作者（knowledge worker）出現，不少學者開始重視「知識管理」的觀念，並把「知識管理」的理論應用於教育改革和教師專業發展。本文初步探討知識管理的理念對課程領導與教師發展的啟示，並對下列範圍作討論：（1）知識管理的意涵及課程知識的管理；（2）校長和中層管理者成為課程（知識）領導，著重知識的創造、整理和分享、教師個人知識管理，以及知識社群和網路的發展。序言 Elliott（1998）和歐用生（2000）都強調課程改革是一種「革新的社會實踐」，教師宜成為革新的實驗者和行動研究者，並具有反省、批判的能力，透過同儕間合作慎思和協同實踐，以及師生的協商和共同建構，創造具脈絡化和校本精神的課程知識。最近，課程發展議會（2002）公布的《基礎教育課程指引》况指出：「從學校經驗所得，行動研究、教師發展及校本課程發展有緊密的關係。」（10，頁13）此外，文件建議學校教師以小組形式進行行動研究，並向校內其他同事推廣。在學校和課程改革的經驗况，以往我們以為如果找到最有效能的學校運作模式和最佳的課程／教學實踐，把這些模式和實踐傳播出來，其他學校加以摹仿和採用便能產生理想的效果，可是實際上，正如課程發展議會（2001，頁 63）指出：「由於每間學校的教師和學生各有不同的特色，學校本身進化的過程和變數也截然不同，以『一刀切』的概念推行課程發展並不可行。」隨著知識經濟時代的來臨，知識社會逐漸形成，新型態的知識工作者（knowledge worker ）出現，Hargreaves, D.（2000）根據英國的經驗指出不少行業的知識生產由純正的學科為本、同質性、專家領導、同儕評審的和大學為本的模式逐漸轉移到應用的、問題為本、跨學科的、異質性、問責檢視的和含蘊在網絡的模式，而教育亦不能避免這種方向的轉變。不少學者開始重視「知識管理」的觀念，並把「知識管理」的理論應用於教育改革和教師專業發展（Sallis & Jones, 2002; 陳美玉，2002；王如哲，2000a；譚偉明、李子建、高慕蓮，2004）。本文初步探討知識管理的理念對課程領導與教師發展的啟示，並對下列範圍作討論：（1）知識管理的意涵及課程知識的管理；（2）發展學校成為一個學習型組織，並著重知識的創造、整理和分享、教師個人知識管理，以及知識社群和網路的發展。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 16 課程領導何謂領導？Lambert（1998, p.5-9）指出領導（leadership）具有以下涵義：（1）一個團體（group），而非僅指個別的領導者（如校長）。每位（組織內成員）都有成為領導者（leader）的潛能和權利。（2）關於一起學習、一起合作地建構意義和知識。領導是關於導致建設性轉變的學習，而學習是邁向共同的目的（shared purpose）。（3）涉及透過持續的交談，把觀感、價值觀、意念、資訊和假設表面化的機會；一起探究和衍生意念；在共同信念和新資訊的情景下，尋求反思工作和賦予工作意義；創設對工作新理解所衍生的行動。（4）要求權力和權威的再分配（redistribution），以邁向共同／共享的學習、目的、行動和責任。課程（與教學）領導可說是近年一個新興的議題，許多學者對這個議題都做出了探究。黃顯華、徐蔣鳳、朱嘉穎（2002）分析不同學者的課程領導定義及性質，指出課程與教學領導可在下列學校課程發展的過程中產生作用：（一）課程設計 ‧ 認清形勢、揚長補短 ‧ 上下一心、建構願景 ‧ 課程與教學改革的優先次序的抉擇 ‧ 探究課程目標與行動的配合（二）課程決定 ‧ 作「保（留）、改（變）、開（始）、停（止）」（Keep, Improve, Start, Stop ）的決定（三）課程實施 ‧ 建立夥伴式的團隊文化，尋找課程改革的同行者 ‧ 注意教師反思性的專業發展，培養「轉化型課程領導」 ‧ 改變學校文化，建構學習型組織 ‧ 善用資源，為教師創造空間 ‧ 邀請家長的參與，爭取家長的支持（四）課程評估 ‧ 對學生的評估 ‧ 教師的評估 ‧ 對課程本身的評估 Wiles及Bondi（1998, pp.216-218）指出就課程工作而言，下列為常見的領導任務（recurring leadership tasks ）：（1）發展操作的理論（an operating theory）；（2）發展機構和一個工作環境；（3）訂定標準；（4）利用權力去建立一個組織氣氛；（5）建立有效的人際關係；（6）規劃和啟始行動；（7）維持溝通渠道開放和有效運作；（8）評估成績。此外，不少學者認為建立專業學習社群（professional learning community ），或使學校成為學習型組織（learning organization），是促進學校和課程變革的途徑。就前者而言，Hall 及 Hord（2001, p.197）指出專業學習社群具有五個度向：（1）共同價值和願景；（2）集體學習與應用；（3）支持性及分享式領導；（4）支持性條件；（5）分享式個人實踐。要建立專業學習社群或者一個學習型組織，每一位組織的成員需要協助：（1）建立共同遠景；（2）規劃和提供資源；（3）投資專業學習；（4）檢查進展；（5）提供持續的支援。 Henderson 及Hawthorne（1995）亦指出革新或轉化型的課程領導（transformative curriculum leadership）在下列三種情景脈絡有助於學習社群的建立：（1）合作性檢視現行的政策、實踐和成果（如行動研究）；（2）溝通和解難的訓練；及（3）形成一個「應該是如何」（what should be）的共同願景。就後者來說，聖吉等人（Senge, et. al, 2000）指出學校成員可考慮組織學習的五個基本法則（key disciplines）： (1) 個人通達（personal mastery） — 表達個人願景的意象，並同時務實地評估現狀； 17 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點學校作為一個學習機構，領導者方面的角色也有相近的特徵（Morrison, 2002, p.113）： ‧ 辨認自我組織和組織學習的平台； ‧ 發展團隊和網絡作為組織學習的主要機構； ‧ 發展校內的願景、投入和連繫性（alignment）； ‧ 鼓勵和支持冒險試驗和精神； ‧ 發展校內組織學習的策略，以及不同形式和條件的學習，如（1）維持性學習（maintenance learning）：為新教師而設的導引（induction）學習、對外和對內的基本資料和行政步驟；（2）基準式學習（benchmarking learning）：成員與他人分享其工作實踐；多渠道溝通，使成員知道校內所發生的事情；（3）創意式學習（creative learning）：資訊系統地分類和儲存；成員主動地從個案材料中學習，並分享意念和實踐。正如課程發展議會（2002）指出，校本課程發展、教師發展、行動研究和學校發展存在著緊密而互動的關係，不斷促進學生的學習（圖一），課程領導和知識管理的觀點在這些環節發揮那些作用呢？ ‧ 課程領導和知識管理促進學校發展，使學校機構邁向一個學習機構；知識管理鼓勵成員的團隊學習，整體的機構學習，而校本課程發展和行動研究促進課程知識的創造和轉化，成為組織的知識； ‧ 課程領導強調校內成員共同建構遠景，並透過賦權教師和分享式領導，鼓勵教師反思性的專業發展和具校本特色和需要的課程發展； ‧ 課程領導和知識管理的共同目標是促進學校成為學習型組織（機構學習），並透過課程和教師發展使機構累積和整理知識，以及改善學生的學習。 (2) 共同願景（shared vision）──大家建立共同目的； (3) 智力模式（mental models）──強調反思和探究技能； (4) 團隊學習（team learning）──重視團體互動； (5) 系統思考（systems thinking）──人們學習更好理解相互依賴性（interdependency ）和變革（change），以及尋求達致最具建設性變革的槓桿作用（leverage）。知識領導與學校和教師發展 Sallis 及 Jones（2002）指出在知識組織况，知識領導方面宜具下列特徵： ‧ 培養知識工作者（knowledge workers ），確認知識是一種社會建構（social structure），而知識工作者是自我激發（self-motivating）的； ‧ 培養機構的互信和合作性，並鼓勵成員分享知識（例如利用「講故事」和學習對話方式）； ‧ 培養中層管理者作為溝通的橋樑，發展團隊和知識社群。 David Hargreaves（1999）建議學校可發展成為「創造知識」（knowledge-creating）的學校，它們具有下列四種特徵：（1）審計（audit）校內的專業（工作）知識 — 發掘員工的知識和專長；（2）管理創造新專業知識的過程；（3）使專業知識變為有效（validation） — 通過分享和研究增加知識的有效性；（4）傳播專業知識 — 使知識和實踐可轉移（t r a n s f e r a b l e ）至另一教師或可轉換（transposable）至另一情景。 18 圖一課程領導與知識管理的概念（修訂自課程發展議會，2002 ， 10，頁13）教師發展可說是學校作為一所學習型組織的發展焦點，教師發展大致可分為三種取向（Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992; 李子建，2002a），分別為知識與技能發展、自我理解和生態轉變（表一）。就課程領導和知識管理的角度來說，教師發展作為知識技能發展宜培養教師掌握反思和行動研究、團體學習、溝通（如講故事）和解難等技能。教師發展作為自我理解宜培養教師的反思、鼓勵教師與他人分享知識和收集資訊，藉以建構共同的目的、願景。教師發展作為生態轉變重視團隊工作，教師在學習的自主性，並透過建立互信而合作的變化，促進集體學習和學習社群的建立。 19 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點表一教師發展取向（Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992 ）教師發展作為教師發展作為教師發展作為知識與技能發展自我理解生態轉變（knowledge & skills （self-understanding）（ecological change） development） ‧裝備教師的知識與技能 ‧反思教師的個人與實用 ‧改變教師的工作脈絡（以改善學生的學習機會）知識因素（如時間、領導、 ‧技術取向 ‧人本取向資源） ‧教師專業發展 ‧教師個人發展 ‧創設一個支持教師持（staff development）（需經歷若干階段）續專業發展的教師文 ‧知識源自外來專家；化和工作環境限制強調由上而下的取向 ‧未能充分尊重教師專業 ‧緩慢、花費時間和昂 ‧可能變為「強制的合夥主義（professionalism）貴，而且並不能預測成文化」（contrived 和重視教師的實用知識果 collegiality） ‧技能和知識未能在適當 ‧仍有控制的意味（教師 ‧容易演變為強迫的、的脈絡（如具協作文化被視為「被發展者」）；正規的、滿足行政需的學校情景中）中應用教師發展被視為「治療要的和重視可預測成式的控制」果的取向 ‧未能注意教師所處的脈絡，過分強調教師對變革所負的個人責任 ‧掌握建構願景、評估、 ‧反思工作，賦予工作意 ‧領導者與教師分享權反思及行動研究團體／義；分享個人的知識、力；建構學習型組織集體學習、溝通及解難觀感、價值觀、意念、和合作性文化；建立的知識和技能資訊和假設，藉以建構支持性條件促進集體共同的目的和共同願景學習、應用和分享 ‧掌握講故事和學習交談 ‧利用行動學習作為個人 ‧鼓勵建立團隊工作的技巧和團隊發展的手段（teamwork）及學習社 ‧掌握記錄重要事件 ‧給予知識工作者的智力群（critical incidents）、自主性（intellectual ‧營造分享和收集資訊行動學習及與知識管理 autonomy）的過程相關的技能 ‧關懷知識工作者的壓力 ‧培養機構的信任度（trustworthiness） ‧建構持續學習的文化焦點限制課程領導的取向及相關功能（黃顯華、徐蔣鳳、朱嘉穎，2002； Lambert, 1998； Hall & Hord, 2001）知識管理的取向（Sallis & Jones (2002)）知識管理的意涵學者對知識管理有不同的定義，Sallis 及 Jones （2002, p.3）認為「知識管理」涵蓋新技術的應用以至開發某一組織的智力資本（in t e l l e c t u a l capital）。他們進一步覺得「知識管理」是關於「學習去知道我們所認識的東西」（learning to know what we know）和「知道不認識但應該認識的東西」（know what they do not know but should know）。王如哲（2000a ，頁 31）引述Rossett 及 Marshall（1999）的定義，指出：「知識管理」包括確認、文件化，以及分類存在於組織員工與顧客的顯性與隱性知識。他認為「『知識管理』是促使人員運用知識的一種機制，並使人員能夠在特定情境中採取有效之行動。」（頁30）台灣陳美玉（2002）率先提出「教師個人知識管理」，強調使「教師有機會將個人的『外顯知識』，以及內隱的 20 實踐性知識，化作系統性且能相互傳承與保存的資料。︙︙教師能處在知識型的社會中，以最短的時間發揮最高的環境適應、知識創造與快速學習的能力，成為新經濟時代的典型知識工作者。」（頁8） Liao及Yau(2001)從商業的文獻指出暫時沒有一個統一「知識管理」的定義，不過他們指出不同的定義反映下列觀點：（1）知識管理是一個過程 — 它用以確定、組織、轉化和利用機構內的資訊和專門才能；（2）知識管理涉及發展一個系統 — 幫助人去學習其工作、環境和人，並更快和更佳地溝通知識；（3）知識管理是一套技術 — 一套工具用以組織知識成為小組，以及管理規則和規則間的互動；（4）知識管理是一種功能 — 它是智性資產的辨別、有利化和主動管理，包括外顯知識和個別人士及社群所擁有的隱性知識。綜上所述，筆者認為：知識管理與知識建立（knowledge building ）、知識分享（sharing）、知識創造（creation）互為關聯（Fullan, 2002）。它是一種策略、過程、收集、保存和分配 — 發展新知識和分享現存知識，以及建立一種機構文化為所有教育持分者創造價值（修訂自Liao & Yau, 2001, p.44）。（課程）知識的類別及其管理方式在知識管理的文獻中，不少學者提及知識分為顯性知識和隱性知識兩大類（表二）。這個分類建基於Polanyi（1983）的意念，尤其是隱性知識的分析。Polanyi指出「我們可以知道的比我們可以講述的更多」（we can know more than we can tell ）（p.4），例如我們可以認識某人的面貌，並從不同人士辨認其面貌，但我們不一定能夠講述我們如何能辨認出來。再例如騎單車，很多人懂得騎單車，但未必能夠清楚地說明如何平衡自己，以免從單車跌下來（Cook & Brown, 2002, p.73）。同樣地，有些新手懂騎單車的原理，但未必擁有騎單車的隱性知識（平衡，並向不同方向行駛）。這種情況在課程改革中也屢見不鮮。比如有些教師懂得不同課程統整的模式和發展校本課程的程序（顯性知識），但未必能有效地設計和實施符合校本情景的課程統整方案。亦有些學校教師創設和實施校本課程統整方案（隱性知識），但未必很具條理和理念地表述校本課程統整背後的原則和相關理論。表二顯性知識與隱性知識之比較（Sallis & Jones, 2002, pp.12, 14 ）顯性知識（Explicit knowledge） ‧「認識它」（knowing that） ‧（宣告式知識 declarative knowledge） ‧ 客觀和正規的知識 ‧ 明確的（tangible）資訊 ‧ 能夠被編碼（codified） ‧ 有意識地獲得（accessible） ‧ 能夠容易以網絡方式連繫在資料庫和號和信念 ‧ 能夠容易以信件、電郵、互聯網等傳遞和轉移給他人隱性知識（Tacit knowledge） ‧ 認識如何（程序式知識 procedural knowledge） ‧ 社會建構的知識 ‧ 包括兩類：技術性知識（知識如何）及認知性知識 ‧ 包含機構况的傳說（folklore） ‧ 儲存在人們的腦海 ‧ 可以作為掌握某一技能的知識 ‧ 包含價值觀、覺察、預感、偏見、感受、意象、符號和信念 ‧ 可以變得混亂（chaotic） ‧ 難於編碼和儲存在資料庫和內聯網內 ‧ 通常難於溝通和分享 ‧ 有價值和成為經驗和學習的一種豐富來源 21 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點根據不同學者的分析，顯性知識和隱性知識是互為補充的實體，並可能透過個人或集體人員的互動，從其中一類知識轉化為另一類，為組織累積新的知識。王如哲（2000a ，頁 64）引用 Nonaka 和Takeuchi 的觀點，指出有四種知識轉換（knowledge conversion ）方式，以前述課程改革為例，它們是（參考Sallis & Jones, 2002）：（1）社會化 — 從個人的隱性知識至團體的隱性知識。例如課程發展主任（個人）向他／她的同事分享課程統整的意念和他校的經驗，同事也交流他們對課程統整的看法，在分享（一種社會學習）的過程裏產生了一些新意念。（2）外部化 — 從隱性知識至顯性知識，意念轉化成為實在（practical reality）。這個過程通常涉及隱喻、比喻和理念之運用，例如佛教茂峰法師紀念中學在發展跨科主題教學的過程，運用「以學生中心」、「以社會中心」及「以知識中心」作為校本課程設計的理念（李子建等，2002）；不少學校在發展課程統整時，會選擇一些主題（李子建、張翠敏、張月茜，2002），這些主題的孕育某程度上也可說是外部化過程。（3）結合／組合 — 從分離的顯性知識至統整的顯性知識。這是一種轉移知識的手段，使知識得以檢驗。例如某校的課程統整的經驗通過分享方式（如組織研討會、發表論文）與其他人士溝通，並獲得他們的回饋。（4）內化 — 從顯性知識至隱性知識，這是一個較困難的過程，目的是使團體形成需要解決問題的心智圖像（mental image）（Sallis & Jones, 2002, p.21）。例如經過多次設計和實施校本課程統整方案後，學校組織衍生了不少正面的經驗和待改進的議題，通過內部分享，不同教師一方面從校方的經驗豐富了自己的隱性知識，另一方面經意或不經意地孕育了集體解決未來校本課程統整的共同興趣（common interest ）和共同目的（common purpose）。另一種內化的方法是「從做中學」（learning by doing ）。例如學校嘗試從小做起，引入真切性評量，不同教師從實踐中理解真切性評量的意涵和評估在校本實踐的可行性。總括而言，通過四種知識轉換的方式，隱性知識與顯性知識產生不同的互動，進行衍生不同類型的知識（圖二）。以課程改革為例，社會化過程可能產生團體內不同人士的「共鳴性知識」（例如對課程統整的理解）；外部化過程可能產生「概念性知識」（例如建立校本課程統整的設計原則和特徵）；組合過程可能產生「系統性知識」（例如分享校本課程統整的評估結果及學習成果顯證）；內化過程可能產生「操作性知識」（例如引入課程統整的革新研究或新評量方式）。此外， Nonaka 及Takeuchi（1995）指出： 22 圖二組織知識創造的螺旋（修訂自王如哲，2002a，頁 67， 79；Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, p.73） a 面對面接觸 b 從做中學 c 內部訓練與教育 d 討論論壇 e 內部資訊公報和資料庫 f 革新研究 g 知識的轉移和再次使用：研究與發展 h 外部的接觸：聯盟、夥伴外部化 (Externalization) 組合 (Combination) 知識論層面資訊 (Information) 知識論層面內化 (Internalization) 隱性知識社會化 (Socialization) 個人群體機構機構間本體論層面知識層次 h f g e d c b a 23 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點 ‧ 組織知識的創造透過四種知識轉換方式的螺旋而達致（圖三），但通常從社會化過程起始。 ‧ 組織知識創造的螺旋除了認識論層面（顯性知識和隱性知識的分野）外，也可涉及本體論層面，即可跨越個人、團體、組織及組織之間的層次，而個人的隱性知識是組織知識創造的基礎，透過較大規模的團體和組織的互動，知識不斷轉化、累積（沉澱而成為組織知識的資產），使不同層次（由個人以至組織間）的機構學習得以完善（Morrison, 2002）。圖三四種知識轉換的方式及知識螺旋（修訂自Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, p.62, 71-2；王如哲，2000a，頁64）就課程知識的管理方式來說，王如哲（2000a）引用普羅特國際管理顧問公司，指出知識管理會遵循下列三項步驟： i 進行知識內容分析 — 例如把校本課程的經驗分析和整理成為可以向他校分享的知識； ii 激勵人員和文化 — 例如透過發展共享文化和表現評估機制獎勵參與知識創造、維持和管理的同事； iii 應用科技 — 例如利用資訊基本設施儲藏和整理知識，使同事很容易取得相關資訊，並透過網際網絡分享和討論知識對校本課程發展方向的啟示等。外部化 (externalization) 概念性知識 (conceptual knowledge) 社會化 (socialization) 共鳴性知識 (sympathized knowledge) 組合 (combination) 系統性知識 (systemic knowledge) 內化 (internalization) 操作性知識 (operational knowledge) 顯性知識隱性知識隱性知識顯性知識 24 以教師發展為導向的學校知識管理知識管理理論的知識論層次起始於個人，而個人的知識管理是機構學習和學校發展的重要基礎。就學校而言，陳美玉（2002，頁55）指出：「教師個人的知識管理同樣要在學校支持系統的協助下，在一個鼓勵個人持續進行動態的學習，並且不斷將知識外顯化、檔案化與書面化，助長知識分享、交互流動與移轉的環境中，才能將教師個人具高度脈絡性與經驗性的內隱知識與實踐智慧具體化出來，並有效的回饋到學校組織的發展上。」學校可考慮透過教師發展的強化，鼓勵教師採用下列不同個人知識管理方法（陳美玉， 2002）：（1）合作自傳法 — 把個人生活史的描述，與同儕分享，例如可針對目前工作環境脈絡、班級內常用教學方法與理念、個人專業發展與教學理想的詮釋，一方面擬定未來的專業發展計劃，另一方面反省與分享建構的個人知識，並尋求解決教學問題的實踐方案；（2）札記反省法 — 把教學實踐與教學理論相互印證，反省實踐與理論的差距或不一致的地方（李子建，2002b），以及特定事件處理與事後分析等。這個方法除了與同儕共享個人知識內容外，亦著重他人的回饋和對話，藉以發展更高層次（具反思性）的個人知識。（3）經驗學習法 — 把重要事件與經驗的描述，然後由閱讀者（如校外人士、校內不同部門同僚）標示他們的看法，作為集體合作討論反省的材料，這種方法一方面協助教師澄清自己的想法，另一方面可建立團體成員間的信任，以及把個人的經驗傳遞至另一個人或部門；（4）教學檔案或檔案法 — 把教學或課程發展的相關資料（如文字記錄、相片、錄影、錄音等），加以註解、註釋和反思，使內隱知識轉化為外顯知識，並可透過與他人對話和分享，促進校內的基準式（或標竿）學習（benchmarking learning）；（5）個人理論建構法 — 描述或回顧個人與教育相關的重要生活經驗及歷史，以隱喻方式把教師的觀點作深刻的處理，然後透過合作反思和不同方法（如庫存方格技術），把教師的內隱知識外顯化和理論化，並通過檢視理論間的邏輯關係和一致性，建構和發展教師的個人理論。此外，教師也可通過反思和行動研究（李子建，2002c），豐富個人的專業實踐理論和學校組織的課程知識。不過，正如不少學者指出，教師從事行動研究並非易事，一方面是缺乏資源和時間，另一方面也可能欠缺信心和技巧，因此大學和其他機構可考慮與學校建立夥伴關係（李子建等，2002；黃顯華、朱嘉穎，2002），以平等和互信的方式促進教師發展。學校邁向學習型組織在學校作為學習組織層面而言，Sallis & Jones （2002）指出下列取向有助強化知識管理：（1）多元智能及創意能夠發揮學校組織內不同人士的才能，藉著他們的創意和創新，促進組織內知識的創造和轉化；（2）情緒智能 — 透過發展良好的人際關係，促進團隊學習和知識社群的建立，以及隱性知識的分享和轉化；（3）困難的交談（difficult conversations ） — 交談由困難的交談開始，透過對話和了解雙方的情緒和觀點，把交談變成學習式交談；（4）行動學習 — 從做中學，並透過創意地解決問題或推動改革，把隱性知識外顯化； 25 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點（5）e-學習（電子化學習） — 學會學習，透過資訊及通訊科技提供另類而互動式學習的媒介；（6）社團式大學（corporate universities ） — 發展組織內（in-house）知識創造的取向。除了行動學習和學習型組織，王如哲（2000b）建議學校組織成員可運用利用式學習（exploitative learning）及探究式學習（exploratory learning），前者強調任務外顯化和持續改進的品質、明確而詳細的工作程序和適度的工作循環，後者較強調彈性和創意，不過會存有一定的風險。小結本文初步探討從知識管理的觀點看課程領導和教師發展，就未來發展而言，學校可考慮下列方向： ‧ 課程領導宜與學校發展結合，創造有利條件使學校成為一個學習型組織，以配合校本課程發展； ‧ 課程領導宜促進合作性文化、團隊工作和學習社群的建立，配合知識管理的方向。課程改革的迷思和挑戰很多，其中較弱的一環是課程評鑑和總結經驗。歐用生（2002）指出：「若只是有『衝勁』的校長，帶著有『創意』的教師，一直往前衝，沒有往後看，沒有加以評鑑。缺乏反省、批評的『草根模式』將淪為『草莽模式』。」（頁13）學校成員可藉著學校自我評鑑的機會把校本課程改革的經驗作一梳理和沉澱，以往學校可能只是關心「已經做了些甚麼」和「是否把事做對」，課程實施和評鑑的過程是否已得到照應，日後學校成員或可思考「可能和應該做些甚麼」和「做正確的事」（張吉成、周談輝、黃文雄，2002），多反思甚麼是對學校，尤其是對學生學習是最好的，把校本課程改革提鍊成為課程知識和實踐智慧。課程改革本身是一個複雜的系統，涉及學校所處的脈絡、學校的組織結構（如時間、空間和角色描述等）、政治、學校領導、教師的生活及其工作、學校文化和教師學習等元素（Hoban, 2002）。不少學者認為要擁抱課程改革，校長和中層管理人員宜扮演課程領導的角色，例如校長成為教學領導或革新的課程領導（高新建等， 2002；Fullan, 2002），而教師發展，尤其是教師的賦權增能（teacher empowerment ）更是學校本位課程發展關注的重點。此外，學校宜發展成為學習型組織，促進教師間的合作和團隊學習。校長和中層管理者宜成為課程領導，並以民主和革新（transformative）為取向，大家可思考 Henderson 所提出的一些問題，例如（修訂自 Henderson, 1999, p.16 ）： ‧ 如何使我們的某一科老師在其任教科目內引入動手、解難和創意的活動？ ‧ 如何鼓勵我們的某一科老師領導其他同事去探討教學改進的問題？ ‧ 如何重新設計課程去促進學生「學會學習」？ ‧ 如何使我們的老師花更多時間去進行有意義的合作式教學探究？ ‧ 如何使家長一同討論對某一科學習表現欠理想的策略？教師發展方面，根據Hargreaves 及 Fullan （1992）所建議的取向，知識與技能發展，除了反思、行動研究和行動學習外，學校宜發展教師的交流和團隊協作技巧；自我理解可給予他們較寬鬆的工作間環境，多關顧教師的工作壓力和給予教師更多的專業信任和自主性；生態轉變則可鼓勵他們共同持續學習、創造、整理和分享從課程和教學所得的知識，藉以培養持續學習和改善的學校文化。 26 參考書目王如哲（2000a）。《知識管理的理論與應用》。台北：五南圖書。王如哲（2000b）。〈知識管理與學校教育革新〉。《教育研究集刊》，45（7），頁35-54。李子建（2002a）。《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》。香港：中文大學出版社。李子建（2002b）。〈課程與教學改革的展望：加強理論與實踐的對話〉。論文發表於「教育研究與實務的對話：回顧與展望」國際學術研討會主題演講，主辦單位為台灣師範大學，12月 13日。李子建（2002c）。〈反思與行動研究〉。載黃顯華、朱嘉穎編著《一個都不能少：個別差異的處理》（頁 67-83）。台北：師大書苑。李子建、高慕蓮、梁邵麗紅、馬慶堂（2002）。《校本行動研究的理論與實踐》。香港：香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。李子建、張翠敏、張月茜編（2002）。《課程統整：校本課程發展》。香港：香港中文大學大學與學校夥伴協作中心及香港教育研究所。李子建、張慧真、袁國明、陳燕輝、曾偉凌（2002）。〈初中跨學科主題教學：總結與反思〉。載林智中、張善培、王建軍、郭懿芬編《課程統整第四屆「兩岸三地課程理論研討會」論文集》（頁43-55）。香港：香港中文大學教育學院課程與教學學系與香港教育研究所。張吉成、周談輝、黃文雄（2000）。《組織知識創新：企業與學校贏的策略》。台北：五南圖書。陳美玉（2002）。《教師個人知識管理與專業發展》。台北：學富文化事業有限公司。黃顯華、朱嘉穎（2002）。《一個都不能少：個別差異的處理》。台北：師大書苑。黃顯華、徐蔣鳳、朱嘉穎（2002）。〈課程與教學領導定義與角色的探究〉。載黃顯華、朱嘉穎編著《一個都不能少：個別差異的處理》（頁29-46）。台北：師大書苑。歐用生（2000）。《課程改革》。台北：師大書苑。歐用生（2002）。〈披著羊皮的狼？ — 九年一貫課程改革的深度思考〉。課程與教學學會主編《新世紀教育工程：九年一貫課程再造》（頁2-24）。台北：揚智。課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習：終身學習．全人發展》。香港：政府印務局。課程發展議會（2002）。《基礎教育課程指引》。香港：政府印務局。譚偉明、李子建、高慕蓮（2004）。〈香港學校界別的知識平台：學校專業協作計劃〉。《基礎教育學報》， 13（1），頁163-180。 Broadbent, M. (1998). The Phenomenon of Knowledge Management: What Does It Mean to the Information Profession? Information Outlook, May, 23-36. Cook, S. P. N., & Brown, S. (2002). Bridging Epistemologies: The Generative Dance Between Organizational Knowing. In S. Little, P. Ouintas and T. Ray (Eds.), Managing knowledge: An essential reader (pp. 68-101). London: The Open University and SAGE Publications. Elliott, J. (1998). The Curriculum Experiment: Meeting the Challenge of Social Change. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Fullan, M. (2002). The Role of Leadership in the Promotion of Knowledge Management in Schools. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3/4), 409-419. 27 課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點 Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2001). Implementing Change: Patterns, Principles, and Potholes. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G. (1992). Introduction. In A. Hargreaves and M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding teacher development (pp. 1-19). UK / New York: Cassell / Teachers College Press. Hargreaves, A. (2002). Teaching in the Knowledge Society. Keynote paper. Technology Colleges Trust. http://www.cybertext.net.au/tct2002/keynote/hargreaves.htm Hargreaves, D. H. (1999). The Knowledge-creating School. British Journal of Education Studies, 47(2), 122-144. Hargreaves, D. H. (2000). The Production, Mediation and Use of Professional Knowledge Among Teachers and Doctors: A comparative analysis. In Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (Ed.), Knowledge management in the learning society (pp. 219-238). Paris: France: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Henderson, J. G., & Hawthorne, R. D. (1995). Transformative Curriculum Leadership. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill. Henderson, J. G. (1999). The Journey of Democratic Curriculum Leadership: An overview. In J. G. Henderson & K. R. Kessan (Eds.), Understanding Democratic Curriculum Leadership (pp. 1-22). New York: Teachers College Press. Hoban, G. F. (2002). Teacher Learning for Educational Change. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Lambert, L. (1998). Building Leadership Capacity in Schools. Alexandria, VI: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Liao, P., & Yau, O. H. M. (2001). Knowledge Management: The Key to Success in the 21st Century. Hong Kong: Chinese Management Research Centre, City University of Hong Kong. Morrison, K. (2002). School Leadership and Complexity Theory. London: Routledge Falmer. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowledge-creating Company. New York: Oxford University Press. Polanyi, M. (1983). The Tacit Dimension. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith. Rossett, A., & Marshall, J. (1999). Signposts on the Road to Knowledge Management. In Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) Conference Proceedings: Knowledge Management. (ED 431948) Sallis, E., & Jones, G. (2002). Knowledge Management in Education. London: Kogan Page. Senge, P., Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Putton, J., & Kleiner, A. (2000). Schools That Learn. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (1998). Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice (5th ed.). New York: Macmillan. 28 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」容萬城香港浸會大學教育學系「性」在華人社會常被視為一種禁忌，不但中國政府1和一般家庭刻意規避，連學校也避免直接深入探討。然而，21世紀的社會風氣，使性意識的解放成為時勢所趨，大量的性報導、性刺激隨著無遠弗屆的大眾傳播、互聯網等充斥社會，對兒童、青少年帶來衝擊。由於這種客觀局勢的改變，使得「性教育」在華人社區受到前所未有的關注和重視（例如李文照、黃志明，1996；林孟平，1997；潘綏銘，1997，1999，2000； Archard ， 1998 ， 2000；劉光華， 2002；王鍾和，2002；楊雄、姚佩寬，2002；袁岳， 2003；胡珍， 2003；紫薇、佐桐， 2004；張耀銘， 20 0 4）。這情況在香港也不例外，（程敏夫、少年維特，1993；吳敏倫、吳穎英， 1 9 9 3；王䓪鳴， 1 9 9 5；文思慧、蔡寶瓊， 1997）。香港警方（香港警務處，2004）在 2003 年拘捕七至廿五歲青少年罪犯近一萬七千人，當中涉及強姦、非禮、非法性行為及其他色情罪行等犯案者有五百七十人。至於犯強姦及非禮罪名被捕的「青少年」中，竟有八十四人年僅七至十五歲；十六至十八歲的則共有三十八人。有議員及學者認為數字令人咋舌，當局應正視問題，全面推行性教育，教導青少年如何克制性慾。 1 中國人民大學教授、性社會學研究所長潘綏銘（1999，頁 9-15）著的《存在與荒謬-中國地下「性產業」考察》揭露中國內地的娼妓問題不僅是「死灰復燃」，而是在迅速發展，這已經是一個人盡皆知的現實。由80年代初到1997年底，中國累計查獲的嫖娼賣淫人員約是210萬人次。該書在出版時曾受多方壓力，後來得著名社會學家費孝通教授為該書的書名題字，才得以順利出版。由此可見，政府對與「性」有關的課題仍被視為一種禁忌。目前，香港小學的「性教育」課程主要集中在小五及小六的常識科中，是屬於個人與群性發展的範疇（香港課程發展議會，2002，頁34）。對課程改革與教學創新而言，這是一個十分重要的環節，畢竟性教育的課程實踐有助培養學生在社會生活的能力，幫助學生的個人成長，而最重要的是培養德育的發展（香港課程發展議會， 2002，頁5-6）。這些知識、態度和技能將會對學生的一生產生重要的影響，然而在2002年頒布的《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引》中，對小學常識科性教育課程的描述，則仍是在第一學習階段的分類表中簡單概述「與性有關的議題」而已（香港課程發展議會，2002，頁28-29），似乎對性教育仍未能作更深入的探究。由於前線教師們所能掌握有關教授「性教育」策略的資料不多，所以不能對如何落實香港小學常識科的性教育作深入探討，和研究多元化的教學策略。無可置疑，在新一輪的課程改革中，香港的小學常識科在2004年將會採用不同的模式來組織個人、社會、人文教育和科技教育等六個不同的學習範疇，以達至學生的有效學習。目的是確保能銜接幼稚園階段與日常生活相關的主題式及專題式課程（香港課程發展議會，2002，頁63）。事實上，「性教育」的定義不只是狹義的生殖、生理教育，而應是廣義的人生教育、人格教育、生活教育。性教育不僅是教導各種有關性的知識，更主要的乃在於培養負責任、有愛心的做人態度，促成兩性之間的和諧關係，引導個體在生理、心理及社會三方面的成熟發展（王鍾和， 2002）。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 29 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」但如何落實香港小學性教育，將會是香港的課程設計者、學校、教師在未來需要面對的重要課題。可惜的是，前線教師似乎不敢接觸這課題，例如在2003年2月由香港教師中心主辦全港最大型、以教師為主的《課程改革與教學實踐》的教育會議中，當中39項活動，沒有一項與如何在香港小學常識科落實性教育的課題有關。由此可見，在香港的小學教師看來，性教育依然是一個有所顧忌的區域，儘量避而不談，這景況真教人惋惜！從課程改革與教學創新的角度來看，教師的態度會不會構成推廣性教育的障礙？教師能否健康地建構和發展教學創新的知識、技能和態度呢？課程改革是否要從教師教育開始？以上種種問題也是教育工作者需要面對和探討。世界各地的小學性教育早在七十年代，瑞典2、美國、法國、加拿大及澳洲等發達國家，便在小學一年級時開始推行性教育，有的國家甚至在幼兒園階段便開始。劉國霖（2000）指出，「兒童在幼稚園接受性教育，容易把性教育視為一般事物，更能以開放態度去探索」。而中國青少年研究會秘書長孫雲曉也認為應該在孩子進入青春期之前，就進行性教育。在小學二、三年級就對孩子進行性知識教育是非常好的黃金時期，那時講陰莖、陰道、子宮就像講杯子一樣，對他們來說都是知識。性，好 2 楊雄（2002，頁195）瑞典是世界上第一個推行性教育的國家，在政府建議下於1942年開始性教育。1956年提出義務化性教育，1957年制定了性教育指導要領，其中包括了所有新興的性科學研究成果和實態調查，也匯總了各個學校報告的問題；1977年推出教師用性教育指導書，但是在所有學校真正地開展性教育是在70年代以後。這是因為即1956年以後，多數人仍持有傳統的價值觀，視性為可㘹，反對喚醒兒童式的性教育。自1976年開始明顯減少，與此同時，瑞典的性病和性犯罪的比率也在下降。瑞典的性教育主要從幼兒園便開始普及，以滿足孩子們的要求為前提，由淺入深，主要是從生理學的角度傳授妊娠與生育知識；中學則完整地傳授生理與身體機能的知識；在高中，則把重點放在如何調整對象關係和人際關係上，最終以避孕知識教育而告結束。比一層薄紙，捅破了也就沒有甚麼了，不要把性搞得很神秘（紫薇、佐桐，2004 ，頁247）。大部份西方的小學性教育課程和教學是由嚴格的教學進度來規管。課程內容大都主要針對7~13歲小學生正值身體迅速成長階段，其要點是：一、認識自己的身體：瞭解男女身體的簡單區別，瞭解人體主要器官及其功能；二、培養良好的衛生習慣，瞭解生殖器的清洗方法；三、學習青春期發育的知識，瞭解第二性徵；四、懂得男女之間互相尊重，互相幫助。繼而在初中階段，再進一步學習...... 五、心理發展認知六、異性交往的禮儀和方法七、性生理知識八、性對人生的意義九、甚麼是愛情十、處理性慾的知識和方法十一、人類的性與動物性的不同十二、性交知識十三、性病知識十四、避孕知識在過去，英國的性教育的發展則比其他西方國家較為緩慢。小學教育中雖有政策，但學校往往不需要提供性教育，辦學組織有權決定是否需要或在何時提供性教育，但必須在中學階段進行性教育。直至1994年，英國教育部才開始將權限放寬，但仍保留小學家長能要求子女退出性教育課程的權利，不過學童依然要學習「全國課程」中的常識科內容。畢竟，「全國課程」的常識科內容，也只是一些關於生殖系統的普通知識。這種不合時宜的情況，近年已開始受到英國教育界的關注。英國聖安德魯大學道德哲學與公共事務研究所所長雅捷教授（Archard，2000，p.7）曾 30 對此提出了強烈不滿，批評英國政府忽略學校的性教育，導致缺乏教師培訓與資源，也只有少量的課外活動計劃或相關的跨科目活動來支持性教育的健康發展。值得注意的是，過去香港的課程發展很大程度是沿襲英國本土的課程政策，這也難怪香港的教育當局對這方面是有所保留。但在 21 世紀，香港特區政府是否仍要墨守成規呢？在亞洲，日本的中小學性教育比其他亞洲國家較為先進，在八十年代開始便在中小學推行有規劃的性教育，內容包括身體發育、心理發展、男女的人際關係及與社會協調方面。環顧亞洲各國，日本的中小學是通過學校的全部教育活動來進行性教育的，包括「性的學習」和「性的指導」兩部分。所謂「性的學習」是指為了向學生傳授科學的性知識，使他們理解生命的寶貴，具有正確的異性觀和性行為的自我決定能力等，而按照《學習指導要領》的要求，在一定的科目中，有計劃地進行的性教育。這些學科主要有小學體育科中的「保健」領域、初中保健體育科中的「保健領域」、高中保健體育科中的「保健」科目、理科、家政科或技術、家政科（初中）、社會科或公民科、生活科、國語科等。另外，在特設的「道德」時間中，也部分進行性知識、性道德方面的教學。應當指出的是，這些學科、科目是按照各自的教學目的、目標和計劃進行的，他們不是專門的性教育課程，所以在性教育上，通過制定全體計劃和學年計劃，明確各學科、科目的作用，加強其教學的協調，使其內容具有連續性和系統性很有必要。「性的指導」主要是通過特別活動、「領域外活動」（即包括學科課程、道德、特別活動等三部分的教育課程體系以外的活動）進行的性教育。這種性教育不是以性知識傳授為主要目的，而是讓學生掌握如何處理、解決自身存在或面臨有關性的問題上所需要的各種能力，形成應有的態度，養成良好的習慣。在特別活動中，與性教育有關的活動主要有班級活動（高中為課外學習活動）、兒童會（初中、高中為學生會）活動和學校例行活動等。在領域外活動中進行的性教育主要是教師利用課前、課後時間，對在性發育上有不適應症狀的學生和在性行為上有問題的學生進行的個別教育。另外，在「道德」時間中也進行這種「性的指導」。根據日本性教育協會編著的《性教育指導要項解說書》的解說，從小學至高中階段的性教育的內容大體如下： 1. 情緒性和感受性。即：培養學生自然地、豐富地接受「性」的心情；讓學生領略生命的神秘性、偉大性和純真性；培養學生對生命的連續性、親子緣分等偉大自然的裁量的敬畏之念。 2. 社會性。即：讓學生知道自己生命的珍貴，使他們認識和發現自己是與其他生命共同生存的；培養學生尊重男女各自的特質和平等性的精神，使學生理解性的作用和男女關係的應有狀態，培養他們相互合作的態度；使學生對社會上的性問題有堅定的認識，培養他們審視性文化和性道德的能力，養成他們符合於社會人的素質。 3. 科學性。即：使學生對自己身體上和心理上產生的性的發展如何變化有科學的理解，傳授正確的知識，培養學生能恰當地對待自己的能力和態度。 4. 自我控制能力。即：為了培養正確地控制性慾望的能力，使學生理解行為的手段和對待性衝動的方式。另外，日本文部省編輯的《關於學生指導中的性指導》指明了中小學性教育的四項目標：使學生確實認識自己作為男性或女性的性別；使學生能基於尊重人性和男女平等的精神，建構男女人際關係；使學生作為家庭和社會的一員，取得 31 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」基礎、基本事項；適應身心的發展，解決面對的各種課題；使學生學習作為青年期的人的理想生活方式（張德偉、饒從滿， 2000）。日本學校性教育的發展，值得我們參考。相對而言，華人地區包括中國內地、香港、澳門及台灣，中小學性教育的推行則發展得緩慢了。華人地區的性教育為何「性教育」在華人社會常常被視為一個敏感的課題？這主要是家長、老師和學生均受傳統觀念的影響，在面對性教育的時候感到尷尬。以中國東北的長春巿為例，在長春地區，仍有很多家長擔心過早開展性教育，會引起孩子對性的關注。也有老師認為孩子年紀太小，講了也未見能聽得明白，所以性教育多安排在初中開始。長春巿朝陽區教育局通過對全區小學五六年級和初中學生進行大規模問卷調查，知道現在的孩子青春期提前，小學五六年級的學生已進入青春期，性教育應該在學生青春期前開始，所以得出在小學階段實行性教育是勢在必行的結論（蔣蕾、康磊，2002）。中央電視台（2002）報導，1998年的一次全國調查顯示，80% - 90%的中學生缺乏基本的性知識，許多高中生還不清楚「懷孕」究竟是怎麼回事。此外，有資料表明，目前中國青少年的犯罪中30％是性犯罪，其中網上不良資訊是重要誘因。《讀者文摘》（2003）為了探討青少年對「愛情與性」的看法，在台北、上海、香港三地各訪問了五百名十三至十九歲青少年，男女比例約各佔一半；發現台北青少年的性態度較上海和香港的開放，對十五個「性」問題之中的十四個，贊同程度都高於香港和上海。只有「允許未成年少女合法墮胎」一項，上海的贊成率最高（百分之三十八點六），但台北也高達百分之三十五。意見調查也發現，香港是兩岸三地之中最保守的，在八個問題上不贊同的比率最高。可是，台北青少年的性知識似乎較為貧乏，這一點從保險套的問題上可見一斑：台北有近四成受訪者認為「使用兩個保險套較能避免染上性病」；上海的比率為二成七；香港的比率只有二成四，超過一半人不相信這說法。目前，中國有三億多青少年，每年有二千多萬人進入性成熟期，並渴望得到正確、健康的性教育。一項香港和深圳兩地的對比調查顯示，香港的中、小學生獲得性知識的年齡普遍比深圳要早，而且多數是從課堂上獲得，而深圳的學生更多是從影視作品中學到的，知識很不全面，但深圳學生嘗試性行為的時間卻比香港學生要早，次數也較多。大學生方面，香港城市大學研究員岳曉東、甄雪麗（2001）以大型問卷調查，分析京、港大學生性觀念、性經驗和擇偶觀之異同。發現香港與北京的大學生在性觀念和性經驗存有相當大的差異，卻在擇偶觀上差異不大，主要仍按照「郎才女貌」的偏好。在性觀念上，香港大學生較北京大學生要開放得多，且兩地女大學生的性觀念較男生要保守得多。在性經驗上，香港大學生也較北京大學生開放得多，且兩地男大學生的性經驗又較女大學生要豐富得多。這正好反映出中國需要具有「性別平等」的性教育（晏涵文、黃富源，2000）。在台灣，王鍾和（2002）指出教育行政當局對性教育的態度較為消極。規定課程標準雖然列有「青春期的健康生活」、「美滿的家庭」、「認識異性」、「優生與生產」、「國中健康教育」等單元，高中也列有若干生物學的單元，但對於「性教育」卻隻字未提，更遑論對「性教育」課程的整體規劃。多年來，台灣學校性教育的實施經常都相當的被動，除非教育行政當局極力推行，否則學校較少去積極面對如「性教育」等這種敏感的問題。楊雄（2002，頁130）更指出台灣性教育方面缺少系統資料，根據現有資料反映，台灣中學生認為學校實施性教育相當不夠的約佔 90%以上，贊同應積極推行性教育者約佔85%以 32 上。推行性教育應首先從提供充分的性認知開始。例如：如何與家人相處與親愛、如何保護自己不受傷害、男生與女生之間的尊重與合作、如何控制及適當地表達自己的喜、怒、哀、樂情緒等。在香港，突破（1994）做了一項有關青少年與性角色、態度與行為的調查，發現約三成被訪者對性慾的出現產生罪咎感，約六成人會採取壓抑的方法處理性慾。林孟平（1997）就中學生與性進行的調查中，發現有四成的被訪者用壓抑方法處理性慾，更有五成人為處理性慾而感到不安；而不知所措者則佔四成之多。以上數字反映年青人對性慾抱有負面感覺，由於他/她們不知如何面對自然的性慾流露，於是壓抑便成為青少年處理性慾的方法，但抑壓卻會帶來不良的後遺症。吳敏倫（1995）指出長久抑壓對某些人會造成傷害，甚至使人做出犯罪的性行為。此外，多個調查更發現（FPAHK，1991；突破，1994；林孟平，1997；李文照，1998）約有三至四成的青少年以自慰解決性慾。但自慰的結果卻往往換來傷害。其中一份報告（林孟平， 1997）發現，在有自慰經驗的中學生中，（一）怕被人知道的有百分之十一點七；（二）認為有害身心的佔百分之八點四；（三）有罪咎感的則有百分之六點六；（四）感覺羞恥與懊悔的也有百分之四點七。以上數字反映香港不少青少年以自慰作為解決性慾的方法，但卻要面對不道德與罪咎的負面情緒。香港明愛黃大仙明愛青少年綜合服務（1999）的一項調中發現57%的受訪者表示得不到足夠的性教育，在聚焦小組中，學生表示學校未盡力提供性知識，而且內容不全面。學生吸收性知識的途徑，主要來自報章（31%），學校（29%）及朋友（24%）。聚焦小組中，學生也表示多從報章或成人影碟中獲得性知識，當遇到「性」方面的困惑時，43%的受訪者最希望從朋友身上獲得幫助，其次是家人（17%）及社工（14%），只有19%及21%的受訪者答對愛滋病的傳播途徑和行為的題目。性行為方面，有41% 受訪學生無想過自己發生性行為的年齡，24%則選擇17-20歲。聚焦小組中，同學表示性行為多在無計劃及匆忙下進行，47%表示在拍拖階段要面對及處理「性行為」這問題。近年，香港青少年對性的態度越趨開放，按城市大學社會科學部（2003）的調查，受訪者對青少年性思想的評價，五成七指青少年對性較隨便，四成七指他們較多性濫交；至於行為指標，七成九人認同青少年有自由選擇性取向，這反映青少年較成年人更接受同性戀。當學校、家庭與教會未能提供正確與健康的性教育，青春期男女就通過報刊、影視媒體等耳濡目染，吸收了歪曲的不良資訊。香港的性教育發展在香港，正規的性教育課程要遲至八十年代中才在香港出現。前教育署在1986年 12月成立了性教育資源中心，為教育和有關教育團體提供參考資料及教學輔導服務，並編印了《中學性教育指引》，這是一本較有系統的中學性教育教材，主張不設性教育科，建議將性教育通過不同科目，以隱蔽式或綜合式的方法向學生作滲透，提議不指定由一位老師授課，而提議老師在所教的科目，遇到有關性的內容時，便負責教導。1985年又成立了香港性教育促進會，從事理論研究和宣傳工作，收到較好的效果。但是一些學校仍視「性教育」為洪水猛獸、禁區，除了只在中三的生物科中偶爾一提之外，願意在香港的學校推行性教育的學校簡直是鳳毛麟角。性教育開展至今，各方面都認為離開青少年的實際需要還存在差距，極需努力改進。這景況實在是不利香港的青少年健康的成長。先賢說「食、色，性也」3，既然「性」是一種與生俱來的現實，為何不正面的面對，而刻意避而不談呢？ 3 見《孟子．告子上》第四章。 33 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」自九十年代初，在香港家庭計劃指導會及香港電台電視部合力推動下，第一部關於性教育的電視節目──「性本善」面世，開始深入社會，將性和與性有關的話題及知識全面的向巿民推廣。但「性教育」的禁區仍未能全面開放。文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997，頁3）在《性教育再思教育工作者參考手冊》一書中指出，香港大部份成年人對「性」方面缺乏清晰而坦誠的思考，以致對「性」及其有關的文化理念、社會制度及權力關係不能好好掌握。這反映出香港的華人表面西化，但對性觀念的禁區仍有顧忌。為了更有效地推動香港的性教育，香港課程發展議會（1997）發表了《學校性教育指引》，提出性教育的八個基本原則，要求學校推行性教育時應以學生為中心，在不同時候、階段因應學生不同的發展而施教。但據文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997）指出學校推行性教育有不少困難。（見表一）表一學校推行性教育時常遇到的困難學校推行性教育時常遇到的困難困難百分比教學時間不足 91% 欠缺曾受性教育訓練的教師 89% 缺乏專業建議 81% 教師感到不自然／尷尬 78% 資源／教材不足 65% 教師不願參與 57% 資料來源：文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997）《性教育再思教育工作者參考手冊》。有些事件曾對前線教師構成打擊，使他們裹足不前。例如在2001年，有一節目講述一間小學的一連串性教育課程，包括青春期的身心轉變，以及約會、婚姻和婚前性行為等倫理問題。此節目在每一節播出前，均有字幕建議家長陪同子女一同觀看。在其中一節，一群小一及小二學生繪畫男孩和女孩成長後的身體改變。一些學童在開始的時候感到尷尬，但在教師指導下，他們全都能完成習作，部分更在鏡頭前介紹自己的作品。其中一節的節目遭一位觀眾投訴，節目內容描述一名教師要求一群小學生繪畫人體的性器官，有侵犯兒童之嫌。此節目有關兒童性教育的嚴肅紀錄片並無不雅，也無侵犯兒童之處，並附有警告字句，因此可以接受在上述時段播放。最後，投訴因理據不足而不被接受（香港政府新聞處， 2001）。但由此可見，在香港的小學落實性教育仍是荊棘滿途，問題也相當複雜。香港小學的性教育主要集中在小五小六的常識科，主要提及學生（青少年）在青春期內生理及心理上的變化。雖然在課程中有性教育的部份，可是知識只是局限在青春期這一個狹窄的範圍之內，缺乏技能和態度上的培養。這樣的教學，毫無疑問能提高學生對青春期的認識，但同時也會引起更大的好奇心。如沒有培養適當的態度，好奇心可能會導致他們犯錯，社會問題也隨之出現。歸根究底，是學校的老師未能配合。首先，香港人對「性教育」諸多避忌，甚至認為「性教育」是無必要的。而香港大部份的小學老師就是在這個環境下成長。當小學老師在需要講授有關性教育的課題，便會覺得尷尬，加上欠缺性教育的訓練，教師在講授時會難以啟齒，更不免覺得無所適從，因此在面對性教育課程時，常常是輕描淡寫的帶過，或讓學生自修或回家自行研讀，而不會深入的講解。再者，香港小學的科目繁多，性教育是安排在五、六年級的常識科中教授，而常識科課程緊密，往往礙於上課時間不足而不能全面傳授性教育的知識，而且在考試主導的學習制度下，也沒有硬性規定學校對實施性教育進行評估。試問學生在這樣的情況下，又如何獲得有質量 ─ 即具有知識、技能和態度的性教育呢？ 34 如何克服及落實香港的小學性教育的挑戰學校是傳授知識的地方，也最能按部就班，有系統地向青少年推行性教育。實施周詳而有計劃的性教育課程，實有賴學校、家庭和社會三方面的配合和努力。面對小學常識科的課時限制，除了通過正規的教育方法傳授性教育知識外，也可以同時通過非正規教育方法在小學推行性教育。課外活動小學除了在常識科中教導與性有關的課題外，也可以在課外活動中加入性教育的元素。香港家庭計劃指導會幹事李明英（2001）認為，最重要是校方的參與和配合外界團體的援助，例如舉辦「小學性教育講座」，因應不同級別學生的需要，按其心性發展和理解能力而建議各式各樣性教育課題，例如「青春期」、「約會戀愛」、「性騷擾」、「性取向」等。這主要是針對學校受到固定節數的限制，這些性教育講座可編排於班主任課、早會或課外活動，通過問答、討論、錄影帶播放、遊戲、信箱解答、短講、節目欣賞等，輔以各式各樣器材，如模型、卡通圖板、教材套及錄影帶等，增強學習興趣，例如學生就錄影帶片段內容以「人生交叉點」形式作出選擇及發表意見，務求讓學生能夠從自己的情況出發，主動吸收性訊息，建立個人的性觀念。以靈活的方式施教，較單向的講授方式來得有效直接（李明英， 2001）。同時，這些活動也可以邀請家長一起參與，一則作為親子活動，二則可以讓家長獲得正確的性教育觀念，成為家長在家庭教育中灌輸正確的性教育知識的途徑。家庭教育兒童及青少年最信任、最具影響力的啟蒙老師就是父母。性教育不但應由零歲開始，還應由家庭開始。性是個人成長的一環，若父母能緊貼子女的心性發展需要，積極負起教育的責任，相信對啟發子女學習正確的性觀念及健全的性態度，可收事半功倍之效，也能有效加強兩代之間的緊密關係。家長在推行家庭性教育所遇到的障礙，主要是性知識不足、欠缺信心、不能克服尷尬心理、不懂施教技巧等。因此學校及教育當局有需要幫助家長掌握良好性態度及基本知識，內容方面也應特別加強兒童心性發展、回答子女性問題技巧、親子溝通方法等，以便增強向子女談性的信心。此外，當局也需鼓勵父母承擔家庭性教育的責任，強調兩代要建立有效的溝通及互相關懷，使孩子確認家庭的重要性（李明英， 2001）。由此可見，通過家庭和學校合作來推動小學的性教育和家庭教育，可收事半功培的效果。教師教育對很多已接受小學師範教育的教師來說，尤其是一些年青及未婚的教師來說，推行學校性教育仍是一個嶄新的經驗。因此教師培訓機構仍需要不斷加強在職教師對推行性教育的「常新教育」。可是，各大師訓機構所提供有關性教育的培訓不足，大多數只佔一個單元的部份課時或是選修課程，試問這樣又如何能提供充份的學習和討論呢？可幸的是，香港教育學院及香港浸會大學（校外進修部）的教育學士學位課程中也加插了一個單元的「性教育」課程。此外，在2003年3月由教統局主辦的「教師交流月」也開始鼓勵前線教師面對小學性教育的課題，但成效如何，仍為未知之數。這些活動的目的為充實在職教師及準教師的性知識，確立良好、坦誠、開放的性態度，能嘗試接納學生們的想法，以增強討論和教授有關課程的信心。與此同時，教師培訓機構也需要介紹各項資源及幫助教師掌握施教技巧，例如在互聯網頁上搜集資料的途徑，並將資料運用於課堂、專題學習、小組學習、反思學習及疑難為本學習之中， 35 如何落實香港小學常識科的「性教育」也需介紹如何處理學生的突發性「性」提問時的正確技巧。其次是克服在表達性教育內容時可能出現的障礙和困難，並能分享及接納他人的性態度，用不同的分析角度給學生提供全面的知識、技能和態度。總結總括而言，周詳而有計劃的性教育，實有賴學校、家庭和社會三方面的配合和努力。小學常識科的內容不單只是著重性教育上的知識，也應將內容推及至人格教育及道德範疇（文思慧、曾家達及吳敏倫，1990；Lamb，1997；晏涵文、黃富源，2000），並應盡量以平等、交流和討論的形式進行（文思慧、蔡寶瓊，1997，頁23）。然而，性教育的目的，並非要機械式的灌輸我們所接受、所推祟的某一套價值觀念給予下一代，而是培育他們的思考和選擇能力。第一階段的性教育可通過小學常識科來推動兒童成長，而推行性教育最終的目的，是可以使小學生開始對性和性行為的效果有正確和全面的認識，探討自己對性的態度，以及對婚姻和家庭的觀念，藉以培養出更好的判斷技巧和溝通技巧。最後，培育出一致和積極的價值觀及負責任的行為（香港課程發展議會，1997）。誠如文家安（2000，頁18）所希望「性教育能培養學生在肉體的、認知的、情感的、社會的、道德的和靈性的都各有成長」。換言之，待學生吸取有關資料後，懂得以其成長背景、教育或個人經驗，衡量面對性行為或其他性向抉擇的後果，並明白自己所能承擔責任的能力範圍，以最合適其本人的性價值觀去作出判斷和決策行動（Archard， 2000，頁34）。在香港的小學常識科中落實性教育的困難與挑戰仍然存在，主要是教師的培訓不足，課時不足；其次是性教育仍深受傳統文化影響。因此，要打破僵局，跳出困境，未來的發展仍需要教育界同工積極面對和開拓，轉變落後的觀念，為下一代的幸福繼續努力。參考書目《讀者文摘》（2003）。《青少年對「愛情與性」：台北、上海、香港調查》。香港：《讀者文摘》出版社。中央電視台（2002）。《我們需要這項教育》。8月11日。文思慧、曾家達及吳敏倫（1990）。《性與德育》。香港：三聯書店。文思慧、蔡寶瓊（1997）。《性教育再思教育工作者參考手冊》。香港：香港中文大學──香港教育研究所。文家安（2000）。〈性教育的理念及在學校推行的目的〉。董張伊麗等編《幼兒性教育教學手冊》。香港：香港教育學院。王鍾和（2002）。《我國國中小學之性教育》。台北：國立政治大學教育研究所。王䓪鳴（1995）。〈為性教育的發展重新定位〉。《青協通訊》第38期，頁1。吳敏倫、吳穎英（1993）。《性醫學新釋》。香港：天地圖書有限公司。李文照（1998）。《性健康：一個徘徊於健康與道德邊際的論題》。香港：香港性教育促進會。李文照、黃志明（1996）。《近十年本港青少年與性研究剖析》。香港：香港理工大學應用社會學系。李明英（2001）。《青少年性教育的推行策略》。香港：香港家庭計劃指導會。《兒性教育教學手冊》。香港：香港教育學院。 36 岳曉東、甄雪麗（2001）。〈京、港大學生性觀念、性經驗和擇偶觀之異同分析〉。《青年研究學報》第四卷，第一期（總第七號），頁140-152。突破（1994）。《本港青少年性角色、態度、行為研究報告》。香港：突破有很公司。胡珍（2003）。《中國當代大學生性現狀及性教育研究》。成都：四川科學技術出版社。香港明愛黃大仙明愛青少年綜合服務（1999）。《性在識性 ─ 青少年性態度及性意向資料搜集報告》。香港：香港明愛黃大仙明愛青少年綜合服務。香港城市大學社會科學部（2003）。《青少年對性的態度》。香港：香港城市大學。香港政府教育署（1985）。《學校性教育指引》。香港：政府印務局。香港政府新聞處（2001）。《市民就香港電台電視節目的投訴中，列作『理據不足』的個案》，6月7日。香港課程發展議會（1997）。《學校性教育指引》。香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2002）。《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引（小一至中三）》。香港：香港課程發展議會。香港警務處（2004）。《2004年 1月至2月與2003年 1月至2月罪案數字比較》。香港：香港警務處。晏涵文、黃富源（2000）。《性別平等教育》。台北：一家親文化有限公司。袁岳（2003）。《走進風月：地下性工作者調查》。北京：中國盲文出版社。張德偉、饒從滿（2000）。〈日本中小學的性教育〉。《外國教育研究》第六期。張耀銘（2004）。《中國江湖 ─ 娼妓的歷史》。北京：北京圖書館出版社。程敏夫、少年維特（1993）。《曾經胡塗 ─ 成長中的性困惑》。香港：突破出版社。紫微、佐桐（2004）。《中國校園性觀念調查》。北京：民族出版社。楊雄、姚佩寬（2002）。《青春與性：1989 ~ 1999：中國城市青少年的性意識和性行為》。上海：上海人民出版社。劉光華（2002）。《女人發現女人》。鄭州市：中原農民出版社。劉國霖（2000）。〈在性教育推行的技能和策略〉。董張伊麗等編《幼兒性教育教學手冊》。香港：香港教育學院。潘綏銘（1997）。《性，你真的懂了嗎？ ─ 21世紀性學讀本》。北京：中國人民大學。潘綏銘（1999）。《存在與荒謬 ─ 中國地下「性產業」考察》。北京：群言出版社。潘綏銘（2000）。《生存與體驗 ─ 對一個地下“紅燈區”的追捬考察。北京：中國社會科學出版社。蔣蕾、康磊（2002.7.9）。〈無師資無課本無課時　性教育走進小學不容易〉。《長春日報》。 Archard, D. (1998). How Should We Teach Sex? Journal of Philosophy of Education, 32 (3), 437-449. Archard, D. (2000). Sex Education. Essex: Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain. FPAHK.(1991). Youth Sexuality Study (in-school youth). Hong Kong: The Family Planning Association of Hong Kong. Lam, M.P. (1997) A Study on the Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviours of Secondary School Pupils Relating to Sex. Hong Kong: The Education Department, Hong Kong. Lamb, S. (1997). Sex Education as Moral Education: Teaching for Pleasure, about Fantasy, and against Abuse. Journal of Moral Education, 26 (3), 285-300. Ng, M. L. (1995). Human Sexual Response, Family Life Education : Handbooks for Teachers (2nd ed). Hong Kong: The Family Planning Association of Hong Kong. Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives ZHONG Caishun Zhejiang Normal University WU Zongjie Zhejiang University Abstract Teacher development is a major concern of current educational reform in China. This paper draws on theories that there are three aspects of teacher development : professional knowledge, teachers’ commitment and community of practice. This paper reports an illustrative ‘snap-shot’ of three middle school English teachers’ lives, to illustrate the current situation in China of teachers’ professional development. An analysis of this data indicates a current deficiency in professional knowledge, teachers’ commitment and community support, which undermines these teachers’ professional practice for the purpose of professional development. Key words Teachers’ professional development, Teachers’ knowledge, Teachers’ commitment INTRODUCTION Substantial progress in education has been witnessed in China, embracing both educational policies, institutional management and teacher training. However education in China is still found to be “imbued with problems” (Li,1999,p.179). One major cause of these problems appears to be the teacher education system (Zhang Jiaxiang, 2001). In China, teachers are usually graduates from normal universities, colleges or schools, where various area of ‘subject knowledge’ such as psychology, pedagogy and methodology are offered for professional development. After graduation, the schools where they work may then provide limited in-service training including mentored teaching, basic skills training, modern technology training, short-term training in holidays, participant observation, and collegial lesson planning (Zhang Jiaxiang & Sang Yongna, 2001; Zao Mengceng, 1999). These forms of training however may not fit well with the teachers’ professional practice (Song Deru, 2001). 37 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 38 Based on the concept of “lifelong education” (UNESCO report, 1996), the Ministry of Education in Mainland China now seeks to develop teachers’ “further education”, by involving all elementary and middle school teachers in the enterprise of professional development (Cheng Shuhua, 2000). The intent here is to raise the quality of education. Learning from countries adopting a similar “quality of education” goal and with contexts similar to China, such as India (as reported in Dyer et. al, 2004), people come to realize that in-service training could not achieve expected goals where the training content is felt to be irrelevant to teachers’ professional daily practice. To bridge this ‘relevance’ gap, the focus of teacher development has now been oriented towards the teachers’ lifeworld (Goodson, 1994; Allwright, 2003; Wu, 2002a). This paper seeks to investigate three ‘teachers’ lifeworlds’ and to illuminate what is relevant to the ‘professional development’ of middle school teachers in Mainland China. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Research in teacher development has changed its focus over the past few years. Two decades ago, it was still based on the “delivery mechanism” (Freeman, 1998) which was mainly concerned with what we knew or thought was important about teaching. But by the 1990s interest had been diverted towards “the thinking of the teacher” (ibid) i.e. teacher learning. This implied that teacher development was to provide teachers with “opportunities to learn” (Hargreaves and Fullan, 1992, p.1). This change in focus is reflected in the various approaches adopted in teacher development practice. Hargreaves and Fullan (1992, p.2) categorize three types of teacher development as: • knowledge and skill development • self-understanding, and • ecological change In this paper the three facets of teacher development are reformulated as three guiding research questions to invesitgate the situation of Chinese teachers’ professional lives. What expertise does the teacher need to have? “Xu gao wei shi” (‘the knowledgeable can be the teacher’) may best characterize Chinese traditional expectations of teachers. Knowledge of subject matter has long been considered central in China’s teacher education system. This view is now gradually changing. Freeman and his collaborators ( Freeman, 2002; Freeman & Johnson, 1998; Freeman & Richards, 1996) propose theoretical frameworks that redefine the scope and nature of teachers’ professional knowledge and emphasize teachers’ personal understanding of their daily practice. For Rose (2003) such changes in the notion of professional expertise indicate a move from ‘official’ to ‘local’ knowledge - the former being unitary and totalitarian while the latter appears to be “discontinuous, disqualif ied and illegitimate” (Jorgensen 2002, p.31). What developmental approach deserves teachers’ commitment? Approaches to teacher development fell broadly with a ‘skills- and knowledge-based’ paradigm in the majority of our past practices (Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992; Dyer et. al, 2004). Knowledge or skill was considered as something existing objectively there, usually discovered or possessed by some experts or authorities and therefore 39 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives known as “official knowledge” (Apple, 2000). Based on such a theory, teacher development is usually manifested as efforts exerted in various ways to facilitate the transmission of knowledge from trainers (experts) to trainees (teachers) Therefore it depends heavily on training institutions, beaucratic authorities and ‘experts’. Teacher trainees only play a passive role. But for Hargreaves & Fullan (1992), this “top-down” or “outside-in” method may silence teachers’ voice arising from their practice and prevent teachers from gaining true understanding for their own professional development. As more “local” knowledge is preferred now, we no longer regard knowledge as something that we can move around from one person to another (Wu, 2002a, p.339). This implies that teacher development cannot be achieved through institutional instruction but through understanding of individual teachers’ life in exploratory practice. (Allwright, 2003) What external supports are needed to facilitate teacher development? Where top-down imposition of knowledge and contextual irrelevance may drown teachers’ authentic understanding of their practice, interest has focused on communities of practice (Wenger, 1998). Communities of practice are assigned two key characteristics: Collaboration: Collaboration in teaching can take various forms such as peer discourse or dialogue (Manouchehri, 2002; McCotter, 2001), seminars or workshops (Frank, 1998), observing colleagues’ classroom teaching (Richards, 1998), action research in group (Wu, 1995; Carr & Kemmis, 1986) or even informal communication like chat, discussion, writing letters or emails, and other collective activities among colleagues. Autonomy: For Clement & Vandenberghe (2000, p.85) autonomy “holds prospect for creativity, personal study, reflection, the elaboration of new orientations and as a consequence for professional development”. For Richardson (1997, p.185) a community conducive to professional development shall be one of “sacred space”. Given these characteristics, for professional autonomy to flourish, it requires both social and institutional respect and nourishment. Teacher development, as we can see from the review above, has been approached from various perspectives with different foci. A common feature amongst the more recent approaches is that they address teachers’ practical and local needs and teachers’ “dwellings” (Wu, p.2002a) i.e. their daily professional life (Goodson, 1994; Allwright, 2003; Wu, 2002a). So in this paper we propose to take a “snap-shot” of three middle school English teachers’ professional life in China to illuminate the challenges and opportunities they encounter in their professional development. THREE CASE STUDIES The three case studies comprise three native-Chinese teachers of English and their reflections sampled over one representative teaching week. Convenience sampling - interviewees are long-term colleagues of the researchers: the ‘teaching week’ is arbitrarily selected - is an acknowledged research limitation. However the intent here is to report a ‘snap-shot’ of teaching reality. The validity of this ‘snap-shot’ stems from the mutual respect and confidence shared between researcher and respondent as demonstrated in the following biographic sketches: Huifei: She was born in a scholarly family (her mother was the headmaster of a middle school), educated in a medium-sized city in Jiangxi, elected 40 Chairperson of students’ union at college and awarded the Championship title in a debate contest. As a teacher, she has been honored as a “model teacher” in her school and invited to give demonstrative classes for her colleagues. Lifang: She is a girl from the countryside, a second-prize winner in a provincial English proficiency contest and promoted from a rural middle school to the No. 1 in her county for her excellence in teaching achievement and professional competence. Her husband is headmaster of a middle school and they have one daughter. Linwei: He is also from a rural family in Jiangxi and known for his diligence as a student at college. As a teacher, he was also promoted from a junior to a senior middle school for his professional accomplishments. The three interviewees have each had five-years’ teaching experience. They are reaching a stage of “impact concerns” (Fuller, 1969) in which teachers usually start to be concerned about further development in their profession by drawing on not only their personal but also social potential. This also can serve well our purpose of researching professional development. Reflecting geographic distances, the data comprise a series of telephone interviews. All interviews are held in the evening, once a day over a period of one full teaching week. Each interview starts with the reminiscences of our past shared college life, our feelings about our life and career, an account of what they do at work during the day including their daily teaching routine, their contact with students or colleagues and their feelings and comments on these interactions. Interviews are recorded in the form of book notes, whose accuracy is confirmed immediately after each interview. Then episodes or activities are identified. The analysis presupposed the concept that life is revealed as consecutive episodes and that the primary way of living is manifested as “comportment” within an episode (Donnelly 1999, p.936), so those episodes are the windows for us to understand the teachers’ life. Episodes are categorized and analyzed in terms of teachers’ knowledge, commitment and community of practice. The following serves as one example of this analysis process (Note: interviews were originally conducted in Chinese). Prompt: How was your school day today? Huifei: I attended a meeting this morning. It was summoned by the schoo l ’s League Committee. It had nothing to do with teaching. It was held as a response to a circular from upper educational authorities. ... (Interview Notes on April 7). In this conversation we can see that Huifei is talking about an administrative meeting she had joined. Her story also reveals that in this meeting they just sit there, listening to one school leader’s speech reporting on a circular passed down from the upper educational authorities. From this we deduce 1) that the knowledge within this meeting is “hard” or “official” (Apple, 2000) for it is circulated and universally applied in all schools of their city, taking no account of the specific situation or needs of individual teachers and schools. 2) that teachers show little or no commitment to the agenda of the meeting, since this meeting is imposed top-down on the teachers, does not emerge out of their authentic teaching practice and “it had nothing to do with teaching”. 3) that there is no collaboration among leaders and teachers in this meeting, for what they have to do is follow the requirements or stipulations in the circular. They do not have the autonomy to change 41 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives the proceedings or content of the meeting. It appears that all teachers are taking uniform actions but this impression is contrived. By drawing on the analysis of their daily practices in the way we illustrated above, we reach the following understanding of middle school teachers’ professional life. FINDINGS Our analysis shows that the three case studies share remarkable similarities in terms of the three analytical dimensions of professional life. Knowledge Our talks with the three teachers all show that they are embedded in “an organizational knowledge structure” (Schon, 1983, p.336). The main drive of their professional activities is the imposed “off icial knowledge” from top down. Linwei has the following account: Our primary duty is to fulfill the requirements listed in the syllabi and help students achieve high marks in exams. (Interview Notes on April 7) As illustrated above the official guidelines are internalized as the perception of teachers’ duty, and are embodied in their pedagogical discourse in terms of both their teaching content and method. Commitment By “commitment” here we do not mean the time, energy or emotion teachers devoted to their profession. Instead it is intended to mean the self-elaboration of authenticity of teachers’ practice i.e. the personal horizon which a teacher explores in order to enact his authentic understanding in his professional life. Their stories in our interviews indicate that the teachers are all more bothered with their daily routines than voicing and reconstructing the meaning of education within their own “knowledge landscape” (Clandinin & Connelly, 1995). One example demonstrates this phenomenon: Lifang: Every day, I teach lessons, grade students’ homework, plan lessons or chat with some friends. (Interview Notes on April 7) Linwei: The majority of teachers here consider that their only duty is to perform the routine classroom teaching. They care nothing about their own professional development. (Interview Notes on April 8) However, we do find that instances where they can engage in “marginal practice” (Wu, 2002), which can lead to authentic understanding as demonstrated in the following: Huifei: Now I am experimenting with a new theory— task-based learning. Caishun: How did you come up with that idea? Huifei: I came across it in some books. And I felt the idea is not only significant to our education but also practical in my teaching. So I started to try it. I surfed on the net to look for relevant materials and new ideas for my teaching. And now it works well. Caishun: I am quite interested in it because in my university some teachers are experimenting with a kind of similar theory called “RICH”. Huifei: That’s too great! Could you send me some relevant materials? The problem I have now is lack of materials and equipment. (Interview Notes on April 2) 42 Huifei’s spontaneous response to the idea of task- based learning is rooted in her concern for her daily teaching routines. Through her marginal practice (experiment in her own private space of classroom) she starts to match her life and work. This could encourage her further exploration in her professional life. But this authenticity will depend on her capability in negotiating the dialogues between her reading of institutional text and her own exploratory practice, which is the hardest point for all of them. Community of practice All three stories reflect the features of their professional communities. The collegial activities they talk of in the interviews include: Classroom observation: In Linwei’s school, all teachers are required to observe their colleagues’ classroom teaching 15 times every school year. In Lifange’s school, they are required to observe at least each colleague’s classroom teaching once every school year. Collegial lesson planning: Both Huifei and Lifang’s schools require that all those who teach the same subject grade meet and plan their lessons together once every week. Sta f f meet ing: Ever y week the school administrators will convene all the staff at least once, to circulate new educational policies, regulations or information on school’s daily life. (Interview Notes on April 7) One remarkable feature of these activities is that they are all officially administered, as time and places are fixed for teachers to meet and measures are taken to make sure that all those involved will take part on time and make requested contributions. These activities were intended to develop a collective and collaborative culture in which all teachers could achieve ‘professional development’. But they are not well accepted by teachers as we can see from teachers’ responses: Lifang: This afternoon it was our time to do collegial lesson planning. But this activity has long existed in name only. We never actually did it. We just sat there, some having idle talks and others minding their own business. (Interview Notes on April 8) Linwei: Although we are supposed to observe colleagues’ classroom 15 times every school year, we do not observe this rule strictly. We think it is of little help to our own teaching. (Interview Notes on April 7) However, this lack of interest in those collegial activities seems to be in contrast with their uncertainty in teaching and inner desire for opportunities to learn from others. Lifang: I just go it blind. I really want to see how others are getting on. I wish we could have more chances to observe teachers’ classroom teaching in other schools. (Interview Notes on April 10) Linwei: Learning from other teachers is important. We need more opportunities to learn from those experienced teachers. (Interview Notes on April 7) These two types of paradoxical stories are categorized as “overt” and “covert” by Clandinin & Connelly (1995), which are told respectively in public and private spaces. According to Clandinin and Connelly (1995), it is the covert stories that are related to teachers’ professional development and therefore should be encouraged in practice. However, this kind of “narrative authority” (Olson & Craig, 2001, p.670) is often thwarted or silenced in professional contexts so that teachers always feel uneasy to speak out such covert stories: e.g. 43 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives Lifang: We do sometimes ask each other questions. But they are usually problems with language points for teaching. We rarely discuss such professional questions like how to teach. We feel uncomfortable to talk about those things. (Interview Notes on April 10) Lastly we would also like to mention in passing some differences we find between these three teachers. They differ in degrees of passion and commitment towards their profession. Whereas Lifang is a highly devoted teacher and accepts her current way of life as a teacher, we can feel a sense of “having no other choice” from her words in our talks. Linwei has decided to change his job. He is leaving to study for his master degree. Only Huifei appears enthusiastic about her job. Certainly personality in relation to gender may be one important reason for their differences. But we find the contexts also play an important role. For example in Huifei’s school, she can experiment with theories like task-based learning and explore new possibilities. We know these innovations in teaching require communities of certain authenticity. The possibility in Huifei’s school is made possible by the openness of her school in the city. For example, she has easier access to information such as internet and higher value is placed on professional development. But Lifang and Linwei do not have such luck. In the relatively less developed towns, the institutional morale appears to be more conservative, where teachers are more ready to accept what they are used to through institutionalization. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT This paper reveals in current middle schools in China more challenges than opportunities for teachers’ professional development. Through the study of three school teachers’ one-week career life, we find that all the three teachers are imbedded in educational contexts where authorized versions of knowledge prevail, teachers’ voice and their authentic understanding are suffocated, collegiality is mandated and manipulated superficially and staff are generally alienated at work. The culture can be characterized as stagnation, resistance and alienation. It is far from conducive to teachers’ professional development. Educational authorities and researchers in Mainland China recognise these problems and are making strenuous efforts to popularize the concept of school-based in-service training for middle and primary school teachers (Yang Xiuzhi, 2002). This concept allows schools to design their own training plans, objectives and content based on the school and teachers’ specific practical needs. Teachers are expected to achieve development in their own daily practice. This approach towards teacher development aims to shape “teachers as learners” and “schools as learning communities” (Clarke & Hollingworth, 2002, p.949). Basically, we agree that this concept should be enouraged to address the situation facing middle school teachers now. But in order to realize a fundamental change in our educational practice, we would argue that our endeavors should be first directed to address the following three primary issues: Transforming current teachers’ beliefs and value systems about educational knowledge and practice The first reality we reveal in our study is the dominance of “official knowledge”. We have already pointed out that one result of such dominance is the uncoupling of theory and practice. In order to motivate teachers’ professional development, we must first of all make 44 them realize the indeterminacy and unpredicatibility of the constant changing reality and the limitations of the authorized version of knowledge in addressing their changing practical needs. We shall also commit them to the belief that the truth of knowledge only comes from their authentic educational practice. We find most of our teachers are always looking for or expecting to be given some kind of model in teaching so that they can simply follow it1. But they are actually often disappointed by those transplanted teaching methods or approaches, which are usually the results of technically manipulated experiments, because those scientific findings are irrelevant to their practical contexts. Their needs can only be addressed through their own understanding in practice or “local knowledge” (Dyer et. al , 2004). So “teacher development programme(s) needs to be able to convince teachers of their own capacity directly to effect change, and to build on and extend teachers’ views of the possible” (ibid, p.51). Teachers will not simply depend on the theories and official knowledge they are provided with. Instead they will see themselves as creators of professional knowledge. But this shift cannot simply be stimulated through inculcation. Otherwise, the new endeavor will fall again into a vicious circle as we we have seen in the past educational reforms.The prerequisite of its success is that school-based in-service training be implemented in an authentic sense of “school based”. Committing teachers to authentic reflective practice As we have argued above, most teachers are more ready to accept what they have been accustomed to. They are resistant to change imposed upon them. This has been the reason for the failure of our past education reforms. We can never successfully formulate any model for all teachers to follow. We argue that in-service training now should be re-focused on teachers themselves. This is congruous with our stress of “local knowledge”. When teachers begin to turn their interest to their own daily practice, they may be able to start a dialogic process between their own beliefs and practice. In this way teachers can involve themselves in “exploratory practice” (Allwright, 2003) and reflect authentically on their practice. To arrive at such a goal theoretically teachers need to understand: 1) that teacher development programs are started not because their daily practice is problematic and needs correcting. Instead, we shall take our daily practice as normal and base professional development on the normal. (for this point see Donnelly, 1999) 2) that teacher development is a process of negotiation between educational theories, teachers’ own authentic (local) understanding and authentic (local) practice, which may be illustrated by Allwright’s (2003, p.115) closed circle that unites ‘Thinking globally, acting and thinking locally’. 3) that the authentic voice and practice of teachers can only be nourished in authentic communities. Transforming school into a learning community “Contrived collegiality” may be the best concept to represent the current nature of school communities in Chinese schools. Most of the collegial activities are institutionalized and compulsory, as our study has shown. They are grounded on the extant institutional and educational systems like unif ied curricula, examinations, etc which function to strengthen the traditional ‘technical practice’ (Halliday, 1998) rather 45 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives than stimulating ‘authentic practice’. Within such communities, teachers will not feel safe, for they are always faced with challenges from the institutions, colleagues, and students. Now most schools in China have introduced the scientific management mechanism, which forces teachers into struggle against each other. For example, they have to be evaluated by institutions for their personal promotion; they have to compete with their colleagues for the security of their position in the school, and they hold the responsibility for the students’ performance in the examinations. In this way, how could teachers have true dialogues while working together? How could they practise authentically? The following words of two teachers reveal part of teachers’ mental tortures in practice. Lifang: Since my students are going to take the college entrance exam soon, I had no way but to do those reading and listening practice exercises in class. (Interview Notes on April 7) Linwei: Sometimes I did come across some ideas but I could not apply it in practice. Because for the senior students examination is considered most important by all. I could not risk my students’ future for my personal experiment. (Interview Notes on April 9) Lifang and Linwei both betray their own authentic understanding to give way to the dominant institutional control. They are doing what they are actually unwilling to do. What our teachers need is autonomy and constructive collegiality. For the former, the way out might be, as Hargreaves and Fullan (1992, p.16) argue, “to shift the balance of responsibility for teacher development and curriculum development from the centre to the periphery, from administrators to teachers, and from men to women”. To achieve this we need to provide enough safe space in which teachers can freely talk about their covert stories. This kind of community must be based on democracy, mutual understanding and joint action. We must be particularly cautious against any violent interventions by institutions and beaucracy. These three case studies were one enterprise to explore Chinese middle school teachers’ professional life. From this research, we already got a snap-shot of their social and institutional constraints in professional development. But we want to state here that the significance of research of this kind lies more in its consciousness raising than what it reveals of individual teachers or schools. 46 References Allwright, Dick. (2003). Exploratory Practice: Rethinking Practitioner Research in Language Teaching. Language Teaching Research, (7)2: 113-141. Apple, Michael W. (2000). Official Knowledge: Democratic Education in a Conservative Age. New York: Routledge. Carr & Kemmis (1986). Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research. London: The Falmer Press. Clandinin, D. J & Connelly, F. M. (1995). Teachers’ Professional Knowledge Landscapes. New York: Teachers College Press. Clarke, David & Hilary Hollingsworth (2002). Elaborating a Model of Teachers’ Professional Growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18: 947-967. Clement, M& Vandenberghe, R. (2000). Teachers’ Professional Development: a Solitary or Collegial (Ad)venture? Teaching and Teacher Education, 16: 81-101. Donnelly, J. F. (1999). Schooling Heidegger: on Being in Teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15: 933-949. Dyer, Caroline, Archana Choksi, Vinita Awasty, Uma Iyer, Renu Moyade, Neerja Nigam, Neetu Purohit, Swati Shah & Swati Sheth (2004). Knowledge for Teacher Development in India: the Importance of ‘Local Knowledge’ for In- service Education. International Journal of Educational Development, 24: 39-52. Frank, M. L. (1998). Understanding Teachers’ Self-sustaining, Generative Change in the Context of Professional Development. Teaching and Teacher Education, (14)1: 67-80. Freeman, D. (2002). The Hidden Side of the Work: Teacher Knowledge and Learning to Teach. Language Teaching, 35 (1): 1-13. Freeman, D. (1998). Forward in Richards, Jack C. Beyond Training. Cambridge University Press. Freeman, D. & K. Johnson (1998). Reconceptualizing the Knowledge-based of Language Teacher Education, TESOL Quarterly, 32(3). Freeman, D. & J. C. Richards (1996). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fuller, F. F. (1969). Concerns of Teachers: a Developmental Conceptualization. American Educational Research Journal, 6: 207-226. Goodson, Ivor (1994). Studying the Teacher’s Life and Work. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(1): 29-37. Halliday, John (1998). Technicism, Reflective Practice and Authenticity in Teacher Education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 14(6): 597-605. Hargreaves, Andy & Michael G. Fullan (1992). Understanding Teacher Development. New York: Teachers College Press. Jorgensen, Kenneth Molbjerg (2002).The Meaning of Local Knowledges Genealogy and Organizational Analysis. Scandinavia Journal of Managegment, 18: 29-46. Li, Defeng (1999). Modernization and Teacher Education in China. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15: 179-192. Manouchehri, Azita (2002). Developing Teaching Knowledge through Peer Discourse. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18: 715-737. McCotter, Suzanne Schwarz (2001). Collaborative Groups as Professional Development. Teaching and Teacher Development, 17: 685-704. 47 Understanding Teachers’ Development in China: An Illustrative ‘Snap-shot’ of Three Teachers’ Professional Lives Olson, Margnet R. & Craig, Cheryl J. (2001). Opportunities and Challenges in the Development of Teachers’ Knowledge: the Development of Narrative Authority through Knowledge Communities. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17: 667-684. Richards, Jack. C. (1998). Beyond Training. London: Cambridge University Press. Richardson, L. (1997). Fields of Play: Constructing an Academic Life. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Rose, Pauline (2003). Community Participation in School Policy and Practice in Malawi: Balancing Local Knowledge, National Policies and International Agency Priorities Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education, 33(1): 47-64. Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Maurice Temple-Smith Ltd. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning , Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wu, Z. (2002a). Teachers’ ‘Knowledge’ and Curriculum Change: a Critical Study of Teachers’ Exploratory Discourse in a Chinese University. Doctoral dissertation, Lancaster University, UK. 程淑華(2000)。〈骨幹教師國家級培訓啟動、繼續教育工程全面推進〉。《人民教育》，第七期。宋德如( 2001)。〈校本培訓：中小學教師在職教育的有效途徑〉。《高等師範教育研究》，13(6)，頁10-13。吳宗杰(1995)。〈行動研究：外語師資教育新途徑〉。《外語教學與研究》，第二期，頁48-53。楊秀治(2002)。〈校本培訓：當代西方師資培訓的新模式〉。《山東教育科研》，第二期。張家祥(2001)。〈終身教育和中小學教師的繼續教育〉。載張家祥、桑鏞炳編《跨世紀中國沿海發達地區中小學教師繼續教育研究》。杭州：浙江大學出版社。張家祥、桑鏞炳(2001)。《跨世紀中國沿海發達地區中小學教師繼續教育研究》。杭州：浙江大學出版社。趙蒙成(1999)。〈校本培訓：教師在職培訓制度的創新〉。《教育與職業》，第一期。 48 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Victor FORRESTER Hong Kong Baptist University Abstract As the discovery of penicillin from a ‘failed’ medical experiment illustrates, it is good practice to revisit apparent teaching and learning ‘failures’. Two Hong Kong case studies are here reviewed for they report educational ‘failures’ evidenced by students displaying a negative learning experience while undergoing Problem-based Learning (PBL). The first case study involved Primary Four and Five pupils; while the second investigated post-Secondary school students. An analysis is provided of these two negative learning experiences followed by a critique of possible solutions. The findings are intriguing - Problem-based Learning is shown to provide a flexible, responsive pedagogy that reflects Hong Kong’s current learning priorities. It is argued that the reported educational ‘failure’ reflects a tension between learner diversity and educational priorities, which raises the possibility that these ‘failures’ indicate not a ‘problem with PBL’ but rather a ‘problem with education’. INTRODUCTION Given that the origins of Problem-based Learning (PBL) have been traced back to the educational pragmatism of John Dewey (Menon, 1997) it is perhaps not surprising that PBL’s claim to present real-world problems within a learning context currently attracts popular attention amongst educationalists (Savin-Baden, 2000; Little et. al, 2001; Tan, 2003). Specific educational claims for PBL have arisen from findings in a range of educational settings e.g. PBL has been shown to bridge the gaps between theory and real-world practice in both medical education (Balla, 1990a,b; Schwartz et. al, 2000) and engineering (Perrenet, Bouhuijs, & Smits, 2000). At a more general educational level, PBL has been found to enhance specific learning skills e.g. knowledge construction and reasoning (Albanese and Mitchell, 1993); building positive study attitudes (Kaufan and Mann, 1996) and the transfer and integration of concepts to new problems (Norman and Schmidt, 2000). Such positive claims have led to the practice of PBL to be subjected to closer scrutiny. For example Tan, Little, Hee and Conway (2000) note that the ability to pose and define a problem can be limited by the learner’s access to information. Within conventional school settings for example, the potential of PBL to expose students to open-ended learning was found to be constrained by the higher priority of meeting and following the formal school-based curriculum. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 49 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Recognition of a tension between the open-ended learning offered by PBL and the closed-learning of the formal curriculum has stimulated debate that currently focuses on making education relevant to the ‘real- world’. This view argues that the real world is filled with problems, projects and challenges and that creating a “curriculum that reflects this reality makes sense” (Glasgow, 1997). Within Asia a similar debate has centred on questioning the ability of the education system to meet the market-demands for a knowledge- based workforce (Levin, 1994; Mok & Chan, 2002). In Hong Kong the argument that education should reflect reality has been strongly promoted (Learning to Learn - Curriculum Development Council, 2000) and accordingly PBL’s potential to expose this ‘reality’ to Hong Kong students would appear to have a pivotal role in fostering current education reforms (Cheng, 2002). Where PBL’s potential to expose ‘real-life’ to Hong Kong students may not be in doubt, professional teachers may legitimately question whether PBL really fosters students’ learning. To explore whether or not PBL fosters students’ learning, this paper reviews two Hong Kong case studies where PBL students display learning problems and argues that the findings may question the current assumption that Hong Kong’s education should reflect reality. WHAT IS PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING? For Tan (2003), a current definition of PBL is: a progressive active learning and learner-centred approach where unstructured problems are used as the starting point and anchor for the learning process Tan also acknowledges that, for some students, the experience of PBL can induce a sense of helplessness. Rather than exploring the reasons for their helplessness, Tan offers a three-point checklist for PBL implementation: 1. Is the ‘problem’ set in a contexts meaningful? 2. Does tutor-support include a protocol of questions? 3. Does appropriate scaffolding support self-directed learning? However the very need for such a checklist indicates that the implementation of PBL has not always been a complete success. Accordingly it is appropriate to identify and explore why PBL may not be helpful for all students. To explore the possibility that PBL may not be helpful for certain types of students, two Hong Kong case studies are now examined. Context And Research Method The first case study involves Primary Four and Five students (n=240). These students were drawn from a range of Hong Kong Primary schools whose staff volunteered to have their students experience PBL. Their PBL experience comprised a key element which was a Baptist University two-day Summer School initiative that aimed at promoting thinking skills (www.hkbu.edu. hk/~think). The specif ic PBL experience to be considered here was monitored and reported by the host staff in co-operation with the pupils’ regular school teachers (Wu and Chan, 1999). The second case study involves post-Secondary Hong Kong students (n=25). These post-secondary students were in their first year of a two-year Bachelor in Education (Add-on) programme at the Hong Kong Institute of Education where part of their teacher- training programme employed PBL. This case study was monitored and reported by the relevant teaching staff (Forrester, 2001). The research method employed here involves revisiting these two published case studies from the 50 perspective of investigating the students’ reported problems with PBL. The research method involves: 1. reviewing the findings of two published PBL case studies 2. analyzing the underpinning problems with PBL 3. critiquing PBL and individual learning styles Having outlined the context and research method, the following investigation begins by reviewing these two PBL case studies and their respective findings. 1st Case Study: Primary School PBL Eight PBL forums were formed from (n=240) Hong Kong Primary Four and Five students. Each PBL forum (n= 30 pupils; duration approx 1.5 hrs) was both led and monitored by the Baptist University Summer School host staff and the pupils’ regular classroom teachers. Each forum comprised pupils (girls/boys) from the same school/class. Although details of the pupils’ family background were not reported, it is reasonable to assume that participation in this thinking Summer School signif ied that these schools recognized certain limitations with their current curriculum. All PBL forums first viewed a traditional story modified to include popular local children’s cartoon characters. Subsequently, the pupils discussed aspects of the story. Embedding PBL within a ‘discussion scaffold’ each PBL forum followed a five-step cyclical sequence that alternated between Student and Instructor-led activities. The assumption here was that thinking is enhanced by prioritizing cooperative and cognitive learning: PBL Forum: 5-step sequence Instructor-led activities Step 2. introduces higher-order questioning (Why, Who, What, When, Where, How.) Step 4. introduce 1. a set of rules for discussing the selected question. “I dis/agree, because......” 2. how to examine ideas by using thinking skills/tools (e.g. an idea may be valued in terms of its Plus, Minus, Interest) Student-led activities Step 1. view video brainstorm contextual questions Step 3. brainstorm higher-order questions select (by voting) one of the questions Step 5. circle-discussion of the selected question 51 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Findings The reported research method generated cross- validating observations made in tandem by both participant observers - the pupils’ regular classroom teachers and the researchers’ own observations. These observations were supplemented by both teachers’ and researchers’ post-event reflections (Wu and Chan, 1999). Across all eight PBL forums, two different sets of student attitudes or behaviors were observed: • ‘cooperative’ students (80%) who discussed fully and with engagement. • ‘non-cooperative’ students (20%) whose discussion contributions were characterized as being confusing, chaotic, non-productive, and non-constructive. 2nd Case Study: PBL and the training of post-Secondary students Post-Secondary students (n=25; age range 19-22 years old, all female) embarking on their first year of a two- year Bachelor in Education programme at the Hong Kong Institute of Education were observed over one thirteen week semester. Part of their studies aimed at promoting professional reflection. Participants were required to: 1. formulate individual research proposals 2. offer an oral presentation of the research project (at local conference standard) 3. present a final written research report (following local conference guidelines) PBL scaffolding suppor t was dispersed throughout the thirteen-week semester. The assumption here was that reflection is enhanced by prioritizing periodic learning that is practical and cognitive: • research methods; library search; research report writing conventions • group meetings • whole-class’research-in-progress reports’ • explicit awareness both of choice and the need for the individual to be able to defend that choice Reported Research Method and Findings The research method involved a participant-observer - the instructor maintained a weekly diary, whose observations were cross-validated by both formal and informal feedback sessions with participants. Supplementary data were obtained from students’ mid and end semester anonymous course evaluations. The reported findings were of students rapidly dividing into two groups: • a larger group (n=20) who engaged with the set practical learning and went on to successfully present papers at an international conference. • a smaller group (n=5) who, though socially interactive, were disengaged and challenged by the set practical learning. Participants’ informal feed-back was reported as being guarded but towards the end of the programme ‘disengagement’ was acknowledged and sourced to a questioning of their commitment to teaching as a career. The instructor’s weekly diary entries acknowledge this minority’s growing ‘disengagement’, the majority’s ‘success’ and the initial difficulties of identifying the source issue. Formal mid-semester anonymous feedback confirmed ‘difficulties’ but not the source issue. Approximately two-thirds through the timetable, a source issue was identified and corrective initiatives were implemented - involving counseling and exploring alternative learning paths - however the effectiveness of these initiatives was mitigated by curriculum time- constraints. 52 Analysis - Why Does PBL Ill Serve Some Students? The analysis here takes as its focus those students who appear ill served by their PBL experience. This analysis will illustrate potential weaknesses within the open- ended education of PBL. In both case studies, an analysis of the reported findings reveals two key features. First, both case studies display contextual similarities. None of the participating students were entirely voluntary - the Primary pupils were ‘volunteered’ by their respective schools; the post- Secondary students were undertaking a mandatory course. Both curriculums were delivered within fixed time-constraints. Both involved students assumed to be academically homogenous - primary schools shared the same banding; tertiary students passed the same entry vetting-procedures. Second, neither of the two case studies demonstrates homogenous results - in both case studies, a majority was reported as ‘active’ PBL learners’ alongside a minority reported as being ‘ill-served’ by PBL. For school teachers, dealing with students who are neither entirely voluntary nor homogenous learners is perhaps not unusual and is commonly termed either teaching a ‘mixed ability’ class or taken as an example of the professional challenges presented by ‘ ’. Certainly the professional challenge of dealing with such learners is widely acknowledged - along with recommended appropriate strategies. For example, Brown (2001) advises teachers facing ‘mixed ability’ or ‘ ’ that group discussion/ presentation may challenge those students who experience general delays in cognitive functioning. In other words, not all students can cope with the exposure of PBL group discussions. Brown’s recommended strategy to facilitate such students’ learning involves providing repetition and practice of basic information and skills - e.g. hands-on activities. In contrast, Guillaume (2000) offers an alternative view by explaining that students challenged by social and/or behavioral problems commonly display off-task behavior, an inability to work independently and poor social skills. In other words, not all students develop into self-learners. To help such students, Guillaume’s suggested strategy is to provide cooperative learning. For professional teachers engaged in addressing the challenges of ‘mixed ability’ or ‘ ’ the strategies recommended by Brown or Guillaume - providing opportunities for ‘hands-on’ or cooperative learning - are perhaps neither new nor for the professional teacher, too demanding. What such strategies serve here to illustrate is that in education the professional teacher is a flexible teacher who recognizes that the learning context priorities or at least encourages students to have individual learning styles. PBL and individual learning styles Two examples serve here to illustrate the relationship between the demands of PBL and students’ individual learning styles. For illustrative purposes, both examples are hypothesised as being sited within a Hong Kong class setting, in which a PBL class teacher is adopting one of the two coping strategies offered by Brown and Guillaume. In each example the selected strategy is then critiqued in terms of the learning outcomes. Following Brown (2001), it is hypothesised that a class teacher presents PBL within a context or problem that emphasises practical applications. A critique of this strategy in terms of the learning outcomes reveals that the teacher may expect to find that this emphasis on practical applications may confound students who flourish within the contexts of cooperative and cognitive learning. 53 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Following Guillaume (2000), it is hypothesised that a class teacher presents PBL within a context or problem that emphasises cooperative learning. A critique of this strategy in terms of the learning outcomes reveals that the teacher may expect to find that this emphasis on cooperat ive emphasis may confound and disadvantage students who flourish within the contexts of practical and cognitive learning. As the above two critiques serve to illustrate, PBL by itself, does not offer a panacea to meet all students’ individual learning needs for PBL. Instead, like many teaching approaches, it is mediated through the teacher’s choice of pedagogy. The question then arises, what influences the teacher’s choice of pedagogy? In both the Primary and post-Secondary case studies, the evidence indicates that the teachers’ choice of pedagogy was successful for the majority but less so for the minority. On reflection, this situation may have been improved had the teachers adopted a multi-pedagogic approach - in effect matching pedagogies to individual learning styles. However the teaching contexts of each case study appears to have narrowed the teacher’s choice of pedagogy. In the Primary case study, the ‘teaching agenda’ held that thinking was to be enhanced by prioritizing cooperative and cognitive learning. In the post-Secondary case study, the ‘teaching agenda’ held that reflection was to be enhanced by prioritizing periodic learning that was practical and cognitive. What influences the teacher’s choice of pedagogy - as illustrated by these two case studies - is the ‘teaching agenda’. As is perhaps common throughout Hong Kong’s education, teachers are positioned as mediators between a mandatory curriculum and ‘streamed-by- ability’ students. Where it is assumed that students are ‘streamed-by-ability’, their teacher’s choice of pedagogy will tend to be narrowed to address the perceived imperatives of the mandatory curriculum. SUMMARY PBL has been demonstrated to be an inherently flexible pedagogy that reportedly has been successfully implemented across diverse knowledge areas such as medicine and engineering and also - with less reported success - across the more general educational contexts of Hong Kong students ranging from primary levels to post-secondary levels. This flexibility can here be characterized as demonstrating that PBL: • is adaptive to a wide range of educational contexts • promotes active learning • provides a learner-centred approach A review of two case studies of PBL within the more general educational contexts of Hong Kong students ranging from Primary age to post-Secondary however demonstrates that despite PBL’s flexibility, certain students remain ill served. An examination of these PBL-failed students serves here to highlight that solutions and alternative learning scaffolds are available and could readily be adapted to address a plurality of individual learning styles. A critique of these PBL adaptations then serves to illustrate that in teaching/learning the ‘problem with PBL’ lies not within this one pedagogy but arguably within a mis-match between educational priorities and student learning styles. For example, where teachers mediate PBL through cooperative learning (as in the first case study involving Primary students), such a priority may ill-serve those who flourish through practical learning. Similarly, where teachers mediate PBL through practical learning (as in the second case study involving post-Secondary students), such a priority may ill-serve those who flourish through cooperative learning. In other words, it appears that it is not PBL but rather the teaching and learning contextual priorities - the ‘teaching agenda’ - that may not match individual learning preferences. 54 References Albanese, M and Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based Learning: A Review of Literature on Its Outcomes and Implementation Issues. Academic Medicine, Vol 68, pp.52-81. Balla, J.I. (1990a). Insight into Some Aspects of Clinical Education, I: Clinical Practice. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 66, 212-17. Balla, J.I. (1990b). Insights into Some Aspects of Clinical Education, II: A Theory for Clinical Education. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 66, 297-301. Brown, H.D.(2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (2nd edition). New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Cheng, K.M.(2002). The Quest for Quality Education: The Quality Assurance Movement in Hong Kong. In J.K.H., Mok, & D.K.K., Chan (Eds), Globalization and Education: The Quest for Quality Education in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Curriculum Development Council (2000, November). Learning to Learn: The Way Forward in Curriculum Development. (Consultation document) Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council. Forrester, V. (2001). The Case of Student-teachers in Self-research. HKIEd: Kulwer Press. Recognition that teaching and learning contextual priorities - the ‘teaching agenda’ - may not match the individual’s learning preferences invites teachers to question these priorities. Such questioning is helpful for it serves to highlight that the ‘problem with PBL’ may reflect a more general ‘problem with education’. Of this more general ‘problem with education’, Tan, Little, Hee and Conway (2000) have argued that the open-ended learning of PBL can be constrained by formal curriculums. This paper expands their view, by highlighting that formal curriculums may only be part of a broader ‘problem with education’, which constrains teachers’ choice of pedagogy. As the two case studies illustrate, the teacher’s choice of pedagogy can be constrained by contextual similarities. First, both case studies report a curriculum located within a constraining timeframe. Second, both case studies report students as assumed to be academically homogenous. Where students are assumed to be academically homogenous, teaching that addresses a plurality of individual learning styles may have a low teaching priority. It is this combination of contextual similarities that constrained teacher’s choice of pedagogy and which suggests that a ‘problem with PBL’ may rather be a ‘problem with education’. To resolve this learning and teaching ‘problem with education’, one solution rests in challenging ‘ownership’ of the curriculum along with pedagogic reliance on assumptions of ‘homogenous’ learners built on the questionable legitimacy of ‘streaming-by-ability’. Where a curriculum accounts for all the allocated time, conflict with learner diversity appears inevitable and the teacher may expect to encounter student ‘failure’. However, where a curriculum is ‘negotiated’, where teachers feel empowered to exercise their professional flexibility, then pedagogic reliance on assumptions of ‘homogenous’ learners can be reduced and the essential unity of learning and teaching restored. 55 Problem-based Learning: a Problem with Education? Glasgow, N.A. (1997). New Curriculum for New Times: A Guide to Student-centered, Problem-based Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Guillaume, A.M. (2000) Classroom Teaching: a Primer for New Professionals. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill. Kaufan, D.M., & Mann, K.V. (1996). Comparing Students’ Attitudes in Problem-based and Conventional Curricula. Academic Medicine, 71 (10), 1096-1099. Levin, B.B. ed (1994). Energizing Teachers Education and Professional Development with Problem-based Learning. Virginia: ASCD. Little, P., Tan, O.S., Kandlbinder, P., Williams, A., Cleary, K., & Conway, J. (Eds) (2001). On Problem-based Learning: Experience, Empowerment and Evidence. Proceedings of the 3rd Asia Pacific Conference on Problem Based Learning. Newcastle: Australian Problem Based Learning Network. www.newcastle.edu.au/conferences/PBL2001. Menon, M. (1997). Can a Problem-based Approach Enliven the Curriculum? Prospero, vol.3 no 2, pp.62-67. Mok, J.K.H. & Chan, D.K.K. (2002). Introduction. In J.K.H. Mok & D.K.K. Chan (Eds.), Globalization and Education: The Quest for Quality Education in Hong Kong (pp.1-19). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Norman, G.R. and Schmidt, H.G. (2000). Effectiveness of Problem-based Learning Curricula: Theory, Practice and Paper Darts. Medical Education, Vol 34, pp.721-728. Perrenet, J.C., Bouhuijs, P.A.J., & Smits, J.G.M.M. (2000). The Suitability of Problem-based Learning for Engineering Education: Theory And Practice. Teaching in Higher Education, 5 (3), 345-358. Savin-Baden, M. (2000). Facilitating Problem-based Learning in Higher Education: Untold Stories. Buckingham, Open University Press for the Society into Higher Education. Schwartz, P. Mennin, S. and Webb, G. (2000). Problem-based Learning: Case Studies, Experience and Practice. London: Kogan Page. Tan, O.S. (2003). Problem-based Learning Innovation: Using Problems to Power Learning in the 21st Century. Singapore: Thomson Learning. Tan, O.S., Little, P., Hee, S.Y., & Conway, J. (Eds) (2000). Problem-based Learning: Educational Innovation Across Disciplines. Singapore: Temasek Centre for Problem-based Learning. Wu, W.Y., and Chan, C.K. (1999). Exploring Thinking Curriculum in Hong Kong Primary School: A Five-year Retrospect. In M. Wass (Ed.), Enhancing Learning: Challenge of Integrating Thinking and Informal Technology into the Curriculum (Vol II, pp.642-647). Singapore: Educational Research Association. 56 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching CHAN Kwok-wai Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract This paper reports a survey study of in-service teachers’ motives, perceptions and concerns about teaching. Three motives were identified for their choosing of teaching as a career, viz. Intrinsic/Altruistic, Extrinsic/Job condition and Influence from others. Of the three motives, it was mostly Intrinsic/Altruistic motive which caused them to join the teaching profession. For the concerns, the teachers under study demonstrated a higher proportion of “concern for pupils” than “concern with self ”, suggesting they had progressed to a higher stage of professional development. The teachers were generally inclined towards the constructivist conceptions about teaching and learning. Nevertheless, they were pressurized by the tight teaching schedule and examination system, hence they still relied on didactic teaching and required students to memorize or recite what were taught in class. Key words Motives, Perceptions, Concerns, Professional development, In-service teachers 摘要本論文報導一個調查在職教師的教學動機、看法和關注結果。選擇教學作為職業的動機，可分為內在 /利他，外在/工作條件和他人的影響。其中持內在/利他動機的人數最多。至於教師的關注焦點，“關注學生” 比“關注自己”的人數較多，顯示受調查的教師已進展到較高的專業發展階段。調查中的教師具信心、投入，一般傾向於建構主義，然而，受壓於緊湊的教學程序和考試制度，仍然倚靠傳統的講學方法和需要學生背誦和記憶課堂內所學。關鍵詞動機、看法、關注焦點、專業發展、在職教師 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 57 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching INTRODUCTION The quality and performance of teachers are always considered as determining factors for the success of educational changes. Since the 1980s, the decline in quality of teachers has become an issue of concern to the education sector (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Education Commission, 1992). Scholars and educators have identif ied several major problems faced by recruitment and retention in the teaching profession, such as the teaching profession fails to attract bright young people (Murnane, 1991), a disproportionate share of higher ability teachers leave teaching to pursue for other careers (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Murnane, 1991), and the under-representation of both qualified minority teachers (Newby, Smith, Newby, & Miller, 1995) and males in the primary school teaching force (Johnston, Mckeown, & McEwen, 1999). The first few years of teaching seem to be critical for novice or beginning teachers. Studies showed that a fairly high proportion of teachers leave the teaching profession in the early years of teaching and that some potential teachers do not join the teaching profession (Ingersoll, 2001; “Teacher Shortages”, 2001). In US, about one-fourth of teachers leave by the end of their second year (National Center for Education Statistics, 1992; cited in Smith, 1997). Some of them leave the teaching profession with disappointment and a sense of helplessness during these period. Several reasons may account for their leaving of the teaching profession, viz. the attractiveness of the teaching work which is related to their motives of taking up teaching as a career, the lack of support (assistance) related to their concerns about teaching, their perception about teaching before and after joining the teaching profession, which eventually may strengthen their desire to stay in the profession or to leave with disappointment and dissatisfaction. It is obvious that the quality of teaching force is not governed only by the qualification, pedagogical knowledge and teaching skill of teachers, but also their enthusiasm, dedication and commitment in teaching. It is also determined by the motives of teachers to join the teaching team and how they perceive teaching as a career. At the same time, the teachers’ behaviour and teaching performance may also be influenced by their conceptions about teaching and learning and their confidence to teach. Thus it is important to examine all these psychological constructs of teachers. The present study aims to study the professional development of in-service teachers from beginning to experienced teachers through investigating psychological constructs of in-service teacher education students in a tertiary institute of Hong Kong. The examined psychological constructs included in-service teachers’ motives in joining the teaching profession, their perception/conception about teaching and learning before and after taking up teaching and their focus of concerns in teaching. It is hoped that the results would provide valuable information to teacher educators and school authorities to assist professional development of teachers to promote their qualities and retain quality teachers in the teaching profession. RELATED LITERATURE The professional development of teachers can be considered in two aspects: cognitive and affective, both of which are important in determining teachers’ efficacy. The cognitive aspect refers to acquisition of pedgagogical knowledge and improved instructional skill, which will help teachers’ classroom teaching and management. In some way, this is influenced by the teachers’ beliefs and conceptions about teaching and 58 learning, for example, the role of teacher and pupils and the preferred way of teaching and learning. The teachers’ commitment and dedication to the teaching career is an important affective component in teacher development. Probably they are influenced by the motives in taking up teaching as a career, the confidence level and concerns in teaching. Qualified teachers lacking the motives to teach often have little enthusiasm and driving force in their work. When a teacher has taught for sometime, work may become routinized. Consequently, interest decreases and the teacher fails to work to his/her full capacity and becomes less effective. In concrete terms, the result is lack of planning, resistance towards change and general negligence. Researchers are keen to find out the reasons that may have affected students’ perceptions and career choices. There have been research literature on the views of student teachers (e.g. Johnston et. al, 1999; Reid & Caudwell, 1997), the career intentions of undergraduates and high/secondary school leavers and their perception of the teaching profession (e.g. Hutchinson & Johnson , 1994; Kyriacou & Coulthard, 2000). All these studies have helped teacher educators understand student teachers’ motives to teach. Numerous studies on the motives of teachers entering the teaching profession have been conducted in US and Britain; however, few have been conducted in Asian countries (Yong, 1995). Research on prospective teachers in the US and Britain show that their major motives in choosing a teaching career are both altruistic and intrinsic. However, the study conducted by Yong (1995) shows that extrinsic motives were the determinants for teacher trainees entering into teaching in Brunei Darussalam. The results do not lend support to earlier research studies in Western countries. In a study of non-graduate pre-service teacher education students by Chan (1998), it was found that their major motives in enrolling in the teacher education program were mainly extrinsic. While the motives to choose teaching as a career is influential upon individual’s performance in classroom teaching, teachers’ concerns about teaching are often studied in the stages of teacher development. Fuller (1969) conceptualized teacher development around concerns expressed by teachers at different points in their professional experiences. She believed that concerns were reflective of strong motivators and of areas of great interest to the teacher (Heathcoat, 1997). Fuller’s (1969) model of concerns has been widely used in teacher education institutes as illustration of different stages of teacher professional development. In her studies, Fuller (1969) identified two categories of concerns - concerns with self and concerns with pupils. Student teachers and teachers in their first year consistently showed concerns with self (e.g. class management, acceptance by pupils and others), which are related to survival in the classroom. As teachers progressed along, teachers become increasingly concerned with their ability to manage the teaching tasks and their influence on pupils’ learning and development. That is, experienced and effective teachers tend to focus their concerns on pupils’ needs and development. Later, Fuller reorganized her early model of teacher development and theorized that teacher concerns could be classified into three distinct categories: “self concerns” which center around the individual’s concern for their own survival related to their teacher preparation program, including their teaching experience; “task concerns” which focus upon the duties that teachers must carry out within the school environment; and “impact concerns” which are related to one’s ability to make a difference and be successful with his/her students and the teaching/learning process (Fuller, 1969; Fuller, Parsons, & Watkins, 1974). Fuller (1969) believed that as pre-service teachers moved through their training, their concerns moved from self 59 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching to task, then finally to impact concerns. Similar kinds of concerns changes are expected to be found in in-service teachers as they progress in the periods of teaching. The categories of teachers’ concepts hypothesized by Fuller (1969, 1974) have been demonstrated and partially supported in some other researchers’ work (Chan, 2002; Furlong & Maynard, 1995). It was reported that pre- service and beginning teachers have greater self concerns than those exhibited by in-service and experienced teachers (Adams, 1982; Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987). Teacher educators need to have a knowledge of pre-service and novice teachers’ concerns and to address their concerns in order to decrease the rates of attrition of teacher candidates within their progress (O’connor & Taylor,1992). Whether there is a cultural or social difference is also an interesting area of investigation. Related to the teachers’ concern is their confidence to teach. Weinstein (1989, 1990) has found that pre-service teachers in US are unrealistically optimistic about teaching before teaching practice. Although they agree with the concern of experienced teachers on class discipline, they are optimistic in handling class teaching and lay much value on teacher- pupils relationship. O’Connell’s (1994) study indicated that the first year teaching was not what the novice teachers expected and many of the previous beliefs and optimism had broken in face of the reality. Therefore, the degree pre-service teachers are prepared for teaching are reflected from the confidence and optimistic view held. The changes in confidence and optimism toward teaching before and after taking up teaching can be reviewed from the teachers’ perceptions. The information gathered would provide useful feedback to teacher educators and teacher education students to evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of the program for professional development of teachers. Another important component in teachers’ professional development is teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning. Researchers have suggested that teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning are beliefs driven, and are related to teachers’ instructional decisions, teaching behaviour and actions in the classroom (Caldehead, 1996; Flores, 2001; Richardson, 1996). A teacher’s educational beliefs or conceptions may influence his/her judgement about what kind of knowledge is essential, the ways of teaching and learning and the methods of class management to be adopted. That is, teachers’ beliefs and hence their conceptions about teaching and learning can guide pedagogical decisions and practices (Ennis, Cothran, & Loftus, 1997; Wilson, Readence, & Konopak, 2002). Research has also suggested that teacher education students’ beliefs are well established by the time they begin a teacher education program and that these beliefs about teaching are formed during the apprenticeship of observation in their former days of schooling (Lortie, 1975). There are varied opinions and findings as regards whether the teachers’ beliefs and conceptions about teaching and learning can be altered by training and experiences gained in teacher education programs (e.g. Tillema, 1997). Therefore, examining teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning (such as their views about pedagogy, the role of teacher and students, the relative importance of theory versus practice, the usefulness of teacher education program to their teaching, etc.) would provide valuable feedback to teacher educators and program designers on the effectiveness and impact of the teacher education program on pre- and in-service teachers’ professional development. OBJECTIVES The present study aims to examine the motives, conceptions and concerns of in-service teachers in the process of professional development. Based on the purpose of the study, several research questions were drawn. 60 Research Questions 1. What are the motives of in-service teachers in choosing teaching as a career? 2. What perceptions/conceptions are held by in- service teachers before and after taking up teaching? 3. What are their concerns about teaching? 4. Are there any significant differences in teachers’ motives to teach and concerns about teaching with respect to their demographic characteristics? Method A questionnaire was administered to 246 in-service teacher education students of a tertiary institute in Hong Kong. The questionnaire contained 80 items, to be rated on a five point Likert scale: from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Based on the theoretical concepts and research findings on teachers’ motives, concerns, perceptions/conceptions about teaching and learning as mentioned in the Related Literature section, items were written to measure these variables and grouped into four areas. Area 1 consisted of 21 items intended to measure the motives of the participants to take up teaching as a career. Areas 2 and 3 each consisted of 19 items, intended to examine the psychology of the participants before and after taking up teaching. The assessed psychology of the particpants included the confidence to teach, their perceptions/conceptions about teaching and learning, related to the constructivist and traditional views about teaching, pedagogy, teacher-pupils relationship and class management. Area 4 consisted of 21 items intended to examine the concerns in teaching, which targeted at students’ learning and development, the teaching tasks and the teachers themselves. Before completing the questionnaire, participants were asked to supply their demographic characteristics including their gender, age, elective or subject, teaching experiences and level (primary or secondary) taught in school. Participants The participants were in-service teacher education students enrolled in the Two-year Part-time Postgraduate Diploma of Education (PGDE) and the Three-year Mixed Mode Bachelor of Education (MMBEd) program. There were 80 students (32.52%) from the PGDE program and 166 (67.48%) from the MMBEd program. Of those who had indicated their gender (N = 203), 64 were male (31.5 %) and 139 were female (68. 5%). The age ranged from 20 to 36 and above, mostly around 20-25 (38.5%) and 26-30 (34.6%). For teaching experiences, they ranged from less than 1 year (4.7%) to more than 20 years (6.8%), most of them around 1-5 years of teaching experiences (61.3%). There were 58 students teaching at primary and 186 at secondary level, with 2 teaching at post-secondary level. Data Analysis Exploratory factor analysis using Maximum Likelihood and Oblimin Rotation was applied to the rated response items (Areas 1 and 4) of the questionnaire to determine the number and nature of factors accounting for the motives to take up teaching as a career; and the focused concerns perceived by the in-service teachers. Psychometric properties (reliability Cronbach alphas) of the motives and concerns factors or subscales identified were then computed. Multivariate analysis (ANOVA) was also applied to investigate if there was any significant difference of the identified factors or subscales wi th respect to the demographic characteristics of the participants. 61 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching Results 1. Motives to Teach With eigen-value of 1 as the cut-off and scree-plot test, three factors were extracted accounting for an accumulative percentage of variance equal to 51.11%. The first factor accounts for a variance of 24.03%, the second factor 17.32% and the third one 9.76%. According to the nature of items, factor 1 was labeled “Influence from others”, factor 2 was labeled “Intrinsic/ Altruistic” and factor 3 was labeled “Extrinsic/Job condition”. The factor structure and the mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the extracted factors are given in Table 1. Table 1 Factor Structure, Mean, Standard Deviation and Reliability of the Motives in Choosing Teaching as a Career Pattern matrix (Maimum Likelihood and Oblimin Rotation) 62 ANOVA was applied to analyze the motives of in-service teachers to take up teaching with respect to their demographic variables. Significant difference was found at .05 level between programs of study, age and teaching experiences. For programs of study, significant difference was found in the second motive to teach, that is, “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive (PGDE: mean = 3.64, SD = .52; MMBEd: mean = 3.80, SD = .58), (F (1, 240) = 4.34, p<.05; t (240) = -2.08, p<.05). For age groups, signif icant difference was found in the motive “Influence from others” and the difference was found between two age groups (20-25: mean = 2.49, SD = .73; 26-30: mean = 2.20, SD = .73), (F (3, 230) = 2.81, p<.05; t (169) = 2.59, p<.05). For teaching experience, signif icant difference was found in the motive “Influence from others” (F (5, 229) = 2.40, p <.05) and this was found between the following groups of teaching experiences (1-5 years versus 6-10 years and 1-5 years versus 16-20 years). In the former case, (1-5 years: mean = 2.39, SD = .69; 6-10 years: mean = 2.05, SD = .75, t (181) = 2.67, p <.05); and in the latter case, (1-5 years: mean = 2.39, SD = .69; 16-20 years: mean = 1.82, SD = .69, t (153) = 2.65, p< .05). There was no significant difference in the motives to teach across gender, elective groups and levels taught. 2. Perceptions/Conceptions before and after taking up teaching The perceptions/conceptions of in-service teachers before and after taking up teaching were analyzed in several domains, the frequency counts and percentages were given in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 respectively. 63 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching Table 2.1 Perceptions/Conceptions before 祖國ngup 臨aching A. Confidence and Optimism Q22L缸k of confidence about one's cl晶S 扭扭扭ng ability Q23F，間ling 句世血is世CID也e Írrst 但也:bing B.Cla甜 Management Q24 Friendly towar曲曲曲血，也血noproblem 旭 class discipline Q25~叫U臼 puni也ing studen妞， more 間wards Q26 More rewards, studen抽血即回se motivation個 I曲血 Q27 Dedica扭 to teach 祖d care for students, wouId be accep阻dby S岫d扭扭 Q28 Don't want個 be sevl間 towar，也 studen個 Q29 Can't be lenient and relaxed, else hard to ∞ntrol stud自由 Q30 Make more use of teacher's au血ority to control students，也is helps class management C.Concep世ono: teaching and learning 。1 Follow the practice of呵 former個cher ♂血n/Sec.) 個個ch mystuden'個 Q32 Foll師也e practice of也e exIS恤g臨品:her抽血句帥但問ienced Q33 Byal1 me祖s provide oppo此間ities for s個den'阻， discussion, no wo叮y about class discipline Q34 Studen個 need not reci'阻也，esu句ect knowledge 1 祖.ught Q35 Tbe role ofteacher 扭曲 f阻li扭扭 stud扭扭， learning ra也，er也阻臨ach knowledge Q36 It is 血ore etfective for te臨her to teach students direct ins阻叫 of allowing stud聞組 to ∞nstruct knowledge by th阻lSelves D.The心ryve目us Practice Q37To 阻ach，叩句自tmatter ∞mes f i'rst, educational 也開討間 n阻t Q38τ'he 血副n purpose of attending teacher education program is 個 acqui're a qualified 臨ach前 S個，tus Q39 The Inatiù晦 only祖叫Jes也e田間， noac'叫alhelp個wards祖叫血直 Q40 The program offered by也eln鉗扭扭曲恤阻四祖岫ing晶晶cy *Sum血dpercen祖ge include Strongly Disagree and Disagree #Su血血dpe血祖祖ge include Strongly Agree 阻dAgree Disagree* N問個l Agree# 142 (57.7%) 64 (26.0%) 40 (16.2%) 32 (13.0%) 77 (3 1.3%) 137 (55.7%) 99 (40.3%) 的 (34.6%) 62 (25.3%) 27 (10.9%) 的 (38.6%) 124 (50.4%) 49 (20.1%) 84 (38.9%) III (45.5%) 12 (4.9%) 的 (27.2%) 167 (67.9%) 26 (10.5%) 的。5.6%) 157 (63.8%) 68 (27.7%) 105 (42.7%) 73 (29.7%) 86 (35.3%) 91 (37.3%) 的 (27.5%) 132 (53.8%) 76 (3 1.0%) 37 (15.1%) 104 (42.2%) 95 (38.6%) 的 (19.1%) 41 (16.6%) 98 (39.8%) 107 (43.5%) 82 (33.4%) 98 (39.8%) 66 (26.8%) 32 (13.1%) 86 (35.2%) 126 (51.6%) 86 (35.1%) 110 (44.0%) 49 (20.0%) 80 (32.7%) 101 (41.2%) 64 (26.1%) 67 (27.3%) 73 (29.8%) 105 (42.8%) 89 (36.2%) 的 (38.6%) 62 (25.2%) 34 (13.9%) 101 (41.1%) 111 (45.1%) 64 The results in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 show the confidence, optimism and commitment expressed by the in-service teachers under study, as well as their perceptions/ conceptions about class management, the relative importance of theory versus practice, the preferred ways of teaching and learning. 65 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching 3. Concerns about Teaching With eigen-value of 1 as the cut-off and scree-plot test, two factors accounting for an accumulative percentage of variance equals to 35.37%. The first factor accounts for a variance of 22.75%, and the second factor 12.62 %. According to the nature of items, factor 1 was labeled “concerns with pupils” and factor 2 was labeled “concerns with self ”. The factor structure and the mean, standard deviation and reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the extracted factors are given in Table 3. ANOVA was applied to examine if there was any significant difference in the concerns displayed by in- service teachers with respect to their demographic variables. No significant difference was found in their concerns across programs of study, age, sex, elective groups, and levels taught. 66 DISCUSSION Three factors were extracted from factor analysis of the item responses representing the sampled in-service teachers’ reasons to join the teaching profession. These three factors accounted for the motives of the in-service teachers to choose teaching as a career. The three motives were “Influence from others”, “Intrinsic/ Altruistic” and “Extrinsic/Job conditions”. In terms of the mean values of the three factors (see Table 1), the in-service teachers under study chose teaching as a career mostly due to the “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive (mean = 3.75, SD = .57), next, the “Extrinsic/Job condition” (mean = 2.85, SD = .67) and last the “Influence from others” factor (mean = 2.31, SD = .77). That is, the in-service teachers joined the teaching profession mainly due to the fact that they liked to work with children and adolescents; they liked to help others and found the work meaningful and challenging, and suited their personality. Material rewards such as salary, stability, holidays, and easy to find a job as contained in the “Extrinsic/Job condition” factor were not as important and determining as the “Intrinsic/Altruistic” factor in their choice of teaching as a career. “Influence from others” such as teachers, parents, peers and mass media, though influential, was not as decisive when compared with the previous two factors. The result was similar to some of the findings reported in Western countries, but differed from that of the Young’s (1995) and Chan’s (1998) findings of pre- service teachers. The difference was probably due to the different composi t ion and demographic characteristics of the samples in the studies including their educational qualification. In the present study, the teacher education students were in-service teachers of either university graduate status or non-graduate teachers holding Certificate of Education qualification (qualified teacher status), the latter group continued to upgrade their qualification to university graduate status through part-time study. In Young’s (1995) and Chan’s (1998) study, the sample, however, consisted of pre- service non-graduate teacher education students enrolled in a certificate course. These students usually could not enter university although they got Advanced level subjects passes and hence they often consider teacher education as an alternate means of continuing further study and they might not be intrinsically or altruistically motivated in joining the teaching profession. ANOVA study showed that a significant difference at .05 level was found in the motives to teach between programs of study, age and teaching experiences. Both PGDE and MMBEd students had mean value of “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive above the mid-point of a five-point scale (PGDE, mean = 3.64, MMBEd, mean = 3.80 showing their relatively high interest to teach children and adolescents. The difference between the two groups was possibly due to their different background. The MMBEd students had destined to take up teaching after completing their Certificate course (a full-time two or three year sub-degree programs, designed to prepare non-graduate teachers for primary and junior secondary level teaching) some years before they got enrolled in the MMBEd program while the PGDE students could have other career options after university graduation besides teaching. Younger people might not have made up their mind at an early stage of choosing teaching as a career and they might have been more influenced by others such as their former teachers, parents, peers and media when they eventually joined the teaching profession. This might account for the differences in the motive “Influence from others” between age groups. Similar effect might be found due to different teaching experiences. Those with more 67 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching teaching experiences, usually also older ones were more matured, stable in thought and decision making, hence less influenced by others in joining teaching profession. This was reflected by the relatively lower mean score of the elder groups (mean = 2.20) and more experienced group (mean = 1.82) in the factor “Influence from others” in comparison with the younger (mean = 2.49) and less experienced group (mean = 2.39). Referring to the perceptions/conceptions held by the sampled in-service teachers before taking up teaching, as shown in Table 2.1, the teachers tended to be confident about their class teaching (57.7% confident versus 16.2% lack of confidence) and optimistic (55.7% felt optimistic in the first teaching versus 13.0% not optimistic) when they took up the first teaching, the result was similar to the findings by Weinstein (1990) study of pre-service teachers that they tended to be optimistic at their beginning of teaching practice. Table 2.1 suggests that the sampled in-service teachers have their own ways of teaching based on their beliefs and conceptions rather than followed the practice of their former primary and secondary teachers (53.8% reported they did not follow the practice of their former teacher to teach their students and only 15.1% did) or existing teachers in the schools they taught (42.2% indicated they did not follow the practice of the existing teachers versus 19.1% who did). The result was somewhat different from the “apprenticeship of teaching” notion put forward by Lortie (1975) although some individuals of the sample did follow this practice. As for class management, the in-service teachers appeared to be in favour of rewards over punishment (50.4% agreed versus 10.9% disagreed). A majority of the teachers (63.8%) did not want to be severe towards students. Many of them (67.9%) agreed that if they were dedicated to teach and care for students, they would be accepted by students. However, there were mixed views among the teachers about whether they should be friendly, lenient and relaxed; the percentages of agreement and disagreement in these perspectives were quite close when class discipline and management were concerned (Table 2.1 refers). For the conceptions about learning and teaching, more teachers in the sample believed the role of teacher is to facilitate students’ learning (51.6%) instead of direct teaching/transmission of knowledge (13.1%). 35.1% of the teachers did not agree that direct teaching is more effective than students’ construction of knowledge while 20.0% held opposite view. It was interesting to find that the majority (44.0%) remained neutral in this conception. That is, while some teachers were in favour of the constructivist conception of learning and teaching, others remained undecided or neutral towards the views. Further reflection of the varied teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning was reflected from their responses towards the statement “students need not recite the subject knowledge the teachers taught”. The percentages of those who disagreed and agreed to this view were not widely different (33.4% versus 26.8%). Similarly, they won’t totally ignore the importance of educational theories in comparison with subject matter knowledge and many of them agreed that the program in the Institute helped their teaching. For the perceptions/conceptions held by the in- service teachers after they took up teaching, it was delightful to find that their confidence and commitment to teach increased as shown in Table 2.2 (confidence increased: 68.3%, commitment increased: 66.3%). However, it is worthy to point out that student’s attitude and misbehavior in learning, as well as the performance and behaviour of existing teachers in the school did influence teachers’ commitment to teach. In other words, while the teachers were dedicated to teach, the school management side and the education authority should empower teacher’s commitment with support and provision of sound learning atmosphere. 68 Many of the teachers in the sample after taking up teaching still agreed to use rewards and approval in class management, they also tended to be caring and friendly towards students despite some agreed that being friendly and caring might not reduce the students’ misbehaviour and class discipline problems. While many teachers were in favour of the constructivist conceptions of teaching and learning, considerable number of them held the views that allowing students to construct knowledge by themselves were idealistic and impractical. This view exists both before and after taking up teaching. Possibly the influence of the assessment and examination system, the tight teaching schedule, the large students number in class, all these factors caused teachers to be cautious and not readily give up the didactic mode of teaching and allows students to construct their knowledge. Besides, many teachers in the sample agreed the program offered by the Institute helped their teaching; this reinforced the conception that the teachers enrolled in teacher education program not only for the sake of acquiring qualified teacher status and upgrade their qualification but also had the will to continue their professional development with further learning. The result in Table 3 supports the hypothesis and findings of Fuller (1969) that two major concerns were detected within teachers, one “concern with pupils” and the other “concerns with self ”. Comparing the means of the two factors, factor 1 “concerns with pupils” has a higher mean score (4.06) than factor 2 “concerns with self ”. The finding is similar to previous research reports that pre-service and beginning teachers have greater self concerns than those expressed by the experienced in- service teachers and that in-service teachers’ task concerns are higher than their self concerns (e.g. Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987; Maxie, 1989). Two implications arise. First, it is a positive sign to find our teachers care and concern more with pupils than their self in the process of professional development. Students are placed on the top priority and what the teachers do mainly is for the good and well being of the students. The teachers in the sample might have been more conscious about their impact on the development of students, that is, many of them have reached the final stage of professional development proposed by Fuller (1969, 1974). As well, many of the teachers are committed, dedicated and work for the benefits of the students and they inclined to be student-centered. Second, viewed at a different angle, there might be troublesome factors related to students’ learning, e.g. students’ low or lack of motivation to learn, disruptive behaviour and class discipline problems. All these aroused teachers’ anxiety and concerns that “pupils’ cases” was put as priority concerns/issues. If that is the case, then the education authority, parents and teachers should work collaboratively to solve the problem and teacher education institutes should equip teachers with more knowledge and techniques to handle the problem cases and relieve their worry and concerns. For “self concerns”, this included the language competency and information technology competence, the teaching technique, teaching schedule progress, use of media and which class to teach; some of these are concerns for survival, and some are task concerns. As the sample comprised teachers of different age and teaching experiences, it is no wonder why both types of concerns were found. Notice that with the recent educational reform and changes put forward by Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB), the language bench mark test and information technology competency requirement had caused much anxiety and concerns within teachers. Teachers were pressurized to handle such many requirements and reformation changes besides normal teaching and non-teaching duties within a short duration. This cannot be neglected as it has a strong psychological impact on teachers. Additional training and support are required to help teachers overcome these concerns. 69 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION This study identified three motives and two concerns of a sample of in-service teachers in Hong Kong. The three motives were: “Intrinsic/Altruistic”, “Extrinsic/Job condition” and “Influence from others”. Of the three motives, the in-service teachers under study were mostly influenced by the “Intrinsic/Altruistic” motive in joining the teaching profession. They were inclined to help children and adolescents in their development through teaching their interested subjects. They indicated that teaching was meaningful, challenging and fitting their personality or religious beliefs. Consequently, it is expected they care more about the well-being and learning of their students than extrinsic values attached to the job condition, such as salary, holidays, status, ..etc. The “Intrinsic/Altruistic motives” would help the teachers remain in the teaching profession with persistence and enthusiasm and not to give up teaching readily. Such expectations were reinforced with the concerns expressed by the teachers under study, who demonstrated a higher proportion of “concern for pupils” than “concern with self ”. The phenomenon suggested the Hong Kong in-service teachers under study had progressed to a higher stage of professional development, according to the theoretical framework of Fuller (1969) and others (Buhendwa, 1996; Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987). However, the higher proportion of teachers’ concerns about “class discipline”, “the students’ learning motivation”, “intellectual, moral and value development of students” should not be neglected as it raised an alarming sign to the negative learning attitude and misbehaviour displayed by increasing number of students. The solving of these problems obviously requires cooperative effort of teachers, parents, community and the education authority. The present study found that the Hong Kong in- service teachers under study were conf ident and committed to their teaching; their confidence and commitment increased after they took up teaching. This is an encouraging finding. Nevertheless, teachers should not be overloaded as they have been facing with countless educational reform and requirement all the time, which might cause teachers exhausted, and eventually burnt out. The Hong Kong in-service teachers in the sample in general were self-improving, always tried to upgrade not only their education qualification but also the efficacy of their teaching work through attending teacher education program which they considered useful and functional in helping their teaching. The Hong Kong in- service teachers were generally inclined towards the constructivist conceptions about teaching and learning, agreeing to provide more opportunities for students to discuss and that the teacher’s role is a facilitator of students’ learning rather than transmitter of knowledge. Being exposed to both the Chinese and Western culture and philosophy, Hong Kong teachers had gradually changed to be more democratic and inclined to adopt the constructivist approach to teaching and learning. However, being pressurized by the tight teaching schedule and examination system, the Hong Kong teachers would not entirely give up didactic teaching and they still require students to memorize or recite what were taught in class. Recitation or memorization is not bad if considered as rehearsal to enhance memory in information processing of knowledge, a foundation for further learning and application. This accounts for a considerable number of teachers who agreed that students should recite or memorize what they were taught in class. In summary, the Hong Kong teachers under study were found to be confident, committed and caring for their students’ learning and development. They had a positive sense about teaching and learning. While they tended to conceive learning and teaching in a constructivist manner, they were also practical and realistic in practice in order to adjust to the present education and examination system. 70 References Adams, R.D. (1982). Teacher Development: A Look at Changes in Teacher Perceptions and Behaviours Across Time. Journal of Teacher Education, 33(4), 40-43. Ballou, D. & Podgursky, M (1997). Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality. Kalamazoo, Mich.: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Buhendwa, F.M. (1996, June). Stages of Concerns in Pre-service Teacher Development: Instrument Reliability and Validity in a Small Private Liberal Arts College. Paper presented for the Conference of the National Ventere on Postsecondary Learning at University park, PA. 50 p. Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and Knowledge. In D.C. Berliner, & R.C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology (pp. 709-725). New York: Macmillan. Chan, K.W. (1998). The Role of Motives in the Professional Development of Student Teachers. Education Today, 48(1), 2-8. Chan, K.W. (2002). The Development of Pre-service Teachers: Focus of Concerns and Perceived Factors of Effective Teaching. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education and Development, 5 (special issue 1), 17-40. Education Commission (1992). Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Ennis, C.D., Cothran, D.J., & Loftus, S.J., (1997). The Influence of Teachers’ Educational Beliefs on Their Knowledge Organization. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 30 (2), 73-86. Flores, B.B. (2001). Bilingual Education Teachers’ Beliefs and Their Relation to Self-reported Practices. Bilingual Research Journal, 25(3), 275-299. Fuller, F. F. (1969). Concerns for Teachers: A Developmental Conceptualization. American Educational Research Journal, 6(2), 207-226. Fuller, F.F., Parsons, J.S., & Watkins, J.E. (1974, April). Concerns of Teachers: Research and Reconceptualization. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research association, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 091439). Furlong, J., & Maynard, T. (1995). Mentoring Student Teachers: The Growth of Professional Knowledge. London: Routledge. Heathcoat, L. H. (1997). Teacher’s Early Years: Context, Concerns, and Job Satisfaction. D.Ed. Dissertation, North Carolina State University. Hutchinson, G., E, & Johnson, B. (1993/1994). Teaching as a Career: Examining High School Students’ Perspectives. Action in Teacher Education, 15(Winter), 61-7. Ingersoll, R. (2001). Teacher Turnover, Teacher Shortages, and the Organization of Schools. Seattle: Center for the Study of Teacher and Policy. University of Washington. Johnston, J., Mckeown, E., & McEwen, A. (1999). Primary Teaching as a Career Choice: the Views of Male and Female Sixth-form Students. Research Papers in Education, 14(2), 181-197. 71 Teacher Professional Development: In-service Teachers’ Motives, Perceptions and Concerns about Teaching Kazelskis, R., & Reeves, C.K. (1987). Concern Dimensions of Pre-service Teachers. Educational Research Quarterly, 11 (4), 45-52. Kyriacou, C., & Coulthard, M. (2000). Undergraduates’ Views of Teaching as a Career Choice. Journal of Education for Teaching, 26(2), 117-126. Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Maxie, A.F. (1989, March). Student Teachers’ Conceptions and the Student Teaching Experience: Does Experience Make a Difference ? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 308164). Murnane, R. J. (Ed.) (1991). Who Will Teach? Policies That Matter. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. National Center for Education Statistics. (1992, Nov.). Teacher Attrition and Migration (Issue Brief No. NCES-IB-2-92). Washington, D.C.: Author (ERIC Document No. ED 352356). Newby, D., Smith, G., Newby, R., & Miller, D. (1995). The Relationship Between High School Students’ Perceptions of Teaching as a Career and Selected Background Characteristics: Implications for Attracting Students of Color to Teaching. Urban Review, 27(3), 235-249. O’Connell, R. F. (1994). The First Year of Teaching: It’s not What They Expected. Teaching and Teacher Education. 10(2), 205-17. O’Connor, J., & Taylor, H. P. (1992). Understanding Pre-service and Novice Teachers’ Concerns to Improve Teacher Recruitment and Retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 19(3), 19-28. Reid, I., & Caudwell, J. (1997). Why Did Secondary PGCE Students Choose Teaching as a Career ? Research in Education, 58, 46-58. Richardson, V. (1996). The Role of Attitudes and Beliefs in Learning to Teach. In J. Sikula (Ed.). Handbook of Research on Teacher Education, (2nd ed., pp. 102-119). New York: Macmillan. Smith, S. L. (1997). A Comparison of Concerns and Assistance Received for Concerns Perceived by First-year and Second-year Teachers. D.Ed. Thesis, University of Houston. Teacher Shortages Worst for Decades (2001, August, 28). BBC News Online. Retrieved September 4, 2001, from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/education/newsid_1512000/1512590.stm Tillema, H. H. (1997). Promoting Conceptual Change in Learning to Teach. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 25(1), 7-16. Weinstein, C.S. (1989). Teacher Education Students’ Preconceptions of Teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 40(2), 53-60. Weinstein, C.S. (1990).Prospective Elementary Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching: Implications for Teacher Education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 6(3), 279-290. Wilson, E. K., Readence, J.E., & Konopak, B.C. (2002). Pre-service and In-service Secondary Social Studies Teachers’ Beliefs and Instructional Decisions about Learning with Text. Journal of Social Studies Research, 26(1), 12-22. Yong, C.S. (1995). Teacher Trainees’ Motives for Entering into a Teaching Career in Brunei Darussalam. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 275-80. Young, B. (1995). Career Plans and Work Perceptions of Pre-service Teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 281-292. 72 香港初中推行公民教育的現況吳迅榮、梁恩榮香港教育學院摘要本研究是以問卷，配合有目的的抽樣個案訪談，對本港中學負責初中公民教育的教師作出調查，探討自九九年公民教育建議成為獨立科目後，初中推行公民教育的組織、目標、模式、課題、途徑和困難。結果顯示很多負責公民教育的教師未接受或接受少於十小時的培訓；很多學校未設有獨立科而以周會或講座形式推行公民教育；學校和教師的價值取向會影響校本公民教育的設計和內容；及不清晰的教育政策使學校在推行方面無所適從。研究建議教育統籌局和大專院校可以在培訓和課程目標和設計方面加以支援，使公民教育教師能運用多元的教學方法，以爭議性的事件和政治概念去充實公民教育課堂，藉此提升學生的批判思考能力。前言一九九七年七月一日，中國在香港恢復行使主權後，香港便毅然進入一個非殖民化時代，這時，公民教育的其中一個主要任務是重新界定香港市民的國民身分 (Ng等，2000)。其實，自一九八四年中英簽訂聯合聲明開始，直至九七年主權回歸前這一段過渡期間，有關日後香港公民教育的內容和如何推行以適切地配合非殖民化香港的討論，持續不斷；有關機構對香港青年作出多項關於公民意識的調查，例如，課程發展議會的調查認為有需要加強中國文化和國民教育 (Curriculum Development Council, 1995)；基督徒學會及教育行動組的調查則指出有需要在公民教育中加強政治元素的訓練 (梁大輝、劉修妍等，1994)；也有調查發現教師在推行公民教育時的教學資源不足 (教育署輔導視學處，1997)。由於殖民地時期的教育是一種強調社會控制的疏離本土文化的教育 (Kelly 及 Altback, 1978)，九七年前的香港教育刻意把中國民族教育疏離和淡化。曾榮光 (1994) 批評，殖民地香港的公民教育是一種「無政治」(apo l i t i c a l ) 和「無民族」 (anational) 的殖民地精英教育。黎國雄 (1998) 更認為在欠缺政治實體的香港殖民地，港人只有子民 (subject) 的地位而沒有所謂「公民」(citizens) 的身分。因應八四年關於香港前途的中英聯合聲明，香港政府於八五年推行《公民教育指引》 (Curriculum Development Council, 1985)。可是，這份強調以滲透形式推行公民教育的指引，被很多學者批評欠缺明確內容及組織，無新意且原地踏步 (例如︰陳建強，1996；曾榮光，1985； Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 73 香港初中推行公民教育的現況 Bray及 Lee, 1993; Lee, 1996; Leung等， 2000； Ng等，2000)。 Leung (1995) 形容這個指引將公民教育德育化和瑣碎化 (trivialization)；Morris 及 Morris (2000) 認為《指引》提議的跨學科滲透課程需要將目前各科課程目標擴闊來迎合公民教育的個人及社會目標。但現實告訴我們，Morris, McClelland & Man (1997) 的研究發現大部分的教師不按照指引的提議去推行公民教育，且避開了《指引》中的政治元素。九十年代香港政制出現改革，包括九一年立法局直選議員及九五年將投票年齡由 21 歲降至 18歲。面對政權移交，八五年的《指引》已顯得過時。殖民地政府於九五年成立公民教育工作小組，課程發展議會並於九六年發表了新的《學校公民教育指引》，新《指引》較舊指引具體而全面，除加入民主、自由、平等、人權與法治等政治元素外，更強調以批判思考及解決問題的技能來認識社會、民族國家和世界，祈能作出合理的判斷 (Leung 等， 2000)。在推行方面，九六年《指引》建議學校採用跨學科滲透課程、獨立學科和綜合學科等策略，使學生能在學校多元的教學環境下培養公民價值觀。最重要的是，政府接納新《指引》的建議，決定於一九九九年在初中設立獨立的公民教育科。雖然如此，Ng等 (2000) 環顧當時的教學環境，覺得在學校推行新《指引》會受到很多限制，包括時間表安排、教師培訓、課程重點和教學資源等；從公民權責範疇來看， Tse (1997) 則認為新《指引》的民主教育和民族教育元素仍感不足，教師也未能有足夠的知識與技巧去裝備自己成為一個有效的公民教育工作者。Ng (2000) 的一項調查也發現教師在民族教育範疇中的政治知識匱乏，他們在校內只著重民族教育的文化部分而避開政治議題。面對九七政治環境轉變，新《指引》無疑較八五年的《指引》更有系統及具體地描述回歸後公民教育的目標、內容和推行策略，並加強公民教育應有的政治元素，培養學生的公民權責。可是，九七年後，教育環境隨著經濟和政治環境的轉變而受到衝擊，且政府在2001年開展了中、小學的課程改革，學校在新《指引》下推行公民教育的現況是值得我們探究的。本研究嘗試以問卷，配合有目的的抽樣訪談的方法，探討九六年《學校公民教育指引》公佈及九九年開始實施公民教育初中獨立科目以來，現時初中 (中一至中三) 學校推行公民教育的現況。所謂現況，是指在初中推行公民教育的組織、目標、模式、課題、途徑和困難，從而探究影響公民教育在學校推行的因素。研究方法本研究主要採用問卷調查法向全港 400 間中學 (國際學校除外) 發出問卷，由負責公民教育的教師以不記名的形式填寫，以蒐集關於中一至中三推行公民教育的資料。研究員收集問卷後進行分析，並於兩個月後有目的地選擇 (pu rpo s i v e sampling) 四位在不同背景中學任職的校長或負責推行公民教育的教師進行訪談，得到的個案資料，有助佐證、澄清或檢視問卷的調查結果。去函時主要邀約校長進行訪談，但有兩所學校校長推介負責教師面見。四所學校中，一間是傳統的左派愛國學校，其餘三所則具有宗教背景，目的是探討辦學團體的價值取向會否影響推行公民教育。訪談的內容大致與問卷的內容相同，包括組織和統籌公民教育、推行的途徑和方法、困難及影響因素等。二零零一年底，研究員以郵遞方式將問卷寄往400間中學，由學校校長或負責公民教育教師填寫，兩個月後，共收回181份，回收率是45.5%。回收率偏低是本研究的局限，一則是郵遞問卷的回收率往往出現偏低情況，二則是聖誕假臨近時發出問卷，也可能影響教師填寫問卷的意欲；另一方面，本研究只能描繪學校推行公民教育的現況，而未能就原因和效果作深入的討論。問卷設計分為五個部分，包括 (1) 樣本學校的背景資料， 74 (2) 組織及人力資源，(3) 推行模式，(4) 目標和方法及 (5) 困難與展望。研究員將收集回來的資料加以整理和統計以協助分析及討論。問卷分析問卷的第一部分是樣本學校的背景資料。在181 間學校當中，有 83.4% 開校具十年歷史以上， 76.8%的問卷來自男女校，回應率大致與現時中學的男女學校比例相約。有關其他部分的結果，分述如下︰一、推行公民教育的組織及人力資源「推行」在這况是指統籌、策劃和推動。一般學校都有公民教育小組統籌初中校本公民教育，從表一顯示，超過一半學校由班主任負起推行公民教育的角色，有三分一學校以公民教育科科主任為推行公民教育的核心。有少部分學校以其他小組及人員負責或策劃與推行公民教育。表一學校在初中推行公民教育的組織及人員的百分比（可選擇多項）其中94位未受過這方面的培訓，約一半教師接受少於十小時培訓，只有74位曾受十小時以上的公民教育培訓 (表二)。其他數據顯示，43.6%的中學參與策劃及推行初中公民教育的教師少於五人，另外43.6%則由五人至十人推行公民教育。在收回的181份問卷統計中，共有316位教師參與推行公民教育，表二曾受訓的公民教育教師的百分比 75 香港初中推行公民教育的現況二、推行模式新《指引》提議採用四種模式去推行初中公民教育，以下是學校在採用不同模式的百分比。表三學校初中推行公民教育的方式的百分比（可選擇多項）表三數據顯示，佔七成以上的學校採用非正規課程，即普遍以早會或周會，其次是課外活動形式進行；也有五成多學校使用跨學科滲透形式融合在正規課程科目內。此外，接近五成學校以綜合課程的方式推行公民教育。綜合課程是把公民教育與其他相關的範疇，包括倫理教育、環境教育、班主任課、通識教育、生活技能課等，在正規時間上佔有節數。不同課堂名稱反映該課節的重點或不同的教學理念。例如班主任課是透過班主任接觸學生的時段去幫助學生全人的成長；倫理課較強調道德價值的培養，生活教育課則將重點放於日常生活的技能。調查指出超過五成學校使用班主任課來推行公民教育，其餘的綜合課節則各佔一成。三、初中公民教育的課程目標研究員將九六年《公民教育指引》的各範疇目標列出，共有一百六十至一百七十多所學校在問卷中填寫本項目。從表四所見，大部分樣本學校認為他們的公民教育課程的目標都能配合《指引》，而第一項「關懷社區、國家、國際關係及人民生活」、第三項「關注本地的社會、公民權利和義務」和第四項「了解香港、中國及世界關注的事情」最為學校所認同。表四學校在推行公民教育課程目標的百分比（可選擇多項） 76 四、常教的課題大部分學校表示常將香港公民的權責、家庭觀念、基本法和當今時事列為公民教育課題(見表五)，而且較著重香港與中國的關係，以及香港人在政治群體中扮演的角色。惟當課題涉及中國國民教育、政治制度和抽象的政治概念時，學校的關注較少。表五學校在初中常教的公民教育課題的百分比（可選擇多項）五、學校推行公民教育的困難表六顯示，大部分學校遇到的困難是缺乏曾受公民教育培訓的教師，而學生對公民教育缺乏興趣也不容忽視。若將「常遇到」及「間中遇到」的百分率加起來，超過六成學校認為教學資源不足、教育政策不清晰、沒有校內文化配合、缺乏同僚共識等都成為推行公民教育的阻力，而佔五成的學校表示經常或偶然遇到教師不願意任教公民教育，這點值得我們關注。 77 香港初中推行公民教育的現況表六學校推行公民教育常遇到的困難的百分比（可選擇多項）六、加強公民教育的途徑在展望公民教育推行的途徑方面(見表七)，頗多學校已委任教育負責人和設立公民教育統籌委員會，有超過一半學校考慮將會增加公民教育的資源、增加非正規課程中公民教育的時數、增加課題、增加公民教育活動和鼓勵更多教師接受公民教育的培訓，這顯示有很多學校愈來愈重視公民教育，態度積極。可是，有差不多一半學校不欲增加公民教育的正規課程時數，相信由於學校的時間表空間有限，公民教育只宜於非正規課程中推行。表七學校在加強公民教育途徑的百分比（可選擇多項） 78 訪談的結果與分析研究員在分析收回的問卷後，在二零零二年中，就問卷的內容，到四間不同背景學校與校長或負責公民教育的教師進行訪談，聽取他們的意見，以補充和佐證問卷調查的內容。一、甲校甲校乃一間「愛國學校」，即所謂「左派」學校，自一九四六年創校已有公民教育，希望學生在校園中培養對國家的認同和歸屬感。校歌有一句︰「讓我們的青年人走上民主科學的大道，為建設新中國而貢獻自己的力量。」因此，該校的公民教育重點是以國家民族感情和基本品德操守為主。該校校長說︰「在公民教育中，我們除了培養學生的品德修養外，更重視一年一度的國慶、校慶和五四青年節活動。」在推行方面，該校沒有公民教育委員會來協調初中公民科在正規課程和非正規課程的活動。最重要是教師既合作又有共識，校長說︰「我們的教師均有共同理念，立場一致。我們容許學生有一個較寬的討論空間。例如陳水扁上台事件，有人贊成，有人反對。但學校的態度則十分明確，就是反對台獨，擁護一個中國的看法。」在教師培訓方面，校長並不看重教育學院提供的課程，並懷疑其成效；他認為公民教育最關鍵的並非知識，而是教師的態度︰「我們的教師以自學和關心時事去裝備自己的公民意識，公民教育是一種感情教育。教師的態度、表達能力、感情流露等能影響學生，這就是公民教育。」校長對《公民教育指引》的內容也欣賞，但認為作用不大，因為沒有教科書配合，故此他相信公民教育是各取所需的。但他也發覺在現時的教育環境下難以有效擴展公民教育的教授︰「在現有的考試主導課程下，公民教育不受重視，這是鐵一般的事實。況且，家長多採取功利態度、公民教育可有可無；還有，學校發展公民教育的空間有限。」二、乙校乙校是一間佛教學校，由於校長不要求負責公民教育的教師篤信佛教，所以公民教育並無涉及宗教色彩。負責初中公民教育的教師認為該校在推行公民教育時有清晰的目標︰「我們希望學生能透過公民教育掌握正確的資訊，讓學生明白、思考和實踐，藉著此批判思考培養適當的做人態度和價值觀，對社會有參與和有建樹。」學校主要是透過非正規課程推行公民教育，由公民教育組統籌有關的活動。該教師說︰「我們利用周會時間推行公民教育，為時大約三至四分鐘，高年級及低年級輪流進行。周會內容視情況而定，較時事性。除此之外，我們也透過展板、參觀、問答比賽和講座去推廣公民教育。」協助推行公民教育的教師，基本上沒有接受有關的培訓過程，教師邊做邊學，對一些問題的 79 香港初中推行公民教育的現況看法未必相同，但盡可能在意見交流過程中尋求共識，或多與其他學校公民教育教師交流，從而學習更多教學法。整體來說，該校遇到的困難是：「我們要花時間去設計和更新課程的內容，我們實在太忙，沒有時間去仔細閱報，了解時事發展；而且教師的公民教育理念訓練不足，沒有培訓的機會，這是最大的障礙。」雖然如此，該校在推行公民教育時較為暢順，乃由於推行公民教育的組長教師非常負責，具時事觸覺性，且與其他學校的公民教育教師經常保持聯繫。學校的行政安排容許教師有較大的自由度去剪裁公民教育的內容，而且教師可自願參與教學，這都是推行公民教育的助力。三、丙校丙校是一間天主教的鄉村學校，曾利用宗教倫理科向教育統籌局(教統局)申請公民教育津貼，推行國民教育。校長說︰「任教國民教育的教師全部都有宗教背景，在宗教倫理科的正規課程中進行。雖然較強調宗教信仰，我們相信無礙推行公民教育，因為培養學生的批判思考能力是課程的目標之一，使他們具有良好公民的內涵和要素，對社會和國家作出貢獻。」除了宗教倫理科外，該校經常以班主任課，周會和其他公民教育活動，如升旗禮以增強學生的「香港情、中國心」。可是，學生在公民教育的接收方面，強差人意︰「學生的學習興趣只是一般，對正規課程反應並不熱烈，自我反省的能力弱。可能他們覺得並非和自己有切身的關係，更切身反而是自己的家庭問題。」在推行方面，負責非正規課程的教師來自公民教育及德育委員會，成員是不同科目的教師。委員會成員與任教國民教育的教師之間的溝通，主要靠角色重疊的兩位教師之間維繫。在培訓方面，學校鼓勵同事進修，但教師並不十分重視，寧願參與本科進修。困難方面，校長認為︰「阻力很大，我不得不承認校內公民教育教師的角色不太明確，且他們培訓不足，而學校投放在公民教育中的資源亦不足。另一方面，學生對該科的興趣不大，眼光狹窄，顧己不顧人，都是公民教育推行的絆腳石。」四、丁校丁校是一間道教學校，但校內宗教氣氛不濃厚。由於學生的成績組別較低，教師較少談及高層次的公民概念，如人權、自由、民主和平等，而且對培養學生批判思考的能力沒有充分信心，但他們較強調個人的價值觀與成長。負責公民教育的教師說︰「我們在公民教育課程况的目標是提升學生的公民意識，培養個人價值觀、國家歸屬感和世界公民使命感。由於學生的學業成績稍遜，故批判思考能力相對薄弱。」在丁校的正規課程况有生活教育科，其內容結合了公民教育與德育，包括同學的個人認知、成長價值、性教育、傳媒教育、國民身分及環境教育。而非正規課程中，每年都有不同主題，例如美化校園、關心社會、心繫祖國、立足香港和面向世界。師資方面，該校只有四位教師任教公 80 民教育，其中兩位同時兼教生活教育中的德育範疇，主要是公民教育只佔生命教育中的一部分。該校教師說︰「公民教育組只有四位成員，但我們積極與其他科目教師合作，推行各種活動。可是，其他教師並不感到公民教育的重要性，對公民教育的掌握與認同不足，故在推行方面也得遷就，以免產生衝突。」由於人手缺乏，四位教師工作忙碌，未能參與教統局舉辦的培訓課程，全靠同事間的溝通和經驗補足。幸好有校長的支持，給予小組自由度去釐定課程，使負責公民教育組的教師能有較大空間在正規和非正規課程中設計活動。綜合上述四間學校在初中推行公民教育的情況，各校由於背景各異，推行公民教育的目標、重點和模式都有不同：有些著重愛國教育；有些強調素質培養；有些則關注價值薰陶。值得提及的是，在四所訪談的學校中，負責公民教育的教師都肩負使命感，要配合學生的特質而設計公民教育課程，並以多元化方式推行公民教育，可是他們遇到的困難也不少，包括︰ 1. 學校傳統及辦學宗旨對公民教育課程有顯著影響例如甲校由於有清晰的政治立場，在學校况推行以愛國教育為重點的公民教育，丙校則以宗教倫理科推行公民教育。 2. 學校管理層的態度被訪的教師認為，學校管理層的態度在推行公民教育起著決定性作用。校長的支持和認同公民教育的重要，可令教師有更多空間、人手和資源推行公民教育。 3. 教師的共識要有效推行公民教育，必須全校教師合作，達到共識。可是，訪談發現個別學校的教師缺乏默契和承擔。 4. 教師的培訓根據被訪教師表示，大部分教師未有接受正規公民教育的培訓，有些只有參加過一些短期課程或講座，有時或工作繁忙，未能關注時事，引致信心不足。 5. 資源與課程由於學校時間表緊迫，不容許投放太多資源於公民教育的課程上，有礙公民教育的發展。 6. 家長和學生的態度個別被訪教師表示家長和學生都太功利，由於公民教育非考試科目，所以得不到重視。這些困難因素，很多都和問卷結果不謀而合，且更有效地說明影響個別學校推行公民教育的實際情況。討論及建議綜合問卷和四所學校校長或負責公民教育的教師訪談結果的分析，現時學校在初中推行公民教育課程受著教師師資、辦學團體背景、推行的模式、教師的共識和教統局搖擺不定的政策所影響。 1. 校本公民教育共識的建立一直以來，公民教育的推行都相當強調「人人有責」，問卷也顯示大多數學校都是以非正規課程和滲透式來推行公民教育(表三)，但要做到「人人 81 香港初中推行公民教育的現況有責」及成功，在校內建立同工的共識，並以上述兩模式來推行公民教育，誠然是極之重要的；但從面談得知，除了甲校情況較佳外，其他三校同工對公民教育理念大都缺乏共識，已明顯地阻礙了學校公民教育的發展。推行公民教育，必須是全校教師的共識。學校可考慮在老師培訓日，由有關教師統籌，邀請師資培訓機構的專家與全校教師一齊探討如何建構共識及在各科目、各種活動中發展公民教育；此外，教師也應定期交流彼此對公民教育的看法與期望，努力建構一個全校取向的公民教育目標和計劃。 2. 人力資源與師資培訓綜合問卷和訪談得悉，缺乏曾受訓的教師是學校推行初中公民教育的主要困難，一則是肯任教公民教育的教師數目少，如果不是學校指派，很多教師也未必有興趣任教；二則是很多負責教師未曾接受或接受少於十小時的公民教育培訓。事實上，提供公民教育訓練的途徑並不多，師資培訓機構只提供選修單元，但修讀學生人數不算太多。教統局也委託大專院校開辦中、小學公民教育短期課程；但正如訪談所顯示，由於教師工作繁忙和興趣所限，修讀人數不多，且時數所限，學習內容也不能太深入。當然，教統局和大專機構提供足夠及適切的公民教育訓練課程是責無旁貸的，但更重要的是，教育當局應提供進修時間，讓老師能專心進修，否則訓練也只是走過場而已！此外，更需要增強班主任及負責公民教育教師的知識和教授技巧，學校有需要邀請大專講師或專業人士成為顧問，並舉辦多一點「到會式」的全校教師發展工作坊，除了探討如何建構共識外，更要協助教師掌握滲透式公民教育的推行理念和方法，並以學校為本位設計教學，將理論付諸實踐，進一步了解二零零二年課程改革將公民教育劃入「個人、社會及人文教育」的學習領域。為了保證公民教育教師的質素，課程除了知識、技能和態度外，還須注意澄清教師本身對公民教育的詮釋和價值取向。因為他們必須掌握基本理念，並就學生的需要選擇教學主題及設計教材。 3. 推行的模式和課程學校多設有公民教育小組來統籌公民教育活動，雖然教統局於一九九九年將初中公民教育設定為獨立科目，並由課程發展處編寫課程大綱，惟只有不多於四分一的樣本學校設有獨立科目，學校最常用的是透過非正規課程，如週會、講座等去推行公民教育；可能這方式較為省時，但這種「斬件」式的公民教育能否滿足學生的需要是一大疑問。透過正規課程的科目去推行公民教育也是常見的推行模式，可是，這種「滲透式」方法在香港學校緊迫的時間表中，因各科目互相競爭，既有自己的目標及內容，又以考試為主導，所以專科教師未必能在授課時，兼顧學生公民教育方面的需要。此外，滲透式的模式推行公民教育需要教師擁有一定的技巧和公民教育造詣，在缺乏公民教育培訓的情況下，這種方式的效用成疑。此外，綜合課程的模式也多為學校採用，即讓公民教育在學校時間表上出現，通常以公民教育、道德教育、情緒教育、生命教育等為名稱，以價值澄清及批判思考方法在課堂上討論問題。不過這些課程內容廣泛，且多在班主任課中進行，全校的班主任能否掌握這麼多樣教育的知識和技巧已是疑問，況且調查發現，很多教師因工作繁忙，沒有時間去關注時事，更何況大部分班主任未受過正規的公民教育訓練。還有，班主任課的部分時間往往用來處理班務，其效果如何，可想而知。故此，學校可能被迫只集中發展其中某一方面，例如個案訪談顯示甲校強調愛國教育，乙校強調時事，丙校以宗教倫理代之，丁校側重於個人價值觀的成長。不但如此，在這種種的困難下，學校可能被迫較少談及高層次的公民 82 概念，例如人權、政冶。在這情況下，九六年《公民教育指引》提出以人權教育、民主教育、法治教育、環境教育的教學焦點很容易被邊緣化，而學校公民教育就可能會再走回道德化、非政冶化和瑣碎化的情況 (Leung, 1995; Leung & Ng, 2004)。因此，學校需要有一個高層次的公民教育委員會，全面統籌正規課程和非正規課程中公民教育的部分，透過學校各種活動全方位地推行公民教育，確保能全面及均衡地發展公民教育。 4. 公民教育目標和課題九六年《公民教育指引》的目標，大體上以本土出發，進而對國家文化的認同，同時著重價值的培養；其中以「關懷社區、國家、國際關係及人民生活」、「認同和尊重中國文化」和「關注本地社會、公民權利和義務」最為學校認同。可是，研究顯示，教師自身對公民教育的價值取向及教學能力也影響公民教育的目標和內容。還有，學校的背景及辦學宗旨也影響對公民教育的取向，例如愛國學校多側重於中國民族的感情教育，宗教學校則以道德教育為重。在課題方面，從表五顯示，多數學校選取「香港公民的責任與權利」和「家庭的價值觀念」為教授內容，較少採用的課題是「多元化的世界」和「國際組織」的功能，這可以看出香港的教師在推廣公民教育方面較喜歡以本土為重，而關心國際事務則較少。在全球一體化的今天，學校有責任擴闊學生視野，而有關法治及政治參與的課程也須得到注重，以培育學生作為公民的多元身分 (梁恩榮，2003)。因此學校課程設計者，宜多參閱公民教育課程指引，因應學校的資源和學生需要，平均地將各個課題包括在公民教育的正規課程和非正規課程內，才可以設計出一套理想而有系統的課程，否則公民教育只會變得支離破碎。可是，Ng (2000) 的研究顯示，超過一半的教師未曾閱讀公民教育指引，這一點是值得關注的。 5. 公民教育課程改革除了缺乏師資之外，教學資源及專業支援不足也是一大問題，但這些都是技術性問題，教統局和各志願團體及大專院校可以在這方面配合援助。此外，教育政策不夠清晰明確，也使學校在推行公民教育方面倍感困難。由一九八零年的《道德教育指引》，到一九八五年的《公民教育指引》，曾經被批評為公民教育道德化、非政治化和瑣碎化的時代 (Leung, 1995; Leung等，2000；Ng等，2000)。一九九六年的《公民教育指引》是針對以往的弱點和配合回歸時香港學生需要而訂定的文件 (Lee, 1996)，將一些政治觀念和批判思考的價值培養方法納入課程，使學生由本土觀念擴展到對全球公民身分有觸覺和認識。可是，二零零零年的《學會學習》課程改革文件將公民教育與道德教育作同等的歸類 (課程發展議會，2002)，很多在九六年《指引》被認為是重要的概念、價值，例如人權、民主、參與、公義等都被輕輕帶過，甚至隻字不提，取而代之是國民身分對社會及國家的承擔態度等，使公民教育道德化及返回「非政治化」的層面 (Leung 及 Ng, 2004)，對教育學生多元身分的公民教育目標有所抵觸 (梁恩榮，2003)。教統局宜汲取九六年以前模糊不清的公民教育政策的教訓，有需要向學校清楚交代現時公民教育中的政治元素和其在新課程改革中的地位，避免公民教育重蹈覆徹，返回道德化和非政治化的道路。另一方面，在推行公民教育時，教師不應逃避教授「政治概念」的單元及「爭議性」和「敏感性」的課題。結論是次調查結果顯示學校在初中推行公民教育的態度頗積極，相當高比率的學校已設立了公民教育小組 (82.3%, N=181)。不過，一些老問題如校長取向、師資培訓、缺乏教師共識等仍有待解決， 83 香港初中推行公民教育的現況也影響正規和非正規課程的推行模式。Lee (1999) 在研究國際公民教育推行情況時鑑別了公民教育四個範疇，包括 (1) 民主、制度、公民權利和責任； (2) 國民身分； (3) 社會連繫和社會分歧和 (4) 大眾傳媒。本研究顯示，由於香港在二零零零年以後面對新的課程改革，以上的國際公民教育共通的範疇有可能被不清晰的公民教育政策忽略，在邊緣化與道德化的威脅下，公民教育教師應多運用多元的教學方法，以爭議性的事件和政治概念去充實公民教育課堂，藉此提升學生的批判思考能力。參考書目梁大輝、劉修研等 (1994)。《青年勇闖民主路》。香港：基督徒關懷香港學會。教育署輔導視學處 (1997)。學校公民教育回顧 (1985-1996)，《學校公民教育資訊》8，頁1-12。梁恩榮 (2003)。香港公民教育老師的民族教育觀。《基礎教育學報》，第十二卷第二期，頁29-56。陳建強 (1996)。〈香港公民教育的回顧與前膽〉。載劉國強、李瑞全編。《道德與公民教育︰東亞經驗與前膽》。香港︰中文大學香港教育研究所。曾榮光 (1985)。〈剖析《學校公民教育指引》的方向與途徑〉，《中報月刊》，第71期，頁47-52。曾榮光 (1994)。〈非殖民化的公民教育 — 九七以後香港學校公民教育的構思〉《香港中文大學教育學報》，第二十二卷，第二期，頁240。黎國雄 (1998)。〈公民教育新路向〉。《青年研究學報》。第一卷，第一期，頁151-158。課程發展議會 (2002)。基礎教育課程指引︰各盡所能，發揮所長 (小一至中三)。香港︰課程發展議會。 Bray, Mark & Lee, W.O. (1993). \"Education, Democracy and Colonial Transition: The Case of Hong Kong\". International Review of Education, Vol. 39, No.6, pp. 541-260. Curriculum Development Council (1985). Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools. Hong Kong: Education Department. Curriculum Development Council (1995). A Study on the Development of Civic Awareness and Attitude of Pupils of Primary Schools in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Printer. Curriculum Development Council (1996). Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Department. Kelly, G. P., & Altback, P. G. (Eds.). (1978). Education and Colonialism. New York: Longman. Lee, W. O. (1996). From Depoliticisation to Politicization: The Reform of Civic Education in Hong Kong in Political Transition. In Chinese Comparative Education Society (Eds.). Educational Reform: From Transition to Postmodernity. Taipei: Shih Ta Publisher. Lee. W. O. (1999). Controversies of Civic Education in Political Transition: Hong Kong. In Torney- Purta, J., Schwille, J. and Amadeo, J. (Eds.), Civic Education Across Countries: Twenty-four National Case Studies from the IEA Civic Education Project, (pp. 313- 340). Netherlands: IEA. Leung, Sai-wing (1995). \"Depoliticisation and Trivialisation of Civic Education in Secondary Schools: Institutional Constraints on Promoting Civic Education in Transitional Hong Kong.\" In Siu, Ping-kee & Tam, Tim-kui (eds.), Quality in Education: Insights from Different Perspectives. Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Educational Research Association, pp. 283-312. 84 Leung, Y. W., Ng, S. W. & Chai, W. L. (2000). The Evolution of Civic Education from Guidelines 1985 to Guidelines 1996. In K. C. Cheng, K. W. Chow & K. T. Tsui (Eds). School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Education. Leung, Y. W & Ng, S. W. (2004). Back to Square One: The Re-depoliticization of Civic Education in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 24 (1), 43-60. Morris, P., McClelland, G., & Man, W. P. (1997). Explaining Curriculum Change: Social Studies in Hong Kong. Comparative Education Review, 41 (1), 27-43. Morris, P. & Morris, E. (2000). Constructing the Good Citizen in Hong Kong: Values Promoted in the School Curriculum. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 20 (1), 36-52. Ng, S. W. (2000). The Impact of Implementing Nationalistic Education on Primary School Teachers. Pacific-Asian Education, 12(1), 48-59. Ng, S. W., Leung, Y. W. & Chai, w. L. (2000). A Study of the Development of Civic Education: the Social and Political Perspectives. In Y. C. Cheng, K. W. Chow & K. T. Tsui (Eds.). School Curriculum Change and Development in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Education. Tse, K. C. (1997). The Poverty of Political Education in Hong Kong Secondary Schools. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies. The Chinese University of Hong Kong. 教育及課程改革的思潮下：香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序 Hong Kong Primary Schools Physical Education Panel Chairpersons' Ranking of the Importance of Different Leadership Skills Amid the Climate of Education & Curriculum Reforms 沈劍威、陳運家、夏秀禎香港中文大學摘要香港小學的體育科科主任在教育及課程改革的思潮下，仍然身擔繁重的教學工作及行政職務。本文嘗試探討小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序，從而討論小學體育科科主任應如何於教育及課程改革下，憑著其既有的專業訓練和經驗，配合教育領導技巧的理論，轉化為實用的領導技巧，接受『變』為學校的新文化。關鍵詞教育及課程改革、體育科科主任、領導技巧 Abstract Chairpersons of Physical Education (P.E.) Panels of Hong Kong primary schools, amid the climate of Education and Curriculum Reforms, still bear heavy workload derived from teaching and administration tasks. In this article, we would like to investigate the P.E. panel chairpersons' ranking of the importance of various leadership skills. A discussion of how P. E. Panel chairpersons of primary schools can mingle their received professional training and experiences with the theories of educational leadership skills, so as to transform into practical leadership skills and to accept \"change\" as a new school culture will also be conducted. Keywords Education and Curriculum Reforms, Chairpersons of P. E. panel, Leadership skills 85 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 86 引言香港現正著力於教育及課程改革。根據香港教育制度改革建議(2000)之內容，未來的教育方向及理念著重為生活而學習、終身學習及全人發展。當中希望學生有樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔及敢於創新的特質，而且課程內容更從以往強調知識的灌輸，轉為著重學生如何「學會學習」；從偏重學術，轉為多元化的全人發展；從固有的科目框框，推行整合性的學習領域；從以課本主導，轉而採用多元化教材的學習模式；社會支援教育、教學跑出課室；從學校傳統的上課時間表觀念，轉變為綜合而富彈性地編排學習時間；取消過早分流，為學生提供發展潛能的機會；由傳統技術的傳授，轉為著重認知、情意及技能，以及提升協作能力、溝通能力、創造力和批判性思考能力 (課程發展議會，2002)。現時香港小學體育科科主任不僅教授及統籌體育一科，也同時兼顧一至幾個學科。在當前教育改革下日益繁忙的工作中，小學體育科科主任要掌握各項領導技巧，並按優先次序排序，使教學工作更具成效。九項教育改革的領導技巧以下是根據Reavis & Griffith (1992)九項領導技巧要點的申述： 1. 變革管理的知識 — 當一個團體意識到有變革或新需求時，領導者所需要的知識包括：如何反應、收集訊息、如何準備、提出訴求、如何發展、意見採納、執行、評估及修訂。教改或教育整合的取向是全盤取向的面對轉變，以至如何計畫財政、人事、課程、指導、決策及配合文化。對於改革的行政管理，有時會低估其難度，例如：難改的舊習慣、身心疲累或內外阻力等。所以，身為主張改革或帶領改革的領導者，必須充分把握變革管理的知識及應變的策略。 2. 協作的領導作風 — 與他人合作的領導作風，可以換來高強度的互信及減少危機出現，使變革時，能降低不安及恐懼感。 3. 團隊營造的能力 — 組織與團隊有大不相同的地方。組織只是把人事組合起來或分配到各單位；而團隊則是隊內各人各有職份，各有其工作目標以達成團隊的使命。再者，隊員之間共同承擔責任、互信、互相體會及互相欣賞。變革中的領導者是須要有營造團隊的能力，而非只領導一個組織。 4. 教育的價值 — 越複雜的行政架構，其領導者所考慮的不同價值狀況就更多更廣。例如：財政責任、政治生存、守法精神、公共宣傳、勝負競爭的考慮等。 5. 富道德目的 / 有目的感 — 改革中學校的領導者，應該以學校辦學宗旨為依歸。有教學的遠象及切實執行以最好的教育為出發點的方案或計劃，使教改更有目標感及道德感。 6. 有課程及指導的知識 — 學校行政人員皆為課程及政策之導航者，對於課程改革及指導的知識必須能充份掌握，也能有清晰的工作遠景。他們可以公平地分配工作，而非橡皮圖章，而且深入了解整體教育及課程改革的來龍去脈，就有如交響樂團的總指揮。 7. 有理性及可解釋的據點 — 教改中的領導者須要有目標感及能理性分析變的原由。在混亂或迷茫時，有足夠的導引；對同事及下屬有不屈不撓、堅定不移以及恆久不變的處事理據；於變的過程中提供支援及帶領；訊息下達、決策過程及工作分配能夠達到可靠性、一致性及完整性；當同事或下屬產生疑問或躊躇時，能夠理性地解決問題及作出適 87 教育及課程改革的思潮下：香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序當的支援；又能根據其文化、立場以及角色解釋當中的理據，使同事或下屬得到安撫及協助。 8. 具該文化知識及了解如何改變 — 團體中各成員的感受、各階層運作的模式、文化、傳統以及意識等，皆為教改成敗的重要關鍵。領導者如能掌握自如，作出適當的調適及疏導，便能帶領團隊盡快適應改變。 9. 具觸覺性 — 觸覺性是對人的行為如何影響他人的察覺能力。團體中各成員若有困惑或迷失，如能被領導者及早察覺，以同理心、同情心及支持的心態紓解，便能提高信心和士氣，以及樂於接受改革。香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序香港小學體育科科主任對以上領導技巧的重要性排序與Reavis & Griffith (1992)得出的九項教育的領導技巧重要性排序不盡相同(見下表一)。其次序為： 1.團隊營造的能力； 2.具課程及指導的知識； 3.協作的領導作風； 4.變革管理的知識； 5. 教育的價值； 6.具觸覺性； 7.具該文化知識及了解如何改變； 8.富道德目的 / 有目的感； 9.有理性及可解釋的據點。討論在深入了解香港小學體育科科主任為何對以上九項領導技巧重要性如此排序之前，我們要先對小學學校的行政架構及各科老師的職責有所理解。圖（一）修改自Goggins (1974)的The Dow Corning Matrix的概念，主要表達各成員於組織架構中的功能和專業的平均權力，是持久及平穩和諧的，而且尚有發展空間 (Stoner & Freeman, 1989)。表一 88 圖（一）從圖（一）中，我們不難理解到小學體育老師除任教體育科外，也身兼功能小組的主任或成員，甚至身兼三至四個其他學科的教學工作。在學校的整個團體中，他可能是功能組別的訓導主任，亦同時任教體育、英文及數學等數項科目，也多是一班的班主任。當遇到校內各科或各組會議時，特別是教育改革下的新措施、新的課程內容或試行新的學制，這些體育老師未必能同時間釐定其崗位及角色。碰到重要決定時，更可能忘記體育科在學校課程和教育理念的重要性。因此，在這種境況下，最終受影響的可能是學生。再者，在一項香港小學體育組內部溝通的研究報告中顯示，小學體育組成員的內部溝通現況是有值得改善的空間，而其內部溝通皆遇上某程度上的障礙。增加參與決策的機會、持開放的態度、主動傾聽、縮短溝通距離、運用回饋的方式及增進對組織目標的理解，以上六項訴求皆為參與該研究之小學體育組成員，對改善其內部溝通得出的應有策略 (Sum, 2003)。我們有理由相信，這些小學體育科科主任對於領導技巧最主要排序為「團隊營造的能力」。在繁複的日常行政及教學的工作中，他們要求的是一位可以營造團隊能力的領導人才，目的是可以更加專注於體育學科的發展及策劃，其次是這些領導人才須具備體育課程及指導的知識。體育有別於其他科目，體育是與健康、生理、心理、解剖......等多方面的整合，所以涉及的知識甚廣，也要了解如何滲入及應用在體育課中，對於現今工作繁重的體育老師，實在極富挑戰性。體育在教育及課程改革中不能獨善其身，科目間的合作及各科主任的協作風氣，應是一間好學校及願意接受改革的團體必有的作風。變革管理的知識並 89 教育及課程改革的思潮下：香港小學體育科科主任對領導技巧的重要性排序非不重要，在教育及課程改革中，體育老師比其他科老師可能較易適應新政策；因為體育老師的專業師資培訓中，必有牽涉到比賽及競爭的元素，比賽及競爭的環境是多變的，順境時乘勝追擊；逆境時會消化因由，採取對策。其實，對於工作繁重的小學體育老師，他們對教育及課程改革的領導技巧中到底有否教育價值、具該文化知識及了解如何改變、富道德目的或有目的感及觸覺性等，已經大多麻木或不盡消化。他們多考慮到有工作便盡量完成，可能已忽略了變革到底對學生有利與否及富有育人的理念。工作繁重、角色衝突以及行政主導的小學現況，可能是導致小學體育老師減低有理性及可分析的據點的考慮。實施教育改革及新課程顯然是一個敏感的話題，特別是當新課程將會威脅到某些利害關係者及現況時。要學校接受新的體育課程，體育老師必須對家長的關注更為敏感 (Chan & Johns, 1998)。實施教育改革及新課程時，所遇到的困難重重，特別是香港現時出生率下降，各區小學縮班，但師生比率沒有因此下降，甚至某些小學教席變為二人一職。這種種因為財政及經濟環境下的困局，令到改革及新課程下，體育科科主任要有好的領導技巧，實在增添難度。無論怎樣下去，體育科科主任及老師，應有正面的專業態度及行為，盡量避免有負面的想法，有確切的教育改革立場，接受變才是永恆的意識形態。凡事共商合作及確認同事間的貢獻，做一個轉化型的領導者多於一個事務辦理的領導者。有效的改革皆要學校的行政者及各科(體育科)的領導者，能適應政治上、教育哲學上、政府政策上及社會需求上的轉變。辦學團體的成功皆取決於教育行政者是否有能力適應教育的內容、方法及社會思潮的新需求。體育老師的專業訓練，通常是著重於如何教體育，而非管理體育；但他們最後很多都因為機遇、需求或個人喜好，而擔任行政管理工作，以及領導其他體育老師。所以，他們需要在職前及在職期間學習有關領導的工作，而且於教育及課程改革中擔當推動新措施的重要導航者。總結在整體的大氣候中如中國，正如火如荼地推行教育及課程改革，其根本的目的是通過更靈活的課程安排，使學生能建立全面發展的基礎，有利於他們成為富創意、好思考、善解難及能應變的人才（盧乃桂，2002）。教師在改革的過程中扮演著舉足輕重的角色，並強調應該關注他們的專業發展，促進他們在知識、能力、態度和情感等方面的改變（盧乃桂及操太聖，2003）。體育科科主任本身已接受了專業的體育及教育訓練，在教育及課程改革過程中，體育科科主任本身就是一個「動力」。這個動力可以領導學生、同工及學校各階層，甚至家長協助推行改革。經過了由政府及學術單位舉辦的學術會議及工作坊，香港小學體育科科主任已能正面地接受新的體育學習領域課程指引(小一至中三)(Ha et. al, 2003)。態度及理念正面是領導教育及課程改革的先決條件。當領導者能發揮其領導技巧時，加上與學校各階層人士保持足夠的溝通，相信體育科的發展，不只是現在教育改革中八大學習領域的其中一大範疇，亦是未來健康及日常生活的重要部份。體育科科主任應關注自身的專業發展及知識、技能的改進。他們亦應以既有的專業訓練和經驗，了解教育改革中領導技巧的理論，配合轉化型的領導型態，實現團體遠景及目標。體育科能成為八大主要學習領域，皆須要有遠景的領導者，在教育及課程改革的思潮下，能接受及使用多元化的機制，推動各體育科同事接受『變』為學校的新文化。 90 參考書目課程發展議會（2002）。《體育學習領域課程指引（小一至中三）》。香港：香港教育署。教育統籌委員會（2000）。《香港教育制度改革建議；二十一世紀教育藍圖》。香港：香港教育署。盧乃桂 (2002)。基礎教育課程改革對中國內地和香港教師的挑戰。載《教育發展研究》，第4期，頁22-29。盧乃桂、操太聖 (2003)。抗拒與合作：課程改革情境下的教師改變。載《課程、教材、教法》，第1期，頁71-75。 Chan, W. K., & Johns, D. P. (1998). Implementing New Programs: A case of Physical Education, Educational Research Journal, 13(2): 177-95. Goggins, W. C. (1974). How the Multidimensional Structure Works at Dow Corning. Harvard Business Review. January- February. Ha, A. S., Chan, W. K., & Sum, K. W. (2003). A Final Report on Teachers Development Programme - Conferences and Workshops for PE Curriculum Leaders in Primary Schools. Hong Kong: Education and Manpower Bureau. Reavis, A., & Griffith, H. (1992). Restructuring Schools: Theory & Practice. Technomic Publishing Company Inc. Stoner, J. A. F., & Freeman, R. E. (1989). Management. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 4th Edition. 273. Sum, K. W. (2003). Inner Communication Among Primary Schools' Physical Education Teachers. In Ha, A. S., Chan, W. K. and Sum, K. W., A Final Report on Teachers' Development Programme - Conferences and Workshops for PE Curriculum Leaders in Primary Schools. (pp.32-35). Education and Manpower Bureau. Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes CHAN Kam-wing The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract Most in-service teachers find curriculum modules difficult to understand when they are studying for a part-time degree in education. In teaching in-service teachers about curriculum, the author first encountered difficulty in catering for their different needs arising from their diversified backgrounds. The condition gradually improved when cooperative learning was used as the main teaching strategy. In this paper, the author attempts to share his experience of using Jigsaw II to teach in-service teachers. The successful implementation of Jigsaw II is discussed, including skilful handling of participants’ requests, clearing their misunderstanding of the concept of Jigsaw II, and allowing time for the participants to appreciate the beauty of Jigsaw II. 91 BACKGROUND Education in Hong Kong is undergoing a fundamental reform that has sparked off a series of changes at various levels: system, school and classroom. One of the notable changes relates to teachers’ professional development. Teachers are expected to act as curriculum change agents and leaders in school to develop a school-based curriculum that aligns with the new curriculum framework. A variety of measures are taken to support teacher development, such as the provision of curriculum resources and school-based support for curriculum development and creating time and space for teachers (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). These measures are vi ta l to the successful implementation of the curriculum change, and are particularly helpful to those teachers who have not taken curriculum studies in their teacher training. As a major teacher education provider, the Hong Kong Institute of Education is proactive in its programme development and has been offering core modules in curriculum studies since 1994. However, the teaching of curriculum has met with some difficulties. First, student teachers often find curriculum studies a remote subject, especially compared with their major subject. Unlike the major subject, which is a continuation of one of the academic subjects in their secondary education, the subject content of curriculum studies is often perceived as new and hence unfamiliar. Second, it is difficult for student teachers to relate the content of curriculum studies to their own experience, and hence asking them to construct knowledge based on their personal experience is not easy. The scenario discussed above becomes more complicated when we teach curriculum to another group of student teachers - namely the in-service teachers (hereafter called the participants). These participants are serving teachers who have got a qualified teacher status. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 92 They are taking mixed-mode programmes to upgrade their professional qualification to the bachelor’s degree level. Though they all hold a Certificate in Education or Teacher’s Certificate, they differ in their teaching experience. It is not surprising to find both novice and veteran teachers in the same class. Unlike the pre-service student teachers, these participants have certain understanding of the concept of curriculum. They know what the school curriculum is, but may not understand how it came about or why a certain kind of curriculum is adopted. The curriculum modules therefore aim to equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge to reflect on their practice, and to evaluate and design a curriculum that suits their school context. Various methods have been used to teach the participants who are diverse in ability, learning style and teaching experience. These methods include lecturing, individual and group presentation, as well as discussion in pairs, small groups and with the whole class. The discussion method appeals to the majority of the participants as they have something to share and learn from each other. However, a major drawback of the method is that it creates an opportunity for some participants to become “free riders”, especially when the discussion is held in small groups. These free riders share the group outcome, but contribute little to the group. This brings harm not only to the group collegiality, but also to the free riders themselves. For the free riders, the gain is minimal, and they end up losing interest in the module. Indeed, the productivity of the group does not reflect the group size, since “the sum of the whole is less than the potential of the individual members” (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, p.71). As a result, the group becomes a pseudo-learning group in which “the interaction among group members detracts from individual learning without delivering any benefit” (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, p.71). SHARING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGY Apart from sharing with the readers a new teaching strategy, the paper aims to fulfill two objectives: (1)to explore the usefulness of Jigsaw II in in-service teacher education programmes; and (2) to find out ways to enhance the effectiveness of Jigsaw II. Cooperative learning is the instructional practice in which students help each other to learn in small groups towards a common goal (Johnson and Johnson, 1999). Much research has been done over the past thirty years on the use of cooperative learning across age groups, ability levels and cultural backgrounds. The results generally suggest that cooperative learning develops higher-order thinking skills (Mathews et. al, 1995), enhances motivation, improves interpersonal relations (Nastasi & Clements, 1991) and peer relations (Slavin, 1985). Most important, it exploits the diversified abilities of pupils to enhance their cognitive and social performance. Various cooperative learning methods have been developed over the years and put into practice in the classroom. Some of the most extensively researched and widely used methods include Student Teams- Achievement Divisions (STAD), Teams-Games- Tournaments (TGT), Jigsaw II, Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) and Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) (Slavin, 1995). Each of these methods has its own characteristics and relevance to different curriculum areas and students in different key stages of learning. For example, while STAD, TGT and Jigsaw II can be adapted for use across most subjects and grade levels, TAI is specif ically designed for mathematics in Grade 3-6 and CIRC for reading and writing instruction in Grade 2-8. There are some other popular cooperative learning methods, which include 93 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes Group Investigation, Learning Together, Complex Instruction and Structured Dyadic Methods. Jigsaw II The cooperative learning method that I have used to teach curriculum to the participants is Jigsaw II, which was developed by Robert Slavin, having adapted Elliot Aronson’s Jigsaw technique. The implementation of Jigsaw II comprises five steps: (1) reading; (2) expert group discussion; (3) home group reporting; (4) testing; and (5) group recognition. I will give a brief overview of its implementation, followed by an elaboration with examples. Overview First, the materials to be read and learnt are divided into four parts with guiding questions. Each pupil in a group is asked to focus on reading one part of the materials. Upon finishing the reading, pupils from different groups who have read the same part of the materials form an expert group to discuss the materials. After the discussion, the group members go back to their home group reporting what they have discussed in the expert group. After listening to each “expert” in the group, all group members become familiarized with all the four parts of the materials. At the end, testing is performed on individual members to compare their performance. Each group member takes an individual quiz and the score is compared with the base score to calculate the individual improvement score, based on which a group average score is worked out. The group with the highest average group improvement score is given group recognition by getting a group reward. Alternatively, any group which has its average group improvement score reaching a pre-determined level can receive a group reward. Reading Take teaching the topic on models of curriculum design for a 3-hour session as an example. Each participant is given an identical set of materials relevant to the topic, as well as an expert sheet. For groups of four, the expert sheet consists of four questions, each of which focuses on one of the four themes of the reading materials. Every member of the group is responsible for finding answers to one of the questions in the expert sheet from reading the relevant part of the materials. The questions in the expert sheet shown below can be randomly assigned to the group members. 1. What are the features and limitations of Tyler’s model? 2. What are the features and limitations of Wheeler’s model? 3. What are the features and limitations of Walker’s model? 4. What are the features and limitations of Skilbeck’s model? Each participant reads the relevant materials for half an hour. Alternatively, the reading of the materials can be done as homework before the class to save the lesson time, especially when the materials are lengthy. Expert group discussion Participants working on the same question in the expert sheet form an expert group. Four expert groups are thus formed. In order to facilitate the discussion, some guiding questions can be set for each expert group. Each member is encouraged to take notes of what they have discussed so that they can teach their members in their home group after the expert group discussion. Whenever a problem arises, the participants should try to handle it by themselves before seeking help from the teacher. Conflicts should be resolved using appropriate social 94 skills. Depending on the type of questions, group consensus may not be necessary. This step can also take half an hour. Home group reporting Participants in the expert groups go back to their original home group to teach others the things they have discussed. They are reminded to help each other to master the materials as much as possible. After each member has shared his/her expert knowledge with each other, it is useful for the teacher to conduct a short whole class discussion. The purpose of the class discussion is for clearing doubts, if any, as well as for provoking further discussion of the topic. This step may take an hour to one and a half hours to complete. Testing Members of each group take an individual short test after mastering the reading materials. Usually, the test items are in the form of multiple-choice questions. Immediately after the test, members exchange their test papers to mark the answers. The individual test scores are then computed as improvement scores by comparing with the base scores that represent students’ past performance. This step takes about half an hour to complete. Group recognition If the average group improvement score (calculated by adding the total improvement scores of the members of the group and dividing it by the number of members) reaches a predetermined level, each member of the group will be awarded a group reward. The reward may take the form of a certificate or other forms that the group members treasure. Each member of the group gets the same reward, irrespective of their individual performance in the test. The purpose is to strengthen their cooperation. This final step takes 10 minutes to finish. Success of Jigsaw II In the design of Jigsaw II, Slavin has constructed in it four elements which contribute to its success: (1) mixed- ability grouping, (2) individual accountability, (3) group reward; and (4) equal opportunity to success. These four elements will be discussed below with reference to my experience with the participants. Mixed-ability grouping In my class, the participants were carefully assigned to heterogeneous groups in terms of ability, gender and teaching experience, so that each group was a cross- sectional representation of the whole class. Research shows that the performance of low ability students improves in heterogeneous grouping (Webb & Cullian, 1983) because these students receive more elaborated explanations from their high ability peers about the learning materials (Webb, 1992). In the case of high ability students, research shows inconsistent results for their learning outcome. Some research suggests that there is no regression among high ability students (Hooper et. al, 1989); others show that they perform as well in heterogeneous as in homogeneous groups (Nastasi & Clements, 1991; Hooper & Hannafin, 1988). Webb (1992) argues that high ability students learn more in heterogeneous than in homogeneous groups because when giving elaborated explanations to the low ability peers, they reorganize and clarify information in different ways, which enhances the development of their meta-cognition. 95 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes Sometimes, the composition of the group has to be revised slightly to smoothen the implementation. On one occasion, after I had carefully allocated the participants to groups, I noticed a male participant in a group showed no interest to participate in the discussion. I talked with him during the break and found out that he preferred to join his neighbour group in which he had friends of close working relations. He said: I know the merits of learning in a mixed- ability group. I am also using it with my pupils. They seem willing to join the groups that I allocate them to. But as an adult learner, I prefer to work with someone I know. I accepted his request and noticed that in the new group, his performance measured up to his potential. Individual accountability Individual accountability means that the success of a group depends on the individual learning of all the group members (Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1995). Apart from responsibility for one’s own learning, each member has to be responsible for facilitating the learning of the rest of the group. Individual accountability exists when the performance of each individual member is assessed, the results are given back to the individual and the group to compare against a standard of performance, and the member is held responsible by groupmates for contributing his or her fair share to the group’s success (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). As such, individual accountability motivates the group members to help one another to exert maximum effort in the learning process (Slavin, 1995). My experience with the participants revealed that it could be difficult for them to accept the concept of individual accountability. Three participants told me that they could not convince themselves that they should be held responsible for the learning of their group members. They insisted that learning was a personal thing and a person should get what he had paid for. One of the participants remarked: It sounds strange to me that one has to be held accountable for others’ learning. If a person does not want to learn, he should bear the consequence, but not the members of his group. Another participant reiterated: It’s already very good if everyone can be responsible for their own learning. It will be difficult, if not impossible, to go further to ask them to be responsible for each other’s learning. I respected their views and let each of them form a ‘one-man group’. They read the whole set of materials and were responsible for their own learning. After four weeks, one of them changed his mind and asked me to let him join one of the groups. Group reward Individual accountability can be fostered by the effective use of group reward based on individual performance (Slavin, 1987). As members know that for each to get a group reward, the performance of the group, which is determined by the sum of each member’s improvement score, must reach an expected level. This extrinsic reward motivates them to learn hard for themselves, as well as to help each other to learn well. With other things being equal, group reward and individual accountability enhance the achievement outcomes of cooperative learning (Slavin, 1995). At first, the participants in my class were interested in receiving a group reward as recognition of their cooperative effort. I gave each member a certificate that I designed . After several times, they were not interested 96 in the group reward, though I attempted to change the form of the reward each time. Nevertheless, they still made effort to learn hard for themselves and to help each other to learn. They told me that they were intrinsically motivated as they had really learnt something and experienced enjoyment in the process of learning. One of the participants commented: Experiencing success in learning itself is an effective reinforcer. I don’t think I need any extrinsic reward unless it is very attractive, like a scholarship or a free trip overseas. Equal opportunity to success Jigsaw II uses improvement scores instead of test scores for computing the group score. If test scores are used, members of low ability will be perceived as a burden to the group as it is impossible for them to get as high test scores as those of brighter members. It is unlikely that they will see themselves giving as much contribution to the group as other members. With improvement scores, members of different ability are given an equal opportunity to earn points towards the group score so long as they make improvement over their past performance, irrespective of their actual score. The only rival is the self while the other members of the group are friends. Two of the participants sent me an email saying that they thought it was unfair that their performance could be influenced by other members of their group. One of them wrote: No one wants a member of low ability in their group as the group score will be dragged down. It is evident that the participants do not understand that each member can contribute as much to the group as the other, irrespective of their ability. I explained to them that the influence could be positive and negative. Sometimes, the group got a good score mainly because of the improvement made by the other members of the group. Moreover, this kind of assessment is formative and could only help them learn better. In no circumstances would the group score be counted towards the summative assessment of individual participant. CONCLUSION Various overseas studies have suggested that Jigsaw II as a method of cooperative learning can be effectively used across most subjects and grade levels. It not only enhances the motivation and performance of students, but also develops their social skills for group work. From my experience, Jigsaw II can also be successfully employed to teach curriculum studies, a brand new subject, to the local in-service teachers of diversified backgrounds. Nevertheless, the tutor has to be cautious in handling individual participants’ needs and interest. It is suggested that the tutor should exercise a certain degree of flexibility in structuring heterogeneous groups so that the members can learn from each other in a collegial atmosphere. Learning in cooperative groups may not appeal to every learner. If an adult learner prefers to learn alone, there is no reason why he/she should be forced to learn in a group, unless his/her mindset of learning has been changed. It is suggested that before cooperative learning is employed in the classroom, the tutor should conduct some problem- solving activities with the participants that require a different mindset so that they will be less resistant to the idea of cooperative learning. To conclude, for successful implementation of Jigsaw II, the tutor has to handle the participants’ requests skilfully (e.g. grouping) and make sure that participants have a clear understanding of each step of the method. Finally, the tutor has to allow time for the participants to appreciate the concept of learning together. 97 Using ‘Jigsaw II’ in Teacher Education Programmes References Curriculum Development Council (2001). Learning to Learn: Life-long Learning and Whole-person Development. Hong Kong: Printing Department. Hooper, S., & Hannafin, M.J. (1988). Cooperative CBI: The Effects of Heterogeneous versus Homogeneous Grouping on the Learning of Progressively Complex Concepts. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 4(4), 413-424. Hooper, S., Ward, T.J., Hannafin, M.J., & Clark, H.T. (1989). The Effects of Aptitude Comprehension on Achievement during Small Group Learning. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 16(3), 102-109. Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (1989). Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, MN: Interaction. Johnson, D.W. & Johnson, R.T. (1999). Learning Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning. (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Mathews, R.S., Cooper, J.L., Davidson, N., & Hawkes, P. (1995). Build Bridges between Cooperative and Collaborative Learning. Change, 4, 35-40. Nastasi, B.K., & Clements, D.H. (1991). Research on Cooperative Learning: Implications for Practice. School Psychology Review, 20, 110-131. Slavin, R.E. (1985). An Introduction to Cooperative Learning Research. In R. Slavin, S. Sharan, S. Kagan, R.H. Lazarowitz, C. Webb, & Schmuck (Eds.), Learning to Cooperate, Cooperativing to Learn (pp. 5-15). New York: Plenum. Slavin, R.E. (1987). Ability Grouping and Student Achievement in Elementary Schools: A Best-evidence Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 57, 293-336. Slavin, R.E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research and Practice. (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Webb, N. (1992). Testing a Theoretical Model of Student Interaction and Learning in Small Groups. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz Miller (Eds.). Introduction in Cooperative Groups: the Theoretical Anatomy of Group Learning. (pp. 102-119). New York: Cambridge University Press. Webb, N., & Cullian, L.K. (1983). Group Interaction and Achievement in Small Groups: Suitability over Time. American Educational Research Journal, 20(3), 389-397. 98 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers CHIANG Kwun-Man, Ken Tin Ka Ping Secondary School Abstract Most teachers believe that providing students with effective feedback on their writing is vital as it helps students to correct their own mistakes and be more independent writers, which will in turn train them to become better writers. However, some research studies on the effectiveness of teacher feedback on ESL students’ writing report a grim picture (Hendrickson, 1980; Semke, 1984; Robb et. al, 1986; Truscott, 1996) as teachers’ feedback does not seem helpful for students to improve their writing. This paper presents the results of a classroom research study that examines factors that affect the effectiveness of teacher feedback by analyzing students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback on their writing. It is suggested that the ineffectiveness of teacher feedback may not lie in the feedback itself, but in the way how feedback is delivered to students. The study also provides several implications for teachers when giving effective feedback to students. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Teaching writing is one of the most difficult tasks for ESL teachers as it involves various processes which require teachers to devote a lot of time to helping students write better. Teachers in Hong Kong spend a great deal of time in the post-writing process because most of them are required to grade students’ compositions in detail. It is especially time-consuming when the compositions are badly written and organized. Apart from focusing on teaching students how to actually write good compositions, most teachers believe giving effective feedback is an alternative way to train students to become better writers because it helps students to correct their own mistakes and be independent writers. However, some research studies on the effectiveness of teacher feedback on ESL students’ writing report a grim picture (Hendrickson, 1980; Semke, 1984; Robb et. al, 1986; Truscott, 1996) as teachers’ feedback does not seem helpful for students to improve their writing. As an English teacher, I am interested in finding out to what extent the tremendous work English teachers have been doing is useful to students. Therefore, I decided to conduct a classroom research study to examine students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback in order to get a clearer picture as to how effective teacher feedback could be given. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 99 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Definition of Teacher Feedback Teacher feedback can comprise both content and form feedback. Content refers to comments on organization, ideas and amount of detail, while form involves comments on grammar and mechanics errors (Fathman & Whalley, 1990). In the present study, teacher feedback is defined as any input provided by the teacher to students for revision (Keh, 1990), and this includes both content and form. Research into Teacher Feedback on Student Writing Investigations into teacher feedback have included studies examining the effectiveness of teacher feedback (Fathman & Whalley, 1990; Kepner, 1991; Zamel, 1985; Truscott, 1996) and examining student preferences and reactions towards teacher feedback (Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994, 1996; Leki, 1991). There are also studies examining the effectiveness of teacher feedback through the comparison of peer feedback (Connor & Asenavage, 1994; Zhang, 1995). Although the effectiveness of teacher feedback has been examined in different ways, the findings have not been conclusive. In Zhang’s (1995) study, students highly valued their teacher’s feedback and corrections. Leki’s (1991) study also demonstrated that students found error feedback very important and they demanded to have their errors corrected by their teachers. However, Truscott (1996) proposed that error correction should be abandoned. He argued that direct correction is not useful for students’ development in accuracy and that grammar correction would bring about harmful effects on both teachers and students. While teachers would waste their time and effort in making grammar corrections, students would be demotivated by the frustration of their errors. He also introduced the notion that the absence of error correction would not contribute to fossilization of errors. Apart from the disagreement on error feedback, there are mixed views on giving feedback as regards grammar and content. Zamel (1985) suggested teachers should avoid mixing comments on content and grammatical corrections in the same drafts while it was argued that a combination of both content and grammar feedback will not overburden students but help them with their writing (Ashwell, 2000; Fathman & Whalley, 1990). THE STUDY Owing to the lack of consensus on the effectiveness of teacher feedback, this study aims to gain more insights into giving effective feedback by asking what students think, want and do after they receive teacher feedback. As most of the past studies have pursued the inquiry of teacher feedback in two general ways, namely students’ preferences for teacher feedback (Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1994; Leki, 1991), and students’ responses to teacher feedback (Cohen, 1987; Ferris, 1995), this study follows the similar traits and attempts to find out how students perceive teacher feedback, what they are concerned about, and what they do after receiving teacher feedback. In addition, from my observation, students of junior forms and senior forms tend to respond differently to teachers’ feedback, and this affects how they correct their errors. Thus, in the present study, I also examine what teachers need to pay attention to when they give feedback to students of lower and higher proficiency level. In other words, I explore the following research questions: 1. What are the students’ preferences for teacher feedback? 100 2. What are the students’ responses to teacher feedback? 3. Are there any differences in the preferences for and responses to teacher feedback between junior and senior form students? 4. Are there any implications for the teacher to provide more effective teacher feedback? Subject The subjects were 15 Form 7 students and 15 Form 2 students of a secondary school in Hong Kong. The students volunteered to help the teacher to conduct the study concerning their writing. The students, who took part in the study, had been taught by the teacher for one and a half year and half a year respectively. In the writing classes, the usual practice was that the students wrote the first drafts for peer editing before they submitted the final products to the teacher. The teacher then read the final products and wrote error feedback and feedback on content and organization on the compositions. The students were required to do corrections by revising the compositions at home and submit their revised compositions. The students were taught the correction codes that the teacher used for error feedback at the beginning of the academic year. They were also given a checklist of correction codes to refer to when doing corrections. Questionnaire Survey The questionnaire is adapted from the ones used in Ferris’s study (1995) that investigated students’ reactions to teacher feedback in multiple-draft compositions and Leki’s (1991) research on the preferences of ESL students for error correction. However, since the objective of this study aims at investigating students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback, some questions were modified. Questions 3-6, 7-10 were set to examine students’ responses to teacher feedback, while question 5 aimed to look into students’ preferences for teacher feedback (See Appendix 1). Adjustment Because half of the subjects were Form 2 students, they might not be able to understand some of the terminology in the questionnaires. In order to ensure their understanding of the questions, the teacher explained the terms in the questionnaires explicitly. The teacher was also present when the junior form students did the questionnaires so that they could ask questions directly. Interviews While the questionnaires would provide quantitative information of the study, in-depth interviews were conducted to obtain qualitative data. The interviews were conducted to look into the issues that could not be clearly addressed from the findings of the questionnaires. Three of the students who had completed the questionnaires were randomly selected and interviewed. The interviews were conducted in Cantonese and aimed to find out what students think of teacher feedback, and what in detail they do with teacher feedback. The core dimensions explored were as follows: • Do you like teacher feedback? Why and why not? • Do you think that teacher feedback is useful for you to improve your writing? Why and why not? • Which aspect of teacher feedback do you pay most attention to? Why? • What do you usually do after you receive teacher feedback on your composition? Why? • What is the biggest problem for you to make use of teacher feedback? Why? 101 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Questionnaire Results In the study, Question 6a, 6b, 6c and 6d aimed to look into students’ preferences for teacher feedback. When asked how important it was for their English teachers to give them feedback, the majority of the students answered that it was either very important or quite important. In finding out how they perceived teacher feedback in different aspects, 83.4% (See Table 1) and 80% (See Table 2) of the students thought that feedback on grammar and vocabulary was very important and quite important, but a smaller percentage of the subjects expressed the same view on organization ( 56.7 % ) (See Table 3) and content (53.4%) (See Table 4). Table 1 Q6c: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on grammar? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 40% 53.3% 46.7% Quite important 33.3% 40% 36.7% Okay 26.7% 6.7% 16.7% Not important 0% 0% 0% Table 2 Q6d: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on vocabulary? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 33.3% 33.3% 33.3% Quite important 46.7% 46.7% 46.7% Okay 20% 20% 20% Not important 0% 0% 0% Table 3 Q6a: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on organization? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 13.3% 26.7% 20% Quite important 20% 53.3% 36.7% Okay 60% 20% 40% Not important 6.7% 0% 3.3% Table 4 Q6b: How important is it for your English teacher to give you comments on content? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Very important 33.3% 20% 26.7% Quite important 13.3% 40% 26.7% Okay 46.7% 40% 43.3% Not important 6.7% 0% 3.3% 102 Questions 5a, 5b, 5c, and 5d examined more closely what kinds of feedback the subjects paid more attention to. Similar to the findings of Question 6, the subjects paid more attention to feedback involving grammar (23.3% Always; 46.7% Usually) and vocabulary (13.3% Always; 40% Usually) when compared to feedback related to organization (6.7% Always; 33.3% Usually) and content (13.3% Always; 36.7% Usually). It was anticipated that the junior form students would pay more attention to grammar; however, it was, unexpectedly, found that the senior form students paid more attention to feedback on grammar than organization and content (See Table 7-10). It was found that both junior and senior forms students had the tendency to view feedback on grammar and vocabulary as more important, showing that they valued feedback on surface errors more than macro- level or semantic errors. As indicated above, the majority of the subjects expressed that teacher feedback was important to them. However, interestingly, when asked how often they read over their composition again after their teachers returned it to them, only 13.3% and 10 % of them indicated they would “always” and “usually” do it. 50% of the subjects even said they did not do it very often. Surprisingly, when looking at how differently junior and senior form students responded to the question, 73.3 % of the senior form students responded that they did not read over their composition very often while only 26.7% of the junior form students said they did so (See Table 5). Table 5 Q3. How often do you read over your composition? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 20% 6.7% 13.3% Usually 20% 0% 10% Sometimes 26.7% 20% 23.3% Not very often 26.7% 73.3% 50% Never 6.7% 0% 0% Table 6 Q4. How often do you think about your teacher’s comments and corrections carefully? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 13.3% 13.3% 13.3% Usually 53.3% 40% 46.7% Sometimes 20% 46.7% 33.3% Not very often 13.3% 0% 6.7% Never 0% 0% 0% 103 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Table 7 Q5a. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving organization? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 13.3% 0% 6.7% Usually 40% 26.7% 33.3% Sometimes 33.3% 73.3% 53.3% Not very often 13.3% 0% 6.7% Never 0% 0% 0% Table 8 Q5b. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving content/ideas? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 26.7% 0% 13.3% Usually 20% 53.3% 36.7% Sometimes 53.3% 33.3% 43.3% Not very often 0% 13.3% 6.7% Never 0% 0% 0% Table 9 Q5c. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving grammar? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 20% 26.7% 23.3% Usually 46.7% 46.7% 46.7% Sometimes 26.7% 26.7% 26.7% Not very often 6.7% 0% 3.3% Never 0% 0% 0% Table 10 Q5d. Do you pay attention to the feedback involving vocabulary? Responses F.2 F.7 Average Percentage Always 0% 26.7% 13.3% Usually 40% 40% 40% Sometimes 40% 20% 30% Not very often 20% 13.3% 16.7% Never 0% 0% 0% 104 Table 11 Question 8: Are there ever any comments or corrections that you F.2 F.7 Average do not understand? Percentage 1. No 13.3% 20% 16.7% 2. Yes 26.7% 6.7% 16.7% 3. Yes; I can’t read teacher’s handwriting 46.7% 20% 33.3% 4. Yes; I understand but sometimes disagree with the comments 33.3% 26.7% 30% 5. Yes; I don’t understand grammar items, and symbols 40% 46.7% 43.3% 6. Yes; I don’t understand the comments about ideas or organization 0% 26.7% 13.3% 7. Yes; comments are too general 20% 13.3% 16.7% 8. Yes; others 0% 0% 0% Questions 7 and 9 aimed to explore the subjects’ responses to teacher feedback and their responses to the comments and corrections that they did not understand respectively. The findings show that most of the subjects responded to their teacher’s feedback by using different strategies. The most common practices of the students included making corrections (70%), and remembering the mistakes (70%). They also asked their classmates (66.7%) and teacher (43.3%), checked dictionaries (46.7%), and checked grammar books (20%). When comparing what the junior and senior forms students did to address teacher feedback, it was found that the senior form students tended to be more independent (e.g. remembering the mistakes and checking dictionaries) while the junior form students tended to depend more on the others (e.g. classmates and teachers). When asking what they would do when they did not understand teacher’s feedback, the subjects expressed they would mainly ask classmates or friends (60%), ask teachers (36.7%), and try to correct the mistakes themselves (36.7%). Overall speaking, the students would only employ very limited strategies to address teacher feedback. It seems that there is still much room for improvement in this aspect. Question 8 attempted to examine if students had difficulties understanding teacher feedback and what the difficulties were. 83.3% of the students expressed that they had problems understanding their teacher’s comments. The most common problems they had included: (a) they did not understand the correction codes and symbols (43.3%), (b) they could not see their teachers’ handwriting (33.3%), and (c) they did not agree with their teachers’ comments (30%). The findings do not show that there are significant differences in the problems encountered by the junior and senior forms students, but a higher percentage of the junior form students had difficulties understanding their teacher’s handwriting, while more senior form students did not understand their teacher’s comments about ideas and organization (See Table 11). 105 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Question 10 examined whether the students felt teacher feedback was helpful and the reasons behind their answers. Although only a small percentage of the subjects expressed that teacher feedback was not helpful (See Table 12), not many subjects thought that their teacher’s feedback could help them, either. Most of the students thought teacher feedback was helpful because they could avoid their mistakes (46.7%) and they would know where their mistakes were (63.3%). It seems that the students felt their teacher’s feedback was more effective in helpful them deal with surface errors than global or semantic errors. Table 12 Question 10: Do you feel that your teacher’s comments and F.2 F.7 Average corrections help you to improve your writing skills? Percentage 1. No; I need more help to correct my errors 20% 6.7% 13.3% 2. No; my teacher’s comments are too negative and discouraging 20% 0% 10% 3. No; my teacher’s comments are too general 13.3% 6.7% 10% 4. No; others 0% 6.7% 3.3% 5. Yes; I know what to avoid/improve next time 33.3% 60% 46.7% 6. Yes; I know where my mistakes are 60% 66.7% 63.3% 7. Yes; the comments help me to improve my writing skills 20% 46.7% 33.3% 8. Yes; the comments help me to think more clearly 26.7% 33.3% 30% 9. Yes; some positive comments build up my confidence 13.3% 46.7% 30% 10. Yes; I can see my progress because of the comments 6.7% 26.7% 16.7% 11. Yes; I respect my teacher’s opinion 20% 46.7% 33.3% 12. Yes; the comments challenge me to try new things 20% 13.3 % 16.7% 13. Yes; others 0% 0% 0% Interview Results In the interviews, all the subjects expressed that teacher feedback was important; however, they did not read over their composition again very often. One of the subjects responded that she felt frustrated and bored reading her compositions over and over again as they were the same old mistakes. Another subject expressed that reading the compositions again did not help her very much because she did not fully understand the comments and corrections. She even said although she could make corrections, sometimes she did not understand why the corrections were right. This shows that their teacher’s comments and corrections failed to help them internalize the knowledge and skills involved in their writing. In short, they could not learn effectively from the corrections or feedback. All the interviewees indicated that feedback on grammar was more important than content and organization in their questionnaires. However, interestingly, when they were asked to think about what kinds of feedback were more important to them in the interviews, all of them expressed the view that comments on content and organization were more important. When they were asked to reflect clearly on why there were differences in their answers, they came up with two reasons. One of them was that they thought 106 grammatical mistakes would hinder them from expressing what they wanted to convey. Another one was that their English teachers in their junior and senior forms had been emphasizing grammar was the most important element. This thus affected the way they viewed grammar. They were also asked what kinds of teacher feedback they paid more attention to and all of them said they paid more attention to grammar. When asked why they would do so, they expressed that their teacher’s feedback mainly focused on this linguistic aspect. They said they would pay attention to comments involving content and organization, but their teacher’s feedback in these areas was usually very general. They pointed out that most comments related to content and organization were non-specific, such as “your ideas are not very organized”, “this point is not clear” and the teacher did not give clear explanations. They found it unhelpful to their improvement in content and organization, and so they did not pay much attention to it. Since their teacher’s comments focused more on grammar, they paid more attention to grammar in return. When asked what their problems were when they read their teacher’s feedback, the interviewees expressed three main problems: a) they did not agree with their teacher’s comments because they thought that their teacher misunderstood what they wrote, b) they did not understand their teacher’s comments as they were too general and lacked explanations, c) they did not understand the grammar terms and correction codes. When they were asked to what extent they were familiar with the correction codes, they said that they only understood some basic codes, such as tenses, and prepositions. When asked why they did not understand the codes, they expressed that they had never been explicitly taught what the correction codes referred to. What they had was just a checklist of correction codes on the composition sheets. Worse still, they said different teachers tended to use different codes, and sometimes the codes had never been explained to them clearly. When asked whether they felt teacher feedback was helpful, all of them responded that it helped them to avoid and make surface-level mistakes. Again, they explained the reason why teacher feedback did not help much with content and organization was that it tended to be too general. The researcher ended the interview by asking what they hoped teacher feedback would be like. All of them hoped that the teacher would point out their weaknesses and strengths in their compositions. They expressed that teachers tended to give negative comments and a lot of corrections, which was very discouraging and frustrating. Although they did not indicate that their teacher’s comments were too negative and discouraging in their questionnaires, their responses in the interviews show teachers need to pay attention to affective factors when giving feedback. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING The results of the study indicate that there are several issues writing teachers need to be aware of. In the following, these issues will be addressed and their implications for teaching will be discussed. The results of the study show that the students did not pay as much attention as they should when compared to how much they valued their teacher feedback. It is contended that there are some plausible reasons for such a contradictory picture. First, it is suggested that the students’ teacher has been over-emphasizing grammatical feedback. However, the linguistic feedback has failed to help the students to internalize their linguistic knowledge effectively, so the students do not read over their compositions with feedback carefully. Second, the 107 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers students felt frustrated because they found that they made the same grammatical mistakes again and again, so they would skip the corrections in frustration. In other words, it is plausible that the students may be familiar with the mistakes they have made but they cannot learn from the mistakes or master the linguistic knowledge involved. This may explain why more senior form students tended to read over their compositions less often as they thought they knew the mistakes. This also explains a common phenomenon that teachers keep giving linguistic feedback, but at the same time, they complain that their students keep making the same mistakes. The issue arising from the above contradictory picture boils down to another question: Why do students fail to learn from their teacher’s linguistic feedback? To investigate why linguistic feedback is not effective, the way that linguistic feedback is given comes into play. In Hong Kong, most teachers employ corrections codes or editing symbols to give linguistic feedback, and this is actually most teachers’ usual practice (Bates et. al, 1993). However, research has shown that some techniques may not be as effective as teachers think. The study carried out by Ferris et. al (2000) shows that students who received coded error feedback after a semester did not outperform those who only receive error feedback that was underlined. Likewise, it is found in other studies that giving students coded indirect feedback cannot bring about immediate advantage (Ferris et. al, 2000; Robb et. al, 1986). What’s more, it is contended that “written error corrections combined with explicit rule reminders ..... is ineffective in improving students’ accuracy or the quality of ideas” (Kepner, 1991, p.310). Despite the above f indings, it is too early to conclude that students do not benefit from feedback with correction codes or editing symbols at all. It is believed that there are some reasons for the failure to learn from corrections. First, it is possible that students may not be able to understand the grammatical rules and metalinguistic terms that the teachers use, even though they are provided as cues (Ferris, 1995; Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Lee, 1997). Second, students basically do not have adequate linguistic and pragmatic knowledge for error correction (Ferris et. al, 1997). Third, the use of coded feedback “may not give adequate input to produce the reflection and cognitive engagement that helps students to acquire linguistic structures and reduce errors over time” (Ferris & Roberts, 2001, p. 177). It could also be that students are overwhelmed and confused by the large number of correction codes. Under such circumstances, the problem of failure to learn from corrections may not lie in the use of correction codes and editing symbols, but in the way they are implemented in the classroom. Teachers, thus, need to employ different strategies to rectify the situation. Firstly, it is important that error feedback given with a marking code be handled very carefully, especially when the marking codes are grammar-based (Lee, 1997). To make full use of the marking codes, teachers need to ensure that students are clear about the grammar rules involved and that metalanguage used is shared between teachers and students. The use of terminology also needs to be reconceptualized in case students have difficulty understanding it. Teachers then may need to come up with a list of correction codes that students can manage and make better use of. This, on the one hand, can help teachers cater for the needs of students of various forms and different proficiency levels more appropriately. On the other hand, this avoids causing students to become demotivated in reading and learning from the marked compositions. In addition, students are usually taught by different English teachers throughout the secondary school years and different teachers may use different methods to give error feedback. Therefore, teachers should not presuppose that 108 students understand the codes or symbols they use or that they are able to learn from the codes or corrections by themselves. Instead, teachers need to teach them explicitly and provide students with ample practice until they can master the metalinguistic terms and knowledge to understand the corrections. As suggested by (Ferris & Roberts, 2001), students will be able to develop accuracy if a system of marking codes is used consistently throughout the term and their knowledge about the system is reinforced through lessons. It is also recommended that students should be taught metacognitive strategies to deal with linguistic feedback. It is found that the subjects did respond to their teacher’s feedback, but they seldom made use of dictionaries and grammar books to deal with the feedback that they did not understand. Teaching metacognitive strategies will let students know that there are other ways to learn from feedback and that they are responsible for their own learning to a certain extent. It can also promote autonomous learning. In this study, it was revealed that the students did value teacher feedback, but they had diff iculty in making use of the feedback. It is supported by the students’ answers in the questionnaires and interviews that they had problems understanding their teacher’s feedback because of misunderstandings between them and their teacher. Various research studies have in fact indicated (e.g. Ferris, 1995) that students do encounter problems in understanding their teacher comments because the instructions or directions are not clear. Ferris & Hedgcock (1998) gave an example illustrating that students may fail to interpret a teacher’s question as a suggestion or request for information, and it is not surprising to find that students ignore it when they do revision. It is, therefore, suggested that teachers should explain their responding behaviour to their students (Zamel, 1985). They should spend time specifically on explaining “their overall philosophy of responding (as well as specific strategies and/or symbols or terminology used) to the students” (Ferris, 1995, p.49). Teachers should also promote class discussions on response and encourage students to read and ask questions about the feedback given by them. It is especially helpful for students, such as students in Hong Kong and China, who feel that they should not challenge teachers’ authority though they disagree or do not understand the comments given by teachers (Ferris, 1995). This idea is also supported by Hyland (1998), who suggests that a fuller dialogue is needed in order to avoid miscommunication between teachers and students. This kind of dialogue is highly recommended to be extended in teacher-student conferencing, which “is a face-to-face conversation between the teacher and student..” (Reid, 1993, p. 220). As it has long been pointed out that miscommunication imposes difficulty on students and teachers approaching revision and giving feedback, teacher conferencing is a good opportunity for both of them. It helps students and teachers understand each other’s expectation concerning feedback. It also helps teachers understand more about the students’ perspective, past learning experience (Hyland, 1998), which will enable them to give better and more personalized feedback to individual students more effectively. Based on the research findings, it is recommended that teacher-student conferencing is more important for senior form students, as there is a higher percentage of the senior form students who complained that they did not understand or disagreed with their teacher’s comments. The senior form students are of a higher proficiency level, and they need more sophisticated skills to write their compositions. Teachers, thus, need to give more feedback to help them with their writing, and exchange of ideas will certainly be more necessary. Teacher-student conferencing is a good opportunity for students and teachers to exchange their 109 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers ideas. However, there are numerous constraints in reality that make it difficult to carry this out because teachers may not have time to conduct conferencing with every student after every composition. To address this problem, teachers need to pay close attention to students who exhibit diff iculties in making use of teacher feedback. They can conduct editing workshops or post- writing grammar clinics with those particular students, so as to demonstrate an instructional approach that fosters closer links between feedback and grammar instruction. It is apparent from the findings of the study that the students did want to learn from the comments, but because the comments involving content and organization were not specific enough to help them improve their writing, the students did not read over their compositions with care. It has been pointed out that vague comments should be replaced with text-specif ic comments (Fathman’s & Whalley’s, 1990; Zamel, 1985) - “feedback that is directly related to the text at hand, rather than generic comments that could be attached to any paper” (Ferris & Hedgcock, 1998, p. 133). The example given by Bates (1993) is that it is preferable for teachers to write down “I like the example about your sister” than “Good example”. Fathman and Whalley (1990) contended that the reason why students did not make substantive revision on content is that the content feedback given by teachers was not text-specific enough. Therefore, teachers should avoid giving vague comments if they want students to make use of their comments to improve their writing. In order to let students better understand how they can improve their writing, Lee (2002) suggested vague comments like ‘the text doesn’t hang together’ could be replaced by specific comments like ‘inappropriate conjunctions’ or ‘unclear reference’. By doing this, teachers will need to share the metalanguage they use when giving feedback to students who can then make use of the comments to revise and improve their writing. Apart from the above issues, another problem in teacher feedback in the present study seems to lie in the over-emphasis of grammar. A great number of the students thought that feedback on grammar was the most important and they usually paid more attention to linguistic feedback. Nevertheless, the students realized that feedback involving content and organization was more important when they give it second thoughts in the interviews. Their reaction to linguistic feedback seems to be subconscious. It may reflect that their perceptions towards linguistic feedback was affected by the priority of their teacher’s response to writing. It has long been said that teachers of writing are more concerned with providing error feedback and sentence-level feedback than other important elements (Cumming, 1985; Kassen, 1988; Idhe, 1994). It is not surprising to infer that the students’ teacher in this study also focused more on local errors. If this is the case, it reveals that is important for teachers to reprioritize their responses so as not to give their students a false message that feedback on local errors is more important than global ones. Leki (1992) suggested teachers pay more attention to global than local errors, as global errors have a greater impact on understanding. This is in line with the idea of Lee (1997), who recommends teachers to focus on more meaning errors than surface-level errors. Although students do express that they want all of their errors to be corrected (Leki, 1991; Ferris et. al, 2000; Ferris & Roberts, 2001), it may sound necessary for teachers to prioritize the errors that their students need to focus on most (Lee, 1997). In addition, in the interviews, the students shared that they felt discouraged when they received too much negative feedback, which would adversely affect how they read over teacher feedback. Therefore, it is essential 110 for teachers to take affective factors into account when giving feedback. Fathman & Whalley (1990) suggested that even general positive comments and suggestions help students improve their writing through revision. However, a study carried out by Cardelle & Corno (1981) finds that only positive comment is not sufficient enough to motivate students to improve their writing. While criticism only can lead to some improvement, it is reported that the most effective way is a combination of praise and criticism. Teachers, thus, are reminded that when giving constructive criticism, it is also important to place encouraging comments as well. However, teachers in Hong Kong may have to pay more attention to giving positive comments, as it is found that “students may distrust praise if it is not frequently given in their own culture” (Hyland, 1998, p. 280), and “too much praise may confuse, mislead, or demotivate students” (Cardelle & Corno, 1981). This alerts Hong Kong teachers on how and when to give positive comments to students. Teachers should look into the role of affective factors in giving teacher feedback and understand more about their students’ world before they give positive and negative comments. CONCLUSION This study aimed to investigate both Hong Kong students’ preferences for and responses to teacher feedback and the differences between junior form and senior form students. Although there are very few observations made on the different behaviors among the senior and junior forms students, the study has provided some insights into giving effective feedback in the Hong Kong context. There is quite a lot of literature from research done on giving feedback on error, but one big limitation is that most of the studies did not last long enough to prove how students benefited from teacher feedback. More longitudinal studies are needed to find out how teacher feedback can help students understand and internalize what they have been provided and taught, and how this can help them to produce better quality writing. In addition, being an EFL teacher, what concerns me is that the factors involved in teaching writing in an ESL and EFL context are very different, not to mention the biggest difference in the purposes for writing for EFL and ESL students. It is hoped that more research can be conducted in an EFL setting so as to provide EFL teachers with more insights into giving effective feedback. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Kitty Purgason and Dr. John Liang of Biola University for their valuable comments that helped me shape this paper, and Dr. Icy Lee and Ms Deborah Ison for reading and commenting on the later versions of the paper. 111 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Questionnaire Survey 1. Form 2. Sex : 3. How often do you read over your composition again when your teacher returns it to you? always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 4. Do you think about the teacher’s comments and corrections carefully? always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 5. Do you pay attention to the comments and corrections involving: a. Organization always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 b. Content/Ideas always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 c. Grammar always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 d. Vocabulary always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 e. Mechanics (e.g. punctuation, spelling) always usually sometimes not very often never 1 2 3 4 5 6. How important is it to you for your English teacher to give you comments on : a. Organization Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 b. Content/Ideas Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 Appendix 1 112 c. Grammar Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 d. Vocabulary Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 e. Mechanics (e.g. punctuation, spelling ) Very Quite Okay Not Not important important important important at all 1 2 3 4 5 7. Describe what you do after you read your teacher’s comments and corrections (check all the things which you do) Ask teacher for help Make corrections myself Ask classmates for help Check a grammar book Think about/remember mistakes Check a dictionary Nothing Others: 8. Are there ever any comments or corrections that you do not understand? If so, What is the reason? No (Please go to question 10) Yes; Yes; I can’t read teacher’s handwriting Yes; I sometimes disagree with the comments Yes; I don’t understand grammar terms, abbreviations, and symbols Yes; I don’t understand the comments about ideas or organization Yes; comments are too general Yes; others 9. What do you do about those comments or corrections that you do not understand? Nothing Ask my teacher to explain them Look corrections up in a grammar book or dictionary Ask classmates/friends/family for help Try to make the correction regardless of whether I understand or not Others 113 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers 10. Do you feel that your teacher’s comments and corrections help you to improve your composition writing skills? Why or why not? No; I need more help to correct my errors No; my teacher’s comments are too negative and discouraging No; my teacher’s comments are too general No; others Yes; I know what to avoid/improve next time Yes; I know where my mistakes are Yes; the comments help me to improve my writing skills Yes; the comments help me to think more clearly Yes; some positive comments build my confidence Yes; I can see my progress because of the comments Yes; I respect my teacher’s opinion Yes; the comments challenges me to try new things Yes; others N.B. Questions 3-5, 7-10 by (Ferris, 1995:45, 53) Question 6 by (Leki, 1991;213) 114 References Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of Teacher Response to Student Writing in a Multiple-draft Composition Classroom: Is Content Feedback Followed by Form Feedback the Best Method? Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(3), 227-257. Bates, L., & Lane, J. & Lange, E. (1993). Writing Clearly: Responding to ESL Compositions. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Cardelle, M., & Corno, L. (1981). Effects on Second Language Learning of Variations in Written Feedback on Homework Assignments. TESOL Quarterly, 15, 251-261. Cohen, A. (1987). Student processing of Feedback on Their Compositions. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds), Learner Strategies in Language Learning (pp.57-69). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Connor, U., & Asenavage, K. (1994). Peer Response Groups in ESL Writing Classes: How Much Impact on Revision? Journal of Second Language Writing, 3, 257-276. Cumming, A. (1985). Responding to the Writing of ESL Students. Highway One, 8, 58-78. Fathman, A., & Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher Response to Student Writing: Focus on Form verus Content. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom. (pp.178-190). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ferris, D. R. (1995). Student Reactions to Teacher Response in Multiple-draft Composition Classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 33-53. Ferris, D. R., Pezone, S., Tade, C. R., & Tinti, S. (1997). Teacher Commentary on Student Writing: Description and Implications. Journal of Second Language Writing, 6, 155-182. Ferris, D. R., Chaney, S. J., Komura, K., Roberts, B.J., & McKee, S. (2000). Does Error Feedback Help Student Writers? New Evidence on the Short- and Long-term Effects of Written Error Correction. Manuscript submitted for publication. Ferris, D. & Hedgcock, J. (1998). Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process, and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ferris, D. & Roberts, B., (2001). Error Feedback in L2 Writing Classes: How Explicit Does It Need to Be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10(4), 161-184. Hedgcock, J., & Lefkowitz, N. (1994). Feedback on Feedback: Assessing Learner Receptivity to Teacher Response in L2 Composing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 3, 141-163. Hedgcock, J., & Lefkowitz, N. (1996). Some Input on Input: Two Analyses of Student Response to Expert Feedback in L2 Writing. The Modern Language Journal, 80, 287-308. Hendrickson, J. M. (1980). Error Correction in Foreign Language Teaching: Recent Theory, Research and Practice. In K. Croft (Ed.), Readings on English As a Second Language (pp. 153-173). Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. Hyland, F. (1998). The Impact of Teacher Written Feedback to Individual Writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7(3), 255-286. Ihde, T. W. (1994, March). Feedback in L2 Writing. Revised version of a paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics, Baltimore, MD. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 287). Kassen, M. A. (1988). Native and Non-native Speaker Teacher Response to Foreign Language Learner Writing: A Study of Intermediate-level French. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 1(1), 1-15. Keh, C. (1990). Feedback in the Writing Process: A Model and Methods for Implementation. ELT Journal, 44, 2940304. 115 An Investigation into Students’ Preferences for and Responses to Teacher Feedback and Its Implications for Writing Teachers Kepner, C. G. (1991). An Experiment in the Relationship of Types of Written Feedback to the Development of Second Language Writing Skills. The Modern Language Journal, 75, 305-313. Lee, I. (1997). ESL Learners’ Performance in Error Correction in Writing: Some Implications for College-level Teaching. System, 25, 456-477. Lee, I. (2002). Helping Students Develop Coherence in Writing. English Teaching Forum, 40 (3), 32-39. Leki, I. (1991). The Preferences of ESL Students for Error Correction in College-level Writing Classes. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 203-218. Leki, I. (1992). Understanding ESL Writers. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook. Reid, J. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing. Englewood Cliffs, HJ: Prentice-Hall Regents. Robb, T., Ross, S., & Shortreed, I. (1986). Salience of Feedback on Error and Its Effect on EFL Writing Quality. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 83-93. Semke, H. (1984). The Effect of the Red Pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17, 195-202. Truscott, J. (1996). The Case for “The Case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes”: A response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 111-122. Zamel, V. (1985). Responding to Student Writing. TESOL Quarterly, 19(1), 79-101 Zhang, S. (1995). Reexamining the Affective Advantage of Peer Feedback in the ESL Writing Class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4, 209-222. 116 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject 於純粹數學科引進「學生同儕教學」 CHEUNG Sze-Hung, Queenie Stewards Pooi Tun Secondary School Abstract Students need to be endowed with generic skills so as to meet the challenges of an ever changing and knowledge-based information society like Hong Kong. Traditional education systems that focus on memorization and examination cannot satisfy these new demands. So there is a need for the shift of learning and teaching (L&T). This paper shares the experience of launching “Peer Tutoring” in Advanced-Level Pure Mathematics subject in one school. It focuses on how peer tutoring influences students’ learning behaviors and attitudes, learning effectiveness and skill promotion. The change of roles for students and teachers, advantages and limitations of peer tutoring will also be discussed. Keywords Peer tutoring, Learning behavior, Learning attitudes, Learning effectiveness, Skill promotion INTRODUCTION Educational reform in an information society like Hong Kong in the 21st century focuses on equipping students with self-learning skills and broadened knowledge. According to the Curriculum Development Council, the paradigm of “imparting knowledge” is shifting to that of “fostering students to learn how to learn”, which involves reform of roles of students and teachers in the processes of learning and teaching (L&T). It is important to teach students generic skills in order to help them learn how to learn. These generic skills namely communication, cri t ical thinking, creativity, collaboration, information technology, numeracy, problem solving, self management and study skills, should be developed through L&T in the contexts of different subjects. Hence, teachers should no longer be merely knowledge transmitters, but also facilitators of the independent learning process of their students (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). In response to the above-mentioned reform, peer tutoring can be a cultural change in L&T. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 117 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject WHAT IS PEER TUTORING? “Peers” is defined as someone belonging to the same group, in terms of status, in society. Here “peers” refers to the students in the same class taking the same subject. Peer tutoring involves one or more students teaching other students in a particular subject area. This provides one-on-one attention, immediate feedback, and active “discovery learning”, which are especially effective in science education, in a non-threatening environment. Being a mathematics teacher, I have been attracted to catering students’ individual difference using “peer tutoring” in my lesson plan. Peer tutoring seems to be a good solution to help minimize individual differences. Theoretical Bases of Peer Tutoring According to the basic cognitive developmental theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, human development can be viewed as constructive or socio-genetic processes. In the views of Piaget’s constructivism, “human beings are capable of extending biological programming to construct cognitive systems that interpret experiences with objects and other persons...Peer interactions provide rich and necessary contexts for students to revise their current cognitive system. Such revisions would, in turn, lead students to make new meanings.” (O’Donnell and King, 1999, p.5) Vygotsky’s theory views human development as a socio-genetic process by which children gain cognitive growth by interacting with others who are often more competent. Such process will be effective if the interaction occurs within one’s “zone of proximal development”. Instead of being a passive learner, students should be encouraged to have more interaction with others. It is known that verbal interaction is important for cognitive change and knowledge construction (Forman and Cazden, 1985), and students would have better cognitive growth if they were working with each other than working alone (Bell et. al, 1985). Students can also learn skills, beliefs and behaviors by imitating peers and adults without interacting with them (Bandura, 1986). They can figure out their misconceptions and thus correct them by observing others (models). A number of studies supports that modeling can promote subsequent performance on the observed task (e.g. Kuhn, 1972; Murray, 1972; Zimmerman, 1974). However, modeling is ineffective when models function far in advance of the participants (Kuhn, 1972). Hence, a peer model is better than an adult model because students, observing a peer completing a task successfully, would probably increase their self-concept and believe that they could also succeed in the same task. On the other hand, many researchers find that teenagers inhabit cultural worlds far different from those of their teachers (e.g. Murdock and Phelps, 1973). As students communicate at the same levels of knowledge background and use the same language, they are more likely to accept one and others’ opinions (Piaget, 1976) and are generally more willing to challenge each other than to challenge teachers. Besides, compared with those, like most of the teachers, who had had no difficulties in learning, students who had struggled themselves to understand a concept may be advantaged in providing “scaffolding” - the process of enabling one to carry out a task that he /she would not be able to perform without assistance. It is because peer students are more sensitive than teachers to non-verbal cues given by other students to indicate that they do not understand something (Allen, 1976), and they are better able to explain concepts in much familiar terms (Noddings, 1985). Thus, students will learn better from tutors who are their peers, or who are similar in general culture and background, than from teachers. Most students find that Advanced-level Pure Mathematics is, to a certain extent, quite abstract, and 118 so do my students. They always reflect that after observing my solving some mathematical problems, they can learn new skills in tackling similar problems, but this may not necessarily enhance their problem solving confidence. I have tried to launch peer tutoring in teaching some of the topics, aiming at strengthening students’ problem solving confidence. General Benefits to Participants in Peer Tutoring Scheme Benefits to Tutees According to Doise et. al (1975), when children are presented with a solution that contradicted their own, even if the contradiction is not a correct one, will promote children’s progress. In peer tutoring, students are exposed to a more challenging mode of class interaction. As interaction may produce cognitive conflicts and disagreement among students, to resolve, students have to discuss, understand, try and accept new ideas. Such a process makes students to reflect, justify and explain their own beliefs and thus help students to learn through seeking and comprehending alternate solutions. Student tutees gain from the process of understanding others’ ideas, correcting previous misconceptions and f illing the gaps between prior knowledge and new ideas. Finally, students work together to invent their own problem-solving procedures and discover their own solutions, creating an atmosphere of social stimulation and support (Damon and Phelps, 1989), resulting in enhancing students’ communication and collaboration skills. As a matter of fact, many research f indings showed that peer tutoring produced significantly greater achievement than normal classroom instruction (e.g. Bausell, Moody and Walzl, 1972; Russell and Ford, 1983). Allen and Feldman (1973) found that children learned better by peer tutoring in science-related topics than by studying alone. Horan et. al (1974) and Mevarech (1985) also showed that pupils who are tutored in mathematics improve mathematics achievement and classroom behavior more than control groups who are not tutored. Benefits to Tutors When student tutors are temporarily adopting the teacher’s role, their behavior will be constrained by the expectations of peer students, leads to develop sympathy with their teachers and began to cooperate with them. This results in improved behavior in tutors’ own classrooms, a better attitude towards schoolwork and a deeper respect for learning (Geiser, 1969; Allen, 1976). Tutors will also learn responsibility, caring for others (Coleman et. al, 1974), gain the experience of being needed, valued, and respected. Such an experience produces a new view of self as a worthwhile human being (Hedin, 1987), develops tutors’ sense of personal adequacy, enhances their feeling of self-esteem, and improves their self-concept (Mainiero et. al, 1971). In order to convince others, students who teach others have to struggle to make the material meaningful to the learners, thereby have the opportunity of reflecting upon their own learning process and reinforcing tutors’ knowledge of fundamentals (Bruner, 1963). In the process of giving explanations and justifying their ideas to student tutees, student tutors may review and restructure the knowledge they possess, clarify or recognize material in new ways in their own mind, recognize and fill in gaps in their understanding to see how their subject area “all fits together”, identify and resolve inconsistencies, and construct more elaborate conceptualizations (Yachel et. al, 1991). Student tutors then could be benefited from the process of reorganizing and restructuring their thinking for nothing clarifies their ideas as much as explaining them to others. In fact, the 119 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject tutor receives the most gains in peer tutoring scheme. What is more, Goodlad and Hirst (1989) suggested peer tutoring could give tutors a chance to make direct use of the knowledge they already possessed and might, consequently, inspire them to seek more of it. Benefits to Teachers As mentioned previously, students who are mobilized with the role of a tutor will sympathize their teachers and improve their classroom behavior, this may reduce discipline problems and create an atmosphere of cooperation that make teacher’s job pleasanter. Peer tutoring can also free teachers from routine tasks, giving them more time on planning the curriculum and arranging conditions in which students can learn (Goodlad and Hirst, 1989). Furthermore, according to a Stanford University study, peer tutoring is consistently more cost-effective than computer-assisted instruction, reduction of class sizes or increased instructional time for raising both reading and mathematics achievement of both tutors and tutees (Levin, 1984), which means, teachers can use their resources more effectively. IMPLEMENTATION OF PEER TUTORING Target Students All Matriculation (Form 6-7) Mathematics Group students in Stewards Pooi Tun Secondary School, sitting for the 2003 Hong Kong Advanced Level (HKAL) Pure Mathematics Examination participated in the peer- tutoring scheme. There were 15 students, with average grades of about B and C respectively in the Hong Kong Certif icate (HKCE) General Mathematics and Additional Mathematics Examinations (2001). Duration of the Peer Tutoring Scheme In order to keep pace with the teaching schedule, the peer-tutoring scheme was first launched as a pilot in the term break period (Form 6) from mid-June to August in 2002, when both the teacher and the students were less busy and were more capable of accepting such a challenging shift of mode of learning. The scheme was taken place in the post-examination classes (before the summer vacation started) and the summer tutorial classes, twice a week in about two-month time. Each class lasted for three hours. After that, students were encouraged to use peer tutoring regularly in the new semester (Form 7). Topics included in the Peer-tutoring Scheme As the students had to adopt the teaching role, topics included in peer tutoring should not be too difficult for them. Two topics, namely “Indefinite Integrals” and “Definite Integrals”, were chosen in the pilot classes because all the students had already acquired the basic knowledge and skills in tackling problems involving “integration” when they were in Form 5. The teacher first tailored the chosen topics into several sub-topics. Then divided the class into five groups, each of three students. The groups were allowed to choose the sub- topics on their own free will. Each group prepared their own teaching material or lecture notes and took turn to deliver lectures. For the audience, they had to take an active part in class discussion. Later in the new semester (Form 7), instead of delivering lectures, students were only asked to use peer tutoring regularly in solving mathematics problems, especially those in the past HKALE papers. 120 Teacher’s Role in Peer Tutoring In launching peer tutoring, in which students shared teacher’s duty in delivering lectures doesn’t mean freeing teacher from lesson preparation. Instead, it shifts teacher’s role in lesson design. Teacher’s new roles are mainly focused on the following: 1. Preparations Teacher should help students to form groups, considering factors like gender, abilities and pre- existing social relationship of students so as to maximize their performance. He/she then breaks down the teaching materials into a series of digestible snippets, and helps to set clear objectives and goals. It is also necessary to provide material needed in presentation and help to set preparation schedule to make sure that student tutors have sufficient preparation time. 2. During Students’ Presentation Teacher should be responsible for monitoring and supervising students’ presentation, offering instantaneous feedback like giving praises and comments, correcting mistakes, strengthening and reorganizing key points. Besides, teacher should engage and challenge students to arouse discussion, and teach critical thinking and questioning skills. 3. Lesson Enrichment Teacher is also expected to provide intellectual inspiration and leadership to arouse interest, and finally, to focus on teaching new or supplementary information. EVALUATION ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PEER TUTORING In order to assess the effectiveness of peer tutoring, students’ perception of their dispositions and outcomes in learning were measured for both the “teacher-as- instructor” and the “student-as-instructor” modes of study. The main questions investigated in this study were, “Did the students benefit from the change in modes of study towards student-as-instructor learning style?” and “What are the advantages and limitations of peer tutoring?” The Instrument A self-developed questionnaire was introduced to measure four subscales of students’ dispositions and outcomes in learning as listed below: 1. Learning Behaviors - it measured students’ perception of their behavior in learning like how concentrated and actively involved during class discussions, and how well they collaborated in learning. 2. Learning Attitudes - it measured students’ perception of their disposition in the dimension of motivation, confidence in problem-solving, self-concept, and how challenging they found the lessons. 3. Learning Effectiveness - it measured students’ perception of their disposition in the dimension of 121 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject effectiveness, learning climate, understanding of concepts, and catering individual difference. 4. Skill Promotion - it measured students’ perception of their disposit ion in the dimension of independence and autonomy in learning, mind broadening, cr i t ical thinking ski l ls and organization. All the 15 Pure Mathematics students sitting for 2003 HKALE were asked to rate the items of the questionnaire on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 6, in which 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 6 indicating “strongly agree”. In addition to the item- rating questions, two open-ended questions concerning students’ opinion of the advantages and limitations of peer tutoring were also introduced in the questionnaire. Finally, students’ HKALE result, in terms of passing rate and value-added index in Pure Mathematics, will be analyzed in reviewing the overall effectiveness of the scheme. Results and Discussions Before going on to the data analysis, there are two important things to point out: first, since the sample is non-random and convenient with only 15 subjects, the results might not be statistically reliable nor significant, however, they still reflected something to a certain extent; second, 5 out of the 15 subjects (33%) had attended private tutorials, therefore their overall HKALE results cannot be simply attributed to the peer-tutoring scheme. Students’ Overall Perception of Peer Tutoring Scheme Students’ perception of their dispositions in the four subscales are summarized in the following: Table 1 Means of the subscales of the questionnaire Subscales No of cases Mean Teacher-as-instructor Student-as-instructor Learning behaviors 15 4.42 4.55 Learning attitudes 15 3.97 4.25 Learning effectiveness 15 4.55 3.87 Skill promotion 15 4.14 4.17 Results from the questionnaire indicate that students perceived that the “learning attitudes” in the student-as-instructor mode of study was higher than that in the teacher-as-instructor mode of study by 0.28, while their “learning behaviors” and “skill promotion” were just slightly better in peer tutoring. Interestingly, they reflected that peer tutoring was far less effective than conventional classroom instruction by 0.68. 122 Let’s go into details of each of the subscales: 1. Learning Behaviors: Table 2 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Learning Behaviors Students showed greater “involvement” and had more “collaboration” in peer tutoring, but they didn’t find much difference in terms of “concentration” and chances of “expressing opinion” in both modes of learning. 2. Learning Attitudes: Table 3 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Learning Attitudes Students found that peer tutoring was much more “challenging”. It was better able to “motivate” their studies and improve their “self-concept”. However, watching their peer tutors solving various problems successfully might not necessarily upgrade their “confidence in problem-solving”. 123 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject 3. Learning Effectiveness: Table 4 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Learning Effectiveness Though students agreed that peer tutoring could enhance “learning climate” in class, they pointed out that it was rather time-consuming, and that’s why they rated “efficiency” in the student-as-instructor mode far lower than that in the teacher-as-instructor mode by 1.20. They too strongly reflected that with pedagogic training and rich teaching experience, teacher was more professional and experienced than peer tutors in “catering individual differences” and explaining “concepts”, especially those abstract ones. 4. Skill Promotion: Table 5 Bar Chart indicating the Means of Sample Items of the Subscale: Skill Promotion The results indicate that in peer tutoring, students would have better growth in “organization”. Contradicting to the research review, students showed that they learnt “critical thinking” skill more in the teacher-as-instructor mode of learning. This might be attributed to the fact that the teacher used to prepare teaching materials intended for training students’ critical thinking. For example, the teacher often presented examples of different problem-solving methods, some were even conceptually wrong, and asked students to criticize or modify them. 124 Result Summary Most of students, taking the role as student tutees, agreed that they were more motivated and actively involved in class for they had to listen extensively and attentively because, unlike in the “teacher-as-instructor” mode of study, they could not take for granted that whatever student tutors taught were all correct. They tended to be more critical-minded and learned to challenge their peer tutors, making the lessons more challenging and thus promoting learning climate. Besides, through peer tutoring, students had more opportunities to collaborate and organize their learning material and to share with their peer, meaning that every one could contribute to the learning outcomes of the whole class, resulting in an increase in self-concept and organization skills. In spite of this, students found that peer tutoring was less efficient, in terms of understanding new concepts and catering individual differences. Students’ Opinions in the Two Open-ended Questions 1. What did you like best about peer tutoring? - “In order to participate in class discussion, I had to prepare for the lessons. This helped me to build a habit of reading teaching materials before class.” - “We had to prepare lessons in groups, this helped us to develop learning bonds with student peers.” - “During peer tutors’ presentation, I was less likely to accept all what they presented, this sometimes aroused conflicts among us. To resolve, I was encouraged to develop a tolerance for uncertainty and conflict.” - “The learning cl imate was much more challenging, and consequently increased my motivation, concentration and involvement in class.” - “As all of us had the opportunities to teach and to challenge our peers, we could make significant contribution to every student’s knowledge construction. This not only increased our self- esteem, self-confidence and leadership, but also built up our spontaneity in learning.” - “Peer tutoring helped us to move away from dependence on teachers’ authority toward belief in our own ability to seek knowledge and figure out solutions.” - “Peer tu tor ing promotes cooperat ion, friendliness, positive social behavior like giving praise and encouragement, and hence improve our communication and interpersonal skills.” 2. What are the limitations in peer tutoring? - “Without pedagogic training, students able to understand a concept well does not necessarily imply that they can teach the concept equally well.” - “We may have to pay extra effort in adapting ourselves to the different teaching styles of different student tutors.” - “It may cause disciplinary problem if the students are not mature and disciplined enough.” - “Peer tutoring is in overall much more time- consuming than traditional classroom teaching. This may cause difficulty in keeping pace with the teaching schedule, especially when there is an existing syllabus for public examination.” - “We may learn wrong concepts if the teacher is not alert enough in correcting mistakes made by the student tutors immediately.” - “Not every topic is suitable to implement peer tutoring. Some topics may be too abstract and require much of teacher’s elaboration, or some may be too hard to break down into a series of digestible snippets.” 125 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject Students’ Hong Kong Advanced-Level Examination Result in Pure Mathematics (2003) The passing rate of the fifteen students in 2003 HKAL Pure Mathematics Examination was 93.3%. Three students (20%) got “distinctions”; all these three students were the most active ones involved in peer tutoring and only one out of them had attended private tutorials. According to the Value-Added index released by the Education and Manpower Bureau (Table 6), the target students had an overall estimate of 5.71 value added. Since factors affecting learning outcomes are too complex, we cannot simply attribute the value added to the launching of peer-tutoring scheme. Nevertheless, peer tutoring indeed created a self-learning atmosphere and promoted students’ generic skills that are essentials of effective learning. Table 6 Value-Added Index of 2003 HKAL Pure Mathematics Examination 2003 Value-Added Stanine Low Estimate High Pure Math 2.2 5.71 8.86 8 Ref. Range -9 to 9 1 to 9 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Hong Kong is now developing towards an information society in which students need to be endowed with generic skills so as to meet the challenges of such an ever changing and knowledge-based environment. Traditional classroom’s board-and-chalk teaching that focuses on memorization and examination can merely contribute to these new requirements. So there is an undeniable need for the shift of teaching mode. Peer tutoring provides an alternative for both learning and teaching. It helps to upgrades students’ learning behaviors and attitudes, enhances critical thinking and organization skills, and promotes communication and collaboration. These lead to a self learning climate in which students move away from the dependence on teachers’ authority toward self-confidence in problem solving. In order to yield greater benefits from peer tutoring, it is suggested that as the pre-requisite for both the student tutors and tutees, they should be considerably disciplined and have to be taught some bases on certain topics before they can teach. For the topics chosen, they should not be too abstract nor far beyond students’ grasp, because presenting students with difficult problems will not necessarily result in productive discussion and cognitive change. Instead, a decline in correct responding and more deeply entrenched misunderstanding may result (Levin and Druyan, 1993). Last but not the least, the teacher should be alert enough throughout student tutors’ presentation so as to correct any misconceptions immediately. Peer tutoring should been seen as one of the many teaching strategies available in education reform. It is not intended to replace other teaching techniques, but rather to complement them. It will always remain the teacher’s privilege and responsibility to decide wisely which teaching method is beneficial and desirable for a given group of students and given subject matter. 126 References Allen, V. L. (ed) (1976). Children As Teachers. London: Academic Press. Allen, V. L. & Feldman, R. S. (1973). Learning Through Tutoring: Low Achieving Children As Tutors, Journal of Experimental Education, 41, 1, 1-5. Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bausell, R. B., Moody, W. B. and Walzl, F. N. (1972). A Factorial Study of Tutoring versus Classroom Instruction, American Educational Research Journal, 9, 592-597. Bell, N., Grossen, M., & Perret-Clermont, A.N. (1985). Sociocognitive Conflict and Intellectual Growth. In M. W. Berkowitz (Ed.), Peer Conflict and Psychological Growth, pp. 41 - 54. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bruner, J. S. (1963). The Process of Education. New York: Vintage Books. Coleman, J. S. et. al (1974). Youth: Transition to Adulthood. Report of the Panel on Youth of the President’s Science Advisory Committee. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Curriculum Development Council (2001). Learning to Learn: The Way Forward in Curriculum Development. Hong Kong: the Government Pinter. Damon, W., & Phelps, E. (1989). Strategic Users of Peer Learning in Children’s Education. In T. Berndt & G. Ladd (Eds.), Peer Relationships in Child Development, pp. 135-157. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Doise, W. Mugny, G., and Perret-Clermont, A-N. (1975). Social Interaction and the Development of Cognitive Operations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5, (3), 367-383. Forman, E. A., & Cazden, C. B. (1985). Exploring Vygotskian Perspectives in Education: The cognitive Value of Peer Interaction. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, Communication and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives, pp. 323 - 347. New York: Cambridge University Press. Goodlad, S. & Hirst, B. (1989). Peer Tutoring: A Guide to Learning by Teaching. London: Kogan Page Limited. Hedin, D. (1987, Winter). Students as Teachers: A Tool for Improving School Climate and Productivity. Social Policy, 17 (3), 42-47. Horan, J. J., de Girolomo, M. A., Hill, R. L. and Shute, R. E. (1974). The Effect of Older-peer Participant Models on Deficient Academic Performance, Psychology in Schools, 2, 207-212. Kuhn, D. (1972). Mechanisms of Change in the Development of Cognitive Structures. Child Development, 43, 833-844. Levin, H. (1984). Costs and Cost-effectiveness of Computer-assisted Instruction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, California Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance. Levin, I., & Druyan, S. (1993). When Sociocognitive Transaction Among Peers Fails: The Case of Misconceptions in Science. Child Development, 64, 1571-1591. Mainiero, J., Gillogly, B., Nease, O., Sheretz, D. and Wilkinson, P. (1971). A Cross-age Teaching Resource Manual. California: Ontario-Montclair School District, Ontario. Mevarech, R. (1985). The Effects of Cooperative Mastery Learning Strategies on Mathematical Achievement. Journal of Education Research, 78, 6, July-August, 372-377. Murdock, G. and Phelps, G. (1973). Mass Media and the Secondary School. London: Macmillan. 127 Peer Tutoring in Pure Mathematics Subject Murray, F. B. (1972). Acquisition of Conservation Through Social Interaction. Development Psychology, 6, 1-6. Noddings, N. (1985). Small Groups as a Setting for Research on Mathematical Problem Solving. In E. A. Silver (Ed.), Teaching and Learning Mathematical Problem Solving, pp.345-360. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. O’Donnell, A. & King, A. (Eds.) (1999). Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Piaget, J. (1976). The Grasp of Consciousness: Action and Concept in the Young Child. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Russell, T. and Ford, D. F. (1983). Effectiveness of Peer Tutors vs Resource Teachers, Psychology in the Schools, 20 October. Yackel, E., Cobb, P., & Wood, T. (1991). Small-group Interactions as a Source of Learning Opportunities in Second- grade Mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 390-408. Zimmerman, B. J. (1974). Modification of Young Children’s Grouping Strategies: The Effects of Modeling, Verbalization, Incentives and Age. Child Development,45, 1032-1041. 128 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力郭思穎、林少雯仁濟醫院羅陳楚思中學趙明明教授香港中文大學撮要現今學生普遍缺乏創作靈感，使寫作倍感困難。根據基模理論(Schema Theory) 及多元互動創意想像的意象模式(Multidimensional Interactive Creative Imagination Imagery Model)，意象訓練(imagery training)可以有效地使學生寫作時更具創意。我們是次研究，就是將意象訓練應用於三班，合共一百二十三個中學二年級的學生身上。該批學生於訓練前及訓練後都會參與一個中文作文評核，以了解他們的作文在訓練後會否更具創意。創意的評核準則包括：流暢力、獨創力、文法及文章內容。意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力現今學生普遍都有寫作上的困難(Cameron, Hunt, & Linton, 1996)，其中主要的困難包括缺乏題材、缺少適當的詞彙、使用錯誤的文法及沒有良好的組織力。就組織能力而言，學生因花很少時間草擬、訂定題旨及覆閱文章，最終行文往往變得欠說服力、前文不對後理，以致文章難於被人明白。透過這個研究，我們試驗意象訓練能否協助學生解決以上的問題。寫作有學者 (Leung， 2001)形容寫作的過程就是主觀地去解釋個人的想法，而且每個人的腦中都有一套屬於自己的詞彙和對每個詞彙的解釋 (mental dictionary)，以及使用詞彙去解釋不同觀念的獨特法則(Pinker, 1995)。 Hayes & Flower (1980)說過，寫作可以歸納為構思、轉譯及覆閱三個過程。構思就是製造及組織意念；轉譯就是將預備論述的意念化成文字 (Bock & Levelt, 1994)；而覆閱則是閱讀文章，找出其中的問題和錯處。而其中轉譯的過程，更起著一個重要的角色。Bourdin and Fayol (1994) 則指出，寫作比說話要求更高的集中能力，而兒童集中力較弱，因此他們寫作所能引用的詞彙，往往比說話時為少。在技術的層面上看，學生往往缺乏腦力激盪、自由寫作、使用聯想及記憶等解決問題的技巧。因此要提升學生的寫作能力，訓練便需要包括有關的技巧。解決問題的技巧易學難精，而學 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 129 生又缺乏人生經驗及閱歷，使學到的只會是一些較粗略的基本技巧。有經驗的作者在籌備及覆閱文章時，都會有效地運用不同的認知策略。而有關的策略有助他們於寫作時作出適當的自我規限。在切合讀者的需要、便於覆閱和修改、以及能完成整個寫作等大前題上，作者更需要有策略地去取捨文章的素材(Albertson & Billingsley, 2001)。文章要寫得好，作者必須對寫作的準則及題目有足夠的認識。所以，學生除了需具備詞彙運用、文法及句子結構等知識外，對作文題目的了解也是必需的(Pinker, 1995)。前者能從課堂上學到，而後者則關乎學生對週遭環境的感受及其閱讀習慣。總括而言，這都和學生的態度有密切關係。學生的學習態度及寫作動力均是教學上要顧及的重點範圍。但當學生未能有效地運用文字去表達時，學習的動力便會相應下降。字數和時間的限制，對分數的擔憂或老師其他的要求，都會減低學生的寫作動力 (Sharples, 1978)。在壓力下，學生亦較難進行創作，所以學生須於一個有安全感，且沒有壓力的工作環境內寫作。創作力要有良好的寫作能力，學生需要掌握不同的技巧，學習知識和改善態度。雖然現今學校已提供相關的訓練，但相對之下，學校都較少著重提升學生的創作力。以下我們將討論創作力是如何有助於寫作。我們會就著Wallace (1926)有關創作力的四個階段，即準備期、醞釀期、頓悟期和創作期，討論提升創作力如何能幫助學生寫作。有關創作力的訓練，主要集中於準備期。首先，學生對其寫作題目的背景有更深切的認識，會有助於開始他們的寫作。此外，使用視聽器材的刺激及促使同學間的討論，則有助於發展學生的解決問題技巧，這些技巧，亦有助他們提取及運用腦內有用的記憶。另一方面，在準備期間，老師與學生討論他們的作文題目，將有助提升學生對作文的興趣，達至推動寫作的作用。但如果學生處於一個具威嚇性的氣氛下寫作，例如過份擔憂引用錯誤的意念，或於未能完成作文時會受罰等，都會因恐懼、失敗而失去寫作的動力。學者Dawe (1993)指出文學老師在教授小說時，應鼓勵學生想像其中角色的形象。他亦證明了提升學生的想像力和語言表達力，會有助提升學生的閱讀、寫作與批判思考等能力。此外，亦有學者 (Sadoski, Kealy, Goetz, & Paivio, 1997) 發現，有否引用一些具體的語句及有否運用意象化，均能解釋一些語言運用上的差距。使用一些具體的字、詞、句，會比抽象的易被人形象化、了解、記憶及感覺有趣(Sadoski, et. al, 1997) 。學生透過對身邊世界細心的觀察，再結合已有的概念，便能發展具創意的新意念 (Ward, 2001)。透過聯想，將這些新意念與接收回來性質近似或不同的資訊互相組合而成新概念，已可以算是運用創作力的開端。學習了創作力及橫向思考，學生的意念將會更深和更廣。在第二及第三個階段，即醞釀期及頓悟期，學生需身處於一個被支持及鼓勵的環境當中。要創造他們個人的想法，需要有足夠的時間，因此在訓練的起步階段，學生不會被要求有一個很高的寫作效率。況且當學生能掌握意象化後，他們的寫作速度自然會比以往快。在最後的一個階段，即創作期，學生會在老師的支持及協助之下，與同學討論及表達他們的想法。完成作文後，亦應容許及鼓勵同學間互相給予意見，使寫作有進步。甚麼是意象？意象是指物質訊息的輸入，也是腦部如何對這些訊號的處理及怎樣去理解有關的訊息 (Broudy, 1987)。這些物質訊息可以是圖像、聲音、觸覺或 130 情緒感受，而每個人的腦部如何去處理這些訊息的方法亦不相同。接著，這些訊息會轉化為意識、知覺、感受及推動力，最終成為行動。而在完成這種種之前，腦內亦會先形成一個心理圖像 (Khatena, 2000)。意象與語言的運用現今有很多理論去解釋意象如何有助於語言運用，而基模理論 (Schema Theory) 及雙碼理論 (Dual Coding Theory) 便是其中兩個。基模理論假設我們的記憶中存在著一些抽象的架構，用來表達知識 (Dawe, 1993; Kaufmann, 1980)。基模理論將注意力集中於文章上有意義的地方及讀者已有的知識上，誘發了不同的研究，豐富了我們對閱讀本質的理解。當學生在寫作或閱讀時，新的概念會根據他們過往的經驗和知識而產生。而當學生拿到一個作文題目後，他們會用固有的記憶去理解題目，接著按他們腦內已有的資源，去寫他們的文章。然而，基模理論卻忽略了學生的情緒反應，因而不能解釋何以同一個學生於不同的狀態下，會對同一件事有不同的理解。此外，這理論亦不能解釋為何學生能構思他們已有知識範圍以外的意念。而且，有好的意念，學生亦未必能把它們組織成文章。至於雙碼理論則提出處理非語言及語言的資訊，分別是由兩個系統去處理，而這兩個系統是獨立但有連繫的 (Dawe, 1993; Kaufmann, 1980; Riding & Cheema, 1991) 。處理非語言的系統是指意象系統，因為該系統的其中一個作用，就是使腦部產生影像 (包括視覺、聽覺、感觀及情緒)。而處理語言系統，則是指專門處理語言的次系統或口語系統。以上提到的兩個系統有不同組織及運作特徵 (Dawe, 1993)。在接收到語言訊息後，該訊息會被連續性地及依據句法整理。對於非語言的訊息，則會被整理為一個包括視覺、聽覺、感觀及情緒的結合。透過語言或是影像的刺激及聯想，接收到的詞句會與其他詞句連結，而近似地，接收到的影像亦會喚起腦內其他相關的影像。雖然接收語言及非語言模式是透過兩個不同的系統，但正如前文所述，該兩個系統是互相關連的。因而詞句訊息能引發其他詞句的聯想外，亦能同時喚起能聯想到的影像，反之亦然。舉個例說，當一個學生將「雪糕」儲存於語言與非語言模式的記憶內，他看到「雪糕」後，便會聯想到他喜愛的雪糕味道、顏色、吃的感覺等等。而他亦能在見到「雪糕」一詞後，聯想到雪糕的影像及其他有關雪糕的特徵。此外，該學生亦可從雪糕上，進而聯想到其他的味道、感覺或食物。根據雙碼理論以及多元互動創意想像的意象模式(Multidimensional Interactive Creative Imagination Imagery Mode) ，意象訓練能幫助學生從一個圖像，連鎖反應地喚起一連串其他的圖像，這可以有助他們去寫更豐富和更有創意的文章 (Hutton & Lescohier, 1983; Sommer, 1978) 。因此，訓練會集中使用書面語，幫助學生透過意象化，去描寫他們所看到、聽到、感覺到及想到的事，從而促使學生寫一些有創意的故事。研究方法參與訓練的學生需要出席六堂共五小時的意象訓練，其中內容包括提升學生的動力、意象化能力、有關寫作的技巧及知識和改善寫作應有的態度等。另一方面，教導學生如何放鬆自己亦是訓練的重點。學生於輕鬆的環境及鬆弛的狀態下，除了感到舒適外，也能提升他們的寫作動力、想像力及意象化的能力。學生在訓練中，會加深了對創造力的認識，有助他們掌握及運用創造力。一篇有創意的文章，會有較多及較原創的意念、較好的內容及更有組織。此外，訓練亦會包含提升觀察力的技意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 131 巧。因為就算學生具有創意而想到一些有趣及獨特的意念，寫出來的文章也不一定會使讀者感到有意義或產生共鳴。要增加對這個世界的認識，使寫的文章容易與人產生共鳴，是需要透過對週遭細心的觀察。是次研究，我們除了考試分數外，亦就著其他四個方面作評分，即流暢度、獨創性、內容及文法。我們會以學生文章意念的多寡去量度流暢度，而獨創性則是計算文章上的意念，是否較少於其他文章上出現 (Lissitz & Willhoft, 1985; Plucker & Runco, 1998)。至於內容及組織力的分數，則取決於學生如何去闡釋他們的意念。假設研究中，共有123位學生參與了意象訓練。而我們會透過事前及事後測試，了解研究的成效。在研究中，因變量分別有文章的內容、流暢度、獨創性及文法的評分，和中文作文的考試分數。獨立可變物則分別有性別及有否參與了意象訓練。我們假設學生參與了意象訓練後，他們的創意及中文作文的表現均會有所提升。研究對象該123位學生來自同一所第二組別的中學，他們來自中學二年級的三個班別，由同一位中文老師任教，而該老師亦是是次研究的研究員之一。而有關研究的事宜，學生事前是不知道的。他們被選中參與這個研究，是因為他們同時被該研究員所教。參與訓練的三個班別中，其中一班 (共 41 人)　成績較好，考試排名在全級二百四十個學生的前八十位。而參與研究的男女生比例如下：研究設計是次研究的設計，為一個事前與事後對比的測試。123位學生於接受意象訓練的前後，都會參與一個測試，以評核四項有關創意及作文的評分，從而評估他們在訓練前後是否有分別。此外，研究亦會利用有參與訓練的學生的中文作文考試成績，對比84 位沒有參與訓練的學生，以評估訓練的成效。至於學校的編班情況，學校會根據學生的學業成績，將學生編進成績較平均或成績較好等兩種班別。參與研究的三班學生，其中兩班為成績較平均的班別，一班為成績較好的。我們在對比考試分數時，會從有參與訓練與沒有參與訓練的班別裡，各揀一班成績平均及成績較好的班別來作比較。材料及步驟事前測試所有有參與意象訓練的學生，都會於接受訓練前，為一篇題目為「我在學校年終的頒獎禮中獲獎，情況會是這樣的......」寫一個結尾。文章需在七十分鐘內完成，沒有字數限制，亦容許學生於寫作時與同學交流意見。人數男生 59 女生 64 總數 123 132 意象訓練教節目標活動教具課業及評估 i. 利用圖片和簡報，向同學展示有創意 i. 簡報一的圖片和文章。 ii. 工作紙一 ii. 老師讀「創作」兩字，讓同學把在腦內浮現的影像記在工作紙一上。 iii. 引導同學說出創意的四個特性：流暢工作紙二：九宮力、彈性、獨創性、精進力。畫 i. 請同學分享工作紙二，溫習創意的特性。 ii. 利用簡報二及三解釋潛意識及靈感的 i. 音樂工作紙四：請同由來： ii. 簡報二：冰山學把工作紙上所甲、鬆弛法：讓腦內記憶從潛意識浮 iii. 簡報三：令人鬆寫的物件，用腦現；弛的圖畫海圖像法，想像乙、漸進式鬆弛法。 iv. 物件一個故事。可用 iii. 在音樂的襯托下，老師說出一些物件 v. 工作紙三圖畫或文字。，引導同學把腦海內浮現出來的影像在工作紙三上。 iv. 請同學用聯想的方法，把所想的影像豐富起來。 v. 溫習鬆弛法和冥想。 i. 溫習鬆弛法和冥想。 i. 簡報四：假象、 ii. 利用簡報四介紹假象、模稜兩可的圖模稜兩可的圖像像和一些創意實例。和一些創意實例 iii. 利用簡報五介紹創作四個過程：準備 ii. 簡報五：用漫畫期、醞釀期、頓悟期、創作期。解釋創作的四個 iv. 現在的訓練在準備期。第一、二種訓過程。練是流暢力和靈活性。 iii. 工作紙五工作紙五：拼字練習 iv. 工作紙六工作紙六：面罩的用途 v. 簡報六：橫向 v. 利用簡報六，介紹橫向思維。思維 i. 利用簡報七，介紹獨創力。 i. 簡報七 ii. 講解觀察力的重要。 ii. 簡報八 iii. 利用簡報八及工作紙七，完成觀察力 iii. 工作紙七訓練。 iv. 音樂、氣味 iv. 重溫鬆弛法和冥想。 v. 工作紙八 v. 完成工作紙八：故事創作。 vi. 請同學與鄰座交換工作紙八，有與人不同的意念得1分。 vii.老師再抽其中一位同學，將他的意念朗讀出來，再與全班同學比較，帶出要獨創並不容易。 i. 利用簡報九，講解精進力。 i. 簡報九 ii. 重溫放鬆的技巧。 ii. 原稿紙 iii. 完成作文(家課) 續寫：十五年後的 iii. 音樂、氣味今日，我看著自己的孩子，心裡想著 ︙︙ i. 重溫放鬆的技巧。 i. 音樂、氣味 ii. 利用評改量表，每位學生分別評量3 ii. 評改量表位同學的作文。 1 2-3 4-6 7-8 9 10 令學生明白創意的特性腦海圖像思維、創意和中文寫作流暢力及靈活性訓練訓練獨創力訓練精進力互評意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 133 4. 文法文法評分文字運用表達能力語文能力流暢標點符號 0 很多的錯字難以理解沒有用書面語不流暢較多的誤用 1 較多的錯字用簡單句子使用較多口語較差較少的誤用 2 一般多的錯字較清晰使用較少口語普通較少的誤用 3 較少錯字良好全為書面語好很少的誤用 4 沒有錯字非常清晰全為書面語優異沒有誤用事後測試在完成整個訓練後，會要求學生續寫一篇文章，題目為「十五年後的今日，我看著自己的孩子，心裡想著︙︙」。評分一個於香港大學主修翻譯及比較文學三年級的學生，會充當研究助理，協助為研究中的作文評分。四個會被評分的範疇包括文章的流暢度、獨創性、內容及文法，評分的標準如下： 1. 流暢度流暢度會以文章上意念的多寡來計算，而同一個主題的不同意念，會以同一個意念作計算。例如：「輝看看東，只因為這是他的夢境」與「突然，東消失了。輝醒後，發現這只是一場夢」是相同的意念。此外，文章風格是不會計算分數。 2. 獨創性一個意念的獨創性的分數計算方法如下：以 1 除以所有提及相同意念學生的數量。(例如：有位同學在事前測試中提及學習過程或回憶上課情況，那麼該 75 位同學每人可獲分)，而一個學生的獨創性分數，則是他所有意念的獨創性分數的總和(例如：有同學寫出 3 個意念，而每個意念的分數分別是：分、分和分，那麼他在獨創性方面，共獲得分)。 3. 內容 (文章內容及組織力) 內容評分組織力背後的意義直覺故事性 0 沒有沒有沒有沒有 1 弱沒有沒有簡單 2 一般不明顯沒有簡單 3 好有有較充實 4 非常好有強非常充實分數分數 1 75 1 75 17 60 1 4 1 50 134 結果參與這個研究的123個學生，就讀於同一所中學的二年級。其中有效的個案為118個，男生佔56 個（即47.5%），而女生則佔62個（即52.5%）（見表一）。表一　性別分佈頻數百分比男生 56 47.5 女生 62 52.5 總數 118 100.0 學生分別於意象訓練之前和之後參與一個測試。在有效個案當中，有110學生出席了訓練前的測試，而出席訓練後的測試則有111人。在測驗試中，老師及研究助理會就流暢力、獨創力、文法及內容四方面作出評分。由於有部份學生缺席了訓練前或訓練後的測試，故此有七個個案的分數被取消。表二及表三分別顯示了訓練前及後的測試中，四個評分的最小值、最大值、平均數及標準差。在訓練前的測試，流暢力、獨創力、文法及內容的平均分數分別為 1.62 、 0.05 、 8.28 、 1.49，而在訓練後，這四方面的平均分數則分別是2.23、 0.08、 9.41、 1.80。表二　事前測試創意作文分數的統計 N 最小值最大值平均值標準差流暢力 110 0 3.00 1.6182 0.8238 獨創性 110 0 0.3180 0.0545455 0.0715288 文法 110 0 16.00 8.2818 3.0564 文章內容 110 0 3.00 1.4864 0.7706 N 110 表三　事後測試創意作文分數的統計 N 最小值最大值平均值標準差流暢力 111 0 5.00 2.2252 0.9213 獨創性 111 0 0.2836 0.0810811 0.0593378 文法 111 0 16.00 9.4054 2.7614 文章內容 111 0 3.00 1.8018 0.7725 N 79 30.00 90.00 61.5696 11.8913 意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 135 大致上，四方面的分數，即流暢力、獨創力、文法及內容的評分，於訓練後均有進步 (表四)，而且都達百份之五的顯著水平 (表五)。表四　事前測試和事後測試分數的平均值和標準差平均值標準差事前測試事後測試事前測試事後測試流暢力 1.6182 2.2252 0.8238 0.9213 獨創性 0.0545455 0.0810811 0.0715288 0.0593378 文法 8.2818 9.4054 3.0564 2.7614 文章內容 1.4864 1.8018 0.7706 0.7725 表五　事前測試和事後測試分數分別的 t檢驗配對樣本 (Paired Samples Test) 的 t檢驗配對差值 (Paired Differences) 95% 信賴度 (Confidence Interval of the Difference) -.5728 1.1167 .1100 -.7911 -.3546 -5.206 102 .000 -2.5E-02 8.50158E-02 8.38E-03 -4.1E-02 -8.0E-03 -2.939 102 .004 -.9806 2.8318 .2790 -1.5340 -.4271 -3.514 102 .001 -.2767 .8364 8.242E-02 -.4402 -.1132 -3.357 102 .001 第一組流暢力第二組獨創性第三組文法第四組文章內容平均值標準離差方差上下 t檢驗自由度 P值 (Mean) (Std. Deviation) (Upper) (Lower) (Df)(Std. Error Mean) 事前測試和事後測試中的比較 136 表六　事後測試中的流暢力、獨創性、文法、文章內容和考試分數不同性別的結果事後測試 N 平均值標準差標準誤差流暢力男 52 2.0577 .9164 .1271 女 59 2.3729 .9078 .1182 總數 111 2.2252 .9213 8.745E-02 獨創性男 52 6.51694E-02 4.79666E-02 6.65177E-03 女 59 9.51049E-02 6.50196E-02 8.46483E-03 總數 111 8.10811E-02 5.93378E-02 5.63209E-03 文法男 52 9.0000 3.1060 .4307 女 59 9.7627 2.3877 .3109 總數 111 9.4054 2.7614 .2621 文章內容男 52 1.7692 .8311 .1153 女 59 1.8305 .7228 9.411E-02 總數 111 1.8018 .7725 7.332E-02 考試分男 38 58.5789 14.1663 2.2981 女 41 64.3415 8.5866 1.3410 總數 79 61.5696 11.8913 1.3379 於事後測試的各項分數上女生的流暢力（Xgirl = 2.37, Xboy = 2.06）、獨創力（Xgirl ＝ 0.1, Xboy = 0.07）、文法（Xgirl = 9.76, Xboy = 9.00）、文章內容（Xgirl = 1.83, Xboy = 1.77）及考試分（Xgirl = 64.3, Xboy = 58.6）（見表六），平均分都比男生為高。但在統計學上，於比較變異數(variance)後，只有獨創力及考試兩方面的分數，於不同性別上有較明顯的差別（表七）。意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 137 表七　性別的多組樣本均數比較 (ANOVA) 檢驗事後測試離均差平均自由度平均值 F-值顯著水平 (Sum of Squares) (Df) (Mean) 流暢力組間變異 2.746 1 2.746 3.303 .072 (Between Group) 組內變異 90.624 109 .831 (Within Group) 總數 93.369 110 獨創性組間變異 2.477E-02 1 2.477E-02 7.447 .007 (Between Group) 組內變異 .363 109 3.326E-03 (Within Group) 總數 .387 110 文法組間變異 16.079 1 16.079 2.130 .147 (Between Group) 組內變異 822.678 109 7.548 (Within Group) 總數 838.757 110 文章內容組間變異 .104 1 .104 .173 .679 (Between Group) 組內變異 65.536 109 .601 (Within Group) 總數 65.640 110 考試分組間變異 654.884 1 654.884 4.861 .030 (Between Group) 組內變異 10374.483 77 134.734 (Within Group) 總數 11029.367 78 表八　事前測試和事後測試的配對樣本積差相關分析 (Paired Samples Correlations) 事前測試和事後測試樣本數值積差相關分析顯著水平 (N) (Correlation) 第一組流暢力 103 .204 .038 第二組獨創性 103 .203 .040 第三組文法 103 .518 .000 第四組文章內容 103 .403 .000 138 意象訓練與考試分數的關係在研究中，我們亦發現有參與意象訓練的學生，和沒有參與訓練而於中文作文考試時，能獲得較表九　考試分樣本數值平均值標準差標準誤差沒有參加訓練的 83 50.61 10.52 1.15 參加了訓練的 81 60.98 12.64 1.40 總數 164 55.73 12.69 .99 表十離均差平方自由度平均值 F-值顯著水平組間變異 4400.582 1 4400.582 32.627 .000 組內變異 21849.613 162 134.874 總數 26250.195 163 討論第一，現有實例證明，意象訓練有助學生改善其寫作的流暢程度、文筆風格、內容及文法習慣。首先，意象訓練相信能讓學生創作出更多「埠」來接通不同的知識，「埠」(port) 類似電腦中用來連接外界資訊的連結點，「埠」的數量越多，連結點也越多，亦即可處理和接收更多資料和功能。在寫作上，「埠」使他們能建構出各類寫作上的知識框架，如詞彙、文法、認知能力及與主題相關的資料。一個擁有越多「埠」的學生，於同一個刺激下，能接收更多。此外，學生透過將影像在心裡形象化，從而具體掌握到他們準備要寫的內容，而非停留於發展概念的階段。第二，一個具創意的頓悟往往於課堂間的休息期間浮現於腦中(Ford & Ford, 1992) ，所以進行創意寫作前，需事先發展概念和鞏固所學習之意象化技能。再者，學生應爭取機會多加寫作，因日常課堂學習為他們進步所需。因此，可見意象化技能的訓練、個人鬆弛和思想的形象化三者於學生寫作的創意上發揮作用。第三，鬆弛運動也可喚起學生內心深處的意識，這類運動能將他們想寫的情景形象化。一句句子能誘發出另一句，當他們興致盎然，文句會情不自禁般不斷湧現。在此情形下，他們的寫作動力亦提高了。第四，這訓練已包括了作業動力及與創意相關的技能如觀察、自由聯想及水平思考在內。已有學者提出這些技能對提高學生寫作表現極有幫助 (Amabile, 1983)。在整個訓練過程期間，參與的學生顯得享受課業。每當老師說「一起做鬆弛運動」時，同學佳成績的學生作比較(Ximagery= 60.98, Xnon-imagery= 50.61, p=0.000)(見表九及十)。意象訓練 — 加強學生中文作文的創造力 139 們便立刻準備就緒，並閉起雙眼，而且沒有人入睡。此外，他們均很熱烈回答問題及做運動。相信對這些方面可作更深層次的詳細研究。此研究有著一定局限。基於研究期間碰巧遇上非典型肺炎疫潮，使教學時間表排得過緊，以致未能將訓練節目套入其中，該老師只能一方面催促學生應付課程，一方面努力騰出時間進行此研究。建議日後再作同樣的研究時，可每星期進行一次訓練，以便讓學生於課堂以外抽空實踐所學之技能。此外他們也可歸納這些技能用於其他語言學習上，而額外的練習亦能改善學習的效果。第二個不足之處，乃於此研究中缺乏對照標準。基於其他中文教師有公務在身，只有一名研究者參與該訓練。由於目前已展開了這個訓練計劃，將來執行此計劃時可邀請更多教師參與，他們可作不同程度的參與，如批改作文、執行訓練、改良訓練物資、觀察學生表現等。有些班級則可招募作對照標準。第三個不足之處，乃是探討雙碼理論及意象訓練兩者，以一個更接近心理語言學的角度看意象化如何提高掌握語言的口語部分的研究不足。將來再進行此研究時，可引入五感教學法，因為它們是直接與人們腦裡對外圍刺激的認知有關。參考書目 Albertson, L. R. & Billingsley, F. F. (2001). Using Strategy Instruction and Self-Regulation to Improve Gifted Students' Creative Writing. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 12, 90 -101. Amabile, T. (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativity. New York: Springer-Berlag. Bock, J. K., & Levelt, W. J. (1994). Language Production. Grammatical Encoding. In M. A. Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of Psycholinguistics, pp. 945-984. San Diego: Academic Press. Bogen, J. E. & Bogen, G. M. (2003). Split-brains: Interhemispheric Exchange in Creativity. Retrieved 20 July, 2003, from http://www.its.caltech.edu/~jbogen/text/creat6.htm Bourdin, B., & Fayol, M. (1994). Is Written Language Production More Difficult than Oral Language Production? A Working Memory Approach. International Journal of Psychology, 29(5), 591-620. Broudy, H. (1987). The Role of Imagery in Learning. Los Angeles, Ca: The Getty Center for Education in the Arts. Cameron, C, A., Hunt, A. K., & Linton, M. J. (1996). Written Expression as Recontextualization: Children Write in Social Time. Educational Psychology Review, 9, 125-150. Dawe, L. (1993). Visual Imagery and Communication in the Mathematics Classroom. In M. Stephens, A. Waywood, D. Clarke, & J. Izard (Eds.), Communication Mathematics : Perspectives from Classroom Practice and Current Research (pp.59-72). Victoria, Australia: The Australian Council for Educational Research Limited. Ford, M. & Ford, J. (1992). Writing as Revelation. HarperCollins Publishers Inc. Hayes, J. R. & Flower, L.S. (1980). Identifying the Organization of Writing Processes. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.). Cognitive Processes in Writing, pp.3-30. Hillsdale, N.J. : Lawrence Erlbaum. Hutton, D. & Lescohier, J. (1983). Seeing to Learn: Using Mental Imagery in the Classroom. In M. L. Fleming & D. W. Hutton (Eds.), Mental Imagery and Learning, pp.113-132. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc. 140 Kaufmann, G. (1980). Imagery, Language and Cognition. Norway: Universitetsforlaget. Khatena, J. (2000). Imagery. In E. Torrance (Ed.), On the Edge and Keep on the Edge (pp.87-100). Westport, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing. Leung, W. (2001). Develop Creative Thinking through Writing Composition. Xie Zuo, 4, 17 -19. Lissitz, R. & Willhoft, J. (1985). A Methodological Study of the Torrance Tests of Creativity. Journal of Educational Measurement, 22, 1-11. Pinker, S. (1995). The Language Instinct. New York : Harper Perennial. Plucker, J. & Runco, M. (1998). The Death of Creativity Measurement Has Been Greatly Exaggerated: Current Issues, Recent Advances, and Future Directions in Creativity Assessment. Roeper Review, 21, 36-9. Riding, R. Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive Styles - An Overview and Integration. Educational Psychology,11, 193-215. Sadoski, M., Kealy W., Goetz, E., & Paivio, A. (1997). Concreteness and Imagery Effects in the Written Composition of Definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 518 - 526. Sharples, M. (1978). How We Write Writing as Creative Design. In R. Sommer (Ed), The Mind's Eyes: Imagery in Everyday Life (pp.37-52). New York: Seymour Publication. Sommer, R. (1978). The Mind's Eye. Paloalto, Ca: Dale Seymour Publications. Wallace, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: Harcourt Brace. Ward, T. (2001). Creative Cognition, Conceptual Combination, and the Creative Writing of Stephen R. Donaldson. American Psychologist, 56, 350-4. Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms WONG YU Lai-wah, Teresa The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract In the era of education reform in Hong Kong, on various government documents, different concepts and functions of assessment were introduced to the community. The importance of formative assessment was emphasized. This paper aims to study the student teachers’ implementation of formative assessment in General Studies lessons during their teaching practise. Commonly used assessment methods, alignment of learning and assessment activities, student teachers’ intervention after receiving feedback from pupils, difficulties encountered, perception of the student teachers on formative assessment and pupils’ feedback are reported in this study. It is hoped that the study will provide insight into the practice of formative assessment in primary General Studies classrooms as one aspect of the professional development of General Studies Teachers. 141 INTRODUCTION As the new educational goals of Hong Kong schooling are to enhance student-centred learning and pupils’ ability to learn how to learn (Curriculum Development Council, 2001; Education Commission, 2001), this calls for reform in the assessment system. Ridgway (1998) commented that appropriate assessment scheme can be powerful levers to support reform; assessment schemes that do no reflect new educational ambitions are barriers to progress. Different concepts and functions of assessment were introduced to the community on recent education reform documents (Education Commission, Sept 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 2001). Assessment was proclaimed as an integral part of education process. The formative assessment was stressed as a way to improve teaching and the learning of pupils. Research on formative assessment provides examples of how learning and teaching was improved (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2003). The aim of the present study is to examine the student teachers’ implementation of formative assessment in General Studies lessons during their teaching practice. It is to study student teachers’ perception of formative assessment after the conducting formative assessment in General Studies lessons, the commonly used methods of formative assessment, the alignment of assessment activities with learning activities, student teachers’ intervention after receiving feedback from pupils, difficulties encountered in the classrooms and feedback from their pupils. By studying the implementation of formative assessment in local primary school classrooms, it is hoped that the present study will provide Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 142 some insight for the practising teachers when they plan to conduct formative assessment in General Studies lessons as one aspect of their professional development in order to enhance the learning of the pupils and their own teaching. SUMMATIVE VS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Assessment is conducted to serve different purposes: supporting of learning, reporting the achievements of individuals and satisfying demands for public accountability. Formative assessment serves the first purpose while summative assessment serves the latter. It is important to match the selection and the use of assessment methods to the particular purpose which the assessment is to serve (Black, 1998). Bloom, Hastings & Madaus (1971) defined ‘summative evaluative tests’ as the assessments conducted at the end of units, mid-term or at the end of a course. They were designed to judge the extent of students’ learning of the material in a course for the purpose of grading, certification, evaluation of progress or even for researching into the effectiveness of a curriculum. Moreover, aggregation of the results of pupils’ performance in various public examinations also serves as an economic way to show the public that the schools do promote the learning of their pupils (Black, 1998). On the other hand, teachers have the need of constant information about what the students know and the strategies being used to process and comprehend new concepts (Shepard, 1992). Formative assessment provides short term feedback to teachers so that learners’ strengths and weaknesses in relation to their progression can be identified. Then teachers can use the feedback in planning what to do next in order to enhance learning as well as teaching. Hence, formative assessment is essential to effective teaching and learning (Black, 1993). Formative assessment is carried out by all the agents in the classroom. A pupil needs to know where she/he is and understand, where she/he wants to be and also how to “fill the gap” between her/his current knowledge and understanding and the desired level. This involves both the teacher and the pupil in a process of continual reflection and review about progress (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority http://www. qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/). Thus, formative assessment focuses on dialogue between the teacher and the pupils. Torrance (1993) suggested that formative assessment f its into the constructivist approach to learning with the teacher-pupil interaction supporting the pupils in moving towards Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD). Black & Wiliam’s finding (1998a) reported a strong link between effective formative assessment and an appropriate and supportive pedagogy. The essential elements of any strategy to improve learning through the implementation of formative assessment are the setting of clear goals, the choice, framing and articulation of appropriate learning tasks, the deployment of these with appropriate pedagogy to evoke feedback and the appropriate interpretation and use of that feedback to guide the learning trajectory of pupils. Teachers should therefore involve pupils in the process of self- and peer- assessment, underpinned by a constructive approach to learning. That is, teachers should make use of the previous knowledge of the pupils to design different learning activities to help pupils to construct knowledge, provide assessment activities to assess the learning of the pupils, and provide feedback to pupils and intervention when necessary. 143 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms Stiggins (2001) remarked the artistry of classroom assessment requires teachers to orchestrate a careful alignment among purposes, achievement targets and methods. In this way, the relation among teaching, learning and assessment was emphasized. The alignment of teaching objectives, learning and assessment activities, and intervention conducted by the co- researchers are reported in this study. Stiggins (2001) introduced four basic classroom assessment methods: selected response assessment, essay assessment, performance assessment and assessment that relies on direct personal communication with pupils. Selected Response Assessment This includes all of the objectively scored paper and pencil written formats. Format options include multiple choice items, true/false items, matching exercises, short answer fill-in items, and different sorts of worksheets with an inquiry nature. The index of achievement is the number of questions answered correctly. The teacher is not to give grades or marks but to give descriptive comments on the answers or the work of the pupils. Other types include the following: “Quick Check-in” (Trimarchi, 2002) The teacher hands out slips of paper in the middle of the lesson and asks pupils to answer a probing question directly related to the discussion. The papers are written anonymously and collected immediately. The teacher examines the papers, reads aloud examples of correct answers, picks out misconceptions and addresses them on spot. “Teacher Letter” (Trimarchi, 2002) The letter includes the following items: • Here is what I understood to be the MAIN IDEA of today’s class. • These are a few IMPORTANT POINTS I learned about the main idea. • These are things you talked about today that I DID NOT “GET”. Pupils write it at the end of the lesson and the teacher responds to the letters the following day, reading aloud correct answers and correcting misconceptions. Essay Assessment Pupils have to prepare an original written answer to questions about the content knowledge or provide an explanation of the solution to a complex problem. The teacher reads the original written response and evaluates it by applying specified scoring criteria. Performance Assessment Pupils carry out a specified activity under the watchful eyes of the teacher. Performance assessment can be based either on observation of the process while pupils demonstrate skills, or on evaluation of products created, e.g. debate, role play, mini survey, case study and presentation, or carrying out a laboratory experiment, etc. The purpose is to let pupils show different abilities and learning outcomes. Scoring guides may be negotiated with pupils. Personal Communication as Assessment One of most common ways that teachers gather information about day-to-day pupils’ achievement in the classroom is talking to them. This includes questions posed and answered during instruction, interviews, conversation, listening during class or group discussion, oral examination and conferences with pupils after lesson. Pupils’ responses and answers can show their understanding; therefore teachers should ask more open- 144 ended questions and allow more time for pupils to respond (Black & Wiliam, 1998b). This is also classified as interactive formative assessment (Bell & Cowie, 2001) which takes place during the pupil-teacher interactions. Teacher and pupils interact in the whole class, the small group and one-to-one situations. Each of the above methods provides its own special form of evidence of pupil proficiency, such as knowledge and understanding, reasoning proficiency, performance skills, ability to create products and dispositions (e.g. attitudes, values, interests, self- concepts and motivation) (Stiggins, 2001). This study is to examine the common assessment activities employed by the student teachers and difficulties they encountered in General Studies classrooms. SELF-ASSESSMENT AND PEER ASSESSMENT The development of formative assessment implies changes in roles for both teachers and pupils. Self- assessment and peer assessment of the pupils are the major characteristics of the formative assessment. Therefore, they should be promoted among pupils to enhance effective learning. Self-assessment involves both reflection on one’s learning strategies, and analysis or critique of one’s work. In order to make self- assessment successful, not only the teachers but also the pupils should hold the belief that the process of assessment helps learning (Sutton, 1995). Thus teachers should train pupils on self-assessment, explain the learning objective(s) of each task and provide encouragement to pupils through planned strategies and dedicated time. On the other hand pupils may work in pairs or in groups, make suggestions about each other’s work, or ask questions about the peer’s thinking or reasoning (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/). Rubrics of assessment may be negotiated with pupils in order to promote learning. Pupils’ feedback on the assessment activities and the student teachers’ perception on formative assessment are also reported in this study. In short, teachers should align the assessment activities with learning activities in order to help pupils achieve the learning objectives that include the acquisition of knowledge and skills, and value learning. This not only helps to promote the learning of the pupils but also the teaching. General Studies General Studies, an integration of Science, Health Education and Social Studies, was introduced in 1995. It is proclaimed in the syllabus for Hong Kong General Studies (Primary I-VI) (1994) that through meaningful activities children understand the inter-relationship and interdependence between people, things and their environment. They are also helped to develop values and attitudes in order to become rational and responsible citizens. The curriculum consists of four strands, i.e. healthy living, living environment, natural world, and science and technology. The integrated approach claims to allow pupils to look at issues from different perspectives, hence making their learning experiences more holistic and less fragmented (Curriculum Development Council, 1994, 1997). In the era of education reform, the new curriculum (Curriculum Development Council, 2002) moves away from content-focused approach to a learner-focused approach. It emphasizes the enhancement of pupils’ inquiry and investigative skills for construction of knowledge. Schools are encouraged to adapt the central curriculum in developing their school-based curriculum and promote life-wide learning. Teachers are encouraged to use different modes of assessment and provide quality 145 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms feedback on the strengths and weaknesses on pupils’ learning in order bring about improvement in learning and teaching. Co-researchers Oldfather (1997) invited the student participants of his study of student motivation (Oldfather, 1993) to be engaged as co-researchers. The study, interpretive study, was based on the interactions which took place between the students and the researcher in order to construct understanding about the research questions. It was reported that the explicitly collaborative relationship in the inquiry increased students’ sense of ownership and involvement, therefore led to greater depth in the findings. Simpson (1998) also involved his students in the research, participatory research, of the Contemporary Aboriginal communities in Canada as the philosophy of adult education places learners in the center and focuses on the learners’ control over their learning process (Tandon, 1988). It is trusted that experiential knowledge is valid as people best know their own situations and can best solve their own problems (Colorado, 1988) RESEARCH ON FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT IN GENERAL S T U D I E S C L A S S R O O M S - OBJECTIVES AND METHODS The research was conducted to see how formative assessment was conducted in General Studies classrooms in primary schools. Nine student teachers of the Post Graduate Diploma in Education (Primary) (Full-time) programme were invited to be co-researchers of the study. During their teaching practice the co- researchers planned and wrote the lesson plans to show how they aligned the assessment tasks with the learning activities. They also wrote weekly reflection reports to report the following: • Events in which they succeeded in helping pupils to understand the lessons. • Difficulties that they encountered in implementing “Learning, Teaching and Assessment” during the week. During the whole teaching practice block, they videotaped a lesson with the focus on the study of the interactive formative assessment. By the end of the teaching practice block each of the co-researchers interviewed five of their pupils in order to collect feedback on their learning and the teaching of General Studies in the classrooms. They asked the pupils the following questions: 1. Did you like General Studies lessons? Why? 2. What activities did you like most in the lessons? How did they help your learning? 3. Did you answer any questions in the lesson? How did it help your learning? 4. Did you know how to do the worksheets in the lesson? If you did not know how to do, what did the teacher do? Furthermore, after their teaching practice, the co- researchers were interviewed by the researcher so as to make supplements on their weekly reflection reports. They answered the following questions: 1. Please tell your learning experience of formative assessment in your previous education and your ideas of formative assessment. What are the methods to implement formative assessment? 2. During the teaching practice, how did you prepare the lessons (learning activities, assessment activities)? 146 3. What learning activities and assessment activities did you provide to your pupils? 4. When did you use questioning to assess the learning of your pupils? Did you ask probing questions? Did you provide enough wait time? If yes, how long was it? Did you name pupils to answer your questions? Did you ask those who raised their hands? Did you ask those who did not raise their hands? If yes, what were their responses? 5. When did you use worksheet to assess the learning of the pupils? Did you give them grades, marks, or comments only? 6. Did you encounter any difficulties? If yes, what were they? Transcription of the interviews with the pupils and the co-researchers were made by the researcher so that their identities were kept anonymous. FINDINGS During the teaching practice, the co-researchers taught the following units: Leisure Activities (Primary 2), Basic necessities of Life (P3), Electricity and Life (P4), The History and Geographical Setting and History of Hong Kong (P4), Reproduction (P 5) and Environmental Protection (P6). The findings reveal the co-researchers’ perception on formative assessment, the commonly used methods of formative assessment, the alignment of learning and assessment activities, intervention undertook and the difficulties encountered during the implementation period. Finally, pupils’ feedback is reported in this study. The Co-Researchers’ Perception on Formative Assessment During the interview, all the co-researchers claimed that they did not have any experience of formative assessment in their previous education. They stated that formative assessment was different from summative assessment. It could be conducted at different intervals of the lesson. For example, when it was conducted at the beginning of the lesson, the purpose was to test pupils’ previous knowledge or misconceptions. It may be conducted after a teaching point was taught in a lesson. At the end of a lesson it is to test the understanding of the pupils and to provide help if the pupils did not learn the major concepts in the lesson. On the video-taped lesson, a co-researcher tested the previous knowledge of her pupils when they started to learn leisure activities. After pupils shared their experiences, she made use of the matching activity to collect feedback from the pupils in order to assess the learning of her pupils so that she might either provide help to them or proceed to the other activity. By the end of the lesson, most co-researchers provided a worksheet to assess pupils’ learning of the lesson. A co-researcher remarked that the self assessment activity helped pupils to assess their own learning after learning a unit. The peer assessment activity helped to assess and promote the attitude and the skills needed in the group work. Some commonly used methods of formative assessment Among the four basic classroom assessment methods proposed by Stiggins (2001) which were mentioned in 147 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms the earlier section, all the co-researchers often used personal communication with pupils which includes questioning, observation, and conference during recess or lunch time, selected responses assessment in the format as a worksheet, and performance assessment which mainly included pupils’ presentation or role play after group discussion, and matching task on the blackboard. Essay assessment was not employed because in Primary General Studies lessons, pupils were helped to develop knowledge, generic skills, and values and attitudes (Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Therefore, essay assessment was not considered to be an essential element in the classroom assessment of General Studies. The following will explain the methods commonly employed by the co-researchers. Direct personal communication with pupils: Questioning During the interview, most co-researchers stated that they made use of questioning to assess the previous knowledge of the pupils at the beginning of the lesson. In the lesson after pupils doing various learning activities, such as observing diagrams of the world population, photos of the animals and plants, studying cases or newspaper cut-outs on different kinds of pollution in Hong Kong, they frequently asked pupils questions or discussed with the class, especially in the lower primary, to help them assess their own learning. When they had to be in a hurry to finish the lesson, they asked questions to consolidate the learning of the whole lesson. When pupils could not answer the questions or could only give partially correct answers, the co-researchers raised probing questions to help pupils learn. For example: in a video-taped lesson, a co-researcher asked her pupils, “Was the pair of scissors drawn to the magnet?” She did wait about 5 seconds for pupils to answer. When the pupil frowned, she probed, “Which part of the scissors was drawn to the magnet?” As the pupil did not provide any answer, she allowed him to sit down and asked the other pupil to answer. Usually the wait time worked well because most pupils could give correct answers with the help of the teacher or the classmates. It was also found on a video- taped lesson that the pupils were too enthusiastic that they shouted the answers without waiting for their classmate to answer. The situation was discussed with the co-researcher during the interview. She confessed that at the beginning of the teaching practice block she accepted the shout-out answers because she did not want to discourage the pupils from providing responses. Without responses from the pupils, it would be difficult to have interaction with them and collect feedback from them. After she was more acquainted with the pupils, she trained them to show respect and patience with the classmates so that everyone in the class did think about the questions and waited for the invitation to answer questions. Furthermore, when the other pupils were answering, they had to assess the answers to see whether they could provide supplements or different opinions. Afterwards, the performance of the class was very satisfactory. Most of the co-researchers remarked that they did call names to invite pupils to answer questions. Usually at the beginning of the teaching practice block, they called those who raised their hands or those at the front because they did not know the pupils well. Later, when the pupils were accustomed to their styles of teaching, they called those who did not raise their hands to answer to check their understanding and the efficacy of their teaching. Some of them could give correct answers; they had been very attentive in the lesson so they were encouraged to raise hands to answer questions. But some of them could not; the co-researchers had to ask probing questions to help them. One co-researcher reported that 148 in the middle of the teaching practice block, some who had not raised hands did put up their hands to answer, because they knew that they would be called upon during the lesson. She found it encouraging as pupils learned to take an active role in the lesson. Direct personal communication with pupils: Observation All the co-researchers did observe the pupils to assess their learning. They observed the pupils when they were answering questions, doing matching activities on the blackboard or role play, holding group discussions or doing group activities. During questioning, they observed the whole class or individual pupil to see if they should ask any probing questions to inspire the thinking of their pupils. During group activities, e.g. the classif ication activity, they circulated in the classroom, listened to the pupils, offered advice if they sought help or clarified their misconceptions. They usually provided feedback on the performance and achievement of the pupils after the group presentation or role play in order to encourage the pupils to learn effectively and continue to do well. Most co-researchers reflected that it was easier to observe individual pupil during group activities than during the whole class activities. They developed better relationship with the pupils while moving around, assessing pupils’ learning and providing them with immediate assistance. Direct personal communication with pupils: Conferences with pupils after lesson During the interview, most of the co-researchers reported that it was difficult to cater for individual differences in the whole class activities. In order to conduct the lesson smoothly, when they noticed only a few pupils had not learned the concept, they conferenced with them during recess or lunch time to assess their learning and provide immediate intervention when necessary. Selected response assessments: Doing worksheets During the interview, all the co-researchers reflected that providing worksheets to pupils was another common method to conduct formative assessment. Pupils were asked to do worksheets after doing or observing experiments during the lesson. They also completed worksheets after learning some major concepts or at the end of the lesson. Most co-researchers reported that on the worksheets they gave grades and wrote remarks to encourage pupils to do better the next time or commented on the misconception of the pupils. Only two co-researchers did not give grades or marks on the worksheets; they just wrote comments, e.g. very creative, good work, etc. They considered that would help the pupils more. Furthermore, the grades on worksheets were not counted in the formal assessment. One co-researcher stated that some of the pupils did not like to do worksheets too often. They complained, “Worksheets again!” On the reflection report, she confessed that sometimes she provided two to three worksheets in a lesson. Therefore she designed different types of assessment activities, e.g. matching activity, role play or group presentation, to assess the understanding of the pupils and pupils welcome such changes. Another co-researcher reflected that she did ask pupils to do a lot of explanation in black and white when they learned the problem of solid waste. After listening to the feedback of the pupils, she made a change by asking pupils to just present their ideas about noise pollution to the class. During the group presentation on her video-taped lesson, two pupils were 149 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms holding an A3-size sheet of paper on which major points were written while the third pupil was presenting their ideas on the solution to the noise pollution problem to the whole class. The pupils appeared to enjoy this kind of writing and presentation and the class atmosphere was very good. Performance assessments Most of the co-researchers remarked after group discussion if there was sufficient time, they invited the pupils to present their ideas to the whole class. On a video-taped lesson, pupils made use of the microphone to do their presentation and the presentations were well received by the class. When learning how to care the toys, a co-researcher asked the pupils to present their ideas in a role play. In learning the science topics, such as magnets and electricity, the pupils did the experiment and completed worksheets. Pupils also did experimental activities on f iltering the polluted water and reproduction of plants, and then they reported the results to the class. Self and peer assessment On the video-taped lessons, all the co-researchers provided pupils group discussion/work so that they could assess each others’ understanding and provide a better learning outcome, e.g. presentation. During pupils’ presentation, matching or classification work on the blackboard, the co-researchers also asked the other pupils to assess whether they would make some supplements or corrections so that all the pupils were engaged in such activities. Only one co-researcher invited pupils to fill in the self-assessment form after finishing a unit. They were asked to state the major points that they learned and what they did not understand, and evaluate their own performance in the lessons. She also invited the group leaders to conduct the peer assessment. They had to assess the performance of the group members during the group discussion. The assessment items included group members’ participation, cooperation and understanding of the discussion question and observance of discipline. The co-researcher reported that the whole class performed well during the discussion and presentation. It is trusted that in doing the self and peer assessment, pupils started to think about their learning and learn to manage themselves which helped to enhance pupils’ learning. Aligning assessment activities with learning activities All co-researchers tried to provide different learning activities to help pupils to learn the major concepts. In preparing a lesson, they first read the textbooks to check what should be taught. Then they read other textbooks and references to see what learning activities the pupils should undergo. In order to check whether the pupils learned the major concepts or not, then they aligned the assessment tasks with the learning activities. Table 1 shows the alignment of learning and assessment activities. 150 Table 1 The alignment of learning and assessment activities Learning Activities G r o u p wo r k , e . g . matching activity Group discussion Doing experiments or wa tch ing t eache r ’s demonstration O b s e r v i n g p h o t o s , pictures, diagrams or maps S t u d y i n g c a s e s / newspaper cut-outs Assessment Activities Matching activity on the b l a c k b o a r d a n d explanation to the class Pupils’ presentations or role play Doing worksheets Questioning or class discussion, or colouring the map Doing worksheets and pupils’ presentations or class discussion All the co-researchers also checked the learning of individual pupils by marking answers on worksheets, their textbooks or workbooks which were completed after doing experiments, observing the demonstration or finishing a chapter. Intervention Intervention is an important element in formative assessment. All the co-researchers remarked that when they found most of the pupils did not understand, they told other examples or cases and discussed with the class, drew a simpler map and explained to them, did another demonstration or gave hints and asked them to try again, showed other photos or newspaper cut-outs and explained once again to the pupils. They also asked them questions in order to clarify their alternative concepts. One co-researcher stated that she changed the lesson plan of the next lesson when she found most of the pupils did not grasp the major concept. Difficulties encountered when implementing formative assessment in General Studies lessons On the Reflection Reports the co-researchers stated difficulties they encountered when they carried out formative assessment activities in General Studies lessons. These include the diff iculty in assessing individual pupils, different agendas of the teacher and the pupils, classroom management problem and tight teaching schedule. Difficulty in assessing individual pupils One co-researcher stated that she often asked some pupils questions in the classroom. It was only when she marked pupils’ workbooks, she found that about one third of the class did not grasp the concept. She reported that it was diff icult to ask all the thirty-five pupils questions and assess their learning in a lesson of thirty minutes. Several co-researchers remarked that they noticed that some pupils did not participate in the group discussion even when they had urged them to take part in the group activities. These pupils might be intimidated by the more assertive pupils, therefore the group report was only the contribution of some active members and it did not effectively assess the learning of the other pupils. Sometimes, they were busy in managing the class and helping some other active pupils. Thus, they were not sure whether each pupil of the group understood and heavily depended on the worksheets to assess the learning of individual pupils. 151 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms Different agendas of the teacher and the pupils During the interview, one co-researcher reported that during recess one girl told her that she preferred to sit in her place and listen to the teacher. Another co- researcher also stated that some of her pupils did not like the activities and complained that their classmates were too noisy in doing the activities. These pupils of upper primary were accustomed to the traditional way of learning - listening attentively to the teacher to “receive” knowledge and work hard to complete the workbooks. They considered that was all that they had to do to be good pupils. It was witnessed from a video- taped lesson, the pupils were very excited and noisy in making a periscope. According to the experience of the co-researcher, the noise level was acceptable but the pupils might not be accustomed to these kinds of learning and assessment activities. Classroom management problem and tight teaching schedule Several co-researchers stated that the classroom management problem and the tight teaching schedule affected the implementation of assessment activities. They found it difficult to manage thirty five pupils in the classroom. All co-researchers remarked that the major difficulty was the time constraint. They found that they had to be in a hurry in order to finish the topics assigned by the Supporting Teachers because it took time to allow pupils to do different learning and assessment activities. Therefore, it is not surprising that only one co-researcher invited pupils to fill in the self and peer assessment form after f inishing a unit. One co- researcher remarked that because of the tight teaching schedule and his inexperience in time management in the classroom, by the end of the teaching practice block some major teaching points on the textbook were just told to the pupils and only a few questions were raised to assess pupils’ learning. Feedback from pupils When interviewed by the co-researchers, most pupils could tell the major topics that they learned in the lessons. They all claimed that they liked General Studies lessons because there were different types of activities in the lesson, e.g. group discussion and presentation, doing experiments, etc. In all the video-taped lessons, most pupils actively participated in various activities, such as doing experimental activities or class discussion. Some pupils claimed that they understood the lesson because they could answer the questions raised by the teacher. Some said that when they had revision with their mothers at home, they could answer the questions. Most of the pupils remarked that the questions raised by teachers helped them to think, to know more about the lesson, and to be brave and to have more confidence in answering questions. When they did not know the answers, the teachers helped them or asked others to answer. Some pupils disliked writing too much but enjoyed different designs of activities on the worksheets. IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION This paper reports the implementation of formative assessment in General Studies lessons by the student teachers, the co-researchers of this study, during their teaching practice in local primary schools. When they planned the lessons, they aligned assessment activities with learning objectives and activities. The assessment 152 activities included direct personal communication with pupils, selected response assessment, performance assessment, self-assessment and peer assessment. Most co-researchers admitted that they became more aware of the effectiveness of the learning of the pupils when they implemented formative assessment in their day to day teaching in the classrooms. Although formative assessment was advocated in the education reform documents as the essential element in learning and teaching, difficulties encountered by the co-researchers illustrate that conducting this new assessment practice is not a simple or easy task. In order to make the implementation, first of all, there should be reform in pedagogy and curriculum as formative classroom assessment is learner-centred (Boyd, 2001). Thus, The practice of school-based curriculum, which was advocated in the education documents, may be adopted so that the rich content of General Studies may be trimmed down according to the abilities and needs of the pupils. Then in the lesson, teachers can provide pupils with various learning activities in line with the inquiry approach (Curriculum Development Council, 2002), have more interaction with the pupils, and carry out different assessment tasks to evaluate individual pupils not only on knowledge and understanding but also on skills, values and attitudes (the Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Furthermore, teachers should also be empowered to have the freedom and flexibility to make adjustment to the ‘agreed’ teaching schedule so that they can take interventions or re-design the lessons according to the information collected in order to enhance the learning of the pupils. Therefore, such educational change cannot be implemented successfully by individual subject teacher in the school. As professed by all the co-researchers that they did not have the knowledge and experience of formative assessment in their previous education, all the subject teachers should be supported by different staff development programmes so that they may receive on-going support from experts to learn and challenge the conceptual bases behind intended reforms (Shepherd, 1995) and re-visit their views and beliefs about their role in the classroom. When they have the shared vision to promote the learning of the pupils who should play an active role in the learning process, they may plan the implementation with great care and thus make the implementation successful. “Schools should have the culture that there is joint lesson preparation in alignment of learning, teaching and assessment. Teachers worked together to decide the major teaching points to be covered, design worksheets to assess the learning of pupils,” remarked by a co-researcher who witnessed the teachers preparing lessons together during her teaching practice. Black and Wiliam (1998b) highlighted that the success of formative assessment needs the contribution of all teachers. Secondly, when formative assessment is accepted and to be implemented by all teachers in a school, school heads and teachers should educate the pupils about the major characteristics of formative assessment, especially their role in the process of learning. Thus, as the pupils proclaimed in the present study, they not only enjoy and learn through the different activities in the lesson, they also realize an active role in their own learning. In the lesson, teachers should also inform pupils the learning goals of different activities and to discuss with them the criterion of good work or show them the exemplars of good learning outcomes. Then pupils know how to take the initiative to learn and answer questions during class discussion, do the worksheets and co- operate with their peers in various group work. Furthermore, after receiving quality feedback on learning from teachers, pupils can make adjustment to 153 Formative Assessment in General Studies Classrooms their learning approaches or skills so that they can learn better and f ill the gap between their cur rent understanding and the desired level. Gradually, pupils may change their mindset and become an active agent in the learning process. They may see the benefits they receive from the practice of self and peer assessment, not just by filling in the assessment forms but also during the group work/presentation, and some assessment activities on the blackboard. In this way, assessment becomes an integral part of the learning-teaching- assessment cycle (the Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Thus, the effectiveness of implementation of formative assessment depends on the involvement of different agents in the school, i.e. teachers, school heads and pupils. As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the implementation is not a simple or easy job, teachers may work together to conduct the action research to study the abilities and needs of their pupils, their implementation practice, the diff iculties they encountered in their classrooms or school context. Then they can make improvement accordingly, and share their experience with other subject teachers when they start to conduct formative assessment in their own subjects. References Bell, B. & Cowie, B. (2001). Formative Assessment and Science Education. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in Education, 5 (1), 7-71. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148. Black, P.J. (1993). Formative and Summative Assessment by Teachers. Studies in Science Education, Vol.21. 49-97. Black, P.J. (1998). Testing: Friend or Foe? The Theory and Practice of Assessment and Testing. London: Falmer Press. Boyd, B.L. (2001). Formative Classroom Assessment: Learner Focused. The Agricultural Education Magazine. March/ April 2001, ProQuest Company. Colorado, P. (1988). Bridging Native and West Science. Convergence, v21, n2-3, pp.49-68. Curriculum Development Council (1994). Syllabuses for Primary Schools: General Studies (Primary 1-6) (1994). Hong Kong: the Government Printer. Curriculum Development Council (1997). Syllabuses for Primary Schools: General Studies (Primary 1-6) (1997). Hong Kong: the Government Printer. Curriculum Development Council (Sept 2001). Learning to Learn: The Way Forward to Curriculum Development. Web edition. Hong Kong: the Government Printer. Curriculum Development Council (2002). General Studies for Primary Schools Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 - Primary 6). Hong Kong: the Government Printer. Education Commission (September 2000). Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: the Government Printer. Education Commission (Sept 2001). Reform in the Education System in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: the Government Printer. Oldfather, P. (1993, April). Facilitating Participation and Ownership through Engaging Students as Co-researchers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA. 154 Oldfather, P. (1997). When Students Do Not Feel Motivated for Literacy Learning: How a Responsive Classroom Culture Helps. http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/clic/nrrc/rspon_r8.html viewed 21.2,2003 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) Website. Retrieved 8th November, 2003 0n the World Wide Web. http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/ Ridgway, J. (1998). From Barrier to Lever: Revising Roles for Assessment in Mathematic Education. National Institute for Science Education, Vol. 2, No.1, 1-8. Shepard, L.A. (1992). ‘Commentary: What Policy Makers Who Mandate Tests Should Know about the New Psychology of Intellectual Ability and Learning’. In Gifford, B.R. and O’Connor, M.C. (Eds.) Changing Assessments: Alternative Views of Aptitude, Achievement and Instruction. Boston and Dordrecht: Kluweer, pp.301-28. Shepherd, L.A. (1995). Using Assessment to Improve Learning. Educational Leadership, 54, no.5 (1995): 38-43. Simpson, Leanne R. (1988). Aboriginal Peoples and the Environment. Canadian Journal of Native Education, v.22 (2), pp.223-237. Stiggins, R.J. (2001). Student-involved Classroom Assessment. Merrill Prentice Hall: USA. Sutton, R. (1995). Assessment for Learning. Salford, England: RS Publications. Tandon, R. (1988). Social Transformation and Participatory Research. Convergence, v21, n2-3, pp. 5-18.. Torrance, H. (1993). Formative Assessment - Some Theoretical Problems and Empirical Questions. Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol.23, No. 3, 333-343. Trimarchi, R. (2002). Drawing Quiet Voices, The Science Teacher. American Science Teachers Association. 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思賴柏生、胡少偉香港教育學院摘要現代公民的發展，重視公民的積極民主參與，學校公民教育亦逐漸以主動公民取代被動公民的教育。香港回歸後的學校公民教育政策，開展公民積極參與的學習環境和機會，學校開始重視有選舉性參與的學生會活動。本文嘗試從探討學校學生會選舉，了解香港學校「參與性公民」教育的發展，並指出其中困難所在。 155 引言九七回歸後的香港，學校公民教育肩負發展新時期本土公民的責任，並協助塑造香港特區市民的身份。新公民建基於國家根本，伸展到整個國際社會，能夠適應社會向知識型社會的轉型和經濟全球一體化的發展。新公民的未來發展方向會是主動公民(active citizen)的參與性民主(participatory democracy)教育。在公民參與的學習中，有選舉成分的學生會活動是學校公民教育非正規課程的主要組成部分。本文嘗試從探討學校學生會的選舉參與 (electoral participation)，了解香港學校參與性公民(Participatory citizenship)教育的發展。參與性公民的概念 Dividson (1997) 指出全球化下的公民發展，分殊治理 (management of diversity) 是公共參與的重點，民主參與不再只局限於社會或國家層次的代表性民主制度 (representative democracy)，只靠定期選舉(periodic election)的民主參與，被認為過於被動和力量微弱，此種被動公民( p a s s i v e citizenship)的參與不再適合於高流動、高動力的後工業社會的發展需要。Dividson認為社會應容許市民參與影響他們日常生活的公共事務，政府需要開放和下放公共政策權力到個人生活的層次。為使公共服務更能有效滿足他們的個別需求，市民的公共參與要能夠發揮常日公投(e v e r y d a y plebiscite) 的效能。換言之，社會需要積極開展並實踐主動公民(active citizenship)的參與性民主，否則不能滿足地方社會朝向國際化和全球化的發展和競爭。 Sandercock (1998) 和 Sassen(1996) 相信在現今的自由民主大都會社會，當地政府須要確保每個人擁有平等使用城市空間的權利(right to public space)，他們在現有的法律制度下，自由組合，通過積極的公共參與，爭取最大使用城市的政治空間，用以改善他們居住的社區和個人生活質素。所以全球化下的新社會，如要人、貨、財的流通暢通無阻，便需要擴大民主參與到公民個人生活的公共事務的層次上，以確保他們能夠自由選擇每人喜愛的生活和文化方式的權利(Kress, 1996) 。簡而言之，今天的公民教育應是參與性公民的教育。在學校實踐方面，Print等(2002)指出學生會是學生學習民主參與的重要場所，學校的民主文 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 156 化和環境，例如，學校是否願意開放決策權力讓學生參與部分學校事務，直接影響參與性公民教育的發展。Print等(2002)認為北歐的丹麥透過立法，規定學校成立有選舉成分的學生會是進步的措施，學校的民主教育不單能夠確保學生體驗民主參與的機會和權利，更幫助學生認識負責任的公民參與的重要及更能夠鞏固丹麥民主政治體制的跨代發展。香港參與性公民教育的課程發展自八零年初至今，香港學校的參與性公民教育，無論在知識、方法和態度方面的教學，都出現明顯的改變 (見《表一》)。一九九九年，特區政府在《廿一世紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度檢討》的諮詢文件中，提出教育要培育一群對社會、國家、民族作出承擔和面向國際社會的國民。《教育目標諮詢文件》(教育統籌委員會，1999)期望教育能推展香港的政治發展，包括民主的發展和協助完成國家建設的工作： \" 回歸祖國代表了香港人的中國國民身份得到確認，我們的青年人需要多認識祖國的文化、現況和未來的發展，在「一國兩制」及「港人治港」的大原則下，充分發揮香港獨特的地理和政治特色，兼收中西文化所長，建立一個面向世界、有深厚文化基礎、團結、自由和民主的社會。\"（頁9）自香港政治過渡開始後，學校公民教育有關參與性公民理念的發展，出現漸進式改進。八五年，政府發出《學校公民教育指引》(《85指引》) ，宣示學校課程需要加入民主教育，可惜較多學校教學卻充斥非政治化(de-politicization)和德育化 (moralization) 的意識和舉動(Leung,1997；Morris & Chan, 1997)，忽視民主政治在民族國家公民發展的深層意義和價值，公民教育未能幫助學生處理複雜的政治轉變、建立正確的態度和認識民主與國家主權的關係，也解決不到民主追求與國家統一的矛盾及其引發的政治衝突。九六年，政府頒發新的《學校公民教育指引》(《96指引》)，修正過往的偏執，嘗試從國家本位和世界格局入手，重新定義香港公民，指出現今的公民發展，民主參與和其他政治價值，包括國家民族主權和統一、國際化等是互相依存的關係，需要適當平衡。二零零零年的《香港教育制度改革》報告書(《教改》) 進一步深化參與性公民的教育，指出在全球化的世界格局下，每一獨立主權的政治社會在朝向開放的知識型社會的發展時，民主參與是必不可少的。報告書並鼓勵學校開設獨立的公民科及在非正規課程中，成立有選舉參與的學生會，培育學生成為由具民主公民能力和熱愛他們學習及成長的學校社區，從而擴大到關心香港的社會。香港參與性公民的發展，在「一國兩制」的政治框架下，傾向選取以公民多向( m u l t i - dimensional citizenship) (Cogan, 1997) 的公民發展模式，參與性民主政治定位於維持國家的領土完整和主權統一 (He & Guo, 2000)之下，公民的民主不能高於國家主權，參與性公民的分殊管理，需要服膺於對民族國家的認同和承擔。故此學校施行公民教育時，避免直接觸及民主與國家統一的矛盾關係，民主和愛國主義的教育多分開處理，例如：學生會選舉參與的學習，多集中學生公民民主能力的培育，而不會涉及愛國主義教育的課題。 157 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思表一：課程革新（公民教育）（摘錄自：賴柏生（付印中），香港學校的課程革新、公民教育與公民的發展：一個社會學的分析）（供公民教育部分參考）摘錄自：香港課程發展議會（1985）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（1996）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。教育統籌委員會（2000）。《廿一紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度改革建議》。香港，政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習：課程發展路向》。香港，政府印務局。 158 學校參與性公民學習的施行香港大多數中學施行公民教育時採用跨科目 (cross disciplinary)和全校參與的策略 (whole-school approach)，亦透過正規課程、非正規課程和隱蔽課程的學習，三者並行兼用，相互補充。學生會的選舉參與，是學校參與性公民教育非正規課程的主要學習活動。香港在八十年代正式進入政治過渡的時期，學校開始重視學生會民主公民參與的學習，紛紛成立有選舉參與的學生會，教育學生自我管治的能力，為將來「一國兩制」、「港人治港」、「高度自治」培育愛國愛港的良好公民和管治人才。香港自開埠到八四年期間，衹有約20%的中學成立有學生會，但自八四年到九七年回歸時，有學生會的學校數目已增加至 52% (教育署，2000) 。二零零一年的《課程發展路向》報告書 (《課改》) 建議改變過往「知識學習」的路向，開始著重「生活事件」和「學習者為中心」的教學，「專題研習」與「閱讀中學習」兩者並重，學校生活實踐的學習，如學生會的選舉參與等，逐漸成為參與性公民學習的重要媒介。隨著《教改》和《課改》的校本化，香港社會如何落實廿一世紀「整體教育目標」的公民教育，取決於個別學校的辦學理念、學校政策、傳統文化及專業教師的協作，透過對檢視學校如何施行學生會的選舉參與，我們可以深入了解學校參與性公民教育的情況和問題。從學生會選舉看參與性公民教育的隱憂學生會的選舉參與，是學校每年最大規模和最受重視的參與性公民學習活動。學校的學生會競選活動，多在學年初段進行，時間會長達一整個月。高年級同學 (主要是中六同學，部分來自中四年級) 聯結志同道合之士，籌組班子，競逐學生會各執事職位。重要的競選活動是候選內閣向學校同學介紹他們的計劃或政綱。學生會會長及幹事多透過直接選舉產生。學校在選舉日會儘量協助投票順利完成，安排時間、場地，讓全體同學選出他們的學生會會長和幹事。學生會的監議組織 (代表會或監議會) 隨後亦會產生，成員多由間接選舉選出，候選同學主要來自各個學會、會社的領導代表。一般而言，學生會肩負統籌及協調各個學生組織的活動，多會採用協商及妥協方式解決會社間的糾紛和衝突。另方面，學生會代表會出席部分校方常設的校政會議，代表同學向校方反映和表達意見。賴、胡( 2 0 0 3 )以人種誌學 (ethnography)的方法去深入訪問一所有廿多年歷史的津貼中學，跟學生會的領導同學進行了聚焦性小組面談(focus-group discussion)，談論他們對學校學生會的歷史發展、現行操作、與學校的關係和個人體驗等，發現學生會參與性公民的學習，偏重精英化民主領袖的訓練、強化精英化民主的意識(democratic elitism)和代表性民主的公民參與： \"學生會會長級領導全由高年級同學出任，他們在學業成績上，不論是原校生或是外來生，都是出類拔萃的同學。他們經過艱辛的競選活動，成功當選的，同學會非常珍惜他們的成就；落選的同學亦會受到學校的禮待和器重。學校會主動與他們建立良好的工作關係，透過常設機構和顧問老師，就學生日常有關的問題，向學生會或同學代表接觸和磋商。學校民選的學生會代表制配合委任的領袖生制度，建構出整套學生精英的制度，基礎穩固，行之有效，效率奇佳。 \" (賴、胡，2003，頁163) \"對(同學)個人來說，投身學生會工作，爭取表現，鍛鍊自己，無論勝敗得失，都會是寶貴的公民學習經歷，能夠幫助他們加深認識和了解作為民主領袖所需的基本知識、技能和 159 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思態度。他們認為課本學習和課堂學習提供不到這些寶貴的經驗。例如：參與競選學生會職位的同學，尤其外來生，深刻體會空有服務熱誠未必成事；老師、同學等群體的支持和信任方是先要條件。作為民選領袖，他們需要清楚認識個人的知名度、同學的需求和學校的期望。他們要有領袖的魅力、組織能力和決斷力。 \" (賴、胡，2003，頁163 -164) 但是，在新公民思維的學者眼中，大部份學生的公共參與機會受到精英制度的限制或剝削，例如：有學校不接受中一同學在學生會選舉中投票選取他們的學生會幹事(賴柏生，2001)。在開放、自由、民主、發展的知識型社會下的公共事務治理，民眾需要「代表」，不需要「代辦」，更需要直接和理性的參與。學校應該提供相應的機會讓普通同學學習公民的參與，讓他們在參與日常學校事務中學識運用基本的公民權利和應盡的義務，讓學生體驗民眾常日公投(e v e r y d a y plebiscite)的力量。學校要教育學生建立主動公民的參與觀念，確保他們會於未來實踐公民的參與，能夠取得個人與社會的雙贏發展。簡言之，學校公民教育需要與時並進，提倡精英(elite)、民眾(mass)共同參與的公民教育，新世代的參與性公民教育是精英與民眾的政治教育，學校需要兩者平衡兼顧，不可偏執。作為非正規課程的學習，學生會的選舉參與存在一定的問題。首先，學校未有發展參與性公民的開放民主氣氛和管理風格(Leung,1997)。謝均才(1999) 指出權威的學校組織和管理削弱民主的教育，在階層化的科層治事架構下，學生會的代表性和自主性存有相當多的限制；學生校政的參與，流於形式。另方面，學生會活動在傳統的課堂學習觀念下，未被視為正常的學習，它的學習價值和地位常被忽視和矮化。同學視學生會活動為學科學習以外的學習；家長將之看待為課餘的興趣活動，課堂學習是正業，其他學習皆為次。在勤讀為尚、考取功名(大學學位) 為大的學習氣氛下，同學在參與學生會活動的同時，多憂慮耽誤學業，心理負擔很大，他們大都恐懼日後成績真的變壞，會招致父母責難，或後悔自責。此外，賴、胡(2003) 指出， \"學生會選舉參與的公民學習是開放式的學習，學習環境不全受督導老師的控制，老師未必能夠有效防止負面的學生學習經歷和學習成果\" (頁 162)，例如：(一)同學常會強烈感覺\"校方的干預\"，不滿負責老師的\"專權\"和\"偏私\"；感覺學校對他們信任不足，不太願意開放校政，不希望他們過多的參與；(二)在醞釀組閣競選及競選期間，同學個人心理和同儕關係變得複雜，同學之間會產生猜疑，他們有時感覺適應不來。有同學承認，若果處理欠妥善，會出現\"後遺症\"，影響同學間的關係；(三)當選後的學生會工作，幹事會同學有時感到\"無助和氣餒\"。他們發現同學選舉熱潮過後，參與冷感、逃避和欠缺承擔。他們大都對學生會事務漠不關心，對學生會舉辦的活動，欠缺支持和參與。有幹事會同學埋怨有\"被出賣\"的感覺。因此假如學校和社會不改變課堂學習的傳統觀念，及重新確立非正規課程的學習價值和地位，會嚴重影響著重生活實踐的參與性公民教育的正面發展。學校參與性公民教育的前路九七回歸後，香港進行教育制度改革，培育新公民是未來學校教育發展重點之一。《教改》、《課改》啟動校本改革，《96指引》倡議參與性公民的教學，用以迎接回歸後的政治整合、未來知識型社會的發展以及全球一體化的挑戰。學校學生會的選舉參與學習，逐漸發展成為正規課程以外一重要的公民學習經歷。但從我們的觀察，現時很多學校的參與性公民教育仍落後於時代發展的需要：(一)參與性公民的課程內容、教學重點，連接不上《教改》、《課改》對社會新公民的要求。學校仍然偏重被動的代表性民主的培育，窒礙了 160 主動公民的參與性民主發展；(二)學生會選舉參與的重要性未被學校和教師充分理解，影響以非正規課程為主的參與性公民學習，確保不了學習成效，影響香港學校參與性公民教育的發展。香港的中學應與時並進，改革課程使顯性和隱性課程相結合，加強生活活動的學習，把學生會選舉參與的實踐活動，引入課堂學習部分，如專題報告、個人或小組反思及分享等。另外，學校需要讓負責公民教育的教師接受在職進修，使能充分掌握參與性社會的政治發展，及以正面、開放的態度看待學生學習主動公民參與的活動。學校可以借鑑丹麥學校公民教育的發展模式，開放更多渠道讓學生參與學校事務，使學生會更能發揮參與性公民學習的功能。香港未來的建造，如要與國際社會融合，在全球一體化的競爭下發展，香港學校需要進一步提倡及培育參與性公民的教育，重新建立以《96 指引》和《教改》為藍本的參與性公民教育，發展如Dividson (1997) 所言的公共事務公民直接參與的特質，藉此培育年青人成為富參與性、具包容性及國際視野的新公民。參考書目教育統籌委員會(1999)。《廿一紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度檢討：教育目標諮詢文件》。香港，政府印務局。教育統籌委員會(2000)。《廿一紀教育藍圖 — 教育制度改革建議》。香港，政府印務局。教育署(2000)。中學的學生會：http://www.info.gov.hk/ed/statisti/graphics/chi/edin7c.jpg. 香港課程發展議會（1985）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（1996）。《學校公民教育指引》。香港，香港教育署。香港課程發展議會（2001）。《課程發展路向 — 學會學習》。香港，政府印務局。謝均才（1999）。〈香港學校公民教育的實施：問題與課題〉，《青年研究學報》，2(1) ，頁177-186。賴柏生(2001) 。〈學校公民教育與學生民主素質〉，載於香港教育工作者聯會編《青少年成長與家庭、社會和學校教育》(香港，三聯書店)，頁65-7。賴柏生(付印中)。《香港學校的課程革新、公民教育與公民的發展：一個社會學的分析》。賴柏生、胡少偉(2003) 。〈民主公民與學校公民教育：初探香港學校學生會的公民學習〉，《青年研究學報》，6(1) ，頁158-165。 Cogan, J.J. (1997). Multidimensional Citizenship: Educational Policy for the 21st Century. An Executive Summary of the Citizenship Education Policy Study, funded by the Sasakawa Peace Foundation. Tokyo, Japan. Dividson (1997). From Subject to Citizen: Australian Citizenship in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. He, B.G. & Guo, Y.J. (2000). Nationalism, National Identity and Democratization in China. Aldershot: Ashgate. Kress (1996). Internationalization and Globalization: Rethinking a Curriculum of Communication, Comparative Education, 32(2): 185-196. Leung, S.W. (1997). The Making of An Alienated Generation: The Political Socialization of Secondary School Students in Transitional Hong Kong. Aldershot: Ashgate. 161 香港學校公民教育：學生公民參與學習的反思 Morris, P. & Chan, K.K. (1997). The Hong Kong School Curriculum and the Political Transition: Politicization, Contextualization and Symbolic Action. In M. Bray & W.O. Lee, Education and Political Transition: Implications of Hong Kong's Change of Sovereignty (pp.101-118), Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong. Print, M., Ornstrom, S. & Nielsen, H. (2002). Education for Democratic Processes in Schools and Classroom. European Journal of Education, 37(2): 193-210. Sandercock, L. (1998). Towards Cosmospolis: Planning for Multicultural Cities. Chichester. New York: Wiely. Sassen, S. (1996). Cities and Communities in the Global Economy: Rethinking Our Concepts. American Behavioural Scientist, 39: 629-39. 162 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長 The Importance of Mentoring in the Professional Development of Kindergarten Practitioners 歐凱鑫聖羅撒幼稚園摘要本文旨在探討師徒制對幼兒教育工作者專業發展的重要性。筆者因應一次當上啟導教師的經歷，分析師徒制的影響因素，檢討成效，並提出具體建議，以鼓勵本港幼教機構嘗試和實踐師徒制，從而促進香港幼兒教育發展。 Abstract This paper discusses the importance of mentoring in the professional development of kindergarten student teachers and mentor teachers. The paper identifies some key factors that influence successful mentoring and suggests ways that kindergarten practitioners could put into practice. The paper aims to encourage practitioners in early childhood settings to practise mentoring in order to contribute to the development of Hong Kong's early childhood education. 導言教學啟導體現師徒制(mentoring)，它建基於啟導教師(mentor)與啟導學員(protege)的夥伴合作關係，可以促進教師效能及學生學習(Smith&West- Burnham Eds, 1993；Wilkin, 1992)，應用於幼兒教育，有助提升幼兒教育學與教的成效(Y i p , 1999；葉香玲，2000)。筆者於二零零三年首次當上香港教育學院的啟導教師，指導一名在我校實習的學生，為期七周。本文建基該次啟導經驗，探討啟導經驗如何促進實習教師及啟導教師的個人專業成長，引証文獻的理念。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal《香港教師中心學報》 , Vol. 3 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2004 163 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長理念架構教學啟導建基於師徒制，學者 And e r s o n & Shannon (1988)指出，學界對師徒制的理解不一。他們對師徒制的定義如下：「(師徒制)是培育的過程，由較具經驗及技能者作為榜樣，對經驗及技能較淺的同工給予教導、支持、鼓勵，輔導，視之如朋友，目的是提升後者的專業與個人發展。師徒制的成效，建基於啟導者對學員毫不間斷的關懷。」(筆者譯) 引文指出啟導教師是實習教師的「榜樣」，這正是香港教育學院啟導課程提及的「楷模」角色。圖一顯示啟導教師身兼七個角色：以上七個角色，我在啟導過程中全部實踐了。教學啟導有賴啟導教師與實習教師共同付出，它為雙方提供學習、反思的機會，有助個人成長，也有助不斷提升教學效能，為學生提供高素質的學習，達致專業成長 (Killion, 1990；李婉玲，2002)。啟導經驗對實習教師的影響促進實習教師的專業成長 Gordon & Maxey (2002) 指出，初任教師的困難來自疏離、角色轉變、工作艱辛、指引不清、支援不足等。我關顧的實習教師首次來校面談，亦表示上述憂慮，教學啟導正可助她克服困難。為免實習教師有疏離感，我發揮朋友角色。我待她如好友，向她主動提供精神支援，例如：與她一起午膳，協助她融入學校環境。此外，我擔當輔導者角色，給予勉勵，例如：觀課一天前，我與她分享自己首次接受觀課的經驗和心情，減輕她的焦慮。實習教師獲得心理支持，有助她投入實習工作，提升專業效能。教學方面，實習教師亦獲得支援。由於她缺乏教學經驗、技巧不熟練，我擔當楷模角色，作為她的教學借鏡。例如：首三天實習，她觀察我上課，從中學習和反思，改善她的教學信念與方法。整個啟導過程，我擔當輔助學習者與專業同儕角色。我向實習教師提供具體建議，例如：她要教授非典型肺炎的常識，我提供網址及小冊子，協助她備課。實習教師得以解決教學疑難，逐步提升教學能力。為求更有效幫助實習教師，我擔任觀察者與批判者角色。我進行觀課，觀課前、後均安排會談，並作會談紀錄。會談時，我多作引導、善用提問，留心用語，這使實習教師更能得益 (薛添信等，2002)。觀課一天前會談，我向她展示觀課表現評核表，讓她明白觀課目的和要求；從她提交的教案，我得知課節安排，並就此給予意見，師徒共同討論。觀課後，我們隨即進行會談，就課堂的表現詳細討論，實習教師可作澄清及提問，而我可給予回饋，師徒共同分析，有助提升教學效能。圖一啟導教師角色 (香港教育學院，2003) 164 觀課活動讓我體現觀察者與批判者角色，實習教師獲得具體建議及反思機會。觀課結束後，實習教師即日就課節表現，撰寫檢討與反思日誌。透過反思，她可以檢討自己的表現，從中改進教學方法，並掌握評鑑課堂表現的方法，日後可評核自己的表現。這些經驗為實習教師投身教師事業作好準備，有助她專業成長。促進實習教師的個人成長啟導經驗讓實習教師經歷角色轉變。這是她首次到學校工作，由學生變成教師，要學習履行教師的職責。此外，她面對陌生環境，要學習適應，要學習如何化解困難；縱使她選擇向我求助，也要思考場合、措辭、禮儀等。對實習教師而言，啟導過程讓她體驗現實校園工作環境，學習新的生活態度與技能。角色轉變使實習教師清楚幼稚園的實際運作。啟導前，她對這方面的認識，來自書本、傳媒、師長和親友。今次她走進校園，參予日常教學及行政工作，工作日程與全職教師無異，並與前線教師交流，可以引証所學知識。這些全新體驗，讓實習教師增廣見聞、刺激思考，有助她個人成長。啟導經驗對啟導教師的影響促進啟導教師的專業成長教學啟導除了有利實習教師外，亦有助啟導教師專業及個人成長。專業成長方面，我首次當上啟導教師，香港教育學院提供十八小時專業課程，探討啟導教師必備技能，包括溝通技巧、會談技巧、觀課技巧、教學分析評鑑技巧等。這些知識和技能，既可促進啟導成效，也可拓展我的眼界。在日常教學及行政工作，可以發揮所學，提升專業水平。我任職幼師至今九年，本以為經驗豐富。與實習教師接觸前，沒有期望從這名「老師」身上學到半點東西。然而對她加深認識後，我卻徹底改觀。雖然她的專業知識和技巧有待改進，但是她認真備課，仔細編寫教案，積極搜集教具，處處表現敬業樂業的精神。為了加深幼兒對抗炎方法的知識，她自製彩色精美的抗炎紙板作為教具，幼兒反應甚佳。可見她亦有可取的教學技巧，可供我學習。與實習老師相處，我獲得很多啟發。觀課前，我仔細思考一節出色課節的要素，以便評核實習老師的表現。觀課後，我思量若自己是授課者，我會怎樣教授相同課節？如何改進？我回想以往處理課節的手法，並與實習教師表現互相比較。她的教學亦有可作參考之處，例如：構思傳染病的主題網，她的設計與我任職學校的原有設計不相同，但是各有千秋。她的教學產出：學生作品，絕不遜色於我任教的學生，也令我反思自己教學的成果。觀課後，我回家把她的教學錄影反覆細看，獲益良多。啟導教師角色為我帶來同儕學習的機會，培養我對教學工作的反思能力，讓我有機會思考優劣、得失，謀求改善之道，促進我專業成長 (羅厚輝等，1997) 。促進啟導教師的個人成長從實習教師身上學到很多新見解和技巧。由於師徒制要求啟導教師對實習教師採取尊重和包容的態度，所以我變得樂於接受新嘗試，培養廣闊的胸襟和尊重別人的態度。我身為啟導教師，職責上必須樂於協助實習教師，這使我的思想和性格產生改變。以前我較被動，但是啟導開始後，我逐漸變得主動友善待人，這有助我改善人際關係，使我與校內及校外人士增進友誼，促進個人成長。 165 啟導經驗如何促進幼兒教育工作者的專業成長檢討與建議是次教學啟導存在兩個困難：第一個困難是時間不足。教學啟導適逢非典型肺炎肆虐，任教學校因此停課。這大大打亂啟導日程，其中實習教師到校觀摩導師授課的時間，縮短為三日。她在三月二十四至三月二十六日來校觀摩後，直至五月十九日才繼續進行啟導，中間相隔甚久。啟導未能連貫，不免影響成效。此外，日常學校工作繁重，師徒難以騰出時間詳細討論。面對時間不足，只能設法有效運用時間。停課期間，我透過電話與電郵，主動聯絡實習教師，詢問是否需要協助。復課後，我在午膳時間，主動坐近她的身旁，爭取時間分享。此外，我跟她協議在下班後留校討論，觀課前、後的會談正是如此。利用有限的時間發揮最大效益，這是我進行啟導的願望。第二個困難是實習教師在啟導過程欠缺主動。停課期間，我主動聯絡實習教師，她卻顯得較被動，沒有向我尋求協助。在校內，她的表現沉默，很少跟啟導教師以外的同工談話交流，未能爭取前線教師的額外支援。面對實習教師表現被動，我更加提醒自己要貫徹主動、友善的態度，打破隔膜，不斷向她施以援手，希望她終能打開心扉。我做好本份，無奈她的反應始終未如我所願，有時難免洩氣。只有寄望實習教師明白及認同啟導的價值，主動為自己個人與專業成長而付出努力。成功的師徒關係，建基於啟導者與學員的共同投入參予，缺一不可 (Gehrke, 1988)。結語除了大專院校與幼稚園合作層面外，幼稚園可以實行校本師徒制，讓校內教師互相借鏡，使師徒制成為校本教師發展的策略。我嘗試把這次啟導經驗總結為圖二：正如圖二顯示，教學啟導兼具學習與反思兩個功能，透過啟導教師與實習教師互相激勵，有利雙方個人與專業成長，塑造雙方為終身學習者，既提升學校效能，也提升幼兒教育學與教的成效。然而這並非單向發展，而是雙向回饋。教育領域環環緊扣，師徒制讓教師、學校與教育三者均提升效能，營造優良的學習文化，有助促進幼兒教育學與教的成效。圖二啟導經驗總結 166 參考書目李婉玲 (2002)。《顧問教師的角色 — 促進教師專業的成長》。香港：香港教育學院，教學啟導課程研討會提綱。香港教育學院 (2003)。《教學啟導教師課程講義》。香港：香港教育學院。葉香玲 (2000)。《採用師徒式促進優質幼兒教育》。香港：香港教育學院。薛添信、蘇秀冠、陳維疆等 (2002)。《優質教學視導導師手冊》。香港：香港大學出版社。羅厚輝、陳鄭佩華、謝陳寶華、黃葉香玲 (1997)。《「同儕視學」在發展幼兒教師「反思」能力的角色》，載《教育曙光》。香港：香港教師會。 Anderson, M. E. & Shannon, A. L. (1988). Toward a Conceptualization of Mentoring. Journal of Teacher Education, 39: 38-42. Gehrke, N.J. (1988). On Preserving the Essence of Mentoring as One Form of Teacher Leadership. Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1): 43-45. Gordon, S.P. & Maxey, S. (2000). How to Help Beginning Teachers Succeed. Alexandra, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Killion, J.P. (1990). The Benefits of an Induction Program for Experienced Teachers. Journal of Staff Development, 11 (4): 32-36. Smith, P. & West-Burnham, J. (Eds) (1993). Mentoring in the Effective School. Harlow: Longman. Wilkin, Margaret (1992). Mentoring in Schools. London: Kogan Page. Yip, Heung Ling (1999). A Study of Kindergarten Principals as Mentors for Initial Teacher Education. Unpublished MEd Thesis. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.

香港教師中心學報第十六卷 ( 2017年 )

分類: 文件Hong Kong Teachers Centre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十六卷 Volume Sixteen 第十六卷 V olum e Sixteen 2017 V olum e Sixteen 2017 Hong Kong Teachers C ntre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十六卷 Volume Sixteen 第十六卷 V olum e Sixteen 2017 V olum e Sixteen 2017 第十六卷 Volume 16 出版：香港教師中心地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室出版年份：2017 年 Publisher ：Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ：W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing ：2017 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal i 香港教師中心香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議，由 1987 年開始籌備，至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步提升服務質素及切合發展需要，教師中心已於2006年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。教師中心致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。常委會之下設有工作小組，負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業的活動，並會因應需要，贊助這些團體舉辦活動，以及為有關活動提供所需的場地和器材。教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等，為教師提供所需的服務。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years’ preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-tier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total of 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well-equipped premises. HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc. for teachers’ use. iii 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/ hktc/journal）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團（Board of Advisors） A. Lin GOODWIN The University of Hong Kong Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁　鋼華東師範大學李兆璋香港浸會大學李沙崙教育局李榮安鄭州大學侯傑泰香港中文大學張國華香港公開大學梁湘明香港中文大學許添明國家教育研究院 iv 傅浩堅香港浸會大學潘慧玲淡江大學鄭燕祥香港教育大學鍾秉林中國教育學會蘇國生香港考試及評核局編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editor）黃少玲香港中學語文教育研究會副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育大學楊沛銘香港地理學會趙淑媚香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學委員（Members）甘志強港澳兒童教育國際協會何瑞珠香港中文大學教育學院余綺華香港道教聯合會圓玄學院石圍角小學李子建香港教育大學李少鶴香港初等教育研究學會林偉業香港大學教育學院胡志偉香港通識教育會張慧真香港浸會大學 v 主編序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「高等教育與教育國際化」，除了不少學者就着主題應邀投稿，也有熱心的教育同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。經過嚴謹的評審後，共有九篇文章獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有五篇，內容包括：以社會文化及批判性方法建立高等教育的管道、從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化、「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇及香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況。作者們透過宏觀的角度透視香港高等教育國際化的實況和發展，展示了高等教育發展的未來方向，並提出精闢的分析、意見及建議。第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章，合共兩篇，內容包括：香港生命教育課程的框架及以「囚徒困局」詮釋香港中一入學前測試的操練。高等教育的發展有賴鞏固的基礎教育。兩位作者從另一角度分析香港教育的實況，作出了客觀的評論，並提出了具參考性的意見。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，有兩篇文章。內容包括：香港的就業輔導和生涯規劃教育的機遇與挑戰及校園美學融入寫作課程之探究。前線教育工作者的經驗分享是非常可貴的，透過兩位作者們的分析，我們可以了解教育實踐上的成果和值得反思的地方。最後，我要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工，當中包括：王偉倫博士、何玉芬博士、何瑞珠教授、李子建教授、李軍教授、李展華先生、李榮安教授、阮衛華博士、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、袁月梅博士、馬顯慈博士、張澤松博士、郭禮賢博士、黃金耀博士、楊沛銘博士、廖佩莉博士、趙淑媚博士、歐惠珊女士、潘甦燕博士、鄭美紅教授、黎國燦博士、盧一威博士、簡加言博士、羅永祥博士和龐憶華博士。學報能順利出版，實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中義務地抽空幫助，以專業的態度評審各篇文章。我也在此衷心感謝教師中心的同工。他們時刻緊貼工作的日程，工作雖不顯眼，但卻貢獻甚多。我期盼今期學報能為同工帶來對教育發展的檢視和反思，為日後教育工作帶來新的啟示。《香港教師中心學報》主編黃少玲二零一七年十二月目錄 Contents 香港教育中心 ....................................................................................................................i 香港教師中心學報 ..........................................................................................................iii 主編序 ...............................................................................................................................v 一、主題 1. Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research ............................................................1 Benjamin “Benji” CHANG 2. 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化 ...........................................27 孫天倫 3. 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇 ...................................41 許玉麟 4. 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況 .......................................................................55 胡少偉 5. 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思 .......................................71 余嘉明、許聲浪、羅英倫、李子建二、理論及政策評論 1. 香港生命教育課程的框架 .......................................................................................85 陳志威 2. 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋 .................................103 霍秉坤三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts .........................................................................125 WONG Pak Wing Lawrence 2. 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究 .............................................................................151 吳善揮徵集論文稿例徵募審稿員 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 16 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2017 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research Benjamin “Benji” CHANG Faculty of Education & Human Development, The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract This article discusses the use of critical and sociocultural approaches to more dynamically ‘internationalise’ higher education in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. The article explores the integration of critical pedagogy and sociocultural learning theory in developing more engaging and rigorous education practices for tertiary institutions that are looking to steer their campuses towards international standards in education for the shorter and longer term. This article’s specific context is a program that helps develop diverse undergraduates to be more effective teachers and researchers and be concerned with addressing social justice issues in their work and everyday lives. Through what can be called an educational pipeline that begins with undergraduates and branches off into teaching, postgraduate studies, and research, this article discusses sustainable contributions that can be made to ‘internationalisation’ when the pipeline is grounded in pedagogies and methodologies which help to develop educational equity and a more humanising education. Keywords tertiary education, curriculum, teacher education, reflexivity, Hong Kong 2 Introduction For some 20 years, Asian universities such as those in Greater China (Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan, mainland China) have been urged towards internationalisation, especially due to the paradigm shifts of globalisation and neoliberalism. These shifts to internationalisation have been identified across micro and macro levels (M. H. Lee, 2014; Mok, 2007; Postiglione, 2011). For teachers at the tertiary level, these shifts have not only been about incorporating course content from international contexts, as this was already being done to a significant degree in previous years. Internationalisation also meant changes like incorporating international teaching methods, technologies, and languages. For teachers at research institutions, the changes urged them to make their scholarship of greater international relevance, employ international methodologies, collaborate with overseas colleagues, and publish in journals outside of Asia. Whether at a research or teaching institution, faculty from both types of universities became subject to international standards of management, from how their pedagogy and research were evaluated, to how decisions were made at the department, faculty, and campus level. Understandably, these shifts towards ‘internationalisation,’ particularly those influenced by the US, the UK, and Australia, have received a range of critiques. This internationalisation has been viewed as disruptive and insensitive to local contexts, or even as fostering inequities and forms of cultural and socioeconomic imperialism (C. K. Y. Chan & Luk, 2013; W.-W. Law, 1997). In Hong Kong, educational research has significantly discussed internationalisation in areas such as policy, administration, curriculum, assessment, and teaching. At times this research has looked at supposed disparities between ‘East’ and ‘West’ contexts (E. H.-f. Law, 2003; Leung, 2014; Wan, 2005), and at other times it has looked at how the push to become international has also been a push towards neoliberalism, with significant implications for Hong Kong education and social inequities (Petersen & Currie, 2008; Poon-McBrayer, 2004; Woo, 2013). This article builds on the notion that there are some helpful lessons to be learned from international approaches to higher education, such as those related to ‘learning-to-learn’ reforms in Hong Kong. The article outlines some strategies on how we might move from theories and policies to practice with diverse learners over the shorter and longer term. A pilot project that the author developed is discussed, including its approaches to addressing international standards and educating Hong Kong university students to become teachers and researchers. The article begins by explaining some of the pedagogical issues that emerged from the internationalisation process, and the employment of critical pedagogy and sociocultural learning theory approaches to address those issues. Following these foundational ideas, the article describes the author’s integrated strategy of an educational pipeline to more dynamically prepare students to effectively engage ‘international’ standards, and well as those concerned with educational equity and social justice. 3 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research Key concepts This section begins with discussing Hong Kong’s efforts to ‘internationalise’ its education system. The discussion focuses on teaching coursework and some challenges that have arisen. In the second and third parts of this conceptual section, the article summarizes some key notions of critical pedagogy and sociocultural learning that were used to pilot an approach to improving internationalisation in undergraduate education. Internationalisation in teaching There has been considerable scholarship conducted on internationalisation of universities in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), including those that discuss changing tasks required of faculty. There have been several suggested reforms for teaching, including e-learning, flipped learning, and teaching courses using Mandarin Chinese (Putonghua) or English (Adamson & Morris, 2010; Wong, 2007). A particularly significant reform has been the move towards learner-centred learning and ‘Learning-To- Learn’ (LTL). While there are variations of LTL and learner-centred learning (sometimes called student-centred learning), they can be generalised as approaches to pedagogy based on theories of constructivism and cognitivism which emphasize the learner’s experiences, environment, cognitive processes, and skills (Tong, 2010; Yeung, 2012). Here, learners can include the student or the teacher, and other members of the given educational setting. Learner-centred learning and LTL also emphasise tailoring pedagogy to students’ differing needs and customising learning experiences, as opposed to ‘one-size-fits-all’ pedagogy like those that focus on textbooks and worksheets. Another characteristic of internationalisation reforms concerns the emergence of the ‘information society’ and unprecedented access to data and technology, which speaks to rapid advancements that have made ‘obsolete’ some of the previous ways that people learned and worked. It is here that LTL and student-centred learning is promoted to teach students how to continually learn and adjust over the life course, critically consume media and other information sources, and work with others in a highly-connected world that can be ironically isolating and indifferent. This development of LTL and learner-centred learning is supposed to augment pupils’ skill sets as future teachers, scholars, and leaders to levels comparable to those found internationally. Despite over a decade of implementing LTL in Hong Kong schools, and an even longer period of incorporating student-centred reforms, the SAR has been critiqued for perpetuating top-down, teacher-centred pedagogies, which typically revolve around public exams and rankings (Chang, 2017; Chiu & Walker, 2007). Effects of these pedagogies have included students feeling patronised and alienated as they go through schooling, and being uninformed and unprepared for the levels of inquiry, internationalism, and independence that are usually expected at university. While universities may have more 4 academic freedom in implementing pedagogical reforms, teacher-centred approaches are still quite common and can further steer students’ away from thinking for themselves, working creatively and collaboratively, learning how the world works outside of Hong Kong and figuring out what their place may be in it. In other words, higher education students may not be able to fully partake in the benefits of ‘internationalisation.’ In an effort to address these issues of preparing students to be internationally informed and competitive, this paper discusses the author’s integrated use of critical pedagogy and sociocultural learning strategies at a Hong Kong university. Critical pedagogy One of the two key components of our approach to more effectively preparing students towards internationalisation is critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy is a body of scholarship which focuses on issues of social justice, educational equity, power, control, resistance, and agency. Historically it has some shared foundations in the work of the Frankfurt School and Paulo Freire (Leonardo, 2004), and typically draws from sociology, philosophy, and psychology. A common concept within critical pedagogy includes seeing much of public education as using a banking model, where students are passive containers of information (like a child’s ‘piggy bank’) that unquestioningly receive information ‘currency’ from teachers and schools who remain in dominant positions of knowledge and experience. This banking model has been connected to seeing education as using a ‘one- size-fits-all’ factory model that spews out the same kinds of students again and again, disregarding and flattening their diverse experiences, skills, or needs (Luke, 2010). Aside from the factory model, critical pedagogy’s banking model concept has been tied to social reproduction, where a society’s socioeconomic hierarchy is reinforced and reproduced through schooling (Apple, 2004). This usually means the wealthy elite maintain their power and privilege through the education system, while the middle-class shrinks and less privileged students are not taught skills that may help change their socioeconomic standing. Altogether, social reproduction and the banking and factory models illustrate that education systems can be oppressive and dehumanising for all involved. Critical pedagogy tends to look at these issues as faced by marginalised populations (e.g. women, working-class families), but it also explores issues of privileged groups (e.g. middle-class white men in North America, highly-educated Han Chinese in Asia). Aside from problems, critical pedagogy examines how educational stakeholders can resist systems and practices of inequity, and how they can foster their own agency, whether social, educational, economic, or political (Bartólome, 1994). Towards these ends, a broad approach suggested within critical pedagogy is problem-posing, where students are not spoon-fed one correct answer to questions, but are encouraged to develop inquiries into given topics, and eventually answers. Although related to the Socratic Method and inquiry-based learning, problem-posing goes beyond students developing ‘higher-order’ 5 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research thinking skills (Duncan-Andrade, 2009). Critical pedagogy also involves disrupting the status quo of schooling and the hierarchy of teachers over students and the communities they come from. Here students are encouraged to critique established ideas and norms, including those of schools and society (e.g. news media, transnational corporations), to more dynamically understand how the world works and how we can change it for the better. In Hong Kong, one can see the connections of critical pedagogy’s problem-posing approach to internationally-inspired reforms like student-centred learning and LTL. In recent decades critical pedagogy has become more interdisciplinary and applied across diverse contexts that are concerned with education and care, from teaching to social work to medicine (Gupta et al., 2006; McLaren & Houston, 2004). Over time, critical pedagogy has also received critiques for operating within certain paradigms of theory and practice (e.g. white, male, Christian), which can undermine efforts to make education more just and humanising. Thus critical pedagogy has also been refined by scholars from ‘racial minority,’ indigenous, diasporic, and LGBT backgrounds (Asher, 2007; Grande, 2003). Responding to critiques of critical pedagogy as being too theoretical, over the past two decades a large body of research has emerged from scholar-practitioners that detail how critical pedagogies have been effectively applied around the globe. Often these works have combined critical pedagogy with other disciplines (e.g. sociolinguistics, geography, legal studies), to provide more intersectional approaches to equity (Chang, 2013; Kubota & Miller, 2017). In Hong Kong, critical pedagogy has been theorised and applied for over fifteen years (Hui & Chan, 2006; Lin, 2004; Mason, 2000). Focal areas have included policy, curriculum, English education, liberal studies, and history of education, and these have provided insights in challenging educational inequities (C. Chan & Lo, 2016; Flowerdew, 2005; Pérez-Milans & Soto, 2014). In developing strategies for the educational pipeline that is the focus of this paper, critical pedagogy was a foundational area. The theories, along with my experience in applying them across age levels, helped me develop short and long-term approaches to more dynamically incorporating internationalisation at the university. In the next section, I outline the second conceptual foundation of our approach to an educational pipeline. Sociocultural learning Critical pedagogy facilitates a broader understanding of how educational systems can be dehumanising and inequitable, and general ideas of how to make classrooms more inclusive and democratic. Sociocultural learning theory is an area of scholarship that helps fill in some of the gaps of critical pedagogy’s more sociological and philosophical strategies, by more dynamically conceptualising learning and its cultural roots. Within different sociocultural learning strands, a consistent theme is improving teaching through considering classrooms and other educational spaces as learning ecologies, going beyond formal teacher-student classroom interactions (Vygotsky, 1978). These ecologies 6 can include students’ families, neighbourhoods and formal/informal learning spaces. Sociocultural learning is grounded in the idea that human activity takes place in cultural contexts, is mediated by language, and is highly interconnected to the historical context of the activity’s development and its participants’ perspectives (Anderson & Stillman, 2013). Key ideas include the detail that should be paid to student/teacher discourse, experiences, and cultural practices that shape the interactions and connections within the learning ecology. Sociocultural learning’s emphasis on this dynamic interplay of factors is related to Hong Kong’s learner-centred learning reforms (Gan & Lee, 2015), as it seeks to modify and tailor pedagogy beyond just considering a classroom’s subject, level, and language of instruction. Sociocultural learning conceptualises culture as something that is situated, can change over time, and should be considered as practices rather than a list of traits that are permanently branded to a group of people as a ‘learning style,’ such as early models of the ‘Chinese Learner,’ or cultural deficit models of ethnic minorities (Clark & Gieve, 2006; González & Moll, 2002). Understanding culture as situated and socially-mediated practices is aligned with critical pedagogy in that it challenges the use of culture as a synonym for race or class, where ‘Culture’ is used to simplistically explain the low- achievement of a group, such as working-class or ethnic minority students who struggle at a university (Nasir & Hand, 2006). Such notions of ‘Culture’ signify a static approach that looks at culture as a pronoun, something that is fixed, unchanging, and in and of itself; like ‘the Pakistani people’ or ‘Sham Shui Po students.’ When these over-generalisations are used to explain achievement, they devalue ‘the Cultures’ and languages of these groups, and frame them as deficient of so-called academic or standard ‘Culture’ and language (C. D. Lee, 2002). This is problematic in that it belittles the struggles and strengths of marginalised communities, which the education system might learn something from if it adjusted its essentialising and elitist standpoint. A second problem here is that all supposed members of a cultural community are stereotyped as being the same. This hides the diversity and agency between individuals and suppresses their ability to change or do things in different ways. Sociocultural learning’s concept of culture as situated practices over time opens up understandings to how people can persist, develop, and change, and these understandings provide potentially transformative foundations for teaching. In other words sociocultural learning facilitates a pedagogy of possibility, where cultural and linguistic practices are not something that people are stuck with (Cole, 1996). These practices can continually change at the borders and intersections where the individual, structure, experience, and history meet (Pacheco, 2012). This approach can inform teachers of where students are coming from, but it also provides possibilities of where the student can go and what they can do in the company of others. In my experience, sociocultural learning theory has helped to more effectively implement formative assessments and curriculum modifications. It has pushed me to be more thoughtful in how I think of myself and my students (e.g. 7 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research behaviour, achievement), and how I can re-organise the bigger and smaller elements of our learning ecology to be more equitable, inclusive, and effective (Chang & Lee, 2012). In the following section I discuss applying sociocultural learning and critical pedagogy at a university in Hong Kong, and the strategy of an educational pipeline to support students in becoming stronger teachers and scholars. Meeting internationalisation standards At a recent dinner with two colleagues who are also Hong Kong professors, we traded stories about being junior faculty. My colleagues discussed the increasing ‘international standards’ for us to be evaluated with for job re-appointment and promotion. These standards included teaching courses that address international issues and methods outside of Hong Kong, conducting research of international relevance beyond Greater China, collaborating on projects with international scholars, and publishing in internationally- ranked journals outside of Asia. Of particular concern was how the last three standards were used to judge our worthiness in winning an external grant from the government: a gold standard for determining rewards like salary increases and promotion. My colleagues and I talked about challenges in achieving this ‘internationalisation’ while still meeting previously-established standards like teaching numerous courses effectively, working with local schools to conduct research, and engaging in service and ‘knowledge transfer’ with on-the-ground organisations applying our scholarly expertise. While we were enthused about the different forms of support our institutions provided, the conversation still had its share of concern. Although Hong Kong’s eight publicly-funded universities each has unique policies and practices, all face challenges of meeting international teaching and research standards. The Education University of Hong Kong (EdUHK) has shot up in international QS rankings of Education, but it is still the newest of the universities and has a long history of focusing on teaching practice as a former conglomeration of normal colleges. Thus there have been some challenges in attracting and supporting students with the highest levels of traditional academic skills. One example would be undergraduates whose English fluency levels help them to engage in coursework at high international standards. Another example would be Ph.D. and M.Phil. students. While these postgraduate students are typically understood as receiving the benefits of mentorship from an established professor, there are also numerous benefits for the universities and faculty who support them. These students can help augment the research of scholars who supervise them by asking new questions, investigating cutting-edge theories and contexts, collaborating on projects (whether as a professor’s advisee, hired research assistant, or postdoctoral fellow), and developing their own robust bodies of scholarship as alumni. All of these actions help develop the material and scholarly capacity of the professors and universities. Professors who have not won the most elite government grant usually have reduced access to such students. One reason 8 is because they are not allowed to supervise these students. This restriction is rather ironic for academics who earned their Ph.D. abroad or come from international universities, as they may have significant training, publications, grants, and Ph.D. students they developed outside of Hong Kong. For junior professors in the SAR, this scenario can generate considerable challenges as they individually prepare to meet ‘international’ standards of research and teaching. In my own efforts, I have tried to be a bit creative in achieving these benchmarks. At the dinner with my colleagues, it came up that I had won some EdUHK awards for teaching, as determined by students and faculty. We talked a bit about my approach and they suggested that I write something about it which ended up being this article. In our conversation, I discussed my educational pipeline strategy in developing students, and my own work, to meet internationalisation standards. As a new assistant professor, and new to Hong Kong, I did not have immediate access to schools as research sites, or students who could help me conduct my research projects. Quite often my students were not confident in their English or traditional academic skills related to teaching or research. Frequently they had limited experiences and understandings with international contexts, and did not think highly of their academic skills. But what some students did have was an explicit desire to improve, goals of becoming a good teacher, and experiences with the struggles of growing up working-class and attending schools that were not of high rank or banding. With these realisations I decided on a strategy that focused on developing the skill sets of students in my classes, organically weaving them into research projects while at the university, and connecting them to future opportunities as Hong Kong educators. In addition, I discussed how some of these students may wish to become researchers in the future, whom I might have the chance to supervise or just collaborate with during their postgraduate studies. Altogether I viewed this strategy as an educational pipeline, which seeks to build points of access, development, and flow in preparing students for the future (Solorzano & Yosso, 2000). In order to best prepare the students along this pipeline, my pedagogy with them had to address some of their struggles, and uncover the relevant skills and experiences they already had. This pedagogy of possibility was informed by sociocultural learning and critical pedagogy, as well as my personal experience working in classrooms, programs, and organisations (Chang, 2015). In the next section I discuss how we organised this pedagogy and the educational pipeline. Educational pipeline stages: Pedagogy and methodology In this section, I outline major features of the educational pipeline strategy I have developed and used in Hong Kong. Applying principles of sociocultural learning and critical pedagogy, the overarching goals of the pipeline are to more effectively teach students in university courses, build their skill sets to be strong educators and researchers, and open up possible pathways for collaboration on future research. There are two 9 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research aspects of this pipeline to keep in mind. One is that this pipeline was designed to help students and myself meet standards of internationalisation, especially in terms of learner- centred learning, LTL reforms, and being versed in international methods and contexts of education. The second aspect is that the pipeline does not have prescribed outcomes for students. Not all will go on to be educators, and not all have interests in research. Instead the outcomes focus more on how having some critical fluency in teaching and educational research that can help inform their daily lives and their sense of agency in addressing their needs and aspirations. Stage 1: Teaching courses towards engagement and reflexivity At the university, I teach various education courses for mostly undergraduates who come from different majors, but are generally thinking of going into education- related fields. The courses have English as the mode of instruction (EMI), and usually have second and third-year students. Course topics include theory, policy, and practice of curriculum, assessment, effective teaching, and educational research methods. The teaching load per semester is typically around three, which is not a lot for teaching-focused institutions, but considered heavy for those at research-focused campuses. The number of students per class in upper-division courses is higher than in North America, with about 35-40 undergraduates per class. In addition most of the students are taking 5-7 courses per semester, which is about double the amount taken by students in other leading countries of internationalisation. These numbers, coupled with pre-established course structures that put almost all marks on one or two final assignments (with no marks for class participation), tend to promote a culture where students try to efficiently focus their efforts on finals, and not on class engagement during the semester. This presents challenges to using student-centred learning and LTL practices, especially when students do not feel that comfortable speaking in EMI courses. To address these challenges, I have kept in mind the simple concept that prioritising classroom engagement, instead of management or discipline, can make teaching more dynamic and effective. One way is by promoting a fun atmosphere in the classroom, such as through jokes (often with the course instructor being the subject of the joke), and explaining concepts through using pop culture such as film clips, cartoons, and anime. This lighter atmosphere tends to relax and open up students’ socio-emotional state to diverse ideas. This seemingly simple practice is informed by critical and sociocultural theory, which encourages the use of popular culture to access students’ everyday literacy practices, and encourages students to critically look at things found in their daily lives (Jocson, 2006). A related practice that lightens the atmosphere is something my mother encouraged me to do when I taught my first class as a schoolteacher. I occasionally get small snacks for the students, which surprisingly go a long way in showing students I am interested in their well-being and that I think of them beyond my compulsory workload. 10 A third way I promote engagement is explicitly taking the time to get to know students. Due to the enrolments I usually have each semester, I am not able to replicate some small group practices I have used at other campuses. However the guiding principles of sociocultural and critical approaches to student-centred pedagogy remain the same. These emphasise addressing students’ lived experiences, which may include their backgrounds, hobbies, struggles, and aspirations. Some areas of educational research frame this approach as one of care (Howard, 2002), but I also connect it to the notion of re-humanising education for students and teachers alike (Tan, 2009), as they are often relegated to being just another number or low-priority customer/worker in the enormous machine that is today’s university corporation. Some practices I use include: ● having students fill out a survey about themselves and education, and sharing it on the first day; this survey is compiled and I read it over to remember their names (I have them include their photo) and get to know them better to tailor the curriculum ● taking the time to briefly chat with students in and out of the class (e.g. in the canteen line, on the shuttle bus), and seem generally friendly or accessible ● being visible on campus by asking students to inform me about their events so I can possibly drop by and support; these include competitions of student-athletes, performances by music majors, and ‘cultural awareness’ days for ‘ethnic minority’ and ‘foreign’ students In addition to asking students to share about their ideas and lived experiences in class, I also do the same to model the types of engagement that would benefit the class. This includes filling out and sharing the survey, letting students know about my background and interests (e.g. martial arts, hip-hop), and updating them on some things in my life. These practices are employed to foster a more humanising classroom in the sociocultural and critical sense, but they have also been used long before they were studied and theorised as such. In a recent meeting with three veteran teachers at a low-banded secondary school in Kowloon, they talked about how neoliberalisation has all but thrown practices of care and connection out of the window. These teachers remarked that they still make the time to do such practices because care and connection not only make teaching more worthwhile, they also enrich any lesson and are often the thing that students build their engagement and persistence on. Indeed in my experience, care and connections are some of the only things that students, especially from marginalised communities, can draw upon while immersed in the official curriculum and other alienating schooling structures. But what of actual ‘academic’ practices? Thus far I may have seemed to only discuss pop culture, food, and socialising with students. To some, these practices represent the soft-side of education that are not in line with the hard data-driven, exam-oriented policies that signify twenty-first century education and global standards of excellence and 11 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research accountability (Martin, 2017). My point in discussing the aforementioned ‘soft’ practices is to show that they should be prioritised in the classroom, especially when there are numerous constraints in context and structure towards meeting ‘international’ standards and reforms. Without care, connection, and humanisation, other ‘more academic’ practices may be less effective, if at all. However, I do design and implement such practices concurrently with critical and sociocultural methods. Examples of more mainstream practices include: ● assigning heterogeneous and homogeneous group work in-class, moving from smaller to larger collaborative groups; these groups are assigned or student- selected, but the premise is to diversify their social environments to better grasp and apply concepts ● conducting brief formative assessments, mostly in-class, and occasionally on-line, where students have to articulate their individually-informed ideas about content (e.g. occasional texts introduced via guided reading) ● assigning group presentations on topics of students’ interest; these emphasise engaging pedagogy and require pre-presentation consultations in their small groups ● writing self and course assessments at the course’s middle or end, concerning how to improve the course and their group presentation’s strengths, weaknesses, and roles of group members (which addresses ‘free riders’) Such practices are designed to provide a variety of participatory structures that students of diverse backgrounds and skills can engage in. Not all of them work for all students all the time, but that is not the objective. The objective is to purposely build in a host of ‘angles’ for different students to approach the content. They should be able to gravitate towards some of these ‘angles’ and apply them to their lives and society. Along with developing various ‘angles’ of student engagement and application, the activities are meant to promote reflexivity by the students and teacher. Here I employ a critical and sociocultural definition of reflexivity where students not only learn theories, policies and practices, they also explicitly and implicitly practise being reflexive. This means looking at the relationships and inter-connectedness of phenomena in schools, society and their own lives, and the roles that individuals and larger structures play in creating and possibly changing these phenomena (Doherty, Dooley, & Woods, 2013). When students practise reflexivity, they sometimes become more aware of their agency as an educator, researcher, or person in general. In critical pedagogy, this is called the process of developing critical consciousness, or conscientization, where learners feel more self-empowered to take steps to alter and improve their lived realities (Goodwin, 2010). 12 In classroom and academic discourse, educators who advocate practices of reflexivity, classroom community, and a more humanising pedagogy are sometimes criticised as being ‘too soft’ or not preparing students for the ‘real world.’ Having taught and researched with students from marginalised backgrounds of all ages, I have not found this to be true. Actually students from less privileged backgrounds are rather common at EdUHK, and they are quite cognisant of life’s harsh realities. What the aforementioned practices can do is help students develop their own individualised foundation through which to tackle life’s realities and develop as intellectuals and educators. On that note of being ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ when teaching, although I promote a classroom culture of care and community, I will also occasionally do things like scold students, take away their phones, and assign D or F grades to students who repeatedly do not engage in activities/assignments, or do not attend class. From day one I tell the students that the course atmosphere will generally be relaxed and fun, but when there is work to do, I expect them to get it done. By the time the class has developed a more cohesive culture and community, if they need accommodations they are expected to speak up and articulate themselves. Across these various elements of teaching and learning to become an effective educator, students sometimes ask me for a list or something to help them remember the different terms and concepts. While I tell them that we should be wary of essentialising effective teaching and that there is no ‘magic bag of tricks’ that applies everywhere, I do share an informally devised acronym of core teaching competencies (“PEPPRR”) that helps them organise their thoughts: • Pedagogy (clear connections between curriculum, instruction, assessment, policy, culture, politics) • Engagement (active investment by students and teachers) • Praxis (theory ← reflection → practice) • People Skills (strong speaking, leadership, teamwork) • Reflexivity (consistent open-mindedness, critique, adjustment) • Resilience (on-going capacity to self-renew) While I remind students that there is no one checklist for good teaching, it appears that explicitly tying these concepts together over the semester supports their learning processes as they are able to critique and bounce ideas off the “PEPPRR” conceptualisation. Teaching outcomes and feedback So what have been the outcomes of sociocultural and critical pedagogies in the first 13 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research stage of our educational pipeline? Officially, evaluations from students and colleagues have been positive. In a previous section I mentioned distinctions awarded, which include “Outstanding Teaching Performance” in the Curriculum & Instruction (C&I) Department for the last two years, as well as “Top 10% Teaching” by the Faculty of Education & Human Development. These awards are generated at the department level, and then awarded within the faculty. Receiving these recognitions within C&I has been an honour as the Department has received the university’s highest mean on student evaluations. As a professor who is not fluent in Cantonese, there have been obstacles in communicating with students. I know there is much room for improvement, but to receive distinctions, particularly those generated by students, lets me know that at least some of what we have been doing is effective. Aside from official metrics, feedback from individual students has usually been positive. Godfrey (all students’ names are pseudonyms), is a locally-born third-year Liberal Studies major. He commented that despite his limited English, our course got him talking with other students, meeting new people from other majors, and applying critical concepts to his secondary school teaching practice. Several second-year Science & Web Technology students, Michael, Pius and Alex, wrote that the formative assessments pushed them to do readings that they normally would not do, and they found the content helpful for their teaching despite being in English and often having international contexts. Finally, Sara, a student from mainland China I taught as a second-year English major, wrote me two years later to tell me that our class was the most useful for her teaching career. While there have of course been issues within classes, and the pedagogy will need to be continually updated, receiving the above feedback has been encouraging when trying to teach content and use methods consistent with international standards. In the next section on our educational pipeline, we move from teaching to developing a team to conduct research. Stage 2: Assembling a diverse team Aside from teaching, professors are expected to do service and research aligned with internationalisation. Often times, university academics find themselves working in silos, isolated from even their department colleagues, as evaluations of their work tend to reward individual ‘performance.’ For example, collaborative publications with colleagues from the same institution are indirectly discouraged as each author has to split credit for the article, which effectively reduces each person’s funding and merits received. My personal approach to these policies has been to still engage in scholarly dialogue with EdUHK colleagues, but also foster collaborations with external academics. Another challenge has been finding research assistants (RAs) who are qualified, dependable, and willing to come out to our campus in the New Territories. As a junior scholar new to the SAR, I did not have many students or RAs seeking me out. In addition, being a scholar of critical theory and qualitative action research did not appeal as much to those who wanted to work within 14 dominant paradigms of positivist and quantitative methodology (Erickson & Gutiérrez, 2002). These difficulties pushed me to look towards EdUHK students I did have access to, and develop an educational pipeline with those that had taken courses with me. In other words, since I did not have sustainable connections to research staff, or even research sites, I invested my time in training students to help with projects and become potential collaborators as future teachers and researchers, all while I further studied and made connections to the local context. I began by contacting a few students that had received a Bs or As in the same class, but more importantly had asked questions and were open-minded to educational reform. I determined these factors by reviewing their work and my notes, and then contacted the students. I asked if they were interested in paid on-campus work, which would include teacher research projects and some administrative duties. I first recruited four students, two locally-raised ‘Hong Kongers’ of Chinese heritage, one from South Korea, and one from northern China. Some were from working-class families, others were from more upper-middle class backgrounds. I recruited this group because I wanted to allow for more diverse experiences and international considerations while researching Hong Kong, and because these students showed willingness to engage with different communities beyond typical ‘mainland,’ ‘Hong Konger,’ or ‘ethnic minority’ divisions. Informed by critical and sociocultural research on learning with and about diversity (e.g. language, class, nationality) beyond just tolerance, I believed that our members’ backgrounds could facilitate transformative insights for all involved (Chang & Lee, 2012). This included myself as a diasporic Chinese raised and educated in the US, with parents who were born in China but migrated through Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Vietnam. Before finalising the team, I asked each to submit a CV and come in for an individual interview. From the start I let the students know that their work was to be more than just clerical busywork or data entry. I informed them that the team would help holistically develop their skills as educators and researchers, that I would work with them to hone specific skills related to their aspirations, and that we would start with improving the CVs they had submitted. I also mentioned how the team would be an evolutionary next step of what we had developed in our class, moving beyond coursework to actual projects and programs on and off campus. After discussing logistics (e.g. office work for two hours each week, bi-monthly team meetings), I told them that they were on a trial run and if their participation was not consistently working out, I would have to let them go. After the interviews were conducted and the four signed on to the team, we began a series of introductory meetings devised to bring them up to speed with what I expected. As they had already gone through the same class, the team knew that the work culture would be more relaxed but a certain amount of focus, commitment, and sensitivity was required. We had about two readings to discuss in each initial meeting, which I allotted paid time for them to review in advance. These readings were a blend of classic international texts by scholar-practitioners that explored the use of critical and sociocultural pedagogies, as 15 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research well as papers written by scholars in Greater China that addressed local issues. As all of the members planned on becoming teachers, I made it a point to read studies about how action research can be utilised to improve teaching and address educational inequities (Chiang, 2004; Storms, 2015). After a few reading group meetings, I had the students do on-line searches for research on related topics and personal interest. As they were somewhat familiar with doing APA-style bibliographies from university courses, I had them download free versions of EndNote and they practiced compiling a few entries that were shared amongst the team on-line. At this point the team was capable of helping me with basic literature reviews and notes on references. At each meeting, an agenda was created with minutes taken by a different member each time. Taking minutes, writing bibliographies, and conducting literature reviews were activities I started the team on through a ‘workshop’ approach during each meeting. We did discuss the business items on our agenda, but I also trained them on effective ways of doing their tasks of scholarship and pedagogy. This approach provided a base of ‘hard’ skills for our research, but like my classroom teaching, I was also developing ‘soft’ skills. For example, crafting meeting agendas included scheduling and following-up on action items after the meeting, but there was also an opening ‘Check-In’ section where members briefly shared things they had been doing since the last meeting. When our schedules aligned, we would go to lunch or tea after meetings, and birthdays were celebrated through dinner off campus. These activities, like the ‘Check-In,’ were not academic in nature, but meant to build the team’s cohesion similar to the aforementioned practices of getting to know each other in courses I taught. Stage 3: Developing an action research project The first project we worked on was a qualitative action research study examining uses of pop culture and education. The project conducted surveys, semi-structured interviews, and a focus group with about 35 students, teachers, and artists based in Hong Kong. At this point we collectively came up with the name PCRP for our team, which stood for the “Pop Culture and education Research Project.” Funded by a small university grant, I deliberately progressed at a slower pace in conducting PCRP’s activities, taking the time to walk the team through steps such as piloting the survey and interview protocols with peers, and then having them accompany me for initial interviews. While I could have completed PCRP more quickly on my own, I viewed it as the next stage of our educational pipeline that was building the capacity of our team to collect and analyse data. Here a grounded theory approach to data collection and analysis worked well for the team (Charmaz, 2008; Morrell, 2006). The iterative and reflexive nature of grounded theory with critical action research encouraged us to consistently and purposefully communicate about our research questions, what we were noticing within data collection, and how we might modify the next stage of our project to more dynamically address our lines of inquiry. This ‘real-time’ process usually took place at our team meetings or in office hours where we worked the 16 data by hand. After the five of us had been working together for over six months, some personnel changes were on the horizon. Yuri, our Korean team member, needed to return to her home institution to graduate, and the other three members (Charlie, Monica, Claire) were going abroad on their summer language immersion programs. This forced me to step up further development of the pipeline by recruiting another two students. In order to bring the new members up to speed, the existing team needed to coordinate the documentation of our project, reflect on our processes up to that point, and make modifications: all while wrapping up the interviews and transitioning towards the final data collection stage. So we streamlined the readings and workshops on methods, organised meeting minutes and data matrices, and compiled “Top 5” lists on things to know about PCRP. By the time we conducted the focus group in May, we had two new members of the team, former students of mine from a different class than the first PCRP cohort. Chelsea was of Chinese background who was born in Hong Kong but went to school in Southeast Asia. Brenda was born and raised in Hong Kong while her family was originally from India. As we prepared for the summer, all team members had experience in applying qualitative methods to research focused on improving teaching. Aside from our next steps in the educational pipeline, this training prepared the students for their university honours projects. Stage 4: Building connections and collaborations PCRP and the educational pipeline have emphasised theory/reflection/practice, or praxis, throughout its progression. In Stages 1 to 3, we learned key steps of social science research methodology and applied them in a research project. We also studied effective teaching in sociocultural and critical theory, and examined those effective practices with students/teachers in the field. Another important stage of praxis in the pipeline was connecting our work to the world beyond our team, projects, and campus. Key activities at this stage included coordinating events to share PCRP’s work and collaborating with scholars (local and abroad). These activities helped the team to broaden their skill sets as they learned to plan and implement engaging events connected to our themes of pop culture, teaching, and educational equity. They also worked on these events with various scholars and their students/staff, which generated valuable experiences in bringing different people together under common goals. This also helped team members to network and build a more nuanced understanding of research in Hong Kong and abroad. Finally, they added to their skill sets by presenting and teaching about our research to their peers, the university community, and off-campus stakeholders like teachers and principals. Our first effort was the “Critical Issues in Education Seminar Series” (CIES1) with Peter McLaren (Chapman University, USA). For CIES1, team members coordinated a social justice roundtable event with Peter and Margaret Lo (Hong Kong University), as 17 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research well as an individual seminar by Peter. As this took place during the summer with less people on campus, the team had more opportunities to deliberate and arrange coordination. For CIES1, Yuri flew back from South Korea to help Chelsea and Brenda while the others were on immersion. For CIES2 the following semester, the program coordination was more complicated as we had two scholars visiting, Liang Du (Beijing Normal University) and Wayne Au (University of Washington, USA), and we coordinated two individual seminars, two school visits with teachers, and a roundtable with Angel Lin (University of Hong Kong). While team members were busier with CIES2 taking place during the semester, all but one were present so it enabled greater collaboration and communal support. This also allowed the team to run a workshop that shared PCRP’s findings via activities about effective teaching and educational reform. Throughout these events, EdUHK colleagues were supportive and PCRP members were able to make connections with them and their work. Altogether, the team’s praxis was strengthened at this pipeline stage by going beyond readings and individual research, to fostering connections and collaborations with educators doing related critical and sociocultural work. At this stage the benefits of the pipeline progressed in multiple directions as it merged with the activities and programs of other scholars, faculties, and institutions, including international work. Towards future praxis and sustainability At the time this article was written, the team was preparing for CIES3 and was accepted to do a group presentation at an academic conference with other Hong Kong teacher educators. PCRP also shifted its efforts to new projects addressing high-stakes exams and parent resistance, Filipino/a secondary teachers, and pre-service teachers and interculturality. With these shifts we refashioned our name to the “Project for Critical Research, Pedagogy & Praxis.” During this period, I asked the six members to reflect on their experiences. At the time Brenda and Chelsea were year-three students, working as tutors and applying their PCRP training to their B.Ed. courses. Monica, Charlie, and Claire were beginning their senior thesis projects and classroom field experiences, and were thus utilising their PCRP experiences. Yuri had become an English teacher but was also planning to eventually apply for Master’s programs. To maintain her research skills, she applied to a Korean national conference on multicultural education, and was accepted to present on a comparative project she had done in Hong Kong. All members seemed to make positive connections between their lives and PCRP, but I did ask them to further critique their process with PCRP and the educational pipeline. Coming from Southeast Asia, Chelsea said she benefited from learning more about Hong Kong’s system in comparison with other countries through literature review and engaging with international scholars. In her everyday studies she built up the confidence to persistently tackle difficult readings in her coursework, given her experiences with PCRP’s more rigorous scholarship. Brenda indexed her development of reflexivity, stating 18 that she was able to, “reflect on my own experiences and think deeply about the issues that affected me as a student.” She also wrote about how she had improved her ability to work with people from diverse backgrounds, and her mindset concerning what a teacher can actually do. From the first cohort, Claire talked about how PCRP presented her with analytical tools to look at problems in more dynamic ways. She stated, “I discuss more complicated issues and concepts with others now…I’m more able to react to different issues. I sometimes think of solutions to social problems that seem feasible.” For Charlie, he saw the benefits of using international perspectives for research. As a primary teacher, he stated that his pedagogy would be able to mediate between traditional direct instruction and critical dialogue. Coming from mainland China with the least English experience, Monica did not have the most confidence in her communication and also noted I could be strict at times with deadlines and sensitivity to issues. However, she appraised her skill set as having improved in not only speaking, but also academic readings, research skills, and critical consciousness. Monica, Charlie, and Yuri reported that our educational pipeline served as an equitable space to think and work on ideas to improve their own everyday agency. Finally Yuri shared, “It always felt like I was having private tutoring when we talked about concepts during the PCRP meeting and further readings…what I learned in HK during 1 year was so much more than I learned for 3 years before.” She also wrote, “All of the inspiring researchers I’ve met were actual teachers who worked in classrooms before they got into research. By witnessing their authentic work, it made me desire to have the same experience.” Aside from the individual feedback above, all members expressed the goal of at least earning a Master’s degree that would include further research. Between their studies, jobs, and future aspirations, PCRP and the educational pipeline appeared to provide experiences that would help sustain their development. In looking back to the past 2.5 years of the PCRP team, there were some challenges in terms of communication and task delegation. We were often pressed for time and had to multi-task, and we had to be supportive when we were under stress or made mistakes. Occasionally the newer members were confused when they first joined, although the other members helped bring them up to speed. At times I questioned my ability to guide the team along various paths of pedagogy and methodology, and see the projects to fruition in an environment that is not always friendly to critical theory and action research. The classroom sections of our educational pipeline also had their share of difficulties when students were confused, lacked confidence, or did not see the relevance of personal and societal issues to Hong Kong education. In such times I had to revisit some of the great mentorship I had in the past as a student, teacher, and researcher, and how strategies of dialogue, problem-posing, reflexivity, and community-building were key. Overall, whether it was previous mentors or theories, being mindful of our foundations of care, humanisation, equity, and social justice was helpful as we travelled 19 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research new and divergent paths with PCRP and its embedded educational pipeline. It took more initial planning to get going in my courses, but eventually it saved time as the courses were cohesive and students got much more out of meeting ‘internationalisation’ standards. The end result of these pedagogies was a more rewarding experience for teacher and student, and they allowed me to establish the pipeline that would cultivate subsequent opportunities for all of us to more authentically and sustainably learn, teach, and research at ‘appropriate’ levels of internationalisation. Instead of duplicating a stereotypical teacher-centred pedagogy in the daily pursuit of ‘international’ curriculum, a sociocultural and critical pedagogy helped me, not just the students, grow in the classroom beyond well-meaning but often stifling benchmarks. While internationalisation standards and policies will continue to shift in Hong Kong, and contexts of students and communities will change, the aforementioned experiences and feedback gathered with students have provided some solid and flexible strategies to move forward in our capacities of teaching, service, and scholarship in higher education. References Adamson, B., & Morris, P. (2010). Curriculum, schooling and society in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University. Anderson, L., & Stillman, J. (2013). Making learning the object: using cultural historical activity theory to analyze and organize student teaching in urban high-needs schools. Teachers College Record, 115(3), 1-36. Apple, M. W. (2004). Ideology and curriculum (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge Falmer. Asher, N. (2007). Made in the (multicultural) U.S.A.: Unpacking tensions of race, culture, gender, and sexuality in education. Educational Researcher, 36(2), 65-73. Bartólome, L. (1994). Beyond the methods fetish: toward a humanizing pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, 64(2), 173-194. Chan, C., & Lo, M. (2016). Exploring inclusive pedagogical practices in Hong Kong primary EFL classrooms. International Journal of , 21(7), 714-729. Chan, C. K. Y., & Luk, L. Y. Y. (2013). Faculty perspectives on the \"3+3+4\" curriculum reform in Hong Kong. International Education Studies, 6(4), 56-66. Chang, B. (2013). Voice of the voiceless? Multiethnic student voices in critical approaches to race, pedagogy, literacy and agency. Linguistics and Education, 24(3), 348–360. 20 Chang, B. (2015). In the service of self-determination: Teacher education, service-learning, and community reorganizing. Theory Into Practice, 54(1), 29-38. Chang, B. (2017). Issues of educational equity, curriculum, and pedagogy in Hong Kong. In K. J. Kennedy & J. C.-K. Lee (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on schools and schooling in Asia (pp. xx-xx). London: Routledge. Chang, B., & Lee, J. H. (2012). \"Community-based?\" Asian American students, parents, and teachers in the shifting Chinatowns of New York and Los Angeles. Asian American & Pacific Islander Nexus Policy Journal, 10(2), 99-117. Charmaz, K. (2008). Grounded theory as an emergent method. In S. N. Hesse-Biber & P. Leavy (Eds.), Handbook of emergent methods (pp. 155-175). New York: Guilford. Chiang, O. K. (2004). Report on the action research project on English dictation in a local primary school. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 2(1), 1-21. Chiu, M. M., & Walker, A. (2007). Leadership for social justice in Hong Kong schools: Addressing mechanisms of inequality. Journal of Educational Administration, 45(6), 724-739. Clark, R., & Gieve, S. N. (2006). On the discursive construction of ‘The Chinese Learner’. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 19(1), 54-73. Cole, M. (1996). Can cultural psychology help us think about diversity? Mind, Culture and Activity, 5(4), 291-304. Doherty, C., Dooley, K., & Woods, A. (2013). Teaching sociology within teacher education: Revisiting, realigning and re-embedding. Journal of Sociology, 49(4), 515-530. Duncan-Andrade, J. M. R. (2009). Note to educators: hope required when growing roses in concrete. Harvard Educational Review, 79(2), 181-194. Erickson, F., & Gutiérrez, K. D. (2002). Culture, rigor, and science in educational research. Educational Researcher, 31(8), 21-24. Flowerdew, L. (2005). Integrating traditional and critical approaches to syllabus design: the ‘what’, the ‘how’ and the ‘why?’. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(2), 135-147. Gan, Z., & Lee, F. K. J. (2015). Understanding ESL student teachers’ learning of classroom practices in the practicum: a case study in Hong Kong. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 25(2), 251-266. González, N., & Moll, L. (2002). Cruzando el puente: building bridges to funds of knowledge. Educational Policy, 16(4), 623-641. Goodwin, A. L. (2010). Curriculum as colonizer: (Asian) American education in the current U.S. context. Teachers College Record, 112(12), 3102-3138. 21 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research Grande, S. (2003). Whitestream feminism and the colonialist project: A review of contemporary feminist pedagogy and praxis. Educational Theory, 53(3), 329-346. Gupta, S. D., Fornari, A., Geer, K., Hahn, L., Kumar, V., Lee, H., et al. (2006). Medical education for social justice: Paulo Freire revisited. Journal of Medical Humanities, 27(4), 245-251. Howard, T. C. (2002). Hearing footsteps in the dark: African American students’ descriptions of effective teachers. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 7(4), 425-444. Hui, P.-K., & Chan, S. C. (2006). Contextual utility and practicality: Cultural research for the school community in Hong Kong. Cultural Studies Review, 12(2), 165. Jocson, K. M. (2006). \"Bob Dylan and hip hop\": intersecting literacy practices in youth poetry communities. Written Communication, 23(3), 231-259. Kubota, R., & Miller, E. R. (2017). Re-examining and re-envisioning criticality in language studies: theories and praxis. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 1-29. Law, E. H.-f. (2003). In search of a quality curriculum in Hong Kong. In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), International handbook of curriculum research (pp. 271-284). London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Law, W.-W. (1997). The accommodation and resistance to the decolonisation, neocolonisation and recolonisation of higher education in Hong Kong. Comparative Education, 33(2), 187-210. Lee, C. D. (2002). Interrogating race and ethnicity as constructs in the examination of cultural processes in developmental research. Human Development, 45, 282-290. Lee, M. H. (2014). Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 13, 15-34. Leonardo, Z. (2004). Critical social theory and transformative knowledge: The functions of criticism in quality education. Educational Researcher, 33(6), 11-18. Leung, L. S. (2014). A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools. Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre Journal, 13(1), 97-123. Lin, A. M. Y. (2004). Introducing a critical pedagogical curriculum: A feminist reflexive account. In B. Norton & K. Toohey (Eds.), Critical pedagogies and language learning (pp. 271-290). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University. Luke, A. (2010). Documenting reproduction and inequality: Revisiting Jean Anyon's “Social class and school knowledge”. Curriculum Inquiry, 40(1), 167-182. Martin, G. (2017). Scaling critical pedagogy in higher education. Critical Studies in Education, 58(1), 1-18. 22 Mason, M. (2000). Teachers as critical mediators of knowledge. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 34(2), 343-342. McLaren, P., & Houston, D. (2004). Revolutionary ecologies: ecosocialism and critical pedagogy. Educational Studies, 36(1), 27-45. Mok, K. H. (2007). Questing for internationalization of universities in Asia: critical reflections. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3-4), 433-454. Morrell, E. (2006). Critical participatory action research and the literacy achievement of ethnic minority groups. National Reading Conference Yearbook, 55, 1-18. Nasir, N. i. S., & Hand, V. M. (2006). Exploring sociocultural perspectives on race, culture, and learning. Review of Educational Research, 76(4), 449-475. Pacheco, M. (2012). Learning In/Through Everyday Resistance. Educational Researcher, 41(4), 121-132. Pérez-Milans, M., & Soto, C. (2014). Everyday practices, everyday pedagogies: A dialogue on critical transformations in a multilingual Hong Kong school. In J. S. Byrd Clark & F. Dervin (Eds.), Reflexivity in language and intercultural education rethinking multilingualism and interculturality (pp. 213-233). London: Routledge. Petersen, C. J., & Currie, J. (2008). Higher education restructuring and academic freedom in Hong Kong. Policy Futures in Education, 6(5), 589-600. Poon-McBrayer, K. F. (2004). Equity, elitism, marketisation: in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 24(2), 157-172. Postiglione, G. A. (2011). The rise of research universities: The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. In P. Altbach & J. Salmi (Eds.), The Road to Academic Excellence (pp. 63- 100). Washington D.C.: World Bank Publications. Solorzano, D., & Yosso, T. (2000). Toward a critical race theory of Chicana and Chicano education. In C. Tejeda, C. Martinez, Z. Leonardo & P. McLaren (Eds.), Chartering New Terrains of Chicana(o)/Latina(o) Education (pp. 35-65). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton. Storms, S. B. (2015). Social justice in practice? Exploring teacher candidates’ commitment toward change agency through action research. Action in Teacher Education, 37(2), 156-171. Tan, L. (2009). The 5 E's of emancipatory pedagogy: The rehumanizing approach to teaching and learning with inner city youth. In W. Ayers, T. Quinn & D. Stovall (Eds.), Handbook of social justice in education (Vol. 485-495). New York: Routledge. Tong, S. Y. A. (2010). Lessons learned? School leadership and curriculum reform in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(2), 231-242. 23 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard. Wan, E. (2005). Teacher empowerment: concepts, strategies, and implications for schools in Hong Kong. Teachers College Record, 107(4), 842-861. Wong, A. L.-S. (2007). Cross-cultural delivery of e-learning programmes: Perspectives from Hong Kong. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 8(3), 1-16. Woo, D. (2013). Neoliberalism in two Hong Kong school categories. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 16(1), 37-48. Yeung, S. S. Y. (2012). Curriculum policy and priorities in an era of change. In S. S. Y. Yeung, J. T. S. Lam, A. W. L. Leung & Y. C. Lo (Eds.), Curriculum change and innovation (pp. 59-91). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University. 24 25 Building a higher education pipeline: sociocultural and critical approaches to ‘internationalisation’ in teaching and research 建立高等教育的管道：以社會文化及批判性方法促「國際化」教學和研究張尊理教育及人類發展學院、香港教育大學摘要本文探討於中華人民共和國香港特別行政區內，以社會文化及批判性方法促使國際化高等教育。本文研究在制定具吸引力和嚴謹性的高等院校教育方案，藉批判教育學（critical pedagogy）和社會文化學習理論的整合，從而指引院校達成短期和長期的國際化教育標準。本文基於一個為培養來自不同背景本科生成為具影響力的教師和研究員的計劃。計劃重點包括讓相關本科生在日常生活和工作上重視及應對的社會公義議題。本文藉教育管道為方針，探討持續地將高等教育「國際化」。所謂的教育管道，由本科生作開端，向教學、研究生及研究等領域邁進。其基於教育法和方法論基礎之上，有助於建立教育公平和更人性化的教育。關鍵詞高等教育，課程，教師教育，反思理論，香港 27 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化孫天倫香港樹仁大學摘要教育乃一種包含使命感的文化傳承過程，是人類文明進步不可或缺的重要部分。中國文化源遠流長，孕育了中國人獨有而且優秀的教育理念和學習文化。近年各地積極探討高等教育國際化，為此，本文嘗試從中國人的學習文化和心理關聯探討香港高等教育國際化。關鍵詞香港高等教育，教育國際化，中國人學習，學習心理序言近年各地積極探討高等教育國際化，研究各種有效的發展策略，務求令高等教育界達致卓越，以提高整體的國際競爭力。從經濟角度看，將教育當成一種可銷售的服務行業似乎是理所當然。但作為一位心理和教育工作者，我會視教育為一種包含使命感的文化傳承過程，是人類文明進步不可或缺的重要部分，是永久延續人類文明和創造福祉的基石。因此，我嘗試從中國人的學習文化和心理關聯探討香港高等教育國際化。 28 中國人的教與育中國人的教育包含了兩個層次。許慎在《說文解字》謂：「教，上所施下所效也；育，養子使作善也。」亙古至今以儒家之道德倫理作為社會制度骨幹的中國人社會裡，「教」是從上而下的灌輸，簡單來說就是輩份高的人怎麼做，輩份低的人就跟著幹。「教」是第一層次，人們通過施教和仿效將知識技巧、思想理念、規矩習慣世世代代傳承下去。「育」比「教」的層次更深。「育」是培養後代令他們達到至善境界。儘管這種個人完美的境界遙不可及，家長和老師仍然有責任鞭策子女和學生成才，使他們擁有完美德性。「教」傳播了人類的知識和文化，「育」則令人領悟人性，縱然在千變萬化的環境中都能時刻保存人類的真善美。早於春秋時代（前 711 – 476），秦朝最先定下「士農工商」的概念，將社會階級劃分，並以「士」（學者）為首。士子被視為社會上擁有豐富道德知識的人，受教育的程度最高。這種根據道德教育程度分成等級的社會制度，深深影響了中國人的自我觀、學習觀念和動機——只有受到良好教育的士子能夠並且必需擔當社會的重要角色。從漢代起（約公元前 206至公元 200）至接近清代末年（1905），中國一直沿用舉薦制度來選拔官吏。隋代所創立的科舉更主導了中國近千多年的選秀模式。科舉建立在「為才是舉」的概念上，以智慧、資歷和品格作為選秀標準，提拔優秀的民間人才，並消除了先秦分封世襲的門閥限制。人民可以自由報考統一的公開考試，從此教育便成為了人民向上層社會流動的階梯，並為中國社會以考試主導的學習模式奠定了基礎。家庭與教育一、家長教養心態長久以來，中國的家長是十分重視子女的教育。一方面教育子女是父母的天職，所謂「養不教，父之過」。教育是為了向子女傳承家族和社會正確的價值觀，確保他們不會做出「愧對祖宗，枉為人」的事。養而不教就是父母的過失，有損父母應當的理想形象；另一方面父母打從心底是很希望子女能夠求學成才。中國名言：「萬般皆下品，唯有讀書高」恰好反映中國人相信良好教育固有之價值，並且對學習和學術成就的重視。若果子女金榜高中，必能為子女本身、為父母、為整個家族帶來 29 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化榮譽和可以預期的幸福將來。所以，管教子女是父母應盡的教育義務，也是提高家族社會地位的途徑。中國的家長在子女學習上擔當很重要的角色，既是道德模範，亦是權威的學習督導員。所以，中國父母認為自己是為孩子訂下和執行操守準則的權威，這乃是父母社會化的專責，為促成子女的成就要高度投入，愛護和關注。尤其是母親，既要慈祥（仁慈、富同情心和和藹），也要嚴格（嚴肅、嚴厲和管教有序）。只是慈祥並不足夠，並會被責為「慈母多敗兒」（仁慈的母親多教養了沒出色的孩兒）。所以 Chao, Dong和Zhou（1997）認為中國父母有相當高的教養觀念。Chao（1994）將「教訓」（去教和訓練）加進中國父母的管教模式，「教訓」是父母透過監管、經常提點和示範來協助子女積極適應合群和道德生活。這種管教模式與 Baumrind（1967 & 1971）形容的嚴愛型（authoritative）父母較為接近。嚴愛型父母對孩子多要求，多關愛，亦較關注孩子的需要和能力。他們傾向對孩子有合理和合適的期望，經常以溫情、關愛、誘導和鼓勵方法管教孩子，這與孩子建立信心和積極生活取向而所產生的強烈上進心和優秀學業表現有正面關聯。二、子女學習動機作為子女，從小就在父母的潛移默化中，認定學習和獲取學術成就是回饋父母的一種直接方法，是一種「孝」的表現。事實上，中國的孩子很明白父母對他們學業的極高期望。清朝康熙年間著名教育家李毓秀所著的《弟子規》，內容採用了《論語》「學而篇」裡的文義，列述了學童們在生活、待人處事和學習方面的規範。其開首為：「弟子規，聖人訓。首孝悌，次謹信。」從先秦至清代二千五百年間，「百行以孝為先」的概念植根在中國人的思想中。「孝」在中國社會是基本也是崇高的道德觀念，是中國人建構其個人、家庭和社會價值觀的基石。另外，學習，除了是回饋父母的養育之恩，也是爭取個人成功和家族榮耀的一種手段。因為只有通過學習和考取功名，出生下等階層的平民才能有機會突圍而出，脫離卑賤和貧窮的生活。中國人的學習行為與心理關聯人通過各種感官接觸外間事物，透過大腦的思考，伴隨情感的體驗，以行為反映對事物的認知和感覺。根據行為心理學家的觀點，人在受到外在環境刺激時會作 30 出相對的行為反應，過程中所產生的信息，包括影像、聲音、感覺等都會被記下來。當過程不斷重複，人逐漸了解環境刺激與行為的關係，每次汲取的信息都會累積成「學習經驗」。這種經驗就是人藉著學習從而影響行為的心理基礎。從心理角度看，人是因為需求而學習，Maslow（1943）為人類的需要分了層次，最基本的是基本生理和安全需要，然後有愛的需要、受尊重的需要，還有自我成就和超越靈性的需要。所以人類的學習不僅是為了生存，還要滿足精神層面的需要。此外，人類是群居動物，學習亦不單是個人行為、還是集體行為，人是會為群體社會的福祉而學習。中國人認為學習是：學屬知，習屬行。學是指知識和經驗的累積，習是指知識和經驗的實踐。學習的最高境界乃是「知行合一，達到至善」。在這裡，「知行合一」的知，並非表面所謂的知識，實質是良知的意思。雖然孔子也強調「格物致知」（即探究事物原理，而從中獲得智慧），可是良知的學習往往凌駕於事物原理的學習之上，中國人的核心學習乃道德規範而非生活知識。一、學習心態長年累月受到儒家思想文化的洗禮，以及傳統社會意識（特別是階級制度）的薰陶，中國人「自抹消我」的一種尊重和謙卑的觀念很重（Li, 2003; Sun, 2012）。君子要抱有虛心的學習態度，才能達到道德的至善境界。上文提到「教，上所施下所效也」，這是單向的灌輸，並不存在互動的作用。中國人對權威抱有盲目而不加批判的絕對尊重，並將這種尊卑的心態伸延到課堂學習中，這大概是受孔子重道德，講孝道的思想影響。中國俗語有云：「一日為師，終身為父」，老師既是知識技術的專家，是道德行為的楷模，也是地位與父輩相當的一個權威人物，所以一般中國人普遍認為批評和挑戰老師是不尊敬的，而且學生多願意接受老師對他們嚴苛和責罰（Woodrow & Sham, 2001）。學習時心要謙卑，行要謹慎。中國人著重規則和操守，默默在旁觀察學習是中國社會一種待人處事的規矩，亦是成熟和明白事理的表現。故此，中國人的課堂，一般都被認為是單向，被動。學生會避免於課堂上提出批評的問題，也甚少主動回答問題。一來是要尊師重道，不能令老師蒙羞，二來是怕問錯和答錯而丟臉（Sun, 2012）。臉在中國社會是社羣對一個人品質的信任。若一個人做了丟臉的事，就是做了這個社羣不容許和不被接納的行為。這表明了此人修養不足，亦很自然歸咎於 31 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化父母的疏忽管教。丟臉的人的社會地位很低，甚至備受鄙視。於是學生上課的態度都較為約束和內斂，避免破壞課堂上的和諧氣氛。中國人的學習講求「聽話」，並不鼓勵自我表達和言語溝通。這種心態是結合了中國文化和社會學習心理而建構。 Bandura（1977）所提出的社會學習論，認為學習是社會環境、個人對環境的認知和個人行為三種因素持續交互作用的歷程。通過觀察和模仿，人學習如何為家庭及社會所接受，是種社會性的學習。人從行為後果帶來的懲罰或獎賞而正面或負面強化行為表現。這正正是剛才提到「臉」（面子）的功能。二、務實保守主義由於考試制度給予人民向上流動的機會，滿足人民求勝的心理需要，受中國奉行的考試文化所影響，中國人傾向背誦、規劃和有序的重複，亦偏愛緩慢、循序漸進而準確的方法，喜歡詳盡的大綱和列點而不喜歡假設和推敲（Sun, 2012）。學習是一件非常嚴肅的事，關乎個人與家族榮辱，所以必須務實、保守、有效和實際。雖然這種務實思想的確是達到獲取和保留知識的學習目標，但就被質疑窒礙了中國學習者的反省認知能力，包括：獨立批判思考、自省、建立理性思考和證據為本的連貫論點、應用知識解決困難和將學術的學習聯繫到每天的生活（Ho, Peng, & Chan, 2001; Sun, 2012）。在集體文化的影響下，人們甚少在穩定和安逸中追求適應性的衝擊，更不會在集體以外尋求創新的轉變（Kim, 2009）。中國學生亦普遍以將來的職業取向來選科。他們相信學業成就可以帶來一份好工作，可以實踐個人志向和家族期望，可以嬴取聲譽和顏面。三、焦慮和抑鬱 Yee（1989）曾經就中國學生的焦慮問題進行跨國研究。研究發現超過一半在海外留學的中國學生出現嚴重焦慮。他們的焦慮成因來自四個方面：學業成績壓力、沉重的功課量、不適應英語學習和缺乏社交關聯。而香港和台灣地區的學生亦相較美國的學生存在更高的焦慮感。中國人因學習問題而導致焦慮和抑鬱實在是相當普遍。中國社會亦甚為輕視心理和情緒問題，原因有二：第一，集體文化下，個人福祉經常被蔑視；第二，表達負面情感會破壞社會和諧，並不容許（Sun, 2012）。中國教育制度以通過考試競爭為主，而且一個人的教育往往包含了很多人（包括學生、父母、老師、家族等）的努力與犧牲，學生自然承擔著很多人的責任和期望。學習 32 就是責任，本身已是一項艱鉅的任務，並不輕鬆。在熾熱的考試文化下，學習就是考試，那麼考試分數就是量度學生有否履行責任的一把尺。這個把學習、考試與責任並提而引起恐懼的心理關連，是種制約心理反應（Conditioning response）。學生一想起考試，就會害怕失敗，亦會為失敗而感到內疚。失敗的學生很可能受到父母和老師的責備或同儕的漠視，感到巨大壓力和自尊受損。學生會容易表現較負面的身心行為以逃避學習和考試，輕度的困擾包括失眠、食慾不振、社交障礙、自卑等。嚴重的情況會令學生失去希望和變得憤世嫉俗（Smith, 1997）。因學業問題導致的自殺個案在中國社會亦屢見不鮮。香港學生學習現況一、中小學階段儘管香港是個中西文化薈萃的國際大都會，香港人種種的心理和行為，無不有著中華民族文化的「烙印」。香港學生與家長在學習上的心理表現都反映了中國人的傳統特質，例如內斂、嚴肅。而在學習行為上一般都趨向保守、被動。在探討香港高等教育前，我先從香港中小學生的課堂行為透視他們普遍的學習心理。中小學課堂特別注重秩序和守規矩。學生井言有序地，坐在已被安排的坐位上，老師進入課室後同學們站立鞠躬，坐下後安靜上課。課程安排亦非常緊湊，整個學年都充斥著評估和考試，學習的內容是主要圍繞考試為主。課外補習風氣盛行，一個 2011/12 年度的調查以問卷訪問 16間中學共 1,720名學生，發現 54%中三學生有補習，就讀中六的文憑試考生，比例更高達 72%（Bray & Kwo, 2014）。促成補習風氣的主因，是一般家長和學生都認為補習有助考上著名中學，再攀上重點大學，這種可帶來巨大回報的投資是值得。雖然許多父母都不曾讀過關於教育投資回報率的實證研究（Kara, 2010），但會有「長期接受優質教育的人就會有越高的收入和生活水平」的強烈印象。家長和老師總是擔心在學校表現不好及學習成績差的學生，怕他們將來升學和就業的路崎嶇難行（Bray & Lykins, 2012）。因此出現很多所謂的「直昇機父母」、「怪獸家長」，他們過度溺愛和保護子女，事事代勞，使子女養成依賴性格，失去自主學習的動力。香港教育學院（現為香港教育大學）於 2014 年曾探討香港華人學生的學習動機。調查表明了約 20%中學生用功讀書是為了報答父母，近 7%欲貢獻社會，約 40%希望能找到人工高職位好的工作，以照顧父母。 33 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化這些行為現象，正正反映香港學生循規蹈矩、力求上進，其動機與中華文化有深切關係。二、大學階段香港奉行精英教育主義，校內和中學公開考試成績好，獲大學取錄的機會自然高，在科目上的選擇亦多。可惜，大部分學生都會先看學校排名、校園設施、就業前景等外在因素，而甚少從自己的興趣和能力等內在因素去考慮選讀哪間學校和科目。現時香港的大學科目，以醫科、法律、工商管理最難考入，成為尖子所謂的「神科」。據香港大學和香港中文大學之收生公佈結果，2017年文憑試六名考獲最高成績的「狀元」，全數入讀了兩院校的醫科課程。這種爭讀某些專業科目的現象一直相當普遍。本地報章《香港 01》曾統計，由 2011/12至 2015/16年的 42名狀元中，約 55%讀醫、約 24%讀法律。事實上純理科和純文科一向不是學生的首選，近日亦有大學因報讀人數少而取消數理主修科的問題惹起爭議（林炳坤、鄧穎琳， 2017）。這些情況反映了學生的學習取向側重專業和實用性，院校亦會因資源問題在平衡學術和經營上需要作出取捨或妥協。在這種氛圍下，學生被社會規則所限的保守心態驅使下，的確忽略了自身真正的興趣和學習需要。傳統學習心態對高等教育國際化進程的影響大學教育資助委員會（教資會）在其 2010年的（展望香港高等教育體系報告）內提到香港「需要一個多元化、資源充足和富創意的專上教育界」。委員會亦闡述高等教育的功能是：傳授技能、培養創意及推動創新；令大學生放眼世界，並建立正確道德觀和行為守則。而大學生的學習經歷，應着重鞏固個人及社會責任感。香港政府自九七回歸前後已積極推行香港國際教育的改革，尤其推進香港高等教育國際化。各所高等院校紛紛投放龐大資源發展科研、推動國際學術交流、聘請海外著名學者、錄取國內外優秀學生、引入高端學習科技、增加課程國際元素等，務求提升國際排名，積極與外界建立關係，加強及維持院校的全球競爭力。雖然政府強調推動院校國際化並不表示院校會忽略傳統價值觀念和本地需要，但從上述現今的香港學生學習現況，似乎實際與理想還是有段距離。 34 一、側重工作前景，忽略興趣培養學生選擇修讀有前途的學科本不是壞事，但只懷著畢業後找到好工作的心態而沒有評估自身對學科的興趣和性向，這個情況並不利創意和創新的推動。從教資會網站供搜尋的資料顯示，2015/16年八大共有 1,178名大學生終止學業，比較 2009/10年增了多達 76%。雖然退學人數急升的主要原因有待進一步研究，但從上述學生普遍選科的心態來看，相信是興趣與學科錯配，導致學生失去繼續學習的動力，繼而影響學習表現和成績。若果成績差又未能轉科，學生往往要退學另覓出路。就算學生選擇堅持完成課程，整個學習過程可能充滿困難和焦慮，降低學習的自我效能和信心。事實上，興趣是自主學習及創新研究的先決條件，好奇心是持久學習的動機。單靠加強國際化的大學教育資源根本解決不了學生缺乏動力去提升學習的問題，而且在大學才處理問題亦已經太遲。此外，上述提到學生的學習取向實際，所以一些較受歡迎的學科都是技術科目而非學術科目，技術科目所包含的研究部分在一般學士程度的課程也較少，這無疑是窒礙發展本地學生對學術繼續研究的興趣。據教育局於 2014年的資料，在受資助的八大院校就讀碩士及博士課程的 2,000 多名學生中，佔近七成是內地學生，共 1,600多人，人數比本港學生多兩倍（香港特別行政區政府新聞公佈，2014）。雖然高等教育國際化理應吸納不同地方的優秀人才，但這個數據確實反映了廿年來高教界所致力推動的國際化未有好好培養本地學生對學科研究的興趣，這是整個界別需要重新審視的地方。二、自我要求過高，增加學習壓力香港中文大學新聞與傳播學系於 2016年曾進行一項大學生普遍的學業壓力來源和壓力指數調查，結果顯示，九成二（332人）大學生承認對學業感到壓力，以 10分為滿分，當中近六成評價學業壓力指數為 7或 8分，平均分為 6.86分（大學線， 2016）。由於配合教育國際化、加上近年大專院校提倡全人教育，故為學生提供許多課外的社會體驗活動、學術交流的機會。學生近乎疲於奔命地申請不同獎學金、參加各項學生活動，但同時也要兼顧學業成績。大學比中學的評核方法複雜，功課量也相當繁重，例如做課堂匯報、寫論文報告、測驗考試，令學生吃不消。相比中學井然有序的學習生活，對於自主性高而且繁忙的大學生活，學生要有更佳的時間管理和處理壓力的方法。可惜很多學生都未能好好掌管時間的運用，有時會因為課 35 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化外活動太忙而蹺課，因而影響學業成績，造成更多壓力。大學生的情緒問題日益嚴重，自殺個案增加，反映學生面對大學「放眼世界、擴闊視野」的學習生活甚為不知所措。香港高等教育國際化的出路隨著社會發展，現代學習環境比古代優越很多。古人攀山涉水才可以上學，現代人按一下鍵盤就能知天下事。古今的學習內容和方式也很不同，古人所學的禮、樂、射、御、書、數也未必符合現代性。那麼為何還要從先秦時代談起中國人的教育呢？這是因為社會文化、思想、理念的發展是源遠流長，中國人的學習心理早由二千年前諸子百家學術思想大開放的時期即已孕育萌芽，縱然廿一世紀在香港這個中西文化交匯的地方學習，只要是在中國人的家庭中長大，那種保守、被動、實際的學習心理依然存在。中國父母重視子女學業的教養心態、子女回饋父母的務實學習動機、以考試作為選拔人才的客觀標準，在中國社會都是很合理不過的概念。我們並不要推翻中國人的教育文化以西方那套哲學理念取而代之，因為每種社會文化都是值得尊重，但對於歪曲了的教養心態和學習風氣必須加以修正，才能讓我們的教育邁向真正的發展。香港高等教育國際化不能空談內容、形式和方法，而是需要適合本土價值觀和心理需要。若沒有解決本地學生根本的學習問題，香港再有更高的國際排名也是枉然。從現代教育角度看，大學是培育具世界觀的未來領袖之搖籃。而整個高等教育界所推動之學生為本、全人教育、多元發展、終身學習，都是實現這個目標的基本教育方向。政府需要在基礎教育開始全人和多元思維訓練。若要推動創新和科研的發展，可從跨學科的知識訓練做起。跨學科訓練令學生甚至老師涉獵不同範疇的科目，從而促進科目之間的聯想，激發新的思維和興趣，並大大擴闊學習和研究的國際視野。跨學科訓練不限於純理論的科學研究，還可以是人文和社會科學的應用研究，實證研究等。作為一個多元化的經濟體系，所有行業和科目都是各具社會和經濟功能。但在精英教育主義和考試文化下，某些專業和行業被受吹捧。香港若要有全面的發展與世界接軌，則要提升其他被忽略行業和科目的地位。事實上，政府已重新推廣應用 36 技能（例如建造業、服務業等）職業的重要性。另外，對一些文化保存和人文發展的科目，政府和高等教育界都需要給予多點支持和肯定。當香港社會認同不同科目和行業的貢獻，學生自然在大學有更多的學科選擇，從而有更強的學習動力與滿足感，減少「為過關而考試，為考試而學習」的那份壓力感。畢業後學生亦能夠容易尋找適合自己職業取向的工作，在自己有興趣的行業發揮所長，爭取個人榮譽以回饋父母。這樣更配合學生務實主義的心理，亦促進了香港人力市場的發展。大學學生受壓力和情緒困擾都是高等教育界必須要正視的問題，這些負面心理表現除了影響個人健康，若然沒有妥善處理還會釀成風氣，影響整個社會。雖然在大學學生已可自主地學習和生活，但一般大學生還是十七、八歲的青少年，還未離開青春期。從心理學角度看，他們獨立意向強，想擺脫父母的約束，情緒多變，喜歡與異性交往，社會經驗不足。因此，他們特別需要正確的指導，並且需要時間適應截然不同的大學生活。很多學生以為參加許多活動有利他們將來的就業，但過多的學習和課外活動只會令他們更頭昏腦脹，莫說要如何去開拓個人潛能。我認為大學可為學生設計學習形式輕鬆，考核內容簡單的核心或必修通識科，特別教授個人成長，生涯規劃、情緒管理，時間管理和道德培養的課題。這既可以在有限的四年大學時間深化學生個人和社會應有的價值觀，也可為學生融入大學生活提供適切指導。總結香港高等教育要成功邁向國際化需要宏觀和長遠的計劃藍圖，除了有發展經濟的考慮，還要配合社會文化和學習者心理的特質，才能真正做到屬於本土的全人教育，建立屬於香港的絕對優勢。此外，我們亦需要正視現在香港學生面對的學習問題，反思如何求同存異，在西方新思維的啟蒙下，同時能夠保存中國優秀的學習和教育心理特質，培養良好學習態度和正確教育觀。傳承和弘揚中華文化的根和魂是保持社會質素和競爭力的不二法門，因為社會和諧一向是經濟發展的重要基礎。這有賴政府的推動，致力給予良好的教育環境，為孩子打好健康的心理基礎，讓他們更勇敢面向世界，接受挑戰。 37 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化參考文獻大學教育資助委員會（2010）。〈展望香港高等教育體系大學教育資助委員會報告〉。2017年 7月 28日，取自 http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/chinese/ panels/ed/papers/edcb2-602-1-c.pdf 大學線（2016）。〈學業壓力大　大學生三成半抑鬱〉。2017年 7月 28日，取自 http://ubeat.com.cuhk.edu.hk/126_studentstress/ 林炳坤、鄧穎琳（2017，7月 28日）。〈DSE放榜 2017：3男 3女 6狀元誕生邊間名校出最多狀元？〉。《香港 01》，取自 https://www.hk01.com/港聞 /103771/ 香港教育學院（2014）。〈教院動態 :社會期望造就學有所成 ?〉。2017年 7月 28日，取自 https://www.hkiednews.edu.hk/en/content/index.do?content Code=1397183682730&lang=tc 香港特別行政區政府新聞公佈（2014）。〈立法會十三題：錄取本地及非本地學生修讀研究院研究課程〉。2017年 8月 28日，取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/ general/201405/14/P201405140431.htm Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices ante-ceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 76, 43–88. Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4, 1-103. Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia (No. 9). Asian Development Bank. Bray, Mark & Kwo, Ora (2014). Regulating Private Tutoring for Public Good: Policy Options for Supplementary Education in Asia. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, 93 pp. Chao, R.K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111-1119. Chen, X., Dong, Q., & Zhou, H. (1997). Authoritative and authoritarian parenting practices and social and school performance in Chinese children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21(4), 855–873. 38 Ho, D.Y., Peng, S. & Chan, S.F. (2001). Authority and learning in Confucian heritage education: A relational methodological analysis. In C.Y. Chiu, F. Salili & Y.Y. Hong. (Eds.). Multiple Competencies and Self-Regulated Learning: Implications for Multicultural Education, 29-47. Connecticut: Information Age Publishing Inc. Kara, Orhan. 2010. “Comparing Two Approaches to the Rate of Return to Investment in Education.” Education Economics, 18(2), 153-165. Kim, K.H. (2009). Cultural influence on creativity: the relationship between Asian culture (Confucianism) and creativity among Korean educators. Journal of Creative Behavior, 43(2), 73-93. Li, J. (2003). The core of Confucian learning. American Psychologist, February 2003, 146-147. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological review, 50(4), 370. Smith, D. (1997). Middle Education in the Middle Kingdom: The Chinese Junior High School in Taiwan. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Sun, C. T. L. (2012). Themes in Chinese psychology. Cengage Learning Asia. Woodrow, D. & Sham, S. (2001). Chinese pupils and their learning preferences. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 4(4), 378-393. Yee, A.H. (1989). Cross-cultural perspectives on higher education in East Asia: Psychological effects upon Asian students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 10(3), 213-232. 39 從中國人的學習文化和心理看香港高等教育國際化 Internationalization of higher education in Hong Kong – From the cultural and psychological perspectives of Chinese learning SUN Tien-lun, Catherine Hong Kong Shue Yan University Abstract Education as a process that embraces a mission of cultural inheritance is an indispensable part of human civilization. Chinese culture has a long history during which Chinese people have developed their own unique but superior educational values and learning culture. In recent years, there is an active discussion on internationalization of higher education among various countries and regions. To this end, this article will examine the internationalization of Hong Kong higher education from the cultural and psychological perspectives of Chinese learning. Keywords Hong Kong higher education, education internationalization, Chinese learning, psychology of learning 41 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇許玉麟華南師範大學教育科學學院摘要「一帶一路」倡議是中國政府的國家政策，當中充滿發展機遇。香港特區位處「一帶一路」的東方起點，亦得先天之利。然而，現時香港面對「一帶一路」倡議的發展機遇，重點在於金融商貿，忽略了發展國際高等教育的良好時機。雖然香港的高等教育在過去多年已經招徠眾多中國內地學生，但是對於發展國際高等教育，仍未有大戰略的宏觀看法。文中就香港面對「一帶一路」倡議的發展機遇，建議以四大學術領域來發展國際高等教育，打造「一帶一路」倡議的國際教育中心。關鍵詞「一帶一路」倡議，國際高等教育，發展機遇，產業引言 2015年 3月 28日，中國國家發展改革委、外交部、商務部，三個政府部門聯合發佈了《推動共建絲綢之路經濟帶和 21世紀海上絲綢之路的願景與行動》，醞釀一時的「一帶一路」倡議，正式由理念落實為國家具體政策。「一帶一路」倡議的理念，在 2013年 9月和 10月，中國國家主席習近平在出訪中亞和東南亞國家期間，先後提出共建「絲綢之路經濟帶」和「21世紀海上絲綢之路」的倡議，當時得到國際社會高度關注。後來中國國務院總理李克強參加 2013年中國－東盟博覽會 42 時強調，鋪陳面向東盟的海上絲綢之路，打造帶動腹地發展的戰略支點。依中國政府的願景，「一帶一路」倡議的提出是，建設有利於促進沿線各國經濟繁榮與區域經濟合作，加強不同文明交流互鑒，促進世界和平發展，是一項造福世界各國人民的偉大事業。「一帶一路」是「絲綢之路經濟帶」和「21世紀海上絲綢之路」的簡稱。中國官方英文全稱譯為「The Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road」，「一帶一路」倡議簡稱譯為「The Belt and Road」Initiative。「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略發展，是中國經濟和世界經濟高度關聯，對外開放並構建全方位開放新格局，深度融入世界經濟體系的基本國策。（百度，2017）根據中國國家領導人的構思，「一帶一路」倡議將充分依靠中國與有關國家既有的雙多邊機制，包括借助既有的、行之有效的區域合作平台，並借用古代絲綢之路的歷史符號，高舉和平發展的旗幟，積極發展與沿線國家的經濟合作夥伴關係，共同打造政治互信、經濟融合、文化包容的利益共同體、命運共同體和責任共同體。「一帶一路」包含的地區，貫穿亞歐非三個大陸，一邊是新興的東亞經濟圈，另一邊是發達的歐洲經濟圈，而中間廣大腹地的國家，經濟發展潛力巨大。絲綢之路經濟帶，陸上重點貫通中國經中亞、俄羅斯至歐洲（波羅的海），中國經中亞、西亞至波斯灣、地中海，中國至東南亞、南亞、印度洋。21世紀海上絲綢之路發展方向，是從中國沿海港口，經南中國海到印度洋，延伸至歐洲，或從中國沿海港口過南中國海到南太平洋。「一帶一路」倡議涵蓋國家至少 65多國，覆蓋面積約 5539平方公里，約佔全球總面積的 41.3%，惠及人口達 44億，區域經濟總量達 27.4萬億美元，經濟規模是全球 38.2%。「一帶一路」是中國未來的百年大計。（MBA智庫百科，2017）根據「一帶一路」倡議的走向，陸上依託國際大通道，以沿線中心城市為支撐，以重點經貿產業園區為合作平台，共同打造新亞歐大陸橋、中蒙俄、中國－中亞－西亞、中國－中南半島等國際經濟合作走廊。海上以重點港口為節點，共同建設通暢安全高效的運輸大通道。中國為推動區域經濟一體化作出了很多戰略規劃，包括： 21世紀海上絲綢之路戰略、絲綢之路經濟帶戰略、中印緬孟經濟走廊戰略、中巴經濟走廊戰略、東北亞經濟整合戰略等。這些戰略中，每個規劃都是以區域經濟一體化為核心的，每個規劃都是以中國的國家戰略為基礎的，每個規劃都是符合亞太，乃至亞歐幾乎所有成員國的戰略利益。（MBA智庫百科，2017）當中除了在金融、 43 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇工業、科技、基建、能源等經濟領域的合作與開發，發掘區域內市場的潛力，促進投資和消費，創造需求和就業，亦包括了文化教育上的國際交流，增進沿線各國人民的人文交流與文明互鑒，讓各國人民相逢相知、互信互敬，共用和諧、安寧、富裕的生活。（百度，2017）由此可見，「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略，可說是全方位的國際合作機遇。從地緣上來說，香港位於「一帶一路」的起點區，從任何一方面而言，香港本身的整體發展，不可能脫離於「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略之外，事實上，香港作為世界大都會，不可能不對「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略作出貢獻。「一帶一路」倡議大戰略的成功條件，除了雄厚的經濟實力，亦需要深厚的文化積累和教育實施，正因如此，「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略，對香港的影響，不單是局限於經濟發展，也必然涉及文化、教育的層面。「新絲綢之路大學聯盟」在 2015年成立，香港中文大學、香港大學和香港理工大學等亦是當中的成員之一。香港的高等教育學府加入「新絲綢之路大學聯盟」，也是回應了「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略。香港除了需要致力培養本土人才，配合「一帶一路」的發展，同時，「一帶一路」倡議也為香港的高等教育，提供了國際發展的良好機遇。基於上述概況，「一帶一路」倡議為香港帶來的發展機遇，除了在經濟領域，還包括了文化、教育等重要的範疇。教育事業，除了培育人才，本身亦可以作為產業發展。事實上，教育作為產業發展，在全球化的影響下，已經成為發達國家的蓬勃經濟項目，一方面可以賺取外匯，另一方面可以增加本國的軟性影響力。本文會放下「一帶一路」倡議政治經濟方面的討論，主要探討在教育範疇方面，特別是國際高等教育的發展，教育作為產業發展，「一帶一路」倡議為香港發展國際高等教育，提供了什麼的機遇，而香港應該如何好好掌握這個機遇，當中會涉及探討香港在「一帶一路」倡議的大戰略中，可以擔當的角色，並審視現時香港政商界如何為香港下定位，從而考量香港國際高等教育未來發展方向，如何配合「一帶一路」倡議，既成就香港自身的發展，同時貢獻本身的力量，共建成功而繁榮的「一帶一路」倡議共同體。 44 「一帶一路」出現的文化交流機遇古代「絲綢之路」或現今「一帶一路」，當然是經貿通商之路，然而，名字本身已經是充滿了文化氣息的內涵。「絲綢之路」一名，定於 1877年，德國李希霍芬（Ferdinand von Richthofen，1833－ 1905）在其著作《中國——親身旅行和據此所作研究的成果》（China, Ergebnisse eigner Reisen und darauf gegründeter Studien）（https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Richthofen）一書中。李希霍芬首次把從公元前 114年至公元 127年間，中國與中亞、中國與印度間，以絲綢貿易為媒介的這條西域交通道路，命名為「絲綢之路」，這一名詞很快被學術界接受，並正式廣傳使用。由此看來可見，「絲路」一詞，充滿了文化氣息，特別是充滿了不同文化的結集凝聚。「一帶一路」倡議除了商機處處，亦是國際文化交流的大平台，然而，這點是現時香港商界探討「一帶一路」倡議戰略時，往往是忽略之處。根據《推動共建絲綢之路經濟帶和 21世紀海上絲綢之路的願景與行動》（發改委、外交部、商務部，2015），「一帶一路」倡議的平台要做到「五通」，包括「政策溝通、設施聯通、貿易暢通、資金融通、民心相通」。「民心相通」的內容要點，「民心相通是『一帶一路』建設的社會根基。傳承和弘揚絲綢之路友好合作精神，廣泛開展文化交流、學術往來、人才交流合作、媒體合作、青年和婦女交往、志願者服務等，為深化雙多邊合作奠定堅實的民意基礎。」（發改委、外交部、商務部， 2015）可見，中國政府對「一帶一路」倡議的發展是全面照顧，而文化交流是不可或缺的一部分。在上述政策文件中提到，中國每年向沿線國家提供 1萬個政府獎學金名額，擴大相互間留學生規模，開展合作辦學。同時開展「中國沿線國家間互辦文化年、藝術節、電影節、電視周和圖書展等活動，合作開展廣播影視劇精品創作及翻譯，聯合申請世界文化遺產，共同開展世界遺產的聯合保護工作。深化沿線國家間人才交流合作。」其他相關的國際交流，還包括「發揮沿線各國區域、次區域相關國際論壇、展會以及博鼇亞洲論壇、中國－東盟博覽會、中國－亞歐博覽會、歐亞經濟論壇、中國國際投資貿易洽談會，以及中國－南亞博覽會、中國－阿拉伯博覽會、中國西部國際博覽會、中國－俄羅斯博覽會、前海合作論壇等平臺的建設性作用。支持沿線國家地方、民間挖掘「一帶一路」歷史文化遺產，聯合舉辦專項投資、貿易、文化交流活動，辦好絲綢之路（敦煌）國際文化博覽會、絲綢之路國際電影節和圖書展。倡議建立『一帶一路』國際高峰論壇。」（發改委、外交部、 45 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇商務部，2015）文化交流的內涵，包羅萬象，既有各種藝術文化，亦有人文旅遊，更有學術交流，還有教育留學，凡此種種，就是國際文化的大溶合。當中對文化學術貢獻，至為重要的就是高等教育的交流溶合。檢視中國「一帶一路」倡議的發展策略，表面上非常重視政經的發展，在高等教育上，亦沒有忽視。而且，有關國際高等教育的結盟和開展的日期並不落後於整體形勢。 2015年 5月 22日下午，由陝西省人民政府主辦、省教育廳及西安交通大學等 21所高校共同承辦的絲綢之路沿線國家教育合作交流會開幕式上，來自全球 22個國家和地區的近百所盟校齊聚西安，共同發佈《西安宣言》，由西安交通大學發起的「新絲綢之路大學聯盟」正式宣告成立。根據介紹，「新絲綢之路大學聯盟」是中國海內外大學結成的非政府、非營利性的開放性、國際化高等教育合作平台，以「共建教育合作平台，推進區域開放發展」為主題，推動「新絲綢之路經濟帶」沿線國家和地區大學之間在校際交流、人才培養、科研合作、文化溝通、政策研究、醫療服務等方面的交流與合作，增進青少年之間的瞭解和友誼，培養具有國際視野的高素質、複合型人才，服務「新絲綢之路經濟帶」沿線及歐亞地區的發展建設。（香港商報網，2015）截至 2016年 4月 9日，已有來自 31個國家和地區的 128所大學先後加入新絲綢之路大學聯盟。至於香港方面，有香港中文大學、香港理工大學、香港大學、香港城市大學等加盟。同年，2015年 10月 17日，絲綢之路（敦煌）國際文化博覽會籌委會文化傳承創新高端學術研討會在敦煌舉行。由「一帶一路」倡議沿線國家和地區達成《敦煌共識》的 8國 47所高校，在甘肅敦煌成立了「一帶一路高校國際聯盟智庫」。該論壇提倡建立高校國際聯盟智庫，秉承「互聯互通、開放包容、協同創新、合作共贏」的理念，共同打造「一帶一路」高等教育共同體，推動沿線國家和地區大學之間在教育、科技、文化等領域的全面交流合作，服務沿線國家和地區的經濟社會發展。現時，聯盟高校總數已達 125所，涵蓋全球 25個國家。聯盟高校共同簽署「一帶一路」高校聯盟合作備忘錄，將緊密圍繞與「一帶一路」有關的人才培養、科學研究、學科建設、教師隊伍建設、知識技術共用等領域開展合作、交流。（中國蘭州網，2016）香港科技大學是其中一員。 46 2015年 12月 2日，由清華大學繼續教育學院主辦、清華大學繼續教育學院國際教育部承辦，「『一帶一路』戰略與大型企業『走出去』國際工程人才培養研討會」在清華大學成功舉辦。是次研討會從當前國際工程管理人才存在的問題以及企業自身需求出發，提出了對於國際工程人才培養的需求和建議。（百度，2017）從上述的高等教育聯盟，以及其他種種的國際學術研討會，可見「一帶一路」倡議的發展，不僅著眼於經濟的發展，同時是全面兼顧各方的合作交流，所以國際高等教育在「一帶一路」的倡議下，得到高速發展，也是理所當然。香港的高等學府已經參與其中，如果香港特區政府及商界能夠把握機會，協助香港高等學府參與發展「一帶一路」倡議的國際高等教育融合，互相配合，對香港本身的高等教育，以及國際教育發展，必定有巨大的成就。香港國際高等教育的願景探討承著「一帶一路」倡議，香港是重要的發展基地之一。中國希望「發揮海外僑胞以及香港、澳門特別行政區獨特優勢作用，積極參與和助力『一帶一路』建設。」（發改委、外交部、商務部，2015）李克強總理在《政府工作報告》中提出「粵港澳大灣區」發展計劃。（李克強，2017）粵港澳大灣區涵蓋香港和澳門兩個特別行政區，以及廣州、深圳、江門、惠州、珠海、東莞、佛山、肇慶及中山合共 9個城市，兩區 9市的總人口約 1億人，面積約 5.6萬平方公里，GDP規模約 1.3萬億美元。若然把「粵港澳大灣區與三藩市海灣區比較，粵港澳大灣區的GDP已超越對方。工作報告提出深化粵港澳大灣區城市群之間的合作，尤其是利用香港及澳門的獨特優勢，提升國家對外及經濟發展。所以，粵港澳大灣區的提出，李克強總理說這是要提升港澳在國家經濟發展和對外開放中的地位與功能，這是提高到國家地位的層面的。（阮紀宏，2017）至於香港在粵港澳大灣區的角色，廣東省發改委主任何寧卡在廣東十三五規劃的第十章第一節中提出，「推動深圳與香港共建全球性金融中心、物流中心、貿易中心、創新中心和國際文化創意中心。」（黃錦輝，2017）可以預見，香港在「一國兩制」下，融入粵港澳大灣區，同時成為「一帶一路」倡議重要的起步點。 2015年 3月 27日，在海南舉行的博鰲亞洲論壇年會上，行政長官提出香港可在「一帶一路」倡議下享有以下機遇：融資中心、離岸人民幣中心、貿易及投 47 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇資中心、專業服務人才中心、物流及運輸中心。（立法會，2016）這 5點，與廣東十三五規劃有重大分區，除了金融外，廣東十三五規劃還將香港視為創新中心和國際文化創意中心，倒是香港特區政府未有將此提升到應有的重要地位。若然如是，香港將失去打造國際文化之都的良機。暫且不評論香港政府政策的得失，回頭說，打造創新中心和國際文化創意中心之條件，就是發展教育。香港本身的教育發展，自十多 /數 ?年教改以來，已經進入高速公路，而高等教育的國際化亦是香港各所高等教育學府的發展重點。另一方面，香港在創意文化產業方面亦有十足的根基，在影視戲劇、文化創意產業等有可觀成就，亦有大批的人才。因此，香港不論在金融貿易經濟，或者創新技術和文化創意都不容厚此薄彼，自亂陣腳。事實上，隨著資訊科技普及，以及人類社會密見交往頻繁，新經濟時代的來臨，各種的經濟生活和文化生活，已經渾然為一。只有少數的傳統行業仍然可以獨善其身，其他的行業都糾纏一起，成為命運共同體。以影視戲劇為例，電腦特效技術固然不可少。外銷影片產品亦依賴金融貿易，外銷的法律、會計、市場推廣等專業服務缺一不可。還有物流運輸，才可全球發行，而影片的多國語言配音亦是外銷的關鍵。由此看來，產業之間的交叉合作，確是成為命運共同體。為要達到各行產業的共同發展，共上一層樓，收「一帶一路」倡議之效，香港更積極發展高等教育是勢所必然。回應李克強總理等提出的上述的願景，以及香港已經擁有的雄厚基礎，在高等教育發展方向，可以統整為 4大學術領域。第一，金融商業 ; 第二，專業服務 ; 第三，創科研發 ; 第四，文化教育。簡述如下。第一，金融商業。金融、融資、離岸人民幣貿易、投資、各種貿易，或者物流等等行業，都是香港經濟命脈所在，亦是現時香港經濟的龍頭，在此方面的高等教育，已經成熟發展，所以，理應繼續發展這一強項優勢。此項的高教發展重點，不妨以香港發展成為亞太區，甚至全球的學術研究龍頭。從現時大學本科的優異基礎，更上一層樓，而不局限於應用層面，打造亞太區金融商貿學術重鎮。第二，專業服務。包括法律、會計、醫療、工程、管理等等，這是香港引以為傲的地方，相關的高等教育亦早已成熟，有足夠國際水準，例如香港的商貿仲裁服務，已經佔全球的重要份額。然而，不少是外國專才在香港發展業務，現時只差 48 本地專才走出香港，走向國際。香港特區政府及高等學府就這點，宜作長遠計劃。發展的目標是如何使香港的專業人才得到國際認可，甚至是建立香港自己的獨立標準。第三，創科研發。創科教育的重要，在近年科網技術大量應用而得到引證。既然勢頭不減，應該加強力度。創科研發的教育，是建基於中小基礎教育上，亦即現時流行的 STEM教育。2017年 3月，香港大學理學院傳來消息，2018年起因報讀人數不足，取消兩個本科生主修，分別為天文學（Major in Astronomy）、數學及物理學（Major in Maths/Physics）。這消息背後反映香港社會的功利主義，不利健康的創科研發教育。（周婷，2017）因此，政府應該為 STEM教育作長遠規劃。在大學高教的發展，香港要克服學生不願意就讀理工科的問題。香港特區政府除要主動大力資助長遠才見效的理工科目，另外，各方應鼓勵大學的理工科研，與世界的大學和跨國企業合作。此舉一方面增加科研資源，另一方面，可以保障大學畢業生的出路。第四，文化教育。藝術文化、人文文化、教育人才、語言人才、社會科學的培訓，香港在各方面都不算積極，算是人有我有而已。要打造國際文化創意中心，絕對離不開人文修養，舉例而言，阿拉伯語、中亞的語言、南亞的語言，通通都是香港人的盲點，培養語言人才，極為重要。只可惜，香港政府並未有足夠的重視。香港的高等學府，亦跟隨香港社會的功利主義而行，其中為人詬病的，也是香港大學已經取消了歷史系的獨立身分，原因在於報讀人數不足。即使香港放棄國際文化創意中心的念頭，也不難想像。高等教育一面倒向實用價值的學科，對整個香港文化發展，將會出現什麼的不良後果。所以，香港要持續成為國際大都會，在發展「一帶一路」發揮積極作用，文化教育絕對是必要的。在此的發展重點，一方面是擴大外國語言的學習機會，甚至將外國語言學習獨立成系，培養語言人才。另一方面，香港高等教育要增加國際研究項目，特別是中東國家的研究，畢竟香港對中東國家的宗教信仰及其形成的政治、法律、民風等等，認識有限。國際研究項目培養學生的環球視野，這樣才對「一帶一路」倡議發揮積極作用。綜合而言，配合「一帶一路」倡議，香港不應該只著眼於金融貿易的商機，藝術文化、人文修養也是重大的發展機遇。以教育作為產業來看，國際教育，特別 49 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇是國際高等教育，也是香港的難得的機遇。香港既要培養自己的人才，擁抱環球國際，同時也要打造成為國際高等教育重鎮。為此，香港的高等教育不只是招收外地學生，而是積極發展上述的領域。香港的高等教育，有一大優良傳統，就是發展通識教育，大學應在此發揮對「一帶一路」倡議的配合作用，在大學生修讀本科之時，同時加入通識教育的國際研究，使大學生具備國際視野。至於外語的學習，開始時，如果學生的數量太少，師資不足之時，可以考慮香港特區政府培養獸醫的方式，此方式是政府出資資助年青的學生到澳大利亞就讀獸醫，學成必定回港服務。培養外語人才，亦可效法此舉，待學生學成回港，招攬在大學任教，逐步建立本地的外語課程。香港特區政府推出「一帶一路」獎學金，著眼於人才培訓，出發點是正確。「獎學金計劃旨在鼓勵個別『一帶一路』沿線經濟體的傑出學生來港修讀學士學位課程，同時鼓勵本港的傑出學生到該等經濟體修讀學士學位課程，從而進一步加強香港與『一帶一路』沿線經濟體的聯繫和教育交流。長遠而言，這有助香港與『一帶一路』沿線經濟體建立教育、文化及青年交流等方面的平台，為學生及香港整體發展帶來益處。」（楊潤雄，2016）為要香港可以在「一帶一路」倡議中，扮演積極角色，積極有序發展國際高等教育，是應走的道路，但是設立獎學金還是不足夠的。香港在「一帶一路」倡議中發展國際高等教育，做法是三個層面發展，即是：本土紮根，立足中國，走向國際。本土紮根，積極完善本身的高等教育，提升本地學術水平和成就，只有本地的水平不斷提升，才可以吸引外地優秀學生來港升學。本土的教育不完善，無法吸引外地學生來港升學。立足中國，以中國為香港大後方支援，以中國的資源，滋養香港的高等教育。在人才、資金、研究機會、畢業後出路等等，都可以使香港的高等教育生生不息。走向國際，香港高等教育的目光，不應只看重中國內地學生的學費來源，更應向國際進軍。這不單是讓外國著名學府來香港開辦分校，而是香港高等學府向國際招生，特別是「一帶一路」國家。現時香港特區政府的「一帶一路」獎學金，是雙向發展，既是鼓勵本地學生到「一帶一路」的國家留學，亦同時吸引對方的學生來港升學，透過互相交流，對香港的社會，以及高等教育的改善，都有積極作用。然而「一帶一路」獎學金，只是其中一項吸引沿線國家學生的方案，更重要是，香港高等學府是如何保障本地學生升學之時，又可以大量吸引國際學生來港。這點涉及本地大學之間如何分工定位、大學內部協調、 50 移民政策、教育體系修訂等一連串問題，必須由香港特區政府牽頭引導。從這個思路而言，基本上，香港國際高等教育學生來源，分為三個方向，一是本地學生，二是走出國門，派人出國留學，三是招徠外地學生，來港升學。不論做法如何，總應圍繞上文的四大學術領域來發展。外地學生來港升學已經是行之已久，在高等院校，有很多中國內地前來的學生，而且不少是自費的研究生。所以，香港的國際高等教育發展，漸成為教育產業，這是不爭的趨勢。既然如此，香港特區政府不妨開宗明義，積極完善國際高等教育發展，同時配合香港學術及職業資歷評審局（評審局）的資歷架構，使香港在國際高等教育範疇，得到為重要的認可地位，提升香港的高等教育水準和世界地位。總結 2017年 3月 23日，由中國政府牽頭的亞洲基礎設施投資銀行（簡稱「亞投行」），公佈接納香港成為其中的成員。香港在「一帶一路」倡議中，已經搭上了這趟快車。既然香港早已經是國際大都會，在「一帶一路」的倡議中，發揮所長是理所當然，是本地和國際互動之間，各方得益的舉措。誠如李克強總理在《政府工作報告》中，提到中國要「積極主動擴大對外開放」的一節，期望「一帶一路」倡議建設，是「堅持共商共建共用，加快陸上經濟走廊和海上合作支點建設，構建沿線大通關合作機制。深化國際產能合作，帶動我國裝備、技術、標準、服務走出去，實現優勢互補。加強教育、科技、文化、衛生、旅遊等人文交流合作。」（李克強， 2017）正因如此，香港在「一帶一路」倡議下，應全面發展，而不應偏重於金融商業。至於文化教育的資產，香港雖然地方細小，卻有豐富的中西文化融會而成的文明資產，以此發展國際高等教育，並不輸蝕於其他西方國家。香港宜以四大學術領域：金融商業、專業服務、創科研發、文化教育，來全面發展國際高等教育，香港有足夠實力打造「一帶一路」上，或是全球性的國際中心。除了金融中心、物流中心、貿易中心、創新中心和國際文化創意中心，甚至是發展成為國際人才教育中心。最後，香港現在已有從招生國內學生而形成的國際高等教育基礎，所以，更應該好好珍惜這基礎，有規劃地發展全面的國際高等教育。此舉既是豐厚的產業發展，同時也是積極拓展香港國際生存空間，持續提升香港的國際生存能力，和國際的地 51 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇位，最終不僅使香港本身受惠，更貢獻「一帶一路」倡議，使沿線地區或國家同享利益。參考文獻中國國家發展改革委外交部商務部（經國務院授權發佈）（2015年 3月 28日）《推動共建絲綢之路經濟帶和21世紀海上絲綢之路的願景與行動》。新華社，北京， 2015年 3月 28日。《中國蘭州網》（2016），〈首屆「一帶一路」高校聯盟主題論壇在敦煌召開聚資源造智慧共同體〉，2016年 9月 19日。2017年 3月 27日，取自 https://kknews. cc/education/2kyr3r.html 百度，〈一帶一路（國家級頂層戰略）〉。2017年 3月 10日，取自 http://baike. baidu.com/item/一一路 /13132427?sefr=sebtn 李克強（2017年 3月 5日），〈中國政府工作報告〉。2017年 3月 27日，取自 http://www.gov.cn/premier/2017-03/16/content_5177940.htm 何亦文（2017年 3月 22日），〈從粵深十三五規劃看粵港澳大灣區〉，《信報網站》。 2017年 3月 25日，取自 http://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/toc 阮紀宏（2017年 3月 21日），〈粵港澳大灣區從何說起〉，《信報網站》。2017年 3 月 25日，取自 http://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/toc 吳斯維（2017年 3月 23日），〈粵港澳大灣區金融互動發展潛力〉，《信報網站》。 2017年 3月 23日，取自 http://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/toc 周婷（2017），〈嫌學生少港大廢天文學、數學及物理主修被轟違背多元化教育本意〉，2017年 3月 15日，《蘋果日報》。2017年 3月 27日，取自 http:// hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/20170315/19958430 香港特區政府（2016），《駐成都經貿辦通訊》2016年第 12期，總第 112期。2017 年 3月 27日，取自 http://www.cdeto.gov.hk/filemanager/content/pdf/cdnewsletter/ newsletter_1612_tc.pdf 香港特區政府新聞公佈（2016），〈國家「十三五」規劃綱要港澳專章〉。2017年 3 月 27日，取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201603/17/P201603170892.htm 52 香港特區政府新聞公佈（2017）〈香港將成為亞洲基礎設施投資銀行新成員〉。 2017年 3月 27日，取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201703/23/P2017032300 366p.htm 香港商報網（2015），〈新絲綢之路大學聯盟西安成立〉。2017年 3月 20日，取自 http://www.hkcd.com/content_p/2015-05/27/content_23032.html 溫天納（2017年 3月 27日），〈新特首推動參與「粵港澳大灣區」〉，《信報網站》。 2017年 3月 27日，取自 http://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/toc 黃鳳琳（2016年 4月 22日），〈「一帶一路」應加強基礎理論研究〉，《政治學與國際關係論壇》。2017年 3月 27日，取自 http://study.ccln.gov.cn/fenke/ zhengzhixue/zzjpwz/zzzgzz/298319.shtml 黃錦輝（2017年 3月 20日），〈粵港澳大灣區各擅勝場〉，《信報網站》。2017 年 3月 25日，取自 http://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/toc 楊潤雄（2016年 6月 29日），〈立法會回答十五題：「一帶一路」獎學金計劃〉。 2017年 3月 10日，取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201606/29/ P201606290458.htm 〈廣東「十三五」規劃綱要〉（2016年 5月 10日），《華夏經緯網》。2017年 3 月 27日，取自 http://hk.huaxia.com/gdtb/gdyw/szyw/2016/05/4835364.html MBA智庫百科，〈一帶一路（One Belt and One Road）〉。2017年 3月 10日，取自 http://wiki.mbalib.com/zh-tw/一一路 53 「一帶一路」倡議對香港特區發展國際高等教育的機遇 T h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r H K S A R in ternat ional t e r t iary educat ion advancement from “the Belt and Road Initiative” HUI, YUK LUN School of Education, South China Normal University Abstract “The Belt and Road Initiative” is China’s national policy. It carries with plenty of development opportunities. HKSAR is the starting point in the East of “the Belt and Road”. She takes a good position to benefit from “the Belt and Road Initiative ” policy. However, HKSAR focuses only on monetary trading and neglects the development of international tertiary education. Although the tertiary education institutions of HKSAR have recruited many Mainland students in past few years, a great strategy of developing the tertiary education is absent. The article tries to analyse the chances of developing tertiary education in HKSAR. It suggests four academic areas in developing international tertiary education to establish an international education centre for “the Belt and Road Initiative”. Keywords “The Belt and Road Initiative”, international tertiary education, development chance of Hong Kong 55 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況胡少偉香港教育大學國際教育與終身學習學系摘要香港高等教育從上世紀八十年代的精英型，走到九十年代的大眾化，踏入廿一世紀成為普及型的高等教育社會。與此同時，為了支持香港這個亞洲國際都會的發展，香港高等教育培育具國際視野的人才，教資會和各院校一向重視推動國際化。為了剖析香港高等教育的發展歷程及國際化現況，這篇文章將回顧香港高等教育從精英化、大眾化到普及化的各發展階段，並就香港高等教育國際化、境外生來港升讀、高等教育學生交流等方面作出分析，並就香港高等教育挑戰作出討論。關鍵詞香港高等教育高等教育類型香港高等教育發展高等教育國際化前言高等教育在香港發展有百多年的歷史，始於 1911年香港大學的建立。香港高等教育從上世紀八十年代精英型，走到九十年代的大眾化，踏入廿一世紀成為一個普及型的高等教育社會。當下，香港高等教育在國際上享有一定聲譽，據英國《泰晤士高等教育》公佈的 2017年亞洲大學排行榜，香港大學和香港科技大學分別排名第 5及第 6；香港中文大學、香港城市大學、香港理工大學及香港浸會大學依次排名第 11、第 12、第 17及第 49，這六所香港高等院校在亞州大學前 50名內。《泰晤士高等教育》編輯表示香港表現令人印象深刻，相對於財富及人口是排名榜中表 56 現最好的地區之一；並指出「大約有四分之一（23%）的適齡人口在香港六間所知名大學中就讀，這比率僅排在土耳其及澳門之後」（明報 2017年 3月 16日）。香港高等教育能有這個令人稱讚的成績，原因是大學教育資助委員會（教資會）和各院校一向重視推動國際化，強調培育具國際視野的人才。為了剖析香港高等教育的發展歷程及國際化現況，這篇文章將回顧香港高等教育從精英到普及的發展階段，並就香港高等教育國際化、境外生來港升讀、高等教育學生交流等方面作出分析，同時就香港高等教育發展的挑戰作出討論。香港高等教育精英化階段高等教育在港有百多年歷史，始於 1911年香港大學建立；隨後，為了解決香港師資和工業教育的需要，政府於上世紀二三十年代相繼成立相關院校。第二次世界大戰後，大量內地難民湧入香港，為了回應當時中文中學學生升讀大學的要求， 1952年的《賈士域報告書》建議檢討香港高等教育，政府於 1959年宣佈成立一所以中文為主要教學媒介的大學，並於 8月撥款資助崇基、新亞、聯合三所專上學院； 1963年《富爾敦報告書》建議成立一所書院聯邦制的大學，香港中文大學於同年 10月成為香港的第二所大學。與此同時，戰後難民湧入令香港適齡入學兒童增多，教師數量需求甚大，政府於 1951年成立葛量洪師範學院，1960年成立柏立基師範學院。到八十年代，國際顧問團報告書於 1982年提出增加學生接受高等教育機會是香港教育發展應優先處理項目之一，政府於 1984年成立城市理工學院，1988年香港科技大學亦告成立，而讓在職人士修讀專上課程的公開進修學院亦於 1989年成立。香港專上學院在八十年代雖有增加，但相對當時的適齡學生人口，「香港高等教育發展緩慢；直到 80年代末，香港的高等教育入學率仍低於8%」（彭澤平、姚琳， 2012）。香港專上學生人數從 1980年的 17,063人增長近倍到 1989年的 30,850人，但相對當時適齡青年，香港高等教育仍處於精英型。正如台灣學者分析國際學生上升的主因是各地高中生的需求，「高等教育體系容量的不足，導致部份學生只好前往其他國家就讀」（戴曉霞、楊岱穎，2012）。在香港高等教育仍處於精英化的情況下，香港中學生當時升專上學院的機會較低，因而有不少學生選擇遠赴海外進修。據政府年報資料，自 1980年至 1996年的 17個學年中，往英國、美國、加拿大和 57 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況澳洲等四地的香港留學生有近 240,000人。而因不少學生學成後回港工作和定居，帶回了西方文化和生活習慣，使香港較易與英語國家人士接觸，有利於香港與國際社會的聯繫。從大眾化到普及化香港高等教育於上世紀九十年代初出現了一個戲劇性的轉折。為了避免九七轉變可能出現的人才真空，當時港督於 1989年宣佈將原於 1995年為適齡學生人數提供 13%學士學位的計劃調高至 18%；「教育統籌司向行政局提交了一套高等教育建議，計劃於 1995年時將第一年學士位課程的學額增至約 15,000個」（喻曉聰、李阿利，2011）。這建議使香港高等教育在九十年代初有急速發展，為當時有志求學的高中畢業生帶來更多的升學機會。根據美國學者馬丁．特羅：15%或以上的適齡人口享有高等教育便可界定為大眾化；香港自此便進入高等教育大眾化的階段。與此同時，高等教育學額當時的擴張亦影響赴海外留學學生的數目，香港每年往 4大英語國家的留學生由 1990年度 21,155人的高峰逐漸下降至 1993至 1996年的 14,000人左右，但與當時每年 14,500個大一新生學額仍相近；也就是說在九十年代的大眾型高等教育階段，香港還有近半的年青人因未能入讀本地高等院校而遠赴海外留學。表一　香港 15歲以上教育程度百分比分佈 1991 年 1998 年 2006 年 2011 年 2015 年未受教育 17.8 8.9 5.9 5.1 不適用小學 29.4 22.9 18.6 16.2 18.9 初中 18.8 16.2 51.7* 52* 50.3*高中 21.2 30.5 預科 3.9 4.1 專上教育 8.9 17.4 23.8 26.8 30.8 * 按政府年報資料，中學教育程度包括中一至中七教育程度或同等學歷香港高等教育從上世紀八十年代的精英型，到九十年代成為了大眾化高等教育，踏入廿一世紀成為普及型高等教育的社會；行政長官在 2000年《施政報告》 58 提出擴充大專學額，讓香港專上教育的普及率達到 60%。當時教資會指出全港 15 歲及以上人口具備大專學歷的只約佔五分之一；這與教育改革提出要建立知識型經濟並不匹配，故此特區政府當時急於推動高等教育的普及化。自政府建議大學可為 17至 20歲人口提供副學位課程後，教資會屬下多所院校於 2001學年起陸續推出副學位課程。加上，當時教統局透過推出學術評審資助計劃，闢設建社區學院用地，並在招聘公務員時承認副學士學歷等措施，香港高中畢業生接受專上教育的比率由 2000至 2001學年的 33%，增至 2005至 2006學年的 66%。這使政府原計劃以十年來完成的高等教育普及化計劃，提早完成；這亦使香港15歲以上受專上教育的人口，由 1998年的 17.4%攀升至 2015年的 30.8%（見上表一）。在這個高等教育大眾化推至普及化的過程中，香港政府吸收國際社會的經驗，鼓勵高等教育界增加由持續進修部門提供課程，這些課程既符合教資會資助大學課程的質素保證要求，而單位成本又降低一半；但這做法卻促使高等教育引入較多市場化機制，令香港高等院校間的競爭壓力增強。香港高等教育國際化香港作為亞洲國際都會，為了維持社會的國際競爭力，香港高等教育一直培育學生成為國際化人才，「就承擔着傳播中西文化的使命，香港政府也將打造區域教育樞紐作為推動本地經濟及社會發展的重要一環」（夏雪艷、黃磊，2017，頁 67）。教資會早於 2004年發表《香港高等教育──共展所長‧與時俱進》已指出香港應扮演區內教育樞紐的角色，促進各資助院校在相關方面致力達致具國際競爭力的水平。及後，「特區政府於 2006年成立一個高層次跨部門督導委員會，檢視促進香港高等教育國際化的相關策略，以配合發展香港成為區域教育樞紐的願景」（盧一威、伍世傑、韓笑，2016；羅金義，2016，頁 45-47）。在 2010年的《展望高等教育體系》中，教資會明確「各院校應確保有一定比例的教學人員和學生來自世界各地，並幫助非本地學生與本地學生融合；同樣，各院校亦應幫助本地學生適應校方的國際化工作，包括提升學生兩文三語的能力，以及為本地學生提供更多優質的交流機會」（大學教育資助委員會，2010）。經過各高等院校的多年努力，香港高等院校國際化程度有目共睹。內地學者李凌（2015）指出「香港大學外教的情況，在 1,400多名教師中有 99％的人有國外學習經歷，外籍教師佔比近 50％；而香港科技大學教師來自近 30個國家，其中不乏美國國家兩院院士；香港中文大學外 59 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況籍教師比例也超過 30％」（頁 996）。同時，有內地學者亦發現香港「各高校經常舉辦大型的國際性學術研討會，邀請國際著名學者來校講學，並開展廣泛的合作研究；香港高校與國外高校還建立了教師互訪制度，利用假期互派教師進行學術訪問」（顏軍梅、萬波，2014，頁 94）。透過各院校在聘用人員和學術活動的相關措施，促進了香港高等教育的國際化情況。圖一：香港高等教育的重新定位（修改自鄭燕祥，2017）從圖一：香港高等教育的重新定位，可看到「香港高等教育正由過往側重公共財務資源和切合本地需要的 A型高等教育，透過新定位改為較多追求切合全球需要和市場導向的高等教育」（鄭燕祥，2017）。在追求切合全球需要方面，香港高等教育大力推動國際化；與此同時，「隨着自負盈虧課程的大量開設，以及社區學院的發展，市場力量在香港高等教育發展中的作用日益增大」（岳經綸、李曉康， 2007，頁 16）；香港高等教育的市場化亦逐步增加。在 2015/16 學年，香港的適齡青年人超過 46%修讀本地院校的學位課程；連同副學位學額計算修讀專上課程的青年有約七成（教育局，2016）；當中報讀全日制經本地評審自資第一年學士學位 60 課程的學生人數，由 2005/06學年 3,600人升至 2015/16學年的 24,300人。可見在過去十年間，香港自資院校大幅增加了自資學士學位，其學額數目已比公營院校的 17,000學位個為多；這情況反映出香港過去利用市場化去提供更多的學士學額。而為了照顧清貧家庭子女讀高等自資學士課程，新一屆特區政府於 2017年 7月推出的「支援優質教育的優先措施」內，提出「向修讀香港合資格院校開辦的全日制經本地評審本地及非本地自資學士學位課程的合資格學生，提供每年 30,000元的免入息審查資助」（教育局，2017a，頁 2）。境外大學生來港升讀按國際標準「高校中留學生的比重是衡量區域教育國際化和現代化水準的主要指標之一，世界高收入國家該項指標的平均值為 10.3%；2010年香港高校本科生中非本地生比例為 23.50%，研究生中非本地生比例為 42.06%」（韋家朝，2012，頁 74）。這反映當年香港高等院校非本地生比率已超國際平均水平；在 2011至 2012 學年，「八所院校一共錄取了 2004名來自內地及其他地區修讀第一年學士學位課程的學生，約佔計劃收生人數的 14%，遠高於 2000至 2001學年的 1%及 2005至 2006學年的 7%」（大學教育資助委員會，2012）。而據教資會最近的統計，在 2015/16學年八資助院校共有 98,842 名學生，其中非本地生人數共 15,727名，佔整體人數 16.0%；顯示香港高等教育對境外的內地生和其他外地學生具吸引力。下表二是近 16年來非本地學生修讀八所資助高等院校的增加趨勢。因應非本地生的增加，香港高校持份者關注到非本地生在院校的適應情況；正如發展香港教育產業工作小組於 2011年便提出：留學生對所入讀的學位課程整體上是否稱心滿意，關鍵因素之一是他們能否融入所屬院校乃至投入香港的生活。表二　教資會資助課程的非本地生人數（2000/01-2015/16）學年中國內地亞洲其他地區其他地區非本地生總數佔總學生比例 2000/01 1,462 170 148 1,781 2% 2001/02 1,912 183 158 2,253 3% 2002/03 2,230 204 170 2,604 3% 2003/04 2,849 197 158 3,204 4% 61 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況 2004/05 3,362 210 156 3,728 5% 2005/06 4,370 244 160 4,773 6% 2006/07 5,754 292 171 6,210 9% 2007/08 6,751 347 195 7,293 10% 2008/09 7,713 418 262 8,392 12% 2009/10 8,429 596 308 9,333 13% 2010/11 8,724 950 400 10,074 14% 2011/12 8,936 1,355 478 10,770 14% 2012/13 10,963 2,105 593 13,661 15% 2013/14 11,374 2,495 641 14,510 15% 2014/15 11,610 2,831 710 15,151 16% 2015/16 11,891 3,130 706 15,727 16% 眾所周知，在全球一體化下各地高等教育國際化形式多樣，各地高等院校可透過國際策略、課程發展、國際網絡、非本地學生的招收及融合、國際的教職員等措施去推動國際化；教資會於 2017年表明繼續鼓勵各大學以校本方式推行國際化，而「在 2016至 19的三年期，各大學會繼續獲得資助持續進行有關工作，以吸引更多來自不同地方的非本地學生」（新聞公報，2017）。重視吸引非本地生入讀高等院校，這是高等教育普及國家地區的慣常做法，歐美發達國家諸多研究發現，留學生與本土學生的跨文化互動，能夠幫助學生減少負面認知留學生和本土學生的跨文化理解能力都有所提高」（馬佳妮，2016，頁 60）。然而令人關注的是來自中國內地的非本地生，在香港院校的適應並不理想，有本地學者指出「學生多元化同時也帶來種種挑戰，例如學生之間各自抱團，缺乏互動；中港學生缺乏理解，相互標籤」（梁亦華，2017）。內地學者黃發來（2016）在剖析香港高等教育發展的優劣機威時亦指出：「香港高等院校的跨文化政策不充分，不利於香港高等教育國際化的穩健發展」（頁 42）。面對這個獨特的內地跨學生被排斥現象，香港個別高等院校師生對促進兩地文化互動較為關注，其中科大內地學生學者聯誼會會在舉辦迎新活動時，會安排由內地學長學姐擔任「組爸、組媽」，帶領新生熟悉學校學習、生活，之後亦會舉辦一些活動，如學粵語、感知香港不同文化（湯凌琰，2017）。 62 高等教育學生交流為了推動香港高等院校學生跨境學習，大學教育資助委員會於 2010年的《展望香港高等教育體系》內強調提供更多海外交流機會的重要性，明確「在推行新學制後，學生應有更多機會參與各種形式和為期不同的交流活動」（大學教育資助委員會，2010）。在 2009/10學年，教資會資助院校有 3,600名非本地交換生來港交流，以及 3,500名本港學生到外地交流；換言之，當年 6名大學生中就有 1人參與交換生計劃。正如本地學者崔康常（2012）認為「交流計畫讓學生有機會到外地院校學習，與來自世界各地的同學相處，並親身體驗異文化，有效培養學生成為全面的人才」。與此同時，為了同步促進香港學生到內地院校進行交流，《2011/12年度政府財政預算案》建議「撥款 1 億元推行為期 5年的專上學生內地體驗先導計畫，以配對形式資助專上學生到內地參加短期實習或學習；每名學生最高可獲 3,000元資助」（教育局，2011）；在 2011/12至 2013/14三個學年，政府透過這計畫資助超過 19,000名高等院校學生赴內地交流，擴闊了香港大學生的跨境視野和學習經歷。經政府投入新資源後，八所資助大學的交流生人數上升，每年離港交流生超過 6,000 名。表三　教資會資助大學的交流生人數（2006/07-2015/16）學年學士學位課程來港的交流生離港的交流生 2006/07 52,513 2,920 2,383 2007/08 53,359 3,180 2,772 2008/09 55,050 3,481 3,251 2009/10 56,610 3,644 3,546 2010/11 57,565 3,972 3,889 2011/12 58,412 4,414 4,217 2012/13 76,351 4,626 4,623 2013/14 78,219 5,363 5,379 2014/15 80,914 5,599 6,171 2015/16 82,657 5,912 6,320 63 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況教育局高怡慧（2016）重申「一個集合來自不同區域學生，擁有多元文化的學習環境，有助加強文化交流、擴闊本地學生的視野，讓他們更具國際競爭力。」為了促進香港大學生在具備專業知識的同時，擁有國際視野和與別文化人士的合作能力，香港政府和教資會近年積極鼓勵大學生參與交流計劃。從上表三「教資會資助大學的交流生人數」可見，八高等院校資助學生離港的交流生從 2010/11年度起逐年明顯增加，「在 2014/15學年，約 5,600名學生來港到本地公帑資助院校交流；同年，約 6,200名本地學生到香港以外地區參與交流活動，即是說，每四名本科生中便有一名有機會於在學期間出外交流」（教育局，2016a）。可見經政府和各院校的努力推動，香港的大學生的雙向交流越來越普及；正如「香港中文大學與 180 多所著名的海內外學府開展學生交換計劃，其中包括哈佛、耶魯等世界頂級大學」（程艷麗，2010，頁 97），境外交流有利香港大學生擴闊視野和提昇其國際競爭力；而「為了積極推動學生的對外雙向交流，香港各高校都成立交流處，制定多項學生交流計劃；課程計劃、合作計劃來擴展香港境外留學生的招收和本校學生海外的交換工作」（錢偉，2009，頁 41）。當然由境外來港交流的六千名大學生，亦為香港院校創設更國際化的教與學和研究環境。香港高等教育學額供過於求在下表四是八所資助高等院校的統計可見，在 2012/13年新大學學制落實的雙班年，八所資助院校共收了 33,073名第一年學士課程學生，比正常年份的名額多近兩倍；除該年外，八院校學位課程每年的收生只有微升，至 2015/16學年為 17,410名大一新生。與此同時，一個值得關注的現象是八資助院校的副學士人數由 2000/01的 13,212，持續下跌至 2015/16年度的 5,394人；期間香港年青人升讀專上教育機會依然大增，主要是來自資院校持續增加學士及副學士學位。而因不少副學士學生的就業和升學前景欠佳，幾年前已有輿論要求政府加強對課程的質素保證，並要求增加副學士銜接學士課程的機會。為此，政府宣佈由 2012至 2013學年起，「把教資會資助高年級學士學位課程學額，分階段倍增至每年 8,000個，為優秀的副學位畢業生提供更多機會，讓他們升讀新學制下學士學位課程的最後兩年」（教育局，2013），這措施增加了在學副學士的升學機會，為他們完大學夢提供較多的可能性；但政府對已畢業的副學士青年則仍未有明顯的支援措施。 64 表四　教資會資助八所院校綜合統計數字 2000/01 2004/05 2008/09 2012/13 2015/16 副學位課程學生人數 13,212 10,736 7,107 6,503 5,394 學位課程學生人數 45,645 48,830 55,050 76,351 82,657 學生總人數 68,796 69,313 72,067 93,394 98,842 第一年學士課程學生人數 14,433 14,719 15,715 33,073 17,410 注：人數是以相當全日制學生來計算（修訂至教資會，2016）事實上，為了擴大認可學士學額而不動用大幅額外開支，政府鼓勵自資院校根據2009年的〈專上學院條例〉開辦學士課程，自此有珠海、恒管、東華、明愛、明德、港專、能仁及宏恩等八所私立院校陸續按條例註冊，連同香港公開大學及香港高等教育科技學院，十所院校「以自資形式每年提供合共 13,000個政府認可學士學額，令本地總入學率升至近三成多，減輕了本地學生的升學壓力並提升社會公平與流動性」（何順文，2017）。然而，香港高等教育發展的一個挑戰，就是源於自資院校近年的急速發展；而據教育局指出「中學畢業生人數由 2015/16 學年的 56,840 人將降至 2021/22學年的 42,700 人；鑑於自資專上課程近年擴展，香港專上課程已供過於求」（教育局，2016b）。因應自資院校學位將面臨供過於求的危機，有學者建議「政府牽頭，以貿發局為骨幹、海外經貿處輔助，調動有關決策局和執行部門，統籌八大院校和自資院校，把香港高等教育的精彩，帶到世界、帶往『一帶一路』，亦把它們的精彩帶來香港」（楊志剛，2017）；上述建議值得政府及貿發局作研究和跟進。香港高等教育國際化的挑戰回顧香港高等教育的發展，上世紀八十年代香港高等教育仍是精英型，到了九十年代邁進大眾化，而至今成為一個普及型高等教育的社會。當前香港高等教育發展成熟，已是一個具吸引力的高等教育樞紐；有近四分之一的適齡青年就讀六所亞洲 50強大學之內，比率在區內明顯偏高。而為了促進香港社會和高等教育的競爭力，政府、教資會和各資助院校仍積極推動國際化，不單提高非本地生入讀的機 65 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況會，亦同時增加香港高等院校學生的交流機會；然而，因為高等教育市場化的發展和適齡學生人口下降，香港高等院校尤其是自資院校將面臨收生困難，此乃香港高等教育當下的一大挑戰。與此同時，香港高等教育國際化其中一個獨特現象，是其外地生主要是來自同一國家的內地生，在兩地社會制度、書寫和聽說中文的不同，香港高等院校的跨文化情況並不理想，這是一個值得各高等院校持份者去關注的挑戰。再者，因應歷年累積超過 200,000名副學士畢業生，香港縱有不俗的青年升讀專上比例，但其大學生佔成年人口相對區內國際大城市偏低，故有評論建議「政府要為副學士畢業生尋求更多內地及海外大學的學歷認可，令畢業生可以到不同國家和地區的大學繼續升學」（顏汶羽，2017）；以促進香港青年在知識型經濟和新科技發展的全球一體化環境中，有足夠的可持續發展和國際競爭力。另一方面，正如教資會委員石禮謙（2016）指出「香港作為亞洲其中一個最國際化的城市，熟悉國際市場，專業制度、標準與國際接軌，並擁有一國兩制的制度優勢，『背靠祖國，面向世界』，有條件成為接通內地與海外的橋樑及亞洲區內高等教育樞紐。」為了鞏固香港高等教育國際化的情況，政府「利用私人捐助於 2017/18 學年推出『一帶一路獎學金』予馬來西亞及泰國的學生，進一步加強香港與『一帶一路』地區的聯繫和在教育方面的交流」（教育局，2017b），這做法可吸引更多元的外地生入讀香港高等院校，在配合國家「一帶一路」戰略發展的同時，亦將有助香港高等院校和大學生提高跨文化能力。而香港高等教育的一個新課題是因應總理李克強在 2017年政府工作報告，「提到要研究制定粵港澳大灣區城市群發展規劃，發揮港澳獨特優勢，提升在國家經濟發展和對外開放中的地位與功能」（鄭群，2017）；怎麼利用這個大灣區規劃去促進香港高等教育的發展？又或讓香港高等教育發展有效地落實粵港澳大灣區的規劃？這也是香港高等教育界的一個新挑戰。 66 參考文獻大學教育資助委員會（2004）。《香港高等教育─共展所長‧與時俱進》。2017年 5 月 8日，取自 http://www.ugc.edu.hk/big5/ugc/about/press_ speech_other/press/2004/pr300104e.html。大學教育資助委員會（2010）。〈展望香港高等教育體系（大學教育資助委員會報告）〉。2015年 6月 15日，取自 http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/chinese/panels/ ed/papers/edcb2-602-1-c.pdf。大學教育資助委員會（2012）。《大學資助委員會 2011/12年年報》。香港：香港大學資助委員會，頁 57。石禮謙（2015，5月 16日）。香港可成「一帶一路」人才培訓中心。《大公報》， A12版。李凌（2015）。〈港校國際化對內地高校學生國際交流的啟示〉。《武漢理工大學學報（社會科學版）》，2015年第 5期，第 28卷，995-1000。何順文（2017，3月4日）。〈香港私立自資院校策略性角色（上）〉。《信報》，C04版。明報（2017年 3月 16日）。〈【亞洲大學排行】港 6間大學位居亞洲五十大　港大浸大排名跌〉。2017 年 5 月 8 日，取自 https://news.mingpao.com/ins/ instantnews/web_tc/article/20170316/s00001/1489625852684。岳經綸、李曉康（2007）。〈延續與變遷：21世紀初的香港高等教育發展與改革〉。《清華大學教育研究》，28（1），8-16,24。韋家朝（2012）。〈經驗與特色：高等教育的香港模式〉。《國際教育行政學院學報》，第 4期，73-77。夏雪艷、黃磊（2017）。〈香港高等教育國際化政策研究─以國際化內容為維度的分析〉。《世界教育信息》，2017年第 2期，67-71。高怡慧（2016）。〈推動高等教育國際化同時增加本地學生接受高等教育機會〉。2017 年 4 月 26 日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/about-edb/press/insiderperspective/ insiderperspective20160418.html。教育局（2011）。〈專上學生內地體驗計畫〉。2015年 6月 15日，取自 http://www. legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/chinese/panels/ed/papers/ed0509cb2-1657-5-c.pdf。教育局（2016a）。〈香港教育整體發展〉。立法會教育事務委員會 2016年 7月 2日會議討論《立法會 CB（4）1181/15-16（04）》號文件。教育局（2016b）。〈自資專上課程的政策的相關事宜〉。立法會教育事務委員會《立法會 CB（4）1090/15-16（01）》號文件。 67 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況教育局（2017a）。〈支持優質教育的優先措施〉。立法會教育事務委員會 2017年 7 月 10日會議討論文件。教育局（2017b）。〈2017年施政報告教育局的政策措施〉。立法會教育事務委員會 2017年 1月 24日會議討論文件。崔康常（2012）。〈全球一體化下的新學制及專上教育發展生態〉。《青年研究學報》，第 15期，第一卷，29-38。梁亦華（2017，7月 29日）。〈高等教育的跨文化交流〉。《信報》，C04版。彭澤平、姚琳（2012）。〈香港高等教育外部質量保障 :背景、架構與經驗。《現代大學教育》，第 1期。黃發來（2016）。〈香港高等教育國際化的歷史與現狀〉。《大學（研究版）》，第9期， 35-44。喻曉聰、李阿利（2011）。〈香港高等教育國際化特色分析及借鑒〉。《現代企業教育》，第 20期，137-139。程艷麗（2010）。解讀香港高等教育優勢。《教育與職業》，（10），96-98。湯凌琰（2017，6月 20日）。港漂北漂兩地升學齊築夢。《大公報》，A19版。楊志剛（2017）。〈教育賜予林鄭的歷史契機〉。2017年 5月 8日，取自 https://news. mingpao.com/pns/dailynews/web_tc/article/20170505/s00012/1493920844697。新聞公報（2017）。〈教資會就帳委會第六十七號報告書回應〉。2017年 4月 26日，取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201702/15/P2017021500719.htm。鄭群（2017，3月 12日）。〈大灣區利港高教科研發展〉。《文匯報》，A08版。鄭燕祥（2017）。《香港教改：三部變奏》。香港：中華書局（香港）有限公司。盧一威、伍世傑、韓笑（2016）。《香港高等教育》。香港：中華書局（香港）有限公司。錢偉（2009）。〈香港高校國際化辦學特色分析〉。《浙江教育學院學報》，第 6期， 38-42, 57。戴曉霞、楊岱穎（2012）。《高等教育國際學生市場新趨勢》。台北：高等教育。顏汶羽（2017年，2月 24日）。〈教育很重要〉。《商報》，A03版。顏軍梅、萬波（2014）。〈地方高等學校國際化發展策略──對於香港高等教育國際化的特點〉。《江漢大學學報（社會科學版）》，2014年第 2期，第 3卷， 93-96, 126。 68 69 香港高等教育的發展及國際化現況 The development and internationalization of higher education in Hong Kong WU Siu Wai Department of International Education and Lifelong Learning, The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract Hong Kong's higher education in 1980s of last century is elite-type. Then it has changed to mass-type higher education in 1990s. Into the twenty-first century Hong Kong become universal-type of higher education society. At the same time, in order to support the development of international metropolis, Hong Kong's higher education has cultivated an international vision, and the University Grants Committee (UGC) and institutions have always emphasis to promote internationalization. In order to analyze the development and the internationalization of Hong Kong's higher education. This article aims to review Hong Kong's higher education from elite, mass to the universal-type, and the internationalization of Hong Kong's higher education, oversea students studying in Hong Kong, student exchange in tertiary institutions, and to discuss the challenges of higher education in Hong Kong. Keywords Hong Kong higher education, type of higher education, development of higher education in Hong Kong, internationalization of higher education 70 71 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思余嘉明、許聲浪、羅英倫、李子建香港教育大學摘要國際化是現時高等教育界的一個重要議程和發展方向，也是主流評級機構用以評核大學的其中一個因素。各界對國際化的定義不盡相同。在香港，有意見指實施國際化目的就是為了強化「香港的特徵」，從而增加國際學生與本地學生相互文化發展機會。境外學習活動既可以提升學生多方面的技能，亦能讓他們獲得個人全面發展及擴闊全球視野。透過瞭解國際化的定義，以及一所本地大學在其國際化進程中為學生提供境外學習的經驗，我們可對香港高校學生怎樣在國際化中獲益有更深瞭解。關鍵詞境外學習，全球化，高等教育的學習，香港高等教育國際化（Internationalization）已經在高等教育界成為一個重要的議程和發展方向 (American Council on Education, u.d.; QAC u.d.; Green, 2012)。根據大學教育資助委員會（University Grants Committee, 2010）的看法，香港是一個具中西文化並重特色的國際大都會，實施國際化並非要忽略本地需要和傳統價值（p.50），反而要進一步強化香港的特徵。雖然香港不少大專院校均致力不同的國際化策略。近年本地大學的國際化似局限於以下環節︰ 72 (1) 關注外在評價或國際標竿：媒體都會報導大學在不同排名榜（例如 QS等級，英國泰晤士報、上海交通大學排名榜等），以及學科排名榜（例如 QS ranking）； (2) 因為國際化的普及，大專院校亦開始取錄海外生、提供出外考察機會及交流生計劃名額。不同學者和機構對國際化的定義不盡相同，根據加拿大大學及大專院校協會（Association of University and Colleges of Canada (AUCC)）的定義，「國際化」是機構的組織活動，藉以在大學教學、科研和服務功能裡，整合或綜合國際、全球及 /或跨文化（intercultural）維度 https://www.univcan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ internationalization-survey-2014.pdf。Cheng, Cheung and Ng（2016, p.4）建議一個高等教育國際化的概念化矩陣（conceptualization matrix），包括四一個維度及相關細目如下︰（一）國際化的目的或動機（學術 /教育、經濟、政治、社會文化）；（二）關鍵行動者及元素的國際移動力（mobility）（學生、教師、知識 /專門技能、課程、機構）；（三）國際活動（傳遞、交流、輸入 /輸出、市場化、企業家精神、競爭、建立聯盟 /合作）；（四）高等教育的功能領域（教學、課程、專業及發展服務、科研、顧問、知識分享、技術轉移等）（p.4）。究竟增加國際學生對香港有甚麼意義？根據 Bodycott（2016, p.173）及其他學者和機構的看法（例如 Education Bureau, 2007），國際生可加強本地學生相互文化（intercultural）發展機會。如果從學生學習經驗的角度而言，促進學生的相互文化或跨文化能力，以及培養全球意識是國際化的其中一些考慮因素（例如 McGrath, Donna, 2016）。Yefanova , Baird及 Montgomery（2015, p.14）在跨國互動（cross- national interaction）方面探討下列維度，例如態度方面是否有意願去適應文化差異；在知識方面有沒有學習明顯和隱晦的文化元素和在學科內容有沒有發展多元角度；在技能方面有沒有培養領導技能、解難技能，以及溝通及加強網絡技能等。Huggins （2014, p.7）指出國際學習文流活動對培養跨文化能力有一定作用，這些取向某程度上從「全球公民取向」轉移至「文化素養」（cultural literacy）（例如 Andreotti, 2006），而且一位具跨文化能力的人可以很快「適應新的文化處境」、「對其他文化抱持正面態度及好奇心」、「願意理解他人觀點」、「對不同文化方面有見識」等（p.7）。 73 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思 XX 大學學生的境外學習機會 XX大學是香港一所提供教師培訓並且由政府資助的高等學府，該校致力培育敏於思考、關懷社會及放眼世界的教育工作者及社會領袖，使之能夠服務社區，推動變革。每年為該校修讀不同科目的學生提供全方位的境外學習機會，以培養 XX 大學學生除學術及個人專業外，在技能方面有沒有方法來培養領導技能、解難技能，以及溝通及加強網絡技能等，以及擴闊學生國際視野及提高世界公民意識，令學生達致全人發展，為未來踏入社會工作及貢獻做好準備。XX大學為每位修讀全日制本科課程的學生提供不同類型的資助參與境外學習活動，當中環球學習體驗增潤基金 1，便為每位學生提供境外學習資助，學生可在修讀全日制本科課程的期間使用該資助參與不同類型的境外學習活動，例如學生交換計劃、海外及大中華區暑期實習計劃及其他海外學習及交流活動等。各類型的境外學習活動隨著社會不斷轉變，大眾對大學生的期望亦不斷地提升，作為一所主要提供教師培訓的院校，境外學習機會對 XX大學學生尤其重要。從 XX大學的觀察及經驗中發現境外學習活動彌補正規教育未能提供的全人發展元素，讓學生獲得體驗式學習機會之外，可以擴闊他們的視野，學會關心國際社會所面對的挑戰及問題，並且強化自身作為世界公民的意識及責任。XX大學學生可因應個人的興趣、能力及需要選擇適合自己的境外活動及地點，當中很多活動在發展中國家和地區，例如：孟加拉、尼泊爾、印度、印尼、蒙古、越南、柬埔寨、寮國、斯里蘭卡及泰國等進行。也有部分活動在已發展國家和地區，例如：新加坡、日本、台灣及韓國等，甚至第三世界國家，例如：埃塞俄比亞進行。境外學習活動的內容可包括到訪海外大學與其學生交流、探訪海外社會服務機構、探索海外國家文化、進行社區服務活動等。當中 XX大學學生最感興趣的便是到達發展中國家參與海外社區服務活動，而服務內容包括探訪學校、教授村民衛生及健康知識、教授僧侶英語、與村落兒童進行遊戲、進行學校翻新工作、參與海洋保育活動，以及進行災後重建家園工作等。學生可因應個人的上課時間表，在不同時段參與兩至四星期的境外學習活動。 _______________ 1 「環球學習體驗增潤基金」資助全日制本科生參與已獲批的活動。每位學生可獲資助活動費用的 50%，上限為港幣一萬元。 74 如前所述，提供更多的境外學習機會無疑可以讓學生擴闊視野之餘也學到課堂上不能學到的多種技能。增加此類活動數量之餘，開展深度的量身訂做的伙伴協作交流學習活動，更能讓學生學到各種技能並身體力行體驗所學。除了多種多樣的短期海外學習體驗活動，提供更多為期一學期的帶學分課程學生交換計劃對學生的技能獲得大有裨益。有見曾經參與學生交換計劃的同學完成學習返港後，齊聲贊同在異地學習和生活的經歷難能可貴，是大學生涯甚至人生中重要的一課，XX大學與北京師範大學攜手合作，推出「特選交換計劃」2，在原有學生交換計劃的基礎上注入新元素；同學除了可以從北京師範大學多元的課程中揀取選修課以外，大學知名教學團隊更悉心編排了核心必修課程和到當地中小學的參訪、觀課、交流的機會，讓香港學生對內地中小學教育發展現狀有更深的了解和體驗。自主性及延續性為本學習方式現時香港各所大學所提供的境外學習機會主要是單次性進行的，而 XX大學的境外學習活動獨特之處在於活動過程強調學生的自主性及朋輩學習之餘，校方亦會發展學長系統，促進同學經驗交流及活動的延續。學生發展活動導師亦會提供相關的培訓及支援，協助學生成長及傳遞經驗。XX大學大部分境外學習計劃均由學生作為主導，並參與活動的組織、策劃、推行及評估工作。從出發前準備，到當地的行程和活動內容，校方都給予學生自主學習空間及發揮機會，讓他們與同行的組員討論、協商及作決定，為自己及團隊所參與的境外學習活動創造多樣化的學習機會。此外，XX大學亦在大部分境外學習活動計劃中推行學長制度，挑選曾參加該計劃的學生擔任學長，帶領其他學生進行出發前的準備及培訓，讓他們可自行設計活動流程、建議活動內容、聯絡接待單位、進行文化及社會專題探討、準備文化交流活動，以及籌組其他出發前準備活動及會議等等，學長運用他們的經驗協助學生在活動過程中面對的難題及挑戰，從而提升的學生的領導能力及促進朋輩相互學習及知識轉移，讓境外學習經驗得以累積及延續。另一方面，負責計劃的學生發展活動導師亦會為學生在出發到當地參與活動前提供不同類型的培訓，例如：自我了解工作 _______________ 2 XXX大學已與北京師範大學合作，透過特選學習交換計劃，互派學生到對方院校交流，時間長達一學期，修讀共達十五學分的課程，包括教育學理論、教育研究方法、教育測量與評價，以及在當地實習和考察學校。 75 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思坊、目標訂立工作坊、原野烹飪、團隊建立活動等培訓，並邀請過往參加者分享學習經歷及得著。透過這些活動，學生更加了解自己及團隊的特點、釐清自己參與計劃的目的及與同團同學建立良好的合作關係。境外活動的學習目標及挑戰參與學生明白到境外學習活動的目的不單只是讓他們擴闊眼界及體驗當地文化，他們知道更重要是活動過後，自己對旅程的反思及與其他同學得分享。參與活動的學生於旅程前了解活動預期成效及訂下個人學習目標，並於旅程中填寫學習日誌，旅程完畢後填寫活動報告及與即將出發的學生分享自己在當地的感受及學習，令其他學生能了解境外學習活動計劃的目標及將要面對的困難及挑戰。由於學生會到達陌生且文化不同的國家進行學習，他們有機會與不同學系、年級的同學離開香港及校園的舒適區，在不熟悉的環境下相處及面對挑戰（見附錄）。學生必須面對性格各異的團友、處理團隊內的關係，接受到不同文化衝擊、價值觀及生活態度差異等挑戰。因此學生於參與活動後，他們的協作、溝通、解難及領導等個人共通能力都有所提升，而且他們學會欣賞及尊重不同的文化，更加關心境外弱勢社群及有需要幫助的人士，並且願意擔當學長的角色，把經驗及知識傳授給其他有志參與活動的同學。在各種境外學習活動當中，同學對參與一些具社區服務及文化探索性質的活動較感興趣，而於發展中國家進行義工服務及探索偏遠地方文化的活動更受同學歡迎。對同學來說，參與境外學習活動具一定程度的挑戰，因此參與同學們願意於出發前進行不同的培訓及準備面對文化上的衝擊及語言溝通上的障礙，並邀請當地大學生進行翻譯及參與討論，讓學習過程更加有效及豐富。參與學生分享及得著在過去一個學年，XX大學約有一千四百多名學生參與不同類型的境外學習活動，當中海外領袖訓練計劃（LEAD Programme）每年約有二百多名同學由學長的帶領下到達多個亞洲區發展中國家進行領袖訓練、文化體驗及社區服務。計劃的前測（pre-test）與後測（post-test）結果顯示參與同學的溝通能力、解難能力、自我管理技巧、文化能力及聆聽能力等共通能力都有所提升。參與學生分享境外學習活動所到訪的國家文化與中國文化截然不同，他們不單可以擴闊視野及了解世界各地的文化，並且提升他們世界公民的意識。例如參與海外領袖訓練計劃到訪印度修讀 76 中文教育課程的梁同學分享：「印度人在進食時只用右手，若使用被視為不潔的左手或餐具，會被當地人認為是不尊重食物的表現，因此我們都必須入鄉隨俗，全程每日三餐都用手進食。」學生明白到文化是日積月累，並且決定了當地人的生活習慣及方式，他們必須理解及尊重文化差異。而另一位參與斯里蘭卡學習團的學生亦了解到當地僧侶有崇高的地位，普通人不能與他們玩耍及進食。這些與當地人近距離的交流及接觸，讓學生的視野不再只管限在自己的認知及本土文化之內，他們可以學習多角度的思考，從而尊重不同國家文化，關心他們的需要及宣揚相互關愛的精神。參與學生亦透過活動當中擔當組織者角色從而了解到自己的領袖風格。其中曾擔當活動主持的修讀幼兒教育課程的李同學分享：「每個人的領袖風格都透過一日活動主持呈現，就團員的反應，我明白到作為領袖必須讓每位隊員都找到自己的價值，其貢獻也應被認同及鼓勵，團隊也自然會充滿動力。」另外，修讀心理學的榮同學亦分享：「在這短短十二天的旅程裡，我對自己的瞭解更加深刻，亦嘗試去發掘自己更多的潛能。我發現自己是屬於溫和型的領袖類型，我會非常樂於傾聽別人的意見，然後再考慮並做出一個決定。我在做事的時候很認真，也很執著，對於一些規則比較看重，因此在初期給大家的印象都是比較冷靜和鐵面無私。但是相處久了之後，我性格中溫和和親和力強的一面就表現出來了，於是大家評價我為剛柔並濟。」參與境外學習計劃亦拉近了學生與國際社會的關係，讓他們認識到不同地方的時事及社會問題。曾到訪越南義教主修中文教育的鄧同學分享：「這次旅程，讓我知道和當地人相處，建立關係，是令文化具體化的過程。從當地人的一言一行，你慢慢會了解到當地的教育，經濟，政治文化。我們曾在越南一間寺院進行義教，和小孩的父母溝通，才知道越南很多小孩都受著戶籍問題，因而沒有身分，不能上學。我才發現其實不單越南如此，在香港及全世界，沒有身分的學童，如難民，都是面對一樣的問題，令我反思到世界問題其實與我很近，也令我更有了解不同地方文化的興趣。」參加較長期的活動對學生的個人成長、解決問題能力及社交能力更是有深度的作用。其中兩位參加了「特選交換計劃」的學生認為通過內地的體驗 ,提升了自己 77 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思的解決與應變能力 ,此外也會認識自己和認識新的朋友。至於「特選交換計劃」提供於當地中小學的參訪、觀課和實習的機會，學生認為加深認識內地的教育環境並了解教師的備課和施教過程 ,雖然覺得付出不少 ,但強化了對教學技巧的認識。 XX大學鼓勵學生將參與交換活動的體驗與習得記錄在學生個人電子學習歷程檔案（e-portfolio）。檔案是 XX大學為學生記錄其聯課學習、學校體驗和海外交流活動等而設的平台，旨在培養與課程改革所聚焦的廿一世紀技能培養（Irvine, Code & Richards, 2013; Kivunja, 2014），例如自我監控和自我調整學習、批判思維及反思性學習等能力頗為契合。其中主修語文研究參加了「特選交換計劃」的鄭同學在她的 e-portfolio分享道：「在西師附小觀課令我感受良多，不但讓我看到內地小學的課堂是怎麼樣的、老師又會用什麼資源和方式去教導學生，從中亦讓我發現內地小學的資源很豐富且先進、同學們學習很認真和積極，並且瞭解到香港小學和內地小學在上課模式、教學方法等方面的異同，是個很難得的機會。另外，⋯⋯我有機會能到北京第二實驗小學觀看一次內地的說課比賽，這是一個既難得，又新奇且大開眼界的經驗，因為我從未聽過和看過類似的教研方法，這種老師之間的學習，透過觀摩別人的教學方法以完善自己的課堂的方法讓我留下深刻的印象。」對學生的未來的幫助從海外領袖訓練計劃（LEAD Programme）的前測（pre-test）與後測（post-test）的結果，我們得知參與境外學習活動有助學生提升個人領袖才能及共通能力，並且擴闊他們的國際視野及宣揚關愛精神。對於修讀教育學士課程的學生來說這些海外義教活動深化他們的教學體會及經驗。參與活動的學生能學會多角度的思考及尊重不同的文化，在未來的教學過程中，當他們在面對不同文化及家庭背景的家長及學生時，更能懂得利用同理心體諒他們的處境及分析對問題背後的原因。他們所學習的共通能力，特別是溝通能力、協作技巧及解難能力等，亦有助於學生將來於工作崗位上與其他老師、家長及學生建立更好的人際關係、團隊精神及促進家校合作。更重要的是，作為未來學生的學習對象，XX大學學生可分享個人及團隊於海外學習的經歷、得著及所見所聞等予他們將來的學生，讓下一代也能學習到尊重不同文化、建立個人及文化認同感，以及學會關心國際時事議題。XX大學學生所學習到的領導技巧亦有助他們組織同類型學習交流團給予下一代參加，透過這些境外體驗 78 學習讓年輕一代有更多反思空間、建立正確的價值觀、尊重各國生活文化及珍惜自身所擁用的機會及資源，以及共同建設更美好的世界。綜上所述，透過參與多種多樣的境外學習，學生在多方面的技能獲得提升的同時，其個人的全面發展及全球視野同時也自然得到提升，這也是目前世界主流的評級機構（如 QS, Times Higher Education）將國際化納入大學評級的其中一個因素。當然，境外學習只是國際化的其中一個部分，因此，XX大學在推動大學的國際化進程中，除了增加多種多樣的短期／長期、帶學分／不帶學分的學習及體驗課程以外，也非常重視其他領域的國際化，包括校園國際化（Internationalization at home）、課程國際化（Internationalizing curriculum）、學生及教師構成的國際化（Internationalizing the staff and students）等。這幾個方面在過去的幾年均取得驕人的成績，同時在多次校外評審機構的評定中獲得好評。在未來的日子，XX大學會繼續為學生提供多樣化的境外學習機會，並會加強與本地、內地及海外不同院校、政府、社會福利及慈善團體合作，推行境外學習活動，讓參與同學透過活動有所學習及成長之餘，能夠關心國際社會及服務人群。參考文獻 American Council on Education (ACE) (u.d.). Internationalization: Collaborative to focus on co-curriculum issues. Retrieved 14th December 2016 from http://www.acenet.edu/ news-room/Pages/The-Internationalization-Collaborative.aspx Andreotti, V. (2006). Soft versus critical global citizenship education. Policy and Practice: Development Education Review, 3(Autumn): 83-98. Bodycott, P. (2016). International students on campus: Cultural difference and internationalisation: Policy and practice. In Y. C. Cheng, A. C. K. Cheung, & S. W. Ng (Eds.), Internationalization of higher education: The case of Hong Kong (pp.171- 184 ). Singapore: Springer. Cheng, Y. C., Cheung, A. C. K., & Ng, S. W. (2016). Internationalisation of higher education: Conceptualization, typology and issues. In Y. C. Cheng, A. C. K. Cheung, & S. W. Ng (Eds.), Internationalization of higher education: The case of Hong Kong (pp. 1-18). Singapore: Springer. 79 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思 Education Bureau (2007). Legislative council panel on manpower policy initiatives of the Education Bureau in the 2007-2008 policy agenda. Retrieved 15th December 2016 from http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr07-08/english/panels/mp/papers/mp1018cb2-40-1-e. pdf Green, M.F. (2012). Measuring and assessing internationalization. U.S.: NAFSA Association of International Educators. Huggins, V. (2014). International study visits and the promotion of intercultural capabilities. In W. Miller (Ed.), Internationalization and the student experience (pp.7- 10). PedRIO paper 5. U.K.: PedRIO and Plymouth University. Irvine, V., Code, J. and Richards, L. (2013). Realigning higher education for the 21st- Century learner through multi-access learning. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 172-186. Kivunja, C. (2014). Innovative pedagogies in higher education to become effective teachers of 21st century skills: Unpacking the learning and innovations skills domain of the new learning paradigm. International Journal of Higher Education, 3(4), 37- 48. McGrath, D. (2016). Internationalization at home: Intercultural competency assessment at a regional university campus in British Columbia. A research project for the Master of Arts in Intercultural and International Communication. Canada: Royal Roads University. Quality Assurance Council (QAC) (u.d.) Audit manual: second audit cycle. Hong Kong: QAC. University Grants Committee (UGC) (2010). Internationalization, chapter 4 in Aspirations for the Higher Education System in Hong Kong - Report of the University Grants Committee. Hong Kong: UGC. Retrieved 14th December 2016 from http://www.ugc. edu.hk/eng/doc/ugc/publication/report/her2010/ch4.pdf Yefanova, D., Baird, L. and Montgomery, M.L. (2015). Study of the educational impact of international students in campus internationalization at the University of Minnesota. Phase one – Focus group and interviews over-arching report on phase one findings. Minnesota: Regent of the University of Minnesota. 80 附錄：海外領袖訓練計劃 (LEAD Programme) 2016-17 暑期印度組服務團流程（英文版） LEAD Programme (Summer India Tour) - 12 to 26 June 2017 The Project Site Nandi betta (Anglicised forms include Nandidrug and Nandydroog) is an ancient hill fortress in southern India, in the Chikkaballapur district of Karnataka state. It is 10 km from Chikballapur town and approximately 60 km from the city of Bengaluru. The hills are nestled near the town of Nandi. In this area, peoples depend on agriculture most. Mission of the Hong Kong Group During the tour, the volunteers served in government higher primary school. The school with 112 Children and now the school has 8 staffs with 12 classrooms. The main activity was education through creative learning methods like songs, art, dance, games etc. The volunteers were involved in some renovation work for the betterment of the school. Date Morning Afternoon Evening 1 Mon. 12.Jun Arrival @ 01:30 Departure to FSL-India workcamp 2 Tue. 13.Jun Cleaning the house Free time Orientation of FSL Expectation – Motivation – Fear workshop Community Exploration Orientation Daily debriefing Activities with local Preparation for tomorrow 3 Wed. 14.Jun Preparation for the teaching Activities with children Preparation for the teaching and the ideas of wall painting Daily debriefing Activities with local volunteer Preparation for tomorrow 4 Thu. 15.Jun Teaching English Activities with children Wall painting Teaching English Activities with children Wall painting Cultural exposure (Wedding) Daily debriefing Preparation for tomorrow 5 Fri. 16.Jun Working in agriculture field with local farmers Indian family hosting Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for tomorrow 81 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思 Date Morning Afternoon Evening 6 Sat. 17.Jun One day tour @ Mysore Weekend trip to Mysore 7 Sun. 18.Jun Half day tour @ Mysore Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for tomorrow service 8 Mon. 19.Jun Teaching English Activities with children Wall painting Teaching English Activities with children Wall painting Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for 9 Tue. 20.Jun Wall painting Wall painting Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation fortomorrow 10 Wed. 21.Jun Teaching English Activities with children Wall painting Working with farmers in field Vegetable farm Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for tomorrow 11 Thu. 22.Jun Visit government nursery school Visiting temple Shopping in market Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for tomorrow 12 Fri. 23.Jun Farewell programme in school and intercultural performance Visiting the Shiva temple Cooking the Hong Kong food to local Activities with local volunteer Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for tomorrow 13 Sat. 24.Jun Nandhi hill hiking • Free time in village Activities with local volunteer Daily debriefing Reflection and preparation for tomorrow 14 Sun. 25.Jun • Indian traditional dress wrapping Visit families to say good bye Cleaning house • Luggage packing and departure to Airport 15 Mon. 26. Jun Departure back to Hong Kong Flight @ 7:00 am 82 83 大學的國際化︰一所本地大學的境外學習經驗與反思 Internationalization in higher education: an experience and reflection from a local university YU Kar Ming, XU Sheng Lang Simon, LAW Ying Lun Tommy, LEE Chi Kin John The Education University of Hong Kong (EdUHK) Abstract Internationalization has now become a main development direction and a pivotal agenda item in the higher education arena. As a university that mainly provides teachers education, offshore learning opportunities are prime to students of a university in Hong Kong. The special feature of the offshore learning opportunities provided by a university lies in the highly-emphasized students’ autonomous learning and peer coaching, alongside the mentoring system which on the one hand, fosters the exchange of past experiences, facilitating a sustainable growth of the activities and on the other hand, provides a valuable chance for higher education students who aspire to be future educators, to share with their students later in the future their takeaways from all the individual and team outbound experiences from which the next generation will learn to embrace cultural differences, build up personal and cultural identities, along with developing their global perspectives. Keywords Offshore learning activity, globalization, learning in higher education, higher education in Hong Kong 85 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 香港生命教育課程的框架陳志威香港公開大學教育及語文學院摘要現時香港的生命教育課程在設計上並沒有一個完整的框架，生命教育只不過是「德育、公民與國民教育」的其中一個部分。教育局建議把生命教育聚焦於認識生命、欣賞生命、尊重生命和探索生命這四個學習層次上，但在生命教育的內容上其實並沒有清晰的說明，只是提出了從生活事件來學習，並列舉了一些生活經歷為本的學生活動例子供學校在推展生命教育時作參考。本文先簡述生命教育的發展和內涵，然後就香港的情境，設計一個生命教育的課程框架，以期幫助學校和教師對生命教育課程的理念能夠得著一個更完整的掌握，並能夠以較清晰的條理來推展生命教育。關鍵詞生命教育，生活經歷為本，生命教育的課程框架，香港的生命教育生命教育的源起生命教育起源於西方國家，早於公元前六世紀至三世紀的希臘哲學已開始了對宇宙、生命和人的關注。生命教育最初是以傳授與死亡相關的知識、以及為舉行喪葬儀式的家庭服務為目的，包括護理臨終病人和進行悲傷輔導。其後，生命教育以關懷生命為出發點，協助個人尋求存在的意義，正確面對死亡（徐嵐、宋宸儀，2013；黎建球，2001）；由此發展出死亡學（death studies）和死亡教育（death 86 education）。死亡教育關注生命的意義與價值，積極地生存以邁向死亡，使生命的終點成為無憾的善終，從死談生的環扣著生命的終極；死亡教育其實就是「生命教育」（Corr & Corr, 2013；張淑美，1998，2000，2001）。 Feifel、Kubler-Ross和 Saunders 被認為是死亡學的先軀。Feifel認為個人對死亡所抱持的理解支配著其如何生活（Kurlychek, 1977）。「關注死亡」運動更被視為死亡教育的代名詞（Fonseca & Testoni, 2011; Kurlychek, 1977; Wass, 2004）。Kubler- Ross 認為死亡是文化與生命中其中一個最正面、最具建設性和創造性的元素。 Kubler-Ross強調人類對死亡的恐懼是普遍地存在，人也一直生活在死亡的陰影之中；人越是否定死亡就越會在情緒上受害（Kurlychek, 1977）。然而，假若人能夠把死亡看作為人生的旅途中的一個無形的友好同行者，便會促使人不要把今天要做的事推到明天，從而能夠更好和更充實地生活（Braga & Braga, 1975）。Saunders 於 1967年在倫敦創立了第一所臨終關懷機構 –聖基道臨終安養院（St. Christopher Hospice），引進優質的醫療護理，並運用科學的數據為院友提供人本的寧養照顧直到他們生命的終結（Doka, 2007; Fonseca & Testoni, 2011; Parkes, 1997）。踏入 20 世紀，美國在經濟方面有著高速的發展，人民雖然在物質生活得到極大滿足，但同時美國也出現了不少例如青少年吸毒、性危機、自殺、他殺、暴力襲擊等危害生命的社會問題。面對青少年對生命意識的缺失，西方學者開始了對死亡教育的探討。在 20世紀 60年代美國開始有學院開設與死亡教育有關的課程；到現在，已有超過 90％的學生會修讀與死亡和護理有關的課程（李霞、劉曉，2010； Dickinson, 2007; Kastenbaum, 1995; Noppe, 2007; Pine, 1986）。死亡教育不是要完全消除對死亡的恐懼，而是要減少和轉移學生對與死亡相關的恐懼，了解死亡的必然性以及尊重死亡，檢視死亡的獨特性、並把對死亡的認識和尊重融入生活中（Kurlychek, 1977）。其後，英國、澳洲、紐西蘭、以至部分亞洲的國家和地區，都在不同程度上推展具備他們自己特色的生命教育。生命教育在英國是指「個人、社會、健康和經濟」教育（Personal, Social, Health and Economic Education（PSHE））。PSHE協會指出 PSHE教育是「一種能夠為幫助兒童和青少年成長、以及發展成為家庭和社會一員的課程」（McWhirter, 2009）。在英國，PSHE教育是一門必修學科。在澳洲，其生命教育的出現主要是 87 香港生命教育課程的框架由於毒品氾濫、暴力頻繁、性關係紊亂等原因；故此其生命教育的焦點是健康和藥物教育，以及家庭、學校與社會三者間的溝通、交流與融合（羅崇敏，2009；魏麗敏、張勻銘，2015）。至於新西蘭，其生命教育課程部分內容與澳洲的生命教育有點相似；宗旨在於「教育青少年和兒童並促使他們能夠作健康的抉擇從而充實和健康地生活」（Life Education Trust, 2015）。兩岸三地中，台灣是較早推行生命教育的地區。台灣推動生命教育是與台灣校園暴力和自殺事件有關的。台灣青少年自殺大都與「學校社會適應」和「感情困擾」有關。中學階段的青少年對父母認同感降低，對同儕的認同與對偶像的崇拜以及對異性產生興趣等問題，加上面臨課業的壓力，成為引起青少年輕生的原因。當然，兒童與青少年的自殺也跟他們持有不正確的死亡觀念有關（徐嵐、宋宸儀， 2013；張淑美，1997，2001；Balk & Corr, 1996; Chang, Tsai & Jeng, 2001; Fleming & Adolph, 1986; Orbach et al., 1983），他們由此產生了不健康的行為取向，不懂得愛惜自己、頹廢和消極，並且出現踐踏生命的偏差行為（鄭崇珍，2001）。台灣就是在這情境下關注和提倡生命教育（徐嵐、宋宸儀，2013）。台灣教育廳於 1997年在高中階段推動生命教育課程。高雄市教育局在 1998年編印「生死教育手冊」，以教導學生了解生與死，省思生命意義，以期避免在校園裡發生自我傷害和不愛惜生命的事情，進而能夠珍惜生命和發揮生命的價值（張淑美，2000）。台北市教育局在 1999年也開始分三年在高中、高職和初中以至小學推展生命教育計畫（丘愛鈴，2001）。香港的生命教育開始於 20世紀 90年代，香港教育當局在生命教育推展上的取態是讓學校自發開展的。生命教育的起動是源於某所中學在校內推行生命教育課程的探索。香港天主教教育委員會、香港浸會大學、香港教育學院等教育機構稍後開發了一些與生命教育有關的教材，幫助青少年學生能夠珍惜自己、尊重他人以及周遭萬物的生命。其後，一批教育界人士自發地於 2007年籌組了「香港生命教育基金會」，以促使青少年珍惜自己、尊重他人和周遭萬物的生命（杜家慶、胡少偉， 2011；張素玲等，2007；廖睿詩，2007）。 88 生命教育的主要內涵各國在推行生命教育時縱使都有一些相似之處，但其具體概念、目標和實施等還是因國家和地區的差異而有所不同，因此生命教育難有一個劃一的定義。在美國，死亡教育可以被定義為向人和社會傳遞與死亡相關的知識、以及從中產生意義的一個發展過程；鼓勵與瀕死之人作適當的互動，從而減少焦慮和建立一個對死亡恰當、正面和健康的概念，消除對死亡的禁忌，使人可以在沒有焦慮的狀態下進行理性的交流（Leviton, 1977; Warren, 1981）。美國死亡教育學者Wass （1994）認為死亡教育大致上可劃分為三個層面。第一個層面關乎與死亡相關訊息的接受；第二個層面關乎在面對死亡相關事件時處理能力的發展；第三個層面關乎個人價值觀的釐清與培養。美國死亡教育學者 Corr等人（Corr & Corr, 2013）提出了死亡教育可包含四個向度：「認知向度」——為學習者提供各種與死亡有關的資訊、以及對人經歷的詮釋；「情感向度」——使學生懂得如何處理死亡、瀕死和喪親的情緒；「行為向度」——使人在面對死亡喪慟時能夠適當地回應；以及在別人面對死亡喪慟時成為一位關懷者，聆聽他們和協助他們表達哀傷；「價值向度」—— 藉著死亡的必然性幫助學生辨識、表達、反思和確定生命的意義和價值。Corr等人更指出死亡教育旨在（1）幫助個體對自己有更清楚的認識，欣賞自己的優點和局限，從而得著更豐盛的人生；（2）透過喪葬事情和儀式，使個體懂得怎樣面對在社會中生活所遇上的事情；（3）透過關注健康、協助自殺者、倡議器官移植等議題，培育個體的公民角色；（4）藉著對死亡、瀕死和喪親者的關顧，培養個體在其職業中應有的角色；（5）幫助個體能夠跟別人就著與死亡有關的事情作有效的溝通；（6）藉著人生與死亡相關事件之間的互動，幫助個體能夠欣賞生命的發展（Corr & Corr, 2013）。由此可見，美國死亡教育最終的目標跟生命教育的目標都是頗為一致的。英國的 PSHE教育雖然沒有直接的討論死亡和生命，但其目的是要幫助青少年在知識、態度和技能方面均有所發展，以致他們能夠健康和安全地生活，讓他們的天賦和技能得以發展，享受和取得成就，提升生活的素質並對社會作出積極的貢獻（Brown et al., 2011; HM Treasury, 2004; McWhirter, 2009）；故此 PSHE教育大體上與美國死亡教育的目標「反思生命的意義和價值」是呼應的。 89 香港生命教育課程的框架台灣的生命教育主要是針對經濟發達社會中「價值理性」和「目的理性」的萎縮（馮建軍，2010）。台灣的生命教育較偏重於尊重生命以及在情意方面的發展，重點放於珍惜自己和他者的生命，目標是要和諧共處而不是互相殘害，瞭解生命的意義、對人的尊重以及對死亡的正確認知。在學校裡推動生命教育是要幫助學生思索生命的意義，認識自己的生命，珍愛生命，提升他們對生命的尊重與關懷，尊重他人的生命，進而珍惜人類所共同生存的環境，回饋社會造福別人。故此，目標不單是讓學生懂得生活和珍惜生存，引導他們思考生命的意義從而去追求幸福生活，更須對他們培養對生命的終極關懷（丘愛鈴，2001；何福田，2001；肖川、陳黎明， 2013；馮建軍，2009；黃德祥，2000；鄭崇珍，2001）。在台灣，生命教育被界定為一種全人教育，「生命教育就個體本身而言，是關乎全人的教育，目的在於促進個體生理、心理、社會、靈性全面均衡發展；就個體與外界的關係而言，是關乎與他人、與自然萬物、與天（宇宙主宰）之間如何相處之教育。目標在於使人認識生命（包括自己和他人），進而肯定、愛惜並尊重生命；以虔敬、自護之心與自然共處共榮，並尋得與天（宇宙）的脈絡關係，增進生活的智慧，自我超越，展現生命意義與永恆的價值」（吳庶深、黃麗花，2001，19頁）。香港生命教育的推行背景跟台灣有所相似，把重點放在對自己生命的珍惜、他者生命的尊重、以及與他人和諧共處。教育局把生命教育從屬於「德育、公民與國民教育」。生命教育是要幫助學生在面對不同的處境時能懂得如何處理相關的情緒並能克服逆境，進而探索生命的價值和意義，建立正面的價值觀及積極的人生態度，能夠珍惜自己、關愛他人和環境，進而過一個快樂、充實和有意義的人生；以期透過生命教育鼓勵學生為自己的學業和人生訂立目標和理想，並為社會作出貢獻、造福人群（教育局，2016；張永雄，2010；魏麗敏、張勻銘，2015）。在推行生命教育時，須幫助學生思考和釐清「為何而活」以及「如何生活」；從而幫助學生思索生命的意義與本質並建立生命的目標和方向，同時能與他人和大自然建立良好的關係（張永雄，2010）。魏麗敏、張勻銘（2015）指出「香港的生命教育意涵包含教育學生對自我的認識與肯定、生命的珍惜與尊重、和家人朋友相處的重要、和大自然維持良好的關係、積極面對生命無常與不可控因素、規劃生命以自我實現」（115頁）。各地生命教育的背景和內容都是不盡相同；然而，它們都有著一些共同的內涵，幫助學生主動地認識自己、反思和探索生命的意義和價值以及和生死相關的個人價 90 值、尊重自己和珍惜自己的生命、提升他們與他人和諧相處的能力、提升他們對生命的尊重與關懷、了解人與環境共生的關係並對社會作出積極的貢獻等（黃德祥， 2000；魏麗敏、張勻銘，2015）。在美國，生命教育主要是透過死亡教育的課程來體現。在英國，生命教育主要是透過 PSHE課程來實施。在台灣，生命教育是透過與認識自己、他人、環境和宇宙相關的課程內容來達致。在香港，教育局在生命教育上並沒有具體的建議，只是提出了要以學生的生活經歷為本、以互動學習的方式來推動生命教育（教育局，2016；張永雄，2010）；卻欠缺了具體的課程建議。香港生命教育的理念架構香港的生命教育在設計上並沒有一個完整的課程框架，它是從屬於「德育、公民與國民教育」之下；「德育、公民與國民教育」包括品德及倫理教育、公民教育、《基本法》教育、人權教育、國民教育、禁毒教育、生命教育、性教育、可持續發展教育（教育局，2016）。生命教育只不過是「德育、公民與國民教育」的其中一個部分。然而，「德育、公民與國民教育」一直以來都不是一個具完整和嚴謹框架的課程，教育局沒有把它發展為一個正規課程；因此學校基本上都是採納滲透方式藉隱蔽課程、學校活動、以及透過各學科的正規課程來予以推動。故此，香港的學校在推展生命教育課程時，大致上也是採取這種方式的。教育局在生命教育課程的理念架構上，建議「將生而命教育的學習內容框架聚焦於認識生命、欣賞生命、尊重生命和探索生命這四個學習層次上。⋯⋯通過這四個層次，讓學生掌握有關的價值信念：從認識生命的奇妙開始，肯定其價值（認識生命）；進而接納欣賞自己生命的轉變，愛惜生命（欣賞生命）；並學會關懷珍視他人，尊重生命（尊重生命）；最後做到追求生命理想，超越自我的生命探索階段（探索生命）」（張永雄，2010，9-12頁）。「認識生命就是要讓學生⋯⋯欣賞生命就是要幫助學生⋯⋯ 尊重生命旨在幫助學生⋯⋯探索生命旨在幫助學生」（張永雄，2010，13-15頁）。幫助學生透過他們的六種日常生活經歷（即個人成長及健康生活、家庭生活、學校生活、社交生活、社會與國家生活和工作生活）以掌握生命教育的四個層次（張永雄，2010，16頁），由此「強化學生的抗逆能力，培養學生正面、積極的人生觀，裝備青少年以面對人生的種種挑戰」（張永雄，2010，21頁）。從有關文件中可見教育局所倡議的生命教育在課程設計上，與一個良好的課程設計尚有一段距離。它雖然提出了生命教育的目的：認識生命的奇妙、肯定生命的價值、愛惜生命、欣賞 91 香港生命教育課程的框架自己生命的轉變、尊重生命、關懷珍視他人、探索生命和追求生命理想，並提出從認知、態度和技能三個層面幫助學生建立正面積極的態度、提高他們解決問題和抗逆的能力（教育局，2016）；但在生命教育的內容上其實並沒有清晰的說明，只是提出了從生活事件來學習，列舉了一些生活經歷為本的學生活動例子供學校在推展生命教育時作參考。綜觀有關生命教育的討論，各國的生命教育在課程的目標上都不會付之闕如；但在課程的內容和評鑑上均尚有可予以改進的空間。根據不同的課程理論，課程是學校有計劃地要達致的學習成果（Johnson, 1967）；可以是包含了目的、內容、教學模式和對學習成果作評鑑的學習計劃（Taba, 1962）；也可以是指學習者在學習過程中所獲得的經驗（Sowell, 2000）。在發展一個課程時，包含了闡釋目標、選擇和組織學習的知識和經驗、以及對達致有關目標的評鑑等不可或缺的元素（Hooper, 1971; Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978; Taba, 1962）。由此，不論如何界定課程，在設計和發展一個課程的時候，必須在課程目標、課程內容和課程評鑑三方面作邏輯性的考慮（Cowen & Harding, 1986）。課程目標決定了學生的學習需要，課程內容包含了要教和學甚麼、以及怎樣教和怎樣學，課程評鑑包含了教和學成效的評估。課程目標、課程內容和課程評鑑三者存在著邏輯的關係。課程目標的決定影響了要教和學甚麼，同時也影響著要評鑑甚麼和如何進行評鑑。一個有效的課程設計必須在課程目標、課程內容和課程評鑑三方面具邏輯性地緊扣起來的，更要把不同相關領域的知識作有序的安排以滿足學生的需要（Winch, 2013）。此外，若要使學習成果得以高度實現，在設計和實施課程時須在學生的學習活動和經歷上遵守（1）與真實的世界相關、（2）有序、具建設性並互相扣連、（3）要求學生運用漸進的高階思維、（4）活動之間並跟學習成果互相配合、（5）富趣味和挑戰激發學習等原則（Biggs, 2003; Meyers & Nulty, 2009）。香港現時的生命教育雖然指出了課程的目的、學習內容方面的四個層次（認識生命、欣賞生命、尊重生命和探索生命）以及學習成果三個層面（認知、態度和技能），但在課程內容和評鑑範疇上卻沒有明確的指引。若要有效地推動生命教育，便需要把香港的生命教育課程予以完整化。香港推展生命教育只不過是把它作為達致「德育、公民與國民教育」目標的其中一個手段。倘若把焦點放在生命教育所要追求的目標上，香港可以像台灣般把生命教育界定為一種全人教育。其實香港「德育、公民與國民教育」 92 的大部分元素（品德倫理教育、價值教育、性教育、禁毒教育、人權教育、公民教育、可持續發展教育、甚至消費者教育）都可以涵蓋在生命教育之中。一個從全人教育角度出發的完整生命教育課程，將會對學校和教師在推行生命教育、以至「德育、公民與國民教育」有所幫助。假若香港像台灣般把生命教育視為「關乎個體如何與他人、與社會、與自然、與宇宙之間相處互動的教育，培養學生社會能力與認識生存環境，目標在於促進個體與外界良性的互動發展，並以虔敬、愛護之心與自然共存共榮，尋得個體與宇宙的脈絡關係，展現生命永恆價值」（鍾愛等，2006，12頁）的全人教育，香港的生命教育可從課程內容的範疇、課程目標的層次和課程成果的體現等三個向度（dimensions）來加以推展。課程內容範疇的向度關乎學與教活動的取材，課程目標層次的向度關乎學與教活動的設計，而課程成果體現的向度關乎學與教活動的評鑑。圖一顯示了一個以這三個向度為基礎的生命教育課程的理念框架。圖一：生命教育課程的框架課程內容範疇方面，可取材台灣的生命教育依循「人與生命」、「人與他人」、「人與環境」和「人與宇宙」四個範疇，讓學校和教師從中按不同的目標層次和學習成果的層面從自己、他人、環境和大自然等不同範疇選擇適切的學與教活動的內 93 香港生命教育課程的框架容。在課程目標層次的向度方面，可就「認識」（know）、「愛惜」（value）、「尊重」（respect）和「探索」（explore）四個層次，按學生的成長和學習階段在有關的學習內容上設計相配合的學與教活動，以配合不同層面的學習成果。學生從認識生命的奇妙、珍貴和生命力價值，進而懂得欣賞自己的生命、接納自己和愛惜自己的生命，繼而懂得欣賞別人的生命、關愛他者、愛惜和尊重別人的生命，更進一步的就是探索自己生命的向前邁步、突破現狀、自我超越、追求自我實現，並造福他者。課程成果體現向度可分為「認知」（cognitive）、「情意」（affective）和「踐行」（praxis）三個不同的層面。教師須設計適切的評鑑方案評估學生在有關的學習內容和目標層次上，能否達致各個成果層面所期望的水平。學生須先在認知層面瞭解自己、瞭解生命的可貴、在遇上困境時能夠辨識問題和自己的情緒、知道怎樣尋求應對問題的方法；進而是在情意態度上即使問題複雜仍樂於面對問題、積極地不輕言放棄，當他人遭遇困境時也會正面地看待他們的問題；最後，他們能夠付諸行動，積極地面對和解決問題，在有需要時會尋求協助，當他人遭遇困境傷痛時也願意施以援手；最終的結果就是使自己和能夠幫助他者面對人生種種的挑戰。「內容範疇」、「目標層次」和「成果體現」這三個向度是互相扣連在一起的，學校和教師按學生的學習階段、生活情境和經歷，從而設計合適的學與教的活動。以生活事件和生活經歷為本的活動來進行生命教育的學習是一個可取而實際的方法；而且也應該是用以貫串學習內容、目標和成果的學與教的主要活動，因為生命教育本身便是一種關乎怎麼生活的教育。故此在圖一的生命教育課程框架中，學生生活經歷為本的學與教活動和成效評鑑方式是課程的核心。學校和教師須採取學生生活中所經歷的事例和適合的評鑑方式來把學習內容、學習目標和學習成果連繫起來。例如可在「人與他人」的範疇按著學生成長階段的生活經歷，設計相應的學與教活動以認識對異性和他人的尊重、以及公民的責任和權利，並探索在當下他們的責任，更進而了解、認同並在現實的生活中踐行對生命和他者的尊重以及所應履行的責任。在實施生命教育時，學校可以按著這個框架設計成一個獨立科目，從上述三個度向制定各個級別的目標、內容和成果，按級別逐層遞進；也可以把它融入各個學科以及同課活動之中。然而，假若學校採取融入其他學科的方式的話，統籌生命教 94 育的負責教師必須仔細地與有關學科的科主任進行跨學科的教學設計，透過主題為本跨課程的模式（theme-based cross-curricular approach）（Barnes, 2015）（例如把「關愛身體」這主題融合科學學習領域和人文學科學習領域，透過生活事件和生活經歷活動以講授和提問、角色扮演、討論、專題研習等方式來推行，讓學生認識自己的身體、了解如何重視自己的身體，以及如何尊重別人的身體）；使生命教育的實施井然有序而不致做成偏頗和缺漏，也可以確保學習成果的達成。由於教師在教學的過程中是要幫助學生建構對生命教育的理解和養成實踐生命教育的能力和熱忱，故此在評鑑學生在生命教育的認知、情意和踐行等不同層面的學習成果體現時，教師須設計多元的評估方案來評鑑學生在不同學習成果層面學習的成效。除了紙筆式評估外，替代型評估（alternative assessment）如教師的觀察、學生口頭匯報、自我報告、同儕評估、樣本匣評估（學習歷程檔案）以及專題研習都是可行的評估方式，藉以全面和持續地評估學生在生命教育的認知、情意和踐行等層面的學習成果（Bolton, 1999; Newell, 2003; Preskill, 1999; Simon & Forgette- Giroux, 2000; Sunal & Haas, 2005; Weeden et al., 2002）。結語上述所提出的理念框架能較全面地包括了學習目標、內容和成果評鑑等元素。即使在香港的學校裡，生命教育並不像其他學科般在學校的時間表上佔有一定的教學課節，這個框架也可以幫助學校和教師按著學生的成長階段，從自己、他者、環境和大自然的題材中，採納跟他們的生活經歷相關的內容，設計適切的學習活動和評鑑方式。而且，這個框架不但在學習內容上真實地（authentic）緊扣著學生的日常生活經驗；同時也將會促進主題為本跨課程模式的實踐；因為主題為本跨課程模式的學和教就是一種包含了學習目標、評估、豐富跨學習領域內容、並以兒童為中心、可持續的教與學模式（Barnes, 2015）。故此，以生活經歷貫串著學習內容、學習目標和學習成果的生命教育課程，將有助學生進行探索式的學習活動；同時也能夠從全人發展的角度幫助他們建立正面的生活態度和生命價值取向，並且幫助學生在非認知能力（non-cognitive abilities）方面的發展，培育他們具備成年階段所需的素養、以及能夠面對問題和適當應對未來種種轉變的能力。然而，上文雖就生命教育課程的實施和評鑑作出了一些建議，例如替代型評估比紙筆式評估將更能有效地 95 香港生命教育課程的框架評估學生在情意和踐行中的表現，但由於篇幅所限未能詳加闡釋；如何在生命教育中設計和執行替代型評估也是須細加探究的。參考文獻丘愛鈴（2001）。〈國小「生命教育」統整課程之設計〉。《教育資料集刊》，第26輯，頁 289-316。2016年 6月 15日，取自 http://www.naer.edu.tw/ezfiles/ 0/1000/attach/8/pta_8690_5062718_85382.pdf 杜家慶、胡少偉（2011）。〈香港生命教育的分享：人道教室的實踐經驗〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第 10卷，107-114。肖川、陳黎明（2013）。〈生命教育：內涵與旨趣〉。《湖南師範大學教育科學學報》，第 12 卷，第 4 期，30-36。李霞、劉曉（2010）。〈美國中小學生命教育及其對我國的啟示〉。《教育探索》，第 1 期，155-157。2016 年 6 月 15 日，取自 http://www.stlpt.cn/uploads/ soft/150520/lxx.pdf 何福田（2001）《生命教育論叢：生命教育的由來與重要性》。台北：心理出版社。吳庶深、黃麗花（2001）。《生命教育概論》。台北：學富文化。徐嵐、宋宸儀 (2013)。〈追問生命的意義〉。《教育發展研究》。2016年 6月 15 日，取自 http://dspace.xmu.edu.cn/bitstream/handle/2288/110099/%E8%BF%B D%E9%97%AE%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%9A%84%E6%84%8F%E4% B9%89%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E5%8F%B0%E6%B9%BE%E7%94%9F% E5%91%BD%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E4%B9 %8B%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E4%B8%8E%E5%90%AF%E7%A4%BA. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 胡少偉（2010）。〈港深小學教師說學校生命教育的故事〉。載黃素君（編），《2009 年華人社會的教育發展系統研討會「教師說故事‧說教師的故事」論文集》（頁 196-210）。澳門：澳門大學教育學院。張素玲、巴兆成、秦敬民、張興華（編）（2007）。《生命教育》。山東：中國石油大學出版社。 96 教育局 (2016) 。〈新修訂德育及公民教育課程架構〉。2016年 9月 8日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/4-key-tasks/moral- civic/revised-MCE-framework2008.html。教育局（2016）。〈以互動學習開展生命教育〉。2016年 9月 8日，取自 http:// www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/4-key-tasks/moral-civic/ NewWebsite/Life_understanding/edb_03.pdf。馮建軍（2009）。〈生命教育與生命統整〉。《教育理論與實踐》，第 29卷，第 8期， 8-11。馮建軍（2010）。〈生命教育實踐的困境與選擇〉。《中國教育學刊》，第 1期， 35-38。張永雄（2010）。〈推行生命教育初探〉。2016年 9月 8日，取自 http://www.edb. gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/4-keytasks/moral-civic/Newwebsite/PDF/Life_ understanding.html。張永雄（2010）。〈遊戲中覓方向‧體驗中悟道理──生命教育互動學習教材〉。 2016年 9月 8日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum- development/4-key-tasks/moral-civic/NewWebsite/Life_understanding/edb_01.pdf。張淑美（1997）。〈從兒童與青少年的死亡概念與態度談死亡教育與自殺防預〉。《教育研究》，第 15期，33-40。張淑美（1998）。〈從美國死亡教育的發展兼論我國實施死亡教育的準備方向〉。《教育學刊》，第 14期，275-294。張淑美（2000）。論生死教育在我國實施的需要性與可行性。《教育學刊》，第 16 期，281-304。張淑美（2001）。〈漫談「生死本一家」－死亡教育、生死教育是臨終教育還是生命教育？〉載張淑美（編），《中學生命教育手冊一以生死教育為取向（導讀與謝誌）》。台北：心理出版社。廖睿詩（2007）。〈陪伴孩子在生活中實踐：生命教育的喜樂〉。《生命教育通訊》，第 14 期，8-9。黃德祥（2000）。〈小學生命教育的內涵與實施〉。載林思伶（編）：《生命教育的理論與實務》。台北：寰宇出版公司。鄭崇珍（2001）。〈生命教育的目標與策略〉。《生命教育論叢》。台北：心理出版社。黎建球（2001）。〈生命教育的哲學基礎〉。《教育資料集刊》第二十六輯， 1-26。2016 年 6 月 1 日，取自 http://www.naer.edu.tw/ezfiles/0/1000/attach/8/ pta_8685_4972687_85382.pdf 97 香港生命教育課程的框架鍾愛、黃富昌、周佩芳、蕭慧媛、林嘉鴻、謝委整、顏冠忠、詹晏權、陳韋寶、陳威智（2006）。〈透過閱讀學習與生命教育研習活動培養生命教育種籽教師〉。《台灣環境資源永續發展研討會論文集》（頁 1-20）。羅崇敏（2009）。《高等學校生命生存生活》。昆明 : 雲南人民出版社。魏麗敏、蕭佳華、張勻銘（2014）。《國小教師綜合活動領域教學態度及相關研究》。2016 年 6 月 1 日，取自 http://210.240.193.239/TMMVF11/download. php?filename=20_c031f43e.pdf&dir=super_pages/&title=%E6%AA%94%E6%A1% 88%E4%B8%8B%E8%BC%89 魏麗敏、張勻銘（2015）。〈生命教育理念與實施〉。《教育研究月刊》，第 251期， 110-125。 Balk, D. E., & Corr, C.A. (1996). Adolescents ,developmental task ,and encounters with death and bereavement. In. C. A. Corr & D. E. Balk (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent Death and Bereavement (pp. 3-24). NY: Springer. Barnes, J. (2015). Cross-curricular Learning 3-14. LA: Sage. Biggs, J. B. (2003). Teaching for Quality of Learning at University. Maidenhead: Open University press. Braga, J. L., & Braga, L. D. Foreword. In E. Kübler-Ross (Eds.), Death: The Final Stage of Growth. NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Bolton, N. (1999). Acting in Classroom Drama: A Critical Analysis. Portland, ME: Calendar Islands. Brown, J., Busfield, R., O’Shea, A., & Sibthorpe, J. (2011). School ethos and personal, social, health education. Pastoral Care in Education, 29 (2), 117-131. Chang, S. M., Tsai, C. Y., & Jeng, J. F.（2001）.The analysis on suicidal news reports during 1998 to 1999 in Taiwan. Poster paper presented at the 23rd annual conference of the Association for Death Education and Counseling, March 28 to April 1, Toronto, Canada. Corr, C. A. & Corr, D. M. (2013). Death & Dying: Life & Living (7th ed.). CA: Wadsworth. Cowen, J. & Harding, A. (1986). A logical model for curriculum development. British Journal of Educational Technology, 2(17), 103-109. Dickinson, G. E. (2007). End-of-life and palliative care issues in medical and nursing schools in the United States. Death Studies, 31, 713-726. 98 Doka, K. J. (2007). Historical and contemporary perspectives on dying. In D. Balk (Eds.), Handbook of Thanatology (pp. 19-25). London: Routledge. HM Treasury (2004), Every Child Matters. Retrieved June 2, 2016, from https://www.gov. uk/government/publications/every-child-matters Fonesca, L. M., & Testoni, I. (2011). The emergence of thanatology and current practice in death education. Omega, 64(2), 157-169. Fleming, S. J., ＆ Adolph, R. (1986). Helping bereaved adolescents: Needs and responses. In C.A. Corr & J .N. McNeil (Eds.), Adolescence and Death (pp. 97-118). NY: Springer. Hooper, R. (1971). The Curriculum: Context, Design & Development: Readings. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. Johnson, M. (1967). Definitions and models in curriculum theory. Educational Theory, 17(2), 127-140. Kastenbaum, R. J. (1995). Death, Society, and Human Experience (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Kurlycheck, R. T. (1977). Death education: some considerations of purpose and rationale. Educational Gerontology, 2(1), 43-50. Leviton, D. (1977). The Scope of Death Education. Death Education, 1(1), 41-56. Life Education Trust. (2015). Life Education Trust 2015 Annual Review. Retrieved June 2, 2016, from http://www.lifeeducation.org.nz/ABOUT/Organisational+Documents. html McWhirter, J. (2009). Personal, Social, Health and Economic Education: From Theory to Practice. UK: The PSHE Association. Retrieved June 2, 2016, from https://www. pshe-association.org.uk/sites/default/files/Personal,%20Social,%20Health%20 and%20Economic%20education,%20Dr%20Jenny%20McWhirter.pdf Meyers, N. M. & Nulty, D. D. (2009). How to use (five) curriculum design principles to align authentic learning environments, assessment, students’ approaches to thinking and learning outcomes. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 34(5), 565- 577. Newell, R.J. (2003). Passion for Learning: How Project-based Learning Meets the Needs of 21st-century Students. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. Nicholls, A. & Nicholls, S. H. (1978). Developing a Curriculum: A Practical Guide. London: George Allen & Unwin. 99 香港生命教育課程的框架 Noppe, I. C. (2007). Historical and contemporary perspectives on death education. In D. Balk (Eds.), Handbook of Thanatology (pp. 329-335). London: Routledge. Orbach, I., Freshbach, S., Carlson, G., Glaubman, H. & Gross, Y. (1983). Attraction and repulsion by life and death in suicidal and in normal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(5), 661-670. Parkes, C. M. (1997). Help for the dying and the bereaved. In C. M. Parkes, P. Laungani & B. Young (Eds.), Death and bereavement across cultures (pp. 206-217). NY: Routledge.Pine, V. R. (1986). The age of maturity for death education: A socio- historical portrait of the era 1976–1985. Death Studies, 10(3), 209-231. Pine, V. R. (1986). The age of maturity for death education: A socio-historical portrait of the era 1976–1985. Death Studies, 10(3), 209-231. Preskill, S. (1999). Strategies for reporting small-group discussions to the class. College Teaching, 47(4), 140-143. Simon, M. & Forgette-Giroux, R. (2000). Impact of a content selection framework on portfolio assessment at the classroom level. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 7(1), 83-100. Sowell, E. J. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative Introduction. PH: Merrill. Sunal, C. S. & Haas, M. E. (2005). Social Studies for the Elementary and Middle Grades: A Constructivist Approach. Boston: Pearson. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. NY: Harcourt Brace & World. Warren, W. (1981). Death education: an outline and some critical observations. British Journal of Educational Studies, 29(1), 29-41. Wass, H. (1994). Visions in death education. In L.A. DeSpelder & A.L. Strickland (Eds.), The Path Ahead (pp. 327-334). C A: Mayfield. Weeden, P., Winter, J. & Broadfoot, P. (2002). Assessment: What’s in It for Schools?. London & New York: RouledgeFalmer. Winch, C. (2013). Curriculum design and epistemic assent. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 47(1), 128-146. Wass, H. (2004). A perspective on the current state of death education. Death Studies, 28(4), 289-308. 100 101 香港生命教育課程的框架 A curriculum framework for Hong Kong’s life education Chi Wai CHAN School of Education and Languages, The Open University of Hong Kong Abstract To date, life education in Hong Kong is only part of the Moral, Civic and National Education and there is not a comprehensive framework in terms of curriculum design. The Hong Kong Education Bureau (EDB) proposed that life education should be based on four levels viz. awareness of life, appreciation of life, respect of life and exploration of life. However, the curriculum documents of EDB have not delved into the content of life education, but put forth the idea of learning through activities related to the life experiences of students and enumerated few examples of these activities which schools can relate to when implementing life education. This paper will briefly examine the history and conception of life education, elucidate the present situation of Hong Kong, and put forward a framework for the curriculum of life education to help teachers grasp a more comprehensive understanding of life education and adopt appropriate approaches for implementing life education in their schools. Keywords Life education, life experience-based, curriculum framework of life education, life educa- tion in Hong Kong 103 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋霍秉坤香港教育大學摘要香港中學派位制度以「中一入學前香港學科測驗」成績為基礎。該學科測驗設計理念清晰，希望降低學校對操練學生的控制、減少學生操練的誘因；然而，學生仍陷入操練困局。本文引用囚徒困局詮釋香港學校操練學科測驗的現象。首先，本文簡述囚徒困局的概念；接着，分析內地及香港學校與學生陷入考試操練困局的情況；第三，應用囚徒困局詮釋香港學科測驗的現象；最後，探討打破考試操練困局的方法。筆者認為，打破困局的方法不外兩方面：一為提高個人的理性水平；二為改變制度內的收益。關鍵詞香港教育，囚徒困局，中學學位分配壹、引言亞洲以至全球各地的學生，備受考試煎熬。香港學生雖然在國際測試成績中表現優異，但卻承受操練和考試的壓力。香港政府雖然不斷改變考試制度，以減少學生操練，但學生仍未能擺脫操練的困局。1970年，香港以升中試結果分派中學學位（Secondary School Places Allocation），學生因而操練升中試中文、英文及數學的 104 試題。1978年，香港以學能測驗調節學生派位次序和學校間差異，學生因而操練學能測驗。2006年，政府以校內考試成績決定學生派位組別 1，以「中一入學前的學科測驗」﹙Pre-Secondary One Attainment Test, 簡稱 Pre-S1﹚成績決定學校派位組別之比例。換言之，Pre-S1的主要功能是決定學校第一、二、三組別學生學額的比率。升中試、學能測驗和Pre-S1作為升中派位的考試，都為學校和學生帶來沉重的壓力。 Pre-S1設計理念清晰，希望降低學校的操控、減少學生操練的誘因。然而，學校及學生仍操練 Pre-S1。本文作者認為，小學面對 Pre-S1影響下年度派位結果，面對與其他小學爭奪更佳派位的成績，無可避免地要求學生操練。本文嘗試引用囚徒困局﹙ prisoner’s dilemma）詮釋香港學校及學生操練 Pre-S1的現象。首先，簡述囚徒困局的概念；接着，分析內地及香港考試陷入困局的現象；第三，應用囚徒困局詮釋操練 Pre-S1的現象；最後，探討打破困局的方法。貳、囚徒困局的探討囚徒困局是博奕論的典型例子，應用範圍極廣，如經濟學、政治科學、管理學、社會學等﹙Amadea, 2016; Dufwenberg, 2010; Kuhn, 2014），近年更應用至教育領域 ﹙Gu, 2015; Webster, 2015），如課程﹙柯政，2005）、考試﹙霍秉坤，2015; Webster, 2015）等。一、囚徒困局的理念囚徒困局的情景如下︰警方逮捕甲、乙兩名疑犯，但沒有足夠證據入罪；警方分開審問兩人，並向雙方提供選擇﹙見表1）。甲和乙應該選擇縮短個人刑期的策略。就個人理性選擇而言，認罪而檢舉對方所得刑期，都較不認罪低： • 假設對方認罪︰我認罪會被判監 2年，不認罪則被判監 10年，故選擇認罪； • 假設對方不認罪︰我認罪會獲釋，不認罪則被判監半年，故選擇認罪。 _______________ 1 香港升中派位的機制，把學生按成績分三個組別。學生之組別由校內成績決定；學校學生參與 Pre-S1的成績，則決定學校三個組別所佔比率。 105 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋從收益看，兩人都不認罪，只會被判監半年，整體及個人的結果較認罪為佳；然而，兩人理性地追求個人最大利益而認罪，結果是總體的利益較不認罪為低﹙張宮熊，2009；Raiffa, Richardson, Metcalfe, 2002﹚。形成困局有兩個重要條件﹙ Fisher, 2008﹚。首先，甲、乙都選擇「認罪」，處於納什均衡（Nash equilibrium）的狀態 ﹙Rasmusen, 2006﹚。參與者為了爭取個人最大利益，傾向選擇「導向相對優勢結果的策略」（dominant strategy），就是選擇認罪﹙范如國，2011﹚。在這種狀態之下，雖然並非達致最佳總體利益，但各人都不願單方面改變策略。若一方選擇「不認罪」，個人便會承受最大惡果；因此，各人都維持「認罪」策略，「認罪」策略遂成為均衡點。其次，收益支付必須符合三種情形，才會形成困局。第一，從個人收益而言，在對方認罪時自己不認罪的報酬﹙T (Temptation to defect，對背叛的誘惑 )﹚ ＞雙方不認罪的報酬﹙ R (Reward for mutual cooperation，對雙方合作的獎勵 )﹚＞雙方認罪的報酬﹙ P (Punishment for mutual defection，對雙方背叛的懲罰 )﹚ ＞在對方不認罪時自己認罪的報酬﹙ S (Sucker’s payoff，受騙者得到的報酬 )﹚﹙即 T > R > P > S﹚。第二，從整體收益而言，兩人合作的收益﹙ 2R﹚較單獨背叛﹙ T + S﹚和互相背叛﹙ 2P﹚為高﹙即 2R ＞ T + S ＞ 2P﹚﹙ Kuhn, 2014﹚。第三，收益支付是非零和遊戲。表 1　囚徒困局甲不認罪﹙合作﹚ 甲認罪﹙背叛﹚ 乙不認罪﹙合作﹚ 二人都判監半年 (R) 甲即時獲釋 (T)；乙判監 10 年 (S) 乙認罪﹙背叛﹚ 甲判監 10 年 (S)；乙即時獲釋 (T) 二人都判監 2 年 (P) 簡言之，囚徒困局涉及三個重要概念︰首先，假設參與者是理性的，選擇策略是要爭取個人的最大利益；其次，參與者以理性選擇個人最佳策略時，總體收益並非最大；第三，參與者維持現行策略，遂形成均衡點。二、應試操練之困局不少學者以囚徒困局詮釋內地應試教育。柯政﹙ 2005﹚分析內地課程改革和應試教育，預期學校不會重視非考試課程，反而會持續抓緊應試教育。李斌輝 106 ﹙ 2008）認為課程改革雖略有成效，但未能改變應試文化，未能使學生擺脫應試困局。學生、家長、教育專家都試圖減輕學生學習壓力，可惜學生仍陷入增壓的困局 ﹙白波，2006，頁 60-61）：得高分的會進入好的國中、高中，進入好的國中、高中的學生可以憑高分進入好的大學。而對於老師和學校來說，學生的升學率高意味著老師名利雙收、飯碗牢靠……如果整個規則都傾向於「增壓」，「壓」又如何減得下來？ Yu & Ding (2010)的研究顯示，家長為讓子女爭取更佳成績，為怕子女落後其他學生，會為子女提供課後補習，因此形成操練困局。換言之，各人都爭取更佳成績，但因為所有家長都提供課後補習，故未能藉操練而取得優勢，反而令學生承受操練的壓力。十多年來，內地倡導教育減負，但徒勞無功。與內地相似，香港同樣陷於考試操練困局。比方說，香港學生上世紀末陷入操練學業能力測驗 ﹙簡稱「學能測驗」）的困局。學能測驗辦法如下﹙楊奇，1993，頁 196）：由 1978 年開始，所有小學畢業生都獲中一學位，並按一種新制度分配學位。具體辦法是把全港分為不同的學校網，學生按照就讀小學五年級和六年級的三次校內考試成績，加上中央統籌的學能測驗﹙包括文字推理和數位推理）……分派學位。曾榮光﹙ 2006，頁 138）分析精辟，認為學能測驗 2的參與者均無可避免地跌進「雙輸」的局面，一方面各方承受操練的惡果，另一面未能在成績調節過程取得優勢﹙見表 2）。2000年，教育局 3希望打破困局，取消學能測驗；後於 2006年引入 Pre-S1作為調整學校間差異的方法。 _______________ 2 中學學位分配 (Secondary School Places Allocation, SSPA)之參數主要來自考試。1978年起，各小學的中學校派位組別比率參照「學能測驗」的成績；2006年後，比率則參照「中一入學前學科測驗」(Pre-S1)。 3 初名教育及人力統籌局，後改為教育統籌局，再改為教育局。除引述原文外，本文全用「教育局」。 107 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋表 2 香港學能測驗操練的困局﹙曾榮光，2006，頁 138）你進行學能測驗操練不進行學能測驗操練我進行學能測驗操練 • 雙方均承受操練帶來的惡果 • 雙方在 SSPA 的成績調節機制中均沒有優勢 (A) • 我需承受操練帶來的惡果 • 我在 SSPA 的成績調節機制中取得優勢 (C) 不進行學能測驗操練 • 我可避免操練帶來的惡果 • 我在 SSPA 的成績調節機制中陷於劣勢 (B) • 雙方均可避免操練帶來的惡果 • 雙方在 SSPA 的成績調節機制中均沒有優勢 (D) 當教育局打破學能測驗困局時，全港性系統評估﹙ Territory-wide System Assessment，TSA）卻形成另一操練困局。全港性系統評估旨在協助學校和政府了解學生在中、英、數三科的水平，以制定改善學與教成效的校本計劃和教育政策﹙香港考試及評核局，2009），屬於低風險的評估。然而，學校和學生認為 TSA成績影響深遠，有助提升學校聲譽，因此操練 TSA練習，遂陷入操練困局﹙霍秉坤， 2015）。換言之，若所有學校都選擇不操練 TSA，學校都沒有損失﹙也沒有優勢﹚，可以避免陷入操練困局；然而，學校理解 TSA具重要影響，因而「理性地」選擇對本身最有利的策略，就是選擇操練，因而陷入困局。中國內地考試、香港升中考試、香港 TSA都使學校和學生陷入操練困局。按現行制度，學生「增負」獲取高分，便能爭取入讀好學校，求取優職。換言之，不論其他學生採取何種策略，個別學生都會選擇「增負」策略，以爭取個人最大利益。若所有學生都採「增負」策略，則社會便陷入應試教育的困局。所有學生採「增負」策略，成為一種穩定的策略，形成納什均衡點﹙潘天群，2006﹚。筆者認為，囚徒困局有助詮釋亞洲地區的考試制度︰學校、教師、學生、家長都是困局中的參與者；各人理性地選擇個人最佳策略，卻出現整體不理想的結果。 108 叁、操練「中一入學前學科測驗」之困局一、「中一入學前學科測驗」簡介自 2007年起，教育局修訂香港中學學位分配辦法，但保留學校間成績差異的調整機制。教育局學位分配組﹙2015，頁1）解釋調整機制：「由於各學校課程有別，評分的標準亦不同，不宜直接將各校的校內成績合併排列成總次第作為分配中一學位之用。」調整機制方法如下﹙教育局學位分配組，2015，頁 2）：「小六升中一學生需要參加中一入學前香港學科測驗，其成績會用作調整其中一新生所屬小學的之後的小六學生的派位分配，即影響學校下一年度小六學生派中學學位的分配。 Pre-S1的成績每兩年取樣一次，並取最近兩年的成績。」調整機制是以近兩年中一入學前香港學科測驗﹙ Pre-S1﹚的成績作為調整指標。比方說，2015/2017 派位年度的統一派位採用學校在 2014 及 2016 年抽樣所得的 Pre-S1的平均成績作為調整工具。教育局改變調整機制，並安排中學新生於中一註冊日參加 Pre-S1，以減低小學控制學生為測驗操練的力度。然而，操練問題仍然存在。首先，學生與家長都重視 Pre-S1成績，因為成績影響學生中一編班。其次，Pre-S1雖然對應考學生本身的中學派位毫無影響，但直接影響其小學的分數調整以至學校未來的派位結果。因此，學校仍會操練學生，期望他們能爭取最佳成績，協助學校下年度學生之中學派位。結果，學校及學生仍為應付 Pre-S1而操練。事實表明，只要有考試，操練便會接踵而至。二、「中一入學前學科測驗」操練 Pre-S1對學校具長遠影響，學校不敢掉以輕心，遂要求學生操練 Pre-S1。香港初等教育研究學會「中小學教師對中一入學前學科測驗的意見」調查﹙問卷 406 份，小學 55所﹚顯示，小學教師多不認同教育局的觀點﹙見表 3﹚。回應「貴校有否為小六學生應考全港系統評估 (TSA) 及中一入學前香港學科測驗﹙ Pre-S1)作準備？」時，教師表示對兩試皆有準備﹙見表 4﹚。 109 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋表 3　香港初等教育研究學會﹙初等教育研究學會，2009﹚ 教育局的觀點很同意同意不同意很不同意無意見 1. 中一入學前香港學科測驗對學校及學生而言皆屬低風險的評估 0.5% 12.3% 45.6% 36.7% 21.4% 2. 測驗的成績對參加測驗學生的派位結果沒有影響，故此學生不會因這測驗增添不必要的壓力 1.7% 15.3% 48.8% 33.3% 1.0% 3. 當學校處理好日常的教學工作，學校和家長便不用為這些評估作額外準備 0% 6.9% 44.6% 47.8% 0.7% 4. 中一入學前香港學科測驗主要目的，是讓中學透過校本閱卷知道錄取的中一新生在中、英、數三科的強弱，以便儘早做好拔尖保底的工作 5.4% 58.6% 20.2% 9.9% 5.7% 表 4　小學應付 TSA及中一入學前測試﹙初等教育研究學會，2009﹚ 教育局的觀點很同意 1. 對兩試皆有準備 96.1% 2. 只準備學生考全港系統評估 ( TSA) 3.0% 3. 只準備學生考中一入學前香港學科測驗 ( Pre-S1) 0% 4. 兩試皆沒有準備 0.7% 沒有填答﹙遺漏﹚的比率為 0.2%。教育局認為無須操練 Pre-S1，但學校仍要求學生操練，方法包括課後指導學生應試，如一所學校安排學生每週操練 Pre-S1﹙見表 5﹚；此外，教育中心提供 Pre-S1練習﹙見表 6﹚。趙永佳、何美儀﹙ 2014﹚認為︰「整個小學系統其實是被考評，尤其是 TSA及和 TSA相似的 Pre-S1考試所主導。」因此，學校難於停止操練 Pre-S1。 110 表 5 一所小學 20xx 年 xx 月 xx 日至 xx 月 xx 日（學校假期、考試前一週及考試週暫停）日期（逢星期二）（逢星期三）（逢星期四）科目中文英文（1 組）英文（2 組）數學負責老師 xxx 主任 xxx 老師 xxx 老師 xxx 主任地點 6A 課室（xx 室） 6A 課室（xx 室） 5B 課室（xx 室） 6A 課室（xx 室）時間下午 3:45 - 4:30 下午 3:45 - 4:30 下午 3:45 - 4:30 下午 3:45 - 4:30 請於 xx月 xx日或之前填妥回條交班主任彙收，轉交 xxx主任辦理。表 6 出版社廣告 Pre-S1 中、英、數全攻略 • 特別為新學年升讀中一的學生而設。 • 由於學校會以 Pre-S1 香港學科測驗作為編班試，而現時中學可自行分配中、英文班的班數比例，若能在 Pre-S1 取得理想成績，入讀英文班的機會亦會大大提升。 • 全面鞏固 Pre-S1 香港學科測驗每年必考的主要範疇。 • 分析歷年 Pre-S1 的題目比重，讓學生集中精神重點溫習，提高成效。 • 教授答題技巧及取分策略，考取高分無難度。提供終極模擬測驗作試前熱身，讓學生全面進入考試狀態。 • 上課日期︰ 6 - 7 月份期間 • 上課時間︰ 6 小時 ( 溫習 / 操練 ) + 1 小時 30 分 (1 堂模擬試卷 ) • 有關 Pre-S1 課程詳情、優惠及時間表請致電各分校查詢。三、「中一入學前學科測驗」操練困局的分析 Pre-S1是調整學校派位機制的測驗。教育局的設計原意，是希望把成績作為翌年調節機制，而且學生離開小學後才參加考試，目的是避免學校操練學生；然而，學校仍按 Pre-S1考試而進行操練，使學生承受操練帶來的惡果。學校通常把 Pre-S1 內容及形式加入校內之課程及考試中，使學生離開小學前不斷操練 Pre-S1題目。因此，政府改變原初派位﹙ 1978年起施行之學能測驗﹚的「收益支付」後，新派位﹙ 2007年起施行的 Pre-S1﹚的「收益支付」又形成新囚徒困局。對學生而言， 111 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋 Pre-S1成績只會影響中一分班，而不會影響派位結果，風險較低；對學校而言，測驗影響學校未來的派位結果，風險甚高。假設全甲、乙兩所學校面對 Pre-S1時，甲學校將會考慮四種情況︰若乙學校不要求學生操練而甲學校要求，乙學校收益最少﹙ S﹚而甲學校收益最大﹙ T﹚；若乙學校要求學生操練而甲學校不要求，乙學校收益最大﹙ T﹚而甲學校收益最少 ﹙ S﹚；若兩學校都要求學生操練，收益相同但不高﹙ P﹚；若乙學校和甲學校不操練，收益相同而且較 P為高﹙ R﹚。換言之，學校操練與否的收益支付會出現 T ＞ R＞ P＞ S及 2R＞ T + S＞ 2P﹙見表 7﹚，遂形成困局。兩所學校明顯面對困局︰雖然代價是學生承受操練惡果，但因 Pre-S1成績關乎學校的榮辱，包括派位、校譽等﹙總收益支付為 T﹚，學校都會要求學生操練。因此，學生都承受操練惡果而學校沒有取得調節機制之優勢。表 7　學校面對 Pre-S1測驗操練的困局甲學校不進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗乙學校不進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗 • 甲學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（R） • 甲學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中取得優勢（T） • 乙學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（R） • 乙學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中處於劣勢（S） 112 甲學校不進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗乙學校進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗 • 甲學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中處於劣勢（S） • 甲學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（P） • 乙學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中取得優勢（T） • 乙學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（P）肆、打破「中一入學前學科測驗」操練困局的構想學者一直嘗試打破為考試操練的困局﹙如：文雪、扈中平，2007；李斌輝， 2008；曾榮光，2006；潘天群，2006﹚。筆者認為，政府在設計收益支付上擁有最大的權力和資源；要打破囚徒困局，政府推行措施包括兩方面，一是提高個體對收益支付的認識，一是改變收益支付。一、提高對制度的認識要打破 Pre-S1的囚徒困局，持份者對制度和資訊的認識非常重要。筆者認為，提高對收益支付的認識可從兩方面入手。第一，提高學校對策略與支付制度關係的認識。誠然，對學校而言，Pre-S1測驗結果影響學生升中派位，影響校譽，屬高風險測驗。然而，操練 Pre-S1能否提升學生和學校成績，仍屬未知之數。一般意見認為，學生適度練習，有助鞏固課堂學習，提升考試成績；然而，以過度操練提升考試成績，效果並不顯著。若學校清楚了解這種情況，學校便會減少操練。 113 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋第二，提升學校願景的視域，以平衡考試操練的偏狹。如前所述，Pre-S1結果影響學校學生派位、校譽，屬高風險測驗。然而，學校若只側重考試成績，會流於偏狹，影響學生全面發展。若學校能建立願景，如重視學生全人發展、國際視野、德育及品格、體格鍛練等，則學校之收益支付不同，便不會形成困局。進一步而言，若社會整體文化改變，重視學生全人發展，社會便可走出只為成績操練的困局。筆者認為，雖然改變個體的教育觀念有助走出困局，但長路漫漫。首先，改變持份者的教育觀念十分困難，因為學業成績是香港升學的基礎，升讀中學按 Pre-S1 的成績，升讀大學則按中學文憑考試成績。因此，家長、學校都重視考試成績，社會人士亦以考試成績評價畢業生。故此，改變持份者過於重視考試的概念，至為關鍵。其次，學校管理層的取態十分重要。若他們都要保障學校聲譽、避免落後其他學校而操練，則仍會陷入操練 Pre-S1的困局。二、改變制度內的收益走出困局的另一方法是改變制度內的收益支付。張振華﹙ 2007，頁 23﹚認為︰「擺脫增負的囚徒困境的唯一辦法是改變目前教育的博奕結構，即改變博奕規則或遊戲規則，形成一個有利於學生全面發展的博奕均衡。」簡言之，改變利益支付，甲與乙選擇認罪與否的策略也不同。以下是改變收益支付後的三種可能。 ﹙一﹚脫胎換骨︰打破囚徒困局若政府改變 Pre-S1的收益支付，甚至使之變為毫無收益﹙如該考試成績與升學無關），便能遏止學校操練。制度中沒有 Pre-S1，考試與升學無關，學校便不會進行考試操練﹙見表 8﹚。若考試與升學無關，即使學校維持操練、學生承受操練的惡果，但學校仍不能在升學機制中取得優勢；因此，學校便會採取「不操練」的策略。 114 表 8　學校操練 Pre-S1毫無收益之解說甲學校不進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗乙學校不進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗 • 甲學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（R） • 甲學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制沒有優勢（T） • 乙學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（R） • 乙學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有處於劣勢（S）進行操練 Pre-S1 測驗 • 甲學校學生避免操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有處於劣勢（S） • 甲學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 甲學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（P） • 乙學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（T） • 乙學校學生承受操練帶來的惡果 • 乙學校學生在升中派位的成績調節機制中沒有優勢（P） 115 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋香港教育當局曾兩次改變升中考試制度，以解決學校操練的困局。1974年，政府取消升中試，修訂升讀中學的措施，使所有學生都獲派中一學位，希望藉此減低競爭、減少操練。當時，不少教育團體認同政府取消升中試，認為可以減少學生為應付考試而操練﹙程介明，1997，頁 472）。政府取消派位制度後，若不以另一制度使學生陷入操練困局，便能脫胎換骨。同樣道理，若取消按 Pre-S1測驗派位，便可打破操練 Pre-S1的困局。然而，政府必須建立新分配學位制度取代 Pre-S1；同時，若不讓學校因新制度而陷入新困局，便須要建立無法藉操練取得派位優勢的制度，如就近入學、抽籤、以中小學聯繫分配學位等。 ﹙二﹚新瓶舊酒︰出現另一困局政府要改變博奕的收益支付，可以改變或建立收益支付制度。然而，新制度或新收益支付可能會引出新困局。比方說，政府於 1974年取消升中試，期望減輕學校操練學生的壓力。當時，政府引入學能測驗取代升中試，以測驗結果作中學派位的依據。學生須要參加文字和數字推理的學能測驗。學生仍然要參加考試，後來形成新的博奕：學生從爭奪學位改為爭奪學校﹙曾榮光，2006；鄧國俊等，2006）。換言之，政府引入學能測驗取代升中試，學校則由操練升中試轉為操練學能測驗，改變支付收益僅為新瓶舊酒。 2006年，政府以 Pre-S1考試取代舊的學校派位調節機制。Pre-S1設計原意是避免學生操練。然而，辛列有﹙ 2008﹚質疑︰「當局會呼籲學校不必操練應試，但面對家長選校的首先考慮是實實在在的升中派位結果，再加上選校，殺校等教育政策時，試問有哪一位學校同工敢掉以輕心。」學校難於脫離困局，因為考試成績直接影響學校派位結果、校譽、學生前途，與學校存亡攸關。學校仍會要求學生操練 Pre-S1，方法是把 Pre-S1內容加入校內小五、小六呈分試的課程和評估內，使 Pre-S1與呈分試緊密相連。結果，學校和學生仍陷入操練 Pre-S1考試的困局；前者重視考試對升中派位調節機制的影響，後者則重視影響呈分成績的校內考試。筆者認為，若政府不改變考試影響學生升學的制度，困局難於打破。 116 ﹙三﹚禍不單行︰形成更大困局另一種可能打破 Pre-S1困局的方法，是加入其他的「收益支付」，使個人與整體利益配合。文雪、扈中平﹙ 2007，頁 24）建議：除了使他能獲得正常的集體利益的一個份額之外，再給他一種額外的收益，如加分、榮譽或單考，並同時制訂出一套使個人行為與集體利益相一致的規章制度，對違背的予以懲罰等。誠然，改變收益支付，可以改變學校、學生、家長對操練 Pre-S1的策略。若這種「個人與整體利益配合」未能產生影響力，學校和學生不會重視這些利益，仍舊重視操練 Pre-S1的措施。然而，若這種「個人與整體利益配合」發揮影響力，使學校爭取這些利益，改革會加劇囚徒困局。筆者嘗試把修訂入學標準加入升學制度，以說明改變可能加劇囚徒困局。現時，香港小學升中的派位制度，主要按校內呈分試及 Pre-S1成績。假設政府改變制度，升中派位加入面試作評核標準，而且筆試及面試各佔 50%，則學校及學生之操練模式會立刻改變。筆者認為，學校及學生會同時為筆試和面試而操練，學生遂陷入更大的困局﹙見表 9﹚。表 9　筆試與面試具影響力之困局學生甲不增加操練筆試及面試增加操練筆試及面試學生乙不增加操練筆試及面試 • 甲學生擁有較多全人均衡發展的機會 • 甲學生在參與筆試及面試時沒有處於劣勢 • 甲學生在升學機會中沒有處於劣勢 • 甲學生失卻全人均衡發展的機會 • 甲學生在參與筆試及面試時佔有優勢 • 甲學生在升學機會中佔有優勢 117 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋學生甲不增加操練筆試及面試增加操練筆試及面試學生乙不增加操練筆試及面試 • 乙學生擁有較多全人均衡發展的機會 • 乙學生在參與筆試及面試時沒有處於劣勢 • 乙學生在升學機會中沒有處於劣勢 • 乙學生擁有較有全人均衡發展的機會 • 乙學生在參與筆試及面試時處於劣勢 • 乙學生在升學機會中處於劣勢乙學校增加操練筆試及面試 • 甲學生擁有較有全人均衡發展的機會 • 甲學生在參與筆試及面試時處於劣勢 • 甲學生在升學機會中處於劣勢 • 甲學生失卻全人均衡發展的機會 • 甲學生在參與筆試及面試時沒有優勢 • 甲學生在升學機會中沒有優勢 • 乙學生失卻全人均衡發展的機會 • 乙學生在參與筆試及面試時佔有優勢 • 乙學生在升學機會中佔有優勢 • 乙學生失卻全人均衡發展的機會 • 乙學生在參與筆試及面試時沒有優勢 • 乙學生在升學機會中沒有優勢以香港經驗為例，教育局為提供更多元化之學習經驗，把其他學習經驗納入升讀大學評核制度，使學生重視其他活動。比方說，教育局提倡一生一體藝，將課外活動的評鑑制度化，使學生和教師賠上時間來換取高水平﹙周昭和、黃毅英， 2006﹚。此外，香港升中派位包括自行收生階段，除考慮成績外，也計算學生面試的表現，結果是香港的面試班大行其道。這些例子都說明，改變收益支付不一定能解決困難，甚至可能製造更大的困局。 118 ﹙四﹚小結如前提及，政府在設計收益支付上擁有最大權力，它能推行的措施最多。文雪、扈中平﹙ 2007，頁 23）分析要打破困局，必須改變制度中的收益支付︰ ……只要現行的教育體制沒有變化，只要還存在著教育資源的短缺和分配不公，教育的『囚徒困境』博奕就依然在。要改變收益支付，政府能扮演較積極的角色，影響力較大。伍、嘗試之挑戰雖然政府能在打破囚徒困局中扮演重要角色，但是它的措施不一定能奏效，甚或引致更大的困局。對於打破困局的嘗試，筆者提出下列三點評析。首先，檢視相關制度，以檢視評量制度是否已形成困局。文雪、扈中平﹙ 2007）強調走出囚徒困境需要改變制度的收益支付。在改變收益支付的措施上，政府扮演關鍵的角色，因為它在設計收益支付上擁有最大權力。一方面，政府應該提高學校及學生對 Pre-S1收益支付的認識。政府可以多解釋操練與學生學習及 Pre-S1考試成績之關係，使學校及教師更了解操練與學生考試成績之關係，藉以減低學生密集操練考試的壓力。而且，政府應鼓勵學校不宥於升中派位的考試成績，鼓勵學校從多角度考慮學校願景，如重視學生全人發展、國際視野、德育及品格、體格鍛練等。若學校不僅重視學術科目的成績，還重視其他發展，則可能走出只為學術成績而操練的困局。另一方面，政府應持續檢視 Pre-S1收益支付，以期不會出現「參與者以理性選擇個人最佳策略時，但所有人的總體收益卻不是最大的利益」的困局。若各人都因操練 Pre-S1承受惡果，則政府應該檢視 Pre-S1的收益支付，甚至改變制度。其次，筆者認為，政府雖然有責任檢視 Pre-S1的收益支付的制度，但不一定能打破學生操練考試之困局；因為政府改變收益支付後，不容易制定免於陷入困局的新制度。文雪、扈中平﹙ 2007，頁 24）認為，要走出囚徒困境，不但須要改變這種制度的收益支付，還需要創新教育制度。然而，筆者認為，只要考試制度存在，便不能避免操練試題，這種情況在亞洲地區尤為明顯﹙ Hau & Ho, 2008; 廖佩莉， 119 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋 2009﹚。這種文化未改變，學校面對任何考試，仍將陷入操練試題的困局。如何解決操練困局，仍有待政府及教育學者共同努力。第三，打破困局可從補償教育入手。談及補償教育，曾榮光﹙ 2006，頁 132﹚ 認為香港密集化考試操練文化現象，是源於教育制度內一種高度分化與分隔的結構︰初小階段部分學生出現學習困難而落後；升中派位制度使學校學生趨於同質而擴大學業成績分化；參與者的理性選擇是加入無休止的密集化的考試操練。他認為這種學能差異，源於香港學校制度缺乏有效的補償教學。他建議學校教育改革應︰ 1. 針對性、及時而又有效的補償教育；2. 減少學能及階級分隔；3. 改革高風險考試制度；4. 建立一包容的學校制度。筆者認為，曾榮光詮釋操練文化源於教育制度的高度分化與分隔結構，並且提出改革方向，極有見地。陸、總結本文以囚徒困局詮釋香港學校操練 Pre-S1的現象。對於學校負責人以理性選擇策略，無論其他學校選擇哪種策略，它操練學生以應付 Pre-S1，應能獲取最大的利益；他們選擇增加學生操練，因為那是實現自身最大利益的策略，也是各持分者的納什均衡點。筆者雖然提及打破困局的嘗試，但不難發現，各種嘗試仍面對挑戰。要改變充滿考試基因的個體﹙鄭楚雄，2014，頁 23﹚、受制於考試制度的學校﹙龐永欣，2014﹚、重視考試的社會﹙曾榮光，2006﹚，要打破學生為應試而操練的困局，政府仍須加倍努力。參考資料文雪、扈中平（2007）。〈從博弈論的角度看「教育減負」〉。《中國教育學刊》，1， 22-24。白波（2006）。《博弈遊戲》。台北市：德威國際文化事業有限公司。李斌輝（2008）。〈博弈論視野中的基礎教育課程改革困境〉。《教育理論與實踐》， 29，21-22。 120 辛列有（2008）。〈評估在變革中所帶來的影響〉。《教師中心傳真》，66，1。周昭和、黃毅英（2006）。〈從課外活動「持分」失衡看教育產品指標化的權力展現〉。載曾榮光主編：《廿一世紀教育藍圖？香港特區教育改革議論》（頁 369- 408）。香港︰香港教育研究所、香港中文大學出版社。柯政（2005）。〈課程改革中的囚徒困境︰存在與消解〉。《全球教育展望》，34（10），頁 53-55。范如國（2011）。《博奕論》。武漢︰武漢大學出版社。香港考試及評核局（2009）。《2009年全港性系統評估：第一至第三學習階段：中國語文科、英國語文科、數學科學生基本能力報告。》香港：香港考試及評核局。初等教育研究學會（2009）。〈「中小學教師對中一入學前學科測驗的意見」問卷調查〉。取自 http://www.hkpera.org/forum/viewthread.php?tid=258&extra=page%3D1。張宮熊（2009）。《賽局︰又稱博奕論》。高雄市：玲果國際文化事業有限公司。張振華﹙ 2007﹚。〈博弈論視野中的素質教育〉。《遼寧大學學報﹙哲學社會科學版》，35（5），頁 21-24。教育局學位分配組（2015）。《2013/2015 年度中學學位分配辦法──統一派位家長須知》。香港：教育局。曾榮光（2006）。〈從哪裏來？往哪裏去？尋找《教育改革建議》的實徵基礎〉。載於曾榮光主編：《廿一世紀教育藍圖？香港特區教育改革議論》（頁 129- 143）。香港：香港教育研究所、香港中文大學出版社。程介明（1997）。〈教育的回顧（下篇）〉。載王賡武主編：《香港史新編（下冊）》（頁 465-492）。香港：三聯書店。楊奇（1993）。《香港概論》（下冊）。香港：三聯書店（香港）有限公司。廖佩莉（2009）。〈析論香港小學中國語文科教師為學生準備「全港性系統評估」（TSA）的策略〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，5（4），109-128。趙永佳、何美儀（2014）。〈我們幸福嗎？──教育前線與施政報告〉。《「教育現場啟示錄」系列（六）》。2014年 1月 19日，取自 http://edufrontline.blogspot. hk/2014/01/blog-post_19.html。潘天群（2006）。《博奕生存：社會現象的博奕論解讀》。北京市：中央編譯出版社。鄧國俊、黃毅英、霍秉坤、顏明仁、黃家樂（2006）。《香港近半世紀漫漫「小學數教路」：現代化、本土化、普及化、規範化與專業化》。香港：香港數學教育學會。 121 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋鄭楚雄（2014）。《香港教育，實話實說》。香港：文化策略出版社。霍秉坤（2015）。〈香港全港性基本能力評估（TSA）的操練︰囚徒困局的視角〉。《教育學報》，43（2），51-70。龐永欣（2014年，7月 23日）。〈考試操練〉。《明報》，D5。 Amadae, S. M. (2016). Prisoners of reason. New York, US: Cambridge University Press. Dufwenberg, M. (2010). Game theory. WIREs Cognitive Science, 2(2), 167-173. DOI: 10.1002/wcs.119. Fisher, L. (2008). Rock, paper, scissors: Game theory in everyday life. New York, US: Basic Books. Gu, J. F. (2015). Price collusion or competition in US higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 40(2), 253-277. DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2013.823929. Hau, K. T., & Ho, I. T. (2008). Insights from research on Asian students’ achievement motivation. International Journal of Psychology, 43(5), 865-869. Kuhn, S. (2014). Prisoner's dilemma. E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Doi: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/prisoner- dilemma/. Raiffa, H., Richardson, J., & Metcalfe, D. (2002). Negotiation analysis: The science and art of collaborative decision making. Cambridge, US: Harvard University Press. Rasmusen, E. (2006). Games and information: An introduction to game theory (4th ed.). Malden, US: Blackwell Publishers. Webster, K. (2015). Missing the wood for the trees: systemic defects and the future of education for sustainable development. The Curriculum Journal, 24(2), 295-315. DOI: 10.1080/09585176.2013.802585. Yu, H. X., & Ding, X. H. (2010). How to get out of the prisoner’s dilemma: Educational resource allocation and private tutoring. Frontiers of Education in China, 6(2), 279- 292. 122 123 香港中一入學前香港學科測驗的操練︰囚徒困局的詮釋 Drilling for Hong Kong pre-secondary one attainment test: A prisoner’s dilemma perspective FOK Ping Kwan The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract The Hong Kong secondary place allocation is based on the results of Pre-Secondary One Attainment Test. The concept for designing this test in this phenomenon is clear and reasonable, aiming to reduce the possibility of school control and drilling students. Students, however, still fall into the dilemma of drilling. The article, applying the concept of prisoner’s dilemma, interprets the phenomena of drilling for examination results by schools in Hong Kong. First, this article introduces the concept of prisoner’s dilemma. Then, it analyses the phenomena of the dilemma of drilling for examination results among students and schools in mainland China and Hong Kong. Third, applying prisoner’s dilemma to interpret the Pre-S1 phenomenon in Hong Kong. Finally, ways are suggested to solve the dilemma. The author stresses that there are two main approaches to solve the dilemma: one is to raise the rational standard of individuals and another is to change the payoffs in the reward system. Keywords Education in Hong Kong, prisoner’s dilemma, Secondary School Places Allocation 125 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 16 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2017 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts WONG Pak Wing Lawrence Hong Kong Abstract This is a reflection paper written from the perspective of a current in-service career guidance teacher in Hong Kong. The challenges teachers can face at both theoretical and empirical levels when implementing career and life planning education at school are reviewed. This paper also highlights a number of issues that curriculum developers should consider when devising a life planning education curriculum. By understanding these challenges, it is hoped that frontline teachers can be better equipped to develop a life planning curriculum that caters to the pragmatic needs of future generations in Hong Kong. Keywords career guidance teacher, career and life planning education, curriculum development, career counseling in Hong Kong Introduction By making available the Career and Life Planning Grant (Education Bureau, 2014a), the HKSAR government has acknowledged the rapidly changing landscape of the global economy and intends to assist future generations by raising public awareness of life planning and career guidance in all secondary schools in Hong Kong. The grant has largely served as a catalyst to initiate changes in life planning and career guidance 126 education in Hong Kong, but it is not without its challenges, given the long history of underdevelopment in local education career counseling (Ho, 2008; Leung, 2002). By showing the perspective of an in-service career guidance teacher in Hong Kong, this reflection paper involves a discussion of how global and cultural factors have helped to shape students’ career development needs. The essay is divided into three parts. The first two consist of a literature review of the theoretical and empirical issues that affect the practice of career counseling. Particular focus is placed on discussing what Savickas (1995) refers to as the schisms between theory and practice of career guidance, how these are manifested, and their impact. The final part presents a synthesis of theoretical and empirical issues. The aim of the analysis is to contribute to the development of a career guidance program that can balance theory and practice and that is suitable for the specific pragmatic needs of Hong Kong in the 21st century. Throughout this article, the terms “career,” “career education,” and “career guidance” are used. To avoid confusion and the proliferation of jargon, the author would like to clarify some specific definitions. First, “career” refers to the different life roles of an individual over his or her lifespan (Zunker, 2002) and to the totality of their lifetime pursuits. Work activities are only a subset of this total (Sharf, 2013a). “Career education” refers to any educational experience aimed at helping clients to set clear career goals and to understand more about themselves (Fung & Wong, 2012). The focus is on the teaching of attitudes, beliefs, planning, and skills in making career decisions (Savickas, 2011). This is a comprehensive educational experience in the school curriculum, featuring a combination of concepts of career development into learning experiences at all levels in all subject disciplines (California State Department of Education, 1974; Curriculum Development Council, 2017; Hong Kong Association of Careers Masters and Guidance Masters, 2008). “Vocational education” refers to a similar form of education with a different orientation. It is a form of nonacademic training involving the direct education of practice- oriented or work-based skills for occupations (Georg & Kunze, 1981; Zelloth, 2014). This form of education is often associated with young people from lower social strata (Pahl, 2014) and is also perceived by society as an inferior form with a lower social status (Bosch & Charest, 2010). Historical Background When reviewing more than 50 years of development of career guidance in Hong Kong secondary schools, we witness the increasingly important roles played by career guidance and education within the local curriculum. Career guidance first gained attention in the 1950s, with the establishment of the position of Career Master/Mistress in secondary schools (Leung, 2002). Schooling at that time followed an elitist model, in which students 127 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts who could not make the grades would be forced to leave the system to find work (Chung, 1977), leading to the vocational guidance nature of early career guidance practices. In the 1970s, the introduction of mass education (Hong Kong Government, 1978) naturally led to an increase in the demand for career services. Many academically challenged students had left school with few or no qualifications and were clearly not suitable for schooling and therefore needed vocational guidance (Li, 2004). Despite the increase in demand for career services, career guidance still did not receive much support from schools and was regarded as a low-priority extracurricular activity. The career guidance curriculum at that time was usually managed by teachers untrained in the discipline, and services available were mainly career talks and site visits. Little attention was paid to the developmental needs of the students, which was mainly attributed to a lack of resources and support provided by the school heads (Williams, 1973). In the 1980s, a number of important policies were implemented concerning the governance and provision of guidance practices in schools (Education Commission, 1990; Education Department 2001:2). However, the main objectives of these guidelines (Education Department, 1986) were to manage pupil's behavior and develop remedial education in schools (Lai-Yeung, 2014; Yuen, 2006). There was little elaboration regarding how career guidance could be better administered. A more succinct contribution to the development of career guidance in school in that period was the announcement of the development of career assessment tools in the Report No. 1 (Education Commission, 1984). This initiated the development of aptitude tests for career guidance purposes. In general, the effectiveness of the newly introduced policies in the 1980s was partial. Scholars raised questions about the narrow focus of the initiatives, the professional capabilities of guidance teachers, and the lack of governance of the human resources deployment strategies of some schools (Hue, 2017; Ko & Wong, 1990). In the 1990s, a major change occurred when the Whole School Approach (WSA) was announced in Report No. 4 (Education Commission, 1990). The WSA was a new developmental approach to counseling in schools. It stressed the importance of helping learners to meet the differing needs at various stages of their lives. The traditional vocationally oriented elements within the career guidance curriculum had thus begun to diminish. Policy papers of the time emphasized the necessity for strong principal leadership and support for the WSA to function effectively (Education Department, 2001). To assist in the implementation of the WSA, the Education Department also released a series of guidelines and learning resources (Education Department 1993, 1995, for example) for schools, and later the “Operation Guide on the Whole School Approach to Integrated Education” in 2010 (Education Bureau, 2010). 128 From the beginning of the 21st century, increased public awareness of the need to provide quality career education and guidance to future generations led to the establishment of community initiatives by numerous nongovernmental organizations, including youth service organizations (e.g., the Federation of Youth, the Hok Yau Club, YMCA Hong Kong), charities (e.g., The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust), and commercial enterprises (e.g., McDonald's Hong Kong). These organizations conducted empirical survey studies (see 香港遊樂場協會賽馬會上葵涌青少年綜合服務中心生涯規劃關注小組，2008; 楊家正、鄭立德，2003) related to the provision of career services and career education services offered (e.g., 麥當勞，2005, 2006, 2008) to young people in local communities. The opportunities for professional training and support offered to front-line teachers in this period were also unrivalled. For example, commissioned by The Career Guidance Services Section of the Education Bureau, the Hong Kong Association of Careers Masters and Guidance Masters devised a 100-hour certificate course in career guidance at local tertiary institutes. Every year, 30 to 60 teachers were trained in the program (Ho, 2008). The status of career guidance was further enhanced when Hong Kong underwent a major curriculum review (see Education Commission, 2000). The “Applied Learning” curriculum, which stresses developing occupational skills, was introduced (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2006), and in the “New Academic Structure” (NAS) career education was formalized as a main area of learning. To support this newly enhanced status, “Other Learning Experiences’ (OLE) was introduced as a form of compulsory cross-curricular instructional activity. Under the OLE curriculum, career education was provided to students under the domain “Career-Related Learning Experiences.” The status of career education and guidance in the NAS curriculum was formalized with the launch of the Career and Life Planning Grant (CLP) in 2014. The aim of the grant was to help schools release manpower and thus allow career guidance teachers to cater for the developmental needs of their own students using the WSA (Education Bureau, 2014b). The grant could also be used to aid the flexible procurement of resources, but relying heavily on external services is not recommended, as teachers best understand the needs of their students (教育局學校發展分部，2014). The launch of the territory-wide career intervention project entitled CLAP for Youth @ JC in 2015 marked another great leap forward. Local study Since the inception of the CLP grant, many government survey studies have reported an increase in both the quantity and quality of career services provided by career guidance teachers (Legislative Council, 2015; 立法會 , 2017). However, the problems relating to the provision of career guidance in the 1970s and 1990s can still be found today when the CLP is implemented. First, most teachers are still not sufficiently trained in the implementation 129 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts of WSA (Yuen, Leung & Chan, 2014). Ho and Leung (2016) found in their survey research that compliance work in reaction to implementation of CLP policy initiatives at the school level resulted in workload intensification. Coincidentally, their research data reported that career guidance teachers today, as found in the studies in the 1970s (e.g., Williams, 1973), attributed the cause of their problems to the school management’s failure in 1) reducing the workload of career guidance teachers (e.g., lesson remission) and 2) using resources legitimately. Another study revealed that front-line teachers are not confident in providing career guidance services to students, further exacerbating the problem, and only 18.9% of the surveyed students claimed that they understood their interests clearly (香港中文大學， 2017). As a frontline practitioner who has received training in career guidance, the author believes that the above problems can be best understood by first reflecting on the literature and examining the underlying theoretical weaknesses in the theory and practice of career guidance. Then, in the second part of the reflection, the author will critically review several empirical global factors that have helped to shape the current reality. Part 1 – Fundamental weaknesses within the theoretical foundation of career counseling and life planning education Here the main career theories are critically reviewed. Important insights are derived in terms of understanding the limitations within the current theoretical framework so that the practice of career counseling can be further refined. The discipline and practice of career counseling originated in the West, mainly in the United States (Chen & Fouad, 2013), and the development of career counseling in Hong Kong is thus heavily influenced by Western ideologies (Leung, 2002; Ng & Yuen, 2016). A major contributing factor to the emergence of career guidance counseling is to help individuals of different abilities achieve a purposeful life through work (Zunker, 2016:8). Counselors and researchers develop various theories and psychological assessment devices to conduct career intervention to help clients. According to prominent researchers in the field, such as Savickas (1995), Holland (1996) and later Patton and McMahon (2014), despite recent advancements (e.g., systems theories in career counseling) in theoretical development, fundamental discrepancies remain between career theories because they target different aspects of career development. This results in “fragmentation, redundancy, and inconsistency” as identified by the discipline of vocational psychology (Savickas 1995:4). 130 1.1 Mismatch between theory and practice To further elaborate, Savickas (1995) explained that the area of vocational psychology has a long history of divergence between theory and practice. This problem has been particularly evident during the development of career theories, which are applied empirically. First, in terms of the development of theories, researchers use different operational definitions to categorize the factors to be investigated in a research study. This is problematic because it makes the comparison of the results across different research studies extremely difficult. Second, in terms of the empirical application of career theories, psychotherapy theorists and practitioners differ greatly in their views of counseling. The practitioners of psychotherapy argue that career counseling is a redundant subgenre of applied psychology because some evidence suggests an overlap between career and mental health counseling of students (Pace & Quinn, 2000; Savickas, 1995). These practitioners derive their knowledge from field experience and oral tradition, which are proven to be beneficial to clients. Counseling practices developed by theorists and researchers may not provide the same level of assurance in terms of effectiveness because most career theories are untested in formal empirical settings and thus are measured as purely theoretical (Holland, 1996:5). Theorists of career counseling often ignore, or are unaware of, real-world challenges that practitioners often encounter when conducting psychological intervention with their clients. Holland further suggested that many of the dominant theories are not fully supported, and some receive no support at all. 1.2 Mismatch between the theoretical construct and reality: the problem of congruency As identified by Patton and McMahon (2014), one fundamental weakness within the discipline is that many career theories are prone to the congruency problem. These theories encounter problems of whether a person can fit into the constantly changing labor market and often ignore how sociological and cultural factors have affected the career decision-making process (Holland, 1996:5; Leung, 2008). Two of the most influential career theories, according to Leung (2008), are Holland’s Theory of Personality and Work Environments (Holland, 1992, 1997) and Super’s Theory of Life Stage Development (1990), and both have received similar types of criticism. According to the literature, the problem of congruency can be viewed from two perspectives: 1) the fitness between the theoretical and empirical occupational environments; and 2) between the external and internal validity of the theoretical construct. 131 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts 1.2.1 The fitness between the theoretical and empirical construct One common criticism of the theories developed by Holland and Super is that their work does not stand the test of time. The constantly changing and volatile contemporary labor market is not fully taken into account. First, in relation to the empirical construct, which is the current labor market, Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996) criticized Holland’s theory for assuming stability and rigidity within this market. This can be problematic, because different occupations can be created or made redundant through changes in the economic environment and with technological advancement. Their criticism has reasonable empirical support, such as the report from the International Standard Classification of Occupations developed by the International Labour Office of Geneva. Job classification is reported to be difficult, because not all the tasks or duties of a job are unique and thus it is difficult to specifically fit them with a job classification (International Labour Office, 2012:39). Second, in terms of human development, Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) further criticized both Super’s and Holland’s theories (Gait & Asher, 2001) in failing to account for the changes in individuals in response to changes in the occupational environments. In particular they criticized, as did Super himself (Super, 1990), the segmentation of the Life Span theory, stating that it is simply a series of generalized facts that serve little practical use. The Work Values’ Inventory (Super, 1968) was also found to be internally inconsistent when used in Hong Kong (Wong & Yuen, 2015). 1.2.2 The fitness between the external and internal validity of the theoretical construct Super’s theory has been extremely influential, and Holland’s even more so (Leung, 2008), but their research validity in terms of their explanatory power has stimulated wide research interest and criticism. Super’s theory has been heavily criticized for being untested empirically (Super, 1990), and its internal validity is also questionable because it is segmented in nature (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996). It also does not address culture and gender issues (Sharf, 1997). Holland’s theory of typology has been found to be generally consistent (Sharf, 2013b), but it has still led to much academic debate over its internal and external validity. For example, Gati and Asher (2001) suggested that first, vocational interests are difficult to define and measure. Second, the relationship between various types of vocational interests is also controversial. Third, there is also a question of whether the number of types of person and environment fit should be fixed or variable. Fourth, the Holland codes may not be sufficiently defined to enable job screening. Finally, they found the theoretical construct of Holland’s theory to be too rigid because it assumes that vocational interests are static 132 and will not change. It ignores the fact that people can change, and therefore, the P-E fit, which is the congruence between an individual’s characteristics and the characteristics of his or her chosen occupation stressed in the theory is overemphasized. Numerous studies provide evidence for the criticisms of Holland’s theory. Its central idea of P-E congruence was found to be of low statistical correlation, at below 0.30 (Gati & Asher, 2001) and that there is a need to refine the method and further investigate the congruence issue (Spokane, Meir, & Catalano, 2000). Sharf (1997) suggested that the theory may not be viable in explaining career development because its predictive and explanatory power is questionable (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Tokar, Fischer, & Subich, 1998). 1.3 Summary of Part 1: theoretical implications to career counselors To summarize, we can see that fundamental deficiencies exist within the theoretical foundations of career counseling. To overcome these challenges, career counselors should become familiar with the most recent developments in the theoretical and clinical aspects of career counseling. Although progress has been made toward reaching a convergence of career theories, the process has encountered many difficulties (Savickas, 1995; Patton & McMahon, 2014). Career counselors must therefore develop a repertoire of skills that encompasses a broad and deep understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of different career theories and the related assessment inventories. Part 2 – Challenges and opportunities within the empirical context In this part, an overview of the employment market is described through a review of the literature and relevant statistical technical reports to highlight the career development needs of students of the 21st century. Teenagers from all walks of life, no matter their race, ethnicity, or gender, are facing increasing challenges in making the transition from education to work. Global vocational demands have progressed from the repetitive, labor-intensive mass production that dominated the 20th century, often referred to as Fordism, to a new knowledge economy in which strong technical knowledge (Drucker, 2002) and life-long learning (European Commission, 2012; Schleicher,2015; Zunker, 2016) are important. Technological advancements have led to increasing interconnectivity. This has helped to create a new 21st century economy that changes rapidly and is volatile. To cope with the demands this brings, students of the 21st century must equip themselves with a completely different skill set to achieve a successful career (New London Group, 1996; OECD, 2013; Pang & Leung, 2008; Schleicher, 2015). 133 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts 2.1 Reconceptualization of the term “career＂ in the 21st century Before we discuss the process of career guidance, it is first important for us to understand how changes in the economic landscape have helped to refine the concept of “career.” Zunker (2006:9) first suggested that the term can simply mean having to work to provide the money to meet financial constraints. However, he added that this traditional view of the concept of career may not be applicable to workers of the 21st century, as many of them may make multiple career changes throughout their lives. His view is echoed by Gothard (2000) who also called for an up-to-date interpretation of the term in the 21st century. A more specific definition of the concept of career is offered by Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, and Peterson (2000). A career is in their view a “Time-extended working out of a purposeful life pattern through work undertaken by the person.” They suggest that the rapid development of technology and the increasing dependence on international trade have had a major effect on the labor market. Hands-on skills such as manufacturing have become largely redundant. Employees in the 21st century are mobile, good at working in teams, and technologically competent. Employers emphasize cost- saving and efficient deployment of resources. Job stability is becoming less common with fewer promotion opportunities. Long-term, stable positions are commonly restructured as contractual or part-time positions managed by independent contractors, freelance workers, and consultants. In some situations, the entire job functions within a company will be outsourced to achieve cost savings (Zunker, 2016:11). 2.2 Challenges to career guidance and life planning education in Hong Kong 2.2.1 Upward mobility stagnation and global youth unemployment The recent paradigm shift within the employment market has led to an increase in unemployment, particularly among young people (Gothard 2000:3). Upward mobility is further stifled as higher education in Hong Kong has become more widely available (Lee, 2015). Youth unemployment has become a worldwide phenomenon (HKSAR, 2012) and is a particularly serious problem in many European countries, where many young people find it difficult to make the transition from education to work. The term “NEET,” referring to young people who are “not in employment, education or training” was coined in the United Kingdom and serves to highlight the seriousness of the problem. According to estimates released by the International Labour Organization in August 2016, the global youth unemployment rate has increased from 12.9% in 2015 and is set to remain at 13.1% through to 2017 (International Labour Organization, 2016). The report also revealed the alarming phenomenon of the rise of the class of “the working poor.” According to the same report, 37.7% or 156 million working youth are in extreme or moderate poverty. This 134 suggests that stagnation in upward social mobility is a chronic problem experienced by young people around the world. In Hong Kong, although youth unemployment is not a pressing issue, stagnation in upward mobility is a problem that is becoming more evident. In June 2016, the Research Office of the Legislative Council Secretariat released a report entitled “Challenges of manpower adjustment in Hong Kong,” which revealed that due to the recent economic slowdown the future employment outlook is likely to stay cautious. There will be an increasing amount of young people who have attained degree education who must take up positions in lower-skilled occupations due to a slowdown in the supply of high-end jobs. They are also expected to be paid less than their predecessors (Research Office of the Legislative Council Secretariat, 2016). From a global perspective, there is a significant worsening of youth unemployment in many advanced economies. NEETs can be found virtually everywhere in the world. According to a report compiled by the OECD in 2014 (OECD, 2014), between 2000 and 2012 about 15% of individuals between 15 and 29 years of age were classified as NEET, and a majority were women. This trend has remained stable throughout the period and is expected to persist. According to the same report, as of 2012 for the same age group, the average unemployment rate was 7% and the average percentage of people outside the labor force, that is, those who were neither in education nor seeking work, was 8% among all OECD countries. In another report compiled by the OECD in 2015 (OECD, 2015), the youth unemployment rates of the United States and United Kingdom were recorded as 11.6% and 13.2%, respectively. In some European countries such as Italy, Spain, and Greece, the youth unemployment rates were higher than 40%. In Hong Kong, similar findings can also be observed. According to official government statistics, the youth (15 to 24 years of age) unemployment rate was 11.6% in the third quarter of 2012 (HKSAR, 2012). Another salient feature of youth unemployment in Hong Kong is that the labor force participation rate in this age group, which measures the proportion of the working age population engaging in the workforce either by working or looking for work, has shown a sustained downward trend from 1986 to 2010. The Hong Kong government reported that young people in Hong Kong had been delaying employment because of the numerous educational pathways provided to them (HKSAR, 2016). In short, we can see that regardless of geographical location, youth unemployment has become a major global issue that not only has triggered the enactment of different government policies as remedies, but also has posed challenges to educators. A very strong positive correlation between educational attainment and success in securing work has been identified and proven (Dietrich, 2013). 135 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts 2.2.2 Local factors that serve as obstacles to curriculum change in Hong Kong The above sections demonstrate that a major revamp of our philosophy of education is needed to prepare for future challenges. However, the cultural factors of 1) leadership style and 2) teacher resistance within the Hong Kong educational context can make a paradigm shift in the already “superficial” career education even more difficult (Ho, 2008). First, at the school leadership level, the literature shows that the success of comprehensive school reform is heavily influenced by the principal leadership (Desimone, 2002; Education Department, 2001). Hallinger, Theodore, and Szeto’s (2013) comprehensive review of more than 15 years of educational leadership research revealed that school leadership in Hong Kong is characterized by 1) a high power distance and 2) a leadership style shaped by Chinese cultural norms. In times of curriculum change, these two factors can yield mixed results. For example, although principals have been increasingly active in engaging staff in the school management process (Hallinger et al., 2013), this form of staff empowerment may not be welcomed. Lee and Dimmock’s (1999) multiple case study research found that staff members view this empowerment as leading to the development of a “fragmented and easily disjointed” school curriculum, because of a lack of central coordination. In addition, cultural values can be a major obstacle. Influenced by the Chinese tradition of embracing social harmony, staff members may be cooperative on the surface but dissatisfied at heart. If staff make their feelings known to the principal they may feel they are disrupting the social harmony, and thus may become overworked (Careless & Dimmock, 2001). Any type of education reform may thus entail more work and pressure for teachers (Poon & Wong, 2007). Research evidence also suggests that the chances of successful WSA implementation are very low because a majority of teachers are still not adequately trained for this work (Patton & Burton, 1997; Yuen, Leung, & Chan, 2014). This notion is supported by the observations of Hui (2002). The findings of her study, which involved more than 900 teachers in Hong Kong, revealed that a whole-school approach was not practiced in the majority of the surveyed school. Teachers held different attitudes and beliefs toward the concept of a whole-school approach to counseling. Second, teachers of different abilities and attitudes manage curriculum innovations differently. There are many examples in the literature of failed attempts due to heavy teacher resistance. The strong examination-driven learning culture in Hong Kong has led to the formation of a product view of assessment and teaching, thereby creating a major obstacle to change. Examples of hurdles encountered in the process of curriculum change in teaching and assessment can be extremely informative and can help us understand how such forces can inhibit curriculum change. 136 In terms of teaching, a long history of research shows that teachers in Hong Kong may not always welcome policy changes. New teaching approaches, such as the task- based approach and the introduction of the English benchmark examination for teachers, have sparked widespread discontent among local English teachers (Urmston, 2001). How English is taught in the classroom is also a concern, and Lin (1996) reported that code switching is very common, teaching pedagogies are heavily textbook based (McGrath, 2006; Reynolds, 1974; Richards, Tung & Ng, 1992), and over-reliance on the use of mechanical drills and rote learning to prepare students for high stake examinations (Tse, 2017). The newly introduced New Senior Secondary School curriculum has also taken its toll, and teachers have demonstrated a tendency to resist change and revert to the use of traditional approaches (Tong, 2010). This observation is supported by other empirical studies, in which new directions such as the emphasis of the use of formative assessment to promote learning (Lee & Coniam, 2013), the use of school-based assessment to promote the use of formative assessment (Fok, Kennedy, Chan, & Yu, 2006) and the promotion of a constructivist approach to learning (Luk Fong, 2013) have received strong opposition from local teachers. School-based assessment has generated territory wide criticism and is now gradually being simplified (in Liberal Studies, for example) or even phased out (as in Business, Accounting and Finance). In short, we can see from this section that Hong Kong is now facing many challenges to change at both global and local levels. In particular, questions have been raised in terms of whether teachers and school leaders in Hong Kong have the professionalism to initiate and manage change. 2.3 Opportunities: assisting learners in acquiring 21st century skills Many national-level educational departments (the OECD, HKSAR for example) have echoed the observations of Dietrich (2013) by suggesting that schools should help learners make the transition from education to work. The OECD has identified a number of “adult skills” (see Figure 1) that are essential for students who are 16 or older to succeed in the 21st century. Proficiency in the use of technology has been identified as a core skill. The Survey of Adult Skills (OECD, 2013), which is an assessment inventory to assess competency in these skills, was later developed. The assessment reported that in most participating countries (30 countries in total), a significant number of adults had very limited technological skills. The report stressed that while connectivity can be an issue, the proficiency of ICT skills is dependent on the level of literacy and numeracy skills. A good level of reading ability is essential for learning, and it is highly likely that information will not be understood or managed effectively without it, thereby affecting the acquisition of ICT skills. In short, if school education does not reflect the current needs of the labor market, it is likely that youth unemployment will persist. 137 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts Figure 1 (OECD, 2013) Part 3 – Discussion and recommendations on career guidance and life planning education in Hong Kong schools In this part, conclusions made in the previous sections in terms of the theoretical and empirical aspects of career guidance are synthesized into this model, and their implications are discussed. This synthesis can help formulate a situated career education program that is well attuned to the pragmatic needs of the 21st century. 3.1 Theoretical adaptations The recent development of career theories appears to be limited, which must be recognized from the outset. One factor contributing to this problem is that the research work by Holland and Super was so broad that it is very difficult to develop new perspectives (Sharf, 2013b:4). Efforts should therefore be made to refine the construct portrayed by the theories of Holland and Super, so that career development theories can be more relevant and consistent for empirical use in modern society. First, one of the main criticisms of Holland’s theory is that it is not up to date in terms of the current labor market. It assumes that the employment market is static. This problem can be solved by keeping up-to-date information on job classification (see the International Labour Office, 2012, for example). In Hong Kong for example, the Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups and the Home Affairs Bureau have collaborated and developed an online job classification database entitled “Job-tionary,” which is a source of information potentially reflecting the current developments in the employment market. 138 Career counselors can update their career assessment inventories (e.g., assigning Holland codes) by making reference to the database. New jobs becoming available in the job market can be identified, and then suitable Holland codes can be assigned to them. Job roles from Holland’s initial classification can also be reviewed to see if their nature or skill requirements have changed. If changes have taken place, new Holland codes should be assigned to reveal their current roles in contemporary society. Second, to enhance the theoretical foundations of Holland’s theory, we should not assume that people are static objects that will do little to change to adapt to the environment. Instead, we should follow Zunker’s (2002) suggestion of attempting to negotiate with the client to arrive at a decision and avoid being authoritative. Psychological developmental variables in the second stage of counseling can be identified. For example, we can look at motivational factors, such as vocational self-efficacy, to understand where the client lacks confidence at work (Taylor & Betz, 1983). Third, career guidance emphasizes the totality of the career decision-making process throughout a person’s life. Aspects other than person-occupational fit should therefore also be studied. Other prevailing career development theories can be used in conjunction with Holland and Super's theoretical foundations for career education purposes. For example, Howard and Walsh’s (2010) Model of Children's Vocational Reasoning can be adapted to the local context to explain the stages of adolescent career development. Gottfredson’s (2002) theory of Circumscription and Compromise, and Self Creation can be used to help guide teachers to understand how adolescents compare alternatives and ultimately are selective, enabling career decisions that are most accessible to them. Finally, the Chaos Theory of Careers (Pryor & Bright, 2011) can be used to show how unexpected events can affect an individual's career development throughout their life. 3.2 Empirical adaptations As mentioned in previous sections, one main challenge to the youth of the 21st century is the difficulty in making the transition from education to work. It is therefore of the utmost importance for career guidance programs to incorporate elements that can facilitate such a transition. The top priority is thus for schools to help learners develop proficiency in 21st century skills. A number of transnational organizations, such as OECD and the European Commission, have formulated policies to help schools nurture students in developing these skills. Although termed and categorized differently, there appears to be a consensus on the main elements of a 21st century skills set, which consists of the following three core competencies: 1) literacy, 2) digital technology, and 3) math and science (European Commission, 2012; OECD, 2014; Schleicher, 2015). Essentially, the overarching theme is that school curricula should be able to 139 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts familiarize students with the use of technology in problem-solving and communication. In terms of the development of literacy skills, contrary to traditional forms of learning, students in the 21st century should be proficient in both decoding and producing printed and digital texts effectively (New London Group, 1996). In terms of the development of technological skills, being competent in using and applying ICT skills in communication for work and leisure is essential (European Commission, 2012); for example, the teaching of computer programming skills in schools and producing multimodal texts for work and leisure. In addition, the consistency and congruence of psychological tests can be checked before local empirical use (Leung, 2005), and it is encouraging to see that a number of large scale research studies such as CLAP for Youth @ JC have been launched, in an attempt to develop a career intervention tool that is consistent and congruent with the indigenous culture of Hong Kong. Also, a range of career guidance frameworks (e.g., Ng & Yuen, 2016) and intervention tools (e.g., Chui, 2012; Lee, 2007) have been developed locally. These useful resources can be made available to career guidance teachers for counseling purposes in the future. 3.3 Overall conclusion: What are the challenges and opportunities for career guidance and life planning education in the 21st century? To summarize, by drawing on the information presented in the above sections, it is clear that a major challenge for career guidance teachers is that it is increasingly difficult for young people to make a smooth transition from education to work. Technological advancement in the 21st century has led to this problem, because it has shaped a labor market that is cost conscious, volatile, knowledge-based, and constantly changing. Young people are more vulnerable to unemployment, but we can see that there are opportunities for career counselors to help. Their work must be supported by a principal who acts as the expert and a leadership spearheading curriculum change. Together with the career counselor(s), the principal can design and devise a school curriculum that can assist learners to develop proficiency in 21st century/adult skills in school, to better prepare them to enter the job market (New London Group, 1996; OECD, 2013; Schleicher, 2015). Counselors can also prepare learners to understand that throughout their careers they need to constantly change and adapt to the environment. They are highly likely to be working in multiple jobs with different natures. The focus of the career education program, therefore, should be to develop proficiency in 21st century/adult skills to facilitate life-long learning and to enable learners to better understand themselves so they can develop flexibility in coping with career changes in the unstable employment market of the 21st century. 140 References 立法會（2017）。推行生涯規劃教育的進度報告及有關中學畢業生多元出路的事宜。取自 http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr16-17/chinese/panels/ed/papers/ed 20170313cb4-662-1-c.pdf 香港遊樂場協會賽馬會上葵涌青少年綜合服務中心生涯規劃關注小組（2008）。〈概況問卷調查報告書〉香港 : 香港遊樂場協會。香港中文大學（2017）。有「程」‧有「趣」中大發表香港高中學生的生涯發展現況調查結果（Chinese version only）。取自 http://cpr.cuhk.edu. hk/en/press_detail.php?id=2507&t=有 -程 -有 -趣 -中大發表香港高中學生的生涯發展現況調查結果 -chinese-version-only。麥當勞（2005）。2005『麥當勞夏日繽紛暑期青少年大使計劃』畢業典禮。取自 http://mail.mcdonalds.com.hk/chinese/about/press/press.asp?id=050802。麥當勞（2006）。2006『麥當勞夏日繽紛暑期青少年大使計劃』畢業典禮。取自 http://mail.mcdonalds.com.hk/chinese/about/press/press.asp?id=060802。麥當勞（2008）。2008『麥當勞夏日繽紛暑期青少年大使計劃』畢業典禮。取自 http://mail.mcdonalds.com.hk/chinese/about/press/press.asp?id=080726。教育局學校發展分部（2014）。發放「生涯規劃津貼」常見問題。取自 https:// careerguidance.edb.hkedcity.net/edb/export/sites/default/lifeplanning/.pdf/about- careers-guidance/CLP-Grant_FAQs.pdf。楊家正、鄭立德（2003）。〈艱難歲月中的香港青少年生涯規劃問卷調查報告〉香港：香港大學社會工作及社會行政學系。 Assouline, M., & Meir, E. (1987). Meta-analysis of the relationship between congruence and well-being measures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, pp. 319-332. Bosch, G., & Charest, J. (Eds.). (2010). Vocational training: International perspectives. New York: Routledge. California State Department of Education. (1974). Career education: A position paper on career development and preparation in California. Retrieved from: http://files.eric. ed.gov/fulltext/ED117420.pdf Carless, D. & Dimmock, C. (2001). The principal and curriculum change: A Hong Kong case study. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 21(1), pp.30-44. Chen, Y.L., & Fouad, N.A. (2013). Asian American educational goals: racial barriers and cultural factors. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(1), 73-90. 141 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts Chui, Y. H. (2012). Psychometric report on Career Readiness Scale. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui Welfare Council (in Chinese). Chung, C.Y. (1977). Education and youth problem in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Union Press Limited. Curriculum Development Council. (2017). Career and life planning: Multiple pathway for all students to excel. Retrieved from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/ curriculum-development/renewal/Guides/SECG%20booklet%209_20170531.pdf Desimone, L. (2002). How can comprehensive school reform models be successfully implemented, Review of Educational Research, 72(3), pp.433- 479. Dietrich, H. (2013). “Youth unemployment in period 2001-2010 and the European crisis: Looking at the empirical evidence.” Transfer, 19(3), pp.305-324. Drucker, P.F. (2002). Managing in the next society. New York: Truman Talley Books. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2006). Action for the future: Career-oriented studies and the New Senior Secondary Academic Structure for special schools. Retrieved from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/curriculum-development/cross-kla- studies/applied-learning/ref-and-resources/Report - Action for the Future_E.pdf Education Bureau. (2010). Operation guide on the Whole School Approach to integrated education. Retrieved from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/special/ support/wsa/ie guide_en.pdf Education Bureau. (2014a). Education Bureau Circular No.6/2014: Career and Life Planning Grant. Retrieved from: http://applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/ EDBC/EDBC14006E.pdf Education Bureau. (2014b). Guide on life planning education and career guidance for secondary schools. Retrieved from: https://careerguidance.edb.hkedcity.net/edb/ export/sites/default/lifeplanning/.pdf/about-careers-guidance/CLP-Guide_E_r3.pdf Education Commission. (1984). Report No 1. Retrieved from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/ attachment/en/about-edb/publications-stat/major-reports/ecr1_e.pdf Education Commission. (1990). Report No 4. Retrieved from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/ attachment/en/about-edb/publications-stat/major-reports/ecr4_e.pdf Education Commission. (2000). Review of Education System: Reform Proposals. Retrieved from: http://www.info.gov.hk/archive/consult/2000/Full-Eng.pdf Education Department. (1986), Guidance work in secondary schools: A suggested guide for principals and teachers. Hong Kong: Education Department. 142 Education Department (1993). Guidelines on whole school approach to guidance (for secondary schools), part 1. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Department. Education Department (1995). Guidelines on whole school approach to guidance (for secondary schools), part 2. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Department Services Division. Education Department. (2001), Guidance work in secondary schools. Hong Kong: Education Department. European Commission (2012). Rethinking education: investing in skills for better socio- economic outcomes. Retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/ PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012SC0374&from=EN Fok, P. K., Kennedy, K. J., Chan, K. S. J., & Yu, W. M. (2006, May). Integrating assessment of learning and assessment for learning in Hong Kong public examinations: Rationales and realities of introducing school-based assessment. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Conference of International Association for Educational Assessment: Assessment in an Era of Rapid Change: Innovations and Best Practices, Singapore. Fung, D. & Wong, P.S.L. (2012). Using career education and career services to enhance employability: A case of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Asian Journal of Counselling, 19, pp 75-96. Gati, I. & Asher, I. (2001). The PIC model for career decision making: prescreening, in depth exploration and choice. In F.T.L. Leong & A. Barak (Eds.) Contemporary models in vocational psychology: a volume in honor of Samuel H Osipow. (pp.7-54). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Georg, W., & Kunze, A. (1981). Sozialgeschichte der Beruferziehung. München: Juventa. Gothard, B. (2000). Careers guidance in a new era. In B, Gothard., P, Mignot., M, Offer., & M, Ruff. Careers guidance in context, pp. 1 – 9. London: Sage. Gottfredson, L.S. (2002). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self- creation. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and Development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hallinger, P., Theodore, T.H., & Szeto, E. (2013). Review of research on educational leadership and management in Hong Kong, 1995 - 2012: Topographical analysis of an emergent knowledge base. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 12, pp.256-281. HKSAR (2012). \"Youth unemployment in Hong Kong\". Retrieved from: http://www. hkeconomy.gov.hk/en/pdf/box-12q3-5-1.pdf 143 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts HKSAR (2016). \"Hong Kong economic reports: the labour sector\". Retrieved from: http:// www.hkeconomy.gov.hk/en/pdf/er_15q4_ch6.pdf Ho, Y.F., (2008). Reflections on school career education in Hong Kong: responses to Norman C Gysbers, Darryl Takizo Yagi, and Sang Min Lee & Eunjoo Yang. Asian Journal of Counseling, 15(2), pp.183-205. Ho, Y.F., & Leung, S.M.A., (2016). Career guidance in Hong Kong: From policy ideal to school practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 64(3), pp. 216-230. Holland, J. L. (1992). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Holland, J.L. (1996). Integrating career theory and practice: the current situation and some potential remedies. In M.L. Savicaks & W.B. Walsh. (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling: Theory and practice. (pp.1-11). California: Davies-Black Publishing. Holland, J. H. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hong Kong Association of Careers Masters and Guidance Masters. (2008). Finding your colors of life. Retrieved from: https://www.hkacmgm.org/wp-content/uploads/isp/ isp2_findyourcoloursoflife/Chapter1_web.pdf Hong Kong Government. (1978). The development of senior secondary and tertiary education. Retrieved from: http://www.ied.edu.hk/cird/publiccations/edpolicy/04.pdf Howard, K.A.S. & Walsh, M.E. (2010). Conceptions of career choice and attainment: Developmental levels in how children think about careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(2), pp.143-52. Hue, M.T. (2017). School counseling in Hong Kong: Schools and cultural influence. In H. Ming-tak (Ed). School counseling in a Chinese context: Supporting students in need in Hong Kong, pp.3-18, New York: Routledge. Hui, K.P.E. (2002). A whole-school approach to guidance: Hong Kong teachers' perceptions. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 30(1), 63-80. International Labour Office (2012). International standard classification of occupations: Structure, group definitions and correspondence tables. Retrieved from: http://www. ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/ wcms_172572.pdf International Labour Organization (2016). World employment social outlook: trends for youth 2016. Retrieved from: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/- --dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_513739.pdf 144 Ko, G.P.C. & Wong, P.Y. (1990). Secondary school students in Hong Kong: Expectations and perceptions of school social work and guidance teacher services. Hong Kong: City Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Lai-Yeung, S.W.C. (2014). The need for guidance and counseling trainer for teachers. Procedia, 113, pp.36-43. Lee, C.M.M. (2007). Career maturity, career decision-making self-efficacy, interdependent self-construal, locus of control and gender role ideology of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Retrieved from: http://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_ra/811/ Lee, I. & Coniam, D. (2013). “Introducing assessment for learning for EFL writing in an assessment of learning examination-driven system in Hong Kong”. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, pp. 34-50. Lee, J.C.K., & Dimmock, C. (1999). Curriculum leadership and management in secondary schools: a Hong Kong case study. School Leadership and Management, 19(4), pp.455-481. Lee, S.Y. (2015). Massification without equalization: The politics of higher education, graduate employment and social mobility in Hong Kong. Journal of Education and Work, 29(1), pp.13-31. Legislative Council (2015). Legislative Council Panel on education progress report on implementation of life planning education. Retrieved from: http://www.legco.gov.hk/ yr14-15/english/panels/ed/papers/ed20150209cb4-457-4-e.pdf Leung, S. A. (2002). Career counseling in Hong Kong: meeting the social challenges. The Career Development Quarterly, 50(3), pp.237-245. Leung, S. A. (2005). Career and life planning: Trans-theoretical assumptions and strategies. Asian Journal of Counseling, 12(1&2), pp.79-93. Leung, S.A. (2008). The big five career theories. In J.A. Athanasou & R.V. Esbroeck (Eds.), International handbook of career guidance (pp.115-129). London: Springer Netherlands. Li, K.F.S. (2004). The role of careers teacher in Hong Kong secondary schools. Retrieved from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/42016250.pdf Lin, A. (1996). Bilingualism or Linguistic Segregation? Symbolic Domination, Resistance and Code-Switching in Hong Kong Schools. Linguistics and Education, 8(1), pp. 49- 84. Luk Fong, P.Y.Y. (2013). Teachers’ identities and life choices: Issues of globalization and localization. New York: Springer. 145 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts McGrath, I. (2006). Teachers’ and learners’ images for coursebooks. ELT Journal, 60(2), 171-180. Mitchell, L.K. & Krumboltz, J.D. (1996) ‘Krumboltz’s learning theory of career choice and counseling’, in Brown, D., Brooks, L. & Associates (Eds.) Career choice and development (3rd Ed). (pp223-280). California: Jossey Bass. New London Group. (1996). ‘A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures.’ Havard Educational Review, 66(1), 60-92. Ng, V., & Yuen, M. (2016). Career guidance and counseling in an international school in Hong Kong: Literature review and a school counselor’s reflection. Retrieved from: http://hkier.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/journal/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/AJC_online_Ng- Yuen.pdf OECD (2013). OECD skills outlook 2013: first results from the Survey of Adult Skills. Retrieved from: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/oecd-skills-outlook- 2013_9789264204256-en OECD (2014). How successful are students in moving from education to work? Retrieved from: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/highlights-from-education-at-a- glance_2076264x OECD (2015). OECD employment outlook 2015. Retrieved from: http://www.oecd- ilibrary.org/employment/oecd-employment-outlook_19991266 Osipow, S.H. & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1996). Theories of Career Development. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Pace, D. & Quinn, L. (2000). Empirical support of the overlap between career and mental health counseling of university students. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 14(3), pp.41-50. Pahl, J.P. (2014). Vocational education research: Research on vocational pedagogy, vocational discipline and vocational didactics. In Z. Zhao & F. Rauner, Areas of vocational education research, pp. 17 – 44. Berlin: Springer. Pang, S.K. & Leung, Z.L.M. (2008). The practice of assessment for learning and metacognitive teaching in Hong Kong classrooms. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Educational Research. Patton, W., & Burton, T. (1997). Training needs of career guidance personnel in Australia and Hong Kong: A comparative study. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 19, pp.361 – 372. 146 Patton, W. & McMahon, M. (2014). Career development and systems theory. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Poon, A.Y.K., & Wong, Y.C. (2007). Policy Goals and Impact of Hong Kong’s Education Reform. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist University. Pryor, R.G.L., & Bright, J.E.H. (2011). The chaos theory of career: A new perspective on working in the twenty-first century. New York: Routledge. Reardon, R. C., Lenz, J. G., Sampson, J. P. & Peterson, G. W. (2000). Career development and planning: A comprehensive approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Research Office of the Legislative Council Secretariat (2016). Challenges of manpower adjustment in Hong Kong. Retrieved from: http://www.legco.gov.hk/research- publications/english/1516rb04-challenges-of-manpower-adjustment-in-hong-kong- 20160607-e.pdf Reynolds, P.D. (1974). English language teaching and textbooks in Hong Kong. Research Unit, Department of Education, University of Hong Kong. Richards, JC., Tung, P., & Ng, P. (1992). The culture of the English language teacher: A Hong Kong example’. RELC Journal, 23(1), 81-103. Savickas, M.L. (1995). Current theoretical issues in vocational psychology: convergence, divergence, and schism. In W.B.Walsh & S.H.Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology: theory research and practice (pp.1-34). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Savickas, M.L. (2011). Career counseling. Washington: American Psychological Association. Schleicher, A. (2015). Schools for 21st-Century Learners: Strong Leaders, Confident Teachers, Innovative Approaches, International Summit on the Teaching Profession, OECD Publishing. Sharf, R.S. (1997). Applying Career Development Theory to Counselling. California: Brooks/Cole. Sharf, R.S. (2013a). Applying Career Development Theory to Counselling 6th edition. California: Brooks/Cole. Sharf, R.S. (2013b). Advances in theories of career development. In W.B. Walsh, M.L. Savicaks & P.J. Hartung. Handbook of vocational psychology: Theory, research and practice. Handbook of vocational psychology, pp.3-32. New York: Routledge. 147 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts Spokane, A.R., Meir, E.I., & Catalano, M. (2000). “Person-environment congruence and Holland’s theory: a review and reconsideration”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, pp.137-187. Super, D. E. (1968). Manual for Work Values Inventory. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development: Applying contemporary approaches to practice (2nd ed., pp. 197–261). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Taylor, K.M., & Betz, N.E. (1983). “Applications of self-efficacy theory to the understanding and treatment of career indecision”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 22(1), pp.63-81. Tokar, D.M., Fischer, A.R., & Subich, L.M. (1998). “Personality and vocational behavior: a selective review of the literature 1993-1997”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 53, pp.115-153. Tong, S.Y.A (2010). “Lessons learned? School leadership and curriculum reform in Hong Kong”. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(2), pp. 231-242. Tse, K. C. (2017). Should there be public reporting of school performance?: The lessons from the school inspection reports disputes. In K.C. Tse & M. Lee (Eds.) Making sense of education in post-handover Hong Kong: Achievements and challenges (pp.161-179). London: Routledge. Urmston, A.W. (2001). Learning to teach English in Hong Kong: effects of the changeover in sovereignty. Language Teaching Research, 5(2), pp.178-179. Williams, W.D.F. (1973). Careers information, guidance and counselling in Hong Kong research project, January – May, 1973. Hong Kong: Kwun Tong Vocational Training Centre. Wong, S.W. & Yuen, M. (2015). Super's work values inventory: Issues of subtest internal consistency using a sample of Chinese university in Hong Kong. Journal of Employment Counseling, 52, pp. 29-35. Yuen, M. (2006). School counseling in Hong Kong: History, policy, current implementation status, and future directions. In C. H. So (Ed.), School counseling and career guidance (pp. 44–70). Macau: Faculty of Education, University of Macau. Yuen, M., Leung, S.A., & Chan, R.T.H. (2014). Professional Counseling in Hong Kong. Journal of Counseling & Development, 92, pp. 99-103. 148 Zelloth, H. (2014). Technical and vocational education and training and career guidance: The interface. In G.Arulmani, A.J. Bakshi, F.T.L. Leong & A.G. Watts. (Eds). Handbook of career development: International perspectives. London: Springer. Zunker, V.G. (2016). Career counseling: a holistic approach. Boston: Cengage Learning. Zunker, V.G. (2006). Career counseling: a holistic approach. Belmont: Thomson / Brooks Cole. Zunker, V.G.(2002). Career counseling: applied concepts of life planning. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. 149 Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts 香港的就業輔導和生涯規劃教育：理論層面和實際推行上的機遇與挑戰王柏穎香港摘要本文以一位現任職業輔導老師的角度，反思在香港中學實施就業輔導和生涯規劃教育時，在理論層面和實際推行上遇到的挑戰。此外，本文亦提出一些設計生涯規劃教育課程時應注意的問題。作者希望透過瞭解這些挑戰，可使前線教師發展相關課程以更有效地裝備學生，幫助他們把握未來生涯的機遇。關鍵詞就業輔導老師，就業輔導和生涯規劃教育，課程規劃，香港的就業輔導 151 《香港教師中心學報》，第十六卷 © 香港教師中心，2017 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究吳善揮明愛元朗陳震夏中學摘要歷年的公開考試報告都載有批評香港學生寫作能力不濟的相關論述，而他們的寫作能力日益下降與他們欠缺日常美感經驗不無關係。事實上，筆者發現以直接講授的方式教授寫作能力，初中學生都顯得較被動，而寫作內容亦顯得空洞無物。在這樣的背景下，筆者嘗試把校園美學融入描寫文教學之中，即透過校園寫生豐富學生的美感體驗，然後再讓他們進行文章創作，以使寫作教學的過程變得更活潑；結果發現學生們都很喜愛這樣的寫作活動，而他們的寫作能力也能夠得以提升。本文旨在分享校園美學融入寫作課程的經驗，並對當中的教學成果進行反思。關鍵詞中國語文的教育，寫作課程，美感教育，校園美學甲、研究緣起寫作能力有助學生提升自身在社會的競爭力。寫作能夠讓我們達到與人進行溝通、說服他人的目標，是我們在日常生活之中不可或缺的基本能力（陳瑋婷、蕭金土，2012）。陳瑋婷（2007）認為學生能否於未來順利升學、就業及獨立生活，與他們書寫表達能力的高低，有著極為重要的關係。謝文英、賴瑩蓉（2014）也指出學生能否掌握一定的寫作能力，對於他們未來的生涯發展有著重大的影響。因此，寫作能力在語文教學之中，佔有極為重要的地位，是語文教師不可忽略的一環。 152 事實上，改善學生寫作能力的前提，在於加強他們對日常生活或事物的感知能力。何晨卉（2015）指出學生寫作能力低下的主要原因，在於他們缺乏對生活之感知力，而在缺乏生活體驗的情況下，學生根本不可能把所見、所聞及所感，透過文章創作表達出來。吳善揮（2014）指出香港學生對生活缺乏深刻的觀察，這不但使到他們未能夠儲積寫作材料，同時，他們亦因而不能形成自己的生活品味。由此可見，寫作能力的教學活動必然需要引導學生觀察日常生活的細節及事物，以讓他們累積不同的生活體驗，進而使他們從中產生深刻的體會，那麼在日積月累的情況下，他們的寫作能力定必能夠得以提升。在真實的教學現場裡，筆者也發現所任教的初中學生對寫作欠缺興趣，同時他們亦欠缺對生活的觀察，致使美感經驗不足，最終他們所創作的文章內容亦顯得浮泛空洞。有見及此，筆者嘗試善用任教學校的校園美學優勢（我校多次獲得環境大獎），以校內寫生活動加強學生對事物的觀察力，結果發現學生不但喜歡這樣的寫作教學活動，而且更願意認真地創作自己的文章。而最重要的，就是他們在經歷了美感體驗後，所創作的內容比從前變得更為具體，寫作能力亦因而得到提升。因此，本文之主要目的在於探討校園美學對寫作教學的影響、分享校園美學融入寫作課程的經驗，以及當中的教學成果反思。乙、文獻回顧一、校園美學的意涵所謂校園美學，就是指建築美學，當中強調人類運用不同的建築方法，創造出具體的美感形式，包括：外觀、結構、色彩、韻律、風格等，而由此創造出來的建築空間之美，將引發出美感及教育的作用，並影響到人們的思想和情感（張德銘、劉修祥，2015）。具體而言，校園美學就是指校園建築、環境景觀、教育所反映出來的教育精神及美學理念，並包含了形象美、意境美，空間美及生態美，而最重要的，就是當中的校園設計能夠使到學生從中認識美、感受美及實踐美（黃庭鈺， 2015）。事實上，學校不但是學生學習和生活的日常地方，而且更是形成學生美感的重要場所，因此校園應該向學生提供一個看見美麗、聽聞美聲、以及體驗美感之空間，讓他們可以從校園環境之中建構美感經驗（賀宏偉，2015）。由此可見，校 153 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究園美學具有極為重要的價值，這是因為其能夠創造出美感教育的空間，讓教師可以運用校園美麗的人文景觀，教育學生認識美、感受美，並使他們可以從中累積不同的美感經驗，最終建構出內在的審美觀。二、美感教育的意涵近年，美感教育日益受到國際社會的重視，這是因為其能夠提升國家整體的競爭力，而當中的教學重點在於發展學生鑑賞美、感受美的能力，其不限於藝術課程的學習，舉凡與美感經驗相關的活動皆可被視為審美能力培養的階梯（于承平， 2013）。另外，美感教育可以透過人們的創造力，滲透於衣、食、住、行、育、樂等各生活面向（何育真，2014）。事實上，美感教育對於學生而言具有很多不同的裨益，包括：增進生活美感及生活品質、陶冶品格、培養創意及創造力、促進全人發展（李鴻生，2011）。當然，美感教育的終極目標，在於強調個體生命之適性發展，讓學生透過修身養性、淨化心靈、發展自我的過程，體會大自然的大美、明白真善美的真正價值（閻瑞珍，2015）。由此可見，美感教育旨在透過不同的融入式課程，培養學生的審美能力，發展他們的創新能思維，並強化他們對真善美的追求，最終得以完備他們的人格發展。三、校園美學對寫作教學的影響校園美學為學生提供寫作的靈感，使他們的寫作內容變得更為豐富。寫作教學著重運用不同的真實情境，加強學生對生活的觀察，提升他們品味生活的能力，從而讓他們對生活產生深刻的感受，最終使他們得以從中累積豐富的寫作材料，並豐富了寫作的內涵（顏禾，2009）。事實上，校園建築所蘊含的美學元素，正好為學生提供了從生活中接觸美好事物之渠道，使他們能夠從中培養出美感，達到「境教」的作用（廖修寬，2013）。由是觀之，校園美學具體體現於學校所建設的環境及教育設施，而當中所營造出來的美麗景緻，都成為了學生校園生活的其中一部分，語文教師只要善用校園美學來教授學生寫作，如：描寫文，那麼學生便可以藉此加強對美麗事物的觀察力，並豐富自身的美感經驗，進而把眼前美麗的景色、以及從中得到的覺悟轉化為寫作材料，使寫作內容變得更豐富。校園美學能夠豐富學生的美感經驗，使他們更能夠具體地掌握寫作手法。香港 154 學生的寫作能力未如理想，例如：學生的描寫能力不足、聯想能力不足、所用比喻欠精準等，這都反映出他們未能夠掌握基本的寫作手法定義及其運用方法（吳善揮， 2014）。當然，這也與學生所累積的美感經驗不足不無關係。謝佳穎（2015）認為只有主動參與欣賞藝術或創作藝術的過程，那麼學生才能夠從中建立美感經驗，而最直接接收美感之方式就是感官的知覺，這是因為美感經驗是源自於感官的經驗，學生只有直接感受藝術之美，才能夠從中掌握美為何物，並由此發展出感知能力，即由美之中產生專屬於自己的感受。簡言之，寫作教學也是藝術教育的一種，這是因為學生透過學習寫作手法，來提升自身的藝術表達能力。而最重要的，就是學生可以透過校園建築美學來累積感官經驗，包括：視覺、聽覺、嗅覺、觸覺等，也可以藉著漫遊校園來學習不同寫作手法的定義及運用方法，例如：定點描寫、步移法等，那麼學生便能夠從中提升自己對美的感知能力，並由此強化自身對寫作手法的應用能力。校園美學所營造的美感情境能夠觸發學生的寫作興趣。秦勤忠（2007）認為寫作教學必須要照顧學生的學習興趣，而當中的具體體現就是讓寫作學習生活化。黃庭鈺（2015）指出校園建築所包含的三美能夠為學生的學習帶來正面之影響，包括：（一）形象美可以為學生帶來愉快的感覺，並激發他們對周遭事物之感知能力；（二）意境美能夠鍛鍊學生的創思能力、情意能力；（三）空間美則能夠誘發出學生的審美情趣，使學習變得更具趣味性，並無形中激發了學生的學習動機。由此可見，校園美學能夠滿足開展寫作教學的重要前提：滿足學生的學習興趣，這是因為美麗的校園環境能夠使到學生感到心曠神怡，並為他們帶來一定的身心愉悅和安全感。若教師能夠把描寫文教學與校園的美景相互結合，讓學生走出教室、在美麗的校園環境中學習，那麼學生們定必更願意學習寫作。丙、研究方法一、研究對象這次研究的對象為筆者任教的中一級學生，全班共有 21人（6名為女學生、15 名為男學生），全班學生的寫作能力一般，而他們所創作的文章內容亦較空泛，少有應用相關的寫作手法；同時，他們普遍欠缺寫作興趣。惟他們與筆者之間存有良 155 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究好的師生關係，故此他們都願意聽從筆者的教導。二、研究問題本次教學研究之主要目的在於探討以下問題： 1. 校園美學融入寫作課程能否提升學生的描寫能力？ 2. 校園美學融入寫作課程能否提升學生的寫作興趣？ 3. 校園美學融入寫作課程能否提升學生的寫作信心？三、研究工具（一）寫作測試本研究採取了前測和後測的方法，以瞭解是次研究對於學生描寫能力之影響。首先，為了準確地量度學生寫作能力之變化，筆者也以所任教的另一個中一班級作為對照組（20位學生），對照組學生同樣接受相同的課文篇章教學、課時與實驗組相同，惟當中的教學過程並沒有進行校園寫生及微寫作創作活動；而此班級主要以教師直接講授為主。此外，在研究開展前，兩組學生參與前測；在研究結束後，兩組學生參與後測。兩次測試內容、題型及深淺相同，以維持測試的準確度；測試內容為寫作描寫文一篇。另外，筆者將以 SPSS 24.0（統計產品與服務解決方案）的 Paired Samples T-Test對寫作評估進行分析，以瞭解實驗組及對照組之間的差異。表一　測試題目測試題目前測試以「校園的四季」為題，寫作一篇文章。後測試以「校園的一角」為題，寫作一篇文章。（二）問卷調查為檢視本研究對學生寫作興趣、寫作信心之影響，筆者自設問卷（筆者曾與具豐富教學經驗的中文科教師進行討論），並在研究結束後發給學生填寫。問卷共有 156 16題，設計採用五欄式選項。在收回問卷後，筆者便運用 SPSS 24.0（統計產品與服務解決方案）對相關的資料進行分析。（三）半結構式訪談在研究結束後，筆者分別與 6位實驗組學生進行訪談（高、中、低語文水平的學生各 2位）。為便筆者進行分析和保護學生的個人隱私，下文將以 P1、P2、 P3、P4、P5及 P6來代替他們的真實身分。當中的目的，在於瞭解學生對於校園美學融入寫作課程的效益之看法。最後，筆者運用了錄音工具記錄整個訪談的過程，並將之轉化為錄音稿，接著才將相關的資料進行歸納及分析。四、研究流程本次研究主要的實施策略，在於以校園寫生活動引發學生的聯想，進而使他們得以掌握不同描寫手法的定義、運用策略，並強化他們創作描寫文的自信心。當中，本研究的實施流程為：（一）實施前測；（二）筆者先教授學生指定的課文篇章（全為描寫文），並輔以師生問答、小組討論等，以讓他們從閱讀教學之中掌握基本的描寫手法定義及其運用方法；（三）筆者帶領學生到學校的魚池、天台花園、不同樓層進行寫生（共計三次），之後筆者便會要求學生按照觀察所得，運用不同的描寫手法分別創作一篇微寫作；（四）筆者向全班同學發還已批改的微寫作，並向他們進行寫作回饋（共計三次）。（五）學生於課後時間自行到學校附近的大圍火車站進行寫生，並按照自己的觀察創作一篇微寫作。在收回微寫作並完成批改後，筆者便向學生進行寫作回饋。（六）實施後測、問卷調查及學生訪談。本次課程共歷時 21節，每節教學時數為 35分鐘。丁、研究結果與討論一、寫作測試整體而言，實驗組學生的描寫能力得到一定的提升，以下為寫作測試的結果分析： 157 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究表二　實驗組、對照組的前測成績比較 Independent Samples T-Test 學生數目平均差顯著性顯著性（雙尾） A–B 41 1.08333 .942 .627 註：A為實驗組，B為對照組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。測試滿分：100分根據 Independent Samples T-Test，實驗組（M=39.33、SD=6.83）及對照組（M=38.25、SD=7.35）在前測之成績並沒有顯著性的分別，而 p>.05（p =.489）。因此，實驗組和對照組學生的描寫能力相若。表三　實驗組、對照組的前測及後測成績比較 Paired Samples T-Test 平均數學生數目標準差平均數的標準誤 t 值 A（前測 – 後測） 5.23810 21 2.38547 .52055 10.063*** B（前測 – 後測） 0.65 20 7.60384 1.70027 .382 註：A為實驗組，B為對照組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。測試滿分：100分根據 Paired Samples T-test，實驗組學生所得分數之平均數有顯著的提升，而 p < .001（p =.000）；而對照組學生所得分數之平均數並沒有顯著的之改變，而p > .05（p =.706）；故此，校園美學融入寫作課程對於提升學生的描寫能力具有相當的成效。二、問卷調查由表四顯示，通過校園美學融入寫作課程，實驗組學生都能夠增加寫作興趣（各題的平均值皆在 4分之上）。 158 表四　寫作興趣相關題項項目平均數標準差 1. 我喜歡上寫作課。 4.33 0.73 2. 我喜愛寫作。 4.24 0.65 3. 為了寫作，我會多觀察身邊的環境和事物。 4.14 0.73 4. 我會盡力完成老師給予的描寫文功課及練習。 4.71 0.46 5. 我喜愛以校園寫生為本的寫作活動。 4.00 0.45 6. 校園寫生活動能夠使我寫作描寫文時變得較容易。 4.05 0.74 7. 校園寫生活動讓我感到上課很輕鬆。 4.57 0.68 8. 我願意完成篇幅較短的微寫作。 4.10 0.70 由表五顯示，通過校園美學融入寫作課程，實驗組學生大致能夠加強運用不同描寫手法的信心（題 1、2、3、5、6、7的平均值皆在 4分之上）。惟他們欠缺運用間接描寫手法的信心（題 4，平均值為 2.76），這可能是因為間接描寫的運用較複雜，學生需要通過描寫其他事物來突出描寫對象之特點，故此他們沒有信心運用間接描寫手法。此外，他們也有信心寫作字數要求較多的描寫文，筆者推測這是因為他們懂得運用不同的描寫手法，以及校園美麗的景色刺激了他們的創作靈感，乃至他們在寫作時可以有字可寫。表五　寫作信心相關題項項目平均數標準差 1. 我能夠於寫作之中運用步移法。 4.43 0.60 2. 我能夠於寫作之中運用多感官描寫法。 4.14 0.74 3. 我能夠於寫作之中運用動態描寫及靜態描寫。 4.10 0.77 4. 我能夠於寫作之中運用間接描寫。 2.76 1.14 5. 我能夠於寫作之中運用直接描寫。 4.24 0.63 6. 我能夠於寫作之中運用隨時推移法。 4.33 0.73 7. 我能夠於寫作之中運用定點描寫法。 4.40 0.74 8. 我能夠完成一篇不少於三百字的描寫文。 4.19 1.12 159 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究三、半結構式訪談（一）描寫能力方面整體而言，受訪學生都認同是次研究能夠提升他們的描寫能力。當中的原因包括：校園寫生活動為學生帶來體驗校園的空間美、生態美、形象美之機會，而這不但讓學生透過觀察學校、以及周邊的環境，具體地瞭解到美的概念，同時也引發了他們的聯想，為他們帶來寫作靈感及角度；而微寫作活動則使他們得以深刻地掌握相關的描寫手法，並可以從快速的回饋中改進寫作技巧。學校像是城市中的花園，為新翠邨增添了幾分美，也讓我可以明白什麼叫美，那麼寫作時我便知道如何描寫美麗的景緻……校園寫生活動非常好，因為我可以從中知道校園、魚池和天台花園有什麼可以寫，令到我不用想來想去也沒東西可寫，而且學校和附近的地方也是我熟悉的地方，所以我自然知道有什麼地方或景物可以寫…… （P1）我從校園寫生活動之中，對校園的景物認識深了一點，而且我也學會以什麼角度和描寫手法去描寫景物，例如：描寫靜態的有機植物、處於動態的小鳥、花朵的香氣等……學校的花園原來是很美麗的，也讓我看到校園不同的美麗景象，使我瞭解到什麼是美……而且寫生活動也能夠引發我對事物的聯想，即是在腦海裡構成一幅更完整的圖畫，並以文字的方式將它描寫出來。（P2）有時候，我知道有什麼東西可以寫，但是我不能夠寫得很細緻，所以往往寫得不夠具體和深入，所得分數也很低。而校園寫生活動正好讓我可以多角度地觀察那些描寫對象，例如：我要寫一朵花，我便可以透過寫生活動觀察它的形態、香味、顏色等，描寫自然能夠深入一些……而我也從中知道美麗景物的特徵，那麼創作的時候，我便可以寫得更仔細。（P3） 160 我覺得微寫作非常好，因為可以讓我們針對性地練習某種描寫手法，讓我們可以有練習的機會。（P4）可能微寫作的篇幅較短，所以老師很快便批改完並發還給我們……我們可以很快便可以得到老師給我們的評語和建議，那麼我們便可以從中不斷改善自己的不足，並在下次寫作時不要再重犯。（P5）寫生活動讓我明白到多觀察周邊所發生的事、環境的改變等，都能夠有助我儲積寫作材料，讓我在描寫特定的對象時，可以描寫得更具體仔細，而不是走馬看花，輕輕帶過，讓人不能從我的描寫之中感受到描寫對象的全貌。（P6）（二）寫作興趣及信心方面綜合受訪學生的意見，他們都認同本次課程能夠提升他們的寫作興趣，當中的原因包括：觀賞校園美景為他們帶來放鬆身心的機會、「從活動中學習」為他們帶來寫作意念、微寫作減輕了他們的學習壓力、小步子教學使他們循序漸進地掌握所學。平常老師都要我們寫不少於三百字的長文，這對我來說真是很難的，因為我有讀寫的困難……可是微寫作的字數要求較低，一般都是寫一百五十字左右，所以我會更有動力去寫作…… （P1）我不曾試過離開教室上中文課，我覺得可以走出教室，到校園不同的地方進行寫生和寫作，真是令我感到很輕鬆，而且可以動一動，不會那麼沉悶，這使到我更有興趣去寫作。（P2） 161 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究校園寫生活動刺激了我的寫作靈感，讓我知道可以寫什麼，不會呆了半天還未想出應該描寫什麼……使我對寫作變得比從前有信心……另外，欣賞天台花園的花草盆栽，也使我倍感放鬆，有一個難得清靜下來的機會。（P3）我覺得以校園寫生活動去學寫作是非常好的，因為可以讓我們在緊迫的學習過程之中舒展筋骨，減輕一下學習壓力，學習自然會提起勁些，而且看著學校美麗的景色也讓我覺得心曠神怡、壓力全部消失……一方面微寫作不用寫太多字，另一方面畫畫部分也是算分的，老師會把所有所得的分數計算在考試分之上，可以讓我取得多些考試分，減輕我害怕不合格的壓力…… （P4）老師一步一步地教我們描寫的技巧，每一篇微寫作都只針對一種或數種描寫手法進行練習……待我們完成一篇微寫作後，才教我們新的描寫手法，這都讓我有信心用不同的方法去描寫…… （P6）另外，受訪學生都同意本次教學能夠增強他們的寫作信心，當中的原因包括：校園寫生活動為他們提供了觀察描寫對象的機會、觀賞校園景物讓他們明白何謂美、微寫作為他們提供練筆的機會、老師評改微寫作的回饋能夠有助他們改善不足之處。校園寫生讓我們得以親身觀察描寫對象，使我能夠有信心把描寫對象寫得更具體、更準確。（P1）校園寫生讓我可以明白什麼是美……那麼我寫作文的時候，便知道什麼景物才值得描繪，而不是什麼也寫進作文中。（P2） 162 微寫作為我們提供練習不同描寫方法的機會，使到我們可以變得熟能生巧，不會錯用描寫手法。（P5）老師很快便給我們評講微寫作的表現，使到我們能夠掌握自己不足的地方並從中改善……我想這有助我盡快掌握應用相關描寫技巧的方法……我有信心在考試之中把所學到的描寫手法應用出來。（P6）戊、結論本研究以校園美學融入描寫文教學之中，並輔以一系列的微寫作活動，一方面希望藉此誘發學生的寫作興趣，而另一方面也希望能夠提升學生的描寫能力。綜合量性和質性的資料，可以發現學生的寫作興趣、寫作信心及描寫能力都能夠得到相當的提升。事實上，是次研究的設計核心，在於就地取材，善用校園的優美環境，以實地寫生的方式，培養學生觀察的觸覺，以及審美的情趣，讓他們建立出多觀察身邊事物的習慣，從而為他們帶來寫作靈感，促進他們描寫能力的發展。而最重要的，就是這樣的教學設計既能照顧能力稍遜學生之學習需要，也能夠讓高能力的學生得到針對性的訓練，使到不同能力的學生都可以取得進步。當然，課時不足是本課程最大的不足之處，這也影響到他們建立長期的寫作興趣及信心，因此筆者有以下建議：（一）中文科教師可以推動跨學科的學習，例如：在教授寫景方法時，教師可與視覺藝術科合作，即學生在視覺藝術課內完成校園環境寫生活動後，於中文課堂進行寫作活動，以減省課時；又或在教授寫物時，教師可與科學科合作，在學生掌握植物或動物的結構後，於中文課堂內創作文章。（二）中文科教師也可安排生活化之學習活動，例如：教師可以要求學生拍攝一張家居的照片，然後回校進行描寫文創作，又或要求學生走到某街道上，拍攝某街道人來人往的短片（由街頭走到巷尾），之後回來以步移法和多感觀描寫法創作文章一篇。（三）中文科教師也可以實施多元化的寫作活動，例如：攝影比賽（同學在拍攝相片後，就相片的景象寫作一篇文章）、拍攝微電影（同學在拍攝微電前創作一份劇本）、錄音（同學可以錄下街道的聲音，並以文字的方式進行描繪）等，那麼學生的寫作興趣便能夠得以持續增加。 163 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究最後，雖然本研究為個案研究，即研究結果未必能夠推論至全香港的學生身上，可是筆者相信本研究對於中文科教師在設計寫作課程之時，仍然具有一定的參考價值。筆者盼望未來的後續研究者，能夠探討除校園寫生活動之外，其他不同類型的寫作活動，能否培養初中學生的寫作興趣，以及提升他們不同方面的寫作能力，使廣大的中文科教育同仁能夠作為課程設計的參考。參考文獻于承平（2013）。〈學校推動美感教育之探討〉。《學校行政雙月刊》，84，101-117。何晨卉（2015）。〈「創意閱讀與寫作教學社團」教學研究與實作－以「多采多姿的生活」主題為例〉。《中等教育》，66（3），157-179。何育真（2014）。〈從 Bennett Reimer的「美學論」談美感教育的生活實踐〉。《慈濟通識教育學刊》，9，57-73。吳善揮（2014）。〈香港高中學生的文學創作能力初探〉。《臺灣教育評論月刊》，3 （4），107-113。李鴻生（2011）。〈落實美感教育之探詢〉。《耕莘學報》，9，78-92。陳瑋婷（2007）。〈自我調整寫作發展策略（SRSD）教學對國三學習障礙學生議論文寫作能力之成效初探〉。《身心障礙研究》，5（3），198-214。陳瑋婷、蕭金土（2012）。〈寫作教學介入實驗效果之後設分析〉。《教育研究學報》， 46（1），21-41。秦勤忠（2007）。〈關注學生情感因素的寫作教學適應性策略研究〉。《廣西青年幹部學院學報》，17（2），54-56。張德銘、劉修祥（2015）。〈圖書館的美學與建築設計改變之研究〉。《商業現代學刊》，8（1），21-36。黃庭鈺（2015）。〈校園建築美學規劃對學生學習成就影響之探析〉。《學校行政雙月刊》，96，17-38。賀宏偉（2015）。〈美正在校園內蔓延－和雅美學空間營造策略〉。《師友月刊》， 577，20-25。廖修寬（2013）。〈教育因美學設計而美好—奇特、變化、價值、驚喜及讚嘆性兼具的校園創意之美〉。《臺灣教育評論月刊》，2（2），147-152。 164 閻瑞珍（2015）。〈論美感教育之推行與現有改革之狀況－以彰化縣舊館國小為例〉。《臺中教育大學學報：人文藝術類》，29（2），55-77。謝佳穎（2015）。〈大學校園牆面彩繪活動之美感經驗探究〉。《通識學刊：理念與實務》，3（2），61-86。謝文英、賴瑩蓉（2014）。〈曼陀羅寫作教學法對高中生國文寫作成就之影響〉。《教育科學期刊》，13（2），97-123。顏禾（2009）。〈論新課程背景下寫作教學的理念和目標〉。《福建教育學院學報》， 3，102-105。附錄：校園美學融入寫作課程教學大綱課節教學目標教學活動 1-6 1. 掌握多感官描寫手法 2. 認識定點描寫 1. 課文教學：朱自清〈荷塘月色〉 2. 校園寫生活動（一）：繪畫學校空中花園的景象。 3. 微寫作（一）：試以「學校空中花園」為題，寫一篇不少於 130 字的文章，當中須運用至少三種感官描寫手法。 4. 微寫作回饋（一） 7-12 1. 掌握步移法 2. 認識直接描寫和間接描寫 3. 複習定點描寫 1. 課文教學：也斯〈在風中〉 2. 校園寫生活動（二）：繪畫你由學校校門到課室的景象。 3. 微寫作（二）：試運用步移法，撰寫你由學校校門到課室的過程，字數不得少於 100 字。 4. 微寫作回饋（二） 5. 校園寫生活動（三）：繪畫學校魚池的景象。 6. 微寫作（三）：試運用定點描寫法，描寫學校魚池的景色，當中的字數不得少於 130 字。 7. 微寫作回饋（三） 13-18 1. 掌握動態描寫和靜態描寫 2. 掌握隨時推移法 1. 課文教學：金兆梓〈風雪中的北平〉 2. 微寫作（四）：試運用靜態及動態描寫方法，描繪以下的圖片（大圍舊有面貌），當中的字數不得少於 130 字。 3. 微寫作回饋（四） 19-21 1. 複習各項描寫手法 2. 掌握各項描寫手法的定義及作用 1. 課文教學：李白〈望廬山瀑布〉 2. 校外寫生活動：繪畫大圍火車站的景象。 3. 微寫作（五）：試以「望大圍火車站」為題，寫一篇不少於 130 字的文章，當中須運用至少三種不同的描寫手法。 4. 微寫作回饋（五） 165 校園美學融入寫作課程之探究 Research on Integration of Campus Aesthetics and Chinese Writing Curriculum NG SIN FAI ERIC Caritas Yuen Long Chan Chun Ha Secondary School Abstract In the past few years, the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority has been criticizing the secondary students’ poor performance on writing. Apparently, their poor writing performance is a result of the lack of aesthetic experience. In fact, the author found that when the teachers directly teach the students writing, the junior form students take a passive role in learning. As a result, their writing content is poor. In this context, the author tries to integrate campus aesthetics into the teaching of writing. Through the campus painting activities, it is hoped that students’ aesthetic experiences can be enriched, and therefore not only can they write their article more easily, but also have more fun during the learning process. The results found that students like the writing activities, and their writing ability is enhanced. This paper aims to share the experience of implementing the integration of campus aesthetics and Chinese writing curriculum and the teaching reflection. Keywords teaching in Chinese language, writing curriculum, aesthetic education, campus aesthetics 徵集論文我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括：．課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法．創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法．創意教學．家長教育．校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導．校本管理．學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢．學生培訓．教育改革評議．比較教育．高等教育．幼兒教育．特殊教育．美術教育．音樂教育．教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: ． Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation ． Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy ． Creative teaching ． Parent education ． School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring ． School-based management ． Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling ． Student development ． Critique on education reform ． Comparative education ． Higher education ． Early childhood education ． Special education ． Fine arts education ． Music education ． History of education 稿例（修訂於 2016 年 12 月） ( 一）中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 5,000 字及不超過 8,000 字為限。 ( 二 ) 文稿請附以下資料之中英文版本，包括題目、作者姓名、所屬機構、摘要及關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。中文摘要以 200 字為限，英文摘要則約 150 字。作者通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵）請另頁列明。 ( 三 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 ( 四 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 ( 五 ) 英文來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2009 年，第 6 版）指引。中文來稿之格式請參考「投稿《香港教師中心學報》的格式指引」（http://www.edb.org.hk/hktc/ download/doc/j_guide.pdf）。 ( 六 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。請將稿件及作者通訊資料電郵至 info@hktc.edb.gov.hk《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。 ( 七 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 ( 八 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2016) 1. Manuscripts can be written in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be between 5,000 and 8,000 words. 2. All manuscripts should be accompanied with the following information in both English and Chinese: title, author’s name, affiliation, abstract and 3 to 5 keywords. The English abstract should be around 150 words, and the Chinese abstract should be not more than 200 words. Author’s correspondence (i.e. postal address, telephone number, email) should be provided on a separate page. 3. All submissions will go through an anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the manuscripts, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the manuscripts submitted. Once the final version of manuscripts has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 4. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 5. English manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2009). Chinese manuscripts should conform the style laid down in the“Style Guide for Submitting Papers to HKTC Journal” (http://www.edb.org.hk/hktc/download/doc/j_ guide.pdf). 6. Deadline for manuscript submission is on January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and author’s correspondence should be email to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal (email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) . 7. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 8. Once the review process of this Journal begins, contributors shall not send the submitted manuscript to other journals for review or publication. 徵募審稿員我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工，請以電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（(852) 2565 0741）提交下列資料，以供聯絡。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電（(852) 3698 3698）與本中心職員聯絡。姓名： ( 博士 / 先生 / 女士 ) 任職學校 / 機構：聯絡電話：電郵地址：興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax ((852) 2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at ((852) 3698 3698). Name: (Dr / Mr / Ms) School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: 香港教師中心 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室 Address: Room W106, 1/F, West Block Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon Hong Kong 電話 / Telephone： (852) 3698 3698 傳真 / Fax： (852) 2565 0741 電郵 / Email： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址 / Website： www.edb.gov.hk/hktc Hong Kong Teachers Centre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十六卷 Volume Sixteen 第十六卷 V olum e Sixteen 2017 V olum e Sixteen 2017

香港教師中心學報第十八卷 ( 2019年 )

分類: 文件H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十八卷 V olum e Eighteen 2019 V olum e Eighteen 2019 Hong Kong Teachers Centre Journal 第十八卷 Volume Eighteen 第十八卷 Volume 18 出版：香港教師中心地址：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室出版年份：2019 年 Publisher ：Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ：W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing ：2019 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal i 香港教師中心香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議，由 1987 年開始籌備，至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步提升服務質素及切合發展需要，教師中心已於2006年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。教師中心致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、常務委員會（常委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任。常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。常委會之下設有工作小組，負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業的活動，並會因應需要，贊助這些團體舉辦活動，以及為有關活動提供所需的場地和器材。教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等，為教師提供所需的服務。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years' preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-t ier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a po l icy-making and moni tor ing body wi th a to ta l o f 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well-equipped premises. HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc. for teachers' use. iii 香港教師中心學報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/ hktc/journal）閱覽《學報》電子版。以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團（Board of Advisors） A. Lin GOODWIN The University of Hong Kong Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education 丁　鋼華東師範大學李兆璋香港浸會大學李沙崙教育局李榮安鄭州大學李潔冰香港中文大學侯傑泰香港中文大學張國華香港公開大學梁湘明香港中文大學 iv 許添明國家教育研究院傅浩堅香港浸會大學程介明香港大學黃金耀香港新一代文化協會科學創意中心潘慧玲淡江大學鄭美紅香港教育大學鄭燕祥香港教育大學鍾秉林中國教育學會蘇國生香港考試及評核局編輯委員會（Editorial Committee）主編（Chief Editor）余綺華香港道教聯合會圓玄學院石圍角小學副主編（Vice-chief Editors）胡少偉香港教育大學楊沛銘香港地理學會趙淑媚香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學委員（Members）甘志強港澳兒童教育國際協會何瑞珠香港中文大學教育學院李子建香港教育大學李少鶴香港初等教育研究學會林偉業香港大學教育學院胡志偉香港通識教育會張慧真香港浸會大學黃鳳意香港班級經營學會 v 主編序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「學生多樣化對教育的影響」，除了不少學者就着主題應邀投稿，也有熱心的教育同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。經過嚴謹的評審後，共有十二篇文章獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有四篇，內容包括：在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範、初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要、圖書館革命 : 促進學生學習及協作及香港學校 STEM 教育多樣化自主對應策略。作者們透過不同角度透視香港學生在學習上的需要，闡述學校及教師如何照顧學生多樣性，並提出精闢的分析、意見及建議。第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章，合共五篇，內容包括：生涯規劃教育與生命教育 : 終身學習的觀點、日本「自由研究」對香港中小學暑期家課的啟示、新加坡華文教育：政策與挑戰、全球化衝擊下香港教育改革二十年的市場化現象及香港小學副校長人事管理的進修需要。作者透過對政策及理論的分析，作出了客觀的評論，並提出了具參考性的意見。第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，有三篇文章。內容包括：跨文化友誼的建立︰社交及個人因素如何對中港友誼網絡的影響、影響學生學習廿一世紀能力成果肇因的發現及以競技運動學習模式去提升高中學生的共通能力。透過作者們的分析，我們可以了解不同教育理論在實踐上的成果，並提出過程中值得反思的地方，為教育同工提供了寶貴的參考資料。最後，我要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工，當中包括：王偉倫博士、甘志強先生、吳智匯先生、李子建教授、李少鶴教授、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、胡志偉博士、區肇龍博士、張慧真博士、梁麗嬋博士、陳中傑先生、陳少玲博士、麥鶴僑博士、曾震江先生、黃金耀博士、楊沛銘博士、廖佩莉博士、趙淑媚博士及劉荻茵女士。學報能順利出版，實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中義務地抽空幫助，以專業的態度評審各篇文章。在此，我要感謝每一位為學報付出的同工。《香港教師中心學報》主編余綺華二零一九年十二月目錄 Contents 香港教育中心 ....................................................................................................................i 香港教師中心學報 ..........................................................................................................iii 主編序 ...............................................................................................................................v 一、主題 1. 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範 .........................................................1 張家偉、彭梓鳴、呂明、冼權鋒 2. 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要 ...............................................................15 彭素妮 3. 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作 ....................................................................33 洪潔雯、梅志文、陳俊銘、何小慧 4. 香港學校 STEM 教育多樣化的對應策略— 設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻 ...........................................................................45 伍敬華、曾憲江二、理論及政策評論 1. Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives.. ...........57 John Chi Kin LEE, Chris Hin Wah CHEUNG, Michelle Yin Hung LI 2. 日本「自由研究」對香港中小學暑期家課的啟示 ...............................................79 曹嗣衡 3. 新加坡華文教育：政策與挑戰 ...............................................................................99 趙梅、譚繼鏞、吳會立 4. 全球化衝擊下香港教育改革二十年的市場化現象 ............................................. 115 許玉麟阳 5. 香港小學副校長人事管理的進修需要 .................................................................131 胡少偉、余煊、李少鶴阳三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. Making intercultural friends: How social and individual factors affect the Mainland- Hong Kong friendship network ...............................................................................145 LEUNG Yick Wah, YU Baohua 2. 影響學生學習廿一世紀能力成果肇因的發現 .....................................................175 梁麗嬋、陳凱茵 3. 以競技運動學習模式去提升高中學生的共通能力 .............................................199 殷小賡徵集論文稿例徵募審稿員 1 《香港教師中心學報》，第十八卷 © 香港教師中心，2019 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範張家偉、彭梓鳴、呂明香港浸會大學教育學系　學習科學中心冼權鋒香港教育大學　特殊學習需要與融合教育中心及特殊教育與輔導學系摘要香港政府倡導融合教育，照顧學生多樣化，亦鼓勵學生達致全人發展，但教師工作繁忙，如何同時達成二者目標實屬挑戰。本文旨在為初高中和專上教育教師提供能夠糅合二者的教學方法，文章介紹了「服務學習」概念，強調教學時需「服務」和「學習」並重，給予學生機會設計和帶領活動，學習理解不同群體的需要，深入反思社會現況。研究團隊有系統地建立了一套「服務學習」框架，並以香港教育大學和香港浸會大學的合作計劃為參考示範。關鍵詞照顧學生多樣化、服務學習、其他學習經歷、特殊教育需要 2 導言香港特區政府一直倡導照顧學生多樣化需要和融合教育，為中小學各類科目撰寫指引和建議，協助教師掌握相關教育要求與方法，例如《基礎教育課程指引 — 聚焦．深化．持續（小一至小六）》（2014）第四章 3.1節提及「每個學生都是獨立個體，他們的成熟程度、性別、個性、能力、志向、興趣、學習動機、文化、語言和社經背景均不相同，而智能、認知風格和學習風格又形成他們的不同學習特性。因此，學校和教師除了要掌握課程內容及特色外，也必須在課堂上照顧學生的多樣性。例如，新來港兒童、非華語學童、跨境學童等，由於背景不同，他們對某些課題的學習內容可能欠缺相關的前備知識，教師可以因應這種情況，先教授有關知識。」指引強調學生背景不同，在不同課題表現互有優劣，是以教師必須因應情況，調節教學方法。然而，指引多以增進學生學科知識和提升語文能力為綱領，但本地學者指出，學生多樣化實為較複雜的議題，族群、文化、人類資本（human capital）等要素互為交織（Chong, 2007），此論述印證學生多樣化影響既深且廣，絕非單純局限於學科知識和語文能力，在德育、人際關係、創意等範疇同樣帶來挑戰。事實上政府於 2009年實施新學制時提出加入「其他學習經歷」，確實顯示當局有意從學術科目以外範疇著手面對上述挑戰。「其他學習經歷」包括「德育及公民教育、社會服務、與工作有關的經驗、藝術發展和體育發展」五部分，旨在「促進學生全人發展」（教育局，2013）。只要教師安排得宜，學生便能藉此參加不同活動，增進知識經驗，接觸不同文化，從而培養同理心，改善溝通技巧，啓發創意。新學制自推行伊始至今九年，教育改革雖然漸見成效，但各界仍可務求力臻完善，致力提升教學活動質素，同時豐富活動意義。由此可見，融合教育和學生全人發展是政府教育政策的重心。然而，教學中如何同時達成二者目標實屬一大挑戰。有見及此，本文研究團隊希望為初高中和專上教育教師提供能夠糅合二者的教學方法，協助教師在教學中同時達到二者目標。本文旨在介紹「服務學習」（Service-Learning）概念，以及研究團隊基於此概念建立的 3 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範「服務學習」框架，並以研究團隊於香港教育大學和香港浸會大學合辦的計劃為框架應用示範，望能提供洞見一二。「服務學習」概念嘗試融合「服務」與「學習」兩項元素，協助學生「從服務中學習」，掌握軟性技能，下文將詳細介紹。文獻回顧：服務學習定義服務學習概念由來已久，部分學者（Lukenchuk, Jagla & Eigel, n.d.）指出美國教育家杜威（John Dewey）為首位提出以社區服務為教學方法的理論家，杜威強調當代的知識理論應與過往重視理性、經驗或分析主義的知識論體系有所不同，當代的知識和學思應該是主動回應個人處境和解決困難，而不是單純如明鏡般映照世間事物。他的進步教育觀（Progressive Education）主張學生惟有在現實生活處境中學習和運用所學，這樣方能掌握不同概念與事實的真義（Speck & Hoppe, 2004, p.4-5），這亦正是其「從實踐中學習」（Learning by Doing）的核心命題。融合「服務」與「學習」，乍看與「當義工」（Volunteerism）無異，但克萊斯（Christine Cress）（2013）指出，實際上「當義工」、「就業實習」（Internship）、「工作指導學習」（Practicum）、「社區服務」（Community Service）、「社區服務學習」（Community-Based Learning）和「服務學習」（Service-Learning）等概念各有異同，具體分別如下表所示：分類內容當義工活動旨在服務他人，以受助者的利益為依歸。就業實習活動強調學生的職業技能發展。工作指導學習活動在校外舉辦，學生接受與專業相關的工作指導，取代傳統課室授課模式。社區服務活動側重滿足社區實際需要，屬於課程一部分。社區服務學習活動希望處理社區需要，但這些需要乃由社區組織、學院和學生共同決定，其目的是協助達成教學課程目標。服務學習活動除要求學生參加服務，以完成課程學習目標外，更要求學生能有所反思，把其服務活動得著聯繫至既有學科專業知識。 4 上表可見，服務學習除了服務社區大眾外，同時著重學生個人反思，可以說是「服務」、「學習」、「反思」三者結合為一的概念，學生學習如何關顧別人，同時能從過程中得到不同的體會，並聯繫至既有的學科知識，產生新衝擊，只要配合教師適時指導，學生便能透過反思掌握邏輯思辨、論述、溝通和表達的方法，一方面增進學科知識，同時改善各類軟性技巧。籌備台灣國立中山大學通識教育中心服務學習教育組（2013）編印的《高感動力服務學習學生手冊》歸納了籌備服務學習活動的六大步驟，依次為「調查」、「準備」、「執行」、「反思」、「成果慶賀」與「持續」。各步驟概括如下（頁 9-12）：步驟內容功用 1. 調查搜集背景資料，分析受眾需求，決定優先順序，制定實行計劃了解社區特點、資源、生活，尋求最適切方案協助 2. 準備蒐集必要物資，預習活動內容，思慮自身目標，確保萬事俱備確保活動順利進行，同時在準備過程中開始探索自己的特點，藉著活動尋求保留優點，改善缺點的方法 3. 執行計劃付諸實行，用心服務大眾，努力實踐所學，滿足社會需求藉著活動接觸社區人士，理解別人的具體需要，並獲得真實經驗作為反思的基礎 4. 反思反覆細思經驗，判別自身困惑，整合知識經歷，商議改善方法從反思和討論過程中學會思考、討論、分析和表達技巧，亦更了解自我定位和社區狀況 5. 成果慶賀表揚計劃成果，肯定自我付出，分享經驗得著，承諾貢獻社區舉辦成果展以表揚和肯定學生付出，以及與人分享他們的成長得著，並強化學生社區意識，希望他們未來繼續投入參與社區發展活動 6. 持續改善以往不足，延續機構合作，制定新的目標，確立恆常制度與合作機構保持良好關係，以確保未來能繼續執行和改善計劃，普及服務學習概念原則上學生宜自行安排整個籌備過程，教師只需從旁指導，惟學校及學生情況不盡相同，教師可按情況調節介入程度，確保達致預期效果。 5 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範評估與反思服務學習強調「服務」、「學習」、「反思」，其中「反思」同時屬於「服務」和「學習」成效的重要評估指標，故此如何評估和引導學生反思便是重要課題。阿什 (Sarah Ash) 和克萊頓（Patti Clayton）（2009b）指出批判式反思（Critical Reflection）對服務學習等「應用學習教學法」（Applied Learning Pedagogies）非常重要。批判式反思同時創造學習機會（generates learning），深化學習思維（deepens learning）和記錄學習內容（documents learning）(p.25)，三者意思分別是： 1. 創造學習機會：發掘和分析問題，找尋問題背後的整體議題。 2. 深化學習思維：多角度思考問題，拒絕簡單結論。 3. 記錄學習內容：寫下具體的新想法，更易予人評價（Ash & Clayton, 2009a）。雖然批判式反思很重要，但卻難以無師自通，教師必須在展開服務學習活動前擬定反思的架構和引導策略。阿什和克萊頓認為必須依循以下三個步驟方能教導學生批判式反思： 1. 釐清活動目的，包括學習目標和相關指標。 2. 決定反思方法，以達致活動目的。 3. 活用「進展性評估」（Formative Assessment）和「總結性評估」（Summative Assessment）方法，評估學生反思進程（Ash & Clayton, 2009b, p.28）。其中「進展性評估」和「總結性評估」分別意指教師「活動期間同時給予表現評價與改善建議」和「活動後按準則和活動目的評價學生表現如何和改善程度」，後者可實行等級評分制（Ash & Clayton, 2009b, p.28）。教師分別利用兩項評核方法，在活動中和活動後引導學生思考，而學生則可按 DEAL反思方法（Describe, Examine, and Articulate Learning Model）回顧活動經歷。 DEAL反思方法要求學生客觀仔細描述（describe）經歷，檢視（examine）經歷與學習目標的關係，最後說出（articulate）想法，把檢視所得連繫至未來行動，改善實踐和學習方法（Ash & Clayton, 2009b, p.28）。 6 縱然整個服務學習活動籌備和反思流程看似清晰簡易，實際執行卻需多加留意，接下來本文將以由香港浸會大學和香港教育大學聯合推行的「提升準教師照顧有特殊教育需要學生的能力計劃」為事例，釋述運行服務學習活動的具體細節，以供參考。個案剖析：「提升準教師照顧有特殊教育需要學生的能力計劃」計劃背景如上文所述，服務學習能夠協助學生認識和反思社會現況，不論任何年級的學生，他們都能夠透過服務學習激發「關懷社會」的責任感。下文將介紹由香港浸會大學和香港教育大學聯合推行的服務學習活動「提升準教師照顧有特殊教育需要學生的能力計劃」（下稱「計劃」），供各位教師作為參考的藍本，教師及後可作修改，再推展至初中及高中學生。本計劃獲大學教育資助委員會「教與學資助計劃」資助，為期兩年，旨在有系統地為浸大和教大的學生提供特教相關的培訓，提升準教師照顧有特殊教育需要的學生的能力，畢業後儘早適應相關工作。計劃分三部分，分別是第一階段、第二階段和第三階段，各階段內容如下： 1. 第一階段參加四節工作坊和參與一次社福機構觀摩活動，並出席特教研討會，學習特教相關基礎知識，工作坊每節 3 小時，收生人數為 600 人。 2. 第二階段參加服務學習體驗計劃，在不同社福機構籌備一系列為有特殊教育需要的學生而設的活動，此階段共 39 小時，收生人數為 200 人。 3. 第三階段參加就業實習，在不同社福機構實習，了解業界運作，此階段共 50 小時，收生人數為 20 人。本計劃直至 2018年 8月已開展了一年工作，兩校超過 700名學生參加了第一階段，還有逾一百名學生完成了第二階段，第三階段的工作亦已告啓動。然而，因為第一階段與第三階段並不屬於服務學習活動，故此下文將以第二階段為討論主軸。第二階段：服務學習體驗計劃本階段學生需在不同社福機構籌備一系列為有特殊教育需要的學生而設的活 7 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範動，活動內容主要由社福機構和學生共同制定，內容各不相同，故此學生實際參加時數會因活動類別有所增減，但計劃團隊按照「調查」、「準備」、「執行」、「反思」、「成果慶賀」、「持續」六步驟，依下表比例分配了各步驟的基本時間：「調查」與「準備」 15 小時「執行」與「反思」 15 小時「成果慶賀」與「持續」 9 小時一、「調查」與「準備」本計劃的調查與準備主要是確保參加者學會如何為有特殊教育需要的學生籌備活動，故此參加者需額外再參加工作坊，了解籌辦活動技巧，以及如何因應各類有特殊教育需要的學生的情況調節活動密度和難度。計劃團隊在開辦工作坊期間同時開始聯絡各社福機構，了解活動的基本意向和舉辦時間，由於本計劃同時歡迎教育學系以外的學生參加，故此計劃團隊安排了不同類型的活動，例如一星期五天的「小一適應班」，以及兩次一整天的「親子旅遊」等，當一切確定後，學生在工作坊最後一節便需要按自己的行程和興趣決定參加哪一項活動類別。學生決定參加的活動類別後，他們需要預約時間與社福機構會面，了解服務對象的特質和活動具體要求，會面後學生需按照所學和受眾背景撰寫活動計劃書，列明活動細節及所需物資，完成後交予計劃團隊的導師和社福機構審閱。計劃書獲批後，學生便可開始準備物資，並自行預習活動當日情況。二、「執行」與「反思」計劃團隊安排了導師和負責職員一起參與當日活動，解答學生疑惑，協助學生按照策劃書內容進行活動，並在出現突發情況時能夠協助控制秩序，由於本計劃目的是希望參加者掌握為有特殊教育需要的學生籌辦活動的技巧，活動的主要角色是學生自己，所以計劃導師和負責職員活動期間只是盡量從旁觀察，只在必要時才提供適當支援。每次活動完結後，導師會因應活動情況給予意見，並按照批判式反思和 DEAL 反思方法的準則提出問題，引導學生思考活動過程，同時要求他們釐清當中的問題 8 所在，就此提出改善建議，並於下次活動作出適切的調節。學生完成所有活動後，導師將派發個人反思內容建議，學生需按照問題再次反思參加整個計劃的經歷，然後撰寫反思。下文將再另行詳述關於反思問題的細節和具體建議。三、「成果慶賀」與「持續」計劃團隊舉辦「嘉許證書頒發典禮暨學習成果分享會」，以慶賀和肯定學生的付出。學生於典禮中除了獲頒證書外，同時以海報陳述（poster presentation）方式分享得著。本計劃要求學生事前設計易拉架講述活動點滴，並置於典禮現場，分享會完結後向出席嘉賓逐一介紹活動，回答提問，藉以再次整合反思，總結經驗，同時訓練表達技巧，亦希望出席嘉賓了解學生所得，未來願意繼續支持計劃。服務學習活動評估與反思本計劃的反思重點分別是「個人」、「群體」和「社會」三方面，計劃導師按批判式反思和 DEAL反思方法的準則提出問題，並以「進展性評估」和「總結性評估」方法評估表現。一、進展性評估導師按照「進展性評估」準則，每次活動後皆與學生商討活動過程，引導他們按 DEAL反思方法描述經歷，檢視經歷與學習目標的關係，再說出感受，並檢視所得連繫至未來行動，改善實踐和學習方法。以其中一項活動「數學技巧提升課程」為例，第一節課堂中學生發現事前準備的教學方法和道具沒有效果，學童既沒有興趣，學習差異也非常大，部分學童完成了所有練習的時候其他人卻仍然為第一條問題而苦惱。因此，學生課後感到非常挫敗，此時導師便利用 DEAL反思方法，利用下列問題引導學生解決困難：步驟提問 1. 描述 1. 你能否仔細描述一次剛剛課堂發生的所有問題？ 2. 你覺得自己遇到了甚麼困難？當中你的感受是甚麼？ 2. 檢視 1. 想一下你之前學到的東西，你覺得理論與實際情況有甚麼不同？ 2. 這次活動的目標是甚麼？ 9 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範 3. 說出和聯繫 1. 這一堂做的東西有甚麼可以保留？有甚麼可以改善？ 2. 有甚麼方法能夠做到？導師首先詢問學生能否仔細描述課堂情況和自身困惑，當學生能清晰表達的時候嘗試逐步拆解疑難，再引導學生思考疑難的重點跟之前學到的知識有何不同，是否需要再考慮其他因素，而這些東西與活動目標又有何關係。當學生成功釐清各類因素和目標的關係後，導師便引導學生依據這種關係找尋改進方法，保留優點，改善缺點。導師引導的重點是不應直接給予答案，就算學生回答不正確，只要答案不會導致下次活動情況惡化，導師仍然應該接納，給予學生空間嘗試，然後再次修正。導師提問後，活動負責學生表示主要困難是學童學習差異大，步履不一，及後發現原因之一可能是學童需要的學習方法各不相同，故此決定下一節課堂放棄原定的數學習作，改以「體驗式學習法」（Experiential Learning）教導學童，最後他們把教學內容改為製作模型，進而介紹幾何學的基礎概念，成功吸引學童注意，提起興趣，達成活動目標。二、總結性評估整個活動完結後，研究團隊要求學生撰寫一篇個人反思，由於本計劃並不屬於學分課程，故此放棄以計分制評估學生表現。附件一為研究團隊制定的具體反思問題，所有提問同樣按照 DEAL反思方法制定，與「進展性評估」的不同之處在於後者側重籌備活動方面，以培養學生組織能力，專注活動細節，思考解決疑難方法，而前者的重點是希望學生再次反思整個歷程，並連繫個人與社會，有系統地以文字表達所思，培養論述能力，改善邏輯思維，同時對特殊教育和公民責任有更深刻體會。從參加者的反思所見，他們與有特殊教育需要的學生相處後都發現自己原有想法與現實有所偏差，他們並非刻意破壞秩序，有時候只是表達方式不同，參加者深切體會「標籤效應」的影響，並且願意放下成見，自發找尋與他們相處的方法。這種自覺同樣見諸社會關懷和公民責任方面，學生表示社會對特教支援不足，然而他們並沒有僅止於此，部分學生更願意主動搜集其他國家的政策資料和香港社會背景脈絡，並提出一些解決方案。固然這些方案仍略見粗疏，但學生的熱誠和主動卻反 10 映了是次計劃並非全無所得，更可說是略有所成。總結香港教育鼓勵全校參與照顧學生多樣化和融合教育實施多年，教室一直出現各類挑戰，而主流學校課程集中於學科能力發展，較少觸及同理心、待人處事、表達技巧等軟性技能層面。新學制的「其他學習經歷」嘗試鼓勵學生全人發展，雖漸見成效，但仍可更進一步。本文旨在為初高中和專上教育教師提供能夠糅合二者的教學方法，務求同時達到融合教育和全人發展的目標。本文介紹了「服務學習」概念，鼓勵教師以此概念有系統地籌備教學活動，並以香港浸會大學和香港教育大學聯合推行的「提升準教師照顧有特殊教育需要學生的能力計劃」為個案示範，闡述如何實際運行服務學習活動，以供參考，望能協助教師提升教學質素。服務學習並非一次性義務工作，概念強調「服務」、「學習」、「反思」三者合一，鼓勵學生不斷反思，連繫個人與社會，培養公民意識。本文首先介紹了籌備服務學習的六大步驟，分別是「調查」、「準備」、「執行」、「反思」、「成果慶賀」、「持續」，接著釋述「應用學習教學法」中「批判式反思」和「DEAL反思方法」的原則，並示範如何轉化這些原則為實際問題，引導學生反思，事例顯示學生經導師引導後，他們都能夠有條理地指出問題所在，繼而自行找尋解決和改善方法。固然學校必須因應校本情況調節活動難度和深度，研究團隊期望本文能為教師專業成長提供新的體驗及反思機會，從而有效地裝備他們處理課堂內多樣化需要的專業挑戰。 11 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範參考文獻 Ash, S. L., & Clayton, P. H. (2009a). Learning through critical reflection: a tutorial for students in service-learning. Raleigh, North Carolina: Ash, Clayton & Moses. Ash, S. L., & Clayton, P. H. (2009b). Generating, deepening and documenting learning: the power of critical reflection in applied learning. Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education, 1, 25-48. Chong, S. C. (2007). Critical issues in diversity and schooling within Asia. In S. N. Phillipson (Eds.), Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom: Contexts and Practice for Students with Special Needs (pp. 35-64). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Cress, C. M. (2013). What are service-learning and civic engagement?. In C. M. Cress, P. J. Collier, & V. L. Reitenauer (Eds.), Learning through serving: a student guidebook for service-learning and civic engagement across academic disciplines and cultural communities (2nd ed.). (pp. 9-18). Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing. Lukenchuk, A., Jagla, V., & Eigel, M. (n.d.). Service-learning faculty manual. Chicago: National Louis University. Retrieved December 14, 2018, from https://www.nl.edu/ media/nlu/downloadable/studentservices/civicengagement/chapter-1.pdf Speck, B. W., & Hoppe, S. L. (Eds.). (2004). Service-learning: history, theory, and issues. Westport, CT: Praeger. 台灣國立中山大學（2013）。《國立中山大學高感動力服務學習學生手冊》。2018年 12月 14日，取自 http://e128.nsysu.edu.tw/ezfiles/245/1245/img/1351/269019854. pdf。香港特別行政區教育局（2013）。《新高中課程「其他學習經歷」指南針》。2018年 12月 14日，取自 https://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/lwl/ole/File/OLE_whats_it_about. pdf。香港特別行政區教育局（2014）。《基礎教育課程指引 —聚焦．深化．持續（小一至小六）》。2018年 12月 14日，取自 https://cd.edb.gov.hk/becg/tchinese/chapter4. html#s4.3.1。 12 附件一：「總結性評估」個人反思問題以下問題只作參考，以引導學生深入反思。學生可按自己需要撰寫反思內容，個人反思報告字數約 1500字左右。個人質素 1. 在服務的過程中，你對自己的感覺如何？ 2. 在整個服務學習的過程中，令你最愉快的事情是甚麼？那件事對你有甚麼影響？ 3. 你在服務活動中遇到最大的困難是甚麼？你當時的感受如何？你如何面對？ 4. 服務學習對你將來的職業有沒有新的啟發？ 5. 完成服務學習後，你對自己有甚麼新的看法？服務對象 1. 在這次活動中，你最欣賞的人是誰？ (學生、導師、機構負責人或服務對象 ) 為甚麼？ 2. 你認為你所提供的服務對服務對象有甚麼意義？ 3. 你欣賞他 /他們 (服務對象 )嗎？為甚麼？公民責任 1. 你認為香港正面對甚麼社會問題？而你的服務又怎樣回應這些問題？ 2. 深入探討一個社會群體，了解他們的需要及他們正面對的問題，並思考政府或志願機構可以怎樣提供幫助。前瞻 1. 你認為合作機構有甚麼可以改善的地方？ 2. 你認為機構可以給你甚麼協助？而你又可以為機構做甚麼？ 3. 你認為有甚麼知識、技能可令你的服務做得更好？ 4. 你認為學校應否繼續推行服務學習計劃？為甚麼？ 13 在融合教育中實踐服務學習概念：個案示範 Implementing Service Learning in the Context of : A Case Demonstration Steven Ka Wai CHEUNG, Alexis Tsz Ming PANG, Ann Ming LUI Centre for Learning Sciences, Department of Education Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University Kenneth Kuen-Fung SIN Centre for Special Educational Needs and and Department of Special Education and Counselling, The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract The advocate of and whole person development has been one of the major missions of Hong Kong government, but to fulfill the goal of such mission in the classroom poses a great challenge to teachers. The present paper aims to provide a pedagogy for teachers of secondary and tertiary educations that achieves both the purposes of and whole person development. The concept “Service- Learning” which emphasizes the importance of “service” and “learning” in teaching is introduced. Teacher following such pedagogy offers student chances to organize and undertake activity, to learn to understand the needs of different people and to have a deep reflection about the society. Our team, based on the concept, has developed a structural framework to operationalize the concept in teaching and a project co-organized by The Education University of Hong Kong and Hong Kong Baptist University is provided as case demonstration for reference. Keywords catering for learner diversity, service learning, other learning experiences, special educational needs 15 《香港教師中心學報》，第十八卷 © 香港教師中心，2019 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要彭素妮廣州暨南大學華文學院摘要香港曾是殖民地，現是一個多元化的國際都市，居住著許多不同文化和種族的人。加上，自九七香港回歸後，加入了許多來自內地來港定居的新移民；2001-2016 年又經歷了雙非兒童在港出生潮，造成了多樣化學生。這文初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要。首先，分析香港幼兒普通話教學現狀；接著釐定多樣化學生的種類；然後探討其學習普通話的需要；最後提出設計幼兒普通話課程時需具備的要素。關鍵詞香港幼兒教育、普通話教育、多樣化、學習需要 16 一、關鍵詞定義（一）「多樣化」：根據香港 2017年《幼稚園教育課程指引》，幼兒在文化、語言、生活經驗、學習方式、能力、動機及興趣等方面有所不同，因而產生了不同的學習需要（教育局，2017）。然而在學習普通話層面上，香港的地理位置和政府的背景，其幼兒的基礎和學習能力都是有所不同的。（二）「幼兒普通話」：一九五五年「年國文字改革會議」和「現代漢語規範問題學術會議」通過了普通話的定義：「普通話以北京語音為標準音，以北方話為基礎方言，以典範的現代白話文著作為語法規範。」（宋欣橋，2011）。香港幼兒普通話提供給六歲前的香港幼兒的普通話教育。（三）「全方位教學設計」：陳東甫、劉漢欽（2007）指出所謂的全方位教學設計，強調所有各種不同的學習者（指不同的文化、社經地位、性別、種族、能力等）在學習上都能充份享受無障礙的存取所謂的學習上之無障礙存取。李新翔（2009）指出學生中總會有個別差異而呈現出不同的學習風格，教師要因材施教。學生的差異面臨著許多障礙，身體上和認知上等等。然而全方位教學設計能為不同的學習者提供了更加豐富的方式，使得學習環境，教學材料，教學活動更加具有身體的和認知的通達性，提升學習的普適性和學生的靈活性。二、香港幼兒普通話的現狀（一）不同學者對香港普通話的看法有學者指出普通話教學的定位，既不是第一種語言，亦不是第二種語言。因為香港學生學習普通話完全不同於自然語言環境中的母語習得，所以香港人學普通話屬於第二語言習得。由於普通話和粵語之間的語法、辭彙、文化和習俗背景基本相同，只是有時在詞序有點不同，這有別於第二語言學習。高林波（2001）指出香港缺乏自然良好普通話語言環境。雖然大眾們逐漸接受普通話，但是粵語還是香港社會的語言。學生主要能聽說普通話的地方只在學校的課堂上。因此，教師要創造說普通話的語言環境，多鼓勵學生用普通話和同學交談，營造一個「人工的語言環境」。 17 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要胡馨允（2008）在《香港早期普通話教學》一文指出幼兒很難在有限的普通話課堂中運用所學到的語詞和短句，來表達自己的意見和需求，並能夠如同母語般流利地運用普通話進行溝通、交流和分享經驗。學習普通話的特點有三點，一是幼兒能夠較快理解與粵語發音相近的普通話辭彙；二是幼兒需要專門地學習普通話；三是粵語作為母語也會干擾普通話的發音。（二）筆者對香港幼兒普通話教學的看法筆者認為香港幼兒普通話教學情況多元化，各有特色。以下從政府、學校、家長和幼兒來講述香港幼兒普通話的現狀。 1. 政府方面沒有定位、沒有課程指引和要求：到目前為至，香港推普已有三十多年，香港普通話仍沒有定位。正如有學者提出，普通話教學的定位，既不是第一種語言，亦不是第二種語言。 2. 學校方面（1）師資培訓：胡馨允（2009）提出香港幼兒普通話師資面臨的兩個困境。一是校內能用普通授課的本地教師數量有限。二是聘用專業的幼兒普通話教師經費不足。於是出現一類沒有幼兒教育證書，未必具專業知識，大多數發音非常標準；一類具幼兒教育證書，具專業知識，發音未必標準。（2）管理層對普通話的重視度：李永斌（2010）提出港當前的語言三種現狀：重英輕中、粵語是強勢方言和特殊心理影響都是直接影響到學校管理層對普通話的重視度。如果學校管理層重視，普通話教學的推行便可更有效地推行。管理層不重視時，有什麼特別活動，被取消的永遠是普通話課堂。（2）教學內容，分成四種：一是根據教科書編寫；二是根據校本發展而增加或刪除教科書內容編寫；三是根據校本發展，教師自編或由機構提供的；四是根據校本發展，配合學校主題，教師自編。 18 3. 家長和幼兒方面大多數家長都希望孩子們成龍成鳯的，對子女的學習成效很重視。故此，家長們只會重視和花時間學習需要評估的科目。許多學校的普通話不需要評估，讓家長們有錯覺，認為不重要，不需要花時間去溫習。正如高林波（2001）提出的，香港缺乏普通話語境。在校的授課時間本來就很少，在家裏又缺乏語言環境，又不被重視，更不會花時間溫習。（三）普通話從幼兒抓起的重要正所謂三歲定八十，幼兒在三歲前，腦部發展的工作已完成了百分之八十。幼兒期是人類語言迅速發展的關鍵期，亦是最好的時期。張硯青（2012）指出幼稚園時期是學習語言的最佳時期，以及給予內地推廣普通話的建議：「要想使推普之路走得方便快捷，除了各級政府及社會普遍重視外，學說普通話還應從幼稚園抓起。」因為幼兒上幼稚園後，老師是父母後接觸的最多的人，所以幼兒模仿得最多的人就是老師。如果老師能積極營造豐富的普通話語言環境，就能使幼兒逐漸會聽、會說和愛說普通話。三、幼兒學與教的心理學理論（一）先天與後天相互作用論先天論代表喬姆斯基認為兒童在沒有接觸任何語言之前就有語法知識，因此主張幼兒語言習得。幼兒根據自己天生的能力和語法知識來學習語言。後天論代表經驗主義學習理論，包括史金納操作學習理論和社會學習理論主張兒童所取得的語言成就是學習的結果。先天與後天相互作用論就皮亞傑採用建構主義觀念，他認為新近發展起來的聯結主義理論則試圖用學習機制來解釋句子的習得。同時，不排除兒童在沒有接觸任何語言之前存在語法知識。這也是筆者認同的，因為人必需先天有個處理語言能力，經過環境刺激，語言能力才得以發展。如果人沒有天生的處理語言能力，就會像動物一樣怎麼教都不會學懂。如果人一出生就沒有受到環境的刺激，過了關鍵期，語言能力也無法發展（張明紅，2014）。 19 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要（二）多元智慧理論關玲（2012）指出多元智慧理論是由美國心理學家加德納 Howard Gardner提出的，包括語言智慧、邏輯智慧、空間智慧、節奏智慧、運動智慧、人際交往智慧、自我反省智慧和自然觀察智慧等等。不論他們智力高或低，老師對待學生個體的差異要有正確寬容的態度，學習進展會有所不同，沒有所謂的差生，老師應該順應孩子們智慧強勢和發展的水準。繼而因材施教，運用不同的方法引導學生積極參與課堂活動，尊重學生個體的選擇和愛好。（三）全語言理論全語言是關於語言和語言學習、學習者和學習、教師和教學、課程的一些觀點和信念，講究學習的完整性，以語言學習所有要學習的事物，應保證幼兒語言學習目標和內容的完整性（張明紅，2014）。他認為兒童的語言學習是：整體性的學習、應當回歸真實世界、應與其他領域的學習融合在一起及開放而平等的學習。四、多樣化學生的種類（一）新移民：多是由中國持單程證來港定居的人，語言背景不祥，他們是來自不同的中國地區。根據 2016年中期人口普查（2016），香港人口的語言使用情況過半 5歲及以上香港人口能說英語或普通話，除廣州話及普通話外，香港人口最常用的三種中國方言是客家話、福建話及潮州話（見表一）。表一：按慣用交談語言及年劃分的 5歲及以上人口按慣用交談語言及年劃分的 5歲及以上人口年 2006 2011 2016 5 歲及以上人口 5 歲及以上人口 5 歲及以上人口人數百分比人數百分比人數百分比慣用交談語言 (1) 廣州話 6030960 90.8 6095213 89.5 6264700 88.9 普通話 60859 0.9 94399 1.4 131406 1.9 其他中國方言 289027 4.4 273745 4 221247 3.1 英語 187281 2.8 238288 3.5 300417 4.3 其他 72217 1.1 106788 1.6 131199 1.9 總計 6640344 100 6808433 100 7048969 100 註釋：(1) 數字不包括失去語言能力的人士。 -代表零 20 因此，相信新移民多是來自潮汕、東莞等一帶的人，有的說潮汕福佬話、客家話、普通話或者廣東話等等。第一，他們說的大有可能是方言，在語法和語音和普通話有一定的距離；第二，當然也有可能他們有一定的普通話根基，因為現在內地推廣普通話，所以營造了豐富的普通話環境；第三，當中也有部份是來自普通話是母語的內地地方。新移民孩子們來到香港就要適應香港的生活、說廣東話等等，還要學說普通話。（二）香港本地的幼兒，生長在香港。第一種學會的語言是非普通話，家裏又沒有任何普通話的元素。根據2016年人口中期統計，在本港人口中，約92%為華人。而在本港的非華人中，則以菲律賓人和印尼人居多，分別佔總人口的 2.5%和 2.1%。廣州話是在家中最常用的語言，約 89%的五歲及以上人口在家中以廣州話交談，另外有 6%報稱能說廣州話（見表二）。表二：按年劃分的 5歲及以上人口能說選定語言 /方言的比例按年劃分的 5歲及以上人口能說選定語言 /方言的比例 5 歲及以上人口的比例百份比作為慣用語言作為其他語言 / 方言總計年 2006 2011 2016 2006 2011 2016 2006 2011 2016 語言 / 方言 (1) 廣州話 90.8 89.5 88.9 5.7 6.3 5.7 96.5 95.8 94.6 英語 2.8 3.5 4.3 41.9 42.6 48.9 44.7 46.1 53.2 普通話 0.9 1.4 1.9 39.2 46.5 46.7 40.2 47.8 48.6 客家話 1.1 0.9 0.6 3.6 3.8 3.5 4.7 4.7 4.2 福建話 1.2 1.1 1 2.1 2.3 2.6 3.4 3.5 3.6 潮州話 0.8 0.7 0.5 3.2 3.1 2.9 3.9 3.8 3.4 印尼話 0.1 0.3 0.3 1.5 2.2 2.4 1.7 2.4 2.7 菲律賓語 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.3 1.4 2.3 1.4 1.7 2.7 日本語 0.2 0.2 0.1 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.2 1.5 1.8 上海話 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.1 香港本地的幼兒可分成兩種：一種是普通話能力較弱；一種是普通話能力較強。原因是前者在學校有限的普通話環境下成長，後者是自小到補習社學習普通話或者聘請普通話家庭教師到家中教授，他們的普通話根基較扎實。相信這些幼兒的家庭社經地位都是比較高的，他們學習普通話的能力比較強的。 21 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要（三）雙非兒童，於香港出世的幼兒。由於父母均為內地人士，很大可能都不在香港成長，有些到了適合年紀才來港就學。根據香港教育局，由 2006/2007年度的 797人上升至 2014/2015年度的 10363人，短短的十年增加了十多倍。其中北區學校人數最多，與其他地區比較遙遙領先（見表三）。他們第一種學會的語言根據他們的父母的所在地而決定。雙非兒童和新移民兒童相同的就是他們的語言背景情況相若。不過，不同之處就是雙非兒童多是跨境兒童，每天舟車勞頓，在學習的精神和家長對學習的跟進情況就比較不理想。表三：2006/2007-2014/2015年度來港讀書的雙非兒童人數分佈 06/07 07/08 08/09 09/10 10/11 11/12 12/13 13/14 14/15 北區 791 1,435 1,629 2,225 2,787 3,677 4,281 4,908 5,279 元朗 5 3 56 210 514 1,070 1,653 2,235 2,500 屯門 - 17 94 225 454 892 1,265 1,679 1,893 大埔 1 1 1 19 29 67 190 340 391 沙田 - - - 2 2 1 2 25 51 荃灣及葵青 - - - - - 1 34 45 80 東涌 - - - - - - 29 54 69 黃大仙 - - - - - - - - 1 總計 797 1,456 1,780 2,681 3,786 5,708 7,454 9,286 10,364 （四）非華語學生：雙方父母不是主要說普通話人，通常是指南亞裔人，甚至有的家長連英文都不會而也無法溝通得到。這類幼兒在香港越來越多，根據統計處人口普查網上互動數據顯示，2011年及 2016年，按能否說廣東話劃分，5-9歲少數族裔的人數及百分比，2016年不能說廣東話的共有 2324人，佔 35%（見表四）。換句話說 3個 5-9歲少數族裔的人中，就有一個人不會說廣東話，那麼會說普通話的人數就更少。 22 表四：2011年及 2016年按能否說廣東話劃分，5-9歲少數族裔的人數及百分比菲律賓人印尼人白人印度人尼泊爾人巴基斯坦人泰國人日本人其他亞洲人其他人數 2011 可以 529 21 425 683 636 1916 73 66 123 2498 不可以 428 24 2319 1142 518 763 3 610 415 788 2016 可以 771 30 465 657 860 1290 179 61 324 4411 不可以 315 10 2700 1410 417 454 13 539 261 2324 百分比 2011 可以 55% 47% 15% 37% 55% 72% 96% 10% 23% 76% 不可以 45% 53% 85% 63% 45% 28% 4% 90% 77% 24% 2016 可以 71% 75% 15% 32% 67% 74% 93% 10% 55% 65% 不可以 29% 25% 855% 68% 33% 265% 7% 90% 45% 35% （五）特殊教育需要學生：湯盛欽（1998）引用特殊教育《辭典》解釋是：使用一般的或經過特別設計的課程、教材、教法和教學組織形及教學設備，對有特殊需要的兒童進行旨在達到一般和特殊培養目標的教育。同時亦指出特殊教育兒童廣義是除殘疾童外，還包括超常兒童。狹義是指生理或心理上有缺陷的兒童，亦稱身心障礙兒童或殘疾兒童，如視覺障礙、弱智和肢體殘疾兒童等。根據《認識及幫助有特殊教育需要的兒童 — 教師指引》中有特殊教育需要的學生通常具有一項或多項學習困難的特徵，因而需要接受特殊教育服務。主要類別包括：聽覺受損、視覺受損、身體弱能、弱智、情緒及行為問題、專注力不足及過度活躍、自閉症、溝通困難、讀寫困難和資優（教育局，2003）。五、多樣化幼童學習普通話的需要（一）新移民：剛來到香港的時候，他們會遇上不同的問題。老師們要先安撫他們以及幫助他們盡快適應香港生活和校園生活。可以從肯定他們開始，例如除了肯定他們的普通話說得好，也給予時間讓他們適應校園生活和學習方式。另外，要善用他們會普通話的強項，再提升他們學習普通話的能力，從而帶動其他普通話基礎比較差的學生。（二）香港本地的幼兒，生長在香港：普通話能力較弱的他們需要學校提供：一是加強語境創設；二是增設拼音教學以提升幼兒對普通話的聽講讀寫能力，發展 23 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要一個更全面的普通話教學，從而幼兒能學好普通話拼音、增加普通話辭彙量、多說完整句子以及可以在豐富語言環境下學習說普通話。普通話能力較強的，老師可以在課堂上讓他們當小老師，以免他們覺得已在課外補習所學的知識還要再學習而感到沉悶或者在課堂上搗亂。（三）雙非兒童，於香港出世的幼兒：雖然大多數雙非兒童的普通話能力不錯，但是他們整體的成績是比較差的。由於他們的父母多在內地，可以跟進學習的家長比較少，就是說當連主科都無法跟進，他們認為普通話不是重要科目，就更易被忽略。因此，老師要肯定他們的普通話能力，讓他們愛上普通話也肯定自己的能力，從而有信心去應付其他科目。（四）非華語學生：由於這類幼兒在接受廣東話都有困難，他們更難有時間和精力去學習普通話。因此，普通話老師給這類幼兒上普通話的時候，盡可能讓孩子們享受愉快的課堂。他們需要玩的天性，就得設計更多的遊戲，讓他們從遊戲中學習普通話。（五）特殊教育需要學生：他們因應不同特殊需要在認知和身體機能等層面都有障礙，當然資優除外。他們可能有不同的學習障礙和遲緩，因此，在學習時認知和身體機能上需要特別的照顧。如果在自理和認知層面許可下，他們也可以開始接受普通話教學活動。不過，教師需要接受相關的特殊教育課程。因此，正如湯盛欽（1998）指出特殊教育有以下的原則： 1. 理解特殊兒童，熱愛特殊學生； 2. 肯定人人都有受教育的權利和教育的可能性； 3. 堅持因材施教，提供合適的教育；及 4. 貫徹正常化原則，提供最好的發展機會。六、設計幼兒普通話課程需具備的要素為了讓不同學生得到應有的教育，發展他們的潛能。因應有限的空間和時間，利用全方位教學設計來進行教學，以讓不同的學生在沒有障礙或者減少障礙地學習。根據張蓓（2012）提出的「全方位教學設計」三大重點：首先瞭解學生的學習 24 背景，設計完整的教學；然後選用合適的教學手段進行個別化教學。最後，在過程評價能有效推進學生的學習動力。由於每一個班上的幼兒都來自己不同背景的，當中的學童都包含了新移民、本土、雙非、非華語和特殊教育需要的，也就是說很難以單一化來設計課程，因此，在設計課程時需要具備的要素：（一）激發多樣化學生學習普通話的興趣現時普通話教學中都有透過故事和遊戲來教授幼兒。不過，對於基礎較好的幼兒，例如正常智力且本身有參加課外補習的幼兒只要透過遊戲便能把知識掌握好。對於基礎較差例如非華語學生或者有特殊需要的幼兒，他們可以透過音樂來提升他們的理解能力和專注力。（二）有效運用多媒體技術教師透過言語所能表達的始終有限，如能透過視像短片，幼兒透過圖像更容易理解明白教師所說的。例如老師在介紹家庭成員，講到「妹妹」和「姐姐」的時候，如果以圖片顯示，幼兒能透過圖片上「姐姐」和「妹妹」的高度之分，很快地辨別以及掌握發音。然而一些比較邏輯性的知識，幼兒如能透過視像短片，便能在動感中明白故事的來龍去脈，所能得到的結果也是事半功倍。當然要注意的是老師在看視像短片時要做適當的引導，否則孩子在毫無引導下觀看，學習成效是難以保證的。因此，老師要時觀看短片，好好備課，確保懂得如何善用視像短片，讓孩子在引導下學習，更要確保足夠的師生互動。尤其多媒體學習十分適合非華語和認知能力較差的特殊學生，他們能透過影像，容易明白和掌握新知識。（三）加入肢體動作或者律動透過肢體動作，幼兒更能掌握所學的知識。幼兒學習時期也是肢體發展的關鍵期，肢體的發展有助於大腦的發展。畢竟幼兒階段的認知不多，活動學習就有助於他們的四肢發展。在教授普通話的過程中，如果幼兒把學習的知識變得形象化，除了可以看圖片或者實物，還可以透過肢體動作或者律動知識變得生動化和形象化。例如教授詞語「大」或「小」可以把嘴巴張大或者把嘴巴張小。例如教授《我愛我的小貓》，歌詞內容：「我愛我的小貓，小貓這樣叫，喵喵喵喵喵喵，小貓這樣叫。」 25 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要在學唱的時候，老師可以示範做出小貓樣子、小貓叫的動作等等，這樣幼兒覺得有趣就自然會跟著做，自然也就明白歌詞的意思。由於幼兒喜歡模仿，無論是甚麼類型的學生，只要他們身體上有能力，都會模仿老師做不同的動作。加上音樂他們更容易投入在當中。（四）加強訓練聽說讀寫的綜合能力 1. 聽說能力透過人工創設的豐富語境刺激及提升幼兒自主說話動機，從而提升其聽說話能力。由於香港缺乏普通話學習環境，因此，需要創設人工語境，以讓新移民和雙非學生繼續說好普通話，以及增加其他有環境學習普通話。可以在課室佈置、課堂教學設計和日常生活增設：（1）課室佈置：張貼幼兒作品（增加幼兒的成就感）、教學內容的展示（讓幼兒重溫，可以鼓勵幼兒讀出及唱出再給予獎賞）以及普通話教具操作（鞏固學習內容）。（2）課堂活動：配合學校主題大網而選取課文內容，如果是採用坊間教科書，在一定的辭彙、句子和兒歌，再配以相關的繪本來增加辭彙、句子和兒歌的量。在課堂教學設計上要涵蓋 2017年香港幼稚園課程指引六大範疇：「體能與健康」、「語文」、「幼兒數學」、「大自然與生活」、「個人與群體」和「藝術與創意」。每一個教學活動都最少涵蓋兩至三個範疇以增加辭彙和完整句子的運用豐富度。（3）園內生活活動：普通話老師帶領進餐時間、排洗時間以及在分組時間與幼兒的交談和互動。（4）家中親子活動：一來可以家中課文重溫，與孩子在遊戲中溫習。二來親子教具，教師根據教學內容製作親子教具，孩子帶回家後，由家長陪同下完成，再交回學校。 26 1. 讀寫能力透過繪本提升幼兒拼寫和朗讀能力。筆者從事幼稚園普通話多年，明白到普通話發展一直未能有效地進行，是因為沒有從基礎做起。學習普通話聽說一定重要，同時如何聽得準確和如何說得準確也一定重要。拼音教學如能在學前開始推行，就不需小學老師費盡時間和心機去教授。因為幼稚園的評估相對來說較少，上學壓力相對比小學少，所以中文拼音如能提早在學前進行，更有趣及跟得上在關鍵期掌握。根據幼兒心理特徵，使用繪本教幼兒中文拼音，易引學生進入教學重點。繪本字少，意境多，且多貼近幼兒生活經驗。非華語學生一直在香港無法把廣東話學得好，除了語言環境問題，更大問題是他們在讀寫有很大的障礙。如果這些孩子能從小學好拼音，已取得學習好普通話的工具，他們可以使用拼音閱讀，同時又可以增加他們認識其他漢字的拼音，這樣就一舉兩得。以下就拼音教學做出建議：（1）拼音教學時間表：學前教育共有三級幼兒，分別為幼兒班（3-4歲）、低班（4-5歲）和高班（5-6歲）。每年每級的上課時間上下學期各約有二十二周，共約有四十四周。教學安排見附件一。（2）教材選用：可選用繪本《拼音真好玩》、《拼音魔法書》和《神奇拼音書》以及其他因應教案設計而需要的繪本（例如學習聲母「m」時，使用繪本《小白貓愛畫畫》）和視像短片（有關拼音發音）。以上的拼音繪本教材多是為內地一年級小學生而設計，教師可因應幼兒的能力和興趣作出調整。（3）教學方法步驟一：先教授學童學習唱好聲母歌和韻母歌。步驟二：由故事作為主軸，再延伸到相應的兒歌和歌曲加強學習特定的聲母、聲母配搭不同韻母有不同聲調的發音。步驟三：透過遊戲不斷鞏固所學內容，從而掌握拼讀。例子：學習聲母「m」。 27 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要 1.1 以故事《小白貓愛畫畫》為主軸。故事內容：「小白貓愛、畫畫，手拿色筆到處畫。畫累了就躺下來，休息的時候卻被小老鼠畫成小花貓，最後貓才知道不應該到處畫。」在故事中，讓幼兒學習「小白貓」和「小花貓」的「貓」字聲母就是「m」。從中教幼兒拼讀（貓）「māo」，告訴幼兒「貓」字是由聲母「m」和韻母「ao」組成，「貓」是第一聲，所以是「māo」。學前學童在剛開始的時候，不太明白聲母、韻母和聲調的概念。不過，學前是學童學習語言的關鍵期，只要他們透過有趣生動的練習（一邊扮演貓做動作一邊讀出「māo」)，就會明白語言的規則。慢慢的，多學習幾個聲母，他們就會開始去探索不認識的字，究竟是由什麼聲母和韻母組成的。 1.2 由故事延伸到特定學習聲母的詞語。如在故事《小白貓愛畫畫》中，介紹小貓有媽媽，而且慢慢地走路。這樣就可延伸到有關聲母「m」的詞語：如「媽媽」、「慢慢」等等，就更進一步延伸到聲母「m」搭配不同韻母，有不同讀音和漢字。幼兒喜歡蹦跳，透過遊戲鞏固所學內容。例如區別和掌握詞語「媽媽」、「慢慢」，在地上放好這兩組詞語的圖字卡。待幼兒練習好這兩組詞語的讀音後，請一童聽另一童讀出「媽媽」或「慢慢」而決定跳在「媽媽」或「慢慢」圖字卡跟前。 1.3 由故事延伸到特定學習聲母的歌曲。例如歌曲《我愛我的小貓》，歌詞內容：我愛我的小貓，小貓這樣叫：喵喵喵喵喵喵，小貓這樣叫。「喵」字讀音是「miāo」，從中讓學童試著拼讀，如果幼兒已懂得拼音「i」和「a」和「o」，他們就能拼讀出「m-i-āo」，可能聲調不一定正確，經過多次拼讀和模仿，學童能自動調節出正確的聲調。幼兒喜歡新鮮感，透過遊戲鞏固所學內容。例如在唱歌期間，可請幼兒根據歌詞做不同的代表動作，例如當唱到「貓」字就要拍手一下或者跺腳一下，當唱到「喵」就扮演成一只貓。 28 結語教學是否成功，所涉及相關人士從上而下就是政府、學校、家長和學生。政府所定的教育政策直接影響教學成效，可並不是說改就改，也不是某人說了算。因此，要改變政策不是一下子的事情。畢竟學校是幼兒課程的策劃者，也是最接近孩子的一群人士。於是我們就談先從學校做起。一是學校行政者要重視普通話以及要重視幼兒的普通話表達能力。二是加強多元化的師資培訓。為了應付多樣化學生學習普通話的需要，教師的思維需多樣化。社會變遷，教育與時並進，可能計畫也趕不上變化。不過，身為前線教育者要教得好，就得從多化面去觀察和反思。除了在前線工作要努力，其時教學研究更是重要。透過是次的初談，在教育的工作中會發現很多東西可以改變，同時，也是在一定的有限度下去改變，無論如何，都要抱著一顆積極樂觀的心去面對。 29 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要參考資料陳東甫、劉漢欽（2007）。〈資訊科技融入特殊教育領域一以全方位教學設計推動融合教育的實施〉。《教育論壇》，第 48卷，第 3期，69-74。高林波（2001）。〈對香港地區普通話教學的幾點思考〉。《東疆學刊》，第18期2卷，頁 1-2。關鈴（2012）。〈小學英語快樂教學法研究〉。《遼寧師範大學》，碩士論文。胡馨允（2008）。〈職前幼兒教師進行早期普通話教學的現狀研究〉。《香港幼兒學報》，第 7期 2卷，頁 55-59。胡馨允（2009）。〈香港的早期普通話教學〉。《早期教育》(教師版 )，第 6期，頁 18-19。李新翔（2009）。〈UDL 課程設計研究〉。《中國科教創新導刊》，第 34期，52-52。李永斌（2010）。〈論香港普通話教學的規範性問題〉。《中天學刊》，第 5期，25卷， 118-120。宋欣橋（2011）。《普通話語音訓練教程》。北京：商務印書館。湯盛欽（1998）。《特殊教育概論：普通班級中有特殊教育需要的學生》。上海：教育出版社，頁 2。張明紅（2014）。《學前兒童語言教育與活動指導》。華東師範大學出版社，頁 54- 60。張蓓（2012）。〈「全方位教學設計」(UDL)思想在大學英語教學中的運用〉。《教育教學論壇》，第 8期，頁 134-135。張硯青（2012）。〈普通話應該從幼稚園抓起〉。《吉林省教育學院學報》，第 28卷，第 7期，108-109。 2016年中期人口普查（2016）。香港：政府統計處。香港教育局（2003）。《認識及幫助有特殊教育需要的兒童 — 教師指引》，頁 3。香港教育局（2017）。《幼稚園學前課程指引》，頁 94。 30 附件一：拼音教學時間表年級上學期下學期幼兒班律動、聲母歌、韻母歌單韻母：a o e i u ü 聲母 21 個：唇音： b p m f 舌尖音（舌尖中音）： d t n l 舌根音（舌面後音）： g k h 舌面音（舌面前音）： j q x 翹舌音（舌尖後音 ) ：zh ch sh r 平舌音（舌尖前音）： z c s 低班複韻母：ai ei ao ou ia ie ua uo üe iao iu uai ui 複音韻母： an en in ün ian uan un üan 高班後鼻韻母： ang eng ing ong iang uang ueng iong 學習拼讀 31 初談香港多樣化幼兒學習普通話的需要 Initial discussion on the diverse needs of children in learning Putonghua in Hong Kong PANG So Ni College of Chinese Language and Culture, Jinan University, Guangzhou Abstract Formerly a colonial history, Hong Kong has become a multicultural city, in which people with different races and cultural background reside. With the increasing number of new arrivals from the Mainland since the handover in 1997 and doubly non-permanent resident children being born in the period of 2001-2016, learners with diverse backgrounds were resulted. This paper aims to analyse the current situation of Putonghua teaching in the early childhood setting, determine the types of learner diversity, explore children’s needs in Putonghua learning. The last part of this paper proposes the components needed in designing a curriculum for learning Putonghua in early childhood education. Keywords early childhood education in Hong Kong, Putonghua education, diverse learning needs 33 《香港教師中心學報》，第十八卷 © 香港教師中心，2019 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作洪潔雯、梅志文香港才能教育研究會陳俊銘、何小慧聖公會李福慶中學摘要圖書館不單是知識的寶庫，更是教育發展的關鍵角色。隨著科技急速發展，圖書館的角色亦有著微妙的變化。學校圖書館由傳統只提供借還圖書的地方，發展到現在不少圖書館已經加入了各種科技，如無線射頻技術（RFID）借還書服務及電子閱讀等。環顧國內外的圖書館發展，自造、創作空間已成為大方向。圖書館內增設的創客實驗室、配備不同的動手製作工具，讓學生進行自主性學習。本文將分享學校如何改善現有的圖書館設置以照顧學生多樣性，同時亦闡述在學校圖書館建設創客實驗室的優勢與挑戰。關鍵詞數碼圖書館、學校的電子學習、創客實驗室、數理科工實驗室 34 圖書館改革歷程環顧近五十年的圖書館史，圖書館正經歷以下三個階段的改革（Lewis ,2004及 Buckland等 , 1992）: 時期圖書館改革的標誌 1960-1990 MARC 1 及 OPAC 2 的使用，以及視聽媒體系統的引入 1990-2010 電子圖書館及多媒體的引入近年新科技的發展及引入在香港，課程發展議會於 2014年更新《基礎教育課程指引（小一至小六）》，並以「學會學習 2.0」為題，闡明自「學會學習」課程改革的更新；2017年《中學教育課程指引》的推展，邁進「學會學習 2+」的新階段。其中「從閱讀中學習」延伸出的「跨課程語文學習」和「資訊科技互動學習」是教育局在本地推行課程發展的兩個關鍵項目。本文將透過學校經驗分享，闡明科技閱讀對學生多樣化的正面影響。在很多人心目中，推動閱讀和推廣科技是兩項完全不同的概念，甚至有人認為科技的急速發展導致人們過份使用電子產品而輕視了閱讀習慣的培養、兩者是互相矛盾的。筆者一直有留意學校閱讀推廣和資訊科技發展，發現現時校園閱讀推廣已進入多元化的發展，以照顧學生多樣性。同時，發展優質圖書館或圖書館 4.0（Noh, 2015）已成為學界新趨勢。以下是學校推行的科技閱讀工作，供讀者參考：一、建構數碼化圖書館，推展「跨課程語文學習」及「跨課程閱讀」 2017年更新的《中學教育課程指引》，建議學校將「從閱讀中學習」推展至「跨課程閱讀」及「跨課程語文學習」，故增加藏書量去迎合學生跨學科學習是必要的。現時不少學校圖書館藏書發展空間已飽和，書籍存放空間嚴重不足。故將現行的圖書館系統升級，進一步推行電子化閱讀，除有助資源或空間的共同分享及利用外，更能舒緩藏書飽和及空間不足的問題。 _______________ 1 Machine-Readable Cataloging 2 Online Public Access Catalog 35 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作再者，語言是文化的重要內涵，而語文教育的主要可概分為「聽、說、讀、寫」，目的是培養學生的語文能力。而語文能力的培養，必須經過大量的閱讀，經過反覆思考、練習及應用後，才能達至一定的水平。因此，運用具互動性的電子化閱讀，例如有聲書、動畫、互動遊戲等，供學生邊讀邊聽，正正能有助提升其閱讀、聆聽及發音能力，實有助學生的語文學習及發展。此外，電子化閱讀涵蓋的科目及主題廣泛，只需要使用一個平台，便能不受時間、地點的限制，並跳出傳統紙本的框架，加人互動及分享的元素，讓學生廣泛閱讀不同主題 /課程的材料，拓寬學生的知識基礎，促進自主學習。為迎合圖書館館務發展，逐步建構數碼化圖書館是需要的。除了進一步優化圖書館內的軟硬件，圖書館並設立無線射頻辨識系統。無線射頻辨識技術除有助提升圖書館日常運作效率，更重要是可透過有關技術訓練學生，讓學生能與時並進。學校是社會的縮影，圖書館如能引入與實際應用環境相符的設備，讓學生親自體驗及學習，相信對其獨立自主及終身學習將帶來莫大的幫助。透過建構數碼化圖書館，有學校為學生提供不同的工作坊，如「圖書館 RFID 應用」、「資訊素養課程」等，以培訓圖書館服務生，讓學生掌握新時代的資訊技巧及推行資訊素養教育。除了能訓練他們的領導才能及責任感，讓他們能處理圖書館日常工作外，更能協助圖書館推動閱讀、提升資訊素養；營造具資訊素養的閱讀氛圍，發展學生的知識、技能及態度，從而感染同學有效及符合道德地使用資訊及喜愛閱讀，以達至終身學習的目的。二、引入科技及創新元素，推動擴增實境、虛擬實境閱讀根據 Lewis（2004）及 Buckland等（1992）圖書館改革的分為三個階段，而第三階段正是引入新科技及創新元素的階段。本地近年在虛擬實境（Virtual Reality）和擴增實境（Augmented Reality）的應用開始有上升的趨勢，圖書館引入此類科技可以提升學生閱讀興趣。可是，環顧學界虛擬實境課堂發展，此等科技應用都以播放 360媒體（包括影片、相片或動畫）、進行虛擬觀景活動或設計虛擬實境內容為主流，在閱讀層面上推展仍是起步階段。 36 擴增實境是一種將虛擬物件擴增至現實環境的技術，它並不取代現實空間，而是希望在現實空間中添加一些虛擬資訊。在現實生活中，擴增實境的應用廣泛。曾有廣告商利用擴增實境技術將虛擬傢俱帶進顧客家中令產品銷量上升，亦不同的景點（如香港天際 100）加入擴增實境技術讓遊人多角度探索旅遊熱點。虛擬實境則與擴增實境不同，利用電腦模擬技術、製作出虛擬的立體空間，當使用者穿戴式虛擬實境眼鏡後，會產生身處另一空間的錯覺。因此，虛擬實境常與互動遊戲結合、甚至有地產商開發虛擬實境程式供買家參觀樓盤。近年學界引入了不少支援擴增實境、虛擬實境的書籍以提升閱讀趣味。其中以「小王子」及「愛麗絲夢遊仙境」等經典文學作品最受歡迎。此類加入擴增實境、虛擬實境元素的書籍以遊戲閱讀方式讓學生「走進」書籍中。讀者只須要以智能電話及免費流動應用程式便可閱讀到與其相關文學作品的動畫，讓學生閱讀變得有趣。這種運用擴增實境和虛擬實境的探究學習有助學生提升學習內在動機、培養主動學習習慣（Chiang, et al., 2014）。政府資訊科技總監辦公室於 2017/2018學年在學界推行資訊科技增潤活動，並以「在教育領域運用虛擬實境（虛擬實境）和擴增實境（擴增實境）技術」為題，以激發學生對新興科技及其在教育領域應用的興趣。筆者走訪了數間在計劃中以擴增實境及虛擬實境作為閱讀推廣的學校，為其師生進行培訓。學校添購了擴增實境書籍、學生以擴增實境技術完成閱讀報告、利用虛擬實境技術閱讀書籍大綱。參與計劃的老師表示，使用擴增實境媒體，有助提升同學的閱讀興趣、更有學校的借書量因而有所提升。運用虛擬實境（虛擬實境）和擴增實境（擴增實境）技術推動閱讀看似複雜，在本計畫中，參與學校應用坊間不同的免費軟件，例如透過流動應用程式 HP Reveal將閱讀報告片段與圖書封面連結完成擴增實境閱讀報告、利用網上平台 Story Sphere進行圖書館遊蹤游戲、甚或將自家製作的 360影片上載至 YouTube 360在虛擬實境 Cardboard觀看。利用科技豐富原來的學習內容（Caldera- Serrano, 2014）亦有助個人化學習，科技對閱讀的影響絕對不能忽視！計劃向其中一間學校收集推行後學生對閱讀興趣的影響，研究結果顯示，有關科技閱讀的工作坊報名情況十分理想，報名人數達 300，可見學生對此等活動內容感到興趣。學生亦樂意透過 AR閱讀報告作為閱讀成果分享（90%），部份學生更建 37 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作議一些其他平台作閱讀展示，這是自主學習模式另一展現，學生主動把其他知識作分享及嘗試，以展示更多可能性及更佳效果。另一方面，學校透過電子圖書，讓學生在電子裝置上閱讀，打破了以往的圖書館服務及運作，圖書館訂購了包括「中華里系列」（包括人物、歷史、中華美德、生活時令等系列）、「Net Series」及「英文經典系列」，還有「現代經典作家系列」及「中國古典名著系列」，當中包括電子書如：吶喊、狂人日記、阿Ｑ正傳、古詩十九首、詩經、辛棄疾詞選、論語……超過 700 本的優質電子書。在這個電子化圖書補足下，初中已使用統計如下：初中使用電子圖書：149人已下載書籍數目：755本已閱讀書籍數目：251本統計整體人均借書量亦提升了 23.7%，這個數字及果效不容忽視，可見媒體藝術有助提升學生對閱讀的興趣。只要善用擴增實境 /虛擬實境媒體，必能幫助學生學習，同時亦可以推展至其他科目。透過以上計劃的工作坊，能有效促進學生運用資訊科技能力進行閱讀，進一步實踐資源為本的概念；讓學生透過虛擬實境（虛擬實境）或擴增實境（擴增實境）技術，製作多元化的閱讀報告展示；並透過有關技術促進與各科組合作，甚或是館際合作，以支援學生「跨課程閱讀」，以拓展學生的知識基礎，連繫不同學科學習，善用資訊科技營造更好的閱讀氛圍。三、進行跨科聯課活動、營造自主學習環境，讓學生學會學習「跨科聯課」是學界近年具特色及高效的教學策略。透過使用多媒體資源，學校進一步開展電子閱讀計劃，把電子閱讀融入各科的教與學，讓學生學習相關知識與技能，培訓學生的資訊素養。根據教育局《中學教育課程指引》（2017）分冊 3﹕「有效的學與教：培養終身學習和自主學習者」一文提到，要達至自主學習，學生必須認識自己的信念、長處、 38 能力、採用的策略，並且對自己的學習負責。學校可以透過發展電子圖書館，指導學生有方法去學、有能力去學、按自己需要去學及有動機去學，從而鼓勵學生自主學習。身處資訊爆炸的年代，學校需建構一個鼓勵學生自主學習的環境，而電子圖書館便是一個良好的環境。教師透過電子圖書館，進一步教導學生善用資訊科技，提升電子學習質素，提升學生資訊素養。透過教師及圖書館的協作，採用不同主題的閱讀策略，指導學生善用電子閱讀媒體，增進學習成效。資訊科技的進步將學與教提升至另一層次，電子圖書館可提供方便獲取資訊的途徑，讓學習打破形式及環境限制。電子圖書館讓閱讀不再局限於紙本上，讓學習不再局限於課室中。教師透過電子圖書館，讓學生學習知識、掌握學習策略、培養反思能力以及激發主動學習的意願。圖書館透過不同方式的協作，安排閱讀活動，讓學生涉獵不同領域的知識。學生都各具獨特性，他們的能力、喜好也各有不同，此乃學生的多樣化。透過電子圖書館的多樣性，老師可為不同班別與不同程度的學生，選取合適閱讀之材料，協助學生訂立可行的閱讀目標，提供機會讓學生探索他們感興趣的課題，甚或老師亦可按教學進度，與圖書館協作，配合單元學習，推介全體學生閱讀同一本電子圖書，因材施教。此外，學生閱讀書籍後，可透過電子圖書館的互動性，在平台上用文字或其他多媒體形式表達自己的閱讀心得，同時也令學生能夠多讀、多寫、多看、多發表。教師也可即時提供回饋，將學生閱讀心得展示，讓學生互相學習，以增進師生間的聯繫及提升教學效能。未來發展：放眼創客圖書館，為本地學界提供新思考方向創客實驗室（Fabrication Laboratory）源於麻省理工學院，是一個原型製作平台。透過培養製作者的好奇心和創造力，以自學、自造及知識共享的方式來鼓勵學習、創新和發明（Sun 2009, De Weyer, et al.2013）。創客實驗室近年在本地學界成為新寵，不少學校都從辦學團體或政府申請撥款建立，但選址一般都是學校的設計與 39 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作科技工場或電腦室、是本地化的數理科工實驗實（STEM Laboratory）。曾到芬蘭、加拿大或美國等地交流，應不難發現圖書館才是創客實驗室的根據地。以芬蘭第一個創客實驗室 Aalto Fablab3為例，就正正座落於埃斯波阿爾託大學圖書館內。現時該圖書館已是當地一個完整的學習中心，擁有虛擬實境場地、視聽資源中心、大小不同的工作室，還有一個創客空間。隨著赫爾辛基地鐵擴建到阿爾託法布拉格街對面的新車站，該圖書館已成為地區內每個人都可以輕鬆到訪的自造空間、是創客的理想資源中心。大型創客實驗室的建造成本高昂，但如果在香港中學圖書館建設一個微型創客實驗室也是可行的。裡面可以包括激光切割機、立體打印設備、創客課程及網絡共享設備等。其實創客實驗室的建立，目的是提供資源給不同的類型的學生、根據其興趣進行研究（Cooper, 2013; Rendina, 2014），是照顧學生多樣化的方法之一。另外，因應創客實驗室成立的共享概念，學校可以考慮加入一些使用開放源碼的學習資源如擴增實境、Arduino、Scratch、Raspberry Pi或開源機械人等，讓學生在設計過程中可參考不同資源、亦能創作出具創意的產品。創客實驗室的概念並不是只在國外，現在北京、上海、廣州、成都等地都興起這些自造空間，是培養學生自主學習和終身學習的地方（Educause, 2013; Wyld 2014）。創客實驗室活動涵蓋不同科目：人文、藝術、數理科工也能涉獵，有助推行跨學科和跨課程閱讀（Davee et al., 2015）。創客文化有助學校推動學校圖書館轉營成為學生學習的新天地，是讓學校、學生改變學習模式的催化劑（Miller, 2015），教師可以藉創客教育強調對生活和現實世界的認識與改造以提升學生的 STEM素養（Colegrove, 2013），讓創意和發明在學校發生。這種教育方式與教育家杜威提出的「做中學」一脈相承。只是資訊科技的應用進一步開拓了「動手做」的深度與寬度，同時亦提升了「做」的速度、使產品更能滿足現實的需要。 _______________ 3 AALTO Fab Lab I Helsinki. Website: fablab.aalto.fi 40 結論學生的多樣化對學校教育帶來一定挑戰。因應個人化學習的需求，學校圖書館已由過去的傳統圖書借用中心、多媒體資源中心演變出今日的電子圖書館、虛擬 / 擴增實境閱覽中心及創客文化培訓基地。香港經歷多次課程改革：學制轉變、教學語言、評核方式等都是希望為學生學習帶來正面影響。要帶領學生成長，傳統智慧必須承傳：首要為學生建立良好的閱讀習慣和學習態度。與此同時，學校亦可以通過更新圖書館和教學設備，積極開展資訊科技在教學上的應用，這些教學模式有助提升學生的學習動機而促進自學，而這個情況亦是大勢所趨、是未來教育界的大方向。 41 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作參考文獻 Buckland, M. K., & Gorman, M. (1992). Redesigning library services: a manifesto (Vol. 19). Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Caldera-Serrano, J. (2014). Augmented reality in television and proposed application to document management systems. Professional de la information, v. 23, n. 6, p.: 643- 650. Chiang, T., Yang, S., & Hwan G, G. (2014). An Augmented Reality-based Mobile Learning System to Improve Students’ Learning Achievements and Motivations. In Natural Science Inquiry Activities. Educational technology & society, v. 17, n. 4, p.: 352-365. Colegrove, P. (2013). Editorial board thoughts: Libraries as makerspace? Information Technology and Libraries, 32(1), 2. Cooper,J.(2013). Designing a school makerspace. Edutopia. Davee, S., Regalla, L., & Chang, S. (2015). Makerspaces: Highlights of select literature. Retrieved from http://makered.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ Makerspace-Lit-Review-5B.pdf De Weyer T., Taelman J., Luyten H., Leen D., Schepers S., & Dreessen K. (2013). Hack-a-thing: A Series of FabLab Genk Workshops for Reusing and Repurposing Depreciated Objects. Conference: Proceedings of The First European Fab Lab Conference FabLabCon 2013, Volume: 1 Educause. (2013). Seven things you should know about… makerspaces. Educause Learning Initiative. Lewis, D. W. (2004). The innovator's dilemma: Disruptive change and academic libraries. Library Administration & Management, Vol. 18, no. 2:68-74. Miller, K. (2015). Book Review - Makerspaces: A Practical Guide for Librarians by John J Burke, Lanham, MD., Rowman & Littlefield. Australian Academic & Research Libraries, 46(3), 223–224. Noh, Y. 2015. Imagining library 4.0: Creating a model for future libraries. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, Vol. 41, no. 6: 786-797. Rendina, D. (2014, July). A peek at our future maker corner. Renovated Learning. Sun, A. (2009). NSF Annual Report Jalalabad Fab Lab CCF-0832234. Center for Bits and Atoms Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved from http://cba.mit.edu/docs/ papers/NSF-CCF0832234_Annual_Report.pdf 42 Wyld, J. (2014). Does this count as making? ISTE Connects Blog. 課程發展議會（2014）。《基礎教育課程指引（小一至小六）》。教育局（2017）。《中學教育課程指引》分冊 3﹕有效的學與教：培養終身學習和自主學習者。 43 圖書館革命 : 促進學生的學習及協作 Transformation of libraries: Facilitating students’ learning and collaboration HUNG Kit Man, MUI Chi Man Hong Kong Competence Education Research Institute CHAN Tsun Ming, HO Siu Wai SKH Li Fook Hing Secondary School Abstract Libraries have always been the source of knowledge and learners’ development for centuries. However, with the ever-changing world and rapid development in technology, the efficiency and the role of libraries have changed significantly. In the past, libraries are a place to borrow and read books. In contrast, at present day, many libraries have adopted Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system which allows more systematic shelf management of resources and self-service. Moreover, they have become a place for learners to be creative and make after reading. Makerspace is becoming popular in school libraries around the world and allows students to be makers with the facilities and high- tech equipment provided in libraries. Therefore, it is time for libraries of different school levels to provide this one-stop service and room for their students. This paper discusses how school libraries can transform to enhance students’ motivation and how learning can be facilitated in libraries with diversified students. In addition, the benefits of including STEM elements and makerspaces in libraries and the challenges faced by various parties will be discussed. Keywords digital library, eLearning in school, Fabrication Laboratory, STEM Laboratory 45 《香港教師中心學報》，第十八卷 © 香港教師中心，2019 香港學校 STEM 教育多樣化的對應策略—設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻伍敬華、曾憲江教育局，香港特別行政區文章摘要本文旨在探討香港 STEM 教育發展的背景和歷史。按照關聯性，設計與科技 (Design and Technology) 老師無疑是在學校實施 STEM 教育中最具相關知識，並且是最合適的人選。自上世紀起，從設計與科技學科的誕生及發展過程中，整個設計與科技科課程與 STEM 教育有著密切相近的哲學、目標和內容。實踐活動是 STEM 教育中最重要一環，它與 D&T 中解難導向的設計及產品實現過程非常類似。在過去的二十年，設計與科技老師曾嘗試在學校開展許多不同類型的科本及科技活動，推動「設計與科技」這科目的發展；這些設計與科技老師的持續貢獻啟發並推動了 STEM 在香港學校的發展進程。關鍵詞 STEM 發展、設計與科技科、問題導向的設計活動、實踐活動 46 背景香港既是一個自由貿易港口，也是知識匯聚處。自港口建立以來，香港的教育有著長時間自由發展。政府實行積極不干預，學校大多由教會或當地慈善團體建立。早在二十年前，接近香港回歸之際，當時的教育統籌局開始改變對學校的撥款政策，由項目為本及按人數分配的定額撥款轉變為一筆過撥款。教育局自一九九九年起在各中小學進行改革並推行成立學校管理委員會，委員會由教師、家長、校友及社區成員組成。學校管理委員會全權負責學校發展和資金使用 1。與此同時，大部分工業和職業先修學校都在校名中移除「工業」或「職業先修」一詞。政府的《與時並進善用資訊科技學習 — 五年策略》導致許多學校將其設計與科技工作室（D＆ T Workshops）轉變或更新成為資訊科技學習中心（ITLC）。隨着唯一的設計與科技教師訓練機構，香港教育學院終止培訓設計與科技教師，具資格的設計與科技教師人數開始日漸減少，由此引致相關科目老師缺乏人手的情況續漸惡化。最終，在缺乏設計與科技教師、學生父母的主觀選科意願、能力標籤效應、考試文化和香港教育考試制度的改革下，令大量學校取消「設計與科技」這一科目。推動學校 STEM 教育的問題與困難行政長官在 2016年《特首施政報告》中提出積極在中小學推動 STEM教育，然而在香港開展 STEM教育的最大的障礙正是學校缺乏適合的人材，及設計與科技教師的嚴重流失。早在上世紀六十年代，聯合國教科文組織 (UNESCO)，通過「Schools Council Design and Crafts Education Project」，在英國開展了一系列關於工藝、設計與科技的實驗課程，以「設計和工藝教育」為名設計出一系列前瞻性的全方位中學課程，課程內容包括現實問題解難分析、解難設計過程、控制系統、氣動學、圖像視覺表達丶材料科學和工藝制造技術等。而香港工商師範學院亦自 1974年引入上列課程用作培訓香港本地工業及設計與科技教師 2。 _______________ 1 「日新求進、問責承擔」為學校創建專業新文化 - 校本管理諮詢文件 (2000) 2 https://vpet.vtc.edu.hk/wiki/index.php?title=Morrison_Hill_Technical_Institute 47 香港學校 STEM教育多樣化的對應策略—設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻曾在這數十年期間接受該培訓的設計與科技老師，本來是最具資格去推行及教授現今 STEM教育所要求的核心內容，可惜時至四十多年後的今天，這群設計與科技教師相對已經流失，接近退休年齡，甚或已經退休離開。除了中學，香港小學在開展 STEM教育時同樣亦面臨更大的問題，他們在此領域也嚴重缺乏相關知識的教師。更遺憾的是，在香港小學課程內並沒有獨立的科學課程 ; 科學只是常識科當中七大主題領域其中之一，故此科學在香港小學課程內容佔整體教學時間非常有限。在非常緊湊的小學教學時間表中，再額外擠出部分教學時間作 STEM教育，確實是一項重大挑戰。設計與科技老師的自發改革遠在政府於 2016年積極推動 STEM教育之前，早在二十世紀八十年代，部分香港學校的設計與科技老師已就設計和創建機器人及控制系統，在校內開展了一系列課外活動。領頭學校為迦密主恩中學，由簡志光老師領導 3。該項運動很快獲得許多感興趣的學校響應，這些學校的老師皆是簡老師在香港工商師範學院的校友。香港科技教育學會（HKTEA）亦是由同一批教師在 1983年成立，並開始在全港學校推廣機器人競賽運動 4。於二十世紀九十年代，政府開始推動學校資訊科技教育時，當時所面對的困難與目前推動 STEM教育情況相若。當時整個學校網絡系統及電腦室在規劃和建立方面，嚴重缺乏已經受訓，及有經驗的電腦科學教師。很多學校無奈只能以最類近的科目 —「設計與科技」老師替代接手，部分設計與科技教師最終在學校轉職成為學校資訊科技 (IT)部門的負責人。在資訊科技時代來臨初期，許多校長決定將設計與科技工作室轉變為電腦學習中心 (ITLC)並取消設計與科技科目。無論如何，設計與科技老師不僅在自己學科，而且對學校以至整個香港的教育發展進程確是貢獻良多。 _______________ 3 http://www.cdgfss.edu.hk/zh-hant/achievements/mst/2014-2015 4 http://www.hktea.org 48 以比賽為本的項目及活動雖然大多數學校沒有正規 STEM教育課程，但學校皆熱衷於鼓勵學生參加各樣校際比賽。許多科學比賽也被革新並添加 STEM的題材，例如已連續舉辦超過 20年的「香港青少年科技創新大賽」；已有 70多年歷史的「英特爾國際科學與工程大賽」。除了以科學為題的比賽外，在這二十年內也出現了許多由 HKATE或類似組織舉辦的機械人比賽。例如每年在科學園舉辦的「VEX亞太機械人大賽」5和「ROBOFEST機械人大賽」6。比賽主題日趨增加，香港教育大學（EdUHK）近年亦舉辦了一項智能產品設計比賽，名為「校際 STEM智能產品創作大賽」7，開放予本地學校參加。參賽學生顯然有賴校內懂設計與科技的老師指導及支援。這些比賽的範疇繁多及要求各異，對於一些針對小學生的比賽，可以是僅要求學生提交與主題相關的構思概念畫。至於進一步的機器人比賽，則要求機器人及參賽者完成指定任務，如在限時內令機器人跳舞、跑步或收集物件等。一般而言，這些比賽活動並不完全適用於每一位學生，參賽對象為小部分學校精英、優秀學生或校內小組，他們往往是對項目感興趣，且希望為學校贏得獎項。然而，就我們觀察所知，許多參賽的機械人結構十分複雜，已遠遠超出了一般普通學生的能力。這些機器人大部分確實由校內教師或技術人員主力構建和編程，而學生只是作為學校代表參加比賽。無論校內學生參與什麼類型的比賽，獲獎皆可為學校帶來一點榮耀，更可以激勵校內其他學生，並提升校內士氣。因而學校管理層也期望藉獎項和名氣去吸引更多具潛力學生入讀。 STEM 服務提供者和學習套裝按教育局 2017年公布的 STEM教育政策，教育局在一份備忘錄中為每所學校撥款 200,000港元，以資助學校的 STEM相關項目和活動 8。在如此氛圍下，許多 _______________ 5 https://www.arlstem.org/亞洲機器人聯盟 / 6 https://www.robofesthk.org 7 https://www.eduhk.hk/stemcomp/ 8 Education Bureau Circular Memorandum No. 68/2017 49 香港學校 STEM教育多樣化的對應策略—設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻服務提供者陸續冒起，當中一大部分是商業公司，但市場上亦有頗多非政府組織 (NGO)也期望從中分一杯羹。不同供應商提供的課程種類繁多，形式各異 ; 從一小時的講座，到數週至整個學年的課程都有。課程內容可以是圍繞新媒體文化、道具製作、校園廣播培訓、無人機飛行和航空攝影課程，建立科學或歷史學科的虛擬現實項目 (VR/AR) 等；機械人工作坊由簡單的四肢運行機器人，至複雜的編程製作 8軸伺服馬達機械人都有。學校面對校內老師及相關知識人材的缺乏，大部分香港學校透過外判課程方式滿足學生學習需求，而非獨力在校內自行創建 STEM工作坊。設計與科技老師的自主多元化 STEM 策略教育局的 STEM撥款是以一筆過的形式交予學校，而非指定某任何校內科目。按此原則，學校校長和管理委員會在資源分配的自主性極大，設計與科技科不一定是最直接受惠的部門。現時許多設計與科技教師都正尋求不同途徑於學校課程中實行 STEM教學，合編者曾憲江老師在應用多元化策略處理 STEM教學方面是一個顯著例子，他在設計與科技課堂上推廣「快樂創建，創建快樂，分享科技」的理念。曾老師帶領學生在設計與科技課堂中創作了許多「體感遊戲」。這些遊戲系統的科技設備是建基於腳踏板或控制桿，配合許多微動開關和傳感器；它們通過電子接埠連接到電腦。玩家需按電腦屏幕指示踩下腳踏板或使用控制桿進行動作。這些遊戲起初是為孩子們作為遊戲設計的，後來更進一步應用至協助殘疾患者康復的訓練。透過這些項目，該校的學生不僅參與創建遊戲系統，更積極於社區嘉年華設立遊戲攤位，與社區鄰居共樂。學生們還會定期將這些遊戲帶到老人院和康復中心，與老人及病人一同玩耍，可見設計與科技課程中創建的項目可以與社會服務相結合成綜合活動。再者，使用者的需求也同樣相對觸發並激勵學生開發更具體的任務遊戲 ; 如此互動能形成「共同創造」的持續循環，這可謂校本 STEM課程中一種非常積極、正面和務實的實例教學例子。 50 高雷中學的設計與科技科同樣是一個好例子，他們的座右銘是「升級再造你學我教」9。科主任黃錫清老師不斷強調「培養學生的創造力和對環境關顧」對教育的重要性，他透過利用不同的回收材料，如木製酒箱、膠樽車胎和貨運卡板，重新創造有用的物品。他們計劃與香港理工大學設計系合作，將再造物分發給社區有需要的人使用。以「回收」、「再造」和「再用」的原則處置舊物，這正是北歐多國當前新的生活方式。負責老師的理念是「思考和創意是設計的要素」，可見成功的設計與科技 D&T/ STEM課程，其實不需要太多資源及花巧的高科技工具推動。另一方面，合編者伍敬華博士為初中學生開發了一個全面、學生個人化的三年設計與科技 / STEAM漸進課程。此課程強調環保、低科技和低成本元素，以至任何學校都可用有限資源作開始。強調必須從學生個人興趣及需要作為出發點，通過基本工具和材料學習，學生的設計和創造能力可以逐步建立起來。第一年課程首先從簡單平面材料設計作開始，繼而加入簡單的問題導向設計活動，讓學生自主創建自己需要的簡單實用物件。課程第二年提升至中度挑戰，要求學生按個人需要利用平面材料設計及製作具有特定功能的三維物體，並加以作適當裝飾。課程最後一年則要求學生學習控制系統，並設計適合自己家居需要的檯燈或實用小家具。學生除了在中三時進行個人設計工作活動外，最後還需就複雜的議題進行小組習作，此報告要求學生應用不同領域的知識，運用在設計習作內。在課程實施以來，學生曾嘗試就許多跨領域主題做設計活動，如：創建小型餐廳及商店等商業服務模式設計、建築及房屋設計、室內設計、公共空間和公用設施設計等進行小組研究活動。以上提及的學校及老師已組成一個聯校網絡，並定期舉行聯校學生活動及同工分享教學經驗。負責老師帶領優秀的學生擔任學校大使，到不同學校作經驗分享。除了上述例子外，於上世紀八十年代，由設計與科技老師成立的「香港科技教育學會」已經研發項目和舉辦比賽逾十年。當中最具代表性的是「科技顯六藝」10，比賽要求參賽者設計編程機器人來完成「六項中國傳統藝術」：包括禮儀、音樂、射箭、馬術、書法和數學等。該協會組織與香港中文大學（CUHK）合作的另一計劃為「科技教育 TEEN」11項目。此項目的目標是為學校開展學習活動，建立「STEMaker活 _______________ 9 http://www.klss.edu.hk/CustomPage/206/升級再造 _你學我教 final.pdf 10 https://www.cpr.cuhk.edu.hk/tc/press_detail.php?id=1458&t=中大首度舉辦 -科技顯六藝 -中小學機械人創意比賽 - 得獎作品於 -工展會 -公開展出 11 https://qcrc.qef.org.hk/Publish/project_information/201311/20131101171122_c665cMjAxM.pdf 51 香港學校 STEM教育多樣化的對應策略—設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻動中心」，還有通過會議、研討會和課程等提供科技教師發展服務。TEEN項目在第二階段已經擴展至小學和幼兒園，並向「優質教育基金」 (QEF) 申請近千萬港元的資助作為營運經費。 STEM 教育之核心價值與理念的反思回顧香港學校在實行 STEM時面對的困難及相應對策時，首先應進行自我反思並重新思考學校的定位，以及教育的核心價值。首要問題就是普及教育的目的和價值。正因 STEM是在小學和中學中進行；所有學生從七歲到十八歲左右，但凡在學校接受教育的都必然會參與。因此，STEM教育的覆蓋範圍要夠廣泛，並必須能擴展至所有學生都能參與，包括精英學生、普通學生及有特殊教育需要的學生（SEN）。課程設計應生動有趣，與生活有關連，可以適合不同能力的學生去完成，不論男女也樂於參與。課程計劃不應偏向單一主題，例如過分偏重電腦及機器人編程或 3D打印，盲目推崇數碼電子科技而排斥其他方式的學習活動。此外，學校的 STEM教育項目也絕不應以培養一小群學生參加比賽為主要目的。結論學校 STEM課程的範疇和活動理應要夠廣泛，能涵蓋所有學生，不論男女，可以擴展至不同學習能力同學，並包括所有 SEN學生。務求學生的思想、態度、能力、心態和價值觀等方面能透過參與 STEM活動帶來一些改變。在宏觀角度看，這些變化須能裝備我們的學生，面對未來創業或在工作崗位上的挑戰和機遇。設計與科技科的教學理念、性質和內容與今天的STEM教育極之接近，在香港，設計與科技教師是在校內與 STEM教育相關性和具能力的員工。早在教育局和行政長官公布其 STEM政策之前，香港的大多數設計與科技老師在學校各範疇中已作出重大貢獻，在他們的學校盡自己努力推行高質的「STEM」教育。上文所展示的課程規劃、項目和活動範例，廣泛性、大小可能不盡相同，雖未可能盡完善，但某程度上反映了個別學校願意花在 STEM教育作出的資源和人力投入，展示出香港設計與科技老師，在不同的資源及環境下作出的努力，貢獻知識去培養學生。如果缺乏這群設計與科技老師在過去數十年作出的的智慧匯聚及累積， STEM教育在香港學校的發展是不可能成功的。 52 參考文獻 Broussard M. (2018). Artificial Unintelligence, How Computers Misunderstand the World Chief Executive, HKSAR (2017). The Executive’s 2017 Policy Address, Chapter 4 – Professional-led Quality Education. Retrieved from https://www.policyaddress.gov. hk/2017/eng/pdf/Agenda_Ch4.pdf Education Bureau, HKSAR (2017). Education Bureau Circular Memorandum No. 68/2017. Provision of One-off Grant to Secondary Schools for the Promotion of STEM Education. Retrieved from https://applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/ EDBCM/EDBCM17068E.pdf Education Commission, HKSAR (2000). Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau, HKSAR (1998). Consultation Document on the Information Technology for Quality Education, Five-Year Strategy 1998/99 to 2002/03. Kierrätyskeskus. Retrieved from https://www.kierratyskeskus.fi/in_english NG, C. K. W. (2016). iSTEM-Ed 2016 Conference Proceedings, pp.96-101. A Green and Low-Tech STEM Curriculum Strategy - Diversified and Self-directed Learning in Design and Technology Projects. Retrieved from http://www.istem-ed.com/istem- ed2016/images/file/pc.pdf NG, C. K. W. (2018). iSTEM-Ed 2018 Conference Proceedings, pp T1-13 – T1-18. Gender – A Critical Factor in the success of STEM (STEAM) Education. Retrieved from http://istem-ed.com/istem-ed2018/file/iSTEM%20Ed%202018%20Proceeding.pdf NG, C. K. W. (2019). iSTEM-Ed 2019 Conference Proceedings, pp 250-260. From STEAM to Life Planning - A Real World Life Education in STEAM The Curriculum Development Council, Education Bureau, HKSAR (1997). Syllabus for Design and Technology (Secondary I-III) The Curriculum Development Council, Education Bureau, HKSAR (2011). General Studies for Primary Schools Curriculum Guide (Primary 1-Primary 6). Schools Council Design and Education Project (1975). Education Through Design and Craft. Schools Council Design and Education Project (1975). You Are a Designer 53 香港學校 STEM教育多樣化的對應策略—設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻 Wong, S. C. (2015)., Department of Design and Technology, Ko Lui Secondary School. 升級再造你學我教 . Retrieved from http://www.klss.edu.hk/CustomPage/206/升級再造 _你學我教 final.pdf 54 55 香港學校 STEM教育多樣化的對應策略—設計與科技老師的重要性及貢獻 Diversified Strategies in Tackling the STEM Education Challenge in Hong Kong — Design and Technology Teachers’ Significance and Contributions Charlie King Wah NG, TSANG Hin Kwong Education Bureau, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Abstract This article explains the background and the history of the development of STEM education in Hong Kong. In the implementation of STEM in schools, in terms of relevancy, the Design and Technology teachers are the most informed and most capable people in executing the task. In the forming of this school subject during the last Century, the D & T curriculum shares similar philosophy, objectives and coverage of contents with STEM education. The hands-on activities are the most essential part in STEM, it is especially similar to the problem-based design activities, and product realisation process in D & T. Throughout the last two decades, the D & T teachers have initiatively tried and carried out many different types of subject based and technology related activities D & T development. These D & T long-term contributions have enlightened and illuminated the development of STEM in Hong Kong. Keywords STEM education, Design and Technology subject, problem-based design activities, hands- on activities 57 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 18 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2019 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives John Chi Kin LEE Department of Curriculum and Instruction and Centre for Religious and Spirituality Education, The Education University of Hong Kong Chris Hin Wah CHEUNG Centre for Religious and Spirituality Education, The Education University of Hong Kong Michelle Yin Hung LI Vice President (Academic) Office, The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract In the 2014 policy address, the Hong Kong SAR government decided to offer a grant for expanding the support of life planning education in secondary schools. It aimed to help students be better prepared for the transition from education to work. However, globalization and innovation of technology have increased future uncertainties. Students are suggested to have better preparation for different stages of life. Moreover, the expectations toward schools and education have changed. It is not limited to knowledge transfer but also whole-person development. Therefore, they were urged to provide life-based education to help students cope with various challenges in their life. This article discusses Life Planning Education promoted by the Education Bureau in terms of a Lifelong Learning perspective. It suggests expanding the current Life Planning Education to Life Education for covering all aspects of life and for achieving the goals of Lifelong Learning and whole-person development. It helps the student to be prepared for 21st century challenges. Keywords Life Planning Education, Life Education, Lifelong Learning, educational reform 58 Introduction In the 21st century, the speedy innovation of technology and globalization have intensified the competition and frequency of knowledge updated. It also changes the expectations toward education and school. The role of education is not only limited to the training of professional skills and knowledge. Schools are also suggested to facilitate students to have whole-person development and preparation for lifelong learning. Various bodies and scholars proposed different issues about the development of new generation should have to handle the 21st century challenges. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2005, online material) suggested individuals to equip with more advanced knowledge and skills to cope with the challenges from the shift of a global economy to a knowledge-based economy. Kim and Trzmiel (2014, p.5) also analysed the literature on 21st-century skills and identified various “transversal skills”. In terms of “transversal competencies”, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defined it as five aspects including, “critical and innovative thinking”, “inter-personal relations”, “intra-personal skills”, “global citizenship” and “physical and psychological health” (UNESCO & UNESCO Bangkok Office, 2015). Moreover, McKinsey proposed the seven essential elements of lifelong- learning mindset such as “building your personal brand and network”, “stretch” and “stay vital” (Brassey, Coates and Dam, 2019, p.2). The Partnership for 21st century (2008, online material) also proposed three important skills including, “Life & Career Skills”, “Learning and Innovation Skills” and “Information, Media & Technology Skills”. Education is inextricably linked with social, economic and personal development. The role of schools and educators are suggested to not focus only on knowledge transfer but also on supporting students to cope with the challenges in life including, life planning and lifelong learning. Students are also suggested to develop the values and attitude toward continuous learning to cope with the speedy development of technology. Therefore, Lifelong learning is getting greater concern around the world for supporting the new generation to handle the challenges in the 21st century and the sustainability of social development. And, it is often linked with the teaching of attitudes of adolescents toward their development in life. The expectations of society towards education and school have also changed and are not limited to knowledge and skills training. In the past, the roles of school and education were mainly concentrated on knowledge transfer and development. Due to global and social development, both education and schools are expected to support adolescents to have better preparation for future challenges. The aim of this paper is to discuss the about Life Planning Education in Hong Kong for supporting students to have better preparation for future challenges. It is suggested 59 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives to link up with Life Education in the perspective of Lifelong Learning and also whole- person development. It also meets the fundamental goal of education proposed by different schools of educational philosophy. The first part will explore the Life Planning Education proposed by the Hong Kong SAR government in relation to Lifelong learning. The second part is going to discuss the philosophical foundation of education in terms of Lifelong Learning and the importance of Lifelong Learning from a practical perspective. The third part will explore the relation between Life Planning Education and Life Education by definition and implications generated from philosophical perspectives. Lastly, the authors suggest connecting Life Planning Education to Life Education with consideration for the importance of Lifelong Learning. It will help adolescents cope with challenges in the 21st century. 1. Philosophical foundations of education: What is the purpose of Education? The following is going to investigate the ultimate concern of education at philosophical level. It helps to have reflection about the function and purpose of education. It also helps identify the purpose of education for Hong Kong adolescents and the way forward. “What should be the aims or purposes of education?” (Noddings, 2007, p.1) is the core question and had been discussed in various schools of education philosophy for long time. “Philosophers of education are interested in analyzing and clarifying concepts and questions central to education” (Noddings, 2007, p.1). “Education” is a word developed from the Latin word “educare” which implies “to bring up” (Chen, 2001, pp.3-4). Thus, the aims and purposes of bringing up a child are one of the fundamental concerns of education. Different schools of philosophy, however, have different ways of defining and delivering education. There are many schools and categories of philosophy on how they define education and curriculum studies. Among various philosophies and education discussed by Knight (2018, pp. i-iii), we have not selected traditional philosophies (e.g. Idealism, Realism and Neo-scholasticism) which hold the common belief that “both truth and value are eternal and unchanging” (Knight, 1998, p.58). We note that traditional philosophies have a profound impact on the emergence and development of Essentialism, Perennialism, and Behaviorism (Knight, 1998, p.58) which are to some extent compatible with the technical, perennial analytic curriculum paradigm and academic and cognitive curriculum conceptions (McNeil, 1990; Schubert, 1986; Lee & Wong, 1996). On the other hand, we are not explicitly engaged in the discussion of postmodern philosophies because there have been criticisms of their objections to metanarratives and their literature has included concepts such as “tolerance”, “democracy” and “justice” not only as preferences 60 but as the key criteria for judgment. Nonetheless, we, like some supporters, appreciate the postmodern stance of highlighting moral education and emphasizing social ethics (Knight, 1998, pp.92-93) (See Appendix A Table 1). Pragmatism tends to endorse some of the Judeo-Christian beliefs and suggests that individuals should learn how to make difficult moral decisions which are relevant to life education and career and study choices in life planning education. Regarding existentialism, it advocates individuals to become a “choosing”, “free” and “responsible” agent (Knight, 1998, pp.66-67 & 77). “Educational humanism” has some linkage with the humanistic perspective, humanistic conception of the curriculum as well as an interpretive paradigm, while Futurism is partly related to social reconstructionism of curriculum conceptions and a critical curriculum paradigm (McNeil, 1990; Schubert, 1986). Educational humanism advocates self-actualization and the importance of warm interpersonal relationships. This implies that for life education and life planning education, it is important for individuals to have self-worth and develop their own potentials (Knight, 1998, pp.103 & 106). Futurism and future-oriented approaches to education and curriculums (e.g., Longstreet & Shane, 1992) tend to highlight a “preferable future” (Knight, 1998, p.124; Shane, 1973, pp.83-91) which depends on our understanding of future trends and exploration of ways and approaches to eradicate injustices and inadequacies through personal and social transformation. In short, Dewey highlighted the importance of “growth” as the aim of education in Pragmatism (Noddings, 2007, p.26). Existentialism in education concerns helping students explore themselves and to develop their own characteristics to cope with different stages in life. Humanism emphasizes individual development and self-actualization. Futurism focuses attention on helping students prepare for their future in order to cope with the challenges in economic, social and cultural changes. All these show that education is suggested to support adolescents to cope with challenges in different stages of life. Education and learning are not supposed to be bounded by the age of adolescents and schools. More importantly, they are suggested to be a lifelong and continuous process. Although not all schools of education are covered due to the constraint of space, they also reflect the importance of lifelong learning as the aim of education. In this case, what position would this paper adapt? Would it be a mix and why? How could it be linked with Lifelong Learning? 2. Education Reform and Lifelong Learning 2.1 Local Education Reform & Lifelong Learning The education reform proposal for the education in Hong Kong, Learning for Life, Learning through Life, published by the Education Commission in September 2000 (Education Commission, 2000, cover page). It has been almost twenty years since the 61 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives report was published and it may be time to re-visit the aims and reflect on the relevance of these aims to the changing society of the 21st century. In the summary of that document, it stated a “common wish for Hong Kong to be a diverse, democratic, civilized, tolerant, dynamic and cultivated cosmopolitan city” and the vision of educational reform was to “build a lifelong society”, “to acknowledge the importance of moral education” and “to develop an education that is rich in tradition but cosmopolitan and culturally diverse” (Education Commission, 2000, pp.3 & 5). Moreover, the concept “Leaning to learn” is also emphasized by The Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council as the way forward of education reform (Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council, 2001). The authors opine that these aspirations and vision for Hong Kong education are still important directions and parameters but there may be new policies or alternative jargon for interpreting these directions. In 2014, The former Chief Executive of the Hong Kong SAR government, Mr. Leung Chun-ying also decided to offer an additional grant to promote life planning and expand support towards career guidance in all secondary schools in 2014 (Leung, 2014, paragraph 105). This decision has acted as a catalyst for facilitating the change in career guidance practices in Hong Kong (Wong, 2017, pp.125-126). The role of career guidance programmes in smoothing students' transition from education to work has been emphasized (Wong, 2017, p.139). It also enhanced the level of concern on career and life planning education (Lee & Kong, 2015, pp.90-91; Wong, 2017, pp.125-126). Furthermore, Life-wide learning in the school curriculum arena and moral education is now managed under the umbrella of Moral and Civic education in the Education Bureau. Moreover, the attention on Life Education, Character Education and Positive Education is enhanced as highlighted in the Chief Executive Mrs. Carrie Lam's 2018 Policy Address (Lam, 2018, paragraph 156). There is also more attention and resources devoted to cultivation of diversified, enlivened and enriched life-wide learning experiences among students which “will not only enhance their interest in learning, but also help them develop positive values and attitudes, enhance their spirit to serve and sense of responsibility, and foster positive thinking and good character” (Lam, 2018, paragraph 158). Preparing our students to face the future with values and skills in a lifelong perspective is indispensable. According to a review report of EDB about the implementation of Life Planning Education in Hong Kong schools, there are changing understandings and expectations of Life Planning Education. Various school stakeholders generally endorsed that “Life Planning Education should be included as the way on cultivating personal interest, positive values and a sense of direction in life, in addition to the acquisition of knowledge and preparation for career development” (EDB, 2019, pp.13-14). Life Planning Education should go beyond counselling on future study and employment (Lee & Kong, 2015, p.100). In 2017, The School Curriculum Review 62 team set up by the Education Bureau (EDB) had launched a consultation on initial recommendations on various key aspects of local education (EDB, 2019). The team suggested to place Values Education, strengthening Life Education in particular, as well as launching the Life Planning Education in early school stage to be essential for nurturing students with preferred values and qualities for the challenges in 21st century. However, under the packed curriculum in schools, knowledge- and skills-oriented learning activities are still commonly found. Leung suggested that a Whole School Approach could help to improve the quality of Life Planning Education (Leung, 1999, p.33). There may not be a uniform orientation of the Whole School Approach, when looking into the cases of Hong Kong secondary schools (EDB, 2019, p.14; Lee & Ho, 2018, pp.177-178). By adopting the Whole School Approach, it helps to know about the influence of Life Planning Education at different levels such as school culture level, organization level and engagement level (Leung, 1999). In the school level, the Life Planning Education is treated as one of the core objectives as school development rather than a sole subject or short-term activity. Some schools made efforts in building a positive school culture by strengthening teachers' beliefs, creating an atmosphere of respecting life and pursuing the meaning of life. Career and life planning teams were established and the practice of multi-disciplinary collaboration among different functional groups was increasing. As schools were aware of their resource limitations, it has become more common for schools to expand their networks to community and business partners. Also, the engagement of teachers, parents and the community are recognized as effective strategies in implementing Life Planning Education (EDB, 2019, pp.13-18). Further to Leung's suggestion, a three-dimensional model suggested by Lee and Kong of school-based curriculum development in Life Planning including approaches on whole-school engagement, cross-subject teaching, the use of “class teacher sessions”, linkage with life experience and collaboration with parents and community (Lee & Kong, 2015, pp.100-101). Based on the above view, the concept of lifelong learning should also be taken into consideration as a core teaching approach to support students in their life planning (Lee & Hui, 2019, p.82). An effective teaching approach should be lifelong learning-based, together with learning activities in a cross-subject approach, with inquiry- based/ theme-based learning and diversified assessments. The designated learning activities equip students with 21st-century competencies, help students understand their personal skills and abilities, and guide them in setting life goals and planning for the future. In the meantime, schools should enrich the curriculum by engaging diverse partners, global themes, advanced technology and authentic life and work experience (Lee & Hui, 2019, p.81). 2.2 Global vision for the importance of lifelong learning in the 21st century Lifelong learning is highlighted by various schools of educational philosophy. Its 63 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives importance is also emphasized by UNESCO in a practical sense on supporting new generation to have better preparation for the 21st century. Delors et al. (1996) published a UNESCO report known as Learning: The treasure within which advocated four inter-linking pillars of education: “Learning to know”, “Learning to do”, “Learning to live together” and “Learning to be” (Delors, 2013, p. 321). “Learning to know” implies obtaining the basic knowledge and the capability on lifelong learning. “Learning to do” is related to “skills” such as 21st-century skills under a learning society. “Learning to live together” is essential to build up a tolerant society where individual not only respect others but also have a cultural, religious and spiritual understanding of self, others and other societies. (Delors, 2013, pp.321-322) “Learning to be” is about life planning and life education where students are guided to “understand themselves better, without sinking into despair or delusion” (Delors, 2013, p.323). In addition, Delors (2013) is fully aware of the impact of media and technology, the challenges of globalisation and unemployment as well as the acceleration of individualism, deterioration of traditional and personal relationships and the dominance of market and human capitalist ideologies which might be echoed by new thinking away from career- oriented and short-sighted life planning education and individual-based life education under an unprecedented changing globalized world and a context of a lifelong learning society. 3. Life Planning & Life Planning Education The concept of “Life Planning” was generated from Parsons' discussion of career guidance and job advice in the early twentieth century in the United States (Lee, Kong & Chan 2019. p.51). Various scholars have different ways of explaining it. Initially, Parsons aimed to help young people develop better self-understanding before job seeking (Lee et al., 2019, p.51). After several decades of development, Nathan proposed to apply psychology in career guidance such as through personality tests and various ways of therapy and counselling (Lee et al. 2019, p.51). The aim of that was to help young people understand themselves better as to set proper goals for job searching (Lee et al. 2019, p.51). Both experiences and skills also became the foundation of “Life Planning” nowadays. “Life Planning” has been highly promoted as an eye-catching issue in education and youth work in recent years. It is treated as an effective way of helping students prepare for the transition from education to work. It is also an important task for helping the new generation to find their way out in terms of the responsibility of the government in social development (Cheung, 2018, paragraph 2). In Europe, the European Communities treated Life Planning as a method on improving quality of education, employment and social 64 structure (Hui & Mak, 2019, p.27). Therefore, helping students identify their goals and the way out became the focus of both education and youth work. The discussion of Life Planning covers various aspects including, “the purpose of education, the way on supporting students in apply knowledge, the pressure on transition from education to work, personal development and future preparation” (Hui & Mak, 2019, p.27). Based on the explanation stated in the website of Hong Kong's Education Bureau (EDB) (2017, online material), Life Planning is suggested as: “an ongoing and lifelong process for personal fulfilment, with different foci at different stages of the lifetime”. It shows that the fundamental aim of Life Planning is for the sake of students' self-actualization and sense of satisfaction in life. By having proper planning at different life stages, it helps students achieve these goals. Rather than static, Life Planning is a continuous activity for students. Students may continuously change their personal goals and expectations in life at different stages and scenarios such as personal life and job development. Even changes in the external environment (economic, political and social aspects) may also affect students' Life Planning. Therefore, Life Planning should not be treated as a “one-off” mission or limited to schools and youth work agencies. There is no doubt that everyone has a unique life. A standardized life plan with common objectives and similar ways to achieve such objectives for all students would be unworkable and impractical. Students may have their own pursuits in life and differences in personal life such as the family background. However, the implementation of Life Planning mainly focuses on two major aspects, “choice of further studies” and “job seeking”. It is short-term and ignores the importance of personal aspects of students such as their family background, understanding of the meaning of life and preferred future. It also lacks consideration for the ever-changing social and economic conditions and how to help students to prepare for it. Life Planning is suggested as a continuous process and static and short-term based. Life Planning education is also promoted as shown by the EDB statement on its website (2017, online material): Life planning education fosters students' self-understanding, personal planning, goal setting, reflective habits of mind and articulation to progression pathways. It links up school curriculum and interests, abilities and orientations of students to make a wise choice for their future. The implementation of Life Planning Education and Career Guidance in the past was rather short-sighted and students only received little benefit such as better self- understanding and goal setting. The promotion of Life Planning Education helps to solve the problem as it facilitates Life Planning becoming a long-term continuous process. 65 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives Students can make their own Life Plan at different stages based on individual needs and social context. Life Planning and Life Planning Education aim to help students carry out proper planning of life and have well preparation for future challenges including, the development of appropriate skills, knowledge, values and attitudes. Although Life Planning Education is long-term and supposed to help students cope with future challenges, its focus is still limited to planning future studies and career options. It may help students transit more smoothly from school to the workplace. However, the emergency of knowledge-based economy, globalization and the speedy development and innovation of technology make the 21st century full of uncertainty and challenges such as the disappearance of traditional jobs and more vigorous competition. Students are suggested to have better preparation for it to achieve their preferred future. Life Planning Education may not be adequate for students. 3.1 Life Planning Education and Life Education: Philosophical Perspective Both Life Planning Education and Life Education echo the different perspectives of Existentialism, Humanism, Futurism and Pragmatism. “Pragmatism” and “existentialism” are components of modern philosophies and education as well as “educational humanism” and “futurism” which to some extent echo progressivism and reconstructionism respectively to illustrate meanings for Life Planning Education and Life Education (See Appendix A Table 1). From the perspective of existentialism, the meaning of human existence and life depend on the contexts and values attached to understanding incidents in life. Adolescents are offered autonomy to make choices for their own lives and are encouraged to be responsible for the choices they make (Knight, 2018, p.90). It provides implications for Life Planning Education on choice making for future career paths and the importance of self-reflection and understanding in Life Education. Moreover, Humanism highlights the importance of self-actualization. It suggests that education should help students develop their own potentials towards the ideals (Knight, 1998, p.123). Humanism believes that every student is inborn with their own intelligence and learning should not be bonded by pre-determined goals and curriculum or even school (Knight, 1998, pp.124-126). It accepts the variance in ideals of life among students. In terms of Life Planning Education, it emphasizes the importance of uniqueness on supporting adolescents in career choice and preparation. For Life Education, Humanism echoes the importance of supporting adolescents to develop their own set of values. In terms of aim, Futurism aims to help students prepare society in the future. Although Futurism focuses on the aspects of skills and knowledge, the fundamental aim 66 of it is to prepare for future challenges. It supports Life Planning Education on guiding adolescents to have better preparation of skills and knowledge for future challenges such as the transition from education to work. For Life Education, it motivates adolescents to develop their own values and attitudes for dealing with challenges in different stages of life. In relation to Pragmatism, Dewey (1986, p.251) emphasizes the importance of life experience as both a means and goal of education. Experience comes from the actual life of students. It implies the interaction between students and life incidents in different aspects. After reflection and integration, it becomes students' “knowledge and skills”. Moreover, Pragmatism highlights the importance of students' experience in practise (Knight, 1998, pp.81-82). Life Planning Education encourages adolescents to develop different skills and knowledge for future challenges through practice. About Life Education, Pragmatism highlights the importance of reflection and consolidation of experiences in different stages of life. Furthermore, Life Education also highlights the importance of “Unity of theory and practice” (Sun, 2009, pp.6-7). Life Planning Education and Life Education contain elements of different schools of educational philosophy. Life Education even contains more than Life Planning Education due to the span of coverage in life. Moreover, Life Education also contains elements of Asian traditional philosophy. As stated by Li (2010, p.1), “The Philosophy of Life Education is to help students to explore and experience their meaning of life and value”. Nonetheless, it still relies on the core values behind the interpretations of life, life experiences, life planning and life choices. Individuals could draw on these values from their religions and faiths and/or based on their cultural virtues. In the context of Confucian Heritage Culture, we could consider the relevance and insights from Ren (benevolence), Li (ritual) and Yi (righteousness). Life Education may also draw on elements of some Chinese cultural values on the discussion about values and philosophy of life such as “harmony” (Li, 2001, p.17). The major idea of harmony is to strike a balance between all aspects to achieve holistic life development (Li, 2001, p.17). For example, relations with the external world are part of life including, “relations with self and others” (know about human), “relations with science” (know about nature) and “relations with supernatural” (know about heaven) (Li, 2001, p.18). Compared with Life Planning Education, Life Education covers different life stages, from the cradle to the grave. In terms of various Education philosophy schools, Life Education and Life Planning Education cover various elements of these thoughts. Life Education even covers elements of Asian philosophies. 3.2 Connecting Life Planning Education with Life Education Life Planning Education is closely linked with Life Education and covered by it. 67 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives What is Life Education? Life Education was first introduced in the 1990s based on moral education in a Taiwan Catholic secondary school (Stella Matutina Girls' High School), focusing on four aspects – “Understanding Life”, “Treasuring Life”, “Appreciating Life” and “Respecting Life” (Chen, 2004, p.3). Other than shaping students with moral values, it also aimed to promote the importance of life as to deal with the increase in Taiwan student suicides at that period (Chen, 2004, pp.1-3). In the past several decades, education professionals, the government and communities have made huge contributions to Life Education development. Nowadays, Life Education is a well-organized professional subject. Since 2008, Life Education has become a core subject with 1 credit in the curriculum of Senior High school (Sun, 2009, p.2). Moreover, various research centres in higher education institutes and communities were established to incorporate elements of Life Education into teaching training (Chen, 2004, p.16). All these measures further facilitated the Taiwan Life Education development. Thus, what are the major concerns of Life Education? There are several definitions summarized as below: “Life Education is the core of holistic education. It guides students to build up their values to look for the infinite possibilities of life and empower their life development and energy to achieve the goal.” (Li, 2000, p.47) “Life Education is to help students to answer three core questions about life including, ‘What do we live for?', ‘How should we live?' and ‘How should we achieve our ideal life?'.” (Sun, 2009, pp.3-4) “The aim of Life Education is to explore the fundamental issue of life and leads students in life practice to achieve unity of knowledge and behaviour.” (Taiwan Ministry of Education, 2008, online material) From these three definitions, the core purpose of Life Education is to guide students to get prepared for handling different life issues at different stages. Rather than skills training and knowledge transfer, Life Education is highly focused on self-reflection, values and attitudes. Students are guided to have reflection on the meaning of life, the way of living and to also prepare for their way of life. As mentioned above, three key questions are proposed for learning Life Education including, “what do we live for”, “how should we live” and “how should we achieve our ideal life” (Sun, 2009, pp.3-4). It is suggested that these three fundamental questions guide students to enhance their self-understanding and get prepared for the future. Life Education is not only limited to a certain stage of personal development such as the school-to-work 68 transition but also other aspects of life, including ethics, the meaning of life and life and death (Chen, 2004, p.10). 4. Suggestions for the way forward: From Life Planning Education to Life Education Both Life Planning Education and Life Education emphasize the importance of Lifelong learning. Education and Learning should not be limited to career choice. Whole- person development is suggested for preparation to cope with challenges in different stages of life. It is proposed that the connotations of Life Planning Education and Life Education could be integrated in the context of a lifelong society. Connecting Life Planning and Life Education will facilitate schools to view Life Planning Education macroscopically, emphasizing the whole-person development of students, the establishment of positive values and even psychological traits. Knowledge and skills are essential for students to cope with future uncertainty, but they may not be enough. The capacity for handling stress, overcoming unpredictable challenges, bouncing back from failure as well as regaining courage and confidence in making a decision is more valuable and worth nurturing (Lee & Ho, 2018, p.179). Some Hong Kong schools have improved their life planning curriculum, not only applying the approaches mentioned above but also integrating the ideas of Life Education. For example, students in junior forms are guided to explore their own potential and the meaning of life. It enables students to think from different perspectives and improves their future decision making. Promotion of positive values and character strengths are also integrated into life planning activities. It is suggested that using problem-based learning and incorporating subject topics with issues about values are effective instructions in teaching values and options (Schuitema, Dam & Veugelers, 2008, p.74). Integrating life values into the life planning curriculum stimulates students to explore their personal objectives and the meaning of life. It could also enrich their understanding of career planning and choices. Life Education has, therefore, become a steering force in supporting students to reshape their perception towards their life and career. It also helps students cope with the challenges in the 21st century by better understanding their ways of life and the meaning of life. Conclusion To conclude, this paper discusses Life Planning Education initiated by the Hong Kong SAR government for supporting students for having preparation on Lifelong Learning. To achieve this, it is suggested to connect Life Planning Education with Life Education. Referenced from the implications of different schools of educational philosophy, it helps to link up Life Planning Education with Life Education. It does not only help students dealing with challenges on the transition on education to work but also in different stages 69 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives in life. In the 21st century, globalization and speedy development of technology enhance competition and the level of uncertainty. Students require more quality preparation. It is not only limited to technical skills but also values and attitudes. Further exploration about the promotion of Life Education in Hong Kong is recommended. It helps to make substantial contribution for the discussion and suggestion on teaching practise for this topic. 70 References Brassey, J., Coates, K. & Dam, N. V. (2019). Seven essential elements of a lifelong- learning mind-set. Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/ organization/our-insights/seven-essential-elements-of-a-lifelong-learning-mind-set Chen, Z. X. (2001). Introduction to Western Education Philosophy (2nd ed.). Taipei: Psychological Publishing Co., Ltd. [In Chinese] 陳照雄 (2001) 。《西洋教育哲學導論》(第二版 ) 。台北：心理出版社。 Chen, L. Y. (2004). The development of life education in Taiwan. Monthly Review of Philosophy and Culture, 31(9), 21-46. doi:10.7065/MRPC.200409.0021[In Chinese] 陳立言 (2004) 。〈生命教育在台灣之發展概況〉。《哲學與文化》，第 31卷 (9)，21-46。 Cheung, K.C.M. (2018). 2018 Career Planning Education Seminar [Press release]. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201810/26/ P2018102600864.htm [In Chinese] 張建宗 (2018) 。〈探索事業，發展所長 — 2018 生涯規劃教育研討會〉。《香港特別行政區政府新聞公報》，檢自 https://www. info.gov.hk/gia/general/201810/26/P2018102600864.htm檢索日期：2019.04.08 Delors J. et al. (1996). Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the international commission on education for the twenty-first century. Paris: UNESCO. Delors, J. (2013). The treasure within: Learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. What is the value of that treasure 15 years after its publication? International Review of Education, 59, 319–330. Doi:10.1007/s11159- 013-9350-8 Dewey, J. (1986). Experience and education. The Educational Forum, 50(3), 241-252. European Commission. (January, 2018). Proposal for a council recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning. Retrieved from http://data.consilium.europa.eu/ doc/document/ST-5464-2018-ADD-2/EN/pdf Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council (2001). Learn to learn: The way forward in curriculum development. Hong Kong: The Printing Department. https://www.edb. gov.hk/en/curriculum-development/cs-curriculum-doc-report/wf-in-cur/index.html Hong Kong Education Commission (Education Commission). (September, 2000). Learning for life learning through life: Reform proposals for the education system in Hong Kong. Retrieved from Education Commission Web site: https://www.e-c.edu. hk/en/publications_and_related_documents/rf1.html 71 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives Hong Kong Education Bureau (EDB). (2019). Review of Hong Kong secondary school students' career and life planning education. Retrieved from https://careerguidance. edb.hkedcity.net/edb/export/sites/default/lifeplanning/.pdf/for-schools/_Final- version_12-Apr-19-Summary.pdf [In Chinese] 香港教育局 (2019)。《檢討香港中學推行生涯規劃教育的成效報告》。 Hong Kong Education Bureau (EDB). (2019). Task force on review of school curriculum. Consultation Document. Retrieved from: https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/ about-edb/press/consultation/TF_CurriculumReview_Consultation_e.pdf Hong Kong Education Bureau (EDB). (2017). Life planning education and career guidance. Retrieved 29 April 2019 from: https://careerguidance.edb.hkedcity.net/ edb/opencms/lifeplanning/theme-area/guide-on-life-planning-education-and-career- guidance/?__locale=en Hui, S.K.F. & Mak, C.N. (2019). Twenty-first century skills, career and life planning education. Taiwan: Higher Education Press. [In Chinese] 許景輝、麥震嵐。 (2019) 。《21世紀技能與生涯規劃教育》。台北：高教出版。 Kim, C.H., & Trzmiel, B. (2014, October). Integrating transversal skills in education and training: Findings from the Asia-Pacific. Presented at the UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education SEAMEO Congress, Thailand. Knight, G. R. (2018). Issues and alternatives in educational philosophy (4th ed.). Taipei: Wu-Nan Book Inc. [In Chinese] 喬治奈特 (2018) 。《教育哲學導論》 (第四版 )。簡成熙 (譯 ) 。台北：五南圖書出版。 Knight, G. R. (1998). Issues and Alternatives in education philosophy (3rd ed.). Berrien Springs, Michigan: Andrews University Press. Lam, C.Y.N.C. (2018). The Chief Executive’s policy address 2018. Retrieved 12th April, 2019 from The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Web site: https://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2018/eng/policy_ch05.html Lee, J.C.K & Hui, S.K.F. (2019). Teaching and evaluation of skills and career planning in the 21st century. In J.C.K. Lee, C.W.M. Yiu & S.K.F. Hui (eds.), Twenty-first century skills, career and life planning education (pp.76-93). Taiwan: Higher Education Press [In Chinese] 李子建、許景輝 (2019) 。〈21世紀技能和生涯規劃的教育與評估〉。《21世紀技能與生涯規劃教育》，台北：高教出版，頁 76-93。 Lee, J.C.K., Kong, R.H.M. & Chan, N.C. (2019). Related theories and dimensions of life education. In J.C.K. Lee, C.W.M. Yu & S.K.F. Hui (eds.), Twenty-first century skills, career and life planning education (pp.51-69). Taiwan: Higher Education Press [In Chinese] 李子建、江浩民、陳念慈 (2019) 。〈生涯規劃教育的相關理 72 論和維度〉。《21世紀技能與生涯規劃教育》，台北：高教出版，頁 51-69。 Lee, J.C.K., & Ho, O.N.K. (2018). Schools’ Support for Postschool Planning: A Hong Kong Perspective. M. Pavlova, J. C-K. Lee & R. Maclean (Eds.), Transitions to Post- School Life: Responsiveness to Individual, Social and Economic Needs (pp.167-181). Singapore: Springer. Lee, J.C.K. & Kong, R.H.M. (2015). The theories and practices of life planning education: Towards quality education. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal, 14, 89-106. 李子建、江浩民 (2015) 。〈生涯規劃教育理論與實踐 : 邁向優質教育〉。《香港教師中心學報》第 14卷，89-106。https://www.edb.org.hk/HKTC/download/journal/ j14/B01.pdf Lee, J.C.K. & Wong, H.W. (1996). Curriculum: Paradigms, perspectives and design (2nd ed.). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press [In Chinese]. 李子建、黃顯華 (1996) 。《課程範式、取向和設計》(第二版 ) 。香港：香港中文大學出版社。 Leung, C.Y. (2014). Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government Policy Address 2014. Retrieved 15th April 2019 from The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Website: https://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2014/eng/ p105.html Leung, S. A. (1999). Quality education: A career development and self-concept approach. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Li J. (2010). The philosophical foundation of Life Education. Education Information Collection. 26, pp.1-26. [In Chinese]. 黎建球 (2010)。〈生命教育的哲學基礎〉。《教育資料集刊》，第 26卷，1-26。 Li, J. (2001). The meaning and content of Life Education. In S. Lin (eds.), The theory and practice of life education. (pp.37-48). Taipei: Global Education Centre [In Chinese]. 黎建球（2000）。〈生命教育的意義價值及其內容〉。本文載於林思伶 (主編 ) ，《生命教育的理論與實務》。台北：寰宇，頁 37-48。 Longstreet, W.S. & Shane, H.G. (1992). Curriculum for a new millennium. New York: Pearson. McNeil, J.D. (1990). Curriculum: A comprehensive introduction (4th ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foreman/Little Brown Higher Education. Noddings. N. (2007). Philosophy of education (Second ed.). Colorado: Westview Press. Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). OECD glossary of statistical terms: Knowledge-based economy. Retrieved from http://stats.oecd.org/ glossary/detail.asp?ID=6864 73 Life planning education and life education: Lifelong learning perspectives Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2008). 21st century skills, education & competitiveness: A resource and policy guide. Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/ storage/documents/21st_century_skills_education_and_competitiveness_guide.pdf Shane, H.G. (1973). The educational significance of the future. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa. Schubert, W.H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, paradigm, and possibility. New York, U.S.A.: Macmillan Publishing Company. Schuitema, J., Dam, G., & Veugelers, W. (February 01, 2008). Teaching strategies for moral education: a review. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 40, 1, 69-89. Sun, Hsiao-Chih (2009). Challenges and visions - Life education in Taiwan. Curriculum and Instruction Quarterly,12(3), 1-26. 孫效智 (2009) 。〈台灣生命教育的挑戰與願景〉，《課程與教學季刊》，第 12卷 (3)，頁 (1-26)。http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/ retrieve/170477/ Taiwan Ministry of Education. (2008). The Life Education curriculum for Senior High Secondary School. Retrieved 15th April 2019 from https://www.k12ea.gov.tw/files/ common_unit/e4fde167-fc32-485b-8296-996f58fe3303/doc/22%E7%94%9F%E5%9 1%BD%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2.pdf [In Chinese].台灣教育部 (2008) 。〈普通高級中學選修科目 (生命教育 )課程綱要〉。 UNESCO & UNESCO Bangkok Office. (2015). 2013 Asia-Pacific Education Research Institutes Network (ERI-Net) regional study on transversal competencies in education policy & practice (phase 1). Retrieved 15th April 2019. from http://unesdoc.unesco. org/omages/0023/002319/231907E.pdf Wong, L. P.W. (2017). Career and life planning education in Hong Kong: Challenges and opportunities on the theoretical and empirical fronts. Hong Kong Teachers' Centre Journal,16, 125-149 74 Table 1 Educational philosophy and their implications for life planning education and life education (adapted from Knight, 2018) Types of educational philosophies (adapted from Knight, 2018) Pragmatism (pp.75-95) Existentialism (pp.85-95) Humanism (pp.122-166) Futurism (pp.142-166) Philosophical assumptions • Nothing is remaining unchanged and static • Values and Ideas are in the process of change and may change • Knowledge is sourced from life experience • Existence precedes essence • Every human is unique and free to choose • Values of the individual are created by himself not others • Each child is unique • People are born to be cl