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Category: Documents第 T'~卷 Volume Eleven 教育局 i 香港教師中心(教師中心)是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建 議而於 1989 年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培 訓,並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境,使他們更能團結一致, 發揮專業精神。此外,教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會,推動課 程發展,鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法,協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念,並 配合教師興趣,組織各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設,也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會(諮管會)、一個常務委員會(常 委會)和六個工作小組,負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組 成,其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出,35 位由教師提名及選出,另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構,與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任,其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員,以及兩位教育局代表。 各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作,包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動 小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。 教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內,交通便捷,毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站,另有 多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備,內有電腦服務、時事及消閒雜誌、閱報室 和專題展板等,歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。 詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁:www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 香港教師中心 ii The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, reading area and display-boards, etc. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please browse our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre iii 顧問團(Board of Advisors) Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau LEE Wing On National Institute of Education Singapore Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物, 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校,而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁(www.edb.gov.hk/hktc) 閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal iv 編輯委員會(Editorial Committee) 主編(Chief Editor) 簡加言 路德會西門英才中學 副主編(Vice-chief Editors) 胡少偉 香港教育學院 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 趙淑媚 漢華中學 委員(Members) 何景安 香港學科教育研究學會 李子建 香港教育學院 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 李宏峯 裘錦秋中學(葵涌) 梁兆棠 香港資助小學校長會 郭禮賢 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 葉建源 香港教育專業人員協會 雷其昌 羅定邦中學 張國華 教育局 梁湘明 香港中文大學 莫家豪 香港教育學院 陳建強 香港城市大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡水大學 鄧廣威 香港公開大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 顧明遠 北京師範大學 v 主編序 一直以來《香港教師中心學報》得到很多學者及教師的支持,使學報能順利出版, 今期也不例外。本期主題「課程改革的回顧與前瞻」,同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供 寶貴的研究及分享文章,連同特邀稿文,本期共選刊了十四篇。 經評審後,第一部分共收錄了五篇專題文章,內容包括:「人人皆可成才」的原則 在少數族裔學生的情況、中文科教師課程決定個案研究、中文科課程改革與教師專業發 展、對中國大陸高中語文課程改革的多維審視、同儕評估在香港小學常識科的運用。這 些稿文都是研究教育的學者及前線教師的課堂行動研究所得,除體現了教育工作者的鑽 研精神外,也能體現他們資源及成果共享的豁達。通過文章及實踐的經驗分享促進了與 讀者交流,這是個難能可貴的平台。 第二部分是關於理論及政策評論的文章共有五篇,內容包括:校本研究統計錯誤的 個案、中間選項在李克特量表中的應用、探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學、 教學內容知識的定義和內涵、香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓。這部分的研 究集中探討學與教課程與思考能力培養的關係。香港是一個國際都市及知識型的社會, 我們要培養怎樣的學生才能適應千變萬化的知識世界?思維判斷力是其中關鍵項目之 一。這部分的研究篇章正帶領讀者深入思考這個問題,很值得一讀。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享,共有四篇文章。內容包括:於小說教學時利用小 組討論為介入策略觀察學生態度轉變、「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育、香港教師 情緒技能的內涵研究、優化學校行政的行動學習。這部分的分享篇章探討教學法與課堂 成效的關係,通過不同的教學法觀察學生反應及學習情況。這些教學法也包括了調整教 師本身狀況及學校行政等等的措施。因此,這部分篇章不是單向的研究,而是方方面面 的探討與歸納及總結,閱後能給予讀者多角度思考課堂高效的成因,值得細味! 最後,我每次想到《學報》能順利出版,評審員實功不可沒,當中包括申龐得玲博 士、何景安先生、李偉雄先生、林偉業先生、林碧霞博士、胡少偉博士、胡飄博士、徐 國棟博士、徐慧旋女士、秦家惠教授、梁兆棠校長、梁雪梅女士、梁燕冰博士、郭禮賢 博士、麥謝巧玲校長、彭新強教授、馮潔皓教授、黃鳳意女士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博 士、雷其昌先生、廖佩莉博士、趙淑媚博士、劉瑞珍女士、蔡若蓮博士、鄭志強博士、 龍精亮博士、鍾銑玲博士、羅天佑博士、羅家怡博士、羅耀珍博士及蘇詠梅教授。在此, 我謹代表《學報》編輯委員會再一次表達我們衷心的謝意! 《香港教師中心學報》主編 簡加言 二零一二年十二月 目錄 Contents 一、 主題:課程改革的回顧與前瞻 1 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? ................................ 1 Kerry J KENNEDY 2 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 ..........................................25 高慕蓮、李子建 3 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 ..................45 簡加言 4 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 ....................63 黄显涵、李子建 5 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong ..................... 79 CHUNG Tsz Wai Susanna 二、 理論及政策評論 1 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects .......... 101 Kay Cheng SOH 2 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research ............................. 121 Kwok Kuen TSANG 3 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 .............................131 楊思賢 4 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 ..........................................145 周健、霍秉坤 5 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 ..............................................165 歐立賢 三、 教育實踐與經驗分享 1 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes .................................. 173 Monique LOK & Beatrice CHIU 2 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 ...................................197 何慧群 3 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 .........................................217 鄭志強 4 優化學校行政的行動學習 .............................................229 胡少偉、徐國棟、曹潔芬 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students?1 香港教育改革「人人皆可成才」的原則, 是否適用於少數族裔學生? Kerry J KENNEDY The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract An important feature of Hong Kong’s education reform over the past decade has been the articulation of the ‘no loser principle.’ It was meant to signal that all students are valuable and will benefit from both basic and senior secondary education. Yet barriers remain for the 2.9% of students under age 15 who can be classified as ethnic minorities. There is a declining participating rate as students move from primary to tertiary level, the medium of instruction remains alien to most of these students, and there are no curriculum provisions to meet their special needs. This paper will examine both the policy context in which provisions for ethnic minority students have been made in Hong Kong schools and also classroom practice that operationalises this policy on a daily basis. The purpose is to make an assessment of the extent to which the ‘no loser principle’ can be said to apply to ethnic minority students. 1 The research to be reported here is drawn from the General Research Fund project, Exploring Cultural Diversity in Chinese Classrooms: Can Assessment Environments Cater for the Needs of Ethnic Minority Students in Hong Kong, [GRF-HKIEd840809] funded by the Hong Kong Research Grants Council. The views expressed here are those of the author. 1 Keywords ethnic minorities, non-Chinese speaking students, Chinese curriculum, Chinese as second language, racial discrimination 摘要 香港教育改革在過去十年的一項要點,乃明言以「人人皆可成才」為宗旨,意即每個學生 都有其價值,他們將受惠於基礎和高中教育的改革。然而,對於教育制度中僅佔百分之二、 被歸類為少數族裔的學生來說,障礙仍然存在。在小學至專上教育的過程中,他們的整體 參與率逐步下降;教學方面始終存在語言隔閡,亦未能提供切合他們需要的課程。本文將 檢視香港少數族裔教育的政策背景和課堂實務,旨在評估這「人人皆可成才」的原則對少 數族裔學生的適用程度。 關鍵詞 少數族裔,非華語學生,中文課程,中文為第二語言,種族歧視 1. Introduction In its first consultation document on the education reform, the Education Commission (1999) enunciated what was to become a dominant theme: There is an urgent need to introduce fundamental reforms to our education system. Reforms in education should bring new learning opportunities to every citizen, and should bring new opportunities for the future development of Hong Kong. This should be the guiding principle for education reform in Hong Kong. This idea was eventually formulated as one of the five principles of the reforms – the ‘no loser’ principle (Education Commission, 2000, p.9): 2 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? There should not be, at any stage of education, dead-end screening that blocks further learning opportunities… Teaching without any discrimination” has been a cherished concept since ancient times. We should not give up on any single student, but rather let all students have the chance to develop their potentials. The aim of the education reform is to remove the obstacles in our system that obstruct learning, to give more room to students to show their initiative and to develop their potential in various domains. The ‘no loser’ principle has been addressed in different ways throughout the reform process. The ‘through train’ concept, reform of the primary and secondary admissions system, a full six years of secondary education for all students, support for students with special needs, a core curriculum for all students and the reduction in public examinations. These are all important reforms and I do not want to underestimate them. Yet in this paper, I want to raise a question about the extent to which the “no loser” principle applies to all students in Hong Kong schools. In particular, I want to focus on ethnic minority students. I shall examine three broad areas: 1. The policy context for ethnic minority education in Hong Kong – contested terrain. 2. Who are Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students and what do they think about learning? 3. Can the ‘no loser’ principle work for ethnic minority students? In focusing on these areas, I do not want to underestimate the role of schools, teachers and NGOS in supporting ethnic minority students in Hong Kong, The all play an important, and indeed vital, role. But the focus of this particular paper is on the broader policy context that influences ethnic minority students. 2. The policy context for ethnic minority education in Hong Kong – contested terrain The policy context related to the provision of education for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong can only be described as volatile and contested. In what follows I shall try to present two sides of the policy debate – the practical issues and the theoretical underpinnings. 2.1 Practical policy and its contexts 3 In a report prepared last year, the relevant Working Group of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) was highly critical (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2011, pp. 10-11): Having considered EDB’s current education policies and having examined the problems with the relevant stakeholders, the PARC/WG is of the view that while a number of accommodation measures have been adopted by EDB in recent years, they are far from adequate in fulfilling its policy goal of providing equitable and quality education for EM students. The PARC/WG therefore urges the EDB to carefully examine its current policies and practices to ensure that they are effectively fulfilling the policy goals as declared on the one hand and that they do comply with the spirit and legal obligations of the anti-discrimination legislation on the other. There is a strong body of opinion within the PARC/WG that should there be no committed improvement to current policies and practices on this issue by the Government, action under the RDO might have to be instigated. At about the same time, EDB provided an update on its policies and measures taken to support ethnic minorities (Legislative Council, 2011) but its tone and focus were quite different from the EOC report. There is no reference at all to the kind of issues raised by the EOC but rather a catalogue of the support measures provided by the government for ethnic minority students. This kind of policy debate – where each side seems to ignore the existence of the other – has characterized this area since the early part of this century when the issues first started to gain public prominence (Kennedy, 2011). It is thus difficult to get an objective picture or at least a detached picture – but let me try to provide that because it is important. There is little doubt that the government has provided resources and support for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong (Kennedy, 2011; Legislative Council, 2011). This has ranged from language support for new arrivals, grants to schools where there are concentrations of ethnic minority students, the designation of specific schools that receive professional development support and other kinds of resource support and direct front line support to teachers through professional development programmes, especially for the teaching of Chinese. Thus there is a public record of support measures. But these measures are often seen differently by different groups in the community and this is where the perceptions developed of lack of support and, at times, even antagonism. Take, for example, the 30 designated schools endorsed by EDB for ethnic minority students. The rationale, from EDB’s perspective, is very clear (Education Bureau, 2011, p.8): 4 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? The objective of providing focused support in the “designated schools” is to facilitate schools’ accumulation of experiences and development of expertise in the learning and teaching of NCS students so that these schools may serve as the anchor point for sharing experiences with other schools which have also admitted NCS students through a support network formed for all NCS students in the local schools to benefit from the arrangement Yet a contrary view was reported to the Equal Opportunities Commission (2011, p.7), There is a view that the policy of allowing designated schools for EM was itself discriminatory because it reinforced segregation rather than encouraged integration. This view is not attributed in the report but there is evidence elsewhere of community dissatisfaction with some aspects of designated schools. Hong Kong Unison (2009, p.2), for example, pointed out in its response to the government’s report on the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination that “given their lower Chinese language standard, they (i.e. ethnic minority students) have been put in a disadvantageous position under the existing secondary school allocation scheme. Usually they end up studying at either designated schools, or those schools admitting most students from the lowest banding”. This view was expressed even more strongly in a media report that linked designated schools to a form of racism (Zhao, 2011): “It’s racial segregation,” says Fermi Wong Wai-fun, executive director of Hong Kong Unison, a non-governmental organisation focusing on helping minority groups. Wong says up to 80 percent of minority students attend designated schools – but, she claims, some Hong Kong parents become unwilling to choose these schools for their children. “They [minority students] have been living and studying in a very narrow social circle and have become disconnected with the mainstream society. It will harm social integration,” says Wong. The point I want to make here is that the same initiative can be viewed in different ways, depending on the perspective taken. The same can be seen with what is perhaps the most controversial issue, the teaching of Chinese. There is no disagreement between EDB and ethnic minority groups, including NGOs such as Unison, that it is important for ethnic minority students to learn Chinese. But after that the agreement quickly evaporates. EDB has insisted for many years now that 5 this should be done through a standardized Chinese curriculum for all students. Their one concession has been the production of a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Curriculum and encouragement for school based adaptations to meet the special needs of ethnic minority students. Yet this approach has been criticized loudly and publicly. The alternative proposal has been to develop a Chinese as a Second Language Curriculum tailored specifically for the needs of second language learners. Such a curriculum is seen to meet the needs of ethnic minority students in terms of both the content and the pedagogies associated with second language learning. Of course, it also means different kinds of assessment, different pacing of content and indeed different content that would be more relevant to the backgrounds and cultures of ethnic minority students. EDB will not give in on this issue and therefore it remains contested and becomes a ground for claims that the government is not supporting ethnic minority students. The key issue is that the government is supporting ethnic minority students in one way but it is not the way preferred by many in the community; and so it causes concern and public debate. Hong Kong Unison (2010, p.2) put it this way: Despite repeated requests from a wide range of parties including education sector, concern groups, law makers and even the international society, the Government has refused to adopt “Learning Chinese as a second language policy”. Your Bureau insists the current Chinese curriculum is suitable to EM students, so long as certain adaptations have been made by teachers. The reality is teachers in primary and secondary schools have been struggling in developing their own curriculum and teaching materials, without adequate references and support. A survey conducted by the Unison and the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union in July 2007 revealed that about 75% of teachers considered the current central Chinese curriculum designed for local Chinese students was not suitable to NCS (non-Chinese speaking) students. There has been no resolution to this issue and it remains contested ground. 2.2 Policy and theory There are a number of broader policy issues that also need to be recognized. The government has labeled ‘ethnic minority students’ as ‘non-Chinese speaking students’ as though their language deficit is the only characteristic that defines them. It is not entirely clear when this slippage from one to the other took place. Early Legco debates refer freely to ethnic minorities but since around 2009 the focus shifts to non Chinese speaking 6 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? students. The change is not just one of linguistics – it signals an attitude to difference and probably an objective of not highlighting differences in Hong Kong society. This view is consistent with concepts of ‘harmony’ and ‘the harmonious society’ yet to comes at the expense of recognizing the contributions that diversity can make to a pluralistic society – multilingualism, multiculturalism and multi religions. By focusing on language deficits in ethnic minority students, the government misses the opportunity to provide a broader framework in which its own work can be better appreciated and understood. At the same time, schools could better appreciate the contribution of ethnic minority students within this broader framework of contributions that can be made by different groups in the community to a more inclusive Hong Kong society. Another way of valuing the contribution of ethnic minorities is through a commitment to multiculturalism and multicultural policy. This is entirely lacking in Hong Kong so that support for ethnic minority students has been pursued within an integrationist framework that regards all members of society as being the same. This has implications for the way the school curriculum is viewed. Skerrett and Hargreaves (2008) identified different orientations to educational diversity and it is possible to sue this framework to analyze Hong Kong’s approach to education for ethnic minority students. They identified three orientations to diversity within schools and while the framework was meant to apply to the United States, we can apply the categories to the Hong Kong context. In doing so it will also be possible to account for community tensions on the issue of ethnic minority education. The Hong Kong government’s support and actions reflect a monocultural view of educational provision: students are referred to as “NCS students”, the aim of support is to facilitate the integration of these students into Hong Kong society, the key issue is to support the learning of Chinese since language is seen as the best way to achieve integrationists goal, particularly in relation to workforce integration. The views of community groups, however, and in particular Hong Kong Unison, reflecting a desire for multicultural education and at times come close to reflecting the values of critical multiculturalism. This policy tension is a significant one – it is reflected particularly in the recent report of the Equal Opportunities Commission and its resolution will not be easy given the underpinning values of the different view. Table 1: Skerrett and Hargreaves’ (2008) Orientations to Education Diversity Orientation Description Proponents Monocultural education All students benefit from the same curriculum, instructional strategies and assessment practices. Edmonds (1970); Gilborn (2004) 7 Multicultural education Schools and the school curriculum reflect the knowledge, values, skills, pedagogies, assessment practices, policies etc that recognize, support and celebrate the contribution of all groups represented in the school community Banks (1986) Critical multiculturalism Teaching against all forms of racism is explicit and eliminating all forms of discrimination is a key goal. Troyna and Carrington (1990) To get a better understanding of ethnic minority students themselves, the next section will examine census data to highlight the range of ethnicities in Hong Kong schools and how these students think about their learning. 3. Who are Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students and what do they think about learning? 3.1 Identifying ethnic minority students Data on ethnic minority students is very recent and not always readily available. The first formal census was in 2006 and provided these details (Census and Statistics Department, 2007): Table 2: Ethnic Minority Students at Full-time Courses by Age-Group in 2006 Ethnic Minority Age < 15 Ethnic Minority Aged 15 and over Whole population Level Age group total at full time course at full time course < 15 15 and over Pre-primary 6,777 166,364 30 Primary 12,819 60 439,630 1,484 Lower Secondary 3,550 955 189,183 78,897 Upper Secondary 298 2,233 1,926 187,454 Sixth form 737 62,549 Post-secondary 1,293 147,014 Total 32,289 23,444 5,278 79,7103 477,428 8 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? A number of points can be made about these figures: 1. There appears to be a large number of ‘out of school’ ethnic minority students under the age of 15 – well over 8,000. It is not clear who these are but probably they can be accounted for at the pre-primary and sixth form levels. Thus not all ethnic minority students seem to benefit from pre-primary education. Assuming that the numbers entering primary school are stable over time,2 Table 2 indicates that only 52% of ethnic minority students have access to pre-primary education. Assuming that the 2006 figure for primary enrolments has been stable over time, then just over 6% of ethnic minority students make it into Form Six. 2. There appears to be a major transition issue for ethnic minority students under the age of 15 in the move from primary to lower secondary. Just 27% of the primary cohort appear to make the transition (assuming that the figure for 2006 is stable over time). 3. It can also be noted that the participation rate for post secondary education is also very low – just 10% of the primary age cohort - again assuming a stable primary cohort size over time. These data need to be treated with some caution because the ratios make assumptions about the stability of age cohorts over time. Yet there are also other reasons for treating the data with some caution. In a paper submitted by the government to the Legislative Council’s Bills Committee on the Racial Discrimination Bill (Hong Kong SAR Government, 2008, pp. 6-7), a quite different set of figures is provided indicating that in September 2007 there were 5,671 ethnic minority students in primary schools and 3,097 in secondary schools. The primary school figure differs by over 7,000 from the official figures and by several thousand for secondary figures (depending what is included in the secondary figures. It is not clear why there is this discrepancy but it does seem when EDB refers to numbers it is often their own rather than the Census Bureau’s that they prefer. EDB, of course, is much closer to schools and is in a good position to conduct an on-the 2 The assumption of the following statistics is that the figure for primary enrolments in 2006 would be stable over time. In reality, students entering primary school in 2006 would not reach lower secondary until 2012, Upper Secondary in 2014 and Sixth Form in 2016. The projections made here, therefore, are based on assumed future enrolments not actual enrolments. 9 ground survey but we shall need to wait until the finalization of the 2010 census to get a better picture. In the government paper referred to above (Hong Kong SAR Government, 2008, p.7) there is a good picture of the spread of ethnic groups in Hong Kong schools. The table is reproduced below. Because DSS schools have been included as well it is not possible to see if there is a different distribution of ethnic groups between these two types of schools which in all possibility cater for different groups of students. Neither is it possible to tell from this data whether ethnic minority students are concentrated in CMI or EMI schools. As I said at the beginning of this section data sources are relatively new and there are considerable gap. Nevertheless Table 3 does provide an interesting picture of the range of ethnic groups, especially the concentrations of particular groups such as Pakistani, Indian, Nepalese and Filipino. But what else do we know about these students, particularly in relation to education? Table 3: Distribution of Student Ethnicities in Hong Kong Government and Direct Subsidy Schools, 2007-08 Primary Schools Secondary Schools Filipino 1025 620 Indonesian 71 38 Japanese 68 49 Korea 23 19 Thai 133 76 Indian 870 457 Pakistani 1948 833 Bangladeshi 43 29 Sri-Lankan 15 12 Vietnamese 75 37 Nepalese 885 538 Other Asian 64 39 Other ethnicities not classified above (including mixed) 451 350 Total 5671 3097 From: Hong Kong SAR Government (2008, p.7) 3.2 Ethnic minority students and learning As part of our research project on ethnic minority students and assessment 10 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? environments3 we have developed a new instrument. For the purposes of this paper I shall draw on selected results that include some scales from McInerney’s (1992) Inventory of School Motivation (ISM) and one scale from Brown and Hirschfield (2007, 2008) Students’ Conceptions of Assessment (SCoA). 3.3 Instruments ISM Scales_________ 1. Students’ attitudes to school work – particularly task orientation (4 questions) and effort (7 questions) 2. Students attitude to affective aspects of learning – particularly praise (5 items) and affiliation (3 items) SCoA Scale_________ 3. Students’ attitudes to assessment (8 questions) Students responded to each question using a five point scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree). Sample______ 106 Students in Grades 5 (61%) and 6 (38.1%) from two primary schools completed 106 surveys. Two were unusable leaving 104 to be analyzed. The average age of the sample was 10.85 years (SD=1.13) Of these, 47% were female and 53% were male. 56.7% were Chinese students with the remainder from ethnic minority students. Amongst these, 12.5% were Nepalese, 8.7% Pakistani, 7.7% Indian, 5.8% Filipino 1.9% American and 1% Thai with 4.8% represented by other ethnicities. Analysis________ Descriptive statistics were computed for each item and Cronbach’s reliability coefficient (α) is reported for each scale. 3 Exploring Cultural Diversity in Chinese Classrooms: Can Assessment Environments Cater for the Needs of Ethnic Minority Students in Hong Kong, [GRF-HKIEd840809] 11 Results______ Students’ attitudes to school work Figure 1 shows student orientation to tasks – all the questions are measuring much the same construct (α=.73 for Chinese students and .62 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority students scored slightly higher (M=5.46, SD=.66) than Chinese students (M=5.34, SD=.68) but these differences are not significantly different (t=.881). Two important points can be made about these results. First, ethnic minority students have very positive attitudes to work – these are not lazy students. Second, if we regard ‘orientations to school work’ as a single latent construct then ethnic minority students tend to endorse either end of the scale more positively than Chinese students. The most strongly endorsed aspect of the scale is ‘I like to see that I am doing better in my school work’ and this aspiration is shared by both Chinese and ethnic minority students. Figure 1: Students’ orientation to tasks Figure 2 shows students’ attitudes to the effort they put into their work. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.76 for Chinese students and .82 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority students scored slightly higher (M=5.30, SD=.79) than Chinese students (M=4.99, SD=.71) and the differences are statistically significantly different (t= 2.06, p < .05) and the size of the difference is moderate (d=.41). Yet these differences should not mask the fact that for both groups of students, effort is important. What is surprising, given the extent to which Chinese learners often attribute 12 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? Students’ attitudes to affective aspects of learning Figure 3 shows students’ attitudes to praise as a feature of classroom life. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.91 for Chinese students and .88 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority endorsed these items more strongly (M=4.93, SD=1.09) than Chinese students (M=3.97, SD=1.33). The differences are statistically significantly different (t= 3.97, p < .001) and the size of the difference is strong (d=.78). Ethnic minority students require praise to enhance their learning but it should be noted that Chinese students also endorse thence items positively – just not as positively as ethnic minority students. These students require praise from teachers, friends and family – with the latter rating very highly. This suggests the need for a particular kind of classroom and school environment for ethnic minority students – one characterized by positive feedback and regular encouragement both inside and outside the classroom. It could be assumed that where such environments do not exist, student learning will be negatively affected. effort rather than ability to their academic success, is the strength of the endorsement of ethnic minority students for the importance of effort in their learning. The largest difference along the latent construct is on the item, ‘I am always trying to do better in my school work’ suggesting that this is a very important learning attribute for ethnic minority students. Figure 2: Students’ attitudes to the effort they put into their work 13 Figure 3: Students’ attitudes to praise as a feature of classroom life Figure 4 shows students’ attitudes to working together as a learning process. The ethnic students’ responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.80) but for Chinese students there is little consistency in their responses (α =.33). This suggests that these items function differently for these different groups of students. For ethnic minority students working together is a more important part of their learning than it may be for Chinese students. We cannot compare the scale scores of the two groups of students because of the lack of scalability for the Chinese group. But it can be noted that ethnic minority students have responded very positively to these items while Chinese students are less positive although by no means negative on the individual questions. Further work is needed on both the construct itself (often referred to as ‘Affiliation’), the cultural contexts in which it is manifested and its impact on learning. Figure 4: Students’ attitudes to working together as a learning process 14 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? Figure 5 shows students’ attitudes to assessment, and in particular the use of classroom tests. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.91 for Chinese students and .88 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority endorsed these items more strongly (M=4.69, SD=.84) than Chinese students (M=4.19, SD=.99). The differences are statistically significantly different (t= 2.48, p < .05) and the size of the difference is moderate (d=.53). Ethnic minority students ‘moderately’ or ‘mostly agree’ with these questions while Chinese students agree ‘slightly’ or ‘moderately’ agree. Thus the differences between the two groups is one of emphasis rather than any substantive disagreements. Given the predominance of testing in Hong Kong classrooms, these results indicate the relationship between testing and learning and I all probability effort given to learning as well. Thus the two most highly endorsed items for both groups of students are ‘our class works had before a test’ and ‘I like learning before a test’. The least strongly endorsed items for both groups relate to whether tests make students happy (‘tests make me happy’ and ‘when we are tested my class is happy”). According to Brown and Hirschfield (2008) this is not a bad thing since in their study when students thought assessment was fun they tended to perform poorly on mathematics achievement tests! Figure 5: Students’ attitudes to assessment While the data reported above cannot be taken as representative, since it is based on a small sample of primary school students, it does start to build a picture of ethnic minority students who want to learn, want to work with other students and who are not at all negative towards classroom testing practices. At the same time it is clear from these data that ethnic minority students, more so than Chinese students, require a learning 15 environment in which there is positive feedback on their performance and where they like to work with other students. That is to say, ethnic minority students’ orientations to learning are very positive and provide a good basis for academic achievement. A similar view of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students was highlighted by Hue (2011) in his qualitative studies of ethnic minority students and their families. Yet what is also clear from the demographic data presented at the beginning of this section, learning opportunities are not always available. This may be at the pre-primary or senior secondary level where the participation rates are lowest. Increasing participation rates at these levels will be important but probably of greater importance is the quality of education provided at the primary school level where the great bulk of ethnic minority students gain their educational experiences. These experiences can build on preprimary education and can prepare students for secondary education. How the quality of primary education for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong might be improved will be the focus of the final section of this paper. 4. Can the ‘no loser’ principle work for ethnic minority students? There are three levels at which this question can be addressed: policy, curriculum and pedagogy. Finally, the important area of teacher professional development will be considered. 4.1 Policy Previously the tension between different views of current policy for supporting educational provision of ethnic minority was described. Basically this tension is between providing support within a basically monocultural framework where ethnic minority students are expected to adopt the values of the dominant culture or recognizing the multicultural nature of many of Hong Kong’s schools and building policy that respects these multiple cultures and seeks to build them into more inclusive educational provision. It is important to recognize that at the school level this latter approach has already been adopted by individual schools although this is not a common practice. But what would it involve at the system level? What would multicultural education policy look like and what difference would it make? It is important to state at the outset, that in moving towards multiculturalism as a policy driver it is not necessary to adopt slavishly Western notions of multiculturalism. Will Kymlicka (1995, 2007) , the great advocate of liberal multiculturalism, has made 16 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? the point that his views were formed in the context of particular issues in Canada and may not be applicable in all contexts. He has acknowledged the distinctive Asian traditions related to diversity and the importance of these to framing local approaches to multiculturalism (Kymlicka & He, 2005). One such approach has recently been suggested in Singapore where the policy objective was seen to be better expressed as “social resilience” rather than multiculturalism per se because of “fears of social fragmentation along ethno-religious lines (that) have compelled governments of multicultural societies to devise policies and strategies to ensure their nations’ ability to cope with attacks on their social fabric” (Ramakrishna, 2008). This may seem like a somewhat extreme way of viewing the issue but it has to be recognized that international policy discourse since the unfortunate event of 11 September 2001 has not been in favour of an unbridled multiculturalism. Such an approach has the potential to break society into distinct and often oppositional social groups that can to undermine social cohesion and, in the worst case scenario lead to explicit conflict. Defining the balance between support for ethnic minorities and maintaining a cohesive society is now the challenge for twenty first century multiculturalism. For the Hong Kong government, the issue is to recognize that integration and assimilation may be better replaced by goals such as social resilience (Vasnu, 2007) and respect for diversity. Ethnic minorities have much to contribute to Hong Kong – socially and economically. They can work alongside the Chinese community to contribute to the development of a resilient society that values the common good, where there are no threats to the existence of any group, where there are equal opportunities for all groups and where the benefits of society can be shared. There is not time in this paper to look more deeply into the concept of social resilience but Vasnu (2007) and his colleagues have done that in the Singapore context so they are able to argue that political participation, the development of social capital and the development of a sense of rootedness all contribute to social resilience (Goh, 2007, p.36). Alongside social resilience, and complementary to it, must be respect for diversity. That is, difference in a socially resilient society must be valued. It may be racial, linguistic, sexual or religious difference but it must be seen as positive. The interaction between social resilience and difference will constantly bring society to a new level of awareness and understanding of its strengths, its values and its priorities. Thus multiculturalism does not have to be constructed in a way that automatically leads to social fragmentation. Social systems can change and adapt to new ways of thinking while maintaining structures and institutions that work in the interests of all citizens. This is the basic idea of social resilience that can support a diverse society with common goals and aspirations. It would provide a sound foundation for an inclusive 17 multicultural society in Hong Kong and could be considered as the basis of a new multicultural education policy. The implications of such a policy will be explored in relation to the school curriculum and its pedagogies in the following sections. 4.2 Curriculum The most pressing curriculum issue concerns the provision of Chinese language skills for ethnic minority students. The current approach as referred to earlier has championed a single curriculum for all students with the rationale that such an approach will provide the much needed language skills. At the same time such an approach reflects a commitment to monoculturalism rather than multiculturalism – it assumes that all students are the same and can be taught at the same pace and in the same way. Yet, in a socially resilient society, it would be recognized that a major curriculum change, such as introducing a Chinese as a Second Language Curriculum, would not be catastrophic and could be easily managed. Having two pathways to language competence for Hong Kong’s students will cater better for entry level skills, structure learning opportunities in a way to meet the needs of a group for whom Chinese is not a native language and send a message about the importance of language skills for all students. In a socially resilient society, the purpose of ensuring ethnic minority students have access to a sound Chinese curriculum is not so much to facilitate integration but to provide skills and capacities that will ensure ethnic minority students are able to contribute to their own future as well as that of Hong Kong. Socially resilient societies are prepared for change, for stress and for adaptation in a rapidly changing world. The relationship between language skills and competence in other curriculum areas is also an area that needs some exploration. Hau (2008, p. 11), for example, found that when ethnic minority students entered P1 with a high level of mathematical competence, they tended to do well in mainstream schools and often better than Chinese students. Yet many students who started out with poor competency levels showed no positive improvement at all. At the same time Hau (2008) reported low levels of Chinese competence amongst ethnic minority students. Could it be that when Chinese is the MoI in mathematics lessons for students whose language competence is already problematic, that this in itself would make progress very difficult? Hau (2008) does not make reference to this kind of interaction but since his report focuses on mainstream primary schools it can be assumed that the MoI for all classes is Chinese. This is an area worth investigating and I shall make some reference will be made to it in the following section. 18 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? 4.3 Pedagogy The results of students’ preferences for classroom environment discussed earlier help us to understand better what might work better for ethnic minority students. Two aspects that stand out the importance of feedback and working together. This may mean that ethnic minority students will have more opportunities for learning in these kinds of environments. This requires teachers to think about the kind of learning environments they create in their classrooms and modifying them to especially meet the needs of ethnic minority students. Such environments, of course, will also support Chinese students – but they will be particularly helpful for ethnic minority students. In considering the kinds of interactions that go on in classrooms, some consideration needs to be given to Medium of Instruction (MoI). In the example provided above of ethnic minority students starting off with poor mathematical skills, it may be that where the MoI for the class is Chinese, some feedback and questioning could be in English since this is often a stronger area of competence for ethnic minority students than Chinese (Hau, 2008). That is to say, MoI can be differentiated to ensure that ethnic minority students receive the feedback they prefer in a language that they are sure to understand. This suggestion is likely to be controversial because it can equally be argued that complete immersion in Chinese is important – at least in the longer time term. Yet this is where the teacher’s judgment is so important. Do the students understand? Do they need more reinforcement, practice? Do they need to ask questions? Varying the MoI can thus help teachers find out about their students’ learning and then develop appropriate strategies and responses to follow up. If what students are telling us about classroom tests is indicative of attitudes to assessment, then teachers need to take advantage of what seems to be a positive attitude to testing and learning. Tests are not just ends in themselves – they are linked to learning in the minds of students. This link can be reinforced with students and it create an assessment environment that values student learning above all else. If such environments are also characterized by feedback and praise for achievement, then they will support ethnic minority students in particular but they will also support Chinese students. Assessment plays such a large part of life in Chinese classrooms that every effort needs to be made for assessment to be meaningful and relevant building on students desire to learn and providing feedback on the progress they are making in their learning journeys. Would classrooms look different if they adopted the kind of strategies mentioned 19 above? I think they would – more cooperative, more feedback, multilingual, focused on learning and achievement. These are classrooms that will meet the needs of all students but in particular they will support ethnic minority students who are committed to learning and need an appropriate environment to ensure they can reach their goals. 5. Conclusion There is a need to bring together policy, curriculum and pedagogy in a real attempt to ensure that the no loser principle will also apply to ethnic minority students. In a socially resilient society change should not be threatening and the contributions that all individuals and groups can make should be nurtured and valued. Cho, Willis & Stewart- Weeks (2011, p. 6) have pointed out that “the struggle for resilience will not be won within the walls of government agencies, but rather in the broadly distributed communities that they serve and with which they interact”. This means that all communities must be valued and must have a role to play in the development of the social fabric. Communities must be connected in meaningful ways since “the point of resilience is enabling people to maintain and improve the quality of lives they lead and the strength and capability of their communities in times of transition and risk. Resilience, in those conditions, relies heavily on the widespread capacity to connect for deep and authentic collaboration (Cho, Willis & Stewart-Weeks, 2011, p.9). Only communities that are equally valued will be able to connect and work together. Schools play a key role in contributing to connectedness in any society – ensuring that all students are treated fairly and provided with relevant curriculum and learning and guaranteed outcomes that will help them contribute in a productive way. This paper is a start in the direction of supporting greater connectedness for Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students by rethinking current educational provision. It is only in this way that the ‘no loser principle’ can be applied to ethnic minority students who, if allowed, can play an important role in contributing to Hong Kong as a resilient society. 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Retrieved November 5, 2011, from: http://www.timeout.com.hk/big-smog/features/46441/ racism-in-the-classroom.html 23 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 Chinese Language curriculum reform and the change of teacher working culture: Case studies of curriculum decision- making of Chinese Language teachers 高慕蓮 香港中文大學教育學院 李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 在學校層面,教師是課程決定的核心人物,教師在教學前或教學時必須做決定。香港中學 中文科新修訂的課程自 2002 年 9 月在全港各學校推出。整體上,新修訂的中文科課程擴展 了教師在課程與教學決定的範圍,亦增加教師參與協作及進行課程決定的機會。 本文是通過五所學校中一級教師參與課程決定的質性研究,了解教師在中文科組內如何參 與協作式的課程決定及受哪些因素影響課程決定。初步結果顯示,教師對協作的觀感影響 教師參與決定的投入程度,亦間接影響決定課程內容的深度。 25 關鍵詞 課程決定,協作,課程改革,教學計劃 Abstract In an education system, teachers play a crucial role in making curriculum decisions prior to, or during teaching. The New Edition of the Chinese Language Curriculum was introduced in all secondary schools in Hong Kong in September 2002. The New Edition has extended the work scope of the teachers in their curriculum and teaching decision making. In addition to this, it provides more opportunities for teacher collaboration and curriculum decision making. The present research started in the second year after the introduction of the New Edition of the Chinese Language Curriculum. By applying qualitative research methods, five schools were chosen as case studies, with the teachers of Secondary One as key informants, to explore the state of teachers’ participation in the curriculum decision making, to understand how the curriculum decisions were made within the Chinese Language panels, and to investigate the factors influencing the decision making. The initial findings revealed that teachers’ perceptions of collaboration may influence the degree of contribution and involvement of the teacher. It will also indirectly affect the decision making of the depth of content. Keywords curriculum decision making, collaboration, curriculum reform, teaching plan 甲、研究背景 二十一世紀香港課程改革由提升教師專業能力及建立教師協作文化作為序幕,而中學 中文科新修訂的課程,自 2002 年 9 月在全港各學校推出,迄今已超過十年;有關中文科的 課程與教學研究不少,在新課程推出初期,有蔡若蓮、周健、黃顯華等(2002)整理了部 份中文科教師對試行計劃的經驗;在課程實施了一段時間後,有黃顯華、李玉蓉等在 2006 26 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 年(2006a,2006b,2006c,2006d,2006e,2006f,2006g)出版了一系列總結中學中國語 文課程實施評鑑研究的成果。在課程推出五年後,教育界及學者則希望進一步了解,有哪 些因素影響教師參與學校層面的課程改革?劉潔玲(2006)認為若教師對新課程有較多的 知識和實踐經驗,對他們採用能力導向的教學模式有正面的幫助。譚彩鳳(2010)指出, 教師進行校本課程決定時,受個人因素(意願、信念、知識、能力)及外在因素(教學的 文化、課程領導、公開考試及時間)影響。上述研究指出教師個人的專業知識、信念及改 革經驗對參與課程改革的積極性都有影響;但除了個人因素之外,教師同時受情境脈絡的 影響,目前中文科課程的轉變,從編選多樣化的學習材料,到組織有效的課堂及設計多元 化的評估方式,單靠個別教師自己一個人去做,未必能夠應付,所以有效的中文科新課程 實施有需要結合教師的團隊協作和集體決定。 理論上如果增加教師協作,有助教師解決在新課程改革時面對的挑戰。然而一般中文 科教師在舊課程的運作期間,很少參與學科層面的決定,如今需要在新修訂課程的脈絡下 與同儕協作,對教師來說是一種文化的轉變(黃顯華、李玉蓉,2006a);但過往十年有關 科組如何協作的探究相對較少。教師在改革過程如何協作及參與課程決定,是香港課程改 革繼續深化及整固的一個重要議題。 高慕蓮與李子建在 2001 年的研究指出,協作有助教師共同解決在新課程推出時所面對 的問題。當時個案學校的中一級教師參與中文科新課程的試行計劃後,通過教師參與、投 入及合作的工作關係,在實踐過程中解決了很多困難,令教師對新課程的推行比前有信心。 不同學者及研究都指出「變革」涉及學習新的事物,而互動是社會學習的基礎,因此如果教 師間能多交換心得,互相幫助,以及建立對工作的熱誠,課程創新的實施便有較高的成功機 會。若教師孤身作戰,與同事間缺乏坦誠溝通,欠缺互相支持和幫助,學校改善便會裹足 不前(Sarason, 1982;李子建、黃顯華,1996,頁 331;高慕蓮、李子建,2001,頁 44)。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006a)也在新課程推出後進行課程實施的評鑑研究,研究指出教師 對新課程最關注的是「結果/協作」階段。教師對同事之間的協作表示出頗強的要求,希 望與同事建立工作上的關係,特別在教學工作協調上,以取得更佳的實施效果。 27 上述的研究都認同科組需要建立協作的文化;同時通過群體參與決定,有助推動課程 的發展;但協作需要哪些條件?教師在新課程推出後,理論上要結束習慣多時的個人化、 單打獨鬥式的工作文化;通過正式或非正式的協作方式,共同解決課程轉變過程中出現的 種種教與學的問題;但教師對協作有甚麼看法?在科組內教師的協作關係如何影響課程決 定內容的深度及廣度?這是教育界關注的焦點,研究者擬通過本研究所得出的研究成果, 希望為香港未來十年的課程改革提供持續發展的方向。 乙、文獻探討 一、 課程決定的意涵 有些學者將“decision making”譯作「決定」也有譯為「決策」;本研究就選用「決 定」一詞。所謂「決定」,是指一個人或一群人,就課程中的分析、計劃執行、評鑑等問 題,研究可行的方案後,從其中做合適的選擇(杜美智、遊家政,1998,頁 76;高新健, 1991;黃政傑,1992)。不同課程計劃層級的工作者,都承擔著課程決定的責任 (蔡清田、 雲大維,2007,頁 93;甄曉蘭,2004);所以中央課程落到學校層面或課室層面,教師就 要從課程籌劃(plan)到實施(implement),由表面的改革到深層的改革等進行一連串的 解難和選擇過程。 決定是選擇、篩選、判斷、解難的思考過程。在課程改革的過程中,教師會經常面對 種種有待解決的問題,課程與教學是影響學習成果的關鍵因素;只有選擇或發展合適的 課程,同時靈活運用各種教學法將課程內容呈現給學生,才能順利達成目標(徐世瑜, 1998,頁 1)。 至於課程決定大致可歸納為教學計劃、教學實施和教學評量等三個階段;而課程決定 的範圍則包括:教學目標、教材選擇與組織、教學活動設計及教學評量等課程元素(杜美 智、游家政,1998,頁 80-85)。簡良平(2002)則認為課程決定內容是意指「應該如何」 (what should be),包括應該教甚麼內容,受教的人是誰,哪些知識應該被傳遞與傳遞的 方式,教學原則應該如何等等;每個部份經判斷後都有所抉擇,即課程決定。決定過程不 可避免是以「人」為決定的主體,因而會有不同的考量和權衡,且涉及觀念差異與價值不 28 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 同的抉擇。 二、 影響課程決定的因素 杜美智(1997)認為影響課程決定因素可分為個人因素及情境因素。教師知識、能力; 個人因素大致與教師專業素養及信念有關,包括教師一般知能、教師知識、能力;教師的 教育信念、價值、興趣和嗜好。情境因素包括學校層面、社區層面及社會層面,在學校層 面的教學方面有師生互動、同事間的討論;在行政方面有教學支援的提供及行政的干涉(劉 雅心,1998,頁 48)。 1. 個人因素 教師的知識能力在教師面臨選擇做決定時,是一項重要的決定因素(陳伯璋, 1995)。具備豐富的一般知識,有助於選擇多元化的教材;具備良好的溝通能力,有利 於獲得社區人士的支援;具有良好的統整、批判能力,能協助教師做課程決定。教師的專 業知能,會影響教師的教學效果。教師如果重視教育工作的過程績效,則會注意教學方 法的改進,熟悉教材內容、留意學童的學習,追求最好的教育成效(吳清基,1989,頁 115)。教師要為所做的教學決定(instructional decision)負責,因此教師必須瞭解教學目 標才能掌握教學,瞭解教學的環境,才能客觀的看待教學行為。此外還要瞭解學童的發展、 教學的內容及運用教學資源的能力(李俊湖,1992;Tye, 1971, p.462-465)。教師的教學 成效良好,則表示教師能有效的達成教學目標,另一方面則意味着教師在教學過程中所做 的課程決定是有效的。因此,教師要相信自己就是專家,加強進修、研究,探究課程的新 理念、目標精神及實施的方法(歐用生,1992,頁 49)。有良好的專業知能才能做出適當 的課程決定。而 Hawthorne(1992)認為教師具備專業的知識也是重要的,因為這種專業 的知識、能力,使不同教師在處理某些課題,或採用教學技巧時出現程度的差異。 2. 情境因素 這裏主要是探討科組層面及學校的行政支援層面兩方面。科組層面方面,Hawthorne (1992, p.124)的研究顯示科主任及同事之間的支援及關懷的關係,提供了教室與學 校的之間保護及非正式的社會制度,成為課室與外在管理環境的緩衝(buffer)及職責 (obligation)。Brown, Boyle & Boyle(1999, p.323)提出科組可以積極參與學校層面的工 29 作,令學校的政策措施更配合學科的發展及容易學科有更大的專業自主空間。學科或學校 可以通過機制、文化的推動,讓教師增強協作,產生共力;將個人的力量凝聚,讓團隊逐 步發展成互相學習的專業社群。本研究擬探討中文科教師,在一個級組內如何進行互動及 如何作課程決定?同時希望了解教師對協作的觀點和看法,如何影響課程決定內容的深廣 度? 在學校的行政制度的支援方面,在黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006a)的研究資料顯示,無論科 組是有意識地改變工作文化,還是為應付實際需要,不少都以建立制度的方式,希望教師 能透過交流和協作,從而更有效地實施新課程,較為普遍的做法是引入共同備課節及同儕 觀課的措施。 丙、研究特色 過去的研究單位多是個人、學校、科目甚至整個課程,但較少探討一個科組內教師之 間進行的互動情況。本研究是有關一個級別的中文科教師,在進行單元教學前計劃的質化 研究。這裡提到的教學計劃應該是一個單元完整的計劃,包括配合單元目標,選擇合適的 教學內容與教材;組織學習內容、經驗,以至評估;有關整體單元的教學構思與過往中文 科的單篇範文教學年代,教師可以拿著教科書就可以進入課堂的情況有很明顯的差異,如 果每個單元都只由一位教師承擔調適教材及設計教學活動等工作,教師會感到非常吃力。 課程實施能否成功固然教師是一個關鍵的人物,面對改革的任務,希望教師能共同協 作。協作可能是一組人、一個學科。本研究的焦點是中一級,一個級組內的協作及參與決 定過程。研究者相信,教師在單元教學前進行仔細的計劃時,有助級組內所有成員解決級 組內的教學問題,增加實施時的信心,同時有助提升教學的質素。 本研究主要搜集科組教師參與課程決定資料的時間 2003-2004 年。這段時間剛好是中 學中文科新課程剛實施了第二年,屬於課程變革的第一階段;而課程決定步驟則選教師進 入課室前教學計劃階段的決定,對教師而言,在改革的初期,較多關注的是對教材的調適, 較難兼顧教學及評估方法的轉變。當年課程改革只在起步的階段,學校配合課程轉變而作 30 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 出的行政支援尚在發展的初期,很多的學校仍未有備課節,就算有,也未必安排在上課時 間及計算在教師工作量內。 今天,課程改革已經實施超過了十年,很多學校在行政方面可以作出備課節的安排, 但有了時間未必能保證教師能善用時間進行專業交流及積極參與課程決定。學校提供備課 節,的確增加了教師的互動及協作的機會,但一般教師長期習慣了個人工作的模式,忽然 之間在行政安排下一起進行教學規劃;有了協作的空間,也同時增加衝突、矛盾的機會; 究竟哪一種協作方式較有效益?在過去十年,這方面的研究不多。其實在 2004 年前後,研 究者為了研究中文科組教師參與課程決定的情況,曾走訪超過十所學校,但最後只能選取 五所學校作為研究對象,原因是部份學校及科組教師保護性很強,不想坦誠交流;要長期、 深入探索香港學科成員之間的工作文化及互動的情況並不容易;故此本研究所得的資料彌 足珍貴,相信不只對中文科的科組如何建立協作文化及提高教師參與課程決定意欲具啟發 意義,也能作為其他學科發展的參考! 丁、研究設計 一、 研究問題 本研究原先共有四個問題,基於篇幅關係,現集中處理和討論以下研究問題: 教師的關係如何影響教師對協作的觀感及課程決定內容的深廣度? 二、 研究方法 本研究選用目的性抽樣關鍵個案(陳向明,2006,頁 44),研究取樣是選擇有備課節 及沒有備課節的學校。為什麼會將備課節作為關鍵元素?原因是以往教師較多參與課室的 教學決定,新課程要求教師較多參與整體的課程規劃,本研究是探討教師如何通過協作, 為進入課室前做教學的計劃;另一方面是次課程改革較前複雜,既要講求發展校本特色的 單元或課程,又要改變現有的教學模式及評估方法;在課程計劃、資料蒐集、教材編寫、 課程評鑑等規劃的過程中,需要時間討論及協商。 如果利用課餘時間,不僅時間不夠,也會遭致教師的不滿。研究者相信學校如果能為 31 教師創造空間,讓他們有較固定的時間對課程及學習內容的轉變有更多作討論及思考機 會,對解決中文科新課程種種教與學的問題一定有幫助。研究者認為備課節可以提供一個 協作的機會,也可以讓教師從個人的、孤獨的工作習慣走出來,與科組成員共同尋找有效 的教與學策略。在 2003-2004 年質素保證視學周年報告 1 第 4.5 節中文科視學部份,提到學 校中文科為配合課程發展趨勢推展課程新措施學校,已初步開展集體備課及同儕觀課,以 促進教師的交流和協作(頁 45)。該報告內雖然沒有指出共有多少所學校設有集體備課節, 但經研究者非正式觀察及網上的資料記載 2 有些學校在當年已開始安排共同備課的時間, 讓教師進行交流;因此,本研究選樣的時候就包括這兩種學校,一種是有備課節的學校, 一種是沒有備課節的學校。 1. 個案選擇及搜集資料方法 本研究的焦點是中一級一組教師在新課程推出後,在校內,為課程實施前作計劃的課 程決定,這是屬於學校層面的決定(Goodlad, 1979)。教師參與課程決定的形式可以通過 正式的備課節,也可以通過非正式的溝通時間,例如在課間召開非正式的會議討論與課程 發展問題相關的課程決定。研究者從學校和教師的典型性、差異性等特徵考慮;在研究過 程中,第一輪共選了十一所學校,在十一所學校中再由所得的資料豐富程度(包括文件資 料、會議密度、訪談內容)及參與協作決定的情況的獨特性再選取五所學校的資料作進一 步分析(個案一至五)。第二輪學校篩選是一個逐漸聚焦的過程(progressive focusing) (Stake, 1995;黃顯華、李玉蓉,2006g,頁 39);而所選的五所學校,則形成嵌入式多 個案研究設計(Yin, 2003, p.40)。 在個案典型性特徵方面,五所學校的收生情況接近、資料呈現的資料相對豐富及完整、 對學科如何準備新課程、教師在參與決定時的影響因素及課程決定的內容等相關材料都有 清楚展示,這些資料有助進一步分析教師的協作關係、如何做課程決定及影響課程決定的 因素。 1 連結:http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annualreport_03-04_chi.pdf 2 連結:http://www.bmf.edu.hk/lys/lesson_study/lesson_study_reources02-03/doc/handbook.doc 32 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 研究者亦會嘗試找出學校之間的差異性,如地區、校齡及不同教師組合的差異;另一 方面也考慮不同學校的脈絡之間的差異,如科主任帶領、備課節的安排、協作文化、學科 改革經驗、使用教科書抑或進行校本教材設計等,以增強研究資料的外部推廣性(external generalize ability)(Yin, 2003, p.53)。 至於搜集資料的方法則採用了觀察、半結構式訪談及分析單元教學設計文件等方式,探 討教師對協作的觀感及其對課程決定內容的影響。 2. 個案學校的特色 表一 五所學校的基線資料 個案一 個案二 個案三 個案四 個案五 學校區域 香港島(南) 香港島(東) 新界西 新界東 新界東 校齡 超過二十年 超過二十年 十年之內 超過二十年 超過二十年 教齡 新舊混合 有一定教齡 十至二十年 之間 相對年輕,級內有 三人第一年出來工 作就在這所學校 全部十年以 上 新舊混合 科主任 帶領 科主任任教中 一,主持備課 節 副科主任沒 有 任 教 中 一,出席備 課節,傳播 經驗 科主任任教中一, 參與備課節,但只 是其中一位成員 初中科主任 任教中一, 責任是召集 教師開非正 式會議 初中科主任第 一 年 任 教 中 一,對教科書 及新課程尚在 摸索階段 備課節 有( 計 算 教 節) 有(不算教 節) 有(計算教節) 沒有 沒有 教師關係/ 溝通形式 工 作 關 係 良 好,有正式時 間溝通及非正 式時間溝通 關係疏離, 只有正式時 間溝通 工作關係良好,有 正式時間溝通及非 正式時間溝 教師私下感 情良好,有 非正式時間 溝通 人 際 關 係 良 好,有非正式 時間 使用教科書/ 校本教材 使用教科書 使用教科書 使用教科書 使用校本教 材 使用教科書 課 程 決 定 內 容、範圍(深 廣度) 減少使用教科 書,單元調適 考慮不同的課 程元素 以教科書為 主導,單元 調適多刪少 補 第一年使用教科 書,以教科書為 主,內容少增刪, 單元調適補充資料 (如課後練習)及 考慮教學方法; 學科配合學校的制 度,有進行教學探 究活動 以校本教材 為 基 礎, 單元調適主 要是補充教 學資料(練 習、文章) 以教科書為主 導,單元調適 多刪少補 33 戊、資料分析與討論 本研究通過從訪談觀察及文件所得的資料進行分析。研究者共訪問了 24 位教師,了解 教師對新課程的看法、對協作觀感;在正式、非正式的溝通時間進行哪些課程決定?教師 認為科組及學校哪些因素影響級組內教師的課程決定?由於篇幅所限,本文只集中分析教 師的協作觀感與影響課程決定的因素。 研究者在訪談時徵得教師的同意才錄音,錄音後,將整篇訪談資料作文字轉譯,然後 將資料編碼及按研究問題歸納、分類。將資料分類後,將分析焦點放在影響課程決定的因 素及課程決定內容、質素(深度、廣度)。將資料分類後,並參考文件分析結果及會議紀 錄,尋找資料中所呈現的主題、共通點及個別學校的特殊情況(黃顯華、李玉蓉,2006a, 頁 9)。至於觀察,研究者會參加三所學校(個案一、二、三),在正式課堂時間的會議。 研究者由 2004 年 2 至 5 月期間,選學校其中一個單元參與中一級內的備課節會議。沒有正 式備課節的學校由於教師隨時有空就召開非正式會議,基本上很難預先知會研究者,所以 研究者沒有參與個案四、五學校的非正式會議。至於有安排正式備課節的學校,一個單元 內,研究者會參與一至兩次會議,觀察的對象,主要是與會的級組教師的互動情況、級組 會議的氣氛及選擇哪些課程議題討論等。在會議過程中,為了減少教師對研究員的戒心及 顧慮,研究者沒有錄音,每一次會議均全程用紙筆紀錄重點,做筆記;在離開場景後盡快 整理資料。觀察的資料對引證教師的訪談內容很有幫助。尤其是描寫級組成員的關係及教 師參與課程決定的意願,會將研究者在觀察過程中的所見所聞描述出來。 除了 2003-2004 年系統搜集資料的時間,研究者於 2007 年 2 月至 3 月,研究者第二次 進入場景以確認資料。研究者將個案資料整理後再到學校與部份教師會談及核實資料(經 教師簽署並確認);研究者亦通過訪談,了解過去兩年學科的發展狀況,雖然這不是本研 究的範圍,不過研究者也能掌握最新的學校信息,令人憂慮的是一般學科的發展仍是比較 緩慢,實際的教學環境沒有多大變化。不過令研究者有意外發現的是教師的價值觀及信念 原來不會因為時間而有很大的轉變。在 2007 年 4 月至 5 月,研究者第三次進入場景,這 一次是要找出資料所呈現的主題;因為在撰寫討論及結論過程中,就有關核心問題,如影 響課程決定的因素,教師對某些重要概念的觀感,例如在參與決定階段教師是分擔工作抑 34 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 或是賦權承責?教師的調適概念是純粹是教科書的調適抑或包含新舊課程的調適;研究員 在下結論之前,再次與個案學校部分教師在電話及訪談中討論(同時經錄音及文字轉譯處 理),希望能進一步引證研究者的推論。 從不同教師對同一個訪談內容所表達的意見收集後,研究員會將各人提供的資料作參 考、對照及比較,以作為三角檢證之用;有些時候,研究者亦會對比訪談的內容與會議觀 察作印證。三角檢證(triangulation)是質化研究保證效度的慣用策略。本研究採用的是資 料三角檢證。研究員會在同一所學校,向不同的教師問相同的問題,試圖從不同人身上了 解他們對相同問題的看法。這一類的問題,多數是課程決定的觀感及影響課程決定的因素。 有些時候,研究者亦會對比訪談的內容與會議觀察作印證;如教師對協作觀感與她/他在 集體備課會議時的表現是否一致?研究者亦會在不同時間,向同一個人,問相同的問題; 以尋求教師對相同的問題是否有一致的看法,而這一類的問題多數涉及教師價值判斷及重 要觀念,例如對語文教與學的看法。 研究資料初步顯示,教師協作觀感與教師對課程理解有直接關係,與課程決定形式及 內容有間接關係。要是教師認為新課程的改革幅度大,轉變的範圍廣,他們就較認同教師 需增加協作;相反,要是教師認為是次課程改革仍只屬於教科書層面的改革,其他的教學 範疇沒有明顯的轉變,教師未必有強烈的協作需要。 一、 教師對協作的理解影響對參與協作的態度 綜合個案的資料顯示,個案一相信集體的力量的確比個人的力量大。教師認為新課程 需要教師參與協作。通過協作,可以減少孤獨,可以互補。通過協作,教師得出啟示,就 是不一定要跟共同意見的人才可以合作。備課節提供協作平台。 科主任也利用學校開放日及外評等機會,讓教師參與協作。由於經常溝通、合作,拉 近教師之間對一些觀念的看法,例如要實施課程時有理想的效果,就要先管好學生的秩序。 持續的協作和溝通,有助建立和諧的同儕關係。教師協作的範圍包括共同進行計劃,分享 教學資源及教學經驗。 35 個案二教師對協作的理解是單方面的支援。有經驗的教師覺得自己有責任將經驗傳給 新任教中一的教師;學校安排教師的共同備課節時間,這是提供協作的平台,但教師除了 分享教學資源,沒有其他協作的範圍。教師之間只有工作關係,同儕的關係一般,沒有開 放、坦誠的溝通,只能進行有限度的協作。 個案三教師普遍認同新課程需要教師參與協作。教師對協作的理解是主動分享及互相 支持。一方面因為學校的政策又需要教師協作,例如課堂觀摩探究、啟導計劃。學科的文 化,也是鼓勵教師一起合作以解決問題,教師有緊密的工作關係,能夠進行開放、坦誠的 溝通。教師協作的範圍包括分享教學資源及教學經驗。 個案四教師對協作的理解是有需要就伸出援手,提供支援。主要是因為教師基本上掌 握新課程,在正常的情況下大家可以各自處理自己的問題。沒有備課節,教師很少正式協 作的機會。不過教師之間有穩定的感情基礎,故此協作的範圍可包括分享教學資源及教學 經驗。 個案五教師視協作等於求助而不是互相依賴。教師是意識到新課程需要教師參與協 作,不過沒有備課節,教師沒有正式協作的機會。協作是隨機的,有限度的;故此協作的 範圍主要是分享教學資源。由於同儕關係不錯,關係算融洽,偶然也會分享教學經驗。 二、 影響教師對協作觀感的因素 視協作為單方面的支援,教師只會進行隨機、有限度的協作;分享的範圍主要是教學 資源。視協作為互相支持、互補,教師才會有不同層面的協作,如共同計劃、進行專業溝 通,也會主動分享不同的經驗,包括成功、失敗的教學經驗。 36 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 表二 影響協作觀感的校內因素 個案一 個案二 個案三 個案四 個案五 協 作 理 解 認同協作 部分人認為 有 需 要 協 作,協作是 單方面的支 援 認同協作願意分享 認同部分範圍需 要協作,其他的 時間基本獨立, 但有需要就會互 相支援 平時獨立,有 需 要 就 伸 出 援手,協作是 有 需 要 的 支 援 過 往 經 驗 新課程實施前, 開始有協作機會 (說話能力培訓、 校本單元設計); 在新課程推出後, 協作可以解決單 元調適及課堂教 學問題 新課程實施 前少合作機 會 學校有協作文化, 不同科組之間也有 合作機會 在新課程實施前 有參與訂定校本 教材的經驗;有 機會合作 在 新 課 程 實 施前少合作, 個 別 教 師 教 同 一 級 就 有 合作機會 同 儕 關 係 從工作建立互信 關係,比較和諧、 開放 純粹是工作 關係,平時 少交往、溝 通,人際關 係比較疏離 有一半教師通過工 作建立緊密的協作 關係,有默契、互 相體諒 有感情基礎,關 係良好 工 作 關 係, 平時會交談, 有商有量 政 策 、 措 施 有備課節,有固 定的溝通時間 有備課節, 但只限於固 定時間才接 觸 a. 學校工作多、變 革多,令教師習 慣要一起合作 b. 科組內有協作文 化,就算新的教 師也容易受感染 c. 有備課節 d. 有教研部推動教 學探究 沒有備課節,隨 機協作,有時間 就溝通 沒有備課節, 有 事 就 隨 機 協作 領 導 能 力 大力推動協作, 建立工作常規, 給予教師清楚的 目標及權責,鼓 勵教師積極協作, 一起解決問題 欠清晰的目 標及指引, 教師的權責 不清楚 訂定常規,給予清 楚的權責 有需要就主動召 集會議,一起商 討解決補充教材 問題 欠清晰目標, 無規定權責 其 他 友校分享過程中 得到認同,知道 團隊協作能夠做 更多的工作,例 如設計全級的學 習活動、計劃完 整的單元 少非正式的 溝通,也少 互相了解增 進感情的機 會 非正式溝通機會多, 例如一起參與專業 發展活動 爭取非正式溝通 時間 工作量多、工 餘 少 非 正 式 接觸 37 教師在科組內與同級或科內的同儕在新課程實施前是否有合作機會或成功經驗,影響 教師對協作的觀感及參與協作的意願。個案一、三、四的教師在新課程前也有或多或少的 合作機會,教師比較容易認同協作的需要;教師有合作機會,則是因為有改革項目,或者 跨科組的合作課題;至於個案二、五的教師學校及學科層面的改革相對較少,教師也較少 合作的機會。 教師的關係則影響教師參與協作的積極程度,間接影響教師討論問題的開放程度及課 程決定的深度。教師之間未必一定要有感情關係,如個案一、三教師通過工作建立互信關 係及緊密的夥伴關係也可以令教師在較開放、自由的環境下討論不同的課程議題;相反, 個案二的教師因為過往少合作、少溝通及聊天的機會,教師的關係比較疏離,他們不容易 敞開胸懷討論深層的問題,以及一起進行大膽創新的嘗試,因此課程決定的深度受限制。 關係是了解中國人社會行為的核心概念(黃懿慧,2001,頁 21)。關係,在黃光國(1988) 的「資源」意義下,亦可稱為「人情」。(黃懿慧,2001,頁 31)。對中國人而言,關係 的密切程度,與對別人信任程度成正相關(Greif and Tabellini, 2012)。本研究發現,中文 科內級組成員的關係建基於教師長期積累的倚賴、信靠的基礎;建立和諧、友善、開放的 關係,使教師一起工作會比較輕鬆、投入;反之則相對拘謹、疏離。關係不是靠正式的溝 通時間及制度連繫;關係是對人的可靠、信賴的持續考驗,沒有共同經歷,很難建立深厚 的關係。 如果有政策及措施推動協作,會為協作及參與課程決定創造良好的土壤;個案一、二、 三學校有備課節,教師可以在正式、固定的時間溝通,可以增加協作及溝通的機會,令彼 此增加了解。不過有政策也要配合適當的工作常規,有清楚的權責分配,令教師知道自己 在科組內參與的角色,否則會像個案二一樣,教師只認為自己有責任出席備課節會議,但 沒有清楚要完成的任務,部分教師就會變得被動、倚賴;個案四、五教師的關係不錯,可 惜學校沒有安排正式的備課節,只能靠隨機的分享、合作,有需要的才走在一起,未必能 充分利用團隊的力量。 政策、措施提供環境,領導(如科主任)就要做推動的工作。在科內如果有清楚的目 標及任務,有互相默認的常規,再加上領導的帶領,就容易凝聚眾人的力量,發揮共力。 38 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 個案一領導的推動是一個成功的例子;個案一、三由科主任建立工作的常規,令所有教師 既有分工,又有合作的機會;個案三的教研部推動很多革新項目,需要教師與人一起工作 及完成計劃;個案四的初中科主任在有需要時召開會議,也令教師能在非正式的時間走在 一起,共同解決問題;沒有時間、沒有領導支持的個案五,教師縱有良好關係,也不容易 經常走在一起,解決教學問題。 故此,教師的個人層面對協作的觀感是受過往經驗、關係、科組及學校層面的互動影 響;科組是建立常規、凝聚個人,推動協作的中介者,尤其是(科主任)領導;而學校則 是提供協作的重要環境。 另一方面教師對協作的理解也影響科組內的合作模式,如屬單方面的支援(如個案 二),基於這種協作的理解,級組內只有部分人付出,不是人人參與,未必能長久。 有需要才支援(如個案四、五),有這樣的協作理解,證明教師仍然擺脫不了個人主 義,協作只是當教師面對困難或未掌握所需技巧時,大家才需要走在一起;問題解決了, 大家又可以走回自己的課室內,很少需要與人一起工作。 感覺同事一起工作是互相倚賴及互補(如個案一、三),這種協作的觀感顯示了各人 都要貢獻力量,又能借助其他人的強項解決自己的問題;相信在課程改革過程中,大家在 一個平等參與的狀態下,最能保持長久的協作關係。 三、 教師的協作對課程決定內容的影響 當教師視協作為單方面的支援,教師只會進行隨機、有限度的協作;分享的範圍主要 是教學資源;課程決定內容跳不出教科書的框框。以教科書主導的學校中,教師只著重教 甚麼的問題,在備課節的會議內重點討論的是篩選、刪減那些教學內容,而很少考慮不同 的課程元素,如多元的教學法及評估方式等;課程決定的內容就傾向較為狹窄、表面。 視協作為互相支持、互補,教師才會有不同層面的協作,如共同計劃、進行專業溝通, 也會主動分享不同的經驗,包括成功、失敗的教學經驗;教師在參與課程決定時,著眼於 39 如何教、甚至是為什麼這樣教等問題上。在備課節的會議內,重點討論的是學生如何學得 好,以及怎樣教得有效的問題。教師會考慮不同的課程元素,如選擇及組織學習內容,考 慮多元的教學策略及評估方法等,課程決定的內容可拓展至深、廣程度。 己、總結 學校政策引入協作的機制只是團隊發展的第一步,它既可以是強迫協作,也可以轉向 進化成互相倚賴的團隊協作(Grimmett & Crehan, 1992, p.79-80),問題是學校是否善加利 用這個機制。在一個級組內如果能及建立信任及和諧關係能為課程決定提供有利的條件, 劉冠華(2010,頁 163)的研究得出以下的結論:和諧的工作氣氛及工作愉快的感覺影響 教師的留職意願、組織認同及努力意願。不同的同儕關係,對參加課程決定的影響如下: 以感情基礎為主的同事關係,關係較深;再加上大家都有接近的性向、價值,教師能動性 較大。教師參與協作及進行決定的意欲也相對強,因為朋友的事,也是自己的事;有人情 的元素,萬事好商量。這與黃懿慧(2001)描述中國人的關係因為有了人情面子,可以增 進合作機率的說法是一致的(頁 30-31);成功夥伴的基本特徵是包括承諾、合作、信任、 溝通質量、參與以及共同解決問題等要素(朱吉慶、李金早,2006,頁 147)。所以學校 就算沒有正式的溝通時間,教師自己也會想法解決問題;由級組成員自己安排非正式的溝 通時間交流,無礙教師進行討論及決定。 另一方面互相信任亦是促成課程決定的要訣,Johnston(1995)、簡良平(2001)、 Meier(2005)及 John(2001)都同時指出不管是小組層面、學校層面的決定,建立互信 及和諧的關係都是一個重要的因素;信任加強體諒,可接納多元的意見。培養信任的基礎, 有助個案學校討論及決定不同課程議題。有信任,可以面對複雜的議題,減少磨合的時間; 有信任,也有利學校推出創新的措施,讓教師參與創新的決定、同時願意接受較具挑戰的 任務;故此信任的基礎也有助教師願意承擔額外的任務。 至於信任的元素包括可靠、有能力(Tschannen-Moran, 2000; Tzafrir, 2005)及開放 (Tschannen-Moran, 2000; Tzafrir, 2005; Mishra, 1996);同時相信對方有良好的意圖(Chou et al., 2006; Meier, 2005)。坦誠的溝通基於信任,信任令級組內教師對其他人的意見都很 40 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 尊重,從沒有人對一些不成熟的意見或者對某些人的說話表現出不耐煩。基於互相信任、 尊重及和諧的協作關係,就能幫助級組教師拉近在課程實施的距離。 由於時間、資源及複雜的學校微政治因素限制,本研究只能針對中一級一個級組內的 教師,就其中一個單元的教學計劃過程及內容進行觀察及分析;而課程決定的過程複雜, 除了小組協作的層面外,亦涉及個人的信念、領導及學校等範疇,研究者未能對所有影響 教師課程決定的因素進行深入探究。 參考文獻 朱吉慶、李金早(2006)。〈私人關係對業務關係質量的影響──以上海、蘇州銀行業為例〉。 《蘭州學刊》,第 9 期,147-150。 佛教茂峰法師紀念中學課堂教學研習計劃教師手冊(02-03 年度)。2012 年 8 月 10 日,取 自 http://www.bmf.edu.hk/lys/lesson_study/lesson_study_reources02-03/doc/handbook.doc。 吳清基(1989)。〈國民小學課程發展的趨勢〉。《現代教育》,第四卷第二期,3-23。 李子建、黃顯華(1996)。《課程:範式、取向和設計》。香港:中文大學出版社。 李俊湖(1992)。〈國小教師專業成長與教學效能關係之研究〉,碩士學位論文。台北:國 立台灣師範大學,教育研究所。 杜美智(1997)。〈國民小學社會科教師課程決定之研究〉,碩士學位論文。台灣:國立花 蓮師範學院,國民教育研究所。 杜美智、游家政(1998)。〈國民小學教師的課程決定──社會科教師之個案研究〉。《課 程與教學季刊》,第一卷第四期,73-94。 徐世瑜(1998)。〈課程與教學決定歷程中的要素分析〉。《課程與教學季刊》,第一期第 四卷,1-12。 高新建(1991)。〈國小教師課程決定之研究〉,碩士學位論文。臺北:國立臺灣師範大學, 教育研究所。 高慕蓮、李子建(2001)。〈中學中國語文新課程試教計劃實施個案研案〉。《現代教育通 訊》,第五十八期,41-44。 教育局(2003-3004)。《視學周年報告》。2007 年 11 月 20 日,取自 http://www.edb.gov. hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annualreport_03-04_chi.pdf。 陳向明(2006)。《教師如何作質的研究》。北京:教育科學出版社。 41 陳伯璋等(1995)。《師範教育通識教育課程架構之研究》。花蓮:國立花蓮師範學院。 黃光國(1988)。〈人情與面子〉。載黃光國(編),《中國人的權力遊戲》(頁 7-55)。 台北:遠流圖書公司。 黃政傑(1992)。《課程改革》(第二版)。台北:漢文書店。 黃懿慧(2001)。〈公共關係之關係研究〉。《廣告學研究》,第十七期,21-44。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006a)。《新修訂中學中國語文課程下教師工作文化的轉變》。香港: 香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006b)。《學校試行新修訂中學中國語文課程的經驗》。香港:香港中 文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006c)。《新修訂中學中國語文課程下的學科課程領導:角色、風格、 所遇困難、解難策略和專業成長》。香港:香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006d)。《在協作文化中釋放學生潛能:新修訂中學中國語文課程實施 個案研究》。香港:香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006e)。《從課程設計角度剖析中學中文科教師對新修訂中學 中國語文課程的意見》。香港:香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006f)。《教師對新修訂中學中國語文課程的關注程度》。香港:香港 中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 黃顯華、李玉蓉(2006g)。《在改革路上不斷跨越挑戰:新修訂中學中國語文課程實施個 案研究》。香港:香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 甄曉蘭(2004)。《課程理論與實務──解構與重建》。台北:高等教育文化事業有限公司。 劉冠華(2010)。〈高屏地區國民小學校長道德領導行為與教師組織承諾關係之研究〉,碩 士學位論文。臺灣:國立屏東教育大學,教育行政研究所。 劉雅心(1998)。〈台中地區幼稚園教師課程決定之相關研究〉,碩士學位論文。台灣:國 立台中師範學院,國民教育研究所。 劉潔玲(2006)。〈新課程實施下香港中文科教師的閱讀教學觀與教學模式〉。《教育學報》, 第三十四卷第二期,25-46。 歐用生(1992)。《開放社會的教育改革》。台北:心理出版社。 蔡若蓮、周健、黃顯華(2002)。《影響教師參與課程改革的因素:以中文科新課程試行計 劃為例的質性研究》。香港:香港中文大學教育學院、香港教育研究所。 蔡清田、雲大維(2007)。〈影響國小教師鄉土教育課程決定因素之研究〉。《屏東教育大 學學報》,第二十九期,89-122。 課程發展議會(2001)。《中國語文學習領域:中國語文課程指引(初中及高中)》。香港: 政府印務局。 鄧仕樑(2002)。〈言之無文,行之不遠──課程改革中的文學教育〉。《涓涓江河:面向 42 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 中學中國語文課程新世紀》(頁 49-56)。香港:教育署課程發展處中文組。 簡良平(2001)。〈學校自主發展課程中課程籌劃的探究〉。《課程與教學季刊》,第四卷 第二期,25-46。 簡良平(2002)。《學校課程決定──理論與實證》。台北:師大書苑。 譚彩鳳(2010)。〈教師校本課程決定及其影響因素之研究:香港個案研究〉。《教育研究 發展期刊》第六卷第二期,1-32。 Avner Greif and Guido Tabellini (2012). 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Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 44 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 回顧學校中文科課程改革── 談課程改革與教師專業發展 A review of the Chinese Language curriculum reform in a school - Curriculum reform and teachers’ professional development 簡加言 香港中學語文教育研究會 摘要 本文是一篇教學經驗分享的篇章,以作者曾任教的學校為例,分享老師參與教育局推行的「課 程改革」後的成效。內容集中談教師在編寫課本和試教中總結出一套教學法;課程改革的成 果得到了各方面的肯定,參與的老師在過程中鍛煉了一種「研究」的能力和面對「變更」的 能力。不經意間把整個課程改革的過程變成了教師專業成長和發展的過程。老師總結了成功 的經驗,並與其他前線教師分享,促進交流。文章最後更寄語同行繼續努力,輕鬆面對變動。 關鍵詞 課程改革,教師發展,教育專業 Abstract This article aims to share the teaching experience of the author. Taking her school as an example, the author shares the achievement after participating in the “Curriculum Reform” 45 of Education Bureau. The content focuses on the process from writing textbooks to practical teaching, and eventually forming a series of teaching methods. The effectiveness of “Curriculum Reform” has been generally agreed and appreciated. Through the relevant training, all participants have built up the ability to “research” and face the “change”. Without much awareness, the process of reform has become part of teacher professional development. The participants have consolidated experiences and successful stories to share with other frontline teachers, and encourage knowledge exchange. Finally, also it is encouraged that teachers carry on with the good work and face the curriculum change without fear. Keywords curriculum reform, teacher developments, education profession 引言 課程發展議會(1999)在香港學校課程的整體檢視報告中指出幾項課程改革的目的: (1) 為香港學生提供一個知識建構的學校課程,使他們能以全球視野的胸懷,面對信息 萬變、相互依存的廿一世紀社會; (2) 為配合新的教育目標,培養我們的下一代成為「樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔、 敢於創新」的終身學習者,在今後知識為本經濟體系的社會中,貫徹終身學習。 (3) 為未來的學校課程定出大方向,設計一個以靈活、開放、連貫為課程架構骨幹的「廿 一世紀新課程」,透過高效能的教與學,全面提升學生的素質。 張嘉育(1998)在台北一次研討會裏談到課程時,提出了七個見解: (1) 學校本位課程發展雖以學校為主體,但也重視校內外各種人力、資源的運用結合; (2) 學校本位課程發展採廣義課程定義,課程是指學校指導的一切學習經驗; (3) 學校本位課程發展既重視課程發展成果,也強調過程中學校社區的參與與學習; (4) 學校本位課程發展新定位學校於課程發展中的角色,使「社會──社區、學校── 教師」發展成為一種關係夥伴; 46 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 (5) 學校本位課程發展重心定義了教師與課程的關係,重視學校教育人員的自主與專業, 將課程研究、課程發展與課程實施結合為一體; (6) 學校本位課程強調多樣化、地方化、適切性,可立即回應社會、社區、學校與學生 需要; (7) 學校本位課程發展是倡導「參與」、「由上而下」、「草根式」的課程發展理念。 總的來說,「課程」(curriculum)就是所謂的「學習進程」(王文科,1990);課 程不是將由教師實施的計劃,而是引導教室實驗的架構,是由教師實施的一種教育實驗設 計。課程是教師在教學過程中,對整體的計劃加以考驗、重新建構後發展出來的(歐用生, 1999)。因此,課程改革的主題曲是改進師生的學與教行為;課程改革的目的是要增大學 與教的效能。要全面提升學生的素質,課程固然重要,老師才是關鍵。陳伯璋(1999)指 出教師是課程改革的推動者、設計者,研究者、協調者;但筆者卻認為教師也可以是課程 的創造者、計劃者、撰寫者、施行者、試驗者。故此,教師在多重角色中能達致專業發展。 2000 年香港為了順利推行課程改革,事前做足準備。1998 年 12 月至 1999 年 9 月第 一階段檢視:由課程發展議會啟動,與教統會的教育目標及教育制度檢討同步進行;成立 核心小組、工作小組(成員包括教師、校長、大專學者等),進行關注小組會議、研討會, 建立非正式網絡聯繫。1999 年 9 月至 12 月作廣泛改革方向的諮詢,並討論學校課程將面 對的具體轉變:1999 年 10 月至 2000 年 4 月舉行公開論壇,諮詢各界,並定期舉行有關 會議。2000 年 1 月至 6 月第二階段:檢視及發展「廿一世紀課程」的課程架構與教統會教 育制度檢討的最後建議相配合。2000 年 6 月提交終期報告/建議作公開諮詢,並向課程發 展議會提交終期報告。2000 年 9 月至 2002 年 8 月試行不同的課程模式(課程發展議會, 1999)。眾所周知,課程改革是世界潮流,大家都有共識,面對二十一世紀,全球一體化 成為大趨勢,社會經濟結構急速轉型;面對如此急劇轉變的大環境,教育制度和措施必須 與時並進,才能使香港得以持續發展。教育統籌委員會(教統會)經過廣泛諮詢,於 2000 年向政府提交了《香港教育制度改革建議》。行政長官於同年 10 月發表的施政報告中,接 納了所有建議,香港的教育改革正式揭開序幕。教育改革的整體精神是以學生為本,目標 是「讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面都有全面而具個性的發展,能夠一生不斷自學、 思考、探索、創新和應變,具充分的自信和合群的精神,願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由 47 和民主不斷努力,為國家和世界的前途作出貢獻。」(中華人民共和國香港特別行政區, 2006) 福建中學(小西灣)1998 年建校,一直重視課程改革:為了學生,任何科目都可調適 改動。筆者有幸從一開始就參與了中文科的課程改革:全程參與了科目的理論探索,建構 教學模式和編寫教材的活動;並見證着老師在參與課程改革中的專業發展與成長。自 2000 年改革至今,我校是唯一一所參與改革後仍使用自己課本的學校,也是唯一一套有理論、 有教法及有完整配套的課本(中一至中六)。這除了是教師個人的成就外,也展示了學校 及香港教育界的成就,因為這套課本曾分別在 2004 及 2010 年獲行政長官卓越教學獎項; 也獲得中國教育學會「十一五」科研一等獎;課本在台灣也備受關注,彰化縣教育處向本 校購買了 50 套課本送往各學校;並邀請學校老師赴台主持縣市的講座,分享教研成果。可 見學校參與課改所得的成效與影響力不止於香港;更擴展至其他地區。從教師參與課改所 獲得的專業發展和成效,說明了教師的專業發展與課程改革成效有密切關係(霍秉坤、馮 育珊,2005)。本文嘗試總結、分析學校老師如何通過課程改革及分享教改成效,逐步促 進教育事業的專業發展與成長。 學校傳遞意念 老師主動承擔 教改是一項重大的教育工程,而課程是學校教育的核心所在,所以課程改革與教育改 革密不可分。福建中學(小西灣)建校以來一直很重視課改;但改革不易,不能說「改」 就「改」。需要教師接受下達的意念,然後深思熟慮作出回應──是否要「改」。開校初期, 學校提出兩個重要信息:(1)學校要培育學生成才;(2)學校要培養學者型教師。校長 清楚傳遞信息:需要通過課程改革達到目標,尋找合適教材,鑽研有效教學法是成功關鍵; 能找到教材就好,不然可考慮自擬或調適。校方傳遞意念,卻從不勉強,從不強迫;只讓 老師自己想,自己酌量,是否要「改」則由教師決定。在一年醞釀期間,校長經常提學校 以全人教育為宗旨;因此,以學生為主體,可以體現學校的教育理念;這一取向與「香港 課程改革為學生規劃一個寬廣而均衡,以學為主的課程」的改革目標一致(香港課程發展 議會,2000)。所以教師群中開始權衡利弊;思考以學生為主體即意味着課程要為學生「量 體裁衣」,要與學生的需要相適應;因材施教,教法要重啟發,讓學生充分參與學習過程, 48 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 變講堂為學堂,杜絕「填鴨」;教學要重視回饋,並要適時調整。這些都是教師一直堅持 的教學理念,因此,我們的老師就義無反顧接受了「課改」的使命;而且深切理解:課程 改革雖然以學生為主體,但並不是放任學生自生自滅,否定教師的作用。我們的老師堅持 以學生為主體,教師為主導,帶引學生,向高處攀登。我們的課程改革就由願意「試驗」 的科組展開。筆者認為在這個磨合過程中,學校需要清礎傳遞意念;若要成事,必須有老 師主動承擔;兩者缺一不可。Wideen 和 Andrews(1987)認為教師是改革的中心,這話是 有道理的。 福建中學(小西灣)中文科是課改先鋒,2000 年先參與教育署(現教育局)的試驗計 劃,經過一年學習,便決定自行編寫課程。這膽子可大,坊間的課本編著背後說的是一支 專業編輯隊伍,有整個機構的專業支援作後盾。學校怎能與之相比?一般人想像的課改大 概就是「剪剪貼貼」罷了。沒想到本校花了五年時間編寫了初中課本(1-6 冊)、再花五 年完成了高中課本(7-10 冊)。改革動力從何來呢?從學生而來。老師在編寫和試教中, 發現課本和教法對學生有利。所以「改革」就停不了。我們的學生與全港情況一致,學語 文的效率不高;歸究原因:一是閱讀量偏低;課內讀得太少,沒有足夠輸入,自然不可能 有高水平輸出;其二是中文課語言訓練不足;過去中文課比較注重精讀課文,教學偏重內 容分析,把時間花在作者、題解、文體講解上,少針對語言本身,不利於養成能力。其三 就是對學生要求太低,結果是學生做得愈少,水平越低;水平低,則要求再降,反覆下調。 所以為學生編一套合適的教材就成為福建中學(小西灣)語文科老師的使命了。Glatthorn (2000)認為課程領導應當發揮作用,使學校系統以及學校達到確保學生學習質量的目標。 Sergiovanni(1995)也指出,課程領導應為學校成員提供必要的支持,進而充實教師的課 程專業知識和能力,促使學校形成合作與不斷改進的文化,最後把學校發展成課程社群, 達致卓越的教育目標。筆者深切體會因為學校的最高領導人,包括校長以及校董會,他們 給予我們的支持是充足的;在校長和校董會大力支持下,學校展開了漫長的「改革路」。 老師意識到使用的課程,必須要大幅度增力,學生才能有大進步。要增大閱讀量;要重語 言的比例,改變過往重「道」輕「文」的傾向,做到「文」、「道」協調,工具性與人文 性統一。然而市面上並無合適的教材,這促使我們確信我們應當致力編一套對學生有利的 課本。比較理想的教材架構應該是立體的,而不是平面的,於是精選名家篇章,在初中三 級組成一個立體的閱讀系統:即中一在小學的基礎上著重培養語感和語文的基礎能力。中 49 二著重認識文體及培養閱讀文章的五種能力。中三著重培養閱讀和鑒賞文學作品的能力。 每一階段都是前一階段基礎上的提高,有利於提升學生的閱讀能力,也同時避免重覆沉悶。 閱讀教材採用能力及內容主題雙線結構,除能力主導外,選讀課文又按生活主題選編。每 年選文一百篇,中一至中三共選文三百篇。以期有效奠立初中學生的語文基礎。每單元也 列有「圖書館」,因應學生水平介紹名著,縮微作品,摘編精彩片斷,以期利用課內的「精 彩片斷」,吸引學生課餘追看整本名著。做到每年閱讀名家美文不少於十萬字。這個突破 性的意念與創舉是老師在課改的研究中發展出來的;可見課程改革是促進教師成長與發展 的催化劑。 堅持響應課改 猛力追求突破 學校自響應教育署(現教育局)的課程改革後,全面投入編寫校本課程。當時坊間議 論課程改革的聲音此起彼落,我們的老師卻埋頭苦幹,只想着把最合適學生的教材得盡力 搞成、寫好。十年過去了,我們出版了中一至中六整套課本(共十冊);500 篇文章,500 個教案,漢語拼音(初中)、普通話朗誦光碟(初中)、三個選修單元(高中)與課本配 套的作業、寫作、說話訓練等教材;並總結出一套包括課程理論、教學模式及教材教案所 組成的「簡式單元教學法」。為編撰高質素教材,老師們均博覽群書,到內地重點中學求 教,並專訪本地和外地有經驗人士,書成以後,送予本港和內地多位專家,反覆修訂,數 易其稿。一面實踐,一面總結,一面作理論探究,一寫就寫了十年。在這猛力追求課本完 整的十年裏,老師能不成長嗎?在專業上能不發展起來嗎?老師獲得的不止是外界給予的 肯定與成就,更多的是通過編寫課本,自己讀了很多書。沒有大量輸入,怎能寫得出整套 完整的課本與課練呢?這意外的大收穫促成了老師的專業發展。更重要的是在試教的過程 中,老師為了要建構有效的教學法而不斷進行課堂研究,基本上已掌握如何「上好一節課」 的竅門了。所以總結了一套教學法,提升了課堂學與教的效能。儘管在課改期間,老師忙 於寫理論、寫課本、寫教案;忙於試教、忙於修訂,再修訂;但能發展出一套有理論、有 數據、有實效的教材和教學法,這太值了!所謂十年磨一劍,是甚麼成就了這群追求在教 學上有突破的教師呢?一切都是從「課改」開始。 Sparks 和 Hirsh(1997)指出學校是教師發展的重要地點;吳剛平(2002)說校本課 50 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 程開發在大多數學校中一直在進行,如果做得好的話,它將成為學校教師專業發展的途徑。 福建中學(小西灣)的老師就是明證了,筆者有幸參與了這盛舉,在專業發展上的確有了 長進。 霍秉坤(2000)曾為香港的課程決策提出幾點建議: (1) 改進課程決策的參與模式,應有更多的民主成分,有更多的參與者; (2) 課程發展需要鼓勵學校為本的課程設計,避免單純應用統一課程設計的理念; (3) 要重視課程的決策,重視課程專家在最高層架構的意見; (4) 重視專業教師的參與,使他們成為課程改革的中心。 筆者認同專業教師的參與是重要的,Blackman(1989)說:課程發展是人的發展之外, 更體驗了在課程改革下的成長和發展。筆者認同霍秉坤(2000)談的「參與模式」和「民 主成分」;我們重視學生的參與,也重視學生對教材的意見。才讓措(2007)認為要樹立 課程為學生而存在的觀念,應該對學生的需求進行評估,了解和研究每一個學生的需要及 其發展的可能性,尊重學生的不同選擇。我們在新課程中剔除了不受學生歡迎的篇章,在 文字規範可學的前提下,新選文盡力切合學生興趣。我們同意 Elliott(1991)的看法,課 程是指師生共同建構價值與知識的歷程。所以我們的老師很願意了解,並深入探討學生的 學習難題,比如學生多厭惡文言文,覺得文言文難學又沒有實際用途,中一同學更因陌生 而害怕學文言文。於是我們針對這一情況,在文言文教學中特別注意古今貫通,優先選用 仍有生命力的文言文,充分利用粵語中有較多文言色彩詞彙的特點,打破「文」「白」隔膜。 在中一課程中,文言文全部選用成語故事(原典)和詩詞,由於成語和詩詞篇幅都比較短 小,易於誦讀,不易嚇怕中一級新生,而且成語和詩詞中名句也比較容易運用於現代文中, 使現代文生色,這就化不利為有利,使學生樂於學習文言文。從實踐證明了新教材有效提 高學生的閱讀能力,有效提高學生的語文水平。我們的老師認為學生的成就反映了老師的 成就;只有猛力追求突破和學習的老師才會從學生的角度想問題,且認真努力地解決學生 的學習障礙。因為響應和掌握了「課改」的契機而追求教學的突破,這就是我們的老師了。 51 思維敢於創新 膽大眼界高遠 課程改革是要以學生為主體,為學生開拓「學習空間」(課程發展議會,2001);提 高學生的學習動機。因此,必須保證我們的教材能引起學生興趣。我們追求的是學中求樂, 愉快學習,不同意以漫畫取代閱讀,不認同以鄙俗文章代替經典範文,更不容許以粵方言 入文的中文教學取向;我們認為不管是講故事或戲劇活動等學習方法都不能代替「讓學生 在書海中尋找樂趣」的做法。所以我們大膽提出:以大量閱讀和探究加快提升學生語文寫 作能力的設想,並挑選十名學生進行小規模試驗,經過一年的試驗,效果理想。故在第二 年推廣至中一、中二兩級共四班,而第三年則推廣至中一級全體學生,到目前,這套寫作 教學法已在全體老師和全校學生中進行。第一批試驗的學生,五年後取得了令人非常鼓舞 的成績。會考作文卷都拿到了 A 至 C 級的成績。比較他們中一時的成績實現了「質」的飛 躍。從一開始,我們的想法是:中文教學改革應以寫作為突破口,目標是通過寫作訓練, 提昇學生的語文水平和能力,更通過語文能力的提高,全面提升學生的學業成績和信心, 並通過老師對學生的高期望,從而最終讓學生能擁有自信心,和充實的人生。這個目標已 在學生的表現中呈現出來。Beane(1995)認為課程統整的內涵及課程盡可能的更具民主 性與意義性、更具效果與吸引力、更尊重學生之個別差異及尊重課程可能性之研究。以意 義化、內化、類化、簡化等四項功能,強調社會學習領域統整的理由。學生能夠把所學的 各種課程貫串起來,瞭解不同課程彼此之間的關聯性,增加學習的意義性、應用性和效率 性(黃政傑,1997)。對學生來說學習的意義莫過於能「應用」;所以學生最不愛學的就 是學了沒有用的東西。例如我們都知道多讀多寫才能學好語文,這道理簡單,但香港學生 就是不愛讀,也不愛寫;所以我們要了解同學喜歡讀哪些篇章,編寫有利於提高學習興趣 的教材,讓學生覺得學語文是有用的,是具實效的。我們在研究課程和試驗中,盡量讓同 學參與,令課程的設計變得民主性和具意義性;更重要的是通過學生的參與,評估成效, 例如,我們會發調查問卷了解同學喜歡讀哪些篇章,並盡所能聽取意見;因為我們相信突 破傳統,才能開創雙贏局面。 傳統閱讀教學面面俱到,事事精細,結果只見樹木,不見森林,量雖少,語文教學的 質卻不高。我們共同探索建構的「簡式單元教學法」。堅持「以量求質」的原則。傳統上, 多讀大多是要求學生在課外進行,但這方法在自覺自律能力較低,家庭支援較少的學生中, 52 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 卻難實行。我們提出的「閱讀教學法」,在課程和課堂內幫助學生養成閱讀習慣,將課外 閱讀的指導設於課堂之內。增加課內閱讀量,學生每年最少閱讀 100 篇範文(散文、詩歌、 小說和戲劇節錄),不少於十萬字名著美文。另瀏覽十本名著,而且適量背誦,積累詞彙 句式。實現了由提倡閱讀到老師指導,營造閱讀氣氛,創設閱讀環境等一系列可以操作的 措施。經過了多年的實踐,事實證明學生的讀寫能力有了很大的提高。我們切實堅持語文 課的重點在「教語言」,使用自編教材,並作教學設計以緊扣單元重點,對文本以外的知 識,只擇其最精要作簡介,以圖示板書和誦讀協助整體感悟課文,精選精講語言,點滴積 累,體現學生為主體的精神,重視能力遷移與應用。從實踐效果看,的確能提高教學效能。 這也是香港語文教育界創新之舉。 另外,我們探索而建構了「簡式寫作教學法」。堅持「多寫少改」──自由文只寫不 改,規範文對焦略批,重在講評。這個敢於創新的寫作教學法突破了傳統的雙輸困局,開 創了老師、學生雙贏的局面──首先是學生多寫而教師工作量不增,然後學生因多寫而提 升了質素,教師批改變得較易,工作難度下降,形成良性循環。現時學校的同學不管能力 如何,都「肯寫、敢寫」。即使是第三組別的中一學生經過約三個月的訓練,即能於 60 分鐘內完成一篇 600 字的作文。盡量讓同學覺得學語文是實用的,是有效的。而今,「簡 式寫作教學法」並已結集成書。經推介,也有學校試行「多寫少改」,同樣有效。黃政傑 (1991)指出課程組織的統整性應用於科目與科目之間、理論與實際間,校內活動與校外 活動之間、也可用於認知、技能和情感之間。Ornstein 和 Hunkins(1998)認為統整性是指 在課程計劃中,連接所有類型的知識與經驗。而統整的結果可從價值性、完全性、數量性、 全體性、秩序性、和諧性與公平性等七個面向來判斷是否達成有意義的統整(楊龍立、潘 麗珠,2001)。因此,課程的橫向聯繫必須使學習者將所學的概念、原理、原則關連起來, 成為有意義的整體,學習才能產生效果。筆者同意在課程的統整計劃,除了重視知識,也 要結合經驗。所以,我們堅持鼓勵學生多寫,而且要多寫自己的「經驗」,並結合所學習 的科目一併思考;可以寫科學、可以寫音樂、可以寫體育、可以寫數學。因為我們相信學 習是一個整體,科目與科目之間是生活的聯繫,是學生生活的價值點滴;學生想到甚麼就 寫甚麼。我們的老師相信從「肯寫、敢寫」切入而加大寫作的「量」,就能獲得由「量」 而變「質」的學習效能;這種膽大高遠且敢於創建的新思維是從「課改」開始的。 53 銳意追求卓越 步伐與時並進 Elliott(1993)提出:教學是一種行動研究的表現,行動研究的理論也是一種學習理論。 歐用生(1989)指出只有老師對自己的教學和教室實施研究,然後親自「看到」和親自「體 驗」到整個變化的過程,接着重新學習,改變自已的知識觀,這樣才能解決問題。陳伯璋 (1998)認為行動研究是結合行動與研究的一種研究方法,即是指情境的參與者(如教師) 基於實際問題解決的需要,與專家、學者或組織中的成員共同合作,將問題發展成研究主 題,進行有系統的研究,以講求實際問題解決的一種研究方法。這就是為甚麼我們很重視 行動研究的原因;筆者同意 Mcniff(1988)說的,行動研究不只是教學過程,它是對教學 過程的覺知與批判,且利用自我批判的覺知,開放一個改變的過程來改善教學。我們的老 師就是執着於研究、改善課堂的學與教;所以黃政傑(1985)和蔡清田(2000)都指出「行 動研究」是基於「教師即研究者」的理念,由實際操作的教師在實際的教學經驗中,根據 所遇到的實際問題進行研究,並設計問題和尋求解決的策略。通過實際行動來進行反思、 修正,尋求解決所遇到的困難。我們的老師為了更好的配合語文教學的改革,早於 2000 年 就參與教育署(現教育局)的語文單元教學改革試驗計劃。經過了一年艱苦努力,編寫了 中一級的整套單元教學校本課程,這套課程在當時 49 所試驗學校中曾獲好評,列為中上。 但老師並不滿意,因為老師一面編寫,一面試教,在行動研究中發現課程不理想,進行反 思,最後決定放棄了整年的心血!在掌握單元教學的概念上,再結合多寫多讀的實驗,重 新編寫一套既符合本校學生需要又具向全港學校推廣價值的課程,這套課程的初中部份共 六冊,300 篇文章、300 個教案及漢語拼音課本、普通話朗誦光碟;與課本配套的作業也做 出初稿,並總結出一套包括單元理論、教學模式及教材教案所組成的「簡式單元教學法」。 完成初中的課本後,老師仍不停步,繼續籌備編訂單元教學的中四、中五級課程;到了新 高中學制落實後,隨即根據指引趕緊編寫中六語文課本及三個語文的選修單元課本。這種 通過研究和實踐,銳意追求和與時並進的教學態度表現了卓越老師的特質。 我們的老師為了完善高質素的教材,除虛心向海內外的專家請教外,並在試教中進行 多項的行動研究,因為有效性教學的決定因素,是取決於學生對課堂學習的積極性、主動 性(陶曉彥,2008)。 54 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 李玉雙(2010)也指出有效課堂又是有效教學的重要載體,要實現有效教學就要利用 好課堂 40 分鐘,要把課堂教學的立足點放到學生身上,使學生樂於學,自主學,學會學。 行動研究的特徵: (1) 在特定的情境中診斷並解決問題; (2) 強調問題解決的立即性; (3) 重視實務工作者的研究參與; (4) 過程重視協同合作; (5) 屬發展性的反省彈性計畫; (6) 研究的結果可以促成專業成長; (7) 是一種社會化過程; (8) 具批判性的; (9) 具解放性的; (10) 是反省─辯證的(Bogdan & Biklen, 1982;Cohen & Manion, 1989;Kemmis & Taggart, 1998;蔡清田,2000)。 所以整個探究模式是一個循環式程序,每一個程序包括四個不同步驟:計劃、行動、 觀察和反思。這幾個步驟對評估我們建構的教學法起了很重要的作用;因為我們相信理論 是必須在實務中被確認的(Elliott, 1981)。我們的老師為試驗課本和教學法的可行性,一 面實踐,一面總結,一面作理論探究,除了驗證我們建構的教學法之外,更為下一步研究 創設條件。例如,香港回歸中國已 15 年了,兩地無論在經貿或文化上的交流亦日漸頻繁, 兩地學生交流活動亦不斷增加。早年語常會推出「普教中」計劃,鼓勵學校參與;我們的 老師認為從學習語文來說,普通話的表意方式與書面語更為接近,以普通話作為思考方式, 自能減少文法問題。不過面對的困難可不少。首先,教師質素備受關注,另外,是學生吸 收問題。我們的老師認為學校的課改已取得客觀的肯定,接下來該注入新元素,豐富及試 驗教材的能耐與效能。在權衡輕重後,認為「普教中」對學生有利的;於是便參加了維持 三年的「普教中」支援計畫。我們的老師在計畫中接受培訓,至今,語文科所有老師都能 以普通話教授語文。這是另一項課程改革中,老師獲得專業發展的機會與收穫。我們的老 師在編寫課本中成長,在課程改革中發展專業能力,在行動研究中尋求、探究教學法,驗 證實效,追求卓越;我們的老師都能在課改中培養出一種能力:課堂學與教的「研究能力」。 55 有了這種能力,就能面對課程的任何更新與改動。這是學校參與了課程改革帶給老師的意 外收穫,從收穫中也體現了參與課改教師的成長與發展的寶貴經歷。 掌握課程趨勢 推廣改革成效 傅道春(2001)認為教師必須擁有一種專業擴充能力。它的內容包括:能把自己教學 的質疑和探討作為進一步發展的基礎;有研究自己教學的信念和技能;有在實踐中對理論 進行質疑和檢驗的意向;有準備接受其他教師來觀察自己的教學,並能在理論和實踐兩個 層面上對自己的教學情境進行意圖與效果的說明。筆者對這點是非常同意的;我們的老師 在課程改革中也經歷了這個過程,並鍛煉出一種專業擴充能力。這可以通過老師在不同場 合、渠道分享課改成效中體現出來的:這包括與外地先進同行交流,多次訪問廣東、上海、 北京、南京、天津和台灣等地的中學。改革初期,稍有成效,2003 年學校老師就到北京主 講「香港的考試與評估」專題,也有老師出席在武漢舉行的中國教育學會語文教學專業委 員會第八屆年會,並分享香港課程改革經驗,接着也在南京介紹「香港的德育觀與德育實 踐」。除了到境外交流外,我們的老師還積極組織香港與內地的專業交流活動。接待來訪 的本地學校,介紹和觀摩學校語文教學的經驗。出版專業書籍,舉辦及親自教授公開課, 促進全港語文教師的觀摩文化。在努力推動下,福建中學(小西灣)中文科在學校率先進 行集體備課、相互觀課、評課,實行每級集體備課。2002 年全年,中文科開課逾 140 次, 觀課者超過 380 人次,為促成這種教研風氣;學校於 2002 年率先在香港舉辦大型公開課, 也是首次以香港老師(福建中學(小西灣)老師)授課,接受他校同工逾百人觀課,禮堂 座無虛席,開香港交流之風。當時,這種課堂和教學開放的氛圍慢慢向全校、全港推廣, 這是中文料同事參與了課程改革後的成果,這成果正體現在率教研交流之風的帶頭作用; 學校在 2003 年 12 月舉辦了一次面向家長和教育同工的全校開放日。該日全校的課堂均向 外界開放,接待超過 100 名來賓參觀,超過 100 多堂課。這也是史無前例的。至今,福建 中學(小西灣)仍是全開放的,平均一個月至少有一所機構到校交流、座談、聽課。我們 的老師推廣課改的成效是不遺餘力的。 筆者很同意傅道春(2001)所說的,教師能力是教師在一般能力的基礎上,不斷順應 教育的過程的要求而形成和發展的。教師能力的發展經歷了三個階段,其中一個經歷,他 56 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 說是「生成階段」,他認為新教師走上工作崗位,均有一個從不知到知,從不能到能的過 程,知識老化速度的加快和師範生在校所學知識與實踐需要的差距,使新教師面臨重新構 建知能結構的任務。教師能力的生成過程是一個學習──實踐的過程,是知識技能向教育 教學能力轉化的過程,也是學習與研究意識的產生過程。筆者認為這一點說得很好,可是 不單是新任老師,就算是資深的老師也一樣,每一個改變都需要「實踐過程」,有了實踐 就能掌握課程的得失,判斷課程的成效;因為通過親身體驗,才能透徹掌握課程,而整個 實施與管理的工作就能井然有序,有了一個規律,推廣起來就具理論與實踐了。所以陳時 見(1999)認為要搞好課程管理,必須遵循一定的規律,按課程的規律辦事。首先,課程 是一個龐大的系統,既然它是一個系統,它的各要素之間就有聯繫,就應該是一個整體, 所以課程管理的一個重要原則就是整體性原則。所以課程改革是否成功,除了具備了強而 有力的火車頭之外,同事間的協作才是關鍵;我們的老師就擁有這協作特質。另外,陳時 見(1999)也指出,課程管理的目的是在一定環境中,通過一系列的管理行為,使課程系 統取得最好的效果,所以課程管理的另一個重要原則是最優化原則。所以我們的老師在推 廣改革成效時,也不時強調「優化」是改革的重點,不是說已經很好就不改,而是要進行 優化。筆者認為這是教育局多年致力推行教改的總方向;因為「沒有最好,只有更好」。 教育統籌委員會於 2000 年在其《香港教育制度改革建議》報告中,確立了「終身學習、全 人發展」為二十一世紀的教育目標,並全面推出 2000 年教育改革藍圖內所承諾的計劃。我 們都知道教育改革是一項龐大且複雜的工程,從來都是這樣,「改革」總是帶來不安、困 難和挑戰。所以我們的老師樂意分享成功經驗,毫不吝嗇分享各地課程改革的趨勢與發展 等資料,和多年進行課堂研究的心得與成效呈顯與會者跟前。學校是願意老師多作分享的, 因為一次分享等同一次總結;而總結是一種能力的體現,也是教師專業能力發展的過程, 機會難得。傅道春(2001)也說了:隨着教育教學經驗的豐富,教師的能力開始走向成熟, 並形成自己的風格與特長,增強了適應和應變力,掌握了比較過硬的教育教學本領。這一 階段的教師形成了自己的「科學教育學」體系,具有一定的教學研究水平,逐步萌發創新 意識。教師經過長期的學習、實踐,其能力開始進入巔峰。不僅形成了合理的知能結構, 具有完備的教育理論素養和學科知識體系,而且積累了豐富的教育教學經驗,形成了自己 的教學專長,具備了組織和領導教學和研究的能力,具備了進行教育創新的基本條件。我 們的老師雖然說不上登鋒造極,但「推門觀課」已經難不了他們了。至於負責一個講座對 我們的老師來說是學習、是發展,又是教學專長與能力的展現;學校是樂見其成的。這是 57 課程改革帶給老師的恩物和收穫!現在我們的老師各具風格,各領風騷。老師都各有自己 的教學本領;但更重要的是:那都是對教育、對學生「有心」的老師! 總結 新一屆香港中學文憑公開考試已結束了。2004 年 10 月,教育統籌局推出有關新學制 的諮詢文件,2005 年 5 月發表《高中及高等教育新學制——投資香港未來的行動方案》報 告書,貫徹培養學生終身學習、全人發展的教育目標。為協助學校於 2009 年 9 月起在高中 各級實施新高中課程,課程發展議會及香港考試及評核局於 2007 年聯合編訂了二十四科 新高中科目的課程及評估指引,而課程發展議會亦於 2009 年編訂《高中課程指引──立 足現在 ‧ 創建未來》,讓學校建基於基礎教育的優勢和經驗,為學生提供寬廣、均衡而有 多元化選擇的高中課程。334 新學制正式落實,這是香港教育史上一個重要的里程碑。在 整個新學制推出時,爭議的聲音此起彼落。十年課改剛停下來,隨即的變動又來了。前文 說過「變」會帶來不安。但新課程內容為學生提供了寬廣、均衡和具深度的變動,例如, 教育局在 24 個新高中科目外,為學生提供應用學習課程。課程的目標是通過真實情境,讓 學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論,從而培養他們的共通能力。這些改動的原意 本來是好的,可是前線教師還是憂慮!筆者認為新學制就好像是一個課程統整,將不同學 科知識加以整合,重新安排學習的方法,統整的範圍不單是學科的統整,筆者認為那是一 種課程設計的意念與理論的統整。這包含經驗與社會的統整;組織課程的核心是學生經驗 到的實際生活,將有關的內容聯貫起來,藉此讓學生批判性地探討真正的議題(歐用生, 1996;楊家寧,2005)。 所以「改動」是一個「整合」的意念,因此,新學制可以說不「新」;所謂百變不離 其宗,例如,教育局制定的政策強調學生「學會學習」的能力。為達到使學生能夠養成學 會學習的能力,政府在課程指引內提出了「九種共通能力」及「四個關鍵項目」兩種概念。 九種共通能力包括:協作能力,溝通能力,創造力,批判性思考能力,運用資訊科技能力, 運算能力,解決問題能力,自我管理能力,研習能力。這都不是新的東西,只是把我們已 知的知識重新演繹。又例如,「優化教學協作計劃」是在香港教育局資助下,由香港中文 大學教育學院與學校夥伴協作中心聯合多所中小學合作開展的一項探索,目的是為不同學 58 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 習領域的教師提供專業支援,以提升教師的教學效能及專業能力,「4-P 模式」則是該計 劃在促進教師專業發展方面運用的基本策略。4P:澄清問題(Problem Clarification)、計 劃(Planning)、計劃行動(Progress Action)和進展評鑒(Progress Evaluation),這四個 環節又構成一個不斷循環的整體流程。目的是運用「4-P 模式」改進相關科目的課堂教學, 通過這個模式為教師反思及其專業發展提供一種現實的策略和工具。但老師對這四個環節 是不會感到陌生的,因為沒有出現這「4-P模式」之前,我們的老師已懂得澄清問題、計劃、 計劃行動和進展評鑒;只是我們從沒有想過要把他們統整起來。李子建(2002)嘗試把個 人反思和行動研究簡化成為 4-P 模式,目的是方便學校應用在校本發展的探究上。為甚麼 呢?因為在教育工作上,引入個人反思和行動研究,可以更有效地在思想和行動上進行有 機的整合與系統的檢視;同時,它更是學校發展其教學專業的(李子建、馬慶堂,2010) 最好方法。今天有專家們把我們慣用的東西整合起來,成了理論,而且指引我們如何用得 更好、更科學;又為了使我們容易掌握、便於記憶,並冠以名稱──「4-P 模式」;有理論、 有實踐、有成效,那是最好不過了。所以,筆者認為如果我們抱這樣的心態面對「改動」, 心情就輕鬆了。因為那些改動只是將過去零碎分立的教材或教學活動加以關聯與整合,或 在兩個或兩個以上的學科領域間建立連結(Deborah, 2001)。只要我們虛心學習,熟能生 巧,定能掌握竅門,使之成為我們的助力。 另外,我們還要洞悉課程統整是社會現實的需要,例如應用課程的設置讓我們想到, 課程是以生活經驗、個人與社會的需求作為統整的焦點,主張統整課程不僅是學科間的聯 結,而是應能反映生活,甚至把課程就視為是生活(Gehrke, 1998)。如果我們這樣想,就 容易接受「改動」了。因為課程統整是教育的完整歷程,融合各個學科的新領域,以主題 來組織課程核心,提供個人學習經驗與社會的整合,來增加學習的整體性。Tchudi 及 Lafer (1996)和 Beane(1997)認為統整課程的特質是學習者本身的議題和所關心的事,並能 激發學生思考,引導學生學習;帶領學生進入真實世界,解決問題;並建立強而有力之學 習社群的合作感。這些學者的看法與我們課程改革的目的是一致的。因此,「課改」、「改 動」並非洪水猛獸,只要善用,就能通過「課改」促成學生的高效能學習,也能促進老師 的專業發展與成長。Elliott(1993)認為課程改革是人的改革;課程發展是人的發展;沒 有教師發展就沒有課程發展。筆者更認為課程改革是課堂的改革;課程發展是學與教的發 展;沒有學生和老師的發展就沒有課程發展了。 59 參考文獻 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區(2006)。《教育改革進展報告(四)終生學習.全面發展》。 香港:政府物流服務。 才讓措(2007)。《校本課程開發是提升教師專業化的契機》。青海師範大學(哲學社會科 學版)。05 期,132-136。 王文科(1990)。《課程論》。台北:五南出版社。 吳剛平(2002)。《校本課程開發》。成都:四川教育出版社。 李子建(2002)。《反思教學行動研究〈一個都不能少:個別差異的處理〉》。台北:師大 書苑。 李子建、馬慶堂(2010)。〈反思教學.校本行動研究與教學發展〉。《校本課程發展、教 師發展與伙伴協作》。北京:教育科學出版社。頁 11-41。 李玉雙(2010)。〈有效課堂教學的理解〉。2011 年 11 月 22 日,取自 http://hebei.teacher. com.cn/GuoPeiAdmin/HomeWork/ShowStudentHomework.aspx?HomeWorkStudentID=537 4&cfName=201011035374。 香港課程發展議會(2000)。《學會學習課程詻詢文件》。香港:香港課程發展議會。 香港課程發展議會(2001)。《學會學習.課程發展路向》。香港:香港課程發展議會。 香港課程發展議會(2009)。《高中課程指引──立足現在 ‧ 創建未來》。香港:香港課 程發展議會。 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A. (1995). Toward a coherent curriculum. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Beane, J. A. (1997). Curriculum integration: Designing the core of democratic education. New York: Teachers College. Blackman, C. A. (1989). Issues in professional development: The continuing agenda, In M. L. Holly & C. S. McLoughin (Eds.), Perspectives on the teacher professional development. New York: The Falmer Press. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1982). Qualitative research. New York: Allyan & Bacon. Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1989). Research methods in education. RKP. Deborah, D. (2001). The economy of curriculum integration: Profit and loss. English Leadership Quarterly. 23.3 (2001): 2-5. Hall, Jacquelyn. Elliott, J. (1993). Action Research for Educational Change. Buckingham: Open University Press. Elliott, J. (1981). Action Research: A framework for self-evaluation in schools. Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia. Elliott, J. (1991). Action Research for Educational Change. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Glatthorn, A. A. (2000). The principal as curriculum leader: Shaping what is taught & tested (2nd ed.). Thousand Oads, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Gehrke, N. (1998). A look at curriculum integration from the bridge. The Curriculum Journal, 9(2), 247-260. 61 Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner. Geelong: Deakin University Press. Mcniff, J. (1988). Action research: Principles and practice. London: Macmillan. Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 2-5. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum development & design. NY: Macmillan. Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (1997). A new vision for staff development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development; Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Sergiovanni, R. J. (1995). Leaders with vision: The quest for school renewal. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Tchudi, S., & Lafer, S. (1996). The interdisciplinary teacher’s handbook: A guide to integrated teaching across the curriculum. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton / Cook Publishers. Wiseen, M. F., & Andrews, I. (1987). Staff development for school improvement: A focus on the teacher. New York: Falmer Press. 62 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视: 问题与挑战 Analysis of the senior secondary Chinese curriculum reform in Mainland China from multiple perspectives: Issues and challenges 黄显涵 香港中文大学 李子建 香港教育学院 摘要 本文借用技术的、文化的、政治的和后现代的视角对中国大陆新高中语文课程改革实施进 行分析,探讨其在不同视角中所遭遇的问题和挑战。从技术视角来看,此次语文课改存在 课程目标难以落实、教师专业素养不足、学科评价难度过大以及外部条件限制等四方面问 题;在文化视角中,语文课改需要平衡中国传统文化和西方舶来文化两股矛盾的力量;从 政治视角来看,语文教师的赋权之路仍然挑战重重;从后现代取向来看,学生个体的声音 与力量在这次语文课改中受到了有意无意的忽视。 关键词 语文课程改革,课程实施,多元/多维视角 63 Abstract This paper discusses the implementation issues in the Chinese curriculum reform of senior schools in Mainland China from technological, cultural, political and postmodern perspectives. From the technological perspective, four issues have to be addressed: educational objectives being difficult to be realized, teachers lacking professional skills, the difficulty of assessment in the Chinese subject, and constraints of supporting factors. With regard to the cultural dimension, a balance of Chinese traditional culture and western culture is needed. From the political perspective, Chinese teachers still have a long way to execute the power of curriculum. From the postmodern perspective, student voice is consciously or unconsciously neglected during this reform. Keywords Chinese curriculum reform, curriculum implementation, multiple perspectives 2001 年 6 月中国教育部颁布《基础教育课程改革纲要(试行)》,标志中国大陆 正式启动迄今为止“步伐最大”、“难度最高”的一次课程改革(教育部基础教育司, 2002)。雷实(2002)指出在世界各国的教育改革中,母语教育占据极其重要的位置。因 此是次中国大陆课程改革中语文学科的重要性不言而喻。郑国民(2003)指出,此次语文 课改转变传统课程对基础知识与技能的倚重,强调语文学科的知识体系与能力训练体系, 其宗旨是关注并促进学生的终身发展。以《普通高中语文课程标准(实验)》(中华人民 共和国教育部,2003,下文简称“03 课标”)作为分析蓝本,此次语文课程改革基本理念 主要包括三方面: 1. 全面提高学生语文素养,充分发挥语文课程的育人功能; 2. 注重语文应用、审美与探究能力的培养,促进学生均衡而有个性的发展; 3. 遵循共同基础与多样选择相统一的原则,构建开放有序的语文课程。 (中华人民共和国教育部,2003) 具体来看,在课程目标上首次建构“知识和能力”、“过程和方法”、“情感态度和 价值观”三维目标体系,着重培养学生的语文素养(巢宗祺,2005)。在教学内容上,设 64 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 置“必修 + 选修”的选课方式、强调开发多元化课程资源、关注典范性和时代性的统一、 突出口语交际能力(黄显涵、李子建,2009)。在课程组织上,强调建设“开放、多样、 有序的语文课程体系”(中华人民共和国教育部,2003),突出课程的统整性与选择性(李 子建、尹弘飙,2005)。在教学评估上,03 课标明确指出“评价的根本目的是为了促进学 生语文素养的全面提高”,否定以往刻板单一的纸笔测验方式转而强调发挥评价的诊断、 激励和发展性功能,采纳多元化方式进行教学评价等等(中华人民共和国教育部,2003; 倪文锦,2004)。可以说此次语文课程改革尝试通过更具开放性的理念、更为多元化的方 式促进学生能力全面发展、为语文课程与教学注入新的活力。 然而美好的理想并不等同于现实。 从课改参与者——教师的视角来看,情况不容乐观。一项在 2010 年实施的语文教师 调查表明:48.6% 的语文教师不知道此次语文课改的理念,39.2% 的教师从没看过语文课 程标准,71.5% 的教师认为此次语文课程改革的实现难度较大,63.8% 的教师对现行语文 教材不满意,56.7% 的教师几乎没有想过要利用课外语文学习资源等(屠锦红,2010)。 从课改实施成效来看,调查研究表明只有 30% 的学生认为新课程对学生自身的发展是利大 于弊的,有 85% 的学生认为自己基本做不到或无法做到自主学习以及探究式学习;近 40% 的学生对学习不感兴趣或很不感兴趣(戴斌荣、张旺,2007)。尽管这些数据仅仅代表了 一所学校或是一个城市的课改实施情况,但是这些冰山一角的数据至少展示出此次语文课 程改革总体成效并不尽如人意。我们不禁思考:在此次课程改革中,语文——这个身负重 任的母语学科——到底都面对着哪些挑战和困境? 在探讨课程实施时,实施取向是一个不能回避的话题。Snyder 等人(1992)从课程 计划以及课程实施的相互关系出发将实施取向分为忠实观(fidelity)、相互调适(mutual adaptation)以及课程缔造(curriculum enactment)三种类型(李子建、黄显华,1996)。 House(1979)则从阐释和分析的维度指出可以从技术观(technical perspective)、政治观 (political perspective)以及文化观(cultural perspective)三种视角理解课程实施。伴随 后现代思潮的日渐风行,Hargreaves 等人(2002)则认为信息技术日新月异的发展以及现 象学、解释学、女性主义等多元理论对课程实施产生了深刻影响,在探讨课程实施取向时 65 应该在 House 的理论基础上添加后现代的阐述视角(postmodern perspectives),即形成技 术观、文化观、政治观和后现代四种维度。当然这些不同视角之间并非壁垒分明、相互割 裂。事实上在教育视域中,政治、文化以及技术等各种因素总是交叉依附、难以分割。更 需注意的是在分析课程实施的过程中,只有分别采纳不同取向对课程实施进行多元反思和 审视,才更有可能全面理解真实的变革情境(Corbett & Rossman, 1989; Hargreaves, Earl & Schmidt, 2002; House, 1981; House & Mcquillan, 2005)。有鉴于此,本文将借助 House 以 及 Hargreaves 等人的理论从四种视角入手对当下中国大陆高中语文课程改革面对的挑战与 困境进行多维探讨。 甲、技术视角 House 认为技术视角将生产(production)作为自己的基本隐喻,它的核心性词汇主要 包括效率、投入与产出、目标和任务的明确性、奖励与刺激等等。从技术视角来看,课程 与教学变革唯一需要关注的问题就是如何更好的实施。在他们看来,课程与教学的变革是 一种可预测、可迁移的技术性活动。因此他们更关注变革本身的特征以及构成要素。在实 施策略上,他们强调透彻理解变革的运作机制、强调提升实施者对变革必要性的认可,通 过培训以增强专业效能。在研究方法上,他们侧重量化;在评估方面,技术取向更关注那 些外在显现或是可测量内容的成效与结果(House, 1981)。 如果采纳技术性视角分析此次中国大陆新高中语文课程改革,我们将主要审视目标设 定、实施策略、教师专业素养、课程资源、教学评价等改革本身所蕴含的要素,并且关注 这些要素为具体课程实施所带来的挑战: 首先,落实教学目标所面对的挑战。 Brandt 与 Tyler(2003)指出教育目标可以分为四个层面:其一,系统层面(system level),主要针对教育总体以及整个学区而笼统设定;其二,学科层面(program level), 针对每个学科领域;其三,课程层面(course level),主要指某个学科在某个学期 / 时段 所设定的目标;第四是教学层面(instructional level),即每位教师日常教学所使用的目标。 66 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 下面是对这四个层面目标的举例说明: 系统层面的目标 理解文化的多样性 学科层面的目标 学习鉴赏中外文学作品,具有积极的鉴赏态度,注重审美体验,陶 冶性情,涵养心灵 课程层面的目标 学习中西方经典作品,理解中西文化的差异 教学层面的目标 对比分析庄子《逍遥游》和加缪《西西弗的神话》,探讨中西方文 化在人生态度上的异同 数据源:Brandt & Tyler,2003,12(例子参考《普通高中课程方案(实验)》和 03 课标 有适当修改) 从 Brandt 与 Tyler 所划分的层次来看,此次 03 课标对于教育目标的设定主要集中在 学科层面,基本不涉及课程以及教学层面的目标。尽管这种整合式的目标表述配合了高中 语文学习综合性和整体性等特征,但是从一线教师角度来看,03 课标在目标设定,尤其 是“情感态度价值观”部分的阐述较为模糊和笼统(吴巧英,2008),这使得教师普遍感 觉无从下手(张文娟,2007)。兰瑞平(2006)甚至指出 03 课目标模糊表述有太大的阐 释空间,让一线教师产生了疑虑甚至空虚等负面情绪。与美国 2010 年提出《国家标准共 同核心》(Common Core State Standards,下文简称 CCSS)相比较,CCSS 在英语学习方 面首先将目标分为阅读、写作、听说三部分(03 课标分为阅读与鉴赏、表达与交流两个 部分),在每一个部分都细分为几个关注领域。以阅读为例,具体的关注领域分为:核心 观点与细节(key ideas and details),表现手法和结构(craft and structure),知识和观点 的整合(integration of knowledge and ideas),阅读范围和文章难度层次(range of reading and level of text complexity)。在每一个关注领域中,CCSS 都给出了 6-12 年级每个年级 具体需要对应的课程目标以方便教师根据标准和具体的教学材料来设计适合课堂的教学目 标。与 CCSS 较为详尽的标准设置相比,03 课标显然缺乏系统、明确的区分,因此对目标 本身的理解就成了一个很大的问题(屠锦红、徐林祥,2010)。毫无疑问,这种过多的不 确定性固然可以为一些教师尝试积极课改提供空间,但同时也很容易让教师产生 03 课标过 于笼统、难于在课堂中真正落实的观感从而放弃对 03 课目标研读与实践(鲁德民,2010; 吴亮奎,2009)。 另外,03 课标强调要从“知识和能力”、“过程和方法”以及“情感态度和价值观” 三方面来均衡设计课程目标。可见为了纠正以往过度强调“双基”的思维本次语文课改确 67 实做出了较大改善。但是朱绍禹(2006)指出整个课标关于能力的目标处处可见,但是知 识的目标则少之又少。这种“厚此薄彼”的表述间接导致了教师在实际教学过程中“矫枉 过正”,忽视了对知识和能力应有的关注和强调(倪文锦,2009;魏本亚,2011)。 第二,语文学科评价难度过高。 尽管 03 课标中指出评价的目的应该是促进学生语文素养全面提高,教师应该充分发挥 评价的诊断、激励和发展功能。教师要能够根据不同的情况采用不同的方式进行评价(中 华人民共和国教育部,2003)。但是在实际操作中,语文教师发现考察学生的阅读兴趣、 了解学生的语文素养、探讨学生的阅读视域、准确评估学生的语文能力是一个难度极大的 挑战(黄显涵,2011)。但是,如果教师无法在教学中进行有效的形成性评价、对学生的 语文能力缺乏全面了解,那么语文课改的落实程度自然会大打折扣。 第三,教师缺乏课改所需要的专业素养。 03 课标指出教师是学习活动的组织者和引导者。此次课改对教师能力的需求明显增 强,例如教师需要将笼统的学科目标具体化为课程乃至教学目标、要能够创造性使用乃 至自主开发教学材料和教学内容、要能够结合课堂情境和学生特点灵活使用多元教学方 式、要能够针对学生的学习过程和学习结果进行有效评价等等(中华人民共和国教育部, 2003)。但是在此次语文课改中语文教师自身专业素养的匮乏却成为了一个难以突破的关 键瓶颈(陈萍,2006;崔干行,2007;胡波、高光珍、王志芳,2008)。 这首先体现在语文课程与教学相关研究存在不足。李海林(2005)曾对 120 项语文教 学改革实验进行分析,认为其中时间较长、范围较广、具有一定影响和研究深度的典型项 目仅 18 项(例如自学辅导教学法、点评型单元教学法、‘读读、议议、练练、讲讲’教学 法、情景教学法、导读教学法、注音识字教学法、作文整体改革教学法、学导式教学法等)。 另外,这些教学方法主要由一线名师通过多年教学经验积累而来,在教学方法的实证研究 中,研究者多数是以论证者、评价者而非实际参与者的角色存在。这直接影响了这些教学 方法的持续研究和推广;其二,大陆语文课程与教学论学者对语文课程与教学实证研究十 68 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 分有限(陈晓波,2009;黄显涵,2011),这种相关研究的匮乏自然导致一线教师在课改 过程中难以获得足够的支持力量。 另外,教师专业培训效果不佳。为了加强教师对课改理念的深刻认识、提升教师的专 业素养,伴随着课改不断推进大陆各省市都相继举办了不同规模、不同级别的课改培训或 教研活动。但是从实际情况来看收效甚微(杭州市教育局调查组,2007;马云鹏、唐丽芳, 2004)。教师普遍认为相关培训“太多术语”、“与一线教学落差较大”,因此对实际课 堂教学难以起到实效(陈玉华,2011;卢乃桂、陈峥,2008)。 第四,外部条件的限制。 一些课程实施调查发现在众多的限制性因素中课程资源以及教学时间两个因素尤为重 要。首先是课程资源短缺。很多教师认为学校课程资源不足,限制了他们进行课程改革(胡 波、高光珍、王志芳,2008;马云鹏、唐丽芳,2004)。而由老师来开发课程资源,那么 教师就不得不面对时间和精力上的巨大挑战,这对工作已经较为繁重的语文老师来说无疑 难度极大。另外,在教学课时已经固定的前提下,教师需要既保证完成繁重的教学任务, 同时还要尽可能为学生自主、探究学习提供时间,这让许多教师在具体教学中只能忍痛割 爱(万伟,2009)。 总体而言,技术视角更关注怎样让此次语文课改落实得更为有效。具体来看,课程目 标过于模糊、学科评价难度过高、教师专业素养不足以及外部条件的限制四方面仍然有待 改善,这成为了下一步课改需要关注的焦点。 乙、文化视角 House(2005)认为文化视角主要建立在社群(community)的隐喻之上,核心性概念 是文化、价值、共享的意义,社会关系,它主要关注文化的整合性。House 认为在社会中 存在很多亚文化社群,不同社群内部具有共享的价值,但是不同群体之间则相互隔离。在 文化视角之下,改革是一个文化再制(reculturing)的过程,亦是一个不断茁生(evolution) 69 的过程。在 House(1981)看来,改变总是将一个新的观点和原有的文化历史相融合,而 课程改革的过程可被视为不同文化相互影响的过程。 统而观之,在中国大陆由于个体的社会化过程深受儒家人伦秩序影响,因此逐步形成 了以社群取向为依归、看重“优秀”、强调精英教育的模式,这种模式以考试文化在中国 社会根深蒂固的位置可见一斑。与此相对,此次中国大陆的课程改革多有借助建构主义、 后现代观点等西方理论,目的就是挑战中国传统的考试文化,力图在此次课程改革中更关 注学生个体,在平等的基础上推动学生的全面发展(钟启全、张华、崔允漷,2001),由 此可见这两种文化之间必然形成极强的矛盾和张力。 具体到学科层面,与其他学科相比语文学科与中国传统文化的联系更为紧密(郑国民, 2009),受到传统文化的长期浸淫。具体到学科来看,传统的语文教育在千年传承中也确 实积累了一些颇具民族性特色的教学策略:例如在小学识字与写字教学中倾向于集中识字、 韵语识字、识字与写字分进合击;在阅读教学方面强调朗读、关注背诵,重视阅读整体的 涵泳体悟;在写作教学上强调由读至写、先放后收、多练多改等(武玉鹏,2010;杨彩涓, 2010)。因此在此次课程改革中,面对上世纪遭受了科学主义“洗礼”之后的语文学科, 很多学者强调语文教育应该“回归传统”(马志强,2008.12.15;郑国民,2003),在优 秀、成功的传统教育经验中探索语文教改之路。另一方面,此次语文课改作为全球教育改 革浪潮中的一环,它必然也会受到建构主义、阐释学以及后现代主义等西方理论的深刻影 响,这些理论也确实极大牵制了语文教学改革的方向和手段。例如有学者指出现今在研究 界存在盲目学习国外理论和经验的现象,他们将我国传统语文教学理论驳斥的体无完肤, 将传统语文教学实践说的一无是处(胡海舟,2007);某些教师甚至把“传统”作为贬义 词来评价语文课堂以表明自己是“新课程、新理念”的倡导者和实践者(陈玉秋、邱福明, 2007)。可见在此次课程改革背后确实存在着一场中西方文化之间的角力。 从理论研究来看,Watkins(2008)指出华人教学的特色是“以学习为中心”(learning centered),强调在知识传递甚至大量重复性练习的基础上揣摩学习(黄毅英,2008),而 西方教学的关注点则是“以学习者为中心”(learner centered),更关注在学习过程中学 生的兴趣与动机。两者各有侧重、亦各有优劣。从具体实践来看,语文老师习惯了传统文 70 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 化思维、教育方式,在面对西方教育教学理论的过程中,如何顺利移植西方教育教学理论、 怎样将这些理论结合具体的学校脉络或学生实际情况都是一个十分棘手的问题。很多教师 在具体教学中采纳“公开课一套、平常课一套”的双重办法(成尚荣,2006)。 总体而言,从文化视角来看此次语文课程改革主要面临中国传统文化和西方教育文化 相互博弈、相互融合这样一个问题。在两者的交叉影响中怎样汲取两者的长处,如何将这 二者与中国现在特有的教育脉络有效结合显然亟待研究者进一步关注。 丙、政治视角 House 和 Mcquillan(2005)认为政治视角的关键词汇是权力、自主权和竞争的利益, 它关注自主权系统的合法性(legitimacy)。在政治视角中,改革是不同组织利益的竞争、 是一种权力协商的过程。House 认为在课程实施中,出于各自不同的利益,不同的团体自 然对改革抱持不同态度,通过相互的博弈获得自身的合法性存在,他们之间存在着利益或 权力的竞争和妥协。例如某些人(例如政策制定者或是课改推行者)在改革过程中会利用 或显性或隐性的方式在事件决策中赢得自己的话语优势,从而发出更多的声音、获得更多 的权力。从政治视角来审视语文课改,教师权力这个命题尤为引人关注。 学者刘生全(2006)在布迪厄场域理论基础上指出教育场域是一个权力场域,场域内 的资本主要是文化资本,场域内的主要权力是以话语权力为表现形态的文化权力。在这种 境况下,教师权力更多表现为对学生的话语权以及由此带来的惩戒权(杜志强、汪昌权, 2011)。从传统来看,中国教师对学生的权力具有“强控制”的特点(杨清,2005),尽 管教师在课程发展与规划上并不具备太多话语权,但是教师因为在一线教学中占有绝对优 势的文化资本,从而在学生学习内容和学习方式上拥有极强的控制性。从这个角度上来说, 在传统语文教育中教师的权力拥有感较强,也较为稳定。 在此次课程改革中,中西方教育研究学者从“防教师”的课程设计理念逐步迈向“教 师赋权”,尝试在课程设计、实施与评价过程中给予一线教师更多的自主权。但是从课程 实施情况来看,这种赋权却在实际过程中被架空。这首先体现在教师原本以拥有优势文化 71 资本而享有的控制性权力被消解。在课改浪潮的冲击之下,教学内容较之传统迥然有别, 教师在以往课堂中赖以凭借的学科知识迅速崩塌,很多教师感慨教了十几年甚至二十几年 的书,现在新课改一来,反倒不会教了。抛开其背后可能存在的语文教育信念争论,这一 喟叹显然还传递出教师文化资本优越感丧失之后的失落与迷茫。以语文学科为例,传统语 文教学所重视的“字词句篇、语修逻文”已经在此次新课改中转变为“不宜刻意追求语文 知识的系统和完整”。伴随语文教学目标的多元化设置,教学材料、教学内容早已是林林 总总、纷繁复杂,语文教师在课堂中的话语权力在此次课改中迅速减弱,他们对学生的控 制感也在这个过程中变得脆弱不堪。面对这种文化权力前后迥异的落差,教师显然需要较 长的时间来进行重新定位与调适。 另外,教师权力还存在“得而复失”的难题。尽管此次新课程改革提出三级课程管理 模式,提倡教师作为课程的研究者与设计者,他们作为此次课程改革重要的持份者应该在 此次改革中拥有更多的话语权与作为空间。但是现实却并非如此。首先一线教师不仅缺乏 表达观点的管道,同时教师的声音也在此次课程改革中没有得到应有的重视。一项调查表 明教师普遍认为这种所谓赋权流于表面。此次新课改,在国家、专家与教师形成的权力关 系中,教师处于最无权的地位(卢乃桂、陈峥,2008)。其次在校本课程这个看似更为弹 性灵活的领域,教师能够真正获得的话语空间也十分有限。教师们必须面对这样一个现实: 更多的权力就意味着更多的工作和更大的压力。教师指出在开发课程的相关领域他们不仅 是理论储备不足,有限的时间和精力也是一个极大的制约因素(周正,2008)。尤其对语 文教师而言,由于备课、批改作文等工作量已然十分繁重,这种现实的困难最终只能让教 师放弃很多本应施行的权力。最后,此次课程改革中外在控制仍然显而易见。在整个改革 过程中,国家意识形态总是不可避免的通过种种手段(例如评价机制、奖惩措施)延伸到 教育领域中来(操太圣、卢乃桂,2006;刘向辉,2011),教师一方面要按照要求完成推 动课改、教育学生的任务,同时还需要应对学校的评价机制、国家的考试制度(例如高考 等),因此并没有多少实行自主权的空间。 所以,从政治的视角来看尽管此次课程改革抱持“教师赋权”的初衷,但是实际情况 却是教师面对突如其来的“赋权”,并未感受到多少舒畅与痛快,反而是必须在教育学生 和贯彻国家意志之间小心取舍,必须面对陡然增加的一轮又一轮培训与学习以及更为繁重 72 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 的教学工作。在重重压力之下教师无法看到“拨云见日”的希望,只能在不确定和迷茫中 徘徊。 丁、后现代视角 Hargreaves 等人(2005)认为近二十年教育领域的理论发生了剧烈变化,我们生活在 一个崭新的时代之中,这个时代被贴上了诸如后现代、后资本主义、信息社会等各式各样 的标签(Bauman, 1992; Castells, 1996; Drucker, 1992; Harvey, 1989),而这些观念也确实 不断形塑着教育话语的生成与发展。Lyotard(1984)认为尽管后现代理论五花八门,但是 他们有一点共通之处,即强调对元叙事(metanarratives)的怀疑,他们消解所谓的宏大叙 事,充分解读个体的言说与意义(Aronowitz & Giroux, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004)。 由于篇幅所限,本文将主要从个体意义的审视入手反思中国的课程改革。在教育领域中, 个体不仅包括政策制定者、教师,也应该包括学生。但是颇为值得注意的是在这场高扬 “学生为本”的改革运动中,学生的声音却并没有得到真正关注(Rudduck, Chaplain & Wallace, 1996)。 从一线教师的课堂实践来看,我们发现很多文章指出应该让学生参与到课程改革中 来,即学生应该参与课程目标的设定、教学方式的组织、教学材料的选择或是教学评价过 程(陈世滨、李丽玲,2004;林邵长,2010;王秀红,2004;魏红,2005)。但是如果我 们细心一点观察就会发现这种参与主要是为了响应教师的邀请或倡议,只能算是“消极性 参与”,即学生参与的起点、过程甚至是结果常常处在教师操控之下。他们参与的目标更 多是为了满足教师刺激学生学习动机的目标而非真正达致自我的反思与解放,那么他们在 这个过程中也自然难以具备学以致用、改造社会的行动力量。 事实上,从已有关于课程实施的实证研究结果来看,学生的观点往往与教师、学校领 导或是政策执行者有较大差异(相关研究可参考 Wong, 1995;黄显涵,2011 等),例如对 于语文教材所编选的课文,学生的观点就与教材编写者有较大差异(王标,2005;汪晴初、 徐晖,2004),而对于教学内容和教学方式学生也都有着他们自己独特的体验和感受(田 力,2007)。但是从研究界来看将学生纳入课程实施的研究仍然十分有限(尹弘飙、李子 73 建,2005)。从实证研究来看,Fielding(2001)指出学生参与课程实施研究可以分为四种 情况:学生作为数据源、学生作为积极反应者、学生作为共同研究者以及学生作为研究者。 在这四种类型中,课堂从较强的控制性向多元的开放性过渡,教师以及专业研究者逐步从 研究的发起人、行动者向研究的辅助者、支持者过渡,学生的角色从被动的信息采集者向 主动的研究者过渡。但是从以往的实证研究来看无论是在研究的广度还是深度上,学生参 与课程实施的研究都远远不足(尹弘飙、李子建,2005)。 如果说此次课程改革最核心的理念就是让学生获得全面、充分的发展,那么无论是在 一线课堂还是在课程实施的研究中学生的声音都应该被尊重、被聆听。从后现代的视角审 视此次语文课改,就会十分清晰地发现这个本应是课程改革重点关注的内容却在具体实施 过程中被有意无意地忽略。 戊、结语 在语文课改进行了十年之后,“下一步如何走”无疑是现今最受关注的问题。在制定 下一个行动规划前,适当的回顾与反思无疑十分必要。House 与 Mcquillan(2005)指出以 往的改革成效不大就是因为缺乏从不同视角进行地切入和分析。因此本文尝试通过技术、 政治、文化以及后现代的视角多维审视此次大陆语文课程改革,也确实发现在课程实施中 存在着不同层次不同面向的挑战与问题。客观来说,对这些问题的思考与响应无疑影响着 大陆语文课程改革的进一步深化和完善。 参考文献 万伟(2009)。〈高中教师在变革中成长——基于江苏省普通高中新课程实施情况调查报 告〉。《中小学教师培训》,第 8 期,34-36。 马云鹏、唐丽芳(2004)。〈对新课程改革实验状况的调查与思考〉。《中小学管理》,第 1 期,11-15。 马志强(2008.12.15)。〈语文课的出路:回归传统〉。《光明日报》。取自 http://www. gmw.cn/content/2008-12/15/content_869189.htm。 74 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视:问题与挑战 中华人民共和国基础教育司(2002)。《走进新课程——与课程实施者对话》。北京:北京 师范大学出版社。 中华人民共和国教育部(2001)。《基础教育课程改革纲要(试行)》。北京:人民教育出 版社。 中华人民共和国教育部(2003)。《普通高中语文课程标准(实验稿)》。北京:人民教育 出版社。 尹弘飙、李子建(2005)。〈论学生参与课程实施及其研究〉。《课程 ‧ 教材 ‧ 教法》, 第 1 期,12-18。 王秀红(2004)。〈让每一位学生都参与和体验语文学习过程〉。《当代教育科学》,第12期, 58-59。 王晴初、徐晖。〈喜欢你的语文新课本吗——关于语文新课本的学生评价调查〉。《中学生 天地》,第 5 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Psychologia, 38, 124-131. 78 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong 進展性評估個案研究: 同儕評估在香港小學常識科的運用 CHUNG Tsz Wai Susanna Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This case study explores the peer evaluation as a role of formative assessment in teaching General Studies (GS) in a primary Direct Subsided School in Hong Kong. GS students are expected to do their project at school and present their work at the later stage. Assessment covers the learning process as well as the project products. Four Grade 5 classes are selected for this study to address the following research questions: (1) How does peer evaluation work effectively? (2) In what ways do students benefit from peer evaluation? Observation, informal interviews and questionnaire are adopted to collect data. Data analysis reveals that teacher evaluation and peer evaluation are both important. Students can learn the good points from classmates through peer evaluation. Furthermore, by becoming more aware of the strengths and weaknesses of classmates, students become more reflective and know how to improve through peer evaluation. Keywords peer evaluation, assessment for learning, self-reflection 79 摘要 是項個案研究是探討進展性評估的其中一項──同儕評估在香港一間直資小學的常識科的 運用。學生在常識科中均需進行專題研習,然後向全班匯報。評估涵蓋了學習的過程及結 果,亦包含知識、態度及技能。研究以五年級的學生為對象,探討下列問題 : (1)如何 令同儕評估有效地進行?(2)學生從同儕評估中學習到什麼?數據反映學生眼中教師及同 儕評估同樣重要,學生能透過同儕評估學習彼此的優點;在掌握同學的優劣的同時,更有 效地作出自我檢視及改善。 關鍵詞 同儕評估,從評估學習,自我檢視 1. Introduction This paper reports on a small-scale school-based action research that focuses on assessment for learning - peer evaluation. As indicated in the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong (Education Commission, 2000), the education system is to be reformed to provide the most favourable environment for teaching and learning. Thus, students’ potentials can be fully realized and teachers can have more space to help students learn more effectively. As indicated in the in the new General Studies Curriculum Guide (2011), Project Learning as a powerful learning and teaching strategy, provides also the contexts for assessing students’ performance in different aspects of learning. Teachers, students, parents and others can all be made responsible for assessment at different stages of the project (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). The school in the study is an EMI primary school, which has five periods in General Studies (GSI and II). There are two lessons in General Studies II that use Chinese as medium of instruction. Health and living, community and citizenship, and national identity and Chinese culture are the main strands in GS II. Project learning and peer evaluation are incorporated in the learning process in second semester. Students concentrate on the project design, explore it during lesson time, and then present their work at a latter stage, which usually involve peer evaluation in Grade 5 and Grade 6. However, the practice 80 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong and the format of peer evaluation depend on different teachers and time allowed. If this evaluation becomes more systematic and standard, it will be a good tool to enhance students’ learning. Since peer evaluation is practised in the project of General Studies, how can it be more effective to enhance student learning? Can peer evaluation be used to create classroom cohesion and academic success for the collective as well as the individual? The main focus of this study is to explore more the practice of peer evaluation and what students can benefit through peer evaluation. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Formative Assessment In 2001, the Curriculum Development Council Report on “Learning to Learn - The Way Forward in Curriculum Development” recommends that there should be a change in assessment practices and schools should put more emphasis on “Assessment for Learning” as an integral part of the learning, teaching and assessment cycle (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). Brown, Race and Rust (1995) claimed that the key to the use of assessment as an engine for learning is achieved by ensuring that each assignment let learners to receive detailed, positive and timely feedback on how to improve. Formative assessment was emphasized in order to promote learning and teaching effectiveness. Different types of formative assessment methods were introduced in the new General Studies Curriculum Guide (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Aims of assessment for students have been stated clearly. Students can understand their strengths and weaknesses in learning, what they should try to achieve next, and how best they might do this and improve their learning based on feedback from teachers and other assessors (Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Moreover, formative assessment, which focuses on the learning process and learning progress, can be used to collect evidence from time to time on student learning with a view to promoting better learning. Formative classroom assessment is learner-centered (Angelo & Cross, 1993; Boyd, 2001). Teachers need to connect formative assessment and feedback with learning to help students to know the standards they should attain, and give constructive suggestions on what to do next and how to do it. 81 2.2 Peer Evaluation The new General Studies curriculum also stresses that teachers should use different modes of assessment and provides quality feedback to the students (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Overreliance on pen and paper tests should be avoided, as they cannot adequately assess students’ performance over all the learning targets and objectives. Project learning as a powerful learning and teaching strategy, provides also the contexts for assessing students’ performance in different aspects of learning (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Assessment should cover the learning process as well as the project products, including knowledge and skills. Topping (2003) takes peer evaluation as a process, in which a group of students identify and observe the mastery or performance of particular aptitudes or skills applied by the group after training or learning. Students explicitly or implicitly hold themselves mutually responsible for the successful completion of the evaluation exercise. Peer assessment, in which students comment on and judge their colleagues work, has a vital role to play in formative assessment. The new General Studies curriculum (Curriculum Development Council, 2011) claim peer assessment can be introduced for students to provide feedback and communicate with their peers about each other’s work, thus helping to cultivate a collaborative learning culture. Peer and self evaluation have always existed informally as students constantly compare their own performance with those of their classmates (Race, Brown & Smith, 2005). Peer and self assessment are skills that should benefit students throughout their studies and professional life in the higher education (Brown, Rust & Gibbs, 1994). By becoming aware of others performance, students will reflect on their own. Thus, peer assessment naturally helps self-assessment. Hoping to find peer evaluation also benefits primary school students in this study. A variety of positive feedback of peer evaluation has been documented and it is generally believed that peer evaluation can promote critical thinking (Brown, Bull, & Pendlebury, 1997), they should become less reliant on teachers for guidance and more able to know how to direct their own learning. Peer evaluation also enhance learning and critical understanding of evaluation criteria and the knowledge gap, develop “social and communication skills, negotiation and diplomacy, and useful transferable skills like giving and handling criticism, self-justification and assertion” (Topping, 2003, p. 57), rather than simply seeing a mark. 3. Methodology 82 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong 3.1 The Educational Setting and Research Questions Peer evaluation is a normal practice in my school in subjects like Maths, English and General Studies. This assessment mode always goes with project learning in Grade 4-6. Students also practise the peer evaluation in the Inquiry-based Learning week every year. My students are familiar with the practice of peer evaluation. However, the form of peer assessment varies according to grades and teachers’ requirement. Each group gives the feedback to others formally or informally. Though modification has been made every year, it is various with different teachers. In this study, the following questions are to be examined: 1. How does peer evaluation work effectively? 2. What is the difference between peer evaluation on one group and on all groups? 3. What is the difference between peer evaluation on focus items and on all items? 4. In what ways do students benefit from peer evaluation? There should have some difference if students assess one group and every group because of the level of concentration and time using. Therefore, it is important to find out these differences so that further amendment can be made. This study was carried out in four G5 classes in a Hong Kong primary school from December 2009 to March 2010. Students did their project in General Studies at school in Term 2 and presented their work at the later stage. Other classmates had to evaluate their performance. Questionnaires and informal interviews were given to collect students’ feedback. The original framework of this study was listed in Table 1: Table 1: No. of group and evaluate items of each class Peer evaluation 5D 5J 5P 5S No. of group All groups All groups One group One group Evaluate items All items Focus items All items Focus items 3.2 Pre-task Interview and Restructure the Setting Before students’ presentation, 40 students (10 students per class) were interviewed with the purpose that to restructure our framework and address the concerns before the study. The following questions were asked: 83 1. Do you think peer evaluation is important? 2. Do you think our boys are equipped to do peer evaluation? 3. Do you think the marks on peer evaluation should be counted? 4. What do you prefer? Peer evaluation focus on one group only or all groups? 5. What evaluation items should be included? According to the interviews, it was found that students like peer evaluation if all students were objective and fair; marks would not be affected; prefer to evaluate every group; students could focus on the performance of classmates and they could learn and improve. Since students preferred to evaluate every group instead of focusing on one group, one proposed question “What is the difference between peer evaluation on one group and on all groups?” was cancelled. 3.3 Data Collection At the final stage of project learning, G5 students had to present their project in group during 23 Feb to 3 March (Table 2). Two to three lessons were needed for the presentation since we could not finish the presentation within one lesson. The Peer Evaluation Form (Appendix 1) was given to each student. The boys in 5D and 5P had to evaluate all items for every group whereas 5J and 5S just focused on one item (Content / Presentation skills / Cooperation and Interaction). Teachers assigned the focus item for each group before their presentations. In the first lesson the students were told that they would do peer evaluation for a presentation, teacher uses one group as demonstration to let students familiar with both formats before the actual practice: students had to practice evaluate all items and focus items. Table 2: The schedule of each class in the peer evaluation Peer evaluation 5D 5J 5P 5S No. of group All groups All groups All groups All groups Evaluate items All items Focus items* All items Focus items* Students’ suggestions a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction Presentation and Peer Evaluation 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March Evaluation 12 March 10 March 11 March 10 March 84 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong * Group 1 and 4 were assigned to assess the Content of every group; Group 2 and 5 were assigned to assess the Presentation Skills of every group; Group 3 and 6 were assigned to assess the Cooperation and Interaction of every group. Once the students had completed their presentations and their peer evaluations, they were asked to complete a simple questionnaire (Peer Evaluation), which was designed to record their feelings and feedback towards the evaluation process. The Evaluation Form (Appendix 2) is divided into three parts: Overall comment on peer evaluation (9 items), format of peer evaluation (3 items for A or B) and the items of peer evaluation (1 item). There is a 4-point scale for each item (1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-agree and 4-strongly agree). The higher average implies the strongest level of agreement. G5 peer evaluation completed in the early March (before the second assessment) and the Evaluation Form for the Peer Evaluation were collected. Though there were 150 students in G5, only 137 Evaluation Forms were collected for some students were absent and did not complete the whole peer evaluation process. 4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 The effectiveness of peer evaluation After analyzing the data for peer evaluation form (Appendix 3 and 4), there are 12 items which average is above 3. Item 9 (It is a waste of time if we have peer evaluation) of the part is an exceptional case. 80.3% students disagree with it and its average (1.87) is extremely low which implies students do think that peer evaluation does not waste time though its process may be quite long. As for the effectiveness of peer evaluation, items in Appendix 4, e.g. “Teacher evaluation and peer evaluation both are important.” and “I can learn the good points from my classmates through peer evaluation”, both have the strongest agreement (84.7% or above) and highest average (3.18 or above), which indicates peer evaluation plays an important role. Peer evaluation also means that students need to listen to classmates which keeps them involved at all times. As for mark counting, students believe that peer evaluation is more effective if my classmates are fair and objective (84.7% agree, average 3.16) and they prefer not to count any marks (78.1% agree, average 3.17) at this stage. At a latter stage if students are familiar with the system, with a class of assessors, assuming that they are capable of performing such a role, the assessment should be fairer. 85 Moreover, students become more reflective of their own. About 79.6% students agree that they know “… how to improve through peer evaluation” (average 3.04) and “… not to make the same mistakes as my classmates through peer evaluation” (average 3.03). By doing peer evaluation, students ask classmates informally and also give advice. This experience should enhance their leadership abilities. Moreover, 74.5% students agree they can apply the good points from their classmates through peer evaluation. Students should be asking themselves why they are better and then endeavour to emulate them. As students develop their critical faculties they should become less reliant on teachers for guidance and more able to know direct their own learning (Brown, et al.,1994). However, further exploration is needed to examine what specific items students can learn in the second loop of study. 4.2 The difference between peer evaluation on focus items and on all items There are two choices for students to choose: either “All items are assessed” or “Only one focus item is assessed for every group”. 98 students (71.5%) prefer to assess all items whereas 39 students (28.5%) like to assess on focus items. 98 students like to assess all items for they can understand the overall performance of each group (93 students agree with average 3.34) and assess the performance of classmates fairly and objectively (88 students agree with average 3.23). Moreover, 87 students believe they participate more in the classroom activities. Comparatively speaking, 39 students prefer to assess one focus item on each group. They can learn and improve more on the focus item (35 students agree with average 3.20) and concentrate more on the focus item of each group (35 students agree with average 3.11). However, in comparing the time in the effectiveness of peer assessment, the data is not so apparent. 4.3 Obstacles and Challenges Since very little has been done in peer evaluation before this study, the following problems are encountered: (1) the unavailability of an effective evaluation form, and (2) the time allocation in peer evaluation. It is difficult to find an effective evaluation form for this study, the focus of this study is to explore the effectiveness of peer evaluation in this context, school-based evaluation form is more important than any forms with high validity and reliability, so it is preferable to design the evaluation form and collect the relevant data. 86 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong The time allocation is also a quite difficult task. Students need to present in groups as scheduled. Each group is assigned to present their work on assigned date. They need to dress up before the lesson if necessary. If each group is given 2 minutes for preparation and 8 minutes for presentation, one GS II lesson (35 minutes) can only have 3 groups to present at most. The whole presentation process cannot be completed within one week – not good for peer evaluation for it lasts for such a long period. Since students complete the peer evaluation group by group, thus do not affect the score of each group but the split affect the continuity of the process. 4.4 Further Elaboration This practice does not mark an end. In fact it just starts the beginning of more exploration in peer evaluation. The peer evaluation in GS II can be revised to be more student-oriented. Moreover, the same group of boys proceeds to G6 and they have peer evaluation in Maths and Inquiry-based Learning in May and June 2011, this study can be elaborated more. It is curious to find out if the boys apply the skills in what they have learnt. Follow-up informal interviews were conducted with a couple of students, and some key points are focused as below (Appendix 5): 1. The boys can apply the skills we learnt in G5 (peer evaluation) in various subjects (Maths & Inquiry Based Learning); 2. Classmates learn the strengths and weaknesses of one another; 3. The content should be comprehensive and persuasive. Systematic in presentation. Good interaction with the audiences; 4. Boys can be more cooperative which enhances the team spirit; 5. To be more objective and fair in evaluating the performance without any bias; 6. Learn the good points and apply them. Avoid making the same mistakes and think of the ways for improvement; 7. Enhance critical thinking and analysis; 8. Teacher can use the score and comments for reference and modify them before making the final judgment; 9. Precious, Efficient, Student’s view, Listen and judge carefully. It appears that students learn and apply the skills spontaneously, which is quite encouraging. Moreover, students’ major concern is primarily on improving their work in the future with instructive comments. Training students how to assess students can be implemented in the critical training programme in order to make peer evaluation more effective. 87 5. Conclusions Since this study is small-scaled and generalization is quite limited, it should be noted that this paper is concerned with one grade, and the findings might be different with other students. From my point of view, the impression of teacher and students are quite positive. Teachers do not play a dominant role in assessing students’ performance, since this role has been shared among students, it is possible for teachers to become aware of our own evaluation style. Besides, according to the collected data in this study, students’ apparent attitude proves that peer evaluation can help in the assessment for learning. Students’ feedback in peer evaluation is very encouraging. Their judgment of good performance is further enhanced through learning the good points from peers and avoiding making the same mistakes. Their eagerness of understanding the overall performance of peers in a fairly and objective manners encourages teachers to explore the peer evaluation more. More interaction within the lesson can be seen for students learn to give positive feedback. Both formats in the peer assessment have the merit, the peer evaluation can be divided into 2 phases if it is possible: students need to assess one focus items on each group in the first phase, once they get familiar in the practice and learn the assessing skills, they can go to the second phase- assess all items. Maybe this practice can be implemented in the second loop of the study. Given the above mentioned positive results obtained from students, further investigations and studies needs to be undertaken to divulge students’ needs as peer evaluators. Studies could also be broadened to include participation by other subjects (e.g. General Studies I and Maths) which use project learning as formative assessment. A systematic data collection should be conducted besides informal interviews. 88 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong References Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San Francisco: Josses-Bass Publishers. Boyd, B. L. (2001). Formative classroom assessment: learner focused. The Agricultural Education Magazine, March/April 2001, Proudest Company. Brown, S., Rust, C., & Gibbs, G. (1994). Diversifying Assessment 5: Involving students Section 5: Involving students in the assessment process. Retrieved October 20, 2011, from: http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/div-ass.html. Brown, S., Race, P., & Rust, C. (1995). Using and experiencing assessment. In P. Knight (Ed.), Assessment for learning in higher education. London: Kogan Page. Brown, G., Bull, J., & Pendlebury, M (1997). Assessing student learning in higher education. London: Routledge. Curriculum Development Council. (2001). Learning to Learn - The Way Forward in Curriculum. Retrieved September 8, 2011, from: http://www.edb.gov.hk/index. aspx?langno=1&nodeID=2877. Curriculum Development Council. (2002). Basic Education Curriculum Guide: Building on Strengths (Primary 1 – Secondary 3). Hong Kong: HKSAR Government. Curriculum Development Council. (2011). General Studies for Primary Schools Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Primary 6). Hong Kong: HKSAR Government. Education Commission. (2000). Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: HKSAR Government. Elliott, J. (1991). Action research for educational change. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Luoma, S. (2005). Assessing speaking skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Race, P., Brown, S., & Smith, B. (2005). 500 Tipson Assessment (2nd edition). Oxon: Routledge Falmer. Strom, P. S., Strom, R. D., & Moore, E. G. (1999). Peer and self-evaluation of teamwork skills. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 539-553. Topping, K. (2003). Self and peer assessment in school and university: reliability, validity and utility. In M. Segers, F. Dochy & E. Casacallar (Eds.), Optimising new modes of assessment: In search of qualities and standards (pp. 55-87). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 89 Appendix 1 Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division G5 General Studies II Project Learning Peer Evaluation Form Class: ____________ Name: _________________________( ) Group: ___________ Performance: Please circle the number of stars in each item. Items for Peer Evaluation 評估細項 Group ( ) Content 內容 Provide sufficient information 資料清楚明確 ☆ ☆ ☆ Pictures/captions are clear 圖文搭配得當 / 版面編排美觀 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and attractive layout 創意的表現具有特色 ☆ ☆ ☆ A clear and concise content 能淺顯易懂的讓人了解 ☆ ☆ ☆ Content and model are coherent 內容能配合模型 或 服裝 的介紹 ☆ ☆ ☆ Presentation 發表與呈現 Good introduction and conclusion 表達組織 ( 引題及完結 ) 有條理 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and organized structure 發表有條理 / 層次分明 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and loud voice 語調清晰,快慢適中 ☆ ☆ ☆ Fluency 語詞使用的正確性及流暢性 ☆ ☆ ☆ Cooperation 小組合作 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good division of work 組員一起參與,共同分工合作學習 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good time management 各組員的時間分配得宜 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good cooperation 組員能各展所長,互補不足 ☆ ☆ ☆ Interaction 互動 ☆ ☆ ☆ Meaningful activities 能透過活動與同學互動 ☆ ☆ ☆ Answer questions accurately 有條理地回答同學的問題 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good interaction 同學彼此互動,增添氣氛 ☆ ☆ ☆ Total 45 ☆ 合計 (45 ☆ ) 90 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 2 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Ev al ua tio n Fo rm fo r P ee r E va lu at io n 同 儕 評 估 意 見 表 Pl ea se c irc le th e rig ht n um be r: 評 估 細 項 O ve ra ll co m m en t o n pe er e va lu at io n 非 常 不 同 意 St ro ng ly D is ag re e 不 同 意 D is ag re e 同 意 A gr ee 非 常 同 意 St ro ng ly A gr ee 1. 在 評 估 過 程 中 , 教 師 及 同 儕 的 評 估 同 樣 重 要 Te ac he r e va lu at io n an d pe er e va lu at io n bo th ar e im po rta nt . 1 2 3 4 2. 同 儕 評 估 宜 不 涉 及 分 數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny m ar ks . 1 2 3 4 3. 同 學 公 正 及 客 觀 的 態 度 能 讓 同 儕 評 估 發 揮 得 宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re fa ir an d ob je ct iv e. 1 2 3 4 4. 同 儕 評 估 對 你 有 幫 助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 1 2 3 4 5. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 學 習 同 學 的 優 點 I c an le ar n th e go od p oi nt s f ro m m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 6. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 運 用 同 學 的 優 點 I c an a pp ly th e go od p oi nt s f ro m m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 7. 同 儕 評 估 能 客 觀 地 了 解 可 改 善 的 地 方 I k no w h ow to im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er ev al ua tio n. 1 2 3 4 8. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 避 免 犯 同 學 的 錯 誤 I k no w n ot to m ak e th e sa m e m is ta ke s a s m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 9. 同 儕 評 估 浪 費 時 間 It is a w as te o f t im e if w e ha ve p ee r ev al ua tio n. 1 2 3 4 91 同 儕 評 估 形 式 只 可 選 答 (A ) 或 (B ) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) ( A ) 每 組 評 估 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能 了 解 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l p er fo rm an ce o f e ac h gr ou p. 1 2 3 4 2. 能 積 極 參 與 課 堂 活 動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m a ct iv iti es . 1 2 3 4 3. 能 公 正 及 客 觀 地 學 習 同 學 的 優 劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f c la ss m at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 1 2 3 4 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) ( B ) 每 一 組 只 評 估 各 組 的 其 中 一 項 表 現 ( 只 評 估 各 組 的 內 容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能 集 中 了 解 各 組 的 某 一 項 表 現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s i te m o f e ac h gr ou p. 1 2 3 4 2. 能 有 效 地 學 習 及 改 善 自 己 某 一 項 表 現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 1 2 3 4 3. 時 間 有 限 , 未 能 有 效 評 估 同 學 各 項 表 現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce e ffe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f t im e. 1 2 3 4 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) 同 儕 評 估 項 目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評 估 各 組 的 表 現 足 夠 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 1 2 3 4 2. 建 議 增 加 / 刪 減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 原 因 : R ea so n( s) : 評 語 ︰ 值 得 讚 賞 / 宜 加 改 善 Su gg es tio ns : 92 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 3 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Pe er E va lu at io n Fo rm 同 儕 評 估 意 見 表 (D at a) 評 估 細 項 Ev al ua ti on i te ms Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l 1. 在 評 估 過 程 中 , 教 師 及 同 儕 的 評 估 同 樣 重 要 Te ac he r ev al ua ti on a nd p ee r ev al ua ti on b ot h ar e im po rt an t. 3. 18 5 8 82 42 13 7 2. 同 儕 評 估 宜 不 涉 及 分 數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny ma rk s. 3. 17 9 21 45 62 13 7 3. 同 學 公 正 及 客 觀 的 態 度 能 讓 同 儕 評 估 發 揮 得 宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re f ai r an d ob je ct iv e. 3. 16 10 11 63 53 13 7 4. 同 儕 評 估 對 你 有 幫 助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 2. 90 15 23 60 39 13 7 5. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 學 習 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n le ar n th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 3. 19 7 14 62 54 13 7 6. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 運 用 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n ap pl y th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 2. 99 11 24 58 44 13 7 7. 同 儕 評 估 能 客 觀 地 了 解 可 改 善 的 地 方 I kn ow h ow t o im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er ev al ua ti on . 3. 04 11 17 64 45 13 7 8. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 避 免 犯 同 學 的 錯 誤 I kn ow n ot t o ma ke t he s am e mi st ak es a s my c la ss ma te s th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 03 11 22 56 48 13 7 9. 同 儕 評 估 浪 費 時 間 It i s a wa st e of t im e if w e ha ve pe er e va lu at io n. 1. 87 60 50 12 15 13 7 93 同 儕 評 估 形 式 只 可 選 答 (A ) 或 (B ) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l ( A ) 每 組 評 估 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能 了 解 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l p er fo rm an ce of e ac h gr ou p. 3. 34 0 5 55 38 98 2. 能 積 極 參 與 課 堂 活 動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m ac tiv iti es . 3. 18 1 10 57 30 98 3. 能 公 正 及 客 觀 地 學 習 同 學 的 優 劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f cl as sm at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 3. 23 3 7 52 36 98 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 ( B ) 每 一 組 只 評 估 各 組 的 其 中 一 項 表 現 ( 只 評 估 各 組 的 內 容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能 集 中 了 解 各 組 的 某 一 項 表 現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s i te m of e ac h gr ou p. 3. 11 2 2 23 12 39 2. 能 有 效 地 學 習 及 改 善 自 己 某 一 項 表 現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 3. 20 2 2 20 15 39 3. 時 間 有 限 , 未 能 有 效 評 估 同 學 各 項 表 現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce ef fe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f tim e. 2. 68 6 13 7 13 39 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 同 儕 評 估 項 目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評 估 各 組 的 表 現 足 夠 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 3. 33 5 2 73 57 13 7 2. 建 議 增 加 / 刪 減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 0 0 0 0 0 原 因 : R ea so n( s) : 94 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 4 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Pe er E va lu at io n Fo rm 同 儕 評 估 意 見 表 (D at a) 評 估 細 項 Ev al ua ti on i te ms Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l 1. 在 評 估 過 程 中 , 教 師 及 同 儕 的 評 估 同 樣 重 要 Te ac he r ev al ua ti on a nd p ee r ev al ua ti on b ot h ar e im po rt an t. 3. 18 3. 6% 5. 8% 59 .9 % 30 .7 % 13 7 2. 同 儕 評 估 宜 不 涉 及 分 數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny ma rk s. 3. 17 6. 6% 15 .3 % 32 .8 % 45 .3 % 13 7 3. 同 學 公 正 及 客 觀 的 態 度 能 讓 同 儕 評 估 發 揮 得 宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re fa ir a nd o bj ec ti ve . 3. 16 7. 3% 8. 0% 46 .0 % 38 .7 % 13 7 4. 同 儕 評 估 對 你 有 幫 助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 2. 90 10 .9 % 16 .8 % 43 .8 % 28 .5 % 13 7 5. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 學 習 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n le ar n th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 3. 19 5. 1% 10 .2 % 45 .3 % 39 .4 % 13 7 6. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 運 用 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n ap pl y th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 2. 99 8. 0% 17 .5 % 42 .3 % 32 .1 % 13 7 7. 同 儕 評 估 能 客 觀 地 了 解 可 改 善 的 地 方 I kn ow h ow t o im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 04 8. 0% 12 .4 % 46 .7 % 32 .8 % 13 7 8. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 避 免 犯 同 學 的 錯 誤 I kn ow n ot t o ma ke t he s am e mi st ak es a s my c la ss ma te s th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 03 8. 0% 16 .1 % 40 .9 % 35 .0 % 13 7 9. 同 儕 評 估 浪 費 時 間 It i s a wa st e of t im e if w e ha ve pe er e va lu at io n. 1. 87 43 .8 % 36 .5 % 8. 8% 10 .9 % 13 7 95 同 儕 評 估 形 式 只 可 選 答 (A ) 或 ( B) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l ( A ) 每 組 評 估 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能 了 解 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l pe rf or m an ce o f e ac h gr ou p. 3. 34 0. 0% 5. 1% 56 .1 % 38 .8 % 98 2. 能 積 極 參 與 課 堂 活 動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m a ct iv iti es . 3. 18 1. 0% 10 .2 % 58 .2 % 30 .6 % 98 3. 能 公 正 及 客 觀 地 學 習 同 學 的 優 劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f cl as sm at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 3. 23 3. 1% 7. 1% 53 .1 % 36 .7 % 98 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 ( B ) 每 一 組 只 評 估 各 組 的 其 中 一 項 表 現 ( 只 評 估 各 組 的 內 容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能 集 中 了 解 各 組 的 某 一 項 表 現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s ite m o f e ac h gr ou p. 3. 11 5. 1% 5. 1% 59 .0 % 30 .8 % 39 2. 能 有 效 地 學 習 及 改 善 自 己 某 一 項 表 現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 3. 20 5. 1% 5. 1% 51 .3 % 38 .5 % 39 3. 時 間 有 限 , 未 能 有 效 評 估 同 學 各 項 表 現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce ef fe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f tim e. 2. 68 15 .4 % 33 .3 % 17 .9 % 33 .3 % 39 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 同 儕 評 估 項 目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評 估 各 組 的 表 現 足 夠 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 3. 33 3. 6% 1. 5% 53 .3 % 41 .6 % 13 7 2. 建 議 增 加 / 刪 減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 0 0 0 0 0 原 因 : R ea so n( s) : 96 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong Appendix 5 Student A: Student B: 97 Student C: Student D: Student E: 98 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong Student F: 99 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects 如果錯了,改正它: 校本研究統計錯誤的個案 Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Statistics have been used extensively in many school-based projects. Unfortunately, misconceptions have often been found in the statistical reports. In this paper, five case studies were used to illustrate some common conceptual and procedural errors found in reports and how these problems could be rectified. Keywords educational statistics, effect size, experimental design, school-based project 摘要 許多校本研究採用統計分析。不幸地,統計數據的誤用和誤解並不少見。本文討論研究統 計在概念上和程序上常見的一些誤用例子,並以五個個案說明如何在校本研究避免發生統 計誤用。 關鍵詞 教育統計,效果强度,實驗設計,校本研究 101 Sometimes, statistical evidence that looks good on the surface nevertheless turns out to be flawed. Broadly, there are two ways in which an argument based on apparently persuasive evidence might lose its impact after further inspection. One possibility is that the data were mishandled or the statistical analysis was misapplied. The second possibility is the discovery of some artifacts in the research procedure, such that the substantive conclusions drawn by the investigator may not logically be warranted by the observational comparison made (Abelson, 1995, p.78). Abelson (1995) begins his chapter On Suspecting Fishiness with the above quote. It is an apt reminder that if a project reports statistics, it does not guarantee that the awesome figures have been derived correctly and interpreted validly. Errors of the first kind are procedural and technical which are easier to be noticed. Errors of the second kind are conceptual and interpretative and are therefore more difficult to detect. There may be cases of pure conceptual or procedural errors, but more often than not the errors are confounded as the examples below show. This paper deals primarily with the first kind of errors. Case study no. 1: Misplaced comparisons Group comparison It is a very common statistical application in school-based projects where a group of students receiving intervention or treatment is compared with a group not receiving it. There is a need to ensure that the groups are equivalent before intervention. Then, a sizeable difference in favour of the treated group is expected after the project is completed. The box below shows the relevant information in the original report of a school-based project. For obviously reasons, the source of the case is concealed with no references made. This will be done for the other cases discussed later, too. In fact, it does not matter who made the errors; they are just what they are, that is, errors to be rectified. A quasi-experiment was conducted where pupils from one class formed the CG and pupils from a second class formed the EG. In this study, both classes were kept intact without randomization. A perception survey on self-esteem was conducted. As shown in Table 1, for the pre-survey, the EG scored a mean of 34.13 and in the 102 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects In this case, the experimental design is fine: there were two intact classes serving as the project and the comparison groups and, since the pupils were not randomly assigned, it is correctly described as a quasi-experiment. The teacher-researchers first mention the improvement in self-esteem means of the project group and then the very small change in the same measure of the comparison group. They further mention the non-significant difference in group homogeneity, citing the result of the Levene’s Test (Levene’s Test, n.d.). Finally, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha, n.d.) is reported. Correct way of comparing groups When reporting a project using an experimental design involving two groups, it is important to be clear about what is to be compared with what for what purpose. First, it is necessary to check group equivalence in the criterion measure (in this case, self-esteem). This needs to cover two aspects: (1) mean difference to see if the groups are comparable with regard to the criterion, and (2) difference in the standard deviations (SDs) to see if the groups are homogeneous in the criterion. If no differences are detected for both the means and the SDs, then the groups are taken to be equivalent. Such pre-project equivalence ensures that should a difference be found after project completion, the difference is not due to the initial difference (since there is none) but something else; and, the intervention is a strong candidate accounting for the post-project difference. In the present case, the pre- post-survey, a mean of 38.27. This may suggest that the intervention has made an improvement in terms of their self-esteem in the post-survey. The control group has scored a mean of 33.79 and in the post-survey, a mean of 34.58, indicating that the difference in the pre-survey and post-survey on self-esteem for the CG is very small. The Levene’s test of 0.995 (p>0.05) was not significant, further showing that the two groups are homogeneous at pre-survey, before the intervention. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the survey questions was calculated as 0.892, showing that it is an adequate reliability coefficient. Table 1: Comparison of pre-survey and post-survey of EG and CG on pupils’ self- esteem Pre-survey Post-survey N Mean SD Levene’s test N Mean SD Levene’s test Experimental 30 34.13 6.704 0.995 30 38.27 5.527 0.169Control 24 33.79 6.379 24 34.58 7.040 103 project mean difference of 0.34 was not been formally tested, although it may be claimed that the difference is too small to need statistically testing. Instead, the result of the Levene’s test which tested the difference in the two variances (the square of the standard deviations) was mentioned; obviously, the teacher-researchers used the Levene’s test as if it is a test of mean difference, which should be tested with the Student’s t-test. To rectify, first compare the two groups’ pre-survey means with the independent t-test and hope for no difference. (We leave the question of group homogeneity for the time being since the SDs 6.70 and 6.38 are close enough.) When group equivalence is assured, then, do the same to compare the groups on the post-survey means and hope for a statistically significant difference this time. If this is obtained, then the project groups can be said to have benefitted from the intervention. The effect size (Coe, 2002; Soh, 2008) used here for group comparisons is one version of the standardized mean difference (SMD), specifically the Glass’s delta (Soh, 2008). The SMD was simply calculated by (Project mean – Comparison mean) / (SD of the comparison group). When this was done, Table 1 was re-structured as Table 2. Table 2: Mean comparisons of pre-survey and post-survey Measure Project (N=30) Comparison (N=30) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-survey 34.1 6.70 33.8 6.38 0.3 0.05 Post-survey 38.3 5.53 34.6 7.04 3.7 0.53 Now, the pre-survey SMD of 0.05 in Table 2 shows that the two groups were equivalent in the criterion before project commenced, and the post-survey SMD of 0.53 shows a medium effect size in favour of the project group, thus the project was successful in producing a difference which cannot be ignored or dismissed. Why not the t-test? The teacher-researchers reported the results of the Levene’s Test but not those of the t-tests. Why this is so is not known. The results of the t-test and the Levene’s test appear together in the same run of the t-test in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) which could have been used by the teacher-researcher. Anyway, this is a blessing in disguise because the t-test should not have been run in the first place! Oftentimes, teacher- researchers routinely run this Null Hypothesis Significance Test (NHST) to compare group means (either doing this on their own accord or, perhaps more often than not, being misguided). 104 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects There are several reasons why the t-test should not have been run. First, what question do the teacher-researchers attempt to answer? Generally, this is about whether the project mean differs from the comparison mean, and if yes, what is the magnitude of the difference. For pre-test, small or no difference is hoped for because group comparability is desired. For post-test, medium or large difference is expected to show the intervention effect. The answers to such questions are found by using the SMD, and not the t-test, for the simple reason that the t-value does not answer the question on magnitude of difference. What then does the t-test do? It tells the probability of an observed difference in the populations, and this is not the concern of the teacher-researcher doing a school-based project. For this, we need to quote Abelson again: There is also a common confusion when using the significance level as an indication of the merit of the outcome. When the null hypothesis is rejected at, say, the .01 level, a correct way to state what has happened is as follows: “If it were true that there were no systematic difference between the means in the populations from which the samples came, then the probability that the observed means would have been different as they were, or more different, is less than one in a hundred. This being strong grounds for doubting the viability of the null hypothesis, the null hypothesis is rejected (Abelson, 1995, p.40). Note that the t-test it is not about the magnitude of group difference (which is of concern to the teacher-researchers) but about the probability of the observed group difference as an estimate of a similar difference in the populations (Fraley, 2003). Since when does a teacher-researcher become concerned with what may or may not happen to a very large group of other teachers’ pupils who made up the populations? In practically all cases like the present one, there is hardly real sampling in school-based projects and, to call the groups of pupils ‘samples’ is in fact a misnomer or misconception, or both. Since there is no real sampling (and hence no samples), inferential statistics like the t-test is irrelevant and therefore not applicable. Therefore, descriptive statistics such as the SMD is the only one to use with validity. On the misuse of the t-test and its like, Abelson (1995) has a strong view, thus, The ethos of doing significance tests as the hallmark of an appropriately conservative style is now so deeply ingrained that tests are sometimes used even when they need not be. Indeed, there are several contexts in which it is really silly (Cohen, in press) to carry out a significance test, much less to present its result (p.76). 105 There is yet another reason why the t-test cannot be trusted to compare group means, even if it is used for comparing samples which have really been randomly selected from their respective populations. The problem is the influence of sample sizes on the p-value corresponding to a t-value. Let’s say a t=1.99 is obtained for comparing two groups which have together 42 pupils, the corresponding p-value is not significant (p>.05) as the required t-value is 2.02. But if the total number of pupils is 82, the same t-value (1.99) is significant (p<.05) because it is equal to the required t=1.99. In a recent issue of a journal, a study reports almost all comparisons as non- significant and another almost all as significant. Of these studies (references cannot be given to safeguard the authors), one is too bad to be true while the other too good to be true. A careful look shows that the former study compared 10 pairs of respondents whereas the latter has a total respondent size of as many as 800! These are good contrasting examples of the influence of sample sizes on the results of the t-test. In the words of Sterne (n.d.), “Given a large sample size, even a small difference will be statistically significantly different from zero.” In the case study above, the teacher-researchers compared first the project group’s pre-post-test means and then, likewise, the comparison group’s pre-post-test. In other words, they did two separate within-group comparisons and then inferred from the results that there was a project effect. This seems fine intuitively but doing so violates the logical of the experimental design used. On this, we have to listen to Abelson (1995) again: But that would contradict the logic of including a control comparison in the first place. Why is that so? The point of running a control condition is to test the relative claim that the effect in the presence of the experimental factor exceeds the effect in its absence. The appropriate test seems to be a test of the interaction between the rows and the columns (p.63). Why do teacher-researchers make this kind of conceptual error? One possibility is that teachers typically are concerned with student’s improvement which is always seen as a difference in performance before and after teaching the same students. This mode of thinking is consistent with commonsense exemplified by watching a plant or a child grows. It is a mode of thinking teachers developed over years which is difficult to change when change is necessary as they do school-based projects experimentally. Whatever the cause, teacher-researchers need to re-orientate and adopt a research mode of thinking when 106 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects analyzing and reporting school-based projects. The Levene’s test When the SPSS is run to compare group means, the Levene’s test is first done by default to check homogeneity in variability. The result shows whether the two groups have the similar or different degree of homogeneity. If there is non-significant difference (as was found for the present case), the “equal variances assumed” t-value is taken, otherwise, the “equal variance not assumed” t-value should be reported. Once the question of homogeneity is settled, the researcher will proceed to use the appropriate t-value and report the outcome of group comparison. What does the Levene’s test do? According to the Wikipedia (2010), In statistics, Levene’s test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances in different samples... It tests the null hypothesis that the population variances are equal. If the resulting p-value of Levene’s test is less than some critical value (typically 0.05), the obtained differences in sample variances are unlikely to have occurred based on random sampling. Thus, the null hypothesis of equal variances is rejected and it is concluded that there is a difference between the variances in the population. (Emphasis mine) Note that the Levene’s test (Levene’s Test, n.d.; Wikipedia, 2010) is an inferential statistic for checking equivalence of variances of two or more randomly selected groups. Therefore its application in the present case is doubted, since the two groups are not random samples. By the way, variance is numerically the square of SD indicating the extent with which a set of scores spreading around its mean. When a group has a SD (and therefore a variance) much larger than another group has, its scores are spreading much wider, indicating there are more higher or lower scores or both. If this is the case, then the two groups are not equivalent on homogeneity, although they may have the same or similar means indicating the same or similar level of performance. Then something need be done to ensure group comparability before comparison is made on relevant measures (Soh, 2009). In place of the Levene’s test, a simple shortcut is to find the ratio of the two variances. This is done by (1) finding the variances by squaring the two groups’ SDs, (2) dividing the larger variance by the smaller one, and (3) checking the ratio against the tabled value of the F-distribution which can be found in the appendix of any text on statistical analysis. 107 To teacher-researchers, the first two steps are no problems, but the third is a bit clumsy. As a rule of thumb, if there are about 30 or more pupils in each of the two groups, and if the variance ratio is less than 2, the groups can be taken to have the same or similar homogeneity. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (n.d.) of 0.892 is reported for the case study. This is far greater than the conventional expected minimum of 0.70 for research purposes (Siegle, 2002). While the teacher-researchers deserve to be congratulated for this, there is also the need for more information to understand what the coefficient means. The only relevant information in the report is “A perception survey was conducted to ascertain pupils’ self- esteem. The survey was designed such that questions of the same nature were repeated but they were phrased in different ways.” It is not clear what different aspects of self-esteem were covered in the survey and the re-phrasing of the same items might have contributed to the unusually high alpha coefficient. Also needed is the number of questions in the self-esteem survey. Number of item affects the alpha coefficient. Cronbach’s alpha formula has two multiplicative components: (1) reliability component and (2) correction factor. The first is [1 – (Total item variance) / (Test variance)] which is the total test variance minus the unreliability portion. The second is k / (k-1) where k is the number of items; it ‘corrects’ the reliability component for number of items. If a test has a reliability components with a coefficient of 0.60 (which is quite a normal figure for affective measure like the self-esteem survey), and if there are 10 items, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.67, corrected up by 11%. If the test has only 5 items, it is 0.75, adjusted up by 25%. For three items, it is 0.90, adjusted up by 50%. And, if there are only two items, it is (2/1) * (.60) = 1.20 > 1.00, an alpha coefficient indicating that the test scores are more perfectly reliable than perfect reliability! Of course, this does not make good sense. Here, the paradox is that the shorter the test, the higher the score reliability appears to be, leading to over-confidence in short tests, contrary to the normal expectation that the longer the test, the more reliable the scores will be, given the same quality of items. For the present case, an important question is for which set of data was the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained. There are six possibilities: (1) pooled pre-survey, (2) pooled post-survey, (3) project groups’ pre-survey, (4) project group’s post-survey, (5) comparison group’s pre-survey, and (6) comparison group’s post-survey. Alpha coefficients 108 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects The general methodology adopted was a two-group (experimental and control) pre- and post-programme quasi-experimental design… The Null Hypotheses were (1) FSP [the programme] did not increase the level of student engagement; and (2)… Table 1 (here, re-numbered as Table 3) shows the paired t-test analysis carried out on the means obtained by the two groups in the pre- and post-surveys. The experimental groups registered significant increase in all categories. The control group contained significant increase in the scores in five out of nine categories… Table 3: Comparison of mean scores between experimental and control groups Components Experimental Group (EG) Control Group (CG) N=74 Pre-E (a) N=74 Post-E (b) Difference (b) – (a) N=73 Pre-C (c) N=73 Post-C (d) Difference (d) – (c) Vision of learning 15.59 16.68 1.09*** 15.27 15.81 0.54 … (the programme) showed a significant increase in ‘Vision of learning’… There was a 1.1 point increase for the Experimental group, while the Control group mean increased by 0.5 point. calculated using these different sets of scores will yield different results and have different meanings. Considering the experimental design, pooled pre-survey scores are the best to use as they are not influenced by the intervention which may make the project and the comparison groups different in their self-esteem. It will be good if there is an indication of which sets of scores were used for estimating the internal consistency of the self-esteem survey. Case study no. 2: Missing standard deviations For Case Study No. 2, the box below is an extract from another project report which deals with many aspect of student engagement in learning. The analyses done as reported by the teacher-researchers are the same for difference measures, only one (Vision of learning) is cited for illustration. 109 As is true of Case Study No. 1, this one also used within-in group comparison. As this is illogical (Abelson, 1995, cited above) as is the previous case, the data need be re- analyzed. However, the original table does not report the standard deviations (SDs) but only indicates the significance levels of differences using asterisks. To re-analyze, the information is re-organized for correct comparisons in Table 4, using a, b, c, and d to represent the missing SDs. Table 4: Mean comparisons of pre-survey and post-survey Measure Project (N=74) Comparison (N=73) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-survey 15.59 a 15.27 b 0.32 0.32/b Post-survey 16.68 c 15.81 d 0.87 0.87/d It is a standard procedure that SDs are reported together with their respective means. But this was not done for this case. Had the SDs been available, the SMDs for the pre-survey and the post-survey can be obtained and will result in two Glass’s deltas. Based on these, then, whether the groups differ in the pre-survey can be ascertained and the same can be done for the post-survey. As the needed information (b and d in Table 4) are missing, the SMDs cannot be calculated and there is no way we can make the comparisons. Is it, then, possible to do some guesstimate with the limited available data? Fortunately, the report indicates that there are 15 items for measuring student engagement in four aspects, namely, Vision of learning, Tasks, Assessment, and Instruction mode. Looking at the patterns of the means in the original table for the various measures, it is possible that there are four items for Vision of learning. Since each item is a five-point scale, the lowest possible scale score is 4 and the highest 20. Armed with this information and assuming a normal distribution of the scores, the standard deviation can be estimated (Estimating Standard Deviation, n.d.), thus: Estimated SD = (Largest possible score – Lowest possible score) / 6 = (20 – 4) / 6 = 16/6 = 2.7 If this is a correct guesstimate, then the estimated SMDs are 0.32/2.7=0.12 and 0.87/2.7=0.32 for the pre-survey and post-survey, respectively. Then, the conclusion is that the two groups were equivalent on the pre-survey and there was a small effect size 110 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects The subjects of this experiment are the students in two of the classes in Secondary Four… Both classes stayed intact without randomization… For 4E1, the students came in with an average T-scores of 213 in terms of their English language. For 4E2, the average T-scores is 194. The pre-test was the English Language mid-year examination… The post-test was a test designed… to used a text-type… using Impact Analysis as the subject matter. As shown in Table 5 (originally, Table 1) below, for the post-test, 4E1 has a mean of 20.46 (1.80) after the treatment compared to a mean of 19.28 (2.06) before the treatment. 4E2 shows a mean of 18.00 (2.51) after treatment compared to 17.26 (1.57) before the treatment. The paired t-test on the scores yielded a p-value of 0.002 and 0.015 for 4E1 and 4E2 respectively, indicating both classes showing increase in the scores which are significant. The increase in the mean scores was however greater in 4E1. Table 5: Comparison on post-test Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD 4E1 19.28 2.06 20.46 1.80 4E2 17.26 1.57 18.00 2.51 in favour of the project group on the post-survey. Therefore, the intervention was able to engage the project students slightly better than it did the comparison students. Of course, here again, although the conclusion is similar to that of the teacher-researchers, but the thinking process and logic are different: the teacher-researchers reached the correct conclusion but for a wrong reason! Case study no. 3: Missing initial comparison An important condition of a two-group design is the initial group equivalence. This is necessary for a valid interpretation of the post-test difference, if any. In the box below for Case Study No. 3, an initial group difference was not taken into account when interpreting the post-test difference. 111 As can be seen in the conclusion, the conceptual error of misplaced comparison appears in this case. However, there are two other errors which deserve rectification and discussion. By the way, this does not include the erroneous statement “in terms of their English language”, because T-score is an aggregate for four subjects examined in Singapore’s Primary School Leaving Examination. The fact is that only subject grades but not subject T-scores are available to the school. In this case, where did the T-score for English Language come from? Obviously, there is a mis-reporting. In the case, the pre-test means of 19.28 and 17.26 could well be different enough for the two groups to be non-equivalent before project commenced. This is confirmed when the SMD of 1.29 was obtained. This is a very large SMD when checked against Cohen’s criteria (Cohen, 1988; Soh, 2008). That the groups were initially non-equivalent could have been noticed by the teacher-researchers at the outset when they compared the average T-scores of the two groups. Table 6: Mean comparisons of pre-test and post-test Measure 4E1 (N=?) 4E2 (N=?) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 19.28 2.06 17.26 1.57 2.02 1.29 Post-test 20.46 1.80 18.00 2.51 2.46 0.98 Comparisons should have been done to compare groups on the pre-test and then again on the post-test, instead of two separate paired t-tests for the pre-post-test difference within each group, for the reason expounded earlier. When the two groups were compared on the post-test, the SMD of 0.98, which is large by Cohen’s (1988) standard, shows a large effect size which the teacher-researchers hoped for. However, since the groups were non-equivalent to begin with, comparing them on the post-test without due consideration for the initial difference renders the conclusion suspect. In fact, while the project group gained by 1.18, the comparison group gained by 0.74; the difference in gain is 0.44 in favour of the project group. To avoid this conceptual problem, the groups could have been equalized first by using some of the methods such as winsorizing or caliper matching (Soh, 2009) to create equivalent groups for valid interpretation. Alternatively, a gain-score analysis could be employed to off-set the initial difference. A third conceptual error lies with the tests used. As indicated in the report, the pre- 112 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects test and the post-test are two different tests. Had the groups been equalized on the T-score and then compared on the post-test between-group, the project would use the equivalent group post-test only design which in fact is a simpler and good design. Unfortunately, the paired t-tests compared the two sets of scores which are not of the same measure. The computer software is blind to the sources of numbers put in for processing; it does not know where the scores come from and does not need to know either. It just obediently churns out whatever statistics it is asked to calculate. It is the researchers who have to ensure meaningfulness of the statistics. Had the pre-test and post-test been the same measure, the problem of non-equivalence between groups can be solved by a gain-score analysis as suggested above. This case shows that experimental design, measurement, and statistical analysis of a project are not independent but related and they need be considered together. Case study no. 4: Over-simplification Compared with the two previous cases, Case Study No. 3 is a more complex one. The project studied the effect of interdisciplinary project-work (independent variable) on students’ perceptions of life-skills (dependent variable) and ascertained if there were differences attributable to course and gender (two moderating variables). A moderating variable is one which influences the relationship of the independent and dependent variables. As rightly stated by the teacher-researcher, there was no control group since the entire Secondary Two cohort was involved in project-work. Incidentally, this so-called whole-level approach is another issue in research design but the discussion of which is not within the score of this paper. The research question posed with regard to this investigation is: What is the impact of interdisciplinary project-work… on making learning meaningful?… The LSQ (Life-skills Questionnaire) administered as pre- and post-tests comprised statements to identify the perception aspects of life-skills. The questionnaire consisted of four components: (1) Confidence, (2) … Table 7 (originally, Table 2) reports the means and standard deviations for the respective courses and gender of Time 1 (pre-test) and Time 2 (post-test). Paired t-test was carried out to examine significant differences due to course and gender at Time 1 and Time 2. 113 Table 7: Results of paired t-tests if LSQ Course Scale Gender Mean (SD) Mean difference t-statisticsPre Post Normal Academic Confidence Female (68) 3.43 (0.71) 3.57 (0.51) -0.14 -1.56 Male (53) 3.28 (0.63) 3.67 (0.60) -0.39 -3.94*** Express Female (75) 3.51 (0.44) 3.89 (0.64) -0.35 -4.79*** Male (79) 3.61 (0.63) 3.81 (0.63) -0.20 -2.66*** The results of the paired t-test showed that the perceived life skills measured by mean scores on the LSQ for Express students were higher than that of N(A) students. The course differences were still observed at Time 2, with the Express students displaying higher life skills development. At Time 1, male students collectively showed higher learning (sic) to learn life skills. Nonetheless, these effects were not observed at Time 2. As shown in Table 7, there are in fact four independent analyses of single-group pre-and-post-test design experiments. The results of analyses as presented in the original table do not provide the needed information for the conclusion reached. For instance, when comparing between courses, the data of female and male students need be pooled. Likewise, when comparing by gender, data of the two courses need be pooled. The way it was done by the teacher-researchers is an over-simplification. To justify the conclusion, the data need be re-organized and analyzed. This is shown in Table 8A for comparing courses and Table 8B for comparing gender. Table 8A: Mean comparisons by courses Measure Express (N=128) Normal Academic (N=121) Difference SMD Mean SD Mean SD Pre-test 3.56 0.55 3.36 0.68 0.20 0.29 Post-test 3.85 0.64 3.61 0.56 0.24 0.42 As can be seen in Table 8A, for pre-test, Express students scored higher on Confidence than did Normal (Academic) students with a small SMD of 0.29. For post-test, Express students also scored higher than did Normal (Academic) students with a greater SMD of 0.42. The conclusion is that the experience of doing interdisciplinary project-work was able to enhance the difference in Confidence between the two groups and in favour 114 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects of the Express students. This is consistent with the conclusion reached by the teacher- researcher, at least for Confidence. However, the initial difference (shown by SMD=0.29) cannot be ignored, though small. As shown in Table 8B, there are no differences in both the pre-test and the post-test between male and female students, as shown by the SMDs of 0.02 in both comparisons. Thus, where Confidence is concerned, the conclusion is not the same as that reported. Table 8B: Mean comparisons by gender Measure Male (N=132) Female (N=143) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 3.48 0.63 3.47 0.59 0.01 0.02 Post-test 3.75 0.62 3.74 0.59 0.01 0.02 Had the students been truly randomly sampled from their respective populations, the data could well be analyzed by a 2X2 repeated measure analysis of variance, since there are crossings of two genders with two courses and each student is repeatedly measured by the pre-test and post-test using the same test. Such an analysis allows the evaluation of the course main effect, gender main effect, and the course-gender interaction effect, plus testing occasion effect. This obviously will be a highly complex situation. However, since the four groups of students are not random samples, this analysis does not apply. For practically oriented school-based projects like this case, using SMD would suffice. Case study no. 5: Information overload Information overload is as problematic as information insufficiency. Giving too little information makes thinking and conclusion vague. Giving too much information confuses people. When a simpler analysis is made more complex than it needs be, communication and thinking problems may arise. It is really an art to say what is necessary and stop there. Case Study No. 5 is a case in point. The subjects were 42 students from a secondary two normal academic class… Another class of secondary two academic students was assigned to be the control group… A pre-test was conducted using an instrument developed by the teachers. The format of the post-test was similarly designed. 115 This case has two good points. First, it compared the project and the comparison groups on two separate occasions, first for the pre-test and later for the post-test. As discussed above, it is the correct and logical way to make between-groups comparison in a two-group experiment. Second, since the pre-test and the post-test are two different tests, within-group comparison (like what is done in the previous case) will be erroneous. The teacher-researchers use ANOVA (analysis of variance) instead of the conceptually simpler t-test, perhaps a preference. However, Table 9B is a correct standard way of presenting the result of an ANOVA but it contains many information which need not be shown for a school-based report, although it may be required in, say, a MEd thesis. The additional information is not meaningful to teachers and may make them wonder what they are for (and at the same time awed by mysterious numbers and labels). This is the problem of information overload: What do those labels across the top of Table 9A mean? Do readers need to know all these to understand the result? And, is there a simpler way to communicate the project outcome? When the same information for the two tables is re-organized and analyzed, the result is shown in Table 10 below. Here, the SDs were calculated by taking the square-roots of the variances in Table 9A. In Table 10, the SMD of 0.39 indicates a small between- group difference and the conclusion is similar to that of using the more complex F-value obtained through the much complex ANOVA. Comparison between the two classes using ANOVA showed that the performance of the control group in the pre-test was similar to that of the treatment group, F(1, 82) = 2.19, p>0.05. Table 9A: Statistics for pre-test (original Table 1) Group Total number Average Variance 2A1 (control) 42 6.57 4.06 2A2 (Treatment) 42 5.88 5.08 Table 9B: Statistics from single-factor ANOVA of pre-test results (original Table 2) Source of variance SS df MS F p Fcrit Between group 10.01 1 10.01 2.19 0.143 3.96Within group 374.69 82 4.57 (The same is done for the post-test in the report.) 116 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects Table 10: Mean comparisons on pre-test Measure Project (N=42) Comparison (N=42) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 6.75 2.02 5.88 2.25 0.87 0.39 That the results of the two methods of analysis are similar is due to fact that, in a two- group experiment, F = t 2 or t =√ (F). However, in the re-analysis, SMD instead of t-value was obtained for reasons discussed earlier. The question is, since the t-test is more direct and simpler in concept and procedure, why go for the conceptually much more complex and procedurally much more cumbersome ANOVA and thus causing information overload with its ill-consequences? Discussion and conclusion This paper illustrates five different kinds of statistical misapplications found in school-based project reports: (1) misplaced comparisons, (2) missing SD, (3) missing initial comparison, (4) over-simplification, and (5) information overload. Perhaps, with the exception of the last one (which may not be considered an error) the other fours are common errors. The most common error is to report first on the pre-post-project mean difference of the project group, followed by the same of the pre-post-test mean difference of the comparison group, and then put the two results together and conclude that, since a difference is found for the project group but not the comparison group, the intervention benefits the project group and therefore the project works. This sounds logical but “it is tempting to stop there, declare victory, and write it up for publication (Abelson, 1995).” In short, it violates the logic of having a comparison group. This can be complicated by regression-to-the-mean threat if the two groups are non-equivalent initially. Another common conceptual error is the use of the t-test when in fact it is not applicable and, worse, irrelevant. It is worth repeating that the t-test is an inferential statistics which can be used only when the data comes from groups randomly sampled from their respective populations. In the context of school-based projects, this condition is seldom, if occasionally, satisfied. The t-value and its corresponding p-value do not address the question of concern to teacher-researchers (and school administrators); these values, 117 however awesome they may look, are about the probability of observed difference and not about the magnitude of the observed difference. Moreover, the significance of a t-test result is also sensitive to group size. Again, why this conceptual error is so often made is unknown. Most probably, teacher-researchers are awed by the small decimal numbers, the word ‘significance’, and also probably misguided. Statistics tell stories about projects and their effects, but the stories must be the correct ones that make statistical sense. The value of school-based projects does not depend on whether statistical techniques (especially the more complicated ones) are used, nor does it depend on the statistical significance - a word which is always mistaken to mean ‘importance’ (Soh, 2011). As can be seen in many such reports, statistics seem to have been used for a cosmetic purpose because, after presenting one or more tables, the teacher-researchers go on presenting their views, instead of telling the story contained in their statistics. Statistical misuses as exemplified by the five case studies here are not exclusive to school-based project or more generally educational research. It is also commonly found in other social research (Dodhia, 2007). And, Roehm (n.d.) gives ample examples from medical research. The question is not who make the most mistakes but how can mistakes be avoided and, if found, rectified. This calls for better training, more careful application, and more stringent editorial screening. If we have to use statistics, use them correctly by referring to the right concepts, the right techniques, and the right language. A job worth doing deserves to be done well. Otherwise, we behave like a little boy who has just been given a hammer and finds everything needs knocking. Statistics may look like pure simple truth, but as Oscar Wilde once said, “The pure and simple truth is rarely pure and never simple.” 118 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects References Abelson, Robert P. (1995). Statistics as Principled Argument. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Coe, R. (2002). It’s the Effect Size, Stupid. What effect size is and why it is important? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, University of Exeter, England, 12-14 September 2002. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences, 2nd Edition. Huillsdale, NJ: Earlbum. Cronbach’s Alpha. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.experiment-resources.com/cronbachs-alpha.html Dodhia, R. (2007). Misuse of Statistics. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://statsconsult.com/Articles/Misuse%20of%20statistics.pdf Estimating Standard Deviation (n.d). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.statit.com/support/quality_practice_tips/estimating_std_dev.shtml Fraley, R. C. (2003). End of the Semester Thoughts on the Significance Testing Debate: A Review of the Problems with Significance Testing. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.uic.edu/classes/psych/psych548/fraley/NHSTsummary.htm Levene’s Test. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/analysis/levenes_test.htm Roehm, E. (n.d.). Improving Medical Statistics and the Interpretation of Medical Studies. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://www.improvingmedicalstatistics.com/index. html Siegle, D. (2002). Reliability. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://www.gifted.uconn. edu/siegle/research/Instrument%20Reliability%20and%20Validity/Reliability.htm Soh, K. C. (2008). Effect size: What does it do for educational action researchers? North Star, 1(1), 63-70. Soh, K. C. (2009). Analyzing Data & Interpreting Outcomes: Statistical Toolbox for Teacher-Researchers. Singapore: Cobee Publishing House. Soh, K. C. (2011). Statistically speaking, correctly. North Star, 2(2), 108-127. Sterne, J. (n.d.). The End of Statistical Significance? Power-point presentation. Department of Social Medicine, University of Bristol UK. Wikipedia. (2010). Levene’s Test. Retrieved December 2, 2011, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levene's_test 119 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research 中間選項在李克特量表中的應用: 給教育研究的啟示 Kwok Kuen TSANG PhD Student, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong Abstract This article is going to review the debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale in order to understand the implications for scale construction. In this review, the major issues around this debate are identified. The first is methodological. The debate around this issue is the concern about whether the midpoints affect the reliability and validity of measurements. The second issue is epistemological. It concerns about how researchers exactly know the meaning of the responses into midpoints that they intend to measure. To some extent, the debate based on the methodological issue illustrates that both using and not using of midpoints are acceptable, because the midpoints may not really affect the reliability and validity. Therefore, the epistemological issue while designing the rating scale of a measurement is the focus of this article. The implications of the debate for educational research are also discussed in this article. Keywords midpoint, Likert scale, scale construction 摘要 本文回顧有關在李克特量表應用中間選項的爭論,希望著此了解中間選項對建構量表的作 121 用。本文將指出,關於中間選項的爭論主要圍繞兩個主題。一是方法論的,這一主題所關 心的是中間選項對量表的信度和效度的影響;二是認識論的,這主題所關心的是研究者如 何得知受試者對中間選項的理解跟他們所想的一樣。在某程度來說,關於方法論上的爭論 普遍認同中間選項不一定對量表的信度和效度有影響,所以從應用和不應用中間選項均可 接受。因此,在建構量表時,我們應更多地考慮認識論上的問題。另外,本文還討論了中 間選項的爭論對教育研究的啟示。 關鍵詞 中間選項,李克特量表,量表建構 In educational research, Likert scale is commonly used to measure different kinds of variables, such as teacher stress and burnout (e.g. Chan, Chen, & Chong, 2010; Dworkin, 2002), self-efficacy (e.g. Brouwers, Tomic, & Stijnen, 2002; Cheung, 2006), school and teacher effectiveness (e.g. Bangert, 2006; Kyriakides, Campbell, & Christofidou, 2002; Kyriakides, Demetriou, & Charalambous, 2006; Reezigt & Creemers, 2005; Reynolds, 2001), school organization (e.g. Bowen, Ware, Rose, & Powers, 2007; Firestone, 1984; Firestone & Herriott, 1982; Herriott & Firestone, 1984) school climate and culture (e.g. Cavanagh & Dellar, 1996; Cavanagh & Waugh, 2004; Moos, 1987; Pang, 1998; Wagner, 2006), and the like. The reason is that Likert scale empowers educational researchers to effectively operationalize the variables and then identify their relationships in order to improve our educational system. However, some researchers claim that the use of midpoints on Likert scale may affect research reliability and validity, but some other researchers disagree. It is necessary for education researchers to learn this debate about whether midpoint opinions are included in a scale, because the debate not only directly points to the problem of research quality but also the validity of research implications and recommendations to educational system. In this article, therefore, we will first review the debate in social research in general. On the basis of this review, then, we will suggest the implications of the debate for educational research. 122 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research Debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale Methodological issue One concern among researchers about having midpoints on a Likert scale is the effects of the midpoints to the reliability and validity of measurements. Generally, the supporters of midpoint opinions claim that the midpoints can increase the reliability of measurement. For example, Courtenay and Weidemann (1985) assess the effects of midpoint answers (“don’t know”) to the Palmore’s Facts on Aging quizzes (FAQ) and conclude that the midpoint answers tend to enhance the reliability of FAQ. Another study conducted by Adelson and McCoach (2010) present similar findings. In that study, Adelson and McCoach compared the response pattern of elementary students who responded a mathematics attitudes instrument with a 4-point Likert scale with another group of elementary students who responded the same instrument but the scaling had an additional neutral point. The study shows that the scale including a neutral midpoint might be more appropriate for elementary students than the 4-point scale, because the reliability of the 5-point scale was statistically and significantly higher than the reliability of the 4-point scale. On the other hand, the adversaries argue that the high reliability may be resulted from response set (Cronbach, 1950), especially the tendency to choose the midpoint options. Weems and Onwuegbuzie (2001) conduct three studies to show that there was a high rate of midpoint choices among their samples. This to some extent implies response set to the midpoints exist. Different from the findings found by the supporters of midpoints, the response set in Weems and Onwuegbuzie’s studies seems to attenuate the reliability rather than enhance it (Weems & Onwuegbuzie, 2001). In this sense, midpoints are not necessary to benefit the internal consistence of measurements. Nevertheless, some researchers argue that the use of reliability as a criterion to judge the merit of midpoints is inappropriate (Chang, 1994). As Cronbach (1950, p.22) already notes, “there is no merit in enhancing test reliability unless validity is enhanced at least proportionately.” In other words, validity should be a better criterion than reliability (Chang, 1994). Some studies evaluate the impacts of midpoints on measurement validity. However, the findings are also contradictory. For instance, some studies find that the construct validity may not be influenced by the midpoints (Adelson & McCoach, 2010; Kulas, Stachowski, & Haynes, 2008), but some researchers suggest the omission of the midpoints may impair the validity (Johns, 2005). 123 One possible reason explaining such contradictory findings is that the reliability and validity may be independent of the number of scale points, including the use or not use of midpoints, on Likert scale (Dawes, 2001a; Matell & Jacoby, 1971). Another possible explanation is that there are other factors mediating the relation of the use of midpoints to the measurement reliability and validity, such as respondents’ response style (Clarke, 2001; Lee, Jones, Mineyama, & Zhang, 2002; Wong, Tam, & Fung, 1993) and reverse coding (Weems & Onwuegbuzie, 2001). Epistemological issue Another concern about the use of midpoints on Likert scale is epistemological. This means whether and how researchers exactly know the meaning of the responses into midpoints that they intend to measure. Originally, the meaning of midpoints on Likert scale refers to neutral i.e., neither agree nor disagree (Raaijmakers, Hoof, Hart, Verbogt, & Wollebergh, 2000). Therefore, this kind of options is desirable because it avoids forcing respondents to choose agree or disagree options, that may evoke misleading conclusion, if they really hold neutral opinions towards the items. However, some scholars already note that midpoints may have many different meanings such as “neither agree nor disagree”, “undecided”, “don’t know”, and “no opinion” (Raaijmakers, et al., 2000). Thus, it is possible for respondents to interpret the midpoints in several different ways that may be totally different from the original or intended meaning, especially when the midpoints are not clearly defined (Kulas, et al., 2008). Worcester and Burns (1975) conduct a very interesting experiment to investigate this issue. In the experiment, the subjects were randomly assigned into four groups. Each group of the subjects was required to answer three questions that were the same for each group except the rating scales (4-point or 5-point) and the scale option labels (e.g. “tend to agree”, “agree”, and “2” assumed to be the same meaning). First, all of the subjects were asked to give their answers by using a discrete verbal scale (the Likert scales being tested); then, they were asked to indicate the answers again on a continuous non-verbal scale (literally straight, blank line). After that, Worcester and Burns compared the answers between the verbal and non-verbal scales. They found that the midpoint selections could mean “neither agree nor disagree”, “tend to agree”, and “tend to disagree” among the subjects. Thus, they concluded that the similar or the same options may mean different things to different people. Similar to Worcester and Burns, Kulas, et al. (2008, p.251) claim that midpoints 124 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research may be viewed by the respondents as a “dumping ground” for unsure or non-applicable responses, “if the respondent[s] did not view the middle response option as existing along the agreement continuum.” In other words, midpoints may not really represent the opinion of “neither agree nor disagree”. To some extent, this argument gets supports from another line of studies that aims to learn the effects of the midpoints on survey results. For example, Garland (1991) asks his respondents to give opinions about the importance of product labeling with a Likert scale and he finds that more negative ratings were obtained when midpoints were removed from the scale. Dawes (2001b) conducts a similar study, in which the respondents were asked to identify their satisfaction towards their insurance company with a scale either with or without midpoints, and also finds the similar results. In addition to negative rating, some studies indicate that an increase in positive rating may occur when a scale does not include midpoints (Worcester & Burns, 1975). These effects of the denial of midpoints may be explained by that respondents may “use the midpoint to avoid reporting what they see as less socially acceptable answer” (Johns, 2010, p.7) in order to please the interviewers (Garland, 1991). If it is the case, the selection of midpoint may no longer imply neutrality. In other words, midpoints may be harmful to measurement validity. However, the supporters of the use of midpoints provide confronting evidences. For instance, Raaijmakers, et al. (2000) argue that the midpoints are necessary. This is because the respondents, who do not have enough knowledge to response the items, might minimize unresponse rate by selecting the midpoint to indicate the sense of “undecided” or “don’t know”. In addition, Matell and Jacoby (1972) discover that a negative correlation between the number of scale options and the opportunity that midpoints become a dumping ground. This implies that midpoints may be more appropriate in a scale with more scale options. Implication to educational research According to the literature reviewed above, it is obvious that there is still no conclusion whether the midpoints on Likert scale are desirable or not. Nevertheless, according to the methodological viewpoint, i.e. the issue about the impact of midpoints on measurement reliability and validity, both use and not use of midpoints are acceptable because the midpoints may not really affect the reliability and validity (Dawes, 2001a; Matell & Jacoby, 1971). Therefore, it is suggested that educational researchers should 125 take more consideration to the epistemological issue while designing the rating scale of a measurement. To some extent, it is hard for educational researchers to know exactly the meaning of the midpoint responses. For instance, how should we interpret why a teacher choose the midpoint to the following statement retrieved from Kyriakides, et al.’s (2002) questionnaire about teacher effectiveness: “Students’ achievement in relation to teachers’ objectives”? The teacher may select the midpoint for a variety of purposes, such as: he or she may want to express neutrality about the relationship between students’ achievement and teachers’ objectives; he or she may not know the relationship; or he or she may avoid to select “disagree” or “very disagree”, even though this may be his or her true thought, because he or she may think disagreement about the statement is socially undesirable. Nevertheless, it is argued that the inclusion of midpoints on a scale is necessary. This is because we cannot sure whether the meaning of “agree” or “disagree” response, for instance, really implies the respondents’ agreement or disagreement towards the items. Some respondents may select these two options because there is no an option referring to “neutral”, “undecided” or “don’t know”. In this sense, we may need to take a risk that we may make an inaccurate conclusion due to the scale without such midpoints. The inaccurate conclusion may affect the validity of the implications and recommendations to improve our educational system. If this is right, educational researchers need to think how to minimize the disadvantage of the use of midpoints such as respondents’ misinterpretation to the midpoint opinions, response set to midpoints, and social desirable responses through midpoints. One possible way is a careful use of option labels. For example, Worcester and Burns (1975) discover that the balance side point options (e.g. the point 2 and 4 of a 5-point Likert scale) that are labeled as “slightly agree/disagree”, “fairly agree/disagree” or “quite agree/disagree” are more preferable than that labeled as “agree” and “disagree” only, because the adverbs tend to reduce the number of midpoint selections. Another way is to define the midpoints as clear as possible. Some studies suggest that the use of midpoints as a dumping ground may be more likely to occur when the option labels are difficult to understand (Cummins & Gullone, 2000; Kulas & Stachowski, 2009). Therefore, for example, it is more desirable to refer midpoints to the label of “neither agree nor disagree” or “neutral” instead of number “3”. Alternatively, educational researchers may add “non-applicable” or “N/A” options in a Likert scale (Kulas, et al., 2008). These 126 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research two approaches may be able to solve the problem of “untrue” middle response category endorsement (Kulas & Stachowski, 2009; Kulas, et al., 2008). Finally, the limitations of the midpoints may be reduced by increasing scale sensitivity. To increase scale sensitivity means to increase number of scale options (Cummins & Gullone, 2000). Some researchers show the increase in scale sensitivity may decrease the midpoint selections (Matell & Jacoby, 1972). They suggest that the midpoint selections tend to more often occur on 3-point and 5-point scale, but less on 7-point and 19-point scale (Matell & Jacoby, 1972). In other words, the response set to midpoints and social desirable responses through midpoints may be minimized by increasing scale sensitivity. Conclusion In this paper, the literature about the debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale is reviewed. It finds that the debate seems to focus on two issues: methodological issue – the impact of midpoints on measurement reliability and validity – and epistemological issue – whether and how researchers know the meaning of midpoint responses that are the intended meaning designed by the researchers. After reviewing the arguments from both supporters and opponents, it is suggested that a scale with midpoints is appropriate for educational research because such an inclusion may not necessarily be harmful to the measurement reliability and validity, but also avoid forcing respondents to choose a direction. Nevertheless, it is still noted that there are some limitations of the use of midpoints, such as respondents’ misinterpretation to the midpoint opinions, response set to midpoints, and social desirable responses through midpoints. 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Journal of the Market Research Society, 17(3), 181-197. 130 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 Conceptualizing higher-order thinking for reforming school curriculum and teaching 楊思賢 香港教育學院 摘要 近數十年來,世界各地提出需要改革課程與教學範式,認為必須裝備學生的高階思維能力。 在香港,教育當局也有這樣的主張。高階思維,簡稱「高思」,在本地及國際文獻中,是 一個豐富的概念。學者們為這個概念提出了很多不同的演繹,至今仍未有共識;不少人期 望對此理念能更清楚地理解。本文借助文獻分析方法,探討這富挑戰性的議題,先闡明「高 思」與教學範式轉變的關係,進而討論「高思」相關的概念及理論,綜合成為四類高階思 維的意涵,冀望能為教育實務及日後的相關研究提供有用的參考。 關鍵詞 高階思維,課程與教學範式,課程改革,教學創新 Abstract In recent decades, researchers recommend the reform of the paradigm of curriculum and teaching to cater for educational needs in the contemporary world. Many suggest equipping the next generation with the capabilities of higher-order thinking (HOT). In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau also emphasizes the development of higher- order thinking skills in school curriculum. Hitherto, HOT is a rich concept that is under numerous diverse interpretations by local and international academics. Many educators 131 wish to have a better understanding of the concept. Based on findings from documentary analysis, this paper analyzes the concept of HOT. It starts with analyzing how HOT is related to a change in teaching paradigm, followed by a discussion of the theory and concepts of HOT, which leads to the formulation of a conceptual framework proposed by the present author. The author wishes that the framework could serve as a reference for further empirical or practical endeavors in the field. Keywords higher-order thinking, paradigm of curriculum and teaching, curriculum reform, innovative teaching 引言 在這個瞬息萬變的時代裏,現代的學校課程與教學正經歷不能迴避的轉向。Gardner (1999)指出未來的教育需能應付六大潮流,這包括科技與科學的突破和知識領域的轉變; 重點是,這六個力量加上腦研究及學習論的更新和啟示,勢如破竹地衝擊世界各地的教育 目的及價值,使其出現根本的變化,學校課程不能不改革。歐用生、楊慧文(1998)也有 類似的意見,他們對後現代社會現象作了分析,指出富裕社會將人性「物化」,新的經濟 倫理影響人的價值觀,資訊社會又挑戰著傳統生活。轉換課程與教學典範以挽救失落的一 代,是學校迫在眉睫的工作。教育應如何改變?如何改革?正如費利民(Friedman, 2007) 所說,世界是平的,這議題是國際化的。面對這重大議題,中、外學者都有提出他們的見 解。 Hargreaves(2003)引用新加坡政府的例子,說明任何國家為了未來的繁榮,必須培 養國民的學習和應付變化的能力,而「思考型學校」正是新加坡的教育藍圖。Hargreaves 因此說明,面向知識型經濟的教學應著重培養學生的創造力、靈活性、問題解決能力、獨 創性、集體智慧及敢於冒險的精神等。一些學者有類同的看法:認為發展學生思維與心智 是知識型社會極為重要的一項努力方向(Resnick, 1987; Bereiter, 2002)。總而言之,擁 132 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 有高階思維(下文寫作「高思」,這是香港一些學校老師常用的簡稱)等同擁有高效能的 思考力,被視為廿一世紀不可匱乏的能力(Cotton, 1991)。要培育學生的這些能力,思 考教學誠然有其重要性。這也是本港教育改革和課程革新的焦點建議(教育統籌委員會, 2000;課程發展議會,2001)。 香港政府曾把本港定位為一個面向知識型經濟的社會,也重視教育方面的投資,其教 育與課程改革綱領強調發展學生的創造力、問題解決能力及批判思考等高思能力(教育統 籌委員會,2000;課程發展議會,2001)。課程改革實行至今已逾十年,成敗得失毀譽參 半。對於思考的培育,始終是願景多於實作。最近教育局的學校外評周年報告亦指出,學 校能成功在教學中發展學生的高思能力,只屬個別例子(教育局質素保證分部,2009)。 看來,學習者的思考培育是現時仍需努力的其中一項改革重點(South China Morning Post, 2011)。 研究發現教師對課程革新的理解常是成功的關鍵要素(Yeung and Lam, 2007)。高階 思維是一個眾說紛紜的概念,在探討這個概念的文獻時,學者提出了很多不同的演繹。香 港實施了課程改革多年,至今學校教育人員仍期望對此理念能有更清楚的理解。為此,本 文期望能透過文獻分析為這個富挑戰性的議題作理念的探討,先闡明高思與教學範式轉變 的關係,進而討論一些相關的概念、理論,和作者發現的觀點,為高階思維的內涵作出歸 類,冀望能為這方面的教育研究與實務提供有用的參考。 研究方法 本文就「高思」的意涵探討,源於作者一次文獻分析(Documentary analysis)的研 究結果。文獻分析法又稱內容分析法,是用作釐清教育概念的研究方法;研究者可從文獻 的分析中「描述概念的精義或一般意義、及確認概念的不同意義…」(王文科、王智弘, 2005)。 進行文獻分析之前,作者先行界定文獻蒐集的方向、年份,定下是次探討的取樣方法。 133 本港的課程改革,歷年以來常參考西方的理論作為發展基礎(Yeung, 2009; Morris & Adamson, 2009);其教育與課程改革綱領中建議發展的思維教育,亦以西方觀點為主要根 據(教育統籌委員會,2000;課程發展議會,2001);故此,本文探討的方向亦先以西方 文獻為起點 1。作者在閱覽文獻過程中,發現有關高思的討論多以 Resnick(1987)的著作 為起點;故此,本文的文獻搜集亦以該著作及年份為起點。取樣年份方面,定為 1987 年到 作者執筆撰寫本文前為限。然後,作者運用了多項電子資料庫 2,搜尋了與「高思」教學 相關的文獻。 整合了文獻分析結果,作者現按以下方面與讀者分享: 一、 「高思」與教學範式轉變的關係; 二、 一些相關的概念、理論,和作者發現的觀點;及 三、 高階思維內涵的歸類。 高階思維與教學觀的轉變 對如何獲取知識的不同看法是各類教學觀的基礎,這些看法影響到學校的課程與教學 的發展。早在上世紀九十年代,西方學說已提出課程與教學應脫離只重灌輸知識的「直 接傳授」(Teaching for Transmission),轉向「以理解為目的」的教學(Teaching for Understanding)(Good & Brophy, 2008)。「以理解為目的」的教學認為真正的學習需經 學習者對知識的理解、統合、評估和應用。論者認為灌輸式的教授能利便學生進行事實內 容的吸納,卻未及「以理解為目的」的教學般成就更理想的智慧培養。要達成「以理解為 目的」的教學目標,有學者認為應落實「建構主義」。建構主義認為學習需要學生積極參 1 本文作者將持續留意兩岸四地及亞太區教育方面在高思課程與教學的研究發展,他日若有進一步 發現,便會再作發表。 2 搜尋過的電子資料庫主要包括:ProQuest Arts & Humanities Databases, ERIC 和 Google Scholar 等; 相關的百多份文獻包括以高階思維教學為研究主題的文章(約 30 篇),其他相關的文章(如談及 創意思考和批判思考教學的文章)(約共 50 篇)。 134 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 與,通過主動的思考和探究驗證的過程,在新知識和個人的已有知識間建立聯繫,從而建 構真正屬於個人的、有活力的知識(Fosnot, 1989)。相對於那些把知識看作不能改變的信 條的教學人員,支持這派學說的人相信死記硬背不是獲取知識的方法,理想的教法能讓學 習者明白知識是可轉移的,並可用來解釋新事物、解決問題和應用於廣泛的學習和日常生 活中(Perkins, 1999)。因此,教學不能單一地照抄照背教師或書本上的筆記,而應設計 學習的過程,讓學生主動思考、探求和苦心經營;而高思策略則是導引學生建構知識的重 要能力(Beyer and Liston, 1996)。 在相關的討論中,以研究教學著名的 Borich(2011)發現一個有效的教師應能提升學 習者在課堂中「投入學習」的程度,這種具關鍵性的教學行為,與學生學業表現有密切關 係。他更指出,引導學習者積極思考教師教授的課程內容,是其中一個令學生投入學習的 有效方法。此發現與 Stronge(2007)所指效能教師應有提拔具高階思考能力學生的能力可 謂不謀而合。觀察到近日香港的教育發展中,當人們紛紛討論如何運用的優勢以 改善教學時,發展學生「高思」的教學益發為人所重視(Galton, 2007)。 不同學者對「高思」的理解 思考是一種能力,在概念上它是一個複雜的載體。高層次思考(Higher-order Thinking),又稱高階思維,在香港被一些老師簡稱作「高思」。在西方文獻中,它是一 個十分豐富的概念。作者發現在探討這個概念的文獻中,「思考」二字比「高層次思考」 較多出現,但它們討論內容卻必包含高思的意念。對於「高思」,學者們提出了很多不同 的演繹,下面將簡介一些重要的看法。 Resnick(1987)首先描述了高階思維的一些特性,包括:無規則的、複雜性、容納多 元答案、多重標準、不肯定和自有規律(頁 8)。思維能產生新的技巧、概念、結論、行動、 主意與新的問題等。他還指出高思需要學習者付出努力去思索問題,經苦心經營、精密思 索出來的才算是高思的成果。此外,高思並沒有年齡之分,即使幼童也能在適當的學習環 境設計下學習怎樣比較、推測及解決問題。一般來說,高思是指普遍性的認知過程,可用 於很多科目或情境中。 135 有論者從學習論追溯「高思」的理念根源,發現有關思考的學說源自認知學習論 (Eggan & Kauchak, 2001)。根據認知學習論,學習是學生主動思索和探求知識的過程, 這與重視學生思考的教學信念同出一轍。認知學習論者認為學生在學習過程中若能積極地 思考,會較只靜態地聽課有更高成效。 Lewis & Smith(1993)比較了高層次思考(高思)與低層次思考(低思)。學習者會 運用低思來處理訊息,如辨認簡單的數學符號;但需要運用高思能力去探討較為高深的議 題或解決較複雜的問題。 波諾(de Bono, 1992)認為思考是一個自我組織的系統,人們要經學習才能掌握高思 的技巧。他列出思考的成份包括:態度、原則、習慣、基本運作、工具和結構。那是說思 考的先決條件是我們有願意思考的心態或動機,還要有堅持設法進行有質素思考的原則; 然後,持守有效思考的習慣,選擇適合的思考方式(或稱思考技巧),再根據所需的思考 步驟運作思路,便能有所成就。據此,波諾提出了多個教導人們思考的方略,例如:PMI (正面、負面與趣味面)思考法、六頂思考帽、FIP(優先考慮的問題)等。雖然一些商 界及教育界曾採納波諾的模式進行人才的思考訓練,有學者卻批評他提出的祇是思考工具 (thinking tools),並暗示他的提出不屬於一套具學術性質的思考理論或技術(Milvain, 2008)。 綜論高階思維的意涵 閱覽文獻,便會發現五花八門的「高思」主張。揉合各有關「高思」內涵的討論, 如 Swartz & Perkins(1990)、Cotton(1991)、Keefe & Walberg(1992)、Anderson, et al.(2001)、Ong & Borich(2006)及 McGregor(2007)等(見表一),本文作者認為「高 思」的分析可歸納為以下四大類別: 一、 傳統的思考策略(Traditional thinking strategies),如創意思考、批判思考、後 設認知等 二、 較微觀的基本思考技巧(Core thinking skills) 136 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 三、 具統合性的思考理論/模式(Integrated thinking models) 四、 思考意向(Thinking dispositions) 表一 高思理論概觀──一些學者的界定 3 Swartz & Perkins (1990) Cotton (1991) Keefe & Walberg (1992) Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) Ong & Borich (2006) McGregor (2007) •批判思考 •創意思考 布魯姆等人 之思考層次 分類: 創意思考 批判思考 後設認知 思考技巧 •認知 •後設認知 •思考意向 改進布魯姆的 分類法 – 認知維度: •識記 •理解 •應用 •分析 •評鑑 •創造 •基本思考技巧 •批判思考 •創意思考 •複雜的思考過程 •後設認知 •思考意向 •資訊處理技巧 •推理 •探詢 •創意 •評鑑 傳統的思考策略(Traditional thinking strategies) 很多學者都認定創意思考、批判思考及後設認知這三種廣義的、經典的思考理論, 是研究高思者必然探討的,文獻中可見不少有關它們的研究。其中 de Bono(1970)的水 平思考理論、Ennis(1996)的批判思考論、Schön(1991)的反思教學論分別為三者的代 表。de Bono(1970)點出「垂直思考」的局限,認為人們應學習水平思考來創造新觀點, 並提出了一些訓練水平思考的方法。Eisner(1995)認為批判思考包括四個主要的認知行 為:沈思、探詢、鑑賞和建構。對個人思考過程的理解、計劃和反省是後設認知論所強調 的,而 Schön(1991)的反思教學論則被應用到本地的教師培訓中(Yeung, 2002a; 2002b; 2008)。除了以上三類最廣為學者推薦的思考模式外,還有一些值得讓學童學習的思考方 式──學者稱之為「複雜的思考過程」(Swartz, 2001; Ong & Borich, 2006)。這主要包括 問題解決(Problem Solving)及決策(Decision Making)思考。問題解決能力或作「解難 能力」,其中的思考步驟包括確認問題、考慮解決問題的方法、探查資料、驗證假設以及 3 內容經作者分析文獻所得歸納而成。 137 作出選擇和決策(Delisle, 1997)。香港教育局近年推行到高中必修課程的通識科,便納入 了此種思考模式的培育。 基本思考技巧(Core thinking skills) 這包括基本的思考技巧如:推理、探詢、分析、評鑑、分類、預測、比較等(Cotton, 1991; Swartz, 2001; McGregor, 2007),表二亦列出了一些常為人道的思考技巧。較複雜的 思考過程(如上述的問題解決和決策思考)及廣義的高思模式如創意與批判思考,均會運 用一種或以上的基本思考技巧。多年來很多教學人員採用布魯姆的思考層次分類,認為布 氏等人(Bloom et al., 1956; Anderson et al., 2001)的分類架構已包括了常用於教學的思考 技巧。為人熟悉的布氏六個認知領域的思考層次包括知識、理解、應用、分析、綜合及評 鑑(新版本:知識、理解、應用、分析、評鑑、創造),新舊版本的後三層次一般被喻為「高 層次」認知/思考。這套理論常被教師用作設計課堂提問來幫助學生思考。 表二 基本思考技巧 思維的技巧 按思考的方向歸類的思維技巧 排序(sequencing), 分析(analysis), 聯想(association), 分類(classification), 理解(comprehension), 比較(comparison), 推論(deduction), 評估(evaluation), 靈活性(flexibility), 流暢(fluency), 預報(forecasting), 歸納(generalizing), 假設(hypothesizing), 解釋(interpretation), 觀察(observation), 制定計劃(planning), 預測(predicting), 疑問(questioning), 合成(synthesizing), 推理(theorizing)等 邏輯思維 水平思考 聚斂思考 擴散性思維 138 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 具統合性質的高思理論(Integrated thinking models) 在紛紜的學術討論中,有一些學者為「高思」提出一些別具特色的演繹;諸如: Marzano 等(1988)的思考維度、Sternberg & Spear-Swerling(1996)的三元思考理論; Gardner(2006)的五種心智、以及 de Bono(2003)的六頂思考帽。這四種「高思」理論 都具統合(Fusion)性質,能把不同的思考模式、過程等融會貫通,筆者會在以下段落中 簡作討論。 Marzano 等(1988)提出一個分析思考的架構,讓教學人員計劃或研究高思課程和教 學時參考,他們稱之為「思考維度」(Dimensions of thinking)。這包括五個思考維度: - 後設認知(Metacognition) - 批判和創意思考(Critical and creative thinking) - 思考歷程(Teaching processes) - 主要的思考技巧(Core thinking skills) - 內容知識與思考的關聯性(Relationship of content-area knowledge to thinking) 細心研讀後,便能發現 Marzano 等的思考維度架構具有統合性,把不同學者對高思的 提出總括起來。相對於其他學說而言,他的想法較少被運用到課程與教學的設計中,但仍 是十分值得參考的。 Sternberg & Spear-Swerling(1996) 發 展 了 思 考 三 元 理 論(Triarchic theory of thinking)。根據這個理論,思考應包括以下三種:分析性思考(analytical thinking)、創 意性思考(creative thinking)和實用性思考(practical thinking)。分析性思考涵蓋分析、 判斷、評估、比較、對照等能力;創意性思考涵蓋創新、發現、創造、想像和假設等能力; 實用性思考則涵蓋實踐、使用、運用以及人們在真實世界裏展示的能力。擅長分析性思考 的人長於解決熟悉的或學業上的問題;富創意性思考力的人善於運用思考技術解決新奇的 問題;作實用性思考的人則較願意把這些技巧應用到日常生活中的問題。面對新世紀,此 三種思考力的培養是同樣重要的,Sternberg & Spear-Swerling 卻遺憾地說:「傳統的學校 教育只注重一種思考-分析性思考(頁 3)」。為了改善這個問題,兩位學者於是著書幫 助教師掌握三元思考的理論和教學方法。 139 Gardner 發表的多元智慧論(Gardner, 1999),一直廣為人用於設計課程和教學。廣 泛流傳的八種智慧包括:語文、邏輯—數學、空間、肢體—動覺、音樂、人際、內省及自 然觀察者,此八種智能與高思的理論有著極為密切的關係。有關多元智慧的應用,參考著 作十分多(如 Kagan & Kagan, 1998;Armstrong, 2000),此處不再細談。Gardner 在其後 的著作中更提出了決勝未來的五種心智,包括修練心智(Disciplined Mind)、統合心智 (Synthesizing Mind)、創造心智(Creating Mind)、尊重心智(Respectful Mind)和倫理 心智(Ethical Mind)(Gardner, 2006)。在現今這個科學和技術霸權世界中,Gardner 認 為任何人若能成功培養這五種心智,便最有可能成功。面對資訊苦多、倫理道德受挑戰的 年代,他更指出這些心智的建立對未來一代來說十分重要。細意分析下,便能發現每一種 心智需要相應的思考習性,例如:修練心智需要學習者持續努力專注和意欲求真的思考習 性,統合和創造的心智顯然是高思的能力,而尊重與倫理心智則必含批判的高思成份。 de Bono(2003)的六頂思考帽其實代表著六種不同的思考方式──紅帽子代表情感、 白帽子代表客觀資料、黃帽子是正面思考的帽子、黑帽子則是批判的思考、綠帽子是創意 的思考、藍帽子則負責控制思考和作出決策。de Bono 認為人們若能善用六頂帽子去思考 問題,則更能清醒且有效地達致成果,這個思考理論在坊間有頗多的應用和討論。這套想 法具統合性,與前面三種思考理論相似,它融合了不同的思考方式的優點,使思考能發揮 更大的果效。 思考意向(Thinking dispositions) 學者發現熱愛思考的人較能想出有質素的點子(Swartz & Perkins, 1990),好的思考 不是純粹技術性的事情,它包含了「情意面」──需要思考者誠心的投入、專注並努力 以赴。思考意向便是高思「內涵」的情意面,它是指學習者運用思考來學習的意願、動 機和習慣。這方面最具代表的主張包括 Costa & Kallick(2009)的思考習性論及 Tishman & Perkins(1995)的思考教室文化說。Costa & Kallick 認為學校教育需要發展學生的思考 習性有十多項,例如:願意冒險並且承擔後果、有幽默感、堅持、彈性思考等。Tishman, Perkins & Jay 則提出學校人員應在課室中建立思考文化,好使「思考無處不在─無論言語、 價值、期望以至習性,人人都努力以赴,能在學習中營造優質的思考」(p.2)。由此可見 主張此向度的學者是何等期盼思考教學能達致更高境界的教育實踐。 140 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 總結 從文獻的研究中,本文作者綜論了高階思考的內涵可包括以下四方面: 一、 傳統的思考策略(Traditional thinking strategies),如創意思考、批判思考、後 設認知等 二、 較微觀的基本思考技巧(Core thinking skills) 三、 具統合性的思考理論/模式(Integrated thinking models) 四、 思考意向(Thinking dispositions) 這些向度互有關聯和互相補足,若能平衡地運用,則高思的整全內涵方能理想達成。 教育工作者或研究人員可聚焦研究其中一個方面又或多個相關的方面在課程與教學的發展 潛力──以行動研究進行實務的探討,以驗證高思如何能在課程改革中發揮意義。 在這四個方面中,目前本地的研究大都集中討論有關第一方面(傳統思考策略)的著 作或研究,如鄭慕賢(2008)提出如何在科學科中實施創意思考教學;又如黎耀志、黃德 華(2005)在幼兒教學數學科的教學嘗試。對於批判思考,本地的相關研究和著作較台灣 少;後設認知方面亦較少人談論;筆者年前製作有關教師的反思力培訓教材是一實踐例子 (Yeung, 2002a; 2002b; 2008),至於如何運用到小學或中學的課程裏則仍有待努力。至於 其他三方面的論著,更是鳳毛麟角。總括來說,高思的教研還有很大的發展空間,除了在 專科教學中滲入某類高思的訓練外,可嘗試以跨學科至超越學科形式聯結高思和學科內容 (Yeung & Lam, 2007)。另外更可配合校情,因應學生的學習需要,設計適切的校本高思 課程。高思內涵本質上的靈活性和可塑性,值得有志做好香港教育的工作者多作探索和努 力。 141 參考文獻 王文科、王智弘(2005)。《教育研究法》(增訂九版)。台北:五南。 教育局質素保證分部(2009)。《質素保證周年視學報告 2008/2009》。香港:教育局。取自: http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=744&langno=2。 教育統籌委員會(2000)。《終身學習全人發展:香港教育制度改革建議》。香港:教育統 籌委員會。取自:http://www.e-c.edu.hk/tc/reform/index_c.html。 歐用生、楊慧文(1998)。《新世紀的課程改革──兩岸觀點》。台北:五南圖書。 課程發展議會(2001)。《學會學習—終身學習,全人發展》。香港:課程發展議會。取自: http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=2877&langno=2。 鄭慕賢(2008)。〈如何調適教學以培育創造力〉。載鄭慕賢(編),《創造力培育:科學 教育改革》(頁 21)。香港:激動創造力的科學教育計劃。 黎耀志、黃德華(2005)。〈透過創意數學教學培養兒童的高階思維能力〉。《香港幼兒學 報》,第 4 卷第 1 期,43-46。 Anderson, L. 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Education Journal, 35(2), 1-36. 144 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 The definition and essence of pedagogical content knowledge 周健 香港教育局 霍秉坤 香港中文大學 摘要 一般來說,研究者認為教師需具備多種不同範疇的知識,教學內容知識 (pedagogical content knowledge,PCK) 是其中一種。教學內容知識的成份包括學科知識和一般教學知識 的內涵。它超越了教材知識本身,經過可教性的分析,以最能表現學科知識的形式出現。 教學內容知識作為教師所獨有的知識,其特點就在於教師既要充分掌握學科內容,又要了 解學生學習的特點,然後能有效地運用策略,把學科內容用學生可以理解的方式表現出來, 引導學生探究、建構知識。本文根據文獻資料,整理 2000 年以來中外學者對教學內容知識 的實徵研究,並簡述其研究發現。 文獻的整理顯示,教學內容知識有三方面主要的特徵,包括教師對特定學科內容的理解, 教師對特定學科內容表徵的掌握和運用,以及教師對於學習和學習者的理解。此外,對於 教師掌握教學內容知識的情況,有四方面研究結果值得注意。一是新手教師和經驗教師的 教學內容知識顯著不同;二是教學內容知識是一種綜合性的知識,是教師在整合了各種知 識之後,能純熟運用於教學中的知識;三是教學內容知識和學科知識關係密切;四是教師 的教學內容知識主要體現在理解和表徵(representation)。最後,本文之分析顯示,「教 145 學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識」的關係,以及「教學內容知識與學科知識」的關係,都 非常密切。 關鍵詞 中國語文,教學內容知識,教學策略,教學內容表徵 Abstract Researchers realize that teachers need to possess knowledge from various scopes including pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). The components of PCK include subject knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge. PCK does not only comprise the knowledge of teaching materials, but also the expression of subject knowledge in the most representative mode in regard to teachability. PCK as unique knowledge of teachers. Its features include that teachers need to fully grasp the subject content knowledge and understand students’ learning characteristics. Then teachers express the subject content knowledge through effective strategies in order to ensure students’ understanding, inquiry and construction of knowledge. This paper, reviewing relevant literatures since 2000, tries to synthesize empirical research on PCK and briefly illustrates the research finding. From the literature review, the authors note that there are three main ideas about PCK: teachers understand the specific subject content; teachers manage and utilize specific representation of subject content; and teachers understand specific learning and learners. Moreover, four research findings are worth noting. First, the PCK of novice teachers and experienced teachers are significantly different. Second, PCK is a comprehensive knowledge that is skillfully utilized in teaching after teachers synthesizing various kinds of knowledge. Third, PCK is closely related to subject knowledge. Fourth, the PCK of teachers is mainly expressed in the understanding and representation of subject knowledge. In the last section, the authors suggest there is a close relationship between teaching strategies and representation of knowledge, and so does PCK and subject knowledge. Keywords Chinese Language, pedagogical content knowledge, teaching strategy, representation of pedagogical knowledge 146 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 一、引言 對教師知識的研究很多是從教師本身為出發點,了解教師所知道的事(郭玉霞, 1997,頁 5),研究的問題如「教師需要具備何種知識?」(What teachers need to know?)、「教師知道什麼?」(What do teachers know?)。在美國師範教育界,學者逐 漸不再用傳統的行為心理學作為基礎的研究範式,而是以認知心理學為基礎,研究教師的 專業思考,探討教師認知與推理判斷的歷程(單文經,1990,頁 263)。因此教師的角色 不再局限於課程的執行者,而是「反思性專業人員」(Schön, 1983)。教師應了解自己 長處與限制,需要具備和教學有關的教學內容知識、實務知識(practical knowledge)、甚 至心理學、社會學方面的知識,以應用於實際的教學情境。 探討教學內容知識的概念,非常重要。筆者認為,探討教學內容知識包括兩方面的重 要性。首先,教學內容知識對教師教育產生一定影響。一直以來,專科任教老師着重科目 知識,專業教師着重教學和課程知識,兩者之間存在複雜的關係,但也存在基本的差異。 教學內容知識即為連繫兩種知識的重要概念;因此,了解教學內容知識有助了解兩者的關 係。其次,Shulman 提出教學內容知識概念後,學者們進行多項研究,包括其內涵、特徵、 結構、形成過程、教師教學實踐等。在研究過程中,出現多種觀點,引發各樣討論。探討 教學內容知識的內涵,有助釐清不同的觀點。本文根據文獻資料,整理 2000 年以來中外學 者對教學內容知識的實徵研究,並簡述其研究發現。 二、教師知識的內涵 關於教師知識的內涵,學者的分類各有不同(Shulman, 1986a, 1987a, 1987b, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987; Grossman & Richert, 1988),現將幾位有代表性的學者 及其看法整理如下(見表一)。 147 表一 教師知識的分類 Shulman 1987 Elbaz 1983 Grossman 1988 Tamir 1988 單文經 1990 Reynolds 1992 Eraut 1995 Borko, Putnam 1996 Morine, Kent 1999 學科內容 知識 學科專 門知識 學科知識 學科知識 和能力 學科教學 知識;內 容 學科知 識 學科知 識 學科知識 一般教學 知識 教學知 識 一般教學 知識 一般通識 教育; 一般教學 法;教學 專業基礎 一般教學 知識 一般學科 知識 一般教 學知識 教學法知識 課程知識 課程知 識 課程知識 課程知識 對學習者 及其特質 的知識 學生身心 發展的知 識 對學習者和 學習的知識 教育情境 的知識 教學情 境知識 情境知識 教育脈絡 的知識 關於社 會的知 識; 實務知 識 一般教育情 境脈絡知 識; 特定的情境 脈絡知識 PCK PCK 學科特定 教學法 教材教法 的知識; 教材內容 的知識 PCK PCK 對教育目 的、價值、 哲學及其 歷史淵源 的知識 教育目的 的知識 教與學的 一般原理 教育理 論 評估程序和 對成績表現 的評價 自我知 識 148 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 表中可見,研究者認為教師需具備多種不同範疇的知識,教學內容知識(pedagogical content knowledge)是其中一種。這種知識涉及教師在教學活動中複雜的知識運用,雖然 可以用多種知識來描述這種知識運用,但會相當不方便,有時也欠準確。因此,一種描述 教師教學的專門知識還是非常有必要,這種專門的知識早在教學內容知識被提出之前已有 雛型,如杜威(Dewey)曾提出一個「學科心理化」的概念(Wilson, Shulman & Richert, 1987),杜威(1902)認為作為教師要能先把學科知識「心理化」(psychologize),才能 達到教學目的,因為教師對學科內容的認知方式應該是「基於學科在教育上的價值與目的, 而不是對學科的精通」(Dewey, 1902/1964),他指出︰ 每種學科都有兩方面:一是令科學家成為科學家;一是令教師成為教師。這兩方 面互不衝突,不過也不是完全相同。對科學家而言,學科知識是既代表真理,也 適用於發現新問題,並進行新研究,以及證實研究的結果。……而教師所面對的 情形則大不相同,作為教師,他所關切的不是為科學增添新的事實,也不須要提 出新的假設並加以驗證。他所關切的是所教科學的學科內容,關心如何將學科知 識變成經驗的一部份,而其個人的經驗或學生既有的知識經驗,都可成為適當地 引導學生的媒介。(Dewey, 1902/1964, p.318) 三、教學內容知識的內涵 如同杜威區分科學家與教師之間的差異一樣,學者認為一種獨特的教師知識可以區分 學科學者和教師的不同,學者創造並發現學科領域上的新知識,教師則在教學上重新組織 這些內容知識使學生理解,了解學生所遭遇的問題,設法克服、解決(Grossman, Wilson & Shulman, 1989; McEwan & Bull, 1991)。這種知識就是教學內容知識。 Shulman 對教學內容知識,有詳盡的解釋︰ ……教學內容知識指教師必須能將所教授的內容在教學中具體表現出來。在教學 內容知識的範疇裏,包含教師對學科中最常教授的主題、最有效的表現形式、最 有力的類比、舉例、說明、示範和闡述等方面的了解。即教師在學科特殊的課題 149 上重新組合、以適當的方式表現,使學生能理解有關的內容。教學內容知識還包 括教師理解有什麼因素使學生在學習時對於特定概念感到困難或容易,也理解不 同年齡、背景的學生在學習這些課題時所持有的概念與先備的概念。(Shulman, 1986b, p.9) 根據上述解釋,教學內容知識的成份包括學科知識和一般教學知識的內涵,它超越了 教材知識本身,經過可教性(teachability)的分析,以最能表現(represent)學科知識的形 式出現(單文經,1992)。教學內容知識作為教師所獨有的知識,其特點就在於教師既要 充分掌握學科內容,又要了解學生學習的特點,然後能有效地運用策略,把學科內容用學 生可以理解的方式表現出來,引導學生探究、建構知識。 Shulman 提出教學內容知識的概念之後,這種知識迅速成為學者研究的重點,對於其 定義,也有進一步的討論和拓展。其中由於不少研究都置於特定的學科中進行,而教學內 容知識又特別切合於特定學科內容下的教學,因此,教學內容知識在很多情況下被視為具 體教授特定學科的一種知識,如 Grossman 就認為教學內容知識是教師的一種「適當的, 並且是引起學生對所學內容的興趣的表徵」(Grossman, 1990, p.8)。Llinares(2000)認 為教學內容知識是在課堂情境中學科知識和關於學習者的知識的結合。Sherin(2002)認 為教學內容知識是學科內容教學的專門知識,包括教師知識如何呈現該學科領域的知識來 促進學生學習,也知道學生在學習時典型的特點,如可能理解什麼和誤解什麼。他認為教 師的知識是在學科教學中,對不同知識進行協商(negotiate),這包括對學科內容、課程 材料和關於學生學習的理解。 從研究者對教學內容知識定義的探討,可以總結出教學內容知識的一些主要特徵,包 括以下三個方面︰ 1. 教師對特定學科內容的理解,特別是指在學科中教師經常教授的範圍和主題。 2. 教師對上述特定學科內容表徵的掌握和運用,如用什麼形式(類比、舉例、譬 喻、圖示和示範等)表現學科內容才是有效、最具說服力、最易令學生明白的。 3. 教師對於學習和學習者的理解,如學生已有的概念、在學習某一特定內容之前 的概念,對某方面的內容感到容易或困難、理解或誤解,並且知道是什麼因素 影響他們的學習。(Tamir, 1988; Grossman, 1990; Marks, 1990) 150 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 這裏可見教學內容知識的複雜性,它不是以一種單一的知識面貌出現的,而是各種知 識相互牽連、缺一不可。在教學時各種知識間的關係是互動的,同時包含着知識和技能。 四、教學內容知識的研究整理 教學內容知識這一概念,迅速引起學者的關注。對於教學內容知識的研究,在各種學 科教學和教師教育的領域展開。筆者根據文獻資料,整理 2000 年至 2010 年的十年間中外 學者對教學內容知識的實徵研究,並簡述其研究發現,以表二展示。 表二 教學內容知識的研究整理 研究者(年份) 研究主題 樣本/研究方法 研究發現 1 C a s t r o - F i l h o (2000) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰數學 八名中學教師 量化函數、刺激 回憶、訪談、觀 察 1. 課程與科技的使用為教師現在的理 解創造了挑戰,特別是有關觀念的 改變。 2. 教師重視學科的單元內容、研究者 的支持、內容知識的討論。 3. 從討論學生成果中,教師受益匪淺。 2 劉怡亭(2000) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰歷史 一名國中教師 訪談、觀察、文 件蒐集 1. 影響教學內容知識的因素包括內在 因素和外在因素。 2. 教學內容知識包括教學理念、對課 程與課本的看法、對學生學習歷史 的了解、學科知識、學科教學信念、 教學歷程中的知識、教學情境變化 的認知。 3 劉麗玲(2000) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰理化 一名資深國中 教師 觀察、訪談、文 件蒐集、量表、 問卷 1. 個案教師具有多種的教學表徵,視 學生反應與解說需要而變換。 2. 教學表徵包括自行創造及利用網絡 教學資源站。 3. 與同事討論或請教專家學者來發展 新的表徵。 151 研究者(年份) 研究主題 樣本/研究方法 研究發現 4 張家芳(2001) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰歷史 一名國中實習 教師 觀察、訪談、文 件分析 1. 個案教師所具備的教師知識內涵包 括教學表徵知識、一般教學知識、 課程知識、學習者知識、教學情境 知識及教師的教學信念。 2. 形成教師知識的有關因素有內在來 源和外在來源。 5 謝建國(2001) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰國語 一名國小實習 教師 觀察、訪談、教 學研究、研究者 札記 1. 教學內容知識包括課程架構知識、 學科內容知識、一般教學知識、學 生知識、個人信念知識、教學情境 知識。 2. 影響因素為過去經驗和當前經驗。 3. 教學推理過程分為教學前的準備階 段、教學中的表徵方式、教學後的 評量與反省。 6 李琼(2004) 教學內容知 識、學科知 識及其與課 堂教學的關 係 學科︰數學 30 名 小 學 6 年 級數學教師(包 括專家教師和非 專家教師) 問 卷、 課 堂 觀 察、錄像與訪談 1. 專家教師能夠意識到數學的本質並 聯繫到實際的教學中,非專家教師 則否。 2. 專家教師傾向於將「做」數學看作 為解釋與論證思維的過程;非專家 教師傾向於將「做」數學看作為選 擇適當法則或既定步驟,獲得答案 的過程。 教學內容知識和學科知識的關係: 1. 兩種知識之間存在顯著相關。其中, 學科知識中的知識組織與教學內容 知識的關係最大;而教學內容知識 中的對學生思維的了解與學科知識 的關係最大。 2. 兩種知識之間的關係是雙向的,各 自可以解釋對方的變量超過五成。 152 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 研究者(年份) 研究主題 樣本/研究方法 研究發現 7 An , Ku lm, & Wu(2004) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰數學 28 名美國 5-8 年 級教師和 33 名 中國 5-6 年級教 師在一定文化脈 絡下的教學內容 知識比較 問卷、訪談、課 堂觀察 在不同的文化背景下,教師的教學內 容知識是不同的。中國教師強調傳統 的教學、機械的練習,發展學生程度 性和概念性的知識;美國的教師注重 促進學生的創造能力和探究能力,課 堂活動多樣化,但在幫助學生的思維 和操作、理解和過程的發展之間欠缺 聯繫。 8 K r a u s s e t al.(2008) 教學內容知 識和學科知 識 學科︰數學 198 名中學教師 測驗 教學內容知識和學科知識之關有很高 的相關度,即學科知識豐富的教師, 其教學內容知識也很豐富。 另外,雖然研究顯示教學內容知識和 學科知識是兩種不同的概念,但數學 科專家教師的學科知識和教學內容知 識很難區分,而對於非專家教師而言, 這兩知識卻相對獨立。 9 L e e & L u f t (2008) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰科學 4 名經驗教師 (有十年上教學 經驗、有三年以 上指導新手教師 經驗) 個案研究︰半結 構式訪談、課堂 觀 察、 教 案 分 析、每月一次反 思研討會 1. 教學內容知識包括︰科學知識、對 科學教育目的的知識、對學生的知 識、課程組織的知識、教學知識、 評估知識和對資源的知識。 2. 各項教學內容知識的組成部分之間 互有緊密的關連和影響。 153 研究者(年份) 研究主題 樣本/研究方法 研究發現 10 H e n z e , Va n Dirl, & Verloop (2008) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰科學 9 名 經 驗 教 師 (在教授新的課 程大綱時教學內 容知識的發展) 半結構性課後 訪談 教師的教學內容知識可以分成兩種類 型︰ A 型和 B 型。A 型的教師關注教 學內容,而 B 型教師關注教學的內容、 內容的產生及其本質。 在教學內容知識的發展方面,A 型教 師主要發展其教學策略的知識,而在 各類知識之間的關係則沒有不同;B 型 教師的教學內容知識內部各項知識之 間緊密關聯,各部分都有整體的發展。 11 周健(2010) 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰中國 語文 6 名中學中國語 文教師(來自兩 所自行設計教材 學校和兩所使用 教科書的學校) 處理教材時的教 學內容知識 三項發現︰ 1. 在教師所有的知識中,教學內容知 識是一種獨立的知識,是在學科教 學時的專業知識,是學科教學時各 種知識維度的綜合體現。 2. 在學科教學中,教師的學科知識是 教學內容知識中的一個維度,與其 他知識維度一起,綜合地產生作用。 3. 教學內容知識中教學策略和表徵的 知識維度在教學時有不同的使用範 圍,「策略」為所有課前的教學設 計和實際教學時的一般教學方法; 「表徵」則指教師在教學時,因應 特定學科內容,採用針對性的方法, 轉化所要教的內容,使之更容易讓 學生明白的學科教學手段。 (表中的「」部分為摘自邱憶惠(2002)《國小級任教師知識之個案研究》一文,頁 69- 71、77-78,並稍作文字上的改動。) 154 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 綜合各項研究可見,教師的教學內容知識有四方面的性質︰ 其一、新手教師和經驗教師的教學內容知識有明顯的不同,新手教師在這方面知識的 欠缺顯然受其實踐經驗的限制,無論在教學內容、策略和對學生的理解等方面都有待加強, 這顯示了教學內容知識在實踐中習得的性質,是在經驗中積累的。 其二、教學內容知識是一種綜合性的知識,是教師在整合了各種知識之後,能純熟運 用於教學中的知識;教學內容知識也能起一種聯繫的作用,將學科內容、課程、教學策略 和關於學生的知識緊密連接的知識,即 Shulman(1987)所說,是體現了教師專業所獨有 的一種知識。 其三、教學內容知識和學科知識關係密切,兩者之間有很高的相關度。學科知識為教 師教學內容知識的發展提供了重要的基礎。這兩種知識在概念上雖不相同,但很難截然區 分,這在兩種知識都很豐富的教師身上尤為明顯。 其四、教師的教學內容知識的特徵則主要體現在理解和表徵(representation),具備 豐富教學內容知識的教師,都具有這兩方面的特點。「理解」包括對學科、課程、學生、 情境和自身的深入了解和掌握,「表徵」則指教師能因應教學的需要運用各種教學方法和 策略。 從表中十一項研究,可以了解不同研究者對教學內容知識的所包含的內容的理解,綜 合而言,教學內容知識包括以下各項︰ 1. 學科知識:包括對學科的整體概念、學科教育的目的、學科內容知識、學科的 本質、學科教學信念等; 2. 教學表徵知識:多指教學策略和技巧的知識; 3. 對學習和學習者的知識:包括對學生和學生知識的了解、預計學生在學習時可 能出現的問題,對學習本質的了解等; 4. 課程知識:如課程架構、目標、課程計劃和組織,對課本和教材的理解,對課 程改革的理解等; 155 5. 一般教學知識:如教學歷程中的知識; 6. 教學情境知識:如對教學情境變化的認知; 7. 教學理念、個人信念等; 8. 內容、教學法與個人實務知識的整合。 這是不同研究結果的綜合,每一項研究中所包含的內容不盡相同,但有重疊。其中對 教學內容知識內涵的意見也不盡一致,有的包含的知識項目多些,有的少些。對教學內容 知識中各組成知識的表述也很不相同,有的涵蓋很大的範圍,有的則很細緻。這與不同研 究範圍和研究者關注點不同有關。教學內容知識的不同組成部分,須置於特定的研究脈絡 中才有意義,例如 Grossman 在對中學英文教師(主要是新手教師)的研究後,指出教師 的教學內容知識應該包括四個主要的組成部分(Grossman, 1988, p.15-17; 1990, p.8-9)︰ 1. 關於在不同學習階段(grade levels)學科教學目的的知識和信念; 2. 對於學生在學科學習中對特定課題的理解、概念和可能存在的誤解的知識; 3. 課程知識,包括對所教學科中課程材料的知識,以及學科課程縱向的和橫向的 知識; 4. 教學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識。 其中第四項「教學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識」可以視為 Shulman、Wilson 和 Richart 所分的六項知識中,「有關教學表徵的知識」和「教學推理的知識」。儘管有這些 不同,一般研究者對教學內容知識內涵都有一個大致的共識,即以 Shulman(1986b)對教 學內容知識的定義中所描述的對學科教學內容的理解、對學生學習的理解和對教學策略與 表徵的掌握這三方面。不過,學科教學內容是否指學科知識,卻並不明確。例如 Grossman (1988, 1990)的研究是在高中英文文學教學的情境脈絡中,強調教師不只要具備學科知 識,還要理解高中學習階段學科的教學目標。因此,在她的研究中,對教學內容知識中有 關學科知識的部分,就主要是在「不同學習階段學科教學目的」方面。而對於學科知識, Grossman 認為學科知識是教學內容知識很重要的基礎(Grossman, 1988, 1990),但她並 沒有把學科知識納入教學內容知識之中,而是把學科知識和教學內容知識並列為教師知識 之一。Shulman 指出教學內容知識是一種超越了學科知識本身的知識,涉及學科知識在教 學方面維度,因此是一種學科內容與教學方面的混合體 (Shulman, 1987)。從這個理解看, 156 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 教學內容知識中有一部分特殊的學科知識,它不完全是學科知識本身,但又確實是學科知 識。 五、教學內容知識特性的爭論 其實在探討教學內容知識時,人們常以學科知識作為一個參照點,比較兩種知識的相 同和不同之處。學科知識為 Schwab(1964)提出的學科中的內容(content)知識、實質性 (substantive)和文法性(syntactic)知識。其中內容知識是指學科中的事實、組織原則和 中心概念,而後兩者是學科的結構性知識。實質性結構指一門學科內部互相聯繫的概念、 事實、重要原理、理論和解釋框架等(Schwab, 1978);而文法性知識則是指在學科中探 索、證明、建構知識的方法(范良火,2003,頁 16)。李琼(2004)對教師知識的研究 證明,教學內容知識和學科知識之間存在顯著相關,它們關係是雙向的,各自可以解釋對 方的變量超過五成。其中,學科知識中的知識組織與教學內容知識的關係最大;而教學內 容知識中的對學生思維的了解與學科知識的關係最大。Shulman(1986a, 1986b)區分學科 知識和教學內容知識,指出前者是學科本身的知識,但不是教學中唯一的知識;後者是一 門學科特殊的、與教學有關的知識,是一種為了解釋教學的學科專業知識(subject-matter knowledge for teaching)。Shulman(1987)認為教學內容知識是學科內容(content)與 教學法(pedagogy)的混合物,是屬於教師特有的知識領域,這種知識是一種將可教性 (teachability)融匯教材與教法於一爐的「教材教法知識」(單文經,1992)。它也是一 種最能區別學科專家與教師的知識。 Shulman 的這種解釋其實是相當含混的,教學內容知識和學科內容(content)密不 可分,但在他描述教師的七種知識基礎中,學科知識(content knowledge)又獨立於教 學內容知識之外。事實上,關於教學內容知識的內涵,不同的研究者在不同領域的研 究中固然有差異,同一學者在不同的時間,也會不斷調整自己的觀點。如 Shulman 和 Gudmundsdottir 在一項社會科的研究中(Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987, p.60),提出教 學內容知識應包括學科知識、一般教學知識和關於學習者的知識三類。但 Shulman 在同年 發表的另一篇文章中(Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987, p.114-115),將教學內容知識的 內涵再細分為六類,包括︰有關教學表徵的知識、教學推理的知識、和學習者有關的知識、 157 課程知識、教學法的知識與對教學情境的知識,其中又不包括學科知識。 Shulman 等人將教學推理(pedagogical reasoning)的思想作為新手教師調整他們學科 知識教學的方式(Shulman, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987)。其思想正是基於學 科知識的教學推理行為能夠產生教學內容知識,因此相信堅實的學科背景是發展教學內容 知識的必須條件(Veal & MaKinster, 1999)。事實上,Shulman 將教學內容知識定義為教 師在特定的學科中,對最常教授的特定課題的知識(1986),就是指教學內容知識是在學 科教學時的一種專門知識。教師通過考慮如何向給學生呈現的學科內容,首先理解一些特 定的學科知識,並將它們轉化成教學內容知識。不同的研究發現,對於同一科目或不同科 目的經驗教師而言,教學內容知識是教師的學科知識和教學知識長期融合結果,最終體現 於學科教學的模式(Gudmundsdottir, 1988)。 因此,有學者通過研究,認為教師在教學時不是單獨地使用學科知識或教學內容知 識,而是把兩者結合起來,成為一種學科內的知識聯合體(content knowledge complexes) (Sherin, 2002)。Krauss 等人(2008)研究中學數學教師的教學內容知識和學科知識,發 現兩者之間有很高的相關度,故此指出教師的學科知識豐富,其教學內容知識也豐富。 Rollnick 等人(2008)進行的一個關於化學科的個案研究。其中在改革的背景下,有 個案教師由於缺乏學科知識,只能使用一些機械式的教學方法;而有的個案教師由於擁有 足夠的學科知識,能靈活地使用改革的教學方法,顯示出強大的教學內容知識。研究者認 為教師在知識和經驗上的整合影響他們對教學表徵的選擇,這對發展教師學科知識結構起 了重要的作用。因此 Rollnick 等人根據兩個個案研究中學科知識對教師整體的知識表現所 起的作用,提出了教學內容知識的簡單模型,把學科知識放入教學內容知識中,與其他知 識(學生、教學法、情境)一起構成教師的教學內容知識,而教學內容知識具體表現形式 有表徵、評價、具體主題的教學策略和課程特色。而 Lee 和 Luft(2008)對 4 名高中科學 科經驗教師的個案研究發現,個案教師的教學內容知識中有七種知識內涵︰科學知識、對 科學教育目的的知識、對學生的知識、課程組織的知識、教學知識、評估知識和對資源的 知識,其中科學知識就包含在教學內容知識之中。 158 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 周健(2010)在研究中學中國語文教師處理教材時的教學內容知識時指出,在討論教 師不同範疇的知識時,也一再問以下問題︰為什麼要把教師的這種對學科教學的目的、對 學生和課程的理解、教學策略的設計和學科本身的理解視為教學內容知識?為什麼它們不 是各自屬於不同範疇的知識?事實上,把教師的這些知識維度的表現,各自放在各別的知 識範疇中去看,似乎也是合適的。問題在於,在處理教材的過程中,這些知識的確不是各 自獨立存在的,它們的高度綜合,才形成了教師處理教材的知識面貌。因此,教學內容知 識中各知識維度不是獨立於其外的知識項目,而是在教學過程中與其他知識互相作用的知 識,其中各知識維度之間的分野和界限並不十分清晰。該研究個案教師在談到知識來源時 就認為很難說哪方面的知識對自己最有用,其實「都是整合的過程。」(周健,2010)研 究結果證明教師在處理教材的過程中,各知識維度不是單一或直接發生作用的。教師知識 不是以各別獨立的面貌解決教材處理中的各種問題。如學科知識中,學科內容和實質性知 識與課程知識的密切關係,文法性知識與教學策略和表徵的知識的關係,都顯示了不同知 識維度間的複雜聯繫。而一旦某項或某幾項知識不足,教師在處理教材時就會顯示出整體 知識不足的情況。因此,各項知識不是各自獨立工作,而是以不同知識維度的面貌組合起 來,互相結合,共同作用,成為教學內容知識。這個研究印證了 Shulman 對教學內容知識 特點的描述,即「理解」與「表徵」,是教師充分內化了各種知識後,在教學中把教學內 容準確表現出來,讓學生明白。 另一方面,周健的研究(2010)發現學科知識是在處理教材和學科教學時不可或缺的 一個維度,這主要體現在教師對中文科教學內容和不同教材的理解。教師對選作語文教材 的作品的熟悉程度,對其中的學科元素如語言、修辭、結構、風格、作家背景等各方面知 識的掌握,對發現教材的教學價值有很大的幫助。而教師在處理教材時如何體現其教學目 標,首先基於其對學科知識的理解。高中中文教師的教學內容知識中,學科知識的維度一 方面表現在對學習重點和經典作品有廣泛和深入的認識,這是學科內容知識;另一方面也 表現在對各種材料的準確理解和使用,這是學科實質性和文法性知識。 研究發現學科知識的豐富對教師在教學內容、重點、對教材的理解和教學策略的安排 方面非常重要,是教師處理教材時不可或缺的知識。而學科中的文法性知識,指在學科中 探索、證明、建構知識的方法(范良火,2003),對教師在處理教材時對學習的理解及教 159 學策略和表徵起着十分重要的作用。教師處理教材時,是綜合地運用着學科、課程與教學 策略和表徵的知識,結合對教學目標和學生學習理解來進行的。在這個過程中,學科知識 不是獨力運作的,這是研究者將學科知識納入教學內容知識的範疇中的原因。 綜合上述文獻資料和實徵研究,筆者認為教學內容知識中包含學科知識。 六、結語 從上述的分析,研究者認為教師需具備多個範疇的知識,包括教學內容知識。教學內 容知識超越了教材知識本身,經過可教性的分析,以最能表現學科知識的形式出現。教師 掌握教學內容知識,展現其充分掌握學科內容,了解學生學習的特點,並有效地運用策略, 以學生可理解的方式展示學科內容。從教師掌握教學內容知識四方面的研究結果,在實踐 上值得留意兩方面。一方面是教學需要從教學經驗中掌握學科和教學方面的知識,融匯學 科和教學等不同類型的知識,純熟運用於教學中。另一方面是教學內容知識突顯教師要能 先把學科知識「心理化」(psychologize),才能達到教學目的;而其主要體現於理解和表 徵,這不僅要求教師對學科內容精通,而且要求其認知方式應是基於學科在教育上的價值 和目的。這兩方面對教師實踐教學極為重要。 在探討了教學內容知識內涵和定義之後,最後討論一下其中文翻譯。教學內容知識 (pedagogical content knowledge)中譯名並不統一,有的譯作「學科教學知識」或「學科 教學法知識」,周淑卿(2004)認為教學內容知識中的「教學內容確實會涉及學科內容」, 但基於「教學內容知識是指對所教授內容的教材教法知識」,「更關注於學科材料轉換為 可用以教學的內容」,而「仍依原文譯為『教學內容知識』」(頁 35,注 1)。根據本文 對教學內容知識內涵和定義的探討,教學內容知識有很強的情境性,是在特定的教學內容、 脈絡下,在實踐中形成的(Brown & Broko, 1992; 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London: Cassell. 163 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力 培訓──從正式課程到空無課程 Training of critical thinking ability in Hong Kong’s new senior secondary Liberal Studies – From formal curriculum to null curriculum 歐立賢 香港浸會大學全日制學位教師教育文憑(通識教育)學生 摘要 批判思考能力培訓是本港新高中通識教育科的預期學習成果,希望學生修讀通識教育科 後,能夠掌握一定程度的批判思考能力。本文將會從「正式課程」及「空無課程」兩個概念, 對通識教育科的課程設計作出分析,探討其批判思考能力培訓的問題及其解決方法。 關鍵詞 通識教育,正式課程,空無課程,批判思考 Abstract Training students’ critical thinking ability is an expected learning outcome of new senior 165 secondary Liberal Studies. After studying the subject, students are expected to have certain degree of ability of critical thinking. In this article, I will try to apply the concept of formal curriculum and null curriculum to analyze the design of New Senior Secondary Liberal Studies, in order to investigate the problem in training students’ critical thinking ability and suggest possible solutions. Keywords liberal studies, formal curriculum, null curriculum, critical thinking 導言 香港於 2000年開始進行課程改革,首次把「批判思考」定為其中一項核心共通能力(課 程發展議會,2001);同時在新高中課程的核心科目通識教育科(簡稱「通識科」)中, 列明「批判思考」為重要的元素。通識科的其中一個「課程宗旨」為「培養與終身學習有 關的能力,包括批判性思考能力」(課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局,2007,頁 4); 而它的其中一個「學習成果」則是: 「預期學生透過本科的學習,能夠識別對個人和社會議題的不同意見背後的價值 取向,並在個人和社會層面的議題和問題上,運用批判性思考能力……作出判斷 和決定。」 由此可見,批判思考本應為通識科課程一重要部分,但實況並非如此,以下先簡述不 同學者對批判思考的看法,包括它的界定及重要性,並將以「正式課程」及「空無課程」 兩個概念對通識科之批判思考能力培訓進行分析。 「批判思考」的不同界定 坊間對於「批判思考」一詞,有很多不同的理解,以下先簡介數位學者對批判思考的 166 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 看法,以顯出「批判思考」的含混性。 本港著名思考方法學學者李天命博士指出:批判思考,即判別真假、判別是非對錯的 思考(李天命,1995),在此定義之下,他認為批判思考應包含四個環節,分別為:語理 分析、謬誤剖析、邏輯技巧、科學方法。1 他認為, 「善於提出『是什麼意思?』和『有什麼根據?』這兩個問題,養成了問這兩個 問題的思維習慣,也就是培養起一種「批判思考的警覺性」,可以說是學習基本 思考方法最重要的關鍵。」 可是,並非所有學者均對批判思考具同一看法,例如:嶺南大學文化研究系通識教育 學士後文憑課程主任許寶強曾指出,如學生要掌握批判思考,最重要是掌握多角度思維(許 寶強,2006)。 另外,根據香港特區政府教育局發布的《「批判性思考能力的學與教」教材套(高 中)》,內裡對於批判思考的教學內容,又有另一見解,其教學單元分為「分析論證」、「因 果宣稱」、「認識認知模式」、「決策思考」(顧伊麗、侯傑泰、何德芳,2009)。 就以上各學者者對於批判思考的界定可見,到底何謂「批判思考」,頗為含混,就如 有學者指出,「『批判思考』並非一『頗為一致』和『無重大分歧』的教學理念」(曾榮光, 2010,頁 103-104)。以下的分析將會再論及此含混情況的影響。 「正式課程」與「空無課程」的界定 本文的另外兩個關鍵概念,為「正式課程」與「空無課程」。首先,有學者認為所謂「正 1 筆者旨在帶出不同學者對於「批判思考」有不同界定,對於以上四個環節的內涵,並非本文重點, 不會詳述,讀者可參閱李天命博士之著作。 167 式課程」,是指「課程內分成各類教學科目,每個科目之下又有單元、章節或課」(黃政 傑,1991,頁 80-81)。同時,亦有學者指出正式課程的特徵是「預定的、計畫的和意圖的, 因此在正式課程裡,較容易肯定課程目標的存在」(黃光雄、楊龍立,2001)。 從以上的學者所言可見,「正式課程」可被看成已被確立、具有比較完整的課程計劃 及教授計劃之科目,例如:中國語文、英國語文、數學等。另外,亦可從科目內看「正式 課程」,如一些科目的內容為已確立,在計劃之內打算教授,而且有較為周詳的教授計劃、 教授方法等的,都可視為正式課程,例如:中國語文科內的應用文寫作技巧、英國語文科 的議論文寫作技巧等。 而「空無課程」一詞是由艾斯納(E. W. Eisner)提出,他在檢視課程時,發現學校課 程中遺漏了許多重要的應納入課程範圍的能力、知識與態度,並視之為「空無課程」(林 福貹,不明),這強調不僅要由「有甚麼」的角度觀察課程,也要由「缺乏」的角度探討(黃 政傑,1991)。根據臺灣師範大學教育研究所黃光雄博士及臺北市立教育大學教育學系楊 龍立教授所言: 「『空無課程』的概念,是在探討學校『不教什麼』,產生了什麼結果,對學生 有什麼影響。我們對於課程的審視,不只要考慮學校教什麼,而學校不教什麼, 應是同等重要,因為這會影響學生的學習結果。」 簡而言之,「空無課程」是指應該包含在學生的學習經驗之中,但卻未有包含的東西, 可以是指一個科目,亦可以是指一個科目中的內容。即使科目或內容已確立,但是若果在 執行上出現問題,導致學生未能學習該科目或內容,該科目或內容亦可視為「空無課程」, 原因是它們最終仍未能包含在學生的學習經驗之中。 批判思考從「正式課程」淪為「空無課程」 通識科作為香港新高中課程中的核心科目,即所有中學生均需必修、必考的科目,與 中國語文、英國語文、數學等科目看齊,可視之為一項「正式課程」。審視由課程發展議 168 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 會與香港考試及評核局編訂的「通識教育科課程及評估指引(中四至中六)」,通識教育 科的架構主要由六大單元組成,分別為:「個人成長與人際關係」、「今日香港」、「現 代中國」、「全球化」、「公共衛生」和「能源科技與環境」,課程設計者希望學生透過 探討六大單元中的議題,學習批判思考的方法,這是其重要目標,本應為通識科課程的一 重要部分,亦可視為通識科課程內的「正式課程」。可是,從通識科的實際操作來分析, 目標是有的,但此目標實在不易達到,甚至最終可能會令批判思考由「正式課程」變成空 無「空無課程」。 為什麼批判思考會由「正式課程」變成「空無課程」呢?其中一個原因在於,如上文 所述,批判思考能力並無明確的界定。教育學者 Fullan 及 Stiegelbauer(1991)指出,一項 課程改革成功與否,受到十二項因素影響,其中一項是課程內容的清晰度與複雜性(Clarity, complexity of the change),而縱觀整份課程文件,亦未有指出學生到底要掌握如何的批判 思考能力,相對於以上提及的六大單元,批判思考在沒有明確定義及教授內容之下,顯得 空泛。在現時不少老師均沒有接受過有系統的批判思考訓練的情況下,對於什麼是批判思 考?如何教?教什麼?不少老師也沒有一個既定答案,亦沒有具體課程可以向學生教授, 這著實會影響批判思考的培訓。 從學術角度而言,批判思考並非一種可單純透過接觸不同的議題與新聞便可以學懂的 能力,它是需要有系統地教授,如現時本港的大學大都有設立批判思考課程,而其形式多 是以思考上的毛病作為藍本,輔以例子作教授,以幫助同學避免思考上出現毛病作為首要 目標,與現時的通識科課程恰恰相反。現時的通識科課程是以議題作為藍本,批判思考的 技巧成為了同學認識和討論議題後得出之副產物,再加上整個課程內容廣泛,時間緊迫 2, 同學或老師的聚焦都集中在時事議題的本身,而非批判思考的技巧。 學生完成整個通識科課程,也難以掌握何謂批判思考,只懂得在考試時運用多角度的 框架寫文章,看似已掌握批判思考能力。可是,學者指出,「批判思維不是……機械地套 2 根據「通識教育科課程及評估指引(中四至中六)」指出,教師需要於 180 小時完成教授六大單 元的內容,即平均每個單元只有 30 小時。 169 用六頂帽子、六何法等技巧或分析工具。」(許寶強,2006),批判思考最終極可能成為 通識科中的「空無課程」。 總結 總括而言,培育同學們具備批判思考能力為通識科課程的一大重要目標,亦應為「正 式課程」,目的是希望同學們修畢通識科課程後,不只懂得六大單元中的知識,而是能運 用批判思考的方法,對六大單元的議題作出反思。更重要的是,裝備他們將來離開學校, 也能運用批判思考的方法,解決日常生活的問題或對社會的議題作出反思。這意念本來是 值得支持,也對學生有莫大益處。 可是,從以上的分析可見,要實現這些益處,實非易事,必須具有較為具題的計劃和 教授方法,否則,目標只會因欠缺周詳計劃而變得名存實亡。通識科在課程上的設計上已 有先天缺憾,在緊迫的時間下,以探究議題來教授批判思考,只會令老師和學生焦點模糊, 教授了議題資料,卻忘了批判思考。這會令學生完成課程後,仍然缺乏批判思考的技巧, 本來宏大的目標,最終只會付諸流水。結果,批判思考便由通識科課程中的「正式課程」 變成「空無課程」。 要解決此問題,其中一個解決方法是在通識科課程中,增設第七個單元,參考大學的 批判思考課程,事先計劃好「要教授什麼」及「如何教授」批判思考的概念及工具,例如: 「論點」、「論據」、「語害」、「謬誤」、「六頂帽子」、「六何法」等。這單元應放 在通識科的所有單元之先,先教授有關批判思考的知識。到了進入本來已有的六大單元, 學生便已有工具對議題內的不同意見作出批判,真正做到利用議題來訓練批判思考能力。3 3 在上文提到,通識科的教學時間非常緊迫,故此,這筆者建議,這單元可以於同學在中三升上中 四期間的暑假,對學生進行教授,期間應不會對學生或老師造成太大的工作量,亦可為進入通識 科的六大單元做好準備。 170 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 這樣的做法,才可令老師有藍本可以依從;學生有焦點可以學習,真正達到通識科本 來想達致的目標──培育學生的批判思考能力,更令批判思考重新成為真正的通識科「正 式課程」。 參考文獻 李天命(1995)。《李天命的思考藝術》(終定版)(頁 66-67)。香港,明報出版社。 林福貹。〈空無(懸缺)課程(null curriculum)〉。《教育名詞彙編》。2011 年 11 月,取 自 http://163.24.143.141/edu_term/view.php?ID=687。 曾榮光(2010)。〈批判思考的批判──香港高中通識教育科教學實踐的爭議〉。《教育 學報》,第 38 卷第 1 期,103-104。取自 http://hkier.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/journal/wp-content/ uploads/2010/07/ej_v38n1_95-117.pdf。 許寶強(2006)。〈多角度思維助批判能力發展〉。取自 http://www.ln.edu.hk/mcsln/3rd_ issue/liberal06.html。 黃光雄、楊龍立(2001)。《課程設計:理念與實作》。台北:師大書苑。 黃政傑(1991)。《課程設計》(頁 80-81)。台北:東華書局。 課程發展議會(2001)。《學會學習──課程發展路向》(頁 22)。香港:課程發展議會。 取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/TC/Content_2908/c3/chapter_3_17to27.pdf。 課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局(2007)。《通識教育科課程及評估指引(中四至中六)》 (頁 4)。香港:課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局。取自 http://334.edb.hkedcity.net/ doc/chi/ls_final_c_070326a.pdf。 顧伊麗、侯傑泰、何德芳。《「批判性思考能力的學與教」教材套》。香港:教育局課 程發展處個人、社會及人文教育組。取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/download/ Content_7455/chi/package_on_the_l&T_of_critical_thinking_skills_chi.pdf。 Fullan, M., & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). Fullan’s Educational Change. Retrieved November 2, 2011, from: http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/Fullan.htm 171 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes 於小說教學時利用小組討論為介入策略 觀察學生態度轉變 Monique LOK & Beatrice CHIU Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This case study explores attitudinal changes through using group discussion as an intervention strategy for teaching novels in a primary school in Hong Kong. Comprehension, application and synthesis questions were used to promote higher order thinking skills and positive risk taking behaviors amongst students. The research question was to what extent group discussion serves as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students. Data was collected through observations, documentations, journals and group interviews. Data analysis suggests a higher percentage of students choose the “application” and “synthesis” type questions. It was found that the amount of time given to students impact on the length and quality of students’answers. The requirement to copy the questions impacted on students’choice of questions. Both classes experienced change in the choice of questions over the reading week.Teachers are more aware of the complexity of conducting research in a classroom setting and the importance of balancing the roles of language teachers and researchers with the support of a school- based professional learning community. 173 Keywords attitudinal changes, emotional maturity, group discussion, novel teaching 摘要 本個案研究是有關一間香港的小學於小說教學時,利用小組討論作為介入策略時學生的行 為轉變。透過閱讀理解、應用以及綜合性的題型,令學生提升高階思維能力和正面冒險行 為。本研究問題是同儕指導與小組討論作為介入策略對提高情緒成熟有多少影響。數據分 析發現,較多學生選擇應用以及綜合性題型的班別的改變比較大。完成個案研究後,老師 對學生學習能力及方式有更深認識。老師能注意到課室內進行研究的複雜性,以及在校本 專業學習的環境下平衡作為語言老師及研究員的重要性。 關鍵詞 態度轉變,情緒成熟,小組討論,小說教學 1. Background One of the major challenges in curriculum for teachers in Hong Kong is how to promote the higher order thinking skills, by allowing students to take positive risks when it comes to answering high order level questions. As teachers, we tend to ask questions in the “knowledge” category for about 80% to 90% of the time in class. These questions are fundamental to learning, but using them all the time may pose hurdles to high order thinking development in students. Higher order level questions require much more “brain power” and a more extensive and elaborate answers (Bloom, et al, 1956, Costa 2000). Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division is adopting a more inquiry-based learning curriculum in 2009-2010 hence teachers responded to the need by examining an alternative approach to teaching novel studies. Students are self-motivated and eager to learn, and demonstrate patience and perseverance in tackling challenging learning tasks. However, 174 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes our students tend not to collaborate effectively when asked to share their answers and opinions in a group setting. Approaches to teaching literature with respect to novel studies in previous years by many teachers within the Department of English focused primarily on “knowledge” type questions. Due to the Department’s initiative to develop more options when approaching literature studies, the need for inclusion of higher order thinking questions became apparent not only to challenge the studies but also to make teaching varied. In the school development plan for the English Department in 2009-2010, we aim to further enhance students’ learning performance and to enable them to master and manipulate various generic skills and demonstrate good and independent learning abilities. An Exploratory Practice Committee was set up to give teachers opportunities to conduct research in a classroom setting, to improve and to reflect on students’ learning and teaching practices. This study aims to get students to change their attitudes towards attempting to answer synthesis type questions after they have shared their answers with their peers in a group setting. Using group discussion as an intervention strategy, as a result, students will have the opportunity to develop their collaborative skills and be encouraged to take risks when answering higher order thinking questions. 2. Literature Review Vygotsky stated that learning awakens in children a variety of internal developmental processes that can operate only when they interact with more competent people in their environment and in cooperation with their peers (Vygotsky, 1978). When children scaffold each other, they modify a task and offer assistance to each other to help complete the task (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). According to Thelen’s principal of least-sized groups, we should strive for a group as small as possible but that has all the expertise and diverse points of view necessary to complete the task well (Thelen, 1954). Most teachers in general find that it is easier to conduct group discussions in smaller groups as each member will have more opportunities to participate and share their opinions and answers with each other. Smaller groups are also easier to handle for teachers when it comes to classroom management. According to researchers, children at 11 years old begin to reason abstractly (Atherton, 2009). Therefore we selected Grade five students in this study as they are expected and required to answer questions of different levels of difficulty. Based on 175 findings, children around 11 years old are at the stage where they are emotionally, socially and intellectually developing (Wood, 1998). Through exposure to questions that differ in cognitive skills, children will develop more confidence in choosing to answer questions that require creativity, imagination and critical thinking skills. Grade five students were chosen for this study because children are at the stage where they are emotionally, socially and intellectually developing. Emotional maturity is defined as the strength and courage to actualize individual abilities within the frame of social demands (Landau & Weissler, 1998). Emotionally, ten and eleven year olds are usually cooperative, easygoing, friendly and agreeable. At the social level, friendships and activities with age mates flourish. They want to be a part of the group and do not want to stand alone in competition (Wood, 1998). Finally, intellectually, children at this age are verbal. Making ethical decisions becomes a challenging task. They are able to express ideas and feelings in creative ways. More importantly, at eleven years old, children begin to reason abstractly (Atherton, 2009). Therefore, this group of students are chosen to participate in this study. It is hoped that the study will help language teachers make informed decisions when incorporating emotion related elements into the language program. 3. Assumptions There are two assumptions for this study: Assumption 1: Through the interventions, students will become more willing to take risks to answer higher order thinking questions and thus become more willing to tackle these questions on their own initiative the next time they encounter them. Assumptions 2: In addition to cognitive maturity that comes with age for grade 5 students, group discussion can serve as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students. The study attempts to find answers to the following questions: 1. Are students more willing to take risks to answer high order questions after going through the interventions? What are the reasons behind their move? 2. Does group discussion serve as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students? If yes, how? If no, why? 176 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes 4. Methodology To explore the research questions, changes and rearrangements were made in the curriculum. The teaching of the novel was conducted in a six-day teaching cycle to allow for more in-depth group discussions. In addition, the novel is not formally assessed, thus releasing students from pressure and allowing ample room for them to express their views and ideas. 4.1 Curriculum Organization There are 2 books for Reading for each level. “Frindle” is one of the novels chosen for Grade 5. It is a novel written by Andrew Clements. The school chose it in 2008- 2009, and almost all the boys in the level liked it, so it was chosen again for the 1st term of academic year 2009-2010. The book explores the inquisitive nature of young boys with respect to authority. The themes of the book also provided students with thought- provoking situations for students’ deliberations and making choices. Students also found it easy to identify with the characters in the book as the plot focuses on daily school life at the primary level. There are 15 chapters broken into 6 modules taught in the ‘reading week’ (See Table 1). There were 3 interventions throughout the project. Each intervention was carried out using group discussions. Students were grouped according to the selection of the questions. Table 1: Arrangement of the lessons and interventions Dates (Dec.) Modules Chapters Interventions Grouping Activities 7th 1 1-3 - Biography of the author - Introduction and summary of the novel - Answering a question from module 1 8th 2 4-5 - Language support for novel reading - Whole class discussion - Answering a question from module 2 and 3 177 Dates (Dec.) Modules Chapters Interventions Grouping Activities 9th 3 6-8 1st Mixed-ability grouping of students according to their choice of questions - Briefing on how to conduct group discussion - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 4 11th 4 9-10 2nd ditto - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 5 14th 5 11-12 3rd ditto - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 6 15th 6 13-15 - Wrapping-up - Role playing We designed questions for each module in 3 levels of challenge, i.e. Comprehension questions, Application questions and Synthesis questions. For example, the following questions are designed for Module 5 on Chapters 11-12. (see Appendix for the full set of questions): 1. You are Nick. What would you do with the first cheque you got from Bud Lawrence? 2. Do you think Bud and Mr. Allen's deal is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. If you were Nick's dad, would you keep the money a secret from Nick? Why or why not? Explain your answer. As the above table shows, we did three interventions. For each intervention, we briefed our students on how a proper group discussion is conducted. Then students were asked to get into groups assigned by the teacher. The group encompassed at least one student from each of the three question types. Students were given instructions on how to do a 7-minute discussion. During the discussion, students were asked to share their 178 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes own responses to the question they had answered. The group leader also asked prompting questions like, “Why did you choose to answer that question” to get students to think and share, as a group, at a deeper level. Each group had a group leader to invite shy students to speak and to ensure every student had a chance to do some sharing. After the discussion, students were required to reflect on their discussions and identify problems. The teacher then projected the next set of questions onto the screen, read out each question and explained them. Each student was asked to answer only one question out of three in class. 4.2 Research Design Table 2: Methods of Data Collection When How (methods of collection) What 7th -15th December observation - video 3 interventions - observe all modules - debriefing after each intervention 7th -15th December documentation - Ss’ question/answer sheets - diaries - interview transcription - recordings (videos and audios) after each intervention journal Teachers’ reflective journals after each intervention after all interventions group interview (semi- structured) 2 groups (3 students from 5J and 5S) and 20 minutes for each group 4.3 Selecting Target Groups To investigate the effects of curriculum changes of novel teaching, target groups were carefully chosen and various research methods were employed to address the research questions, such as to what extent group discussion serves as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students There are 5 classes in Grade 5. Four of them share similar level of proficiency in English while one is more advanced. Class 5D was chosen to do the pilot study. Class 5J (29 students) and Class 5S (32 students) were randomly chosen for the study as experiment groups. The other two classes, Class 5P (29 students) and Class 5M (30 students), were controlled groups, not using any intervention strategy. 179 4.4 Data Collection Various types of data collection methods, such as observations, group interviews, journals and documentations, were adopted to collect the data for this study at different phases throughout the study. 5. Findings On completion of the reading week, sets of data were analyzed for findings in response to the assumptions of the study. Initial findings from analyzing students’ responses to the questions indicate that despite changes identified in their choices of questions over the period, there was not a definite pattern of move in the levels of questions chosen. We attempted to script verbatim all answers from students and sort out on (1) question basis, (2) individual student basis, and selected student responses basis. Brief findings are explained in the following sessions. 5.1 On question basis To find out how students responded to the prescribed questions, all questions attempted are sorted out and grouped into numbered categories. The responses are further sub-divided into yes/no, right/wrong, good/smart/bad etc. according to the nature of the questions. The prime purpose of doing this categorization is to capture students’ responses to all the questions attempted. This serves as the basis for subsequent analysis on individual responses. Initial findings from the analysis of the first sets of question indicate that students’ responses in the first module were generally short and direct with little elaboration. Taking into consideration the comparatively short time allowed for students to copy and answer the questions in the lesson, their short concise responses to the first set of questions were not surprising. Indeed, it was also found that the requirements to copy the questions also impacted on students’ choice of questions. They tended to choose the short questions instead of the long ones. This move was remedied by teachers who instructed the students not to copy the questions from the second intervention lesson onwards. Such a move impacted on students’ choice of questions since they would choose questions other than the shortest ones in subsequent modules. 5.2 On individual basis Individual students’ responses to questions attempted are sorted out to identify first 180 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes for their choices and next for the pattern of choice. The prime purpose of such grouping is to identify changes in students’ choices of questions after the interventions. The absolute number of students making various choices is counted and the percentage of students choosing various levels of questions (easy, medium and difficult as suggested by teachers) is calculated. Figure 1 and Figure 2 indicate the general trend of choice of questions over the reading week. These graphs help to illustrate whether the change is obvious. Both classes experienced change in the choice of questions over the reading week. The trend is more obvious in 5J which had a high proportion of students choosing ‘comprehension’ question in the first two modules. But choice of medium to high level, the trend is different for 5S class. A large number of students opted for a ‘difficult’ question in the first lesson. It dropped drastically in the second lesson but the trend grew up gradually in the remaining lessons. Generally speaking, if we compared the trend with the implementation of the intervention strategy, the change in 5J is more obvious from the third lesson onward. A much higher percentage of students chose the ‘application’ and ‘synthesis’ questions in the last two modules. Such changes were also identified in 5S. But it should be noted that students were attracted by the ‘comprehension’ question in Chapters 9-10 and both classes experienced a big drop in the choice of the higher level questions. But this trend was reverted in the fifth and the sixth lessons when students were tuned in to the group discussion in the reading lessons. They were more willing to choose questions that were more challenging. This was echoed in the student interview described in the section of Analysis of Student Interview. Figure 1: Choice of questions by P5J students over the reading week 181 Figure 2: Choice of questions by P5S students over the reading week 5.3 On selected student responses basis Attempt is made to identify patterns of choices of questions through examining all the students’ responses to questions. The following pattern of choice is revealed in selected students: Seven students displayed an “up” trend in the choice of questions; moving from comprehension questions to synthesis questions. Two students displayed a “down” trend in the choice of question; moving from synthesis questions to comprehension questions. One student chose all number 2 questions throughout. 5.4 Analysis of student interview Students’ interview was transcribed verbatim for their views on the reading week in general and the intervention strategy in particular. Their perception of the question levels was also solicited in order to compare with the teachers’ categorization of the questions. Six students from two classes were selected to have an interview on their general impression of the novel, their learning experiences in group discussion and their views on the challenge levels of the questions. When students were prompted to talk about the novel, they all expressed that they liked the story because it was funny and interesting. 182 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes And they liked the way their teacher taught the book in the reading week because they enjoyed group discussion, shared their ideas with their classmates and presented it in the whole class. When asked how they chose their questions, the students responded: Student A: I’ll pick up the one which is more interesting and challenging. Pick the one that needs to write more. Student B: I will pick questions. My answer has more things to write about or more interesting, I will pick that. Student C: It’s challenging. We can use our brain. I always chose number three. All of the questions are properly arranged. From the above students’ interview answers, it is noted that some students were aware of the questions were arranged in different levels of challenge and they would like to choose those challenging questions to answer. In the interview different students had different perceptions of the group discussion. The following responses show how students thought about the discussions. Student A: Discussion is useful. Because it is an exercise to practice talking. I learn friendship. Because you need friendship to make a team group. I would encourage them to speak more and explain more. Student B: It could practice our English talk frequent because we usually speak Cantonese with our friend and discussion would make our English speaking more fluent. You need to listen others opinion, but not only using to your skills. The above responses indicate that students enjoyed group discussion because they considered discussions useful in that they helped them practice English and share their ideas with others. However, it is noted that students had different views on the levels of challenge for the questions. In the interview, some of the students made the following comments: 183 Student A: I would choose different questions for different chapters. Because each chapter has challenging questions. These questions are not in order. Interviewer: Oh, Yeah. You know the questions are not in the order. So which one is more challenging? Student A: Of course Number three. Interviewer: How about you? Which set of questions did you choose? Student B: Arr….. I chose that, may be a challenging one. Interviewer: Which Set? Student B: Like chapters six to eight, those are harder because they know how the parents feel when you use the word “frindle” and you have to stay after school for detention. Interviewer: You think that is most challenging. Student B: Because you are not parents, so you don’t know really how to answer the questions. Interviewer: Which one is the least challenging? Student B: Chapter one to three. Interviewer: You mean the whole set of questions. Student B: Right. Interviewer: So, you think that the questions are arranged in the way that chapter one to three are least challenging… Student B: Yeah. Easy, move along to chapter thirteen to fifteen. That set is more challenging. 184 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Interviewer: Okay, what do you think? (Turned to Student) Student C: Because at start, they don’t really make challenging questions because it will be easy at first. Interviewer: The second set is more difficult? Student C: Yes. Interviewer: And the third set getting on more difficult? That’s what you think of your questions, right? Interviewer (Turned back to Student A): Could you please tell your classmates about what you think of the questions? Student A: I think each chapter has the most challenging questions and it is usually of feeling of others, you are pretending to be different people to look back at you. Like my parents looking at me to tell bad or good of me. You know, something like that. The following table shows the views of the students on levels of questions and the question levels set by teachers. The highlighted boxes are the choice of students matched with teachers’. It is noticed that students’ view on the level of questions is different from that of the teachers’. For example, in chapter 1-3, teachers consider question 3 is an application (medium) question but none of the students thought that question is an application question. Three of them thought that is a synthesis (difficult) question. This applied also to question 3 in chapter 13-15, although teachers consider that it is an application question, four students thought that this is a synthesis (difficult) question. 185 Table 3: Students’ and Teachers’ view on levels of questions Question Teacher Student A Student B Student C Student D Student E Chapter 1-3 1 difficult easy easy medium medium difficult 2 easy difficult difficult easy difficult medium 3 medium difficult difficult difficult easy easy Chapter 4-5 1 easy medium easy easy easy easy 2 medium difficult medium difficult medium medium 3 difficult difficult difficult medium difficult difficult Chapter 6-8 1 easy difficult difficult medium easy medium 2 medium difficult easy easy difficult difficult 3 difficult difficult difficult difficult medium easy Chapter 9-10 1 difficult medium medium easy medium medium 2 easy easy medium medium easy easy 3 medium easy difficult difficult difficult difficult Chapter 11-12 1 easy medium difficult medium medium difficult 2 medium easy medium easy easy medium 3 difficult difficult medium difficult difficult easy Chapter 13-15 1 difficult difficult difficult medium easy medium 2 easy medium difficult easy medium easy 3 medium medium difficult difficult difficult difficult 5.5 Analysis of video lessons Video lessons are transcribed in selective vignettes to illustrate students’ interaction related to discussion focus. Group interaction skills are also identified in the video vignettes. Relevant students’ talk and conversation are also transcribed for evidence of the impact of the intervention strategy on students’ choice of questions and explanation. In the first lesson, teacher introduced the novel and asked students to answer the question from module one. No intervention was attempted. In the second lesson, teacher conducted a whole class discussion and students were requested to answer the questions for module two and three. In the third lesson wherein the intervention strategy was first introduced, teacher instructed students to share their answers to questions in the previous modules. A total of three 7-minute discussion sessions were conducted. Teacher asked one student from each group to share his answer. It appeared that students needed teacher’s constant prompting to elaborate their generally brief and direct answers. Before the end of lesson, students were asked to answer the questions on the next module. 186 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes The discussions session was started from 3rd lesson. It is found that there was a drop in the level of questions, 41% of students’ question choice fell from high to low/medium or medium to low after in the third module, indicated in Table 4 below. Table 4: Students’ choice of question after the 1st intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 3 6 5 Low to Medium 7 9 8 Medium to High 10 6 8 Medium to Low 43 22 32 High to Low 0 13 6 High to Medium 3 3 3 Unchanged and Absent 33 41 37 In the fourth lesson, the teacher showed a video taken the day before to explain how a proper group discussion was like. Students were told to share their answers. The video took effect and most of the groups were on tasks. Teacher reinforced the group discussion skills through asking each group to give scores to the performance of their classmates in the discussion. Students were then asked to answer the questions in the next module. On analyzing students’ choice of questions after the group discussion in the fourth lesson, 62% of the students moved from low to medium/high or medium to high in their question choice for module 5. Table 5: Students’ choice of question after the 2nd intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 20 31 26 Low to Medium 27 25 26 Medium to High 7 13 10 Medium to Low 0 0 0 High to Low 3 6 5 High to Medium 0 9 5 Unchanged and Absent 43 16 29 On completion of the 5th module, 56% of the students remained unchanged in the level of question choice, indicated in the following table: 187 Table 6: Students’ choice of question after the 3rd intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 6 10 8 Low to Medium 0 3 2 Medium to High 3 7 5 Medium to Low 0 13 6 High to Low 0 3 2 High to Medium 22 20 21 Unchanged and Absent 69 43 56 6. Discussions In this study, we find some interesting points as follows: 6.1 Correlation between emotional maturity and question selection Students’ selection of questions may be directly related to the length of the questions if asked to copy them. During the 1st intervention, students were asked to copy the questions they chose. It was found that they tended to choose short questions (in terms of the length). Then we changed our strategy, so no questions were to be copied. Students were asked to give answers only. However, it is also noted that the amount of time given for students to answer the question in the class could impact on the length and quality of their answers. Teachers’ expectations on the length of the answer required of them could also be an influential factor. When we compare their answers for the first modules to those in the last module when students were requested to write at least 100 words in 10 minutes, we notice that their answers are comparatively longer and more substantial. Focus should be on which type of question chosen instead of quality of students answers / further sharing of responses done in discussion. Students’ choice of questions changed after intervention– trends and development. Students were more willing to take risks in choosing questions of synthesis and application types. It is more prominent in 5J’s performance after the first two interventions, comparing with that of 5S. Students’ perspectives on classifying the questions were different from those of the teachers’. 188 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Students did not know that the questions were classified into three types. Quite a few preferred the application or synthesis types to the comprehension type which, however, was considered easier to answer from teachers’ perspectives. As mentioned above, students tended to choose shorter questions (in terms of length) which should have suggested a preference to easy-to-answer questions but the data showed that our students’ perspectives on classifying the questions were different from ours’. From the students’ interview, they were asked to rank the questions in challenge levels. Half of them thought the questions were arranged in ascending order of challenge, with easy questions to begin with in module 1 and challenge levels increased as the modules progressed through to the most challenging questions in the last module. However, some students considered that each chapter had its own challenging questions. In his words, “I think each chapter has challenging questions. It is usually about the feeling of others. You are pretending to be a different people to look back at you.” However, one student had a different view. “Ascending order of challenge. Easiest at the very beginning, and then is most difficult at the end.” From the above answers, it is found that most students interviewed believed that the questions were in ascending order of challenge, except one student who thought that each chapter had a challenging question. 6.2 Effects of language ability Most of our students are capable of expressing their thoughts quite fluently. However, many of them chose questions which they found interesting and were short in length to answer. When students were given clear instructions as to how many words they were required to put down in their answers and more time was given to them, they elaborated on their answers. 6.3 Effectiveness of group discussion Group discussions facilitate group work. Almost all students enjoyed group discussions, including those shy ones. It was, however, inevitable that a small number of students did not get themselves involved in the activities at all. Fortunately no dominations were taken place. This was echoed in students’ interview, students described their classmates’ feelings about the group discussions. 189 Student A: You need to listen to others’ opinion, but not only using your skills. Student B: I would encourage them to speak more and explain more. Student C: I asked them to give more opinion so that may be my teacher and make me think creative. He gave more answers. Student A: Some of the teammates just sat there and didn’t think. Another group of students recalled: Interviewee: And how did you prompt them to say more in the discussion? Student D: So we asked them “why you choose that question” or “can you choose another more challenging questions?” like that. Student E: They talked about the ideas. Usually they answered the easiest questions. Student D: Ya. Exactly. They always said when I ask “do you want to try another challenging question?” Some say yes but some say no. 6.4 Overall effectiveness of the programme organization, implementation and intervention strategies Due to time constraints, the overall effectiveness of the programme organization, implementation and intervention strategies was not that effective. Teachers struggled to strike a balance in their roles as language teacher and teacher researcher at the same time. Altogether, the novel was taught within a 6-day schedule. Students also had to be trained in holding group discussions; hence teachers also had to spend time addressing the strategies for effective group work. It was also a challenge to keep the students on task. However, after playing a demonstration of a group discussion that was recorded in a previous lesson, students saw what they were expected to do and which areas they had to improve on. Also the assigning of student roles in group discussions was helpful in keeping students focused. 6.5 Teachers development After conducting this study, we have a deeper understanding of our students’ abilities 190 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes and learning styles. It was observed that most students enjoyed participating in group work when clear guidelines and expectations are given to them. Many were willing to share their ideas and opinions which influenced each other. We have also decided for the future, more time should be spent on the teaching of a novel to allow teachers and students to do discussions, reflect and also focus on the literary teaching aspects of the novel. In addition, we have learnt how to conduct research in the classroom setting, gone through various struggles in balancing teacher and researcher roles, working together in the planning and implementation of the project and writing a report. Lastly, our findings will be shared with our colleagues in the English department as part of teachers’ professional development. 6.6 Difficulties Throughout the study, some difficulties were encountered. For example, the appropriate wording of “comprehension”, “application”, “synthesis” type question including the length of each question as discovered, students tend to select a question based on its length and not necessary its type when asked to copy the question down into their copy book. It was also discovered that some students gave elaborate answers to comprehension questions while some students gave only simple descriptive short answers to “challenging” questions. Questions and answers did not necessarily match teachers’ expectations, i.e. “challenging” questions should draw rich description and reasoned responses. It was interesting to find that one teacher was able to focus on her task assigned to her, which was to get this study completed, while the other struggled a lot in balancing to meet the requirements of the study and to satisfy the needs of her students, like role- playing and doing other activities apart from discussions. It demonstrates the language teachers’ struggle to strike a balance between language teaching and research initiatives and how their perceptions and actions cast impact on the implementation of the intervention strategy that aimed to bring about students’ attitudinal changes. 7. Conclusion and Recommendations To conclude, with regards to doing research, at this point in time, although the data 191 indicates that there was a positive shift towards students voluntarily opting to respond to synthesis type questions, further studies are needed to be done to see whether this shift is sustained. When given the opportunity to share through group discussions amongst peers, students, once understanding that a synthesis question can be discussed openly without the fear of being challenged students become more willing to opt to respond to these types of questions. After we completed our research, we made the following recommendations. In terms of curriculum organization, one issue concerned the time frame set for the reading week. We believed that a longer duration of time for the reading week could have better accommodated both literary learning and doing classroom research. Some recommendations for doing group activities are as follows: 1. Brief and train students on how a proper group discussion is conducted prior to the group discussions to make students aware of their expected performance. 2. Assigning a group leader, a time controller and a noise controller in each group helps students to be more involved and focused in the group discussions. 3. Teachers should ensure that the physical setting of the classroom is conducive to group work for how group work is to be done thus allowing smooth transition into a group sharing environment. 4. In order to allow meaningful group discussions, students should be coached on the skills of questioning especially how to ask prompting questions. 5. Create authentic communicative tasks rather than tasks solely focused on language practice. 6. Constantly revise what was planned to make improvements as a result of what emerges while doing research. For example, students tended to answer the shortest questions when asked to copy the question down. Therefore, in the next lesson, they were only asked to write down the question number rather than writing out the entire question. 192 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes References Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Atherton, J. (2009). Learning and teaching: Piaget’s developmental theory. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman. Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2000). Habits of mind: A developmental series. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Hawkes, N. (2001). Being a school of excellence: Value-based education. Oxfordshire County Council: Advisory and Inspection Service. Landau, E., & Weissler, K. (1988). The relationship between emotional maturity, intelligence and creativity in gifted children. UK: A B Academic Publishers. Tharpe, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in a Social Context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and Society. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 193 Appendix (Questions for each module) (1) Frindle Questions Chapters 1-3: 1. Nick's parents have a rule that children have to do their homework first. What made Nick’s parents come up with this rule? Explain your answer. 2. Would you like to be in Nick’s class? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. If you were to be put on one of the three lists made by Mrs. Granger (really good kids, really smart kids, or really bad kids) which list would you be on? Explain your answer. (2) Frindle Questions Chapters 4-5: 1. If you don’t know a particular word, how do you go about finding out its meaning? 2. If a friend of yours was feeling nervous about giving a presentation, what advice would you give him? 3. You are Nick. Explain why you think side-tracking Mrs. Granger is right or wrong. (3) Frindle Questions Chapters 6-8: 1. Do you think Mrs. Granger's punishment is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 2. How would your parents feel if you used the word “frindle” and had to stay after school for detention? 3. You are Mrs. Granger. Write the letter which was in the fat white envelope that Nick had signed. (4) Frindle Questions Chapters 9-10: 1. How would your parent's react if you were Nick and the principal came to your house? 2. Would you continue to use the word “frindle”? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. Who do you think sent Judy Morgan the class picture? Explain your answer. (5) Frindle Questions Chapters 11-12: 1. Do you think Bud and Mr. Allen's deal is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 2. If you were Nick's dad, would you keep the money a secret from Nick? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. You are Nick. What would you do with the first cheque you got from Bud Lawrence? (6) Frindle Questions Chapters 13-15: 1. You are Mrs. Granger. Write a thank you note to Nick for his gift. 2. Did you like the ending of the book? Tell why or why not. Explain your answer. 3. You have made up a new word. What is the word and what does your word mean? Why would others use it? 194 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Appendix (continued) Discussion questions for before you read the chapter. Chapter 1 Some students delight in coming up with creative ways of making the school day more interesting. Tell about an incident in which one of your fellow students came up with such an idea. List four personal qualities that you feel make for a really great teacher. Chapter 2 The author of Frindle uses exaggeration very effectively in making his story more interesting (e.g. “those huge dictionaries with every word in the universe”). Give your own example of exaggeration in describing an animal of your choice. Nick’s fifth grade teacher takes words and their meanings very seriously. Explain why she might think such things are important. Chapters 3 & 4 Are you familiar with any strategies designed to distract a teacher and waste time in the classroom? Describe one such strategy that might be successful in accomplishing this goal. Chapter 5 Think about a time when you had to stand up in front of several people for a particular reason (to do a report or display a talent). Describe your feelings. Why do you think you felt this way? Chapters 6 & 7 Men and women have been coming up with creative ideas for thousands of years. Describe one particularly imaginative idea that proved to be important to people everywhere. Who was responsible for that idea? Chapter 8 Tell about a time when you (or a friend) were unfairly punished. Be sure to describe what happened and how you felt. 195 Chapter 9 Tell why a principal might visit the home of one of his/her students. Try to come up with 2 possible reasons. Chapter 10 If you were a reporter investigating the frindle controversy, think of one question you might ask the following people: Mrs. Granger, Nick, Mrs. Chatham and Nick’s mom. Chapter 11 Although telling the truth is an excellent idea, it can sometimes create difficulties as well. Give an example of how this might be true (use your own experience if you like). Chapter 12 What is meant by the term “get rich quick scheme”? Give a possible example of such a scheme. What advantage might there be in being rich? What disadvantage might there be in being rich? Chapter 13 Describe one advantage to being famous. Describe one disadvantage. Chapter 14 Describe the greatest idea you have ever had. (If you can’t think of one, use your imagination.) Tell about a time when an adult (other than one of your parents) said something encouraging to you that made a real difference in your life. Chapter 15 What does the word generous mean to you? Give an example of generosity from your own life. What do you think is in the envelope that Mrs. Granger gave to Nick? (Be as detailed as possible) 196 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 Reconstructing Taiwan’s primary teacher education in academic university - Primary teacher education institutionalized 何慧群 國立臺中教育大學教育系所 摘要 因應國際競爭、出生率下降、網路世代、新台灣之子女教育等問題,重構臺灣國小師資培 育制度勢在必行。現行國小師資培育管道如教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究所下修 教育學程與 2012 年施行國小教師專業碩士學位學程,本文旨在:(1)凸顯國小師資培育 四軌並行,有違專業邏輯(professional reasoning);(2)師資培育涵蓋教職識能與師培 生人格發展;(3)以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基,據以提案「4+0.5+0.5」年一 貫制;以及(4)對應國小多科包班需求,多科系學院是較適組織結構。 關鍵詞 四軌並行教師培訓課程,40 學分教育學程,「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制 Abstract In response to national competitiveness, the birth rate dropped, the Internet generation and 197 new Taiwanese children etc., it is imperative to build a new system of Primary Teachers’ training program, which is the “4 +0.5 +0.5” system. It is the time for designing a new system of Primary Teacher Education. However, it is inappropriate to simply upgrade our teachers’ education level to master degree before analyzing today’s four-track program of teacher education. This article aims to highlight: Qualifications for primary school teachers went so far as can be re-divided into 4 ways: 4-year degree of Department of Education, 40 undergraduate credits, 26 graduate credits and 2-year master degree of instruction for unemployed legalized teacher candidates. This is a flaw system that violates professional consensus. Keywords four-track program, 40 undergraduate credits, “4+0.5+0.5” system 甲、前言 「國運興衰,繫於教育;教育成敗,繫於教師。」21 世紀是變動變化頻繁與壓力遽增 的時代,教育效益與教師素質成為關注焦點。1994 年 2 月 7 日師資培育法公布實施至今, 主客觀環境變化不可同日而語,檢討、省思與評鑑時刻已然到來。一般而言,專業「典範 工程」(engineering of paradigm)之變革進行於發展歷程,新範式生成最終責付專業論述 (discourse);另,教育改革宜通盤考量,專業理性與前瞻共識是不可或缺的要素。 國小基礎教育扎根不深,學習者日後創意、創造力、競爭力難見其張力,教師專業素 質是影響關鍵要素。當今國小師資培育制度計有教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究所 下修教育學程與國小教師專業碩士學位學程等。本文旨在凸顯: 1. 就專業而言,國小師資培育四軌並行,有違專業邏輯(professional reasoning)。 2. 師資培育涵蓋教職識能與師培生人格發展。 3. 以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基,據以提案「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制,以 及 4. 對應國小多科包班需求,多科系學院是較適組織結構。 198 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 國小師資培育重構提案之研究,首先,就現行四軌國小師資培育進行分析,並據以指 出一則有違專業邏輯性,再則造成國小教師專業素質參差不齊與供需失衡;其次,「他山 之石,可以攻玉」,對照歐盟、中國大陸教師教育發展與臺灣在地需求,歸納結論:國小 師資培育學士學歷基礎化,在職進修、學位研修高移碩士化,最後,綜觀時代變革、理論 建構與實務操作系統思維,提出新國小師資培育制度。 乙、臺灣國小師資培育制度及其問題 1994 年 2 月 7 日公佈實施《師資培育法》,依據法規第四條規定:「師資及其教育專 業人員之培育,由師範校院、設有教育院、系、所或教育學程之大學校院實施之。……教 育學程係指大學校院所規劃經教育部核定之教育專業課程」(教育部,1996),師資培育 專業變革是師資培育機構多元化,與教育學程是師資培育專業課程。 至 2004 年,國小師資培育機構由原來 9 所師範院校增設為 31 個點,含一般大學設置 之師資培育中心(湯維玲,2007);2009 年,國小師資培育機構減少為 28 個點(高等教 育評鑑中心基金會,2009)。 一、 國小師資培育類型 (1)教育本科專業 教育本科專業,由師範系統院校與一般大學經教育部核可設立的教育相關系所,提供 為期 4 年本科專業教育。依據國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度教育系課程架構,分師培生與非 師培生二類(見表一),其中師培生課程設計包含共通課程 10學分、通識選修課程 18學分、 專門課程 100 學分與自由選修 20 學分。專門課程部分:(1)教育本科專業之課程設計著 重於「教育理念」、「師範性」養成;(2)專門必修課程偏屬專業理論,專門選修偏屬理 論應用;(3)「教什麼」之學科知識學分比重佔 20/148。自由選修部分:(1)開設科目 多元與多樣,(2)就開課成本、任課師資,執行難度高。教育本科之專門與自由選修專業 課程多由教育背景教師授課。 199 表一 教育系課程設計及其學分一覽表 課 程 類 別 學分別 適 用 類 別 必修 選修 師資 培育 備註 共同及通 識課程 共同課程 (國、英、大一二體育) 10 0 10 通識課程 0 18 18 學科專業 教學基本學科課程 10 0 10 非師資培育生免修 教學實習及分科教材教法 10 0 10 專門課程 必修 41 0 41 已內含「教育專業課程」18 學分 選修 0 39 39 自由選修 0 20 20 可自由選讀本系、外系及外校之專 門課程、專長學程、教育專業課程 20 學分已內含「教育專業課程」2 學分 合計 148 專門必修 41 學分 教育概論、教育心理學、教育哲學、教育社會學、兒童心理學、教育行政、教 育史、教學原理、教育統計、教育測驗與評量、課程發展與設計、教育研究法、 比較教育、教育實習 I、II、III…… 專門選修 39 學分 認知心理學、多元文化教育、英文教育名著選讀、教學心理學、班級團體輔導、 創造力與特殊才能、教學科技理論與實務、教學社會學、創新教學與個別化教 學、多元化教學評量、情意教學與評量、閱讀心理與教學、學校本位課程發展、 另類教育、課程理論、各國課程比較、童書設計與編輯、教材研發與製作、課 程評鑑、統整課程設計…… 自由選修 20 學分 特殊教育導論、性別教育、發展心理學、行為改變技術、親職教育、青少年心 理學、輔導原理與實務、心理與教育測驗、生命教育、班級經營、教學媒體與 操作、生涯教育、中等教育…… (資料來源:國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度課程架構) (2)40 學分教育學程 依據施行《師資培育法》第 9 條規定:「修畢規定之師資職前教育課程,成績及格者, 由師資培育之大學發給修畢師資職前教育證明書」,現階段職前教育課程設計為 40 學分(見 附錄一),課程範圍包含:(1)教育基礎課程(至少必修 4學分);(2)教育方法學課程(至 少必修 6 學分);(3)教學基本學科課程(至少必修 10 學分);(4)教學實習及分科教 材教法(至少必修 10 學分,教材教法必修 3-4 領域);以及(5)選修課程(至少 10 學分)。 200 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 (3)研究所下修教育學程 研究所下修教育學程,意旨教育本科與非教育本科研究生至大學部選修 40 學分國小教 育學程,以取得國小任教資格,另,教育所研究生抵減部分學分。以國立臺中教育大學為 例,非教育本科專業學生通過校內甄選,研究生接受心理測驗,經錄取後,將自研一下開 始修習學分,至少修業 4 學期與另加實習 1 學期。 教育本科專業生與(2)、(3)生源不同,前者是經由大學入學考試分發至教育學系, 後二者本科專業則不是教育,40 學分修業類「輔系」性質。 (4)國小教師專業碩士學位學程 2012 年 9 月將實施國小教師專業碩士學位學程教育(見表二),招生對象具教師合格 證者,採公費制,並責其接受為期 2 年專業教育,畢業後分發至相關國小任教。至 2013 年 9月,國小師資培育新增「2+2+2」模式(楊思偉,2010),是謂精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫。 2012 年與 2013 年施行之國小師資培育「專案」,彼此無關聯性,前者是臺灣國小師培碩 化規劃歷程之「節外生枝」,責付至多 6 年時效;後者是奉教育部高教司核准之實驗計畫。 表二 教師專業碩士學位學程課程設計及其學分一覽表 課程類別 學 分 必修 選修 核心課程 基礎理論類 6 0 研究方法類 9 0 專精課程 0 12~19 一般選修課程 0 4~10 合 計 35 三、學程課程規劃: 本碩士學位學程課程分為核心課程、專精課程(教學方法學課程)及一 般選修課程三部份。碩士班學生至少應修習 35 學分,並依下列規定修畢應修學分,完成且通 過碩士論文考試者,授予教育學碩士學位。 四、進入本學程的學生,將依其大學背景及修習教育專業課程之情形,由導師及學程主任輔 ______________________________________ 導學生,並確定每位學生於本校其他學系需補修之教學學科知識課程______________________________ 6_至_ 12__學分。___ 七、本學程規定_____ 101___學年度入學之學生應加修國民小學教師加註英語專長專門課程___________________________ 30__學分,___ 依教育部頒布之課程架構開設。 (資料來源:2012 精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫成果發表暨研討會) 201 二、 相關問題 綜觀臺灣國小師資培育管道計有:4 年制教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究生下 修國小教程、2012 年教師專業碩士學位學程與 2013 年精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫;課程 類別有 4 類,40 學分教育學程是共同核心課程(core curricula)。 1. 師資培育機構素質不一 至 2012 年,臺灣大專校院計有 164 所(不含軍警校院及空中大學),學生總數逾 133 萬(教育部,2012);依據 Trow(1973)提出高等教育落實程度分類尺規,臺灣高等教育 業已進入普及階段。另,「名校情節」在所難免,而私立校院校數或學生人數所占比率高 於公立校院(教育部,2010),則是不爭事實。 師資培育機構素質不一,涵蓋校際排名落差與招生素質差異。依據《師資培育法》規 定,各公私立大學得以成立師培中心與規劃教育學程,但是,校際教育資源、師資編制差 異大,其多以最低標準 3 位員額來負責行政與教學,影響教學、輔導實習、地方教育輔導 等業務。另,校際生源結構呈多樣態,一般而言,北部學生素質、父母社經地位優於中南 部、西部優於東部;國公立大學學生學習動機與行動優於私立大學、技專院校。 2. 專業培用落差 臺灣國小教育施行多科包班教學,但是,教育專業本科 148 學分與 40 學分教育學程在 學科知識課程規劃上均只有 20 學分,師培生之「學術智能」(academic literacy)發展明 顯不足。另,不同於 1996 年施行之新課程標準課程範式,2001 年實施九年一貫課程改革, 相關國小師資培育課程設計未同步進行調整或修正,致令課程政策執行成效難以評斷與歸 因。 3. 實習制度待改善 依據 1995 年通過《教師法》規定,初檢係採學經歷檢覈,即凡修畢師資職前教育課程 者均得參加教育實習,導致量的增生與資源相對不足。另,師資培育機構與教育實習機構 在人力、資源、專業、共識上均有待經費挹注、專業網絡建置與溝通謀和。 202 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 4. 供需失調 1994 年國小師資培育管道多元化,依據教育部統計資料顯示(見表三),1994-2008 年共培育國小師資 60,535 人次,其中 29,317 人次成為正式教師,5,373 人次成為代理代課 教師,25,845 人次為儲備教師或所謂「流浪教師」,正式教師所占比率為 48.4%;2009 年 取得正式、代理代課教職的在職率約 38%(自由時報,2010)。 除此之外,新生兒人數減少對國小新聘教師上無疑是雪上加霜,由 1979 年 422,518 人, 到 1994 年 322,938 人,2010 年下降到 166,866 人(內政部,2011)。 表三 2005-2008 年國小師資培育累積人次統計一覽表 年度 培育人次 正式教師 代理代課 儲備教師 在職率 2005 44,654 24,714 19,940 55.3% 2006 52,370 27,390 4,692 20,288 61.3% 2007 57,406 28,644 5,493 23,269 59.5% 2008 60,535 29,317 5,373 25,845 57.3% (資料來源:2008 年中華民國師資培育統計年報) 5. 師範性凌駕專業理性 針對現行國小師資培育制度弊端,國立臺中教育大學分別提出:2012 年實施之《國小 教師專業碩士學位學程》與 2013 年《精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫》,前者強調理論與實務 結合重要性,主發展技術理性(technocratic rationality);後者正視師範性式微,主情境認 知氛圍建置。 綜觀初等教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程與 2 起臺中教大國小師培碩化方案,其共同 弊端是未理性正視「學科知識」元素旨趣,不查課堂做什麼的什麼,實有關理論體系結構 知識、知識性能認知,而專業取向之教育實踐有賴基礎知識與基本知識結構的學習。 丙、歐盟、中國大陸師資培育 網際網路與知識經濟,業已成為影響學校教育發展主要利基,前者推動知識不斷汰舊 203 換新,後者訴求知識、創意與專業的新經濟活動,提升教師專業素質刻不容緩。 一、 歐盟師資培育 在歐盟高等教育區的「國家文憑資格架構」下,進行各階段師資培育改革,偏制度整 合與技術配合,主要論述如下: 1. 師資培育達大學學歷,高級中學須具備碩士學歷; 2. 修業年限 3-6.5 年,教育階段別愈高,修業年限愈長; 3. 課程模式,多數國家學前與國小師培採用並進模式(concurrent model),中等 師培採用接續模式(consecutive model),即學術學科與教育專業課程分別在 兩個不同階段學習; 4. 各級教師轉向綜合大學來培育,並且延長修業時間,以及 5. 歐洲貿易聯盟教育委員會(ETUCE, 2008)建議從學前教育到高級中等教育師 資職前教育提升至碩士層級。目前歐盟芬蘭、德國、波蘭、葡萄牙等國小教師 具備碩士學歷(符碧真、黃源河,2010)。 二、 中國大陸 「開放改變中國,中國改變世界。」自 1978年改革開放 30多年來,中國成為崛起大國, 並期以由製造大國成為製造強國、技術強國與品牌大國,教育是不可或缺的利器。隨著「科 教興國」戰略與高等教育大眾化,培養高層次本科學歷國小教師成為國家人才強國戰略目 標之一。至 2002 年,計有 130 所高等學校(含高等師範院校和綜合大學)設置「小學教育」 本專科專業,其中「小學教育」本科專業高等院校為 65 所(黃偉娣,2008)。中國大陸幅 員廣大,南北、東西地區差異大,國小師資培育採三級制並存,全面化本科專業拔高仍待 持續努力。 國小師資培育課程設計,學科專業與教育專業比例是1:2,凸顯其正視「知識就是力量」 效益與落實知識教育行動;另,通識教育中之馬列毛思想政治理論、國防教育是中國大陸 意識型態教育特色(何慧群,2010)。 204 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 綜合上述歐盟與中國大陸師資培育發展,歸納如下: 1. 國小師資培育高等教育化,大學學歷是基本條件,碩化是趨勢。 2. 重視通識教育與學科知識的教育。 3. 整合理論與實務,強調專業化教學。 4. 綜合大學是師資培育機構形式。 丁、提案:國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制 一、 提案基礎 提案思考:(1)基於國小教育具基礎性、發展性與綜合性,教育專業偏實用性,較不 具學術性。符應社會頻繁變革與教育專業實踐,國小師資培育應兼顧認知與情意發展;(2) 國小屬多科包班教學,40 學分教育學程明顯不足與難收對教職工作認同之益,以及(3) 師資培育既是教育專業職能發展,並且是當事者人格成長、社會參與感性陶冶。 提案建構:以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基,並據以銜接國小師資培育要素。 1. 21 世紀教育目標 大學究竟要學生四年後帶走什麼? Bok 在《大學教了沒?哈佛校長提出的 8 門課》書 中提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標(張善楠譯,2008),其關係結構如圖一。 圖一 21 世紀教育目標 205 2. 提案設計 G. Santayana(1863-1952)說:「不瞭解歷史,就註定要重蹈覆轍。」迂衡歐盟、中 國大陸國小師資培育制度沿革與發展與我國國小教育多科包班需求,提案 4+0.5+0.5 年制 國小師資培育,期以 5 年一貫系統性發展國小師資「雙專業」職識能(見圖二),雙專業 意旨專業性與社會性。 圖二 國小師資培育概念結構 206 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 二、 國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制 臺灣國小師資培育歷經數次改革,偏向技術與實用取向(白亦方,2010),以發展嫻 熟教學技術為主要訴求目標;對於世道中落、師範式微現象,臺中教大期以 2013 年實施之 《精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫》改善之。 國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制主軸是專業性與社會性,「教育工作視為專門的職業」 於 70 年代末取得共識;社會性旨在凸顯「我與汝」相互關係(correlation)利基,藉以取 代「學為人師,行為世範」,聚焦於個人之師範性。 1. 專業性 1966 年聯合國教科文組織與國際勞工組織提出《關於教師地位的建議》,對教師專業 化作出說明,「應把教育工作視為專門的職業,這種職業要求教師經過嚴格地、持續地學 習,獲得並保持專門的知識和特別的技術。它要求對所轄學生的教育和福利具有個人及共 同的責任感。」(劉芳,2008) 1986 年美國卡內基工作小組、霍姆斯小組相繼發表《國家為培養 21 世紀的教師做準 備》、《明日的教師》報告,確立教師的專業地位,並據以提升教師專業素質。1996 年聯 合國教科文組織在第 45 屆國際教育大會上提出:「在提高教師地位的整體政策中,專業化 是最有前途的中長期策略。」(沈夏威,2010) 專業化涵蓋思考習性、數位素養、學科知識與差異教學。 (a)思考習性 Socrates 名言:「真正認識自己的人,才是最有力量的人。」Aristotle 認為: 「人異於禽獸幾稀,唯智能而已矣。」面對數位資訊充斥與價值解構態勢,思考、 觀察、論證、佐證修正、選擇與判斷……之思考術需要教導;又,思考習性非天 然生成,相反的,它需要積習成性而幾近仿若天成。基於教育是對人進行啟思、 「化性起偽」手段,教育工作「先行者」學會思考與能思考責無旁貸。 207 (b)數位素養 在資訊知識數位化與傳播網絡化的時代,資訊素養是職涯發展必備利器,包 括:(1)傳統素養(traditional literacy)、(2)媒體素養(media literacy)、 (3)電腦素養(computer literacy)與(4)網路素養(network literacy)(McClure, 1994)。 為國小教師而言,數位素養展現:(1)提升教學效益之多媒體素養,(2) 擷取、應用與分析網路知識,以及(3)善用網路專業社群資源。 (c)學科知識 面對知識增生快速與學科科目多元,「綜合淺碟化知識」與「學術本位知識」 各有利弊。基於小學教育基礎性、發展性與綜合性,以及國內國小勇類層級規模 比率超過五成,國小師資學科專業識能發展原則是「國語文、數學為本,外加專 長科目」,另,跨學科領域之通識識能是新增識能,屬高等教育之元教育。 (d)差異教學 差異教學(differentiated instruction),有謂「區分化教學」(賴翠媛, 2009),強調文化脈絡、多元智能取向之教學設計。另,教育資源分配不均、城 鄉資訊落差、社會與文化資本歧異對教育影響不宜輕忽。 2. 社會性 綜觀歐美師資培育制度沿革與發展,由強調人師、楷模,重視問學、學思與研究,到 今日聚焦於可應用性與實踐效益未來範式亟待建構。另,面向全球網絡關聯與網際網路社 會,主體意識、本位主義、個人主義逐漸「淡定」,在「我與汝」相互關係(correlation) 利基前提,互補、共生、互助、共榮是新增社會意識元素。 社會性涵蓋人文素養、生態意識、教育哲學與社會批判。 (a)人文素養 A. Einstein(1879-1955)認為:「僅憑知識和技巧並不能給人類的生活帶來 208 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 尊嚴和幸福。」值此工具理性主導的文明發展,人文素養依然是自然科學專門識 能與職業技能發展的根基,黃崑巖說:「以一般知識為基礎,在上面建構專業知 識,然後再樹立『專業』、『科學』與『人文』三個石柱,完成學問的殿堂,達 到全人的教育目的!」(呂宗昕,2005) (b)生態意識 生態問題是現代文明後遺症,正視人與生態共生性刻不容緩;其次,體認自 然資源有限性與藏富於大自然,複次,倡導取所需、物流用與分享的價值教育, 最後,發展以工具理性與價值理性為根基的「天人合一」、「物化合一」統觀視 域。 (c)教育哲學 教育哲學,省視「學以致用」旨趣,學習者是學習的主體,學習是手段,目 的是解決問題與創造幸福,主客體、目的與手段不宜混為一談,目的亦不可窄化 為謀生就業或掌控自然生態。簡言之,教育開啟人的理性、感性與悟性,教育歷 程是發展心智、語言與思想,最終則是用於改善生活境域與豐富存在閱歷。 (d)社會批判 在多元價值氾濫與主體意識高漲社會裡,社會和諧繫於建立共識與容納歧 異,批判識能是較適利器。教育哲學與社會批判分路進擊,期以監測(detecting) 與修正(correcting)異常,前者由內向外,後者由外向內,齊一發揮雙環學習 (double loop learning)與坐收較適專業效益。 三、多科系學院 歐美教育發達國家中小學師資培育有別,前者主知識體系與思維邏輯學習,後者主多 感官啟蒙與體驗,二者具層級關連姓。1960、70 年代,國小師資培育學歷漸次提升至大學 層級,學術研究或學科知識學習是重中之重,與傳統重視人格「陶冶」(楊深坑,1989) 有異。 209 另,國小師資培育機構沿革,由獨立師範學院到綜合型大學,以德國為例,其師資培 育中心定位為跨院系之一級學術單位,整合研究、發展、執行與協調等跨領域功能(楊深 坑,2007)。為臺灣而言,符應國小教育屬多科包班教學需求,較適組織是自成一體系之 「教育學院」,院下分設教育系與學科學系。 四、教育實務 「教育為百年大計,難收立竿見影之效。」教學因時空不同、文化脈絡、對象多樣性, 課堂教學、教學歷程充滿不確定性與複雜性,師資培育理論與實習課程予以模組化是必要 的。另,教育實務,一則反應準真實教學場域,二則透過具體教學情境與教學事件的專注 和反思,將積累與類化的實作經驗內化為更純熟的實踐力。 1. 第一階段 0.5 年 第一階段 0.5 年或一學期,時間規劃採 3:2 原則分配。 (a)轉化 教育專業學習是就教育及其實務進行本質目的性、系統的理性分析和邏輯推 理、能動的認知與學習。 (b)情境操作 教育場域彷如生活情境,教學實踐力在理論轉換與情境操作交互作用下,得 以修正、領悟與建構之,個己實踐智慧嘗試展現個性化。 (c)教檢 依據 2005 年 12 月 28 日修正與公佈實施之師資培育法第 7 條:「師資培育 包括師資職前教育及教師資格檢定。」第 11 條:「大學畢業依第九條第四項或 前條第一項規定取得修畢師資職前教育證明書者,參加教師資格檢定通過後,由 中央主管機關發給教師證書。」(教育部全國法規資料,2011a) 另,依據 2010 年 10 月 26 日教育部台參字第 0990178992C 號令修正發布之 高級中等以下學校及幼稚園教師資格檢定考試類科及應試科目規定,考試範圍共 210 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 四科,包括共同科目二科及專業科目二科,前者是國語文與教育原理與制度,後 者是兒童發展與輔導與國民小學課程與教學(教育部全國法規資料,2011b)。 2. 第二階段 0.5 年 第二階段時間規劃採 2:3 原則分配,即在實習學校停留時間約 2 個月、由 2/3 至 3/4 月, 在教大時間是 3 個月、由 4/5 至 6 月。 (a)專業發展學校(PDS) PDS 是落實教育理論與教學實務交互印證與修正之組織模組(module)。 PDS 成敗繫於高教機構學者專家之「統觀識能」,其包括:(1)由理解課程到 教學實務轉換,(2)洞察教室生態潛在課程效應,(3)引進與善用網路虛擬社 群資源,(4)再概念化合作伙伴教學者之教學律則,以及(5)發展教學者後設 認知習性。 (b)教檢 教育專業發展具階段性與銜接性,階段不同,階段任務彼此互有差異。大 五階段實習不同於大四階段實習,前者真實性(authentic)不同於後者素樸性 (naive);大五實習旨趣不同於實務教檢,前者由師生主體間性社會互動到教 學者進行自我辯證、知識符碼轉換,實務教檢目的是檢驗其具備專業化之教學律 則成熟度。 戊、結論 「輸掉教師,輸掉教育;輸掉教育,輸掉未來。」教師素質直接影響學習者受教權益, 間接牽動國家發展人資儲備,準此,正視師資培育規劃迫在眉睫。國小師資培育自高等教 育學術、科學化後,教師專業「識能」已達社會知識份子行列。如今,為因應國小生態變化, 如本位意識高漲、多媒體刺激、數位落差、準網路世代、家庭功能式微、經濟弱勢、新台 灣之子女差異教育需求等,國小師資培育亟待補強的專業識能是屬情意、價值「軟實力」, 軟實力育成或發展植基於個己的教育理念、人文素養…… 211 最後,符應時代趨勢,國小師資培育是否由「4+0.5」年舊制提升至「4+2」年碩士化, 有賴實證資料佐證之;其次,「學習不是短距離衝刺,而是馬拉松長程賽」,專業發展非 能一步到位,時間歷練是關鍵;再說,為「學術性低,實用性高」的國小基礎教育,以及 新台灣之子女適應與融入社會、單親隔代教養、教育正義……教育工作者個己價值觀建立、 品格品德深化、敬業勤業態度培養與自律中滋生的教育「情意智能」、「同理智慧」,是 國小師資培育不可或缺要素。 參考文獻 內政部(2011)。〈百年人口歷年資料〉。2012 年 8 月 7 日,取自 http://www.ris.gov.tw/ version96/population_01_H.html。 白亦方(2010)。〈美國優質師資培育的底蘊分析〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》,6(1),21- 38。 自由時報(2010)。〈師培教育 13 年 5.8 萬成流浪教師〉。2012 年 8 月 6 日,取自 http://192.192.169.230/edu_paper/data_image/news/n0000011/20101027/a12/00000001.pdf。 何慧群(2010)。〈海峽兩岸國小師資培育制度及其課程設計比較〉。2010 台灣教育學術 研討會、國立臺中教育大學舉辦之《追求均等與卓越的教育與師資培育》學術研討會。 呂宗昕(2005)。《學校沒有教的 K 書秘訣》。台北:時報文化。 沈夏威(2010)。〈關於教師教育專業化問題的思考〉。2011 年 4 月 19 日,取自 http:// www.pep.com.cn/xgjy/jiaoshi/ztyj/jszyh/201008/t20100827_802079.htm。 高等教育評鑑中心基金會(2009)。〈大學校院師資培育評鑑資訊網──師資培育機構〉。 2012 年 8 月 6 日,取自 http://tece.heeact.edu.tw/main.php?mtype=sch。 教育部(1996)。〈師資培育法規選輯〉。台北。 教育部(2009)。《2008 中華民國師資培育統計年報》。台北。 教育部(2010)。〈第八次全國教育會議資料〉。台北。 教 育 部(2012)。 高 等 教 育。2012 年 8 月 8 日, 取 自 http://history.moe.gov.tw/policy. asp?id=6。 教育部全國法規資料(2011a)。〈師資培育法〉。2011 年 4 月 28 日,取自 http://law.moj. gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?PCode=H0050001。 教育部全國法規資料(2011b)。〈高級中等以下學校及幼稚園教師資格檢定考試類科及應 試科目表〉。2011 年 4 月 28 日,取自 http://tft.tcte.edu.tw/page_4a.php。 212 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 符碧真、黃源河(2010)。〈打造「知識歐洲」的師資培育:對我國的啟示〉。《教育研究 與發展期刊》,第 6 卷第 1 期,1-20。 湯維玲(2007)。〈師資培育理念與實踐之對話:教育專業課程之調查研究〉。載周淑卿、 陳麗華編,《教育改革的挑戰與省思》(頁 3-26)。高雄:麗文。 黃偉娣(2008)。〈小學教育本科專業課程方案比較研究〉。2011 年 4 月 22 日,取自 http://www.studa.net/zhiye/080608/09544433.html。 楊 思 偉(2010)。〈 精 緻 師 資 培 育 機 制 實 驗 計 畫 〉。2012 年 5 月 29 日, 取 自 http://210.240.193.239/ntcu/TE99/menu2.html。 楊深坑(1989)。〈西德小學師資培育制度〉。載於中華民國師範教育學會編,《各國小學 師資培育》(頁 357-370)。台北:師苑。 楊深坑(2007)。〈德國師資培育中心歷史發展與組織結構〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》, 第 3 卷第 1 期,35-56。 劉芳(2008)。〈論教育技術能力標準與教師專業化發展〉。2011 年 4 月 23 日,取自 http://www.xxyzz.cn/jssq/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=144。 賴清標(2003)。〈師資培育開放十年回顧與前瞻〉。《師友月刊》,第 435 期,8-17。 賴翠媛(2009)。〈區分性課程〉。2012 年 8 月 8 日,取自 http://www.tiec.tp.edu.tw/lt/ gallery/71/71-16394.pdf。 Bok, D. 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Berkeley, California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. 213 附錄一 40 學分教育學程課程結構一覽表 教育專業 I 教育基礎課程 至少 4 學分 教育概論、教育心理學、教育哲學、教育社會學 教育方法學課程 至少 6 學分 課程發展與設計、教學原理、教學媒體與操作、輔導原 理與實務、班級經營、教育測驗與評量 教育專業 II 共同選修 至少 10 學分 特殊教育導論、藝術治療與輔導、音樂治療與教育、兒 童心理學、發展心理學、行為改變技術、親職教育、心 理與教育測驗、教育統計、教育研究法、教育史、現代 教育思潮、德育原理、教育法規、教育行政、學校行政、 比較教育、數學課程發展與設計、數學學習心理發展、 數學科展製作與評析、科學教育、環境教育、戶外教學 與活動設計、資訊教育、視聽教育、網路與教學、網路 與測驗、英文故事教學、語文創意思考教學、多元智能 教育、創造力教育、美術鑑賞與教學、多元文化美術教 育、兒童美術行為研究、兒童音樂學習原理、音樂心理 學、音樂教育史、運動教育學、適能教育、動作教育、 遊戲理論與實際、人權教育、教育人類學、鄉土文化教 育、人際關係與溝通、生涯教育、生命教育、性別教育、 多元文化教育、中等教育、青少年心理學 學 科 專 業 與 教 育 教 學實習 教學基本學科課程 至少必修 10 學分 語文領域:國音及說話、寫字、兒童文學、兒童英語、 鄉土語言 數學領域:普通數學 自然與生活科技領域:自然科學概論、生活科技概論 社會領域:社會學習領域概論 藝術與人文領域:音樂、鍵盤樂、表演藝術、美勞、藝 術概論 健康與體育領域:健康與體育、民俗體育 綜合領域:童軍 教育實習 分科教材教法課程 至少 10 學分 教學實習、國語教材教法、英語教材教法、鄉土語文教 材教法、數學教材教法、社會教材教法、自然與生活科 技教材教法、藝術與人文教材教法、健康與體育教材教 法、綜合活動教材教法 (資料來源:國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度課程架構) 214 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 附錄二 教師專業碩士學位學程課程結構一覽表 核心課程 基礎理論類 必修 6 學分 教育基礎理論與應用研究 教育專業專題討論(I) 教育專業專題討論(II) 研究方法類 必修 9 學分 教育研究法 教育行動研究 獨立研究 專業發展與檔案 專精課程 至少選修 12 學分 教學設計與科技研究 班級經營與案例研究 教學策略研究 有效教學觀察技巧 學習評量研究 多元文化教育與教學實務 差異性教學研究 學科課程發展與教學研究 一般選修課程 至少選修 4 學分 特殊需求學生及融合教育實務研究 創造力教學研究 人際關係與溝通研究 當代課程與教學議題研究 課程評鑑研究 (資料來源:http://210.240.193.239/ntcu/mdtp/download/ 教師專業碩士學位學程課程架構 表 .pdf) 215 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 A study on the elements of teachers’ emotional competency 鄭志強 香港教育學院課程與教學學系 摘要 本文旨在研究香港教師情緒技能的內涵,為學校領導提供一個發展教師情緒技能的模型。 本研究參考 Bar-On 的情緒智商量表,將情緒技能概念化為可以培養和發展多元能力,建立 研究模型及問卷,並運用結構方程模型驗證理論模型因子的建構效度。研究員以整群抽樣 形式選取香港 40 所資助中學進行問卷調查,當中成功收回 958 份教師問卷進行驗證研究。 經結構方程模型發現教師情緒技能的因子結構涵蓋解難能力、自我實現、自主能力、壓力 管理、適應能力及人際關係。 關鍵詞 教師情緒技能,情商領導,結構方程模型 Abstract This paper aims to explore teachers’ emotional competency skills for school leaders to develop teachers’ emotional competency. The study adopts Bar-On’s (1997) theoretical framework to conceptualise emotional competency into developable multi-factorial skills, and applies his Emotional Quotient Inventory (1997) for data collection. A structural equation model was applied to confirm the factor structure of the EQ model. Cluster sampling was adopted to collect data from teachers in 40 aided secondary schools in 217 Hong Kong. 958 teachers participated in the questionnaire survey. A six-factor emotional competency model, which consists of problem solving, self-actualization, independent thinking, stress management, adaptability and inter-personal relationship, was explored by using a structural equation model. Keywords teachers’ emotional competency, EQ leadership, structural equation model 甲、引言 社會不斷發展,學校面對的政策措施愈趨複雜,教師所面對的教學工作也愈來愈繁重。 近年的教育改革、校本管理、課程改革及教師專業發展等政策為學校教育帶來了很多挑戰, 更令作為改革執行者的教師承受的壓力愈來愈大。如何協助教師提高情緒技能,協助他們 靈活處理工作壓力,是學校領導當前遇到的問題。若學校領導能協助提升教師的情緒技能, 學校組織的靈活性及適應性也會因而提升,而教學效能也會因而改善。學校領導可以透過 策略管理營造情緒健康校園,以減低員工因工作壓力、衝突和不良競爭產生的負面情緒, 同時亦可強化他們的情緒技能,協助他們發揮專業以獲取更佳的工作成效(McDowelle & Buckner, 2002)。要規劃發展情緒健康校園的策略,首先要了解教師的情緒技能,本研究 希望可以建立一個教師情緒技能內涵的模型,作為學校領導發展情緒健康校園的參考。 情緒技能是個人處理日常生活需求的社會和情感能力(Bar-On, 2006)。情緒技能不僅 影響個人的身心健康及人際關係,同時也影響個人工作成效以至組織效能(Salovey, Hsee & Mayer, 1993)。掌握情緒技能的人能認識、了解和管理自己和他人的情緒,在工作場所 能與別人建立良好的人際關係(Mayer & Salovey, 1997)。協助員工掌控情緒技能有助增 強他們解決衝突的能力(Weisinger, 1998; Lubit, 2004),從而改善社群關係,促進團隊協 作效能,增強他們對組織的歸屬感(Jordan, Ashkanasy & Hartel, 2002)。一個情緒技能高 的人即使在時間壓力和不穩定的環境中,也較容易產生高度的歸屬感。員工歸屬感形成後, 他們的流失率會降低,工作滿意度會提高,對組織的認同亦隨之加深,更會自發形成自我 218 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 約束,產生對組織強烈的責任感。Cherniss(2001)亦指出掌控情緒技能有助提高員工的 責任感和士氣,改善他們的健康,從而提高組織效能。 乙、文獻探討 情緒技能理論的發展至今只有近二十多年歷史,最早的是發表於 1990 年的 Salovey & Mayer 情緒技能理論。Salovey & Mayer(1990)將情緒智慧定義為個體察覺自己與別 人的情緒,進行區別辨識,進而處理並運用情緒訊息來指引自己思考與行動的能力,包含 情緒的評估與表達、情緒的管理及情緒的運用三個層面。他們認為要能達到有效管理自己 及他人的情緒,首先必須懂得辨別情緒、利用情緒輔助思考和了解情緒(Mayer & Cobb, 2000, p.166)。Salovey & Mayer 的模式強調情緒技能是能力而不是性格或偏好的行為方式 (Hedlund & Steinberg, 2000),他們相信情緒技能對於一個人的成功有必然的影響。 Goleman(1995)發行《Emotional Intelligence》一書後,不論在教育界、商界均引起 對情緒技能極大興趣。Goleman 在《Working with Emotional Intelligence》一書提出情緒技 能的定義:情緒技能是指認識自己和別人的情緒,激勵自己,管理自己的情緒及處理關係 中的情緒的能力。Goleman (1998) 把情緒技能歸納為認識自身的情緒、認知他人的情 緒、妥善管理自己的情緒及人際關係的管理。他認為情緒技能是可以透過學習得到的,可 以轉化為應用於工作上的實用技能,也能帶來工作上卓越的表現。 Bar-On 是首位嘗試以科學化方法量度情緒技能的學者,他在博士論文提出情緒技 能多元能力的概念,指出個人情緒會受工作環境影響,掌握情緒技能有助促進工作成效 (Bar-On, 1997)。Bar-On 基於他對精神健康的研究,發展「情緒智商量表」(Emotional Quotient Inventory 或簡稱 EQ-i),將情緒技能量化為情緒商數,即 EQ。這模型指出情 緒技能是個人處理日常生活要求和壓力的能力,為 EQ-i 提供了良好的理論基礎。EQ-i 所 測試的情緒技能包括內省能力、人際技能、壓力管理及適應能力。Chan(2004)則運用 Salovey & Mayer 的模型量度香港中學教師情緒技能的內涵,並確定四個因子包括對自己情 緒的察覺,同理心的敏感性、情緒管理及情緒運用。 219 Salovey & Mayer(1990)、Goleman(1995)及 Bar-On(1997)三個理論模型以不同 層面探討情緒技能,但均認為情緒技能是一種管理自己情緒的多元能力。而Bar-On(1997) 提出情緒技能的多元能力概念較 Salovey & Mayer(1990)及 Goleman(1995)多層面的技 能具體,故本研究採用 Bar-On(1997)的情緒技能多元能力的理論模型,把情緒技能概念 化為解難能力、自我實現、自主能力、壓力管理、適應能力及人際技能。而掌控情緒技能 者有以下的表現: 1. 解難能力:他們能根據客觀的外在線索觀察一個人的情緒和準確估計眼前的情況, 在不斷變化的情況下靈活改變一個人的情感和思想,並解決個人問題。 2. 自我實現:他們對未來有較多的計劃,做出較佳的準備,這有助他們創造新思維, 妥善轉移注意焦點,並能激發動機,達成自我實現。 3. 自主能力:他們能覺察自己內在的情緒感受,並能有效自主地利用情緒,而不被情 緒左右。 4. 壓力管理:他們具備處理激起的情緒的策略,並能因應內外的情緒壓力,維持身心 平衡,應付壓力和控制強烈情緒。 5. 適應能力:他們能在不斷變化的情況下靈活地改變個人的情感和思想。 6. 人際技能:他們能夠意識、了解和理解別人的感受,有效地管理他人情緒,以及與 他人建立和維持相互滿意的關係。 掌控情緒技能者能確認及界定問題,從而提出及實行有效的解決方法,亦能實現個人 潛能,爭取並享受完成自己喜歡的事情的能力。他們擁有獨立思考、自我約束行為及擺脫 情緒影響的能力,能主動正面應付逆境、壓力和緊張的環境。他們更能適切調節個人情緒、 思想及行為,以應付不斷轉變的環境或狀況,並能與其他人建立及維繫良好、親密和互相 關懷的關係。在現今的教育變革下,教師極需要掌握上述的情緒技能。既然學校組織的整 體情緒技能這麼重要,學校領導應設法營造一個情緒健康校園,讓教師在人本管理下發揮 其教學專業,實踐教育改革的精神。 要按上述情緒技能的內涵營造一個情緒健康校園,讓教師發揮情緒技能,學校領導可 以透過策略管理,減低教師的壓力(Ali Eissa & Khalifa, 2008)。策略管理涉及教與學、 人事、資源和外在環境的不同管理職能範疇,並需考慮學校組織的願景來規劃(Weindling, 220 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 1997)。有效運用策略管理以建立情緒健康校園,不但可以協助提高教師的情緒技能,還 可使學校更有效運用資源,以回應外在政策環境對教學工作的要求,促進學校組織的長遠 發展(James & Phillips, 1995)。學校領導者可從制定對應的學校政策,培植文化及個人領 導模式等協助教師發展情緒技能,建立情緒健康校園。 學校領導需要釐清政策措施的精神和教育環境的實況,方能對症下藥施行校本政策, 建立健康的工作文化,協作教師提高情緒技能處理壓力。例如校本管理政策強調權力下放, 讓教師參與決策,領導者則需要賦權教師,讓他們獨立自主工作(Cheng, 2008)。課程改 革提出了新的教學內容,當中涉及很多教學技術問題,學校領導倡導教學專業自主文化, 讓教師運用解難能力發展適切的教學法。此外,教師愈來愈需要在學習社羣下交流教學知 識,進行專業發展活動,因此,對教師而言,掌握人際關係技巧非常重要。本研究的理論 模型採用 Bar-On 的教師情緒技能理論,把教師情緒技能概念化為多元能力,當中包括自主 性、壓力承受、同儕關係、解難能力、適應力及自我實現。確立這多元的情緒技能架構將 有助學校領導針對不同方面施行策略管理。 丙、研究方法 本研究採用量化問卷調查法收集數據。情緒技能既然是一種能力,最適當的量度方法 是能力測試,形式與量度智力的智力測驗相似(Mayer, Salyovey & Caruso, 2002)。本研 究基於 Bar-On 設計的「情緒智商量表」,發展了一套工具用以測量教師情緒技能。 一、 研究工具 問卷共 13 項問題,分別測量工作壓力、獨立自主、人際關係、解難能力、靈活性和自 我實現。量表的內容是建基於 Bar-On 設計「情緒智商量表」而發展的。問卷以六分量表測 量受訪者對各項陳述的同意程度,範圍從 1(非常不同意)到 6(非常同意),而研究假定 這量表的區間尺度之間的程度是同等距的。 二、 研究取樣 本研究的對象是香港資助中學教師。香港共有 473 所中學,其中 90% 是資助學校,5% 221 是官立學校,剩下的 5% 是直資學校。這些學校都按照《教育條例》和《教育規例》受教 育局監管。本研究只選擇資助中學,因為它們是構成香港中學主要部分的同質性組群。受 訪教師從 40 所樣本資助中學(約佔資助中學學校總數的 5%)中抽取。因為整體受訪者數 量龐大並散佈在整個香港地域,樣本學校是通過整群抽樣選擇。組內的方差和組內變數之 間的差異越小,整群抽樣與分層抽樣相比就越好。一所學校是一個集群,集群的數量要與 所需樣本大小相等。每一樣本學校約有 50 名教師,當中再隨機抽取 30 名教師表示該群體。 這 40 所樣本學校是根據所在地區學校總數按照一定的比例取樣。從新界抽取了 20 所學校, 從九龍抽取了 10 所學校,從香港島抽取了其餘的 10 所學校。在這 40 所學校裡隨機抽取了 1,200 名教師,其中 958 人回覆了問卷。 三、 數據收集和分析 本研究以 Bar-On(1997)設計的量化問卷收集香港中學教師對上述變項的觀感。透過 他設計的「情緒智商量表」,將情緒技能量化為情緒商數。研究員使用 Lisrel 8.3 的軟件程 式,就所收集的數據檢測其因子結構和權重系數,藉以建立一個結構方程模型(Joreskog & Sorbom, 1999)。結構方程模型是一組統計技術,能夠檢測因子結構及變項之間的關係。 丁、研究結果 一、結構方程模型 以最大似然法完全標準化的結構和測量系數見圖一,各項指標的優度擬合指數見表 一。根據 Z 檢驗,模型中路徑系數在 0.05 水準上顯著。假設模型資料擬合良好。採用 LISREL 對 958 個被試分析的結果表明,全模型的卡方值不顯著,樣本為 958,χ2(52)= 56.20, p= 0.32。作為絕對擬合指數,卡方估計樣本協方差矩陣和基於假設模型的協方差矩 陣之間的差異。卡方值不顯著表明該模型資料可能具有較好的代表性。然而,運用卡方檢 驗進行估計受樣本大小的影響。當樣本較大時,樣本協方差矩陣和再生協方差之間即使差 異較小,也是顯著的。 相對擬合指數和基於殘差的指數是另外兩種類型的擬合指數,被廣泛用來補充卡方 估計。相對擬合指數包括比較擬合指數(CFI)、非範擬合指數(NNFI)、增值擬合指數 222 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 (IFI)。這些擬合指數通過比較假設模型和基準模型來衡量模型的擬合改進程度。基準模 型是一個獨立模型,其中所有的變數被假設為彼此不相關。這些指數的範圍在 0-1 之間, 值越大意味著模型擬合越好,它們至少大於 0.9 表明模型擬合較好。本研究中的相對擬合 指數是CFI = 1.00、NNFI = 1.00、IFI = 0.98。這一結果表明,樣本資料和假設模型擬合良好。 除了相對擬合指數外,也會用到基於殘差的指數。標準化殘差均方根衡量觀測變數和 潛變數協方差矩陣之間所有標準化殘差的均值。近似均方根誤差(RMSEA)估量由於模型 的誤定規格下沒有配置及定對自由度的差異提供測量(Browne & Cudeck, 1993),SRMR 的取值範圍是 0-1,RMSEA 沒有上限,值越小表明模型擬合越好,SRMR 小於或等於 0.08, RMSEA 小於或等於 0.06 表明模型擬合良好(Hu & Bentler, 1999)。在本研究中,SRMR = 0.019,而 RMSEA = 0.0092,這是一個非常嚴謹的模型,其中所有測量誤差之間的相關 都未釋放,那些擬合統計指數表明模型與資料擬合良好。表二顯示各因子的信度系數。所 有因子的信度系數均高於 0.6,反映問卷的設計具備信度。 圖一 結構模型的結果 情緒技能 解難能力 自我實現 自主能力 壓力管理 適應能力 人際關係 0.51 0.42 我嘗試盡量想出不同方法以應付突發事件。 我不會逃避面對的問題。 我以循序漸進的方式去解決問題。 我清楚我想在我的生命中做些什麼。 我知道如何發揮我自己的長處。 當我和別人一同工作,我有自己的主意。 我較為獨立工作。 我能處理困擾的問題。 我能夠應付惡劣的環境。 要改變對事物的看法是很容易的。 在日常生活中作出調適是容易的。 佔他人便宜會令我感到煩擾。 我認為遵守學校的現則是重要的。 0.48 0.52 0.450.78 0.88 0.72 0.82 0.55 0.62 0.77 0.67 0.76 0.98 0.62 0.63 0.71 0.94 223 表一 結構方程模型的擬合度指數 χ2 df p-value RMSEA SRMR CFI NNFI IFI 56.19 52 0.32093 0.0092 0.019 1.00 1.00 0.98 表二 各因子的信度系數 解難能力 自我實現 自主能力 壓力管理 適應能力 人際關係 信度系數 0.64 0.63 0.73 0.74 0.71 0.73 二、分析和討論 從上述的數據分析顯示,教師的情緒技能涵概解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力 管理、適應能力及人際關係。教師需要運用解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、 適應能力及人際關係的情緒技能應付每一天的教學工作。 解難能力是結構模型的第一個因子,它是確認及界定問題,從而提出及實行有效解決 方法的能力。掌握解難能力者會尋求解決問題的協作方案,不會傾向選擇迴避策略(Jordan & Troth, 2002)。教師每天會遇上各樣教學上的難題,例如有效處理日益嚴重的學習差異, 照顧有特殊學習需要的學生,改善學生無心向學及行為問題,聯絡家長商議有效管教子女 的方案等問題。若這些難題過多而又不能解決,教師很容易被情緒困擾,而採取迴避策略, 抽離於問題之外。掌控解難能力的教師能釐清所面對教學問題的本質,較能對症下藥解決 問題,不會被問題困擾而影響工作。故此,解難能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 自我實現是結構模型的第二個因子,它是實現個人潛能,爭取及享受完成自己喜歡事 情的能力(Mayer & Salovery, 1997)。掌握這種能力者能通過調動和指揮個人情緒來自 我激勵,令人生變得樂觀。在強調追求考試成績的教育制度下,學生個人成長的培育容易 被忽略,沒有毅力實現自己教學理念的教師很難享受在教學工作上喜悅。具備自我實現潛 能的教師則會清楚自己對教學和學生的要求,他們理解每個學生都是獨一無二的,不是每 個學生都能取得高分。他們在追求考試成績的框架下能做出較佳的心理準備來發展學生潛 能,當學生有進步了,教師會感到自己的工作是有意義和愉快的,產生滿足感。故此,自 我實現是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 224 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 自主能力是結構模型的第三個因子,它是個人獨立思考及擺脫情緒影響的能力。掌 握自主能力者能覺察自己內在的情緒感受,並能有效自主地利用情緒,而不被情緒左右 (Goleman, 1995)。教學工作的本質是專業的,涉及對教學情境的獨立思考及判斷,例如 處理不同學習風格及能力的學生的學習,在不同教學情境下施教的處理方式。教師需要運 用專業判斷及獨立思考落實新課程內容的教學,並了解面對不確定性所產生的憂慮情緒是 必然的,從而不會懼怕惶恐,亦不被情緒左右教學决定。故此,自主能力是教師情緒技能 的其中一個核心能力。 壓力管理是結構模型的第四個因子,它指主動及正面應付逆境、壓力和緊張環境的能 力(Jordan & Torth, 2002)。掌握這種能力者能處理困擾的問題及應付惡劣的環境。在不 斷追求質素的教育改革下,學校的改進工作持續不斷,教師的工作性質亦變得複雜,他們 所充積的怨氣和壓力亦增大,很容易被工作問題困擾。教師要在不斷變化的情況下靈活地 改變個人的情感和思想,方能以先後緩急處理問題及安排工作。掌握壓力管理技能者具備 處理激起的情緒的策略,能因應內外的情緒壓力,維持身心平衡,應付壓力和控制強烈情 緒。故此,壓力管理是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 適應能力是結構模型的第五個因子,它指適切調節個人情緒、思想及行為以應付不斷 轉變的環境或狀況的能力(Bar-On, 1997)。掌握適應能力者能容易改變對事物的看法, 並容易在日常生活中調適。新課程內容的廣度和深度都較舊課程大,加上學生的個別差異 較過往更大,面對這樣新的工作挑戰,欠缺適應能力的教師面對新課程的轉變,或會出現 較負面的情緒,而影響到日常的教學工作。掌握適應能力的教師能調節個人的情緒和行為, 以積極態度及新的工作模式,例如教學研究掌握新課程的內容和要求,並了解學生的學習 難點,用以施教。故此,適應能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 人際關係是結構模型的第六個因子,它指與別人建立及維繫良好、親密和互相關懷的 關係的能力(Abraham, 2005)。掌握這種能力者能有效管理他人的情緒,設身處地為他人 著想。在新課程的轉變下,學校越來越多跨科協作學習活動,不同科目的老師需要協作以 設計校本課程。良好的人際關係有利於教師溝通協作,減少衝突和壓力。掌握人際技能的 教師能了解他人的工作和體諒對方的難處,會以協商和溝通來開展工作。可見,人際技能 225 是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力(Lopes, Salovery, Cote & Beers, 2005)。 學校領導必須了解情緒技能對教育工作的影響,並作出適當的鼓勵,誘發教師的工作 動機,促使他們在教學工作中實現自我,身體力行提升自身的個人智能。領導者必須樂於 聆聽員工的意見,並負責輔導工作,以紓緩員工的個人壓力。教育領導除了管理學校預算 和課程發展事宜外,還要處理教師問題。領導者也應鼓勵員工用新的方式思考自己的工作, 或對新標準和新目標作出承擔。從各種角度考慮,領導者都應理解改革過程中員工的情緒, 理解之後才可能站在員工的角度思考問題,耐心對待他們,幫助他們度過轉變期。如果領 導者沒有預期這種情緒化的反饋,會認為員工很難相處或不合作,甚至可能為避免聽到更 多抱怨而停止傾聽。如果他們這樣想,轉變就會停止,改革成功更無從談起(McDowelle & Buckner, 2002)。 戊、總結 本研究以 Bar-On 的情緒技能理論作為討論基礎,透過實證數據確立了六項情緒技能, 包括解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、適應能力及人際關係。學校領導需要釐 清教育政策措施的精神和學校組織環境的實況,才能對症下藥施行校本政策,建立健康的 工作文化,協助教師提高情緒技能處理壓力。有效運用管理策略以建立情緒健康校園,不 但可以協助提高教師的情緒技能,還可使學校更有效運用資源以回應外在政策環境對教學 工作的要求,促進學校組織的長遠發展(James & Phillips, 1995)。研究者可考慮就這些管 理策略對促進上述六項情緒技能的成效進行研究,藉此建立一個情緒健康的校園,發展高 情緒技能的教師團隊,並且更有效面對教育改革方案帶來的挑戰。 226 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 參考文獻 Abraham, R. 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San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 228 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 優化學校行政的行動學習 An experience of a school using action learning as a strategy to enhance school administration 胡少偉 香港初等教育研究學會 徐國棟 香港教育學院 曹潔芬 香港教育學院賽馬會小學 摘要 在推行教育改革的環境中,學校改善是一個經常被討論的課題;本文旨在分享一所學校優 化行政的歷程。這所學校因應「外評報告」的建議,制定了提昇中層人員為發展策略之一; 該校透過參與香港初等教育研究學會主辦的「優化小學學校行政」計劃,引入專業支援,進 行適切的校本培訓及以行動學習方法去檢視學校的行政和溝通。小組同工在過程中以改善 校務的學習心態,提高了對學校的歸屬感和得到專業成長。本文以敘事方式去回顧這個行 動學習的經歷,並透過整理相關文獻、計劃資料和深度訪談,讓讀者了解個案的實踐知識。 關鍵詞 香港小學教育,行動學習,學校改善 229 Abstract School improvement is one of the heated themes frequently discussed in the current educational reform context. This paper shares the experience of a school using action learning as a strategy to enhance school administration. Based on the recommendations stated in the External School Review report, this primary school decided to strengthen the capacity of its middle-management as one of the school development strategies. In order to bring in professional support and expertise, the school joined the “Enhancing the school administration of primary school” organized by the HKPERA. It provided the school participants with relevant school-based training to conduct an action learning project on reviewing the school administration and communication. The school participants were eager to learn throughout the action learning process. Upon the completion of this project, the school participants gained improvements in both professional growth and a sense of belonging. This paper used the narrative inquiry approach in reviewing the experience and knowledge gathered by the school practising the action learning project. Keywords Hong Kong primary school, action learning, school improvement 個案學校的背景 在全球一體化的情況下,各地都不約而同推行教育改革以提昇學校教育質素,從而促 進學生的成長和發展;在這個教育變革的大環境中,學校的發展和改善是落實教育改革中 一個經常被討論和分析的環節。在本土學校發展與改善的文獻中,李榮安、麥肖玲(2005) 曾指出「校本改革,不論是內容或過程,都很複雜,包括面對起動的困難、千絲萬縷的人 事互動及資源的制肘等,一經理論化或以簡圖代表,便容易流於空論,以致失去其應有的 意義。實踐的質素是優是劣,成效如何,關鍵在於當事人的不言而喻的知識及當時的取 捨」。這說明了校本需要是學校發展的關鍵因素;故此,一所學校若要在教育改革中得到 更好的發展,校內同工便要先分析學校情境,思考發展策略,再落實改善措施。 230 優化學校行政的行動學習 香港教育學院賽馬會小學於 2002 年 9 月成立,是全港第一所附設於高等院校的全日制 資助小學,本著「共享學教喜悅,盡展赤子潛能」的理念,促進師生的發展和成長。學校 至 2006 學年時,只有三位主任負責大部份的學校行政工作;在這情況下,雖然該校校長已 把一些行政工作交由有潛質的教師分擔,但中層管理架構發展仍未成熟。故教育統籌局質 素保證分部於 2007 年度的該校外評報告中,建議該校要:「加速培訓中層管理人員,強化 中層管理架構,並認為這是值得學校優先發展的」。學校於 2008 年開始向外招聘具中層經 驗同工加入管理團隊,並明確指出學校發展策略是提昇中層人員的能力;可見,該校領導 層在當時是知悉校內中層人員能力有待提高的需要。正如資深校長甘艷梅(2005)指出: 在教育改革中「學校不應被牽著鼻子走,校長應認識環境轉變,考慮校本以配合改革,不 斷反思,為學校改革定下優先次序」;看來,該校制定提昇中層人員為發展策略之一是合 乎校情的。 「在推展各項教育改革的同時,教育局及不少機構均設立支援項目,在各學科、單項 層面支援學校,如語文科、通識教育科、校長領導、同儕參與、校外評核等,給予學校外 來動力及資源,紓緩各改革項目所帶來的壓力,協助學校發展工作」(趙志成、麥君榮, 2011,頁 43)。香港初等教育研究學會作為一個教師專業團體,於 2009-2010 年得到優質 教育基金撥款,主辦「優化小學的學校行政」計劃,分兩期向 17 間小學提供專業支援;香 港教育學院賽馬會小學是該計劃第二期的其中一所參與小學。該校同工經商討後決定參加 這個計劃,目的是透過引入校外專業支援,促進校內中層人員管理能力的提昇和優化學校 行政架構。為了分享這個優化學校行政的個案經驗,筆者三人以敘事形式來回顧這個行動 學習的經歷。正如學者指出,這種「分享故事幫助教師以新的方式認識自己的經歷;因為 在分享的時候,教師必須對發生了什麼有所理解」(張濤譯,2007,頁 176)。筆者三人 冀透過整理相關文獻、計劃資料和深度訪談,可讓讀者了解這個行動學習個案的實踐知識。 引入外界資源促進學校發展 在香港,近年有不少學者就大學支援學校發展的專業活動寫成學術文章,其中梁歆、 黃顯華(2010,頁 122)指出「學校改進的最終目的就是,當外部的支援人員撤離學校 後,學校仍舊能夠利用自身的力量進行持續變革」。與此同時,張素貞、吳俊憲(2012, 231 頁 25)的研究則發現「轉型團隊要持續發展,光是依靠校內原有的教學資源是不夠的,一 方面有新進教師的加入可以注入新血,另方面則需要與大學教授建立專業夥伴合作關係。 這是因為大學教授可以提供專業和理論建議,幫助教師拉近理論與實務的鴻溝」。上述這 兩篇文章肯定了大學學者與前線學校人員的合作,可有效地促進學校發展和教師的專業成 長。這個「優化小學的學校行政」計劃,由香港初等教育研究學會內的師訓學者和資深校 長合作,為參與計劃的小學提供多樣化的專業培訓服務,支援前線教師面對急劇轉變的教 育環境,進行適切的情境分析再去優化學校的行政工作。 表一 架構重整與中層人員職責的培訓課程 日期 課題 主講 1 月 9 日 中層人員的角色與成長 香港教育學院教育政策與領導學系 余煊博士 聖公會油塘基顯小學 李少鶴校長 1 月 16 日 重整學校架構的功能 香港教育學院國際教育與終身學習學系 胡少偉博士 李志達紀念學校 胡鳳群校長 香港教育學院賽馬會小學是這個計劃第二期參與學校之一,是期的系統培訓課程主題 為「架構重整與中層人員職責」,於 2010 年舉行的課題內容和安排見上表一;期間,該 校校長帶領課程發展主任及四位中層人員一同參與相關培訓,對中層人員成長和學校架構 重整的相關理論和實踐經驗都有一個共同的學習。而為了深入了解參與計劃學校的校本需 要,計劃籌委會派出專家於 2009 年 11月 24 日到訪學校,與參與計劃的學員進行校本診斷, 共同設計兩個培訓課題和行動學習的題目;商議後,該校確定行動學習是設計一個適合校 情的行政架構,以提升學校的行政效能。同時,雙方並確定第一個校本培訓的主題為「專 業發展與學校發展」,讓全校教師可一起思考和討論學校情境和了解教師專業發展與學校 發展的關係;第二個培訓對象則針對中層人員,以「團隊領導」為題,讓校內中層人員反 思團隊領袖的角色與掌握中層人員的技巧。與此同時,參與計劃的幾位學校同工亦於 2010 232 優化學校行政的行動學習 年 3 月及 4 月參觀計劃籌委會安排的兩所小學,以了解友校優化學校行政架構的經驗。 校本培訓的學習 內地學者張爽(2006)指出「在以往的教育改革過程中,學校往往是改革的對象,由 政府提出目標和要求自上而下地進行調整與改革,忽視學校的傳統、現實情況及具體存在 的問題」;參考了相關學者的建議,香港初等教育研究學會的校本培訓重視全校同工的參 與,該校教師參與於 4 月舉行校本培訓,主題是分析學校情境,內容包括全校教師共同評 估學校的優勢、弱點、機會及威脅;通過校本教師工作坊,校內大部份教師對學校發展方 向形成一致的看法。這體現了教育局質素保證分部(2010)的觀察,「大部份學校採用集 體議事方式,能夠安排會議讓教師及專責人員等檢討校情,商議關注事項措施」(頁 4)。 再者,該校很多同工在培訓中分享了自己對學校的觀感,並認同學校有檢討行政架構的需 要;這有利於學校推展優化學校行政的行動學習。 「在這個校本管理和民主化的年代,在世界各地包括香港皆有迫切需要,去讓校長 及準領袖反思有關課程領導與管理的方法,尤其是去鼓勵同工有更強的團隊精神」(Lee, Dimmock & Au Yeung, 2009, p.25)。因應國際校本管理和課程發展的趨勢,提昇中層對建 立團隊的認識和領導力的培育,逐漸被香港小學管理層的關注。在校本中層人員培訓中, 培訓者聚焦於讓中層人員明白團隊發展的階段和認識不同角色在團隊的重要性。正如學者 余煊(2010,頁 39)指出「團隊是由幾位到十幾位獨立的個人而組成,要凝聚這批人成為 一個團隊,首先要有一個清晰的共同目標;而為了有效達成這個團隊的目標,過程中成員 需互相溝通、承擔和付出,以爭取團隊所期望的較大成果」。透過這個校本「團隊領導」 的培訓,該校的中層人員得到充份的溝通和互相理解,從而增強了帶領團隊的信心和對學 校的凝聚力。受訓中層在評估中寫下了自己的學習成果: - 知道自己在團隊中的角色及有效的領導方法; - 加深自己對團隊領導的了解,及有助自己面對挑戰; - 啟發「衝突」在團隊的作用; - 提高了於監管方面的意識。 233 優化溝通和清晰架構 聖公會油塘基顯小學李少鶴校長與我們分享重整學校行政架構的經驗,學校 因應學校環境的變遷及教育改革曾進行了五次重整學校行政架構,並為我們說明 每次重整學校行政架構的誘因及模式。參與是次友校參觀及交流,讓我有機會體 驗重整學校行政架構的需要、認識重整學校架構的不同方法及模式、評估重整學 校架構時可能遇到的阻力及可行的應變方法。 (甲同工於友校參觀後的分享) 因應香港小學學位教師職系的建立,大部份小學在過去十多年來都有新增的中層人員; 有些小學只安排晉升中層人員負責新增的學校工作,有些學校則因應校情不時檢視和重組 學校行政架構。正如學者高洪源(2007)分析「對學校裡常規組織和基層組織的戰略管理 包括兩種情況,一種是從學校戰略規則的任務變更和流程重組出發,改變學校常規組織結 構。另一種是不改變原有組織結構,大力調整常規組織簡單、被動的執行職能,通過制度 和任務的局部變化強化戰略職能」(頁 154)。藉這個優化學校行政的行動學習,該校行 動學習小組一起檢視當時的學校行政架構,並逐一檢視各中層人員的職責。上述一段分享 則是該校同工在參觀友校的分享,從這段分享內看到同工理解到重整學校架構的必要性。 在這個「優化學校行政」行動學習過程中,該校行動學習小組成員在全面檢視當年行政架 構後,提出要將文化教育藝術組從非學術範疇編入課程發展組之內,這安排有利各科以滲 透模式去提供文化藝術,讓學生在學科和課外活動中皆可接觸到文化藝術的教育;其餘各 組的職能雖然沒有大的變動,但在檢討行政架構的過程,各小組負責人可了解同工對自己 領導科組的期望和確認校內各組的分工,這有助校內中層團隊的協作。 「大多數績效改進計劃都伴隨在結構和系統方面的重大變革。在這些公司的經驗中有 一個共同的主題,這就是強調跨職能的工作團隊;這些團隊的跨職能性有助於增加過程意 識和對於變革活動的主人翁精神」(Dutta, S. & Manzoni, J. F. 著,焦叔斌等譯,2001,頁 9)。在這次學校行政架構的檢視中,校內訊息溝通的流動性亦是行動學習小組的一個焦點; 正如該校向籌委會提交的行動學習報告內指出,校內不少同工認為「只有由上而下又或者 由下而上,都未能全面照顧全體老師的需要;校內縱向及橫向的溝通必須互動的」(曹潔 234 優化學校行政的行動學習 芬等,2012,頁 12)。因應同工要求學校要全方位溝通,該校即時加強有助橫向溝通的級 本會議。為了進一步驗證學校資料,研究員在閱覽該校的行動學習報告後,再與負責同工 進行了聚焦訪談,以三角檢定方法去核實該校報告所述的成效。期間雖然事隔多時,該負 責同工仍記憶猶新地指出當時很多基層教師均認同加強級會的安排;級本會議每月舉行一 次,由該級幾位班主任、所有相關科任和級主任組成。負責同工下文的分享證明了重視級 會的安排,加速了各級教師團隊對優化教學的決策;而級會也可使各成員了解級內各班學 生的概況,如遇個別學生在家庭背景或學習有異常者,也可藉這個級會讓相關教師掌握最 新和準確的資訊。 當級會與班主任一起談時,其實級主任更加清晰每一班的情況。例如我們推行 ,原來同一班內不同科的老師在推行小班的一些口號或有不同,經過級會 幾位主任確實同樣的口號後,對學生的適應較好。如果我們沒有這級會的話,就 會未能找出問題,改善就一定會較慢。 (負責同工聚焦訪談的分享) 學校變革與中層人員成長 很多學者指出,組織或機構的體制轉型中,最深層的變革是要達至人的改變或人 的價值觀的改變,制度的變革若缺乏了人的變革是不能持久的。教師是教育改革 的關鍵人物,任何教育改革最終都要依靠教師才能得以施行。 (乙同工在參與計劃期間的讀後感) 該校行動學習小組在報告內指出「對於任何改變,我們大都喜歡抱着盡量維持現狀的 態度,要使全校老師對着改變能抱有正面的態度也不是容易,欠缺安全感的心理包伏和不 穩定的未來挑戰等,使大家帶着戰戰競競的心情去面對重整架構」(曹潔芬等,2012,頁 12)。這段分享充份體現了小組成員理解基礎同工面對變革的憂慮;而這次行動學習成功 的因素之一,是在檢討行政架構中明確為學校來年的架構提供一個優化方案。正如張練成 (2008,頁 68)指出「當我們能把注意力放在變革為我們帶來新的機會上時,再集中注意 到我們可做的事時,我們便比較容易產生正面的自語,這有助我們去集中思索我們能夠做 235 的事」。而正如上文該校行動學習的一位成員,在香港初等教育研究學會安排的友校參觀 後,深深地理解到同工價值改變是最重要的;在這個學校變革的過程中,該校行動學習小 組關顧基層教師的心理需要,使大部份教師明白要共同面對變革的,並樂於接受和支持新 學期行政架構的變動。 是次優化學校行政的行動學習歷程中,其中一個成果是該校中層人員的成長。下文是 負責同工回顧經驗淺的中層人員在培訓中得到成長。透過共同參與工作坊的學習,該校中 層更深入地了解自己的角色和領導團隊的技巧,過程中亦了解到跨科組溝通的重要性;在 檢討和建立新的行政架構的過程中,提高了彼此之間的互信和合作,從而增強了學校中層 的歸屬感和協作精神。台灣學者蔡進雄(2011,頁 74)曾指出「分散式領導認為領導應該 是分散給每一個人,並非單一領導者的概念」;校內中層人員對自己作為一個領導者的覺 醒,使他們在不知不覺間承擔了一個團隊領導的職責,讓學校也成為了一個分散式領導的 團隊。 有時對於自己是否中層,有個別同事會有點混亂及不太肯定,透過這類的工作 坊,是讓中層知道自己的角色,從而令到對自己的責任釐清。在工作坊亦提及到 中層應該做那方面工作、怎樣監察,能讓同事知道這對工作會更順暢。 (負責同工聚焦訪談的分享) 行動學習的反思與啟示 「學校組織再造是指對學校教育過程的徹底再思考,及根本性巨幅再設計以促成學校 績效的巨大改善」(洪祥編著,2005,頁 124)。相對這個定義,香港教育學院賽馬會小 學在 2010 年所進行的「優化學校行政的行動學習」,並沒有產生一個巨幅變動的行政架 構,而只是一個小修改的新行政架構;正如學者所言這個行動學習是一個「以鼓勵實務工 作者探究自己的工作實務和分享結果與心得為宗旨的研究工作,這研究工作的目的是想協 助人們感覺自己的實務工作,和對自己的學習歷程負責」(McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. 著, 朱仲謀譯,2004,頁 68)。該校同工為了提高中層人員的能力參與外間專業計劃,除了系 統課程和校本培訓之外,亦有透過友校參觀和行動學習去提高中層人員的能力;在過程中 236 優化學校行政的行動學習 使校內同工亦增加了中層人員領導力的認知及提出了一個優化學校行政的建議。正如其中 一位負責同工所分享參與這個計劃縮短了新舊中層人員的磨合,集結了推動學校發展的能 量,從而得到一個不俗的學習成果。 如不參與此計劃或校長沒有提議我們去參與的話,可能主任之間確實需要一個磨 合期;參與了這計劃,加速了整個行政會的凝聚,因為要完成行動學習,集結所 有的能量,希望處理得好,並延伸至下一年。 (負責同工聚焦訪談的分享) 不少相關文獻顯示校本發展計劃會遇上一些困難和問題,香港教育學院賽馬會小學這 個「重整架構提昇學校效能」計劃也遇上不少的困難,正如該校行動學習小組在其報告 《2009-1010 年度「優化小學的學校行政」計劃》內,提及在行動學習過程中小組曾面對 的困難包括:團隊建立、匯聚人才、轉變溝通模式、調節面對改變的心理和提昇反思能力 等。而在前膽計劃的預期困難時,該校行動學習小組報告內指出未來的監察工作是不容忽 視的(見下文);當中,並提出這是對中層人員有一定的專業要求。也就是說,假若沒有 中層人員在來年監察能力的提高,新的行政和溝通架構未必可以對學校發展產生應有的成 效。而從這段行動學習的預估中,可看到這個小組是掌握從行動中學習及在反思中規劃未 來行動的能力。 要使新的行政和溝通架構順利運作,監察的エ作是不容忽視的,中層老師的角色 起着非常重要的作用,他們一方面了解前線老師的推行情況,另一方面要監察新 架構的實施,這對中層老師有一定的專業要求。 (曹潔芬等,2011,頁 13) Fischer & Hamer(2010,頁 16)總結學校改革計劃時指出「當教師和行政人員能以一 個成熟的合作者參與訂定自己專業發展計劃時,學校便有教育質素、持續重整和改革努力 的產生」。從上文顯示,這個行動學習個案能促進該校中層人員重視自己專業的成長;「透 過行動研究的學習,中層人員可反思自己選擇課題的行動過程及其所產生的實踐智慧」(胡 少偉、余煊、陳湛明,2010,頁 35)。這個個案有成功之處,其經驗可歸納為一所學校要 237 得到改善,便要作一個適切的校情分析,檢視現有行政架構,看一看學校的溝通可否有改 善之處;而在這個校本變革的過程中,因引入適切的外力,使同工抱著以改善校務的學習 心態,在透過校本培訓和行動學習去檢討學校行政架構。在這個案中,新的行政架構雖然 變動不大,但過程中中層人員提高了學校的歸屬感和得到專業的成長,故值得關注學校發 展的前線同工參考。最後,由於這篇行動學習分享文章是以說故事形式撰寫,行文手法與 一般學術文章的習慣不同,焦點也不在於應用相關學理,而是向讀者介紹個案的經驗;再 者,因幾位合著者包括了來自培訓計劃和學校同工,故當中存有一定的主觀性,讀者參考 此文時亦要注意相關的限制。 參考文獻 甘艷梅(2005)。〈從創造條件到效果評估:改革實踐的全盤考慮〉。載李榮安、麥肖玲、 黃炳文(編),《香港校本改革──前線的探索》(頁 95-110)。香港,教育出版社 有限公司。 余煊(2010)。〈建立團隊與團隊領導〉。載胡少偉、余煊(編),《小學中層人員學習指 引》(頁 38-45)。香港:香港初等教育研究學會。 李榮安、麥肖玲(2005)。〈香港校本改革的建構:前線的智慧〉。載李榮安、麥肖玲和黃 炳文(編),《香港校本改革:前線的探索》(頁 1-13)。香港,教育出版社有限公司。 洪祥編著(2005)。《教育行政》。台北:鼎茂圖書出版股份有限公司。 胡少偉、余煊、陳湛明(2010)。〈培訓中層人員領導的一個經驗〉。《優質學校教育學報》, 第 6 卷,31-39。 高洪源(2007)。《學校戰略管理》。重慶:重慶大學出版社。 張素貞、吳俊憲(2012)。〈大學與學校專業夥伴合作之個案研究──以專業學習社群為焦 點〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》,第 8 卷 1 期,1-30。 張爽(2006)。〈重新認識學校、推進學校改進〉。《中國教育學刊》,第 8 卷,22-24。 張練成(2008)。〈淺談變革管理〉。載余煊(編),《學校的領導與變革:中層人員的挑 戰》(頁 62-74)。香港:中華基督教會香港區會。 教育局質素保證分部(2010)。《視學周年報告 2009/10》。2012 年 5 月 8 日,取自 http:// www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annual_report0910_c.pdf。 曹潔芬等(2011)。〈重整架構提升學校效能〉。載《2009-2010年度「優化小學的學校行政」 計劃》。香港:香港教育學院賽馬會小學。 238 優化學校行政的行動學習 梁歆、黃顯華(2010)。〈大學與學校協作下學校發展主任的理念、策略與角色:香港優質 學校改進計劃的個案研究〉。《教育研究集刊》,第 1 卷 56 期,99-126。 趙志成、麥君榮(2011)。〈「優質學校改進計劃」在香港教育改革下的作用:學校領導的 視角〉。《教育學報》,第 39 卷 1-2 期,39-65。 蔡進雄(2011)。〈論分散式領導在學校領導的實踐與省思〉。《教育研究月刊》,第 2 卷, 64-76。 Dutta, S. & Manzoni, J. F. (2009)。《工商管理經典譯叢.管理案例系統 過程再造、組織變 革與績效改進》,焦叔斌等(譯)。北京:中國人民大學出版社。 Fischer, J. & Hamer, L. (2010): Professional Development and School Restructuring: Mutual Processes of Reform. Middle School Journal, (41), 12-17. Jalonge, M. R., & Iseaberg, J. P. (2007)。《是什麼讓教師不斷進步──教師故事啟示錄》,張 濤(譯)。北京:中國青年出版社。 Lee, J. C. K., Dimmock, C., & Au Yeung, T. Y. (2009). Who really leads and manages the curriculum in primary schools? A Hong Kong case-study. The Curriculum Journal, (1), 3-26. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2004)。《行動研究:原理與實作》,朱仲謀(譯)。台北:五南 圖書出版股份有限公司。 Park, V., & Datnow, A. (2008). Collaborative Assistance in a Highly Prescribed School Reform Model: The Case of Success for All. Peabody Journal of Education, (83), 400-422. 239 徵集論文 我們歡迎教育界同工投稿,內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主,課題可包括: • 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創意教學 • 家長教育 • 校本教職員培訓,包括教師入職培訓及輔導 • 校本管理 • 學生支援及學校風氣,包括輔導及諮詢 • 學生培訓 • 教育改革評議 • 比較教育 • 高等教育 • 幼兒教育 • 特殊教育 • 美術教育 • 音樂教育 • 教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: • Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation • Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy • Creative teaching • Parent education • School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring • School-based management • Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling • Student development • Critique on education reform • Comparative education • Higher education • Early childhood education • Special education • Fine arts education • Music education • History of education 稿 例(修訂於 2012 年 12 月) (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在 A4 紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法(如郵寄地址、電話、電郵) 請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者,作者應保留一份原稿,以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附中、英文題目,中、英文摘要(中文以 200 字為限,英文則約 150 字),以及中、英文關 鍵詞 3 至 5 個。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審,需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件,當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予 修改或請作者自行修改,或不予採用。稿件一經定稿,請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負,其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註,請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》(2006 年,第 6 版)指引。中文格 式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。稿件及有關通訊請送交:香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍 塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室香港教師中心《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。(電郵: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有,非得許可,不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間,不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2012) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Language can be in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 3,500 to 7,000 words. 3. All articles should be accompanied with an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (around 150 words), a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words) and 3 to 5 keywords in English and Chinese. 4. All submissions will go through the anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the articles submitted. Once the final version of the articles has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadline for submission of articles is January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this Journal shall not be submitted to another journals for review or publication. 徵募審稿員 我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工,請以 電郵(info@hktc.edb.gov.hk)或傳真(2565 0741)提交下列資料,以供聯絡。如有任何查詢, 歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。 姓名: 任職學校/機構: 聯絡電話: 電郵地址: 興趣範圍: Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: (博士/先生/女士) (Dr / Mr / Ms)
Category: DocumentsC M Y CM MY CY CMY K 8071_hkTecher_cover_1112_op.pdf 1 11/12/13 下午6:50 i 香港教師中心 香港教師中心(教師中心)是根據 1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建 議而於 1989年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培 訓,並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境,使他們更能團結一致, 發揮專業精神。此外,教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會,推動課 程發展,鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法,協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念,並 配合教師興趣,組織各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設,也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會(諮管會)、一個常務委員會(常 委會)和六個工作小組,負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72名委員組 成,其中 35位由教育團體提名及選出,35位由教師提名及選出,另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構,與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任,其他成員包括 10位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員,以及兩位教育局代表。 各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作,包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動 小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。 教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內,交通便捷,毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站,另有 多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備,內有電腦服務、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩 區及專題展板等。同時,教育局九龍塘教育服務中心設有演講廳和多用途會議室,供教 師中心舉辦各類會議、講座及工作坊等活動。歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。 詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁:www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub- committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corner, resting area and display-boards, etc. Moreover, multi-purpose meeting rooms and conference rooms for organising seminars, workshops and meetings are available at the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please visit our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物, 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校,而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁(www.edb.gov.hk/hktc) 閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團(Board of Advisors) Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁 鋼 華東師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 李榮安 新加坡國立教育學院 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 iii 張國華 香港公開大學 梁湘明 香港中文大學 莫家豪 香港教育學院 陳建強 香港城市大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 葉蔭榮 教育局 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡江大學 鄧廣威 香港公開大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 顧明遠 北京師範大學 編輯委員會(Editorial Committee) 主編(Chief Editor) 簡加言 路德會西門英才中學 副主編(Vice-chief Editors) 胡少偉 香港教育學院 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 趙淑媚 香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學 委員(Members) 何景安 香港學科教育研究學會 李子建 香港教育學院 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 李宏峯 保良局羅傑承(一九八三)中學 梁兆棠 香港資助小學校長會 郭禮賢 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 葉建源 香港教育專業人員協會 雷其昌 羅定邦中學 iv v 主編序 《香港教師中心學報》是一份教育研究及教師專業教學的分享刊物。過去得到很多 學者及教師的支持,使學報能順利出版,今期也不例外。本期主題「新高中學制 ─ 學生 發展、教師發展、學校發展」,同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供寶貴的研究及分享文章, 連同特邀稿文,本期共選刊了十二篇。 經評審後,第一部分共收錄了六篇專題文章,內容包括:2012年香港中學文憑通識 教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序、新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核、新 高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究、通識教育科的現況及前瞻、新高中視覺藝術科考評 制度對課程潛在的影響、應用學習之反思與檢討。內容非常豐富,這些研究都是從資料 數據及課程實踐中得到的經驗分享,且特別針對過去實施了新高中課程後的檢視與反思, 實在很值得同行參考及研究。 第二部分是關於理論及政策評論,共有三篇文章,內容包括:測試分數可信程度研 究、臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究、新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革。這部分的內容看 來硬資料較多,但寶貴的是從不同角度看基礎教育正是我們要研究的範圍。香港正在研 究十五年免費教育的課題,對學前教育的探討同樣是香港教育制度的熱門課題,這部分 的研究對一直關注學前教育的前線工作者尤為寶貴。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享,共有三篇文章。內容包括:教師對通識教育科文 憑試與高階思維能力培育關係認知的探求、在香港推行國民教育的討論、教師如何在校 本課程中引入口述歷史教學。這部分是前線教師的實踐分享,一直都很受教師歡迎,因 為教學講的是實戰,是具體操作,並檢視成效。因此,很受教師歡迎。 最後,要衷心感謝為學報擔任評審的專家們。學報能順利出版,評審員的功勞不可 少,我在這兒非常感謝尹紹賢先生、何世昌先生、何景安先生、李子建教授、李宏峯先生、 李偉雄先生、李國毅先生、周蘿茜女士、侯傑泰教授、胡少偉博士、胡志偉博士、英汝 興教授、袁達榮先生、曹錫光博士、梁兆棠先生、梁志鏘博士、梁炳華博士、梁偉傑先生、 梁雪梅女士、郭禮賢博士、黃素蘭博士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博士、葉建源先生、雷其 昌先生、趙淑媚博士、盧兆興教授、戴繼志先生、魏國珍女士、羅天佑博士及羅慧燕博士。 我謹代表學報編輯委員會表達我們真誠的謝意。 《香港教師中心學報》主編 簡加言 二零一三年十二月 目錄 Contents 一、主題:新高中學制-學生發展、教師發展、學校發展 1. Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination ......................................................... 1 FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze 2. Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong ...................... 21 S Y MAK Barley 3. Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study....................................... 49 YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man 4. 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 ............................................................................. 89 林德成、李子建 5. 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 ............................................... 101 陳國棟 6. 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 ........................................................................... 115 梁亦華 二、理論及政策評論 1. How much can we trust test scores? ...................................................................... 131 Kay Cheng SOH v 2. 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 ............................................................... 151 何慧群、永井正武 3. 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 ........................................................................... 169 胡少偉 三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. An inquiry of teachers’perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong ............ 183 LEUNG Lai Sim 2. 也要還國民教育一個公道 ................................................................................... 217 倪紹強 3. 在教學法與社會實踐之間: ..................................................................................... 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? ................................................... 223 朱耀光 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Abstract Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. Standards-referenced reporting (SRR) is adopted to report candidate performance, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5). Some LS teachers expressed doubts after the announcement of the grading results of the 2012 HKDSE LS subject. To address these concerns, this paper aims at reviewing the essence of marking and grading procedures for the 2012 HKDSE LS Examination. It is expected that the public could have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority after having a clear and overall picture about the whole procedure. Keywords Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination, Liberal Studies, standards- referenced reporting, marking and grading 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. In the HKDSE Examination, every subject adopts standards-referenced reporting (SRR) to report candidates’ assessment results. In SRR, candidates’ assessment results are reported, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5) with reference to explicit and fixed standards of performance stipulated as a set of level descriptors for a given subject. SRR has been adopted in Chinese Language and English Language of the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) since 2007. Some LS teachers raised concerns after the announcement of the LS grading results in the 2012 HKDSE Examination. One of the controversial points is that 2 the percentage of LS candidates obtaining Level 2 or above amounts to some 90%, which may seem to be “unreasonably” high. In this regard, this paper aims at explaining the essence of marking and grading procedures of LS. It is expected that the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority after having knowledge about the marking and grading procedures. In the following, the relevant marking and grading procedures of LS, and the related research studies and results will be highlighted. First, the LS assessment framework will be outlined. Secondly, marking arrangement for examination papers of LS will be mentioned; especially on the measures ensuring the reliability and validity in the marking process. Thirdly, moderation process of school raw marks on SBA will be studied, which aims at ensuring fairness and across-school comparability. After discussing marking process of exam papers and moderation process of SBA raw marks, the grading process, which is an essential part to determine the cut scores for various performance levels, will be examined. 2. Assessment framework of LS There are two components in the assessment of LS, namely: (i) Public Examination, and (ii) School-based Assessment. In the component of Public Examination, there are two papers – Paper 1 and Paper 2. The Public Examination component amounts to 80% of the total (Paper 1: 50% and Paper 2: 30%), and the SBA component amounts to the rest, that is 20%. Paper 1 consists of data-response questions, all of which have to be answered. Data- response questions aim to assess abilities such as identification, application and analysis of given data. The data define the scope and reflect the complexity or controversial nature of the issues involved; and such kind of questions also reflects the cross-modular nature of the curriculum. Paper 2 consists of three extended-response questions. Candidates are required to answer one question only. Extended-response questions with data as stimulus information provide a wider context for candidates to demonstrate various high-order skills, such as drawing critically on relevant experience, creative thinking, and communicating in a systematic manner. In addition to attending the public examination, each candidate of LS is required to complete an Independent Enquiry Study (IES) on a selected social issue, which is adopted as the mode of SBA in LS. The IES extends over a certain period of time and requires students to demonstrate various skills, such as data gathering, and analysis and presentation of findings. The IES is divided into three stages. The first is a preparatory 3 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination stage during which a candidate formulates the project title, specifies the objectives, considers suitable method(s), decides on the mode of presentation, plans for the enquiry and collects feedback from his/her classmates on the project plan. The second stage mainly involves data collection and organization. The third stage is the completion of the product which includes analysis and evaluation of data, conclusions on the results of the enquiry and a reflection on the enquiry process. 3. Marking arrangement 3.1 Marker training The HKDSE LS examination consists of open-ended questions focusing on the enquiry of current social issues in accordance with the nature of the subject. There was a worry that the number of qualified markers may not be sufficient for the subject, as LS is a new core subject for all candidates of HKDSE Examination. Therefore, the Authority conducted three rounds of marker training sessions in the year 2010-2011. During the first round (from October to December 2010), a total of 10 sessions were completed, and 569 teachers participated. The second round comprising 9 sessions, was conducted from January to February 2011 and 538 teachers participated. The third round was between June and October 2011 and 594 teachers participated in 9 training sessions. Each training session comprised a 3-hour markers’ meeting and post-meeting individual marking at the Assessment Centre. The training aimed to: • allow teachers to experience the marking process, including the markers’ meeting and the marking standardization process; • provide opportunities for teachers to better understand the marking criteria and the standards of HKDSE LS; • prepare teachers to be HKDSE LS markers and Assistant Examiners (AEs); • familiarise teachers with the Onscreen Marking (OSM) system; • collect marking statistics of teacher participants to facilitate the selection of markers for the live examination. During the markers’ meeting, participants were briefed of the marking criteria, standards and marking guidelines, illustrated by authentic performance in the sample scripts. Participants trial-marked some sample scripts. The scripts were then discussed in group meetings led by AEs who were experienced LS markers. Through the group discussions, with group size kept at 15 at most, participants aligned their marking standards and further clarified the marking criteria. After the markers’ meeting, participants marked 15 scripts of Papers 1 and 2 respectively on their own at the Assessment Centre. The marks of these scripts had been standardised by experienced markers in a previous exercise. Marking statistics, comparing 4 the characteristics of marks awarded by participants with that by experienced markers, were computed and sent back to participants as feedback. Marking statistics on the following aspects were discerned. • Mean of Mark Discrepancies: This is the average of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers. • Standard Deviation of Mark Discrepancies: This is the variation of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers reflecting the marking consistency; i.e., the lower the figure, the higher the consistency of marking performance. • Difference between the Mark Range of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This shows the degree of discrimination relative to that of experienced markers. • Correlation between Marks of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This indicates the degree of agreement between the marks awarded by the participant and those awarded by experienced markers, in terms of the rank order. In the first round, amongst the 569 participants (681 enrolled) of the training, 383 joined the individual marking after the markers’ meeting. In the second round, out of the 538 participants (606 enrolled), 394 joined the individual marking. During the last round of training, 542 out of the 594 participants (660 enrolled) completed the individual marking. Therefore, a total of 1,319 teachers participated in both the markers’ meeting and individual marking. The following tables show the overall picture of marking statistics for the participants of individual marking in different rounds: Table 1a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 1) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 1.83 1.93 1.91 1.89 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.36 2.39 2.40 2.39 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers -0.37 -0.46 -0.42 -0.42 Correlation between marks of the participant and that of experienced markers 0.84 0.84 0.81 0.83 5 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination Table 1b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 1) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies between 4 marks and -4 marks(a) 97.65 96.95 97.35 97.32 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies less than 2 marks(b) 19.84 18.27 18.71 18.94 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks(c) 94.78 93.65 94.90 94.44 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7(d) 97.13 96.45 96.03 96.54 Notes: (a) 4 marks were determined as the thresholds for mean of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (b) 2 marks were determined as the thresholds for standard deviation of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (c) Provided that the variations of marks assigned are identical between two markers, it can be shown that the difference in mark range being greater than 4 is rare, with chance being equal to some 0.15. (d) As a rule of thumb, in general correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 is regarded as high. Table 2a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 2) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 0.88 0.90 1.15 1.00 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.48 2.47 2.41 2.45 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers 1.37 1.24 1.22 1.27 Correlation between marks of the participants and that of experienced markers 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.73 6 Table 2b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 2) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancy between 4 marks and -4 marks 96.87 96.70 96.98 96.85 Standard deviation of mark discrepancy less than 2 marks 18.54 18.02 20.42 18.99 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks 89.56 88.32 88.66 88.85 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 65.27 69.29 72.21 68.92 For Paper 1, the averages in Table 1a displayed similar patterns in all the three rounds. The means of mark discrepancies were well within the “acceptable” level; i.e., below 4 marks. The mark ranges of the participants were just slightly smaller than that of the experienced markers, with an average for all participants being equal to -0.42 marks. The correlation was high with the overall figure being equal to 0.83. However, the averages of the standard deviations of mark discrepancies throughout these rounds were quite large; i.e., greater than 2 marks. From Table 2a, it was observed that the performance of the participants in Paper 2 was quite similar to that in Paper 1, with good performance on average in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies, mark range and correlation, but slight under-performance for the item of standard deviation of mark discrepancies. The mean of mark discrepancies for Paper 2 was much closer to zero, though the correlation was lower than that in Paper 1. From Tables 1b and 2b, an overwhelming majority performed satisfactorily in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies and mark range. The majority awarded marks that correlated well with that of the experienced markers, though the percentage of participants performing well in this aspect was much higher in Paper 1. For Paper 2, the percentage of participants with acceptable performance in terms of correlation and standard deviation of mark discrepancies had a slight increase from the first to the third Round. Based on these marking statistics, the percentage of discrepancy marking for Papers 1 and Paper 2 was (roughly) estimated to be around 20% for the live examination, which would be taken into consideration for manpower arrangement. In a nutshell, a total of 28 training sessions were conducted in 2011-2012. A total of 1,319 teachers experienced the whole marking process and were familiarised with the OSM system. To facilitate the selection of markers, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been employed to derive an integrated marking performance indicator based on the four marking statistics so as to maximise the discrimination power. In addition 7 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination to the marking statistics, other factors, such as previous marking experiences, would be considered when selecting markers for the live examination of LS. A large majority of these participants performed satisfactorily with reference to a number of marking statistics; especially on the mean of mark discrepancies, difference between the mark ranges and correlation. This indicated that they were able to grasp the marking criteria and adopt the marking standard reasonably close to our experienced markers. On the other hand, there was room for improvement in the consistency of marking performance of these participants. In addition, 23 experienced LS teachers served as facilitators in group meetings and gained experience as AEs. 3.2 Markers’ meeting and onscreen marking Immediately after the completion of the LS public examination, the marking process was started. Markers’ meetings with recruited markers were arranged in order to standardise the marking criteria and standards. Before the markers’ meetings, a representative sample of candidate scripts was selected and marked by the Chief Examiner and a group experienced senior AEs whereby the consensus on marking standards and marking criteria were arrived at through professional discussion. Some of these standardised scripts were used for marking standardization, training and qualifying purposes. After the markers’ meetings, markers then marked another set of standardised scripts which were used for testing whether they could grasp the marking standards and marking criteria properly so as to obtain the markers’ qualification. Only those qualified markers would be allowed to mark scripts of the live examination. In addition to manual procedures for ensuring marking quality, the Authority adopts innovative and advanced technologies to enhance the marking performance. In 2005, the Authority received funding from the government to modernise its information technology infrastructure, and to introduce OSM to improve the security, quality, reliability and efficiency of marking. The marking procedures with the use of OSM are outlined below: • Examinations for candidates conducted; • Examination scripts collected; • Examination scripts scanned and images saved; • Images of answers distributed to markers for viewing and marking via secure intranet system at designated Assessment Centres; • Marks at question level and annotations by markers captured by the onscreen marking system. For security reasons, marking is conducted at designated Assessment Centres. The primary function of these Assessment Centres is to facilitate onscreen marking of public examinations but they will also be used for the delivery and marking of a wide range of examinations and assessments, such as the Territory-wide System Assessment and a 8 variety of computer-based examinations. Moreover, facilities will be available for the training of examiners, markers, teachers and other assessment staff. The advantages of using OSM include the following aspects: • Security: Secure storage of scanned images of scripts, and elimination of the physical movement of massive scripts; • Marking: Real-time monitoring of marking consistency and quality control of marking, and flexible allocation of questions to markers; • Efficiency: More efficient and flexible script management processes, and higher efficiency in mark calculation; • Accuracy: Reduction of errors arising from mark entries, and elimination of errors associated with manual mark calculation and recording processes; • Data Availability: More detailed analysis of candidates’ performance, and more information on responses to individual questions and better feedback regarding candidates’ performance. In view of all the aspects mentioned above, OSM is considered as a better alternative to the conventional paper-based marking (PBM). Concerning marking quality, with the use of OSM a marker’s performance could be continuously monitored by comparing his/her marks awarded on standardised scripts with that of experienced markers. Thus, marking problems identified could be rectified at an early stage. Besides, it also facilitates the sample checking conducted by AEs on certain scripts of each marker. The Authority first introduced OSM in the 2007 HKCEE English writing paper. Afterwards, OSM was being implemented gradually in marking exam scripts for a number of subjects. To ensure that there is no adverse effect of OSM on the marking performance, the Authority has initiated a number of studies with tertiary institutes comparing OSM with PBM. A study (Coniam, 2009a, 2009b) examined English language essay scripts selected from the 2007 HKCEE English Language Paper 1B (Writing). To compare OSM with PBM, 30 markers, who had good rater statistics, were arranged to remark on paper 100 scripts, which they had marked onscreen nine months before. After the remarking, they were requested to complete a questionnaire in order to collect feedback on the exercise. From the questionnaire data, it was suggested that technologically, raters had no problems with OSM. Attitudinal differences surfaced, however, between new raters who had solely rated on screen as against experienced raters who had solely adopted PBM in their previous experiences. New raters felt that having to travel to a special marking centre was less of an inconvenience than did old raters. New raters, additionally, expressed a preference to mark on screen rather than on paper. The statistical analysis of remarking data was conducted from two perspectives. The first involved classical measurement statistics. Correlations between the two forms of rating and the amount of discrepancy scripts (where a third rating was required) suggested 9 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination that no bias existed favouring either form of marking. Secondly, using multi-faceted Rasch measurement (MFRM), a five-faceted design was employed, modeling raters, test takers, input prompt materials, rating scales, and, especially, the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit. For the method of marking - the major facet for investigation, the corresponding logit values of both methods were very close to zero. Therefore the hypothesis that the methods of marking (OSM and PBM) did not interfere scores awarded by markers was accepted. There is another study (Coniam, 2010) which has similar objectives as the first one; but the subject concerned is Advanced Supplementary Level (ASL) Liberal Studies. The study involved 14 markers who had previously marked ASL Liberal Studies scripts on screen in the 2009 Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination. In the study, the 14 markers remarked on paper a number of the scripts that they had marked on screen in the 2009 examination. Using multi-faceted Rasch analysis, a five-faceted design was employed to model markers, test takers, input questions, rating scales and the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit and suggested that the scores from OSM could be considered as reliable as those obtained from PBM. 3.3 Double marking arrangement With regard to marking reliability, one of the public concerns is that there may be a considerable degree of variability when marking open-ended questions of LS. In this regard, the Authority has decided to adopt double marking in LS public examination. Any LS question of a candidate will be primarily marked by two markers. In case that prominent discrepancy occurs between the two markers’ marks, third marking (i.e., discrepancy marking) will be undertaken. The average of the closest pair of marks1 will be taken as the final mark of the question concerned. Fourth marking may be involved, if necessary, to settle down any controversies. Due to the use of OSM, which facilitates immediate distribution of scripts and flexible allocation of questions, double marking could be conducted on question basis. The four questions in Papers 1 and 2 attempted by a candidate in the public examination of LS will be marked by at least eight markers. Such an arrangement eliminates the chance that a candidate’s assessment result will be dominated by a single marker who may be too harsh or too lenient. The Authority had undertaken a study (HKEAA, 2011a) to examine the impact when adopting double marking in the LS questions. In the study, four data-response questions and four extended-response questions, and the corresponding marking guidelines were prepared in both Chinese and English. The full mark of each of these questions was more or less 20. These questions were attempted by some 1,300 students from 15 schools _______________ 1 In OSM, the sum of the closest pair of marks is compiled instead for the sake of computational convenience. This, in fact, implies that the full mark of a question is doubled. 10 covering a wide spectrum of performance levels. The student responses were marked by 18 markers using double marking (with discrepancy marking). Each student attempted one data-response question and one extended-response question, resulting totally 2,530 responses. For these 2,530 student responses, double marking was conducted. The corresponding statistics on marking discrepancies are shown below. Table 3: Distribution of discrepancies in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 413 16% 16% 1 749 30% 46% 2 592 23% 69% 3 368 15% 84% 4 226 9% 93% 5 100 4% 97% 6 51 2% 99% 7 20 1% 100% 8 9 0% 100% 9 1 0% 100% 10 1 0% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - Some 16% of total responses, which had differences greater than three, required discrepancy marking. In general, third marking was already sufficient to ensure that the differences between the closest pairs of marks were less than or equal to three marks. There were only a small proportion of responses that required fourth marking. The corresponding distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking is tabulated below. Table 4: Distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 510 20% 20% 1 911 36% 56% 2 724 29% 85% 3 385 15% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - 11 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination The closest pair of marks of a response was used for calculating the average, which was the final mark of the response. Provided that the “true” performance of a response did fall in between the closest pairs of marks, the difference between the final mark assigned and the “true” performance would be less than 1.5 marks; i.e., less than 10% of the full mark of the question concerned. The correlation between the marks in the closest pairs (retained after conducting double marking with discrepancy marking) was found to be equal to some 0.8. This reflected a high level of marking reliability. In 2012 public examination of LS, it is found that the percentage of responses that requires discrepancy marking further decreases. It may be due to the fact that previous professional development courses and the targeted marker training sessions have familiarised school teachers with the marking criteria and standards of HKDSE LS. 4. SBA Moderation Process 4.1 The reasons of moderation SBA is a salient feature of the HKDSE Examination. SBA refers to assessments administered in schools and marked by the students’ own teachers. SBA in LS requires each student to carry out an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). The IES provides a valuable opportunity for students to independently carry out a focused enquiry into a contemporary issue of interest, and to present their views, ideas, findings, evaluations and personal reflections. After receiving the raw SBA marks from schools, the Authority has to undertake the SBA moderation process. The main reason for carrying out moderation is to ensure the consistency of assessment standards across schools. Teachers know their students well and thus are best placed to judge their students’ relative performance. However, they could not be aware of the standards of performance across all schools. Therefore, teachers in some schools may be harsher or more lenient in their judgment than teachers in other schools. Mark ranges of scores awarded in various schools may also be different from each other. To resolve these problems, the Authority employs appropriate methods for “moderating” the raw SBA scores submitted by different schools to achieve the following: • The comparability of SBA results across schools in order to ensure fairness for individual students and schools; • The quality, reliability and validity of SBA results; • Provision of useful feedback to schools for improving practice; • In LS, the SBA moderation is conducted using statistical moderation based on examination results and supplemented with sample review. 12 4.2 Statistical moderation Statistical moderation is particularly appropriate in situations where there is another measure available that can reflect SBA performance level. Typically this other measure will be students’ performance in the public examination of that subject. An advantage of the method is that it can be carried out efficiently and impartially within a reasonable amount of time and resources. The key assumption is that the overall performance in the public examination of students in a school can properly reflect the SBA performance level of the same group of students. Generally speaking, this is a valid assumption in the context of many academic subjects in public examinations. In the moderation process, the adjustments are applied only to school average and spread of raw SBA scores of students with reference to their public examination scores in the same school. Therefore, the ranking of students within a school remains unchanged after moderation. The school averages of examination scores are used to determine the corresponding performance levels on SBA, taking within-school correlations between students’ raw SBA scores and examination scores into consideration (HKEAA, 2010). 4.3 Sample review Some of the objectives of the SBA cannot be precisely assessed in the public examination due to different requirements. Moreover, students in SBA would possibly gain significant improvement under teachers’ supervision due to the efficacy of assessment for learning. If only schools’ public examination scores are used to adjust students’ raw SBA scores, for some schools the statistical moderated results may not fully reflect the students’ actual performance in the SBA; i.e., there may be some outlier schools whose statistically moderated scores differ greatly from the performance level demonstrated by students’ SBA work. Therefore, for 2012 HKDSE LS, each school was required to submit six samples of students’ work for reassessment which was conducted by a group of external assessors appointed by the Authority. The samples were chosen by the Authority using stratified random sampling. Students in each school were divided into a number of strata based on their raw SBA scores. Therefore, in each stratum the performance level of students on SBA should be similar with each other. Some students’ work was then randomly chosen from each stratum. The stratified sampling method could ensure that a fairly small sample of students’ work could adequately represent the full range of SBA performance of each school. For schools where only a few students were studying a particular subject, the work of all students had to be submitted. All the LS samples were then reassessed with reference to the previous standardised exemplars and a set of stipulated assessment criteria. If prominent discrepancies between external assessors’ scores and raw scores were observed, discrepancy marking would be conducted. It was observed that the discrepancy marking percentage was about 20% in 2012. The correlation between raw scores and results based on external assessment 13 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination amounted to 0.8. This reflected that the marking standards of school teachers were generally in line with that based on external assessment. With regard to possible sampling variations, the ratio of school average of raw SBA scores to sample average of raw SBA scores was examined for each school. The distribution of these ratios of 523 schools is shown below. Figure 1: Distribution of ratios of school means of raw SBA scores to sample means of raw SBA scores The 5% percentile of the distribution was 0.94 and the 95% percentile was 1.06. It implied that sample raw means were very close to school raw means for most schools. In addition, it should be noted that the mean mark of sampled students’ work from external assessment of a school would be adjusted upwards when sample raw mean was less than school raw mean; and vice versa. With such adjustments, it was expected that the sampling variations would be further reduced. To further enhance the reliability of the estimations of means and spreads of SBA scores of schools based on external assessment, Bayesian hierarchical modeling was employed so as to share information across different schools. The model is briefly described below. 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 14 Let Yi (a vector) be the marks based on external assessment of a school i; i.e., Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni. The number of students in the school is ni. The Bayesian hierarchical model is set up as follows: Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni ~ Normal(θi, σi 2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., there are m schools) θi ~ Normal(μ, τ2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all θi are sampled from a super-population) 1/σi 2 ~ Gamma(v0/2, v0σ0 2/2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all σi 2 are sampled from a super-population) The model is graphically displayed in the figure below. Figure 2: The structure of Bayesian hierarchical modeling showing relationship between data observed and parameters involved In Bayesian analysis, the parameters: μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2 are treated as random variables. To conduct the Bayesian estimation, some non-informative priors p(μ), p(τ2), p(v0), p(σ0 2) are set up respectively for μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2. Based on such a model, information could be shared across schools when estimating θi and σi 2. For schools with small sample sizes and/or extreme empirical values, the estimates of θi and σi 2 will be pulled towards the corresponding overall estimates (μ and σ0 2). In general, algorithms using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method are deployed for estimation in Bayesian hierarchical modeling. It is well known that such a hierarchical model could reduce the estimation error (Berger, 1993; Hoff, 2010; Gelman et. al., 2003) in different applications. In addition, a simulation study has been undertaken to gauge the magnitude 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 v0σ0 2 μ, τ2 θ1 θ2 θm-1 θm Y1 Y2 Ym-1 Ym θ1 2 θ2 2 σ 2 m-1 σ 2 m 15 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination of gain in accuracy when applying the model in the specific setting for SBA moderation (Fung, 2011). It is found that the total Mean Squared Error (MSE) in the estimation of school means could be reduced by some 30% using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, as compared with the one simply using sample means. After consolidating the sample review result of a school, it was compared with the corresponding result from statistical moderation. Due to possible variations incurred in the sampling and remarking process, an appropriate tolerance limit was set when comparing the two results. If the difference was within the tolerance limit, the statistical moderation result would be adopted as the school performance level on SBA. If the difference exceeded the tolerance limit, appropriate adjustments would be made to the statistical moderation result with reference to the sample review result in order to determine the school performance level on SBA. It is worth mentioning that in LS, the SBA marks of a student is divided into two parts, namely: (i) Task and (ii) Process. Only marks on the Task of a student will be moderated according to the procedures mentioned above. Marks on Process which includes students’ effort in the IES will not be subject to moderation, as students’ performance in this part may not be prominently associated with the examination results. Schools are expected to award the Process marks in accordance with the stipulated criteria. The Authority imposes quality control measures to ensure the fairness and reliability of the assessment on Process, which include monitoring by District Coordinators (DCs), providing feedback to schools and follow-up of any irregularities identified. In 2012, it is observed that the mean of Process marks submitted by all schools is quite appropriate (i.e., not too high or too low) and the spread is reasonable. The moderated Task marks are then combined with the un-moderated Process marks to form the total SBA score for inclusion in the subject result. For the Task component, in 2012 53.3% of schools fall into the “within the expected range” category2, while the marks of 21.5% of schools are higher than expected, and 25.1% lower than expected. Moreover, among the schools with marks higher or lower than expected, the majority only deviate slightly from the expected3. Thus, in 2012 the majority of schools falls into the “within the expected range” or “slightly higher/lower than expected” categories. It is supposed that teachers in these schools do have a good understanding about the marking standards. _______________ 2 Based on the difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks (D), a school is in the category of “within the expected range” when 0 ≤ D < 3 with full mark = 50. 3 The difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks is greater than or equal to 3 and less than 6 with full mark = 50. 16 5. Grading process based on professional expertise Under SRR, a set of draft descriptors has been developed for each subject to describe how a candidate typically performs at a given level. The main purpose of grading is to determine the minimum score needed for a candidate to attain a given level. This minimum score is known as the cut score. The HKDSE grading procedures include a series of tasks (HKEAA, 2011b) that begins before the actual marking of scripts. For any given subject, a panel of expert judges, which comprises the subject manager(s), the chief examiner(s) and selected assistant examiner(s) or markers from the individual components, is responsible for conducting the series of grading tasks, including: (i) sample script selection, (ii) marking standardization, (iii) post-marking exercise, and (iv) panel of judges grading meeting. After the 2012 public examination of LS, some samples that could illustrate performance particularly well in relation to the level descriptors were selected. After script selection, the panel discussed the scores to be awarded to discrete points in the sample scripts. These marked scripts were used as standardisation scripts for marking. After the completion of marking and moderation of SBA scores, the panel considered the selected written examination exemplars and SBA samples with reference to the level descriptors, and the previous released samples. The objective of the discussion was to make provisional grading recommendations (including preliminary cut score ranges) on each examination paper and SBA component through expert judgment based on samples of performance. In the panel judges grading meeting, panel members re-considered the level descriptors, question requirements, marking guidelines and a number of representative samples as well as a range of recommended cut scores for each level. Panel judges exchanged their views led by the Chief Examiner. With a number of rounds of discussions, they finally agreed on preliminary cut scores for each paper and SBA component, and for the subject. In determining the cut scores, consideration was made to the actual performance of candidates in relation to • the level descriptors; • performance samples from the HKDSE SRR Information Packages (HKEAA, 2009); • marked live scripts selected; • feedback from markers on the level of difficulty of each particular examination paper; • performance statistics of current papers and SBA component. 17 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination During this meeting, the panel of judges investigated the impact of amending the cut scores for each examination paper on subject grade distributions. Finally, the panel of judges decided on their recommendations for the cut scores for LS. A senior management team led by the Secretary General of the Authority reviewed and decided on the cut scores based on the recommendations made by the panel of LS, and submitted the cut scores from the panel of LS to the Public Examinations Board (PEB) for further discussion and endorsement. In 2012, after discussion in PEB it was endorsed that the recommendations made by the panel of LS were strictly followed without any adjustments. The cut scores for Level 5** and Level 5* were set with reference to the percentage in mark distribution so that Level 5** was awarded to the highest-achieving 10% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates and Level 5* was awarded to the next highest- achieving 30% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates. 6. Conclusions In this paper4, it is highlighted that the Authority has taken stringent measures to ensure the quality of marking and grading procedures adopted in HKDSE Examination of LS. Relevant researches were conducted to examine the impacts of the new measures as far as possible. It is expected that after having an overall picture of the marking and grading procedures, the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority. Currently, the Authority is now collecting opinions and feedback from various stakeholders on the assessment framework of LS in order to strive for further improvement in the future. References Berger, J. O. (1993). Statistical decision theory and Bayesian analysis (2nd ed.). Springer. Coniam, D. (2009a). Validating onscreen marking in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(3), 423-431. Coniam, D. (2009b). Examining negative attitudes towards onscreen marking in Hong Kong. CUHK Education Journal, 37(1-2), 71-87. _______________ 4 To facilitate the access to the content by the public, the paper is also available from the website of the Authority. 18 Coniam, D. (2010). Markers’ perceptions regarding the onscreen marking of Liberal Studies in the Hong Kong public examination system. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(3), 249- 271. Fung, T. H. (2011, July). Simulation study on the use of hierarchical Bayesian modeling in expert judgment for SBA Moderation. Paper presented at the 76th Annual and the 17th International Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Hong Kong. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., & Rubin, D. B. (2003). Bayesian data analysis (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Hoff, P. D. (2010). A first course in Bayesian statistical methods (1st ed.). Springer. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2009). Liberal Studies: Standards-referenced reporting information package. Further information available from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/resources/publications/list_of_publications/hkdse_srr_pub/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2010). Moderation of school- based assessment scores in the HKDSE booklet. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu. hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011a). Study in double marking of Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Liberal Studies practice questions’ answer scripts. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/ research/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011b). Grading procedures and standards-referenced reporting in the HKDSE examination. Retrieved from: http:// www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ 19 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination 2012年香港中學文憑通識教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序 馮子豪、唐創時 香港考試及評核局 摘要 2012年香港中學文憑考試的考生必須修讀通識教育科。香港中學文憑考試採用水平 參照模式匯報考生的表現,將考生表現分為各等級(1至 5)。部份通識科教師對 通識科考試評級結果表示疑慮。有見及此,本文回顧通識科考試的閱卷與評級程序, 期望當大眾認識相關的程序後,將對考評局所發的資歷更具信心。 關鍵字 香港中學文憑考試,通識教育科,水平參照模式匯報,閱卷與評級 21 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong S Y MAK Barley Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract School-based assessment (SBA) is a form of formative assessment involving feedbacks and appraisals to students based on their school-based projects; it enables students to identify and improve on their areas of weakness and teachers to adjust their teaching strategies accordingly (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2005). SBA is still a relatively new concept for most senior secondary school subjects in Hong Kong – yet it is now heavily incorporated into Hong Kong’s New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum since the introduction of the New Academic Structure (NAS) in 2009. SBA has spawned numerous debates on its efficacy in Hong Kong and worldwide. This study gives an overview of the current issues related to SBA in Hong Kong through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders by utilizing territory-wide data of 91 secondary schools in Hong Kong from the most recent NSS Curriculum Study conducted in 2011-12. Keywords school-based assessment (SBA), formative assessment, New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum, curriculum reform, Hong Kong education 22 1. Introduction 1.1 The current Hong Kong education system and school-based assessment In light of the rising competitiveness of the global environment, the Hong Kong’s education sector recognizes its need to strengthen Hong Kong students’ adaptability, creativity, independent thinking and life-long learning capabilities, which were limited by the traditional education system that restrained students from maximizing their potential. As a result, the New Academic Structure (NAS) was introduced in 2009 as one of the most ambitious education reforms in Hong Kong’s education history. The NAS reduced the number of secondary school years from 7 to 6, and increased the number of tertiary education years from 3 to 4: Hong Kong students are now required to study three years in junior secondary school, three years in senior secondary school, and four years in the tertiary education sector – a “3-3-4” education system. Under this configuration, the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum was implemented as the framework for governing the content of the senior secondary school years (Secondary 4 to 6). As opposed to the traditional senior secondary school curriculum, NSS involved a number of major changes, which consisted of designating Liberal Studies as one of the four core subjects, the introduction of the elective subject system, as well as an emphasis on Other Learning Experiences (OLE) – to name but a few. Major changes have also taken place in the assessment environment for senior secondary school students: the current education system has now shifted from a two- fold public examination system – the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) and Advanced Levels (AL) in Secondary 5 and Secondary 7 respectively to a single public examination, the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) in Secondary 6. Meanwhile, as both an assessment and reviewing tool for teachers and students, school-based assessment (SBA) was incorporated and is now playing a pivotal role in giving greater emphasis to formative assessment (as opposed to summative assessment) in the NSS Curriculum. Notwithstanding its great potential in realizing the aims and virtues of the NAS, SBA poses great challenges and complexities in its application. In this paper, the progress of the implementation of SBA in the Hong Kong context will be reviewed and discussed through the eyes of administrators and teaching stakeholders. 1.2 The implementation of SBA in the NSS curriculum In Hong Kong, SBA is an assessment administered in schools as part of the learning and teaching process, with senior secondary students being assessed by their subject teachers (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a). In total, it accounts for 20% of the students’ overall HKDSE Examination result. From 2012, SBA was incorporated in 12 subjects including Chinese Language, English Language, Liberal 23 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Studies, Chinese History, History, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Science, Information & Communication Technology, Design & Applied Technology, and Visual Arts. According to the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) (2013b), SBA will be extended gradually to other subjects starting from the 2014 HKDSE Examination, as indicated in Table 1 below: Table 1: Implementation Timetable (HKEAA, 2013b) Year of Exam Subjects - Chinese Language - English Language - Liberal Studies - Chinese History - Design & Applied Technology - History - Information & Communication Technology - Visual Arts - Biology - Chemistry - Physics - Science - Chinese Literature - Economics - Ethics & Religious Studies - Geography - Health Management & Social Care - Technology & Living - Tourism & Hospitality Studies - Literature in English - Music 2012 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2013 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2014 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2015 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2016 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2017 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2018 Implementation Implementation Optional trial 2019 Implementation Implementation Implementation The intention of HKEAA is to slowly incorporate SBA in most subjects (not implemented in Mathematics and Business, Accounting & Financial Studies while practical examination is implemented for Physical Education instead), in a progressive and gradual manner year on year, while reviews, research and public consultations are simultaneously ongoing as adjustments are expected during the implementation process. Due to the demanding nature of SBA (as explained in the previous section), HKEAA has responded with a list of streamlining measures in order to alleviate the current situation and to provide room for the future implementation of SBA in other subjects. These streamlining measures are as follows: 24 1) The SBA of Chinese Language and Liberal Studies will be “streamlined” (i.e. the reduction of the number of tasks, assessments and mark submissions in the SBA of subjects) in the 2013 HKDSE Examination; 2) For the 9 deferred subjects where SBA was originally scheduled to be implemented between 2014 and 2016, full implementation will be postponed to the 2019 HKDSE Examination, with optional school trials to be conducted in 2018. (HKEAA, 2013b) To better understand the needs of the education sector, HKEAA, the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Education Bureau (EDB) are working in close collaboration to gauge the views of schools, curriculum development and subject experts, as well as independent education institutions in the streamlining proposals since October 2011. These proposals include streamlining the SBA of the 9 subjects that are scheduled in the 2014 HKDSE Examination, advancing SBA streamlining in Chinese Language to the 2013 cohort and adopting interim measures for Liberal Studies, and postponing the implementation of SBA of the 9 deferred subjects to the 2019 HKDSE Examination (HKEAA, 2013b). 1.3 Why school-based assessment? SBA is by no means a new assessment tool; it is widely accepted and comprehensively implemented in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Canada and South Africa. SBA is regarded as a tool to more accurately reveal the true ability of the student, reduce the limiting effects of “exam fright”, and to increase the confidence of students as they have already learnt and brought to practice the examination contents and skills during the conduct of their SBA projects. In addition to this, students can also feel less anxious as they have already achieved a certain percentage of the final mark prior to their final exam (Kerr-Phillips, 2007). SBA is similarly viewed in Hong Kong as an integral component of teaching and learning, which made feedback and comprehensive appraisals possible, thus allowing both teachers and students to identify the latter’s strengths and weaknesses for the purpose of continual improvements and confidence building (HKEAA, 2012b). In addition, SBA is also proven to have positive effects on students’ public oral examination and better absentee rate than students from schools that do not submit SBA marks (Lee, 2009). Yet SBA is not without its problems and controversies. As indicated by a report published by the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU) in 2013, workload brought upon by SBA is overwhelming for both teachers and students. For the student, the demand for SBA is high in terms of its quality and quantity, sometimes exceeding that of a student’s ability (may even include tertiary education level contents). In addition, the heavy workload derived from SBA often incur extra lesson time, therefore limits students 25 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong from partaking in extracurricular activities. On the other hand, teachers are similarly affected by hosting the extra lessons, and marking the vast amount of students’ SBA work. Furthermore, the PTU report suggested that the inadequate proportion of SBA that makes up the final mark will ultimately be “unfairly” adjusted by the public paper examination, regardless of how well the student did in the former. In light of the above, some teachers have even suggested that SBA may negatively affect the quality of learning and teaching as a whole in Hong Kong (Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union, 2013). Echoing these negative views, the sheer amount of workload of SBA has led to another major issue in other countries – plagiarism; it is tempting for students to copy work off the internet in order to save time amidst a tight schedule and demanding workload, thus incurring further workload for teachers in cross-checking references. Not only are the students tempted to play outside the rules, teachers are also reported to have meddled with the grey areas of the SBA grading system in order to achieve better grades for their students. Even without the deliberate intention of providing lenient markings, teachers call for a more standardized grading system for SBA across subjects in view of the “appalling partiality” in this aspect (Kerr-Philips, 2007). On an extreme note, Michael Gove, the Minister of Education in England remarked at the London Festival of Education in 2012, when questioned on the efficacy of SBA, “if education can’t be externally assessed, it’s play”, thus his recent initiatives to downplay the role of SBA enhance summative assessments in the UK (Downs, 2012). In spite of the downside of SBA, it is still, no doubt, a tool to diversify the traditionally summative assessment tools (i.e. public paper examinations); it gives formative assessment a larger role for achieving continuous reviews on teaching practices, and sustainable improvement on the holistic learning and teaching environment. This paper will seek to provide an insight to the voices of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in order to provide an overview of the extent of success and acceptance of the implementation of SBA in Hong Kong’s NSS Curriculum. 2. Background of the study In 2011, the EDB of Hong Kong Special Administration Region commissioned the Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) of the Faculty of Education of The Chinese University of Hong Kong to undertake a major research project entitled New Senior Secondary Curriculum Implementation Study 2011 to reveal the progress made from implementing NSS. The study aimed at investigating various aspects of the NSS in 6 major themes, namely “Curriculum Planning”, “Learning and Teaching”, “Assessment”, “Managing Change”, “the Impact on Senior Secondary School Students”, and “Ongoing Needs and Concerns”. This paper will report on the findings related to SBA, a major theme under “Assessment”. 26 3. Methodology The NSS study selected 105 schools out of a pool of 447 secondary schools in Hong Kong by a stratified random sampling technique based on an objective indicator of student achievement (Group 1 are schools with the highest average student achievement, Group 2 the next highest and Group 3 is the lowest). In the end, 91 out of the 105 schools responded to the request to participate in the survey, thus spawning a high response rate of about 87%. The questionnaires were developed to gauge the views of the implementation of NSS from 6 different stakeholders; including School heads or deputy heads (SH), Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH), Secondary 6, 4 and 3 teachers (T6, T4 and T3), as well as Secondary 6, 4 and 3 students (S6, S4 and S3). The questionnaires were sent to the 91 schools and were administered by the schools’ personnel. The completed questionnaires were then returned by post between December 2011 and February 2012. The distribution of the returned questionnaires among the stakeholders is listed in Table 2 below: Table 2: Number of questionnaires returned from different stakeholders Stakeholders Sampling Number of questionnaires SH The school heads or deputy heads 86 KH All Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads 515 T6 Teachers teaching Secondary 6** 838 T4 Teachers teaching Secondary 4** 527 T3 At least 8 teachers teaching Secondary 3 (one per KLA) 378 S6 All Secondary 6 students 4,614 S4 All Secondary 4 students 5,888 S3 At least two classes of Secondary 3 students from each school 2,751 * For subjects comprising a compulsory part and elective modules, teachers who teach only elective modules are not required to complete the questionnaire. ** Some of the teachers placed themselves as T4 and T6, thus the data were counted for both stakeholders. SBA was a major theme under “Assessment” and since this paper seeks to identify the extent of how well SBA is incorporated into the administrative and teaching processes of the NSS Curriculum, this paper has drawn data only from the administrative and teaching stakeholders’ (SH, KH, T6, T4 and T3) views on SBA therein. The contents of the questions on SBA were similar but tailored to each stakeholder (Appendix).The questions on SBA were grouped into 4 major components designed to answer the research questions presented in the following table: 27 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Table 3: SBA components and research questions SBA research questions: To what extent… SBA component Views derived from: 1) Has SBA been successfully incorporated into the schools? (understanding and knowledge, scheduling and formulating support measures) 1) The implementation of SBA in schools SH, KH, T6 and T4 2) Has the grading of SBA been subjected to fairness and consistency, and the criteria be transparent to students? 2) The grading of SBA T6, T4 and T3 3) How confident were the teachers in implementing SBA? 3) The confidence of teachers in implementing SBA T6, T4 and T3 4) How useful has SBA been as a tool in generating useful feedback for the continual improvement of students’ learning? 4) The effectiveness of SBA T6, T4 and T3 The results and analysis section will be presented by bar charts in order to aid readers in visualizing the obtained data that are attached in the annexes of this study. 4. Results and analysis The incorporation of SBA into the senior high school curriculum is a relatively new one for most subjects and requires understanding and adaptability on the part of the schools and teachers in this period of transition. The procedures adopted by schools to ensure an effective implementation of SBA, knowledge transfer of SBA (i.e. from school to teachers and from teachers to students) and the support provided to the teachers by the schools are inextricable factors determining the success of the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. In this light, this section will look at the perception of the administrative and teaching stakeholders – SH, KH, T6 and T4 – to gauge the extent of assimilation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum in terms of the above aspects. A 6-point Likert scale was used to gauge the attitudes of stakeholders running from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The latter 3 points were used to calculate positive responses i.e. “slightly agree”, “agree”, “strongly agree”. Since the implementation of SBA is a new feature in the NAS, any positive responses are deemed significant, thus “slightly agree” is incorporated in the reporting of positive results. 4.1 Procedures adopted by schools to ensure effective implementation of SBA According to Figure 1 below, SH have responded with very high agreement levels 28 in items (in descending order): “The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (SH: 94.1%), “The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing)” (SH: 92.9%), “The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation” (SH: 88.2%). Figure 1: Procedures to ensure effective implementation of SBA by SH While the majority of the schools have implemented procedures and regulations for the effective implementation of SBA on a wider scale, they have also demonstrated micro management planning by assigning working groups and coordinators to manage smaller items among subjects. 4.2 SBA knowledge transfer The implementation of SBA can never be successful without the proper guidance provided to the teachers by HKEAA and their respective schools. Thus HKEAA has pledged to provide detailed guidelines, assessment criteria and exemplars to schools and teachers to ensure consistency in SBA grading, and as well as the provision of professional training and district coordinators to support schools and teachers to successfully implement SBA in the NSS curriculum (HKEAA, 2013a). In light of this, the acquiring and transferring of SBA information among stakeholders (i.e. from schools to teachers and from teachers to students) will be looked at. In this section, “SBA knowledge transfer” refers to both the acquiring and transferring of SBA information (e.g. assessment criteria, SBA weighting, number of SBA tasks, etc.) among stakeholders. According to the responses from SH, shown in Figure 2 below, the findings provided positive evidence of the schools having enabled the knowledge transfer of SBA information to other stakeholders in secondary schools. High agreement levels were 29 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong found in the items (in descending order): “Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (SH: 100.0%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (SH: 95.3%), “Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (SH: 95.3%), and “The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results” (SH: 89.4%). Figure 2: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by SH Similarly, KH have responded with highly positive feedback on the transfer of SBA knowledge among teachers and students. In descending order: “Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors” (KH: 93.8%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (KH: 91.1%), and “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (KH: 87.7%), as indicated in Figure 3 below: 30 Figure 3: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by KH By the same token, T6 responded with highly positive feedback in the following items, in descending order “I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T6: 93.6%), and “I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T6: 84.7%), as indicated in Figure 4 below: Figure 4: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by T6 According to SH as well as KH, their teachers have demonstrated a clear knowledge in understanding the contents of SBA (e.g. how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools) and have taken up a dual role as both a facilitator and an assessor. With such knowledge, teachers were able to help students in resolving their queries on SBA-related matters, guide them through the assessment requirements and methods in their respective SBA subjects, and explain to them the complementary nature of written 31 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong examinations and SBA in the public assessment. T6 on the other hand, have provided the same positive findings at the teaching level. 4.3 SBA support provided to teachers This section looks at the perceived support implemented and received by the administrative and teaching stakeholders in regard to the implementation of SBA. According to Figure 5 below, SH felt that “the school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (SH: 95.2%) and that “the school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (SH: 88.3%). Meanwhile, KH have responded with similar high levels of agreement to item “My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (KH: 87.1%), but relatively lower in “Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (KH: 68.5%). On the other hand, although more than half of T6 and T4 have responded with positive feedback to item “My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (T6: 61.9%, T4: 63.3%), a significant 40% have responded otherwise. Figure 5: SBA support viewed by SH, KH, T6 and T4 It is noteworthy to highlight the significant differences on the level of perceived school support provided for the teachers among SH and the teaching stakeholders (T6 and T4) – although SH may feel that they have provided enough, the frontline teachers may still feel more support is needed as the workload from SBA is high. The findings reveal 32 that KH should also collaborate more with KH from other subjects so as to devise SBA schedules in avoiding the overloading of work. 4.4 The grading of SBA In light of the autonomy given to teachers in grading their students’ SBA works, standardization is a crucial factor in determining fairness and minimizing discrepancies in students’ marks among both teachers and between schools, thus allowing a more accurate and better reflection on the quality of the students’ works accordingly. The information on the marking requirements of SBA works is essential to students, therefore such knowledge must be readily transferable and transparent. This section will look at the extent to which KH have ensured fairness in SBA grading at their schools and whether they and T6 have made SBA knowledge transferable to students. The findings revealed that the vast majority of Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) have taken into consideration and have ensured that there is reliability and fairness in SBA results. They adopted different measures as follows (in descending order): “My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers” (KH: 95.4%), “My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (KH: 93.9%), “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (KH: 85.6%), and “Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (KH: 81.1%), Figure 6 below: Figure 6: The grading of SBA viewed by KH 33 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong On the other hand, T6 have revealed their efforts in handling SBA queries (in descending order): “I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (T6: 86.3%) and “I have clearly explained to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T6: 81.6%), as indicated in Figure 7 below: Figure 7: The grading of SBA viewed by T6 It is a discernible fact that the grading of SBA is viewed by both KH and T6 to have been ensured in its fairness; mechanisms were in place to ensure objectivity and consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. Meanwhile, schools’ procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results have been clearly explained to the students, suggesting that students were provided with and were knowledgeable about obtaining information on their SBA results. Furthermore, it is noteworthy to mention that the majority of KH perceived their teachers to have understood how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools, and that the majority of T6 have made the marking criteria available to their students at their respective schools. 4.5 The effectiveness of SBA One of the intended functions of SBA is to enable teachers to provide feedback and comprehensive appraisals to students, thus allowing students to understand and improve on their areas of weakness. In addition to this, SBA can allow students to demonstrate their strengths - that are often neglected in traditional public examinations (e.g. presentation skills). This section looks at the extent to which feedback and the demonstration of students’ alternative skills are enabled by the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. As indicated by Figure 8 below, only around 50%-65% of stakeholders (T6, T4 and T3) agreed about the perceived benefits of SBA: “SBA enables students / me to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses” (*T6: 57.0%, T4: 57.9%), “SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations” (*T6: 56.9%, T4: 59.2%), and “I support School-based Assessment 34 (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently” (*T6: 45.7%, T4: 49.7%, T3: 65.5%). Figure 8: SBA feedback for learning viewed by T6, T4, and T3 The opinions of the teachers varied in the use of SBA as a feedback tool for students – while about 65% of T3 felt that SBA enabled them to provide useful feedback for students on a frequent basis, half of T4 and more than half of T6 felt otherwise. The use of SBA in enabling students in better understanding their own strengths and weaknesses and as a means to demonstrate their ability in areas not assessed in public examinations were rated relatively more positively by T6 and T4, despite a significant portion (about 40%) of them feeling that SBA could not do so. Although a significant portion of teachers were able to improve the learning and teaching environment by effectively implementing SBA, the results revealed that there are factors hindering some teachers from doing so. As a preliminary observation, these factors may include the overburdening of workload derived from SBA that prevented teachers from having the needed time to provide feedback for their students. 4.6 The confidence of teachers teaching Secondary 4 and the extent of success in implementing SBA by teachers teaching Secondary 6 Teachers’ confidence in implementing SBA can reveal their knowledge and understanding of SBA in bringing it to fruition; likewise, the lack in such confidence may also suggest their concerns in the implementation process. The scales of T4 (confidence scale) and T6 (agreement scale) are different due to their respective nature - of the lack of 35 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong experience in implementing SBA for T4, as opposed to the experienced T6. The findings suggested that the majority of T4 were comfortable in implementing SBA related tasks, as revealed by the high ratings in the following items (in descending order): “clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T4: 80.4%), “clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T4: 78.5%), “design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning” (T4: 77.4%), and “clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T4: 74.2%). It is noted that the item “handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T4: 59.1%) was rated relatively lower than the above, indicating that about 40% of T4 were not confident with their handling of workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 9 below: Figure 9: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T4 Meanwhile, the majority of T6 agreed to the items (in descending order): “I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning” (T6: 77.8%), and “So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly” (T6: 68.7%). However, less than 50% of T6 agreed with the item “I can handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T6: 45.8%), suggesting they are facing difficulties in handling workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 10 below: 36 Figure 10: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T6 This section has suggested that the majority of T4 have confidence in designing effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning, were able to implement SBA smoothly, and have clearly explained to students the contemporary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment as well as how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in their schools. In addition, T6 have revealed that they have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning and were able to implement SBA smoothly. On the down side, workload derived from SBA was troubling T4, as indicated by their relatively lower confidence in handling this aspect. By the same token, more than half of T6 have revealed their inability in handling workload derived from SBA. 5. Discussion The data reveal that the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum has been a successful endeavor by both Government and the education sector at the administrative and teaching levels; at the administrative level, the majority of the major players - i.e. SH as well as KH of the education sector revealed that they have fully incorporated SBA into their schools; support measures were provided for teachers in the implementation of SBA, whereby working group and coordinators were designated to help teachers coordinate their subjects, and measures were employed to ensure fairness, objectivity and consistency in grading SBA works. Meanwhile on the teaching level (T6, T4 and T3), teachers were well aware of their dual role in SBA (as facilitators of student learning and as assessors), whereby both teachers and students were also well informed of its contents, marking procedures (both by HKEAA and the school), and related information made readily available and transparent 37 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong at times of need. It is encouraging to see that the learning and teaching environment of the students was enhanced through the designing of effective SBA tasks. Notwithstanding the above positive views from the major stakeholders, the implementation of SBA was met by perceptions of its overwhelming workload. Despite the schools’ effort in scheduling subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year, a significant portion of T4 were skeptical of their ability to handle SBA workload whilst more than half of T6 from the sample felt that they were unable to handle the vast amount of work derived from SBA. As a general observation still yet to be tested in future studies, SBA workload might be the cause for the limited use of SBA for producing feedback for identifying strengths and weaknesses in students, thus helping them in their learning progress. To realize the goal of “learning and teaching with assessment” through the implementation of SBA (HKEAA, 2013a), teachers should undergo professional training in understanding the curriculum’s learning goals and related criteria so as to place further emphasis in producing assessment feedbacks for students – as the streamlining of SBA should provide more time for teachers to do so. And as suggested by Harlen (2004), the development of an assessment community is essential for allowing a constructive and positive discussion on SBA, in which different intra- and inter-school stakeholders among various geographical settings can contribute to this community. These discussion topics may include the distribution of resources, intra- and inter-school moderation standardization, teacher assessment, and ongoing professional trainings etc., so as to promote quality assurance for SBA. 6. Conclusion To maximize the benefits derived from the implementation of SBA, both the education sector and the Government bodies must identify the causes for the limited use of SBA in producing feedback and appraisals for the holistic development of students’ learning profiles. The immense amount of SBA workload felt by the teachers cannot be neglected, thus HKEAA, CDC, EDB and as well as the education sector have worked hand in hand in improving this aspect of the NSS Curriculum, as seen by the recent streamlining measures in SBA subjects. The education sector has yet to experience these measures and studies are required in the future to identify the effectiveness therein. As many believe in the high potential of what SBA can bring to the learning and teaching environment, an effective implementation of SBA in terms of its scheduling, standardization in grading, information flow and the overall support for both schools and teachers are inextricable components to the welfare and effective incorporation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum – in all of which the Hong Kong education sector has 38 demonstrated its professionalism in accomplishing these and its commitment to rising to new challenges. Acknowledgements The research reported in this study was supported by a grant from the EDB, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the EDB. References Downs, J. (2012). If it can’t be externally assessed, it’s play, Gove’s message to teachers. Retrieved from http://www.localschoolsnetwork.org.uk/2012/11/if-it-cant-be-externally- assessed-its-play-goves-message-to-teachers/ Harlen, W. (2004). Can assessment by teachers be a dependable option for summative purposes? Paper presented at General Teaching Council for England Conference, 29 November, 2004, London. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012a). Definition of school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/SBA/HKDSE/Eng_ DVD/sba_definition.html Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012b). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education examination: Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013a). Booklet on HKDSE examination - Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www. hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_ pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013b). Subject information on SBA. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/SBA/sba_hkdse/SBA_timetable.html Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union. (2013).〈新高中問卷調查結果發布(2013)〉. Retrieved from http://www.hkptu.org/8896 39 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Kerr-Phillips, F. (2007, August). School-based assessment: The need, the reality, the future: A perspective from the independent examinations board of South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.iaea.info/documents/paper_1162d20227.pdf Lee, W. W. C. (2009). The beneficial wash-back of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 8, 18-29. Retrieved from http://edb.org.hk/HKTC/download/journal/j8/(5)HKTCJ08-Article1-2.pdf Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Retrieved from http://www.oecd. org/education/school/34990905.pdf 40 Questionnaire for School Heads / Deputy Heads (SH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear School Heads / Deputy Heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the school’s internal assessment. 2. The school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. Appendix 41 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 5. Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 6. The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing). 7. The school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 8. The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation. 9. The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results. 42 Questionnaire for Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the internal assessment in my KLA/subject. 2. My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors. 43 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 5. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 6. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 7. Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 8. Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 9. My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. 44 Questionnaire for Teachers Teaching S4 (T4) and S6 (T6) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear teachers, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee School-based Assessment (SBA) [Items 1-4 are applicable to all S4 teachers except for Mathematics teachers] [Items 1-11 are only applicable to S6 teachers who are mainly teaching the subjects that SBA will be implemented in 2012] 1. I support School- based Assessment (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently. 45 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 2. My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations. 4. SBA enables students to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. 5. I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning. 6. I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 46 To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 7. I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 8. I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 9. I have clearly explained to students how the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) moderates the SBA scores in my school. 10. I can handle the workload brought about by SBA. 11. So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly. 47 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong For T4 only When I teach S5 in the coming school year, I am confident that I can… H ig hl y no t c on fid en t N ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly n ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly c on fid en t C on fid en t H ig hl y co nfi de nt 12. design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning. 13. clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 14. clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 15. clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school. 16. handle the workload brought about by SBA. 48 香港新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核 麥陳淑賢 香港中文大學教育學院 課程與教學學系 摘要 校本評核為進展性評估模式之一,透過回饋及評估學生專題研習的表現,讓學生了 解自己的弱項並加以改善,亦幫助教師調整教學策略(OECD, 2005)。校本評核就 大部份高中科目而言仍屬新概念,然而自 2009年推行新學制以來,校本評核已納 入新高中課程;其成效在香港、以致世界各地均備受爭議。本研究引用 2011-12年 度新高中課程實施調查研究數據(涵蓋 91所香港中學),探討學校管理及教學人 員對校本評核的觀點。 關鍵詞 校本評核,進展性評估,新高中課程,課程改革,香港教育 49 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man Educational Research Sub-committee, Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Abstract Students in Hong Kong show a widening range of learning abilities in secondary school as shown, for instance, by their performance in the Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination which was introduced in 2012 together with the 3-year New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum. This study examines how far their diverse learning needs have been catered for. Information was collected from the heads of core subjects from a large variety of schools through an online questionnaire survey. Findings include that catering for learning diversity is beset by problems such as resource shortage, the infrequent use of enquiry-oriented teaching methods and independent learning strategies as well as weaknesses in assessment arrangements in spite of considerable progress in extending learning opportunities outside the classroom. Concerted efforts must be taken by teachers, school heads and the government to improve the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in such ways that students irrespective of learning ability can benefit. Ways to rectify the situation include the reduction of teacher workload and provision of additional manpower, continuous curriculum review with far more teacher input, production of handy and up-to-date material resources, modification of teaching approaches and reforming of the examination so that it can really help to enhance learning rather than just its measurement. Keywords learning diversity, New Senior Secondary curriculum, Diploma in Secondary Education examination, questionnaire survey, teaching strategies 50 Introduction Primary school graduates in Hong Kong seeking admission to public-sector secondary education are allocated to three academic bands according to their scores in internal examinations and their schools’ overall performance in the preceding three years (Education Bureau [EDB], 2011). Within the same band, however, considerable differences in learning ability do exist. Differences in the mastery of knowledge are likely to widen both within and between groups as more subjects have to be studied in junior secondary school. They are becoming more obvious in the senior secondary from 2009 onwards because of the requirement for all students to complete a 3-year NSS curriculum instead of the 2-year Certificate of Education (CE) course. The more academic nature of senior schooling for all and the implementation of the policies of “catering for diversities” and “integrating disabled and low ability children in an inclusive environment” in a majority of schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005) are the reasons that are responsible. Teachers have to devote more attention to helping the more able develop further and the increasing numbers of below-average students to do well in the DSE examination (e.g. Chan, 2010), which by nature is more demanding than its predecessor in format, subject content and learning skills. Now that the first two cycles of the DSE examination are over and the trend of learning diversity is clear. Only 37.7% and 34.5% of the candidates in 2012 and 2013 could meet the university requirements of level 3 in Chinese and English and level 2 in Mathematics and Liberal Studies (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a, 2013). The respective proportions of students who could attain passes (at level 2) in these core subjects were 79.2%, 79.3%, 79.7% and 90.8% in 2012 and 80.3%, 78.1%, 80.7% and 88.0% in 2013 (HKEAA, 2012a, 2013). Given the substantial variations in performance, finding how far the diverse learning needs of NSS students have been catered for becomes imperative. This study is an attempt to do so with respect to resource provision, teaching and learning strategies and continuous assessment practices. The case with the core subjects is examined because students have to pass in all of them (and at least in one elective subject) before they are considered as having completed their secondary education successfully. Review of literature Diversity in learning ability In the literature, learning diversity is generally taken as the presence of variations in learning ability among students receiving the same type of education (Ackerman, Kyllonen & Roberts, 1999; Wu, Tu, Wu, Le & Reynolds, 2012). Its occurrence in the realm of academic knowledge is considered a function of both innate, inherited traits and everyday educational experience (e.g. Biggs & Moore, 1993; James, 2006; Jonassen & Grabowski, 51 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study 2011). The latter is probably more important than the former as it can be improved through the use of appropriate teaching strategies that are supported by well endowed resources and stimulating learning activities (Means, Chelemer & Knapp, 1991; Tomlinson, 2001). With their extensive classroom experience and understanding of students’ strengths and weaknesses, teachers are in the best position to reduce learning diversity (Chappuis, 2009), for instance, by giving individual attention to the weaker ones and helping students analyse practice papers from the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) two months ahead of the first DSE examination in late March 2012. Coping with learning diversity To begin with, teachers faced with the daunting problems of meeting varying needs and paces of learning in the same classroom do require support from a wide variety of school and community resources (Curriculum Development Council, 2009). Besides the hardware and software resources available in classrooms, schools should have additional manpower and plans to cater for the enrichment needs of higher achievers (such as stargazing and learning the elements of astronomy in physics, and debating in language subjects) and help the less capable ones to catch up (such as in the solution of simultaneous equations in mathematics). Even if resources are readily available, one size cannot fit all. To cater for learning diversity, writers have identified a variety of teaching skills that are required besides those suitable for the average student. For weaker ones, teachers for instance could make significant adaptations to classroom programmes, curriculum content, teaching and learning processes and even provide tailored plans that can help them rekindle their interest and confidence (e.g. Winebrenner, 1996; Westwood, 2008). For the talented and gifted then, a mastery of acceleration (e.g. offering guidance to the most able promoted to a higher class level or more advanced group), curriculum compacting (e.g. cutting out unnecessary drills and organising appropriate extension work instead), expert grouping (e.g. helping the more able ones develop further insights on a research topic), cluster grouping (e.g. providing specialised programmes at a central point for high-ability students from different schools) and mentoring (i.e. enabling capable students to learn after outside experts) and other appropriate methods are useful for helping them to learn faster and at more advanced levels than the average (Biggs & Moore, 1993; Winebrenner, 1992; Goodhew, 2009). Language teachers were called on to understand students’ personal stories before setting out to teach for instance (McDaniel, 2010). In a related context, Roland (2010) invited them to consider differentiated teaching as serving a buffet that could meet the criteria of variety, quality, balance and attractiveness for students at various ability levels. As Tomlinson (2001) has summarised, teachers should plan and teach with respect to student readiness, interest and needs. Even if their learning needs are well catered for, 52 students may obtain widely different scores in tests and examinations of the same scope and format. Although it is neither easy to close this performance gap nor simply to narrow it down, teachers should at least help all to score higher than what they are used to have (c.f. the aim of the United States No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2001) (Wiliam, 2006). Assessment has a key role here for helping the more able maximise their potential and the less able to make up for lost grounds (Chappuis, 2009). The role of assessment on checking learning diversity Testing students on a broad range of aspects (e.g. listening, speaking, reading and writing in language subjects) and at higher frequencies is considered an effective way of helping teachers understand better how much has been learnt by everyone and the improvements that are needed individually and by each ability group (Berry, 2008). Instead of concentrating on written work, teachers can identify with students more aspects or forms for assessment, such as skills in model-making, recording and video production as well as the delivery of oral presentations (Davies, Herbst & Reynolds, 2011). If appropriate feedback is given and due action is taken, assessment of learning that simply measures how much students have learnt can be changed into assessment for learning that helps everyone (Black & Wiliam, 2006a) to improve (albeit not necessarily at the same pace) and the more able to learn beyond the confines of the lesson (c.f. Black & Wiliam, 2006b). The lesson that can be learnt from the literature is that assessing students in a wider range of format not only could measure diverse learning abilities more effectively but also could encourage those who are otherwise lagging in one aspect or another to develop their potential further instead of giving up altogether. Methodology and instruments A multi-stage process was followed to determine how the teachers of core NSS subjects had been coping with learning diversity and preparing students for the public examination. The methodology and instruments used were developed by the researchers in early 2011. The consensus reached thereby about the scope of data needed was used to develop a framework for investigation and focus-group discussions in June with representatives from relevant subject organisations on the membership list of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. Questionnaires for teachers were designed and refined according to the results. Respondents were asked about their personal and school backgrounds, resource provision, use of teaching strategies and the arrangements for helping students to do better in the curriculum and examination. Unlike those for the three other subjects, the one for Mathematics asked how learning would be affected by the absence of school- based assessment (SBA) as stipulated for the foreseeable future. Versions in Chinese and English were administered to the teachers of Mathematics and Liberal Studies because their subjects could be studied and examined in one of the two languages. 53 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Data collection began with a series of pilot tests and further amendments in early 2012. A covering letter was sent in mid-April to secondary schools offering NSS curriculum (N=514) to explain the aim of the study and invite the heads of the core subjects to complete the survey through a hyperlink to the website HYPERLINK “http:// www.my3q.com” www.my3q.com within three weeks. Responses from the six groups of subject heads concerned (including those of Mathematics and Liberal Studies teaching in English or Chinese) were uploaded onto Microsoft Excel files and processed with the Statistics for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program (Stern, 2010; Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner & Barrett, 2011). The specific functions that were run included FREQUENCIES and DESCRIPTIVES for identifying general patterns and the mean, minima, maxima and standard deviation values of responses, CROSSTABS for determining whether pairs of variables were related, and CORRELATE for assessing the strength and direction of relationships (Muijs, 2011). Results School, student and teacher backgrounds Respondents to the questionnaire survey varied substantially in numbers across subjects, from 63 (out of 514) teachers each of English and Chinese to 90 (out of 514) teachers of Mathematics teaching in either language. All of them had long teaching experiences of 11 years or more. Unlike the others, Liberal Studies teachers had fewer than five years in their subject as it was only an elective offered in about 25% of schools at the Advanced Supplementary level before 2009. Training could be considered sufficient overall as the numbers of teachers who had taken the respective curriculum and assessment courses (e.g. 7.7 in Liberal Studies (EMI) on average) were greater than the numbers of student groups concerned (5.6). Most of them were teaching in co-educational aided schools sponsored by a variety of religious, welfare and community organisations (cf. Table 1). Students completing the NSS curriculum in 2011-12 had been allocated to their classes mostly by their performance in Chinese, English and Mathematics in Form 3 in the academic year 2008-09. The majority of schools were running five classes of Form 4 to Form 6 for this first NSS cohort. However, the mean number of groups in each school was about six in the case of Liberal Studies because of the availability of a government grant to employ one additional teacher for facilitating teaching in smaller classes. 54 Table 1: Responses about background information English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. School by type of sponsorship 1 = Aided; 2 = Government; 3 = Direct subsidy scheme Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. School by the sex of students 1 = Boys; 2 = Girls; 3 = Co-educational Mode = 3 N = 59 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode =3 3. Overall teaching experience 1 = 0 – 5 years; 2 = 6 – 10 years 3 = 11 –15 years; 4 = 16 – 20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.2 Mode = 5 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 4. Teaching experience in this subject 1 = 0-5 years; 2 = 6-10 years 3 = 11-15 years; 4 = 16-20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.0 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 1.7 Mode =1 Mean = 0.9 Mode = 1 5. No. of years with Liberal Studies at the Advanced Supplementary Level N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. Mean = 4.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 6. Mean no. of classes (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) Mean =3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.3 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 4 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode =5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 7. Mean no. of groups (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) 4.7 4.7 4.6 N = 59 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.9 4.9 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.6 8. Streaming of F3 students into F4 by 1 = Overall rank; 2 = Performance in Chin., Eng. & Maths.; 3 = other criteria Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 9. Mean no. of Form 6 teachers this year Mean no. of Form 6 students this year Mean no. of Form 6 classes this year Mean no. of Form 6 groups this year 5.1 156 5.0 5.0 N = 59 4.7 157 4.8 5.1 1.8 167 5.0 4.9 1.8 167 4.6 4.8 5.1 153 4.7 5.7 5.1 149 4.5 5.6 10. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic curriculum course in this subject Mean = 8.5 Mode = 4 N = 58 Mean = 8.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 5.7 Mode = 6 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 11. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic assessment course in this subject Mean = 7.5 Mode = 5 N = 57 Mean = 7.8 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 7.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. 55 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Provision of educational resources In spite of the need to minimize learning diversity in the core subjects, most of the schools had provided extra resources on an equal-sharing basis (cf. mode = 1 across row 1; mode = 3 across row 2, Table 2). The use of extra teachers, multimedia or other teaching materials and outside service support was less frequent than the deployment of teaching assistants (as in the cases of Chinese Language, Liberal Studies (CMI) and Liberal Studies (EMI); see row 4(b)) presumably because of funding constraints. Table 2: Responses about the provision of educational resources English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has your school provided extra resources to the subject to cater for learning diversity? 1 = Yes; 2 = No Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. The extra resources are 1 = provided to weaker students only 2 = provided to top students only 3 = equally shared among all students N = 52 Mode = 3 N = 39 Mode = 3 N = 27 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 N = 41 Mode = 3 N = 12 Mode = 3 3. No. of types of other resources provided to the subject Mean = 1.5 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.8 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.1 Mode = 1 4. Types of other resources provided to the subject (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (a) Extra teachers (b) Extra teaching assistants (c) Extra multimedia or other teaching materials (d) Outside service support Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. Teaching and learning strategies The most common activities held recently to enhance teaching quality were drama, opera and movie shows for the two language subjects, writing contests for EMI Liberal Studies and visits for Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies (row 1, Table 3). Liberal Studies teachers and Mathematics teachers had organised study trips or visits since Secondary 5 more often than others (row 2). More students who were weaker in English Language and EMI Liberal Studies had benefitted from these enhancement activities (row 3) than students who were weaker in Mathematics (both through EMI and CMI). 56 Table 3: Responses about enrichment activities in teaching English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Most recent type of activity held to enhance the teaching of the subject Drama / opera / movie N = 31 Drama / opera / movie N = 7 Visit N = 6 Museum visit N = 37 Visit Writing course 2. How often has your panel organised trips or visits since F5 to enhance the teaching of the subject? 1 = Very often; 2 = Often; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Occasionally; 5 = Rarely or none N = 62 Mean = 4.3 N = 57 Mean = 4.0 N = 42 Mean = 1.5 N = 41 Mean = 1.4 N = 62 Mean = 3.6 N = 62 Mean = 1.1 3. Have the trips or visits helped the weaker students to enhance their learning? (5 = Very much so; 1 = Not at all) Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 2.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 3.0 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.3 Mode = 5 The implementation of the NSS curriculum has led to the use of new strategies (row 1, Table 4). CMI Liberal Studies teachers recorded the use of much more strategies than other teachers (e.g. 2.1 vs. 1.1 each by English Language and Chinese Language teachers; row 2). Amongst the range of recommendations by the EDB (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007a, 2007b, 2007c & 2007d), team teaching was the most widely employed one while peer lesson preparation, project learning and small group teaching methods were used at similarly lower frequencies (row 3). All teachers except those of Liberal Studies in EMI schools reported the use of strategies to cope with individual differences within their subjects (row 5). For this purpose, strategies like curriculum tailoring and tutorials were practised at similarly higher frequencies than the others. Cooperative learning was the least widely used overall especially in the case with Chinese Language (row 5). More new strategies (2.2) were employed in CMI Liberal Studies than in other subjects and in EMI Liberal Studies (0.8) in particular (row 6). Meanwhile, the NSS curriculum has succeeded in extending the focus of study from textbooks to other materials in Liberal Studies (CMI and EMI) much more than in other subjects. It had much less effect on Mathematics (CMI and EMI) in this regard (row 7) as well as on time-tabling across all subjects (row 9). Learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered to greater extents in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other core subjects (row 8). 57 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Table 4: Use of new strategies by teachers English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has the NSS curriculum led to new strategies for teaching this subject in the school? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 2. Mean number of new strategies employed 1.1 1.1 0.6 N = 42 0.5 2.1 0.0 3. What are these new strategies? (a) Team teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (b) Peer lesson preparation (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (c) Project learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (d) Small group teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (e) Others (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1.2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 N = 42 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 4. Are there teaching strategies to cope with individual differences in the subject? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 5. What are these strategies for coping with individual differences in the subject? (a) Streaming (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 N = 43 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (b) Tailor-made curricula (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (c) Co-operative learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (d) Tutorials (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 (e) Others Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 6. Mean number of teaching strategies for individual differences 1.7 N = 59 1.4 1.2 N = 43 1.3 2.2 0.8 7. Has the NSS curriculum led to a shift in focus from textbooks to other materials? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 58 English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 8. Has the NSS curriculum encouraged your students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 9. Has the NSS curriculum led to flexible time-tabling arrangements in your subject? (1 = Yes, 2 = No) Mode = 2 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. The following pairs of statistically significant relationships between teaching strategies and resource provision are worthy of investigation (Appendix 1): (a) The frequency of organising trips or visits to enhance the teaching of the subject was significantly related to and even dependent on (i) the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students if Liberal Studies was taught in English (item 1), and (ii) the number of types or resources provided in the case of the students of English, EMI Liberal Studies and EMI Mathematics (item 2). Significant relationships between pairs of variables warranting further analysis were also found in the following (Appendix 2): (b) The number of new strategies for teaching the subject was (i) significantly related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 3), and (ii) significantly related to the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the case of English Language (item 4). (c) The number of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was (i) significantly related to the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 5), and (ii) significantly related to or even dependent on the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and CMI Liberal Studies (item 6). 59 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study (d) In the case of English Language, whether the NSS curriculum could lead to the use of new teaching strategies was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 8). (e) In the case of EMI Liberal Studies, (i) whether the NSS curriculum could bring a shift in focus from textbooks to other forms of learning and teaching materials was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 9), and (ii) whether the NSS curriculum could encourage EMI Liberal Studies students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 10). (f) The use of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (item 11). (g) Whether the NSS curriculum could encourage students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was significantly related to or even dependent on the shift in focus from textbooks to other materials in the cases of English Language, EMI Liberal Studies and CMI Mathematics (item 12). Continuous assessment A hallmark of the first two cycles of the NSS curriculum (2009-12 and 2012-13) is the requirement for students of English, Chinese and Liberal Studies to be assessed six times internally in prescribed areas through their second and final years of senior schooling and their scores sent to HKEAA prior to the start of the written examinations. The two most common forms of this school-based assessment (SBA) exercise were project work and internal tests. Mathematics does not have any SBA requirement although continuous assessment is still encouraged (CDC & HKEAA, 2007e, 2007f). A majority of teachers had taken courses offered by the EDB or other professional training institutes on updating their knowledge of the related assessment frameworks (row 15, Table 5). Their rating about the easiness and fairness of SBA was due to (i) similarity in the difficulty of assessment for all students and (iv) the marking of assignments by different teachers (rows 5 and 6). Teachers of English and CMI Liberal Studies also attributed their ratings to (ii) the dependence of student training on their relative performance, (iii) streaming of students by academic level and (iv) teaching of classes/ students by the same teacher. Teachers except those of EMI Liberal Studies reported a lack of preparation materials for students (row 2). The mean number of supporting items named 60 by teachers ranged from 1.5 in Chinese Language to 2.2 in CMI Liberal Studies only (row 3). Materials provided by the EDB, HKEAA and other organisations were used more often than others. In terms of usefulness then, reference exercises ranked highest among English, EMI Mathematics and EMI Liberal Studies teachers (row 4). Sample papers were regarded as more useful than others for preparing students to take the examinations in Chinese Language, CMI Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies. SBA for English, Chinese and Liberal Studies was generally considered by teachers as a fair but difficult procedure for their students (row 6 and row 5). This trend was especially noticeable in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (with the mean value equal to 3.9). The large amount of time needed was the main reason for making it a problem in Chinese Language and Liberal Studies (row 16). The assessment of listening, reading, writing, speaking and integrated skills in English Language was considered a challenge (row 12) for students. 61 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 1. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f co m pl ex ity to w ar ds th e da ily a ss es sm en t in y ou r s ub je ct a t t he N SS le ve l? 1 = m uc h le ss c om pl ic at ed ; 5 = m uc h m or e co m pl ic at ed M od e = 4 N = 6 0 M od e = 4 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 4 M od e = 4 2. A re th er e en ou gh su pp or t m at er ia ls fo r st ud en ts in p re pa rin g fo r t he ir H K D SE ex am ? (1 = e no ug h; 2 = n ot e no ug h) M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 1 3. W ha t a re th os e su pp or t m at er ia ls ? (1 = us ed ; 2 = n ot u se d) M ea n N = 5 9 M ea n M ea n N = 4 2 M ea n M ea n M ea n Sa m pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 55 0. 6 R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 58 0. 7 Sc ho ol -b as ed m at er ia ls 0. 6 0. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 0. 8 0. 70 0. 8 R ef er en ce b oo ks 0. 6 0. 6 1. 6( N = 4 4) 0. 6 0. 72 1. 0 O th er m at er ia ls su pp lie d by E D B 0. 6 0. 6 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 0. 75 1. 1 M at er ia ls p ro vi de d by o th er b od ie s 0. 8 0. 8 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 1. 04 1. 1 M ea n no . o f t yp es o f s up po rti ng m at er ia ls u se d 1. 6 1. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 1. 6 2. 2 1. 9 4. W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g m at er ia ls o r pr og ra m m es is m os t u se fu l f or p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e H K D SE e xa m ? (“ us ef ul ” in th e qu es tio nn ai re s f or te ac he rs o f C hi ne se L an gu ag e, C M I Li be ra l S tu di es a nd C M I M at he m at ic s) 1 = S am pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 2 = R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 3 = R ef er en ce b oo ks 4 = T ea ch er tr ai ni ng fr om E D B 5 = O th er s M ea n no . o f u se fu l m at er ia ls fo r p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e D SE N = 6 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N = 5 9 1. 0 1. 1 1. 4 1. 5 1. 8 2. 4 N = 4 4 1. 5 1. 6 2. 0 2. 0 2. 0 1. 5 N = 4 3 M ea n = 1. 5 N = 5 3 1. 1 1. 1 1. 4 1. 6 1. 8 2. 3 M ea n = 1. 9 62 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 5. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e ea si ne ss o f im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed a ss es sm en t fo r y ou r s tu de nt s? ( 1 = ve ry e as y; 5 = v er y di ffi cu lt) M ea n = 3. 5 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 6 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 9 M ea n = 2. 4 6. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e fa irn es s o f cu rr en t s ch oo l-b as ed a ss es sm en t pr oc ed ur es fo r s tu de nt s i n yo ur sc ho ol ? ( 1 = ex tre m el y un fa ir; 5 = e xt re m el y fa ir) M ea n = 3. 1 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 5 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M ea n = 3. 2 7. T he re as on s f or th e ab ov e ra tin g ar e (a ) 1= Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s ta ilo r-m ad e. 2 = Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s th e sa m e am on g al l s tu de nt s M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 (b ) 1 = T he tr ai ni ng fo r s tu de nt s i s t he sa m e. 2 = Th e tra in in g fo r s tu de nt s i s de pe nd en t o n th ei r r el at iv e pe rf or m an ce . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 (c ) 1 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y th ei r ac ad em ic le ve l. 2 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y an ot he r cr ite rio n. M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (d ) 1 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y di ffe re nt te ac he rs . 2 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y th e sa m e te ac he rs . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (e ) 1 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by o ne te ac he r. 2 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by di ffe re nt te ac he rs . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 63 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 8. W ha t k in d of c on tin uo us a ss es sm en ts h as yo ur sc ho ol p ro vi de d? (a ) U ni fo rm te st s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) A ss es sm en t o f c la ss w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 4 1. 5 N .A . N .A . (c ) R eg ul ar q ui zz es (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (d ) Pr oj ec t w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 9 N .A . N .A . (e ) O nl in e as se ss m en t ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 8 N .A . N .A . (f ) O th er s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 2. 0 2. 1 N .A . N .A . 9. Is th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k cl ea r en ou gh ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 10 . C an th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k en ha nc e le ar ni ng ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n = 1. 1 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 11 . Th e pu bl ic e xa m in at io n as se ss es a bi lit ie s in L is te ni ng , R ea di ng , W rit in g, S pe ak in g an d In te gr at ed S ki lls . H as y ou r s ch oo l pr ov id ed e xt ra tr ai ni ng o pp or tu ni tie s f or te ac he rs to u pd at e th ei r u nd er st an di ng o f th e ne w a ss es sm en t f ra m ew or k in th es e ar ea s? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 12 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra nk th e di ffi cu lty o f SB A in y ou r s ub je ct ? (1 = m os t d iffi cu lt; 5 = le as t d iffi cu lt) (a ) Li st en in g (b ) R ea di ng (c ) W rit in g (d ) Sp ea ki ng (e ) In te gr at ed S ki lls M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 13 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e pr es su re on te ac he rs fr om th e sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t o f I nd ep en de nt E nq ui ry St ud ie s ( IE S) ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 4. 5 M od e = 5 M ea n = 4. 4 M od e = 5 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 64 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 14 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f di ffi cu lty o f s et tin g in te rn al e xa m in at io n qu es tio ns ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M od e = 3 M ea n = 3. 4 M od e = 3 15 . H ow m an y pe rc en t o f t ea ch er s i n yo ur pa ne l h ad a lre ad y ta ke n th e as se ss m en t- re la te d tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s? 1 = 0 -2 5% ; 2 = 2 6- 50 % ; 3 = 51 -7 5% ; 4 = 7 6- 10 0% M od e = 4 M od e = 4 N .A . N .A . M od e = 3 M od e = 4 16 . W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g is th e m os t im po rta nt re as on fo r m ak in g SB A di ffi cu lt? 1 = La ck o f s up po rt fu nd in g 2 = La ck o f s up pl em en ta ry re fe re nc e fo r te ac he rs 3 = La ck o f t ra in in g fo r t ea ch er s 4 = D iv er si fie d ab ili tie s o f s tu de nt s 5 = H ig h de m an d on st ud en ts 6 = La rg e am ou nt o f t im e ne ed ed M od e = 1 M od e = 6 N .A . N .A . M od e = 6 M od e = 6 17 . W ha t a re th e ad va nt ag es o f n o SB A o n te ac he rs a nd st ud en ts o f t hi s s ub je ct ? (a ) Th er e is m or e fle xi bi lit y in cu rr ic ul um p la nn in g. (1 = Y es , 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n 1. 4 M ea n 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) S tu de nt s’ pr es su re c an b e re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 1 (c ) T ea ch er s h av e m or e tim e to p ro vi de su ita bl e tra in in g fo r d iff er en t st ud en ts . ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) 1. 3 1. 2 (d ) T ea ch er s’ da ily w or kl oa d ca n be re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 2 (e ) T he sc ho ol c an im pl em en t b et te r- fo cu ss ed su pp or t t ow ar ds p re pa ra tio n fo r t he p ub lic e xa m in at io n. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 2 2 1. 3 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 65 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 18 . N o. o f a dv an ta ge s o f n o SB A in th is su bj ec t N .A . N .A . 3. 9 4 N .A . N .A . 19 . M ea n no . o f c om m en ts p er te ac he r ab ou t t he N SS c ur ric ul um a nd D SE ex am in at io n N = 2 6 4. 5 N = 5 9 2. 7 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 2 4 4. 2 N = 6 4. 8 T he n um be r of te ac he rs w ith a v al id r ep ly to e ac h ite m is g iv en b y th e nu m be r N f or th e su bj ec t c on ce rn ed u nl es s st at ed o th er w is e. T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 66 Teachers of Mathematics need not administer SBA in their subject. They could name four advantages for this arrangement, with the reduction in teacher workload and reduction in pressure on students being the two most common (row 18, Table 5). English and EMI Liberal Studies gave far more negative comments about SBA. Statistically significant relationships warranting further investigation were found as follows (Appendix 3): (a) The degree of easiness in implementing school-based assessment was related to and dependent on complexity in daily procedures in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and EMI Liberal Studies. In the case of CMI Liberal Studies, the relationship was significant but the former variable was not dependent on the latter (item 13). (b) The degree of fairness for implementing school-based assessment in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on complexity in the assessment process (item 14). (c) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Listening (item 15) and Speaking (item 18) in English Language was dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (d) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Reading (item 16) and Writing (row 17) in English Language was related to but not dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (e) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Speaking in English Language was related to but not dependent on the proportion of teachers who had taken the assessment-related courses offered by EDB or other professional training institutes (item 28). (f) The pressure on teachers from the SBA of Independent Enquiry Studies projects in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on the proportion of teachers trained in assessment (item 30). Discussion School, student and teacher backgrounds Although no sampling has been made to invite teachers for participation in this study, the profiles of schools and teachers’ experience obtained are generally compatible with official statistics. Similarities can also be found in the mean number of Form 4 and Form 6 teachers, students, classes and groups, the criteria for streaming Form 3 students into Form 4, and the numbers of teachers who had completed the subject-based curriculum and assessment courses. In the light of these trends, the questionnaire replies can be taken as 67 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study representative of the views of NSS teachers although allowance should be taken for those of the non-respondents. Provision of educational resources Teachers’ responses suggest that educational resources are often insufficient especially if additional manpower is concerned and marked learning diversity does exist in the class. The situation is especially critical in the first few years of the NSS curriculum which emphasises the use of new teaching approaches, coverage of academic content at greater depth and breadth and the implementation of school-based assessments in a majority of subjects. The EDB had offered a teacher professional preparation grant and a curriculum migration grant to all schools but they were to be shared by all subjects. Special resources have been provided in Liberal Studies in view of the numerous controversial issues for in-depth analysis and the need for providing guidance on the completion of an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). However, no similar manpower or hardware support is available to other core subjects probably because they have long existed in the curriculum. This situation is hardly satisfactory in view of the intensive preparations needed for SBA in Chinese and English and the higher demands for students in Mathematics when compared with those of the CE examination that has been replaced. More efforts are certainly required for helping students master basic academic skills (e.g. communication, application and computation), more advanced problem-solving techniques and higher-order questions. Teaching and learning strategies Teachers in general have taken steps to cater for learning diversity in the classes through the use of appropriate teaching strategies without sufficient support in spite of the importance given to educational resources by writers in the literature section. Questionnaire responses revealed that drama, opera and movie shows, writing contests and visits were often used for enhancing teaching quality and facilitating in-depth learning. This trend could be beneficial to students who were weaker in writing as well as students who were weaker in oral presentations as both groups were given more opportunities to learn how to express themselves and interact with others in a variety of real-life situations. Whilst team teaching was often used in the classroom, peer lesson preparation was used at much lower frequencies. This finding is surprising in view of the close relationship between these two strategies. However, it might be a reflection of the need to be pragmatic when teachers had little interaction time inside the staff room amidst a heavy workload, or that cooperation among them had long been running smooth. On average, the use of strategies which emphasized class discussion, debate and other forms of collaborative learning in the core subjects with the advent of the NSS curriculum and the DSE examination was still limited. 68 To cope with learning diversity amongst students, teachers were often making more use of curriculum tailoring and tutorials than streaming and cooperative learning procedures possibly because of the lower degree of organisation and monitoring needed. Mathematics teachers (CMI and EMI) were the less frequent users of new strategies overall and for coping with individual differences in particular. The facts that school-based assessment was not required in their subject unlike the cases with English, Chinese and Liberal Studies and that individual differences were less marked here might be the reasons for this trend. Because of its issues-based nature, Liberal Studies is a subject which requires the interpretation and analysis of news and commentaries available in a variety of publications and electronic media (Deng 2009). Many teachers had accordingly changed the focus of study from textbooks to other materials to greater extents than their colleagues. In a similar vein, learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered more in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other subjects probably because of the higher priority accorded to learning directly from other peoples (like visitors from other countries), local community figures (like legislative councillors) and various organisations (such as news firms and environmental groups). Meanwhile, teachers of CMI Liberal Studies were the more frequent users of these new strategies than their colleagues in EMI schools probably because of the need to spend more time on teaching in English and worries about students’ ability to discuss controversial issues with insight in a second language. It is difficult for teachers to organise visits, overseas tours or other out-of-campus activities for their NSS students during school days in view of the disruption to the other classes and difficulties in finding appropriate substitute teachers. The urge to complete the syllabus and allow sufficient time for revision work before the mock examination could make the problem worse. Teachers also need more time to analyse past exam and sample papers with students and assess how far the goals of learning and assessment laid down in the curriculum and assessment guides for the subjects have been achieved. The impact of the NSS curriculum on the flexibility of time-tabling arrangements was minimal after all for these reasons because teachers have to spend more time on identifying the gaps and modifying their teaching and assessment strategies accordingly. Meanwhile, an increasing range of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities has been organised for NSS students in many schools in recent years. To improve their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is a useful step in this direction. Study tours should be also improved so that students can participate in at least one during their senior years and thereby get more diversified learning experiences irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. 69 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Continuous assessment The majority of teachers, especially those of English Language, Chinese Language and Liberal Studies, were concerned about the lack of preparation materials for continuous assessments as well as the written examination. These feelings were understandable given that they were not too familiar with the new curriculum and students who would otherwise be siphoned off by the Certificate of Education system could now proceed to Form 6 and face the more demanding DSE examination. In many cases, the only materials that could be relied upon were the sample questions released in early 2010 and the exercises first available in September 2011. Many teachers could not well estimate the number of marks required for getting a pass or any other specified grade and thereby decide on how and how much to teach and assess. Even after the release of practice papers in January 2012, their worries about marking standards and the amount of preparation needed had not been much allayed, as could be inferred from a press statement issued by the HKEAA (2012b). English, Chinese and Liberal Studies are the subjects which require school-based assessments. The teachers concerned in general felt that the notion of SBA was fair because the validity and reliability of assessment could be enhanced if more aspects of learning (say, oral presentation besides writing skills) were considered and especially if marking and moderation for all classes were done by two or more teachers. They were in agreement with the view in the literature that wider-ranging assessments could encourage weaker students to learn and give due consideration to their overall abilities. However, in spite of holding such a consensus, they considered SBA difficult to implement effectively even after completing the courses run or commissioned by the HKEAA. More focussed training and workshop programmes are surely needed so that teachers can help students of diverse abilities to overcome the challenges presented by overly broad and challenging subject content and skills especially in aspects of assessment in which students have insufficient confidence (such as in the oral section of the English Language examination; cf. HKEAA, 2010). Mathematics teachers were more relaxed in their responses about continuous assessment probably because of the absence of an SBA requirement. However, they still gave many negative comments (about 2.6 per person) such as concern about time shortage, calls for the establishment of modules M1 and M2 as a separate subject and dissent with the introduction of SBA to their subject agenda. Teachers of English Language and Liberal Studies (EMI) were more vociferous. Together they gave an average of 4.5 to 4.8 comments which described SBA as too time-consuming, tedious, dysfunctional for promoting critical and analytical thinking, too demanding on medium- and lower-ability students, and creating too much workload for teachers and panel heads. Teachers overall were not receptive of SBA at least in its present format. Many of their calls were a mix of downscaling and outright abolition, ridiculing the official description of SBA as a normal part of the curriculum rather than an add-on process (CDC & HKEAA, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2007d, 2007e, 2007f) in the course of teaching and learning. 70 Suggestions Student-oriented teaching, independent learning and continuous assessment are the three new features of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination that could help weaker students to perform better and even narrow their gap with the more capable. The first two can facilitate the mastery of enquiry skills while the last can motivate students to study harder at all times and provide a basis for teachers to modify their approaches whenever warranted. Unfortunately, students in face of heavy workload may easily lose sight of what the focus of the curriculum is. The assessment burden may become so great that teachers cannot spend enough time on everyday curriculum planning and the upgrading of teaching quality. This study overall does suggest that learning diversity at the NSS level has not been well catered for hitherto, like what Lam (2008) has observed of three student communities in a mainstream Hong Kong school. A multi-faceted approach is needed for redressing the weaknesses and ensuring the successful implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination. For overburdened teachers, the provision of additional manpower is essential because only by then could they spend more time on catering for learning diversities. To enhance the quality of teaching and student interaction during the lesson, the numbers of students should be reduced to a maximum of 30 in the more capable classes and 20 in the less able. Reducing the size of less able classes can give more opportunities to teachers finding the difficulties which their students are facing and the ways needed for addressing them. Streaming procedures that create a balance of abilities with the more able accounting for a high proportion (say, 40% to 50%) in the class should be practised if its possible benefits on students (Glass, 2002) are found to be greater than strict ability grouping procedures. Unduly difficult subject matter, wide coverage of content and skills and a lack of time for revision and self-reflection may encourage teachers to hang onto didactic approaches, students to follow the steps of others indiscriminately if only to play safe, and continuous assessment to become a means for widening the ability gap instead of otherwise. To prevent these undesirable trends from appearing, on-going reviews for the tailoring of subject content and reshaping of examination procedures are needed especially with dynamic curricula like Liberal Studies. To ensure that all students irrespective of ability can benefit, this exercise should be accompanied by efforts for widening and deepening the extent of teacher inputs and competence than what the EDB and HKEAA (Fung, Tang & Chan, 2011) have been doing so far. Many teachers have attributed resource shortage as an obstacle to the implementation of the NSS curriculum. The EDB should coordinate the production of suitable materials by universities, government departments, Quality Education Fund, Hong Kong Education 71 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study City and relevant subject organisations after conducting school surveys at regular intervals. Instead of providing teachers with CD-ROMs and other items that may become quickly outdated, they should give priority to the establishment and updating of websites especially on new subject content, recommended teaching-learning approaches and the use of assessment procedures for the enhancement of learning. Such materials should focus on independent enquiry so that even students of medium or lower ability can learn to identify subject matter of personal interest and investigate issues in a systematic manner. Offering suggestions for the purchase and production of resources that can meet the learning needs of individual classes and students is another essential step forward. The introduction of an equitable system that cares for lower-ability students and less well-endowed schools is also helpful for minimising learning diversity, as what the case with schools in Victoria, Australia has shown (Beeson, 2013). Teaching approaches that neglect the ability and needs of mixed-ability classes can be stumbling blocks for improving the effectiveness of learning. Teachers can help the more capable ones explore into complicated areas and advanced concepts and master the skills for independent enquiry by using reflective and application-oriented approaches such as brainstorming, report writing, interviews and debates. Encouraging these students to join enrichment programmes offered by the universities and the Academy for Gifted Education is useful in this regard. Such programmes can be made more valuable by listening carefully to teachers’ views and increasing the number of students who are served. As for the weaker ones, priority should be given to approaches which can help them analyse knowledge and clarify misconceptions, such as group tutorials, tailor-made exercises, simulation games and role plays (e.g. Dowson 2007; Hue 2007). Meanwhile, cartoons and other forms of drawing are particular problems since they can be viewed from different angles like the witch and the beauty scenario. Guidance for students here should focus on the interpretation and comparison of alternative views through a variety of interactive teaching-learning activities. Recent years have also seen sharp increases in the organisation of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities for NSS students in many schools. To enhance their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is useful for this purpose. The organisation of study tours should be improved so that everyone can participate and get more diversified learning experiences in at least one of them during senior school irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. Opportunities for giving detailed insights on oral and written responses in exercises, tests and examinations are often seriously limited because of heavy workload and tight 72 teaching schedules. Teachers in every subject need more training on giving feedback and directions for improvement to students at different ability levels with respect to both the compulsory and extension sections in the curriculum. It is the obligation of the EDB to provide more enrichment courses and encourage teachers to conduct action research into learning diversity within their classes. Organisations like the Quality Education Fund and Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre can help by running award schemes and school authorities may reduce the size or number of classes that the teachers concerned have to teach. Staff development programmes which focus on the sharing of experience with mixed ability classes should also be run to enhance collaboration within the same schools and/or with other schools under similar situations. If only for alleviating the problem of time shortage, EDB and HKEAA should also restructure and tailor the curriculum to include only the essential content and cancel one of the compulsory modules in all popular subjects. Incidentally, holding the written examinations for the core and elective subjects in late April from the third cycle onwards instead of in late March in the first two can also provide more time for enquiry-oriented learning and teaching and the preparation of high-quality projects for school-based assessment. Running supplementary lessons in the post-examination periods in Form 4 and Form 5 is another possibility because teachers would be more relaxed then and students could have more time for learning at greater depth and reflect on their own examination performance during the subsequent summer vacation. As highlighted by Berry (2006) about the role of assessment strategies for teaching and learning, continuous assessment is another area of the curriculum where critical review is needed at regular intervals. To strike a balance between breadth and depth, the EDB and HKEAA should consider the inclusion of SBA in the core subjects only as an elective and make it compulsory for students wishing to obtain higher grades and/or gain access to government-subsidised degree courses in local universities. Like the case of offering a higher grade for English Language students who opt for the more difficult paper in Reading than the easier one, this practice can give advanced students more drive to learn as well as appropriate leeway to who are less able or who are only be seeking a pass grade. As for Mathematics, students should be allowed to study module 1 or module 2 as a separate subject (say, called Further Mathematics) instead of just as an extension of the compulsory part. This arrangement is congruent with the views of questionnaire respondents as well as international practice, such as that in England where Level 5 in DSE Mathematics (Extension) is taken as comparable to Grade A in Mathematics at the GCE Advanced Level (HKEAA, 2012c). It gives more motivation to gifted students to study challenging subject matter (if only for enhancing their chances of admission to science and engineering courses at local and overseas universities), and alleviates the 73 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study burden on the less capable ones in studying a module that is far too advanced. It also reduces the workload of teachers, who can then concentrate on helping the more able to achieve even higher and provide a firm basis for realising their potential in the study of the subject. Their colleagues not teaching Further Mathematics can meanwhile devote themselves to remedial and example classes with those who are less prepared. More workshops should be run to enhance the teaching of compulsory topics in view of the great variations in learning ability involved. Conclusion The New Academic Structure along with the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in Hong Kong has been introduced for good purposes, such as enabling more students to learn at depth before leaving for work, vocational training or proceeding to tertiary education. It seeks to reduce the examination orientation of secondary education and promotes more student-centred, enquiry-based and reflective practices of learning and teaching in schools and classrooms (Quong, 2011). Society as a whole can benefit in the long term as the educational level, creativity and critical thinking ability of the younger generation are raised. Unfortunately, the implementation of New Academic Structure has generated a series of controversies and heated debate both in the educational sector and the general public, ranging from its desirability and date of first implementation at the start, to the worth and content of Liberal Studies as a core NSS subject and the acceptability of DSE qualifications to local and overseas universities. Based on the results and discussion above, it can be concluded that the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in the four core subjects has so far not taken sufficient care of the needs of both the more able and less able. Providing adequate resource support, enhancing a paradigm shift about the nature of school learning, improving the quality of teacher training and conducting critical reviews of both subject matter and assessment methods from time to time are all needed for rectifying the situation and thereby raising the standards of all students even if the ability gap cannot be narrowed down substantially. Continuous monitoring and review of the situation for each of the core and elective major subjects are needed so that more definite and insightful conclusions about the catering of learning diversity can be drawn and more effective solutions can be identified. 74 References Ackerman P., Kyllonen, P. C., & Roberts, R. D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and individual differences: Process, trait, and content determinants. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Beeson, G. (2013). Students with additional needs. In P. 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International Journal of Innovative Interdisciplinary Research, 1(2), 142-150. 78 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es A pp en di x 1 79 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 7. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol H el pf ul ne ss o f tri ps /v is its fo r w ea ke r s tu de nt s to e nh an ce le ar ni ng Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 94 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 28 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 10 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 48 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 27 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .2 36 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 13 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 82 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 9 > 0. 05 8. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um le ad in g to th e us e of n ew st ra te gi es fo r t ea ch in g th e su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 80 5* si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 52 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 37 9 si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 39 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 80 8* si g. = 0 .0 5 Ph i / C ra m er ’s V 0. 28 8* m od es t; si g. = 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 14 .4 07 si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 77 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 41 1 si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 16 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 2 0. 15 si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 45 ve ry m uc h st ro ng er ; C ra m er ’s V 0. 88 ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es ( co nt in ue d) 80 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 9. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um br in gi ng a sh ift in fo cu s f ro m te xt bo ok s t o ot he r fo rm s o f l ea rn in g an d te ac hi ng m at er ia ls Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 00 1 si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 04 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 5. 00 8 si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 91 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 97 1 si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 0. 84 2 si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 26 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 17 .4 * si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 77 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 10 . R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 93 2 si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 22 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 27 si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 51 5 si g. 0 .4 73 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 99 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 73 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 16 .0 00 * si g. 0 .0 03 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 33 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 03 < 0 .0 5 11 . R ec ei pt of e xt ra re so ur ce s to c at er fo r le ar ni ng d iv er si ty am on g st ud en ts U se o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 15 9 si g. 0 .2 8 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 37 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 01 si g. 0 .8 2 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 80 7 si g. 0 .0 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 47 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 94 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 67 9 si g. 0 .2 62 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 27 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 04 0* * si g. 0. 00 00 <0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .0 27 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 94 3 si g. 0 .6 84 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .5 13 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 84 > 0 .0 5 12 . N SS cu rr ic ul um le ad in g to a sh ift in fo cu s fr om te xt bo ok s t o ot he r m at er ia ls N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 37 7* si g. 0 .0 2 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 92 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 20 <0 .0 5* Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 62 3 si g. 0 .0 06 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 59 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 10 8* si g. 0 .0 43 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 99 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 12 2 si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .5 63 * si g. 0 .0 04 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 19 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut te ac hi ng a nd le ar ni ng s tr at eg ie s A pp en di x 2 81 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 13 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Ea si ne ss in im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 51 * si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 46 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 41 1* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 78 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 1. 59 3 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 60 5* * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 46 5* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .4 29 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 5. 27 8 si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 53 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 35 5* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 09 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 30 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .0 42 * si g. 0 .0 50 Ph i 1 .1 84 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 56 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 3 < 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .5 1* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 23 < 0 .0 5 14 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Fa irn es s i n im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 78 9 si g. 0 .0 67 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 7 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 92 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 32 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 12 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 6. 80 7 si g. 0 .3 2 > 0. 05 ; Ph i 0 .5 34 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 32 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 19 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 21 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 94 1 si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 05 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 16 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 00 14 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .4 59 * si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .1 96 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 43 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 79 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 27 * w ea k; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 15 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 81 8 si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 29 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 19 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 75 ** m od es t; si g. 0 .0 10 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 10 8 si g. 0 .5 40 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 88 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 08 5 w ea k; si g. 0 .5 19 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t A pp en di x 3 82 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 16 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .9 16 si g. 0 .4 33 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 06 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 33 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 27 8* w ea k; s ig . 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 57 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 17 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .5 10 si g. 0 .3 69 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 32 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 69 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 00 7 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 61 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 06 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 57 > 0. 05 / / 17 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 74 si g. 0 .2 33 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 83 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 25 5* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 16 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .0 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 00 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 41 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 88 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 33 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 63 > 0 .0 5 / / 18 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 20 3 si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 4 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .3 98 ** m od er at e; s ig . 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b -.3 70 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 1 si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 68 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 01 w ea k; s ig . 0. 44 8 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 01 > 0 .0 5 / / 19 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .4 26 si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 18 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 42 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 72 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 26 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .7 12 si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 12 6 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 41 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 17 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 05 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 83 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 20 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .0 49 si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 20 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 75 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 7 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 17 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 92 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .8 31 si g. 0 .6 60 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 19 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 60 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .8 76 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 20 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 / / 21 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .7 76 si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 76 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 2 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 03 8 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .7 4 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 71 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 56 si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 25 2 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 07 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .1 16 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 97 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 / / 22 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .4 30 si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .3 65 si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 52 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 / / 23 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 66 si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 06 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 3 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 84 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 85 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 28 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .9 10 si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 16 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 28 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 26 6* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 31 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 38 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 98 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 32 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 87 > 0 .0 5 / / 29 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .2 61 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 15 m od er at e; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 81 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 57 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 52 6 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 27 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 4 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 69 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 14 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 38 > 0 .0 5 / / 30 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Pr es su re o n te ac he rs du e to th e SB A o f In de pe nd en t E nq ui ry St ud ie s p ro je ct s / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7 .7 67 s ig . 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 83 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 23 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 22 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .9 56 * si g. 0 .0 14 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .0 31 v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 06 7 ve ry w ea k; si g. 0 .8 13 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 05 w ea k; s ig . 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 86 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 87 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te 新高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究 楊沛銘、李宏峯、黃金耀、黃炳文 香港教師中心教育研究小組 摘要 香港學生到了中學階段出現不斷擴大的學習能力差異,情況在與三年制新高中課程 同時推行的 2012年首屆中學文憑試表現得相當明顯。本研究審視學校如何照顧不 同學習能力學生需要的情況,所需資料是透過多間學校的四個核心科目科主任填寫 網上問卷獲得。研究發現包括了資源短缺,使用探究性教學法和自發性學習策略的 頻率偏低,在學習機會伸延到課室外取得相當進展,以及評核安排上有不少缺點。 教師、校長和政府必須協力合作,使用有效方法改善新高中課程和中學文憑試的推 行,使不同學習能力的學生都能獲益。改善情況的方法包括減輕教師工作量,提供 額外人手,有更多教師投入的持續性課程評估,製作適時的物質資源,改變教學法, 以及改革考試以便促進學習而非只是量度。 關鍵詞 學習差異,新高中課程,中學文憑試,網上問卷,教學策略 89 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 林德成、李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 本文從三種不同課程實施的取向,討論通識教育科的現況和發展。在課程實施的過 程中,學校和教師偏向以相互調適取向實施通識教育科課程,並以不同的單元設計 和教學方式進行,當中發現種種挑戰。本文建議,未來的課程實施宜邁向創生取向 (或稱締造取向)。 關鍵詞 通識教育,課程實施,課程發展 甲丶緣起及研究方法 時光飛逝,轉眼間曾掀起香港教育界激烈討論的通識教育科(下稱通識科),已推 行了三年,第一屆通識科的公開考試結果也已揭曉,初步衍生了一些成功的經驗,也察 覺到一些挑戰,是時候為它把把脈,以檢視其現狀,總結其經驗,思考其未來。 作為新生科目的通識科,能否取得持續的成功和發展,達到預期的效果,有賴於課 程之實施模式及策略的恰當選擇。因此為通識科「把脈」,是包括釐清其課程實施的理 論脈絡,亦同時需要檢視該科現今施行的狀況資料,方可得出具有啓發性的結論,冀有 利其將來之課程發展。本文除了筆者之課程理論探討,亦着重引用質化及量化資料及數 據之分析。量化資料是參考兩個民間大型通識科之現況調查(其一為 2012年,香港教 育專業人員協會(教協)、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查,調查對象 90 包括 647名通識科老師及 2,806名學生,內容主要涉及他 /她們對通識科之教與學的觀 感。另一為教協從 2010至 2013連續四年都有做的通識科老師觀感調查,平均每年皆有 800份有效問卷)。至於質化資料方面,主要來自筆者分別訪談兩位資深通識科專家暨 老師專業培訓員 ─ 陳岡博士及黃志堅先生。訪談以非結構形式進行,環繞着兩位對現 今通識科現況之個人觀感,及探討兩位對通識科前境作專家之闡析及建議。下文首先從 課程實施理論層次分析通識科現今之實施狀況,並作出專業之建議,望能導引通識科走 上較理想的發展蹊徑。再從量化結合質化之研究分析結果,找出通識科現今推行情況之 強弱項,並以專業意見提出強項之鞏固及弱點之修訂建議,目的亦是作出前瞻性之改善 建議。 乙丶課程實施模式之檢視 所謂課程實施,即將課程現狀導向所欲的學習結果,也就是將課程計劃付諸行動的 過程。就算再完善的課程設計,若不能得到教師的理解與接納,並將其在課堂中付諸實 施,都始終是「文本」而已(黃政傑,1994)。 一般而言,課程實施有三種模式(忠實模式、調適模式及創生模式)(李子建、黃 顯華,1996;鍾啓泉,2005),以下筆者先對這三種模式作一簡單分析,為通識科的課 程實施現狀的剖析提供理論的參照。 (1) 忠實取向(fidelity orientation)的課程實施,是指課程實施為忠實地執行課程計 劃的過程。因此,在這種取向下,課程成功與否,其標準在於最終實施之課程 與預定課程計劃的落差程度。實施的課程愈接近預定的課程方案,則愈為忠實, 也愈成功。反之,若與預定的課程計劃差距愈大,則愈不忠實,效果愈差。這 種取向強調的是預定計劃之優越性及重要性,負責實施的教師則被視為教學「技 工」,應忠實地執行課程專家所制定的各項細節。可以說,這種取向沒有給予 老師任何修訂或彈性調適課程的空間。忠實取向若走到極端的地方,可能變成 課程當局為了切實執行一己的課程觀,而設計一種「防老師」(teacher-proof) 的課程,要老師鉅細無遺的執行課程指引每項細節,因此損害老師的課程專業 地位。另外一種不利學生學習之情況,就是老師礙於形勢,往往把不適當的 課程硬套在學生頭上,或是奉行一種「陽奉陰違」式的「表面課程」(surface 91 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 curriculum)(Bussis, Chittenden & Amarel, 1976),俱大大損害學生學習利益。 (2) 相互調適取向(mutual adaptation orientation)是人們認識到「忠實取向」之限 制及缺憾而衍生的一種較符合現今教育脈絡及現代思潮的課程實施模式。在這 種實施模式下,教師作為課程實施者,會考慮中央頒布下來的課程應如何在其 課室裡實踐,或作出調整,以適應其課室情境的特殊需要。這意味着老師身為 課堂之課程實施者,總是在因應各種具體實踐情境而調整既定的課程方案,以 適應學生的特殊需要。因此,調適模式要求教師充分發揮自己的實踐智慧,對 中央課程、學校情境及學生之需要進行綜合考慮,以塑造有效的校本 /班本課 程。顯然,這種課程實施模式,對老師的專業要求很高。老師既要能充分理解 中央課程之關鍵概念、核心技能及態度,又要清楚其學生之學習能力、需要及 特性,才能剪裁一套能平衡中央及校本需要的課程。 (3) 創生取向(或稱締造取向)(curriculum enactment orientation)下的課程實施, 則是師生在具體的課堂情境中共同合作、創造新教育經驗的過程。因此,根據 這種取向,真正課程並不是在實施之前便預定下來,它是因應情境、人物而衍 生出來的,有着解放教育理性之功用。此種課程可能完全脫離中央課程而出現 為一種師生共塑的實驗性質的課程。 通識科課程作為一門文理綜合的科目,是由「自我與個人成長」、「社會文化」及 「科學、科技與環境」三個學習範疇組成,強調跨學科思維技能的「獨立專題探究」(課 程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2007)。其在學校和課堂層面的實施則涉及單元的規 劃、教學人員(及團隊)的組構、教師運用各教學方法和評估方式的變化、學生在「獨 立專題研究」的參與和學習,以及課程與公開考試的配合等不同環節,情況頗為多元化 和複雜。因此有效的實施,必然要求教師作為「課程主人」,因應自己所處的教學情境 對課程進行調適。因此,忠實取向的課程實施並不適用。 另一方面,現有的通識科中央課程指引在課程目標和內容架構上給出了頗為明確的 指引,同時亦為教師詮釋、修訂和剪裁課程提供了空間,即是說,中央的課程政策乃鼓 勵教師採取調適的課程實施取向 ─ 也就是鼓勵各學校因應其學校特色、學生程度、通 識科老師的課程知能及覺知,設計一個平衡中央通識科要求及個別學校師生需要的調適 課程。 92 然而,正如上文所說,課程調適對老師的課程知能及課程覺醒均要求甚高,缺乏 相應經驗的教師難免遇到困阻。因此,就較理想的情況而言,部份學者如林德成(Lam, 2007)認為通識科的推行宜以全校課程發展取向(whole-school curriculum development approach)較一個教師合作團隊的 2至 3位教師的組合為佳。這是由於少數教師的協作 可能會導致「小圈子」合作,而通識科以外的教師可能會採取「隔岸觀火」的態度看待 通識科,學科間將會出現競爭的情況。 林德成(Lam, 2007)根據過往目標為本課程和香港躍進學校計劃(Lee, 2006)的 經驗,認為若通識科以全校取向推行,能產生校內不同教師在視野上的融合(fusion of horizons)(Gadamer, 1975),對學生和教師在議題上不同的見解能產生良性的互動和對 話,理性地探討對方觀點上可能存在的誤解與偏見。這種不斷互動而衍生話語融合的方 式在某種程度上符合創生或締造取向精神。這種全校課程發展取向,要求學校重視「互 動」、「溝通」和「決策」,「創造課程發展空間」,令學校成員能「集思廣益」、「建 立共享目標和信念」(Lam, 2007, p.52-56)。將這些條件及氛圍轉化成可操作性的學校 課程舉措,就是可以看成通識科(尤其是「獨立專題探究」一環)是一師生共同塑造之 通識探究旅程,學校是成功形塑為一所「思考的學校」(a thinking school),內裡孕育 多元聲音、多元批判、多元視界及多元締造之環境,有締造意識及能力之老師及學生可 跨越現今通識科之藩籬,互相支持砥礪下探索一面又一面之新的視界。這種情境氛圍正 正是通識科老師從現今之「調適取向」,慢慢邁向真正「創生或締造取向」之必經過程, 也標誌着「創生或締造取向」之可欲性(desirability)及可行性(possibility)。 朱嘉穎(2009)亦有類似看法。她從教師專業發展理念研究香港某大學開設有關通 識教育課程發展與教學的碩士課程學員的看法,部份結果顯示(頁 64-65):「教師在 實踐理念的過程中,需要對所處的教學情境作出分析和判斷,並根據這些判斷對所採用 的理念作出適切的調適⋯⋯雖然,來自不同學校的不同教師對同一理念的解讀會因為個 人經驗和情境脈絡的不同而出現差異⋯⋯在彼此的分享和交流中,學員們增進了個人對 相關理念的認識和理解。更為重要的是,在一個有相同目標的學習共同體中,學員們找 到了志同道合的同行者,即使面對困惑,教師情感上的負擔也得到略微的釋放」。因此, 無論在校內或校外,如果個別或少數教師能超越校內「學科」藩籬,以開放互動的心態 建立校內及校外的「學習社群或共同體」,這有助於締造老師們對通識科的精神更接近 理解,就算不能建立完全一致的看法,至少「和而不同」,尊重對方多元的觀點。 93 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 易言之,就通識科的課程實施來說,傳統理論中所強調的相互調適取向是必要的, 然而當前更為重要的是鼓勵一種全校課程發展取向,建構師生及師師的學習社群,為學 校邁向創生取向的課程實施創造充足的條件和寬鬆的環境。 丙丶課程實施的問題與反思 探討通識科課程實施這課題,讓我們首先從課程的單元規劃來看,吳家傑、李子建、 楊秀珠(2009)根據他們所支援的學校經驗,認為單元規劃策略大致可分為三大類型。 第一類為六個單元鋪排,獨立地施教,然後以跨單元方式補習,偏向「科目本質」的立 場,較強調「獨特專有」的取向。第二類為六個單元鋪排,不過先讓學生認識不同單元 的相關概念,假定六個單元有相若的深度,偏向「單元本質」的立場和「兼容等同」的 取向。第三類是把六個單元再細分為 7至 12個主題,再按同一單元不同主題的深淺、 學生學習的需要作調動,較偏向「順序本質」和多元化的取向(吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠, 2009,頁 71)。這些策略反映出不同學校及教師對通識科課程的單元規劃具有多元化的 現象,究竟哪些策略較配合學生的需要和促進學生學習成果,仍有待進一步研究。 另一方面,通識科課程及評估指引中強調通識科的教學應達到三方面的效果,即所 謂的 ABC,Awareness、Broadening及 Critical / Creative thinking。 社會事宜的「察覺」(Awareness)是指學生對社會、國家以至國際大事產生興趣, 對自己身為社會公民的身份、權利及義務之覺醒。觀乎現狀,這方面通識科的課程實施, 似乎頗有成效,如愈來愈多的中學生參與公共社會活動(如社會示威),且其中個別領 頭者的表現令人刮目相看。但這些現象是否確實為通識科學習之結果,尚需實證研究加 以證實。許寶強亦有撰文,促各界更謹慎看待通識科之公開考試成績與近年來青年人參 與社運激增之微妙關係(許實強,2012)。 至於 Broadening所指的「擴闊知識及視界」則似乎並未「到位」,而且遭到教師 與學生之批判,認為課程覆蓋面太廣,令教與學均見困難。Critical / Creative thinking, 即批判 /創意思考。現階段學生在這方面的表現亦有待加強。有報章報導,網上討論區 發現年青人容易墮入簡單「二分法」謬誤,採取非黑即白及「不支持 XXX」等於「反 對 XXX」等角度看待事物。總體來說,年青人較前更關注社會政治事宜,但其視野及 批判思維,尚有改善空間。當然,這種觀察亦須取得實證證據,立論方能成效。 94 2012年度首屆文憑試結果出爐,通識科考獲二級程度的考生達 90%之高。從數據 來看,通識科的課程實施似乎是成功的,然而對課程實施者 ─ 教師的問卷調查卻顯 示,當前的通識科課程實施中尚有不少問題,亟需我們關注和回應。 有關通識科的實施情況,上文所說共做了兩個大型調查研究。現將兩個調查之重要 發現歸納如下: 2012年之教協、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查發現,老師認為 通識科發展的首六個主要困難和挑戰,依次是:(1)要照顧太多學生、(2)學生水平 不足以應付課程、(3)學生對課程內容不感興趣、(4)教育當局的考評指引不清晰、 (5)缺乏好的教材,及(6)教育當局課程指引不清晰等。學生方面,所面對的主要困 難和挑戰,包括:(1)課程內容太廣和缺乏焦點、(2)老師的相關知識及支援不足、 (3)通識的考核方法令學生難以捉摸其評分標準、(4)學習通識變成了背誦術語等的 考試技巧、(5)沉悶、(6)工作量太多,及(7)難度過高等等(頁 14)。另外,一 些重要的調查數據亦列舉如下: 1. 超過一半學生(55%)對獨立專題探究最不感興趣,有超過六成教師及五成學 生認為需要删除; 2. 有四成教師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時,是馬虎了事;甚至有約三成教 師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時,有弄虛作假情況; 3. 約六成教師和接近五成學生認為,通識科內容太多; 4. 接近一半教師不滿負責通識科和考評官員的專業水平,課程指引之清晰度,及 教學支援。 2012年教協所做的調查結果則顯示,連續四年通識科老師認為任教該科的最大之 四個困難,分別為:(1)照顧學生學習差異、(2)準備 /更新課程教材、(3)處理 獨立專題探究、(4)教授學生批判、反思和獨立思考能力,其中「照顧學生學習差異」 一項連續四年居於首位。 該調查有另一個令人感興趣的發現,有超過三成老師對帶領學生進行「獨立專題探 究」的信心在 5分或以下,為第二個最沒信心項目(第一個為教授「現代中國」)。而 且平均每位老師須帶領 35.7學生進行「獨立專題探究」,甚至有 18%老師竟是帶領 50 95 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 人之鉅! 另外,有關修改課程建議方面,大多老師認為須「減少課程內容」(69%)、「删 減單元數目」(60%),或「將部份單元轉為選修」(57%)。 上述兩個調查結果跟質化訪談結果有頗大共同點(質化訪談是筆者圍繞着「你認為 現今通識科的現況及困難為何?」及「你對你所指出的困難有何改善建議?」兩大課題, 向兩位專家作一非結構式訪問)。問卷調查歸納出來的結果大致是(1)每班學生太多, 以致學習差異大、(2)學習範圍太深太闊,而且課程及考評的指引不清晰,以致老師 被迫「過度教學」(over-teaching)、(3)師生都對「獨立專題探究」感棘手,及(4) 老師對提升學生之批判思維及獨立思考能力欠信心。訪談結果也歸納出三點,指出目前 通識科教師最關注的問題分別是「過度教學」、課程指引中的目標轉化欠清晰及「獨立 專題探究」定位失衡。三者亦互為影響。「學習差異大」問題涉及學校資源及教育局的 「」措施,短期內也未見解決之契機,故此,本文暫不贅言。而對於提升學生 之批判思維一項,將於下文闡析。現集中分析其餘三個議題如下: 一、「過度教學」及改善建議 通識科之所以會導致「過度教學」,是因為六個單元對大多數老師和學生來說太闊 太深,老師們都因為憂慮公開考試要求很高、範圍很廣,而選擇多教一些內容,力求寧 濫莫缺,以保障考試成績。當然,這也與課程指引不夠具體清晰有關。例如在「科學、 科技與公共衛生」單元中,課程指引建議可探討下列課題及副題: 公共衛生與社會發展的關係,如: - 用於公共衛生服務的資源及資源分配情況 - 文化、制度及經濟等因素對生活模式的影響 - 教育對公共衛生的影響 (課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2007,頁 38) 上述第一個副題所包含的教學範圍較清晰具體,學生及老師能清楚知道哪些知識概 念跟此是相關的。但另外兩個副題所觸及之範圍則過於廣泛而至模糊不清,師生不知從 何入手。最近香港通識教育教師聯會做了一個中期通識科課程檢討,針對這「過度教學」 96 問題,作了三個「瘦身方案」建議,同時亦作出一忠告 ─「若删剪太多,則可能有損 通識作為必修科所需的闊度,宜小心平衡」(香港通識教育教師聯會,2013),值得各 界熱心通識科發展人士深思。 二、課程目標轉化不清晰 課程目標轉化對教與學的影響,固然與課程目標本身的闡述有關,但現時香港學校 教育中的考試的「倒流效應」(washback effect)(Wall, 1997)亦是問題的癥結之一。 因為,相對於課程目標指引,公開考試的形式和內容似乎更直接影響着教師對課程的規 畫、教學和校內評估的設計。如兩位訪談學者反映,教師希望評分標準能作較長期之穩 定化,及現行之「標準參照評核模式」(standard-referencing assessment)能更公開和清 晰,並且提供更多的答題範本(sample scripts),以便於他們因應評估標準來準備教學。 有關方面應對課程目標的轉化加以更為具體的說明,以幫助教師對教學的重點有更 清晰的理解與把握,但另一方面,持份者也應警惕這種「為測驗而教學」(teaching for the test)的課程實施行為,避免通識科老師為了應付公開考核之廣度,而犧性教學上之 深度,喪失了通識科獨有之意義及貢獻。(註:根據最新發表的《通識教育科課程與評 估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、評估有方》文件(香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評 核局,2013),內裡羅列不少各單元的學與教重點及建議探究例子,均切合實際教學目 標和學生需要,可消弭上文所批評之「課程目標不清晰」之弊)。 三、「獨立專題探究」之落差 「獨立專題探究」(Independent Enquiry Study, IES)定位失衡是另一較為突出的 問題。根據香港課程發展議會,通識科的獨立專題探究,「容許學生在獨立專題探究部 份選擇適合自己的興趣和志向的課題進行探究」(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局, 2007,頁 7)。IES是通識科學習重要的一環,其設計旨在提供一種自主學習的經歷, 讓學生負起學習的主要責任,並發揮自我管理能力,以進行自訂主題的探究研習。「而 教師的責任是幫助學生達到他們的學習目標,隨着學習者的能力增強,教師的輔助應該 逐漸減退,以便將學習的控制權逐步轉移到學生身上」(頁 81)。因此通識科的獨立專 題探究,如果實施得宜,可逐步邁向前文所說之創生或締造取向的課程實施理想。 然而教協及通識教師聯會的調查卻發現獨立專題探究中的「弄虛作假」情況不少。 97 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 能力不逮的學生做來叫苦連天,教師的教導、監督及批改也吃力不討好。原因是教師很 多時候將其視為學術研究,以致會操練學生統計方法、問卷調查及訪談技巧,而非一種 自主探究的學習活動,結果令學與教束手縛腳,效果不彰。 筆者建議撥亂反正,減低現在因公開考試而要求高度標準化的評估要求。考評局應 多下放權力予學校更好設計獨立專題探究,使之與校本評估作無縫式結合,為教師恢復 獨立專題探究本來面貌 ─ 探究為主的學習活動 ─ 提供空間。香港通識教育教師聯 會的中期報告也有檢討「獨立專題探究」之存廢,亦提出若果取消獨立專題探究,則「學 生[會]失去一個甚有學習意義的學習活動」,其言亦堪咀嚼。 丁丶課程未來發展之前瞻 對於以上問題的解決,通識科教師作為課程實施者亦有自己的觀點和建議。香港教 育專業人員協會教育研究部(2012)的調查結果顯示,教師認為下列九項措施是解決通 識科問題最有效益的措施(2010及 2011年前九名的排序相同):(1)、(2) 增加通識常額教席、(3)更多專科資源、(4)增撥學習差異資源、(5)暫緩自評外評、 (6)轉為選修選考、(7)只評合格或不合格、(8)評審通識教科書,及(9)提供更 多到校支援(頁 34)。除了增撥人手和資源外,教師也期望在「獨立專題研究」和「課 程範圍」方面有所改善。需要強調的是外部的資源、環境與評核固然是影響課程實施效 果的重要且必要之因素,但通識科要真正邁向「創生或締造」的課程實施取向,更為重 要的是教師之間、師生之間應視通識科為一持續性之教與學成效之探索旅程,不可輕言 放棄。通識科出現問題的成因頗為複雜,可能是學生之獨立思考及批判思維能力不彰, 也可能是老師的教學效能有待強化或批判思維及意識不高。後者構成了重要的教師課程 知能及意識需再提升和探究之課題。這兩方面之提升都會有助老師課程績效,不容輕視。 要做到這種多元視域交流,以達致「視域的融合」,課程發展處、學校課程領導階層、 大學師訓機構及通識科教師學會組織,皆可多舉行全校老師專業對話、同儕對話、學者 老師對話、邀請外界講者、及師生對話等活動。藉着這些對話及視界交流才能令老師⋯⋯ 能正視自己的角色與生活,願意從新的觀點、運用新的思維,來重新檢視過 往「視為當然」的課程實務與「習焉不察」的教學實踐,才可能有所覺醒 98 (awakening),才可能激發「課程意識」(curricular consciousness)、促進「教 學覺知」(pedagogical awareness)⋯⋯(甄曉蘭,2003,頁 72) 有了這些「課程意識」及「教學覺知」,老師便會「知道」和「明白」更多,並能 建立一個多面向的知識庫,及擁有專業覺知精神,知所批判,及知所捍衛。只有這樣的 老師及其產生的多元批判情境脈絡,才能教導出有獨立理性及批判思維的下一代。也只 有這樣的學校課程氛圍才能產生真正的「課程共識」,乃至「視域的融合」,實現通識 科課程的「創生或締造」課程觀(白雲霞,2003,頁 60;李子建,2010,頁 14;Lam, 2007)。 因此日後通識科的發展,除了考慮及增加常額通識科老師外,大學、教師 教育機構、課程發展處及通識科老師學會,應多重視協力挑起提升老師課程知能及意識 責任;共同形塑一全港性的專業對話及視界交流平台,俾能讓通識科老師對不同聲音和 經驗多見、多聞、多思考、多交流,從以重構其課程觀及教學實踐。至於各學校之領導 層及課程領導亦宜配合這一大環境之對話交流氣氛,多做一些相應的教師發展工作。容 萬城(2005)指出三種專業教師發展模式皆適合通識科老師,分別為知識與技能發展、 自我理解及生態轉變 1(Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992;李子建,2002,2005)。筆者認為其 中之「自我理解」模式似適合本文所指之建構校本對話及視界交流氛圍。若能成功建構 及持續發展,及過渡至「生態轉變」模式,必能形塑全校學與教之多元化及批判思維模 式,令老師及學生得益,也令通識科獨有的學科貢獻得以彰顯。 鳴謝 本文承蒙資深通識科專才及老師培訓專家黃志堅先生及陳崗博士給予寶貴意見,令 內容充實及有實質可貴的論證及啓示,在此謹表謝忱。 _______________ 1 第一種知識與技能發展模式主要是培養老師反思和行動研究、團體學習、溝通和解難能力;第二種自我理解模 式多培養教師的反思、鼓勵老師與他人分享知識和收集資訊,藉以建構共同目的、願景;第三種生態轉變模式 乃重視團隊工作、教師學習的自主性,並透過建立互信而合作的變化、促進集體學習和學習社群的建立。 99 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 參考文獻 白雲霞(2003)。《學校本位課程發展理論、模式》。台北:高等教育出版社。 朱嘉穎(2009)。〈教師專業發展理念的剖析 ─ 以香港通識教育科為例〉。《教育學 報》,36(1-2),53-75。 吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠(2009)。〈從單元規劃看新高中通識教育科的課程詮釋〉。《香 港教師中心學報》,第 8卷,64-72。 李子建(編著)(2002)。《課程、教學與學校改革:新世紀的教育發展》。香港:中 文大學出版社。 李子建(2005)。〈專業發展社群、教師發展與課程發展〉。《香港中文大學教育學院 第七屆兩岸三地課程理論研討會論文集》,頁 97-109。 李子建(2010)。〈「通識教育支援計劃」的理念〉。載宋兆國、吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠、 葉殿恩(合編),《新高中通識教育科學與教資源冊》(頁 10-18)。香港:香港 中文大學教育學院課程與教學學系「通識教育支援計劃 ─ 課程銜接與發展」。 李子建、黃顯華(1996)。《課程:範式取向和設計》。香港:香港中文大學出版社。 香港教育專業人員協會教育研究部(2012)。《新高中通識教育科調查報告》。香港: 香港教育專業人員協會。 香港通識教育教師聯會(2013)。《中期通識科課程檢討報告》。通識教育研究會。 容萬城(2005)。〈香港教育改革與「新高中通識教育」的實踐與挑戰〉。《香港教師 中心學報》,第 4卷,43-53。 教育局、香港考試及評核局(2013)。《通識教育科課程與評估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、 評估有方》。香港:香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評核局。 許寶強(2012.8.20)。〈考評反映學習成效 ─ 從香港中學文憑試通識科成績談起〉。 《明報》,專訊。 黃政傑(1994)。《課程教學之變革》。台北:師大書苑。 甄曉蘭(2003)。〈教師的課程意識與教學實踐〉。《教育研究集刊》,第 49期,第 1 卷,63-94。 課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局(2007)。《通識教育科課程及評估指引(中四至中 六)》。香港:政府印務局。 嶺南大學群芳文化研究及發展部統籌、香港教育專業人員協會、香港通識教育教師聯會、 新界西通識專業網絡協辦(2012)。《新高中通識科課程內容研究調查報告》。香港: 嶺南大學群芳文化研究及發展部出版。 100 鍾啓泉(編著)(2005)。《現代課程論》,台灣:高等教育出版。 Bussis, A. M., Chittenden, E. A., & Amarel, M. (1976). Beyond surface curriculum: an interview study of teachers’ understanding. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. Gadamer, Hans-George. (1975). Truth and Method. London: Sheed and Ward. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G. (1992). Introduction. In A. Hargreaves & M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding Teacher Development (pp. 1-19). UK/New York: Cassell/Teachers College Press. Lam, J. T. S. (2007). Fusion of horizons: Implications for a hermeneutical learning community approach of implementing liberal studies in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(1), 39-61. Lee, J. C. K. (2006). Hong Kong: Accelerated Schools for Quality Education Project (ASQEP) experiences. In J. C. K. Lee & M. Williams (Eds.), School improvement: International perspectives (pp. 159-174). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Wall, D. (1997). Impact and washback in language testing. In C. Clapham & D. Corson (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education (Vol. 7: Language testing and assessment) (pp. 291-302). Bosten: Kluwer. The present and the future possibilities of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong LAM Tak Shing John & LEE Chi Kin John The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract This paper discusses the status and development of Liberal Studies from three different orientations of curriculum implementation. It is argued that schools and teachers tend to adopt a mutual adaptation orientation to implement the Liberal Studies curriculum with varying modes of module design as well as teaching and learning. Challenges are identified during curriculum implementation. It is proposed that it may be desirable to move towards a curriculum enactment orientation in future implementation. Keywords Liberal Studies, curriculum implementation, curriculum development 101 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程 潛在的影響 陳國棟 播道書院、香港美術教育協會 摘要 本文嘗試以「考評制度」及所引伸的現象,檢視視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式會否對 視覺藝術教育課程帶來影響。當中發現考評制度中四個面向,有可能對課程帶來影 響,分別為:(1)作品集呈交方法;(2)藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法;(3) 文字在評核中佔據的角色;(4)藝術評賞的考核安排。考評制度成效的關注層面, 並非只就學生成績的個人層次作判斷,而是檢視整個「考評制度的機制」,並須瞭 解學生學習成果是否達到預期設定的目標。 關鍵詞 考評制度,成就描述,藝術評賞 甲、前言 從最新有關「新高中視覺藝術科」(以下簡稱:視藝科)文憑試的教師意見調查顯 示,不少教師認為新高中課程推展後,並不認同視藝科於任教的學校發展前景更為理想 (視藝教育關注核心小組,2013)。另一方面,在以往七年改革期間,有學者藉課堂觀察、 訪問及抽樣調查研究,發現教師及學生基本上認同視藝科改革的方向;學者更指出「改 革能重現視覺藝術教育的本質價值」(黃素蘭,2011)。兩者的意見為何出現如此大的 分野?及至首屆文憑試視藝科成績揭曉,達至 5級或以上的僅有 6.1%。不少民間團體自 102 發進行研究、發表文章,以及舉行研討會,以不同持份者的角色作出回應。前線教師普 遍認為評核的準則、考核範圍及作品集的呈分方式等均是爭議所在。教育作為糾結複雜 的場域,要探討教育的現象,必須有一個切入點進行分析(吳毓瑩、吳麗君,2002)。 本文嘗試以「評估制度」檢視新高中視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式,對視覺藝術教育本質 所帶來潛在的影響。 乙、 考評改革回應時代轉變 全球化資訊泛濫,全世界都在尋找「學習」的新典範。Greeno, Collins & Resnick (1996)將認知與學習的不同觀念整理為三種主要觀點:(1)行為實徵觀點(The Behaviorist / Empiricist View);(2)認知理性觀點(The Cognitive / Rationalist View);(3) 情境社會歷史觀點(The Situative / Pragmatics-Sociohistoric View)。行為實徵觀點的評 量方式傾向以量化的觀點評量學習的成果,貼近傳統的紙筆測驗的方式;認知理性觀點 評量學生能否掌握學科的普遍性原則,以及其運用策略解決問題的能力;情境社會歷史 觀點強調學生主動的探索及參與的歷程(吳毓瑩,1998)。就當代藝術趨勢以言,後現 代藝術重視創作與情境的關聯性。現代學習理論強調學生應作為積極建構意義的參與 者,符合藝術創作强調自主性規律的特色。源於世界的知識,應是學生學習與評量的原 點(陳素櫻,1997)。學生除了展示知識,更重要是在真實情境中建構知識,並展現創 意及解難的能力。傳統考核偏重於知識的陳述,忽略建構知識歷程的重要性(林素微, 1998)。過往,香港高級程度會考仍側重素描等技巧性的評核,未能提升學生文化素養、 創意思維及自學能力等,視藝科校本評核採用能展現學生創作情境觀點的「作品集」, 作為實作評量的工具,讓人期望能彌補以往的不足。 丙、 實作評量 ─ 何謂「真實評量」中的「真實」需要? 早於 90年代始,檔案評量模式為美國不同州的學校所採用(江雪齡,1998)。從 教與學的角度,檔案評量有助教師可定時就學生的表現作出回饋,為學生作出整理、反 思及修正,達至持續改進及學習歷程(鄭麗玉,2005)。特別是藝術課程更應讓學生呈 現多元性的藝術表現,每個獨立的個體均有機會建構不同審美觀念、創作思維及各種媒 材的運用能力(陳育淳,2005)。不同學者以不同專稱表達這些新評量模式,如「卷宗 評量」(吳毓瑩,1998);「學習歷程檔案法」(歐滄和,1998)及「近檔案評量」(李 坤崇,1999)等。 103 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 不同持份者對課程中哪些是最需要「真實」評量的內容持不同的觀點。Wiggins (1990)指出教師編排教些甚麼,學生便學習甚麼,最後就只評量甚麼,這是對實作評 量錯誤的理解。也有學者指出若教師的教學目標旨在訓練學生應付公開考試,這種評量 也有人認為是真實評量的方式(吳毓瑩,1997)。筆者認為這同樣是錯誤的觀念,這種 評量方式只能回應「考試情境」的要求,並未重視當今社會情境歷史的因素。另外,有 學者指出核心能力可以是學生畢業後所能展現出來的能力(劉維琪,2010)。這種見解 較為貼近情境社會歷史觀點。 學者強調當代課程改革的成功,必須在社會的脈絡中進行(吳毓瑩,1997)。若評 量的目標朝向世界的真實評量方式,「課程」、「評量」與「真實應用」或「真實生活」 應互相緊扣,課程內容應可應用於真實世界,或有相關連繫的事物(Linn, 1995),如 以往 60年代以現代主義及形式主義的觀念,進行創作及藝術評賞。但當今後現代主流 藝術觀如概念藝術、媒體藝術、環境美學、生態美學及視覺文化都講求與創作情境的緊 密聯繫,視藝科的「課程與評量」設計必須顧及這些因素。 考評局十分強調考評世界的公認性,導致評分準則傾斜於量化及僵化的性質,為了 滿足考評「公認性」的「真實」需求,會否成為考評中最核心的目標?會否因而減低視 藝科本質的展現?甚麼是新高中文憑試「真實」的評量目標,並導引出正確的考評或課 程?這是學者對課程改革的深度觀察及爭論焦點。 丁、 持份者對考評改革的疑慮 台灣高中公開考試被戲稱為「一刀斃命」的高風險評量;而多元評量的教育改革, 也被負面地稱為「凌遲致死」(吳毓瑩、吳麗君,2002)。就本土情境而言,學者及教 師一方面認同改革的精神,另一方面對考評的方式極為疑慮。產生這種矛盾現象可歸納 為四種不同的意見:(1)作品集呈交的方法影響評分;(2)依據「成就描述」的藝術 評賞評核方法;(3)文字在評核中佔據過重的角色;(4)藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相 連的考核及評分安排。 一、作品集呈交方法影響評分效度 就視藝科而言,創作的檔案是展現個人藝術能力的最簡易的途徑。Valencia & Calfee提出檔案可以分為三種模式:展示型檔案(showcase portfolio)、文件型檔案 104 (documentation portfolio)及評鑑型檔案(evaluation portfolio)(鄒慧英,2000)。當 中評鑑型檔案屬於標準化的型式,主要功能與傳統客觀式測驗有相近的地方,檔案評分 的範圍已經事先決定,學生主導權相對較低。考評局採用的屬評鑑型檔案,因學生需回 應評分的量度準則,創作的思維受到限制,但學生仍有空間主導整個創作歷程,而爭議 點在作品集呈交方法所引伸的問題。 Mehrens(1992)建議在考慮採用實作評量的效度時,應從是否藉評量方法或工具 量度正確的領域、測驗內涵取樣是否適切、如何推論等問題方面考慮。大部份老師不 介意負擔額外的工作,但「作品集的定義及頁數的爭議」引起極大的討論(黃素蘭, 2011)。有誤傳作品集「越多及越大就越好」。相反,也有學者認為整理作品能有助清 晰及簡潔展現作品集表現,如篩選、整理、表達及分享等能力,都值得學習(黃素蘭, 2011)。也有不少教師支持將整件學生作品集呈交給考評局,作為檢驗學生校本評核的 證據。在討論有關校本評核評分方法的研討會中,有教育局代表曾提出「不准整理作品 集」,以及所有探索應在工作簿內進行的要求。有教師推測,這是為了避免學生有作弊 的現象而作出的安排。 考評局要求學生每一件作品集選取 12頁作代表(或 24頁縮印為 12頁),作品集 要求不可被編輯。最終,每一位學生將超過 100頁以上的作品集濃縮至 12頁,並且以 不超過 15 Mb的 PDF檔案呈交。這「並不連貫」的作品集選頁,如 Benjamin所言,作 為失去氛圍「壓縮影像」的印刷品(Benjamin,譯 2006),未知能否保持評量的效度。 考評局所舉辦的工作坊提出被選取 12頁的作品集,需展示「緊密發展性」的創作意念。 有教師認為 12頁的數量並未能反映學生最有價值的歷程,也很難反映彼此之間的關聯 性。老師反映「作品集只交數頁,又不能整理,根本不能顯現學生作品的過程」;「完 全不認同用以調分的 12+5頁『作品集』無須經過整理,調分員也能審核考生在創作過 程中的各種能力表現⋯⋯調分員可能未能全面評核學生的能力,會產生不公平的現象」; 「作品集應整本評核,甚至派員到校評審學生作品,如 IB課程一般⋯⋯」(《香港美 術教育期刊》,2013a)。盧雪梅(1998)指出「不能為了運用上的方便或簡單的理由, 把評量的層面給窄化或偏狹,評量者應配合教學目標選擇和其目的相合的評量方式和工 具,以落實多元化的評量」。 筆者最擔心為了容易獲取成績,「緊密發展性的創作意念作品集」的呈交要求,無 105 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 形誘導老師以「樣式化」的創作歷程指導學生,影響課程的本意。有老師認為「學習公 式化,用套路答題」(童傑,2013.4.29)。學生為了獲取高分數,最終仍是以「應試」 的態度去創作。老師只按照評分準則要求的四個重點教學,而學生於作品集中公式地進 行記錄及創作。創作思維應該是提升和多元的,並非一定以線性的邏輯推演主題,創造 力的意識也可以是擴散性、跳躍性及其他的可能性。學者從大量有關創造力的研究中仍 找不出一種必然的定律,只能找出表現創造力的不同特質。筆者擔心學生最終並未享有 真正創作的自主權,而自主性正正是創造新事物的創作者必須擁有的條件。筆者也懷疑 學生因只能呈交濃縮後的 PDF檔案,對創作中強調色彩、線條或調子細緻性風格的同 學不利,因檔案未能重現原貌,影響審核員(moderator)對作品判斷,進而影響分數。 課程改革期望學生能提升「後設認知」,進而「終身學習」,如 Dutt-Donter & Gilman (1998)認為「學生能自我反思及有系統的闡述其信念價值」,最終學生能「學會學習」, 但現在的安排是否能達到視藝科課程改革的目標及原意? 二、藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法 實作評量雖能配合當代的教育情境,若運用於升學考試的性質,仍面對不少挑戰。 Mehrens(1992)認為實作評量要達至信度,評分者間的一致性、評分歷程的客觀性、 考核內部的一致性,評分者的選擇和訓練、明確的評分規範,以及定期檢視評分者的表 現等都是重要的元素。 視藝科有別於其他文憑試科目,視藝科較貼近當代文化的動向,學生跟隨當今藝術 創作及評賞的模式,形成他們勇於以多樣性的藝術形式以表現他們的想法。課程也同樣 趨向多樣化及動態化,並比其他科目為多。現今藝術評賞安排在文憑試中進行,文憑試 要求學生在 45分鐘的時限內,從五組(每組兩張)不同時代、國家或風格的相關主題 作品中,選出一組進行評賞,這安排引起極大爭議。藝術評賞主要要求學生以「成就描 述」中四個評分準則作為評論方向。而四個評分準則是於中小學課程中,採用了 20多 年費爾德曼(Feldman)的評賞模式(簡稱費曼模式)為依歸。費曼模式建構於現代主 義中形式主義的美學觀,而主張形式主義的學者認為觀者能單以作品所採用的藝術形 式,就能詮釋作品所要表現的訊息。此外,在「成就描述」中傾向依據量化性質的評核 方法(陳國棟,2012)。 筆者及一般前線教師都十分認同藝術評賞在藝術教育的必要性及重要性。爭議點在 106 於現今藝術評賞評核方式,未能回應當代藝術的發展之餘,也錯誤引導學生可隨意解讀 作品的態度。當代作品重視創作情境,作品形式或表達手法有可能因應創作情境,表示 出簡約及只隱藏單一訊息,而重點在於創作者要藉作品反映或諷刺哪一個社會的面貌, 將作品形式與作品相關背景兩者相連,才能學習到當代藝術評賞的精神,當中並不能單 單以量化方式評估藝術評賞的質量。 此外,筆者認為考評要在 45分鐘內完成過於困難,更嚴重的是在沒有賞評考核範 圍及沒有提供任何背景的情況下,學生無從稽考,但為了獲取分數,只好胡亂推敲,最 終以看圖作文的方式完成評賞。不少老師也同樣有相同的見解:「學生不可能對每一位 藝術家有所認識,如果強迫學生去評賞,最後只會做成一個『吹水』局面。(《香港美 術教育期刊》,2013b)。此外,也有老師認為「無明確範圍是其一,古今中外的作品 甚至廣告,也可以出題,學生難以準備好古今中外所有藝術家的師承脈絡才去應考。」 老師不諱言「學生有時只能看圖作文『吹水』」(童傑,2013.4.29)。學生也認為:「評 賞筆試『只能靠估』,猶如『看圖作文』,對自己是否正確解讀創作原意並無把握」(梁 子健,2012.1.11)。學者更嚴肅地指出:「更災難的是考生還要根據這個『吹水』的答 案,延伸其意念至創作卷中,因此其答題的取向將直接影響考生藝術創作的取態⋯⋯『胡 亂虛應』成為高中視藝的創作主流。」(黎明海,2013.5.9) 明確的評分準則也可能引導了學生詮釋作品思維的方向,最終只以單一評賞結構方 式進行,謝絕了學生運用其他評賞模式的可能性。教師為了針對考試要求,自然同樣依 從這種由四個步驟組成的評論結構編寫評賞課程。評賞課程的設計最終難逃單一化的命 運,考評雖然能達至信度的要求,但學生評賞寫作的方式,與後現代詮釋藝術的方法發 展背道而馳。筆者認為藝術評賞的評核應安排在校本評核中進行,此舉有助學生就被評 賞的藝術品,尋找更豐富作品的情境資料,進入更深度的詮釋。新的藝術觀念,應以新 的思維作出回應。本人曾參與由考評局舉辦有關評分員的工作坊,老師即場以考評局提 供的評分準則為一些學生評賞評論進行評分,目的是看看老師能否掌握以費曼模式為原 則的評分規則要求,在場一位老師提出考評局解讀費曼模式的方式,與她從台灣學者所 寫的論述及大學時所學習的有所不同。工作坊講員提出評分員必須以考評局提出的評核 準則作為依據,經一番議論後,老師最後憤而離場。從上述的事件反映考評局在評分方 式的培訓中無形左右了教師對藝術評賞的觀念,教師為了教導學生獲取分數,自然依據 評分準則作為課程編制的重點,評賞課程設計呈模式化,最終局限了學生的視野及發揮。 107 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 有關當局未能就考評信度的要求與當代藝術評賞課程發展作出合理的協調,考評信度凌 駕當代課程的發展。前國際藝術教育協會會長 Boughton(2005)認為後現代思潮挑戰藝 術在教育的觀念。視藝科的評量需顧及質性與量性兩方面,才能明確指出教師對學生表 現對藝術評賞的觀念的期待與正確的學習方向(史美瑤,2012;李坤崇,2006)。 三、文字在評核中佔據過重的角色 藝術評賞是首次安排在視藝科公開評核之中,文字在視藝科從未佔據如此重要的角 色。多元評估沿於多元智慧的觀念,旨在證明不同的人擁有不同的智慧,單一智力的測 驗未能反映人擁有不同能力的全貌。教育系統應從單一方向,以文字為主導的方向轉向 多元性的考核。」Garcia & Pearson(1994)指出:「傳統評量的題目往往代表著主流文 化及社會中高階層的價值觀,不利於來自弱勢文化及社會低階層的學生。故在此強調多 元文化的時代,這種不公平的傳統評量已受到了強烈的批評」。教協籌委梁德賢認為: 「弱勢學生最差是文字描述,他們愛創作但寫作及組織能力不一定強,結果只能有兩種 選擇:一是背誦,一是放棄。」(教協報記者,2011)。教育局(2011)強調公開考試 應「能有效、公平和客觀反映課程宗旨、構架、本科價值和學生能力」。文字正正並非 本科價值的目標,過量的文字要求扼殺有潛質的學生的直覺、創意及想像力的發揮。教 師認為:「評考模式對語文能力偏低的學生不公平,評賞部份應接受多元的評核方式, 如口頭匯報」(《香港美術教育期刊》,2013a)。 Boughton指出:「評核法的原意是給予學生機會,展示他們(學生)在美術創作 途上的歷時性(performance over time)及抒發作品背後的理論架構、哲學或個人反省」 (朱穎琪,1999)。若從另一個角度觀察,作品集的歷程是協助學生提升「後設認知」 的能力,也是檢視學生在創作層面中「後設認知」的表現能力。筆者認為「後設認知」 並非單靠文字表達,若老師或審核員能從學生完整的作品集中,觀察到無論在媒介、創 作手法、藝術情境不同方面作為參考,藉視覺性的探索中,瞭解學生如何經歷「接納、 變遷、解脫、到超越」的創作過程(蔡明哲,2006),文字只是擔當輔助的角色。 筆者發現老師未能將「視覺語言」及「文字」於視藝科課程擔當的角色,作出合理 的安排。一方面,老師應以擴展學生「視覺創作能力」、「視覺表達能力」及「視覺素 養能力」為己任。不少老師安排時間教導學生如何撰寫作品集及藝術評賞,課程中安排 創作能力的訓練相應減少。筆者從文憑試擔當監考員發現,不少學生創作及繪畫能力欠 108 佳。此外,從探討新高中會議中,任教大專的教師也表示現今的學生不懂繪畫。作為以 「視覺思維」為核心的科目,若學生將時間過量放在「文字」的要求,因而影響了創作 的質量,這是值得進一步的反思。 四、藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相連的考核及評分安排 以往藝術科的公開考試以技巧為主,學生只以「畫室模式化」的繪畫方式面對考試, 而未能反映後現代藝術發展的特色,就是重視情境及社會的意識。「當今『後現代社會 學』不再把個人主觀認知和外在的社會群體認知全然二分,藝術的創作和表達成為不全 然是個人對社會的反映,也受制於整個社會價值取向。」(陳秋瑾,1999)。 文憑試藝術創作部份佔總分 40%,評分準則分為五部份:(1)媒材及技法的選擇 和運用,(2)視覺元素及設計原理的選擇和運用,(3)創作與評賞的關係,(4)創 意與想像力及(5)主題傳意各佔 18%。新高中視藝考試中藝術創作必須與藝術評賞緊 扣相連,評賞在沒有考核的範圍下,學生並不容易確定作品的社會及文化等背景,若創 作建基於這不確定的第一因,學生如何延伸評賞作品文化及社會的維度,以及將個人的 情感及想像納入為創作的元素?學生只能以猜測的態度進行創作,在不確定的第一因 下,如何適當地運用其他評分項目如:視覺元素、設計原理、創意與想像力,而達至主 題傳意的效果呢? 從分析發現,影響分數的並非單單「創作與評賞的關係」一項,而是不同評分準則 之間彼此串聯。當學生於「創作與評賞的關係」掌握得不理想時,其他評分部份也會受 到干擾。史美瑤(2012)認為採用評估表格須注意,若相關成就描述的文字過於公式化, 學生只會依照所訂出的規格來創作,因而抑制了學生的創造力。曾有學者以「素描」創 作為例,探討他們的創作及評賞背後的傾向,結果發現大部份的學生是以「具有共識」 (獲取高分的公式)態度及目標去進行創作或鑑賞;只有極少數學生能嘗試挑戰共識, 以另一種合理的角度或方式呈現答案(陳秋瑾,1997)。若「創作與評賞的關係」成為 他們創作的主要條件,他們將也會按照「具有共識」的態度進行創作,就是學生只能將 意念放在被評賞的作品,學生可能瞭解作品的意念,或只能是建基於懷疑之中,而非在 情境之上。學生的創意未能獲得自由和自主的思想空間。學生在作品集中要把自己的創 作硬性規定與藝術品評賞有聯繫,實在限制了學生的創意及發揮。 109 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 戊、 總結 一般人認為學生的學習與滿意程度均由老師負起全部的責任。這種歸因的邏輯令教 師承受不公平的看法。學者對這現象提出警告和呼籲,實作評量的推展並不能單建立在 信念上,而是要建立在實際的證據上(Linn, Bake & Dunbar, 1991)。這次大規模的教 育改革,評量成效的關注層面,並非只是學生成績的個人層次;檢視「評量的機制」, 檢視學生的學習成果是否達成預期設定的目標?如何進行改善或修正也應作為考量之一 (劉維琪,2010)。香港連續三年被選為全球化指數排名榜首,學者提出「情境社會歷 史觀點」最能回應當今全球化的社會情境。在當代藝術的觀念中,藝術創作重視創作者 個人經驗與情境互動為主,藝術評賞則重視藝術品的客觀情境,然而,文憑試的要求卻 剛剛相反。考評制度出現扭曲的現象,但教師為了讓學生獲取分數,只好以「應試模式」 編寫校本課程,故考評制度具有對視藝科課程潛在的影響性,干擾教師課程設計方向, 以下提出四方面作出回應: 1. Educational Testing Service(1990)的報告指出,重新設計實作評量的方案相對 現有測驗模式昂貴十倍以上。以實作評量(作品集)作為考核,必須考慮有否 足夠的經費持續運作這系統。考評局應提升運作的經費,來確保調分員能清晰 及完整地了解學生作品集的歷程及質量。 2. 依據現代主義費曼模式所建構的「成就描述」已經過時,應建立一種能回應當 代藝術文化的藝術評賞評分框架,讓學生能脫離單一的評賞模式,擴展學生的 視覺素養,而藝術評賞應安排於校本評核中進行。 3. 文字在評核中應只擔當輔助角色。考評局應提供正確的範例,並釐清視覺表達 及創作能力才是中學階段課程的核心。 4. 藝術評賞與創作的必然聯繫,只會扼殺學生的創意及創作的自主性,必須廢除。 兆基創意書院校監黃英琦指出,「藝術科目在舊制下雖是冷門,但現時是『令冷 門的更冷門』」;「我曾見過有學生很有興趣和天分,也因為考試而放棄藝術,令人感 到很殘酷」(童傑,2013.4.29)。視藝科考評及課程的「真實」需要是甚麼?是「以制 度為本」的運作考量?還是「以人為本」?還是為「香港創意人才培育」為主要考量? 2012年台灣舉行的「SGHC全球化人力資本高峰會」,提出兩項重要的觀念:「如何避 110 免扼殺創意的事件發生」及「瞭解如何創造更有創意的人力」(Haren,2012)。「如 何避免扼殺創意的事件發生」是兩屆視藝科文憑試後,值得進一步探討的重要議題。 參考文獻 《香港美術教育期刊》(2013a)。〈前線教師對新高中視藝科文憑試回應〉。2013年 第 1期,6-7。 《香港美術教育期刊》(2013b)。〈學生李家豪心聲〉。2013年第 1期,8。 史美瑤(2012)。〈提升學生學習成效:評估表格(Rubrics)的設計與運用〉,《評鑑 雙月刊》,第 40期,39-41。 朱穎琪(1999)。〈訪問包頓教授(Professor Doug Boughton)〉。《香港美術教育期刊》, 1999年第 3期,8。 江雪齡(1998)。〈檔案評量法〉。《中等教育》,49(4),79-84。 吳毓瑩(1997)。〈評量的蛻變與突破 — 從哲學思潮與效度理論思考起〉。《現代教 育論壇蛻變與突破:紙筆及另類評量的理念與實務》,2,189-203。 吳毓瑩(1998)。〈我看、我畫、我說、我演、我想、我是誰啊?卷宗評量之概念、理論、 與應用〉。《教育資料與研究》,20,13-17。 吳毓瑩、吳麗君(2002)。〈從比較教育的取向討論測驗評量在教育銜接中之意涵 — 一個可能的研究途徑〉。《國立臺北師範學院學報》。第 15卷,313-316。 李坤崇(1999)。《多元化教學評量》。臺北:心理出版社。 李坤崇(2006)。《教學評量》。臺北:心理出版社。 林素微(1998)。〈實作評量在數學教學上的應用〉。載臺南師院測驗發展中心(彙編), 《國小教學評量的反省與前瞻》(頁 89-105)。臺南市:臺南師院。 教育局(2011):〈問與答 — 新高中視覺藝術科課程〉,2012年 11月 13日,取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/kla/arts-edu/q-and-a/nss-qa.html。 教協報記者(2011)。〈新高中視覺藝術科 — 培育創意人才?扼殺學生興趣 — 教 育工作者談視藝科課程與考核的嚴重謬誤〉。2012年 11月 13日,取自 http://www. hkptu.org/ptu/director/pubdep/ptunews/590/m01a.htm。 梁子健(2012.1.11)。〈文憑試視藝考生要靠估 評賞罕見當代作品 艾未未「兩腳桌」 也列題〉。《星島日報》,A06版。 111 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 陳育淳(2005)。〈大家一起寫情書 — 談視覺藝術教育的形成性評量〉。《美育雙月 刊》,第 146期,59-69。 陳秋瑾(1997)。〈臺北市立師範學院美勞教育系學生「素描」概念的探討〉。《臺北 市立師範學院學報》,28,399-418。 陳秋瑾(1999)。〈視覺藝術與哲學觀〉。《現代教育論壇:視覺藝術與哲學觀》,5, 203-208。 陳素櫻(1997)。〈回歸評量的本質談開放教育中的評量〉。載鄧運林(編),《開放 教育多元評量》(頁 19-27)。高雄:高雄復文。 陳國棟(2012)。〈以約翰.霍金斯(John Hawkins)「創意生態學」反思藝術教育的 生態兩難困境〉。《香港美術教育期刊》,第 2期,27-30。 童傑(2013.4.29)。〈視藝科負擔重師生叫苦 連夜趕報告掀起退修潮〉。《星島日報》, A13版。 視藝教育關注核心小組(2013)。〈九成視藝科教師對高中視藝科失信心 教育局及考 評局必須對課程及考評機制作出具體改革〉。《香港美術教育期刊》,2013年第 1 期,15。 黃素蘭(2011)。〈高中視藝科考試改革的風波〉。《香港美術教育期刊》,2011年第 1期,7-10。 鄒慧英(2000)。〈多元化的檔案評量〉。《國教之友》,52(1),16-23。 劉維琪(2010)。〈推動學生學習成果評量的機制〉。《評鑑雙月刊》,第 26期,6-7。 歐滄和(1998)。〈談學習歷程檔案法的點點滴滴〉。《教育資料與研究》,第 4期, 28-30。 蔡明哲(2006)。〈全球化與中國文人水墨畫的藝術界域問題 — 民族主義的張大千和 沒有主義的高行健〉。《哲學與文化》,第 33卷第 10期,115-132。 鄭麗玉(2005)。《教育心理學精要》。臺北:考用出版社。 黎明海(2013.5.9)。〈新高中視藝教育喪鐘再響〉。《星島日報》,F05版。 盧雪梅(1998)。〈實作評量的應許、難題和挑戰〉。《教育資料與研究》,第 20期, 1-5。 Benjamin, W.(2006)。《機械復制時代的藝術》,李偉、郭東(譯)。重慶:重慶出版社。 (原著出版年:1935) Boughton, D.(2005)。〈大夏講壇 20講:美國北伊利諾大學道.柏頓教授談「國際藝 術教育評價的現狀及發展趨勢」〉。《大夏人文》,2006年第 1期,44-45。 112 Dutt-Donter, K., & Gilman, D. A. (1998). Students react to portfolio assessment. Contemporary Education, 69, 159-65. Educational Testing Service. (1990). Helping America raise educational standards for the 21st century. Annual report. Princeton, NJ: Author. Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Assessment and diversity. In L. Darling-Hammand (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, 20, 337-391. Greeno, J. G., Collins, A. M., & Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Haren, F.(2012)。〈人才發展也要創意激發〉。SGHC 2012全球化人力資本高峰會議。 Linn, R. L. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice- Hall. Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Dunbar, S. B. (1991). Complex, performance-based assessment: Expectations and validation criteria. Educational Researcher, 20(8), 15-21. Mehren, W. A. (1992). Using performance assessment for accountability purposes. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 11(1), 3-20. Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. (ERIC Digest). Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED328611) 113 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 Potential impact of the assessment structure of the NSS Visual Arts on the curriculum CHAN Kwok Tung Evangel College, Hong Kong Society for Education in Art Abstract This article tries to link up the discussion on the topic of “the assessment structure” and “the outcome phenomenon” to evaluate and reflect the impact caused by NSS Visual Arts public examination. In the process of investigation, there are 4 aspects in the assessment structure of NSS Visual Arts Education public examination which are liable to influence the NSS Visual Arts Curriculum. They are classified as follows: 1. The ways of submitting students’ portfolios 2. The assessment ways of “rubrics” 3. The role of “Statement and Words” in the assessment 4. The assessment arrangement of “Art Appreciation” In summary, the evaluation of the complete assessment structure and the cognition of how students can achieve their learning targets should be the core items of detecting the true effect and result of the NSS Visual Arts Assessment Structure. Keywords assessment structure, rubrics, art appreciation 115 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 梁亦華 香港中文大學教育學院博士生 摘要 應用學習是香港新高中新設的組成部分,修讀學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選 擇,透過實際操作來掌握不同技能,其設計體現了「學生中心」、「體驗學習」、 「共通能力」等教改目標,然而文獻對有關課程教師之專業感知卻少有探討。為此, 本文通過實證研究搜集了第一手資料,彌補相關研究缺口,以助學界檢討與反思。 本文屬質性研究,筆者邀得八名應用學習科目教師參與,環繞課程設計、成效評估、 推行困難等作深度訪談,結果顯示教師普遍認同應用學習能激發學生學習動機,滿 足就業及職業導向的升學需要,而課程局限則在於財政資源、人手調撥及行政安排 等三方面。 關鍵詞 新高中課程,應用學習,職業導向課程 甲、背景 2005年,教育統籌局(現教育局)發佈《高中及高等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未 來的行動方案》文件,正式確立新高中課程的定位與功能。作為面向未來的教育規劃, 文件中提出了不少創新的課程改革,例如通識教育科被列為升讀大學的必修科、各式校 本評核、以及開設多達二十門選修科供高中生選讀。選修學科中,應用學習(Applied Learning, ApL)的課程可說是最能體現新高中精神的學科之一。由於應用學習下的學習 116 範疇極為彈性,學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選擇,透過實際操作來掌握不同技能, 正正回應了教改提出「學生為中心」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等範式 轉移的新教學模式(教育統籌局,2005)。 教育局課程文件之設計希望迎合社會與學生所需,然而任何教育政策亦需要前線教 育工作者的配合。正如著名學者 Andy Hargreaves所言,任何學校變革政策與實踐中, 教師也是改革理念與學生學習改進的關鍵(Hargreaves, 1994, p.7),只有教師認同政策 的積極意義,才能發揮政策的效用。故此,如要檢討新高中應用學習之實際功效,了解 新高中教師之專業感知必不可少。那麼在政府與公眾的影響下,接觸學生及統籌課程的 前線教師對應用學習又抱有甚麼看法?鑑於新高中課程推出時間不多,相關議題的檢討 仍未算全面,故此筆者希望通過是次研究,為應用學習的討論提供前線教師之真實意見, 以作學界檢討與反思之用。 乙、文獻回顧 一、應用學習的定位與目標 應用學習課程是新高中課程的新設選修科目之一,與其他新高中學科不同的是,其 方向並非以升學作唯一目標。應用學習之設立可視為對 2005年的教改文件《高中及高 等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未來的行動方案》的回應,其目的是讓學生「透過真實情境, 讓學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論,從而培養他們的共通能力。」(教育統 籌局,2006,頁 1)。2009年的《應用學習課程及評估指引(高中課程)》則進一步, 把課程目標擴展至協助學生「探討和了解就業及終身學習的取向」(課程發展議會與香 港考試及評核局,2009,頁 1)。明顯地,應用學習配合着 2005年教改文件所提倡,「學 生為中心的教學模式」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等教改目標,亦希望 為學生提供主流升學以外的機會。 課程設置方面,應用學習共有六個學習範疇,分別為(1)創意學習;(2)媒體及 傳意;(3)商業、管理及法律;(4)服務;(5)應用科學;和(6)工程及生產(課 程發展處,2010,頁 27)。學生最多可選修兩門,每門課程的總課時為 180小時。截至 2013/14年度,共有三十七門課程獲教育局官方認可(見附錄)。可見,應用學習的學 習範疇範圍頗廣泛,與就業市場亦有密切關係。 117 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 教與學方面,考慮到一般學校未必能對職業導向學科有相應支援,教育局建議學校 以兩種模式推行應用學習,包括︰ (1) 課程主要於課程提供機構的場地進行,並由該機構的導師教授。學校須按 課程提供機構的時間表,主要安排學生於星期三及星期六外出上課; (2) 課程主要於學校進行,並由學校教師聯同課程提供機構的導師一起負責課 堂的安排。學校須與課程提供機構訂定施行細節,包括如何分配教學工作 量、調配場地及設施、提供課堂支援等。 (課程發展處,2010,頁 5、7) 《教育局通函第 14/2013號》則對課程提供機構及學校的關係進一步說明︰ 推行應用學習的學校,可考慮利用課程提供機構提供的指引和支援,先讓校 內教師承擔較多的教學工作,繼而演變為由課程提供機構授權學校開辦課程, 但授課及評核部分的內部質素保證,則仍然由課程提供機構負責。 (教育局,2013,頁 3) 評核方面,應用學習的評核由課程提供機構進行,卻不是以五個等級指標顯示學生 成績,只設「達標」(Attained)和「達標並表現優異」(Attained with Distinction)兩級。 「達標並表現優異」者等同於甲類科目的第 3級或以上(課程發展議會、香港考試及評 核局,2009)。評核雖由課程提供機構負責,然而最終評級將由香港考試及評核局參考 評核準則和成就標準來調整(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2009)。 從上可見,學校與教師在應用學習的角色與傳統學科極為不同。教師雖參與程設計 與編排,卻不主導教學與評核事宜,更多是作為聯絡橋樑,擔任協調者,以至行管理者 的輔助角色。然而,如何確保教師對課程提供機構的教學成效與評估有足夠信任,讓兩 者合作無間?官方文件卻少有提及。 二、職業導向課程的不同觀點 應用學習雖有升學功能,但它幫助學生銜接勞工市場的目標亦是顯而易見。《應用 學習課程及評估指引(高中課程)》中表示,應用學習的前身為職業導向教育,學習內 118 容與「廣闊的專業和職業領域相關連」,以「加深(學生)對各行各業的認識。藉着了 解專業領域內的知識、技能和職場要求,學生得以訂立就業的方向」為目標(課程發展 議會、香港考試及評核局,2009,1.2-1.4)。一般而言,職業導向課程的學生成本較文 法中學的高,可是社會、教育學者及家長對職業導向的畢業生並不特別關注,甚至抱有 負面看法。不少教育社會學的學者認為,這是因為職業導向課程的社會地位,以及職業 導向社會教化功能與一般課程不同所致。 社會地位方面,Fisher(1967)聚焦於職業教育的歷史脈絡,指出它源於中世紀的 手工培訓,其時手工培訓經常被視作讓罪犯補救過失和罪過的方法之一,故此手工培訓 多與罪犯改造相關聯。澳洲學者 Phillip Hughes則着眼於制度與文化,指出中國自有科 舉以來便實施精英教育,教育機會只對少數官僚或富裕階層有限開放。由於教育普及率 長期極低,致使中國社會形成鄙薄勞動,輕視實踐的傳統文化觀(Hughes, 2005);相 對而言,美國社會學家 Collins(1998)則聚焦於職業教育的社會地位流動功能。Collins 認為學生不能以手工勞動培訓提高社會地位,融入、以至帶領中產階級文化,是職業教 育注定不及文法中學受歡迎的主因。綜上可見,雖然各派學者對職業教育有不同見解, 但三者均認同社會對職業教育的偏見一直存在,並延續至今。乃至現時放棄文法中學, 接受職業導向課程者,不論就讀甚麼科目,行動本身已有負面標籤(Hughes, 2005), 這亦成為中學發展職業教育的一大障礙。 除了社會與文化原因外,教育界對職業導向課程的教育及社會教化功能亦頗有異 議,如 Rury便指出不少傳統教育領導者對職業教育存在敵意,皆因他們認為職業教育 破壞教育的社會化功能及培養公民的理想,忽略傳播社會與道德責任(Rury, 1991)。 而更重要的是,以實務而非知識為主的課程會影響他們領導教育發展的地位,故此他們 傾向優化傳統教育,或發展共通能力為主的博雅教育(Liberal Art Education),而反對 在與傳統課程不相關的科目上進行無用的訓練(Cremin, 1961; Rury, 1991);前線教師 方面,部份教師亦質疑職業教育的教學成效。例如黎萬紅及盧乃桂在 1997至 2000年間 於內地進行的質性研究顯示,不少教師認為職業教育畢業生所掌握的技能不足以應付瞬 間萬變的社會發展,而基礎能力不足又會影響他們終身學習,故他們對職業教育抱懷疑 態度(黎萬紅、盧乃桂,2003)。 雖然社會與教育界對職業教育不盡支持,但 Collins(1998)則認為,職業教育在 119 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 僱主心目中始終有其價值存在。一般學校系統強調角色學習、出席紀錄,以及大量教育 學生的效率原則,升學是按年齡,而非學習成績為標準,而考試往往抽離現實,未能回 應僱主需要,為社會提供合適人才。相對地,職業教育結合理論與實踐,正正能補足這 方面主流學制之不足。 綜上可見,官方、公眾、僱主、教育界等持份者對職業教育的立場不盡相同。鑑於 過去文獻對職業教育多着重宏觀社會分析,少有針對應用學習前線教師的個人感知,為 此,筆者希望透過本研究,了解前線應用學習教師對此課程的看法、課程推行的挑戰及 建議。 丙、研究方法 為了令本研究更為聚焦,本研究將環繞以下問題進行討論︰ (1)應用學習對修讀學生有何影響? (2)教師如何看待應用學習的升學功能? (3)教師如何看待應用學習的就業功能? (4)教師推行應用學習時面對甚麼困難? 本研究屬半結構性訪談(semi-structured interview)。Bogdan & Bilken(2007)指 出半結構性題目雖未讓受訪者完全主導過程,卻能讓研究者與受訪者雙方更聚焦於研究 議題之上,又能提供空間予受訪者自由地表達個人想法和經驗。為此,本訪談以上述四 條問題為引導,並緊隨着與受訪者個人認知及教學經驗相關的開放性問題,用以了解受 訪者感受,並在議題聚焦與受訪者主導間作一平衡。此外,本研究亦輔以與應用學習之 相關報導作比較分析,以期與訪談結果互相印證,確保資料與研究結果之效度。 本研究邀請了八名任教新高中課程,曾帶領應用學習一年或以上的教師作深度訪 談,其中任教於第一組別學校者有兩位、第二及第三組別學校者各有三位。由於應用學 習由 2010/11學年推行至今仍不滿三年,故本研究未有資深教師作比較。本研究採用便 利取樣法(convenience sampling),根據受訪者的可行性和意願來邀請研究對象。部份 學者認為選擇便利取樣的研究者無法確保受訪者的代表性,選取對象亦受到研究者個人 偏見影響(Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012),然而對比其他取樣方法,便利抽樣能保證研 究者和受訪者之間有較佳的關係與信任,有助取得更深層資訊,這對揭露一些涉及個人 120 真實想法、或須對學校政策或措施作批判性建議等的質性研究議題最為合適(Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012; Maxwell, 2005)。 基於研究道德之考慮,本文將以代號「教師 A至 H」代替受訪教師的身份,以作 闡述。信度方面,本研究的目的並非找出所有教師的共同觀點,而是希望透過新高中教 師之質性訪談,為新高中應用學習的議題提供藉得討論的可能性,供未來的課程設計者 參考及優化課程之用。基於便利取樣法所限,本研究的發現與討論不能推論至所有教師, 而只能反映部份教師根據自身經驗所歸納的個人觀感。 丁、結果與討論 總體而言,本研究的受訪教師均肯定應用學習的積極作用,然而在不同學校脈絡 中,教師對應用學習的看法卻稍有不同,亦提出了前線教師所面對的不同挑戰。綜合而 言,教師意見可循(1)學習動機方面;(2)升學方面;以及(3)就業方面以作探討。 一、學習動機方面 由於選修應用學習的學生根據各自興趣、性向及能力選取與其相符的課程,其學習 動機被假設會較一般課程為高(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2009)。本研究的 訪談亦印證了這點︰ 「⋯⋯應用學習的考核不是評分和評級,而是項目能否完成⋯⋯參加 ApL的 學生更有滿足感,以往上課漫無目的,現在卻很清楚自己方向,因為能學到 「實際的東西」,好像怎樣梳出某種髮型,怎樣因應不同場合來控制化妝深 淺(度)等,這些都可以在生活中應用出來。」(教師 B) 「⋯⋯有些學生為了自己的(珠寶)設計廢寢忘餐,假期仍經常回到視藝室 找參考書。」(教師 D) 「⋯⋯修讀了 ApL的學生現在上課沒那麼害羞了。因為他們在校外實習時經常 與不同人等合作,也要向客戶展示成果⋯⋯他們的自信和表達能力都增加了, 思考更靈活⋯⋯」(教師 F) 本研究中,受訪教師普遍認同應用學習能有效激發學生的學習動機,主要原因在於 它的學習內容具體而貼近學生生活,在現實中有應用機會;其次則為學習與考核形式的 121 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 改變,培養了學生溝通、協作、解難、自我管理等重要的共通能力,而該些應用學習科 目培養出來的能力,亦反過來幫助學生投入學校日常課堂,形成良性循環。 應用學習除了提升學生學習動機及共通能力外,某程度上亦能舒緩師生緊張關係。 教師 C在訪談中表示︰ 「⋯⋯以往不喜歡讀書的學生,等到十五歲便能離開學校找工作了。可是自 教育局推行十二年免費教育後,這些學生被迫『困』在學校至十七八歲。對 他們而言,應用學習既滿足他們的興趣,又能減少教師處理主流課程中學生 個別差異的困擾,這是教師與學生的雙贏模式。」(教師 C) 教師 C視應用學習為學生提供了非主流學習機會,是解決「課堂學習差異」的方 法之一。儘管此觀點以教師為中心,亦非應用學習的設立原意,但它卻從側面證明,應 用學習對其他學科學習,以及建立積極的課堂氣氛有着正面作用。 二、升學方面 課程發展處對應用學習的升學安排着墨不多,只着學校建立「升學及就業輔導支援 機制」,以及「為學生提供充足的資訊及指引」(課程發展處,2010,頁 10)。考評局 助理總經理(評核發展)傅德華進一步表示,若應用學習的選修科目,與大學選修科或 與專門行業有關,如時裝設計等,相信會獲優先考慮(《星島日報》,2010.8.13)。然而, 考評局的答覆,似乎未能釋除家長與學界疑慮,畢竟官方文件中學校只擔當提供資訊的 輔助角色。社會普遍認為應用學習的評級過於模糊,亦未必有助於升學。例如有家長曾 表示,應用學習的評級由舉辦課程機構負責,並無劃一標準,未必公平客觀,更難獲海 外機構承認(《東方日報》,2010.8.13)。部份教師更直接把選讀應用學習科目人數不足, 歸咎於它的評級無助於升學。例如,教評會副主席許為天便表示應用學習未受學界與社 會認可,因現時八大院校大部分只視應用學習成績為額外參考資料,其成績既沒列入資 歷架構,亦不算作大學學分,令學生「兩頭不是岸」(《東方日報》,2011.1.17)。 相對於社會各界的質疑,本研究的受訪者基本上亦持相似意見,例如,教師 A在 訪談中對應用學習的升學效能便不表樂觀︰ 「⋯⋯既選讀 ApL,就不要太在意是否廣泛認受,因為有能力修讀學術科目 122 的都不會選它,你不會為了興趣,放棄物理去讀美容化妝吧⋯⋯倒是毅進課 程把 ApL視作(香港中學文憑)合格科目之一。」(教師 A) 教師 E及 F亦認為應用學習對主流升學幫助不大︰ 「⋯⋯大學是計算等級的。升讀大學的話,以往操練舊試卷主導的傳統學科 才是正途。有部份大學甚至說只有考生在其他學科成績相若時才考慮 ApL成 績。既是這樣,我怎樣鼓勵學生修讀 ApL呢?」(教師 E) 「⋯⋯升大學都是看實力,我比你高一分,ApL零分我也贏了。」(教師 F) 雖然不算很明顯,但教師 A對選修應用學習的學生頗有偏見,頗有「職業教育屬 能力低下者修讀」的負面標籤,而受訪者亦普遍認為應用學習未必有助學生入讀大學。 可是,如果修讀學生的升學目標並非主流大學,教師的態度便較為開放︰ 「⋯⋯我會鼓勵跟不上主流課程的學生修讀美容、化妝等 ApL課程⋯⋯那邊 的升學機會比會考更高。」(教師 A) 「⋯⋯ApL有酒店管理等科目,為學生提供基礎理論與實踐經驗,對他們銜 接讀毅進及其他專上學院的課程很有幫助。」(教師 E) 從上可見,教師們認為選修應用學習課程並非缺少升學機會,如學生以專上學院的 副學士、高級文憑等職業導向課程為目標,則其升學機會比修讀傳統學科者更高。此外 與一般社會印象不同的是,雖然應用學習課程的成績評估由舉辦課程機構負責,但受訪 教師未有質疑校外評估的準確性,亦普遍肯定應用學習的教育效能。 三、就業方面 應用學習課程之職業導向色彩極為濃厚。誠如課程發展處所言︰「每個應用學習課 程均建基於不同行業或工業,以反映香港在社會、經濟和科技需求等方面的發展及環球 趨勢」(課程發展處,2010,頁 6)。學校實施時,除了職業相關的導引課程外,課程 發展處亦鼓勵學校安排職業講座、探訪活動及與職業相關的學習經歷,以幫助新高中畢 業生銜接就業市場。 然而,由於新高中學制推行不久,僱主對修讀應用學習課程的學生信心未算充足。 例如有酒店業僱主便表示,與修讀職業訓練局酒店課程的學生比較,會優先考慮職訓局 123 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 的學生,因為該些課程較實用,而文憑試的評級制度則顯得混亂,僱主難以從主觀性甚 高的評級了解畢業生水平(《明報》,2010.8.13)。可是本研究的訪談發現,不少教師 均肯定了修讀應用學習科目的就業價值︰ 「有曾任教的學生對我說,她往某連鎖化妝品店見工時,一輪面試後便獲聘 了。因為她在 ApL中受過美容訓練,面試時比其他未受訓練的求職者更有信 心,又具備相關知識基礎。」(教師 B) 「⋯⋯我們有修讀珠寶設計的學生⋯⋯她之前讀書是很差的,畢業後不但在 藝墟設立攤位,更成立網店售賣自己設計的首飾,總算有一技之長。」(教 師 F) 由此可見,受訪教師認為曾修讀應用學習課程的學生憑藉在學時期的工作經驗,面 試時比其他求職者更有信心,有助他們銜接就業市場或自行創業。不過,部份教師則表 示能力稍遜學生選修兩門應用學習科目,課業負擔可能過重,如專注於其中一門,通曉 一技之長可能較佳。 另外值得注意的是,訪談者亦談及應用學習課程偏重職業導向的隱憂: 「大部份(學生選擇的)應用學習課程,不是航空,就是酒店、多媒體⋯⋯ 如果經濟環境一變,他們能不能靠這一技之長生活呢?」(教師 G) 儘管應用學習以提供多元化課程為目的(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局, 2009,2.1),可是職業導向課程始終受到市場,即僱主需求與學生興趣所主導而集中於 某些項目,如航空工程、酒店服務等。長此下去,確實有可能逐漸集中於單一類別的課 程範疇,有違課程多元化的初衷。而本研究中教師的憂慮,亦呼應了文獻回顧部份內地 教師對職業教育畢業生的適應能力之懷疑。 戊、學校推動應用學習之挑戰 儘管本研究的受訪教師在不同程度上均肯定應用學習對學生的正面影響,然而他們 亦指出了推行應用學習時學校與教師所面對的困難。如上所言,職業導向的應用學習課 程所需資源比一般課程較多,故此學校資源問題一直是社會與教育界的共同關注焦點。 124 財政資源方面,教評會副主席許為天在應用學習推出之初,便指出教育局只資助 學校 75%費用並不足夠(《東方日報》,2011.1.17),教育局隨後於〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉承諾給予每校首十名選修生全額資助,其後每名學生津貼額為平均課程費 用的 75%(上限 8,330元)。然而學校或因資源所限而限制部份課程人數,令一些學生 未能完全根據性向與興趣選科就讀。 相對社會人士的關注焦點,教師之着眼點較多聚焦於人力資源及課時運用之上︰ 「⋯⋯新高中課程又有 IES(獨立專題探究),又有 OLE(其他學習經歷), 全都是必修,而我們這些負責應用學習課程的教師都是兼教的,又要準備課 程,又要聯絡校外機構,又要商討合作細節。這麼多行政事項,我們哪有時 間精力處理?」(教師 E) 「⋯⋯我們根本沒有時間完成課程,經常要學生星期六,甚至長假期回來額 外補課,可是應用學習的學生卻都在星期六上課,很難為他們安排第二次補 課⋯⋯」(教師 D) 「⋯⋯大部份(高中)老師都去了操練past paper⋯⋯(新高中)課程時間緊迫, 學校會先處理學術科目,其他興趣性的發展,相對容易放手。」(教師 H) 從上可見,時間與人力資源是教師發展應用學習的兩大局限。新高中所面對的公開 考試壓力和其他課程改革所帶來的工作量,往往令相關教師無力兼顧應用學習課程的統 籌發展,而選修學生在核心課程的學習進度亦可能受到影響。至於校方投放多少人力資 源於應用學習課程,很大程度上視乎學校領導對課程的重視程度,教師角色頗為被動。 己、總結 本研究發現,新高中教師普遍認為應用學習有助學生就業及提升學習動機。教師對 應用學習的升學功能略有保留,可是如升學目標並非主流大學,而是職業為導向的專上 課程,則教師認為應用學習有助學生銜接專上教育。 對學校與教師而言,推行應用學習的主要局限在於財政資源、人手調撥及課程安排 三方面︰(1)有限的財政資助局限了部份應用學習課程的收生人數;(2)應用學習為 新高中教師帶來不少非教學的行政工作,加重高中教師壓力;(3)部份應用課程須與 125 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 校外機構合作,未必能遷就學校的主流課程進度或補課安排,降低了教師調節課程進度 的靈活程度。 總括而言,本研究的受訪教師均認同應用學習對學生學習動機、升學、就業等方面 有正面影響。雖然課程實施時受到資源和人手等方面所局限,然而這些並不影響應用學 習通過學生為本學習模式,促進學生性向多元發展的積極意義。然而,為了更好地達成 應用學習之目標,減少學校與教師承受的壓力,筆者認為教育局可循四方面優化應用學 習之實施︰(1)教育方面,局方宜給予學校更充裕的財政及人力資源,讓教師享有更 大的空間專注於應用學習之課程設計,並加強校外聯繫;(2)升學方面,局方宜向大 專院校加強推廣,介紹應用學習的課程特色,以及應用學習評核的信效度,以利選修學 生將來的升學銜接;(3)社會方面,局方宜加強推廣應用學習課程之宗旨、角色及實 施情況,提升課程認受性,釋除學生、家長及社會各界對應用學習的疑慮;(4)局方 可扮演學校與企業間的橋樑角色,擴大兩者的合作空間,增加選修的職業導向範疇,以 配合學生的多元興趣與學習需要。 參考文獻 《明報》(2010.8.13)。〈文憑試應用科簡介 家長潑冷水 憂評分主觀影響認受〉。A34版。 《東方日報》(2010.8.13)。〈中學文憑試認受性存疑〉。A06版。 《東方日報》(2011.1.17)。〈「應用學習」認受性低〉。A25版。 《星島日報》(2010.8.13)。〈家長憂「應用學習」海外認受性〉。F02版。 教育統籌局(2005)。《高中及高等教育新學制︰第一階段諮詢報告》。香港︰教育統籌局。 教育統籌局(2006)。《應用學習(職業導向教育)小冊子》。2012年 11月 26日,取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_5159/pam_cos_c.pdf。 教育局(2013)。〈教育局通函第 14/2013 號〉。2013 年 7 月 28 日,取自 http:// applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf。 課程發展處(2010)。《高中應用學習課程》。香港︰教育局課程發展處應用學習組。 課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局(編)(2009)。《應用學習課程及評估指引(高中課 程)》。香港︰政府物流服務署。 126 黎萬紅、盧乃桂(2003)。〈教師對職業教育的看法 ─上海市及深圳市發展經驗的比較〉。 《教育發展研究》,第 10卷,44-49。 Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson / Allyn and Bacon. Collins, R. (1998). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. New York: Academic Press. Cremin, L. A. (1961). The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876-1957. New York: Knopf. Fisher, B. M. (1967). Industrial education: American ideals and institutions. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. Gravetter, F. J., & Lori-Ann, B. F. (2012). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth. Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times: Teachers’ work and culture in the postmodern age. London: Cassell. Hughes, P. (2005). Why access to TVET for all is essential if education for all is to be achieved. Prospects, 35(3), 253-267. Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Rury, J. L. (1991). Transformation in Perspective: Lawrence Cremin’s Transformation of the School. History of Education Quarterly, 31(1), 66-76. 127 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 - 6 - 高中應用學習課程(2013-15學年) Senior Secondary Applied Learning Courses (2013-15 Cohort) 課程一覽表 Course List 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 創意學習 Creative Studies 1. 設計學 Design Studies 643 形象設計 Image Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 639 創新產品設計 Innovative Product Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 628 珠寶藝術與設計 Jewellery Arts and Design HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 2. 媒體藝術 Media Arts 649 商業漫畫設計 Commercial Comic Art OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 646 多媒體科藝 Multimedia Entertainment Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 3. 表演藝術 Performing Arts 617 戲劇藝術入門 Introduction to Theatre Arts HKAPA 中文 Chinese 14,300 599 舞出新機-舞蹈藝術 Taking a Chance on Dance HKAPA 中文 Chinese 15,600 媒體及傳意 Media and Communication 4. 電影、電視與 廣播學 Films, TV and Broadcasting Studies 609 電影及錄像 Film and Video Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 650 電視資訊節目製作 TV Infotainment Production HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,600 5. 媒體製作與公共 關係 Media Production and Public Relations 661 公關及廣告 Public Relations and Advertising CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 651 電台主持與節目製作 Radio Host and Programme Production OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 商業、管理及 法律 Business, Management and Law 6. 商業學 Business Studies 663 應用商業研究 Applied Business Research HKIT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 8,500 595 國際商貿市場拓展 Marketing in Global Trade CityU (SCOPE) 中文 Chinese 11,500 664 實用電腦會計 Practical Computerised Accounting HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 597 認識金融服務 Understanding Financial Services OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 7. 顧客服務管理 Clientele Management 652 採購及營銷 Purchasing and Merchandising VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,500 653 零售管理 Retail Management HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,900 8. 法律學 Legal Studies 654 認識香港法律 Understanding Hong Kong Law HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 服務 Services 9. 款待服務 Hospitality Services 611 酒店服務營運# Hospitality Services in Practice# CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 615 酒店營運# Hotel Operations# VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 616 西式食品製作 Western Cuisine VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 10. 項目管理 Event Management 655 項目策劃及運作 Events Planning and Operation HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,100 11. 個人及社區服務 Personal and Community Services 665 幼兒教育 Child Care and Education VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 610 美容學基礎 Fundamental Cosmetology CCHES 中文 Chinese 10,330 附件一 附錄 應用學習的六大範疇及其選修課程表列(2013/15) 128 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康 護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文(普通話) Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構-授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 香港演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 香港浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 香港專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Technology HKIT 香港科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Technology HKU(SPACE) 香港大學專業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南大學持續進修學院 Lingnan Institute of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生,將獲教育局及學 校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康 護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文(普通話) Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構-授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Tech ology I 科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Techn logy HKU(SPACE) 大學 業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南 持續 Lingnan Institut of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生,將獲教育局及學 校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 (資料來源 : http://applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf 〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉頁 6-7) 129 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 Review of Applied Learning in NSS curriculum LEUNG Yick Wah Doctoral student of the Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Applied Learning (ApL) is a new component of the NSS curriculum, which responded to the paradigm shift of “student-oriented”, “experiential learning” and “development of generic skills” in the education reform. In ApL, students can choose their elective subjects according to their own interest and equip with different vocational skills through block practice. However, there is no comprehensive study on the teachers’ perception of ApL implementation. This empirical study, therefore, is intended to fill this research gap and can serve as a platform for further discussion. This study adopts a qualitative approach. The data was collected from the in-depth interview with eight ApL teachers, which focused on the teachers’ perception of curriculum design, effectiveness evaluation and challenges faced in ApL implementation. The findings revealed that the teachers agree the ApL curriculum can boost the student motivation and prepare students for further study in vocational training or for future employment. Nevertheless, the three main challenges encountered including insufficient financial resource, lacking manpower deployment and complex curriculum administrative arrangement limited the effectiveness of ApL implementation. Keywords NSS curriculum, Applied Learning, vocational education 131 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 How much can we trust test scores? Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Assessment plays a critical role in students’ lives. Due to the relative nature of educational measures, test results may be highly fallible and cannot be treated as if they are error-free. This paper illustrates several ways in which test scores can be misinterpreted thus leading to no small consequences on students, and how to get around them. Keywords assessment, examination, interpretation of test scores, score transformation, score reliability “The reliability of our national assessments is simply not good enough to warrant the trust that is placed in them. And one day, people are going to find this out.” The above quote from Dylan Wiliam (2000) comments on the British examination systems. Hong Kong and Singapore, both being ex-colonies, have inherited some elements of the British education system with much emphasis on examinations. Added to this is the historical influence of the Chinese imperial selection examination and the culture of valuing education as a mean to social upward mobility. A question that can be asked is whether Wiliam’s comment applies to Hong Kong and Singapore, or even East Asian nations like Japan, Korea, and Taiwan where much emphasis and a lot of premium have been placed on test scores, especially for administrative purposes such as selection, channeling, and certification. Naturally, test scores are taken very seriously by school administrators, teachers, and parents alike because employers and the public are doing the same. The questions arising from this situation are: Are we too serious about test scores? Should we not take them with a pinch of salt? With these questions in mind, this paper tries to put examination and test scores in the 132 current context of teaching and assessment. It also suggests six axioms following which teachers can more appropriately interpret test scores and use them more cautiously to help in guiding students’ learning. Assessment of and for learning In recent years, there has been much discussion on assessment of learning versus assessment for learning. The two approaches to assessment have different purposes, function, and procedures (Australian Education Services, n.d.). The emphasis on assessment for learning is a fairly new phenomenon in education as compared with the traditional focus on assessment of learning. Assessments often yield results test scores or grades which are supposed to indicate students’ learning – both achievement and difficulties. Information encoded in test scores tells about students’ learning after instruction is summative in nature. When scores are used for making decisions which have long-ranging effects on the students’ future educational opportunities, they are said to be high-stakes in nature. In this sense, this is assessment of learning which is by tradition almost the only purpose of examinations. Assessment is summative and retrospective, and is a measure of the product of learning. It can also provide information about the students’ learning as a process. When looked at this way, the information tells where learning has taken place and where corrective instruction by teachers and further efforts by students are needed. Through this latter practice of assessment for learning, assessment outcomes are used diagnostically and dynamically to guide further instruction and learning. Its nature is therefore formative and forward- looking. Although distinction can be made between summative assessment (of learning) and formative assessment (for learning), the fact is that from gathering assessment data to using the data is a long process and its impact can take a long time to actualize (Figure 1). Take for example, students are assessed by teachers using assessment tools such as tests, rubrics, projects, etc. Assessment outcomes are encoded and recorded as scores, marks, ratings, grades, descriptions, and work samples and labeled with descriptors such as excellenct, good, etc. by teachers using some conceptual tools (e.g., average, passing marks, acceptable grades). Some of the decisions are formative and useful for guiding further instruction and learning. Others are summative and associated with high-stakes “standards” for channeling, streaming, or tracking – basically, grouping pupils for further instruction. This long process (Figure 1) may happen within a year, as in school-based examinations for re-organizing students at the next higher class level. It may continue for a few years, as in the cases of the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in Singapore or Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination in Hong Kong. It does 133 How much can we trust test scores? not really matter whether one or more years are needed, as the process and its effects on pupils are similar or even the same. Figure 1: From assessment to consequences Test scores are used for decision-making. First, assessment of learning is high- stakes in nature and has long-term, irreversible consequences. Secondly, assessment for learning is for facilitating learning. In between the gathering of assessment outcomes and decision-making, there are several intervening steps. If the conceptual tools are not available to test score users (i.e. teachers, school administrators, curriculum developers) and the interpretation is improper, decisions will be irrelevant or even misleading. These mean a waste of resources in terms of time and efforts of both teachers and students. Test scores therefore should be cautiously interpreted, and statistical concepts are important assessment tools for this purpose. If learning is seen as a continuous, long journey through the educational highway from primary school to university, then end-of-year school examinations and end-of-stage examinations (such as the PSLE or the DSE examination) are used not only retrospectively to sum up what has taken place but can also act predictors and guides for further learning. In a broader sense, the dual function of assessment can break down the distinction between formative and summative assessments. One can go even further to doubt whether assessment at the end of each school year and each schooling stage is really summative or formative. With these concerns in mind, the six axioms are proposed below for enhancing the proper interpretation and use of assessment outcomes: 1. A score standing alone has no meaning. 2. Same scores may have different meanings. 3. A small difference makes no difference. 4. Weights may be non-functioning. 5. Assessors may be unreliable. 6. When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible. 134 Axiom no. 1: A score standing alone has no meaning When Albert scores 75 for his English assessment, what does this mean? Several interpretations readily come to mind: 1. He is far above the passing mark of 50; he has done well. 2. He is far below the perfect mark of 100; he has done poorly. The same mark leads to two different views because of two different expectations. If more information is available, interpretations will change: 3. The class mean is 75; Albert is average. 4. Albert’s score is 30 marks higher than the class’s lowest score of 45; well done. 5. Albert’s score is 5 marks lower than the class’s highest score of 80; could have done better. If the teacher has set a criterion score of, say, 70 (based on some reasonable grounds or past experience), then: 6. Albert has passed the test. What can we conclude from the above? A score standing alone has no fixed meanings; its meaning is dependent on reference to other relevant information. The first two interpretations made with reference to subjective expectations (of the teacher, Albert himself or his parents) are arbitrary in nature and hence should be avoided. The next three interpretations are made with reference to how his classmates performed in the same test. This is known as norm-referenced interpretation. The sixth interpretation is made with reference to a pre-set cut-score (which preferably has an empirical basis); it is a criterion- referenced interpretation and is the basis for the development of a very large number of standardized tests, especially in the USA. Standardized tests A standardized test (say, of Mathematics) has to go through many steps to develop such as: (1) identifying the instructional objectives, that is, mathematical knowledge and competencies to be assessed; (2) writing items for the identified objectives; (3) trialling the items with a large group of students for whom the test is meant; (4) conducting item- analysis to assess the efficacies of the trialed items; (4) selecting items which have been found to work well; (5) collecting data from another large group of students for whom the test is meant; (6) using the data to compile test norms (tables showing scores and the numbers of students getting each score); (7) releasing the finalised version; and (8) revising the test after, say, five years. These steps are not only time-consuming and labour-intensive but also require the collaboration of content specialists and assessment 135 How much can we trust test scores? experts, and of course teachers and students. No wonder test development has become a gigantic business in the USA dominated by a few organizations (e.g., the Educational Testing Service in Princeton). For a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of standardized testing, see Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? (ProCon.org, n.d.). If Albert has taken a standardized test of Mathematics, his score is compared with the very large group of students whose scores were used to compile the test norm. Then, his score may get him an equivalent T-score (a kind of standard score). And, what does this T-score mean? Why should we use it? Standard scores A T-score is a kind of standardized score peculiar to educational assessment. It is peculiar because of the relative nature of scores obtained by using educational measures as contrasted with physical measures (e.g., weight, height). Take Albert’s score of 75 for example. It is not a fixed quantity of a fixed quality like his weight and height for which there are standard instruments such as a weighing machine or a standard ruler. Albert’s score is relative (to the normation group) although such scores are always mistakenly seen as absolute. For a fuller explanation of what standard scores are, see Transformed scores – Standard scores (Mypage, n.d.). Let’s say the test taken by Albert is a 100-word spelling test. He gets 75 because he can spell three-quarters of the words correctly. This looks fine until he takes another spelling test consisting of 100 easier words. In this case, he may get 85, 95, or even 100. The converse is also true if the words are more difficult. In short, Albert’s score will vary with the tests (words) used to assess his spelling ability. Because of this, a different way of indexing Albert’s spelling ability is to compare him with other students who have taken the same test and interpret his score according to where he stands among the peers. Thus, instead of just saying how good he is in terms of the number of words he spells correctly, we can know how much better or worse his performance is when compared with the norm (documented as the norm table). This is where the T-score becomes helpful. When a standardized test is developed, the norm group of students has different scores, some very low, others very high, and most somewhere in between. For these scores, a mean (average) can be calculated as the “centre”. Since not all students get the same score, there is a need to describe how widely spread from the mean the scores are. For this, standard deviation (SD) is calculated. If the group mean is 67, then, Albert deviates from the mean by +8 and the SD of the scores happens to be 8, then, his score is one SD above the mean. This gives him a z-score of 1.00; z-score is another kind of standard score that will be explained later. Z-scores may take negative values and have decimals and so are inconvenient for 136 recording purposes. How to explain to parents that their children get negative scores (owing the teacher some marks?) is a major challenge. Besides, for different sets of test scores, standard deviations (SDs) are not the same. To overcome these problems, measurement experts come up with the bright idea of T-scores. From z-scores to T-scores The T-scores form a scale with a mean of 50 and a SD of 10. This is a scale universally agreed upon and used by measurement experts and so all tests can then have their original scores converted to it. An added advantage of using T-scores is that all scores from different tests can be considered “comparable”. If the set of English Language scores (including Albert’s 75) has a mean of 67 and a SD of 8, then Albert’s 75 is now converted according to the formula to a T-score of 60 (i.e., T-score = 50+10*(Score - Mean)/SD = 50+10*(75 - 60)/8) = 60). Aha! Have we not short-changed Albert by giving him a T-score of 60 which looks lower than his original raw score of 75? No. The conversion of original scores (those given by the test) to T-scores is like converting SGD or HKD to USD, using the appropriate currency exchange rate. The face value has changed but the buying power remains the same. So, Albert has not been short-changed. In this case, his T-score of 60 has placed him one SD above the mean of 50 and, according to the normal distribution (Figure 2), he is better than 84% of students in his class (i.e., 50% below the mean and 34% between the mean and one SD above it). Another way is to say that he stands at the 84th percentile and belongs to the top 16% of the students. So, by comparing with his peers, Albert has done pretty well (Figure 2). Figure 2: The normal distribution curve Thus, as you must have suspected by now, converting original scores to T-scores in actuality can change the basis of comparison and hence the interpretation of test results. As pointed out above, if Albert’s score of 75 for spelling test represents correctly spelling three-quarters of the 100 words, his score will be different when the words in the test change. But then, we argue. The idea is that Albert’s spelling ability at the time of testing is a fixed quality and should not vary with the test used and the same should go for his 137 How much can we trust test scores? peers – their ability should not change with different tests. However, we know that this is not true when different tests are used. By using T-scores, we can assess Albert in terms of his relative position (percentile) among his peers. When a more difficult spelling list is used, all pupils should get lower scores than previously, but their positions relative to one another should logically remain unchanged. This is an assumed advantage of using T-scores instead of the original raw scores. Axiom no. 2: Same scores may have different meanings The above examples show clearly that the use of raw scores can lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretations for the simple reason that the same raw scores from different tests may not have the same meanings when they are interpreted with different references. A few more fictitious but realistic cases should interest you. Performance comparison Albert has scored 75 in both Social Studies and Science. In which test has he done better? Since the marks are the same for the two subjects, Albert has done equally well in both subjects. Hold on! As pointed out earlier, this will be true if and only if both tests have the same mean and the same SD – a most unlikely situation. Thus, unless the scores are converted to the T-scale, we cannot be so sure; 75 for Social Studies may turn out to be a better score because it has placed Albert on a higher percentile, and the converse is also possible. In short, two scores from two different tests do not necessarily mean the same performance level; they need to be standardized (scaled) before comparison can be made valid. Are you puzzled? Dollars, cents and scores A money example will help to make this clear. The first three columns in Table 1 show the numbers of “dollars” that Albert’s father and uncle have. When we say they are equally rich (or poor) with 100 dollars, we are assuming that the monies in the four pockets are in the same currency. However, if monies in the left pockets are USD and they are converted to SGD (at a rate of 1.35), adding these to the SGD’s in the right pockets shows that Albert’s father is richer than his uncle. The same principle goes for the comparison of scores. Table 1: The values of monies Before conversion After conversion Pocket Father Uncle Currency Father Uncle Left (USD) 80 20 SGD 108 27 Right (SGD) 20 80 SGD 20 80 Total 100 100 Total 128 107 138 This is a reminder that two scores for two different tests cannot be directly compared because they represent different performance levels. Before comparing them, they have to be converted to the same scale (e.g., the T-scale) first. Axiom no. 3: A small difference makes no difference Sometimes (or rather often) we see people insisting that a small difference is a difference. For example, a teacher marking a composition with the mark range of 30 insists that an essay is worth 22.5, not 22 or 23! Another example can be about a student who has failed because he could only get 48, two marks short of the passing mark 50. Yet another example, one school celebrates because it scores half a percent more passes and gets one rank higher than its rival school. Are all these small differences real? All scores have error! We need to realize and keep reminding ourselves that all assessment scores have errors. Such errors are not what we normally called mistakes but are fluctuations due to sampling. They are, technically, measurement errors (Johnson, Dulaney & Banks, 2005). When we set test questions in any subject or any topic within a chosen subject, we are taking a sample of many theoretically possible ones (the universal of possible items). We then use these sampled items to test the students’ knowledge or competencies. If we set another test, students’ scores will change (remember Albert’s spelling test). If we test a group of students using even the same test on different days, their scores will also change. And, if we ask different teachers to mark the same set of compositions, even using the same marking scheme, the scores will also be different. Errors (fluctuation) in assessment are inevitable because of the sampling processes in constructing test questions and marking students’ responses to open-ended questions. There are basically two types of such errors: the random and the systematic (Changing Minds, 2012). Random errors have to do with chance. For example, a set of compositions are marked by one teacher on two days. Because she is in good health on the first and is ill on the second, she is likely to give higher scores to those compositions marked on the first day and lower scores to those on the second day (or, possibly, the other way round). If the teacher is aware of this inconsistency, she can double-mark the compositions a second time. If she then take the average of the two marks for each paper, the inconsistency is likely to cancel out. There are other conditions that lead to fluctuations which will cancel out in the long run. (Unfortunately, she may never do this and so students whose compositions are marked more strictly can only blame themselves for bad luck.). The common practice of double or triple marking and taking the average in large-scale examinations is to minimize such fluctuations which may affect score reliability. It is more appropriate for the marking of open-ended questions which involve students writing 139 How much can we trust test scores? their own answers, such as composition for Languages or essay-type questions in Social Studies, Literature, and even Science. Individual teachers have different expectations and marking habits influenced by their experience and personality. A teacher who has been teaching high-ability students naturally uses her experience with such students as a yardstick when marking compositions. She may also be, at the same time, a strict marker habitually giving lower marks. Thus, when marking a set of compositions, with her experience and personality combined, she will consistently (though unconsciously) give lower marks than what the compositions should deserve. This may give rise to systematic errors. Some of the teachers were so confident about their marking that they awarded half-a-mark! And, how important is the half-mark? Read this: “Do you know what is the importance of half a mark? It determines whether you pass or fail. It determines whether your report book is going to have all blue or a “one” or “two” red marks among the blues. This is called “pass” or “fail”, and how many subjects you pass or fail, it is going to determine whether you get promoted to the next level. This is all the olden days...” (Peace, 2008) For a set of answer sheets to be marked with a computer, one or more errors may occur such as in the coding of answer keys. If “c” is coded for the correct answer when it should be “b”, all students who have answered the miscoded items correctly will earn fewer marks than they deserve. Conversely, those answering wrongly may get a mark higher if they (lucky them) happen to choose “c” (the wrongly coded option). Such errors are also systematic because they do not cancel out in the long run. This type of errors adversely affects the score validity in that the scores do not accurately reflect students’ true ability. Due to such errors, measurement experts consider an observed score (the score a student gets after assessment) as consisting of two parts: the true score (which can truly represent student’s ability which the test is trying to estimate) and error score (the part of the observed score due to random errors as described above). It is not possible to measure students’ true scores directly. Knowing that there are fluctuations contributing to random errors, test developers take pains to minimize them through careful and multiple marking as well as by controlling the testing conditions. The argument is that by minimizing the errors, observed scores will reflect true scores more accurately (Trochim, 2006). There are several ways of evaluating score reliability. American experience shows that teacher-made tests generally have score reliability values of around 0.7 meaning that tests constructed by teachers yield scores which are about 70% trustworthy. This suggests 140 that teachers should not be dogmatic about the marks they give and definitely not about small differences! A score is not a point! In view of the errors which cannot be totally eliminated, measurement experts advise that a score should not be seen as a fixed point on a scale but as one possible point or a number of points within a specified range on the scale. This takes us to the concept of standard error of measurement (SEM). Let us say that the Chinese Language test has a SD=3 (which is rather small) and its score reliability in terms of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.7. The SEM should be 1.6 according to the formula SEM=SD*√(1 – r), where r is the reliability coefficient, alpha. Then, we ask ourselves how much confidence we want to have when reporting a score for this test. Let us be not too ambitious but choose to be 95% confident in making a statement about a student’s performance. Now, according to the normal curve, a 95% confidence level requires that we allow for an error (fluctuation) of 1.96 SEM (or rounded to 2 in SEM). Then, a score on this test will fluctuate with an error of ±2*SEM or ±3.2 (or rounded as 3). In Albert’s case, instead of seeing his score as a fixed point of 75, we should think of his score (for whatever subject) as falling between 72 (=75-3) and 78 (=75+3) in 95% of the times. This so-called band-interpretation of test scores is in contrast with the point- interpretation. Of course, band-interpretation makes administrative decisions (pass/fail, select/reject) more complicated and inconvenient. However, it is desirable for two reasons. First, it takes due cognizance of the fact that tests scores are fallible and hence should not be taken dogmatically. Secondly, when making important decisions on students, test scores should not be the only criterion; other information needs be considered, too. Misplaced confidence of spurious precision In view of the measurement errors (fluctuation) due to the sampling of subject content, student’s testing behaviour, and teacher’s marking habits, a small difference between two scores should not be taken too seriously. For example, a difference between 48 and 50 can well be due to measurement error. In other words, if 48 comes from the same English Language test taken by Albert with a SEM of 3, at the 95% confidence level this score will fall with the range from 45 to 51. Had the student taken the same test again and again, he will get between 45 to 51 marks. Since this mark range includes the passing mark 50, he should be passed. This example shows how confidence may be misplaced in small mark difference leading to erroneous decisions. The emphasis on a small, immaterial mark difference is called spurious precision, that is, a precision which is not really important or meaningful. Spurious precision may seem to be a spurious issue, but the consequences of basing important decisions on spurious difference may have long-lasting undesirable 141 How much can we trust test scores? consequences for students and the nation (in terms of manpower loss). As the author of How to lie with statistics, Huff (1954), says, “A difference is a difference only if it makes a difference.” As a corollary, it is a conceptual sin to make a spurious difference a difference in order to make it a difference. Is banding the solution? Perhaps it is the awareness of such problems of measurement error and spurious precision that has led to the use of banding, that is, grouping students within a specified mark range and giving them the same label (band). This is a partial solution but not a perfect medicine. Table 2 show the bands obtained by two pupils. Combining the bands, Albert has performed better than Bob has. After all, canceling out A-A and B-B, Albert is left with an A but Bob a B. Let’s assume that band B is for scores ranging from 60 to 84, and band A is for score 85 and above. It may just happen that the A’s Albert gets are the beginning scores of band A and his B is from the low end of band B. And, Bob gets the beginning score of band A just like Albert, but his B is from the top end of band B. Then, in terms of actual scores, Bob scores better than Albert and not the other way round. This example is given here only for illustration, but it does not mean this cannot happen. Table 2: Scores and bands of two students Subject Bands Scores Albert Bob Albert Bob EL A A 85 (A) 85(A) MT A B 85 (A) 84(B) Math B B 70 (B) 84(B) Overall (2A+1B) > (1A+2B) 240 < 253 So, is banding the solution? As the assessment expert Wiliam (2000) says, “A cure that is probably worse than the disease.” What can we do, then? Not much. One partial solution is to have more bands each with a shorter mark range. The logical extreme extension of this is to have too many bands and then we are back to square one. So, be cautious. Axiom no. 4: Weights may be non-functioning Every examination paper will consist of more than one part for assessing one specific item of knowledge or competency. A simple example is the case of a Language paper which has a written component and an oral component. Of course, the written component always comprises several different sub-sections such as vocabulary, grammar, 142 comprehension, etc. For the sake of illustration, just say it has only the written and oral parts. Usually, different parts of an examination are given different predetermined weights, for example, 80% for the written components and 20% for the oral component, to reflect their relative importance. The hidden message is, for this example, to let students (and their teachers and parents) know that oral language is important though not as important as the written part; the implication is not to neglect oral language since it is also to be assessed. The message is loud and clear. What is the effect in terms of final results? It is a well-known fact that test scores with a wider spread (SD) have more influence if they are summed for an indication of overall performance. Table 3 is a typical example taken from a Language examination. Table 3: Weights of components and scores in a Language examination Written (80%) Oral (20%) Total Albert 75 (1) 10 (3) 85 (1) Bob 70 (2) 12 (2) 82 (2) Calvin 65 (3) 15 (1) 80 (3) As can be seen, for the writing component, Albert is the best and Calvin is the worst, with Bob in between them. For the oral component, the orders are just the reversed. When the scores for the two components are added, the totals will rank Albert first, Bob second, and Calvin third. Thus, the final ranks are the same as the ranks for the writing component, and the oral component has no influence. This happens because the written component has a much wider range (a larger SD if calculated) than the oral component has. This will happen also when scores for different tests are added. Table 4 shows the performance levels in English and Mathematics of a class and the scores obtained by three pupils. The scores for the two tests are added and the totals are used to rank the students, Albert ranked first and so is better than Bob ranked second who in turn is better than third-ranking Calvin. The rank-orders are the same as those for English. Note that the SD of scores in English is double that of Mathematics. In this case, Mathematics (with a much smaller SD) plays no role in deciding who is better. Table 4: Weights for different subjects Subject Mean (SD) Albert Bob Calvin English 70.0 (4.00) 75 (1) 65 (2) 60 (3) Mathematics 65.0 (2.00) 59 (3) 62 (2) 61 (1) Total - 134 (1) 127 (2) 121 (3) 143 How much can we trust test scores? More complex situations So far, for simple illustration, we have been using examples involving two tests or two components. Things are more complex in reality. In Table 5, the raw scores obtained by Albert and Bob for four subjects suggest that they are equally good, both having a total of 270. If there is a scholarship or other award, they are equally qualified. However, as subjects have different means and SDs, simple summated scores are misleading. The totals for T-scores are different. Now, it is clear that Albert (with Total=199) is a more deserving candidate than Bob (with Total=193), if the difference of four T-scores is considered important enough. Table 5: Raw and T-scores of two students Subject Mean (SD) Original score T-score Albert Bob Albert Bob EL 70.0 (4.00) 75 70 63 50 MT 65.0 (8.00) 70 75 56 63 Math 70.0 (5.00) 65 60 40 30 SC 65.0 (5.00) 60 65 40 50 Total - 270 270 199 193 T-score transformation is employed for the PSLE in Singapore to solve the problem of unequal means and SDs among subject tests. The same problem exists when raw scores for school-based examinations are summed as indicators of the overall performance level. With computing facilities readily available, this problem can be solved by adopting the same approach what is done for the PSLE. Does summing up scores make sense? It is a common practice that different assessments taken throughout a year are given different weights to indicate their relative importance. A typical situation is that shown in the Table 6 where the two term assessments are given a weight of 15% each, the mid-year assessment 30%, and the end-of-year assessment 40%. Table 6: Weights for different assessments Term 1 Mid-year Term 2 End-year Average Marks 72 68 74 78 73.5 Weight 15% 30% 15% 40% 100% The problem of different means and SDs when original scores are summed for an overall performance indicator (total) will still happen. This means, in spite of the different intended weights, components having larger SDs will be more powerful in the final total, 144 rending those with small SDs non-functioning. Besides this persistent problem, there is also a conceptual issue. In this example, the four assessments are not mutually exclusive since some content tested earlier in Term 1 will be tested again later. Those tested for the mid-year may also be tested in year-end examination paper again. Such over-lap means that some content are over-tested or double-counted and getting double weight or more. Is this desirable? Furthermore, the four assessments are conducted at different points of the year and at different points a student has different achievement levels. When scores are added (even after weighting) and an average is derived at, does the average really show where the student is at the end of a year’s learning? If not, where is the more accurate indicator? Imagine that you are driving from Singapore to Penang (or from Hong Kong to Shanghai) and have to stop at three different places. Every time you stop, you record the distance covered. When you reach the destination, you calculate the average of the distances and say “on average, I have driven xyz kilometres from X to Y.” How will this sound to your friend? The message is that average does not always make sense. Stopping at different cities to record the distance covered is analogous to formative assessment, while recording the total distance traveled is analogous to summative assessment. It appears that the practice described above for finding end-of-year averages is a mix-up of these two different approaches to assessment. Things are a little bit more complicated than this. It is readily appreciated that some subjects are developmental in nature while others are cumulative. For cumulative subjects (perhaps, science subjects for which topics are discrete), adding marks obtain from different tests for an overall indication may make sense. On the other hand, for developmental subjects (such as the languages), what a student is able to do at the end of a year indicates the cumulative effect of learning; and, therefore, adding and averaging marks obtain from assessments taken over a year may not make sense. This is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and future research. Axiom no. 5: Assessors may be unreliable So far, our discussion has focused on scores and students, as if these are the only sources of misinterpretation. The fact is, teachers who mark the papers can also be a source of error, especially where open-ended questions are concerned. This is a century- old problem and is still around. If you think that this will only occur in the marking of compositions, you will be surprised that it can happen in the marking of Mathematics paper as well, as early research shows. 145 How much can we trust test scores? A concrete example of this problem is how a group of experienced teachers marked one and the same answer to a question on vitamins (Science!). The question asks candidates to name four vitamins and their common sources and to tell for each whether it can be stored in the body and whether it can be destroyed by heat. An answer to this question was photo-copied and 43 experienced teachers marked this one answer independently. They were to indicate whether it was a poor, weak, average, good or excellent answer. Also, they were to award a mark within the range of zero to 30 with the passing mark of 15 (By Singapore convention, 50% is a passing mark. What about Hong Kong?). The marks and grades given by the teachers are shown in Table 7. Table 7: Grades and marks awarded by teachers to the same answer Marks No. of grades given Pass / Failure given by teachersWeak Average Good 22-22.5 - 3 6 No. of passes = 41 20-21 - 9 6 18-19 - 10 - 15-17 1 6 - 42-14 1 1 - No. of failures = 2 Total 2 29 12 43 Median 14.5 18.5 21.5 - Range 5 10.5 2.5 - No teachers considered the answer as poor or excellent. Two teachers considered it as weak, 29 as average, and 12 as good – all for the one and the same answer to an essay- type question on a factual topic! Even within each grade, for instance “average”, the marks given varied as much as 10.5, again for the one and the same answer. Of the 43 teachers, two teachers failed it and 41 passed it. If this happens with just one answer, imagine what may happen when a paper consists of several open-ended questions. In this case, it may not be an exaggeration that whether a student passes or fails depends more on his luck or rather on who marks his answers. Earlier on, it was suggested that the teacher’s experience, marking habit, and personality play a role in inconsistency in marking. The 43 teachers were asked which schools they came from. There seems to be a relation (correlation) between the school type and the marks awarded. Teachers who came from the so-called good schools tended to give lower marks, and vice versa. This is perfectly understandable since teachers will (unconsciously or subconsciously) use the kind of answers they have been marking as a reference for marking this particular answer. In this example, the teachers’ personalities were not studied. Teachers’ idiosyncrasy in marking is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and research. 146 Perhaps, the awareness of such a problem has led to assessment experts to come up with suggestions such as the use of model answers, marking schemes (the old fashion name for assessment rubrics), product sample scale, post-marking moderation, statistical scaling, etc. These may help to reduce the size of the problem but none is a perfect solution, and one wonders if there ever will be one. Again, the best advice is to be cautious. Axiom no. 6: When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible At this point, it is good to take stock of what has been discussed so far. Traditionally, assessment results in terms of scores and grades are used to sum up student’s learning up to a point in time. This is assessment of learning. In recent years, assessment for learning gets a lot of attention. This is using assessment results to guide and direct further learning of the students. The two approaches have different purposes and different data are required. However, the reality is that, the same assessment results are used for both purposes, retrospectively as well as prospectively. Whichever approach is emphasized, the same process is involved: from collecting data by testing, through analyzing data to gain information about learning, and then to making decisions on instruction and on the students’ future development. Irrespective of the time span, such decisions have long-lasting consequences to the students and all around them – their teachers, school administrators, parents, and even the nation. Hence, assessment is a very serious business and deserves to be done well. Nonetheless, problems arise because of the relative nature of educational assessment which yields data that can be interpreted in a variety of ways, as contrasted with the case physical measurements such as weight and height that fixedly quantify fixed quality. Therefore, assessment results need contexts for them to be meaningfully interpreted. This peculiar nature of educational measurement gives rise to the problems relating to the following conditions: 1. Educational measures are relative and highly fallible. 2. Educational measures are samples which have measurement errors (fluctuations). 3. Weighting to reflect relative importance of sub-tests may or may not work. 4. Summing up scores of subtests or a few tests may be misleading. 5. Marking of open-ended responses are always unreliable. 6. Spurious precision of small difference is more often imagined rather than real. Each of these causes conceptual and technical problems that need be solved but perfect solutions are not available. All that can be done is to minimize the severity of misinterpretation as much as the teachers’ assessment competence allows. Conceptual 147 How much can we trust test scores? and technical problems are separate issues though always related. Technical problems are easier to handle. They can be solved to a large extent by learning relevant statistical techniques to treat the assessment data properly, if there is the will. Conceptual problems are more difficult. They not only call for a will to change but also require re-orientation through the melting of long-held erroneous ideas and crystallization of new shapes. This has been found to be difficult in education. Before the time comes, the only advice that can be given is for assessment data consumers (teachers, counselors, and school administrators) to be flexible and humble when interpreting them and using them. Conclusion There is no denial that test scores play a very important role in teaching and learning. For this one reason, they should be appropriately interpreted and used for the benefits of the teachers and their students. Misinterpretation leads to misinformation which in turn leads to misdirection and wrong actions. Valid interpretation of test scores requires some understanding of the basic statistical concepts involved as illustrated in this paper. Uncertainty in interpretations and the uses of test scores are not totally inherent in scores but, to a large part, in ours. Seen in this light, perhaps the title of this article should have been “How much can we trust our interpretations of test scores?”. As teachers, we assess students and thereby create test scores (and grades), but then as little Alice says in the Wonderland, “An author doesn’t necessarily understand the meaning of his own story better than anyone else.” Notes This paper is application oriented and written for practising teachers in this connection. Instead of following the traditional style of citing articles to support the arguments, readable and interesting websites are listed in the Reference list for those who wish to pursue the issues further in-depth. 148 References Australian Education Services. (n.d.). Key questions: What is assessment for learning? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.assessmentforlearning.edu.au/professional_ learning/intro_to_afl/introduction_key_questions.html Changing Minds. (2012). Measurement error. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// changing minds.org/explanations/research/measurement/measurement_error.htm Huff, D. (1954). How to lie with statistics. London: Norton. Johnson, S., Dulaney, C., & Banks, K. (February 2005). Measurement error. For good measure. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.wcpss.net/evaluation-research/ reports/2000/mment_error.pdf Mypage. (n.d.). Transformed scores – Standard scores. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://mypages.valdosta.edu/mwhatley/3900/standardized.pdf Peace. (2008). Science exam paper. In Kids World. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// totallykidsworld.blogspot.sg/search/label/how reliable is the school teacher ProCon.org. (n.d.). Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://standardizedtests.procon.org/ Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). True score theory. In Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/truescor.php Wiliam, D. (2000). The meanings and consequences of educational assessments. Critical Quarterly, 42(1), 105-127. http://www.aaia.org.uk/pdf/2001DYLANPAPER2.PDF 149 How much can we trust test scores? 測試分數可信程度如何? 蘇啟禎 新加坡 摘要 學業測試結果,對學生有重大的影響。由於教育測量的相對性,測試得分可以有高 度的變動性,不可當作毫無誤差的資料。本文提出分數可能被錯誤解釋的幾個例子, 說明若錯誤解釋分數對學生可能產生的後果及如何避免。 關鍵字 測試,考試,分數的解釋,分數的換算,分數的信度 151 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 何慧群 國立臺中教育大學教育學系 永井正武 國立臺中教育大學教育測驗統計研究所 摘要 臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育目標之一是實踐教育正義,但是,後期中等教育適性 與分流不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大問題亟待受正視與解決。本文透過對照美 國、德國、法國國民教育體制,提出發展臺灣 12年國民基本教育的意見,旨在:(1) 倡導 12年國民基本教育是保障生存、創造生活幸福與生命意義的基礎工程,適性 與分流是教育手段;(2)指出 12年國民基本教育規劃採全納式與結構功能,前者 縱向銜接與橫向聯結,後者具階段性與功能化;(3)凸顯國中與國小階段教育是 12年國民基本教育基礎;(4)解釋 12年國民基本教育目標實踐繫於教師教育,與 (5)就 2014年臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育提出建議。 關鍵詞 12年國民基本教育,適性與分流,教育資源,全納式,教師教育 甲、前言 在知識經濟與創意經濟的時代,歐美工業發達國家、開發中國家如臺灣、南韓、印 152 度、紐澳,未開發國家如中國大陸、東南亞國家等在總體教育投資與推動教育革新是不 遺餘力的。另,在全球經濟競爭氛圍下,學校教育成為國家發展的基礎工具,國民教育 (National Education)、國民基本教育(National Basic Education)是打造國家政經發展 與社會和諧的基礎工程。 國民教育實施年限長短,反映國家綜合實力與社會現代化程度;而國民基本教育實 施年限延長採逐漸增加,多非「一步到位」。國民基本教育包含義務階段與非義務階段, 非義務階段教育呈現分化(differentiation)與歧異(diversity)態勢,二者合計12至13年, 前者年限是 9至 10年,後者年限是 3至 4年,教育結構計有 8+4、6+3、5+4、4+5、 4+2+3、9年一貫等。 綜觀臺灣國民教育發展與沿革,自 1968年實施九年義務教育至今,前期與後期中 等教育入學率近百分百,就學機會是供大於求,現階段後期中等教育問題是適性與分流 不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大,而「透過讀書改變命運」、「披星戴月只為進明星 學校」,卻又是莘莘學子寫照。基於教育正義與社會和諧,臺灣將於 2014 年實施後普 九之國民基本教育,統稱 12年國民基本教育。「他山之石,可以攻錯」,分析美、德、 法國等 12至 13年之國民教育體制,汲取國外經驗,冀以提出規劃 12年國民基本教育 參考。 乙、12年國民基本教育 綜觀全球教育發達國家之總體教育體制規劃,高中職以下教育年限約 12至 13年, 佔總教育時間四分之三,小學至後期中等教育具程序結構,包含初等教育與中等教育, 中等教育又分前期中等教育與後期中等教育。另,高中職以下教育辦學主體是國家,是 謂國民基本教育;分義務與非義務階段,是國家教育體制的基座,在整體教育發展上有 其重要性。 一、旨趣 12年國民基本教育旨趣,為學習者發展而言,奠基於以資質、性向、興趣、就業、 生涯與參與選擇取向之個性與有德行者(Humboldt, 1903);為社會運作而言,具共同性, 但又由多元與歧異個體組合的政治、經濟與文化團體;為全球網絡國家境遇而言,匯聚 多元與層級網狀的綜合力與具競爭的實力。 153 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 12年國民基本教育,其中 9至 10年義務教育指政府有義務運用公共資源來保障所 有適齡學童接受的教育,具強制、普遍與免費原則;3至 4年後期中等教育不具強制性, 旨在提供國民較優適應力、保障社會轉型人資需求與厚實國家競爭力。 1. 提升國民素質 在數位科技與傳播科技助益下,對於全球化與多元化新增要素之教育,歐美先進國 家由延伸國民教育年限、做為補強之道,期以一則提升國民素質,二則正視世代、年代 與時代交替,三則符應世界潮流變換,四則補強主體意識,以及新世紀價值觀,相關內 容如態度、溝通、合作、正義、判斷力、表現能力、自律⋯⋯以及跨文化與親近自然之 人文素養等。 2. 發展學術理性 〈莊子.養生主〉:「吾生也有涯,而知也無涯,以有涯隨無涯,殆已。」經驗、 知識、智慧藉教育結構化、目標性與效益性傳遞,以達到積累、傳承與創造新的文化與 文明的目的。 人特殊性主要彰顯於:「人是理性的動物」、「人是會思考的蘆葦」、「我思,故 我在」、「知識即力量」、「存在決定意識」等,Newman(1801-1890)主張教育旨在 培育理智人,理智教育(mental cultivation)是真實心智教育(real cultivation of mind) 的基礎(Ker, 2011)。發展學術理性,意旨藉經驗描述與理論說明、具體比喻與科學論 證、哲學思辨,習得邏輯性、系統性與批判性的理性推理與歸納,並據以運用於學習、 工作與生活。 自認知科學、情緒智商、統觀悟性獲得重視,人有理性、感性與悟性逐漸形成共識。 邏輯理性並非理性的全部,Newman以感覺、情感和行動要素補充其教育理念,完善其 自由心智的教育思想(陳小紅、于汝霜,2009)。Hayek(1899-1992)在《自由秩序原理》 書中指出,新經濟型態的知識需包涵:(1)理性知識的集合,如學科知識、專家知識、 有關特定事實的知識;(2)邏輯理性不及的因素,如文化、制度、集體意識;(3)非 理性因素如直觀、領悟等(Hayek,譯 1998)。 3. 培養謀生技能 Spencer(1820-1903)主張,教學是為「完滿生活做準備」,並責付科學知識指導 154 人的活動與訓練人的心智(Spencer,譯 1962)。自 20世紀 90年代以來,數位化資訊 與傳播科技催生全球關聯網絡化與國際化,人類文明期由生產取向之農業社會、經濟與 服務取向之工商業社會,邁入至今日之科技與創意取向之資訊化社會,對應不同社會之 謀生技能各有所重,相關信念與價值體現於思考邏輯、態度與行動、專業與倫理等。 二、理論基礎 19世紀末,國民教育旨趣是發展國家意識;20世紀,國民教育旨趣是民主素養與 經濟職能發展並重;21世紀初則是主體意識、社會正義與創意取向知識經濟,由啟蒙、 文明,以至服務全球化知識經濟發展,教育旨趣逐漸聚焦於資質、創意取向之人力資源 開發。 1. 人力資本 21世紀,網路帶動知識快速消長、知識經濟創意發展趨勢與現代化高人力資本需 求,投資教育與創造人力資源成為全球各國發展重點。鑑於高等教育社會經濟效益有目 共睹與現代高等教育(Modern University)之「海納百川」機能,後期中等教育應規劃 學術、專業與職業取向之分化教育。另,觀諸教育發達國家之總體教育規劃涵蓋國民教 育與高等教育,12至 13年國民基本教育是高等教育基礎工程,國民教育扎根與深耕程 度影響高等教育的發展;相對的,在百輈爭流與百花齊放下,高等教育責付國民教育規 劃路徑,致令二者關聯呈雙向互動與回饋。 2. 多元智能 Mill(1806-1873)在《論自由》書中指出,人得到最為多樣化的發展具有絕對且本 質的重要性(Mill,譯 2011)。後現代倡導主體性、開放社會多元化與創意經濟發展趨 勢,多元主義與多元智能理論從而成為教育多樣態與奇異發展另一支撐依據。 Intelligence,韋氏詞典定義為:「學習,理解,或應付陌生或困難環境的能力」, 學者或側重推理思辯能力,或側重行為功能(Sternberg & Detterman, 1986)。1983 年,Gardner提出多元智能理論(multiple intelligence theory),認為智能具領域特殊性 (domain-specific),智力是「在某種社會和文化環境的價值標準下,個體用以解決自 己遇到的真正難題或生產及創造出某種產品所需要的能力」,智力不是一種能力而是一 組能力,智力不是以整合的方式存在,而是以相互獨立的方式存在的(Gardner, 1983, 1999)。 155 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 綜合上述,運用詮釋結構模式(Interpretive Structural Modelling, ISM)(Warfield, 1976, 1982)於各要素關聯構造(見表一),要素以 C表徵之,可得階層結構圖示(見 圖一)與關聯結構(見附錄)。 表一 12年國民基本教育要素一覽表 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1. 12年國民教育 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2. 義務教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3. 非義務教育 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. 現代化程度 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. 提升國民教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 6. 發展基礎學術 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 7. 培養基礎技能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 8. 夠人力資本 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 9. 多元智能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10. 適性揚才 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 11. 政府權責 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 12. 教育正義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13. 教育品質 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 14. 教育專業 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 15. 後現代 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 16. 主體性 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17. 全球化經濟網絡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. 多元主義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 圖一 12年國民基本教育運用詮釋結構模式 156 丙、美、德、法國家之國民教育 美、德、法國家之國民教育涵蓋:國小初等教育旨在啟蒙學習者性向與潛能,採多 感官、感知性學習典範,摸索、試探、情境操作、「分享」與「表達」體驗是該階段的 學習原則;初中教育賦予試探、定向、興趣培養任務,學習範式加重理性認知、理解比重; 繼起高中職教育則定位於銜接高等教育階段之學術與專業教育之前置預備性教育,提供 基礎學術、專業或就業發展的「分化」教育,是初中階段「定向」後的進階教育。 一、共同性 歐美文化共同根基是希羅古文化與基督宗教,差異影響因素是自然地域與人文社 會,美國主實用主義與政治哲學,德國與法國則主理性主義與價值哲學。教育共同性如 以人為本、兼具目的與工具性。 1. 學生中心 Key(1849-1926) 在《兒童的世紀》書中,開啟學童本位的教育理念(Key,譯 1925),她主張以 Rousseau(1712-1778)自然教育原則改革教育,教師為兒童創造適 當的環境,讓兒童在活動中自由學習,而自然是喚起美感的天然環境,其中可孕育優美 的感情。 國民基本教育旨在開發人的理性、情意與悟性,教育理念如學生中心、適性原則、 與資質利基,教育實踐由理念意識、個性特質到實質能力,三者關聯結構是整體、個性 與能力,今之教育哲學主結果取向表現力、生存力及其素質,學習績效是新生成教育概 念。另,開放社會對於天賦能力和天生才能之境遇成就現象,國民教育發展多採由年限 延長、量擴充、機會均等,到其後適性適才與質的提升。 2. 存在哲學 存在哲學在教育上的意義:(1)正視生命存在、(2)厚實個己存在利基,以及 (3)認知共生必要性。12年國民基本教育是普通教育(general education),藉多元情 境與多元系統知識,以利(1)啟蒙、(2)扎根多元化個性與智能利基、(3)學習求生、 適應與精神滿足、(4)建構共同價值基礎、(5)認知社會發展及其特性,以及(6) 養成終身學習習性。 157 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 3. 優勢利基 優勢利基理念源自於企業界,視域分宏觀與微觀面,前者指在全球競爭氛圍與知識 經濟發展趨勢下,國家優勢生成奠基於與時俱進的經濟產業與優質人資;後者指個人生 存之道是培育具達爾文式之優質之操作力與執行力。就現實與實用主義而言,不論是個 人職識能發展,抑或是國家型塑綜合力,掌握、創造與善用利基蓄勢以待勢在必行。 面對創意取向職識能訴求與多元智能理念,初始教育利基生成是在「天生我才必有 用」、「珍惜所擁有的,不看自己沒有的」根基上,責付為期 12年國民基本教育目標性、 結構化與系統性開發潛能與能力。 二、歧異性 今昔教育價值觀變化大,由重文輕理、重理輕工、重理輕文,以至近日理工唯實、 人文唯名,前者直接助益國家經濟發展與社會文明,後者是實現前者的基本前提,祇是, 前者受到重視遠大於後者。 1. 階級性 後期中等教育具階級性,可以德國為代表,「從十九世紀四十年代起,資產階級在 政經重要性趨近貴族,兼營工商業的貴族也開始向資產階級轉化⋯⋯文實中學正是適應 這一轉化而出現的。」(王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉,1984a)事實上,教育階級性現象 屬全球性。 2. 學術性 後期中等教育具學術性可以法國為代表,拿破崙設立國立中學(Lycee)與市立中 學(College),二者是中等學校主要類型,屬預科教育;1852年,中學課程設計出現文、 實分科的做法,具實科性質學校於 1891年改稱現代中學,畢業生在學業程度和升學資 格上被視為是不足的(王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉,1984b)。 3. 實用性 後期中等教育具實用性可以美國為代表,就讀綜合中學人次比例達 98%(劉怡慧, 2000),屬通才教育與性向興趣取向;課程設計彈性與多元化,教學模式主啟思、參與 操作與合作學習。 158 丁、12年國民基本教育 12年國民基本教育既是教育工程,並且是社會工程,前者強調專業性,後者意指 功能性;涵蓋國小、初中與高中職三階段,其中國小與初中階段教育屬義務性,高中職 階段教育屬非強制性,但負有承上啟下作用,是國民義務教育與高等教育之中介。另, 國小教育根基不牢,影響初中教育深耕;初中教育是高中職教育多元定性定向發展之基 礎。 一、教育哲學 為臺灣而言,教育哲學觀虛實併陳,前者反映於教育理念與另類教育方案,後者體 現於升明星學校、進一流大學為教育目標。 1994年,「410教改遊行」訴求開啟國內適性教育思維與多元教學模式,美中不足 是未能正視學習者天生資質歧異、性向多樣態、學習意願個別差異、家庭與社會之南橘 北枳效應,以及不察生存識能發展模組與生變性,致令今昔教育生態與文化氛圍變化不 大:(1)教育改革侷限於問題解決、應變之需,權宜性方案、補強方案成為政策性方案; (2)教育形式主義模糊教育本質、教育無脈絡性淡化教育旨趣,進而型塑單向度的社 會與單向度的人(Marcuse,譯 1990);(3)知識應用性、工具性凌駕先驗理性旨趣、 理性演繹之意義性價值,以及(4)學習非為厚實人生幸福與探究宇宙真理之益,而成 了創造科技文明、滿足物質慾望之器。 可見未來,12年國民基本教育哲學亟待建構:首先,化解晉升好學校、最終進好 大學是教育唯一化意識;其次,凸顯理論、實務與實踐脫節乃是扭曲的教育;複次,責 付教育有厚實就業職識能、預視人生可能變化功能,最後,健全人格教育,倡導自我價 值認同與富社會責任感的國民。 二、義務教育 「求木之長,必固其根;欲流之遠,必浚其源。」根據聯合國教科文組織 1998年《世 界教育報告》顯示:義務教育平均年限為 8年,歐美發達國家平均年限為 10至 12年, 但免費教育則為 12至 13年(教育部,2003)。另,義務教育實施多分為二階段、三階段, 少有是為期 9至 10年一貫制的。 159 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 觀諸臺灣義務教育發展,1939年 10月 18日制定《義務教育實施要綱》,1943年 義務教育普及率 71%(維基百科,2012a);1947年頒訂《臺灣省學齡兒童強迫入學辨 法》,1975年國民小學入學率達 99%,1984年國民中學入學率是 99%。1967年 8月 17 日台統(一)義字第五零四零號命令公告:「茲為提高國民智能,充實戡亂建國力量⋯⋯ 國民教育之年限應延長為九年,自五十七學年度起先在臺灣及金門地區實施。」 依據教育部統計處 2010年統計資料顯示,15歲以上人口不識字率降低至 2.09%, 國小畢業生繼續就讀國中比率,1966年為 59.04%,1971年增至 80.85%,2009年達 99.73%(維基百科,2012b)。義務教育旨趣:國家意識、掃盲、經濟發展與現代化, 以及提升國民素質與厚實謀生職識能。 三、後期中等教育 面對知識經濟與全球化競爭的市場機制,後期中等教育「向上提升」是必然趨勢, 後期中等教育與高等教育發展不宜各自為政;相反的,正視二者關聯生成,而高等教育 是後期中等教育的「進階教育」,後期中等教育是高等教育先導性「預科教育」,經濟 利益是結合二者之利器。 依據教育基本法第十一條規定:「國民基本教育應視社會發展需要延長其年限。」 (教育部,2011)21世紀初,臺灣總體教育即已進入「普及化」階段,2014年即將實 施之 12年國民基本教育似是補正其政治程序罷了。 後期中等教育發展狀況:自 1986學年度後,國小學生進入國中比率已達 99%;國 中學生進入高中職,1991學年度是 86%、2003學年度是 95%,但是,國中畢業生就學 機會率是 107% (教育部,2001)。 12年國民基本教育自準備階段進入「勢在必行」歷程:1983年,教育部提出「試 辦延長以職業教育為主的國民教育」;1990年,行政院提出「國中畢業生自願就學高級 中等學校方案」;1993年,教育部提出「發展與改進國中技藝教育方案──邁向十年 國教目標」,2001年推動高中職社區化,2004年成立「推動 12年國民教育工作圈」, 2007年成立「12年國民基本教育工作小組」,並完成「12年國民基本教育規劃方案」(張 文昌,2011.11.17)。2009年 9月 4日,教育部公佈 12年國民基本教育先導計畫《擴大 160 高中職及五專免試入學實施方案》,並將於 2010至 2011學年宣導推動,2012學年擴大 辦理(教育部,2009)。 2010年 8月第 8次全國教育會議綜合座談上,行政院宣布「12年國教由坐而言進 入起而行階段」,繼而於 2011年元旦文告宣示教育邁入新紀元,並「啟動 12年國民基 本教育,分階段逐步實施,先從高職做起,預定 2014年高中職學生全面免學費、大部 分免試入學。」(中華民國總統府,2011) 《12年國教:超額比序》,凸顯 12年國民基本教育政策待釐清與公諸論證之,臺 灣國民教育問題不是時間、財政、政治性,而是教育專業,即後期中等教育未先釐清其 在高等教育與前期中等教育之功能,滋生疑慮是可預期的;相對的,其在定位之際,務 必面對後期中等教育已存問題,如各縣市「明星學校」外之他校功能不明、校際教育效 益良莠不齊、來自政府的教育投資明顯不足,如私中與國立高中比例是 0.79:1,私立 職高與公立高職比例是 0.7:1(教育部統計處,2012a),以及長期忽視城鄉教育落差 與學習者資質或素質問題等。 戊、結論與建議 21世紀,高等教育是推動國家永續發展,提升國家競爭力的關鍵要素。就教育體 制而言,高等教育位居金字塔型體制最上層,其下是中等教育之後期中等教育,二者層 級關聯不宜切割各自考量。另,為絕大多數學習者而言,後期中等教育需求屬性與學習 者資質、興趣與就業考量等因素有密切關係。 一、結論 「學校要變好,教育要改革;教育要改革,政策要出爐。」教育是促進社會進步的 原動力,臺灣將於 2014年實施 12年國民基本教育,就《12年國教 OK,但請別搞掉明 星高中》、《論十二年國教隱憂 ─ 有想過會有一個世代被犧牲嗎?》對政策質疑,凸 顯下列問題: 1. 系統思維不足 綜觀國民教育發展及其沿革,一則相關體制建置具階段性,二則採用專家取向之政 161 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 策評估與分析(Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1987)。12年國民基本教育政策規劃未 能:(1)採目標導向思維,針對 21世紀國際競爭態勢,以符應國家需求、社會轉型與 學習者生涯發展進行全盤性思考;(2)採既有現況取向思維,檢證數據予以分析與批判, 並據以進行實證取向之興革,以及(3)依據理論與實務互為印證關聯思維邏輯,進行 與時俱進之層級關聯、點滴累積(piecemeal educational engineering)之政策規劃。 2. 教育資源分配不均 一般而言,國民教育普及程度與品質凸顯政府關注教育力度與挹注經費財力,依據 教育部統計處(2012b)資料顯示,(1)後期中等教育基礎學術、專業與職業教育結構 呈傾斜狀態,其中,基礎學術教育「炙手可熱」;(2)公立學校教育多為升學軌,私 立學校教育多為職業軌,公私立學校學生數比例約 1:1;(3)教育資源多集中於都會 區與公立高中類別學校;(4)私立高職學生數大於公立高職學生數,前者又多為社會 弱勢族群,與(5)公私立學校正式教師生態結構差異大。 二、建議 德國、法國後期中等教育學校類型有其歷史淵源與對應之意識型態,美國另闢蹊徑 創建綜合中學,以消除教育階級分化現象。「他山之石,可以攻錯」,取長補短是原則, 專業判斷是準則,以及責付學習者之準參與決定選擇教育。 針對上述結論,提出如下應變之道,系統化思維體現於國民教育體制結構化,教育 資源問題改善,則以模組課程範式與較適教師教育補強。 1. 12年國民基本教育結構化 綜觀歐美總體教育體制包涵初等教育、中等教育與高等教育;現今學制是 6+3+3+4,其中高中職教育扮演承先啟後功能,上承高等教育,下接形式普同、實質多 元之基礎教育。21世紀是終身學習與學習型社會的紀元,未來 12年國民基本教育組織 呈現多樣態,如 6+6、5+4+3、4+8、4+4+4、4+5+3年制等,小學教育旨趣是基礎扎根、 習性養成,可用年限約 4至 5年;綜合中學教育旨趣是試探、定性與發展深耕(Meyer, 譯 1999),可用年限約 8/2+3+3年(見表二)。 臺灣於 1968年實施九年國民義務教育,至今已逾 40餘年,待實施之 12年國民基 162 本教育不是量的擴增,而是質的提升與效益產出。2014年施行之 12年國民基本教育旨 在:(1)解構「考試還是考試」現象,(2)效益地發展新生代潛能與個性,以及(3) 落實合時宜的教育本質。 表二 12年國民基本教育階段目標與權重一覽表 認知 情意 技能 總計 類別特色 小學 4 3 4 3 10 人境體驗教育 前期中教 5 2+3、0+5 4 3 3 10 共性基礎教育 後期中教 3 5 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 5 30 分流個殊教育 總計 12 12 10 9 11 10 10 8 9 11 90 多元化 資料來源:研究者自行設計 2. 實施模組課程範式 歐美後期中等教育主全方位,一則符應多元智能理論,二則提供社會發展需多元人 力資源,三則構造後現代主體意識與後工業社會多元主義;相對而言,臺灣形式是雙軌 制教育,實質是單一性,執行一名符其實的升學教育。 依據高級中學法第一條規定:「高級中學以陶冶青年身心,培養健全公民,奠定研 究學術或學習專門知能之預備為宗旨。」(教育部,2010a)職業學校法第一條規定:「職 業學校,依中華民國憲法第一百五十八條之規定,以教授青年職業智能,培養職業道德, 養成健全之基層技術人為宗旨。」(教育部,2010b)另,符應多元需求如學習者資質、 性向、興趣、就業與生涯規劃需求,後期中等教育規劃需橫向分化與縱向層級取向的教 育。 後期中等學校定位呈多樣化,辦學機制彈性化。首先,或就全國 15學區予以橫向 校際分工、重點或特色學校發展,或採校內橫向多元化與縱向層級化;其次,規劃菜單 式(menu-based)模組課程範式(paradigm of modular curriculum),據以提供學術發展、 專業發展、職業發展與就業準備取向之教育;最後,所謂明星學校,實為專長與特色學 校,依學區統籌規劃設置,數量有限,責付其成為學區之學習領域燈塔。 階段 目標與權重年限 163 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 課程設計需兼顧普通教育與技職教育間之橫向轉換與縱向銜接,模組課程範式(見 表三)是未來課程典範,其將知識類別分為基礎理論與應用知識二類,5大學習領域與 10個次領域,課程組織依據年級而變化,由單一領域到跨領域、系統知識結構到主題課 程;課程難度分基礎、進階、探究與榮譽課程(honors courses)四級。 模組課程範式旨在:(1)滿足就近入學而生成之多元需求;(2)因應社會快速變化, 同一時間學習與發展多元與多層級職識能成為必要,能力分組教學與開設必選修科目是 對應措施;(3)在網際網路社會,學習跨越教室邊界,另類學習成為常態,如自主學習、 機動學習、網路學習、群組學習等;(4)特色學校與重點學校 /班級成為少數,多為滿 足特殊需求,如數理長才、語文專業、藝術性向、科技設計等,以及(5)整合學區內 可用與有限教育資源,統籌規劃與綜合運用之。 表三 知識類別與領域、層級課程範式一覽表 層級 知識類別與領域 基礎 / 核心課程 進階 / 選必修課程 高階 / 選修課程 理 論 知 識 哲學與文學 單元 / 冊課程 單元 / 冊課程 主題課程 語言與文學 單元 / 冊課程 數學與物理 數學與自然科學 應 用 知 識 社會與經濟 經濟與政治 科技與生態 科技與資訊科技 藝術與戲劇 藝術與文創 資料來源:研究者自行設計 3. 正視教師教育 文明成就與進展非為事先設定,而是把握箇中機會,是以,執行無排他性的國民 基本教育,有一定的難度,但是,適性與原創性國民教育有其根本重要性。國民教育願 景實踐高素質教師教育不可或缺,教師素質對學生學習成效發揮關鍵影響(Hanushek & 164 Rivkin, 2004; Heck, 2007),從而高品質與全納式(inclusiveness)之國民教育教師教育 需一體規劃之。 符應數位化與教育工程複雜性,教師教育範式進行典範轉移: 首先,思維邏輯由線性思維模式轉化為層級網狀思維模式; 其次,教師教育橫向類別分為小學、中學與技職,縱向層級分為 4至 6年制小學、 2+3年制前期中等學校、3年制學術、3年制科技與 2或 3年制職業; 再次,3年制學術取向之教師教育承擔前期與後期中等學校教育,3年制科技取向 之教師教育強調其研究設計、探究與分析職識能; 複次,2或 3年制職業取向教師教育,一則符應社會產業結構、類別需求,其中 2 年制屬就業取向教育,3年制高職教育是二專與四技之先導性基礎教育;二則採情境認 知、操作教學,三則實施就業教育、專業基礎教育; 最後,教師教育新典範強調多領域系統知識與主題課程意識、多元化教學模式與統 觀探究識能,以及終身學習的行動力。 參考文獻 中華民國總統府(2011)。〈中華民國 100年開國紀念典禮暨元旦文告〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://www.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=131&itemid=23185&rmid =514。 王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉(1984a)。《外國教育史 近代德國教育制度的發展》。北京: 北京師範大學出版社。 王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉(1984b)。《外國教育史 法國資展階級革命前後教育制度 的發展》。北京:北京師範大學出版社。 張文昌(2011.11.17)。〈12年國教 難題待解 ─ 政策背景、問題分析與價值澄清〉。 《台灣立報》,教育版。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://www.lihpao.com/?action- viewnews-itemid-112825。 教育部(2001)。《中華民國教育統計》。台北:作者。 165 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 教育部(2003)。《十二年國教暨國教向下延伸 K教育計畫專案報告》。2012年 7月 15日,取自 http://www.edu.tw/content.aspx?site_content_sn=1317。 教育部(2009)。《擴大高中職及五專免試入學實施方案》。台北:中等教育司。 教育部(2010a)。〈高級中學法〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/ LawContent Details.aspx?id=FL008800&KeyWordHL=高級中學法。 教育部(2010b)。〈職業學校法〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/ LawContent Details.aspx?id=FL008701&KeyWordHL=職業學校法。 教育部(2011)。〈教育基本法〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/ LawContent Details.aspx?id=FL008468&KeyWordHL=教育基本法。 教育部統計處(2012a)。《歷年校數、教師、職員、班級、學生及畢業生數(39-100 學年度)》。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://www.edu.tw/statistics/content.aspx?site_ content_sn=8869。 教育部統計處(2012b)。《各級學校概況表(80-100學年度)》。2012年 7月 16日, 取自 http://www.edu.tw/statistics/content.aspx?site_content_sn=8869。 陳小紅、于汝霜(2009)。〈紐曼自由教育反思:理性人教育的價值與侷限性〉。《寧 波大學學報(教育科學版)》,第 31卷第 6期,1-4。 維基百科(2012a)。〈臺灣教育〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://zh.wikipedia.org/ wiki/臺灣教育。 維基百科(2012b)。〈臺灣九年國民義務教育〉。2012年 7月 19日,取自 http:// zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 臺灣九年國民義務教育。 劉怡慧(2000)。〈我國試辦綜合高中政策執行之研究〉。國立政治大學教育研究所碩 士論文,未出版,台北。 Gardner, H. 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E.(1999)。《當代教育發展史:20世紀教育發展回顧》。李復新、馬小梅(譯)。 台北:桂冠。 Mill, J. S.(2011)。《論自由:兼論天才的產生》。吳文璋(譯)。台南:智仁勇。 Spencer, H.(1962)。《教育論》。胡毅(譯)。北京:人民教育出版社。 Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (1986). What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Warfield, J. N. (1976). Societal systems: Planning, policy and complexity. New York: Wiley. Warfield, J. N. (1982). Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) group planning & problem solving methods in engineering. New York: Wiley. Worthen, B. R., Sanders, J. R., & Fitzpatrick, J. L. (1987). Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. 167 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 附錄 1. C代表概念、 g代表關聯。 2.每一行代表概念與概念之關聯發展或概念與概念之關聯發展路徑。 3. 概念結構圖示整體概念之關聯結構,據以瞭解概念與概念關係性與邏輯性。 4. 圖一,可讀取有關國民教育、12年國民基本教育結構與後中教育關聯結構。 國民教育 C1gC2gC11gC13gC17 C1gC2gC11gC13gC18 12年國教結構 C1gC3gC12 C1gC3gC14gC18 C1gC2gC14gC17 C1gC2gC14gC16 12年國教目的關聯構造 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC15gC16 後中教育關聯構造 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC1 168 Study on development of 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan - Referring to national education systems in USA, Germany and France Hui Chung HO Department of Education, National Taichung University of Education Masatake NAGAI Graduate Institute of Educational Measurement and Statistics, National Taichung University of Education Abstract One of the objectives of implementing 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan is to put educational justice into practice. However, actions are urgently needed to address the issues of the lack of adaptability and shunt in post-secondary education and the insufficiency between urban and inter-schools educational resources. This article compares the national education systems in USA, Germany and France with that of Taiwan and gives insight to the planning and development of the 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan. The aims of this article are: (1) to initiate a difference-based adaptive education as basic educational engineering for driving a “good” and “meaningful” life; (2) to acknowledge systematic division of school education and system thinking of 12 years’ coherency and inclusiveness ; (3) to pinpoint that primary schools (including elementary) and junior high schools are the foundation of the 12 years’ national basic education; (4) to explain the importance of teachers’ education, and (5) to give recommendations for the 12 years’ national basic education policy to be implemented in Taiwan in 2014. Keywords 12 years’ national basic education, difference-based adaptive education, educational resources, inclusiveness, teachers’ education 169 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 胡少偉 香港教育學院 摘要 廿一世紀是資訊科技發達和知識爆炸的時代,在全球化情境中,各地政府推出不少 教育改革以促進教育的發展;教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月公佈了「香港教育制 度改革建議」,對教育發展目標和改革提出建議。這篇文章整理新世紀後香港基礎 教育的改革與發展,並就香港教改的成效作整體評論;除了十多年來所推行的教改 和課改外,本文亦會分析中小學和幼稚園的發展,以及論述期間香港教育所面對的 學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等變化。 關鍵詞 香港教育,基礎教育,教育改革,教育發展 一、前言 二十一世紀是知識爆炸的時代,隨着知識生命週期的縮短、世界空間因資訊科技而 縮減,越趨頻密的全球一體化經濟,使人類社會產生了很多變化。在這個變革的環境中, 各地教育部門紛紛推出教育改革,以促進當地教育的發展和更好地培育下一代。在世紀 轉接之間,香港教育界熱烈地進行了教育制度的檢討和教育改革的討論;經過了年多的 諮詢,教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月向政府提交了《終身學習.全人學習 ─ 香港教育 制度改革建議》(教育統籌委員會,2000),提出了香港的教育改革的方向是「為學校、 教師及學生創造空間,讓學生可享有全面而均衡的學習機會,從而奠定終身學習的根基 170 及達致全人發展」(頁 i)。自此,香港教育改革正式啟動;十多年間,教統會先後發 表了四份「教育改革進展報告」,闡述教育改革七項重點工作的進展。香港特區政府除 推動這份教改報告書的建議外,亦就教育的其他方面發表了不少的政策,涉及中、小學 和幼稚園等教育階段,範圍包括學校管理、教師專業、語文教育和資訊科技教育等。可 見,香港在新世紀的教育改革是廣泛和全面的;當中,值得香港教育界高興的是「國際 權威顧問機構麥肯錫公司 2010年底發表報告,高度評價香港教育體系在國際上的表現, 並充分肯定香港教育發展的持續進步」(胡少偉,2012,頁 33)。這篇文章將整理新世 紀後香港基礎教育的改革與發展,內容除了分析教改和課改的推行外,同時也會綜合十 多年來中小學和幼稚園教育的主要發展,並論述同期相關的教育發展和就香港教改成效 作整體的評論。 二、 新世紀的教改藍圖 《學習的革命》指出「世界正飛速地經歷一場革命,這場革命將像以前文字、印刷 術和蒸汽機的發明那樣改變我們現在的生活;我們需要一場學習的革命,與技術、知識 和通訊爆炸相適應」(Jeannette & Gordon,1998,頁 8)。面對這場人類第三波革命, 教統會(2000)提出了教育改革的願景:建立終身學習的社會體系,普遍提升全體學生 的素質,建立多元化學校體系,塑造開發型的學習環境,確認德育在教育體系中的重要 使命,建設一個具國際性、具民族傳統及相容多元文化的教育體系(頁 4-5),並視這 次教改為一項長遠而全面的規劃,以使香港教育能追上時代的需要。在報告書中,教統 會批評過往香港的教育只培養少數的優秀人才,削弱了社會的公平,並表明改革方案旨 在形成新的競爭理念,塑造新的競爭機制,兼顧擇優與公平。為了避免「標籤效應影響 較低組別學生的士氣」(何景安,2009,頁 118),教統會將小學生升中派位組別由 5 個改為 3個,以減少因派位組別多而引起的不公平;其後,小學升中的自行分配學位的 比例,從 2007/08年度起提高至 30%,學生申請學校的數目亦由一所增至兩所,且不受 各區學校網所限制。這兩項教改措施使小六家長有較大的機會讓子女憑面試及校內成績 進入心儀學校;亦可見,香港教育改革的其中一個價值是為家長提供較多的擇校機會。 在上世紀末的教育檢討中,不少業界憂慮中小學教師工作繁重,未能有效地推行教 育改革;為了讓教師鬆綁,政府於2000年撥款為教師創造空間,讓中小學聘請教學助理、 文書人員,或者僱用外間服務,讓教師可專注教學和進行拔尖補底的工作。「有關建議 171 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 於 11月 17日獲立法會財務委員會通過,將預留作教育改革的 8億元中的 5億元發放給 中、小學,透過聘請額外人手或購買服務等方法,以減輕教師的工作量,提高教與學的 成效」(高國威、葉建源、張國華、黃炳文、梁潔茵,2004,頁 9)。2004年檢討報告 認為發展津貼普遍受到學校歡迎;在 2005/06年度,政府將學校發展津貼改為經常性的 撥款,並增撥有時限學校發展津貼,以協助教師應付校本評核和全港性系統評估推行初 期的工作,進一步減輕教師的工作量。透過新增公共財政以支持學校發展,讓教師可落 實教改工作,是香港特區政府推行教改的有效策略之一。 三、 課改的推展與中期成效 2001年發表的《學會學習 ─ 課程發展路向》報告書(課程發展議會,2001),參 考了國際 21世紀教育委員會於 1996年指出,「學會學習既可將其視為一種人生手段, 也可將其視為一種人生目的」(聯合國教科文組織總部,2001);並以「學會學習」為 香港課改文件名稱,暗喻學校教育不再是「學會知識」,學習態度和技能比學會內容更 為重要。香港當年課改計畫用 10年改革中、小學課程,為學生提供一個均衡的新課程, 並將當時所有學科統整為八個學習領域;課程發展議會亦提出在首五年內透過創造更多 空間、引發學習動機、落實推行四個關鍵專案、幫助學生掌握中英數基本能力和培養學 生共通能力等五方面重點工作去落實課程改革。「制度政策和學校行政管理的改革,假 如未能直接或間接促進教師、學校或制度層面的課程教學的設計和發展,這些改革都可 算是無的放矢」(黃顯華,2001,頁 21)。為配合課改的推行,《基礎教育課程指引 ─ 各盡所能.發揮所長》於 2002年出版,進一步展示落實課程改革的校本方法;尤其 是對四個關鍵專案的推行有詳細說明,使各校能順利推展德育及公民教育、從閱讀中學 習、專題研習和運用資訊科技進行互動學習。 在推行課改的同時,政府對評核學生的制度亦進行了改革;教育部門於 2001年委 託考試及評核局發展與推行中、英、數三科的基本能力評估。經試驗後,於 2004年首 次在小三進行全港性系統評估;至 2006年在小三、小六和中三級作全面施行,評估項 目分為中、英、數三科,主要是以筆試進行,還包括兩科語文的說話評估和中文視聽資 訊評估,以全面評估學生讀寫聽說的能力。這個評估結果和資料可讓公眾瞭解基礎教育 階段學生的中、英、數基本能力;學校亦可參考全港性系統評估的校本資料,調整三個 主科的教學策略,以改善教師教學的效能。與此同時,正如內地學者景源(2011)指, 172 港府「要求實現『對學習的評估』和『促進學習的評估』兩種評價範式的平衡,變革了 學校的評價文化和評價方式」(頁 17);鼓勵教師注意促進學習的評估,可使課堂教學 目標、學教過程和學生學習成果三者有一個更緊密的迴圈,從而優化課堂教學。 有關香港課改的成效,課改中期報告顯示「有超過 85%的受訪小學生和 75%的受 訪中學生認為老師普遍有『向我們提問、與我們討論、鼓勵我們發表意見』、『耐心聆 聽我們的發問及積極回答我們的問題』、『教我們用不同方法尋找資料,完成課業』, 以及『鼓勵我們自己尋找答案,解決問題』」(教育局,2008,頁 20)。時任課程發展 總監張國華於 2011年指出「學生在溝通能力、創造力及批判性思考能力上有明顯的進 步,在國民身份認同和承擔精神等價值觀和態度上均有正面的發展,並正發展成更加獨 立的學習者。」(鄭琰,2011,頁 10)。香港課改成效亦受到本地課程專家的肯定,香 港教育學院副校長李子建(2012a)認為「超過 90%的中小學校長認為學校能夠促進教 師共同備課、建立同伴觀課文化、提升校內的團隊文化和將學校作為一個學習社群」(頁 44);並指出學校領導層和中層管理人員的素質差別是影響校本課程的關鍵因素。 四、 幼稚園教育的發展與提高 在 2000年的報告書內,教統會期望政府和公眾認識幼稚園教育的重要性,並就有 關提高幼稚園教育專業水準方面提出各項明確的建議,反映了當時香港幼師資格相對較 低;而提高幼稚園教師和校長的資格是幼稚園教改的一個亮點。同時,教統會建議政府 要加強質素保證機制和改善小一入學制度,以防止幼稚園教育揠苗助長的風氣。隨着世 界幼稚園教育的發展趨勢,課程發展議會修訂了 1996年學前教育課程指引,新編訂的 《學前教育課程指引(2006)》申明幼稚園教育是終身學習和全人發展的基礎,重視以 「兒童為中心」的核心價值;在該課程架構下訂有四項幼兒發展目標:「身體」、「認 知和語言」、「情意和群性」及「美感」;這份 2006年的學前教育課程指引比舊課程 更為全面、具彈性及多元化,可讓幼兒建立良好的學習基礎、正面的價值觀及基本的能 力與技巧。 「學前教育學券計畫」是由 2007/08學年開始實施,一方面保留私立幼稚園靈活應 變的多元化特色,另一方面則推動學前教育界全面提升質素,步入更具效益和更專業化 的新紀元。在 2009/10年度參加學券計畫的幼稚園有 820間,幼稚園學生約 117,000名, 173 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 分別約佔總數的 85%。這計畫雖顯示政府對幼稚園教育的承擔有所增加,但政策推出後 卻受到不少業界的批評,「新政策推行至今已進入第三個學年,過程中衍生了不少爭駁, 除了上述提及的問題外,其他情況諸如教師人手短缺、流動、流失和工作壓力等,均對 幼稚園教育專業的整個生態發展造成嚴重影響」(袁慧筠,2010,頁 11)。立法會教育 事務委員會(2010)曾召開檢討學前教育學券計畫會議,並通過議案「促請政府即時成 立包括業界及家長代表的委員會,立即檢討幼稚園學費津助制度」。在議會和業界的強 力關注下,教育局提前檢討這個原定推行五年的計畫;經公開諮詢和檢討工作小組的討 論,教育統籌委員會於 2010年底公佈檢討報告,在提出 12個改善學券計畫建議的同時, 該小組亦總結了學券計畫的成果。然而,大部份香港幼稚園同工的心願是政府推行十五 年免費教育;為回應業界的訴求,政府終於 2013年成立專責委員會研究推行十五年免 費教育的可行性。 五、 香港小學教育的三大發展 香港小學教育在這十多年除了推行教改和課改的建議外,在推行全日制、落實 和優化人力資源等三方面也有明顯的發展。在回歸年,特首提出把全日制學生比率 提高;1998年的施政報告提出推行小學全日制長遠的目標,計畫於 2007/08學年開始全 面推行小學全日制,讓所有小學生都有機會入讀全日制學校。2003年《小學全日制優點 研究》指出全日制在多方面比半日制可取,包括:全日制學校可以為學生提供一個更理 想的學習環境和更多元化的學習活動;可紓緩緊迫的上課時間,學校能更靈活地安排課 程;可提供較充裕的時間去使學生得到較全面的照顧等。「至 2002/03學年,政府已達 到了六成的小學生接受全日制教育的中期目標;據政府統計處 2007年的統計報告顯示, 84.4%的受訪者同意或非常同意『由於學生有更多時間和老師、校長和其他同學溝通接 觸,因此全日制小學就能夠營造出一個更有生氣的學習環境』」(郭少棠,2008,頁 148)。 在新世紀後,香港小學教育的一個爭議課題是的推行。教育局於 2004/05 學年進行一項追蹤性的研究,目的為評估在香港實施的好處,及識別發揮 最佳成效的教學策略和支持措施;當年有 37所小學參與研究,並以每班學生人數 25人試行。其後,教統局於 2005年 9月又在收錄較多清貧學生的學校試行 。隨着因學生人口下降,小學業界要求訴求不斷增加,行政長官於 2007 174 年施政報告公佈由 2009/10學年起,於公營小學的小一班級開始,分階段實施, 並會逐年推展至 2014/15學年,涵蓋小一至小六所有班級。2009年 9月,在 65%的香港小學順利實施;當年,教育局撥款 2億 1千 8百萬元,為教師提供在職培訓 課程和為學校提供代課教師。隨着「研究」於 2009年發表,教育局再調撥 1 億元,為正在實施的學校提供為期一年的額外文憑教師職位。在 2010/11年度, 實施的小學有 318所,佔全港公營小學 69%。 香港小學課改得到不少的讚賞,成功原因之一是政府增加小學的人力資源。政府於 2002年 9月在小學增設課程統籌主任的職位,以支持小學制訂課程發展策略和推行課改 的工作;有見於小學課程統籌主任的貢獻,政府將這個原定五年的有限期職位轉為常額。 而為加強改善中英數三個主科的教學,政府於 2005/06年向小學提供資助專科教學津貼, 為期三年;期後考慮到教師不滿以合約形式聘用,教育統籌局由 2006/07學年起為學校 提供額外常額教席,取代這個專科教學津貼,這使全日制小學每班的教師比例由 1.4提 升至 1.5。於 2008/09學年教育局又在小學開設高級小學學位教師的職級,明確小學副校 長要協助校長處理下列四方面的工作:(1)課程發展與管理,學與教及學生評估;(2) 全校參與的關顧輔導與學生支持;(3)人力資源管理;(4)學校管理、評估及發展。 小學副校長職級編制化,除了吸引人才出任小學副校長外,也提高了小學行政人員的士 氣,有助提升小學教育的管理質素。 六、 中學教育的改革與轉變 香港中學教育的一個實踐性發展,是將實施近三十年的九年免費教育延長;特首在 2007年施政報告中宣佈將公營學校提供的免費教育延伸至高中階段,由 2008/09年度起 生效。十二年免費教育不單可減少低學歷青少年過早地投入就業市場,亦有利適齡學童 取得報讀進修專上教育的資格,有利他們持續進修終身學習。另一方面,因應學生人口 減少,教育局在 2006/07學年推出班級結構重整措施,為未達開辦三班要求的中學,提 供多項方案供相關學校申請繼續營辦高中,以減輕收生弱勢中學被殺的危機。吸收了早 前小學縮班殺校所帶來教師壓力和怨氣的痛苦經驗,教育局於 2010年 11月提出「自願 優化班級計畫」,讓部份學生自然地流進收生不足的學校;這不但保障弱勢中學不用殺 校,亦避免了能力較強的學生錯配下移。與此同時,政府將世紀初 40名學生的中一班 額逐步減少;教育局於 2009/10學年已將中一每班派位人數調低至 36人,在 2010/11及 175 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 2011/12學年再減至 34人。政府於 2012年底更提出二一一方案,使 2016年的中一學生 班額可減至 30名學生;這措施不單保留中學教師的人力資源,又可免日後中一學生人 數谷底回升時,引來另一次香港中學教育的動盪。 香港特區政府在新世紀最為慎重的教改政策是推行新高中學制。2000年教統會未 有決定進行高中學制改革,經過 2004年的諮詢後,特區政府於 2005年公佈 2009年推 行新高中學制。新高中課程為學生提供一個均衡和有深度的課程,高中生除了修讀四個 必修的科目,包括中、英、數及通識教育科外,亦可根據個人興趣、性向和能力,從不 同學習領域或應用學習的範疇中選讀兩個或三個科目;同時,高中生還可透過其他學習 經歷,獲得德育及公民教育、體藝等的體驗,以廣闊的知識基礎去準備未來升學及就業 的需要。「經過三輪諮詢後,2007年 3月,課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局聯合編訂 的高中課程 4個核心科目及 20個選修科目的課程及評估指引公佈;2009年 5月,課程 發展議會編訂的《高中課程指引:立足現在,創建未來(中四至中六)》,為學校準備 和實施新高中課程提供指導」(彭澤平、姚琳,2010,頁 23)。新高中學制的改革經歷 數年的諮詢和優化,其改革亦與教改藍圖主張培育學生「終身學習、全人發展」的方向 一致,可算是香港改革中一個持續深入又推行成功的政策實例。 高中學制改革除影響高中各科課程和教學外,亦使中學公開考試產生了相應的變 化;香港中學文憑考試取代了原有的兩個公開考試,並在各科引入校本評核和以水準參 照模式彙報學生的成績。「水準參照模式中,考生的表現被分為五個等級,沒有及格或 不及格的概念,每個等級附有一套等級描述。為了更準確地反映考生實際的語文水準, 考評局由 2007年起改用水準參照模式彙報考生的中國語文科和英國語文科的成績,考 生所得的成績,反映出本身的知識和技能水準,不受其他考生的表現影響」(付宜紅, 2011,頁 44)。而對中學教師影響最大的評核轉變是校本評核,校本評核本意是透過多 元化課業評核學生在不同方面的表現,讓教師可以作出適時的回饋,從而提高學生的學 習成效;但校本評核卻同時引來高中教師大量的評核工作,加上學生的學習時數不足, 在第一屆文憑試舉行之後,不少關心中學教師的教育團體,要求政府和考評局即時檢討 校本評核及不再按原計劃於 2016年全面在各科內推行校本評核。 回歸前,政府訂定一刀切強行母語教學,要求各中學在初中分流為以中文或英文 為教學語言,這政策備受各方的批評;當中最為詬病的是其所造成的標籤效應,把中文 176 中學定為二流中學。政府於 2005年曾成立工作小組深入探討這難題,並提出維持師生 和學校皆具備條件的情況下,讓中學以上落車機制去強化當時的母語教學政策;但這個 不為各方支持的方案,公佈後受到不少抨擊。有見及此,教育局提出微調初中教學語言 政策。「賦予學校更大的空間,使母語教學有持續平穩的發展;微調安排由 2010/11學 年的中一開始實施,學校會根據『學生為本、因材施教』的原則,採用不同模式的教學 語言安排,以加強校內的英語環境,並增加學生運用和接觸英語的機會。」(教育局, 2010,頁 7)。為支持中學落實這個影響深遠的微調措施,教育局於 2009年舉辦了 16 場制定全校語文政策工作坊,同時亦調撥 5億 9千萬元為改變教學語言的非語文科教師 提供在職培訓課程及代課老師。初中教學課程微調後,使不少中學在初中階段有一校兩 語文授課的情況,增加了初中教師的教學難度,但相信措施有助中學生提高英語能力; 然而,其最終成效是否物有所值,則需視乎日後學生表現才可論斷。 七、 香港基礎教育同期的發展 在這十多年教育變革的時期中,除了以上教改、課改和中小幼教育的發展外,香港 基礎教育同步亦有三個不能忽視的發展,包括面對學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和 提倡學校自評文化;當中,最為震撼的是因學生人口的減少而帶來殺校的現象。政府審 計署於 2003年發表的第 41號報告書,批評教統局規劃失當,浪費了十多億港元資源, 並倡議減建 18所新校舍;加上學童人口的減少,小學面臨生源不足的困難,教統局於 2003年決定停辦小一收生不足的學校。在小一生源不足的情況下,有不少半日制小學合 二為一,;教統局亦於 2005年提出檢討建校計畫,將一些原已公佈的新建校舍停建。 而因殺校出現大量的小學超額教師,教統局於 2004年推出小學教師提早退休計畫,並 擴展至非殺校的小學教師;於 2005年受惠於特惠補償金計畫的教師有八百多名。據本 地學者分析「因收生不足而聯繫到學校關閉,在 2000至 2006年約有 110間小學被政府 所關閉」(Mok,2007,頁 201-202);縮班殺校對香港教育影響之廣,連台灣學者亦 有關注,「教師的超額造成教師流失率的升高,顯現少子化大大衝擊香港的教育體系」 (黃宗顯、劉健慧,2010,頁 173)。 在學校管理方面,新世紀後影響最大的政策是推動學校自評文化。質素保證視學組 在 2002年提出學校表現指標,既讓學校瞭解到外評人員評核的要求,也是開展自我評 估的參考。在 2003年,教育局推行「透過學校自我評估及校外評核促進學校發展及問 177 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 責」,推行這個新視學制度時正是中小學教師開始感受巨大教改壓力之際,因而引來各 方對計畫的質疑和顧慮。為此,教育局騁請國際學者就這機制進行專門的研究,並肯定 「外評在核實及支援自評,以促進學校持續改善方面」(教育局質素保證分部,2008, 頁 19)。在總結首輪外評經驗後,教育局修訂了表現指標,《2008年學校表現指標》 把原有的 14個範圍精簡為 8個,又把表現指標由 29個精簡為 23個,使學校更能聚焦 地檢視工作表現;教育局並在每個表現指標內設有一組要點問題,學校同工在撰寫發展 計畫、周年計畫和周年報告時可參考這些要點問題。香港這個學校評估制度受到上海專 家張民生的讚賞,「在對上一年規劃實施情況的評估報告裡,評價時像一條條列出來, 相應地有詳細的評價結果呈現;對一個組織來說就是既要具備規劃能力,還要具備自我 評價能力。」(沈祖芸、羅陽佳,2007,頁 17)。 香港教育另一個受好評的發展,是教師受訓率和學位率皆有升幅。中學教師的受 訓率由 2001/02年度的 87.9%,提高至 2007/08年度的 94.2%。「而小學教師的受訓 率由 2001至 2002年度的 90.8%提升至 2006至 2007年度的 94.6%;學位率更由 2001 至 2002年度的 49.6%增至 2006至 2007年度的 80.4%」(胡少偉,2009,頁 201)。 下表一顯示出香港中小學和幼稚園的師生比率在過去的改善情況,中小幼師生比例從 2000/01年度的 18.6、22.0和 11.8分別降至 2010/11年度的 15.2、15.2和 9.8;反映政 府十多年來積極增加學校教師人手的比例,為各級學生提供更佳的教育服務。2007年 10月特首曾蔭權更宣佈「分兩期增加公營小學及中學的學位教師比例,於 2008/09學年 將小學及中學學位教師比例分別增至 45%及 80%,並於 2009/10學年分別增至 50%至 85%」(香港特別行政區政府,2007,頁 45),這個措施改善了中小學教師的就業環境 和提高了教師的士氣。 表一 香港中小幼學校的學生與教師比率 學校類別 2000/01 2003/04 2006/07 2010/11 幼稚園 11.8 10.2 9.4 9.8 小學 22.0 19.5 17.6 15.2 中學 18.6 18.0 17.0 15.2 178 八、 香港基礎教育改革的評價 「麥肯錫公司發表《世界上最進步的學校制度如何做得更好》的報告,該報告考察 美國部份地區、英國、智利、香港、加拿大等二十個國家和地區的教育制度,結果發現 雖然二十個教育系統有不同的表現,但是卻有六個共同的干預策略:建立教師的教學技 能和校長的管理技能;評估學生;改進數據系統;透過政府文件和教育法規輔助改革; 修訂標準和課程;保證對教師和校長合適的薪酬結構。」(李子建,2012b,頁 9)。回 顧新世紀後香港教改的發展,可發現與上述六個策略相近的例證。從另一個角度剖析, 香港教育十多年來除了落實教改建議和有效地推動課改之外,亦在幼稚園教育的課程和 資助兩方面有所提高;在小學方面,全日制的推行、的實施和人力資源的優化 是三項較大的發展。至於中學方面,除了落實新高中學制和公開考試變革之外,十二年 免費教育和初中教學語言微調也是影響深遠的教育政策;與此同時,面對學生人口下降 的挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等環節,亦是香港基礎教育在新世紀後不能 忽視的變化。 在教育變革的年代,香港教育界雖有不少怨氣,但學生成績進步卻也是公認的; 2006年全球學生閱讀能力進展研究顯示,在 45個參與地區中,香港小學四年級學生的 閱讀能力從 2001年排名第 14位躍升至第 2位。在學生能力國際評估亦發現,「與 2007 年比較,香港學生的數學排名保持在第三位,閱讀能力排名第四,科學第三;與前三期 研究結果比較,香港學生的三項能力的整體表現有進步,閱讀表現亦明顯比前兩次好」 (《星島日報》,2010.12.8)。2009年「香港學生的數碼閱讀能力在 19個國家和地區 中排名第五,逾九成港生的基本水準達到第二級或以上水準,高於 16個經濟合作與發 展組織成員國的平均百分比」(政府新聞處,2011)。簡言之,香港學生的閱讀能力於 教改和課改後在國際評比上有持續的提升。 若要分析推動香港基礎教育改革的動力,追求「提升教育質素」是香港教改、課改 和眾多相關政策的核心價值。當然優化派位機制、全面實施小學全日制、提供十二年免 費教育等政策則有追求「教育公平」的影子。至於增加小六家長擇校機會、進行幼稚園 教育學劵和因學生人口減少而帶來的競爭現象,則充滿了「教育市場化」的氣味。可見 上述三個核心價值主宰了十多年來香港教育的發展。而因文章篇幅所限,此文並沒有論 及香港的資訊科技教育、兩文三語政策、德育及國民教育、直資學校、教師專業發展、 179 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 校長領導、融合教育、非華語學童、跨境學童等環節的變化;這些教育政策的變化或多 或少也影響了香港基礎教育在新世紀的發展,並值得有興趣研究香港教育發展的學者去 深究。說到香港基礎教育改革的總體評價,教改「三頭馬車」之一程介明(2007)認為: 「教育改革是不會自動在民間通過市場運作產生的,是需要政府的強力干預才會出現和 成功的;從這個角度看,香港的教育改革,在這個不善於組織自己的社會裡面,能夠度 過這些風風雨雨,而基本能夠維持改革的核心價值,繼續向前,也說明香港有着無可估 量的生命力」(頁 14)。也就是說,香港新世紀後基礎教育改革有一定的成效,不能忽 視的原因是有效的中長規劃和持續地投入資源,這保證了香港教改在這十多年來穩定地 沿路前進。 參考文獻 《星島日報》(2010.12.8)。〈港生數理閱讀續居世界前列〉。取自 http://www.singtao. com/archive/fullstory.asp?andor=or&year1=2010&month1=12&day1=08&year2=2010& month2=12&day2=08&id=20101208g01。 付宜紅(2011)。〈攜手共進 ─ 從香港課程改革中我們能學到什麼〉。《基礎教育課 程》,第 4期,42-45。 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景源(2011)。〈促進學與教:新世紀香港考試評價改革〉。《基礎教育課程》,第 4期, 17-22。 程介明(2007)。〈香港教改十年〉。《上海教育》,第 13期,6-14。 黃宗顯、劉健慧(2010)。〈少子對國民小學的衝擊及其因應策略:香港的經驗與啟示〉。 《教育政治論壇》,第 13期,159-196。 黃顯華(2001)。〈教改的核心問題:課程發展〉。載張妙清(編),《教育改革與香港: 新紀元、新挑戰》(頁 21-24)。香港:香港中文大學出版社。 課程發展議會(2001)。《學會學習 ─ 課程發展路向》。香港:課程發展議會。 鄭琰(2011)。〈專訪香港教育局張國華博士〉。《基礎教育課程》,第 4期,9-12。 聯合國教科文組織總部(2001)。《教育 ─ 財富蘊藏其中》。北京:教育科學出版社。 Jeannette, V., & Gordon, D.(1998)。《學習的革命 ─ 邁向 21世紀的個人護照》,顧 瑞榮(譯)。上海:上海三聯書店。(原著出版年:1993) Mok, Magdalena, M. C. ( 2007). Quality assurance and school monitoring in Hong Kong. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 6(3), 187-204. 181 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 Educational reform on the basic education of Hong Kong in new century Siu Wai WU The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract The 21st century is the era of advances in information technology and knowledge explosion. Under globalization, countries all over the world are undergoing reform in education system. The HKSAR government released the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong in September 2000 and launched a comprehensive education reform in Hong Kong schools. This article is to review the education reform and curriculum reform in Hong Kong. It also addresses the significant development of kindergarten, primary and secondary education during this period. In the same time, the Government copes with the declining student population challenges, optimizing teachers’ forces and advocates of school self-evaluation. Finally, an overall comment on the effectiveness of the educational reform in Hong Kong will be given. Keywords Hong Kong education, basic education, educational reform, educational development 183 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong LEUNG Lai Sim Creative Teachers Association, EdD student of the University of Bristol Abstract Through a questionnaire survey of 41 Liberal Studies (LS) teachers from 40 secondary schools and interviews with 12 of them, the researcher compared the teaching processes and strategies for nurturing students’ higher-order thinking (HOT). The study seeks to find out whether the LS implementation process is aligning with the aims of the curriculum. Result show that teachers have a strong tendency towards examination-oriented learning while acknowledging the focus on knowledge-based learning as the main difference of LS and its public assessment component from those of the traditional disciplines, the emphasis of the subject on the mastery of basic concepts and thinking skills and the need for the nurturing of HOT. There was widespread agreement with the operation of the public assessment design in the subject. The more experienced ones further agree that examination-oriented strategies are compatible with the development of HOT. Keywords higher-order thinking, Liberal Studies public assessment, mixed method design 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all New Senior Secondary (NSS) students in Hong Kong from 2009 onwards. Its aims are to “broaden students’ knowledge 184 base and enhance their social awareness through the study of a wide range of issues”, “enable students to make connections across different fields of knowledge and to broaden their horizons” and “foster students’ capacity for life-long learning” (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007, p.1). The Education Bureau emphasizes that the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment should be well aligned (p.123-124). However, what are the views of teachers about the LS examinations in Hong Kong? What strategies do they use to help students learn effectively? Can the public assessment paper promote higher-order thinking (HOT) learning in LS? As the chairman of Creative Teachers Association and a researcher, the author conducted a study through a voluntary organization to find out teachers’ perception on the relationship between LS public assessment and the teaching and learning of HOT skills. Based on the findings, we outline the nature of LS and suggest some ideas for further research. 2. Literature review The education assessment system is regarded as important as the invention of the computer, steam engine and wheel (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). Its impact on human society is immense (Brown, Kennedy, Kerry, Fok, Chan & Yu, 2009; Cheng, 2010; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, Chan, Yu & Fok, 2006) as the behaviour of teachers, pupils and policy makers can be significantly affected. It even shapes the choices for human life in future (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). The implementation of assessment, including both formative and summative procedures, can affect students’ performance deeply and how far the purposes of the curriculum are being fulfilled. Studying teachers’ attitude towards LS public examination, guidance of students as well as the teaching and learning pedagogy involved would help us reflect the implementation of aims of the LS curriculum. HOT is a rich concept that has attracted diverse interpretations by local and international academics (Yeung, 2012; Watkins, 2001; Wang & Wang 2011). Different scholars have different interpretations and understanding with different directions and perspectives (Fisher, 2001; Pithers & Soden, 2000; Gardner, 2006). “A basic rule for assessment of HOT skills is to use tasks that require use of knowledge and skill in new or novel situations.” (Nitko & Brookhart, 2011, p.223). “Higher order thinking occurs when a person takes new information and information stored in memory and interrelates and/ or rearranges and extends this information to achieve a purpose or find possible answers in perplexing situations” (Lewis & Smith, 1993, p.136). In general, students are thinking at a higher order if they can put forward a well-reasoned view with reference to relevant concepts, discuss an issue from various perspectives, and demonstrate analytical and argumentative skills in the process. Moreover, HOT is a disposition for a people to pursue the meanings and nature of 185 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong life. Socrates (470-399BC) claimed that, “Wisdom begins in wonder.” (cited Cooper, 2012). Dewey (1897) argued that education should not aim only at gaining content knowledge, but also at learning how to live. The purpose of education is the realization of one’s full potential and the ability to use those skills for the future life. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of LS teachers needs to be investigated (Zhao & Fok, 2012) in this context. For instance, active learning pedagogies play an important role in enhancing higher order cognitive skills among students (Madhuri, Kantamreddi & Prakash Goteti, 2012). While the goal of issue-enquiry in an authentic context is to promote HOT skills (Preus, 2012), learning through enquiry demands that students explain, analyse, give reasons or comment about them by “gap filling” (Bartlett, 1958). Questioning, issue-enquiry, interaction, learning communities and Independent Enquiry Study (IES) are encouraged as a result. Reflective thinking, integrative thinking and deep thinking can be encompassed into HOT too (Wang & Wang, 2011). Compared with memorization and looking for correct answers, HOT seeks to develop the potential of individuality such as critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving skills (Zohar & Dori, 2003). “Liberal Studies plays a unique role in the NSS curriculum by helping students to connect concepts and knowledge across different disciplines, to look at things from more than one single perspective, and to study issues not covered by any single discipline. It is more than just about developing thinking skills and positive values and attitudes. The nature of Liberal Studies is different from that of General Education or Liberal Education in universities. It is a curriculum organization that suits the curriculum contexts of Hong Kong and achieves the learning goals identified for senior secondary education.” (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005, p.6-7) What does HOT mean in LS specifically? According to the CDC & HKEAA (2007), teachers can infuse HOT into the LS curriculum and help student achieve the learning goals identified for senior secondary education such as “to develop multiple perspectives on perennial and contemporary issues in different contexts”, to “become an independent thinker”, “develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving skills, communication skills and information technology skills” (p.5). LS assessment is claimed to adopt authentic assessment with hot issues and news are taken as the basis of questioning (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012). Unlike traditional examinations which emphasize knowledge reproduction abilities and low-level skills, complex thinking, personal opinions, ideas construction, and the elaboration of issues in contemporary contexts are demanded in the LS assessment. 186 The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) LS Seminar on Assessing Student Learning and the Assessment Framework for HKDSE LS 2014 (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2013) highlighted the nature and development of LS assessment procedures and noted the value of using contemporary issues, problems or incidents in assessment questions. By drawing upon personal experiences and conducting issue-based enquiries, candidates can demonstrate their abilities in understanding and the application of knowledge. Based on the definitions of HOT from scholars, the government and the LS teachers’ perceptions of LS learning and meaning in this paper, the author discusses and interprets the research topic during the process. According to the above discussion and analyses, in order to help students meet the aims of the LS curriculum, HOT-based pedagogy is essential. The development of HOT skills is the core purpose of teaching and learning in LS. Teachers need PCK which is the unique knowledge of teachers (Zhao & Fok, 2012). How teachers understand the subject matter and internalise to create an effective mode of teaching will affect the realization of HOT skills learning. And how teachers understand the teaching content and knowledge to internalise individual teaching pedagogy and methodology to let students manage and understand HOT skills is crucial for knowing the implementation quality of the curriculum aims. Research is a process of investigation. With the interpretive approach, this study was carried out to reveal teachers’ perceptions. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and a self-completion questionnaire survey. The implementation of HOT in LS was analysed from teachers’ perspective and discussed with reference to the views of academics, curriculum developers and teachers. 3. Research Design This study aims at (1) identifying teachers’ perception of the use of HOT pedagogy and the public assessment component in LS, (2) explicating the link between the two, and (3) examining the challenge of nurturing HOT in LS after four years of implementation. The questionnaire survey and subsequent semi-structured interviews were designed with the following research questions in mind: 1. What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? 2. How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? 3. What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? 187 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong A single-phase triangulation design based on the Convergence Model of Creswell & Clark (2007, p.64) was used for collecting data (Figure 1). During a meeting1 of markers in a simulation mock examination orgranised by Hok Yau Club (2012) in November, 2012, 48 copies of questionnaires (Appendix 1) without recording teachers’ names were distributed to LS teacher who have attended Education Bureau LS training courses. Quantitative and qualitative methods were given the same degree of importance in seeking the answers to the research questions. Figure 1: Triangulation Design in this study in relation to the Convergence Model 4. Research result and analysis 41 copies were returned and an 85% return rate was achieved. 44% of the participants have taught LS for four years or more, 32% have taught for three years, the other 24% have just taught for one or two years. Qualitative data collection was conducted by inviting 12 randomly selected teachers to a 10-minute semi-structured interview in December 2012 when they returned the marked scripts to the club. 11 interviews could be completed in due course and the responses were transcribed and analyzed2. Information about the questionnaire respondents and interviewees is given in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1: Information about the respondents in the questionnaire survey Total no. of teachers 41 Gender Male: 56% Female: 44% Length of teaching LS 1 yr: 7% 2 yrs: 17% 3 yrs: 32% ≥ 4 yrs: 44% Teaching LS since 2011-12 Yes: 66% No: 34% Teaching LS since 2012-13 Yes: 63% No: 37% _______________ 1 In order to ensure that the LS public assessment exam marking process is fair, objective and reliable, a system of marking is established, where each of the markers only marks one exam question. Every exam question will be marked by two staff. 2 The full interviews recorded documents in Chinese can be accessed from www.cta.org.hk 188 Table 2: Information about the interviewees Interviewees T1 T2 T3 T4 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Gender M M F F F M F M M M M NSS LS teaching experience (year) 4 2 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 Investigative issue 1 - What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? From the statistics of the questionnaires (part 1) shown in Figure 2, except item 1b, the data showed that 92% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with using direct training of answering skills, examination-oriented practices, sample papers and current issues to help students achieve better in the HKDSE LS. Figure 2: Teachers’ views about teaching strategies Statistics from questionnaires (part 2) in Figure 3 also showed that, except for item 2c & 2d, 90% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed that Sixth Form were more likely to use examination papers or sample questions to guide students for public assessment. Moreover, the issue-enquiry approach and current affairs discussion were preferred too. It showed that diversity teaching strategies or approaches were used for helping students obtain better results in public examinations. 189 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 3: Processes in the teaching of LS The strategies named by interviewees were well aligned with those named by the respondents in the questionnaires survey (Appendix 2). For instances, most teachers identified answering techniques as being very important for helping students perform better. Their responses focused on the training of answering techniques, use of sample questions for issue enquiry and application of constructivist concept to stimulate learning motivation and interest. For lower-ability students, one of the teachers would emphasise the memory of basic concepts and the needs for more practice. Authentic assessment is used for LS (Or, 2012). Students are asked to perform real- world tasks that demonstrate a meaningful application of knowledge and skills. Teachers adopt different strategies to help students answer questions about current issues. They are examination-oriented on the whole and have used a wide range of strategies and processes (Appendix 3a) because of the novelty of authentic assessment procedures. Investigative issue 2 - How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? Questionnaires (part 3) in Figure 4 showed that 95% of LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed “LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking.” 92% of them agreed “LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking.” More than 82.5% of teachers agreed, very much agreed or extremely agreed with items 3g, 3j and 3l. Nevertheless, 95% agreed that “It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning.” 190 Figure 4: Teachers’ opinions on LS (1) There were markedly different opinions on items 3b, 3e, 3f, 3h in part 3 between teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience and teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5: Teachers’ opinions on LS (2) A comparison was made between these two groups of teachers. More experienced teachers tended not to agree with statements like “Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other”, “Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results”, “Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result” and “Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation”. It reflected that more experienced teachers were more likely to accept examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy as being compatible with each other as shown in Figure 6. They were also in favour of the accumulation of factual knowledge and memorization of facts. However, almost half of the respondents held different opinions. Further research in these areas is desirable and needed. 191 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 6: Opinions on examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy The interviews revealed three types of opinions on whether LS public assessment teaching strategy is compatible with the nurturing of HOT skills during interviews. Feedback from the first group of teachers reflected that public examinations would hinder the development of HOT. Students were too directed towards tools for examinations and depended on memorisation for exams. Sharing opposite views, some teachers believed that the present examination model was capable of assessing the mastery of analysis, evaluation and creative thinking. Students were required to demonstrate a mastery of thinking skills and present a sound discussion based on evidence. They could not meet the criteria by only remembering facts without conceptual linkage. If examinations focus on the application of thinking skills, students also need to start learning from thinking. Some teachers felt that examinations could help high-ability students to develop HOT abilities but not low-ability students. Others however thought some of the thinking skills questions were too instrumental and could not help to promote independent thinking and encourage students to show their care for their living environment. Backed with confidence and strong rationales, five teachers out of eleven agreed that HKDSE LS could help students develop HOT skills during the process of teaching and learning in the lesson. Four of them considered that there were two sides to a coin. Only two of them considered it was an obstacle to the development of students’ HOT (Appendix 3b). Investigative issue 3 - What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? HOT nurturing in LS can be interpreted as developing multiple perspectives on current issues, to become independent thinkers, and to develop a range of skills for life- long learning (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.5). In order to nurture HOT skills, 90% or more of teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with items 1f, 1g, 2a and 2b shown in Figure 7. The discussion of current issues, issue-enquiry and group enquiry are often used. 78% of teachers agreed with the need to help students learn through activities such as role- 192 play, debate, situational learning. 65.9% of them would use methods for the teaching of thinking skills, such as brain mapping and six thinking hats, etc. Figure 7: Teachers’ pedagogy for developing HOT skills During the process of interview, teachers were asked about strategies, approaches and effective models and methods to develop independent thinking skills, diverse perspectives and life-long learning attitudes. Most of the teachers considered concept learning very important. The processes of discussion, interaction, argumentation or role-play through issues, current affairs or sample questions to promote analytical and critical ability, multiple-dimensional perspectives and individual thinking ability were followed in the lessons. IES was considered to develop independent thinking skills. Moreover, one of the teachers implemented “LS is life”. It is a combination of school curriculum and life experiences that help students to learn. Another recognised that teacher could nurture higher levels of thinking and analytical ability as LS is an integrated subject. Another expressed that different frames of analysis could be applied in different issues for discussion. More teachers would make use of current affairs as the basis for exploring and constructing teaching and learning content. Also they would use the sample questions as the basis for discussion from different perspectives. Teachers’ responses could be roughly divided into three groups, namely the nurturing of life-long learning, development of multiple-dimensional perspectives and scaffolding for independent thinking as shown in Appendix 3c. 5. Discussion 5.1 Examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning Most of the interviewees with more experience in LS were in favour of examination- oriented mode of teaching and learning (Appendix 1: 1c-1f). Investigative issue 1 reflected that teachers still focus on the public examination requirement and assessment-spirited 193 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong strategies to guide students for learning. This trend is compatible with the findings in many studies (Berry, 2011, p.17, cited Morgan, 1996; Preece & Skinner, 1999; Shen, 2002) that summative test requirements tend to dominate the assessment practice of many teachers. It is exactly the same as Broadfoot’s worry that “the assessment tail nearly always wags the curriculum dog” (Broadfoot, 2007, p.8) as curriculum and assessment can never really be separated. The public examination is influential, high-stakes exercise because priority is often given to result (Chapman & Snyder, 2000; Fischer, Bol & Pribesh, 2011; Berry, 2011). As pinpointed in the curriculum and assessment guide, “The most important role of assessment is in promoting learning and monitoring students’ progress. However, in the senior secondary years, the functions of assessment for certification and selection come to the fore. Inevitably, these imply high-stakes uses of assessment, since the results are typically employed to make critical decisions about individuals that affect their future” (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.121). The research findings show that the examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning mode of LS are different from the traditional “pyramid assessment system” which Berry (2011) claimed would encourage students to learn factual content by rote and memorising the model answers. Investigation issue 2 found that experienced teachers such as T9 were more in agreement with the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy. Similar finding of Zhao & Fok’s (2012), the PCK of experienced teachers (such as pedagogy for HOT teaching and learning) is significantly richer than that of novice teachers. Experienced teachers have firm and rational reasons to support the nurturing of HOT. Their views are more compatible with the emphasis of the curriculum reform which recognizes assessment is highlighted as the key for learning (Education Commission, 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 2002). As highlighted in the Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide, “assessment is an integral part of the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle.” (Curriculum Development Council, 2009, 4.2.1) and assessment policies have significant impact on supporting learning process. 5.2 Nature and development of HOT in LS assessment Over 82% of teachers in the questionnaire survey and 5 of the 11 in the interviews thought that the LS examination could help in developing HOT skills (Appendix 1: 3c, 3g, 3j, 3k, 3l and Appendix 3b: T4, T6, T8, T9, T10), and used a variety of strategies for this purpose (Appendix 3c). Most of them had a positive perception on the relationship between HOT nurturing and LS public assessment. They agreed that the LS public examination is greatly different from the traditional examination model in terms of mastery and understanding of concepts, investigation of issues, and perspectives of thinking strategies. Systematic steps on nurturing the learning process or whole school curriculum and the construction of similar thinking modes to stimulate learning were therefore encouraged (Appendix 3a: T7, T8, T9, T10 and Appendix 3c: T4, T6). 194 Actually, the blueprint of educational reform laid out in 2000 by Education Commission (2000) has led to the adoption of the policies of “Learning for life – learning through life” and “Learning to learn” The former emphasizes the building of life- long learning society while the latter (Curriculum Development Council, 2001) foster the development of independent learning (Kennedy, 2011). To realize these two aims, a paradigm shift and pedagogical changes by teachers are essential. However, in an examination-oriented city such as Hong Kong (Brown, et al., 2009; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, et al., 2006), the format and nature of the high-stake public examination seem not conducive to such changes. Nevertheless, the issue-enquiry approach in LS encourages the learning of HOT skills for the 21st century (Pink, 2005). In order to improve assessment literacy, EDB, HKEAA, international and local experts should work together in changing the rules of the assessment game as shown in Figure 8. Double marking can improve the validity and reliability of assessment (Coniam, 2011). However, only by successfully infusing HOT into the learning and teaching process, can the aims of the LS curriculum be achieved in practice. Figure 8: The LS curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle 195 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong The issue-enquiry approach and emphasis on authentic assessment that encourage students to express themselves logically, to assess, discuss and judge various issues (Or, 2012) are the characteristics of the examination design for LS. Students have to master the new features of the assessment framework including IES for school-based assessment, the use of standards-referenced grading (for three data-response questions and one extended- response question) in the written examination. Instilling HOT during the teaching and learning process is essential because it can help them analyse sensitive issues (such as the June 4, 1989 crackdown and the filibuster campaign in the legislature) (South China Morning Post, 2013, April 17) that may appear in the examination. 5.3 Challenge for the implementation of HOT in LS Although changes to the examination can be valuable vehicles for shaping instructional practices, success is not assured (Chapman & Snyder, 2000) and its influence can be largely a perception phenomenon (p.462, cited Madaus & Kellaghan, 1993). Teachers are often unable to make the necessary changes in the classroom to improve students’ performance. Most of them accept drilling with reference to past examination papers and simulated exercises in spite of believing that memorisation of facts is ineffective and realising that teacher can cause a negative impact on candidates. Others have used diverse strategies, skills and processes (Appendix 3a) to nurture HOT abilities. although they were still holding the traditional concept of viewing learning as hierarchical from lower order cognitive skills to more complex ones. Resnick (1987) challenged the concept that “all individuals, not just elite, can become competent thinkers” (Zohar, Degani & Vaaknin, 2001; cited Resnick, 1987). Zohar’s research finds that teachers’ beliefs about low-ability (LA) students and thinking are related to their general theory of instruction. If teachers see their role as transmitting knowledge and covering the curriculum rather than guiding students in thinking and constructing knowledge, or seeing learning as hierarchical in terms of cognitive levels, they may think that HOT is not equally appropriate for LA and high-ability (HA) students. However, any students who can provide an explanation of an authentic issue or describe the key features of new data can be regarded as using HOT skills. Although the curriculum guide has accorded priority to authentic assessment and the issue-enquiry approach to learning aligns with these aims, discrepancies among the intended, the implemented and the assessed curriculum are obvious (Cheng, 2011, p.69). As a new subject, LS has to develop and search for its disciplined knowledge and PCK. There are still lots of unknown and gaps for discovery. Research about teachers’ perceptions on HOT in LS and their opinions on constraints and challenges is helpful for evaluating the implementation of the curriculum in future. 196 6. The limitations of the research Studies on the relationship between public assessment and HOT are rare, especially in regard to LS. This study is a pioneer attempt for learning teachers’ perceptions in these areas. In view of the limited source and number of participants (who might be supportive of the examinations), the reliability of the findings is limited. Broader and more in-depth evidence should have been collected with data about the impact of the examinations on students. The relatively short interviews lasting for 10 minutes each is also a limitation to understanding. All these concerns should be addressed in future studies in this area. 7. Conclusion This study has adopted a triangulation design based on the Convergence Model to identify teachers’ perceptions on public assessment and the use of HOT pedagogy in LS. Most of the teachers are examination-oriented although a wide range of strategies has been used to help students face the high-stake authentic assessment. The more experienced teachers thought that the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategies were compatible with each other. And most of them had positive perception about the relationship between HOT nurturing and authentic assessment in LS. The LS examination is different from traditional examinations. Not knowing much about its requirements, it is natural for teachers to be more examination-oriented and accord high priority to the development of knowledge and the thinking skills. They have adopted different teaching strategies or HOT skills for helping students answer issue- based questions. However, this study has found that there are different interpretations of the meaning of HOT and there may be alternative or misconceptions about it especially in terms of pedagogy. Inquiry is necessary in this regard and the limitations in research design should be addressed in follow-up studies given the fact that LS is a core subject with the aims of enhancing life-long learning, multiple-dimensional perspectives, the scaffolding of knowledge and independent thinking. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to Hok Yau Club for providing a venue for conducting this research study, 41 LS teachers who participated in the questionnaire survey and 12 LS teachers who attended the interviews. 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Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 469-485. 200 LS Questionnaires for teachers 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,本學年,我運用以下教學策略: In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 34% 46% 20% 0% 0% 0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 7% 22% 49% 20% 0% 2% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計教學形式 與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 12.2% 56.1% 24.4% 7.3% 0% 0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計形成性評 估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 17.1% 56.1% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題 技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 37% 41% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 以時事議題作教學,增強學生高階思維 能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 17% 49% 34% 0% 0% 0% g. 參考坊間議題,讓學生分組探究討論, 以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 10% 46% 39% 5% 0% 0% Appendix 1 201 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,我認同中六學年透過以下教學過 程,以提升學生學業水平 : In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 12.2% 48.8% 29.3% 7.3% 2.4% 0% b. 課堂議題探究 Issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 12.2% 68.3% 17.1% 2.4% 0% 0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創 意解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 4.9% 31.7% 29.3% 24.4% 7.3% 2.4% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、 辯論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 2.4% 34.1% 41.5% 9.8% 9.8% 2.4% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 24% 54% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 32% 51% 17% 0% 0% 0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 34.1% 39.0% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% 202 3. 就通識教育科,我有以下意見: My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時,協助學生應試策略較導引學生 探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 30% 35% 30% 5% 0% 0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別,不能 相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0% 32.5% 27.5% 27.5% 10.0% 2.5% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨 立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5% 33% 54% 5% 3% 0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學 生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 2.5% 27.5% 50.0% 20.0% 0% 0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示 思考方法的能力,記憶與背誦無助提 升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 2.5% 22.5% 47.5% 20.0% 7.5% 0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試 成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 5.0% 22.5% 32.5% 27.5% 12.5% 0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重 視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 5.0% 30.0% 52.5% 10.0% 2.5% 0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生 學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.0% 27.5% 45.0% 20.0% 2.5% 0% 203 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌 握,將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 10% 28% 38% 18% 3% 3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求 廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 7.5% 37.5% 37.5% 17.5% 0% 0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度 思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 10.0% 42.5% 42.5% 5.0% 0% 0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終 身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.0% 30.0% 47.5% 12.5% 2.5% 2.5% 204 Experienced and less experienced teachers’ responses comparisons 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,本學年,我運用以下教學策略: In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 38.9%* 30.4%# 50.0% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 11.1% 4.3% 22.2% 21.7% 55.6% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計教學形式 與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 16.7% 8.7% 61.1% 52.2% 22.2% 26.1% 0.0% 13.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計形成性評 估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 22.2% 13.0% 55.6% 56.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題 技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 50.0% 26.1% 33.3% 47.8% 16.7% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 以時事議題作教學,增強學生高階思維 能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 16.7% 17.4% 33.3% 60.9% 50.0% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 參考坊間議題,讓學生分組探究討論, 以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 11.1% 8.7% 44.4% 47.8% 38.9% 39.1% 5.6% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience Appendix 2 205 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,我認同中六學年透過以下教學過 程,以提升學生學業水平: In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 16.7%* 8.7%# 44.4% 52.2% 27.8% 30.4% 11.1% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% b. 課堂議題探究 issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 22.2% 4.3% 55.6% 78.3% 22.2% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創意 解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 5.6% 4.3% 38.9% 26.1% 16.7% 39.1% 33.3% 17.4% 5.6% 8.7% 0.0% 4.3% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、辯 論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 5.6% 0.0% 38.9% 30.4% 27.8% 52.2% 11.1% 8.7% 11.1% 8.7% 5.6% 0.0% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 33.3% 17.4% 44.4% 60.9% 22.2% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 33.3% 30.4% 55.6% 47.8% 11.1% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 44.4% 26.1% 33.3% 43.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 206 3. 就通識教育科,我有以下意見: My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時,協助學生應試策略較導引學生 探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 41.2%* 21.7%# 35.3% 34.8% 23.5% 34.8% 0.0% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別,不能 相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0.0% 0.0% 29.4% 34.8% 17.6% 34.8% 47.1% 13.0% 5.9% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨 立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5.9% 4.5% 35.3% 31.8% 47.1% 59.1% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 4.5% 0.0% 0.0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學 生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 0.0% 4.3% 11.8% 39.1% 70.6% 34.8% 17.6% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示 思考方法的能力,記憶與背誦無助提 升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 0.0% 4.3% 5.9% 34.8% 47.1% 47.8% 29.4% 13.0% 17.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試 成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 11.8% 0.0% 11.8% 30.4% 23.5% 39.1% 35.3% 21.7% 17.6% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重 視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 11.8% 0.0% 23.5% 34.8% 47.1% 56.5% 11.8% 8.7% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生 學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.9% 4.3% 23.5% 30.4% 35.3% 52.2% 29.4% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 207 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌 握,將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 18.8% 4.3% 25.0% 30.4% 31.3% 43.5% 25.0% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求 廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 5.9% 8.7% 47.1% 30.4% 29.4% 43.5% 17.6% 17.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度 思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 11.8% 8.7% 41.2% 43.5% 35.3% 47.8% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終 身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.9% 4.3% 35.3% 26.1% 41.2% 52.2% 11.8% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 208 (a) The responders’ teaching strategies and teaching process Teaching strategies of the LS teachers: to guide students to know how to master the skills of answering issue-based questions, more sample paper questions practices, recitation of basic and crucial concepts, demonstration and reconstruction issue-enquiry approach of hot issues and so on. The following are some of the teachers’ responses. T1. “It is the focus of answering techniques because it is very important in LS.” T4. “It is true to write one time in the white block, to teach them how to write ideas or opinion. To try one time, two times, three times, to teach them how to write arguments. This is two kinds of training. To enhance their knowledge and answering technique need to be done at the same time.” T6. “In teaching, teachers should make use of current affairs to stimulate students’ interest not just teaching knowledge from textbook. To a certain extent, teachers should teach students’ test-taking skills, e.g. compared this year’s questions to previous year’s to find out the difference. Therefore, teaching knowledge is important, teaching answering technique is also important. After the completion of the sixth form’s curriculum, to enable students to do a variety of different kinds of questions to practice is necessary.” T8. “Students need to revise this subject, but students may not apply what they have learnt… In fact, the volume of opportunities students do is not too much. That kind of practice for an exam was not enough. Students should take further steps to quote some materials and to explain based on their understanding ... If you want to be effective in a short period of time, it is necessary for exam-based repetitive exercises and to know more of the criteria of the marking system, to know how to score and how to get higher marks. Or even to memorise some key words which will help in getting higher marks.” T9. “Students expect teachers to give information a little faster, or have digested a good idea to give them. The questions will be more drills in class, even if not practicing the test questions, but also will give students test mode on certain issues due to some of the framework opinions. ... Students’ learning culture is to look up to authority, or look up a credible answer they think. If they believe, they will go back, will repeatedly learn. ... A lot when the concept is difficult to construct, for example, you want the students to grasp M-type society, or inter-generational poverty, such as the concept of the discipline, and I think the teachers explaining to students would be more effective.” Appendix 3 209 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Teachers often use the teaching process: T7. “To establish the foundation of skills will start from Form Four such as what perspective thinking skills are. What the concept of ‘to what extent’ is. More in depth issues, and focus on how to analyze, more discussion of the questions will be on Fifth Form. More examination-oriented training of exercises and practice across different units are in the sixth.” T8. “When I teach in Form Four and Form Five, I will focus on course content and subject matter first. Then I will associate different units together. I have not started to catch all the key words of the exam questions at the beginning. However, I will start to drill students on how to answer the exam questions at the end of Form Five. Both training exam techniques and to grasp the concept advocated by the LS are necessary. T9. “More time can be spent on the process of constructing knowledge in Form Four and Five. There may be a variety of activities to help them to master the issues. Significantly in Form six, more drilling in answering techniques is in class…” On certain issues due to test mode, teachers will give students some framework views for examination.” T10. “In fact, we have slowly infiltrated some skills from Form Four. And then constantly increase and strengthen. We do not deliberately teach skills to test when the exam is coming. Usually we have to teach skills.” T11. “Class seems to do an examination question together with students, but the class content or material is a very informative process. The case constructs the entire scene as in the examination. Students face and deal with all the materials or subject matter in the classroom. They need to think and make decisions during the thinking process. The whole lesson is to repeat or duplicate the exam process, but a higher degree of complexity.” T12. “Using one LS question to associate key concepts is the strategy. Start from the beginning to say the question, (teacher) writes the topic on the blackboard. Throughout the entire class it is around this topic. Even with the introduction of some information, tell the students to talk about some concept, or explain some of the examples it is all around this topic. Usually students can learn LS exam contents and strategies in lessons. Different topics with the most appropriate analytical framework to teach …” 210 (b) The responders’ opinions on whether LS subject’s examination-oriented teaching strategy and nurturing a higher level of thinking skills are both compatible Some teachers believe that the exam will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills, because: T1. “If the teacher puts too much emphasis on test taking skills, it will indeed be a bad influence. Will at least reduce the students’ interest in learning.” T2. “They do not ask how to think, just ask how the high scores will be achieved ... (teachers) made it clear that this test, students will read. ” T3. “There are candidates who recite and memorise exercises of the HKEAA practice volume and sample papers during the simulation exam.” Three teachers to a certain extent believe that the exams will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T3. “I figured Liberal Studies for moderate or more students can improve their independent thinking, but moderate or less students’ learning is more narrowed.” T7. “There is a little paradox. Because I teach Band One students, they are more realistic. Without examination specifications to study and without proper fractions to promote them, their motivation will not be much. The exam really can compel the Band One students to pay attention to current events and to understand the social aspect. The exam can train students in multiple perspectives, but to truly be critical, there remain...” T11. “The exam needs ways of thinking…but it is a little tool in nature. If LS wants to cultivate the kind of independent thinking and hold onto the surrounding environment caring attitude, it is not necessarily encouraging. ... Conversely, exams do not help, if there is discussion of issues in depth during the lesson, it may help students to look at issues from different perspectives and in depth.” T12. “I think it is indeed stressed on exam skills ... they rely heavily on student expression. Indeed, it is not entirely linked to nurturing multiple perspectives and life-long learning ability, but I think it is helpful ...” 211 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Five teachers believe exams will not be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T4. “Students more now than before may be very utilitarian, but the test will still be able to give them a motive. Examination of the LS questions can help them to think about... For example one question with both for and against, they will ask if I only write the FOR side, how many marks can I get? If there is no exam to ask them to look at both sides, they may only answer the FOR side and they will not answer the AGAINST side. In order to fight for higher marks, they will think thoroughly. Therefore, exams can motivate them to learn more and learn in depth.” T6. “Thinking ladder of the Liberal Studies about the analysis, evaluation and creative thinking is higher-order thinking. Unlike the lower level which depends on copying or reciting to get answers. I think the standard of LS criteria is very high, but I think the students after a few years training, should do this.” T8. “Can really train students to think. However, most of the students’ language ability is weak, it needs a lot of time in this regard to improve. Sometimes students’ thinking is correct, but they do not know how to express it.” T9. “Part of the higher thinking skills is answering technique. If students can handle this well, they understand the questions and give answers clearly. Examination can test students’ level of higher thinking skills. They can fully understand thoroughly and give answers carefully. Nowadays, examination is more complicated to demand students’ higher level of thinking skills. It is not easy for them to take the easy route by ‘Catch the Road’ or recite answers. Fortunately, the exam mode is kind of complex, requiring candidates to have the skills of thinking, it is within the capacity, not in a short time you can develop. We do, the exam can reach the target of Liberal Studies.” T10. “When higher order thinking promotes multi-diversity with several angles, exams in LS in fact can obtain this. Because I’ve seen most of the candidates have in many ways analysed, even to the point of different stakeholders to answer. ... Because usually we apply discussion to explore, the public exam is to let you discuss and explore results written out. Taught through a consensus process in class, or with the examination as the strategy, there is not much gap.” 212 (c) Teachers’ experiences to develop students’ HOT skills Nurturing of life- long learning T3. “First, motivate students to read newspapers. There are some lively examples of real life from newspapers. Second, LS can also reflect the attitude of life, for example, a policy is feasible for young people. What impact? If there are such questions during examination, it is to help students to reflect on their own attitude to life, think about, and writing. It is the only way to improve.” T8. “We need to teach the basic concepts of LS. Of course, we need to direct students to discuss current affairs during the lesson to see how they give comments to the issues and associate the issues to the exam.” T2. “It is important to master the concepts. Use concepts to associate all the discussion. Explore different concepts via issue inquiry. Teach higher level of thinking skills from lower secondary form. “The most important is to be flexible. Do not be dragged by the discussion of current affairs, but direct by the conceptual discussion.” T4. “I feel higher level of thinking skills can be trained via discussion in depth during the lesson. We should let the students understand that issue. But how do they discuss? For example, if we know the causes of that issue, what is the impact of that issue? Detailed discussion should be the learning process during the lesson. There is a slogan at my school: LS is life. What they experience is LS. This subject matter may come from our living environment at any minute or even the current affairs from TV. We can get from anywhere and then fit into any single unit. If you can use Mind map, you can write anything which associates to the issue. This may be interesting.” T1. “LS cannot include all the training of how to think at school. It is mainly synthesis of all the subjects’ thinking methods.” 213 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Development of multiple- dimensional perspectives T9. “Basically, I believe the small group discussion, cooperative learning. Good organised cooperative group work will help a lot, but it depends on the effort done by the teacher. If teachers only throw to the students to think about a topic, students may not grasp this. This may be worse than directly taught. I think if the teacher organizes well cooperative learning or group discussions, teachers design the various steps, guide, appropriate materials, I believe it can lead to the construction of knowledge. Students will enjoy the learning.” T7. “There must be debate and discussion during the lesson, but the interactive activities are more important among students. If we want to train thinking in different perspectives, different people should explore the same subject in different perspectives. Guidelines will be given to them to discuss, to question, to criticise different viewpoints in groups. Questioning whether their suggestions or opinions are reasonable. LS curriculum is broad and time is limited in each lesson. There is no need for every subject to issue inquiry. It may depend on the importance of hot issues and time to look for or collect more materials before or after lessons.” T12. “We always stressed to students at different angles to see one thing. The easiest is the same anti-possible angle, and then some other aspects, such as a macro: an economic point of view, the political point of view, the social point of view, the cultural perspective; microscopic: personal basic necessities the angle, the angle of the point of view of different stakeholders, government, individuals, society, or some groups. So if he mastered these analytical frameworks or is thinking on the answer, he would have compared easily rendered to his higher-order thinking ... so that students know the different analytical framework can be used in different issues, or the contrary, the same issues to do with a different analytical framework. If he mastered these analytical frameworks or method of thinking, his ability to think critically, he sees anything that goes with these analytical frameworks.” 214 Scaffolding for independent thinking T11. “Through habits of scaffolding method used to help students or colleagues familiarize the subject, first observed facts, gradually penetrated into the push to higher-order observation. .... If the lesson has started from issue-based discussion of different cases, students may have interest and learn actively. In some cases students may not be interested in hearing, or on their own initiative. If it is introduced by teachers, students may have wider views and think in depth.” T6. “Higher-order thinking skills need to be divided into different stages to achieve. To motivate students’ interest it should start in Form Four and try to stimulate their interest of this LS subject. And then they will be interested in watching news. Independent thinking skills should be learnt and taught through Independent enquiry study in Form Five. To promote students’ analytical and critical ability should happen in Sixth Form.” *All interview transcripts can be seen in Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited website: www.cta.org.hk 215 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 香港教師對通識教育科文憑試與高階思維能力培育 關係認知的探求 梁麗嬋 創意教師協會、布里斯托大學教育博士研究生 摘要 筆者以一組來自約 40所學校的通識教育科教師為研究對象,收回 41位教師的意見 調查問卷,以及透過訪問其中 12位教師,相互引證,從而探究現職通識教育科教 師在面對本科文憑試情景下,較多採用什麼教學過程與策略,以培育學生高階思維 能力,而課程的實施又是否與其課程目標一致。研究結果發現受訪教師有強烈的考 試導引傾向,然而,他們對通識教育科及其公開評核試本質的理解,卻有別於傳統 以學科知識為本,相反,教師較多認識到新推行的通識教育科課程評估較重視學生 基礎概念的掌握與及思維能力的運用。研究反映受訪教師大體認同通識教育科公開 評核試運作與及高階思維能力的培育,愈資深的教師愈認同通識科應試教學策略能 與高階思維能力相容。 關鍵詞 高階思維能力,通識教育科公開評核,混合方法設計 217 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 也要還國民教育一個公道 倪紹強 香港教育學院 摘要 香港因推行國民教育科而引起爭議。有反對者結合着中國大陸與香港之間的矛盾, 認為這是洗腦科目。儘管在推行國民教育科上有些保留和限制,支持者相信課程既 有助學生認識中國國情,也可免於洗腦之嫌。中國幅員廣大,歷史文化深厚,更與 香港緊密相連。不再政治冷感的香港人不能因追求民主而「去中國化」,也要還國 民教育一個公道。 關鍵詞 國民教育,洗腦教育,香港的政治生態,去中國化 導言 香港因推行國民教育科而掀起的風暴,計有於 2012年 7月中旬數萬人聚集,在街 頭示威,以及 9月佔領特區政府的總部等。期間特區政府一再作出讓步,最後擱置課程 指引。這場風暴可說是暫告一段落,但這並不意味問題已經解決。本文期望對一些現象 稍作分析和討論,並且對一些根本的概念予以較深入的考量。遺憾的是,國民教育彷彿 被妖魔化了,與洗腦教育差不多劃成等號,也是時候需要還國民教育一個公道了。 論爭與民意爆發的背景 在應否推行國民教育科的問題上,部分人反對設立國民教育科,認為這是洗腦科 218 目,會毒害香港青少年的思想;也有部分是支持者,因為課程有助學生認識中國國情, 還有是沉默的大多數。圍繞着國民教育科大抵有兩項核心的爭議:(1)香港應否設立 國民教育科?(2)國民教育是不是洗腦課程?當一些主流報章都以洗腦來形容國民教 育科後,這個說法便流行起來,令到不少香港人一聽見這科便與洗腦聯繫起來,以致爭 議的理據在輿論的平台上,從未得到清晰的疏理,這是十分可惜的。取而代之的是情緒 化的反應,又刺激着不少香港人對共產政權恐懼的潛意識(陳立諾,2012)。 香港回歸至今,在一國兩制政策之下,中國大陸與香港漸次融合,香港人的焦慮感 卻不斷累積。在陸港融合的大策略中,似乎不能夠有效改善香港人生活質素之餘,更加 間接地推高了生活成本。再加上不少人相信普遍存在的所謂地產霸權、貧富懸殊等等因 素,進一步開放自由行只令到香港人更加擔憂。就在這背景之下開展國民教育科,使到 不少香港人憂慮自身的價值觀和自由會隨之而消失。這些深層次矛盾一直未得以恰當處 理,就是這段日子以來民意爆發的背景(馬家豪,2012)。 對推行國民教育的保留和限制 有學者和前線教育工作者早已指出,要國民教育科獨立成科委實有一定的困難。因 為學校的上課日程早已排得滿滿,要騰出空間迎接國民教育科,殊不容易。況且,國民 教育科大抵與常識科、通識科、中史科和中文科等的一些內容互相重疊,這是不爭的事 實。有學者認為,德育及國民教育科在學理上根本就不行,推行國民教育也只應該在公 民教育的框架內進行。特區政府仍然堅持以國民教育命名,不單與國際教育主流的趨勢 脫軌,也令人擔心此科目只會聚焦在國家的層面,收窄了學生的視野(梁恩榮、盧恩臨, 2012.7.18)。課程指引其中一個缺失就是假設香港是一個同質的華人社會,對於非華裔 人士來說,國民教育根本不能培養他們對中國人身份的認同和歸屬感,似乎他們更需要 的是世界公民的視野(梁恩榮、鄧秀貞,2012.7.18)。這些都是成立的。 贊同國民教育的聲音 有學者認為香港人的公民身份是一個客觀事實,應該予以肯定。如果否定這一身份 則是逃避現實。反對國民教育科的人大抵是一種情緒化的反應。香港人有責任了解中國, 這樣才能推動中國的進步。根據《亞洲週刊》的報道,曾公開表示支持國民教育科的學 者,包括香港大學專業進修學院院長李焯芬、香港大學歷史學者陸人龍、嶺南大學教授 219 也要還國民教育一個公道 何𠘙生、中文大學教授郭少棠等(陳立諾,2012)。其他公開贊成國民教育的學者不多, 就筆者在報章上所見,計有香港大學的程介明教授和李輝博士兩位、香港教育學院的甘 國臻教授等。大抵有不少學者和其他社會人士是表支持的,但礙於敏感的政治形勢,也 不願高調的表態。 有人指出政府不能讓步,如果讓步,就只會變得寸步難行了,以後簡單如要建造一 座橋或修築一條路,也可能會遭遇到絕食抗議,政府只能每次讓步,結果就什麼都做不 了(陳立諾,2012)。這也解釋到政府遲遲才作出讓步的原因。 有學者指出,不少政治領袖都以提升公民對國家效忠的意識為己任(Dawson, Prewitt & Dawson, 1977; Ngai, 2005)。學者又相信,不少國家每當觸及自身歷史的時候, 都會加以美化、光榮化、甚或神話化。學者李輝(2012.9.16)指出,嚴格來說任何國家 的國民教育都是某程度的「洗腦」。然而,在傳媒發達和言論自由的香港,若要進行沉 悶而死板的學校教育,大抵難以達到洗腦的效果。學者甘國臻(2012.10.30)認為,當 局提出的課程指引,已凸顯出討論爭議性課題的重要性,並且告誡老師,不應在課堂上 迴避討論這些具爭議的問題。因為這才可於課堂上引發出一個生動及熱烈的討論,這樣 又怎算得是「洗腦」呢? 若仔細和持平地分析新科目提出的具體課程,新學科着重個人發展,以及建立心繫 國家、關懷中國歷史和成就的文化身份,內容亦可結合與《基本法》、民主、人權、法治、 國家象徵等有關內容的政治議題。這都與國際一貫做法相符,也不具爭議性。時至今日, 很難想像會有一個社會還可以不以積極裝備年輕人為己任,以配合未來社會的發展。學 校本身就是培育學生成為良好公民最適合的地方,社會也需要為他們提供這個學習機會 (甘國臻,2012.10.30)。 對於「會否身為一位中國人而自豪?」這個問題,是主觀和個人化的。然而,中國 有五千多年的歷史文化,乃四大文明古國之一。在九百六十多萬平方公里的土地上,共 有五十六個民族,豐富多姿。這個國家曾經有過光輝燦爛的文明、輝煌的歷史,乃是很 難在地球上其他的角落找到的。當然也有被列強欺凌、軍閥割據、抗戰和內戰等等的苦 難歲月。在中國歷史科早已不再是中學階段的必修科之後,我們很難期望年青人對中國 悠久的歷史有深入的了解。另一方面,一般香港人對中國的地理實在是一無所知的。在 220 1997年之前,香港作為英國人管治的殖民地,政治上固然與深圳河以北的政權割裂;在 教育課程上,殖民地政府刻意將中國的元素減到最少,比如中國歷史科會避開敏感的現 代史階段;地理科方面,中學生可能會研讀澳洲、美洲及歐洲的地理,但卻不會研習中 國的省份和相關的地理知識。 老一輩的香港人每當講述國家民族苦難之時,仍會眼泛淚光。新儒家的幾位大師如 錢穆、唐君毅、徐復觀等都曾在香港生活及講學,他們對近代中國的苦難有深刻的認識 與感受,對中華民族命運有一種強大的使命感,要肩負中華民族復興的重任,使中華文 化不至於花果飄零。香港從來都是中國人認識自己國家民族最有利的地方,因為有言論 自由,也不受制於國共兩黨鬥爭導致的扭曲(《亞洲週刊》,2012)。 具體來說,香港與中國大陸的關係越來越密切。而正在崛起的中國,其一舉一動時 刻影響着全世界,也影響着香港。而香港卻是中國的一部分,既是屬於「兩制」,也屬 於「一國」(程介明,2012.9.28)。 香港現在的政治生態 在九七回歸之前,香港人從來都是政治冷感的。又有人形容香港人是經濟動物 (Ngai, 2005;梁恩榮、倪紹強,2011)。由於是殖民地,國民身份模糊,有人形容香 港為「借來的地方、借來的時間」。然而,時移世易,香港的政治生態出現了結構性的 轉變,香港人很着意尋找和塑造自己的身份,果敢地為着不同的訴求和議題發聲,香港 人不再政治冷感了。某程度而言,這是一種進步。然而,不少香港人在尋找自己身份的 同時,漸漸對發生於中國的種種現象不滿或質疑起來。兩地的情況不同,價值觀是很有 差距的。其實,香港人在回歸前後,在文化上一直是認同中國的;但對不少人而言,回 歸後要與由共產黨主領的政權認同,確是有困難的。這當然與已習慣了中共管治的內地 人和新來港的同胞,有頗大的落差有關。筆者也對國內不少現象感到失望和憂心。近年 來,香港興起一些諸如「來生不做中國人」的論調,更有人認同殖民主義的崇拜,或者 在群眾集會時高舉英國的米字旗、殖民地的龍獅旗等。近年似乎有一種奇異的潛臺詞: 香港要民主,就要與中國大陸切割開來。將香港和中國大陸對立起來,認為香港的一切 都比中國大陸優越(《亞洲週刊》,2012)。這並不是理想的趨勢。 221 也要還國民教育一個公道 總結 有論者堅持只可以在公民教育的架構下推行國民教育,其實兩者也有相互重叠之 處,而兩者也不可偏廢。再者,切實推介國民教育的力度不足,語焉不詳,而整個討論 又受到過度政治化的氛圍所騎劫、傾向民粹的傳媒所誘導,實屬不幸。而整個論爭卻凸 顯了一系列的問題:香港人對自己身份的矛盾──既有濃厚的本土身份意識,卻要漸次 更牢固的體現國民身份的認同。而反對國民教育者要知道,許多沉默而不表態者,大抵 與他們對此課題是有不同見解的,更遑論身在國內的人士了。 不少人對反對國民教育的抗爭是表示支持的,也相信他們是出於良好意願(李展 華,2012.9.28)。但有學者卻認為,為了一本粗劣的國教手冊便抗拒國民教育科,進而 踏上疏離國家民族的道路,乃是純真的失誤(楊志剛,2012)。筆者很同意這個觀點: 香港要推動民主,但不能夠陷入「去中國化」的窠臼之中,香港不能贏得了民主,卻失 去了中國(邱立本,2012)。筆者不會執着定要設立獨立的國民教育科,也認同重振中 國歷史教育也可以是可行之法。然而,對中國國情如此陌生的莘莘學子,也實在需要更 多和更好的國民教育。其實政黨不等於政府,政府不等於國家。政黨和政府都可以更換, 國家卻是永存的。然而,不知怎的,反共輾轉變成了反華,複雜的議題却被簡單化;國 民教育就是不好;中國就是落後而腐敗的化身(《亞洲週刊》,2012)。但是,香港不 能像倒洗澡水的,把珍貴的祖國丟棄。也需要還國民教育一個公道。 參考文獻 《亞洲週刊》(2012)。〈香港人要尋回民間中國論述〉。第 26卷 37期,5。 甘國臻(2012.10.30)。〈我們應否摒棄國民教育?〉。《明報》,A32版。 李展華(2012.9.28)。〈放下敵我以港為家〉。《信報》,A24版。 李輝(2012.9.16)。〈不要把孩子和髒水一起潑掉!─ 德育及國民教育科的三方困局 及出路〉。《明報》,A29版。 邱立本(2012)。〈香港民主拒絕「綠營化」〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 42期,4。 馬家豪(2012)。〈香港國民教育風暴背後〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 37期,20-21。 222 梁恩榮、倪紹強(2011)。〈在全球化下的身分競逐〉,載梁恩榮、阮衛華,《公民教育, 香港再造!迎向新世代公民社會》(頁 180-191)。香港:印象文字及香港基督徒 學會。 梁恩榮、鄧秀貞(2012.7.18)。〈國民教育與少數族裔〉。《明報》,A36版。 梁恩榮、盧恩臨(2012.7.18)。〈在「公民教育」框架內的「國民教育」〉。《明報》, A30版。 陳立諾(2012)。〈反對廢除國民教育的學界聲音〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 37期, 22-23。 程介明(2012.9.28)。〈國民教育:宣傳與教育〉。《信報》,A17版。 楊志剛(2012)。〈香港人純真的失誤〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 37期,18。 Dawson, R. E., Prewitt, K., & Dawson, K. S. (1977). Political socialization (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Ngai, S. K. G. (2005). What kind of political socialization in secondary schools is needed in Hong Kong in the 21st century? (Doctoral Thesis). Hull: The University of Hull. Be fair to national education NGAI Siu Keung George The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract There has been a great debate concerning the implementation of the national education. Given there are gaps between the mainland and Hong Kong, the opponents claim that it is a kind of brainwashing education. Albeit that there are constraints and reservations for implementing national education, the supporters think that it is good to know more about China, and without being indoctrinated. China is such a great country, with rich historic cultures and being so closely related to Hong Kong. Hong Kong people, who are no longer apolitical now, should never abandon China, when striving for democracy. We should be fair to national education. Keywords national education, brainwashing education, political atmosphere of Hong Kong, desinicization 223 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 在教學法與社會實踐之間:教師如何在 校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 朱耀光 基督教香港信義會心誠中學 摘要 近年,口述歷史開始受到香港中學教師的重視,口述歷史的社會意義亦使歷史教育 突破學科邊界,成為跨科目的專題研習方法。然而,教師要將口述歷史教學引入既 有的校本課程,面對多重的限制。本文將會以兩位嘗試推行口述歷史教學的教師角 度,分析學校的課程取向、教師的教育理念、實際的處境如何影響口述歷史教學的 實踐。 關鍵詞 歷史教育,口述歷史,課程取向 甲丶 研究背景 過去十年的課程改革壓縮了歷史科的生存空間,但校本課程發展的空間和彈性亦為 歷史教育帶來生氣和活力。就以筆者的經驗為例,從 2005年開始,筆者以「同心圓」 模式將學校的初中中國歷史科及歷史科統整為歷史與文化科。2009年開始引入口述歷史 研習,與初中學生一起進行粉嶺戲院及粉嶺農村的專題研習(朱耀光,2012)。筆者於 2012年 9月借調到教育局中學校本課程發展組,嘗試推動口述歷史教學,幫助教師將口 述歷史加入到校本課程。雖然香港教師開始重視以口述歷史為教學方法,但口述歷史教 學和校本課程發展的關係仍在摸索階段。究竟,口述歷史研習只是教學法的創新,還是 課程取向的轉變?口述歷史應該以專題研習的形式進行,還是融入課堂教學之中? 224 乙丶 口述歷史作為課程內容的回顧 扼要回顧口述歷史與中學歷史課程發展的關係,有助分析口述歷史對課程組織的影 響。歷史學一直被視為傳統的學科(discipline),歷史作為中學科目(school subject) 的發展亦受著歷史學術發展的影響(Stengel, 1997)。十九世紀以降,德國蘭克學派的 興起,令實證研究成為風尚,歷史研究亦務求「客觀」,追尋歷史事件的真實性成為歷 史學家皓首窮經的動力,中國史學家傅斯年便說過史學即史料學,史料搜集與考證成為 歷史研究的專業印記。經由歷史學者書寫 /生產的「客觀」歷史知識,成中學歷史教育 的學科內容。大多數歷史教師的任務,就是將「歷史知識」有效地轉遞給學生(吳翎君, 2004)。 然而,隨着教育理論的發展,以學科知識為本的歷史課程已受到嚴重的挑戰。例如, 受到皮亞傑的啟發,部份歷史教育學者相信兒童亦能透過故事發展歷史抽象思維,歷史 教育應該更強調抽象思維能力而非貌似客觀的歷史知識(吳翎君,2004)。湯普森(Paul Thompson)於 1978年出版的《過去的聲音》(The voice of the past: Oral history)更全 面挑戰以文獻研究主導的歷史學術研究。他開宗明義說,「所有歷史最終都視乎其社會 目的」。口述歷史,不單是歷史研究法的改變,更是歷史知識論的範式轉移。歷史知識 與社會意識密不可分,口述歷史令本來被遺忘的社群、或隱身在主流歷史論述的群體, 得到發聲的機會(Thompson, 1978;鍾寶賢,2000)。口述歷史始終以人為歷史的主體, 研究者透過提問、對話,以「交談說故事」(conversational narrative)的方法,取得歷 史資料,將不同的聲音、特別是文獻中沒有記錄的聲音放回過去的時空脈絡(嚴佳芳, 1995;楊祥銀,2004)。從上可見,歷史已不再是純粹的學術科目,口述歷史的出現, 已經預示了歷史學重回人文關懷和社會實踐的進路。 或許有人認為,口述歷史只是歷史學術界風波裡的茶杯,對中學歷史課程的影響有 限。不過,觀乎美國歷史教育的發展,從湯普森在《過去的聲音》為口述歷史教學打好 理論基礎之後,美國中學紛紛推動口述歷史研習開始,鄉村學校更積極以口述歷史推動 社區研習。就以狐火計劃(Foxfire)為例,口述歷史活動以燎原之勢,掀起歷史教育的 改革,多篇學生作品刊登於狐火學刊之內。美國歷史學者Neuenschwander(1976)預期, 口述歷史會在七十年代便會成為歷史教育的主流(頁 7)。雖然 Neuenschwander的預期 至今仍未實現,但口述歷史教學已經開始得到教育界的重視。香港歷史教育學者楊秀珠 225 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? (2002)研究 210位中學歷史科(準)教師及小學常識科(準)教師後,發現教師對香 港歷史的理解,很接近日常生活的歷史。她指出:「教師的歷史觀及本土史的觀念,直 接影響歷史教育的面貌,因為當我們鼓勵教師建立自己對本土歷史的看法時,亦同樣希 望學生開拓自己的歷史觀」(頁 41)。她鼓勵學生以口述歷史的方法,訪問自己的家人 關於日治時期香港的情況,又或者訪問父母,調查他們對六四的看法,她稱這種歷史教 學為學生的「聲音」。而「歷史教育工作者可以在私人與公眾、微觀與宏觀、主流與邊緣、 主觀與客觀、口述與文本、主幹與旁枝、常規與異數、平凡與出眾之間,去推展歷史想 像力的極限」(頁 55)。從此可見,關於口述歷史教學的討論,已經從學術界延伸至學 校的歷史教育中。 口述歷史教學不單帶動了歷史科的變革,也促使跨學科的研習。例如,美國社會科 (融合課程)便採用口述歷史,讓學生認識社區的地理位置及變遷,台灣的鄉土教育及 社區學習課程紛紛運用口述歷史方法進行教學活動(Dunaway & Baum, 1984;吳翎君, 2004;林慈淑,2007)。類似的口述歷史專題研習亦在香港出現,香港中華文化促進中 心從 2002年開始,便為教師及學生舉辦口述歷史工作坊,亦有以大澳、屏山和灣仔社 區為研究對象的口述歷史教育計劃。香港大學亞洲研究中心亦從 2001年開始推動「香 港口述歷史檔案計劃」,至 2006年開展「香港記憶」,其延伸部份即「記憶校園」, 協助師生以口述歷史方法整理學校歷史(王惠玲,2010;陳潔華,2004)。 丙丶 研究目的 關於口述歷史的優點和重要性,坊間已有大量文獻討論。不過,當教師接觸有 別於慣常使用的教學法時,若能展開課程的對話,尋找口述歷史教學與學校課程的關 係,最終不論教師是接受還是拒絕,都能體現校本課程的民主精神(鄭鈞傑、林智中, 2006)。對中學教師而言,口述歷史教學是教學法的創新,還是更根本的課程取向的轉 變?在學術理性(academic rationalism)為主流的學校課程中,教師又如何調適口述歷 史教學的社會取向,以配合校本課程的要求(Cheung, 2000;Cheung & Wong, 2002)? 為了探討以上的問題,筆者邀請了兩位即將開展口述歷史教學的教師參與是次研究。兩 位受訪教師,都是教育局中學校本課程發展組歷史科教師網絡成員,他們曾參與該網絡 舉辦的口述歷史教學分享和工作坊,並表示會在學校推行口述歷史教學。1 226 是次研究主要以半結構性訪談(semi-structured interview)了解兩位教師如何因應 校情將口述歷史教學加入校本課程。筆者於 2012年 10月開始就口述歷史的教學問題與 兩位教師討論,並分析與口述歷史相關的課程組織原則,兩位教師亦於 2012年 11月底 擬定口述歷史的教學安排。於是,筆者於 2012年 12月中分別訪問了兩位教師,訪談時 間約四十五分鐘,訪談錄音後由筆者轉譯為文字,再由兩位教師檢視訪談譯稿,給予回 饋。 教師甲是高中歷史科科主任,是一位未足三十歲的年青教師,在調景嶺一所直資中 學任教,學生多來自中等收入的家庭。他在外國的大學主修歷史,回港後以兼讀方式修 讀教育文憑,亦主修歷史。他有五年的教學年資,在這所學校任教第五年,他主要任教 高中歷史科及初中通識科。去年教育局課程發展處曾到訪他任教的學校,建議學校可增 加初中的歷史元素,所以他未來要負責將更多歷史科的課程內容加進初中通識科。近年, 他亦積極參與歷史教學的交流活動,先後參加了教育局資優教育組的人文教師網絡及中 學校本課程發展組的歷史教師網絡。 教師乙是資深教師,大學時主修體育,副修哲學,1999年入職時在小學任教中文、 數學、常識和體育科,亦曾於中學任教中文科和體育科。他曾修讀中文科的教育文憑、 中文系碩士和文化研究碩士課程。在 2009至 2011年期間,他辭去教席,參與土地保育 工作。2012年 9月得到天水圍一所津貼中學校長的邀請,成為半職教師,教授高中通識 科及初中歷史與文化科。由於該校的學生大部份屬於第三組別,教師透過不同的教學形 式提升學生的學習動機,包括成立耕種小組,讓學生在校園的農圃中實踐農務。 丁丶 發現與討論 一丶 教師普遍認同口述歷史教學的社會意義 Cheung & Wong(2002)的研究發現,香港教師的課程取向多元化,甚至出現強大 的張力,其中學術理性、思維過程、社會重構、人本主義及科技取向交替影響教師的課 程設計(頁 242)。在訪談過程中,筆者發現兩位教師對口述歷史都有充份的理解。教 _______________ 1 承蒙高級課程發展主任梁寶芬女士提供網絡活動資料及聯絡受訪教師。 227 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 師甲閱讀了很多外國、尤其是台灣的口述歷史文獻 2,而教師乙也讀過大量口述歷史著 作 3。他們並不會將口述歷史單單視為訓練學生歷史思維能力的方法,還很認同口述歷 史的社會意義。他們對口述歷史的理解,很接近 Cheung & Wong(2002)所指的社會重 構(social reconstruction)取向。教師甲希望學生藉著口述歷史研習了解調景嶺的過去, 並關注都市化對社區與社群的影響。他說: 「口述歷史有其對象,就是讓同學訪問當時人,那些是真真正正曾經發生在 社區的事情,在我們這個社會中發生,那些事情也可能是一些轉變。我們周 遭發生的生活,就是歷史。」 教師乙也希望學生藉着口述歷史研習,關注香港的農地及農業問題,並質疑政府為 發展而扼殺農業的政策。 然而,在深入的訪談中,筆者發現教師甲和教師乙的後設課程取向(meta- orientation)還有些微差異(Cheung & Wong, 2002)。雖然兩位教師都希望借助口述歷 史研習將學生的學習連繫到社會生活,但教師甲坦言,高中的歷史課程很着重考試和思 維能力,但歷史教育真正感動他的,是「讓學生在歷史科認識這個世界⋯⋯發現人類的 厲害之處。」台灣歷史學者林慈淑(2010)的《歷史,要教什麼?》說明了歷史教育在 學科知識、歷史思維能力和人文向度之間的張力,在公開考試、課程要求和時間限制之 下教師在課程內容上都必須有所取捨。所以,為了調解「思維能力」和「人文關懷」的 張力,教師甲只好在高中歷史課程的校本評核部份加入口述歷史教學,這種處理方式, 一方面可以配合課程要求,訓練學生搜集史料、整理史料的能力,又能在過程中培養學 生對社會的關懷。 教師乙的後設課程取向則較純粹,這與教師乙的背景息息相關。首先,教師乙具備 中、小學的教學經驗。Yeung & Lam(2007)指出,香港小學教師比中學更願意嘗試統 整不同的學科,他也直言: _______________ 2 教師甲在閒談間也時常分享台灣歷史學者張元老師對歷史教學的看法。 3 教師乙認為《又喊又笑:阿婆口述歷史》是口述歷史研究的典範。 228 「我並非歷史出身,我欠缺的只是知識,但我很清楚歷史的意義。⋯⋯其實 我並不關心學生是否在公開試取得好成績,我只想讓學生認識社區和自身的 關係。」 非歷史專科出身,令他免去不少學術的包袱。另外,他的學術背景亦很摻雜,語文 教育出身,後來兼讀文化研究碩士課程。 根據 Shriner, Schlee & Libler(2010)對不同學科教師的研究,發現語文教師比較願 意與其他學科的教師合作統整課程。這或許解釋了為何主修中國語言及文學的教師乙, 能夠專注於口述歷史的社會取向。他表示,在參加土地保育工作的時候,已進行兩次口 述歷史的研究,他認為「小歷史」也是一種文學修辭方法,以彌補「大歷史」的不足。 因此,不論任何科目,他都會在任教的高中的通識科和初中歷史與文化科加入口述歷史 研習,帶學生到上水的農村考察、與村民訪談,讓學生了解都市發展對香港農地帶來的 影響。 從上可見,口述歷史的課程取向充滿彈性,教師既可將口述歷史研習視為歷史能力 的培訓,亦可將口述歷史變為跨科的專題研習。歷史出身以及學科的要求,令教師甲不 斷在學術要求和社會取向之間摸索,而非歷史主修的教師乙則較無拘束地在不同的課程 推行口述歷史教學。不過,正如 Cheung(2000)所言,課程取向與課程實施之間仍有 一定的落差,教師甲和教師乙能否真正落實口述歷史的歷史思維培訓和社會關懷,仍有 待研究。 二丶 從口述歷史教學開始摸索跨學科合作的可能性 雖然筆者沒有以強度抽樣方式選擇訪談對象,但本研究的兩位參與教師都具有代表 性,教師甲的學校開辦初中通識科,而教師乙的學校開辦初中歷史與文化科,這些安排 大致參考了課程發展議會(2002)的建議: 1. 將個人、社會及人文學習領域內的學科,統整成綜合人文科 4,中國歷史科保持 獨立; _______________ 4 雖然教育局並不建議學校將初中的統整課程命名為「通識科」,但有部份學校為了與高中的課程銜接,仍把初 中的統整課程稱為通識科。 229 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 2. 以中國歷史為主軸,統整中國歷史科及歷史科為歷史與文化科,其他學科統整 為綜合人文科。 根據外國推行口述歷史的經驗,如果教師甲在初中通識科加入口述歷史教學,應更 能發揮口述歷史的社會實踐意義。另外,教師乙除了在高中通識科外,如何將初中的歷 史與文化科開展口述歷史課程? 教師甲雖然認同口述歷史的社會向度,但他認為在初中通識科中推行口述歷史比較 困難。他說: 「創校時初中通識科只為了銜接高中通識科,所以沒有很多人文學科的課程內 容,直至新高中開辦人文學科為選修科,才滲入人文學科的元素,我現在負責將 歷史的教材加入初中通識科。」 他更表示,初中通識科實際上是在不同的時段學習不同的學科內容,學科內容之間 並沒有連繫。運用 Tyler對課程統整的定義,這種組織方式只算是廣域課程,不同的學 科內容並未在共同的課程組織原則和關係(林智中、陳健生、張爽,2006)。教師甲表示, 初中通識科的香港單元是經濟科的同事負責,所以他未能在香港的單元加入口述歷史教 學。至於他負責編排的歷史內容,則是以順時序方式組織課程內容,主要教授古代文明 至工業革命的部份,也是口述歷史無法處理的時段。 至於教師乙任教學校的初中歷史與文化科,亦以順時序方式編排課程,但課程以中 國歷史為軸心,並以「思維能力」組織學科內容。這種課程組織大致參考了教育局課程 發展處(2007)提供歷史與文化科的課程綱要,「以中國歷史為主線,整合中國與世界 歷史與文化」。不過,這種強調思維能力的比較歷史課程,忽略了香港史內容,與教師 乙的社會重構課程取向有明顯的不同。教師乙如何處理在校本歷史與文化科加入口述歷 史教學呢?他說: 「我在每一個課題都會引入農業和食物議題,例如我在四大文明和中西方帝 國的課題中,都加入農業和食物的內容,從而建立學生的生活和知識的連繫, 而我在香港農村做的口述歷史便和農業和食物有關。」 230 雖然課程以思維能力作為組織學校內容,但教師乙卻以農業和食物重新演繹課程內 容,令課堂連繫至學生的日常生活,亦因此找到加入口述歷史教學的課程切入點。 本來,校本課程統整應能給予教師引入口述歷史教學的課程空間,不過,從兩位教 師的訪談得知,校本課程統整仍以學科主導(discipline-oriented)、思維能力和學術理 性取向,教師並不容易在課程規劃(planned curriculum)的層面參與統整工作,所以, 他們只能在課堂和個人層面將口述歷史加到課程之中,這亦限制了口述歷史的教學成 效。 三丶 以務實方式推動口述歷史教學 雖然課程統整未能即時為兩位教師提供實踐口述歷史的空間,但只要教師認同課程 理念,總能務實而漸進地帶來改變,正如 Park(2008)所言,關於課程統整的研究太集 中分析統整理想與現實的落差,卻未能肯定教師以務實方式(pragmatic approach)取得 統整的最大成效。 由於教師甲是歷史科主任,他可以自主編排歷史課程,將口述歷史研習用作校本評 核課業,增加口述歷史課程的認受性,他亦尋找教育局中學校本課程發展組的支援,以 取得外來的助力。至於初中通識科方面,他說: 「有歷史科訓練的同工較少,他們亦沒有接觸過口述歷史,我亦要自己去體 驗,及去思考課程發展配合在哪一個範疇。我不知道科組同事是否願意共同 開發。所以,我會以高中學生的口述歷史研習成果及專業支援換取同事的認 同。」 這種務實取向有別於由上而下的課程發展,教師先從實踐層面取得學習成果,然後 再以「調景嶺口述歷史研習」的成果建立同事間的課程對話,然後再探討「調景嶺社區」 能否成為初中課程的主題,這種由學習者開展的課程對話,才能落實課程統整的精神, 將由不同科目集合而成的廣域課程轉變為跨科課程(interdisciplinary curriculum)。 身為半職教師,教師乙明白自己在學校體制中的限制。教師乙一直表示會在高中通 識科引入口述歷史的研究方法,指導學生以香港農村與農業為題進行中學文憑試獨立專 題探究(Independent Enquiry Study)。然而,在本研究進行期間,教師乙告訴筆者,學 231 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 校已規定學生獨立專題探究的主題必須與「傳媒」和「教育」有關,所以他只能在任教 的通識學生中,挑選有修讀歷史科的學生進行口述歷史研習。那麼,原任的高中歷史科 教師會有何反應?教師乙表示: 「(歷史科同事)只關心做出來的功課能否用作歷史科校本評核,我其實不 介意工作量增多了,我帶學生到古洞進行口述歷史研習,只希望學生明白香 港農民的真實情感。」 他甚至取得校長的支持,邀請農夫到學校教授種植方法,並在學校開闢農圃,讓學 生比對口述歷史實習與農圃經驗的學習成果。其實,據筆者觀察,教師乙正以時間換取 課程空間,先改變學生對社區農業的看法和態度,落實社會實踐和關懷,再以學生的學 習經驗推課程變革,這是他以半職教師換回來的「優點」(即教擔及工作量較少)。 兩位教師的務實方式未必會以白紙黑字的方式記錄在(學校)課程文件,但學生的 學習成果卻成為了校本課程發展的關鍵,令校本課程改革不再停留於教學法的改變。 戊丶結論及反思 過去關於口述歷史的教學研究呈現兩極化的走向,歷史學者雖然肯定口述歷史的 社會意義,但他們仍視中學歷史課程為歷史學術研究的從屬,只從歷史思維的角度, 將口述歷史組織到中學歷史課程之中,忽視了口述歷史的社會向度課程取向(Stengel, 1997;林慈淑,2007);另一方面,鄉土學習和社區研習只將口述歷史教學視為帶有社 會向度的「課外活動」,卻忽視了學校課程的學術取向與口述歷史教學之間的張力。其 實,從是次的研究所見,從理解口述歷史的教學理念到課堂實踐,教師需要兼顧不同的 課程取向,有些是外在的,有些則是個人信念的,他們都希望取得更多同事及學生的認 同下,持續推動口述歷史教學。無視實際環境的限制可能為有心推動課程改革的教師帶 來更大的挫敗感,務實地因應學校處境而引入新的教學嘗試,反能帶來課程的對話,體 現校本課程發展的精神。 Marsh指出,「學校本位課程發展,是一種強調『參與』、『草根式民主』的課程 發展口號;是一種重視師生共享決定,共同建構學習經驗的教育哲學;也是一項需要 課程領導與組織變革的技巧」(李子建,2002,頁 113)可惜香港的校本課程改革仍是 232 單向的發展過程,由學校中層及管理層設計、再由分科討論執行,「中央 ─ 邊陲」 的課程發展模式並沒有改變。是次參與研究的教師從個人信念開始,因應教學進度、 學生回饋、同事的反應和社會變化修改口述歷史的課程設計,希望由學生的經驗課程 (experienced curriculum)找到突破點,帶動校本課程變革,這樣的校本課程發展才能 體現理念課程、計劃課程、執行課程和經驗課程之間的動態關係,亦會釋放更大的空間, 讓教師將口述歷史教學的社會取向融入校本課程。 參考文獻 王惠玲(2010)。〈補白、發聲、批判、傳承:香港口述歷史的實踐〉。《鄭洲大學學 報》,第 43卷第 4期。 朱耀光(2012)。〈口述歷史作為教學行動:尋找共同建構的初中香港歷史課程〉。論 文發表於台北、香港、廣州歷史教學研討會。台北:東吳大學歷史學系。 吳翎君(2004)。《歷史教學理論與實務》。台北:五南圖書。 林智中、陳健生、張爽(2006)。《課程組織》。北京:教育科學出版社。 李子建(2002)。《課程、教學與學校改革:新世紀的教育發展》。香港:中文大學出版社。 林慈淑(2007)。〈口述歷史在歷史教學上的應用?─ 一位大學教師的疑慮〉。台北: 發表於中研院台史所「第十一屆全國口述歷史工作會議」。 林慈淑(2010)。《歷史,要教什麼?─ 英美歷史教育的爭議》。台北:學生書局。 香港課程發展議會(2002)。《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引(小一至中 三)》。香港:政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會(2007)。《歷史科課程及評估指引(中四至中六)》。香港:政府 印務局。 教育局課程發展處(2007)。《歷史與文化科(中一至中三年級)》。取自 http://cd1. edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/tc/history/New_History/about/about.html。 陳潔華(編)(2004)。《批判思考 創意教學:技巧和考察例子》。香港:香港大學 亞洲研究中心。 楊秀珠(2002)。〈尋找本土的故事:香港教師的歷史觀〉。《教育學報》,第30卷第二期, 41-62。 233 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 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(2000). Measuring teachers’ meta-orientations to curriculum: application of hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 68(2), 149-165. Cheung, D., & Wong, H. W. (2002). Measuring teacher beliefs about alternative curriculum designs. The Curriculum Journal, 13(2), 225-248. Dunaway, K., & Baum, W. K. (Eds.). (1984). Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology. Nashville, Tennessee: American Association for State and Local History. Neuenschwander, J. A. (1976). Oral history: As a teaching approach. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Park, M. (2008). Implementing curriculum integration: The experiences of Korean elementary teachers. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(3), 308-319. Shriner, M., Schlee, B. M., & Libler, R. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and beliefs regarding curriculum integration. Australian Education Researcher, 37(1), 51-62. Stengel, B. S. (1997). “Academic discipline” and “school subject”: Contestable curricular concepts. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 29(5), 585-602. Thompson, P. (1978). The voice of the past: Oral history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yeung, S. S. Y., & Lam, C. C. (2007). Teachers’ conception of curriculum integration: A problem hindering its implementation in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(2), 109-144. 234 Between teaching method and social practice: How do teachers accommodate oral history to school-based curriculum? CHU Yiu Kwong Fanling Lutheran Secondary School Abstract Recently oral history has been widely accepted and adopted by secondary school teachers. Its social meaning also makes it easier for teachers to adopt oral history as an interdisciplinary method of project-based learning. However, teachers are confronted with many practical problems while accommodating oral history to school-based curriculum. In the perspectives of two secondary school teachers who intend to promote oral history in their own schools as examples, this article will analyze how teachers’ curriculum orientations, educational beliefs, and practical concerns influence the way of teaching oral history. Keywords History education, oral history, curriculum orientation
Category: Documents第+三卷 Volume Thirteen 教育局 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 第十三卷 Volume 13 出 版 : 香港教師中心 地 址 : 香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 出版年份 : 2014 年 Publisher : Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address : W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing : 2014 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 i 香港教師中心(教師中心)是根據1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議, 由 1987 年開始籌備,至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步提升 服務質素及切合發展需要,教師中心已於 2006 年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。 教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓,並為他們提供一個富 鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境,使他們更能團結一致,發揮專業精神。教師中心 致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會,推動課程發展,鼓勵教師設計及試用新教 材和教學法,向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念,並配合教師興趣,組織 各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設,也由教師管理,他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會(諮管會)、常務委員會(常委會)和 六個工作小組,負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組 成,其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出,35 位由教師提名及選出,另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構,與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任,其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員,以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。 常委會之下設有工作小組,負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作,包括專業發展小組、 出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。 教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外,亦經常與本港教育團體合作,籌辦推動教育專業 的活動,並會因應需要,贊助這些團體舉辦活動,以及為有關活動提供所需的場地和器 材。教師中心設有學科團體綜合辦事處,以支援學科團體策劃活動和處理會務。此外, 教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等,為教師提供所需的服務。 香港教師中心 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years’ preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-tier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total of 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well-equipped premises. At HKTC, there is also the Subject-related Organisation Office for relevant organisations to work in. Last but not least, HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc for teachers’ use. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre iii 顧問團(Board of Advisors) Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁 鋼 華東師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 李榮安 新加坡國立教育學院 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物, 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校,而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁(www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/ journal)閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal iv 編輯委員會(Editorial Committee) 主編(Chief Editor) 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 副主編(Vice-chief Editors) 胡少偉 香港教育學院 張慧真 香港浸會大學教育學系 趙淑媚 香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學 委員(Members) 甘志強 港澳兒童教育國際協會 何景安 香港教師活動協會 何瑞珠 香港中文大學教育學院 李子建 香港教育學院 李宏峯 明愛屯門馬登基金中學 林偉業 香港大學教育學院 胡志偉 香港通識教育會 劉瑞珍 李求恩紀念中學 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 張國華 香港公開大學 梁湘明 香港中文大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 葉蔭榮 教育局 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡江大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 v 主 編 序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「教育規劃與教學實踐——回歸後教育政策檢視與前 瞻」,除了得到不少學者和教師就這個主題應邀投稿外,亦有其他熱心的教育 同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。有關文稿經過嚴謹的評審後,共有九篇文章 獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。 第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有三篇,內容包括:在香港推行十五年免 費教育的困境與出路、廿一世紀的香港高等教育、香港小學小班的教學實踐。 三篇文章都能就着各個不同學習階段所面對的現況和困難作出深入客觀分析, 值得教師和教育決策者參考。 第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章亦有三篇,內容包括:香港中學推行 的現狀及啟示、初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰、多元視角下的遊學 意義。教師及校長都可以就着文章內容作出反思,並且探索改善校內管理及教 學質素的方法。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享,有三篇文章。內容包括:以個案研究分 析香港小學的教育改革與學校領導的歷程、香港學校生命教育的教學與評估、 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗。它們都對改善學校行政和課程規劃提供詳 細描述,有助讀者理解推行教育改革時需要關注和克服的地方。 最後,要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工,當中包括:王秉豪博 士、申龐得玲博士、朱啟榮博士、何景安先生、李子建教授、李偉雄先生、李 輝博士、冼權鋒教授、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、袁國明先生、麥謝巧玲女士、 馮文正先生、馮潔皓教授、雷其昌先生、趙淑媚博士、蔡若蓮博士、鄧國俊博士、 鄭晚莊女士及簡加言博士。學報能順利出版,實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中抽空 幫助,以專業的態度評審各篇文章。 《香港教師中心學報》主編 楊沛銘 二零一四年十二月 目錄 Contents 香港教師中心........................................................ i 香港教師中心學報.................................................. iii 主編序.............................................................. v 一、主題:教育規劃與教學實踐──回歸後教育政策檢視與前瞻 1. Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions ...................................... 1 Hui LI & Ricci W FONG 2. Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century .......................... 15 Michael H LEE 3. 香港小學小班的教學實踐 .......................................... 35 章月鳳、李子建 二、 理論及政策評論 4. 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 ................................ 49 章月鳳、鄧耀南 5. 變革與衝突:初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 ........................ 65 梁亦華 6. 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 .............................. 79 林志德 三、 教育實踐與經驗分享 7. A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools ....................................... 97 LEUNG Lai Sim 8. 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估:以六所學校的孝親教學為例 ......... 125 江浩民、李子建 9. 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 ................................. 141 胡少偉、鄭志強 徵集論文 稿例 徵募審稿員 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 13 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2014 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions Hui LI Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong Ricci W FONG The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract 15-year free education has been implemented in Macau and some parts of Mainland China in recent decade. In light of the implementations, local early childhood educators and experts have since been debating whether Hong Kong should follow suit to offer the 3 years of early childhood education (ECE) for free on top of the existing 12-year free education. With reference to the policy implementation and outcomes in Macau and Mainland China, as well as the ECE context in Hong Kong, this paper seeks to (1) delineate the dilemmas in the debate about 15-year free education in Hong Kong; and (2) suggest how free ECE could be offered in a context-appropriate manner. We will discuss the issues based on the “3A1S” theoretical framework, which looks into the affordability, accessibility, accountability, and sustainability of ECE. Practical solutions for settling the ceaseless debate about 15-year free education in Hong Kong will also be proposed. Keywords 15-year free education, Hong Kong early childhood education, dilemmas in education policy 1 The Hong Kong government launched the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS) in 2007 with an aim to enhance and assure the accessibility, affordability, and accountability of early childhood education (ECE) in Hong Kong. The policy, however, has been criticized by both educators and the public for not responding to the appeal for providing 15-year free education (3-year free kindergarten education in addition to 12 years of free primary and secondary education), which the Macau government has started offering since 2007 (Fung & Lam, 2012). In this connection, the PEVS is argued to be an inadequate and backward move by the government. Aggravating the public’s dissatisfaction and the tension of the debate is the implementation of other 15-year free education policies in some provinces of Mainland China. Against this background, the public call to expand the existing 12-year free education framework in Hong Kong to include ECE persists (Legislative Council, 2010). Although the current-term Chief Executive (CE) of Hong Kong, Mr. Leung Chun-ying, made the launch of this 15- year free education policy one of his policy agendas when he ran for CE in 2012, the major arguments against this proposed policy center on the feasibility and credibility of offering free ECE when the structural and contextual factors of ECE in Hong Kong are taken into account. Li (2012, 2012.6.22), for instance, argued that offering authentic free kindergarten education in Hong Kong would in fact threaten the accountability and quality of kindergarten education on the whole. The Committee on Free Kindergarten Education was set up in 2013 in an attempt to resolve the debate and plan a sustainable policy that can reconcile different views in this issue, but discussions and debates regarding how the 15-year free education policy could be implemented in a contextually appropriate manner remain inconclusive thus far. Educational policymaking should be a rational evidence- based process that begins with an identified problem and ends with a contextualized policy for solving the problem. This paper is thus dedicated to providing a clearer picture of the ECE context in Hong Kong and delineating the dilemmas in this ceaseless debate, in an attempt to offer insights into solutions that could possibly reconcile the debate without forfeiting the quality of our ECE in the near future. 1. Debating on the ECE voucher in Hong Kong The ECE system in Hong Kong has been regarded as being entirely private, publicly underfinanced and bureaucratically neglected (Li, Wang, & Fong, in press). Since the Colonial era, all the kindergartens in Hong Kong have been run by non-profit-making organizations and private bodies, which are registered with and supervised by the Education Bureau (EDB). Since there is no public kindergarten in Hong Kong, public funding for ECE was so minimal that the sector was once depicted as the Cinderella of our education system that was ill-treated and neglected by the government (Rao & Li, 2009). The meager attention and public resources have resulted in the widely disparate quality of ECE provision in Hong Kong over the years. 2 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions A breakthrough occurred in 2007 when the Hong Kong government launched the PEVS to alleviate the financial burden of parents and to enhance the quality of kindergarten education. Instead of directly funding kindergarten establishments, vouchers are given to parents of children who are permanent residents of Hong Kong. To date, the value of the voucher was $16,800 per student per annum in the 2012/13 school year, and parents from low-income families are also eligible to apply for means-tested financial assistance from the Social Welfare Department to help cover the outstanding tuition fee and miscellaneous expenses incurred (Legislative Council, 2013). Nevertheless, the PEVS imposed five criteria on the eligibility of kindergartens to receive government subsidy: (1) the tuition fee per annum must not exceed $24,000 (half-day) or $48,000 (full- day) per student; (2) kindergartens must undergo Quality Reviews, both self-evaluation and external review conducted by the Education Bureau; (3) operational and financial transparency must be maintained; (4) teachers serving in the kindergartens must hold at least a Certificate in Early Childhood Education; and (5) kindergartens must offer local curriculum which is in line with the Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum (GPC) (Curriculum Development Council, 2006). Kindergartens that cannot fulfill the criteria could continue to operate as private independent kindergartens. As of 2011, about 80% of the kindergartens in Hong Kong had joined the PEVS and about 85% of kindergarten-aged children have benefited from the Scheme (Legislative Council, 2011). Taken together, the voucher system generated $2 billion of benefits for a total of 120,000 young children in the 2010/11 school year (Legislative Council, 2013). Striving to enhance the quality of kindergarten education service in Hong Kong, the PEVS aims to increase investment and enhance quality in ECE. The public, on the other hand, question whether offering a direct subsidy to kindergarten parents through the PEVS was an effective means to improve the quality of ECE. Fung and Lam (2008) analyzed the context of ECE in Hong Kong and agreed that PEVS could be a strategic means to improve the quality of early education by making use of market forces to strengthen parents’ voice and choice. They, however, argued that enhancing parental influences on the pedagogical autonomy of kindergartens could have an adverse impact on the program quality and urged for a direct subsidy to fund the operation of kindergartens. Nevertheless, Li, Wong, and Wang (2010) found that most of the parents reported in the survey that the PEVS had eased their financial burden (75%) and helped enhance the quality of kindergartens (61%), and most of the principals reported that the PEVS had increased the competition (77%). In this connection, the PEVS could promote the accessibility, affordability, and accountability of kindergarten education in Hong Kong. The market mechanism and private provision of ECE in Hong Kong have guaranteed unrestricted school choices for the parents of young children. The PEVS has further empowered parents to choose a school for their children by offering them direct fee 3 subsidies. In light of the market force, it was expected that the more credible PEVS- eligible kindergartens could attract more parents to enroll their children, and therefore more vouchers could be collected and cashed by the chosen kindergartens for teachers’ professional development and enhancement of their services. This, in turn, could push kindergartens to monitor and improve their education quality in order to attract more vouchers, i.e. monetary resources, for sustaining the kindergartens. The question then might be the discrepancies between parents’ desirable type of ECE and what the private kindergarten sector should provide according to the GPC (Fung & Lam, 2011). While the PEVS-eligible kindergartens are supposed to offer curricula that promote children’s holistic development, they have to satisfy parents’ demands for academic-oriented curricula in preparation for their children’s primary school admission and education in the long run. The tension results in the provision of many developmentally inappropriate and academic-oriented ECE curricula by the PEVS-eligible kindergartens. That said, pressure cast by parental choices of kindergarten may not necessarily enhance the quality of ECE (Fung & Lam, 2012). Still, we tend to believe that giving kindergartens the autonomy to develop their own curriculum and implement their own monitoring system under the PEVS is constructive in the long run. It helps retain the uniqueness of each kindergarten and the variety of kindergartens in the market for parents to choose from, and this could eventually help improve the overall quality of ECE in Hong Kong, indirectly. It is noteworthy that the key focus of the party that urges for free ECE is affordability rather than quality. Although it has certainly relieved the financial pressure parents bear for their children to receive kindergarten education, the PEVS was criticized for not making ECE completely free to the young children from low-income families. Some needy families had to pay extra school fee that could not be covered by the voucher. The government is very responsive and has revised the ceiling of the voucher and increased the voucher value to $20,010 for the 2014/15 school year. The financial burden on low- income families will be further relieved. However, the PEVS is bound to affect the income allocation of the richer and poorer families differently due to the income gap and the divergent valuation of education between the two groups. Li, Wong, and Wang (2010) found that the richer parents tended to spend the savings from the voucher scheme on interest classes and other educational purposes for their children, whereas the poorer parents would rather use the savings for family expenses instead of education. Hence to ensure that all children, regardless of socioeconomic backgrounds, could receive quality ECE, a motion was raised in the Legislative Council (2011) to urge the government to provide 15-year free education. 4 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 2. Defining 15-year free education with empirical evidence Since 2011, the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU), the Striving for 15- year Free Education Union, and like-minded scholars have coalesced into allies to fight for 15-year free education. They appealed through language and symbols perpetrated by the media to build audience receptivity to the concept of “15-year free education”, a political spectacle produced intentionally to sell their movement to the public. They repeatedly advocated that this free policy could solve all the development problems faced by kindergartens, enhance teachers’ remuneration, and establish a professional training system so as to raise the overall quality of ECE in Hong Kong (Li et al., in press). In this way, they successfully primed the public to believe that the policy is not only the sound bite, but also the panacea to solving all the problems in our ECE arena. However, the empirical articles collected in a recent special issue have jointly proved that the problems they listed in the appeal for free education could not be resolved simply by the means of providing 15-year free education (Li et al., in press). Instead, we consider the political spectacle of 15-year free education a man-made illusion. The real landscape of our kindergarten education is way more complex than what has been portrayed by the supporters of 15- year free education. That being said, this section will attempt to clarify the illusion by addressing two sets of questions with reference to empirical evidence: (1) what is the real meaning of free education? Does it mean that everything should be free and free to every child? (2) How can free education be offered in Hong Kong? Should the government pay the rent and teacher salaries for the kindergarten owners? If so, should the government pocket all the profit? In that case, why don’t we transform private kindergartens into public ones? Unless all these questions are appropriately addressed, we will not be able to arrive at a credible and contextualized solution for implementing free ECE, and therefore, 15- year free education in Hong Kong. The definition of 15-year free education could be derived from the Chinese contexts that have implemented such a policy. To this end, we invited Chinese scholars to evaluate the implementation of 15-year free education in Greater China and edited a special issue for the International Journal of Chinese Education (Li et al., in press). In the special issue, Lau, Li, and Leung (in press) explored the perceived impacts of this policy on the affordability, accessibility, and accountability of ECE in Macau. They found that only the public kindergartens were free to the eligible young children, and the parents who were enjoying free education further demanded for more subsidies from the government to make extra-curricular activities complimentary. In addition, it is very interesting to find that some private kindergartens that did not join the free education school system and charged very high tuition fees were much more attractive to parents than the free public kindergartens did. The parents interviewed by Lau et al. (in press) preferred those expensive private kindergartens to the free public ones, as they were more concerned about the quality. 5 In a similar vein, Cai and Hai (in press) analyzed the case of Ningshan County in Shaanxi Province, and found that the 15-year free education policy was, in fact, not literally free and not applicable to all children. Only public kindergartens delivered free education to a limited number of young children, whereas most of the kindergartens were privately-run and the tuition fees they charged were very high for the local standard of living. Again, they questioned whether the policy was suitable for the local economic and social contexts, and suggested the local government to consider more feasible and sustainable solutions. Li and Wang (in press) conducted an online research to analyze the affordability, accessibility, accountability and sustainability (“3A1S”) of the 15-year free education policies in four counties of western China. They found that the “free” education policies, which were neither “all kids free” nor “all fees free”, could only make ECE affordable, to a limited extent. Other problems in terms of accessibility, accountability and sustainability were primarily left unaddressed. They also pointed out that the policies were unlikely to be sustainable as the public funding entirely relied on the local coal economy and fiscal investment at the county level. All the above studies unanimously concluded that the 15-year free education policies implemented in different parts of the Great China region were mainly delivered by public kindergartens and schools. Children enrolled in private kindergartens and schools still had to pay for tuition fees since these educational establishments only received partial subsidies from the governments. More importantly, it is noteworthy that in most of the cases in Mainland China, free education only means free of tuition fee for children enrolled in public kindergartens, but three other types of fees are still incurred, namely, the fees for registration, learning materials, and healthcare. In other words, the implemented 15-year free education policies do not guarantee authentic free education to all children. Is this what we want in Hong Kong? Besides, the above studies found that the government funding strategies differed between public and private kindergartens in Mainland China and Macau. More commitment was made to financing public kindergartens, which were limited in quantity and/or quality. Private kindergartens were either neglected or were only partially subsidized by the governments. This enlarged the gap between what young children enrolled in public and private kindergartens would receive. The public-private divide in education policy risks perpetuating educational inequalities in many parts of Mainland China and deserves our attention. As for the Hong Kong context, in the absence of public kindergartens to deliver free ECE, government subsidies therefore will be supporting private kindergartens. Given the market-driven nature of our ECE services, offering full and direct funding support to private organizations will bring to the surface a host of dilemmas, which will be further analyzed in the following sections. 6 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 3. Understanding the dilemmas with the “3A1S” framework Many practical but very critical dilemmas need to be resolved to deliver the kind of free ECE expected by the public in Hong Kong. The first critical one is whether kindergarten education should be made free for all, which is about the problem of affordability. As a consequence of implementing the PEVS, the affordability of ECE is no longer a problem in Hong Kong. All the needy families and their children can get ECE for free. So, the questions might be: Is free ECE for all desirable? In particular, should taxpayers pay for the early education of children whose families can afford the cost of high-quality private programs? Will free ECE help achieve the ultimate purposes of education - to nurture human capabilities for our future society? What are the purposes of kindergarten education? All these questions have not been thoroughly addressed and would demand future inquiries and debates. The second dilemma is whether and how the government can completely pay the rent for every kindergarten - the problems of affordability and accountability. We believe that having the government pay rent for all the kindergartens is not a justifiable policy, as some establishments actually own the properties. They do not need and do not deserve this kind of governmental support (Li, 2012). So to speak, if the government pays for the rental, it will mean that the educational resources that should be shared by middle- to low-income families will then be transferred to the kindergarten owners, property developers and property owners. This will not help to solve parent’s affordability problem, but will make kindergarten owners free-riders. The third critical challenge is how to establish a feasible school place allocation system to achieve educational equality, which is per se, an accessibility problem of ECE. If children are enrolled simply based on neighborhood and personal interest in a free ECE system, there will likely be an inflation of the housing prices in affluent areas with elite kindergartens (e.g. Kowloon Tong), as parents attempt to move to these areas to be qualified for admission to the best possible kindergartens. Property developers and owners, rather than children, will benefit from this allocation, and the disparity between noble and ordinary kindergartens as well as that between the rich and the poor will continue to grow. Random assignment of kindergarten places is not a solution either, as it is infeasible to expect children to travel across districts for school (Li, 2012). The fourth dilemma is how to avoid two trade-offs caused by the so-called free education, which will ultimately affect the affordability and accountability of this policy. The most remarkable trade-off is that between affordability and accountability (Li, 2012), as the government will provide full financial support regardless of school quality. We can then foresee that kindergartens can simply sit back and pocket the money whether they are 7 doing anything to improve their education services or not. Adding to the problem is the fact that the government can do little to eliminate any of the kindergartens when they are not running well since they are privately owned. Without the ability to hold kindergartens accountable, the efficiency of governmental input will become a major concern. Devising ways to tackle this accountability problem would be time-consuming, yet imperative (Fong, in press). Another trade-off is that between affordability and quality (Li, 2012). Quality comes with competition and providing full and direct subsidy to kindergartens is merely a backward move. As kindergartens and the teachers involved are guaranteed to receive sufficient financial resources for operation without undergoing any competition, there is then no longer any incentive to strive for improvement. With two of the major stakeholders’ voices muffled (i.e., the parents will not have a say because they are not paying for their children’s education, and the government will not have any means to monitor the private schools), there is neither motivation nor competition over student enrolment. Not to mention quality education for children, which will accordingly tend toward an increasingly uniform mediocrity. Whether the kindergarten is good or not will no longer matters and consequently, the education quality will deteriorate. The fifth dilemma is also about the accountability - whether the governmental subsidy should go to parents or to kindergartens, which might be the tangible difference between 15-year free education and the PEVS. If the direct subsidy goes to kindergartens, the abovementioned four dilemmas will be valid and the quality and accountability of kindergarten education will be sacrificed. If the direct subsidy goes to parents, the four dilemmas will not be valid as parents can then make good use of their choices to promote competition among kindergartens, and accordingly, enhance the quality and accountability of ECE. The virtues of the PEVS are its flexibility, which allows kindergartens to enjoy the autonomy in curriculum development and mode of operation; and its ability to enable needy children to receive free kindergarten education. The last dilemma is whether 15-year free education policy is financially sustainable in Hong Kong. Implementing such a policy requires strong financial support. All governments have to thoroughly calculate the sustainability of its new free education policy. Otherwise, the fiscal deficit will make the policy impossible to sustain. For instance, Li and Wang (in press) found that the 15-year “free” education policies in the four Chinese counties were heavily dependent on the local coal economy. The skyrocketing coal price in the last decade has brought these governments enormous revenue. To make full use of the financial surplus, these county governments made a politically right and professionally manageable decision - implementing 15-year “free” education. However, it has not sufficiently attended to the problem of sustainability. A prolonged plunge in China’s coal prices has created risks for the economy of these counties. As one of these four counties is now suffering from fiscal deficit, the sustainability of their free ECE is thus doubtful in the long run. 8 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 4. Searching for the practical solutions Fong (in press) took a closer look at the online community of Hong Kong to understand how the supporting and opposing parties have persisted in achieving 15- year free education. She found that both parties proposed an increase of the existing voucher value and a voucher that could sufficiently cover the tuition fee of full-day kindergarten programs. Both have called for the establishment of subsidy schemes to support teachers’ professional development and school development, as well as a teacher remuneration scale to enhance the quality of services and teachers’ working conditions. The supporters demanded additional administrative support whereas the opposing party suggested a reduction of administrative procedures. Hence, Fong concluded that the two parties in the debate shared the same set of goals - equal accessibility to all children and enhanced supports for teachers and education services. The only difference between the solutions proposed by the two parties might be whether the subsidy should go to parents or to kindergartens. In this connection, compromise between the two parties is possible and feasible. As highlighted earlier, direct subsidy to kindergartens will lead to all the abovementioned dilemmas. That being said, the final solution should be and could only be subsidizing parents with a modified voucher. Accordingly, the Chief Executive claimed, in his Policy Address in 2014, to modify the voucher to move toward the aim of providing 15-year free education and better quality of kindergarten education. More specifically, he proposed to: (1) increase the value of PEVS by $2,500 per year in the 2014/15 and 2015/16 school years. In other words, the voucher subsidy would be adjusted to $20,010 per student per annum (pspa) in the 2014/15 school year and $22,510 pspa in the 2015/16 school year, respectively. This will further alleviate the financial burden in respect of kindergarten education on parents and relieve the pressure on kindergartens in meeting the expenses, such as teachers’ salary, staffing and operating expenditure (including rental). (2) adjust the fee thresholds for the kindergartens under the PEVS. In the 2013/14 school year, the fee thresholds are $26,260 and $52,520 for half-day (HD) and whole-day (WD) kindergarten places respectively. The thresholds for HD and WD kindergarten classes would be adjusted to $30,020 and $60,400 respectively in the 2014/15 school year, and $33,700 and $67,540 respectively in the 2015/16 school year. In accordance with the established mechanism, the fee threshold for HD kindergarten classes under the PEVS is set at 1.5 times of the voucher subsidy, while the fee threshold for WD kindergarten classes would be 2 times of that for HD kindergarten classes. 9 (3) lift the fee remission ceiling to offer greater assistance to needy families to better facilitate their children’s access to quality kindergarten education. The fee remission ceiling under the Kindergarten and Child Care Centre Fee Remission Scheme (KCCCFRS) will be lifted from the weighted average fees of PEVS kindergartens to the 75th percentile of the school fees of the respective kindergartens to provide greater assistance to needy families in opening the doors to quality KG education for their children. (4) provide course fee reimbursement for principals and teachers serving in PEVS kindergartens to pursue relevant and approved courses in the 2012/13 and 2013/14 school years; and (5) study how to practicably implement free kindergarten education, and will make recommendations within 2015. We believe that these short-term measures are workable and appropriate in the Hong Kong context. First, the PEVS could equally allocate public money among all the eligible young children in Hong Kong, allowing low-income families access to almost-free ECE, while affluent families can continue to pay for more prestigious ECE provisions. Although high-socioeconomic status families are eligible to receive ECE for free if they send their children to PEVS-eligible kindergartens, they prefer to pay more for better ECE in reality, which complies with the principle of cost sharing and compensation. Moreover, the cap (thresholds) on the level of school fees charged by the PEVS-eligible kindergartens has served to bar out the more expensive kindergartens from receiving public resources. It is also noteworthy that the fee thresholds have been raised in the Policy Address 2014 to give parents more choices, which guarantees that the public money will go to the middle- to low-income families rather than the high-socioeconomic status ones. All these measures advocate the principle of helping the poor. But these are short-term measures. What is the long-term solution? Before proposing the long-term and ultimate solution, we need to reiterate the “3A1S” framework that Li et al. (in press) have used to evaluate all the ECE policies, namely, accessibility, affordability, accountability, and sustainability. Accessibility means every young child can easily attend a nearby kindergarten. Affordability means every family can easily afford the fees of the chosen kindergarten, and some fee exemptions could be offered to the needy families. In terms of accountability, every kindergarten, be it non-profit-making or for-profit, the extra fiscal input provided by the policy should be accountable to the government for improving education quality. As for sustainability, the policy should be financially sustainable and continuously affordable to the government. In our perspective, a modified voucher could best meet the goal of achieving accessibility, 10 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions affordability, accountability, and sustainability of our ECE. With the following modifications, the PEVS could achieve the target of implementing free ECE, as the scheme can then address all of the abovementioned dilemmas, and allow half of the young children population in Hong Kong to receive free ECE (Li, 2012). To these ends, we proposed the following modifications of the PEVS: (1) Increase the value of the PEVS, annually and gradually, to the level of 50th (2017-2018) or even 75th (2019-2020) percentile of the tuition fees of the non- profit-making kindergartens. Accordingly, 50% to 75% of the eligible young children will enjoy free kindergarten education through the modified voucher. (2) Launch the full-day voucher for families with both parents working and would therefore need whole day ECE. All the applications should be reviewed and approved by the educational authorities. Meanwhile, more full-day places should be launched gradually. (3) Simplify the procedures of voucher claiming. Eliminate the need for parents to apply for the voucher, and kindergarten can simply reimburse the money directly from EDB after collecting all the students’ identification information. (4) Cancel the restrictions on the eligibility of the PEVS and allow for-profit kindergartens to receive it. As long as the school fee is acceptable, the quality is good (judged by Quality Review), and the finance is thoroughly transparent, they can also receive governmental subsidy through the voucher scheme. In this manner, more families can benefit from the voucher scheme. (5) Establish a suitable mechanism for regular review of the fee thresholds to take into account factors other than changes in the cost of living, to build in flexibility and to enhance the sector responsiveness to changes in circumstances. This will allow kindergartens more room to increase their tuition fees to cover teacher salaries, rental and other operating expenses, instead of passing the additional costs onto parents. (6) Establish a scientific rental reimbursement system to subsidize the rental expenses of non-profit-making kindergartens. This system should monitor the ongoing changes in school rentals annually and the reimbursement should reflect the changes. But support for the rental and teacher salaries of for-profit kindergartens is not needed. 11 (7) Establish a school-based development fund to sponsor all the activities for school development and set up a teacher professional development fund for all the teachers. These funds could be operated as an earmarked Continuing Education Fund so that all the in-service teachers can apply for funding support to pursue degree or professional studies every 5 years. This initiative will definitely enhance the professionalism of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. (8) Develop and launch the teacher qualification allowance, which could be paid monthly to those teaching in voucher-eligible kindergartens, by the government according to each registered teacher’s qualification and performance. This policy has been well implemented in Macau, and will improve the treatment and qualifications of kindergarten teachers without unduly burdening school owners or parents (for details, see Li, 2012.6.22). We strongly believe that the above recommendations can help achieve an equilibrium among the affordability, accessibility, accountability, and sustainability of ECE, as well as satisfying all the stakeholders in our ECE context. Prolonged disputes construct nothing, but stagnation or even deterioration. Decades of research have told us that investing wisely in ECE is one of the keys that can equip our children for the multitudes of life challenges ahead. The question is, however, are we allocating our resources to children’s future or simply to ECE establishments for their survival so none of them will have to step out of the market? References Cai, Y. Q., & Hai, Y. (in press). Free early childhood education in rural China: A case study of Ningshan. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Curriculum Development Council. (2006). Guide to pre-primary curriculum. Retrieved September 12, 2012, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/ preprimary-kindergarten/overview/pre-primaryguide-net_en_928.pdf Fong, R. W. (in press). 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from the online communities. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Fung, C. K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2008). The pre-primary education voucher scheme of Hong Kong: A promise of quality education provision? Education Journal, 36(1/2), 153- 170. 12 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions Fung, K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2011). Empowering parents’ choice of schools: The rhetoric and reality of how Hong Kong kindergarten parents choose schools under the voucher scheme. Current Issues in Education, 14(1). Fung, K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2012). The tension between parents’ informed choice and school transparency: Consumerism in the Hong Kong education voucher scheme. International Journal of Early Childhood, 44(1), 31-52. Lau, M. M. Y. L., Li, H., & Leung, S. O. (in press). A multiple case study on the perceived impacts of the 15-year free education policy in Macau. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Legislative Council. (2010). Review of the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (LC Paper No. CB(2)554/10-11(02)). Retrieved December 15, 2010, from http://www. legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/chinese/panels/ed/papers/ed1217cb2-554-2-c.pdf Legislative Council. (2011). Motion on “striving for 15-year free education” moved by Hon CHEUNG Man-kwong. Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://www.legco.gov. hk/yr10-11/english/legco_rpt/legco_motion02171-e.pdf Legislative Council. (2013). Background brief on issues related to the provision of 15-year free education (LC Paper No. CB(4)486/12-13(02)). Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr12-13/english/panels/ed/papers/ed0319cb4-486-2-e. pdf Li, H. (2012). Free early childhood education matters. OMEP-HK Newsletter, 12(2), 13- 18. Li, H. ( 李輝 ) (2012.6.22). 〈免費幼兒教育免誰的費?如何免費?〉. 《明報》, A36 版, 觀點 . Li, H., & Wang, D. (in press). Understanding the 15-year free education policies in China: An online study of four cases. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Li, H., Wang, D., & Fong, R.W. (in press). Editor’s Note - Sound bites won’t work: Case studies of 15-year free education in Greater China. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Li, H., Wong, J. M. S., & Wang, X. C. (2010). Affordability, accessibility, and accountability: Perceived impacts of the pre-primary education vouchers in Hong Kong. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 125-138. Rao, N., & Li, H. (2009). Quality matters: Early childhood education policy in Hong Kong. Early Child Development and Care, 179(3), 233-245. 13 如何在香港推行 15 年免費教育:困境與出路 李輝 香港大學教育學院 方蔚子 香港教育學院 摘要 澳門及中國內地某些地區已經陸續推行了 15 年免費教育,香港幼兒教育工作者和 專家近年來也在激烈辯論應否在港實施同樣政策。本文在參照澳門及中國內地有關 政策的基礎上,對香港現行學前教育學券制的情況及其推行 15 年免費教育進行了 文獻分析,並運用「3A1S」的理論框架(即「可支付性,可進入性,可問責性和可 持續性」)對實施免費教育所需面對的困境進行了詳細分析。據此,本文提出了切 合香港實際需要、切實可行推行 15 年免費教育的解決方案。 關鍵詞 15 年免費教育,香港幼兒教育,教育政策的困境 14 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 13 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2014 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century Michael H LEE Department of History, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Higher education, which comprises public and private universities together with self- financed community colleges, is an important component of the education in Hong Kong. Comprehensive reviews and reforms on higher education have been carried out in Hong Kong since the 1990s when it witnessed the processes of both quantitative expansion and qualitative consolidation, which led to several significant changes facing the higher education system. Some of the most remarkable issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government-university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. Examining the major developments of higher education in Hong Kong in the twenty- first century, this article analyzes the ways higher education has been transformed by the aforementioned four trends. Keywords higher education, quality assurance, internationalization, government-university relationship, private universities 1. Introduction Hong Kong is not immune from a global trend of higher education reform which aims at improving the quality of education and maintaining its relevance to socio-economic needs in the age of globalization when market forces and competitions are the core values. Globalization has been considered a strong rationale for restructuring the existing higher 15 education sector with the injection of new ideas of governance and management, which adhere to the business-oriented culture and practices prevailing in the private sector in response to the deep influence of public sector reforms spreading. The image of being ivory tower can no longer be sustained for universities as they are expected to make more contributions to research and development in order to enhance their international ranking and reputation. The development of higher education has aroused widespread concerns among stakeholders of the sector, including university leaders, academics and students. Various stakeholders have made their voices heard concerning the changing environment facing higher education in recent years when there has been ever growing social expectation on education outcomes by admitting more students on one hand and by producing a larger pool of well-educated and skilled manpower for socio-economic needs on the other. While universities are supposed to be more adaptive (Sporn, 1999), enterprise-oriented (Marginson & Considine, 2000) and entrepreneurial (Clark, 1998, 2004), both Lucas (1996) and Readings (1998) warn against a crisis looming to the higher education sector for universities have been under growing political pressure for reform in face of more acute competition for public or government resources which have become more limited as a consequence of more stringent budgetary control. In fact, as what Kennedy (1997) suggests, universities are controversial places, and they have drawn intense public scrutiny on their obligations and duties in order to regain public trust. Under this circumstance, academics’ work turns out to be more demanding for they have to teach, publish, serve, and even risk change. For higher education, many changes have been observed in the sector since the 1990s when it witnessed the process of massification or the rapid expansion of higher education with a significant increase in the numbers of both students and degree- awarding higher education institutions. This article analyzes the ways higher education has been transformed by identifying major issues facing higher education that are affecting the development of higher education in Hong Kong. These issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government- university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. There are four sections following this introductory section. The article commences by an analysis of the policy context of higher education in Hong Kong since the 1990s. The next section examines major issues facing higher education in Hong Kong. The penultimate section discusses major trends shaping the development of higher education in Hong Kong. The final section concludes the discussion. 16 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century 2. Policy context Globalization has significant impacts on how higher education to evolve and transform. Closely associated with higher education is the cluster of aims, values and general ideas, including the pursuit of truth and objective knowledge, research, liberal education, institutional autonomy, academic freedom, a neutral and open forum for debate, rationality, the development of the students’ critical abilities, autonomy, and character formation, the provision of a critical centre within society, and the preservation of society’s intellectual culture (Barnett, 1990). The university is a place of teaching universal knowledge where persons of broad knowledge, critical intelligence, moral decency, and social sensitivity are produced (Newman, 1996). It is expected to serve as the protecting power of all knowledge and science, fact and principle, inquiry and discovery, and also experiment and speculation. Modern universities have been developed following the Humboldtian model in Germany with more emphasis placed on science, research, graduate instruction, and the freedom of professors and students (Kerr, 2001). They have to strive not only for survival but also performance and resources for their sustainable development. In the age of supercomplexity, universities no longer monopolize the production of knowledge, but they continue to be a major producer of new frameworks for understanding through more vibrant research activities. What universities do is to prepare the students to cope with the world of supercomplexity, which is partly a result of globalization and the information technology revolution, with the qualities of self-reliance, adaptability and flexibility. Moreover, universities need to reconsider its enlightenment role in advancing the level of general understanding in society. It is a must for universities to adapt to new demands which would require radical changes in management and leadership (Barnett, 2000a, 2000b). Moreover, universities should ensure different views, ideas, and voices to be exposed to wider audiences (Barnett, 1997). The impact of globalization on the policy context of higher education has been widely attended. Globalization refers to a set of processes leading to a rapid integration of the world into one economic space through increased international trade and the internationalization of production and commodity culture with the laissez-faire principle (Bottery, 2000; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). It is closely associated with neoliberalism which “sees the market as the most effective way of determining production and satisfying people’s needs” (Stromquist, 2003, p. 25). According to Carnoy (2000), the relationship between globalization and educational change can be revealed not only from the expansion of higher education to cope with economic restructuring but also from the strong emphasis on the quality of education which is translated into quantifiable and measurable performance indicators to be compared at the international level. Certain reforms of higher education are finance-driven as universities are allowed more flexibility and autonomy in exchange for greater accountability. Higher education is not surprisingly 17 subject to financial constraints as a consequence of the shift towards neoliberalism and the rise of economic globalization (Bottery, 2000; Schugurensky, 2003). In this global context, universities are linked to the market and become more customer-oriented. They are under greater pressure to produce consumer satisfaction with an emphasis on market- oriented effectiveness. The role of university management has been strengthened with the cultivation of entrepreneurial culture within universities. The adoption of quality assurance and performance indicators comes with competition among universities for revenues and resources and the application of business principles and practices in university administration (Currie & Newson, 1998; Peters, Marshall, & Fitzsimons, 2000; Stromquist, 2003; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000; Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard, & Henry, 1997). Putting this global context to Hong Kong’s higher education, performance indicators have become more important when the allocation of public funding is not only based on student enrollments but also the competition for performance-based research funds. The General Research Fund under the Research Grants Council, which is part of the University Grants Committee (UGC), is a competitive funding scheme that enables academics to compete for research funds based on their own track records and the originality, merit, contribution and significance of their research projects. The overall successful rate of applications to General Research Fund between 2008 and 2012 was around 30-40 percent. For instance, in 2011-12, when a total of HK$557.5 million were allocated, the success rate was 31 percent, which is 10 percent lower than 2008-09 when HK$512.5 were allocated (Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, 2012). Moreover, there is the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), which was first conducted in 1993-94, to assess the research output performance of the UGC-funded institutions. The proportion of the active researchers at each cost centre is treated as a factor in determining the allocation of research funding for the next triennium. The second round of RAE was conducted in 1996 and the third in 1999. The fourth round was carried out in 2006 when the UGC decided to have the exercise undertaken at six-year intervals instead of three years after the third RAE in 1999. The RAE in 2006 served as the basis for distributing of block grants for research among the eight UGC-funded institutions in the triennium of 2008-11 (University Grants Committee [UGC], 2004). The fifth round of RAE has been scheduled in the academic year 2014-15. Apart from the development of performance-based funding mechanisms in the higher education sector, universities have to cope with the influence of managerial globalization which refers to the professionalization of management in tandem with the adoption of the more directive and assertive management style commonly found in the private sector. More professional managers are expected to play a more important role to lead universities and also to learn from other countries or institutions for the best practices of management (Bottery, 2000). Under the pressure for being more efficient, universities like other public sector institutions have to become more businesslike and incorporate good 18 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century practices of business management whilst professional managers should be innovative, dynamic, flexible, transparent, customer-centred, and strategic (Whitty, Power, & Halpin, 1998). Moreover, the language of efficiency, empowerment, rationality, and transparency dominates the ongoing processes of education reforms and restructuring in most parts of the world (Apple, 2001). Outcomes and outputs are measured against the goals, roles, and objectives set by universities and higher education institutions (Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard, & Henry, 1997). The notion of “fitness for purpose” has been emphasized for higher education in Hong Kong. For university governance and management systems, it is necessary to strike a balance between individual ability, institutional excellence, and adequate resources (UGC, 2002). While universities have to comply with the principle of public accountability, the collegial forms of decision-making have been considered an obstacle to managerial rationalities (Bok, 2003). The higher education sector in Hong Kong has similarly experienced rapid expansion and also more keen competition for funding, students, and academics since the 1990s. These changes also gave rise to the introduction of quality assurance systems with certain key performance indicators on teaching, research, and management (Postiglione, 1996). Performance-based funding mechanisms were introduced to boost the research performance among the UGC-funded institutions. These policy initiatives were made to ensure the universities to be more efficient, more accountable to the public, more cost- effective, and more responsive to socio-economic needs (Schugurensky, 2003). Changes like the development of Hong Kong as a regional education hub, the admission of a larger number of non-local students, and the restructuring of the university academic and curriculum structures are bringing many changes to higher education practitioners and stakeholders (Postiglione, 2002). Moreover, there are also widespread concerns about preserving the core values of academic freedom, institutional autonomy and internationalism (Postiglione, 1997). As discussed earlier, the policy context of higher education is influenced by globalization, which points to the rise of neoliberalism with the supremacy of market forces. This also denotes a reorientation of the relationship between universities and government for the latter is not a service provider but a service purchaser to allocate resources according to the former’s performance and achievements which are demonstrated through various quality indicators on the teaching, research and management aspects. With a strong emphasis on market competition among institutions, the notion of “quality” is understood from the educational and business perspectives. In order to maximize the value for money and improve cost-effectiveness and market relevance, the higher education sector is subject to much closer external scrutiny under the government’s funding body or the UGC, which performs its role as a service purchaser to ensure the quality of service providers. In addition, with the rise of managerialism, collegiality has 19 gradually been taken over by corporate rationality in the decision-making processes in universities (Schugurensky, 2003). 3. Major issues of higher education In this policy context, certain issues facing the higher education sector in Hong Kong have emerged and become dominant in the twenty-first century. These issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government- university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. This section examines these issues and their impacts on higher education development. 3.1 Institutionalization of quality assurance The UGC defines quality assurance as “the maintenance of the highest possible standards, both in teaching and learning and in research, which are commensurating with an institution’s agreed role and mission” (UGC, 2002, p. 18). Universities are responsible for upholding the quality of education and research in order to maintain their competitiveness in the global market competition in higher education. Meanwhile the UGC has introduced and managed a series of quality assurance mechanisms covering three major areas of higher education institutions, namely research, teaching and learning, and management. As mentioned in the previous section, the allocation of research funds is subject to performance-based assessments and competitions. Apart from assessing the research performance, several reviews on the teaching and learning quality assurance processes and the institutional management were carried out. Teaching and Learning Quality Process Reviews (TLQPR) were carried out twice in 1995-97 and 2001-03. The objectives of TLQPR were to focus attention on teaching and learning, to assist institutions to improve their teaching and learning quality, and to enable the UGC and the institutions to discharge their obligation to be accountable for quality (UGC, 1999). Furthermore, Management Review (MR) was conducted in 1998-99 by the UGC to ensure individual institutions having the capacity and effective processes to manage devolved funds and resources to achieve their aims and objectives in face of financial reduction of 10 percent of the higher education budget between 1999 and 2001 (French, 1999, January). MR was aimed to support the institutions in enhancing the quality of management, to discharge the UGC’s accountability for ensuring that devolved funds and resources are managed appropriately, and to enhance the effectiveness of institutions’ internal resource allocation, planning and financial processes. The review was also aimed to promote the sharing of experiences and best practices by the institutions in the areas of internal resource of allocation, planning and financial processes relative to the institutions’ academic plans and objectives. 20 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century In 2007, the Quality Assurance Council (QAC) was set up as a semi-autonomous non- statutory body under the aegis of the UGC to carry out external quality audits targeting on the quality of teaching and learning in place of TLQPRs. The first audit was carried out on a four-year cycle between 2008 and 2011. The main objective of QAC audits is to assure the quality of student learning in UGC-funded institutions and ensure the UGC-funded institutions can deliver on the promises they make in their mission statements in line with the notion of “fitness for purpose” especially in the area of teaching and learning. What the QAC concerns is about the quality of student learning rather than research and managerial activities, which are only covered in the audit when they affect the quality of teaching and learning (Quality Assurance Council, c. 2007). The audit reports on individual UGC- institutions were released between 2008 and 2011 whereas individual institutions’ progress reports in response to the audit reports’ recommendations were released between 2010 and 2013. The second round of QAC audits, which would be carried out over a two- year period, would focus on promoting the enhancement of teaching and learning, and on assessing the strengths and weaknesses of current academic practice. More attention would be given to institutional strategies and policies for global engagements on the ways how students can participate in an increasingly global community, together with more specific coverage of taught postgraduate programmes and research training programmes (Quality Assurance Council, c. 2011). These developments reveal an irreversible trend of institutionalizing performance-based assessments and quality assurance in the higher education sector. However, the imposition of these quality assurance mechanisms has been criticized as a means not to improve the quality of education but incur much greater pressure for academics and university managers to comply with numerous quantifiable performance indicators. 3.2 Reorientation of government-university relationship The transition from quantitative expansion to qualitative consolidation since the 1990s has come with a more prominent role played by government in setting the direction of higher education development in Hong Kong. The UGC, as the government’s funding body and also policy adviser on higher education, has put more pressure on universities to modify the governance and management systems in order to improve their accountability. For instance, the University of Hong Kong (HKU) was the first UGC- funded institution underwent the governance review in 2003. One of the most significant changes was that the faculty deans would no longer be elected by academics. Instead they would be appointed by the top management according to the vice-chancellor’s recommendation (University of Hong Kong, 2003). This reflects the changing relationship between government and universities as the former has been more eager to look into higher education policy matters partly because of the policy to develop Hong Kong into a regional education hub. Furthermore, the rationale behind the government’s more proactive role in higher education is to ensure the public money for higher education being 21 spent smartly and wisely, and the universities can serve the political, social and economic needs. Apart from this, a few controversial incidents have aroused widespread concerns over the changing government-university relationship over the first decade of the twenty- first century. Since 1997, Hong Kong has been run according to the “one country, two systems” principle. According to the Basic Law of Hong Kong, all educational institutions, including universities and higher education institutions, should be allowed to preserve institutional autonomy and academic freedom (National People’s Congress, 1990, Article 137). Inherited from the British model and tradition of higher education, both institutional autonomy and academic freedom remain the most sacred values upheld by the academic community in Hong Kong. Whether institutional autonomy and academic freedom can be preserved in Hong Kong has drawn widespread concerns after 1997, when there were a few incidents triggering controversies over political interference in academic work. The first of such incidents happened in 1999 when the opinion polls on the popularity of the government conducted by a HKU’s research centre headed by Robert Chung were not welcomed by then Chief Executive Tung Chee-Hwa, whose aide paid a visit to HKU’s vice-chancellor to seek for his promise for not proceeding to opinion polls targeting on the performance of the government. The incident was resulted in the resignation of the vice- chancellor and the removal of the aide of then Chief Executive. Moreover, the incident was considered an infringement of the core academic value of academic freedom in a sense that academics should bear zero tolerance over political intervention into research and teaching (Currie, Petersen, & Mok, 2006; Postiglione, 2002). The second incident, which took place in 2002, is concerned about the merger plan between the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) as put forward by the former Secretary for Education, Arthur Li, who served as CUHK’s vice-chancellor in 1997-2002, to integrate the two universities into a strong comprehensive world-class university in Hong Kong. Nevertheless, due to the strong resistance of academics in both universities in response to the merger plan, the idea of having a merger between the two universities was not pursued in place of other viable initiatives of institutional collaboration and integration (UGC, 2004). The government subsequently proposed an idea of merging CUHK with Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) so as to strengthen the latter’s research capacity and also its reputation. Rather than a merger, a deep collaboration approach was deemed more appropriate and thus adopted. As a consequence, both institutions engaged in offering some joint undergraduate programmes with an aim of improving the quality of teachers’ training in Hong Kong. These two merger proposals were perceived as attempts by the government to intervene directly how certain universities should be run and to impose important policies with a top-down approach regardless key stakeholders’ responses and 22 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century reactions. In short, what the government did turned out to be violating the principle of institutional autonomy. The third incident happened in 2007 when the senior management of HKIEd, after the contract of its president Paul Morris was not renewed, disclosed that then Permanent Secretary for Education, Fanny Law, filed a complain to the institution against a few academics who critics and commentaries published in the local press had obstructed the smooth implementation of education reforms and policies. Moreover, Arthur Li was accused of posing a threat to the HKIEd’s senior management on cutting the number of student enrollments if the merger plan with CUHK was not accepted. Meanwhile, the senior management was also asked to issue a statement condemning a group of surplus teachers and a teachers’ union for protesting against the government’s refusal to secure those surplus teachers’ jobs in primary and secondary schools. In face of these controversies between government and HKIEd, then Chief Executive Donald Tsang appointed an independent commission to inquire into these allegations in relation to HKIEd in the same year. While the two allegations against Arthur Li and the government’s improper interference with institutional autonomy of HKIEd were not established, the one against Fanny Law on her improper interference with academic freedom enjoyed by a few academics working in HKIEd was established (Yeung & Lee, 2007). These incidents as mentioned above inevitably aroused widespread concerns, not only in the academic community but also the society, about the preservation of academic freedom and institutional autonomy by universities and higher education institutions. Meanwhile, the government’s more proactive role in higher education development cannot be denied. 3.3 Growth of private higher education The first decade of the twenty-first century witnessed the emergence and growth of private higher education in Hong Kong, which has long been dominated by the publicly- funded universities and higher education institutions. This is a result of a major policy shift to have a more diversified higher education system which is expected to comprise not only the UGC-funded institutions but also other private or self-financed higher education institutions with different strengths and specialties to cater for the ever growing demands for higher education in and out of Hong Kong, especially the Chinese mainland which is now a dominant source of non-local students for higher education in Hong Kong. It is believed that private higher education can not only diversify the sector but also provide more choices for students to choose from and also provide alternative pathways for students to receive higher education without relying overwhelmingly on the few UGC- funded institutions. 23 In line with the policy of encouraging more private higher education institutions or even universities to run in Hong Kong, a breakthrough development took place in 2008 when Shue Yan College was eventually granted the university status and formally upgraded to be the first private university. Other privately-run or self-financed local post-secondary colleges have planned to develop as private universities in the future, such as Chu Hai College of Higher Education, Hang Seng Management College, and the Caritas Francis Hsu College, which is run by the Catholic Diocese in Hong Kong. Some existing universities also involve in providing self-financed degree programmes. In 2012, Centennial College was set up by HKU to provide four-year self-financed degree programmes in humanities, social sciences and business studies to local and non- local students. In addition to these privately-run local higher education institutions, the government has also looked for renowned overseas universities to set up branch campuses in Hong Kong. For instances, the Savannah College of Art and Design (SCAD), which was founded in 1978 in the United States, set up its first Asian branch campus in Hong Kong in 2011 to offer undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the field of art and design. Another example is drawn from the Booth School of Business of the University of Chicago, which has set up its first Asian branch campus in Singapore for 10 years, decided to move its Asian campus from Singapore to Hong Kong in 2014 to offer mainly taught postgraduate programmes in business management. The move implies that Hong Kong has much better competitive advantage than Singapore for the former’s close proximity with the ever growing market of higher education in the Chinese mainland. The emergence of overseas universities’ branch campuses in Hong Kong, to a certain extent, suggests the good potential for Hong Kong to be developed as a regional hub of higher education. Apart from private universities, there has been also rapid development of community colleges which provide associate degree programmes for secondary school leavers since the early 2000s, when the government decided to ensure more opportunities of higher education by not expanding subsidized universities but by encouraging the private sector to run self-financed community colleges (Tung, 2001; Yung, 2002). While some of these self-financed community colleges are affiliated with the UGC-funded institutions, others are run by local charitable organizations like Tung Wah Group of Hospitals and Po Leung Kuk. It is not surprising to see competition between community colleges for student enrollments for they are market responsive by focusing on professional and vocational training programmes. In face of the rapid growth of such self-financed community colleges and associate degree programmes, the UGC recommended in its third major review of higher education in 2010, as what the UGC’s higher education review in 2002 suggested, to set up a single oversight body such as Further Education Council to oversee the quality of the non-publicly funded higher education institutions, including self- financed community colleges (UGC, 2002). The UGC also expressed its concerns about the credibility of self-financed associate degree programmes for which a clear identity 24 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century and character should be constructed together with a more stringent quality assurance mechanism to strengthen the public confidence on the sector (UGC, 2010). 3.4 Internationalization for education hub Internationalization is without doubt a popular issue widely discussed in many countries (De Wit, 2002; Knight, 2004). With reference to the higher education sector in Hong Kong, the concept of internationalization can be analyzed from two dimensions. On one hand, internationalization suggests a significant rise in the number of non-local or international students studying in Hong Kong’s universities. In 2003-04, there were 2,871 non-local students enrolled in the UGC-funded institutions. This was about four percent of the overall student enrollment. In the academics years 2011-12 and 2012-13, the numbers of non-local students studying in the UGC-funded institutions increased to 10,770 and 13,661 respectively. There were in total around 14 percent of non-local students enrolled in the UGC-funded institutions in both academic years. There had been much more non- local students studying in Hong Kong’s universities as the number of non-local students had grown fourfold from 2003 to 2013. Moreover, a majority of non-local students were originated from the Chinese mainland with a much higher percentage at over 80 percent as compared with those from other places in Asia or the rest of the world. In 2003-04, 2,536 students or about 88 percent of non-local students were from the Chinese mainland. Most of those mainland Chinese students enrolled in research postgraduate programmes (Trade Development Council, 2005). In both 2011-12 and 2012-13, slightly above 80 percent of non-local students were from the Chinese mainland which contrasts with around 12-15 percent from other places in Asia and 4-5 percent from the rest of the world (UGC, 2013, p. 82). These figures demonstrate that Hong Kong can attract a significantly large number of the mainland Chinese students to further their studies in Hong Kong’s universities. Nevertheless, although there had been an increase in the number of non-local students from outside the Chinese mainland, there is still much room for the UGC-funded institutions to strike a better balance between the proportion of the mainland Chinese students and the ones from Asia and other parts of the world. A possible reason for more non-local students to study in Hong Kong’s universities is that they are allowed to stay in Hong Kong for employment for one year after graduation (UGC, 2010). On the other hand, internationalization means more than the recruitment of non-local or international students. It also refers to the integration of the universities in Hong Kong into an active network of relationships with international counterparts. One way to do is to demonstrate their “world-class” performance through international rankings. Certain universities in Hong Kong have been ranked high in several international league tables on higher education, including those compiled by Times Higher Education Supplement and Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). Some universities made use of their institutional reputation to explore their markets for higher education outside Hong Kong, especially in the 25 Chinese mainland. They have been exploring opportunities of having collaboration with the Chinese universities to jointly offer self-financed taught postgraduate programmes and courses in China (Trade Development Council, 2005). Local universities can also make use of their own institutions’ international prestige and reputation to build up overseas partnership in offering programmes and in undertaking collaborative research projects. Moreover, internationalization is a process for making Hong Kong a regional education hub, which has been a policy goal since the mid-2000s (Tung, 2004). The competitiveness of Hong Kong lies on the provision of high quality of higher education by a number of top quality or internationally recognized world-class universities to non- local students, who are attracted to come to study in the city. These non-local students can possibly become valuable talents to contribute to Hong Kong’s long-term socio-economic development if they opt to work in the city after graduation. In this sense, the development of Hong Kong as a regional education hub as a goal of the internationalization of higher education policy is to create a large pool of local and non-local talents to keep the city on the track of sustainable development in the long run. Meanwhile, internationalization also implies a fundamental change of the character of higher education which is not just a public good to be guaranteed by the government but also a commodity for economic exchange as the cases shown in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, Canada and Singapore. This denotes the movements of some UGC-funded institutions to provide higher education outside Hong Kong like the case of CUHK which set up its first branch campus in Shenzhen in September 2014. Meanwhile, as mentioned earlier, there have been overseas renowned universities to come to Hong Kong like SCAD and Chicago’s Booth School of Business, all of which may help boost the city’s image of being a regional education hub in face of keen competition from other neighbouring countries like Singapore, Malaysia and the Chinese mainland, where they are also competing for more collaborations and partnerships with overseas world-class universities. However, one problem facing Hong Kong universities to be solved is to encourage not only the Chinese mainland students but also more students from Asian countries and other parts of the world to enable a greater diversity of nationalities and cultural backgrounds (UGC, 2010). 4. Discussion: Major trends of higher education Having examined the major issues facing the higher education sector in Hong Kong, this section shifts its focus on generalizing the trends shaping the future of higher education. It argues that the role of government in the development of higher education in Hong Kong has become more important with special reference to the cultivation of world- class universities and the transformation of Hong Kong as a regional education hub. 26 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century Similar to other public services, higher education is undeniably under the strong influence of the notion of public accountability. Universities are under constant pressure to be more relevant and responsive to market needs. While institutional autonomy in making decisions on academic matters and resource allocation entitled to universities is largely respected, there has been stronger emphasis on the importance of external scrutiny in the forms of quality assurance and audits to be institutionalized in the higher education sector in line with such prevailing ideas as “value for money” and “fitness for purpose”. Teaching, research and management have been regularly subject to the external scrutiny. The allocation of resources, especially those on research activities, has been pegged with the results of external audits as a means to stimulate better performance delivered by the publicly-funded universities. Universities have been encouraged to use resources more prudently and also look for alternative non-government sources of revenues to “decentralize” the financial responsibilities of higher education which has long been shouldered by the government. For instance, the Matching Grant Scheme was introduced in 2003 to cultivate a culture of social donations for publicly-funded universities (Leung, 2003). The cost of higher education to be shared in the society by motivating the establishment of community colleges and self-financed higher education institutions to provide non-subsidized programmes. While the government takes a step back from financing higher education with an excuse of uncertainty in economic performance, it has strengthened its role through the UGC to scrutinize and evaluate the performance and quality of public universities in order to protect the public interest in higher education. The universities in Hong Kong are at the crossroad between competition and collaboration. It is undeniable that universities are constantly competing with each other for famous and outstanding professors, talented students, research funds, international reputation, and social donations. While competition among universities is encouraged to stimulate institutional improvement, institutional collaboration is of equal importance to prevent unnecessary wastage of resources by eliminating and avoiding duplication of teaching and research efforts. Competition and collaboration are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other to ensure a healthy development of higher education. It is especially true for Hong Kong where the higher education sector has long been suffering from the lack of collaboration that has resulted in unnecessary resource wastage. A two-pronged strategy of competition and collaboration among the universities should be adopted to ensure continuous self-improvement and more effective use of limited resources simultaneously. 27 Internationalization as a strategy leading to the making of Hong Kong as an education hub comprises core elements like exchanges of academics, students and knowledge across national boundaries, the recruitment of non-local or international students, the export of higher education by local institutions outside Hong Kong, and even the import of higher education from overseas universities in Hong Kong. Apart from getting more non-local students, especially those from the Chinese mainland, to study in Hong Kong, local universities have in recent years embarked on constructing collaborative relationships with the counterparts in the Chinese mainland in the forms of joint teaching and research projects as well as academic exchange programmes. A large number of the Chinese mainland students have been recruited to study in research and taught postgraduate programmes in Hong Kong’s universities since the late 1990s. The Chinese mainland has become the most important market of higher education for the eight UGC-funded institutions. The opening of CUHK’s branch campus in Shenzhen is an example to imitate and follow for exporting higher education from Hong Kong. The trend of internationalization does bring about both opportunities and dangers to higher education sector in Hong Kong. Further expansion of higher education can be expected for an ever growing market of higher education in the hinterland, the Chinese mainland, where demands for world-class higher education, including publicly-funded undergraduate and research postgraduate programmes as well as self-financed taught postgraduate programmes run by UGC-funded institutions, would become more prominent. Nonetheless, in the meantime, the quality of higher education needs to be assessed and scrutinized with both internal and external audits to ensure the academic standards would not be compromised with an influx of non-local students. Moreover, more attention should also be paid on whether and how overseas institutions which set up their branch campuses in Hong Kong can survive on the self-sufficient basis in the long run for they can mainly rely on the tuition fees as their incomes. The challenge is how to increase the number of students who can afford over HK$250,000 or US$32,000 a year for tuition fees at SCAD as a big contrast to HK$42,000 or US$5,400 levied by the UGC-funded institutions. Even more critical issue facing the process of internationalizing higher education in Hong Kong is how to get in more non-local, non-Chinese mainland students to study in this emerging education hub. It is important to rectify the common impression that what has been achieved since the early twenty-first century in Hong Kong higher education is not about “mainlandization” or regionalization but genuinely internationalization. 5. Conclusion Wang Gungwu, who served as HKU’s Vice-Chancellor between 1986 and 1995, points out that there has been a general decline in the confidence of Asian universities for the past three decades. In the past, many believed that it was due to the lack of 28 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century funding and facilities which prevented universities for doing an excellent job. However, the focus has shifted to the inadequacies of university structures and on how to reform them in order to make sure of more efficient use of funds and facilities in order to make distinctive contributions and thus justify their existence. Although most universities aim at international excellence and reputation, they have met with frustration and have attributed this to the shortage of resources and also the lack of appreciation by their communities (Wang, 1992). In spite of these drawbacks facing most Asian universities, with no exception for the ones in Hong Kong, they are very much eager to strive for a world-class status as revealed from a series of international university rankings (Altbach, 2003). Clark (1998, 2004) suggests that the future of universities denotes the transformation towards the direction of “entrepreneurial universities”. The meaning of “entrepreneurial” in the context of higher education indicates “the attitudes and procedures that most dependably lead to the modern self-reliant, self-steering university” (Clark, 2004, p. 7). When most countries put a strong emphasis on the development of quality assurance system, the changing university-government relationship, and the policy and strategies of internationalization, these issues have also prevailed in Hong Kong over the past two decades since massification took place in the 1990s. While Hong Kong is striving to be a regional education hub, it is not immune from global practices adopted from the process of policy borrowing and learning. As what Currie (2004) addresses, if universities are going to be a model of institutions for the society, it is necessary to shore up democratic collegiality against the rush to managerialize the decision-making processes in universities. Moreover, there is a need for caution against picking up the latest management fad blindly without consideration about the unique context and nature of higher education. It is more important to uphold the core values of scholarly integrity and professional autonomy in face of greater pressure for public accountability. In conclusion, the first decade of the twenty-first century witnessed several fundamental changes in Hong Kong higher education. New policies and practices related to quality assurance, university governance, funding mechanism, private universities, community colleges, and internationalization were introduced. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Vol. 1, 32-44. 33 21 世紀香港高等教育 李曉康 香港中文大學歷史系 摘要 高等教育是香港教育中相當重要的環節。香港的高等教育體系,包括資助大學、自 負盈虧的私立大學及社區學院。1990 年代以來,香港的高等教育體系經歷了普及化 和急速擴張的階段,以及提升和鞏固教育質素的發展過程。與此同時,香港的高等 教育界亦要面對來自全面檢討和改革政策的變革和挑戰,為不同的持份者帶來前所 未有的衝擊。這些變革包括:質素評鑑制度的確立和制度化、政府與大學關係的變 化、私立高等院校的湧現,以及為配合香港發展成為教育樞紐而推行的高等教育國 際化政策。本文檢視香港高等教育在 21 世紀的重要發展,並分析和討論上述四項 重要變革對香港高等教育長遠發展所帶來的影響。 關鍵詞 高等教育,質素評鑑,國際化,政府與大學關係,私立大學 34 《香港教師中心學報》,第十三卷 © 香港教師中心,2014 香港小學小班的教學實踐 章月鳳、李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 香港政府自 2009 年在小學推出政策,至 2013 年 9 月已有 344 所小學推 行,不少學校已推廣至小學五年級。的成效如何?本文結合文 獻對小班成效的綜述,透過對推行的兩所學校共 10 位教師進行焦點團體 訪談,初步剖析香港政策下的教師教學實踐,並提出進一步調整或深化 政策的意見和建議。 關鍵詞 ,教學實踐,香港教育,教師發展 甲、政策的推行 順應香港出生率遞減,小學收生人數減少的趨勢,香港政府於 2007 年宣佈實施 政策,自 2009-10 年度起,從小學一年級起,每班人數減至 25 人。對於政策下教 師的教學實踐,香港政府沒有很明確地在其綱領性文件提出具體要求。而 Galton & Pell 針對 2004 年參與「先導計畫」的 37 所學校進行研究,並提出有效的六大核心 原則,包括:(1)建立適切的教學目標;(2)運用多樣化的提問技巧;(3)鼓勵學生參與 課堂活動;(4)安排小組活動促進學生互相協作;(5)給予學生回饋,幫助他們反思學習 效能;和(6)使用有效「促進學習」的評估策略(Galton & Pell, 2009, pp. 5-6)。這六大原 則一直被公認為香港教育局、師資培訓機構、學校和教師推動政策及檢視 成效的主要框架。 35 對於政策是否能提升學習成績,世界各國的學者進行了眾多的研究和論證,但 是都未能達到統一的說法。他們發現,除了班級規模之外,學生學習成績的高低還會受其他 眾多因素影響,包括教學科目、學生程度、年齡和背景等(Blatchford, Bassett, & Goldstein, 2003)。但是不少學者都認為:實施小班能否帶來影響,要視乎教師是否有效地運用小班的 優勢來提升教學實踐的品質(Blatchford et al., 2003)。要鼓勵教師善用小班環境的優勢,促 進教師的專業發展是一個重要因素(Galton & Pell, 2009)。 為了促進政策的實施,香港教育局和各大學師資培訓機構在過去的五年內為教 師提供了大量關於專業的培訓。小班政策推行至 2013 年 9 月,已有 344 所小學(約 有七成公營小學)參加(Education Bureau, 2013),並推展至小學五年級。對於小 班政策第一週期推行的成效,現在是時候進行探討和反思,以便提出將來調整或深化政策實 施的意見和建議。 乙、小班環境下的教師教學實踐 縱覽世界各國關於小班成效的研究和討論,小班政策對教師實踐的影響主要體現在以下 五方面: 一、提升學生的參與 在中,教師會更多使用小組活動(Harfitt, 2013),減少全班教學的時間 (Blatchford, Goldstein, & Mortimore, 1998; Bascia & Faubert, 2012),分組時每組的人數更 少,以增加合作的機會(Yeomans, 1987)。使用小組活動可以提升學生的參與和與他人互動 的機會(Blatchford, Baines, Kutnick, & Martin, 2001; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985),更多展示 學生的作品(Blatchford, Russell, Bassett, Brown, & Martin, 2007)和使用更多正面的回饋。不 但師生在課堂中互動的量和深度都有增加(Blatchford, 2003; Finn, Pannozzo, & Achilles, 2003; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Özerk, 2001; Yeomans, 1987),師生在課堂以外的互動也會增多 (Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985),而且互動方式更多樣和個人化。很自然地,教師和每個學生 的關係會更緊密(Cakmak, 2009; Yeomans, 1987)。 36 香港小學小班的教學實踐 二、讓教師教學更個別化 小班環境提供一個契機,讓教師實施個別化教學(Blatchford, 2003)。首先,教師能更 深入瞭解每個學生及其需要(Bascia & Faubert, 2012; Cahen, Filby, McCutchen, & Kyle, 1983; Johnston & Davis, 1989; Robinson & Wittebols, 1986; Turner, 1990; Blatchford & Mortimore, 1994; Zahorik, 1999),更注重根據學生已有知識和學習需要確定教學目標(Galton & Pell, 2009)。在學習過程中,教師能更密切和近距離地監察學生的進度(Bosker, 1998; Cakmak, 2009),更細微地關注學生課堂行為,建立更良好的課堂氛圍(Yeomans, 1987),在互動中 更多聆聽學生發言(Finn et al., 2003),更注重按照學生的需要安排提問層次和互動方式, 並為學生提供更多個別化的支援(Blatchford, Moriarty, Edmonds, & Martin, 2002; Bascia & Faubert, 2012),包括拔尖和保底的工作。除了能更細微地照顧學生學習差異,教師也更關注 和瞭解學生社交情意上的需要和狀態(Bascia & Faubert, 2012),並加以提升和發展。 三、讓教師教學策略更多樣化 由於人數少的班級活動空間相對增大,加上管理學生的難度降低,教師擁有更多自由度 也更願意去選擇使用不同的教學策略(Pedder, 2006)。這些策略包括學生座位安排多樣化 (Yeomans, 1987)、教室規則制定多樣化(Harfitt, 2013)、課堂活動多樣化(Cakmak, 2009; Cooper, 1989)、提問方式多樣化,評估手段多樣化(Cakmak, 2009)等。 除了教學策略更加豐富外,教師在小班環境下教學策略的使用可以更精細和有深度。例 如提問技巧上,教師在中會使用更多開放式提問、挑戰性提問和追問,在提問學 生後等待時間增長(Bourke, 1986; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Harfitt, 2013),更鼓勵學生創 新和批判性思維(Özerk, 2001)。而教師經常給予學生回饋(Harfitt, 2013),對學生的評 估更直接、即時和準確(Cooper, 1989; Korostoff, 1998; Shapson, Wright, Eason, & Fitzgerald, 1980)。 四、增加教學時間和課程內容 由於小班的學生人數減少,教師用來組織學習、管理學生行為的時間和評估所需時間 減少(Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Korostoff, 1998),教學速度更快,可用來教學的總時間 因此增加(Zahorik, 1999),而備課時間更加充足(Din, 1999)。相對於大班而言,教師能 37 更深入教授基本內容,並擁有更多時間教授補充資料或增潤課程(Pate-Bain, Achilles, Boyd- Zaharias, & McKenna, 1992)。相應地,安排給學生的課業量也會增多(Bourke, 1986)。 五、提升教師士氣、改善教育生態 政策除了帶來以上教師教學實踐在總量(時間、頻率、密度)和質量(多樣 化,深度、廣度和豐富度)都有改變外,其實也有可能帶來一種較人本化的學校管理模式 和教學生態(章月鳳,2013a)。這種人本化的學校管理模式會讓教師對學生的態度更正面 (Din, 1999),擁有更多自由度去選擇教學策略(Pedder, 2006),教學工作更有效率(Din, 1999),對教學的熱忱更高漲(Finn et al., 2003),以及更加喜歡教學工作(Blatchford et al., 2007)。 不過,在上述文獻中,探討政策在香港成效的研究卻不多。Galton & Pell(2009) 研究的是香港 2009 年大規模推行政策之前的情況。而 Harfitt (2013)則探討個別 中學教師實施的成效。其他研究也主要是針對個別學校情況的探討,未能反映 在香港小學推行成效的整體狀況。 丙、研究方案 有鑑於此,本研究團隊正進行的研究項目旨在探討香港實施政策對香港小學教 師教學實踐的影響。本文將彙報參與該項目的先導訪談的初步發現,探討兩所小學教師實施 小班政策的教學實踐並對政策的成效及影響因素進行初步討論。之後根據該訪談的 發現,再設計問卷全面瞭解香港小學教師實踐的整體狀況。 本先導訪談採用焦點團體訪談(Greenbaum, 1998)、方便抽樣的方法,對參與研究的兩 所學校的教師進行訪談,以回答以下研究問題: • 自實施政策以來,教師教學實踐是否有改變? • 如有改變,是哪些改變?其改變的原因是什麼? 38 香港小學小班的教學實踐 我們在 2013 年 12 月初對已推行的兩所屯門區的津貼小學(以下稱學校一和學 校二)進行先導研究。每所學校各選五位教師參與訪談,其中包括一位中層管理教師(如教 務主任)和四位任教不同科目的教師(中文、英文、數學、常識科各一位)。每次焦點團體 訪談歷時約一個小時,問題主要圍繞上文提到的小班環境下教師實踐變遷的五個方面。之後, 研究人員把訪談錄音完整謄寫成逐字稿,並採用內容分析法,從中抽取和上述研究問題相關 的內容進行分類、編碼、分析及整合,得出以下研究結果。 丁、研究結果和討論 學校一在 2008 年 9 月在一年級推行,比政府的計畫提早一年。至 2013-14 學年 全校每班都是 25 人左右。學校二則於 2009 年 9 月開始施行,到 2013-14 學年推行 至五年級。表一總結了兩所學校 10 位教師訪談的初步結果: 表一 香港政策下的教師教學實踐 學校一 學校二 校本政策 • 學校強調教師要運用 Galton & Pell 六個原則去優化課堂教學, 提倡教師使用合作學習和探究學習 • • 學校強調教師要運用 Galton & Pell 六個原則去優化課堂教學, 提倡教師使用合作學習和三高課堂 (「高動機,高展示,高參與」) 語文科推行戲劇教學,數學和常識 科推行探究學習 提升學生 的參與 • • • 教師推行合作學習,通過多元化小 組活動,增加學生參與 學校強調學生主導的探究式的學習 方式 師生關係和生生關係都更加融洽 • • • • 教師推行合作學習,通過多元化小 組活動,增加學生參與 教師秉承學校的宗旨,追求「高動 機,高展示,高參與」的課堂 學校提供多元化課外活動,增加學 生參與和展示機會 師生關係和生生關係都更加融洽 39 學校一 學校二 教學策略 個別化 • • • • • 教師更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要 因為教育局對評估內容統一,教學 內容沒有分層處理 分層的教學得益於同儕備課,比較 容易施行,課堂提問針對不同學生 需要設計問題和提問 教師雖然認同分層評估,但需要花 更多時間設計分層評估工具;由於 統考制度,學校政策未有推行分層 評估 學校資源優先分配在保底班,保底 力度大於拔尖力度 • • • • • 教師更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要 因為教育局對評估內容統一,教學 內容沒有分層處理 提問方式針對不同學生的需要設計 不同層次的問題和提問;活動安排 也有考慮對學生學習的適切性 考慮到公平性原則,也沒有推行分 層工作紙和分層評估 學校資源優先分配在保底班,保底 力度大於拔尖力度 教學策略 多樣化 • • 注重設計不同的活動讓學生進行小 組活動 課堂提問針對不同學生需要設計問 題和提問 • • 教師嘗試使用多種教學策略,針對 不同學生的需要設計問題和提問 學校提供多元化課外活動,讓學生 發展潛能,獲得成功感 增加教學 時間和課程 內容 • • 學生行為問題減少,教師可用更多 教學時間讓學生更深入地討論所教 的課題,所以課程內容沒有增加 評估每一份課業時間減少,但對成 績差的學生增加支援工作 • • 更注重學生的參與,提供 更多時間進行討論、彙報、回饋, 很難再增加課程內容 更注重學生的學習過程及其評估, 評估每一份課業的量減少,但是針 對學習過程的評估工作增多 教師士氣和 教育生態 • 對減輕他們的工作量沒有 太大幫助,對教學的質素 要求提高,增加了他們備課的工作 量 • • 對減輕他們的工作量沒有 太大幫助,對教學的質素 要求提高,增加了他們備課的工作 量 還帶來許多校本特色的課 外活動,也增加工作量 一、提升學生的參與 兩所學校的教師都認同,學生的參與程度能有所提升,是政策帶來的最大 改變。兩所學校的政策都非常強調教師要提升學生的參與程度,並在全校各科 推行合作學習和小組學習。在此校本政策影響下,教師都一致表示,他們更注重透過小 組活動提供不同的機會讓學生參與課堂活動。有教師還提到,他們備課時會經常思考, 如何按照學生不同的學習情況設計提問問題和安排活動。與此同時,教師發現學生較以 表一 香港政策下的教師教學實踐(續) 40 香港小學小班的教學實踐 往更主動參與師生和生生互動,即使是學習專注能力差的學生,通過小組合作,學習參 與度有所提高,違規行為亦自然減少。不過,因為缺少現成可用於小組合作的學習資料 和工作紙,他們往往須要多花一些時間進行備課或改良教學資源。 二、小班政策對教學個別化的影響 對於是否有使用個別化分層教學,教師都表示他們更注重按照學生學習的不同情況, 然後決定如何使用教學活動和分組合作,以強帶弱,讓學生都得到適當學習的機會。但 教師使用的分組教學策略大多只停留在對學生口頭的提問、回饋或支援上,並沒有使用 分層工作紙。原因除了是因為學校沒有硬性規定外,亦由於教師覺得設計分層工作紙需 要花費較多時間,而且也需要事先取得家長的認同,因而減低使用意欲。另外,儘管學 生的學習進度和成效不一樣,教師都覺得分層評估是很難在學校推行,因為所有學生最 終都要一起面對中央考試制度。所以教師對學生個別化的處理主要集中在對成績差學生 的保底支援和教學策略調整,而沒有系統地滲透至課程內容、課業安排和評估方式。 三、小班政策讓教師教學更多樣化 兩所學校的教師都表示,為了配合小班政策,自己會使用更多不同的教學策略。學 校一提倡教師使用合作學習和探究學習。學校二則根據每科的特色提倡各科教師實施一 些核心的教學策略,例如中英文科使用戲劇來教語言,數學和常識科則提倡探究學習, 還要求各科教師在每一節課最初五分鐘利用暖身活動來提起學生的學習興趣,而結束時 要總結該堂學生所學知識等。另外,學校二還為學生提供了豐富的課外活動,如藝墟等, 讓學生擁有更多平台來發展自己的才能和獲取成功感。教師教學的多樣化還表現在使用 更多方法去激勵學生,提問的方式和給予學生的回饋更加多樣化,更勇於嘗試不同的教 學模式。 四、對課程內容和教學時間的影響 受到統考制度的影響,的推行,並沒有改變兩所學校對課程內容的要求, 教師也不會教授學生更多的學習內容。而透過為學生提供更多參與的機會,教師更注重 讓學生更加深入和細緻地學習課程內容,包括進行深入討論和給予及時回饋。 41 小班政策的實施並未能有效增加兩校教師的教學時間,減輕工作量。雖然,他們修 改學生每一份課業的量減少了,但是其他工作量卻同時增加。首先,因為推行合作學習 和同儕備課,用於參與備課會議和準備教學資料的時間大量增加;其次,學校加強對成 績差學生的保底工作,所以需要使用更多時間和精力支援後進生;最後,學校提倡對學 生學習成效的評估更加細緻,同一份課業的批改和回饋都更加精細,也需要花費教師不 少時間。加上教師還需要同時背負大量其他教學工作以外的行政工作,包括當值、訓導 或輔導等功能組別工作等,令小班政策帶來工作量的減少顯得微乎其微。 五、受到校內教育生態的影響 小班政策的推行未能減輕教師工作負擔,反而增加他們工作的複雜度,亦未能令教 學工作效率有效提高。他們感到欣慰的是學校在注重學業成績的同時,也開始關心學生 社交情意的發展和關愛校園的建設,而教師也對學生的態度更加正面。無奈的是教學和 行政的工作壓力沒有相應減少,而學校過於細緻的規定有時也令教師覺得未能享受教學 的自主權,只是跟著學校的指示去做。 戊、結論與啟示 由以上關於兩所小學的個案研究發現 Galton & Pell 提出的六個原則成為了學校制定 校本政策的依據。六個原則的推行,讓教師更注重增加學生在課堂學與教的參 與,更關注學生的學習情況和需要。他們在教學策略中運用更豐富和多樣化的教學策略, 更及時和正面的評估和回饋,幫助學生學習和發展。但是由於學校校本小班政策的規定 和考試制度的限制,教師在選擇學習內容和評估方式都未必能夠做到個別化教學或分層 教學。雖然班級縮小似乎能讓教師減少評估的工作量,但在推行其他新型教學策略上卻 需要花費更多的準備時間,以至於無法有效減輕教師的工作量。 另外,小班政策對於教師實踐影響的深度和廣度,視乎學校管理層所制定的校本小 班政策對教師教學範式的導向。要讓政策順利推行並取得更好成效,需要學校 校本政策的配合和行政管理的大力支援(Bascia & Faubert, 2012)。這也印證了張倩、 周浩暉、李子建(2013)所講的,所處的學校情景關乎政策下教師實 42 香港小學小班的教學實踐 踐的專業發展。相對而言,在實現了人本化管理的學校裡(章月鳳,2013b),教師專業 自主權更得到尊重,協作精神更能得到發揮,小班環境的優勢才更有可能被善用,持續 提升學與教的品質,創設共融關愛校園。 本次先導訪談初步證實了上述總結關於所影響的不同層面,它的結果將會 是日後修訂問卷調查的根據。若條件允許,能收集到一些教師的課堂教學實踐片段,也 會有助於進一步發掘的實施情況和深入探討小班政策對教師實踐的影響。 鳴謝 我們要鳴謝香港教育學院中心為本研究提供資助,以及參與訪談的兩所學 校及校內 10 位教師寶貴的經驗分享。 參考文獻 張倩、周浩暉、李子建(2013)。〈研究的反思與建構〉。《中國教育學刊》, 2013 年 06 期,49-53。 章月鳳(2013a)。〈前言〉。載陳錦榮、章月鳳(合編),《中學集思錄》(頁 3-5)。香港:香港教育學院