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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 11 (2012)
Category: DocumentsDocuments Icon第 T'~卷 Volume Eleven 教育局 i 香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建 議而於 1989 年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培 訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致， 發揮專業精神。此外，教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課 程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並 配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、一個常務委員會（常 委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組 成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位教育局代表。 各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動 小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。 教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內，交通便捷，毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站，另有 多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備，內有電腦服務、時事及消閒雜誌、閱報室 和專題展板等，歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。 詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁：www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 香港教師中心 ii The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, reading area and display-boards, etc. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please browse our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre iii 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau LEE Wing On National Institute of Education Singapore Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物， 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc） 閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal iv 編輯委員會（Editorial Committee） 主編（Chief Editor） 簡加言 路德會西門英才中學 副主編（Vice-chief Editors） 胡少偉 香港教育學院 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 趙淑媚 漢華中學 委員（Members） 何景安 香港學科教育研究學會 李子建 香港教育學院 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 李宏峯 裘錦秋中學（葵涌） 梁兆棠 香港資助小學校長會 郭禮賢 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 葉建源 香港教育專業人員協會 雷其昌 羅定邦中學 張國華 教育局 梁湘明 香港中文大學 莫家豪 香港教育學院 陳建強 香港城市大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡水大學 鄧廣威 香港公開大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 顧明遠 北京師範大學 v 主編序 一直以來《香港教師中心學報》得到很多學者及教師的支持，使學報能順利出版， 今期也不例外。本期主題「課程改革的回顧與前瞻」，同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供 寶貴的研究及分享文章，連同特邀稿文，本期共選刊了十四篇。 經評審後，第一部分共收錄了五篇專題文章，內容包括：「人人皆可成才」的原則 在少數族裔學生的情況、中文科教師課程決定個案研究、中文科課程改革與教師專業發 展、對中國大陸高中語文課程改革的多維審視、同儕評估在香港小學常識科的運用。這 些稿文都是研究教育的學者及前線教師的課堂行動研究所得，除體現了教育工作者的鑽 研精神外，也能體現他們資源及成果共享的豁達。通過文章及實踐的經驗分享促進了與 讀者交流，這是個難能可貴的平台。 第二部分是關於理論及政策評論的文章共有五篇，內容包括：校本研究統計錯誤的 個案、中間選項在李克特量表中的應用、探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學、 教學內容知識的定義和內涵、香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓。這部分的研 究集中探討學與教課程與思考能力培養的關係。香港是一個國際都市及知識型的社會， 我們要培養怎樣的學生才能適應千變萬化的知識世界？思維判斷力是其中關鍵項目之 一。這部分的研究篇章正帶領讀者深入思考這個問題，很值得一讀。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，共有四篇文章。內容包括：於小說教學時利用小 組討論為介入策略觀察學生態度轉變、「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育、香港教師 情緒技能的內涵研究、優化學校行政的行動學習。這部分的分享篇章探討教學法與課堂 成效的關係，通過不同的教學法觀察學生反應及學習情況。這些教學法也包括了調整教 師本身狀況及學校行政等等的措施。因此，這部分篇章不是單向的研究，而是方方面面 的探討與歸納及總結，閱後能給予讀者多角度思考課堂高效的成因，值得細味！ 最後，我每次想到《學報》能順利出版，評審員實功不可沒，當中包括申龐得玲博 士、何景安先生、李偉雄先生、林偉業先生、林碧霞博士、胡少偉博士、胡飄博士、徐 國棟博士、徐慧旋女士、秦家惠教授、梁兆棠校長、梁雪梅女士、梁燕冰博士、郭禮賢 博士、麥謝巧玲校長、彭新強教授、馮潔皓教授、黃鳳意女士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博 士、雷其昌先生、廖佩莉博士、趙淑媚博士、劉瑞珍女士、蔡若蓮博士、鄭志強博士、 龍精亮博士、鍾銑玲博士、羅天佑博士、羅家怡博士、羅耀珍博士及蘇詠梅教授。在此， 我謹代表《學報》編輯委員會再一次表達我們衷心的謝意！ 《香港教師中心學報》主編 簡加言 二零一二年十二月 目錄 Contents 一、 主題：課程改革的回顧與前瞻 1 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? ................................ 1 Kerry J KENNEDY 2 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 ..........................................25 高慕蓮、李子建 3 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 ..................45 簡加言 4 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 ....................63 黄显涵、李子建 5 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong ..................... 79 CHUNG Tsz Wai Susanna 二、 理論及政策評論 1 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects .......... 101 Kay Cheng SOH 2 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research ............................. 121 Kwok Kuen TSANG 3 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 .............................131 楊思賢 4 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 ..........................................145 周健、霍秉坤 5 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 ..............................................165 歐立賢 三、 教育實踐與經驗分享 1 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes .................................. 173 Monique LOK & Beatrice CHIU 2 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 ...................................197 何慧群 3 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 .........................................217 鄭志強 4 優化學校行政的行動學習 .............................................229 胡少偉、徐國棟、曹潔芬 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students?1 香港教育改革「人人皆可成才」的原則， 是否適用於少數族裔學生？ Kerry J KENNEDY The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract An important feature of Hong Kong’s education reform over the past decade has been the articulation of the ‘no loser principle.’ It was meant to signal that all students are valuable and will benefit from both basic and senior secondary education. Yet barriers remain for the 2.9% of students under age 15 who can be classified as ethnic minorities. There is a declining participating rate as students move from primary to tertiary level, the medium of instruction remains alien to most of these students, and there are no curriculum provisions to meet their special needs. This paper will examine both the policy context in which provisions for ethnic minority students have been made in Hong Kong schools and also classroom practice that operationalises this policy on a daily basis. The purpose is to make an assessment of the extent to which the ‘no loser principle’ can be said to apply to ethnic minority students. 1 The research to be reported here is drawn from the General Research Fund project, Exploring Cultural Diversity in Chinese Classrooms: Can Assessment Environments Cater for the Needs of Ethnic Minority Students in Hong Kong, [GRF-HKIEd840809] funded by the Hong Kong Research Grants Council. The views expressed here are those of the author. 1 Keywords ethnic minorities, non-Chinese speaking students, Chinese curriculum, Chinese as second language, racial discrimination 摘要 香港教育改革在過去十年的一項要點，乃明言以「人人皆可成才」為宗旨，意即每個學生 都有其價值，他們將受惠於基礎和高中教育的改革。然而，對於教育制度中僅佔百分之二、 被歸類為少數族裔的學生來說，障礙仍然存在。在小學至專上教育的過程中，他們的整體 參與率逐步下降；教學方面始終存在語言隔閡，亦未能提供切合他們需要的課程。本文將 檢視香港少數族裔教育的政策背景和課堂實務，旨在評估這「人人皆可成才」的原則對少 數族裔學生的適用程度。 關鍵詞 少數族裔，非華語學生，中文課程，中文為第二語言，種族歧視 1. Introduction In its first consultation document on the education reform, the Education Commission (1999) enunciated what was to become a dominant theme: There is an urgent need to introduce fundamental reforms to our education system. Reforms in education should bring new learning opportunities to every citizen, and should bring new opportunities for the future development of Hong Kong. This should be the guiding principle for education reform in Hong Kong. This idea was eventually formulated as one of the five principles of the reforms – the ‘no loser’ principle (Education Commission, 2000, p.9): 2 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? There should not be, at any stage of education, dead-end screening that blocks further learning opportunities… Teaching without any discrimination” has been a cherished concept since ancient times. We should not give up on any single student, but rather let all students have the chance to develop their potentials. The aim of the education reform is to remove the obstacles in our system that obstruct learning, to give more room to students to show their initiative and to develop their potential in various domains. The ‘no loser’ principle has been addressed in different ways throughout the reform process. The ‘through train’ concept, reform of the primary and secondary admissions system, a full six years of secondary education for all students, support for students with special needs, a core curriculum for all students and the reduction in public examinations. These are all important reforms and I do not want to underestimate them. Yet in this paper, I want to raise a question about the extent to which the “no loser” principle applies to all students in Hong Kong schools. In particular, I want to focus on ethnic minority students. I shall examine three broad areas: 1. The policy context for ethnic minority education in Hong Kong – contested terrain. 2. Who are Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students and what do they think about learning? 3. Can the ‘no loser’ principle work for ethnic minority students? In focusing on these areas, I do not want to underestimate the role of schools, teachers and NGOS in supporting ethnic minority students in Hong Kong, The all play an important, and indeed vital, role. But the focus of this particular paper is on the broader policy context that influences ethnic minority students. 2. The policy context for ethnic minority education in Hong Kong – contested terrain The policy context related to the provision of education for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong can only be described as volatile and contested. In what follows I shall try to present two sides of the policy debate – the practical issues and the theoretical underpinnings. 2.1 Practical policy and its contexts 3 In a report prepared last year, the relevant Working Group of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) was highly critical (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2011, pp. 10-11): Having considered EDB’s current education policies and having examined the problems with the relevant stakeholders, the PARC/WG is of the view that while a number of accommodation measures have been adopted by EDB in recent years, they are far from adequate in fulfilling its policy goal of providing equitable and quality education for EM students. The PARC/WG therefore urges the EDB to carefully examine its current policies and practices to ensure that they are effectively fulfilling the policy goals as declared on the one hand and that they do comply with the spirit and legal obligations of the anti-discrimination legislation on the other. There is a strong body of opinion within the PARC/WG that should there be no committed improvement to current policies and practices on this issue by the Government, action under the RDO might have to be instigated. At about the same time, EDB provided an update on its policies and measures taken to support ethnic minorities (Legislative Council, 2011) but its tone and focus were quite different from the EOC report. There is no reference at all to the kind of issues raised by the EOC but rather a catalogue of the support measures provided by the government for ethnic minority students. This kind of policy debate – where each side seems to ignore the existence of the other – has characterized this area since the early part of this century when the issues first started to gain public prominence (Kennedy, 2011). It is thus difficult to get an objective picture or at least a detached picture – but let me try to provide that because it is important. There is little doubt that the government has provided resources and support for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong (Kennedy, 2011; Legislative Council, 2011). This has ranged from language support for new arrivals, grants to schools where there are concentrations of ethnic minority students, the designation of specific schools that receive professional development support and other kinds of resource support and direct front line support to teachers through professional development programmes, especially for the teaching of Chinese. Thus there is a public record of support measures. But these measures are often seen differently by different groups in the community and this is where the perceptions developed of lack of support and, at times, even antagonism. Take, for example, the 30 designated schools endorsed by EDB for ethnic minority students. The rationale, from EDB’s perspective, is very clear (Education Bureau, 2011, p.8): 4 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? The objective of providing focused support in the “designated schools” is to facilitate schools’ accumulation of experiences and development of expertise in the learning and teaching of NCS students so that these schools may serve as the anchor point for sharing experiences with other schools which have also admitted NCS students through a support network formed for all NCS students in the local schools to benefit from the arrangement Yet a contrary view was reported to the Equal Opportunities Commission (2011, p.7), There is a view that the policy of allowing designated schools for EM was itself discriminatory because it reinforced segregation rather than encouraged integration. This view is not attributed in the report but there is evidence elsewhere of community dissatisfaction with some aspects of designated schools. Hong Kong Unison (2009, p.2), for example, pointed out in its response to the government’s report on the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination that “given their lower Chinese language standard, they (i.e. ethnic minority students) have been put in a disadvantageous position under the existing secondary school allocation scheme. Usually they end up studying at either designated schools, or those schools admitting most students from the lowest banding”. This view was expressed even more strongly in a media report that linked designated schools to a form of racism (Zhao, 2011): “It’s racial segregation,” says Fermi Wong Wai-fun, executive director of Hong Kong Unison, a non-governmental organisation focusing on helping minority groups. Wong says up to 80 percent of minority students attend designated schools – but, she claims, some Hong Kong parents become unwilling to choose these schools for their children. “They [minority students] have been living and studying in a very narrow social circle and have become disconnected with the mainstream society. It will harm social integration,” says Wong. The point I want to make here is that the same initiative can be viewed in different ways, depending on the perspective taken. The same can be seen with what is perhaps the most controversial issue, the teaching of Chinese. There is no disagreement between EDB and ethnic minority groups, including NGOs such as Unison, that it is important for ethnic minority students to learn Chinese. But after that the agreement quickly evaporates. EDB has insisted for many years now that 5 this should be done through a standardized Chinese curriculum for all students. Their one concession has been the production of a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Curriculum and encouragement for school based adaptations to meet the special needs of ethnic minority students. Yet this approach has been criticized loudly and publicly. The alternative proposal has been to develop a Chinese as a Second Language Curriculum tailored specifically for the needs of second language learners. Such a curriculum is seen to meet the needs of ethnic minority students in terms of both the content and the pedagogies associated with second language learning. Of course, it also means different kinds of assessment, different pacing of content and indeed different content that would be more relevant to the backgrounds and cultures of ethnic minority students. EDB will not give in on this issue and therefore it remains contested and becomes a ground for claims that the government is not supporting ethnic minority students. The key issue is that the government is supporting ethnic minority students in one way but it is not the way preferred by many in the community; and so it causes concern and public debate. Hong Kong Unison (2010, p.2) put it this way: Despite repeated requests from a wide range of parties including education sector, concern groups, law makers and even the international society, the Government has refused to adopt “Learning Chinese as a second language policy”. Your Bureau insists the current Chinese curriculum is suitable to EM students, so long as certain adaptations have been made by teachers. The reality is teachers in primary and secondary schools have been struggling in developing their own curriculum and teaching materials, without adequate references and support. A survey conducted by the Unison and the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union in July 2007 revealed that about 75% of teachers considered the current central Chinese curriculum designed for local Chinese students was not suitable to NCS (non-Chinese speaking) students. There has been no resolution to this issue and it remains contested ground. 2.2 Policy and theory There are a number of broader policy issues that also need to be recognized. The government has labeled ‘ethnic minority students’ as ‘non-Chinese speaking students’ as though their language deficit is the only characteristic that defines them. It is not entirely clear when this slippage from one to the other took place. Early Legco debates refer freely to ethnic minorities but since around 2009 the focus shifts to non Chinese speaking 6 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? students. The change is not just one of linguistics – it signals an attitude to difference and probably an objective of not highlighting differences in Hong Kong society. This view is consistent with concepts of ‘harmony’ and ‘the harmonious society’ yet to comes at the expense of recognizing the contributions that diversity can make to a pluralistic society – multilingualism, multiculturalism and multi religions. By focusing on language deficits in ethnic minority students, the government misses the opportunity to provide a broader framework in which its own work can be better appreciated and understood. At the same time, schools could better appreciate the contribution of ethnic minority students within this broader framework of contributions that can be made by different groups in the community to a more inclusive Hong Kong society. Another way of valuing the contribution of ethnic minorities is through a commitment to multiculturalism and multicultural policy. This is entirely lacking in Hong Kong so that support for ethnic minority students has been pursued within an integrationist framework that regards all members of society as being the same. This has implications for the way the school curriculum is viewed. Skerrett and Hargreaves (2008) identified different orientations to educational diversity and it is possible to sue this framework to analyze Hong Kong’s approach to education for ethnic minority students. They identified three orientations to diversity within schools and while the framework was meant to apply to the United States, we can apply the categories to the Hong Kong context. In doing so it will also be possible to account for community tensions on the issue of ethnic minority education. The Hong Kong government’s support and actions reflect a monocultural view of educational provision: students are referred to as “NCS students”, the aim of support is to facilitate the integration of these students into Hong Kong society, the key issue is to support the learning of Chinese since language is seen as the best way to achieve integrationists goal, particularly in relation to workforce integration. The views of community groups, however, and in particular Hong Kong Unison, reflecting a desire for multicultural education and at times come close to reflecting the values of critical multiculturalism. This policy tension is a significant one – it is reflected particularly in the recent report of the Equal Opportunities Commission and its resolution will not be easy given the underpinning values of the different view. Table 1: Skerrett and Hargreaves’ (2008) Orientations to Education Diversity Orientation Description Proponents Monocultural education All students benefit from the same curriculum, instructional strategies and assessment practices. Edmonds (1970); Gilborn (2004) 7 Multicultural education Schools and the school curriculum reflect the knowledge, values, skills, pedagogies, assessment practices, policies etc that recognize, support and celebrate the contribution of all groups represented in the school community Banks (1986) Critical multiculturalism Teaching against all forms of racism is explicit and eliminating all forms of discrimination is a key goal. Troyna and Carrington (1990) To get a better understanding of ethnic minority students themselves, the next section will examine census data to highlight the range of ethnicities in Hong Kong schools and how these students think about their learning. 3. Who are Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students and what do they think about learning? 3.1 Identifying ethnic minority students Data on ethnic minority students is very recent and not always readily available. The first formal census was in 2006 and provided these details (Census and Statistics Department, 2007): Table 2: Ethnic Minority Students at Full-time Courses by Age-Group in 2006 Ethnic Minority Age < 15 Ethnic Minority Aged 15 and over Whole population Level Age group total at full time course at full time course < 15 15 and over Pre-primary 6,777 166,364 30 Primary 12,819 60 439,630 1,484 Lower Secondary 3,550 955 189,183 78,897 Upper Secondary 298 2,233 1,926 187,454 Sixth form 737 62,549 Post-secondary 1,293 147,014 Total 32,289 23,444 5,278 79,7103 477,428 8 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? A number of points can be made about these figures: 1. There appears to be a large number of ‘out of school’ ethnic minority students under the age of 15 – well over 8,000. It is not clear who these are but probably they can be accounted for at the pre-primary and sixth form levels. Thus not all ethnic minority students seem to benefit from pre-primary education. Assuming that the numbers entering primary school are stable over time,2 Table 2 indicates that only 52% of ethnic minority students have access to pre-primary education. Assuming that the 2006 figure for primary enrolments has been stable over time, then just over 6% of ethnic minority students make it into Form Six. 2. There appears to be a major transition issue for ethnic minority students under the age of 15 in the move from primary to lower secondary. Just 27% of the primary cohort appear to make the transition (assuming that the figure for 2006 is stable over time). 3. It can also be noted that the participation rate for post secondary education is also very low – just 10% of the primary age cohort - again assuming a stable primary cohort size over time. These data need to be treated with some caution because the ratios make assumptions about the stability of age cohorts over time. Yet there are also other reasons for treating the data with some caution. In a paper submitted by the government to the Legislative Council’s Bills Committee on the Racial Discrimination Bill (Hong Kong SAR Government, 2008, pp. 6-7), a quite different set of figures is provided indicating that in September 2007 there were 5,671 ethnic minority students in primary schools and 3,097 in secondary schools. The primary school figure differs by over 7,000 from the official figures and by several thousand for secondary figures (depending what is included in the secondary figures. It is not clear why there is this discrepancy but it does seem when EDB refers to numbers it is often their own rather than the Census Bureau’s that they prefer. EDB, of course, is much closer to schools and is in a good position to conduct an on-the 2 The assumption of the following statistics is that the figure for primary enrolments in 2006 would be stable over time. In reality, students entering primary school in 2006 would not reach lower secondary until 2012, Upper Secondary in 2014 and Sixth Form in 2016. The projections made here, therefore, are based on assumed future enrolments not actual enrolments. 9 ground survey but we shall need to wait until the finalization of the 2010 census to get a better picture. In the government paper referred to above (Hong Kong SAR Government, 2008, p.7) there is a good picture of the spread of ethnic groups in Hong Kong schools. The table is reproduced below. Because DSS schools have been included as well it is not possible to see if there is a different distribution of ethnic groups between these two types of schools which in all possibility cater for different groups of students. Neither is it possible to tell from this data whether ethnic minority students are concentrated in CMI or EMI schools. As I said at the beginning of this section data sources are relatively new and there are considerable gap. Nevertheless Table 3 does provide an interesting picture of the range of ethnic groups, especially the concentrations of particular groups such as Pakistani, Indian, Nepalese and Filipino. But what else do we know about these students, particularly in relation to education? Table 3: Distribution of Student Ethnicities in Hong Kong Government and Direct Subsidy Schools, 2007-08 Primary Schools Secondary Schools Filipino 1025 620 Indonesian 71 38 Japanese 68 49 Korea 23 19 Thai 133 76 Indian 870 457 Pakistani 1948 833 Bangladeshi 43 29 Sri-Lankan 15 12 Vietnamese 75 37 Nepalese 885 538 Other Asian 64 39 Other ethnicities not classified above (including mixed) 451 350 Total 5671 3097 From: Hong Kong SAR Government (2008, p.7) 3.2 Ethnic minority students and learning As part of our research project on ethnic minority students and assessment 10 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? environments3 we have developed a new instrument. For the purposes of this paper I shall draw on selected results that include some scales from McInerney’s (1992) Inventory of School Motivation (ISM) and one scale from Brown and Hirschfield (2007, 2008) Students’ Conceptions of Assessment (SCoA). 3.3 Instruments ISM Scales_________ 1. Students’ attitudes to school work – particularly task orientation (4 questions) and effort (7 questions) 2. Students attitude to affective aspects of learning – particularly praise (5 items) and affiliation (3 items) SCoA Scale_________ 3. Students’ attitudes to assessment (8 questions) Students responded to each question using a five point scale (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree). Sample______ 106 Students in Grades 5 (61%) and 6 (38.1%) from two primary schools completed 106 surveys. Two were unusable leaving 104 to be analyzed. The average age of the sample was 10.85 years (SD=1.13) Of these, 47% were female and 53% were male. 56.7% were Chinese students with the remainder from ethnic minority students. Amongst these, 12.5% were Nepalese, 8.7% Pakistani, 7.7% Indian, 5.8% Filipino 1.9% American and 1% Thai with 4.8% represented by other ethnicities. Analysis________ Descriptive statistics were computed for each item and Cronbach’s reliability coefficient (α) is reported for each scale. 3 Exploring Cultural Diversity in Chinese Classrooms: Can Assessment Environments Cater for the Needs of Ethnic Minority Students in Hong Kong, [GRF-HKIEd840809] 11 Results______ Students’ attitudes to school work Figure 1 shows student orientation to tasks – all the questions are measuring much the same construct (α=.73 for Chinese students and .62 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority students scored slightly higher (M=5.46, SD=.66) than Chinese students (M=5.34, SD=.68) but these differences are not significantly different (t=.881). Two important points can be made about these results. First, ethnic minority students have very positive attitudes to work – these are not lazy students. Second, if we regard ‘orientations to school work’ as a single latent construct then ethnic minority students tend to endorse either end of the scale more positively than Chinese students. The most strongly endorsed aspect of the scale is ‘I like to see that I am doing better in my school work’ and this aspiration is shared by both Chinese and ethnic minority students. Figure 1: Students’ orientation to tasks Figure 2 shows students’ attitudes to the effort they put into their work. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.76 for Chinese students and .82 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority students scored slightly higher (M=5.30, SD=.79) than Chinese students (M=4.99, SD=.71) and the differences are statistically significantly different (t= 2.06, p < .05) and the size of the difference is moderate (d=.41). Yet these differences should not mask the fact that for both groups of students, effort is important. What is surprising, given the extent to which Chinese learners often attribute 12 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? Students’ attitudes to affective aspects of learning Figure 3 shows students’ attitudes to praise as a feature of classroom life. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.91 for Chinese students and .88 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority endorsed these items more strongly (M=4.93, SD=1.09) than Chinese students (M=3.97, SD=1.33). The differences are statistically significantly different (t= 3.97, p < .001) and the size of the difference is strong (d=.78). Ethnic minority students require praise to enhance their learning but it should be noted that Chinese students also endorse thence items positively – just not as positively as ethnic minority students. These students require praise from teachers, friends and family – with the latter rating very highly. This suggests the need for a particular kind of classroom and school environment for ethnic minority students – one characterized by positive feedback and regular encouragement both inside and outside the classroom. It could be assumed that where such environments do not exist, student learning will be negatively affected. effort rather than ability to their academic success, is the strength of the endorsement of ethnic minority students for the importance of effort in their learning. The largest difference along the latent construct is on the item, ‘I am always trying to do better in my school work’ suggesting that this is a very important learning attribute for ethnic minority students. Figure 2: Students’ attitudes to the effort they put into their work 13 Figure 3: Students’ attitudes to praise as a feature of classroom life Figure 4 shows students’ attitudes to working together as a learning process. The ethnic students’ responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.80) but for Chinese students there is little consistency in their responses (α =.33). This suggests that these items function differently for these different groups of students. For ethnic minority students working together is a more important part of their learning than it may be for Chinese students. We cannot compare the scale scores of the two groups of students because of the lack of scalability for the Chinese group. But it can be noted that ethnic minority students have responded very positively to these items while Chinese students are less positive although by no means negative on the individual questions. Further work is needed on both the construct itself (often referred to as ‘Affiliation’), the cultural contexts in which it is manifested and its impact on learning. Figure 4: Students’ attitudes to working together as a learning process 14 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? Figure 5 shows students’ attitudes to assessment, and in particular the use of classroom tests. The student responses to these questions are very consistent (α =.91 for Chinese students and .88 for ethnic minority students). Ethnic minority endorsed these items more strongly (M=4.69, SD=.84) than Chinese students (M=4.19, SD=.99). The differences are statistically significantly different (t= 2.48, p < .05) and the size of the difference is moderate (d=.53). Ethnic minority students ‘moderately’ or ‘mostly agree’ with these questions while Chinese students agree ‘slightly’ or ‘moderately’ agree. Thus the differences between the two groups is one of emphasis rather than any substantive disagreements. Given the predominance of testing in Hong Kong classrooms, these results indicate the relationship between testing and learning and I all probability effort given to learning as well. Thus the two most highly endorsed items for both groups of students are ‘our class works had before a test’ and ‘I like learning before a test’. The least strongly endorsed items for both groups relate to whether tests make students happy (‘tests make me happy’ and ‘when we are tested my class is happy”). According to Brown and Hirschfield (2008) this is not a bad thing since in their study when students thought assessment was fun they tended to perform poorly on mathematics achievement tests! Figure 5: Students’ attitudes to assessment While the data reported above cannot be taken as representative, since it is based on a small sample of primary school students, it does start to build a picture of ethnic minority students who want to learn, want to work with other students and who are not at all negative towards classroom testing practices. At the same time it is clear from these data that ethnic minority students, more so than Chinese students, require a learning 15 environment in which there is positive feedback on their performance and where they like to work with other students. That is to say, ethnic minority students’ orientations to learning are very positive and provide a good basis for academic achievement. A similar view of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students was highlighted by Hue (2011) in his qualitative studies of ethnic minority students and their families. Yet what is also clear from the demographic data presented at the beginning of this section, learning opportunities are not always available. This may be at the pre-primary or senior secondary level where the participation rates are lowest. Increasing participation rates at these levels will be important but probably of greater importance is the quality of education provided at the primary school level where the great bulk of ethnic minority students gain their educational experiences. These experiences can build on preprimary education and can prepare students for secondary education. How the quality of primary education for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong might be improved will be the focus of the final section of this paper. 4. Can the ‘no loser’ principle work for ethnic minority students? There are three levels at which this question can be addressed: policy, curriculum and pedagogy. Finally, the important area of teacher professional development will be considered. 4.1 Policy Previously the tension between different views of current policy for supporting educational provision of ethnic minority was described. Basically this tension is between providing support within a basically monocultural framework where ethnic minority students are expected to adopt the values of the dominant culture or recognizing the multicultural nature of many of Hong Kong’s schools and building policy that respects these multiple cultures and seeks to build them into more inclusive educational provision. It is important to recognize that at the school level this latter approach has already been adopted by individual schools although this is not a common practice. But what would it involve at the system level? What would multicultural education policy look like and what difference would it make? It is important to state at the outset, that in moving towards multiculturalism as a policy driver it is not necessary to adopt slavishly Western notions of multiculturalism. Will Kymlicka (1995, 2007) , the great advocate of liberal multiculturalism, has made 16 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? the point that his views were formed in the context of particular issues in Canada and may not be applicable in all contexts. He has acknowledged the distinctive Asian traditions related to diversity and the importance of these to framing local approaches to multiculturalism (Kymlicka & He, 2005). One such approach has recently been suggested in Singapore where the policy objective was seen to be better expressed as “social resilience” rather than multiculturalism per se because of “fears of social fragmentation along ethno-religious lines (that) have compelled governments of multicultural societies to devise policies and strategies to ensure their nations’ ability to cope with attacks on their social fabric” (Ramakrishna, 2008). This may seem like a somewhat extreme way of viewing the issue but it has to be recognized that international policy discourse since the unfortunate event of 11 September 2001 has not been in favour of an unbridled multiculturalism. Such an approach has the potential to break society into distinct and often oppositional social groups that can to undermine social cohesion and, in the worst case scenario lead to explicit conflict. Defining the balance between support for ethnic minorities and maintaining a cohesive society is now the challenge for twenty first century multiculturalism. For the Hong Kong government, the issue is to recognize that integration and assimilation may be better replaced by goals such as social resilience (Vasnu, 2007) and respect for diversity. Ethnic minorities have much to contribute to Hong Kong – socially and economically. They can work alongside the Chinese community to contribute to the development of a resilient society that values the common good, where there are no threats to the existence of any group, where there are equal opportunities for all groups and where the benefits of society can be shared. There is not time in this paper to look more deeply into the concept of social resilience but Vasnu (2007) and his colleagues have done that in the Singapore context so they are able to argue that political participation, the development of social capital and the development of a sense of rootedness all contribute to social resilience (Goh, 2007, p.36). Alongside social resilience, and complementary to it, must be respect for diversity. That is, difference in a socially resilient society must be valued. It may be racial, linguistic, sexual or religious difference but it must be seen as positive. The interaction between social resilience and difference will constantly bring society to a new level of awareness and understanding of its strengths, its values and its priorities. Thus multiculturalism does not have to be constructed in a way that automatically leads to social fragmentation. Social systems can change and adapt to new ways of thinking while maintaining structures and institutions that work in the interests of all citizens. This is the basic idea of social resilience that can support a diverse society with common goals and aspirations. It would provide a sound foundation for an inclusive 17 multicultural society in Hong Kong and could be considered as the basis of a new multicultural education policy. The implications of such a policy will be explored in relation to the school curriculum and its pedagogies in the following sections. 4.2 Curriculum The most pressing curriculum issue concerns the provision of Chinese language skills for ethnic minority students. The current approach as referred to earlier has championed a single curriculum for all students with the rationale that such an approach will provide the much needed language skills. At the same time such an approach reflects a commitment to monoculturalism rather than multiculturalism – it assumes that all students are the same and can be taught at the same pace and in the same way. Yet, in a socially resilient society, it would be recognized that a major curriculum change, such as introducing a Chinese as a Second Language Curriculum, would not be catastrophic and could be easily managed. Having two pathways to language competence for Hong Kong’s students will cater better for entry level skills, structure learning opportunities in a way to meet the needs of a group for whom Chinese is not a native language and send a message about the importance of language skills for all students. In a socially resilient society, the purpose of ensuring ethnic minority students have access to a sound Chinese curriculum is not so much to facilitate integration but to provide skills and capacities that will ensure ethnic minority students are able to contribute to their own future as well as that of Hong Kong. Socially resilient societies are prepared for change, for stress and for adaptation in a rapidly changing world. The relationship between language skills and competence in other curriculum areas is also an area that needs some exploration. Hau (2008, p. 11), for example, found that when ethnic minority students entered P1 with a high level of mathematical competence, they tended to do well in mainstream schools and often better than Chinese students. Yet many students who started out with poor competency levels showed no positive improvement at all. At the same time Hau (2008) reported low levels of Chinese competence amongst ethnic minority students. Could it be that when Chinese is the MoI in mathematics lessons for students whose language competence is already problematic, that this in itself would make progress very difficult? Hau (2008) does not make reference to this kind of interaction but since his report focuses on mainstream primary schools it can be assumed that the MoI for all classes is Chinese. This is an area worth investigating and I shall make some reference will be made to it in the following section. 18 The ‘No Loser’ principle in Hong Kong’s education reform: Does it apply to ethnic minority students? 4.3 Pedagogy The results of students’ preferences for classroom environment discussed earlier help us to understand better what might work better for ethnic minority students. Two aspects that stand out the importance of feedback and working together. This may mean that ethnic minority students will have more opportunities for learning in these kinds of environments. This requires teachers to think about the kind of learning environments they create in their classrooms and modifying them to especially meet the needs of ethnic minority students. Such environments, of course, will also support Chinese students – but they will be particularly helpful for ethnic minority students. In considering the kinds of interactions that go on in classrooms, some consideration needs to be given to Medium of Instruction (MoI). In the example provided above of ethnic minority students starting off with poor mathematical skills, it may be that where the MoI for the class is Chinese, some feedback and questioning could be in English since this is often a stronger area of competence for ethnic minority students than Chinese (Hau, 2008). That is to say, MoI can be differentiated to ensure that ethnic minority students receive the feedback they prefer in a language that they are sure to understand. This suggestion is likely to be controversial because it can equally be argued that complete immersion in Chinese is important – at least in the longer time term. Yet this is where the teacher’s judgment is so important. Do the students understand? Do they need more reinforcement, practice? Do they need to ask questions? Varying the MoI can thus help teachers find out about their students’ learning and then develop appropriate strategies and responses to follow up. If what students are telling us about classroom tests is indicative of attitudes to assessment, then teachers need to take advantage of what seems to be a positive attitude to testing and learning. Tests are not just ends in themselves – they are linked to learning in the minds of students. This link can be reinforced with students and it create an assessment environment that values student learning above all else. If such environments are also characterized by feedback and praise for achievement, then they will support ethnic minority students in particular but they will also support Chinese students. Assessment plays such a large part of life in Chinese classrooms that every effort needs to be made for assessment to be meaningful and relevant building on students desire to learn and providing feedback on the progress they are making in their learning journeys. Would classrooms look different if they adopted the kind of strategies mentioned 19 above? I think they would – more cooperative, more feedback, multilingual, focused on learning and achievement. These are classrooms that will meet the needs of all students but in particular they will support ethnic minority students who are committed to learning and need an appropriate environment to ensure they can reach their goals. 5. Conclusion There is a need to bring together policy, curriculum and pedagogy in a real attempt to ensure that the no loser principle will also apply to ethnic minority students. In a socially resilient society change should not be threatening and the contributions that all individuals and groups can make should be nurtured and valued. Cho, Willis & Stewart- Weeks (2011, p. 6) have pointed out that “the struggle for resilience will not be won within the walls of government agencies, but rather in the broadly distributed communities that they serve and with which they interact”. This means that all communities must be valued and must have a role to play in the development of the social fabric. Communities must be connected in meaningful ways since “the point of resilience is enabling people to maintain and improve the quality of lives they lead and the strength and capability of their communities in times of transition and risk. Resilience, in those conditions, relies heavily on the widespread capacity to connect for deep and authentic collaboration (Cho, Willis & Stewart-Weeks, 2011, p.9). Only communities that are equally valued will be able to connect and work together. Schools play a key role in contributing to connectedness in any society – ensuring that all students are treated fairly and provided with relevant curriculum and learning and guaranteed outcomes that will help them contribute in a productive way. This paper is a start in the direction of supporting greater connectedness for Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students by rethinking current educational provision. It is only in this way that the ‘no loser principle’ can be applied to ethnic minority students who, if allowed, can play an important role in contributing to Hong Kong as a resilient society. 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Retrieved November 5, 2011, from: http://www.timeout.com.hk/big-smog/features/46441/ racism-in-the-classroom.html 23 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 Chinese Language curriculum reform and the change of teacher working culture: Case studies of curriculum decision- making of Chinese Language teachers 高慕蓮 香港中文大學教育學院 李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 在學校層面，教師是課程決定的核心人物，教師在教學前或教學時必須做決定。香港中學 中文科新修訂的課程自 2002 年 9 月在全港各學校推出。整體上，新修訂的中文科課程擴展 了教師在課程與教學決定的範圍，亦增加教師參與協作及進行課程決定的機會。 本文是通過五所學校中一級教師參與課程決定的質性研究，了解教師在中文科組內如何參 與協作式的課程決定及受哪些因素影響課程決定。初步結果顯示，教師對協作的觀感影響 教師參與決定的投入程度，亦間接影響決定課程內容的深度。 25 關鍵詞 課程決定，協作，課程改革，教學計劃 Abstract In an education system, teachers play a crucial role in making curriculum decisions prior to, or during teaching. The New Edition of the Chinese Language Curriculum was introduced in all secondary schools in Hong Kong in September 2002. The New Edition has extended the work scope of the teachers in their curriculum and teaching decision making. In addition to this, it provides more opportunities for teacher collaboration and curriculum decision making. The present research started in the second year after the introduction of the New Edition of the Chinese Language Curriculum. By applying qualitative research methods, five schools were chosen as case studies, with the teachers of Secondary One as key informants, to explore the state of teachers’ participation in the curriculum decision making, to understand how the curriculum decisions were made within the Chinese Language panels, and to investigate the factors influencing the decision making. The initial findings revealed that teachers’ perceptions of collaboration may influence the degree of contribution and involvement of the teacher. It will also indirectly affect the decision making of the depth of content. Keywords curriculum decision making, collaboration, curriculum reform, teaching plan 甲、研究背景 二十一世紀香港課程改革由提升教師專業能力及建立教師協作文化作為序幕，而中學 中文科新修訂的課程，自 2002 年 9 月在全港各學校推出，迄今已超過十年；有關中文科的 課程與教學研究不少，在新課程推出初期，有蔡若蓮、周健、黃顯華等（2002）整理了部 份中文科教師對試行計劃的經驗；在課程實施了一段時間後，有黃顯華、李玉蓉等在 2006 26 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 年（2006a，2006b，2006c，2006d，2006e，2006f，2006g）出版了一系列總結中學中國語 文課程實施評鑑研究的成果。在課程推出五年後，教育界及學者則希望進一步了解，有哪 些因素影響教師參與學校層面的課程改革？劉潔玲（2006）認為若教師對新課程有較多的 知識和實踐經驗，對他們採用能力導向的教學模式有正面的幫助。譚彩鳳（2010）指出， 教師進行校本課程決定時，受個人因素（意願、信念、知識、能力）及外在因素（教學的 文化、課程領導、公開考試及時間）影響。上述研究指出教師個人的專業知識、信念及改 革經驗對參與課程改革的積極性都有影響；但除了個人因素之外，教師同時受情境脈絡的 影響，目前中文科課程的轉變，從編選多樣化的學習材料，到組織有效的課堂及設計多元 化的評估方式，單靠個別教師自己一個人去做，未必能夠應付，所以有效的中文科新課程 實施有需要結合教師的團隊協作和集體決定。 理論上如果增加教師協作，有助教師解決在新課程改革時面對的挑戰。然而一般中文 科教師在舊課程的運作期間，很少參與學科層面的決定，如今需要在新修訂課程的脈絡下 與同儕協作，對教師來說是一種文化的轉變（黃顯華、李玉蓉，2006a）；但過往十年有關 科組如何協作的探究相對較少。教師在改革過程如何協作及參與課程決定，是香港課程改 革繼續深化及整固的一個重要議題。 高慕蓮與李子建在 2001 年的研究指出，協作有助教師共同解決在新課程推出時所面對 的問題。當時個案學校的中一級教師參與中文科新課程的試行計劃後，通過教師參與、投 入及合作的工作關係，在實踐過程中解決了很多困難，令教師對新課程的推行比前有信心。 不同學者及研究都指出「變革」涉及學習新的事物，而互動是社會學習的基礎，因此如果教 師間能多交換心得，互相幫助，以及建立對工作的熱誠，課程創新的實施便有較高的成功機 會。若教師孤身作戰，與同事間缺乏坦誠溝通，欠缺互相支持和幫助，學校改善便會裹足 不前（Sarason, 1982；李子建、黃顯華，1996，頁 331；高慕蓮、李子建，2001，頁 44）。 黃顯華、李玉蓉（2006a）也在新課程推出後進行課程實施的評鑑研究，研究指出教師 對新課程最關注的是「結果／協作」階段。教師對同事之間的協作表示出頗強的要求，希 望與同事建立工作上的關係，特別在教學工作協調上，以取得更佳的實施效果。 27 上述的研究都認同科組需要建立協作的文化；同時通過群體參與決定，有助推動課程 的發展；但協作需要哪些條件？教師在新課程推出後，理論上要結束習慣多時的個人化、 單打獨鬥式的工作文化；通過正式或非正式的協作方式，共同解決課程轉變過程中出現的 種種教與學的問題；但教師對協作有甚麼看法？在科組內教師的協作關係如何影響課程決 定內容的深度及廣度？這是教育界關注的焦點，研究者擬通過本研究所得出的研究成果， 希望為香港未來十年的課程改革提供持續發展的方向。 乙、文獻探討 一、 課程決定的意涵 有些學者將“decision making”譯作「決定」也有譯為「決策」；本研究就選用「決 定」一詞。所謂「決定」，是指一個人或一群人，就課程中的分析、計劃執行、評鑑等問 題，研究可行的方案後，從其中做合適的選擇（杜美智、遊家政，1998，頁 76；高新健， 1991；黃政傑，1992）。不同課程計劃層級的工作者，都承擔著課程決定的責任 (蔡清田、 雲大維，2007，頁 93；甄曉蘭，2004）；所以中央課程落到學校層面或課室層面，教師就 要從課程籌劃（plan）到實施（implement），由表面的改革到深層的改革等進行一連串的 解難和選擇過程。 決定是選擇、篩選、判斷、解難的思考過程。在課程改革的過程中，教師會經常面對 種種有待解決的問題，課程與教學是影響學習成果的關鍵因素；只有選擇或發展合適的 課程，同時靈活運用各種教學法將課程內容呈現給學生，才能順利達成目標（徐世瑜， 1998，頁 1）。 至於課程決定大致可歸納為教學計劃、教學實施和教學評量等三個階段；而課程決定 的範圍則包括：教學目標、教材選擇與組織、教學活動設計及教學評量等課程元素（杜美 智、游家政，1998，頁 80-85）。簡良平（2002）則認為課程決定內容是意指「應該如何」 （what should be），包括應該教甚麼內容，受教的人是誰，哪些知識應該被傳遞與傳遞的 方式，教學原則應該如何等等；每個部份經判斷後都有所抉擇，即課程決定。決定過程不 可避免是以「人」為決定的主體，因而會有不同的考量和權衡，且涉及觀念差異與價值不 28 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 同的抉擇。 二、 影響課程決定的因素 杜美智（1997）認為影響課程決定因素可分為個人因素及情境因素。教師知識、能力； 個人因素大致與教師專業素養及信念有關，包括教師一般知能、教師知識、能力；教師的 教育信念、價值、興趣和嗜好。情境因素包括學校層面、社區層面及社會層面，在學校層 面的教學方面有師生互動、同事間的討論；在行政方面有教學支援的提供及行政的干涉（劉 雅心，1998，頁 48）。 1. 個人因素 教師的知識能力在教師面臨選擇做決定時，是一項重要的決定因素（陳伯璋， 1995）。具備豐富的一般知識，有助於選擇多元化的教材；具備良好的溝通能力，有利 於獲得社區人士的支援；具有良好的統整、批判能力，能協助教師做課程決定。教師的專 業知能，會影響教師的教學效果。教師如果重視教育工作的過程績效，則會注意教學方 法的改進，熟悉教材內容、留意學童的學習，追求最好的教育成效（吳清基，1989，頁 115）。教師要為所做的教學決定（instructional decision）負責，因此教師必須瞭解教學目 標才能掌握教學，瞭解教學的環境，才能客觀的看待教學行為。此外還要瞭解學童的發展、 教學的內容及運用教學資源的能力（李俊湖，1992；Tye, 1971, p.462-465）。教師的教學 成效良好，則表示教師能有效的達成教學目標，另一方面則意味着教師在教學過程中所做 的課程決定是有效的。因此，教師要相信自己就是專家，加強進修、研究，探究課程的新 理念、目標精神及實施的方法（歐用生，1992，頁 49）。有良好的專業知能才能做出適當 的課程決定。而 Hawthorne（1992）認為教師具備專業的知識也是重要的，因為這種專業 的知識、能力，使不同教師在處理某些課題，或採用教學技巧時出現程度的差異。 2. 情境因素 這裏主要是探討科組層面及學校的行政支援層面兩方面。科組層面方面，Hawthorne （1992, p.124）的研究顯示科主任及同事之間的支援及關懷的關係，提供了教室與學 校的之間保護及非正式的社會制度，成為課室與外在管理環境的緩衝（buffer）及職責 （obligation）。Brown, Boyle & Boyle（1999, p.323）提出科組可以積極參與學校層面的工 29 作，令學校的政策措施更配合學科的發展及容易學科有更大的專業自主空間。學科或學校 可以通過機制、文化的推動，讓教師增強協作，產生共力；將個人的力量凝聚，讓團隊逐 步發展成互相學習的專業社群。本研究擬探討中文科教師，在一個級組內如何進行互動及 如何作課程決定？同時希望了解教師對協作的觀點和看法，如何影響課程決定內容的深廣 度？ 在學校的行政制度的支援方面，在黃顯華、李玉蓉（2006a）的研究資料顯示，無論科 組是有意識地改變工作文化，還是為應付實際需要，不少都以建立制度的方式，希望教師 能透過交流和協作，從而更有效地實施新課程，較為普遍的做法是引入共同備課節及同儕 觀課的措施。 丙、研究特色 過去的研究單位多是個人、學校、科目甚至整個課程，但較少探討一個科組內教師之 間進行的互動情況。本研究是有關一個級別的中文科教師，在進行單元教學前計劃的質化 研究。這裡提到的教學計劃應該是一個單元完整的計劃，包括配合單元目標，選擇合適的 教學內容與教材；組織學習內容、經驗，以至評估；有關整體單元的教學構思與過往中文 科的單篇範文教學年代，教師可以拿著教科書就可以進入課堂的情況有很明顯的差異，如 果每個單元都只由一位教師承擔調適教材及設計教學活動等工作，教師會感到非常吃力。 課程實施能否成功固然教師是一個關鍵的人物，面對改革的任務，希望教師能共同協 作。協作可能是一組人、一個學科。本研究的焦點是中一級，一個級組內的協作及參與決 定過程。研究者相信，教師在單元教學前進行仔細的計劃時，有助級組內所有成員解決級 組內的教學問題，增加實施時的信心，同時有助提升教學的質素。 本研究主要搜集科組教師參與課程決定資料的時間 2003-2004 年。這段時間剛好是中 學中文科新課程剛實施了第二年，屬於課程變革的第一階段；而課程決定步驟則選教師進 入課室前教學計劃階段的決定，對教師而言，在改革的初期，較多關注的是對教材的調適， 較難兼顧教學及評估方法的轉變。當年課程改革只在起步的階段，學校配合課程轉變而作 30 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 出的行政支援尚在發展的初期，很多的學校仍未有備課節，就算有，也未必安排在上課時 間及計算在教師工作量內。 今天，課程改革已經實施超過了十年，很多學校在行政方面可以作出備課節的安排， 但有了時間未必能保證教師能善用時間進行專業交流及積極參與課程決定。學校提供備課 節，的確增加了教師的互動及協作的機會，但一般教師長期習慣了個人工作的模式，忽然 之間在行政安排下一起進行教學規劃；有了協作的空間，也同時增加衝突、矛盾的機會； 究竟哪一種協作方式較有效益？在過去十年，這方面的研究不多。其實在 2004 年前後，研 究者為了研究中文科組教師參與課程決定的情況，曾走訪超過十所學校，但最後只能選取 五所學校作為研究對象，原因是部份學校及科組教師保護性很強，不想坦誠交流；要長期、 深入探索香港學科成員之間的工作文化及互動的情況並不容易；故此本研究所得的資料彌 足珍貴，相信不只對中文科的科組如何建立協作文化及提高教師參與課程決定意欲具啟發 意義，也能作為其他學科發展的參考！ 丁、研究設計 一、 研究問題 本研究原先共有四個問題，基於篇幅關係，現集中處理和討論以下研究問題： 教師的關係如何影響教師對協作的觀感及課程決定內容的深廣度？ 二、 研究方法 本研究選用目的性抽樣關鍵個案（陳向明，2006，頁 44），研究取樣是選擇有備課節 及沒有備課節的學校。為什麼會將備課節作為關鍵元素？原因是以往教師較多參與課室的 教學決定，新課程要求教師較多參與整體的課程規劃，本研究是探討教師如何通過協作， 為進入課室前做教學的計劃；另一方面是次課程改革較前複雜，既要講求發展校本特色的 單元或課程，又要改變現有的教學模式及評估方法；在課程計劃、資料蒐集、教材編寫、 課程評鑑等規劃的過程中，需要時間討論及協商。 如果利用課餘時間，不僅時間不夠，也會遭致教師的不滿。研究者相信學校如果能為 31 教師創造空間，讓他們有較固定的時間對課程及學習內容的轉變有更多作討論及思考機 會，對解決中文科新課程種種教與學的問題一定有幫助。研究者認為備課節可以提供一個 協作的機會，也可以讓教師從個人的、孤獨的工作習慣走出來，與科組成員共同尋找有效 的教與學策略。在 2003-2004 年質素保證視學周年報告 1 第 4.5 節中文科視學部份，提到學 校中文科為配合課程發展趨勢推展課程新措施學校，已初步開展集體備課及同儕觀課，以 促進教師的交流和協作（頁 45）。該報告內雖然沒有指出共有多少所學校設有集體備課節， 但經研究者非正式觀察及網上的資料記載 2 有些學校在當年已開始安排共同備課的時間， 讓教師進行交流；因此，本研究選樣的時候就包括這兩種學校，一種是有備課節的學校， 一種是沒有備課節的學校。 1. 個案選擇及搜集資料方法 本研究的焦點是中一級一組教師在新課程推出後，在校內，為課程實施前作計劃的課 程決定，這是屬於學校層面的決定（Goodlad, 1979）。教師參與課程決定的形式可以通過 正式的備課節，也可以通過非正式的溝通時間，例如在課間召開非正式的會議討論與課程 發展問題相關的課程決定。研究者從學校和教師的典型性、差異性等特徵考慮；在研究過 程中，第一輪共選了十一所學校，在十一所學校中再由所得的資料豐富程度（包括文件資 料、會議密度、訪談內容）及參與協作決定的情況的獨特性再選取五所學校的資料作進一 步分析（個案一至五）。第二輪學校篩選是一個逐漸聚焦的過程（progressive focusing） （Stake, 1995；黃顯華、李玉蓉，2006g，頁 39）；而所選的五所學校，則形成嵌入式多 個案研究設計（Yin, 2003, p.40）。 在個案典型性特徵方面，五所學校的收生情況接近、資料呈現的資料相對豐富及完整、 對學科如何準備新課程、教師在參與決定時的影響因素及課程決定的內容等相關材料都有 清楚展示，這些資料有助進一步分析教師的協作關係、如何做課程決定及影響課程決定的 因素。 1 連結：http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annualreport_03-04_chi.pdf 2 連結：http://www.bmf.edu.hk/lys/lesson_study/lesson_study_reources02-03/doc/handbook.doc 32 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 研究者亦會嘗試找出學校之間的差異性，如地區、校齡及不同教師組合的差異；另一 方面也考慮不同學校的脈絡之間的差異，如科主任帶領、備課節的安排、協作文化、學科 改革經驗、使用教科書抑或進行校本教材設計等，以增強研究資料的外部推廣性（external generalize ability）（Yin, 2003, p.53）。 至於搜集資料的方法則採用了觀察、半結構式訪談及分析單元教學設計文件等方式，探 討教師對協作的觀感及其對課程決定內容的影響。 2. 個案學校的特色 表一 五所學校的基線資料 個案一 個案二 個案三 個案四 個案五 學校區域 香港島（南） 香港島（東） 新界西 新界東 新界東 校齡 超過二十年 超過二十年 十年之內 超過二十年 超過二十年 教齡 新舊混合 有一定教齡 十至二十年 之間 相對年輕，級內有 三人第一年出來工 作就在這所學校 全部十年以 上 新舊混合 科主任 帶領 科主任任教中 一，主持備課 節 副科主任沒 有 任 教 中 一，出席備 課節，傳播 經驗 科主任任教中一， 參與備課節，但只 是其中一位成員 初中科主任 任教中一， 責任是召集 教師開非正 式會議 初中科主任第 一 年 任 教 中 一，對教科書 及新課程尚在 摸索階段 備課節 有（ 計 算 教 節） 有（不算教 節） 有（計算教節） 沒有 沒有 教師關係／ 溝通形式 工 作 關 係 良 好，有正式時 間溝通及非正 式時間溝通 關係疏離， 只有正式時 間溝通 工作關係良好，有 正式時間溝通及非 正式時間溝 教師私下感 情良好，有 非正式時間 溝通 人 際 關 係 良 好，有非正式 時間 使用教科書／ 校本教材 使用教科書 使用教科書 使用教科書 使用校本教 材 使用教科書 課 程 決 定 內 容、範圍（深 廣度） 減少使用教科 書，單元調適 考慮不同的課 程元素 以教科書為 主導，單元 調適多刪少 補 第一年使用教科 書，以教科書為 主，內容少增刪， 單元調適補充資料 （如課後練習）及 考慮教學方法； 學科配合學校的制 度，有進行教學探 究活動 以校本教材 為 基 礎， 單元調適主 要是補充教 學資料（練 習、文章） 以教科書為主 導，單元調適 多刪少補 33 戊、資料分析與討論 本研究通過從訪談觀察及文件所得的資料進行分析。研究者共訪問了 24 位教師，了解 教師對新課程的看法、對協作觀感；在正式、非正式的溝通時間進行哪些課程決定？教師 認為科組及學校哪些因素影響級組內教師的課程決定？由於篇幅所限，本文只集中分析教 師的協作觀感與影響課程決定的因素。 研究者在訪談時徵得教師的同意才錄音，錄音後，將整篇訪談資料作文字轉譯，然後 將資料編碼及按研究問題歸納、分類。將資料分類後，將分析焦點放在影響課程決定的因 素及課程決定內容、質素（深度、廣度）。將資料分類後，並參考文件分析結果及會議紀 錄，尋找資料中所呈現的主題、共通點及個別學校的特殊情況（黃顯華、李玉蓉，2006a， 頁 9）。至於觀察，研究者會參加三所學校（個案一、二、三），在正式課堂時間的會議。 研究者由 2004 年 2 至 5 月期間，選學校其中一個單元參與中一級內的備課節會議。沒有正 式備課節的學校由於教師隨時有空就召開非正式會議，基本上很難預先知會研究者，所以 研究者沒有參與個案四、五學校的非正式會議。至於有安排正式備課節的學校，一個單元 內，研究者會參與一至兩次會議，觀察的對象，主要是與會的級組教師的互動情況、級組 會議的氣氛及選擇哪些課程議題討論等。在會議過程中，為了減少教師對研究員的戒心及 顧慮，研究者沒有錄音，每一次會議均全程用紙筆紀錄重點，做筆記；在離開場景後盡快 整理資料。觀察的資料對引證教師的訪談內容很有幫助。尤其是描寫級組成員的關係及教 師參與課程決定的意願，會將研究者在觀察過程中的所見所聞描述出來。 除了 2003-2004 年系統搜集資料的時間，研究者於 2007 年 2 月至 3 月，研究者第二次 進入場景以確認資料。研究者將個案資料整理後再到學校與部份教師會談及核實資料（經 教師簽署並確認）；研究者亦通過訪談，了解過去兩年學科的發展狀況，雖然這不是本研 究的範圍，不過研究者也能掌握最新的學校信息，令人憂慮的是一般學科的發展仍是比較 緩慢，實際的教學環境沒有多大變化。不過令研究者有意外發現的是教師的價值觀及信念 原來不會因為時間而有很大的轉變。在 2007 年 4 月至 5 月，研究者第三次進入場景，這 一次是要找出資料所呈現的主題；因為在撰寫討論及結論過程中，就有關核心問題，如影 響課程決定的因素，教師對某些重要概念的觀感，例如在參與決定階段教師是分擔工作抑 34 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 或是賦權承責？教師的調適概念是純粹是教科書的調適抑或包含新舊課程的調適；研究員 在下結論之前，再次與個案學校部分教師在電話及訪談中討論（同時經錄音及文字轉譯處 理），希望能進一步引證研究者的推論。 從不同教師對同一個訪談內容所表達的意見收集後，研究員會將各人提供的資料作參 考、對照及比較，以作為三角檢證之用；有些時候，研究者亦會對比訪談的內容與會議觀 察作印證。三角檢證（triangulation）是質化研究保證效度的慣用策略。本研究採用的是資 料三角檢證。研究員會在同一所學校，向不同的教師問相同的問題，試圖從不同人身上了 解他們對相同問題的看法。這一類的問題，多數是課程決定的觀感及影響課程決定的因素。 有些時候，研究者亦會對比訪談的內容與會議觀察作印證；如教師對協作觀感與她／他在 集體備課會議時的表現是否一致？研究者亦會在不同時間，向同一個人，問相同的問題； 以尋求教師對相同的問題是否有一致的看法，而這一類的問題多數涉及教師價值判斷及重 要觀念，例如對語文教與學的看法。 研究資料初步顯示，教師協作觀感與教師對課程理解有直接關係，與課程決定形式及 內容有間接關係。要是教師認為新課程的改革幅度大，轉變的範圍廣，他們就較認同教師 需增加協作；相反，要是教師認為是次課程改革仍只屬於教科書層面的改革，其他的教學 範疇沒有明顯的轉變，教師未必有強烈的協作需要。 一、 教師對協作的理解影響對參與協作的態度 綜合個案的資料顯示，個案一相信集體的力量的確比個人的力量大。教師認為新課程 需要教師參與協作。通過協作，可以減少孤獨，可以互補。通過協作，教師得出啟示，就 是不一定要跟共同意見的人才可以合作。備課節提供協作平台。 科主任也利用學校開放日及外評等機會，讓教師參與協作。由於經常溝通、合作，拉 近教師之間對一些觀念的看法，例如要實施課程時有理想的效果，就要先管好學生的秩序。 持續的協作和溝通，有助建立和諧的同儕關係。教師協作的範圍包括共同進行計劃，分享 教學資源及教學經驗。 35 個案二教師對協作的理解是單方面的支援。有經驗的教師覺得自己有責任將經驗傳給 新任教中一的教師；學校安排教師的共同備課節時間，這是提供協作的平台，但教師除了 分享教學資源，沒有其他協作的範圍。教師之間只有工作關係，同儕的關係一般，沒有開 放、坦誠的溝通，只能進行有限度的協作。 個案三教師普遍認同新課程需要教師參與協作。教師對協作的理解是主動分享及互相 支持。一方面因為學校的政策又需要教師協作，例如課堂觀摩探究、啟導計劃。學科的文 化，也是鼓勵教師一起合作以解決問題，教師有緊密的工作關係，能夠進行開放、坦誠的 溝通。教師協作的範圍包括分享教學資源及教學經驗。 個案四教師對協作的理解是有需要就伸出援手，提供支援。主要是因為教師基本上掌 握新課程，在正常的情況下大家可以各自處理自己的問題。沒有備課節，教師很少正式協 作的機會。不過教師之間有穩定的感情基礎，故此協作的範圍可包括分享教學資源及教學 經驗。 個案五教師視協作等於求助而不是互相依賴。教師是意識到新課程需要教師參與協 作，不過沒有備課節，教師沒有正式協作的機會。協作是隨機的，有限度的；故此協作的 範圍主要是分享教學資源。由於同儕關係不錯，關係算融洽，偶然也會分享教學經驗。 二、 影響教師對協作觀感的因素 視協作為單方面的支援，教師只會進行隨機、有限度的協作；分享的範圍主要是教學 資源。視協作為互相支持、互補，教師才會有不同層面的協作，如共同計劃、進行專業溝 通，也會主動分享不同的經驗，包括成功、失敗的教學經驗。 36 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 表二 影響協作觀感的校內因素 個案一 個案二 個案三 個案四 個案五 協 作 理 解 認同協作 部分人認為 有 需 要 協 作，協作是 單方面的支 援 認同協作願意分享 認同部分範圍需 要協作，其他的 時間基本獨立， 但有需要就會互 相支援 平時獨立，有 需 要 就 伸 出 援手，協作是 有 需 要 的 支 援 過 往 經 驗 新課程實施前， 開始有協作機會 （說話能力培訓、 校本單元設計）； 在新課程推出後， 協作可以解決單 元調適及課堂教 學問題 新課程實施 前少合作機 會 學校有協作文化， 不同科組之間也有 合作機會 在新課程實施前 有參與訂定校本 教材的經驗；有 機會合作 在 新 課 程 實 施前少合作， 個 別 教 師 教 同 一 級 就 有 合作機會 同 儕 關 係 從工作建立互信 關係，比較和諧、 開放 純粹是工作 關係，平時 少交往、溝 通，人際關 係比較疏離 有一半教師通過工 作建立緊密的協作 關係，有默契、互 相體諒 有感情基礎，關 係良好 工 作 關 係， 平時會交談， 有商有量 政 策 、 措 施 有備課節，有固 定的溝通時間 有備課節， 但只限於固 定時間才接 觸 a. 學校工作多、變 革多，令教師習 慣要一起合作 b. 科組內有協作文 化，就算新的教 師也容易受感染 c. 有備課節 d. 有教研部推動教 學探究 沒有備課節，隨 機協作，有時間 就溝通 沒有備課節， 有 事 就 隨 機 協作 領 導 能 力 大力推動協作， 建立工作常規， 給予教師清楚的 目標及權責，鼓 勵教師積極協作， 一起解決問題 欠清晰的目 標及指引， 教師的權責 不清楚 訂定常規，給予清 楚的權責 有需要就主動召 集會議，一起商 討解決補充教材 問題 欠清晰目標， 無規定權責 其 他 友校分享過程中 得到認同，知道 團隊協作能夠做 更多的工作，例 如設計全級的學 習活動、計劃完 整的單元 少非正式的 溝通，也少 互相了解增 進感情的機 會 非正式溝通機會多， 例如一起參與專業 發展活動 爭取非正式溝通 時間 工作量多、工 餘 少 非 正 式 接觸 37 教師在科組內與同級或科內的同儕在新課程實施前是否有合作機會或成功經驗，影響 教師對協作的觀感及參與協作的意願。個案一、三、四的教師在新課程前也有或多或少的 合作機會，教師比較容易認同協作的需要；教師有合作機會，則是因為有改革項目，或者 跨科組的合作課題；至於個案二、五的教師學校及學科層面的改革相對較少，教師也較少 合作的機會。 教師的關係則影響教師參與協作的積極程度，間接影響教師討論問題的開放程度及課 程決定的深度。教師之間未必一定要有感情關係，如個案一、三教師通過工作建立互信關 係及緊密的夥伴關係也可以令教師在較開放、自由的環境下討論不同的課程議題；相反， 個案二的教師因為過往少合作、少溝通及聊天的機會，教師的關係比較疏離，他們不容易 敞開胸懷討論深層的問題，以及一起進行大膽創新的嘗試，因此課程決定的深度受限制。 關係是了解中國人社會行為的核心概念（黃懿慧，2001，頁 21）。關係，在黃光國（1988） 的「資源」意義下，亦可稱為「人情」。（黃懿慧，2001，頁 31）。對中國人而言，關係 的密切程度，與對別人信任程度成正相關（Greif and Tabellini, 2012）。本研究發現，中文 科內級組成員的關係建基於教師長期積累的倚賴、信靠的基礎；建立和諧、友善、開放的 關係，使教師一起工作會比較輕鬆、投入；反之則相對拘謹、疏離。關係不是靠正式的溝 通時間及制度連繫；關係是對人的可靠、信賴的持續考驗，沒有共同經歷，很難建立深厚 的關係。 如果有政策及措施推動協作，會為協作及參與課程決定創造良好的土壤；個案一、二、 三學校有備課節，教師可以在正式、固定的時間溝通，可以增加協作及溝通的機會，令彼 此增加了解。不過有政策也要配合適當的工作常規，有清楚的權責分配，令教師知道自己 在科組內參與的角色，否則會像個案二一樣，教師只認為自己有責任出席備課節會議，但 沒有清楚要完成的任務，部分教師就會變得被動、倚賴；個案四、五教師的關係不錯，可 惜學校沒有安排正式的備課節，只能靠隨機的分享、合作，有需要的才走在一起，未必能 充分利用團隊的力量。 政策、措施提供環境，領導（如科主任）就要做推動的工作。在科內如果有清楚的目 標及任務，有互相默認的常規，再加上領導的帶領，就容易凝聚眾人的力量，發揮共力。 38 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 個案一領導的推動是一個成功的例子；個案一、三由科主任建立工作的常規，令所有教師 既有分工，又有合作的機會；個案三的教研部推動很多革新項目，需要教師與人一起工作 及完成計劃；個案四的初中科主任在有需要時召開會議，也令教師能在非正式的時間走在 一起，共同解決問題；沒有時間、沒有領導支持的個案五，教師縱有良好關係，也不容易 經常走在一起，解決教學問題。 故此，教師的個人層面對協作的觀感是受過往經驗、關係、科組及學校層面的互動影 響；科組是建立常規、凝聚個人，推動協作的中介者，尤其是（科主任）領導；而學校則 是提供協作的重要環境。 另一方面教師對協作的理解也影響科組內的合作模式，如屬單方面的支援（如個案 二），基於這種協作的理解，級組內只有部分人付出，不是人人參與，未必能長久。 有需要才支援（如個案四、五），有這樣的協作理解，證明教師仍然擺脫不了個人主 義，協作只是當教師面對困難或未掌握所需技巧時，大家才需要走在一起；問題解決了， 大家又可以走回自己的課室內，很少需要與人一起工作。 感覺同事一起工作是互相倚賴及互補（如個案一、三），這種協作的觀感顯示了各人 都要貢獻力量，又能借助其他人的強項解決自己的問題；相信在課程改革過程中，大家在 一個平等參與的狀態下，最能保持長久的協作關係。 三、 教師的協作對課程決定內容的影響 當教師視協作為單方面的支援，教師只會進行隨機、有限度的協作；分享的範圍主要 是教學資源；課程決定內容跳不出教科書的框框。以教科書主導的學校中，教師只著重教 甚麼的問題，在備課節的會議內重點討論的是篩選、刪減那些教學內容，而很少考慮不同 的課程元素，如多元的教學法及評估方式等；課程決定的內容就傾向較為狹窄、表面。 視協作為互相支持、互補，教師才會有不同層面的協作，如共同計劃、進行專業溝通， 也會主動分享不同的經驗，包括成功、失敗的教學經驗；教師在參與課程決定時，著眼於 39 如何教、甚至是為什麼這樣教等問題上。在備課節的會議內，重點討論的是學生如何學得 好，以及怎樣教得有效的問題。教師會考慮不同的課程元素，如選擇及組織學習內容，考 慮多元的教學策略及評估方法等，課程決定的內容可拓展至深、廣程度。 己、總結 學校政策引入協作的機制只是團隊發展的第一步，它既可以是強迫協作，也可以轉向 進化成互相倚賴的團隊協作（Grimmett & Crehan, 1992, p.79-80），問題是學校是否善加利 用這個機制。在一個級組內如果能及建立信任及和諧關係能為課程決定提供有利的條件， 劉冠華（2010，頁 163）的研究得出以下的結論：和諧的工作氣氛及工作愉快的感覺影響 教師的留職意願、組織認同及努力意願。不同的同儕關係，對參加課程決定的影響如下： 以感情基礎為主的同事關係，關係較深；再加上大家都有接近的性向、價值，教師能動性 較大。教師參與協作及進行決定的意欲也相對強，因為朋友的事，也是自己的事；有人情 的元素，萬事好商量。這與黃懿慧（2001）描述中國人的關係因為有了人情面子，可以增 進合作機率的說法是一致的（頁 30-31）；成功夥伴的基本特徵是包括承諾、合作、信任、 溝通質量、參與以及共同解決問題等要素（朱吉慶、李金早，2006，頁 147）。所以學校 就算沒有正式的溝通時間，教師自己也會想法解決問題；由級組成員自己安排非正式的溝 通時間交流，無礙教師進行討論及決定。 另一方面互相信任亦是促成課程決定的要訣，Johnston（1995）、簡良平（2001）、 Meier（2005）及 John（2001）都同時指出不管是小組層面、學校層面的決定，建立互信 及和諧的關係都是一個重要的因素；信任加強體諒，可接納多元的意見。培養信任的基礎， 有助個案學校討論及決定不同課程議題。有信任，可以面對複雜的議題，減少磨合的時間； 有信任，也有利學校推出創新的措施，讓教師參與創新的決定、同時願意接受較具挑戰的 任務；故此信任的基礎也有助教師願意承擔額外的任務。 至於信任的元素包括可靠、有能力（Tschannen-Moran, 2000; Tzafrir, 2005）及開放 （Tschannen-Moran, 2000; Tzafrir, 2005; Mishra, 1996）；同時相信對方有良好的意圖（Chou et al., 2006; Meier, 2005）。坦誠的溝通基於信任，信任令級組內教師對其他人的意見都很 40 中文課程改革與教師工作文化的轉變── 中文科教師課程決定個案研究 尊重，從沒有人對一些不成熟的意見或者對某些人的說話表現出不耐煩。基於互相信任、 尊重及和諧的協作關係，就能幫助級組教師拉近在課程實施的距離。 由於時間、資源及複雜的學校微政治因素限制，本研究只能針對中一級一個級組內的 教師，就其中一個單元的教學計劃過程及內容進行觀察及分析；而課程決定的過程複雜， 除了小組協作的層面外，亦涉及個人的信念、領導及學校等範疇，研究者未能對所有影響 教師課程決定的因素進行深入探究。 參考文獻 朱吉慶、李金早（2006）。〈私人關係對業務關係質量的影響──以上海、蘇州銀行業為例〉。 《蘭州學刊》，第 9 期，147-150。 佛教茂峰法師紀念中學課堂教學研習計劃教師手冊（02-03 年度）。2012 年 8 月 10 日，取 自 http://www.bmf.edu.hk/lys/lesson_study/lesson_study_reources02-03/doc/handbook.doc。 吳清基（1989）。〈國民小學課程發展的趨勢〉。《現代教育》，第四卷第二期，3-23。 李子建、黃顯華（1996）。《課程：範式、取向和設計》。香港：中文大學出版社。 李俊湖（1992）。〈國小教師專業成長與教學效能關係之研究〉，碩士學位論文。台北：國 立台灣師範大學，教育研究所。 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Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 44 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 回顧學校中文科課程改革── 談課程改革與教師專業發展 A review of the Chinese Language curriculum reform in a school - Curriculum reform and teachers’ professional development 簡加言 香港中學語文教育研究會 摘要 本文是一篇教學經驗分享的篇章，以作者曾任教的學校為例，分享老師參與教育局推行的「課 程改革」後的成效。內容集中談教師在編寫課本和試教中總結出一套教學法；課程改革的成 果得到了各方面的肯定，參與的老師在過程中鍛煉了一種「研究」的能力和面對「變更」的 能力。不經意間把整個課程改革的過程變成了教師專業成長和發展的過程。老師總結了成功 的經驗，並與其他前線教師分享，促進交流。文章最後更寄語同行繼續努力，輕鬆面對變動。 關鍵詞 課程改革，教師發展，教育專業 Abstract This article aims to share the teaching experience of the author. Taking her school as an example, the author shares the achievement after participating in the “Curriculum Reform” 45 of Education Bureau. The content focuses on the process from writing textbooks to practical teaching, and eventually forming a series of teaching methods. The effectiveness of “Curriculum Reform” has been generally agreed and appreciated. Through the relevant training, all participants have built up the ability to “research” and face the “change”. Without much awareness, the process of reform has become part of teacher professional development. The participants have consolidated experiences and successful stories to share with other frontline teachers, and encourage knowledge exchange. Finally, also it is encouraged that teachers carry on with the good work and face the curriculum change without fear. Keywords curriculum reform, teacher developments, education profession 引言 課程發展議會（1999）在香港學校課程的整體檢視報告中指出幾項課程改革的目的： （1） 為香港學生提供一個知識建構的學校課程，使他們能以全球視野的胸懷，面對信息 萬變、相互依存的廿一世紀社會； （2） 為配合新的教育目標，培養我們的下一代成為「樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔、 敢於創新」的終身學習者，在今後知識為本經濟體系的社會中，貫徹終身學習。 （3） 為未來的學校課程定出大方向，設計一個以靈活、開放、連貫為課程架構骨幹的「廿 一世紀新課程」，透過高效能的教與學，全面提升學生的素質。 張嘉育（1998）在台北一次研討會裏談到課程時，提出了七個見解： （1） 學校本位課程發展雖以學校為主體，但也重視校內外各種人力、資源的運用結合； （2） 學校本位課程發展採廣義課程定義，課程是指學校指導的一切學習經驗； （3） 學校本位課程發展既重視課程發展成果，也強調過程中學校社區的參與與學習； （4） 學校本位課程發展新定位學校於課程發展中的角色，使「社會──社區、學校── 教師」發展成為一種關係夥伴； 46 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 （5） 學校本位課程發展重心定義了教師與課程的關係，重視學校教育人員的自主與專業， 將課程研究、課程發展與課程實施結合為一體； （6） 學校本位課程強調多樣化、地方化、適切性，可立即回應社會、社區、學校與學生 需要； （7） 學校本位課程發展是倡導「參與」、「由上而下」、「草根式」的課程發展理念。 總的來說，「課程」（curriculum）就是所謂的「學習進程」（王文科，1990）；課 程不是將由教師實施的計劃，而是引導教室實驗的架構，是由教師實施的一種教育實驗設 計。課程是教師在教學過程中，對整體的計劃加以考驗、重新建構後發展出來的（歐用生， 1999）。因此，課程改革的主題曲是改進師生的學與教行為；課程改革的目的是要增大學 與教的效能。要全面提升學生的素質，課程固然重要，老師才是關鍵。陳伯璋（1999）指 出教師是課程改革的推動者、設計者，研究者、協調者；但筆者卻認為教師也可以是課程 的創造者、計劃者、撰寫者、施行者、試驗者。故此，教師在多重角色中能達致專業發展。 2000 年香港為了順利推行課程改革，事前做足準備。1998 年 12 月至 1999 年 9 月第 一階段檢視：由課程發展議會啟動，與教統會的教育目標及教育制度檢討同步進行；成立 核心小組、工作小組（成員包括教師、校長、大專學者等），進行關注小組會議、研討會， 建立非正式網絡聯繫。1999 年 9 月至 12 月作廣泛改革方向的諮詢，並討論學校課程將面 對的具體轉變：1999 年 10 月至 2000 年 4 月舉行公開論壇，諮詢各界，並定期舉行有關 會議。2000 年 1 月至 6 月第二階段：檢視及發展「廿一世紀課程」的課程架構與教統會教 育制度檢討的最後建議相配合。2000 年 6 月提交終期報告／建議作公開諮詢，並向課程發 展議會提交終期報告。2000 年 9 月至 2002 年 8 月試行不同的課程模式（課程發展議會， 1999）。眾所周知，課程改革是世界潮流，大家都有共識，面對二十一世紀，全球一體化 成為大趨勢，社會經濟結構急速轉型；面對如此急劇轉變的大環境，教育制度和措施必須 與時並進，才能使香港得以持續發展。教育統籌委員會（教統會）經過廣泛諮詢，於 2000 年向政府提交了《香港教育制度改革建議》。行政長官於同年 10 月發表的施政報告中，接 納了所有建議，香港的教育改革正式揭開序幕。教育改革的整體精神是以學生為本，目標 是「讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面都有全面而具個性的發展，能夠一生不斷自學、 思考、探索、創新和應變，具充分的自信和合群的精神，願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由 47 和民主不斷努力，為國家和世界的前途作出貢獻。」（中華人民共和國香港特別行政區， 2006） 福建中學（小西灣）1998 年建校，一直重視課程改革：為了學生，任何科目都可調適 改動。筆者有幸從一開始就參與了中文科的課程改革：全程參與了科目的理論探索，建構 教學模式和編寫教材的活動；並見證着老師在參與課程改革中的專業發展與成長。自 2000 年改革至今，我校是唯一一所參與改革後仍使用自己課本的學校，也是唯一一套有理論、 有教法及有完整配套的課本（中一至中六）。這除了是教師個人的成就外，也展示了學校 及香港教育界的成就，因為這套課本曾分別在 2004 及 2010 年獲行政長官卓越教學獎項； 也獲得中國教育學會「十一五」科研一等獎；課本在台灣也備受關注，彰化縣教育處向本 校購買了 50 套課本送往各學校；並邀請學校老師赴台主持縣市的講座，分享教研成果。可 見學校參與課改所得的成效與影響力不止於香港；更擴展至其他地區。從教師參與課改所 獲得的專業發展和成效，說明了教師的專業發展與課程改革成效有密切關係（霍秉坤、馮 育珊，2005）。本文嘗試總結、分析學校老師如何通過課程改革及分享教改成效，逐步促 進教育事業的專業發展與成長。 學校傳遞意念 老師主動承擔 教改是一項重大的教育工程，而課程是學校教育的核心所在，所以課程改革與教育改 革密不可分。福建中學（小西灣）建校以來一直很重視課改；但改革不易，不能說「改」 就「改」。需要教師接受下達的意念，然後深思熟慮作出回應──是否要「改」。開校初期， 學校提出兩個重要信息：（1）學校要培育學生成才；（2）學校要培養學者型教師。校長 清楚傳遞信息：需要通過課程改革達到目標，尋找合適教材，鑽研有效教學法是成功關鍵； 能找到教材就好，不然可考慮自擬或調適。校方傳遞意念，卻從不勉強，從不強迫；只讓 老師自己想，自己酌量，是否要「改」則由教師決定。在一年醞釀期間，校長經常提學校 以全人教育為宗旨；因此，以學生為主體，可以體現學校的教育理念；這一取向與「香港 課程改革為學生規劃一個寬廣而均衡，以學為主的課程」的改革目標一致（香港課程發展 議會，2000）。所以教師群中開始權衡利弊；思考以學生為主體即意味着課程要為學生「量 體裁衣」，要與學生的需要相適應；因材施教，教法要重啟發，讓學生充分參與學習過程， 48 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 變講堂為學堂，杜絕「填鴨」；教學要重視回饋，並要適時調整。這些都是教師一直堅持 的教學理念，因此，我們的老師就義無反顧接受了「課改」的使命；而且深切理解：課程 改革雖然以學生為主體，但並不是放任學生自生自滅，否定教師的作用。我們的老師堅持 以學生為主體，教師為主導，帶引學生，向高處攀登。我們的課程改革就由願意「試驗」 的科組展開。筆者認為在這個磨合過程中，學校需要清礎傳遞意念；若要成事，必須有老 師主動承擔；兩者缺一不可。Wideen 和 Andrews（1987）認為教師是改革的中心，這話是 有道理的。 福建中學（小西灣）中文科是課改先鋒，2000 年先參與教育署（現教育局）的試驗計 劃，經過一年學習，便決定自行編寫課程。這膽子可大，坊間的課本編著背後說的是一支 專業編輯隊伍，有整個機構的專業支援作後盾。學校怎能與之相比？一般人想像的課改大 概就是「剪剪貼貼」罷了。沒想到本校花了五年時間編寫了初中課本（1-6 冊）、再花五 年完成了高中課本（7-10 冊）。改革動力從何來呢？從學生而來。老師在編寫和試教中， 發現課本和教法對學生有利。所以「改革」就停不了。我們的學生與全港情況一致，學語 文的效率不高；歸究原因：一是閱讀量偏低；課內讀得太少，沒有足夠輸入，自然不可能 有高水平輸出；其二是中文課語言訓練不足；過去中文課比較注重精讀課文，教學偏重內 容分析，把時間花在作者、題解、文體講解上，少針對語言本身，不利於養成能力。其三 就是對學生要求太低，結果是學生做得愈少，水平越低；水平低，則要求再降，反覆下調。 所以為學生編一套合適的教材就成為福建中學（小西灣）語文科老師的使命了。Glatthorn （2000）認為課程領導應當發揮作用，使學校系統以及學校達到確保學生學習質量的目標。 Sergiovanni（1995）也指出，課程領導應為學校成員提供必要的支持，進而充實教師的課 程專業知識和能力，促使學校形成合作與不斷改進的文化，最後把學校發展成課程社群， 達致卓越的教育目標。筆者深切體會因為學校的最高領導人，包括校長以及校董會，他們 給予我們的支持是充足的；在校長和校董會大力支持下，學校展開了漫長的「改革路」。 老師意識到使用的課程，必須要大幅度增力，學生才能有大進步。要增大閱讀量；要重語 言的比例，改變過往重「道」輕「文」的傾向，做到「文」、「道」協調，工具性與人文 性統一。然而市面上並無合適的教材，這促使我們確信我們應當致力編一套對學生有利的 課本。比較理想的教材架構應該是立體的，而不是平面的，於是精選名家篇章，在初中三 級組成一個立體的閱讀系統：即中一在小學的基礎上著重培養語感和語文的基礎能力。中 49 二著重認識文體及培養閱讀文章的五種能力。中三著重培養閱讀和鑒賞文學作品的能力。 每一階段都是前一階段基礎上的提高，有利於提升學生的閱讀能力，也同時避免重覆沉悶。 閱讀教材採用能力及內容主題雙線結構，除能力主導外，選讀課文又按生活主題選編。每 年選文一百篇，中一至中三共選文三百篇。以期有效奠立初中學生的語文基礎。每單元也 列有「圖書館」，因應學生水平介紹名著，縮微作品，摘編精彩片斷，以期利用課內的「精 彩片斷」，吸引學生課餘追看整本名著。做到每年閱讀名家美文不少於十萬字。這個突破 性的意念與創舉是老師在課改的研究中發展出來的；可見課程改革是促進教師成長與發展 的催化劑。 堅持響應課改 猛力追求突破 學校自響應教育署（現教育局）的課程改革後，全面投入編寫校本課程。當時坊間議 論課程改革的聲音此起彼落，我們的老師卻埋頭苦幹，只想着把最合適學生的教材得盡力 搞成、寫好。十年過去了，我們出版了中一至中六整套課本（共十冊）；500 篇文章，500 個教案，漢語拼音（初中）、普通話朗誦光碟（初中）、三個選修單元（高中）與課本配 套的作業、寫作、說話訓練等教材；並總結出一套包括課程理論、教學模式及教材教案所 組成的「簡式單元教學法」。為編撰高質素教材，老師們均博覽群書，到內地重點中學求 教，並專訪本地和外地有經驗人士，書成以後，送予本港和內地多位專家，反覆修訂，數 易其稿。一面實踐，一面總結，一面作理論探究，一寫就寫了十年。在這猛力追求課本完 整的十年裏，老師能不成長嗎？在專業上能不發展起來嗎？老師獲得的不止是外界給予的 肯定與成就，更多的是通過編寫課本，自己讀了很多書。沒有大量輸入，怎能寫得出整套 完整的課本與課練呢？這意外的大收穫促成了老師的專業發展。更重要的是在試教的過程 中，老師為了要建構有效的教學法而不斷進行課堂研究，基本上已掌握如何「上好一節課」 的竅門了。所以總結了一套教學法，提升了課堂學與教的效能。儘管在課改期間，老師忙 於寫理論、寫課本、寫教案；忙於試教、忙於修訂，再修訂；但能發展出一套有理論、有 數據、有實效的教材和教學法，這太值了！所謂十年磨一劍，是甚麼成就了這群追求在教 學上有突破的教師呢？一切都是從「課改」開始。 Sparks 和 Hirsh（1997）指出學校是教師發展的重要地點；吳剛平（2002）說校本課 50 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 程開發在大多數學校中一直在進行，如果做得好的話，它將成為學校教師專業發展的途徑。 福建中學（小西灣）的老師就是明證了，筆者有幸參與了這盛舉，在專業發展上的確有了 長進。 霍秉坤（2000）曾為香港的課程決策提出幾點建議： （1） 改進課程決策的參與模式，應有更多的民主成分，有更多的參與者； （2） 課程發展需要鼓勵學校為本的課程設計，避免單純應用統一課程設計的理念； （3） 要重視課程的決策，重視課程專家在最高層架構的意見； （4） 重視專業教師的參與，使他們成為課程改革的中心。 筆者認同專業教師的參與是重要的，Blackman（1989）說：課程發展是人的發展之外， 更體驗了在課程改革下的成長和發展。筆者認同霍秉坤（2000）談的「參與模式」和「民 主成分」；我們重視學生的參與，也重視學生對教材的意見。才讓措（2007）認為要樹立 課程為學生而存在的觀念，應該對學生的需求進行評估，了解和研究每一個學生的需要及 其發展的可能性，尊重學生的不同選擇。我們在新課程中剔除了不受學生歡迎的篇章，在 文字規範可學的前提下，新選文盡力切合學生興趣。我們同意 Elliott（1991）的看法，課 程是指師生共同建構價值與知識的歷程。所以我們的老師很願意了解，並深入探討學生的 學習難題，比如學生多厭惡文言文，覺得文言文難學又沒有實際用途，中一同學更因陌生 而害怕學文言文。於是我們針對這一情況，在文言文教學中特別注意古今貫通，優先選用 仍有生命力的文言文，充分利用粵語中有較多文言色彩詞彙的特點，打破「文」「白」隔膜。 在中一課程中，文言文全部選用成語故事（原典）和詩詞，由於成語和詩詞篇幅都比較短 小，易於誦讀，不易嚇怕中一級新生，而且成語和詩詞中名句也比較容易運用於現代文中， 使現代文生色，這就化不利為有利，使學生樂於學習文言文。從實踐證明了新教材有效提 高學生的閱讀能力，有效提高學生的語文水平。我們的老師認為學生的成就反映了老師的 成就；只有猛力追求突破和學習的老師才會從學生的角度想問題，且認真努力地解決學生 的學習障礙。因為響應和掌握了「課改」的契機而追求教學的突破，這就是我們的老師了。 51 思維敢於創新　膽大眼界高遠 課程改革是要以學生為主體，為學生開拓「學習空間」（課程發展議會，2001）；提 高學生的學習動機。因此，必須保證我們的教材能引起學生興趣。我們追求的是學中求樂， 愉快學習，不同意以漫畫取代閱讀，不認同以鄙俗文章代替經典範文，更不容許以粵方言 入文的中文教學取向；我們認為不管是講故事或戲劇活動等學習方法都不能代替「讓學生 在書海中尋找樂趣」的做法。所以我們大膽提出：以大量閱讀和探究加快提升學生語文寫 作能力的設想，並挑選十名學生進行小規模試驗，經過一年的試驗，效果理想。故在第二 年推廣至中一、中二兩級共四班，而第三年則推廣至中一級全體學生，到目前，這套寫作 教學法已在全體老師和全校學生中進行。第一批試驗的學生，五年後取得了令人非常鼓舞 的成績。會考作文卷都拿到了 A 至 C 級的成績。比較他們中一時的成績實現了「質」的飛 躍。從一開始，我們的想法是：中文教學改革應以寫作為突破口，目標是通過寫作訓練， 提昇學生的語文水平和能力，更通過語文能力的提高，全面提升學生的學業成績和信心， 並通過老師對學生的高期望，從而最終讓學生能擁有自信心，和充實的人生。這個目標已 在學生的表現中呈現出來。Beane（1995）認為課程統整的內涵及課程盡可能的更具民主 性與意義性、更具效果與吸引力、更尊重學生之個別差異及尊重課程可能性之研究。以意 義化、內化、類化、簡化等四項功能，強調社會學習領域統整的理由。學生能夠把所學的 各種課程貫串起來，瞭解不同課程彼此之間的關聯性，增加學習的意義性、應用性和效率 性（黃政傑，1997）。對學生來說學習的意義莫過於能「應用」；所以學生最不愛學的就 是學了沒有用的東西。例如我們都知道多讀多寫才能學好語文，這道理簡單，但香港學生 就是不愛讀，也不愛寫；所以我們要了解同學喜歡讀哪些篇章，編寫有利於提高學習興趣 的教材，讓學生覺得學語文是有用的，是具實效的。我們在研究課程和試驗中，盡量讓同 學參與，令課程的設計變得民主性和具意義性；更重要的是通過學生的參與，評估成效， 例如，我們會發調查問卷了解同學喜歡讀哪些篇章，並盡所能聽取意見；因為我們相信突 破傳統，才能開創雙贏局面。 傳統閱讀教學面面俱到，事事精細，結果只見樹木，不見森林，量雖少，語文教學的 質卻不高。我們共同探索建構的「簡式單元教學法」。堅持「以量求質」的原則。傳統上， 多讀大多是要求學生在課外進行，但這方法在自覺自律能力較低，家庭支援較少的學生中， 52 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 卻難實行。我們提出的「閱讀教學法」，在課程和課堂內幫助學生養成閱讀習慣，將課外 閱讀的指導設於課堂之內。增加課內閱讀量，學生每年最少閱讀 100 篇範文（散文、詩歌、 小說和戲劇節錄），不少於十萬字名著美文。另瀏覽十本名著，而且適量背誦，積累詞彙 句式。實現了由提倡閱讀到老師指導，營造閱讀氣氛，創設閱讀環境等一系列可以操作的 措施。經過了多年的實踐，事實證明學生的讀寫能力有了很大的提高。我們切實堅持語文 課的重點在「教語言」，使用自編教材，並作教學設計以緊扣單元重點，對文本以外的知 識，只擇其最精要作簡介，以圖示板書和誦讀協助整體感悟課文，精選精講語言，點滴積 累，體現學生為主體的精神，重視能力遷移與應用。從實踐效果看，的確能提高教學效能。 這也是香港語文教育界創新之舉。 另外，我們探索而建構了「簡式寫作教學法」。堅持「多寫少改」──自由文只寫不 改，規範文對焦略批，重在講評。這個敢於創新的寫作教學法突破了傳統的雙輸困局，開 創了老師、學生雙贏的局面──首先是學生多寫而教師工作量不增，然後學生因多寫而提 升了質素，教師批改變得較易，工作難度下降，形成良性循環。現時學校的同學不管能力 如何，都「肯寫、敢寫」。即使是第三組別的中一學生經過約三個月的訓練，即能於 60 分鐘內完成一篇 600 字的作文。盡量讓同學覺得學語文是實用的，是有效的。而今，「簡 式寫作教學法」並已結集成書。經推介，也有學校試行「多寫少改」，同樣有效。黃政傑 （1991）指出課程組織的統整性應用於科目與科目之間、理論與實際間，校內活動與校外 活動之間、也可用於認知、技能和情感之間。Ornstein 和 Hunkins（1998）認為統整性是指 在課程計劃中，連接所有類型的知識與經驗。而統整的結果可從價值性、完全性、數量性、 全體性、秩序性、和諧性與公平性等七個面向來判斷是否達成有意義的統整（楊龍立、潘 麗珠，2001）。因此，課程的橫向聯繫必須使學習者將所學的概念、原理、原則關連起來， 成為有意義的整體，學習才能產生效果。筆者同意在課程的統整計劃，除了重視知識，也 要結合經驗。所以，我們堅持鼓勵學生多寫，而且要多寫自己的「經驗」，並結合所學習 的科目一併思考；可以寫科學、可以寫音樂、可以寫體育、可以寫數學。因為我們相信學 習是一個整體，科目與科目之間是生活的聯繫，是學生生活的價值點滴；學生想到甚麼就 寫甚麼。我們的老師相信從「肯寫、敢寫」切入而加大寫作的「量」，就能獲得由「量」 而變「質」的學習效能；這種膽大高遠且敢於創建的新思維是從「課改」開始的。 53 銳意追求卓越　步伐與時並進 Elliott（1993）提出：教學是一種行動研究的表現，行動研究的理論也是一種學習理論。 歐用生（1989）指出只有老師對自己的教學和教室實施研究，然後親自「看到」和親自「體 驗」到整個變化的過程，接着重新學習，改變自已的知識觀，這樣才能解決問題。陳伯璋 （1998）認為行動研究是結合行動與研究的一種研究方法，即是指情境的參與者（如教師） 基於實際問題解決的需要，與專家、學者或組織中的成員共同合作，將問題發展成研究主 題，進行有系統的研究，以講求實際問題解決的一種研究方法。這就是為甚麼我們很重視 行動研究的原因；筆者同意 Mcniff（1988）說的，行動研究不只是教學過程，它是對教學 過程的覺知與批判，且利用自我批判的覺知，開放一個改變的過程來改善教學。我們的老 師就是執着於研究、改善課堂的學與教；所以黃政傑（1985）和蔡清田（2000）都指出「行 動研究」是基於「教師即研究者」的理念，由實際操作的教師在實際的教學經驗中，根據 所遇到的實際問題進行研究，並設計問題和尋求解決的策略。通過實際行動來進行反思、 修正，尋求解決所遇到的困難。我們的老師為了更好的配合語文教學的改革，早於 2000 年 就參與教育署（現教育局）的語文單元教學改革試驗計劃。經過了一年艱苦努力，編寫了 中一級的整套單元教學校本課程，這套課程在當時 49 所試驗學校中曾獲好評，列為中上。 但老師並不滿意，因為老師一面編寫，一面試教，在行動研究中發現課程不理想，進行反 思，最後決定放棄了整年的心血！在掌握單元教學的概念上，再結合多寫多讀的實驗，重 新編寫一套既符合本校學生需要又具向全港學校推廣價值的課程，這套課程的初中部份共 六冊，300 篇文章、300 個教案及漢語拼音課本、普通話朗誦光碟；與課本配套的作業也做 出初稿，並總結出一套包括單元理論、教學模式及教材教案所組成的「簡式單元教學法」。 完成初中的課本後，老師仍不停步，繼續籌備編訂單元教學的中四、中五級課程；到了新 高中學制落實後，隨即根據指引趕緊編寫中六語文課本及三個語文的選修單元課本。這種 通過研究和實踐，銳意追求和與時並進的教學態度表現了卓越老師的特質。 我們的老師為了完善高質素的教材，除虛心向海內外的專家請教外，並在試教中進行 多項的行動研究，因為有效性教學的決定因素，是取決於學生對課堂學習的積極性、主動 性（陶曉彥，2008）。 54 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 李玉雙（2010）也指出有效課堂又是有效教學的重要載體，要實現有效教學就要利用 好課堂 40 分鐘，要把課堂教學的立足點放到學生身上，使學生樂於學，自主學，學會學。 行動研究的特徵： （1） 在特定的情境中診斷並解決問題； （2） 強調問題解決的立即性； （3） 重視實務工作者的研究參與； （4） 過程重視協同合作； （5） 屬發展性的反省彈性計畫； （6） 研究的結果可以促成專業成長； （7） 是一種社會化過程； （8） 具批判性的； （9） 具解放性的； （10） 是反省─辯證的（Bogdan & Biklen, 1982；Cohen & Manion, 1989；Kemmis & Taggart, 1998；蔡清田，2000）。 所以整個探究模式是一個循環式程序，每一個程序包括四個不同步驟：計劃、行動、 觀察和反思。這幾個步驟對評估我們建構的教學法起了很重要的作用；因為我們相信理論 是必須在實務中被確認的（Elliott, 1981）。我們的老師為試驗課本和教學法的可行性，一 面實踐，一面總結，一面作理論探究，除了驗證我們建構的教學法之外，更為下一步研究 創設條件。例如，香港回歸中國已 15 年了，兩地無論在經貿或文化上的交流亦日漸頻繁， 兩地學生交流活動亦不斷增加。早年語常會推出「普教中」計劃，鼓勵學校參與；我們的 老師認為從學習語文來說，普通話的表意方式與書面語更為接近，以普通話作為思考方式， 自能減少文法問題。不過面對的困難可不少。首先，教師質素備受關注，另外，是學生吸 收問題。我們的老師認為學校的課改已取得客觀的肯定，接下來該注入新元素，豐富及試 驗教材的能耐與效能。在權衡輕重後，認為「普教中」對學生有利的；於是便參加了維持 三年的「普教中」支援計畫。我們的老師在計畫中接受培訓，至今，語文科所有老師都能 以普通話教授語文。這是另一項課程改革中，老師獲得專業發展的機會與收穫。我們的老 師在編寫課本中成長，在課程改革中發展專業能力，在行動研究中尋求、探究教學法，驗 證實效，追求卓越；我們的老師都能在課改中培養出一種能力：課堂學與教的「研究能力」。 55 有了這種能力，就能面對課程的任何更新與改動。這是學校參與了課程改革帶給老師的意 外收穫，從收穫中也體現了參與課改教師的成長與發展的寶貴經歷。 掌握課程趨勢 推廣改革成效 傅道春（2001）認為教師必須擁有一種專業擴充能力。它的內容包括：能把自己教學 的質疑和探討作為進一步發展的基礎；有研究自己教學的信念和技能；有在實踐中對理論 進行質疑和檢驗的意向；有準備接受其他教師來觀察自己的教學，並能在理論和實踐兩個 層面上對自己的教學情境進行意圖與效果的說明。筆者對這點是非常同意的；我們的老師 在課程改革中也經歷了這個過程，並鍛煉出一種專業擴充能力。這可以通過老師在不同場 合、渠道分享課改成效中體現出來的：這包括與外地先進同行交流，多次訪問廣東、上海、 北京、南京、天津和台灣等地的中學。改革初期，稍有成效，2003 年學校老師就到北京主 講「香港的考試與評估」專題，也有老師出席在武漢舉行的中國教育學會語文教學專業委 員會第八屆年會，並分享香港課程改革經驗，接着也在南京介紹「香港的德育觀與德育實 踐」。除了到境外交流外，我們的老師還積極組織香港與內地的專業交流活動。接待來訪 的本地學校，介紹和觀摩學校語文教學的經驗。出版專業書籍，舉辦及親自教授公開課， 促進全港語文教師的觀摩文化。在努力推動下，福建中學（小西灣）中文科在學校率先進 行集體備課、相互觀課、評課，實行每級集體備課。2002 年全年，中文科開課逾 140 次， 觀課者超過 380 人次，為促成這種教研風氣；學校於 2002 年率先在香港舉辦大型公開課， 也是首次以香港老師（福建中學（小西灣）老師）授課，接受他校同工逾百人觀課，禮堂 座無虛席，開香港交流之風。當時，這種課堂和教學開放的氛圍慢慢向全校、全港推廣， 這是中文料同事參與了課程改革後的成果，這成果正體現在率教研交流之風的帶頭作用； 學校在 2003 年 12 月舉辦了一次面向家長和教育同工的全校開放日。該日全校的課堂均向 外界開放，接待超過 100 名來賓參觀，超過 100 多堂課。這也是史無前例的。至今，福建 中學（小西灣）仍是全開放的，平均一個月至少有一所機構到校交流、座談、聽課。我們 的老師推廣課改的成效是不遺餘力的。 筆者很同意傅道春（2001）所說的，教師能力是教師在一般能力的基礎上，不斷順應 教育的過程的要求而形成和發展的。教師能力的發展經歷了三個階段，其中一個經歷，他 56 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 說是「生成階段」，他認為新教師走上工作崗位，均有一個從不知到知，從不能到能的過 程，知識老化速度的加快和師範生在校所學知識與實踐需要的差距，使新教師面臨重新構 建知能結構的任務。教師能力的生成過程是一個學習──實踐的過程，是知識技能向教育 教學能力轉化的過程，也是學習與研究意識的產生過程。筆者認為這一點說得很好，可是 不單是新任老師，就算是資深的老師也一樣，每一個改變都需要「實踐過程」，有了實踐 就能掌握課程的得失，判斷課程的成效；因為通過親身體驗，才能透徹掌握課程，而整個 實施與管理的工作就能井然有序，有了一個規律，推廣起來就具理論與實踐了。所以陳時 見（1999）認為要搞好課程管理，必須遵循一定的規律，按課程的規律辦事。首先，課程 是一個龐大的系統，既然它是一個系統，它的各要素之間就有聯繫，就應該是一個整體， 所以課程管理的一個重要原則就是整體性原則。所以課程改革是否成功，除了具備了強而 有力的火車頭之外，同事間的協作才是關鍵；我們的老師就擁有這協作特質。另外，陳時 見（1999）也指出，課程管理的目的是在一定環境中，通過一系列的管理行為，使課程系 統取得最好的效果，所以課程管理的另一個重要原則是最優化原則。所以我們的老師在推 廣改革成效時，也不時強調「優化」是改革的重點，不是說已經很好就不改，而是要進行 優化。筆者認為這是教育局多年致力推行教改的總方向；因為「沒有最好，只有更好」。 教育統籌委員會於 2000 年在其《香港教育制度改革建議》報告中，確立了「終身學習、全 人發展」為二十一世紀的教育目標，並全面推出 2000 年教育改革藍圖內所承諾的計劃。我 們都知道教育改革是一項龐大且複雜的工程，從來都是這樣，「改革」總是帶來不安、困 難和挑戰。所以我們的老師樂意分享成功經驗，毫不吝嗇分享各地課程改革的趨勢與發展 等資料，和多年進行課堂研究的心得與成效呈顯與會者跟前。學校是願意老師多作分享的， 因為一次分享等同一次總結；而總結是一種能力的體現，也是教師專業能力發展的過程， 機會難得。傅道春（2001）也說了：隨着教育教學經驗的豐富，教師的能力開始走向成熟， 並形成自己的風格與特長，增強了適應和應變力，掌握了比較過硬的教育教學本領。這一 階段的教師形成了自己的「科學教育學」體系，具有一定的教學研究水平，逐步萌發創新 意識。教師經過長期的學習、實踐，其能力開始進入巔峰。不僅形成了合理的知能結構， 具有完備的教育理論素養和學科知識體系，而且積累了豐富的教育教學經驗，形成了自己 的教學專長，具備了組織和領導教學和研究的能力，具備了進行教育創新的基本條件。我 們的老師雖然說不上登鋒造極，但「推門觀課」已經難不了他們了。至於負責一個講座對 我們的老師來說是學習、是發展，又是教學專長與能力的展現；學校是樂見其成的。這是 57 課程改革帶給老師的恩物和收穫！現在我們的老師各具風格，各領風騷。老師都各有自己 的教學本領；但更重要的是：那都是對教育、對學生「有心」的老師！ 總結 新一屆香港中學文憑公開考試已結束了。2004 年 10 月，教育統籌局推出有關新學制 的諮詢文件，2005 年 5 月發表《高中及高等教育新學制——投資香港未來的行動方案》報 告書，貫徹培養學生終身學習、全人發展的教育目標。為協助學校於 2009 年 9 月起在高中 各級實施新高中課程，課程發展議會及香港考試及評核局於 2007 年聯合編訂了二十四科 新高中科目的課程及評估指引，而課程發展議會亦於 2009 年編訂《高中課程指引──立 足現在 ‧ 創建未來》，讓學校建基於基礎教育的優勢和經驗，為學生提供寬廣、均衡而有 多元化選擇的高中課程。334 新學制正式落實，這是香港教育史上一個重要的里程碑。在 整個新學制推出時，爭議的聲音此起彼落。十年課改剛停下來，隨即的變動又來了。前文 說過「變」會帶來不安。但新課程內容為學生提供了寬廣、均衡和具深度的變動，例如， 教育局在 24 個新高中科目外，為學生提供應用學習課程。課程的目標是通過真實情境，讓 學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論，從而培養他們的共通能力。這些改動的原意 本來是好的，可是前線教師還是憂慮！筆者認為新學制就好像是一個課程統整，將不同學 科知識加以整合，重新安排學習的方法，統整的範圍不單是學科的統整，筆者認為那是一 種課程設計的意念與理論的統整。這包含經驗與社會的統整；組織課程的核心是學生經驗 到的實際生活，將有關的內容聯貫起來，藉此讓學生批判性地探討真正的議題（歐用生， 1996；楊家寧，2005）。 所以「改動」是一個「整合」的意念，因此，新學制可以說不「新」；所謂百變不離 其宗，例如，教育局制定的政策強調學生「學會學習」的能力。為達到使學生能夠養成學 會學習的能力，政府在課程指引內提出了「九種共通能力」及「四個關鍵項目」兩種概念。 九種共通能力包括：協作能力，溝通能力，創造力，批判性思考能力，運用資訊科技能力， 運算能力，解決問題能力，自我管理能力，研習能力。這都不是新的東西，只是把我們已 知的知識重新演繹。又例如，「優化教學協作計劃」是在香港教育局資助下，由香港中文 大學教育學院與學校夥伴協作中心聯合多所中小學合作開展的一項探索，目的是為不同學 58 回顧學校中文科課程改革──談課程改革與教師專業發展 習領域的教師提供專業支援，以提升教師的教學效能及專業能力，「4-P 模式」則是該計 劃在促進教師專業發展方面運用的基本策略。4P：澄清問題（Problem Clarification）、計 劃（Planning）、計劃行動（Progress Action）和進展評鑒（Progress Evaluation），這四個 環節又構成一個不斷循環的整體流程。目的是運用「4-P 模式」改進相關科目的課堂教學， 通過這個模式為教師反思及其專業發展提供一種現實的策略和工具。但老師對這四個環節 是不會感到陌生的，因為沒有出現這「4-P模式」之前，我們的老師已懂得澄清問題、計劃、 計劃行動和進展評鑒；只是我們從沒有想過要把他們統整起來。李子建（2002）嘗試把個 人反思和行動研究簡化成為 4-P 模式，目的是方便學校應用在校本發展的探究上。為甚麼 呢？因為在教育工作上，引入個人反思和行動研究，可以更有效地在思想和行動上進行有 機的整合與系統的檢視；同時，它更是學校發展其教學專業的（李子建、馬慶堂，2010） 最好方法。今天有專家們把我們慣用的東西整合起來，成了理論，而且指引我們如何用得 更好、更科學；又為了使我們容易掌握、便於記憶，並冠以名稱──「4-P 模式」；有理論、 有實踐、有成效，那是最好不過了。所以，筆者認為如果我們抱這樣的心態面對「改動」， 心情就輕鬆了。因為那些改動只是將過去零碎分立的教材或教學活動加以關聯與整合，或 在兩個或兩個以上的學科領域間建立連結（Deborah, 2001）。只要我們虛心學習，熟能生 巧，定能掌握竅門，使之成為我們的助力。 另外，我們還要洞悉課程統整是社會現實的需要，例如應用課程的設置讓我們想到， 課程是以生活經驗、個人與社會的需求作為統整的焦點，主張統整課程不僅是學科間的聯 結，而是應能反映生活，甚至把課程就視為是生活（Gehrke, 1998）。如果我們這樣想，就 容易接受「改動」了。因為課程統整是教育的完整歷程，融合各個學科的新領域，以主題 來組織課程核心，提供個人學習經驗與社會的整合，來增加學習的整體性。Tchudi 及 Lafer （1996）和 Beane（1997）認為統整課程的特質是學習者本身的議題和所關心的事，並能 激發學生思考，引導學生學習；帶領學生進入真實世界，解決問題；並建立強而有力之學 習社群的合作感。這些學者的看法與我們課程改革的目的是一致的。因此，「課改」、「改 動」並非洪水猛獸，只要善用，就能通過「課改」促成學生的高效能學習，也能促進老師 的專業發展與成長。Elliott（1993）認為課程改革是人的改革；課程發展是人的發展；沒 有教師發展就沒有課程發展。筆者更認為課程改革是課堂的改革；課程發展是學與教的發 展；沒有學生和老師的發展就沒有課程發展了。 59 參考文獻 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區（2006）。《教育改革進展報告（四）終生學習．全面發展》。 香港：政府物流服務。 才讓措（2007）。《校本課程開發是提升教師專業化的契機》。青海師範大學（哲學社會科 學版）。05 期，132-136。 王文科（1990）。《課程論》。台北：五南出版社。 吳剛平（2002）。《校本課程開發》。成都：四川教育出版社。 李子建（2002）。《反思教學行動研究〈一個都不能少：個別差異的處理〉》。台北：師大 書苑。 李子建、馬慶堂（2010）。〈反思教學．校本行動研究與教學發展〉。《校本課程發展、教 師發展與伙伴協作》。北京：教育科學出版社。頁 11-41。 李玉雙（2010）。〈有效課堂教學的理解〉。2011 年 11 月 22 日，取自 http://hebei.teacher. com.cn/GuoPeiAdmin/HomeWork/ShowStudentHomework.aspx?HomeWorkStudentID=537 4&cfName=201011035374。 香港課程發展議會（2000）。《學會學習課程詻詢文件》。香港：香港課程發展議會。 香港課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習．課程發展路向》。香港：香港課程發展議會。 香港課程發展議會（2009）。《高中課程指引──立足現在 ‧ 創建未來》。香港：香港課 程發展議會。 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The interdisciplinary teacher’s handbook: A guide to integrated teaching across the curriculum. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton / Cook Publishers. Wiseen, M. F., & Andrews, I. (1987). Staff development for school improvement: A focus on the teacher. New York: Falmer Press. 62 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视： 问题与挑战 Analysis of the senior secondary Chinese curriculum reform in Mainland China from multiple perspectives: Issues and challenges 黄显涵 香港中文大学 李子建 香港教育学院 摘要 本文借用技术的、文化的、政治的和后现代的视角对中国大陆新高中语文课程改革实施进 行分析，探讨其在不同视角中所遭遇的问题和挑战。从技术视角来看，此次语文课改存在 课程目标难以落实、教师专业素养不足、学科评价难度过大以及外部条件限制等四方面问 题；在文化视角中，语文课改需要平衡中国传统文化和西方舶来文化两股矛盾的力量；从 政治视角来看，语文教师的赋权之路仍然挑战重重；从后现代取向来看，学生个体的声音 与力量在这次语文课改中受到了有意无意的忽视。 关键词 语文课程改革，课程实施，多元／多维视角 63 Abstract This paper discusses the implementation issues in the Chinese curriculum reform of senior schools in Mainland China from technological, cultural, political and postmodern perspectives. From the technological perspective, four issues have to be addressed: educational objectives being difficult to be realized, teachers lacking professional skills, the difficulty of assessment in the Chinese subject, and constraints of supporting factors. With regard to the cultural dimension, a balance of Chinese traditional culture and western culture is needed. From the political perspective, Chinese teachers still have a long way to execute the power of curriculum. From the postmodern perspective, student voice is consciously or unconsciously neglected during this reform. Keywords Chinese curriculum reform, curriculum implementation, multiple perspectives 2001 年 6 月中国教育部颁布《基础教育课程改革纲要（试行）》，标志中国大陆 正式启动迄今为止“步伐最大”、“难度最高”的一次课程改革（教育部基础教育司， 2002）。雷实（2002）指出在世界各国的教育改革中，母语教育占据极其重要的位置。因 此是次中国大陆课程改革中语文学科的重要性不言而喻。郑国民（2003）指出，此次语文 课改转变传统课程对基础知识与技能的倚重，强调语文学科的知识体系与能力训练体系， 其宗旨是关注并促进学生的终身发展。以《普通高中语文课程标准（实验）》（中华人民 共和国教育部，2003，下文简称“03 课标”）作为分析蓝本，此次语文课程改革基本理念 主要包括三方面： 1. 全面提高学生语文素养，充分发挥语文课程的育人功能； 2. 注重语文应用、审美与探究能力的培养，促进学生均衡而有个性的发展； 3. 遵循共同基础与多样选择相统一的原则，构建开放有序的语文课程。 （中华人民共和国教育部，2003） 具体来看，在课程目标上首次建构“知识和能力”、“过程和方法”、“情感态度和 价值观”三维目标体系，着重培养学生的语文素养（巢宗祺，2005）。在教学内容上，设 64 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 置“必修 + 选修”的选课方式、强调开发多元化课程资源、关注典范性和时代性的统一、 突出口语交际能力（黄显涵、李子建，2009）。在课程组织上，强调建设“开放、多样、 有序的语文课程体系”（中华人民共和国教育部，2003），突出课程的统整性与选择性（李 子建、尹弘飙，2005）。在教学评估上，03 课标明确指出“评价的根本目的是为了促进学 生语文素养的全面提高”，否定以往刻板单一的纸笔测验方式转而强调发挥评价的诊断、 激励和发展性功能，采纳多元化方式进行教学评价等等（中华人民共和国教育部，2003； 倪文锦，2004）。可以说此次语文课程改革尝试通过更具开放性的理念、更为多元化的方 式促进学生能力全面发展、为语文课程与教学注入新的活力。 然而美好的理想并不等同于现实。 从课改参与者——教师的视角来看，情况不容乐观。一项在 2010 年实施的语文教师 调查表明：48.6% 的语文教师不知道此次语文课改的理念，39.2% 的教师从没看过语文课 程标准，71.5% 的教师认为此次语文课程改革的实现难度较大，63.8% 的教师对现行语文 教材不满意，56.7% 的教师几乎没有想过要利用课外语文学习资源等（屠锦红，2010）。 从课改实施成效来看，调查研究表明只有 30% 的学生认为新课程对学生自身的发展是利大 于弊的，有 85% 的学生认为自己基本做不到或无法做到自主学习以及探究式学习；近 40% 的学生对学习不感兴趣或很不感兴趣（戴斌荣、张旺，2007）。尽管这些数据仅仅代表了 一所学校或是一个城市的课改实施情况，但是这些冰山一角的数据至少展示出此次语文课 程改革总体成效并不尽如人意。我们不禁思考：在此次课程改革中，语文——这个身负重 任的母语学科——到底都面对着哪些挑战和困境？ 在探讨课程实施时，实施取向是一个不能回避的话题。Snyder 等人（1992）从课程 计划以及课程实施的相互关系出发将实施取向分为忠实观（fidelity）、相互调适（mutual adaptation）以及课程缔造（curriculum enactment）三种类型（李子建、黄显华，1996）。 House（1979）则从阐释和分析的维度指出可以从技术观（technical perspective）、政治观 （political perspective）以及文化观（cultural perspective）三种视角理解课程实施。伴随 后现代思潮的日渐风行，Hargreaves 等人（2002）则认为信息技术日新月异的发展以及现 象学、解释学、女性主义等多元理论对课程实施产生了深刻影响，在探讨课程实施取向时 65 应该在 House 的理论基础上添加后现代的阐述视角（postmodern perspectives），即形成技 术观、文化观、政治观和后现代四种维度。当然这些不同视角之间并非壁垒分明、相互割 裂。事实上在教育视域中，政治、文化以及技术等各种因素总是交叉依附、难以分割。更 需注意的是在分析课程实施的过程中，只有分别采纳不同取向对课程实施进行多元反思和 审视，才更有可能全面理解真实的变革情境（Corbett & Rossman, 1989; Hargreaves, Earl & Schmidt, 2002; House, 1981; House & Mcquillan, 2005）。有鉴于此，本文将借助 House 以 及 Hargreaves 等人的理论从四种视角入手对当下中国大陆高中语文课程改革面对的挑战与 困境进行多维探讨。 甲、技术视角 House 认为技术视角将生产（production）作为自己的基本隐喻，它的核心性词汇主要 包括效率、投入与产出、目标和任务的明确性、奖励与刺激等等。从技术视角来看，课程 与教学变革唯一需要关注的问题就是如何更好的实施。在他们看来，课程与教学的变革是 一种可预测、可迁移的技术性活动。因此他们更关注变革本身的特征以及构成要素。在实 施策略上，他们强调透彻理解变革的运作机制、强调提升实施者对变革必要性的认可，通 过培训以增强专业效能。在研究方法上，他们侧重量化；在评估方面，技术取向更关注那 些外在显现或是可测量内容的成效与结果（House, 1981）。 如果采纳技术性视角分析此次中国大陆新高中语文课程改革，我们将主要审视目标设 定、实施策略、教师专业素养、课程资源、教学评价等改革本身所蕴含的要素，并且关注 这些要素为具体课程实施所带来的挑战： 首先，落实教学目标所面对的挑战。 Brandt 与 Tyler（2003）指出教育目标可以分为四个层面：其一，系统层面（system level），主要针对教育总体以及整个学区而笼统设定；其二，学科层面（program level）， 针对每个学科领域；其三，课程层面（course level），主要指某个学科在某个学期 / 时段 所设定的目标；第四是教学层面（instructional level），即每位教师日常教学所使用的目标。 66 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 下面是对这四个层面目标的举例说明： 系统层面的目标 理解文化的多样性 学科层面的目标 学习鉴赏中外文学作品，具有积极的鉴赏态度，注重审美体验，陶 冶性情，涵养心灵 课程层面的目标 学习中西方经典作品，理解中西文化的差异 教学层面的目标 对比分析庄子《逍遥游》和加缪《西西弗的神话》，探讨中西方文 化在人生态度上的异同 数据源：Brandt & Tyler，2003，12（例子参考《普通高中课程方案（实验）》和 03 课标 有适当修改） 从 Brandt 与 Tyler 所划分的层次来看，此次 03 课标对于教育目标的设定主要集中在 学科层面，基本不涉及课程以及教学层面的目标。尽管这种整合式的目标表述配合了高中 语文学习综合性和整体性等特征，但是从一线教师角度来看，03 课标在目标设定，尤其 是“情感态度价值观”部分的阐述较为模糊和笼统（吴巧英，2008），这使得教师普遍感 觉无从下手（张文娟，2007）。兰瑞平（2006）甚至指出 03 课目标模糊表述有太大的阐 释空间，让一线教师产生了疑虑甚至空虚等负面情绪。与美国 2010 年提出《国家标准共 同核心》（Common Core State Standards，下文简称 CCSS）相比较，CCSS 在英语学习方 面首先将目标分为阅读、写作、听说三部分（03 课标分为阅读与鉴赏、表达与交流两个 部分），在每一个部分都细分为几个关注领域。以阅读为例，具体的关注领域分为：核心 观点与细节（key ideas and details），表现手法和结构（craft and structure），知识和观点 的整合（integration of knowledge and ideas），阅读范围和文章难度层次（range of reading and level of text complexity）。在每一个关注领域中，CCSS 都给出了 6-12 年级每个年级 具体需要对应的课程目标以方便教师根据标准和具体的教学材料来设计适合课堂的教学目 标。与 CCSS 较为详尽的标准设置相比，03 课标显然缺乏系统、明确的区分，因此对目标 本身的理解就成了一个很大的问题（屠锦红、徐林祥，2010）。毫无疑问，这种过多的不 确定性固然可以为一些教师尝试积极课改提供空间，但同时也很容易让教师产生 03 课标过 于笼统、难于在课堂中真正落实的观感从而放弃对 03 课目标研读与实践（鲁德民，2010； 吴亮奎，2009）。 另外，03 课标强调要从“知识和能力”、“过程和方法”以及“情感态度和价值观” 三方面来均衡设计课程目标。可见为了纠正以往过度强调“双基”的思维本次语文课改确 67 实做出了较大改善。但是朱绍禹（2006）指出整个课标关于能力的目标处处可见，但是知 识的目标则少之又少。这种“厚此薄彼”的表述间接导致了教师在实际教学过程中“矫枉 过正”，忽视了对知识和能力应有的关注和强调（倪文锦，2009；魏本亚，2011）。 第二，语文学科评价难度过高。 尽管 03 课标中指出评价的目的应该是促进学生语文素养全面提高，教师应该充分发挥 评价的诊断、激励和发展功能。教师要能够根据不同的情况采用不同的方式进行评价（中 华人民共和国教育部，2003）。但是在实际操作中，语文教师发现考察学生的阅读兴趣、 了解学生的语文素养、探讨学生的阅读视域、准确评估学生的语文能力是一个难度极大的 挑战（黄显涵，2011）。但是，如果教师无法在教学中进行有效的形成性评价、对学生的 语文能力缺乏全面了解，那么语文课改的落实程度自然会大打折扣。 第三，教师缺乏课改所需要的专业素养。 03 课标指出教师是学习活动的组织者和引导者。此次课改对教师能力的需求明显增 强，例如教师需要将笼统的学科目标具体化为课程乃至教学目标、要能够创造性使用乃 至自主开发教学材料和教学内容、要能够结合课堂情境和学生特点灵活使用多元教学方 式、要能够针对学生的学习过程和学习结果进行有效评价等等（中华人民共和国教育部， 2003）。但是在此次语文课改中语文教师自身专业素养的匮乏却成为了一个难以突破的关 键瓶颈（陈萍，2006；崔干行，2007；胡波、高光珍、王志芳，2008）。 这首先体现在语文课程与教学相关研究存在不足。李海林（2005）曾对 120 项语文教 学改革实验进行分析，认为其中时间较长、范围较广、具有一定影响和研究深度的典型项 目仅 18 项（例如自学辅导教学法、点评型单元教学法、‘读读、议议、练练、讲讲’教学 法、情景教学法、导读教学法、注音识字教学法、作文整体改革教学法、学导式教学法等）。 另外，这些教学方法主要由一线名师通过多年教学经验积累而来，在教学方法的实证研究 中，研究者多数是以论证者、评价者而非实际参与者的角色存在。这直接影响了这些教学 方法的持续研究和推广；其二，大陆语文课程与教学论学者对语文课程与教学实证研究十 68 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 分有限（陈晓波，2009；黄显涵，2011），这种相关研究的匮乏自然导致一线教师在课改 过程中难以获得足够的支持力量。 另外，教师专业培训效果不佳。为了加强教师对课改理念的深刻认识、提升教师的专 业素养，伴随着课改不断推进大陆各省市都相继举办了不同规模、不同级别的课改培训或 教研活动。但是从实际情况来看收效甚微（杭州市教育局调查组，2007；马云鹏、唐丽芳， 2004）。教师普遍认为相关培训“太多术语”、“与一线教学落差较大”，因此对实际课 堂教学难以起到实效（陈玉华，2011；卢乃桂、陈峥，2008）。 第四，外部条件的限制。 一些课程实施调查发现在众多的限制性因素中课程资源以及教学时间两个因素尤为重 要。首先是课程资源短缺。很多教师认为学校课程资源不足，限制了他们进行课程改革（胡 波、高光珍、王志芳，2008；马云鹏、唐丽芳，2004）。而由老师来开发课程资源，那么 教师就不得不面对时间和精力上的巨大挑战，这对工作已经较为繁重的语文老师来说无疑 难度极大。另外，在教学课时已经固定的前提下，教师需要既保证完成繁重的教学任务， 同时还要尽可能为学生自主、探究学习提供时间，这让许多教师在具体教学中只能忍痛割 爱（万伟，2009）。 总体而言，技术视角更关注怎样让此次语文课改落实得更为有效。具体来看，课程目 标过于模糊、学科评价难度过高、教师专业素养不足以及外部条件的限制四方面仍然有待 改善，这成为了下一步课改需要关注的焦点。 乙、文化视角 House（2005）认为文化视角主要建立在社群（community）的隐喻之上，核心性概念 是文化、价值、共享的意义，社会关系，它主要关注文化的整合性。House 认为在社会中 存在很多亚文化社群，不同社群内部具有共享的价值，但是不同群体之间则相互隔离。在 文化视角之下，改革是一个文化再制（reculturing）的过程，亦是一个不断茁生（evolution） 69 的过程。在 House（1981）看来，改变总是将一个新的观点和原有的文化历史相融合，而 课程改革的过程可被视为不同文化相互影响的过程。 统而观之，在中国大陆由于个体的社会化过程深受儒家人伦秩序影响，因此逐步形成 了以社群取向为依归、看重“优秀”、强调精英教育的模式，这种模式以考试文化在中国 社会根深蒂固的位置可见一斑。与此相对，此次中国大陆的课程改革多有借助建构主义、 后现代观点等西方理论，目的就是挑战中国传统的考试文化，力图在此次课程改革中更关 注学生个体，在平等的基础上推动学生的全面发展（钟启全、张华、崔允漷，2001），由 此可见这两种文化之间必然形成极强的矛盾和张力。 具体到学科层面，与其他学科相比语文学科与中国传统文化的联系更为紧密（郑国民， 2009），受到传统文化的长期浸淫。具体到学科来看，传统的语文教育在千年传承中也确 实积累了一些颇具民族性特色的教学策略：例如在小学识字与写字教学中倾向于集中识字、 韵语识字、识字与写字分进合击；在阅读教学方面强调朗读、关注背诵，重视阅读整体的 涵泳体悟；在写作教学上强调由读至写、先放后收、多练多改等（武玉鹏，2010；杨彩涓， 2010）。因此在此次课程改革中，面对上世纪遭受了科学主义“洗礼”之后的语文学科， 很多学者强调语文教育应该“回归传统”（马志强，2008.12.15；郑国民，2003），在优 秀、成功的传统教育经验中探索语文教改之路。另一方面，此次语文课改作为全球教育改 革浪潮中的一环，它必然也会受到建构主义、阐释学以及后现代主义等西方理论的深刻影 响，这些理论也确实极大牵制了语文教学改革的方向和手段。例如有学者指出现今在研究 界存在盲目学习国外理论和经验的现象，他们将我国传统语文教学理论驳斥的体无完肤， 将传统语文教学实践说的一无是处（胡海舟，2007）；某些教师甚至把“传统”作为贬义 词来评价语文课堂以表明自己是“新课程、新理念”的倡导者和实践者（陈玉秋、邱福明， 2007）。可见在此次课程改革背后确实存在着一场中西方文化之间的角力。 从理论研究来看，Watkins（2008）指出华人教学的特色是“以学习为中心”（learning centered），强调在知识传递甚至大量重复性练习的基础上揣摩学习（黄毅英，2008），而 西方教学的关注点则是“以学习者为中心”（learner centered），更关注在学习过程中学 生的兴趣与动机。两者各有侧重、亦各有优劣。从具体实践来看，语文老师习惯了传统文 70 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 化思维、教育方式，在面对西方教育教学理论的过程中，如何顺利移植西方教育教学理论、 怎样将这些理论结合具体的学校脉络或学生实际情况都是一个十分棘手的问题。很多教师 在具体教学中采纳“公开课一套、平常课一套”的双重办法（成尚荣，2006）。 总体而言，从文化视角来看此次语文课程改革主要面临中国传统文化和西方教育文化 相互博弈、相互融合这样一个问题。在两者的交叉影响中怎样汲取两者的长处，如何将这 二者与中国现在特有的教育脉络有效结合显然亟待研究者进一步关注。 丙、政治视角 House 和 Mcquillan（2005）认为政治视角的关键词汇是权力、自主权和竞争的利益， 它关注自主权系统的合法性（legitimacy）。在政治视角中，改革是不同组织利益的竞争、 是一种权力协商的过程。House 认为在课程实施中，出于各自不同的利益，不同的团体自 然对改革抱持不同态度，通过相互的博弈获得自身的合法性存在，他们之间存在着利益或 权力的竞争和妥协。例如某些人（例如政策制定者或是课改推行者）在改革过程中会利用 或显性或隐性的方式在事件决策中赢得自己的话语优势，从而发出更多的声音、获得更多 的权力。从政治视角来审视语文课改，教师权力这个命题尤为引人关注。 学者刘生全（2006）在布迪厄场域理论基础上指出教育场域是一个权力场域，场域内 的资本主要是文化资本，场域内的主要权力是以话语权力为表现形态的文化权力。在这种 境况下，教师权力更多表现为对学生的话语权以及由此带来的惩戒权（杜志强、汪昌权， 2011）。从传统来看，中国教师对学生的权力具有“强控制”的特点（杨清，2005），尽 管教师在课程发展与规划上并不具备太多话语权，但是教师因为在一线教学中占有绝对优 势的文化资本，从而在学生学习内容和学习方式上拥有极强的控制性。从这个角度上来说， 在传统语文教育中教师的权力拥有感较强，也较为稳定。 在此次课程改革中，中西方教育研究学者从“防教师”的课程设计理念逐步迈向“教 师赋权”，尝试在课程设计、实施与评价过程中给予一线教师更多的自主权。但是从课程 实施情况来看，这种赋权却在实际过程中被架空。这首先体现在教师原本以拥有优势文化 71 资本而享有的控制性权力被消解。在课改浪潮的冲击之下，教学内容较之传统迥然有别， 教师在以往课堂中赖以凭借的学科知识迅速崩塌，很多教师感慨教了十几年甚至二十几年 的书，现在新课改一来，反倒不会教了。抛开其背后可能存在的语文教育信念争论，这一 喟叹显然还传递出教师文化资本优越感丧失之后的失落与迷茫。以语文学科为例，传统语 文教学所重视的“字词句篇、语修逻文”已经在此次新课改中转变为“不宜刻意追求语文 知识的系统和完整”。伴随语文教学目标的多元化设置，教学材料、教学内容早已是林林 总总、纷繁复杂，语文教师在课堂中的话语权力在此次课改中迅速减弱，他们对学生的控 制感也在这个过程中变得脆弱不堪。面对这种文化权力前后迥异的落差，教师显然需要较 长的时间来进行重新定位与调适。 另外，教师权力还存在“得而复失”的难题。尽管此次新课程改革提出三级课程管理 模式，提倡教师作为课程的研究者与设计者，他们作为此次课程改革重要的持份者应该在 此次改革中拥有更多的话语权与作为空间。但是现实却并非如此。首先一线教师不仅缺乏 表达观点的管道，同时教师的声音也在此次课程改革中没有得到应有的重视。一项调查表 明教师普遍认为这种所谓赋权流于表面。此次新课改，在国家、专家与教师形成的权力关 系中，教师处于最无权的地位（卢乃桂、陈峥，2008）。其次在校本课程这个看似更为弹 性灵活的领域，教师能够真正获得的话语空间也十分有限。教师们必须面对这样一个现实： 更多的权力就意味着更多的工作和更大的压力。教师指出在开发课程的相关领域他们不仅 是理论储备不足，有限的时间和精力也是一个极大的制约因素（周正，2008）。尤其对语 文教师而言，由于备课、批改作文等工作量已然十分繁重，这种现实的困难最终只能让教 师放弃很多本应施行的权力。最后，此次课程改革中外在控制仍然显而易见。在整个改革 过程中，国家意识形态总是不可避免的通过种种手段（例如评价机制、奖惩措施）延伸到 教育领域中来（操太圣、卢乃桂，2006；刘向辉，2011），教师一方面要按照要求完成推 动课改、教育学生的任务，同时还需要应对学校的评价机制、国家的考试制度（例如高考 等），因此并没有多少实行自主权的空间。 所以，从政治的视角来看尽管此次课程改革抱持“教师赋权”的初衷，但是实际情况 却是教师面对突如其来的“赋权”，并未感受到多少舒畅与痛快，反而是必须在教育学生 和贯彻国家意志之间小心取舍，必须面对陡然增加的一轮又一轮培训与学习以及更为繁重 72 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 的教学工作。在重重压力之下教师无法看到“拨云见日”的希望，只能在不确定和迷茫中 徘徊。 丁、后现代视角 Hargreaves 等人（2005）认为近二十年教育领域的理论发生了剧烈变化，我们生活在 一个崭新的时代之中，这个时代被贴上了诸如后现代、后资本主义、信息社会等各式各样 的标签（Bauman, 1992; Castells, 1996; Drucker, 1992; Harvey, 1989），而这些观念也确实 不断形塑着教育话语的生成与发展。Lyotard（1984）认为尽管后现代理论五花八门，但是 他们有一点共通之处，即强调对元叙事（metanarratives）的怀疑，他们消解所谓的宏大叙 事，充分解读个体的言说与意义（Aronowitz & Giroux, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004）。 由于篇幅所限，本文将主要从个体意义的审视入手反思中国的课程改革。在教育领域中， 个体不仅包括政策制定者、教师，也应该包括学生。但是颇为值得注意的是在这场高扬 “学生为本”的改革运动中，学生的声音却并没有得到真正关注（Rudduck, Chaplain & Wallace, 1996）。 从一线教师的课堂实践来看，我们发现很多文章指出应该让学生参与到课程改革中 来，即学生应该参与课程目标的设定、教学方式的组织、教学材料的选择或是教学评价过 程（陈世滨、李丽玲，2004；林邵长，2010；王秀红，2004；魏红，2005）。但是如果我 们细心一点观察就会发现这种参与主要是为了响应教师的邀请或倡议，只能算是“消极性 参与”，即学生参与的起点、过程甚至是结果常常处在教师操控之下。他们参与的目标更 多是为了满足教师刺激学生学习动机的目标而非真正达致自我的反思与解放，那么他们在 这个过程中也自然难以具备学以致用、改造社会的行动力量。 事实上，从已有关于课程实施的实证研究结果来看，学生的观点往往与教师、学校领 导或是政策执行者有较大差异（相关研究可参考 Wong, 1995；黄显涵，2011 等），例如对 于语文教材所编选的课文，学生的观点就与教材编写者有较大差异（王标，2005；汪晴初、 徐晖，2004），而对于教学内容和教学方式学生也都有着他们自己独特的体验和感受（田 力，2007）。但是从研究界来看将学生纳入课程实施的研究仍然十分有限（尹弘飙、李子 73 建，2005）。从实证研究来看，Fielding（2001）指出学生参与课程实施研究可以分为四种 情况：学生作为数据源、学生作为积极反应者、学生作为共同研究者以及学生作为研究者。 在这四种类型中，课堂从较强的控制性向多元的开放性过渡，教师以及专业研究者逐步从 研究的发起人、行动者向研究的辅助者、支持者过渡，学生的角色从被动的信息采集者向 主动的研究者过渡。但是从以往的实证研究来看无论是在研究的广度还是深度上，学生参 与课程实施的研究都远远不足（尹弘飙、李子建，2005）。 如果说此次课程改革最核心的理念就是让学生获得全面、充分的发展，那么无论是在 一线课堂还是在课程实施的研究中学生的声音都应该被尊重、被聆听。从后现代的视角审 视此次语文课改，就会十分清晰地发现这个本应是课程改革重点关注的内容却在具体实施 过程中被有意无意地忽略。 戊、结语 在语文课改进行了十年之后，“下一步如何走”无疑是现今最受关注的问题。在制定 下一个行动规划前，适当的回顾与反思无疑十分必要。House 与 Mcquillan（2005）指出以 往的改革成效不大就是因为缺乏从不同视角进行地切入和分析。因此本文尝试通过技术、 政治、文化以及后现代的视角多维审视此次大陆语文课程改革，也确实发现在课程实施中 存在着不同层次不同面向的挑战与问题。客观来说，对这些问题的思考与响应无疑影响着 大陆语文课程改革的进一步深化和完善。 参考文献 万伟（2009）。〈高中教师在变革中成长——基于江苏省普通高中新课程实施情况调查报 告〉。《中小学教师培训》，第 8 期，34-36。 马云鹏、唐丽芳（2004）。〈对新课程改革实验状况的调查与思考〉。《中小学管理》，第 1 期，11-15。 马志强（2008.12.15）。〈语文课的出路：回归传统〉。《光明日报》。取自 http://www. gmw.cn/content/2008-12/15/content_869189.htm。 74 对中国大陆高中语文课程改革的多维审视：问题与挑战 中华人民共和国基础教育司（2002）。《走进新课程——与课程实施者对话》。北京：北京 师范大学出版社。 中华人民共和国教育部（2001）。《基础教育课程改革纲要（试行）》。北京：人民教育出 版社。 中华人民共和国教育部（2003）。《普通高中语文课程标准（实验稿）》。北京：人民教育 出版社。 尹弘飙、李子建（2005）。〈论学生参与课程实施及其研究〉。《课程 ‧ 教材 ‧ 教法》， 第 1 期，12-18。 王秀红（2004）。〈让每一位学生都参与和体验语文学习过程〉。《当代教育科学》，第12期， 58-59。 王晴初、徐晖。〈喜欢你的语文新课本吗——关于语文新课本的学生评价调查〉。《中学生 天地》，第 5 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Psychologia, 38, 124-131. 78 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong 進展性評估個案研究： 同儕評估在香港小學常識科的運用 CHUNG Tsz Wai Susanna Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This case study explores the peer evaluation as a role of formative assessment in teaching General Studies (GS) in a primary Direct Subsided School in Hong Kong. GS students are expected to do their project at school and present their work at the later stage. Assessment covers the learning process as well as the project products. Four Grade 5 classes are selected for this study to address the following research questions: (1) How does peer evaluation work effectively? (2) In what ways do students benefit from peer evaluation? Observation, informal interviews and questionnaire are adopted to collect data. Data analysis reveals that teacher evaluation and peer evaluation are both important. Students can learn the good points from classmates through peer evaluation. Furthermore, by becoming more aware of the strengths and weaknesses of classmates, students become more reflective and know how to improve through peer evaluation. Keywords peer evaluation, assessment for learning, self-reflection 79 摘要 是項個案研究是探討進展性評估的其中一項──同儕評估在香港一間直資小學的常識科的 運用。學生在常識科中均需進行專題研習，然後向全班匯報。評估涵蓋了學習的過程及結 果，亦包含知識、態度及技能。研究以五年級的學生為對象，探討下列問題 : （1）如何 令同儕評估有效地進行？（2）學生從同儕評估中學習到什麼？數據反映學生眼中教師及同 儕評估同樣重要，學生能透過同儕評估學習彼此的優點；在掌握同學的優劣的同時，更有 效地作出自我檢視及改善。 關鍵詞 同儕評估，從評估學習，自我檢視 1. Introduction This paper reports on a small-scale school-based action research that focuses on assessment for learning - peer evaluation. As indicated in the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong (Education Commission, 2000), the education system is to be reformed to provide the most favourable environment for teaching and learning. Thus, students’ potentials can be fully realized and teachers can have more space to help students learn more effectively. As indicated in the in the new General Studies Curriculum Guide (2011), Project Learning as a powerful learning and teaching strategy, provides also the contexts for assessing students’ performance in different aspects of learning. Teachers, students, parents and others can all be made responsible for assessment at different stages of the project (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). The school in the study is an EMI primary school, which has five periods in General Studies (GSI and II). There are two lessons in General Studies II that use Chinese as medium of instruction. Health and living, community and citizenship, and national identity and Chinese culture are the main strands in GS II. Project learning and peer evaluation are incorporated in the learning process in second semester. Students concentrate on the project design, explore it during lesson time, and then present their work at a latter stage, which usually involve peer evaluation in Grade 5 and Grade 6. However, the practice 80 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong and the format of peer evaluation depend on different teachers and time allowed. If this evaluation becomes more systematic and standard, it will be a good tool to enhance students’ learning. Since peer evaluation is practised in the project of General Studies, how can it be more effective to enhance student learning? Can peer evaluation be used to create classroom cohesion and academic success for the collective as well as the individual? The main focus of this study is to explore more the practice of peer evaluation and what students can benefit through peer evaluation. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Formative Assessment In 2001, the Curriculum Development Council Report on “Learning to Learn - The Way Forward in Curriculum Development” recommends that there should be a change in assessment practices and schools should put more emphasis on “Assessment for Learning” as an integral part of the learning, teaching and assessment cycle (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). Brown, Race and Rust (1995) claimed that the key to the use of assessment as an engine for learning is achieved by ensuring that each assignment let learners to receive detailed, positive and timely feedback on how to improve. Formative assessment was emphasized in order to promote learning and teaching effectiveness. Different types of formative assessment methods were introduced in the new General Studies Curriculum Guide (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Aims of assessment for students have been stated clearly. Students can understand their strengths and weaknesses in learning, what they should try to achieve next, and how best they might do this and improve their learning based on feedback from teachers and other assessors (Curriculum Development Council, 2002). Moreover, formative assessment, which focuses on the learning process and learning progress, can be used to collect evidence from time to time on student learning with a view to promoting better learning. Formative classroom assessment is learner-centered (Angelo & Cross, 1993; Boyd, 2001). Teachers need to connect formative assessment and feedback with learning to help students to know the standards they should attain, and give constructive suggestions on what to do next and how to do it. 81 2.2 Peer Evaluation The new General Studies curriculum also stresses that teachers should use different modes of assessment and provides quality feedback to the students (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Overreliance on pen and paper tests should be avoided, as they cannot adequately assess students’ performance over all the learning targets and objectives. Project learning as a powerful learning and teaching strategy, provides also the contexts for assessing students’ performance in different aspects of learning (Curriculum Development Council, 2011). Assessment should cover the learning process as well as the project products, including knowledge and skills. Topping (2003) takes peer evaluation as a process, in which a group of students identify and observe the mastery or performance of particular aptitudes or skills applied by the group after training or learning. Students explicitly or implicitly hold themselves mutually responsible for the successful completion of the evaluation exercise. Peer assessment, in which students comment on and judge their colleagues work, has a vital role to play in formative assessment. The new General Studies curriculum (Curriculum Development Council, 2011) claim peer assessment can be introduced for students to provide feedback and communicate with their peers about each other’s work, thus helping to cultivate a collaborative learning culture. Peer and self evaluation have always existed informally as students constantly compare their own performance with those of their classmates (Race, Brown & Smith, 2005). Peer and self assessment are skills that should benefit students throughout their studies and professional life in the higher education (Brown, Rust & Gibbs, 1994). By becoming aware of others performance, students will reflect on their own. Thus, peer assessment naturally helps self-assessment. Hoping to find peer evaluation also benefits primary school students in this study. A variety of positive feedback of peer evaluation has been documented and it is generally believed that peer evaluation can promote critical thinking (Brown, Bull, & Pendlebury, 1997), they should become less reliant on teachers for guidance and more able to know how to direct their own learning. Peer evaluation also enhance learning and critical understanding of evaluation criteria and the knowledge gap, develop “social and communication skills, negotiation and diplomacy, and useful transferable skills like giving and handling criticism, self-justification and assertion” (Topping, 2003, p. 57), rather than simply seeing a mark. 3. Methodology 82 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong 3.1 The Educational Setting and Research Questions Peer evaluation is a normal practice in my school in subjects like Maths, English and General Studies. This assessment mode always goes with project learning in Grade 4-6. Students also practise the peer evaluation in the Inquiry-based Learning week every year. My students are familiar with the practice of peer evaluation. However, the form of peer assessment varies according to grades and teachers’ requirement. Each group gives the feedback to others formally or informally. Though modification has been made every year, it is various with different teachers. In this study, the following questions are to be examined: 1. How does peer evaluation work effectively? 2. What is the difference between peer evaluation on one group and on all groups? 3. What is the difference between peer evaluation on focus items and on all items? 4. In what ways do students benefit from peer evaluation? There should have some difference if students assess one group and every group because of the level of concentration and time using. Therefore, it is important to find out these differences so that further amendment can be made. This study was carried out in four G5 classes in a Hong Kong primary school from December 2009 to March 2010. Students did their project in General Studies at school in Term 2 and presented their work at the later stage. Other classmates had to evaluate their performance. Questionnaires and informal interviews were given to collect students’ feedback. The original framework of this study was listed in Table 1: Table 1: No. of group and evaluate items of each class Peer evaluation 5D 5J 5P 5S No. of group All groups All groups One group One group Evaluate items All items Focus items All items Focus items 3.2 Pre-task Interview and Restructure the Setting Before students’ presentation, 40 students (10 students per class) were interviewed with the purpose that to restructure our framework and address the concerns before the study. The following questions were asked: 83 1. Do you think peer evaluation is important? 2. Do you think our boys are equipped to do peer evaluation? 3. Do you think the marks on peer evaluation should be counted? 4. What do you prefer? Peer evaluation focus on one group only or all groups? 5. What evaluation items should be included? According to the interviews, it was found that students like peer evaluation if all students were objective and fair; marks would not be affected; prefer to evaluate every group; students could focus on the performance of classmates and they could learn and improve. Since students preferred to evaluate every group instead of focusing on one group, one proposed question “What is the difference between peer evaluation on one group and on all groups?” was cancelled. 3.3 Data Collection At the final stage of project learning, G5 students had to present their project in group during 23 Feb to 3 March (Table 2). Two to three lessons were needed for the presentation since we could not finish the presentation within one lesson. The Peer Evaluation Form (Appendix 1) was given to each student. The boys in 5D and 5P had to evaluate all items for every group whereas 5J and 5S just focused on one item (Content / Presentation skills / Cooperation and Interaction). Teachers assigned the focus item for each group before their presentations. In the first lesson the students were told that they would do peer evaluation for a presentation, teacher uses one group as demonstration to let students familiar with both formats before the actual practice: students had to practice evaluate all items and focus items. Table 2: The schedule of each class in the peer evaluation Peer evaluation 5D 5J 5P 5S No. of group All groups All groups All groups All groups Evaluate items All items Focus items* All items Focus items* Students’ suggestions a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction a. Content b. Presentation skills c1. Cooperation c2. Interaction Presentation and Peer Evaluation 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March 23 Feb to 3 March Evaluation 12 March 10 March 11 March 10 March 84 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong * Group 1 and 4 were assigned to assess the Content of every group; Group 2 and 5 were assigned to assess the Presentation Skills of every group; Group 3 and 6 were assigned to assess the Cooperation and Interaction of every group. Once the students had completed their presentations and their peer evaluations, they were asked to complete a simple questionnaire (Peer Evaluation), which was designed to record their feelings and feedback towards the evaluation process. The Evaluation Form (Appendix 2) is divided into three parts: Overall comment on peer evaluation (9 items), format of peer evaluation (3 items for A or B) and the items of peer evaluation (1 item). There is a 4-point scale for each item (1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-agree and 4-strongly agree). The higher average implies the strongest level of agreement. G5 peer evaluation completed in the early March (before the second assessment) and the Evaluation Form for the Peer Evaluation were collected. Though there were 150 students in G5, only 137 Evaluation Forms were collected for some students were absent and did not complete the whole peer evaluation process. 4. Findings and Discussions 4.1 The effectiveness of peer evaluation After analyzing the data for peer evaluation form (Appendix 3 and 4), there are 12 items which average is above 3. Item 9 (It is a waste of time if we have peer evaluation) of the part is an exceptional case. 80.3% students disagree with it and its average (1.87) is extremely low which implies students do think that peer evaluation does not waste time though its process may be quite long. As for the effectiveness of peer evaluation, items in Appendix 4, e.g. “Teacher evaluation and peer evaluation both are important.” and “I can learn the good points from my classmates through peer evaluation”, both have the strongest agreement (84.7% or above) and highest average (3.18 or above), which indicates peer evaluation plays an important role. Peer evaluation also means that students need to listen to classmates which keeps them involved at all times. As for mark counting, students believe that peer evaluation is more effective if my classmates are fair and objective (84.7% agree, average 3.16) and they prefer not to count any marks (78.1% agree, average 3.17) at this stage. At a latter stage if students are familiar with the system, with a class of assessors, assuming that they are capable of performing such a role, the assessment should be fairer. 85 Moreover, students become more reflective of their own. About 79.6% students agree that they know “… how to improve through peer evaluation” (average 3.04) and “… not to make the same mistakes as my classmates through peer evaluation” (average 3.03). By doing peer evaluation, students ask classmates informally and also give advice. This experience should enhance their leadership abilities. Moreover, 74.5% students agree they can apply the good points from their classmates through peer evaluation. Students should be asking themselves why they are better and then endeavour to emulate them. As students develop their critical faculties they should become less reliant on teachers for guidance and more able to know direct their own learning (Brown, et al.,1994). However, further exploration is needed to examine what specific items students can learn in the second loop of study. 4.2 The difference between peer evaluation on focus items and on all items There are two choices for students to choose: either “All items are assessed” or “Only one focus item is assessed for every group”. 98 students (71.5%) prefer to assess all items whereas 39 students (28.5%) like to assess on focus items. 98 students like to assess all items for they can understand the overall performance of each group (93 students agree with average 3.34) and assess the performance of classmates fairly and objectively (88 students agree with average 3.23). Moreover, 87 students believe they participate more in the classroom activities. Comparatively speaking, 39 students prefer to assess one focus item on each group. They can learn and improve more on the focus item (35 students agree with average 3.20) and concentrate more on the focus item of each group (35 students agree with average 3.11). However, in comparing the time in the effectiveness of peer assessment, the data is not so apparent. 4.3 Obstacles and Challenges Since very little has been done in peer evaluation before this study, the following problems are encountered: (1) the unavailability of an effective evaluation form, and (2) the time allocation in peer evaluation. It is difficult to find an effective evaluation form for this study, the focus of this study is to explore the effectiveness of peer evaluation in this context, school-based evaluation form is more important than any forms with high validity and reliability, so it is preferable to design the evaluation form and collect the relevant data. 86 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong The time allocation is also a quite difficult task. Students need to present in groups as scheduled. Each group is assigned to present their work on assigned date. They need to dress up before the lesson if necessary. If each group is given 2 minutes for preparation and 8 minutes for presentation, one GS II lesson (35 minutes) can only have 3 groups to present at most. The whole presentation process cannot be completed within one week – not good for peer evaluation for it lasts for such a long period. Since students complete the peer evaluation group by group, thus do not affect the score of each group but the split affect the continuity of the process. 4.4 Further Elaboration This practice does not mark an end. In fact it just starts the beginning of more exploration in peer evaluation. The peer evaluation in GS II can be revised to be more student-oriented. Moreover, the same group of boys proceeds to G6 and they have peer evaluation in Maths and Inquiry-based Learning in May and June 2011, this study can be elaborated more. It is curious to find out if the boys apply the skills in what they have learnt. Follow-up informal interviews were conducted with a couple of students, and some key points are focused as below (Appendix 5): 1. The boys can apply the skills we learnt in G5 (peer evaluation) in various subjects (Maths & Inquiry Based Learning); 2. Classmates learn the strengths and weaknesses of one another; 3. The content should be comprehensive and persuasive. Systematic in presentation. Good interaction with the audiences; 4. Boys can be more cooperative which enhances the team spirit; 5. To be more objective and fair in evaluating the performance without any bias; 6. Learn the good points and apply them. Avoid making the same mistakes and think of the ways for improvement; 7. Enhance critical thinking and analysis; 8. Teacher can use the score and comments for reference and modify them before making the final judgment; 9. Precious, Efficient, Student’s view, Listen and judge carefully. It appears that students learn and apply the skills spontaneously, which is quite encouraging. Moreover, students’ major concern is primarily on improving their work in the future with instructive comments. Training students how to assess students can be implemented in the critical training programme in order to make peer evaluation more effective. 87 5. Conclusions Since this study is small-scaled and generalization is quite limited, it should be noted that this paper is concerned with one grade, and the findings might be different with other students. From my point of view, the impression of teacher and students are quite positive. Teachers do not play a dominant role in assessing students’ performance, since this role has been shared among students, it is possible for teachers to become aware of our own evaluation style. Besides, according to the collected data in this study, students’ apparent attitude proves that peer evaluation can help in the assessment for learning. Students’ feedback in peer evaluation is very encouraging. Their judgment of good performance is further enhanced through learning the good points from peers and avoiding making the same mistakes. Their eagerness of understanding the overall performance of peers in a fairly and objective manners encourages teachers to explore the peer evaluation more. More interaction within the lesson can be seen for students learn to give positive feedback. Both formats in the peer assessment have the merit, the peer evaluation can be divided into 2 phases if it is possible: students need to assess one focus items on each group in the first phase, once they get familiar in the practice and learn the assessing skills, they can go to the second phase- assess all items. Maybe this practice can be implemented in the second loop of the study. Given the above mentioned positive results obtained from students, further investigations and studies needs to be undertaken to divulge students’ needs as peer evaluators. Studies could also be broadened to include participation by other subjects (e.g. General Studies I and Maths) which use project learning as formative assessment. A systematic data collection should be conducted besides informal interviews. 88 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong References Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San Francisco: Josses-Bass Publishers. Boyd, B. L. (2001). Formative classroom assessment: learner focused. The Agricultural Education Magazine, March/April 2001, Proudest Company. Brown, S., Rust, C., & Gibbs, G. (1994). Diversifying Assessment 5: Involving students Section 5: Involving students in the assessment process. Retrieved October 20, 2011, from: http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/ocsd-pubs/div-ass.html. Brown, S., Race, P., & Rust, C. (1995). Using and experiencing assessment. In P. Knight (Ed.), Assessment for learning in higher education. London: Kogan Page. Brown, G., Bull, J., & Pendlebury, M (1997). Assessing student learning in higher education. London: Routledge. 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Journal of Adolescence, 22, 539-553. Topping, K. (2003). Self and peer assessment in school and university: reliability, validity and utility. In M. Segers, F. Dochy & E. Casacallar (Eds.), Optimising new modes of assessment: In search of qualities and standards (pp. 55-87). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 89 Appendix 1 Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division G5 General Studies II Project Learning Peer Evaluation Form Class: ____________ Name: _________________________( ) Group: ___________ Performance: Please circle the number of stars in each item. Items for Peer Evaluation 評估細項 Group ( ) Content 內容 Provide sufficient information  資料清楚明確 ☆ ☆ ☆ Pictures/captions are clear  圖文搭配得當 / 版面編排美觀 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and attractive layout  創意的表現具有特色 ☆ ☆ ☆ A clear and concise content  能淺顯易懂的讓人了解 ☆ ☆ ☆ Content and model are coherent  內容能配合模型 或 服裝 的介紹 ☆ ☆ ☆ Presentation 發表與呈現 Good introduction and conclusion  表達組織 ( 引題及完結 ) 有條理 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and organized structure  發表有條理 / 層次分明 ☆ ☆ ☆ Clear and loud voice  語調清晰，快慢適中 ☆ ☆ ☆ Fluency  語詞使用的正確性及流暢性 ☆ ☆ ☆ Cooperation 小組合作 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good division of work  組員一起參與，共同分工合作學習 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good time management  各組員的時間分配得宜 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good cooperation  組員能各展所長，互補不足 ☆ ☆ ☆ Interaction 互動 ☆ ☆ ☆ Meaningful activities  能透過活動與同學互動 ☆ ☆ ☆ Answer questions accurately  有條理地回答同學的問題 ☆ ☆ ☆ Good interaction  同學彼此互動，增添氣氛 ☆ ☆ ☆ Total 45 ☆ 合計 (45 ☆ ) 90 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 2 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Ev al ua tio n Fo rm fo r P ee r E va lu at io n 同 儕 評 估 意 見 表 Pl ea se c irc le th e rig ht n um be r: 評 估 細 項 O ve ra ll co m m en t o n pe er e va lu at io n 非 常 不 同 意 St ro ng ly D is ag re e 不 同 意 D is ag re e 同 意 A gr ee 非 常 同 意 St ro ng ly A gr ee 1. 在 評 估 過 程 中 ， 教 師 及 同 儕 的 評 估 同 樣 重 要 Te ac he r e va lu at io n an d pe er e va lu at io n bo th ar e im po rta nt . 1 2 3 4 2. 同 儕 評 估 宜 不 涉 及 分 數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny m ar ks . 1 2 3 4 3. 同 學 公 正 及 客 觀 的 態 度 能 讓 同 儕 評 估 發 揮 得 宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re fa ir an d ob je ct iv e. 1 2 3 4 4. 同 儕 評 估 對 你 有 幫 助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 1 2 3 4 5. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 學 習 同 學 的 優 點 I c an le ar n th e go od p oi nt s f ro m m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 6. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 運 用 同 學 的 優 點 I c an a pp ly th e go od p oi nt s f ro m m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 7. 同 儕 評 估 能 客 觀 地 了 解 可 改 善 的 地 方 I k no w h ow to im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er ev al ua tio n. 1 2 3 4 8. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 避 免 犯 同 學 的 錯 誤 I k no w n ot to m ak e th e sa m e m is ta ke s a s m y cl as sm at es th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 1 2 3 4 9. 同 儕 評 估 浪 費 時 間 It is a w as te o f t im e if w e ha ve p ee r ev al ua tio n. 1 2 3 4 91 同 儕 評 估 形 式 只 可 選 答 (A ) 或 (B ) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) ( A ) 每 組 評 估 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能 了 解 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l p er fo rm an ce o f e ac h gr ou p. 1 2 3 4 2. 能 積 極 參 與 課 堂 活 動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m a ct iv iti es . 1 2 3 4 3. 能 公 正 及 客 觀 地 學 習 同 學 的 優 劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f c la ss m at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 1 2 3 4 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) ( B ) 每 一 組 只 評 估 各 組 的 其 中 一 項 表 現 ( 只 評 估 各 組 的 內 容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能 集 中 了 解 各 組 的 某 一 項 表 現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s i te m o f e ac h gr ou p. 1 2 3 4 2. 能 有 效 地 學 習 及 改 善 自 己 某 一 項 表 現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 1 2 3 4 3. 時 間 有 限 ， 未 能 有 效 評 估 同 學 各 項 表 現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce e ffe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f t im e. 1 2 3 4 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) 同 儕 評 估 項 目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評 估 各 組 的 表 現 足 夠 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 1 2 3 4 2. 建 議 增 加 / 刪 減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 原 因 : R ea so n( s) : 評 語 ︰ 值 得 讚 賞 / 宜 加 改 善 Su gg es tio ns : 92 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 3 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Pe er E va lu at io n Fo rm 同 儕 評 估 意 見 表 (D at a) 評 估 細 項 Ev al ua ti on i te ms Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l 1. 在 評 估 過 程 中 ， 教 師 及 同 儕 的 評 估 同 樣 重 要 Te ac he r ev al ua ti on a nd p ee r ev al ua ti on b ot h ar e im po rt an t. 3. 18 5 8 82 42 13 7 2. 同 儕 評 估 宜 不 涉 及 分 數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny ma rk s. 3. 17 9 21 45 62 13 7 3. 同 學 公 正 及 客 觀 的 態 度 能 讓 同 儕 評 估 發 揮 得 宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re f ai r an d ob je ct iv e. 3. 16 10 11 63 53 13 7 4. 同 儕 評 估 對 你 有 幫 助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 2. 90 15 23 60 39 13 7 5. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 學 習 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n le ar n th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 3. 19 7 14 62 54 13 7 6. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 運 用 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n ap pl y th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 2. 99 11 24 58 44 13 7 7. 同 儕 評 估 能 客 觀 地 了 解 可 改 善 的 地 方 I kn ow h ow t o im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er ev al ua ti on . 3. 04 11 17 64 45 13 7 8. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 避 免 犯 同 學 的 錯 誤 I kn ow n ot t o ma ke t he s am e mi st ak es a s my c la ss ma te s th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 03 11 22 56 48 13 7 9. 同 儕 評 估 浪 費 時 間 It i s a wa st e of t im e if w e ha ve pe er e va lu at io n. 1. 87 60 50 12 15 13 7 93 同 儕 評 估 形 式 只 可 選 答 (A ) 或 (B ) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l ( A ) 每 組 評 估 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能 了 解 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l p er fo rm an ce of e ac h gr ou p. 3. 34 0 5 55 38 98 2. 能 積 極 參 與 課 堂 活 動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m ac tiv iti es . 3. 18 1 10 57 30 98 3. 能 公 正 及 客 觀 地 學 習 同 學 的 優 劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f cl as sm at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 3. 23 3 7 52 36 98 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 ( B ) 每 一 組 只 評 估 各 組 的 其 中 一 項 表 現 ( 只 評 估 各 組 的 內 容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能 集 中 了 解 各 組 的 某 一 項 表 現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s i te m of e ac h gr ou p. 3. 11 2 2 23 12 39 2. 能 有 效 地 學 習 及 改 善 自 己 某 一 項 表 現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 3. 20 2 2 20 15 39 3. 時 間 有 限 ， 未 能 有 效 評 估 同 學 各 項 表 現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce ef fe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f tim e. 2. 68 6 13 7 13 39 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 同 儕 評 估 項 目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評 估 各 組 的 表 現 足 夠 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 3. 33 5 2 73 57 13 7 2. 建 議 增 加 / 刪 減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 0 0 0 0 0 原 因 : R ea so n( s) : 94 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong A pp en di x 4 D io ce sa n Bo ys ’ S ch oo l P ri m ar y D iv isi on Pe er E va lu at io n Fo rm 同 儕 評 估 意 見 表 (D at a) 評 估 細 項 Ev al ua ti on i te ms Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l 1. 在 評 估 過 程 中 ， 教 師 及 同 儕 的 評 估 同 樣 重 要 Te ac he r ev al ua ti on a nd p ee r ev al ua ti on b ot h ar e im po rt an t. 3. 18 3. 6% 5. 8% 59 .9 % 30 .7 % 13 7 2. 同 儕 評 估 宜 不 涉 及 分 數 Pe er e va lu at io n do n ot c ou nt a ny ma rk s. 3. 17 6. 6% 15 .3 % 32 .8 % 45 .3 % 13 7 3. 同 學 公 正 及 客 觀 的 態 度 能 讓 同 儕 評 估 發 揮 得 宜 Pe er e va lu at io n is m or e ef fe ct iv e if m y cl as sm at es a re fa ir a nd o bj ec ti ve . 3. 16 7. 3% 8. 0% 46 .0 % 38 .7 % 13 7 4. 同 儕 評 估 對 你 有 幫 助 Pe er e va lu at io n he lp m e a lo t. 2. 90 10 .9 % 16 .8 % 43 .8 % 28 .5 % 13 7 5. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 學 習 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n le ar n th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 3. 19 5. 1% 10 .2 % 45 .3 % 39 .4 % 13 7 6. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 運 用 同 學 的 優 點 I ca n ap pl y th e go od p oi nt s fr om m y cl as sm at es t hr ou gh p ee r ev al ua ti on . 2. 99 8. 0% 17 .5 % 42 .3 % 32 .1 % 13 7 7. 同 儕 評 估 能 客 觀 地 了 解 可 改 善 的 地 方 I kn ow h ow t o im pr ov e th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 04 8. 0% 12 .4 % 46 .7 % 32 .8 % 13 7 8. 同 儕 評 估 能 讓 你 避 免 犯 同 學 的 錯 誤 I kn ow n ot t o ma ke t he s am e mi st ak es a s my c la ss ma te s th ro ug h pe er e va lu at io n. 3. 03 8. 0% 16 .1 % 40 .9 % 35 .0 % 13 7 9. 同 儕 評 估 浪 費 時 間 It i s a wa st e of t im e if w e ha ve pe er e va lu at io n. 1. 87 43 .8 % 36 .5 % 8. 8% 10 .9 % 13 7 95 同 儕 評 估 形 式 只 可 選 答 (A ) 或 ( B) T he fo rm at fo r pe er e va lu at io n (c ho os e A o r B ) Av er ag e 1 2 3 4 To ta l ( A ) 每 組 評 估 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) (A ) A ll ite m s a re a ss es se d. 1. 能 了 解 各 組 的 整 體 表 現 1. U nd er st an d th e ov er al l pe rf or m an ce o f e ac h gr ou p. 3. 34 0. 0% 5. 1% 56 .1 % 38 .8 % 98 2. 能 積 極 參 與 課 堂 活 動 2. P ar tic ip at e m or e in th e cl as sr oo m a ct iv iti es . 3. 18 1. 0% 10 .2 % 58 .2 % 30 .6 % 98 3. 能 公 正 及 客 觀 地 學 習 同 學 的 優 劣 3. A ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce o f cl as sm at es fa irl y an d ob je ct iv el y. 3. 23 3. 1% 7. 1% 53 .1 % 36 .7 % 98 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 ( B ) 每 一 組 只 評 估 各 組 的 其 中 一 項 表 現 ( 只 評 估 各 組 的 內 容 ) (B ) O nl y on e fo cu s i te m is a ss es se d fo r e ve ry g ro up . 1. 能 集 中 了 解 各 組 的 某 一 項 表 現 1. C on ce nt ra te m or e on th e fo cu s ite m o f e ac h gr ou p. 3. 11 5. 1% 5. 1% 59 .0 % 30 .8 % 39 2. 能 有 效 地 學 習 及 改 善 自 己 某 一 項 表 現 2. L ea rn a nd im pr ov e m or e on th e fo cu s i te m . 3. 20 5. 1% 5. 1% 51 .3 % 38 .5 % 39 3. 時 間 有 限 ， 未 能 有 效 評 估 同 學 各 項 表 現 3. C an no t a ss es s t he p er fo rm an ce ef fe ct iv el y du e to th e sh or ta ge o f tim e. 2. 68 15 .4 % 33 .3 % 17 .9 % 33 .3 % 39 4. 其 他 : ( 請 註 明 ) 4. O th er s: (p le as e sp ec ify ) -- 0 0 0 0 0 同 儕 評 估 項 目 T he it em s f or p ee r ev al ua tio n 1. 評 估 各 組 的 表 現 足 夠 ( 內 容 / 發 表 / 小 組 合 作 / 互 動 ) Ite m s a re e no ug h fo r e va lu at io n. C on te nt / Pr es en ta tio n sk ill s / C oo pe ra tio n an d In te ra ct io n 3. 33 3. 6% 1. 5% 53 .3 % 41 .6 % 13 7 2. 建 議 增 加 / 刪 減 : Su gg es tio ns : a dd / de le te 0 0 0 0 0 原 因 : R ea so n( s) : 96 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong Appendix 5 Student A: Student B: 97 Student C: Student D: Student E: 98 A case study on formative assessment - The use of peer evaluation in primary General Studies in a context of Hong Kong Student F: 99 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects 如果錯了，改正它： 校本研究統計錯誤的個案 Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Statistics have been used extensively in many school-based projects. Unfortunately, misconceptions have often been found in the statistical reports. In this paper, five case studies were used to illustrate some common conceptual and procedural errors found in reports and how these problems could be rectified. Keywords educational statistics, effect size, experimental design, school-based project 摘要 許多校本研究採用統計分析。不幸地，統計數據的誤用和誤解並不少見。本文討論研究統 計在概念上和程序上常見的一些誤用例子，並以五個個案說明如何在校本研究避免發生統 計誤用。 關鍵詞 教育統計，效果强度，實驗設計，校本研究 101 Sometimes, statistical evidence that looks good on the surface nevertheless turns out to be flawed. Broadly, there are two ways in which an argument based on apparently persuasive evidence might lose its impact after further inspection. One possibility is that the data were mishandled or the statistical analysis was misapplied. The second possibility is the discovery of some artifacts in the research procedure, such that the substantive conclusions drawn by the investigator may not logically be warranted by the observational comparison made (Abelson, 1995, p.78). Abelson (1995) begins his chapter On Suspecting Fishiness with the above quote. It is an apt reminder that if a project reports statistics, it does not guarantee that the awesome figures have been derived correctly and interpreted validly. Errors of the first kind are procedural and technical which are easier to be noticed. Errors of the second kind are conceptual and interpretative and are therefore more difficult to detect. There may be cases of pure conceptual or procedural errors, but more often than not the errors are confounded as the examples below show. This paper deals primarily with the first kind of errors. Case study no. 1: Misplaced comparisons Group comparison It is a very common statistical application in school-based projects where a group of students receiving intervention or treatment is compared with a group not receiving it. There is a need to ensure that the groups are equivalent before intervention. Then, a sizeable difference in favour of the treated group is expected after the project is completed. The box below shows the relevant information in the original report of a school-based project. For obviously reasons, the source of the case is concealed with no references made. This will be done for the other cases discussed later, too. In fact, it does not matter who made the errors; they are just what they are, that is, errors to be rectified. A quasi-experiment was conducted where pupils from one class formed the CG and pupils from a second class formed the EG. In this study, both classes were kept intact without randomization. A perception survey on self-esteem was conducted. As shown in Table 1, for the pre-survey, the EG scored a mean of 34.13 and in the 102 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects In this case, the experimental design is fine: there were two intact classes serving as the project and the comparison groups and, since the pupils were not randomly assigned, it is correctly described as a quasi-experiment. The teacher-researchers first mention the improvement in self-esteem means of the project group and then the very small change in the same measure of the comparison group. They further mention the non-significant difference in group homogeneity, citing the result of the Levene’s Test (Levene’s Test, n.d.). Finally, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha, n.d.) is reported. Correct way of comparing groups When reporting a project using an experimental design involving two groups, it is important to be clear about what is to be compared with what for what purpose. First, it is necessary to check group equivalence in the criterion measure (in this case, self-esteem). This needs to cover two aspects: (1) mean difference to see if the groups are comparable with regard to the criterion, and (2) difference in the standard deviations (SDs) to see if the groups are homogeneous in the criterion. If no differences are detected for both the means and the SDs, then the groups are taken to be equivalent. Such pre-project equivalence ensures that should a difference be found after project completion, the difference is not due to the initial difference (since there is none) but something else; and, the intervention is a strong candidate accounting for the post-project difference. In the present case, the pre- post-survey, a mean of 38.27. This may suggest that the intervention has made an improvement in terms of their self-esteem in the post-survey. The control group has scored a mean of 33.79 and in the post-survey, a mean of 34.58, indicating that the difference in the pre-survey and post-survey on self-esteem for the CG is very small. The Levene’s test of 0.995 (p>0.05) was not significant, further showing that the two groups are homogeneous at pre-survey, before the intervention. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the survey questions was calculated as 0.892, showing that it is an adequate reliability coefficient. Table 1: Comparison of pre-survey and post-survey of EG and CG on pupils’ self- esteem Pre-survey Post-survey N Mean SD Levene’s test N Mean SD Levene’s test Experimental 30 34.13 6.704 0.995 30 38.27 5.527 0.169Control 24 33.79 6.379 24 34.58 7.040 103 project mean difference of 0.34 was not been formally tested, although it may be claimed that the difference is too small to need statistically testing. Instead, the result of the Levene’s test which tested the difference in the two variances (the square of the standard deviations) was mentioned; obviously, the teacher-researchers used the Levene’s test as if it is a test of mean difference, which should be tested with the Student’s t-test. To rectify, first compare the two groups’ pre-survey means with the independent t-test and hope for no difference. (We leave the question of group homogeneity for the time being since the SDs 6.70 and 6.38 are close enough.) When group equivalence is assured, then, do the same to compare the groups on the post-survey means and hope for a statistically significant difference this time. If this is obtained, then the project groups can be said to have benefitted from the intervention. The effect size (Coe, 2002; Soh, 2008) used here for group comparisons is one version of the standardized mean difference (SMD), specifically the Glass’s delta (Soh, 2008). The SMD was simply calculated by (Project mean – Comparison mean) / (SD of the comparison group). When this was done, Table 1 was re-structured as Table 2. Table 2: Mean comparisons of pre-survey and post-survey Measure Project (N=30) Comparison (N=30) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-survey 34.1 6.70 33.8 6.38 0.3 0.05 Post-survey 38.3 5.53 34.6 7.04 3.7 0.53 Now, the pre-survey SMD of 0.05 in Table 2 shows that the two groups were equivalent in the criterion before project commenced, and the post-survey SMD of 0.53 shows a medium effect size in favour of the project group, thus the project was successful in producing a difference which cannot be ignored or dismissed. Why not the t-test? The teacher-researchers reported the results of the Levene’s Test but not those of the t-tests. Why this is so is not known. The results of the t-test and the Levene’s test appear together in the same run of the t-test in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) which could have been used by the teacher-researcher. Anyway, this is a blessing in disguise because the t-test should not have been run in the first place! Oftentimes, teacher- researchers routinely run this Null Hypothesis Significance Test (NHST) to compare group means (either doing this on their own accord or, perhaps more often than not, being misguided). 104 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects There are several reasons why the t-test should not have been run. First, what question do the teacher-researchers attempt to answer? Generally, this is about whether the project mean differs from the comparison mean, and if yes, what is the magnitude of the difference. For pre-test, small or no difference is hoped for because group comparability is desired. For post-test, medium or large difference is expected to show the intervention effect. The answers to such questions are found by using the SMD, and not the t-test, for the simple reason that the t-value does not answer the question on magnitude of difference. What then does the t-test do? It tells the probability of an observed difference in the populations, and this is not the concern of the teacher-researcher doing a school-based project. For this, we need to quote Abelson again: There is also a common confusion when using the significance level as an indication of the merit of the outcome. When the null hypothesis is rejected at, say, the .01 level, a correct way to state what has happened is as follows: “If it were true that there were no systematic difference between the means in the populations from which the samples came, then the probability that the observed means would have been different as they were, or more different, is less than one in a hundred. This being strong grounds for doubting the viability of the null hypothesis, the null hypothesis is rejected (Abelson, 1995, p.40). Note that the t-test it is not about the magnitude of group difference (which is of concern to the teacher-researchers) but about the probability of the observed group difference as an estimate of a similar difference in the populations (Fraley, 2003). Since when does a teacher-researcher become concerned with what may or may not happen to a very large group of other teachers’ pupils who made up the populations? In practically all cases like the present one, there is hardly real sampling in school-based projects and, to call the groups of pupils ‘samples’ is in fact a misnomer or misconception, or both. Since there is no real sampling (and hence no samples), inferential statistics like the t-test is irrelevant and therefore not applicable. Therefore, descriptive statistics such as the SMD is the only one to use with validity. On the misuse of the t-test and its like, Abelson (1995) has a strong view, thus, The ethos of doing significance tests as the hallmark of an appropriately conservative style is now so deeply ingrained that tests are sometimes used even when they need not be. Indeed, there are several contexts in which it is really silly (Cohen, in press) to carry out a significance test, much less to present its result (p.76). 105 There is yet another reason why the t-test cannot be trusted to compare group means, even if it is used for comparing samples which have really been randomly selected from their respective populations. The problem is the influence of sample sizes on the p-value corresponding to a t-value. Let’s say a t=1.99 is obtained for comparing two groups which have together 42 pupils, the corresponding p-value is not significant (p>.05) as the required t-value is 2.02. But if the total number of pupils is 82, the same t-value (1.99) is significant (p<.05) because it is equal to the required t=1.99. In a recent issue of a journal, a study reports almost all comparisons as non- significant and another almost all as significant. Of these studies (references cannot be given to safeguard the authors), one is too bad to be true while the other too good to be true. A careful look shows that the former study compared 10 pairs of respondents whereas the latter has a total respondent size of as many as 800! These are good contrasting examples of the influence of sample sizes on the results of the t-test. In the words of Sterne (n.d.), “Given a large sample size, even a small difference will be statistically significantly different from zero.” In the case study above, the teacher-researchers compared first the project group’s pre-post-test means and then, likewise, the comparison group’s pre-post-test. In other words, they did two separate within-group comparisons and then inferred from the results that there was a project effect. This seems fine intuitively but doing so violates the logical of the experimental design used. On this, we have to listen to Abelson (1995) again: But that would contradict the logic of including a control comparison in the first place. Why is that so? The point of running a control condition is to test the relative claim that the effect in the presence of the experimental factor exceeds the effect in its absence. The appropriate test seems to be a test of the interaction between the rows and the columns (p.63). Why do teacher-researchers make this kind of conceptual error? One possibility is that teachers typically are concerned with student’s improvement which is always seen as a difference in performance before and after teaching the same students. This mode of thinking is consistent with commonsense exemplified by watching a plant or a child grows. It is a mode of thinking teachers developed over years which is difficult to change when change is necessary as they do school-based projects experimentally. Whatever the cause, teacher-researchers need to re-orientate and adopt a research mode of thinking when 106 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects analyzing and reporting school-based projects. The Levene’s test When the SPSS is run to compare group means, the Levene’s test is first done by default to check homogeneity in variability. The result shows whether the two groups have the similar or different degree of homogeneity. If there is non-significant difference (as was found for the present case), the “equal variances assumed” t-value is taken, otherwise, the “equal variance not assumed” t-value should be reported. Once the question of homogeneity is settled, the researcher will proceed to use the appropriate t-value and report the outcome of group comparison. What does the Levene’s test do? According to the Wikipedia (2010), In statistics, Levene’s test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances in different samples... It tests the null hypothesis that the population variances are equal. If the resulting p-value of Levene’s test is less than some critical value (typically 0.05), the obtained differences in sample variances are unlikely to have occurred based on random sampling. Thus, the null hypothesis of equal variances is rejected and it is concluded that there is a difference between the variances in the population. (Emphasis mine) Note that the Levene’s test (Levene’s Test, n.d.; Wikipedia, 2010) is an inferential statistic for checking equivalence of variances of two or more randomly selected groups. Therefore its application in the present case is doubted, since the two groups are not random samples. By the way, variance is numerically the square of SD indicating the extent with which a set of scores spreading around its mean. When a group has a SD (and therefore a variance) much larger than another group has, its scores are spreading much wider, indicating there are more higher or lower scores or both. If this is the case, then the two groups are not equivalent on homogeneity, although they may have the same or similar means indicating the same or similar level of performance. Then something need be done to ensure group comparability before comparison is made on relevant measures (Soh, 2009). In place of the Levene’s test, a simple shortcut is to find the ratio of the two variances. This is done by (1) finding the variances by squaring the two groups’ SDs, (2) dividing the larger variance by the smaller one, and (3) checking the ratio against the tabled value of the F-distribution which can be found in the appendix of any text on statistical analysis. 107 To teacher-researchers, the first two steps are no problems, but the third is a bit clumsy. As a rule of thumb, if there are about 30 or more pupils in each of the two groups, and if the variance ratio is less than 2, the groups can be taken to have the same or similar homogeneity. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (n.d.) of 0.892 is reported for the case study. This is far greater than the conventional expected minimum of 0.70 for research purposes (Siegle, 2002). While the teacher-researchers deserve to be congratulated for this, there is also the need for more information to understand what the coefficient means. The only relevant information in the report is “A perception survey was conducted to ascertain pupils’ self- esteem. The survey was designed such that questions of the same nature were repeated but they were phrased in different ways.” It is not clear what different aspects of self-esteem were covered in the survey and the re-phrasing of the same items might have contributed to the unusually high alpha coefficient. Also needed is the number of questions in the self-esteem survey. Number of item affects the alpha coefficient. Cronbach’s alpha formula has two multiplicative components: (1) reliability component and (2) correction factor. The first is [1 – (Total item variance) / (Test variance)] which is the total test variance minus the unreliability portion. The second is k / (k-1) where k is the number of items; it ‘corrects’ the reliability component for number of items. If a test has a reliability components with a coefficient of 0.60 (which is quite a normal figure for affective measure like the self-esteem survey), and if there are 10 items, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.67, corrected up by 11%. If the test has only 5 items, it is 0.75, adjusted up by 25%. For three items, it is 0.90, adjusted up by 50%. And, if there are only two items, it is (2/1) * (.60) = 1.20 > 1.00, an alpha coefficient indicating that the test scores are more perfectly reliable than perfect reliability! Of course, this does not make good sense. Here, the paradox is that the shorter the test, the higher the score reliability appears to be, leading to over-confidence in short tests, contrary to the normal expectation that the longer the test, the more reliable the scores will be, given the same quality of items. For the present case, an important question is for which set of data was the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained. There are six possibilities: (1) pooled pre-survey, (2) pooled post-survey, (3) project groups’ pre-survey, (4) project group’s post-survey, (5) comparison group’s pre-survey, and (6) comparison group’s post-survey. Alpha coefficients 108 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects The general methodology adopted was a two-group (experimental and control) pre- and post-programme quasi-experimental design… The Null Hypotheses were (1) FSP [the programme] did not increase the level of student engagement; and (2)… Table 1 (here, re-numbered as Table 3) shows the paired t-test analysis carried out on the means obtained by the two groups in the pre- and post-surveys. The experimental groups registered significant increase in all categories. The control group contained significant increase in the scores in five out of nine categories… Table 3: Comparison of mean scores between experimental and control groups Components Experimental Group (EG) Control Group (CG) N=74 Pre-E (a) N=74 Post-E (b) Difference (b) – (a) N=73 Pre-C (c) N=73 Post-C (d) Difference (d) – (c) Vision of learning 15.59 16.68 1.09*** 15.27 15.81 0.54 … (the programme) showed a significant increase in ‘Vision of learning’… There was a 1.1 point increase for the Experimental group, while the Control group mean increased by 0.5 point. calculated using these different sets of scores will yield different results and have different meanings. Considering the experimental design, pooled pre-survey scores are the best to use as they are not influenced by the intervention which may make the project and the comparison groups different in their self-esteem. It will be good if there is an indication of which sets of scores were used for estimating the internal consistency of the self-esteem survey. Case study no. 2: Missing standard deviations For Case Study No. 2, the box below is an extract from another project report which deals with many aspect of student engagement in learning. The analyses done as reported by the teacher-researchers are the same for difference measures, only one (Vision of learning) is cited for illustration. 109 As is true of Case Study No. 1, this one also used within-in group comparison. As this is illogical (Abelson, 1995, cited above) as is the previous case, the data need be re- analyzed. However, the original table does not report the standard deviations (SDs) but only indicates the significance levels of differences using asterisks. To re-analyze, the information is re-organized for correct comparisons in Table 4, using a, b, c, and d to represent the missing SDs. Table 4: Mean comparisons of pre-survey and post-survey Measure Project (N=74) Comparison (N=73) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-survey 15.59 a 15.27 b 0.32 0.32/b Post-survey 16.68 c 15.81 d 0.87 0.87/d It is a standard procedure that SDs are reported together with their respective means. But this was not done for this case. Had the SDs been available, the SMDs for the pre-survey and the post-survey can be obtained and will result in two Glass’s deltas. Based on these, then, whether the groups differ in the pre-survey can be ascertained and the same can be done for the post-survey. As the needed information (b and d in Table 4) are missing, the SMDs cannot be calculated and there is no way we can make the comparisons. Is it, then, possible to do some guesstimate with the limited available data? Fortunately, the report indicates that there are 15 items for measuring student engagement in four aspects, namely, Vision of learning, Tasks, Assessment, and Instruction mode. Looking at the patterns of the means in the original table for the various measures, it is possible that there are four items for Vision of learning. Since each item is a five-point scale, the lowest possible scale score is 4 and the highest 20. Armed with this information and assuming a normal distribution of the scores, the standard deviation can be estimated (Estimating Standard Deviation, n.d.), thus: Estimated SD = (Largest possible score – Lowest possible score) / 6 = (20 – 4) / 6 = 16/6 = 2.7 If this is a correct guesstimate, then the estimated SMDs are 0.32/2.7=0.12 and 0.87/2.7=0.32 for the pre-survey and post-survey, respectively. Then, the conclusion is that the two groups were equivalent on the pre-survey and there was a small effect size 110 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects The subjects of this experiment are the students in two of the classes in Secondary Four… Both classes stayed intact without randomization… For 4E1, the students came in with an average T-scores of 213 in terms of their English language. For 4E2, the average T-scores is 194. The pre-test was the English Language mid-year examination… The post-test was a test designed… to used a text-type… using Impact Analysis as the subject matter. As shown in Table 5 (originally, Table 1) below, for the post-test, 4E1 has a mean of 20.46 (1.80) after the treatment compared to a mean of 19.28 (2.06) before the treatment. 4E2 shows a mean of 18.00 (2.51) after treatment compared to 17.26 (1.57) before the treatment. The paired t-test on the scores yielded a p-value of 0.002 and 0.015 for 4E1 and 4E2 respectively, indicating both classes showing increase in the scores which are significant. The increase in the mean scores was however greater in 4E1. Table 5: Comparison on post-test Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD 4E1 19.28 2.06 20.46 1.80 4E2 17.26 1.57 18.00 2.51 in favour of the project group on the post-survey. Therefore, the intervention was able to engage the project students slightly better than it did the comparison students. Of course, here again, although the conclusion is similar to that of the teacher-researchers, but the thinking process and logic are different: the teacher-researchers reached the correct conclusion but for a wrong reason! Case study no. 3: Missing initial comparison An important condition of a two-group design is the initial group equivalence. This is necessary for a valid interpretation of the post-test difference, if any. In the box below for Case Study No. 3, an initial group difference was not taken into account when interpreting the post-test difference. 111 As can be seen in the conclusion, the conceptual error of misplaced comparison appears in this case. However, there are two other errors which deserve rectification and discussion. By the way, this does not include the erroneous statement “in terms of their English language”, because T-score is an aggregate for four subjects examined in Singapore’s Primary School Leaving Examination. The fact is that only subject grades but not subject T-scores are available to the school. In this case, where did the T-score for English Language come from? Obviously, there is a mis-reporting. In the case, the pre-test means of 19.28 and 17.26 could well be different enough for the two groups to be non-equivalent before project commenced. This is confirmed when the SMD of 1.29 was obtained. This is a very large SMD when checked against Cohen’s criteria (Cohen, 1988; Soh, 2008). That the groups were initially non-equivalent could have been noticed by the teacher-researchers at the outset when they compared the average T-scores of the two groups. Table 6: Mean comparisons of pre-test and post-test Measure 4E1 (N=?) 4E2 (N=?) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 19.28 2.06 17.26 1.57 2.02 1.29 Post-test 20.46 1.80 18.00 2.51 2.46 0.98 Comparisons should have been done to compare groups on the pre-test and then again on the post-test, instead of two separate paired t-tests for the pre-post-test difference within each group, for the reason expounded earlier. When the two groups were compared on the post-test, the SMD of 0.98, which is large by Cohen’s (1988) standard, shows a large effect size which the teacher-researchers hoped for. However, since the groups were non-equivalent to begin with, comparing them on the post-test without due consideration for the initial difference renders the conclusion suspect. In fact, while the project group gained by 1.18, the comparison group gained by 0.74; the difference in gain is 0.44 in favour of the project group. To avoid this conceptual problem, the groups could have been equalized first by using some of the methods such as winsorizing or caliper matching (Soh, 2009) to create equivalent groups for valid interpretation. Alternatively, a gain-score analysis could be employed to off-set the initial difference. A third conceptual error lies with the tests used. As indicated in the report, the pre- 112 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects test and the post-test are two different tests. Had the groups been equalized on the T-score and then compared on the post-test between-group, the project would use the equivalent group post-test only design which in fact is a simpler and good design. Unfortunately, the paired t-tests compared the two sets of scores which are not of the same measure. The computer software is blind to the sources of numbers put in for processing; it does not know where the scores come from and does not need to know either. It just obediently churns out whatever statistics it is asked to calculate. It is the researchers who have to ensure meaningfulness of the statistics. Had the pre-test and post-test been the same measure, the problem of non-equivalence between groups can be solved by a gain-score analysis as suggested above. This case shows that experimental design, measurement, and statistical analysis of a project are not independent but related and they need be considered together. Case study no. 4: Over-simplification Compared with the two previous cases, Case Study No. 3 is a more complex one. The project studied the effect of interdisciplinary project-work (independent variable) on students’ perceptions of life-skills (dependent variable) and ascertained if there were differences attributable to course and gender (two moderating variables). A moderating variable is one which influences the relationship of the independent and dependent variables. As rightly stated by the teacher-researcher, there was no control group since the entire Secondary Two cohort was involved in project-work. Incidentally, this so-called whole-level approach is another issue in research design but the discussion of which is not within the score of this paper. The research question posed with regard to this investigation is: What is the impact of interdisciplinary project-work… on making learning meaningful?… The LSQ (Life-skills Questionnaire) administered as pre- and post-tests comprised statements to identify the perception aspects of life-skills. The questionnaire consisted of four components: (1) Confidence, (2) … Table 7 (originally, Table 2) reports the means and standard deviations for the respective courses and gender of Time 1 (pre-test) and Time 2 (post-test). Paired t-test was carried out to examine significant differences due to course and gender at Time 1 and Time 2. 113 Table 7: Results of paired t-tests if LSQ Course Scale Gender Mean (SD) Mean difference t-statisticsPre Post Normal Academic Confidence Female (68) 3.43 (0.71) 3.57 (0.51) -0.14 -1.56 Male (53) 3.28 (0.63) 3.67 (0.60) -0.39 -3.94*** Express Female (75) 3.51 (0.44) 3.89 (0.64) -0.35 -4.79*** Male (79) 3.61 (0.63) 3.81 (0.63) -0.20 -2.66*** The results of the paired t-test showed that the perceived life skills measured by mean scores on the LSQ for Express students were higher than that of N(A) students. The course differences were still observed at Time 2, with the Express students displaying higher life skills development. At Time 1, male students collectively showed higher learning (sic) to learn life skills. Nonetheless, these effects were not observed at Time 2. As shown in Table 7, there are in fact four independent analyses of single-group pre-and-post-test design experiments. The results of analyses as presented in the original table do not provide the needed information for the conclusion reached. For instance, when comparing between courses, the data of female and male students need be pooled. Likewise, when comparing by gender, data of the two courses need be pooled. The way it was done by the teacher-researchers is an over-simplification. To justify the conclusion, the data need be re-organized and analyzed. This is shown in Table 8A for comparing courses and Table 8B for comparing gender. Table 8A: Mean comparisons by courses Measure Express (N=128) Normal Academic (N=121) Difference SMD Mean SD Mean SD Pre-test 3.56 0.55 3.36 0.68 0.20 0.29 Post-test 3.85 0.64 3.61 0.56 0.24 0.42 As can be seen in Table 8A, for pre-test, Express students scored higher on Confidence than did Normal (Academic) students with a small SMD of 0.29. For post-test, Express students also scored higher than did Normal (Academic) students with a greater SMD of 0.42. The conclusion is that the experience of doing interdisciplinary project-work was able to enhance the difference in Confidence between the two groups and in favour 114 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects of the Express students. This is consistent with the conclusion reached by the teacher- researcher, at least for Confidence. However, the initial difference (shown by SMD=0.29) cannot be ignored, though small. As shown in Table 8B, there are no differences in both the pre-test and the post-test between male and female students, as shown by the SMDs of 0.02 in both comparisons. Thus, where Confidence is concerned, the conclusion is not the same as that reported. Table 8B: Mean comparisons by gender Measure Male (N=132) Female (N=143) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 3.48 0.63 3.47 0.59 0.01 0.02 Post-test 3.75 0.62 3.74 0.59 0.01 0.02 Had the students been truly randomly sampled from their respective populations, the data could well be analyzed by a 2X2 repeated measure analysis of variance, since there are crossings of two genders with two courses and each student is repeatedly measured by the pre-test and post-test using the same test. Such an analysis allows the evaluation of the course main effect, gender main effect, and the course-gender interaction effect, plus testing occasion effect. This obviously will be a highly complex situation. However, since the four groups of students are not random samples, this analysis does not apply. For practically oriented school-based projects like this case, using SMD would suffice. Case study no. 5: Information overload Information overload is as problematic as information insufficiency. Giving too little information makes thinking and conclusion vague. Giving too much information confuses people. When a simpler analysis is made more complex than it needs be, communication and thinking problems may arise. It is really an art to say what is necessary and stop there. Case Study No. 5 is a case in point. The subjects were 42 students from a secondary two normal academic class… Another class of secondary two academic students was assigned to be the control group… A pre-test was conducted using an instrument developed by the teachers. The format of the post-test was similarly designed. 115 This case has two good points. First, it compared the project and the comparison groups on two separate occasions, first for the pre-test and later for the post-test. As discussed above, it is the correct and logical way to make between-groups comparison in a two-group experiment. Second, since the pre-test and the post-test are two different tests, within-group comparison (like what is done in the previous case) will be erroneous. The teacher-researchers use ANOVA (analysis of variance) instead of the conceptually simpler t-test, perhaps a preference. However, Table 9B is a correct standard way of presenting the result of an ANOVA but it contains many information which need not be shown for a school-based report, although it may be required in, say, a MEd thesis. The additional information is not meaningful to teachers and may make them wonder what they are for (and at the same time awed by mysterious numbers and labels). This is the problem of information overload: What do those labels across the top of Table 9A mean? Do readers need to know all these to understand the result? And, is there a simpler way to communicate the project outcome? When the same information for the two tables is re-organized and analyzed, the result is shown in Table 10 below. Here, the SDs were calculated by taking the square-roots of the variances in Table 9A. In Table 10, the SMD of 0.39 indicates a small between- group difference and the conclusion is similar to that of using the more complex F-value obtained through the much complex ANOVA. Comparison between the two classes using ANOVA showed that the performance of the control group in the pre-test was similar to that of the treatment group, F(1, 82) = 2.19, p>0.05. Table 9A: Statistics for pre-test (original Table 1) Group Total number Average Variance 2A1 (control) 42 6.57 4.06 2A2 (Treatment) 42 5.88 5.08 Table 9B: Statistics from single-factor ANOVA of pre-test results (original Table 2) Source of variance SS df MS F p Fcrit Between group 10.01 1 10.01 2.19 0.143 3.96Within group 374.69 82 4.57 (The same is done for the post-test in the report.) 116 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects Table 10: Mean comparisons on pre-test Measure Project (N=42) Comparison (N=42) Difference SMDMean SD Mean SD Pre-test 6.75 2.02 5.88 2.25 0.87 0.39 That the results of the two methods of analysis are similar is due to fact that, in a two- group experiment, F = t 2 or t =√ (F). However, in the re-analysis, SMD instead of t-value was obtained for reasons discussed earlier. The question is, since the t-test is more direct and simpler in concept and procedure, why go for the conceptually much more complex and procedurally much more cumbersome ANOVA and thus causing information overload with its ill-consequences? Discussion and conclusion This paper illustrates five different kinds of statistical misapplications found in school-based project reports: (1) misplaced comparisons, (2) missing SD, (3) missing initial comparison, (4) over-simplification, and (5) information overload. Perhaps, with the exception of the last one (which may not be considered an error) the other fours are common errors. The most common error is to report first on the pre-post-project mean difference of the project group, followed by the same of the pre-post-test mean difference of the comparison group, and then put the two results together and conclude that, since a difference is found for the project group but not the comparison group, the intervention benefits the project group and therefore the project works. This sounds logical but “it is tempting to stop there, declare victory, and write it up for publication (Abelson, 1995).” In short, it violates the logic of having a comparison group. This can be complicated by regression-to-the-mean threat if the two groups are non-equivalent initially. Another common conceptual error is the use of the t-test when in fact it is not applicable and, worse, irrelevant. It is worth repeating that the t-test is an inferential statistics which can be used only when the data comes from groups randomly sampled from their respective populations. In the context of school-based projects, this condition is seldom, if occasionally, satisfied. The t-value and its corresponding p-value do not address the question of concern to teacher-researchers (and school administrators); these values, 117 however awesome they may look, are about the probability of observed difference and not about the magnitude of the observed difference. Moreover, the significance of a t-test result is also sensitive to group size. Again, why this conceptual error is so often made is unknown. Most probably, teacher-researchers are awed by the small decimal numbers, the word ‘significance’, and also probably misguided. Statistics tell stories about projects and their effects, but the stories must be the correct ones that make statistical sense. The value of school-based projects does not depend on whether statistical techniques (especially the more complicated ones) are used, nor does it depend on the statistical significance - a word which is always mistaken to mean ‘importance’ (Soh, 2011). As can be seen in many such reports, statistics seem to have been used for a cosmetic purpose because, after presenting one or more tables, the teacher-researchers go on presenting their views, instead of telling the story contained in their statistics. Statistical misuses as exemplified by the five case studies here are not exclusive to school-based project or more generally educational research. It is also commonly found in other social research (Dodhia, 2007). And, Roehm (n.d.) gives ample examples from medical research. The question is not who make the most mistakes but how can mistakes be avoided and, if found, rectified. This calls for better training, more careful application, and more stringent editorial screening. If we have to use statistics, use them correctly by referring to the right concepts, the right techniques, and the right language. A job worth doing deserves to be done well. Otherwise, we behave like a little boy who has just been given a hammer and finds everything needs knocking. Statistics may look like pure simple truth, but as Oscar Wilde once said, “The pure and simple truth is rarely pure and never simple.” 118 If wrong, fix it: Case studies of statistical misapplications in school-based projects References Abelson, Robert P. (1995). Statistics as Principled Argument. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Coe, R. (2002). It’s the Effect Size, Stupid. What effect size is and why it is important? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, University of Exeter, England, 12-14 September 2002. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences, 2nd Edition. Huillsdale, NJ: Earlbum. Cronbach’s Alpha. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.experiment-resources.com/cronbachs-alpha.html Dodhia, R. (2007). Misuse of Statistics. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://statsconsult.com/Articles/Misuse%20of%20statistics.pdf Estimating Standard Deviation (n.d). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.statit.com/support/quality_practice_tips/estimating_std_dev.shtml Fraley, R. C. (2003). End of the Semester Thoughts on the Significance Testing Debate: A Review of the Problems with Significance Testing. Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://www.uic.edu/classes/psych/psych548/fraley/NHSTsummary.htm Levene’s Test. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2011, from: http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/analysis/levenes_test.htm Roehm, E. (n.d.). Improving Medical Statistics and the Interpretation of Medical Studies. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://www.improvingmedicalstatistics.com/index. html Siegle, D. (2002). Reliability. Retrieved August 8, 2012, from: http://www.gifted.uconn. edu/siegle/research/Instrument%20Reliability%20and%20Validity/Reliability.htm Soh, K. C. (2008). Effect size: What does it do for educational action researchers? North Star, 1(1), 63-70. Soh, K. C. (2009). Analyzing Data & Interpreting Outcomes: Statistical Toolbox for Teacher-Researchers. Singapore: Cobee Publishing House. Soh, K. C. (2011). Statistically speaking, correctly. North Star, 2(2), 108-127. Sterne, J. (n.d.). The End of Statistical Significance? Power-point presentation. Department of Social Medicine, University of Bristol UK. Wikipedia. (2010). Levene’s Test. Retrieved December 2, 2011, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levene's_test 119 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research 中間選項在李克特量表中的應用： 給教育研究的啟示 Kwok Kuen TSANG PhD Student, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong Abstract This article is going to review the debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale in order to understand the implications for scale construction. In this review, the major issues around this debate are identified. The first is methodological. The debate around this issue is the concern about whether the midpoints affect the reliability and validity of measurements. The second issue is epistemological. It concerns about how researchers exactly know the meaning of the responses into midpoints that they intend to measure. To some extent, the debate based on the methodological issue illustrates that both using and not using of midpoints are acceptable, because the midpoints may not really affect the reliability and validity. Therefore, the epistemological issue while designing the rating scale of a measurement is the focus of this article. The implications of the debate for educational research are also discussed in this article. Keywords midpoint, Likert scale, scale construction 摘要 本文回顧有關在李克特量表應用中間選項的爭論，希望著此了解中間選項對建構量表的作 121 用。本文將指出，關於中間選項的爭論主要圍繞兩個主題。一是方法論的，這一主題所關 心的是中間選項對量表的信度和效度的影響；二是認識論的，這主題所關心的是研究者如 何得知受試者對中間選項的理解跟他們所想的一樣。在某程度來說，關於方法論上的爭論 普遍認同中間選項不一定對量表的信度和效度有影響，所以從應用和不應用中間選項均可 接受。因此，在建構量表時，我們應更多地考慮認識論上的問題。另外，本文還討論了中 間選項的爭論對教育研究的啟示。 關鍵詞 中間選項，李克特量表，量表建構 In educational research, Likert scale is commonly used to measure different kinds of variables, such as teacher stress and burnout (e.g. Chan, Chen, & Chong, 2010; Dworkin, 2002), self-efficacy (e.g. Brouwers, Tomic, & Stijnen, 2002; Cheung, 2006), school and teacher effectiveness (e.g. Bangert, 2006; Kyriakides, Campbell, & Christofidou, 2002; Kyriakides, Demetriou, & Charalambous, 2006; Reezigt & Creemers, 2005; Reynolds, 2001), school organization (e.g. Bowen, Ware, Rose, & Powers, 2007; Firestone, 1984; Firestone & Herriott, 1982; Herriott & Firestone, 1984) school climate and culture (e.g. Cavanagh & Dellar, 1996; Cavanagh & Waugh, 2004; Moos, 1987; Pang, 1998; Wagner, 2006), and the like. The reason is that Likert scale empowers educational researchers to effectively operationalize the variables and then identify their relationships in order to improve our educational system. However, some researchers claim that the use of midpoints on Likert scale may affect research reliability and validity, but some other researchers disagree. It is necessary for education researchers to learn this debate about whether midpoint opinions are included in a scale, because the debate not only directly points to the problem of research quality but also the validity of research implications and recommendations to educational system. In this article, therefore, we will first review the debate in social research in general. On the basis of this review, then, we will suggest the implications of the debate for educational research. 122 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research Debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale Methodological issue One concern among researchers about having midpoints on a Likert scale is the effects of the midpoints to the reliability and validity of measurements. Generally, the supporters of midpoint opinions claim that the midpoints can increase the reliability of measurement. For example, Courtenay and Weidemann (1985) assess the effects of midpoint answers (“don’t know”) to the Palmore’s Facts on Aging quizzes (FAQ) and conclude that the midpoint answers tend to enhance the reliability of FAQ. Another study conducted by Adelson and McCoach (2010) present similar findings. In that study, Adelson and McCoach compared the response pattern of elementary students who responded a mathematics attitudes instrument with a 4-point Likert scale with another group of elementary students who responded the same instrument but the scaling had an additional neutral point. The study shows that the scale including a neutral midpoint might be more appropriate for elementary students than the 4-point scale, because the reliability of the 5-point scale was statistically and significantly higher than the reliability of the 4-point scale. On the other hand, the adversaries argue that the high reliability may be resulted from response set (Cronbach, 1950), especially the tendency to choose the midpoint options. Weems and Onwuegbuzie (2001) conduct three studies to show that there was a high rate of midpoint choices among their samples. This to some extent implies response set to the midpoints exist. Different from the findings found by the supporters of midpoints, the response set in Weems and Onwuegbuzie’s studies seems to attenuate the reliability rather than enhance it (Weems & Onwuegbuzie, 2001). In this sense, midpoints are not necessary to benefit the internal consistence of measurements. Nevertheless, some researchers argue that the use of reliability as a criterion to judge the merit of midpoints is inappropriate (Chang, 1994). As Cronbach (1950, p.22) already notes, “there is no merit in enhancing test reliability unless validity is enhanced at least proportionately.” In other words, validity should be a better criterion than reliability (Chang, 1994). Some studies evaluate the impacts of midpoints on measurement validity. However, the findings are also contradictory. For instance, some studies find that the construct validity may not be influenced by the midpoints (Adelson & McCoach, 2010; Kulas, Stachowski, & Haynes, 2008), but some researchers suggest the omission of the midpoints may impair the validity (Johns, 2005). 123 One possible reason explaining such contradictory findings is that the reliability and validity may be independent of the number of scale points, including the use or not use of midpoints, on Likert scale (Dawes, 2001a; Matell & Jacoby, 1971). Another possible explanation is that there are other factors mediating the relation of the use of midpoints to the measurement reliability and validity, such as respondents’ response style (Clarke, 2001; Lee, Jones, Mineyama, & Zhang, 2002; Wong, Tam, & Fung, 1993) and reverse coding (Weems & Onwuegbuzie, 2001). Epistemological issue Another concern about the use of midpoints on Likert scale is epistemological. This means whether and how researchers exactly know the meaning of the responses into midpoints that they intend to measure. Originally, the meaning of midpoints on Likert scale refers to neutral i.e., neither agree nor disagree (Raaijmakers, Hoof, Hart, Verbogt, & Wollebergh, 2000). Therefore, this kind of options is desirable because it avoids forcing respondents to choose agree or disagree options, that may evoke misleading conclusion, if they really hold neutral opinions towards the items. However, some scholars already note that midpoints may have many different meanings such as “neither agree nor disagree”, “undecided”, “don’t know”, and “no opinion” (Raaijmakers, et al., 2000). Thus, it is possible for respondents to interpret the midpoints in several different ways that may be totally different from the original or intended meaning, especially when the midpoints are not clearly defined (Kulas, et al., 2008). Worcester and Burns (1975) conduct a very interesting experiment to investigate this issue. In the experiment, the subjects were randomly assigned into four groups. Each group of the subjects was required to answer three questions that were the same for each group except the rating scales (4-point or 5-point) and the scale option labels (e.g. “tend to agree”, “agree”, and “2” assumed to be the same meaning). First, all of the subjects were asked to give their answers by using a discrete verbal scale (the Likert scales being tested); then, they were asked to indicate the answers again on a continuous non-verbal scale (literally straight, blank line). After that, Worcester and Burns compared the answers between the verbal and non-verbal scales. They found that the midpoint selections could mean “neither agree nor disagree”, “tend to agree”, and “tend to disagree” among the subjects. Thus, they concluded that the similar or the same options may mean different things to different people. Similar to Worcester and Burns, Kulas, et al. (2008, p.251) claim that midpoints 124 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research may be viewed by the respondents as a “dumping ground” for unsure or non-applicable responses, “if the respondent[s] did not view the middle response option as existing along the agreement continuum.” In other words, midpoints may not really represent the opinion of “neither agree nor disagree”. To some extent, this argument gets supports from another line of studies that aims to learn the effects of the midpoints on survey results. For example, Garland (1991) asks his respondents to give opinions about the importance of product labeling with a Likert scale and he finds that more negative ratings were obtained when midpoints were removed from the scale. Dawes (2001b) conducts a similar study, in which the respondents were asked to identify their satisfaction towards their insurance company with a scale either with or without midpoints, and also finds the similar results. In addition to negative rating, some studies indicate that an increase in positive rating may occur when a scale does not include midpoints (Worcester & Burns, 1975). These effects of the denial of midpoints may be explained by that respondents may “use the midpoint to avoid reporting what they see as less socially acceptable answer” (Johns, 2010, p.7) in order to please the interviewers (Garland, 1991). If it is the case, the selection of midpoint may no longer imply neutrality. In other words, midpoints may be harmful to measurement validity. However, the supporters of the use of midpoints provide confronting evidences. For instance, Raaijmakers, et al. (2000) argue that the midpoints are necessary. This is because the respondents, who do not have enough knowledge to response the items, might minimize unresponse rate by selecting the midpoint to indicate the sense of “undecided” or “don’t know”. In addition, Matell and Jacoby (1972) discover that a negative correlation between the number of scale options and the opportunity that midpoints become a dumping ground. This implies that midpoints may be more appropriate in a scale with more scale options. Implication to educational research According to the literature reviewed above, it is obvious that there is still no conclusion whether the midpoints on Likert scale are desirable or not. Nevertheless, according to the methodological viewpoint, i.e. the issue about the impact of midpoints on measurement reliability and validity, both use and not use of midpoints are acceptable because the midpoints may not really affect the reliability and validity (Dawes, 2001a; Matell & Jacoby, 1971). Therefore, it is suggested that educational researchers should 125 take more consideration to the epistemological issue while designing the rating scale of a measurement. To some extent, it is hard for educational researchers to know exactly the meaning of the midpoint responses. For instance, how should we interpret why a teacher choose the midpoint to the following statement retrieved from Kyriakides, et al.’s (2002) questionnaire about teacher effectiveness: “Students’ achievement in relation to teachers’ objectives”? The teacher may select the midpoint for a variety of purposes, such as: he or she may want to express neutrality about the relationship between students’ achievement and teachers’ objectives; he or she may not know the relationship; or he or she may avoid to select “disagree” or “very disagree”, even though this may be his or her true thought, because he or she may think disagreement about the statement is socially undesirable. Nevertheless, it is argued that the inclusion of midpoints on a scale is necessary. This is because we cannot sure whether the meaning of “agree” or “disagree” response, for instance, really implies the respondents’ agreement or disagreement towards the items. Some respondents may select these two options because there is no an option referring to “neutral”, “undecided” or “don’t know”. In this sense, we may need to take a risk that we may make an inaccurate conclusion due to the scale without such midpoints. The inaccurate conclusion may affect the validity of the implications and recommendations to improve our educational system. If this is right, educational researchers need to think how to minimize the disadvantage of the use of midpoints such as respondents’ misinterpretation to the midpoint opinions, response set to midpoints, and social desirable responses through midpoints. One possible way is a careful use of option labels. For example, Worcester and Burns (1975) discover that the balance side point options (e.g. the point 2 and 4 of a 5-point Likert scale) that are labeled as “slightly agree/disagree”, “fairly agree/disagree” or “quite agree/disagree” are more preferable than that labeled as “agree” and “disagree” only, because the adverbs tend to reduce the number of midpoint selections. Another way is to define the midpoints as clear as possible. Some studies suggest that the use of midpoints as a dumping ground may be more likely to occur when the option labels are difficult to understand (Cummins & Gullone, 2000; Kulas & Stachowski, 2009). Therefore, for example, it is more desirable to refer midpoints to the label of “neither agree nor disagree” or “neutral” instead of number “3”. Alternatively, educational researchers may add “non-applicable” or “N/A” options in a Likert scale (Kulas, et al., 2008). These 126 The use of midpoint on Likert Scale: The implications for educational research two approaches may be able to solve the problem of “untrue” middle response category endorsement (Kulas & Stachowski, 2009; Kulas, et al., 2008). Finally, the limitations of the midpoints may be reduced by increasing scale sensitivity. To increase scale sensitivity means to increase number of scale options (Cummins & Gullone, 2000). Some researchers show the increase in scale sensitivity may decrease the midpoint selections (Matell & Jacoby, 1972). They suggest that the midpoint selections tend to more often occur on 3-point and 5-point scale, but less on 7-point and 19-point scale (Matell & Jacoby, 1972). In other words, the response set to midpoints and social desirable responses through midpoints may be minimized by increasing scale sensitivity. Conclusion In this paper, the literature about the debate of the use of midpoints on Likert scale is reviewed. It finds that the debate seems to focus on two issues: methodological issue – the impact of midpoints on measurement reliability and validity – and epistemological issue – whether and how researchers know the meaning of midpoint responses that are the intended meaning designed by the researchers. After reviewing the arguments from both supporters and opponents, it is suggested that a scale with midpoints is appropriate for educational research because such an inclusion may not necessarily be harmful to the measurement reliability and validity, but also avoid forcing respondents to choose a direction. Nevertheless, it is still noted that there are some limitations of the use of midpoints, such as respondents’ misinterpretation to the midpoint opinions, response set to midpoints, and social desirable responses through midpoints. 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Journal of the Market Research Society, 17(3), 181-197. 130 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 Conceptualizing higher-order thinking for reforming school curriculum and teaching 楊思賢 香港教育學院 摘要 近數十年來，世界各地提出需要改革課程與教學範式，認為必須裝備學生的高階思維能力。 在香港，教育當局也有這樣的主張。高階思維，簡稱「高思」，在本地及國際文獻中，是 一個豐富的概念。學者們為這個概念提出了很多不同的演繹，至今仍未有共識；不少人期 望對此理念能更清楚地理解。本文借助文獻分析方法，探討這富挑戰性的議題，先闡明「高 思」與教學範式轉變的關係，進而討論「高思」相關的概念及理論，綜合成為四類高階思 維的意涵，冀望能為教育實務及日後的相關研究提供有用的參考。 關鍵詞 高階思維，課程與教學範式，課程改革，教學創新 Abstract In recent decades, researchers recommend the reform of the paradigm of curriculum and teaching to cater for educational needs in the contemporary world. Many suggest equipping the next generation with the capabilities of higher-order thinking (HOT). In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau also emphasizes the development of higher- order thinking skills in school curriculum. Hitherto, HOT is a rich concept that is under numerous diverse interpretations by local and international academics. Many educators 131 wish to have a better understanding of the concept. Based on findings from documentary analysis, this paper analyzes the concept of HOT. It starts with analyzing how HOT is related to a change in teaching paradigm, followed by a discussion of the theory and concepts of HOT, which leads to the formulation of a conceptual framework proposed by the present author. The author wishes that the framework could serve as a reference for further empirical or practical endeavors in the field. Keywords higher-order thinking, paradigm of curriculum and teaching, curriculum reform, innovative teaching 引言 在這個瞬息萬變的時代裏，現代的學校課程與教學正經歷不能迴避的轉向。Gardner （1999）指出未來的教育需能應付六大潮流，這包括科技與科學的突破和知識領域的轉變； 重點是，這六個力量加上腦研究及學習論的更新和啟示，勢如破竹地衝擊世界各地的教育 目的及價值，使其出現根本的變化，學校課程不能不改革。歐用生、楊慧文（1998）也有 類似的意見，他們對後現代社會現象作了分析，指出富裕社會將人性「物化」，新的經濟 倫理影響人的價值觀，資訊社會又挑戰著傳統生活。轉換課程與教學典範以挽救失落的一 代，是學校迫在眉睫的工作。教育應如何改變？如何改革？正如費利民（Friedman, 2007） 所說，世界是平的，這議題是國際化的。面對這重大議題，中、外學者都有提出他們的見 解。 Hargreaves（2003）引用新加坡政府的例子，說明任何國家為了未來的繁榮，必須培 養國民的學習和應付變化的能力，而「思考型學校」正是新加坡的教育藍圖。Hargreaves 因此說明，面向知識型經濟的教學應著重培養學生的創造力、靈活性、問題解決能力、獨 創性、集體智慧及敢於冒險的精神等。一些學者有類同的看法：認為發展學生思維與心智 是知識型社會極為重要的一項努力方向（Resnick, 1987; Bereiter, 2002）。總而言之，擁 132 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 有高階思維（下文寫作「高思」，這是香港一些學校老師常用的簡稱）等同擁有高效能的 思考力，被視為廿一世紀不可匱乏的能力（Cotton, 1991）。要培育學生的這些能力，思 考教學誠然有其重要性。這也是本港教育改革和課程革新的焦點建議（教育統籌委員會， 2000；課程發展議會，2001）。 香港政府曾把本港定位為一個面向知識型經濟的社會，也重視教育方面的投資，其教 育與課程改革綱領強調發展學生的創造力、問題解決能力及批判思考等高思能力（教育統 籌委員會，2000；課程發展議會，2001）。課程改革實行至今已逾十年，成敗得失毀譽參 半。對於思考的培育，始終是願景多於實作。最近教育局的學校外評周年報告亦指出，學 校能成功在教學中發展學生的高思能力，只屬個別例子（教育局質素保證分部，2009）。 看來，學習者的思考培育是現時仍需努力的其中一項改革重點（South China Morning Post, 2011）。 研究發現教師對課程革新的理解常是成功的關鍵要素（Yeung and Lam, 2007）。高階 思維是一個眾說紛紜的概念，在探討這個概念的文獻時，學者提出了很多不同的演繹。香 港實施了課程改革多年，至今學校教育人員仍期望對此理念能有更清楚的理解。為此，本 文期望能透過文獻分析為這個富挑戰性的議題作理念的探討，先闡明高思與教學範式轉變 的關係，進而討論一些相關的概念、理論，和作者發現的觀點，為高階思維的內涵作出歸 類，冀望能為這方面的教育研究與實務提供有用的參考。 研究方法 本文就「高思」的意涵探討，源於作者一次文獻分析（Documentary analysis）的研 究結果。文獻分析法又稱內容分析法，是用作釐清教育概念的研究方法；研究者可從文獻 的分析中「描述概念的精義或一般意義、及確認概念的不同意義…」（王文科、王智弘， 2005）。 進行文獻分析之前，作者先行界定文獻蒐集的方向、年份，定下是次探討的取樣方法。 133 本港的課程改革，歷年以來常參考西方的理論作為發展基礎（Yeung, 2009; Morris & Adamson, 2009）；其教育與課程改革綱領中建議發展的思維教育，亦以西方觀點為主要根 據（教育統籌委員會，2000；課程發展議會，2001）；故此，本文探討的方向亦先以西方 文獻為起點 1。作者在閱覽文獻過程中，發現有關高思的討論多以 Resnick（1987）的著作 為起點；故此，本文的文獻搜集亦以該著作及年份為起點。取樣年份方面，定為 1987 年到 作者執筆撰寫本文前為限。然後，作者運用了多項電子資料庫 2，搜尋了與「高思」教學 相關的文獻。 整合了文獻分析結果，作者現按以下方面與讀者分享： 一、 「高思」與教學範式轉變的關係； 二、 一些相關的概念、理論，和作者發現的觀點；及 三、 高階思維內涵的歸類。 高階思維與教學觀的轉變 對如何獲取知識的不同看法是各類教學觀的基礎，這些看法影響到學校的課程與教學 的發展。早在上世紀九十年代，西方學說已提出課程與教學應脫離只重灌輸知識的「直 接傳授」（Teaching for Transmission），轉向「以理解為目的」的教學（Teaching for Understanding）（Good & Brophy, 2008）。「以理解為目的」的教學認為真正的學習需經 學習者對知識的理解、統合、評估和應用。論者認為灌輸式的教授能利便學生進行事實內 容的吸納，卻未及「以理解為目的」的教學般成就更理想的智慧培養。要達成「以理解為 目的」的教學目標，有學者認為應落實「建構主義」。建構主義認為學習需要學生積極參 1 本文作者將持續留意兩岸四地及亞太區教育方面在高思課程與教學的研究發展，他日若有進一步 發現，便會再作發表。 2 搜尋過的電子資料庫主要包括：ProQuest Arts & Humanities Databases, ERIC 和 Google Scholar 等； 相關的百多份文獻包括以高階思維教學為研究主題的文章（約 30 篇），其他相關的文章（如談及 創意思考和批判思考教學的文章）（約共 50 篇）。 134 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 與，通過主動的思考和探究驗證的過程，在新知識和個人的已有知識間建立聯繫，從而建 構真正屬於個人的、有活力的知識（Fosnot, 1989）。相對於那些把知識看作不能改變的信 條的教學人員，支持這派學說的人相信死記硬背不是獲取知識的方法，理想的教法能讓學 習者明白知識是可轉移的，並可用來解釋新事物、解決問題和應用於廣泛的學習和日常生 活中（Perkins, 1999）。因此，教學不能單一地照抄照背教師或書本上的筆記，而應設計 學習的過程，讓學生主動思考、探求和苦心經營；而高思策略則是導引學生建構知識的重 要能力（Beyer and Liston, 1996）。 在相關的討論中，以研究教學著名的 Borich（2011）發現一個有效的教師應能提升學 習者在課堂中「投入學習」的程度，這種具關鍵性的教學行為，與學生學業表現有密切關 係。他更指出，引導學習者積極思考教師教授的課程內容，是其中一個令學生投入學習的 有效方法。此發現與 Stronge（2007）所指效能教師應有提拔具高階思考能力學生的能力可 謂不謀而合。觀察到近日香港的教育發展中，當人們紛紛討論如何運用的優勢以 改善教學時，發展學生「高思」的教學益發為人所重視（Galton, 2007）。 不同學者對「高思」的理解 思考是一種能力，在概念上它是一個複雜的載體。高層次思考（Higher-order Thinking），又稱高階思維，在香港被一些老師簡稱作「高思」。在西方文獻中，它是一 個十分豐富的概念。作者發現在探討這個概念的文獻中，「思考」二字比「高層次思考」 較多出現，但它們討論內容卻必包含高思的意念。對於「高思」，學者們提出了很多不同 的演繹，下面將簡介一些重要的看法。 Resnick（1987）首先描述了高階思維的一些特性，包括：無規則的、複雜性、容納多 元答案、多重標準、不肯定和自有規律（頁 8）。思維能產生新的技巧、概念、結論、行動、 主意與新的問題等。他還指出高思需要學習者付出努力去思索問題，經苦心經營、精密思 索出來的才算是高思的成果。此外，高思並沒有年齡之分，即使幼童也能在適當的學習環 境設計下學習怎樣比較、推測及解決問題。一般來說，高思是指普遍性的認知過程，可用 於很多科目或情境中。 135 有論者從學習論追溯「高思」的理念根源，發現有關思考的學說源自認知學習論 （Eggan & Kauchak, 2001）。根據認知學習論，學習是學生主動思索和探求知識的過程， 這與重視學生思考的教學信念同出一轍。認知學習論者認為學生在學習過程中若能積極地 思考，會較只靜態地聽課有更高成效。 Lewis & Smith（1993）比較了高層次思考（高思）與低層次思考（低思）。學習者會 運用低思來處理訊息，如辨認簡單的數學符號；但需要運用高思能力去探討較為高深的議 題或解決較複雜的問題。 波諾（de Bono, 1992）認為思考是一個自我組織的系統，人們要經學習才能掌握高思 的技巧。他列出思考的成份包括：態度、原則、習慣、基本運作、工具和結構。那是說思 考的先決條件是我們有願意思考的心態或動機，還要有堅持設法進行有質素思考的原則； 然後，持守有效思考的習慣，選擇適合的思考方式（或稱思考技巧），再根據所需的思考 步驟運作思路，便能有所成就。據此，波諾提出了多個教導人們思考的方略，例如：PMI （正面、負面與趣味面）思考法、六頂思考帽、FIP（優先考慮的問題）等。雖然一些商 界及教育界曾採納波諾的模式進行人才的思考訓練，有學者卻批評他提出的祇是思考工具 （thinking tools），並暗示他的提出不屬於一套具學術性質的思考理論或技術（Milvain, 2008）。 綜論高階思維的意涵 閱覽文獻，便會發現五花八門的「高思」主張。揉合各有關「高思」內涵的討論， 如 Swartz & Perkins（1990）、Cotton（1991）、Keefe & Walberg（1992）、Anderson, et al.（2001）、Ong & Borich（2006）及 McGregor（2007）等（見表一），本文作者認為「高 思」的分析可歸納為以下四大類別： 一、 傳統的思考策略（Traditional thinking strategies），如創意思考、批判思考、後 設認知等 二、 較微觀的基本思考技巧（Core thinking skills） 136 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 三、 具統合性的思考理論／模式（Integrated thinking models） 四、 思考意向（Thinking dispositions） 表一 高思理論概觀──一些學者的界定 3 Swartz & Perkins (1990) Cotton (1991) Keefe & Walberg (1992) Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) Ong & Borich (2006) McGregor (2007) •批判思考 •創意思考 布魯姆等人 之思考層次 分類： 創意思考 批判思考 後設認知 思考技巧 •認知 •後設認知 •思考意向 改進布魯姆的 分類法 – 認知維度： •識記 •理解 •應用 •分析 •評鑑 •創造 •基本思考技巧 •批判思考 •創意思考 •複雜的思考過程 •後設認知 •思考意向 •資訊處理技巧 •推理 •探詢 •創意 •評鑑 傳統的思考策略（Traditional thinking strategies） 很多學者都認定創意思考、批判思考及後設認知這三種廣義的、經典的思考理論， 是研究高思者必然探討的，文獻中可見不少有關它們的研究。其中 de Bono（1970）的水 平思考理論、Ennis（1996）的批判思考論、Schön（1991）的反思教學論分別為三者的代 表。de Bono（1970）點出「垂直思考」的局限，認為人們應學習水平思考來創造新觀點， 並提出了一些訓練水平思考的方法。Eisner（1995）認為批判思考包括四個主要的認知行 為：沈思、探詢、鑑賞和建構。對個人思考過程的理解、計劃和反省是後設認知論所強調 的，而 Schön（1991）的反思教學論則被應用到本地的教師培訓中（Yeung, 2002a; 2002b; 2008）。除了以上三類最廣為學者推薦的思考模式外，還有一些值得讓學童學習的思考方 式──學者稱之為「複雜的思考過程」（Swartz, 2001; Ong & Borich, 2006）。這主要包括 問題解決（Problem Solving）及決策（Decision Making）思考。問題解決能力或作「解難 能力」，其中的思考步驟包括確認問題、考慮解決問題的方法、探查資料、驗證假設以及 3 內容經作者分析文獻所得歸納而成。 137 作出選擇和決策（Delisle, 1997）。香港教育局近年推行到高中必修課程的通識科，便納入 了此種思考模式的培育。 基本思考技巧（Core thinking skills） 這包括基本的思考技巧如：推理、探詢、分析、評鑑、分類、預測、比較等（Cotton, 1991; Swartz, 2001; McGregor, 2007），表二亦列出了一些常為人道的思考技巧。較複雜的 思考過程（如上述的問題解決和決策思考）及廣義的高思模式如創意與批判思考，均會運 用一種或以上的基本思考技巧。多年來很多教學人員採用布魯姆的思考層次分類，認為布 氏等人（Bloom et al., 1956; Anderson et al., 2001）的分類架構已包括了常用於教學的思考 技巧。為人熟悉的布氏六個認知領域的思考層次包括知識、理解、應用、分析、綜合及評 鑑（新版本：知識、理解、應用、分析、評鑑、創造），新舊版本的後三層次一般被喻為「高 層次」認知／思考。這套理論常被教師用作設計課堂提問來幫助學生思考。 表二 基本思考技巧 思維的技巧 按思考的方向歸類的思維技巧 排序（sequencing）， 分析（analysis）， 聯想（association）， 分類（classification）， 理解（comprehension）， 比較（comparison）， 推論（deduction）， 評估（evaluation）， 靈活性（flexibility）， 流暢（fluency）， 預報（forecasting）， 歸納（generalizing）， 假設（hypothesizing）， 解釋（interpretation）， 觀察（observation）， 制定計劃（planning）， 預測（predicting）， 疑問（questioning）， 合成（synthesizing）， 推理（theorizing）等 邏輯思維 水平思考 聚斂思考 擴散性思維 138 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 具統合性質的高思理論（Integrated thinking models） 在紛紜的學術討論中，有一些學者為「高思」提出一些別具特色的演繹；諸如： Marzano 等（1988）的思考維度、Sternberg & Spear-Swerling（1996）的三元思考理論； Gardner（2006）的五種心智、以及 de Bono（2003）的六頂思考帽。這四種「高思」理論 都具統合（Fusion）性質，能把不同的思考模式、過程等融會貫通，筆者會在以下段落中 簡作討論。 Marzano 等（1988）提出一個分析思考的架構，讓教學人員計劃或研究高思課程和教 學時參考，他們稱之為「思考維度」（Dimensions of thinking）。這包括五個思考維度： - 後設認知（Metacognition） - 批判和創意思考（Critical and creative thinking） - 思考歷程（Teaching processes） - 主要的思考技巧（Core thinking skills） - 內容知識與思考的關聯性（Relationship of content-area knowledge to thinking） 細心研讀後，便能發現 Marzano 等的思考維度架構具有統合性，把不同學者對高思的 提出總括起來。相對於其他學說而言，他的想法較少被運用到課程與教學的設計中，但仍 是十分值得參考的。 Sternberg & Spear-Swerling（1996） 發 展 了 思 考 三 元 理 論（Triarchic theory of thinking）。根據這個理論，思考應包括以下三種：分析性思考（analytical thinking）、創 意性思考（creative thinking）和實用性思考（practical thinking）。分析性思考涵蓋分析、 判斷、評估、比較、對照等能力；創意性思考涵蓋創新、發現、創造、想像和假設等能力； 實用性思考則涵蓋實踐、使用、運用以及人們在真實世界裏展示的能力。擅長分析性思考 的人長於解決熟悉的或學業上的問題；富創意性思考力的人善於運用思考技術解決新奇的 問題；作實用性思考的人則較願意把這些技巧應用到日常生活中的問題。面對新世紀，此 三種思考力的培養是同樣重要的，Sternberg & Spear-Swerling 卻遺憾地說：「傳統的學校 教育只注重一種思考－分析性思考（頁 3）」。為了改善這個問題，兩位學者於是著書幫 助教師掌握三元思考的理論和教學方法。 139 Gardner 發表的多元智慧論（Gardner, 1999），一直廣為人用於設計課程和教學。廣 泛流傳的八種智慧包括：語文、邏輯—數學、空間、肢體—動覺、音樂、人際、內省及自 然觀察者，此八種智能與高思的理論有著極為密切的關係。有關多元智慧的應用，參考著 作十分多（如 Kagan & Kagan, 1998；Armstrong, 2000），此處不再細談。Gardner 在其後 的著作中更提出了決勝未來的五種心智，包括修練心智（Disciplined Mind）、統合心智 （Synthesizing Mind）、創造心智（Creating Mind）、尊重心智（Respectful Mind）和倫理 心智（Ethical Mind）（Gardner, 2006）。在現今這個科學和技術霸權世界中，Gardner 認 為任何人若能成功培養這五種心智，便最有可能成功。面對資訊苦多、倫理道德受挑戰的 年代，他更指出這些心智的建立對未來一代來說十分重要。細意分析下，便能發現每一種 心智需要相應的思考習性，例如：修練心智需要學習者持續努力專注和意欲求真的思考習 性，統合和創造的心智顯然是高思的能力，而尊重與倫理心智則必含批判的高思成份。 de Bono（2003）的六頂思考帽其實代表著六種不同的思考方式──紅帽子代表情感、 白帽子代表客觀資料、黃帽子是正面思考的帽子、黑帽子則是批判的思考、綠帽子是創意 的思考、藍帽子則負責控制思考和作出決策。de Bono 認為人們若能善用六頂帽子去思考 問題，則更能清醒且有效地達致成果，這個思考理論在坊間有頗多的應用和討論。這套想 法具統合性，與前面三種思考理論相似，它融合了不同的思考方式的優點，使思考能發揮 更大的果效。 思考意向（Thinking dispositions） 學者發現熱愛思考的人較能想出有質素的點子（Swartz & Perkins, 1990），好的思考 不是純粹技術性的事情，它包含了「情意面」──需要思考者誠心的投入、專注並努力 以赴。思考意向便是高思「內涵」的情意面，它是指學習者運用思考來學習的意願、動 機和習慣。這方面最具代表的主張包括 Costa & Kallick（2009）的思考習性論及 Tishman & Perkins（1995）的思考教室文化說。Costa & Kallick 認為學校教育需要發展學生的思考 習性有十多項，例如：願意冒險並且承擔後果、有幽默感、堅持、彈性思考等。Tishman, Perkins & Jay 則提出學校人員應在課室中建立思考文化，好使「思考無處不在─無論言語、 價值、期望以至習性，人人都努力以赴，能在學習中營造優質的思考」（p.2）。由此可見 主張此向度的學者是何等期盼思考教學能達致更高境界的教育實踐。 140 探討高階思維的意涵以改革學校課程與教學 總結 從文獻的研究中，本文作者綜論了高階思考的內涵可包括以下四方面： 一、 傳統的思考策略（Traditional thinking strategies），如創意思考、批判思考、後 設認知等 二、 較微觀的基本思考技巧（Core thinking skills） 三、 具統合性的思考理論／模式（Integrated thinking models） 四、 思考意向（Thinking dispositions） 這些向度互有關聯和互相補足，若能平衡地運用，則高思的整全內涵方能理想達成。 教育工作者或研究人員可聚焦研究其中一個方面又或多個相關的方面在課程與教學的發展 潛力──以行動研究進行實務的探討，以驗證高思如何能在課程改革中發揮意義。 在這四個方面中，目前本地的研究大都集中討論有關第一方面（傳統思考策略）的著 作或研究，如鄭慕賢（2008）提出如何在科學科中實施創意思考教學；又如黎耀志、黃德 華（2005）在幼兒教學數學科的教學嘗試。對於批判思考，本地的相關研究和著作較台灣 少；後設認知方面亦較少人談論；筆者年前製作有關教師的反思力培訓教材是一實踐例子 （Yeung, 2002a; 2002b; 2008），至於如何運用到小學或中學的課程裏則仍有待努力。至於 其他三方面的論著，更是鳳毛麟角。總括來說，高思的教研還有很大的發展空間，除了在 專科教學中滲入某類高思的訓練外，可嘗試以跨學科至超越學科形式聯結高思和學科內容 （Yeung & Lam, 2007）。另外更可配合校情，因應學生的學習需要，設計適切的校本高思 課程。高思內涵本質上的靈活性和可塑性，值得有志做好香港教育的工作者多作探索和努 力。 141 參考文獻 王文科、王智弘（2005）。《教育研究法》（增訂九版）。台北：五南。 教育局質素保證分部（2009）。《質素保證周年視學報告 2008/2009》。香港：教育局。取自： http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=744&langno=2。 教育統籌委員會（2000）。《終身學習全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》。香港：教育統 籌委員會。取自：http://www.e-c.edu.hk/tc/reform/index_c.html。 歐用生、楊慧文（1998）。《新世紀的課程改革──兩岸觀點》。台北：五南圖書。 課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習—終身學習，全人發展》。香港：課程發展議會。取自： http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=2877&langno=2。 鄭慕賢（2008）。〈如何調適教學以培育創造力〉。載鄭慕賢（編），《創造力培育：科學 教育改革》（頁 21）。香港：激動創造力的科學教育計劃。 黎耀志、黃德華（2005）。〈透過創意數學教學培養兒童的高階思維能力〉。《香港幼兒學 報》，第 4 卷第 1 期，43-46。 Anderson, L. 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Education Journal, 35(2), 1-36. 144 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 The definition and essence of pedagogical content knowledge 周健 香港教育局 霍秉坤 香港中文大學 摘要 一般來說，研究者認為教師需具備多種不同範疇的知識，教學內容知識 (pedagogical content knowledge，PCK) 是其中一種。教學內容知識的成份包括學科知識和一般教學知識 的內涵。它超越了教材知識本身，經過可教性的分析，以最能表現學科知識的形式出現。 教學內容知識作為教師所獨有的知識，其特點就在於教師既要充分掌握學科內容，又要了 解學生學習的特點，然後能有效地運用策略，把學科內容用學生可以理解的方式表現出來， 引導學生探究、建構知識。本文根據文獻資料，整理 2000 年以來中外學者對教學內容知識 的實徵研究，並簡述其研究發現。 文獻的整理顯示，教學內容知識有三方面主要的特徵，包括教師對特定學科內容的理解， 教師對特定學科內容表徵的掌握和運用，以及教師對於學習和學習者的理解。此外，對於 教師掌握教學內容知識的情況，有四方面研究結果值得注意。一是新手教師和經驗教師的 教學內容知識顯著不同；二是教學內容知識是一種綜合性的知識，是教師在整合了各種知 識之後，能純熟運用於教學中的知識；三是教學內容知識和學科知識關係密切；四是教師 的教學內容知識主要體現在理解和表徵（representation）。最後，本文之分析顯示，「教 145 學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識」的關係，以及「教學內容知識與學科知識」的關係，都 非常密切。 關鍵詞 中國語文，教學內容知識，教學策略，教學內容表徵 Abstract Researchers realize that teachers need to possess knowledge from various scopes including pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). The components of PCK include subject knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge. PCK does not only comprise the knowledge of teaching materials, but also the expression of subject knowledge in the most representative mode in regard to teachability. PCK as unique knowledge of teachers. Its features include that teachers need to fully grasp the subject content knowledge and understand students’ learning characteristics. Then teachers express the subject content knowledge through effective strategies in order to ensure students’ understanding, inquiry and construction of knowledge. This paper, reviewing relevant literatures since 2000, tries to synthesize empirical research on PCK and briefly illustrates the research finding. From the literature review, the authors note that there are three main ideas about PCK: teachers understand the specific subject content; teachers manage and utilize specific representation of subject content; and teachers understand specific learning and learners. Moreover, four research findings are worth noting. First, the PCK of novice teachers and experienced teachers are significantly different. Second, PCK is a comprehensive knowledge that is skillfully utilized in teaching after teachers synthesizing various kinds of knowledge. Third, PCK is closely related to subject knowledge. Fourth, the PCK of teachers is mainly expressed in the understanding and representation of subject knowledge. In the last section, the authors suggest there is a close relationship between teaching strategies and representation of knowledge, and so does PCK and subject knowledge. Keywords Chinese Language, pedagogical content knowledge, teaching strategy, representation of pedagogical knowledge 146 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 一、引言 對教師知識的研究很多是從教師本身為出發點，了解教師所知道的事（郭玉霞， 1997，頁 5），研究的問題如「教師需要具備何種知識？」（What teachers need to know?）、「教師知道什麼？」（What do teachers know?）。在美國師範教育界，學者逐 漸不再用傳統的行為心理學作為基礎的研究範式，而是以認知心理學為基礎，研究教師的 專業思考，探討教師認知與推理判斷的歷程（單文經，1990，頁 263）。因此教師的角色 不再局限於課程的執行者，而是「反思性專業人員」（Schön, 1983）。教師應了解自己 長處與限制，需要具備和教學有關的教學內容知識、實務知識（practical knowledge）、甚 至心理學、社會學方面的知識，以應用於實際的教學情境。 探討教學內容知識的概念，非常重要。筆者認為，探討教學內容知識包括兩方面的重 要性。首先，教學內容知識對教師教育產生一定影響。一直以來，專科任教老師着重科目 知識，專業教師着重教學和課程知識，兩者之間存在複雜的關係，但也存在基本的差異。 教學內容知識即為連繫兩種知識的重要概念；因此，了解教學內容知識有助了解兩者的關 係。其次，Shulman 提出教學內容知識概念後，學者們進行多項研究，包括其內涵、特徵、 結構、形成過程、教師教學實踐等。在研究過程中，出現多種觀點，引發各樣討論。探討 教學內容知識的內涵，有助釐清不同的觀點。本文根據文獻資料，整理 2000 年以來中外學 者對教學內容知識的實徵研究，並簡述其研究發現。 二、教師知識的內涵 關於教師知識的內涵，學者的分類各有不同（Shulman, 1986a, 1987a, 1987b, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987; Grossman & Richert, 1988），現將幾位有代表性的學者 及其看法整理如下（見表一）。 147 表一 教師知識的分類 Shulman 1987 Elbaz 1983 Grossman 1988 Tamir 1988 單文經 1990 Reynolds 1992 Eraut 1995 Borko, Putnam 1996 Morine, Kent 1999 學科內容 知識 學科專 門知識 學科知識 學科知識 和能力 學科教學 知識；內 容 學科知 識 學科知 識 學科知識 一般教學 知識 教學知 識 一般教學 知識 一般通識 教育； 一般教學 法；教學 專業基礎 一般教學 知識 一般學科 知識 一般教 學知識 教學法知識 課程知識 課程知 識 課程知識 課程知識 對學習者 及其特質 的知識 學生身心 發展的知 識 對學習者和 學習的知識 教育情境 的知識 教學情 境知識 情境知識 教育脈絡 的知識 關於社 會的知 識； 實務知 識 一般教育情 境脈絡知 識； 特定的情境 脈絡知識 PCK PCK 學科特定 教學法 教材教法 的知識； 教材內容 的知識 PCK PCK 對教育目 的、價值、 哲學及其 歷史淵源 的知識 教育目的 的知識 教與學的 一般原理 教育理 論 評估程序和 對成績表現 的評價 自我知 識 148 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 表中可見，研究者認為教師需具備多種不同範疇的知識，教學內容知識（pedagogical content knowledge）是其中一種。這種知識涉及教師在教學活動中複雜的知識運用，雖然 可以用多種知識來描述這種知識運用，但會相當不方便，有時也欠準確。因此，一種描述 教師教學的專門知識還是非常有必要，這種專門的知識早在教學內容知識被提出之前已有 雛型，如杜威（Dewey）曾提出一個「學科心理化」的概念（Wilson, Shulman & Richert, 1987），杜威（1902）認為作為教師要能先把學科知識「心理化」（psychologize），才能 達到教學目的，因為教師對學科內容的認知方式應該是「基於學科在教育上的價值與目的， 而不是對學科的精通」（Dewey, 1902/1964），他指出︰ 每種學科都有兩方面：一是令科學家成為科學家；一是令教師成為教師。這兩方 面互不衝突，不過也不是完全相同。對科學家而言，學科知識是既代表真理，也 適用於發現新問題，並進行新研究，以及證實研究的結果。……而教師所面對的 情形則大不相同，作為教師，他所關切的不是為科學增添新的事實，也不須要提 出新的假設並加以驗證。他所關切的是所教科學的學科內容，關心如何將學科知 識變成經驗的一部份，而其個人的經驗或學生既有的知識經驗，都可成為適當地 引導學生的媒介。（Dewey, 1902/1964, p.318） 三、教學內容知識的內涵 如同杜威區分科學家與教師之間的差異一樣，學者認為一種獨特的教師知識可以區分 學科學者和教師的不同，學者創造並發現學科領域上的新知識，教師則在教學上重新組織 這些內容知識使學生理解，了解學生所遭遇的問題，設法克服、解決（Grossman, Wilson & Shulman, 1989; McEwan & Bull, 1991）。這種知識就是教學內容知識。 Shulman 對教學內容知識，有詳盡的解釋︰ ……教學內容知識指教師必須能將所教授的內容在教學中具體表現出來。在教學 內容知識的範疇裏，包含教師對學科中最常教授的主題、最有效的表現形式、最 有力的類比、舉例、說明、示範和闡述等方面的了解。即教師在學科特殊的課題 149 上重新組合、以適當的方式表現，使學生能理解有關的內容。教學內容知識還包 括教師理解有什麼因素使學生在學習時對於特定概念感到困難或容易，也理解不 同年齡、背景的學生在學習這些課題時所持有的概念與先備的概念。（Shulman, 1986b, p.9） 根據上述解釋，教學內容知識的成份包括學科知識和一般教學知識的內涵，它超越了 教材知識本身，經過可教性（teachability）的分析，以最能表現（represent）學科知識的形 式出現（單文經，1992）。教學內容知識作為教師所獨有的知識，其特點就在於教師既要 充分掌握學科內容，又要了解學生學習的特點，然後能有效地運用策略，把學科內容用學 生可以理解的方式表現出來，引導學生探究、建構知識。 Shulman 提出教學內容知識的概念之後，這種知識迅速成為學者研究的重點，對於其 定義，也有進一步的討論和拓展。其中由於不少研究都置於特定的學科中進行，而教學內 容知識又特別切合於特定學科內容下的教學，因此，教學內容知識在很多情況下被視為具 體教授特定學科的一種知識，如 Grossman 就認為教學內容知識是教師的一種「適當的， 並且是引起學生對所學內容的興趣的表徵」（Grossman, 1990, p.8）。Llinares（2000）認 為教學內容知識是在課堂情境中學科知識和關於學習者的知識的結合。Sherin（2002）認 為教學內容知識是學科內容教學的專門知識，包括教師知識如何呈現該學科領域的知識來 促進學生學習，也知道學生在學習時典型的特點，如可能理解什麼和誤解什麼。他認為教 師的知識是在學科教學中，對不同知識進行協商（negotiate），這包括對學科內容、課程 材料和關於學生學習的理解。 從研究者對教學內容知識定義的探討，可以總結出教學內容知識的一些主要特徵，包 括以下三個方面︰ 1. 教師對特定學科內容的理解，特別是指在學科中教師經常教授的範圍和主題。 2. 教師對上述特定學科內容表徵的掌握和運用，如用什麼形式（類比、舉例、譬 喻、圖示和示範等）表現學科內容才是有效、最具說服力、最易令學生明白的。 3. 教師對於學習和學習者的理解，如學生已有的概念、在學習某一特定內容之前 的概念，對某方面的內容感到容易或困難、理解或誤解，並且知道是什麼因素 影響他們的學習。（Tamir, 1988; Grossman, 1990; Marks, 1990） 150 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 這裏可見教學內容知識的複雜性，它不是以一種單一的知識面貌出現的，而是各種知 識相互牽連、缺一不可。在教學時各種知識間的關係是互動的，同時包含着知識和技能。 四、教學內容知識的研究整理 教學內容知識這一概念，迅速引起學者的關注。對於教學內容知識的研究，在各種學 科教學和教師教育的領域展開。筆者根據文獻資料，整理 2000 年至 2010 年的十年間中外 學者對教學內容知識的實徵研究，並簡述其研究發現，以表二展示。 表二 教學內容知識的研究整理 研究者（年份） 研究主題 樣本／研究方法 研究發現 1  C a s t r o - F i l h o （2000） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰數學 八名中學教師 量化函數、刺激 回憶、訪談、觀 察 1. 課程與科技的使用為教師現在的理 解創造了挑戰，特別是有關觀念的 改變。 2. 教師重視學科的單元內容、研究者 的支持、內容知識的討論。 3. 從討論學生成果中，教師受益匪淺。 2  劉怡亭（2000） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰歷史 一名國中教師 訪談、觀察、文 件蒐集 1. 影響教學內容知識的因素包括內在 因素和外在因素。 2. 教學內容知識包括教學理念、對課 程與課本的看法、對學生學習歷史 的了解、學科知識、學科教學信念、 教學歷程中的知識、教學情境變化 的認知。 3  劉麗玲（2000） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰理化 一名資深國中 教師 觀察、訪談、文 件蒐集、量表、 問卷 1. 個案教師具有多種的教學表徵，視 學生反應與解說需要而變換。 2. 教學表徵包括自行創造及利用網絡 教學資源站。 3. 與同事討論或請教專家學者來發展 新的表徵。 151 研究者（年份） 研究主題 樣本／研究方法 研究發現 4  張家芳（2001） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰歷史 一名國中實習 教師 觀察、訪談、文 件分析 1. 個案教師所具備的教師知識內涵包 括教學表徵知識、一般教學知識、 課程知識、學習者知識、教學情境 知識及教師的教學信念。 2. 形成教師知識的有關因素有內在來 源和外在來源。 5  謝建國（2001） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰國語 一名國小實習 教師 觀察、訪談、教 學研究、研究者 札記 1. 教學內容知識包括課程架構知識、 學科內容知識、一般教學知識、學 生知識、個人信念知識、教學情境 知識。 2. 影響因素為過去經驗和當前經驗。 3. 教學推理過程分為教學前的準備階 段、教學中的表徵方式、教學後的 評量與反省。 6 李琼（2004） 教學內容知 識、學科知 識及其與課 堂教學的關 係 學科︰數學 30 名 小 學 6 年 級數學教師（包 括專家教師和非 專家教師） 問 卷、 課 堂 觀 察、錄像與訪談 1. 專家教師能夠意識到數學的本質並 聯繫到實際的教學中，非專家教師 則否。 2. 專家教師傾向於將「做」數學看作 為解釋與論證思維的過程；非專家 教師傾向於將「做」數學看作為選 擇適當法則或既定步驟，獲得答案 的過程。 教學內容知識和學科知識的關係： 1. 兩種知識之間存在顯著相關。其中， 學科知識中的知識組織與教學內容 知識的關係最大；而教學內容知識 中的對學生思維的了解與學科知識 的關係最大。 2. 兩種知識之間的關係是雙向的，各 自可以解釋對方的變量超過五成。 152 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 研究者（年份） 研究主題 樣本／研究方法 研究發現 7 An , Ku lm, & Wu（2004） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰數學 28 名美國 5-8 年 級教師和 33 名 中國 5-6 年級教 師在一定文化脈 絡下的教學內容 知識比較 問卷、訪談、課 堂觀察 在不同的文化背景下，教師的教學內 容知識是不同的。中國教師強調傳統 的教學、機械的練習，發展學生程度 性和概念性的知識；美國的教師注重 促進學生的創造能力和探究能力，課 堂活動多樣化，但在幫助學生的思維 和操作、理解和過程的發展之間欠缺 聯繫。 8 K r a u s s e t al.（2008） 教學內容知 識和學科知 識 學科︰數學 198 名中學教師 測驗 教學內容知識和學科知識之關有很高 的相關度，即學科知識豐富的教師， 其教學內容知識也很豐富。 另外，雖然研究顯示教學內容知識和 學科知識是兩種不同的概念，但數學 科專家教師的學科知識和教學內容知 識很難區分，而對於非專家教師而言， 這兩知識卻相對獨立。 9 L e e & L u f t （2008） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰科學 4 名經驗教師 （有十年上教學 經驗、有三年以 上指導新手教師 經驗） 個案研究︰半結 構式訪談、課堂 觀 察、 教 案 分 析、每月一次反 思研討會 1. 教學內容知識包括︰科學知識、對 科學教育目的的知識、對學生的知 識、課程組織的知識、教學知識、 評估知識和對資源的知識。 2. 各項教學內容知識的組成部分之間 互有緊密的關連和影響。 153 研究者（年份） 研究主題 樣本／研究方法 研究發現 10 H e n z e , Va n Dirl, & Verloop （2008） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰科學 9 名 經 驗 教 師 （在教授新的課 程大綱時教學內 容知識的發展） 半結構性課後 訪談 教師的教學內容知識可以分成兩種類 型︰ A 型和 B 型。A 型的教師關注教 學內容，而 B 型教師關注教學的內容、 內容的產生及其本質。 在教學內容知識的發展方面，A 型教 師主要發展其教學策略的知識，而在 各類知識之間的關係則沒有不同；B 型 教師的教學內容知識內部各項知識之 間緊密關聯，各部分都有整體的發展。 11 周健（2010） 教 學 內 容 知識 學科︰中國 語文 6 名中學中國語 文教師（來自兩 所自行設計教材 學校和兩所使用 教科書的學校） 處理教材時的教 學內容知識 三項發現︰ 1. 在教師所有的知識中，教學內容知 識是一種獨立的知識，是在學科教 學時的專業知識，是學科教學時各 種知識維度的綜合體現。 2. 在學科教學中，教師的學科知識是 教學內容知識中的一個維度，與其 他知識維度一起，綜合地產生作用。 3. 教學內容知識中教學策略和表徵的 知識維度在教學時有不同的使用範 圍，「策略」為所有課前的教學設 計和實際教學時的一般教學方法； 「表徵」則指教師在教學時，因應 特定學科內容，採用針對性的方法， 轉化所要教的內容，使之更容易讓 學生明白的學科教學手段。 （表中的「」部分為摘自邱憶惠（2002）《國小級任教師知識之個案研究》一文，頁 69- 71、77-78，並稍作文字上的改動。） 154 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 綜合各項研究可見，教師的教學內容知識有四方面的性質︰ 其一、新手教師和經驗教師的教學內容知識有明顯的不同，新手教師在這方面知識的 欠缺顯然受其實踐經驗的限制，無論在教學內容、策略和對學生的理解等方面都有待加強， 這顯示了教學內容知識在實踐中習得的性質，是在經驗中積累的。 其二、教學內容知識是一種綜合性的知識，是教師在整合了各種知識之後，能純熟運 用於教學中的知識；教學內容知識也能起一種聯繫的作用，將學科內容、課程、教學策略 和關於學生的知識緊密連接的知識，即 Shulman（1987）所說，是體現了教師專業所獨有 的一種知識。 其三、教學內容知識和學科知識關係密切，兩者之間有很高的相關度。學科知識為教 師教學內容知識的發展提供了重要的基礎。這兩種知識在概念上雖不相同，但很難截然區 分，這在兩種知識都很豐富的教師身上尤為明顯。 其四、教師的教學內容知識的特徵則主要體現在理解和表徵（representation），具備 豐富教學內容知識的教師，都具有這兩方面的特點。「理解」包括對學科、課程、學生、 情境和自身的深入了解和掌握，「表徵」則指教師能因應教學的需要運用各種教學方法和 策略。 從表中十一項研究，可以了解不同研究者對教學內容知識的所包含的內容的理解，綜 合而言，教學內容知識包括以下各項︰ 1. 學科知識：包括對學科的整體概念、學科教育的目的、學科內容知識、學科的 本質、學科教學信念等； 2. 教學表徵知識：多指教學策略和技巧的知識； 3. 對學習和學習者的知識：包括對學生和學生知識的了解、預計學生在學習時可 能出現的問題，對學習本質的了解等； 4. 課程知識：如課程架構、目標、課程計劃和組織，對課本和教材的理解，對課 程改革的理解等； 155 5. 一般教學知識：如教學歷程中的知識； 6. 教學情境知識：如對教學情境變化的認知； 7. 教學理念、個人信念等； 8. 內容、教學法與個人實務知識的整合。 這是不同研究結果的綜合，每一項研究中所包含的內容不盡相同，但有重疊。其中對 教學內容知識內涵的意見也不盡一致，有的包含的知識項目多些，有的少些。對教學內容 知識中各組成知識的表述也很不相同，有的涵蓋很大的範圍，有的則很細緻。這與不同研 究範圍和研究者關注點不同有關。教學內容知識的不同組成部分，須置於特定的研究脈絡 中才有意義，例如 Grossman 在對中學英文教師（主要是新手教師）的研究後，指出教師 的教學內容知識應該包括四個主要的組成部分（Grossman, 1988, p.15-17; 1990, p.8-9）︰ 1. 關於在不同學習階段（grade levels）學科教學目的的知識和信念； 2. 對於學生在學科學習中對特定課題的理解、概念和可能存在的誤解的知識； 3. 課程知識，包括對所教學科中課程材料的知識，以及學科課程縱向的和橫向的 知識； 4. 教學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識。 其中第四項「教學策略和對特定課題表徵的知識」可以視為 Shulman、Wilson 和 Richart 所分的六項知識中，「有關教學表徵的知識」和「教學推理的知識」。儘管有這些 不同，一般研究者對教學內容知識內涵都有一個大致的共識，即以 Shulman（1986b）對教 學內容知識的定義中所描述的對學科教學內容的理解、對學生學習的理解和對教學策略與 表徵的掌握這三方面。不過，學科教學內容是否指學科知識，卻並不明確。例如 Grossman （1988, 1990）的研究是在高中英文文學教學的情境脈絡中，強調教師不只要具備學科知 識，還要理解高中學習階段學科的教學目標。因此，在她的研究中，對教學內容知識中有 關學科知識的部分，就主要是在「不同學習階段學科教學目的」方面。而對於學科知識， Grossman 認為學科知識是教學內容知識很重要的基礎（Grossman, 1988, 1990），但她並 沒有把學科知識納入教學內容知識之中，而是把學科知識和教學內容知識並列為教師知識 之一。Shulman 指出教學內容知識是一種超越了學科知識本身的知識，涉及學科知識在教 學方面維度，因此是一種學科內容與教學方面的混合體 （Shulman, 1987）。從這個理解看， 156 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 教學內容知識中有一部分特殊的學科知識，它不完全是學科知識本身，但又確實是學科知 識。 五、教學內容知識特性的爭論 其實在探討教學內容知識時，人們常以學科知識作為一個參照點，比較兩種知識的相 同和不同之處。學科知識為 Schwab（1964）提出的學科中的內容（content）知識、實質性 （substantive）和文法性（syntactic）知識。其中內容知識是指學科中的事實、組織原則和 中心概念，而後兩者是學科的結構性知識。實質性結構指一門學科內部互相聯繫的概念、 事實、重要原理、理論和解釋框架等（Schwab, 1978）；而文法性知識則是指在學科中探 索、證明、建構知識的方法（范良火，2003，頁 16）。李琼（2004）對教師知識的研究 證明，教學內容知識和學科知識之間存在顯著相關，它們關係是雙向的，各自可以解釋對 方的變量超過五成。其中，學科知識中的知識組織與教學內容知識的關係最大；而教學內 容知識中的對學生思維的了解與學科知識的關係最大。Shulman（1986a, 1986b）區分學科 知識和教學內容知識，指出前者是學科本身的知識，但不是教學中唯一的知識；後者是一 門學科特殊的、與教學有關的知識，是一種為了解釋教學的學科專業知識（subject-matter knowledge for teaching）。Shulman（1987）認為教學內容知識是學科內容（content）與 教學法（pedagogy）的混合物，是屬於教師特有的知識領域，這種知識是一種將可教性 （teachability）融匯教材與教法於一爐的「教材教法知識」（單文經，1992）。它也是一 種最能區別學科專家與教師的知識。 Shulman 的這種解釋其實是相當含混的，教學內容知識和學科內容（content）密不 可分，但在他描述教師的七種知識基礎中，學科知識（content knowledge）又獨立於教 學內容知識之外。事實上，關於教學內容知識的內涵，不同的研究者在不同領域的研 究中固然有差異，同一學者在不同的時間，也會不斷調整自己的觀點。如 Shulman 和 Gudmundsdottir 在一項社會科的研究中（Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987, p.60），提出教 學內容知識應包括學科知識、一般教學知識和關於學習者的知識三類。但 Shulman 在同年 發表的另一篇文章中（Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987, p.114-115），將教學內容知識的 內涵再細分為六類，包括︰有關教學表徵的知識、教學推理的知識、和學習者有關的知識、 157 課程知識、教學法的知識與對教學情境的知識，其中又不包括學科知識。 Shulman 等人將教學推理（pedagogical reasoning）的思想作為新手教師調整他們學科 知識教學的方式（Shulman, 1987; Wilson, Shulman, & Richart, 1987）。其思想正是基於學 科知識的教學推理行為能夠產生教學內容知識，因此相信堅實的學科背景是發展教學內容 知識的必須條件（Veal & MaKinster, 1999）。事實上，Shulman 將教學內容知識定義為教 師在特定的學科中，對最常教授的特定課題的知識（1986），就是指教學內容知識是在學 科教學時的一種專門知識。教師通過考慮如何向給學生呈現的學科內容，首先理解一些特 定的學科知識，並將它們轉化成教學內容知識。不同的研究發現，對於同一科目或不同科 目的經驗教師而言，教學內容知識是教師的學科知識和教學知識長期融合結果，最終體現 於學科教學的模式（Gudmundsdottir, 1988）。 因此，有學者通過研究，認為教師在教學時不是單獨地使用學科知識或教學內容知 識，而是把兩者結合起來，成為一種學科內的知識聯合體（content knowledge complexes） （Sherin, 2002）。Krauss 等人（2008）研究中學數學教師的教學內容知識和學科知識，發 現兩者之間有很高的相關度，故此指出教師的學科知識豐富，其教學內容知識也豐富。 Rollnick 等人（2008）進行的一個關於化學科的個案研究。其中在改革的背景下，有 個案教師由於缺乏學科知識，只能使用一些機械式的教學方法；而有的個案教師由於擁有 足夠的學科知識，能靈活地使用改革的教學方法，顯示出強大的教學內容知識。研究者認 為教師在知識和經驗上的整合影響他們對教學表徵的選擇，這對發展教師學科知識結構起 了重要的作用。因此 Rollnick 等人根據兩個個案研究中學科知識對教師整體的知識表現所 起的作用，提出了教學內容知識的簡單模型，把學科知識放入教學內容知識中，與其他知 識（學生、教學法、情境）一起構成教師的教學內容知識，而教學內容知識具體表現形式 有表徵、評價、具體主題的教學策略和課程特色。而 Lee 和 Luft（2008）對 4 名高中科學 科經驗教師的個案研究發現，個案教師的教學內容知識中有七種知識內涵︰科學知識、對 科學教育目的的知識、對學生的知識、課程組織的知識、教學知識、評估知識和對資源的 知識，其中科學知識就包含在教學內容知識之中。 158 教學內容知識的定義和內涵 周健（2010）在研究中學中國語文教師處理教材時的教學內容知識時指出，在討論教 師不同範疇的知識時，也一再問以下問題︰為什麼要把教師的這種對學科教學的目的、對 學生和課程的理解、教學策略的設計和學科本身的理解視為教學內容知識？為什麼它們不 是各自屬於不同範疇的知識？事實上，把教師的這些知識維度的表現，各自放在各別的知 識範疇中去看，似乎也是合適的。問題在於，在處理教材的過程中，這些知識的確不是各 自獨立存在的，它們的高度綜合，才形成了教師處理教材的知識面貌。因此，教學內容知 識中各知識維度不是獨立於其外的知識項目，而是在教學過程中與其他知識互相作用的知 識，其中各知識維度之間的分野和界限並不十分清晰。該研究個案教師在談到知識來源時 就認為很難說哪方面的知識對自己最有用，其實「都是整合的過程。」（周健，2010）研 究結果證明教師在處理教材的過程中，各知識維度不是單一或直接發生作用的。教師知識 不是以各別獨立的面貌解決教材處理中的各種問題。如學科知識中，學科內容和實質性知 識與課程知識的密切關係，文法性知識與教學策略和表徵的知識的關係，都顯示了不同知 識維度間的複雜聯繫。而一旦某項或某幾項知識不足，教師在處理教材時就會顯示出整體 知識不足的情況。因此，各項知識不是各自獨立工作，而是以不同知識維度的面貌組合起 來，互相結合，共同作用，成為教學內容知識。這個研究印證了 Shulman 對教學內容知識 特點的描述，即「理解」與「表徵」，是教師充分內化了各種知識後，在教學中把教學內 容準確表現出來，讓學生明白。 另一方面，周健的研究（2010）發現學科知識是在處理教材和學科教學時不可或缺的 一個維度，這主要體現在教師對中文科教學內容和不同教材的理解。教師對選作語文教材 的作品的熟悉程度，對其中的學科元素如語言、修辭、結構、風格、作家背景等各方面知 識的掌握，對發現教材的教學價值有很大的幫助。而教師在處理教材時如何體現其教學目 標，首先基於其對學科知識的理解。高中中文教師的教學內容知識中，學科知識的維度一 方面表現在對學習重點和經典作品有廣泛和深入的認識，這是學科內容知識；另一方面也 表現在對各種材料的準確理解和使用，這是學科實質性和文法性知識。 研究發現學科知識的豐富對教師在教學內容、重點、對教材的理解和教學策略的安排 方面非常重要，是教師處理教材時不可或缺的知識。而學科中的文法性知識，指在學科中 探索、證明、建構知識的方法（范良火，2003），對教師在處理教材時對學習的理解及教 159 學策略和表徵起着十分重要的作用。教師處理教材時，是綜合地運用着學科、課程與教學 策略和表徵的知識，結合對教學目標和學生學習理解來進行的。在這個過程中，學科知識 不是獨力運作的，這是研究者將學科知識納入教學內容知識的範疇中的原因。 綜合上述文獻資料和實徵研究，筆者認為教學內容知識中包含學科知識。 六、結語 從上述的分析，研究者認為教師需具備多個範疇的知識，包括教學內容知識。教學內 容知識超越了教材知識本身，經過可教性的分析，以最能表現學科知識的形式出現。教師 掌握教學內容知識，展現其充分掌握學科內容，了解學生學習的特點，並有效地運用策略， 以學生可理解的方式展示學科內容。從教師掌握教學內容知識四方面的研究結果，在實踐 上值得留意兩方面。一方面是教學需要從教學經驗中掌握學科和教學方面的知識，融匯學 科和教學等不同類型的知識，純熟運用於教學中。另一方面是教學內容知識突顯教師要能 先把學科知識「心理化」（psychologize），才能達到教學目的；而其主要體現於理解和表 徵，這不僅要求教師對學科內容精通，而且要求其認知方式應是基於學科在教育上的價值 和目的。這兩方面對教師實踐教學極為重要。 在探討了教學內容知識內涵和定義之後，最後討論一下其中文翻譯。教學內容知識 （pedagogical content knowledge）中譯名並不統一，有的譯作「學科教學知識」或「學科 教學法知識」，周淑卿（2004）認為教學內容知識中的「教學內容確實會涉及學科內容」， 但基於「教學內容知識是指對所教授內容的教材教法知識」，「更關注於學科材料轉換為 可用以教學的內容」，而「仍依原文譯為『教學內容知識』」（頁 35，注 1）。根據本文 對教學內容知識內涵和定義的探討，教學內容知識有很強的情境性，是在特定的教學內容、 脈絡下，在實踐中形成的（Brown & Broko, 1992; 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London: Cassell. 163 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力 培訓──從正式課程到空無課程 Training of critical thinking ability in Hong Kong’s new senior secondary Liberal Studies – From formal curriculum to null curriculum 歐立賢 香港浸會大學全日制學位教師教育文憑（通識教育）學生 摘要 批判思考能力培訓是本港新高中通識教育科的預期學習成果，希望學生修讀通識教育科 後，能夠掌握一定程度的批判思考能力。本文將會從「正式課程」及「空無課程」兩個概念， 對通識教育科的課程設計作出分析，探討其批判思考能力培訓的問題及其解決方法。 關鍵詞 通識教育，正式課程，空無課程，批判思考 Abstract Training students’ critical thinking ability is an expected learning outcome of new senior 165 secondary Liberal Studies. After studying the subject, students are expected to have certain degree of ability of critical thinking. In this article, I will try to apply the concept of formal curriculum and null curriculum to analyze the design of New Senior Secondary Liberal Studies, in order to investigate the problem in training students’ critical thinking ability and suggest possible solutions. Keywords liberal studies, formal curriculum, null curriculum, critical thinking 導言 香港於 2000年開始進行課程改革，首次把「批判思考」定為其中一項核心共通能力（課 程發展議會，2001）；同時在新高中課程的核心科目通識教育科（簡稱「通識科」）中， 列明「批判思考」為重要的元素。通識科的其中一個「課程宗旨」為「培養與終身學習有 關的能力，包括批判性思考能力」（課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局，2007，頁 4）； 而它的其中一個「學習成果」則是： 「預期學生透過本科的學習，能夠識別對個人和社會議題的不同意見背後的價值 取向，並在個人和社會層面的議題和問題上，運用批判性思考能力……作出判斷 和決定。」 由此可見，批判思考本應為通識科課程一重要部分，但實況並非如此，以下先簡述不 同學者對批判思考的看法，包括它的界定及重要性，並將以「正式課程」及「空無課程」 兩個概念對通識科之批判思考能力培訓進行分析。 「批判思考」的不同界定 坊間對於「批判思考」一詞，有很多不同的理解，以下先簡介數位學者對批判思考的 166 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 看法，以顯出「批判思考」的含混性。 本港著名思考方法學學者李天命博士指出：批判思考，即判別真假、判別是非對錯的 思考（李天命，1995），在此定義之下，他認為批判思考應包含四個環節，分別為：語理 分析、謬誤剖析、邏輯技巧、科學方法。1 他認為， 「善於提出『是什麼意思？』和『有什麼根據？』這兩個問題，養成了問這兩個 問題的思維習慣，也就是培養起一種「批判思考的警覺性」，可以說是學習基本 思考方法最重要的關鍵。」 可是，並非所有學者均對批判思考具同一看法，例如：嶺南大學文化研究系通識教育 學士後文憑課程主任許寶強曾指出，如學生要掌握批判思考，最重要是掌握多角度思維（許 寶強，2006）。 另外，根據香港特區政府教育局發布的《「批判性思考能力的學與教」教材套（高 中）》，內裡對於批判思考的教學內容，又有另一見解，其教學單元分為「分析論證」、「因 果宣稱」、「認識認知模式」、「決策思考」（顧伊麗、侯傑泰、何德芳，2009）。 就以上各學者者對於批判思考的界定可見，到底何謂「批判思考」，頗為含混，就如 有學者指出，「『批判思考』並非一『頗為一致』和『無重大分歧』的教學理念」（曾榮光， 2010，頁 103-104）。以下的分析將會再論及此含混情況的影響。 「正式課程」與「空無課程」的界定 本文的另外兩個關鍵概念，為「正式課程」與「空無課程」。首先，有學者認為所謂「正 1 筆者旨在帶出不同學者對於「批判思考」有不同界定，對於以上四個環節的內涵，並非本文重點， 不會詳述，讀者可參閱李天命博士之著作。 167 式課程」，是指「課程內分成各類教學科目，每個科目之下又有單元、章節或課」（黃政 傑，1991，頁 80-81）。同時，亦有學者指出正式課程的特徵是「預定的、計畫的和意圖的， 因此在正式課程裡，較容易肯定課程目標的存在」（黃光雄、楊龍立，2001）。 從以上的學者所言可見，「正式課程」可被看成已被確立、具有比較完整的課程計劃 及教授計劃之科目，例如：中國語文、英國語文、數學等。另外，亦可從科目內看「正式 課程」，如一些科目的內容為已確立，在計劃之內打算教授，而且有較為周詳的教授計劃、 教授方法等的，都可視為正式課程，例如：中國語文科內的應用文寫作技巧、英國語文科 的議論文寫作技巧等。 而「空無課程」一詞是由艾斯納（E. W. Eisner）提出，他在檢視課程時，發現學校課 程中遺漏了許多重要的應納入課程範圍的能力、知識與態度，並視之為「空無課程」（林 福貹，不明），這強調不僅要由「有甚麼」的角度觀察課程，也要由「缺乏」的角度探討（黃 政傑，1991）。根據臺灣師範大學教育研究所黃光雄博士及臺北市立教育大學教育學系楊 龍立教授所言： 「『空無課程』的概念，是在探討學校『不教什麼』，產生了什麼結果，對學生 有什麼影響。我們對於課程的審視，不只要考慮學校教什麼，而學校不教什麼， 應是同等重要，因為這會影響學生的學習結果。」 簡而言之，「空無課程」是指應該包含在學生的學習經驗之中，但卻未有包含的東西， 可以是指一個科目，亦可以是指一個科目中的內容。即使科目或內容已確立，但是若果在 執行上出現問題，導致學生未能學習該科目或內容，該科目或內容亦可視為「空無課程」， 原因是它們最終仍未能包含在學生的學習經驗之中。 批判思考從「正式課程」淪為「空無課程」 通識科作為香港新高中課程中的核心科目，即所有中學生均需必修、必考的科目，與 中國語文、英國語文、數學等科目看齊，可視之為一項「正式課程」。審視由課程發展議 168 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 會與香港考試及評核局編訂的「通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）」，通識教育 科的架構主要由六大單元組成，分別為：「個人成長與人際關係」、「今日香港」、「現 代中國」、「全球化」、「公共衛生」和「能源科技與環境」，課程設計者希望學生透過 探討六大單元中的議題，學習批判思考的方法，這是其重要目標，本應為通識科課程的一 重要部分，亦可視為通識科課程內的「正式課程」。可是，從通識科的實際操作來分析， 目標是有的，但此目標實在不易達到，甚至最終可能會令批判思考由「正式課程」變成空 無「空無課程」。 為什麼批判思考會由「正式課程」變成「空無課程」呢？其中一個原因在於，如上文 所述，批判思考能力並無明確的界定。教育學者 Fullan 及 Stiegelbauer（1991）指出，一項 課程改革成功與否，受到十二項因素影響，其中一項是課程內容的清晰度與複雜性（Clarity, complexity of the change），而縱觀整份課程文件，亦未有指出學生到底要掌握如何的批判 思考能力，相對於以上提及的六大單元，批判思考在沒有明確定義及教授內容之下，顯得 空泛。在現時不少老師均沒有接受過有系統的批判思考訓練的情況下，對於什麼是批判思 考？如何教？教什麼？不少老師也沒有一個既定答案，亦沒有具體課程可以向學生教授， 這著實會影響批判思考的培訓。 從學術角度而言，批判思考並非一種可單純透過接觸不同的議題與新聞便可以學懂的 能力，它是需要有系統地教授，如現時本港的大學大都有設立批判思考課程，而其形式多 是以思考上的毛病作為藍本，輔以例子作教授，以幫助同學避免思考上出現毛病作為首要 目標，與現時的通識科課程恰恰相反。現時的通識科課程是以議題作為藍本，批判思考的 技巧成為了同學認識和討論議題後得出之副產物，再加上整個課程內容廣泛，時間緊迫 2， 同學或老師的聚焦都集中在時事議題的本身，而非批判思考的技巧。 學生完成整個通識科課程，也難以掌握何謂批判思考，只懂得在考試時運用多角度的 框架寫文章，看似已掌握批判思考能力。可是，學者指出，「批判思維不是……機械地套 2 根據「通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）」指出，教師需要於 180 小時完成教授六大單 元的內容，即平均每個單元只有 30 小時。 169 用六頂帽子、六何法等技巧或分析工具。」（許寶強，2006），批判思考最終極可能成為 通識科中的「空無課程」。 總結 總括而言，培育同學們具備批判思考能力為通識科課程的一大重要目標，亦應為「正 式課程」，目的是希望同學們修畢通識科課程後，不只懂得六大單元中的知識，而是能運 用批判思考的方法，對六大單元的議題作出反思。更重要的是，裝備他們將來離開學校， 也能運用批判思考的方法，解決日常生活的問題或對社會的議題作出反思。這意念本來是 值得支持，也對學生有莫大益處。 可是，從以上的分析可見，要實現這些益處，實非易事，必須具有較為具題的計劃和 教授方法，否則，目標只會因欠缺周詳計劃而變得名存實亡。通識科在課程上的設計上已 有先天缺憾，在緊迫的時間下，以探究議題來教授批判思考，只會令老師和學生焦點模糊， 教授了議題資料，卻忘了批判思考。這會令學生完成課程後，仍然缺乏批判思考的技巧， 本來宏大的目標，最終只會付諸流水。結果，批判思考便由通識科課程中的「正式課程」 變成「空無課程」。 要解決此問題，其中一個解決方法是在通識科課程中，增設第七個單元，參考大學的 批判思考課程，事先計劃好「要教授什麼」及「如何教授」批判思考的概念及工具，例如： 「論點」、「論據」、「語害」、「謬誤」、「六頂帽子」、「六何法」等。這單元應放 在通識科的所有單元之先，先教授有關批判思考的知識。到了進入本來已有的六大單元， 學生便已有工具對議題內的不同意見作出批判，真正做到利用議題來訓練批判思考能力。3 3 在上文提到，通識科的教學時間非常緊迫，故此，這筆者建議，這單元可以於同學在中三升上中 四期間的暑假，對學生進行教授，期間應不會對學生或老師造成太大的工作量，亦可為進入通識 科的六大單元做好準備。 170 香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓── 從正式課程到空無課程 這樣的做法，才可令老師有藍本可以依從；學生有焦點可以學習，真正達到通識科本 來想達致的目標──培育學生的批判思考能力，更令批判思考重新成為真正的通識科「正 式課程」。 參考文獻 李天命（1995）。《李天命的思考藝術》（終定版）（頁 66-67）。香港，明報出版社。 林福貹。〈空無（懸缺）課程（null curriculum）〉。《教育名詞彙編》。2011 年 11 月，取 自 http://163.24.143.141/edu_term/view.php?ID=687。 曾榮光（2010）。〈批判思考的批判──香港高中通識教育科教學實踐的爭議〉。《教育 學報》，第 38 卷第 1 期，103-104。取自 http://hkier.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/journal/wp-content/ uploads/2010/07/ej_v38n1_95-117.pdf。 許寶強（2006）。〈多角度思維助批判能力發展〉。取自 http://www.ln.edu.hk/mcsln/3rd_ issue/liberal06.html。 黃光雄、楊龍立（2001）。《課程設計：理念與實作》。台北：師大書苑。 黃政傑（1991）。《課程設計》（頁 80-81）。台北：東華書局。 課程發展議會（2001）。《學會學習──課程發展路向》（頁 22）。香港：課程發展議會。 取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/TC/Content_2908/c3/chapter_3_17to27.pdf。 課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局（2007）。《通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》 （頁 4）。香港：課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局。取自 http://334.edb.hkedcity.net/ doc/chi/ls_final_c_070326a.pdf。 顧伊麗、侯傑泰、何德芳。《「批判性思考能力的學與教」教材套》。香港：教育局課 程發展處個人、社會及人文教育組。取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/download/ Content_7455/chi/package_on_the_l&T_of_critical_thinking_skills_chi.pdf。 Fullan, M., & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). Fullan’s Educational Change. Retrieved November 2, 2011, from: http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/Fullan.htm 171 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes 於小說教學時利用小組討論為介入策略 觀察學生態度轉變 Monique LOK & Beatrice CHIU Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division Abstract This case study explores attitudinal changes through using group discussion as an intervention strategy for teaching novels in a primary school in Hong Kong. Comprehension, application and synthesis questions were used to promote higher order thinking skills and positive risk taking behaviors amongst students. The research question was to what extent group discussion serves as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students. Data was collected through observations, documentations, journals and group interviews. Data analysis suggests a higher percentage of students choose the “application” and “synthesis” type questions. It was found that the amount of time given to students impact on the length and quality of students’answers. The requirement to copy the questions impacted on students’choice of questions. Both classes experienced change in the choice of questions over the reading week.Teachers are more aware of the complexity of conducting research in a classroom setting and the importance of balancing the roles of language teachers and researchers with the support of a school- based professional learning community. 173 Keywords attitudinal changes, emotional maturity, group discussion, novel teaching 摘要 本個案研究是有關一間香港的小學於小說教學時，利用小組討論作為介入策略時學生的行 為轉變。透過閱讀理解、應用以及綜合性的題型，令學生提升高階思維能力和正面冒險行 為。本研究問題是同儕指導與小組討論作為介入策略對提高情緒成熟有多少影響。數據分 析發現，較多學生選擇應用以及綜合性題型的班別的改變比較大。完成個案研究後，老師 對學生學習能力及方式有更深認識。老師能注意到課室內進行研究的複雜性，以及在校本 專業學習的環境下平衡作為語言老師及研究員的重要性。 關鍵詞 態度轉變，情緒成熟，小組討論，小說教學 1. Background One of the major challenges in curriculum for teachers in Hong Kong is how to promote the higher order thinking skills, by allowing students to take positive risks when it comes to answering high order level questions. As teachers, we tend to ask questions in the “knowledge” category for about 80% to 90% of the time in class. These questions are fundamental to learning, but using them all the time may pose hurdles to high order thinking development in students. Higher order level questions require much more “brain power” and a more extensive and elaborate answers (Bloom, et al, 1956, Costa 2000). Diocesan Boys’ School Primary Division is adopting a more inquiry-based learning curriculum in 2009-2010 hence teachers responded to the need by examining an alternative approach to teaching novel studies. Students are self-motivated and eager to learn, and demonstrate patience and perseverance in tackling challenging learning tasks. However, 174 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes our students tend not to collaborate effectively when asked to share their answers and opinions in a group setting. Approaches to teaching literature with respect to novel studies in previous years by many teachers within the Department of English focused primarily on “knowledge” type questions. Due to the Department’s initiative to develop more options when approaching literature studies, the need for inclusion of higher order thinking questions became apparent not only to challenge the studies but also to make teaching varied. In the school development plan for the English Department in 2009-2010, we aim to further enhance students’ learning performance and to enable them to master and manipulate various generic skills and demonstrate good and independent learning abilities. An Exploratory Practice Committee was set up to give teachers opportunities to conduct research in a classroom setting, to improve and to reflect on students’ learning and teaching practices. This study aims to get students to change their attitudes towards attempting to answer synthesis type questions after they have shared their answers with their peers in a group setting. Using group discussion as an intervention strategy, as a result, students will have the opportunity to develop their collaborative skills and be encouraged to take risks when answering higher order thinking questions. 2. Literature Review Vygotsky stated that learning awakens in children a variety of internal developmental processes that can operate only when they interact with more competent people in their environment and in cooperation with their peers (Vygotsky, 1978). When children scaffold each other, they modify a task and offer assistance to each other to help complete the task (Tharpe & Gallimore, 1988). According to Thelen’s principal of least-sized groups, we should strive for a group as small as possible but that has all the expertise and diverse points of view necessary to complete the task well (Thelen, 1954). Most teachers in general find that it is easier to conduct group discussions in smaller groups as each member will have more opportunities to participate and share their opinions and answers with each other. Smaller groups are also easier to handle for teachers when it comes to classroom management. According to researchers, children at 11 years old begin to reason abstractly (Atherton, 2009). Therefore we selected Grade five students in this study as they are expected and required to answer questions of different levels of difficulty. Based on 175 findings, children around 11 years old are at the stage where they are emotionally, socially and intellectually developing (Wood, 1998). Through exposure to questions that differ in cognitive skills, children will develop more confidence in choosing to answer questions that require creativity, imagination and critical thinking skills. Grade five students were chosen for this study because children are at the stage where they are emotionally, socially and intellectually developing. Emotional maturity is defined as the strength and courage to actualize individual abilities within the frame of social demands (Landau & Weissler, 1998). Emotionally, ten and eleven year olds are usually cooperative, easygoing, friendly and agreeable. At the social level, friendships and activities with age mates flourish. They want to be a part of the group and do not want to stand alone in competition (Wood, 1998). Finally, intellectually, children at this age are verbal. Making ethical decisions becomes a challenging task. They are able to express ideas and feelings in creative ways. More importantly, at eleven years old, children begin to reason abstractly (Atherton, 2009). Therefore, this group of students are chosen to participate in this study. It is hoped that the study will help language teachers make informed decisions when incorporating emotion related elements into the language program. 3. Assumptions There are two assumptions for this study: Assumption 1: Through the interventions, students will become more willing to take risks to answer higher order thinking questions and thus become more willing to tackle these questions on their own initiative the next time they encounter them. Assumptions 2: In addition to cognitive maturity that comes with age for grade 5 students, group discussion can serve as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students. The study attempts to find answers to the following questions: 1. Are students more willing to take risks to answer high order questions after going through the interventions? What are the reasons behind their move? 2. Does group discussion serve as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students? If yes, how? If no, why? 176 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes 4. Methodology To explore the research questions, changes and rearrangements were made in the curriculum. The teaching of the novel was conducted in a six-day teaching cycle to allow for more in-depth group discussions. In addition, the novel is not formally assessed, thus releasing students from pressure and allowing ample room for them to express their views and ideas. 4.1 Curriculum Organization There are 2 books for Reading for each level. “Frindle” is one of the novels chosen for Grade 5. It is a novel written by Andrew Clements. The school chose it in 2008- 2009, and almost all the boys in the level liked it, so it was chosen again for the 1st term of academic year 2009-2010. The book explores the inquisitive nature of young boys with respect to authority. The themes of the book also provided students with thought- provoking situations for students’ deliberations and making choices. Students also found it easy to identify with the characters in the book as the plot focuses on daily school life at the primary level. There are 15 chapters broken into 6 modules taught in the ‘reading week’ (See Table 1). There were 3 interventions throughout the project. Each intervention was carried out using group discussions. Students were grouped according to the selection of the questions. Table 1: Arrangement of the lessons and interventions Dates (Dec.) Modules Chapters Interventions Grouping Activities 7th 1 1-3 - Biography of the author - Introduction and summary of the novel - Answering a question from module 1 8th 2 4-5 - Language support for novel reading - Whole class discussion - Answering a question from module 2 and 3 177 Dates (Dec.) Modules Chapters Interventions Grouping Activities 9th 3 6-8 1st Mixed-ability grouping of students according to their choice of questions - Briefing on how to conduct group discussion - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 4 11th 4 9-10 2nd ditto - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 5 14th 5 11-12 3rd ditto - 7-minute group discussion - Ss’ reflections - Answering a question from module 6 15th 6 13-15 - Wrapping-up - Role playing We designed questions for each module in 3 levels of challenge, i.e. Comprehension questions, Application questions and Synthesis questions. For example, the following questions are designed for Module 5 on Chapters 11-12. (see Appendix for the full set of questions): 1. You are Nick. What would you do with the first cheque you got from Bud Lawrence? 2. Do you think Bud and Mr. Allen's deal is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. If you were Nick's dad, would you keep the money a secret from Nick? Why or why not? Explain your answer. As the above table shows, we did three interventions. For each intervention, we briefed our students on how a proper group discussion is conducted. Then students were asked to get into groups assigned by the teacher. The group encompassed at least one student from each of the three question types. Students were given instructions on how to do a 7-minute discussion. During the discussion, students were asked to share their 178 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes own responses to the question they had answered. The group leader also asked prompting questions like, “Why did you choose to answer that question” to get students to think and share, as a group, at a deeper level. Each group had a group leader to invite shy students to speak and to ensure every student had a chance to do some sharing. After the discussion, students were required to reflect on their discussions and identify problems. The teacher then projected the next set of questions onto the screen, read out each question and explained them. Each student was asked to answer only one question out of three in class. 4.2 Research Design Table 2: Methods of Data Collection When How (methods of collection) What 7th -15th December observation - video 3 interventions - observe all modules - debriefing after each intervention 7th -15th December documentation - Ss’ question/answer sheets - diaries - interview transcription - recordings (videos and audios) after each intervention journal Teachers’ reflective journals after each intervention after all interventions group interview (semi- structured) 2 groups (3 students from 5J and 5S) and 20 minutes for each group 4.3 Selecting Target Groups To investigate the effects of curriculum changes of novel teaching, target groups were carefully chosen and various research methods were employed to address the research questions, such as to what extent group discussion serves as an intervention strategy to enhance emotional maturity in students There are 5 classes in Grade 5. Four of them share similar level of proficiency in English while one is more advanced. Class 5D was chosen to do the pilot study. Class 5J (29 students) and Class 5S (32 students) were randomly chosen for the study as experiment groups. The other two classes, Class 5P (29 students) and Class 5M (30 students), were controlled groups, not using any intervention strategy. 179 4.4 Data Collection Various types of data collection methods, such as observations, group interviews, journals and documentations, were adopted to collect the data for this study at different phases throughout the study. 5. Findings On completion of the reading week, sets of data were analyzed for findings in response to the assumptions of the study. Initial findings from analyzing students’ responses to the questions indicate that despite changes identified in their choices of questions over the period, there was not a definite pattern of move in the levels of questions chosen. We attempted to script verbatim all answers from students and sort out on (1) question basis, (2) individual student basis, and selected student responses basis. Brief findings are explained in the following sessions. 5.1 On question basis To find out how students responded to the prescribed questions, all questions attempted are sorted out and grouped into numbered categories. The responses are further sub-divided into yes/no, right/wrong, good/smart/bad etc. according to the nature of the questions. The prime purpose of doing this categorization is to capture students’ responses to all the questions attempted. This serves as the basis for subsequent analysis on individual responses. Initial findings from the analysis of the first sets of question indicate that students’ responses in the first module were generally short and direct with little elaboration. Taking into consideration the comparatively short time allowed for students to copy and answer the questions in the lesson, their short concise responses to the first set of questions were not surprising. Indeed, it was also found that the requirements to copy the questions also impacted on students’ choice of questions. They tended to choose the short questions instead of the long ones. This move was remedied by teachers who instructed the students not to copy the questions from the second intervention lesson onwards. Such a move impacted on students’ choice of questions since they would choose questions other than the shortest ones in subsequent modules. 5.2 On individual basis Individual students’ responses to questions attempted are sorted out to identify first 180 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes for their choices and next for the pattern of choice. The prime purpose of such grouping is to identify changes in students’ choices of questions after the interventions. The absolute number of students making various choices is counted and the percentage of students choosing various levels of questions (easy, medium and difficult as suggested by teachers) is calculated. Figure 1 and Figure 2 indicate the general trend of choice of questions over the reading week. These graphs help to illustrate whether the change is obvious. Both classes experienced change in the choice of questions over the reading week. The trend is more obvious in 5J which had a high proportion of students choosing ‘comprehension’ question in the first two modules. But choice of medium to high level, the trend is different for 5S class. A large number of students opted for a ‘difficult’ question in the first lesson. It dropped drastically in the second lesson but the trend grew up gradually in the remaining lessons. Generally speaking, if we compared the trend with the implementation of the intervention strategy, the change in 5J is more obvious from the third lesson onward. A much higher percentage of students chose the ‘application’ and ‘synthesis’ questions in the last two modules. Such changes were also identified in 5S. But it should be noted that students were attracted by the ‘comprehension’ question in Chapters 9-10 and both classes experienced a big drop in the choice of the higher level questions. But this trend was reverted in the fifth and the sixth lessons when students were tuned in to the group discussion in the reading lessons. They were more willing to choose questions that were more challenging. This was echoed in the student interview described in the section of Analysis of Student Interview. Figure 1: Choice of questions by P5J students over the reading week 181 Figure 2: Choice of questions by P5S students over the reading week 5.3 On selected student responses basis Attempt is made to identify patterns of choices of questions through examining all the students’ responses to questions. The following pattern of choice is revealed in selected students: Seven students displayed an “up” trend in the choice of questions; moving from comprehension questions to synthesis questions. Two students displayed a “down” trend in the choice of question; moving from synthesis questions to comprehension questions. One student chose all number 2 questions throughout. 5.4 Analysis of student interview Students’ interview was transcribed verbatim for their views on the reading week in general and the intervention strategy in particular. Their perception of the question levels was also solicited in order to compare with the teachers’ categorization of the questions. Six students from two classes were selected to have an interview on their general impression of the novel, their learning experiences in group discussion and their views on the challenge levels of the questions. When students were prompted to talk about the novel, they all expressed that they liked the story because it was funny and interesting. 182 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes And they liked the way their teacher taught the book in the reading week because they enjoyed group discussion, shared their ideas with their classmates and presented it in the whole class. When asked how they chose their questions, the students responded: Student A: I’ll pick up the one which is more interesting and challenging. Pick the one that needs to write more. Student B: I will pick questions. My answer has more things to write about or more interesting, I will pick that. Student C: It’s challenging. We can use our brain. I always chose number three. All of the questions are properly arranged. From the above students’ interview answers, it is noted that some students were aware of the questions were arranged in different levels of challenge and they would like to choose those challenging questions to answer. In the interview different students had different perceptions of the group discussion. The following responses show how students thought about the discussions. Student A: Discussion is useful. Because it is an exercise to practice talking. I learn friendship. Because you need friendship to make a team group. I would encourage them to speak more and explain more. Student B: It could practice our English talk frequent because we usually speak Cantonese with our friend and discussion would make our English speaking more fluent. You need to listen others opinion, but not only using to your skills. The above responses indicate that students enjoyed group discussion because they considered discussions useful in that they helped them practice English and share their ideas with others. However, it is noted that students had different views on the levels of challenge for the questions. In the interview, some of the students made the following comments: 183 Student A: I would choose different questions for different chapters. Because each chapter has challenging questions. These questions are not in order. Interviewer: Oh, Yeah. You know the questions are not in the order. So which one is more challenging? Student A: Of course Number three. Interviewer: How about you? Which set of questions did you choose? Student B: Arr….. I chose that, may be a challenging one. Interviewer: Which Set? Student B: Like chapters six to eight, those are harder because they know how the parents feel when you use the word “frindle” and you have to stay after school for detention. Interviewer: You think that is most challenging. Student B: Because you are not parents, so you don’t know really how to answer the questions. Interviewer: Which one is the least challenging? Student B: Chapter one to three. Interviewer: You mean the whole set of questions. Student B: Right. Interviewer: So, you think that the questions are arranged in the way that chapter one to three are least challenging… Student B: Yeah. Easy, move along to chapter thirteen to fifteen. That set is more challenging. 184 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Interviewer: Okay, what do you think? (Turned to Student) Student C: Because at start, they don’t really make challenging questions because it will be easy at first. Interviewer: The second set is more difficult? Student C: Yes. Interviewer: And the third set getting on more difficult? That’s what you think of your questions, right? Interviewer (Turned back to Student A): Could you please tell your classmates about what you think of the questions? Student A: I think each chapter has the most challenging questions and it is usually of feeling of others, you are pretending to be different people to look back at you. Like my parents looking at me to tell bad or good of me. You know, something like that. The following table shows the views of the students on levels of questions and the question levels set by teachers. The highlighted boxes are the choice of students matched with teachers’. It is noticed that students’ view on the level of questions is different from that of the teachers’. For example, in chapter 1-3, teachers consider question 3 is an application (medium) question but none of the students thought that question is an application question. Three of them thought that is a synthesis (difficult) question. This applied also to question 3 in chapter 13-15, although teachers consider that it is an application question, four students thought that this is a synthesis (difficult) question. 185 Table 3: Students’ and Teachers’ view on levels of questions Question Teacher Student A Student B Student C Student D Student E Chapter 1-3 1 difficult easy easy medium medium difficult 2 easy difficult difficult easy difficult medium 3 medium difficult difficult difficult easy easy Chapter 4-5 1 easy medium easy easy easy easy 2 medium difficult medium difficult medium medium 3 difficult difficult difficult medium difficult difficult Chapter 6-8 1 easy difficult difficult medium easy medium 2 medium difficult easy easy difficult difficult 3 difficult difficult difficult difficult medium easy Chapter 9-10 1 difficult medium medium easy medium medium 2 easy easy medium medium easy easy 3 medium easy difficult difficult difficult difficult Chapter 11-12 1 easy medium difficult medium medium difficult 2 medium easy medium easy easy medium 3 difficult difficult medium difficult difficult easy Chapter 13-15 1 difficult difficult difficult medium easy medium 2 easy medium difficult easy medium easy 3 medium medium difficult difficult difficult difficult 5.5 Analysis of video lessons Video lessons are transcribed in selective vignettes to illustrate students’ interaction related to discussion focus. Group interaction skills are also identified in the video vignettes. Relevant students’ talk and conversation are also transcribed for evidence of the impact of the intervention strategy on students’ choice of questions and explanation. In the first lesson, teacher introduced the novel and asked students to answer the question from module one. No intervention was attempted. In the second lesson, teacher conducted a whole class discussion and students were requested to answer the questions for module two and three. In the third lesson wherein the intervention strategy was first introduced, teacher instructed students to share their answers to questions in the previous modules. A total of three 7-minute discussion sessions were conducted. Teacher asked one student from each group to share his answer. It appeared that students needed teacher’s constant prompting to elaborate their generally brief and direct answers. Before the end of lesson, students were asked to answer the questions on the next module. 186 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes The discussions session was started from 3rd lesson. It is found that there was a drop in the level of questions, 41% of students’ question choice fell from high to low/medium or medium to low after in the third module, indicated in Table 4 below. Table 4: Students’ choice of question after the 1st intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 3 6 5 Low to Medium 7 9 8 Medium to High 10 6 8 Medium to Low 43 22 32 High to Low 0 13 6 High to Medium 3 3 3 Unchanged and Absent 33 41 37 In the fourth lesson, the teacher showed a video taken the day before to explain how a proper group discussion was like. Students were told to share their answers. The video took effect and most of the groups were on tasks. Teacher reinforced the group discussion skills through asking each group to give scores to the performance of their classmates in the discussion. Students were then asked to answer the questions in the next module. On analyzing students’ choice of questions after the group discussion in the fourth lesson, 62% of the students moved from low to medium/high or medium to high in their question choice for module 5. Table 5: Students’ choice of question after the 2nd intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 20 31 26 Low to Medium 27 25 26 Medium to High 7 13 10 Medium to Low 0 0 0 High to Low 3 6 5 High to Medium 0 9 5 Unchanged and Absent 43 16 29 On completion of the 5th module, 56% of the students remained unchanged in the level of question choice, indicated in the following table: 187 Table 6: Students’ choice of question after the 3rd intervention Class 5J (%) Class 5S (%) Overall (%) Low to high 6 10 8 Low to Medium 0 3 2 Medium to High 3 7 5 Medium to Low 0 13 6 High to Low 0 3 2 High to Medium 22 20 21 Unchanged and Absent 69 43 56 6. Discussions In this study, we find some interesting points as follows: 6.1 Correlation between emotional maturity and question selection Students’ selection of questions may be directly related to the length of the questions if asked to copy them. During the 1st intervention, students were asked to copy the questions they chose. It was found that they tended to choose short questions (in terms of the length). Then we changed our strategy, so no questions were to be copied. Students were asked to give answers only. However, it is also noted that the amount of time given for students to answer the question in the class could impact on the length and quality of their answers. Teachers’ expectations on the length of the answer required of them could also be an influential factor. When we compare their answers for the first modules to those in the last module when students were requested to write at least 100 words in 10 minutes, we notice that their answers are comparatively longer and more substantial. Focus should be on which type of question chosen instead of quality of students answers / further sharing of responses done in discussion. Students’ choice of questions changed after intervention– trends and development. Students were more willing to take risks in choosing questions of synthesis and application types. It is more prominent in 5J’s performance after the first two interventions, comparing with that of 5S. Students’ perspectives on classifying the questions were different from those of the teachers’. 188 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Students did not know that the questions were classified into three types. Quite a few preferred the application or synthesis types to the comprehension type which, however, was considered easier to answer from teachers’ perspectives. As mentioned above, students tended to choose shorter questions (in terms of length) which should have suggested a preference to easy-to-answer questions but the data showed that our students’ perspectives on classifying the questions were different from ours’. From the students’ interview, they were asked to rank the questions in challenge levels. Half of them thought the questions were arranged in ascending order of challenge, with easy questions to begin with in module 1 and challenge levels increased as the modules progressed through to the most challenging questions in the last module. However, some students considered that each chapter had its own challenging questions. In his words, “I think each chapter has challenging questions. It is usually about the feeling of others. You are pretending to be a different people to look back at you.” However, one student had a different view. “Ascending order of challenge. Easiest at the very beginning, and then is most difficult at the end.” From the above answers, it is found that most students interviewed believed that the questions were in ascending order of challenge, except one student who thought that each chapter had a challenging question. 6.2 Effects of language ability Most of our students are capable of expressing their thoughts quite fluently. However, many of them chose questions which they found interesting and were short in length to answer. When students were given clear instructions as to how many words they were required to put down in their answers and more time was given to them, they elaborated on their answers. 6.3 Effectiveness of group discussion Group discussions facilitate group work. Almost all students enjoyed group discussions, including those shy ones. It was, however, inevitable that a small number of students did not get themselves involved in the activities at all. Fortunately no dominations were taken place. This was echoed in students’ interview, students described their classmates’ feelings about the group discussions. 189 Student A: You need to listen to others’ opinion, but not only using your skills. Student B: I would encourage them to speak more and explain more. Student C: I asked them to give more opinion so that may be my teacher and make me think creative. He gave more answers. Student A: Some of the teammates just sat there and didn’t think. Another group of students recalled: Interviewee: And how did you prompt them to say more in the discussion? Student D: So we asked them “why you choose that question” or “can you choose another more challenging questions?” like that. Student E: They talked about the ideas. Usually they answered the easiest questions. Student D: Ya. Exactly. They always said when I ask “do you want to try another challenging question?” Some say yes but some say no. 6.4 Overall effectiveness of the programme organization, implementation and intervention strategies Due to time constraints, the overall effectiveness of the programme organization, implementation and intervention strategies was not that effective. Teachers struggled to strike a balance in their roles as language teacher and teacher researcher at the same time. Altogether, the novel was taught within a 6-day schedule. Students also had to be trained in holding group discussions; hence teachers also had to spend time addressing the strategies for effective group work. It was also a challenge to keep the students on task. However, after playing a demonstration of a group discussion that was recorded in a previous lesson, students saw what they were expected to do and which areas they had to improve on. Also the assigning of student roles in group discussions was helpful in keeping students focused. 6.5 Teachers development After conducting this study, we have a deeper understanding of our students’ abilities 190 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes and learning styles. It was observed that most students enjoyed participating in group work when clear guidelines and expectations are given to them. Many were willing to share their ideas and opinions which influenced each other. We have also decided for the future, more time should be spent on the teaching of a novel to allow teachers and students to do discussions, reflect and also focus on the literary teaching aspects of the novel. In addition, we have learnt how to conduct research in the classroom setting, gone through various struggles in balancing teacher and researcher roles, working together in the planning and implementation of the project and writing a report. Lastly, our findings will be shared with our colleagues in the English department as part of teachers’ professional development. 6.6 Difficulties Throughout the study, some difficulties were encountered. For example, the appropriate wording of “comprehension”, “application”, “synthesis” type question including the length of each question as discovered, students tend to select a question based on its length and not necessary its type when asked to copy the question down into their copy book. It was also discovered that some students gave elaborate answers to comprehension questions while some students gave only simple descriptive short answers to “challenging” questions. Questions and answers did not necessarily match teachers’ expectations, i.e. “challenging” questions should draw rich description and reasoned responses. It was interesting to find that one teacher was able to focus on her task assigned to her, which was to get this study completed, while the other struggled a lot in balancing to meet the requirements of the study and to satisfy the needs of her students, like role- playing and doing other activities apart from discussions. It demonstrates the language teachers’ struggle to strike a balance between language teaching and research initiatives and how their perceptions and actions cast impact on the implementation of the intervention strategy that aimed to bring about students’ attitudinal changes. 7. Conclusion and Recommendations To conclude, with regards to doing research, at this point in time, although the data 191 indicates that there was a positive shift towards students voluntarily opting to respond to synthesis type questions, further studies are needed to be done to see whether this shift is sustained. When given the opportunity to share through group discussions amongst peers, students, once understanding that a synthesis question can be discussed openly without the fear of being challenged students become more willing to opt to respond to these types of questions. After we completed our research, we made the following recommendations. In terms of curriculum organization, one issue concerned the time frame set for the reading week. We believed that a longer duration of time for the reading week could have better accommodated both literary learning and doing classroom research. Some recommendations for doing group activities are as follows: 1. Brief and train students on how a proper group discussion is conducted prior to the group discussions to make students aware of their expected performance. 2. Assigning a group leader, a time controller and a noise controller in each group helps students to be more involved and focused in the group discussions. 3. Teachers should ensure that the physical setting of the classroom is conducive to group work for how group work is to be done thus allowing smooth transition into a group sharing environment. 4. In order to allow meaningful group discussions, students should be coached on the skills of questioning especially how to ask prompting questions. 5. Create authentic communicative tasks rather than tasks solely focused on language practice. 6. Constantly revise what was planned to make improvements as a result of what emerges while doing research. For example, students tended to answer the shortest questions when asked to copy the question down. Therefore, in the next lesson, they were only asked to write down the question number rather than writing out the entire question. 192 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes References Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Atherton, J. (2009). Learning and teaching: Piaget’s developmental theory. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman. Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2000). Habits of mind: A developmental series. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Hawkes, N. (2001). Being a school of excellence: Value-based education. Oxfordshire County Council: Advisory and Inspection Service. Landau, E., & Weissler, K. (1988). The relationship between emotional maturity, intelligence and creativity in gifted children. UK: A B Academic Publishers. Tharpe, R. G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in a Social Context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and Society. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 193 Appendix (Questions for each module) (1) Frindle Questions Chapters 1-3: 1. Nick's parents have a rule that children have to do their homework first. What made Nick’s parents come up with this rule? Explain your answer. 2. Would you like to be in Nick’s class? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. If you were to be put on one of the three lists made by Mrs. Granger (really good kids, really smart kids, or really bad kids) which list would you be on? Explain your answer. (2) Frindle Questions Chapters 4-5: 1. If you don’t know a particular word, how do you go about finding out its meaning? 2. If a friend of yours was feeling nervous about giving a presentation, what advice would you give him? 3. You are Nick. Explain why you think side-tracking Mrs. Granger is right or wrong. (3) Frindle Questions Chapters 6-8: 1. Do you think Mrs. Granger's punishment is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 2. How would your parents feel if you used the word “frindle” and had to stay after school for detention? 3. You are Mrs. Granger. Write the letter which was in the fat white envelope that Nick had signed. (4) Frindle Questions Chapters 9-10: 1. How would your parent's react if you were Nick and the principal came to your house? 2. Would you continue to use the word “frindle”? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. Who do you think sent Judy Morgan the class picture? Explain your answer. (5) Frindle Questions Chapters 11-12: 1. Do you think Bud and Mr. Allen's deal is fair? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 2. If you were Nick's dad, would you keep the money a secret from Nick? Why or why not? Explain your answer. 3. You are Nick. What would you do with the first cheque you got from Bud Lawrence? (6) Frindle Questions Chapters 13-15: 1. You are Mrs. Granger. Write a thank you note to Nick for his gift. 2. Did you like the ending of the book? Tell why or why not. Explain your answer. 3. You have made up a new word. What is the word and what does your word mean? Why would others use it? 194 Using group discussion as an intervention strategy in novel teaching to study students’ attitudinal changes Appendix (continued) Discussion questions for before you read the chapter. Chapter 1 Some students delight in coming up with creative ways of making the school day more interesting. Tell about an incident in which one of your fellow students came up with such an idea. List four personal qualities that you feel make for a really great teacher. Chapter 2 The author of Frindle uses exaggeration very effectively in making his story more interesting (e.g. “those huge dictionaries with every word in the universe”). Give your own example of exaggeration in describing an animal of your choice. Nick’s fifth grade teacher takes words and their meanings very seriously. Explain why she might think such things are important. Chapters 3 & 4 Are you familiar with any strategies designed to distract a teacher and waste time in the classroom? Describe one such strategy that might be successful in accomplishing this goal. Chapter 5 Think about a time when you had to stand up in front of several people for a particular reason (to do a report or display a talent). Describe your feelings. Why do you think you felt this way? Chapters 6 & 7 Men and women have been coming up with creative ideas for thousands of years. Describe one particularly imaginative idea that proved to be important to people everywhere. Who was responsible for that idea? Chapter 8 Tell about a time when you (or a friend) were unfairly punished. Be sure to describe what happened and how you felt. 195 Chapter 9 Tell why a principal might visit the home of one of his/her students. Try to come up with 2 possible reasons. Chapter 10 If you were a reporter investigating the frindle controversy, think of one question you might ask the following people: Mrs. Granger, Nick, Mrs. Chatham and Nick’s mom. Chapter 11 Although telling the truth is an excellent idea, it can sometimes create difficulties as well. Give an example of how this might be true (use your own experience if you like). Chapter 12 What is meant by the term “get rich quick scheme”? Give a possible example of such a scheme. What advantage might there be in being rich? What disadvantage might there be in being rich? Chapter 13 Describe one advantage to being famous. Describe one disadvantage. Chapter 14 Describe the greatest idea you have ever had. (If you can’t think of one, use your imagination.) Tell about a time when an adult (other than one of your parents) said something encouraging to you that made a real difference in your life. Chapter 15 What does the word generous mean to you? Give an example of generosity from your own life. What do you think is in the envelope that Mrs. Granger gave to Nick? (Be as detailed as possible) 196 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 Reconstructing Taiwan’s primary teacher education in academic university - Primary teacher education institutionalized 何慧群 國立臺中教育大學教育系所 摘要 因應國際競爭、出生率下降、網路世代、新台灣之子女教育等問題，重構臺灣國小師資培 育制度勢在必行。現行國小師資培育管道如教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究所下修 教育學程與 2012 年施行國小教師專業碩士學位學程，本文旨在：（1）凸顯國小師資培育 四軌並行，有違專業邏輯（professional reasoning）；（2）師資培育涵蓋教職識能與師培 生人格發展；（3）以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基，據以提案「4+0.5+0.5」年一 貫制；以及（4）對應國小多科包班需求，多科系學院是較適組織結構。 關鍵詞 四軌並行教師培訓課程，40 學分教育學程，「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制 Abstract In response to national competitiveness, the birth rate dropped, the Internet generation and 197 new Taiwanese children etc., it is imperative to build a new system of Primary Teachers’ training program, which is the “4 +0.5 +0.5” system. It is the time for designing a new system of Primary Teacher Education. However, it is inappropriate to simply upgrade our teachers’ education level to master degree before analyzing today’s four-track program of teacher education. This article aims to highlight: Qualifications for primary school teachers went so far as can be re-divided into 4 ways: 4-year degree of Department of Education, 40 undergraduate credits, 26 graduate credits and 2-year master degree of instruction for unemployed legalized teacher candidates. This is a flaw system that violates professional consensus. Keywords four-track program, 40 undergraduate credits, “4+0.5+0.5” system 甲、前言 「國運興衰，繫於教育；教育成敗，繫於教師。」21 世紀是變動變化頻繁與壓力遽增 的時代，教育效益與教師素質成為關注焦點。1994 年 2 月 7 日師資培育法公布實施至今， 主客觀環境變化不可同日而語，檢討、省思與評鑑時刻已然到來。一般而言，專業「典範 工程」（engineering of paradigm）之變革進行於發展歷程，新範式生成最終責付專業論述 （discourse）；另，教育改革宜通盤考量，專業理性與前瞻共識是不可或缺的要素。 國小基礎教育扎根不深，學習者日後創意、創造力、競爭力難見其張力，教師專業素 質是影響關鍵要素。當今國小師資培育制度計有教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究所 下修教育學程與國小教師專業碩士學位學程等。本文旨在凸顯： 1. 就專業而言，國小師資培育四軌並行，有違專業邏輯（professional reasoning）。 2. 師資培育涵蓋教職識能與師培生人格發展。 3. 以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基，據以提案「4+0.5+0.5」年一貫制，以 及 4. 對應國小多科包班需求，多科系學院是較適組織結構。 198 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 國小師資培育重構提案之研究，首先，就現行四軌國小師資培育進行分析，並據以指 出一則有違專業邏輯性，再則造成國小教師專業素質參差不齊與供需失衡；其次，「他山 之石，可以攻玉」，對照歐盟、中國大陸教師教育發展與臺灣在地需求，歸納結論：國小 師資培育學士學歷基礎化，在職進修、學位研修高移碩士化，最後，綜觀時代變革、理論 建構與實務操作系統思維，提出新國小師資培育制度。 乙、臺灣國小師資培育制度及其問題 1994 年 2 月 7 日公佈實施《師資培育法》，依據法規第四條規定：「師資及其教育專 業人員之培育，由師範校院、設有教育院、系、所或教育學程之大學校院實施之。……教 育學程係指大學校院所規劃經教育部核定之教育專業課程」（教育部，1996），師資培育 專業變革是師資培育機構多元化，與教育學程是師資培育專業課程。 至 2004 年，國小師資培育機構由原來 9 所師範院校增設為 31 個點，含一般大學設置 之師資培育中心（湯維玲，2007）；2009 年，國小師資培育機構減少為 28 個點（高等教 育評鑑中心基金會，2009）。 一、 國小師資培育類型 （1）教育本科專業 教育本科專業，由師範系統院校與一般大學經教育部核可設立的教育相關系所，提供 為期 4 年本科專業教育。依據國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度教育系課程架構，分師培生與非 師培生二類（見表一），其中師培生課程設計包含共通課程 10學分、通識選修課程 18學分、 專門課程 100 學分與自由選修 20 學分。專門課程部分：（1）教育本科專業之課程設計著 重於「教育理念」、「師範性」養成；（2）專門必修課程偏屬專業理論，專門選修偏屬理 論應用；（3）「教什麼」之學科知識學分比重佔 20/148。自由選修部分：（1）開設科目 多元與多樣，（2）就開課成本、任課師資，執行難度高。教育本科之專門與自由選修專業 課程多由教育背景教師授課。 199 表一 教育系課程設計及其學分一覽表 課 程 類 別 學分別 適 用 類 別 必修 選修 師資 培育 備註 共同及通 識課程 共同課程 （國、英、大一二體育） 10 0 10 通識課程 0 18 18 學科專業 教學基本學科課程 10 0 10 非師資培育生免修 教學實習及分科教材教法 10 0 10 專門課程 必修 41 0 41 已內含「教育專業課程」18 學分 選修 0 39 39 自由選修 0 20 20 可自由選讀本系、外系及外校之專 門課程、專長學程、教育專業課程 20 學分已內含「教育專業課程」2 學分 合計 148 專門必修 41 學分 教育概論、教育心理學、教育哲學、教育社會學、兒童心理學、教育行政、教 育史、教學原理、教育統計、教育測驗與評量、課程發展與設計、教育研究法、 比較教育、教育實習 I、II、III…… 專門選修 39 學分 認知心理學、多元文化教育、英文教育名著選讀、教學心理學、班級團體輔導、 創造力與特殊才能、教學科技理論與實務、教學社會學、創新教學與個別化教 學、多元化教學評量、情意教學與評量、閱讀心理與教學、學校本位課程發展、 另類教育、課程理論、各國課程比較、童書設計與編輯、教材研發與製作、課 程評鑑、統整課程設計…… 自由選修 20 學分 特殊教育導論、性別教育、發展心理學、行為改變技術、親職教育、青少年心 理學、輔導原理與實務、心理與教育測驗、生命教育、班級經營、教學媒體與 操作、生涯教育、中等教育…… （資料來源：國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度課程架構） （2）40 學分教育學程 依據施行《師資培育法》第 9 條規定：「修畢規定之師資職前教育課程，成績及格者， 由師資培育之大學發給修畢師資職前教育證明書」，現階段職前教育課程設計為 40 學分（見 附錄一），課程範圍包含：（1）教育基礎課程（至少必修 4學分）；（2）教育方法學課程（至 少必修 6 學分）；（3）教學基本學科課程（至少必修 10 學分）；（4）教學實習及分科教 材教法（至少必修 10 學分，教材教法必修 3-4 領域）；以及（5）選修課程（至少 10 學分）。 200 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 （3）研究所下修教育學程 研究所下修教育學程，意旨教育本科與非教育本科研究生至大學部選修 40 學分國小教 育學程，以取得國小任教資格，另，教育所研究生抵減部分學分。以國立臺中教育大學為 例，非教育本科專業學生通過校內甄選，研究生接受心理測驗，經錄取後，將自研一下開 始修習學分，至少修業 4 學期與另加實習 1 學期。 教育本科專業生與（2）、（3）生源不同，前者是經由大學入學考試分發至教育學系， 後二者本科專業則不是教育，40 學分修業類「輔系」性質。 （4）國小教師專業碩士學位學程 2012 年 9 月將實施國小教師專業碩士學位學程教育（見表二），招生對象具教師合格 證者，採公費制，並責其接受為期 2 年專業教育，畢業後分發至相關國小任教。至 2013 年 9月，國小師資培育新增「2+2+2」模式（楊思偉，2010），是謂精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫。 2012 年與 2013 年施行之國小師資培育「專案」，彼此無關聯性，前者是臺灣國小師培碩 化規劃歷程之「節外生枝」，責付至多 6 年時效；後者是奉教育部高教司核准之實驗計畫。 表二 教師專業碩士學位學程課程設計及其學分一覽表 課程類別 學 分 必修 選修 核心課程 基礎理論類 6 0 研究方法類 9 0 專精課程 0 12~19 一般選修課程 0 4~10 合 計 35 三、學程課程規劃： 本碩士學位學程課程分為核心課程、專精課程（教學方法學課程）及一 般選修課程三部份。碩士班學生至少應修習 35 學分，並依下列規定修畢應修學分，完成且通 過碩士論文考試者，授予教育學碩士學位。 四、進入本學程的學生，將依其大學背景及修習教育專業課程之情形，由導師及學程主任輔 ______________________________________ 導學生，並確定每位學生於本校其他學系需補修之教學學科知識課程______________________________ 6_至_ 12__學分。___ 七、本學程規定_____ 101___學年度入學之學生應加修國民小學教師加註英語專長專門課程___________________________ 30__學分，___ 依教育部頒布之課程架構開設。 （資料來源：2012 精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫成果發表暨研討會） 201 二、 相關問題 綜觀臺灣國小師資培育管道計有：4 年制教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程、研究生下 修國小教程、2012 年教師專業碩士學位學程與 2013 年精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫；課程 類別有 4 類，40 學分教育學程是共同核心課程（core curricula）。 1. 師資培育機構素質不一 至 2012 年，臺灣大專校院計有 164 所（不含軍警校院及空中大學），學生總數逾 133 萬（教育部，2012）；依據 Trow（1973）提出高等教育落實程度分類尺規，臺灣高等教育 業已進入普及階段。另，「名校情節」在所難免，而私立校院校數或學生人數所占比率高 於公立校院（教育部，2010），則是不爭事實。 師資培育機構素質不一，涵蓋校際排名落差與招生素質差異。依據《師資培育法》規 定，各公私立大學得以成立師培中心與規劃教育學程，但是，校際教育資源、師資編制差 異大，其多以最低標準 3 位員額來負責行政與教學，影響教學、輔導實習、地方教育輔導 等業務。另，校際生源結構呈多樣態，一般而言，北部學生素質、父母社經地位優於中南 部、西部優於東部；國公立大學學生學習動機與行動優於私立大學、技專院校。 2. 專業培用落差 臺灣國小教育施行多科包班教學，但是，教育專業本科 148 學分與 40 學分教育學程在 學科知識課程規劃上均只有 20 學分，師培生之「學術智能」（academic literacy）發展明 顯不足。另，不同於 1996 年施行之新課程標準課程範式，2001 年實施九年一貫課程改革， 相關國小師資培育課程設計未同步進行調整或修正，致令課程政策執行成效難以評斷與歸 因。 3. 實習制度待改善 依據 1995 年通過《教師法》規定，初檢係採學經歷檢覈，即凡修畢師資職前教育課程 者均得參加教育實習，導致量的增生與資源相對不足。另，師資培育機構與教育實習機構 在人力、資源、專業、共識上均有待經費挹注、專業網絡建置與溝通謀和。 202 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 4. 供需失調 1994 年國小師資培育管道多元化，依據教育部統計資料顯示（見表三），1994-2008 年共培育國小師資 60,535 人次，其中 29,317 人次成為正式教師，5,373 人次成為代理代課 教師，25,845 人次為儲備教師或所謂「流浪教師」，正式教師所占比率為 48.4%；2009 年 取得正式、代理代課教職的在職率約 38%（自由時報，2010）。 除此之外，新生兒人數減少對國小新聘教師上無疑是雪上加霜，由 1979 年 422,518 人， 到 1994 年 322,938 人，2010 年下降到 166,866 人（內政部，2011）。 表三 2005-2008 年國小師資培育累積人次統計一覽表 年度 培育人次 正式教師 代理代課 儲備教師 在職率 2005 44,654 24,714 19,940 55.3% 2006 52,370 27,390 4,692 20,288 61.3% 2007 57,406 28,644 5,493 23,269 59.5% 2008 60,535 29,317 5,373 25,845 57.3% （資料來源：2008 年中華民國師資培育統計年報） 5. 師範性凌駕專業理性 針對現行國小師資培育制度弊端，國立臺中教育大學分別提出：2012 年實施之《國小 教師專業碩士學位學程》與 2013 年《精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫》，前者強調理論與實務 結合重要性，主發展技術理性（technocratic rationality）；後者正視師範性式微，主情境認 知氛圍建置。 綜觀初等教育本科專業、40 學分教育學程與 2 起臺中教大國小師培碩化方案，其共同 弊端是未理性正視「學科知識」元素旨趣，不查課堂做什麼的什麼，實有關理論體系結構 知識、知識性能認知，而專業取向之教育實踐有賴基礎知識與基本知識結構的學習。 丙、歐盟、中國大陸師資培育 網際網路與知識經濟，業已成為影響學校教育發展主要利基，前者推動知識不斷汰舊 203 換新，後者訴求知識、創意與專業的新經濟活動，提升教師專業素質刻不容緩。 一、 歐盟師資培育 在歐盟高等教育區的「國家文憑資格架構」下，進行各階段師資培育改革，偏制度整 合與技術配合，主要論述如下： 1. 師資培育達大學學歷，高級中學須具備碩士學歷； 2. 修業年限 3-6.5 年，教育階段別愈高，修業年限愈長； 3. 課程模式，多數國家學前與國小師培採用並進模式（concurrent model），中等 師培採用接續模式（consecutive model），即學術學科與教育專業課程分別在 兩個不同階段學習； 4. 各級教師轉向綜合大學來培育，並且延長修業時間，以及 5. 歐洲貿易聯盟教育委員會（ETUCE, 2008）建議從學前教育到高級中等教育師 資職前教育提升至碩士層級。目前歐盟芬蘭、德國、波蘭、葡萄牙等國小教師 具備碩士學歷（符碧真、黃源河，2010）。 二、 中國大陸 「開放改變中國，中國改變世界。」自 1978年改革開放 30多年來，中國成為崛起大國， 並期以由製造大國成為製造強國、技術強國與品牌大國，教育是不可或缺的利器。隨著「科 教興國」戰略與高等教育大眾化，培養高層次本科學歷國小教師成為國家人才強國戰略目 標之一。至 2002 年，計有 130 所高等學校（含高等師範院校和綜合大學）設置「小學教育」 本專科專業，其中「小學教育」本科專業高等院校為 65 所（黃偉娣，2008）。中國大陸幅 員廣大，南北、東西地區差異大，國小師資培育採三級制並存，全面化本科專業拔高仍待 持續努力。 國小師資培育課程設計，學科專業與教育專業比例是1:2，凸顯其正視「知識就是力量」 效益與落實知識教育行動；另，通識教育中之馬列毛思想政治理論、國防教育是中國大陸 意識型態教育特色（何慧群，2010）。 204 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 綜合上述歐盟與中國大陸師資培育發展，歸納如下： 1. 國小師資培育高等教育化，大學學歷是基本條件，碩化是趨勢。 2. 重視通識教育與學科知識的教育。 3. 整合理論與實務，強調專業化教學。 4. 綜合大學是師資培育機構形式。 丁、提案：國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制 一、 提案基礎 提案思考：（1）基於國小教育具基礎性、發展性與綜合性，教育專業偏實用性，較不 具學術性。符應社會頻繁變革與教育專業實踐，國小師資培育應兼顧認知與情意發展；（2） 國小屬多科包班教學，40 學分教育學程明顯不足與難收對教職工作認同之益，以及（3） 師資培育既是教育專業職能發展，並且是當事者人格成長、社會參與感性陶冶。 提案建構：以 Bok 提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標為利基，並據以銜接國小師資培育要素。 1. 21 世紀教育目標 大學究竟要學生四年後帶走什麼？ Bok 在《大學教了沒？哈佛校長提出的 8 門課》書 中提出 21 世紀 8 個教育目標（張善楠譯，2008），其關係結構如圖一。 圖一 21 世紀教育目標 205 2. 提案設計 G. Santayana（1863-1952）說：「不瞭解歷史，就註定要重蹈覆轍。」迂衡歐盟、中 國大陸國小師資培育制度沿革與發展與我國國小教育多科包班需求，提案 4+0.5+0.5 年制 國小師資培育，期以 5 年一貫系統性發展國小師資「雙專業」職識能（見圖二），雙專業 意旨專業性與社會性。 圖二 國小師資培育概念結構 206 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 二、 國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制 臺灣國小師資培育歷經數次改革，偏向技術與實用取向（白亦方，2010），以發展嫻 熟教學技術為主要訴求目標；對於世道中落、師範式微現象，臺中教大期以 2013 年實施之 《精緻師資培育機制實驗計畫》改善之。 國小師資培育 4+0.5+0.5 年制主軸是專業性與社會性，「教育工作視為專門的職業」 於 70 年代末取得共識；社會性旨在凸顯「我與汝」相互關係（correlation）利基，藉以取 代「學為人師，行為世範」，聚焦於個人之師範性。 1. 專業性 1966 年聯合國教科文組織與國際勞工組織提出《關於教師地位的建議》，對教師專業 化作出說明，「應把教育工作視為專門的職業，這種職業要求教師經過嚴格地、持續地學 習，獲得並保持專門的知識和特別的技術。它要求對所轄學生的教育和福利具有個人及共 同的責任感。」（劉芳，2008） 1986 年美國卡內基工作小組、霍姆斯小組相繼發表《國家為培養 21 世紀的教師做準 備》、《明日的教師》報告，確立教師的專業地位，並據以提升教師專業素質。1996 年聯 合國教科文組織在第 45 屆國際教育大會上提出：「在提高教師地位的整體政策中，專業化 是最有前途的中長期策略。」（沈夏威，2010） 專業化涵蓋思考習性、數位素養、學科知識與差異教學。 （a）思考習性 Socrates 名言：「真正認識自己的人，才是最有力量的人。」Aristotle 認為： 「人異於禽獸幾稀，唯智能而已矣。」面對數位資訊充斥與價值解構態勢，思考、 觀察、論證、佐證修正、選擇與判斷……之思考術需要教導；又，思考習性非天 然生成，相反的，它需要積習成性而幾近仿若天成。基於教育是對人進行啟思、 「化性起偽」手段，教育工作「先行者」學會思考與能思考責無旁貸。 207 （b）數位素養 在資訊知識數位化與傳播網絡化的時代，資訊素養是職涯發展必備利器，包 括：（1）傳統素養（traditional literacy）、（2）媒體素養（media literacy）、 （3）電腦素養（computer literacy）與（4）網路素養（network literacy）（McClure, 1994）。 為國小教師而言，數位素養展現：（1）提升教學效益之多媒體素養，（2） 擷取、應用與分析網路知識，以及（3）善用網路專業社群資源。 （c）學科知識 面對知識增生快速與學科科目多元，「綜合淺碟化知識」與「學術本位知識」 各有利弊。基於小學教育基礎性、發展性與綜合性，以及國內國小勇類層級規模 比率超過五成，國小師資學科專業識能發展原則是「國語文、數學為本，外加專 長科目」，另，跨學科領域之通識識能是新增識能，屬高等教育之元教育。 （d）差異教學 差異教學（differentiated instruction），有謂「區分化教學」（賴翠媛， 2009），強調文化脈絡、多元智能取向之教學設計。另，教育資源分配不均、城 鄉資訊落差、社會與文化資本歧異對教育影響不宜輕忽。 2. 社會性 綜觀歐美師資培育制度沿革與發展，由強調人師、楷模，重視問學、學思與研究，到 今日聚焦於可應用性與實踐效益未來範式亟待建構。另，面向全球網絡關聯與網際網路社 會，主體意識、本位主義、個人主義逐漸「淡定」，在「我與汝」相互關係（correlation） 利基前提，互補、共生、互助、共榮是新增社會意識元素。 社會性涵蓋人文素養、生態意識、教育哲學與社會批判。 （a）人文素養 A. Einstein（1879-1955）認為：「僅憑知識和技巧並不能給人類的生活帶來 208 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 尊嚴和幸福。」值此工具理性主導的文明發展，人文素養依然是自然科學專門識 能與職業技能發展的根基，黃崑巖說：「以一般知識為基礎，在上面建構專業知 識，然後再樹立『專業』、『科學』與『人文』三個石柱，完成學問的殿堂，達 到全人的教育目的！」（呂宗昕，2005） （b）生態意識 生態問題是現代文明後遺症，正視人與生態共生性刻不容緩；其次，體認自 然資源有限性與藏富於大自然，複次，倡導取所需、物流用與分享的價值教育， 最後，發展以工具理性與價值理性為根基的「天人合一」、「物化合一」統觀視 域。 （c）教育哲學 教育哲學，省視「學以致用」旨趣，學習者是學習的主體，學習是手段，目 的是解決問題與創造幸福，主客體、目的與手段不宜混為一談，目的亦不可窄化 為謀生就業或掌控自然生態。簡言之，教育開啟人的理性、感性與悟性，教育歷 程是發展心智、語言與思想，最終則是用於改善生活境域與豐富存在閱歷。 （d）社會批判 在多元價值氾濫與主體意識高漲社會裡，社會和諧繫於建立共識與容納歧 異，批判識能是較適利器。教育哲學與社會批判分路進擊，期以監測（detecting） 與修正（correcting）異常，前者由內向外，後者由外向內，齊一發揮雙環學習 （double loop learning）與坐收較適專業效益。 三、多科系學院 歐美教育發達國家中小學師資培育有別，前者主知識體系與思維邏輯學習，後者主多 感官啟蒙與體驗，二者具層級關連姓。1960、70 年代，國小師資培育學歷漸次提升至大學 層級，學術研究或學科知識學習是重中之重，與傳統重視人格「陶冶」（楊深坑，1989） 有異。 209 另，國小師資培育機構沿革，由獨立師範學院到綜合型大學，以德國為例，其師資培 育中心定位為跨院系之一級學術單位，整合研究、發展、執行與協調等跨領域功能（楊深 坑，2007）。為臺灣而言，符應國小教育屬多科包班教學需求，較適組織是自成一體系之 「教育學院」，院下分設教育系與學科學系。 四、教育實務 「教育為百年大計，難收立竿見影之效。」教學因時空不同、文化脈絡、對象多樣性， 課堂教學、教學歷程充滿不確定性與複雜性，師資培育理論與實習課程予以模組化是必要 的。另，教育實務，一則反應準真實教學場域，二則透過具體教學情境與教學事件的專注 和反思，將積累與類化的實作經驗內化為更純熟的實踐力。 1. 第一階段 0.5 年 第一階段 0.5 年或一學期，時間規劃採 3:2 原則分配。 （a）轉化 教育專業學習是就教育及其實務進行本質目的性、系統的理性分析和邏輯推 理、能動的認知與學習。 （b）情境操作 教育場域彷如生活情境，教學實踐力在理論轉換與情境操作交互作用下，得 以修正、領悟與建構之，個己實踐智慧嘗試展現個性化。 （c）教檢 依據 2005 年 12 月 28 日修正與公佈實施之師資培育法第 7 條：「師資培育 包括師資職前教育及教師資格檢定。」第 11 條：「大學畢業依第九條第四項或 前條第一項規定取得修畢師資職前教育證明書者，參加教師資格檢定通過後，由 中央主管機關發給教師證書。」（教育部全國法規資料，2011a） 另，依據 2010 年 10 月 26 日教育部台參字第 0990178992C 號令修正發布之 高級中等以下學校及幼稚園教師資格檢定考試類科及應試科目規定，考試範圍共 210 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 四科，包括共同科目二科及專業科目二科，前者是國語文與教育原理與制度，後 者是兒童發展與輔導與國民小學課程與教學（教育部全國法規資料，2011b）。 2. 第二階段 0.5 年 第二階段時間規劃採 2:3 原則分配，即在實習學校停留時間約 2 個月、由 2/3 至 3/4 月， 在教大時間是 3 個月、由 4/5 至 6 月。 （a）專業發展學校（PDS） PDS 是落實教育理論與教學實務交互印證與修正之組織模組（module）。 PDS 成敗繫於高教機構學者專家之「統觀識能」，其包括：（1）由理解課程到 教學實務轉換，（2）洞察教室生態潛在課程效應，（3）引進與善用網路虛擬社 群資源，（4）再概念化合作伙伴教學者之教學律則，以及（5）發展教學者後設 認知習性。 （b）教檢 教育專業發展具階段性與銜接性，階段不同，階段任務彼此互有差異。大 五階段實習不同於大四階段實習，前者真實性（authentic）不同於後者素樸性 （naive）；大五實習旨趣不同於實務教檢，前者由師生主體間性社會互動到教 學者進行自我辯證、知識符碼轉換，實務教檢目的是檢驗其具備專業化之教學律 則成熟度。 戊、結論 「輸掉教師，輸掉教育；輸掉教育，輸掉未來。」教師素質直接影響學習者受教權益， 間接牽動國家發展人資儲備，準此，正視師資培育規劃迫在眉睫。國小師資培育自高等教 育學術、科學化後，教師專業「識能」已達社會知識份子行列。如今，為因應國小生態變化， 如本位意識高漲、多媒體刺激、數位落差、準網路世代、家庭功能式微、經濟弱勢、新台 灣之子女差異教育需求等，國小師資培育亟待補強的專業識能是屬情意、價值「軟實力」， 軟實力育成或發展植基於個己的教育理念、人文素養…… 211 最後，符應時代趨勢，國小師資培育是否由「4+0.5」年舊制提升至「4+2」年碩士化， 有賴實證資料佐證之；其次，「學習不是短距離衝刺，而是馬拉松長程賽」，專業發展非 能一步到位，時間歷練是關鍵；再說，為「學術性低，實用性高」的國小基礎教育，以及 新台灣之子女適應與融入社會、單親隔代教養、教育正義……教育工作者個己價值觀建立、 品格品德深化、敬業勤業態度培養與自律中滋生的教育「情意智能」、「同理智慧」，是 國小師資培育不可或缺要素。 參考文獻 內政部（2011）。〈百年人口歷年資料〉。2012 年 8 月 7 日，取自 http://www.ris.gov.tw/ version96/population_01_H.html。 白亦方（2010）。〈美國優質師資培育的底蘊分析〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，6(1)，21- 38。 自由時報（2010）。〈師培教育 13 年 5.8 萬成流浪教師〉。2012 年 8 月 6 日，取自 http://192.192.169.230/edu_paper/data_image/news/n0000011/20101027/a12/00000001.pdf。 何慧群（2010）。〈海峽兩岸國小師資培育制度及其課程設計比較〉。2010 台灣教育學術 研討會、國立臺中教育大學舉辦之《追求均等與卓越的教育與師資培育》學術研討會。 呂宗昕（2005）。《學校沒有教的 K 書秘訣》。台北：時報文化。 沈夏威（2010）。〈關於教師教育專業化問題的思考〉。2011 年 4 月 19 日，取自 http:// www.pep.com.cn/xgjy/jiaoshi/ztyj/jszyh/201008/t20100827_802079.htm。 高等教育評鑑中心基金會（2009）。〈大學校院師資培育評鑑資訊網──師資培育機構〉。 2012 年 8 月 6 日，取自 http://tece.heeact.edu.tw/main.php?mtype=sch。 教育部（1996）。〈師資培育法規選輯〉。台北。 教育部（2009）。《2008 中華民國師資培育統計年報》。台北。 教育部（2010）。〈第八次全國教育會議資料〉。台北。 教 育 部（2012）。 高 等 教 育。2012 年 8 月 8 日， 取 自 http://history.moe.gov.tw/policy. asp?id=6。 教育部全國法規資料（2011a）。〈師資培育法〉。2011 年 4 月 28 日，取自 http://law.moj. gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?PCode=H0050001。 教育部全國法規資料（2011b）。〈高級中等以下學校及幼稚園教師資格檢定考試類科及應 試科目表〉。2011 年 4 月 28 日，取自 http://tft.tcte.edu.tw/page_4a.php。 212 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 符碧真、黃源河（2010）。〈打造「知識歐洲」的師資培育：對我國的啟示〉。《教育研究 與發展期刊》，第 6 卷第 1 期，1-20。 湯維玲（2007）。〈師資培育理念與實踐之對話：教育專業課程之調查研究〉。載周淑卿、 陳麗華編，《教育改革的挑戰與省思》（頁 3-26）。高雄：麗文。 黃偉娣（2008）。〈小學教育本科專業課程方案比較研究〉。2011 年 4 月 22 日，取自 http://www.studa.net/zhiye/080608/09544433.html。 楊 思 偉（2010）。〈 精 緻 師 資 培 育 機 制 實 驗 計 畫 〉。2012 年 5 月 29 日， 取 自 http://210.240.193.239/ntcu/TE99/menu2.html。 楊深坑（1989）。〈西德小學師資培育制度〉。載於中華民國師範教育學會編，《各國小學 師資培育》（頁 357-370）。台北：師苑。 楊深坑（2007）。〈德國師資培育中心歷史發展與組織結構〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》， 第 3 卷第 1 期，35-56。 劉芳（2008）。〈論教育技術能力標準與教師專業化發展〉。2011 年 4 月 23 日，取自 http://www.xxyzz.cn/jssq/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=144。 賴清標（2003）。〈師資培育開放十年回顧與前瞻〉。《師友月刊》，第 435 期，8-17。 賴翠媛（2009）。〈區分性課程〉。2012 年 8 月 8 日，取自 http://www.tiec.tp.edu.tw/lt/ gallery/71/71-16394.pdf。 Bok, D. （2008）。《大學教了沒？哈佛校長提出的 8 門課》，張善楠（譯）。台北：天下。 （原作出版年：2005） ETUCE (European Trade Union Committee for Education). 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Berkeley, California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. 213 附錄一　40 學分教育學程課程結構一覽表 教育專業 I 教育基礎課程 至少 4 學分 教育概論、教育心理學、教育哲學、教育社會學 教育方法學課程 至少 6 學分 課程發展與設計、教學原理、教學媒體與操作、輔導原 理與實務、班級經營、教育測驗與評量 教育專業 II 共同選修 至少 10 學分 特殊教育導論、藝術治療與輔導、音樂治療與教育、兒 童心理學、發展心理學、行為改變技術、親職教育、心 理與教育測驗、教育統計、教育研究法、教育史、現代 教育思潮、德育原理、教育法規、教育行政、學校行政、 比較教育、數學課程發展與設計、數學學習心理發展、 數學科展製作與評析、科學教育、環境教育、戶外教學 與活動設計、資訊教育、視聽教育、網路與教學、網路 與測驗、英文故事教學、語文創意思考教學、多元智能 教育、創造力教育、美術鑑賞與教學、多元文化美術教 育、兒童美術行為研究、兒童音樂學習原理、音樂心理 學、音樂教育史、運動教育學、適能教育、動作教育、 遊戲理論與實際、人權教育、教育人類學、鄉土文化教 育、人際關係與溝通、生涯教育、生命教育、性別教育、 多元文化教育、中等教育、青少年心理學 學 科 專 業 與 教 育 教 學實習 教學基本學科課程 至少必修 10 學分 語文領域：國音及說話、寫字、兒童文學、兒童英語、 鄉土語言 數學領域：普通數學 自然與生活科技領域：自然科學概論、生活科技概論 社會領域：社會學習領域概論 藝術與人文領域：音樂、鍵盤樂、表演藝術、美勞、藝 術概論 健康與體育領域：健康與體育、民俗體育 綜合領域：童軍 教育實習 分科教材教法課程 至少 10 學分 教學實習、國語教材教法、英語教材教法、鄉土語文教 材教法、數學教材教法、社會教材教法、自然與生活科 技教材教法、藝術與人文教材教法、健康與體育教材教 法、綜合活動教材教法 （資料來源：國立臺中教育大學 2009 年度課程架構） 214 臺灣國小師資培育學士化重構提案研究── 「多科系學院」取向之國小師資培育 附錄二　教師專業碩士學位學程課程結構一覽表 核心課程 基礎理論類 必修 6 學分 教育基礎理論與應用研究 教育專業專題討論（I） 教育專業專題討論（II） 研究方法類 必修 9 學分 教育研究法 教育行動研究 獨立研究 專業發展與檔案 專精課程 至少選修 12 學分 教學設計與科技研究 班級經營與案例研究 教學策略研究 有效教學觀察技巧 學習評量研究 多元文化教育與教學實務 差異性教學研究 學科課程發展與教學研究 一般選修課程 至少選修 4 學分 特殊需求學生及融合教育實務研究 創造力教學研究 人際關係與溝通研究 當代課程與教學議題研究 課程評鑑研究 （資料來源：http://210.240.193.239/ntcu/mdtp/download/ 教師專業碩士學位學程課程架構 表 .pdf） 215 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 A study on the elements of teachers’ emotional competency 鄭志強 香港教育學院課程與教學學系 摘要 本文旨在研究香港教師情緒技能的內涵，為學校領導提供一個發展教師情緒技能的模型。 本研究參考 Bar-On 的情緒智商量表，將情緒技能概念化為可以培養和發展多元能力，建立 研究模型及問卷，並運用結構方程模型驗證理論模型因子的建構效度。研究員以整群抽樣 形式選取香港 40 所資助中學進行問卷調查，當中成功收回 958 份教師問卷進行驗證研究。 經結構方程模型發現教師情緒技能的因子結構涵蓋解難能力、自我實現、自主能力、壓力 管理、適應能力及人際關係。 關鍵詞 教師情緒技能，情商領導，結構方程模型 Abstract This paper aims to explore teachers’ emotional competency skills for school leaders to develop teachers’ emotional competency. The study adopts Bar-On’s (1997) theoretical framework to conceptualise emotional competency into developable multi-factorial skills, and applies his Emotional Quotient Inventory (1997) for data collection. A structural equation model was applied to confirm the factor structure of the EQ model. Cluster sampling was adopted to collect data from teachers in 40 aided secondary schools in 217 Hong Kong. 958 teachers participated in the questionnaire survey. A six-factor emotional competency model, which consists of problem solving, self-actualization, independent thinking, stress management, adaptability and inter-personal relationship, was explored by using a structural equation model. Keywords teachers’ emotional competency, EQ leadership, structural equation model 甲、引言 社會不斷發展，學校面對的政策措施愈趨複雜，教師所面對的教學工作也愈來愈繁重。 近年的教育改革、校本管理、課程改革及教師專業發展等政策為學校教育帶來了很多挑戰， 更令作為改革執行者的教師承受的壓力愈來愈大。如何協助教師提高情緒技能，協助他們 靈活處理工作壓力，是學校領導當前遇到的問題。若學校領導能協助提升教師的情緒技能， 學校組織的靈活性及適應性也會因而提升，而教學效能也會因而改善。學校領導可以透過 策略管理營造情緒健康校園，以減低員工因工作壓力、衝突和不良競爭產生的負面情緒， 同時亦可強化他們的情緒技能，協助他們發揮專業以獲取更佳的工作成效（McDowelle & Buckner, 2002）。要規劃發展情緒健康校園的策略，首先要了解教師的情緒技能，本研究 希望可以建立一個教師情緒技能內涵的模型，作為學校領導發展情緒健康校園的參考。 情緒技能是個人處理日常生活需求的社會和情感能力（Bar-On, 2006）。情緒技能不僅 影響個人的身心健康及人際關係，同時也影響個人工作成效以至組織效能（Salovey, Hsee & Mayer, 1993）。掌握情緒技能的人能認識、了解和管理自己和他人的情緒，在工作場所 能與別人建立良好的人際關係（Mayer & Salovey, 1997）。協助員工掌控情緒技能有助增 強他們解決衝突的能力（Weisinger, 1998; Lubit, 2004），從而改善社群關係，促進團隊協 作效能，增強他們對組織的歸屬感（Jordan, Ashkanasy & Hartel, 2002）。一個情緒技能高 的人即使在時間壓力和不穩定的環境中，也較容易產生高度的歸屬感。員工歸屬感形成後， 他們的流失率會降低，工作滿意度會提高，對組織的認同亦隨之加深，更會自發形成自我 218 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 約束，產生對組織強烈的責任感。Cherniss（2001）亦指出掌控情緒技能有助提高員工的 責任感和士氣，改善他們的健康，從而提高組織效能。 乙、文獻探討 情緒技能理論的發展至今只有近二十多年歷史，最早的是發表於 1990 年的 Salovey & Mayer 情緒技能理論。Salovey & Mayer（1990）將情緒智慧定義為個體察覺自己與別 人的情緒，進行區別辨識，進而處理並運用情緒訊息來指引自己思考與行動的能力，包含 情緒的評估與表達、情緒的管理及情緒的運用三個層面。他們認為要能達到有效管理自己 及他人的情緒，首先必須懂得辨別情緒、利用情緒輔助思考和了解情緒（Mayer & Cobb, 2000, p.166）。Salovey & Mayer 的模式強調情緒技能是能力而不是性格或偏好的行為方式 （Hedlund & Steinberg, 2000），他們相信情緒技能對於一個人的成功有必然的影響。 Goleman（1995）發行《Emotional Intelligence》一書後，不論在教育界、商界均引起 對情緒技能極大興趣。Goleman 在《Working with Emotional Intelligence》一書提出情緒技 能的定義：情緒技能是指認識自己和別人的情緒，激勵自己，管理自己的情緒及處理關係 中的情緒的能力。Goleman （1998） 把情緒技能歸納為認識自身的情緒、認知他人的情 緒、妥善管理自己的情緒及人際關係的管理。他認為情緒技能是可以透過學習得到的，可 以轉化為應用於工作上的實用技能，也能帶來工作上卓越的表現。 Bar-On 是首位嘗試以科學化方法量度情緒技能的學者，他在博士論文提出情緒技 能多元能力的概念，指出個人情緒會受工作環境影響，掌握情緒技能有助促進工作成效 （Bar-On, 1997）。Bar-On 基於他對精神健康的研究，發展「情緒智商量表」（Emotional Quotient Inventory 或簡稱 EQ-i），將情緒技能量化為情緒商數，即 EQ。這模型指出情 緒技能是個人處理日常生活要求和壓力的能力，為 EQ-i 提供了良好的理論基礎。EQ-i 所 測試的情緒技能包括內省能力、人際技能、壓力管理及適應能力。Chan（2004）則運用 Salovey & Mayer 的模型量度香港中學教師情緒技能的內涵，並確定四個因子包括對自己情 緒的察覺，同理心的敏感性、情緒管理及情緒運用。 219 Salovey & Mayer（1990）、Goleman（1995）及 Bar-On（1997）三個理論模型以不同 層面探討情緒技能，但均認為情緒技能是一種管理自己情緒的多元能力。而Bar-On（1997） 提出情緒技能的多元能力概念較 Salovey & Mayer（1990）及 Goleman（1995）多層面的技 能具體，故本研究採用 Bar-On（1997）的情緒技能多元能力的理論模型，把情緒技能概念 化為解難能力、自我實現、自主能力、壓力管理、適應能力及人際技能。而掌控情緒技能 者有以下的表現： 1. 解難能力：他們能根據客觀的外在線索觀察一個人的情緒和準確估計眼前的情況， 在不斷變化的情況下靈活改變一個人的情感和思想，並解決個人問題。 2. 自我實現：他們對未來有較多的計劃，做出較佳的準備，這有助他們創造新思維， 妥善轉移注意焦點，並能激發動機，達成自我實現。 3. 自主能力：他們能覺察自己內在的情緒感受，並能有效自主地利用情緒，而不被情 緒左右。 4. 壓力管理：他們具備處理激起的情緒的策略，並能因應內外的情緒壓力，維持身心 平衡，應付壓力和控制強烈情緒。 5. 適應能力：他們能在不斷變化的情況下靈活地改變個人的情感和思想。 6. 人際技能：他們能夠意識、了解和理解別人的感受，有效地管理他人情緒，以及與 他人建立和維持相互滿意的關係。 掌控情緒技能者能確認及界定問題，從而提出及實行有效的解決方法，亦能實現個人 潛能，爭取並享受完成自己喜歡的事情的能力。他們擁有獨立思考、自我約束行為及擺脫 情緒影響的能力，能主動正面應付逆境、壓力和緊張的環境。他們更能適切調節個人情緒、 思想及行為，以應付不斷轉變的環境或狀況，並能與其他人建立及維繫良好、親密和互相 關懷的關係。在現今的教育變革下，教師極需要掌握上述的情緒技能。既然學校組織的整 體情緒技能這麼重要，學校領導應設法營造一個情緒健康校園，讓教師在人本管理下發揮 其教學專業，實踐教育改革的精神。 要按上述情緒技能的內涵營造一個情緒健康校園，讓教師發揮情緒技能，學校領導可 以透過策略管理，減低教師的壓力（Ali Eissa & Khalifa, 2008）。策略管理涉及教與學、 人事、資源和外在環境的不同管理職能範疇，並需考慮學校組織的願景來規劃（Weindling, 220 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 1997）。有效運用策略管理以建立情緒健康校園，不但可以協助提高教師的情緒技能，還 可使學校更有效運用資源，以回應外在政策環境對教學工作的要求，促進學校組織的長遠 發展（James & Phillips, 1995）。學校領導者可從制定對應的學校政策，培植文化及個人領 導模式等協助教師發展情緒技能，建立情緒健康校園。 學校領導需要釐清政策措施的精神和教育環境的實況，方能對症下藥施行校本政策， 建立健康的工作文化，協作教師提高情緒技能處理壓力。例如校本管理政策強調權力下放， 讓教師參與決策，領導者則需要賦權教師，讓他們獨立自主工作（Cheng, 2008）。課程改 革提出了新的教學內容，當中涉及很多教學技術問題，學校領導倡導教學專業自主文化， 讓教師運用解難能力發展適切的教學法。此外，教師愈來愈需要在學習社羣下交流教學知 識，進行專業發展活動，因此，對教師而言，掌握人際關係技巧非常重要。本研究的理論 模型採用 Bar-On 的教師情緒技能理論，把教師情緒技能概念化為多元能力，當中包括自主 性、壓力承受、同儕關係、解難能力、適應力及自我實現。確立這多元的情緒技能架構將 有助學校領導針對不同方面施行策略管理。 丙、研究方法 本研究採用量化問卷調查法收集數據。情緒技能既然是一種能力，最適當的量度方法 是能力測試，形式與量度智力的智力測驗相似（Mayer, Salyovey & Caruso, 2002）。本研 究基於 Bar-On 設計的「情緒智商量表」，發展了一套工具用以測量教師情緒技能。 一、 研究工具 問卷共 13 項問題，分別測量工作壓力、獨立自主、人際關係、解難能力、靈活性和自 我實現。量表的內容是建基於 Bar-On 設計「情緒智商量表」而發展的。問卷以六分量表測 量受訪者對各項陳述的同意程度，範圍從 1（非常不同意）到 6（非常同意），而研究假定 這量表的區間尺度之間的程度是同等距的。 二、 研究取樣 本研究的對象是香港資助中學教師。香港共有 473 所中學，其中 90% 是資助學校，5% 221 是官立學校，剩下的 5% 是直資學校。這些學校都按照《教育條例》和《教育規例》受教 育局監管。本研究只選擇資助中學，因為它們是構成香港中學主要部分的同質性組群。受 訪教師從 40 所樣本資助中學（約佔資助中學學校總數的 5%）中抽取。因為整體受訪者數 量龐大並散佈在整個香港地域，樣本學校是通過整群抽樣選擇。組內的方差和組內變數之 間的差異越小，整群抽樣與分層抽樣相比就越好。一所學校是一個集群，集群的數量要與 所需樣本大小相等。每一樣本學校約有 50 名教師，當中再隨機抽取 30 名教師表示該群體。 這 40 所樣本學校是根據所在地區學校總數按照一定的比例取樣。從新界抽取了 20 所學校， 從九龍抽取了 10 所學校，從香港島抽取了其餘的 10 所學校。在這 40 所學校裡隨機抽取了 1,200 名教師，其中 958 人回覆了問卷。 三、 數據收集和分析 本研究以 Bar-On（1997）設計的量化問卷收集香港中學教師對上述變項的觀感。透過 他設計的「情緒智商量表」，將情緒技能量化為情緒商數。研究員使用 Lisrel 8.3 的軟件程 式，就所收集的數據檢測其因子結構和權重系數，藉以建立一個結構方程模型（Joreskog & Sorbom, 1999）。結構方程模型是一組統計技術，能夠檢測因子結構及變項之間的關係。 丁、研究結果 一、結構方程模型 以最大似然法完全標準化的結構和測量系數見圖一，各項指標的優度擬合指數見表 一。根據 Z 檢驗，模型中路徑系數在 0.05 水準上顯著。假設模型資料擬合良好。採用 LISREL 對 958 個被試分析的結果表明，全模型的卡方值不顯著，樣本為 958，χ2(52)= 56.20, p= 0.32。作為絕對擬合指數，卡方估計樣本協方差矩陣和基於假設模型的協方差矩 陣之間的差異。卡方值不顯著表明該模型資料可能具有較好的代表性。然而，運用卡方檢 驗進行估計受樣本大小的影響。當樣本較大時，樣本協方差矩陣和再生協方差之間即使差 異較小，也是顯著的。 相對擬合指數和基於殘差的指數是另外兩種類型的擬合指數，被廣泛用來補充卡方 估計。相對擬合指數包括比較擬合指數（CFI）、非範擬合指數（NNFI）、增值擬合指數 222 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 （IFI）。這些擬合指數通過比較假設模型和基準模型來衡量模型的擬合改進程度。基準模 型是一個獨立模型，其中所有的變數被假設為彼此不相關。這些指數的範圍在 0-1 之間， 值越大意味著模型擬合越好，它們至少大於 0.9 表明模型擬合較好。本研究中的相對擬合 指數是CFI = 1.00、NNFI = 1.00、IFI = 0.98。這一結果表明，樣本資料和假設模型擬合良好。 除了相對擬合指數外，也會用到基於殘差的指數。標準化殘差均方根衡量觀測變數和 潛變數協方差矩陣之間所有標準化殘差的均值。近似均方根誤差（RMSEA）估量由於模型 的誤定規格下沒有配置及定對自由度的差異提供測量（Browne & Cudeck, 1993），SRMR 的取值範圍是 0-1，RMSEA 沒有上限，值越小表明模型擬合越好，SRMR 小於或等於 0.08， RMSEA 小於或等於 0.06 表明模型擬合良好（Hu & Bentler, 1999）。在本研究中，SRMR = 0.019，而 RMSEA = 0.0092，這是一個非常嚴謹的模型，其中所有測量誤差之間的相關 都未釋放，那些擬合統計指數表明模型與資料擬合良好。表二顯示各因子的信度系數。所 有因子的信度系數均高於 0.6，反映問卷的設計具備信度。 圖一 結構模型的結果 情緒技能 解難能力 自我實現 自主能力 壓力管理 適應能力 人際關係 0.51 0.42 我嘗試盡量想出不同方法以應付突發事件。 我不會逃避面對的問題。 我以循序漸進的方式去解決問題。 我清楚我想在我的生命中做些什麼。 我知道如何發揮我自己的長處。 當我和別人一同工作，我有自己的主意。 我較為獨立工作。 我能處理困擾的問題。 我能夠應付惡劣的環境。 要改變對事物的看法是很容易的。 在日常生活中作出調適是容易的。 佔他人便宜會令我感到煩擾。 我認為遵守學校的現則是重要的。 0.48 0.52 0.450.78 0.88 0.72 0.82 0.55 0.62 0.77 0.67 0.76 0.98 0.62 0.63 0.71 0.94 223 表一 結構方程模型的擬合度指數 χ2 df p-value RMSEA SRMR CFI NNFI IFI 56.19 52 0.32093 0.0092 0.019 1.00 1.00 0.98 表二 各因子的信度系數 解難能力 自我實現 自主能力 壓力管理 適應能力 人際關係 信度系數 0.64 0.63 0.73 0.74 0.71 0.73 二、分析和討論 從上述的數據分析顯示，教師的情緒技能涵概解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力 管理、適應能力及人際關係。教師需要運用解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、 適應能力及人際關係的情緒技能應付每一天的教學工作。 解難能力是結構模型的第一個因子，它是確認及界定問題，從而提出及實行有效解決 方法的能力。掌握解難能力者會尋求解決問題的協作方案，不會傾向選擇迴避策略（Jordan & Troth, 2002）。教師每天會遇上各樣教學上的難題，例如有效處理日益嚴重的學習差異， 照顧有特殊學習需要的學生，改善學生無心向學及行為問題，聯絡家長商議有效管教子女 的方案等問題。若這些難題過多而又不能解決，教師很容易被情緒困擾，而採取迴避策略， 抽離於問題之外。掌控解難能力的教師能釐清所面對教學問題的本質，較能對症下藥解決 問題，不會被問題困擾而影響工作。故此，解難能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 自我實現是結構模型的第二個因子，它是實現個人潛能，爭取及享受完成自己喜歡事 情的能力（Mayer & Salovery, 1997）。掌握這種能力者能通過調動和指揮個人情緒來自 我激勵，令人生變得樂觀。在強調追求考試成績的教育制度下，學生個人成長的培育容易 被忽略，沒有毅力實現自己教學理念的教師很難享受在教學工作上喜悅。具備自我實現潛 能的教師則會清楚自己對教學和學生的要求，他們理解每個學生都是獨一無二的，不是每 個學生都能取得高分。他們在追求考試成績的框架下能做出較佳的心理準備來發展學生潛 能，當學生有進步了，教師會感到自己的工作是有意義和愉快的，產生滿足感。故此，自 我實現是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 224 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 自主能力是結構模型的第三個因子，它是個人獨立思考及擺脫情緒影響的能力。掌 握自主能力者能覺察自己內在的情緒感受，並能有效自主地利用情緒，而不被情緒左右 （Goleman, 1995）。教學工作的本質是專業的，涉及對教學情境的獨立思考及判斷，例如 處理不同學習風格及能力的學生的學習，在不同教學情境下施教的處理方式。教師需要運 用專業判斷及獨立思考落實新課程內容的教學，並了解面對不確定性所產生的憂慮情緒是 必然的，從而不會懼怕惶恐，亦不被情緒左右教學决定。故此，自主能力是教師情緒技能 的其中一個核心能力。 壓力管理是結構模型的第四個因子，它指主動及正面應付逆境、壓力和緊張環境的能 力（Jordan & Torth, 2002）。掌握這種能力者能處理困擾的問題及應付惡劣的環境。在不 斷追求質素的教育改革下，學校的改進工作持續不斷，教師的工作性質亦變得複雜，他們 所充積的怨氣和壓力亦增大，很容易被工作問題困擾。教師要在不斷變化的情況下靈活地 改變個人的情感和思想，方能以先後緩急處理問題及安排工作。掌握壓力管理技能者具備 處理激起的情緒的策略，能因應內外的情緒壓力，維持身心平衡，應付壓力和控制強烈情 緒。故此，壓力管理是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 適應能力是結構模型的第五個因子，它指適切調節個人情緒、思想及行為以應付不斷 轉變的環境或狀況的能力（Bar-On, 1997）。掌握適應能力者能容易改變對事物的看法， 並容易在日常生活中調適。新課程內容的廣度和深度都較舊課程大，加上學生的個別差異 較過往更大，面對這樣新的工作挑戰，欠缺適應能力的教師面對新課程的轉變，或會出現 較負面的情緒，而影響到日常的教學工作。掌握適應能力的教師能調節個人的情緒和行為， 以積極態度及新的工作模式，例如教學研究掌握新課程的內容和要求，並了解學生的學習 難點，用以施教。故此，適應能力是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力。 人際關係是結構模型的第六個因子，它指與別人建立及維繫良好、親密和互相關懷的 關係的能力（Abraham, 2005）。掌握這種能力者能有效管理他人的情緒，設身處地為他人 著想。在新課程的轉變下，學校越來越多跨科協作學習活動，不同科目的老師需要協作以 設計校本課程。良好的人際關係有利於教師溝通協作，減少衝突和壓力。掌握人際技能的 教師能了解他人的工作和體諒對方的難處，會以協商和溝通來開展工作。可見，人際技能 225 是教師情緒技能的其中一個核心能力（Lopes, Salovery, Cote & Beers, 2005）。 學校領導必須了解情緒技能對教育工作的影響，並作出適當的鼓勵，誘發教師的工作 動機，促使他們在教學工作中實現自我，身體力行提升自身的個人智能。領導者必須樂於 聆聽員工的意見，並負責輔導工作，以紓緩員工的個人壓力。教育領導除了管理學校預算 和課程發展事宜外，還要處理教師問題。領導者也應鼓勵員工用新的方式思考自己的工作， 或對新標準和新目標作出承擔。從各種角度考慮，領導者都應理解改革過程中員工的情緒， 理解之後才可能站在員工的角度思考問題，耐心對待他們，幫助他們度過轉變期。如果領 導者沒有預期這種情緒化的反饋，會認為員工很難相處或不合作，甚至可能為避免聽到更 多抱怨而停止傾聽。如果他們這樣想，轉變就會停止，改革成功更無從談起（McDowelle & Buckner, 2002）。 戊、總結 本研究以 Bar-On 的情緒技能理論作為討論基礎，透過實證數據確立了六項情緒技能， 包括解難能力、自我實現、獨立自主、壓力管理、適應能力及人際關係。學校領導需要釐 清教育政策措施的精神和學校組織環境的實況，才能對症下藥施行校本政策，建立健康的 工作文化，協助教師提高情緒技能處理壓力。有效運用管理策略以建立情緒健康校園，不 但可以協助提高教師的情緒技能，還可使學校更有效運用資源以回應外在政策環境對教學 工作的要求，促進學校組織的長遠發展（James & Phillips, 1995）。研究者可考慮就這些管 理策略對促進上述六項情緒技能的成效進行研究，藉此建立一個情緒健康的校園，發展高 情緒技能的教師團隊，並且更有效面對教育改革方案帶來的挑戰。 226 香港教師情緒技能的內涵研究 參考文獻 Abraham, R. 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San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 228 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 11 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2012 優化學校行政的行動學習 An experience of a school using action learning as a strategy to enhance school administration 胡少偉 香港初等教育研究學會 徐國棟 香港教育學院 曹潔芬 香港教育學院賽馬會小學 摘要 在推行教育改革的環境中，學校改善是一個經常被討論的課題；本文旨在分享一所學校優 化行政的歷程。這所學校因應「外評報告」的建議，制定了提昇中層人員為發展策略之一； 該校透過參與香港初等教育研究學會主辦的「優化小學學校行政」計劃，引入專業支援，進 行適切的校本培訓及以行動學習方法去檢視學校的行政和溝通。小組同工在過程中以改善 校務的學習心態，提高了對學校的歸屬感和得到專業成長。本文以敘事方式去回顧這個行 動學習的經歷，並透過整理相關文獻、計劃資料和深度訪談，讓讀者了解個案的實踐知識。 關鍵詞 香港小學教育，行動學習，學校改善 229 Abstract School improvement is one of the heated themes frequently discussed in the current educational reform context. This paper shares the experience of a school using action learning as a strategy to enhance school administration. Based on the recommendations stated in the External School Review report, this primary school decided to strengthen the capacity of its middle-management as one of the school development strategies. In order to bring in professional support and expertise, the school joined the “Enhancing the school administration of primary school” organized by the HKPERA. It provided the school participants with relevant school-based training to conduct an action learning project on reviewing the school administration and communication. The school participants were eager to learn throughout the action learning process. Upon the completion of this project, the school participants gained improvements in both professional growth and a sense of belonging. This paper used the narrative inquiry approach in reviewing the experience and knowledge gathered by the school practising the action learning project. Keywords Hong Kong primary school, action learning, school improvement 個案學校的背景 在全球一體化的情況下，各地都不約而同推行教育改革以提昇學校教育質素，從而促 進學生的成長和發展；在這個教育變革的大環境中，學校的發展和改善是落實教育改革中 一個經常被討論和分析的環節。在本土學校發展與改善的文獻中，李榮安、麥肖玲（2005） 曾指出「校本改革，不論是內容或過程，都很複雜，包括面對起動的困難、千絲萬縷的人 事互動及資源的制肘等，一經理論化或以簡圖代表，便容易流於空論，以致失去其應有的 意義。實踐的質素是優是劣，成效如何，關鍵在於當事人的不言而喻的知識及當時的取 捨」。這說明了校本需要是學校發展的關鍵因素；故此，一所學校若要在教育改革中得到 更好的發展，校內同工便要先分析學校情境，思考發展策略，再落實改善措施。 230 優化學校行政的行動學習 香港教育學院賽馬會小學於 2002 年 9 月成立，是全港第一所附設於高等院校的全日制 資助小學，本著「共享學教喜悅，盡展赤子潛能」的理念，促進師生的發展和成長。學校 至 2006 學年時，只有三位主任負責大部份的學校行政工作；在這情況下，雖然該校校長已 把一些行政工作交由有潛質的教師分擔，但中層管理架構發展仍未成熟。故教育統籌局質 素保證分部於 2007 年度的該校外評報告中，建議該校要：「加速培訓中層管理人員，強化 中層管理架構，並認為這是值得學校優先發展的」。學校於 2008 年開始向外招聘具中層經 驗同工加入管理團隊，並明確指出學校發展策略是提昇中層人員的能力；可見，該校領導 層在當時是知悉校內中層人員能力有待提高的需要。正如資深校長甘艷梅（2005）指出： 在教育改革中「學校不應被牽著鼻子走，校長應認識環境轉變，考慮校本以配合改革，不 斷反思，為學校改革定下優先次序」；看來，該校制定提昇中層人員為發展策略之一是合 乎校情的。 「在推展各項教育改革的同時，教育局及不少機構均設立支援項目，在各學科、單項 層面支援學校，如語文科、通識教育科、校長領導、同儕參與、校外評核等，給予學校外 來動力及資源，紓緩各改革項目所帶來的壓力，協助學校發展工作」（趙志成、麥君榮， 2011，頁 43）。香港初等教育研究學會作為一個教師專業團體，於 2009-2010 年得到優質 教育基金撥款，主辦「優化小學的學校行政」計劃，分兩期向 17 間小學提供專業支援；香 港教育學院賽馬會小學是該計劃第二期的其中一所參與小學。該校同工經商討後決定參加 這個計劃，目的是透過引入校外專業支援，促進校內中層人員管理能力的提昇和優化學校 行政架構。為了分享這個優化學校行政的個案經驗，筆者三人以敘事形式來回顧這個行動 學習的經歷。正如學者指出，這種「分享故事幫助教師以新的方式認識自己的經歷；因為 在分享的時候，教師必須對發生了什麼有所理解」（張濤譯，2007，頁 176）。筆者三人 冀透過整理相關文獻、計劃資料和深度訪談，可讓讀者了解這個行動學習個案的實踐知識。 引入外界資源促進學校發展 在香港，近年有不少學者就大學支援學校發展的專業活動寫成學術文章，其中梁歆、 黃顯華（2010，頁 122）指出「學校改進的最終目的就是，當外部的支援人員撤離學校 後，學校仍舊能夠利用自身的力量進行持續變革」。與此同時，張素貞、吳俊憲（2012， 231 頁 25）的研究則發現「轉型團隊要持續發展，光是依靠校內原有的教學資源是不夠的，一 方面有新進教師的加入可以注入新血，另方面則需要與大學教授建立專業夥伴合作關係。 這是因為大學教授可以提供專業和理論建議，幫助教師拉近理論與實務的鴻溝」。上述這 兩篇文章肯定了大學學者與前線學校人員的合作，可有效地促進學校發展和教師的專業成 長。這個「優化小學的學校行政」計劃，由香港初等教育研究學會內的師訓學者和資深校 長合作，為參與計劃的小學提供多樣化的專業培訓服務，支援前線教師面對急劇轉變的教 育環境，進行適切的情境分析再去優化學校的行政工作。 表一 架構重整與中層人員職責的培訓課程 日期 課題 主講 1 月 9 日 中層人員的角色與成長 香港教育學院教育政策與領導學系 余煊博士 聖公會油塘基顯小學 李少鶴校長 1 月 16 日 重整學校架構的功能 香港教育學院國際教育與終身學習學系 胡少偉博士 李志達紀念學校 胡鳳群校長 香港教育學院賽馬會小學是這個計劃第二期參與學校之一，是期的系統培訓課程主題 為「架構重整與中層人員職責」，於 2010 年舉行的課題內容和安排見上表一；期間，該 校校長帶領課程發展主任及四位中層人員一同參與相關培訓，對中層人員成長和學校架構 重整的相關理論和實踐經驗都有一個共同的學習。而為了深入了解參與計劃學校的校本需 要，計劃籌委會派出專家於 2009 年 11月 24 日到訪學校，與參與計劃的學員進行校本診斷， 共同設計兩個培訓課題和行動學習的題目；商議後，該校確定行動學習是設計一個適合校 情的行政架構，以提升學校的行政效能。同時，雙方並確定第一個校本培訓的主題為「專 業發展與學校發展」，讓全校教師可一起思考和討論學校情境和了解教師專業發展與學校 發展的關係；第二個培訓對象則針對中層人員，以「團隊領導」為題，讓校內中層人員反 思團隊領袖的角色與掌握中層人員的技巧。與此同時，參與計劃的幾位學校同工亦於 2010 232 優化學校行政的行動學習 年 3 月及 4 月參觀計劃籌委會安排的兩所小學，以了解友校優化學校行政架構的經驗。 校本培訓的學習 內地學者張爽（2006）指出「在以往的教育改革過程中，學校往往是改革的對象，由 政府提出目標和要求自上而下地進行調整與改革，忽視學校的傳統、現實情況及具體存在 的問題」；參考了相關學者的建議，香港初等教育研究學會的校本培訓重視全校同工的參 與，該校教師參與於 4 月舉行校本培訓，主題是分析學校情境，內容包括全校教師共同評 估學校的優勢、弱點、機會及威脅；通過校本教師工作坊，校內大部份教師對學校發展方 向形成一致的看法。這體現了教育局質素保證分部（2010）的觀察，「大部份學校採用集 體議事方式，能夠安排會議讓教師及專責人員等檢討校情，商議關注事項措施」（頁 4）。 再者，該校很多同工在培訓中分享了自己對學校的觀感，並認同學校有檢討行政架構的需 要；這有利於學校推展優化學校行政的行動學習。 「在這個校本管理和民主化的年代，在世界各地包括香港皆有迫切需要，去讓校長 及準領袖反思有關課程領導與管理的方法，尤其是去鼓勵同工有更強的團隊精神」（Lee, Dimmock & Au Yeung, 2009, p.25）。因應國際校本管理和課程發展的趨勢，提昇中層對建 立團隊的認識和領導力的培育，逐漸被香港小學管理層的關注。在校本中層人員培訓中， 培訓者聚焦於讓中層人員明白團隊發展的階段和認識不同角色在團隊的重要性。正如學者 余煊（2010，頁 39）指出「團隊是由幾位到十幾位獨立的個人而組成，要凝聚這批人成為 一個團隊，首先要有一個清晰的共同目標；而為了有效達成這個團隊的目標，過程中成員 需互相溝通、承擔和付出，以爭取團隊所期望的較大成果」。透過這個校本「團隊領導」 的培訓，該校的中層人員得到充份的溝通和互相理解，從而增強了帶領團隊的信心和對學 校的凝聚力。受訓中層在評估中寫下了自己的學習成果： - 知道自己在團隊中的角色及有效的領導方法； - 加深自己對團隊領導的了解，及有助自己面對挑戰； - 啟發「衝突」在團隊的作用； - 提高了於監管方面的意識。 233 優化溝通和清晰架構 聖公會油塘基顯小學李少鶴校長與我們分享重整學校行政架構的經驗，學校 因應學校環境的變遷及教育改革曾進行了五次重整學校行政架構，並為我們說明 每次重整學校行政架構的誘因及模式。參與是次友校參觀及交流，讓我有機會體 驗重整學校行政架構的需要、認識重整學校架構的不同方法及模式、評估重整學 校架構時可能遇到的阻力及可行的應變方法。 （甲同工於友校參觀後的分享） 因應香港小學學位教師職系的建立，大部份小學在過去十多年來都有新增的中層人員； 有些小學只安排晉升中層人員負責新增的學校工作，有些學校則因應校情不時檢視和重組 學校行政架構。正如學者高洪源（2007）分析「對學校裡常規組織和基層組織的戰略管理 包括兩種情況，一種是從學校戰略規則的任務變更和流程重組出發，改變學校常規組織結 構。另一種是不改變原有組織結構，大力調整常規組織簡單、被動的執行職能，通過制度 和任務的局部變化強化戰略職能」（頁 154）。藉這個優化學校行政的行動學習，該校行 動學習小組一起檢視當時的學校行政架構，並逐一檢視各中層人員的職責。上述一段分享 則是該校同工在參觀友校的分享，從這段分享內看到同工理解到重整學校架構的必要性。 在這個「優化學校行政」行動學習過程中，該校行動學習小組成員在全面檢視當年行政架 構後，提出要將文化教育藝術組從非學術範疇編入課程發展組之內，這安排有利各科以滲 透模式去提供文化藝術，讓學生在學科和課外活動中皆可接觸到文化藝術的教育；其餘各 組的職能雖然沒有大的變動，但在檢討行政架構的過程，各小組負責人可了解同工對自己 領導科組的期望和確認校內各組的分工，這有助校內中層團隊的協作。 「大多數績效改進計劃都伴隨在結構和系統方面的重大變革。在這些公司的經驗中有 一個共同的主題，這就是強調跨職能的工作團隊；這些團隊的跨職能性有助於增加過程意 識和對於變革活動的主人翁精神」（Dutta, S. & Manzoni, J. F. 著，焦叔斌等譯，2001，頁 9）。在這次學校行政架構的檢視中，校內訊息溝通的流動性亦是行動學習小組的一個焦點； 正如該校向籌委會提交的行動學習報告內指出，校內不少同工認為「只有由上而下又或者 由下而上，都未能全面照顧全體老師的需要；校內縱向及橫向的溝通必須互動的」（曹潔 234 優化學校行政的行動學習 芬等，2012，頁 12）。因應同工要求學校要全方位溝通，該校即時加強有助橫向溝通的級 本會議。為了進一步驗證學校資料，研究員在閱覽該校的行動學習報告後，再與負責同工 進行了聚焦訪談，以三角檢定方法去核實該校報告所述的成效。期間雖然事隔多時，該負 責同工仍記憶猶新地指出當時很多基層教師均認同加強級會的安排；級本會議每月舉行一 次，由該級幾位班主任、所有相關科任和級主任組成。負責同工下文的分享證明了重視級 會的安排，加速了各級教師團隊對優化教學的決策；而級會也可使各成員了解級內各班學 生的概況，如遇個別學生在家庭背景或學習有異常者，也可藉這個級會讓相關教師掌握最 新和準確的資訊。 當級會與班主任一起談時，其實級主任更加清晰每一班的情況。例如我們推行 ，原來同一班內不同科的老師在推行小班的一些口號或有不同，經過級會 幾位主任確實同樣的口號後，對學生的適應較好。如果我們沒有這級會的話，就 會未能找出問題，改善就一定會較慢。 （負責同工聚焦訪談的分享） 學校變革與中層人員成長 很多學者指出，組織或機構的體制轉型中，最深層的變革是要達至人的改變或人 的價值觀的改變，制度的變革若缺乏了人的變革是不能持久的。教師是教育改革 的關鍵人物，任何教育改革最終都要依靠教師才能得以施行。 （乙同工在參與計劃期間的讀後感） 該校行動學習小組在報告內指出「對於任何改變，我們大都喜歡抱着盡量維持現狀的 態度，要使全校老師對着改變能抱有正面的態度也不是容易，欠缺安全感的心理包伏和不 穩定的未來挑戰等，使大家帶着戰戰競競的心情去面對重整架構」（曹潔芬等，2012，頁 12）。這段分享充份體現了小組成員理解基礎同工面對變革的憂慮；而這次行動學習成功 的因素之一，是在檢討行政架構中明確為學校來年的架構提供一個優化方案。正如張練成 （2008，頁 68）指出「當我們能把注意力放在變革為我們帶來新的機會上時，再集中注意 到我們可做的事時，我們便比較容易產生正面的自語，這有助我們去集中思索我們能夠做 235 的事」。而正如上文該校行動學習的一位成員，在香港初等教育研究學會安排的友校參觀 後，深深地理解到同工價值改變是最重要的；在這個學校變革的過程中，該校行動學習小 組關顧基層教師的心理需要，使大部份教師明白要共同面對變革的，並樂於接受和支持新 學期行政架構的變動。 是次優化學校行政的行動學習歷程中，其中一個成果是該校中層人員的成長。下文是 負責同工回顧經驗淺的中層人員在培訓中得到成長。透過共同參與工作坊的學習，該校中 層更深入地了解自己的角色和領導團隊的技巧，過程中亦了解到跨科組溝通的重要性；在 檢討和建立新的行政架構的過程中，提高了彼此之間的互信和合作，從而增強了學校中層 的歸屬感和協作精神。台灣學者蔡進雄（2011，頁 74）曾指出「分散式領導認為領導應該 是分散給每一個人，並非單一領導者的概念」；校內中層人員對自己作為一個領導者的覺 醒，使他們在不知不覺間承擔了一個團隊領導的職責，讓學校也成為了一個分散式領導的 團隊。 有時對於自己是否中層，有個別同事會有點混亂及不太肯定，透過這類的工作 坊，是讓中層知道自己的角色，從而令到對自己的責任釐清。在工作坊亦提及到 中層應該做那方面工作、怎樣監察，能讓同事知道這對工作會更順暢。 （負責同工聚焦訪談的分享） 行動學習的反思與啟示 「學校組織再造是指對學校教育過程的徹底再思考，及根本性巨幅再設計以促成學校 績效的巨大改善」（洪祥編著，2005，頁 124）。相對這個定義，香港教育學院賽馬會小 學在 2010 年所進行的「優化學校行政的行動學習」，並沒有產生一個巨幅變動的行政架 構，而只是一個小修改的新行政架構；正如學者所言這個行動學習是一個「以鼓勵實務工 作者探究自己的工作實務和分享結果與心得為宗旨的研究工作，這研究工作的目的是想協 助人們感覺自己的實務工作，和對自己的學習歷程負責」（McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. 著， 朱仲謀譯，2004，頁 68）。該校同工為了提高中層人員的能力參與外間專業計劃，除了系 統課程和校本培訓之外，亦有透過友校參觀和行動學習去提高中層人員的能力；在過程中 236 優化學校行政的行動學習 使校內同工亦增加了中層人員領導力的認知及提出了一個優化學校行政的建議。正如其中 一位負責同工所分享參與這個計劃縮短了新舊中層人員的磨合，集結了推動學校發展的能 量，從而得到一個不俗的學習成果。 如不參與此計劃或校長沒有提議我們去參與的話，可能主任之間確實需要一個磨 合期；參與了這計劃，加速了整個行政會的凝聚，因為要完成行動學習，集結所 有的能量，希望處理得好，並延伸至下一年。 （負責同工聚焦訪談的分享） 不少相關文獻顯示校本發展計劃會遇上一些困難和問題，香港教育學院賽馬會小學這 個「重整架構提昇學校效能」計劃也遇上不少的困難，正如該校行動學習小組在其報告 《2009-1010 年度「優化小學的學校行政」計劃》內，提及在行動學習過程中小組曾面對 的困難包括：團隊建立、匯聚人才、轉變溝通模式、調節面對改變的心理和提昇反思能力 等。而在前膽計劃的預期困難時，該校行動學習小組報告內指出未來的監察工作是不容忽 視的（見下文）；當中，並提出這是對中層人員有一定的專業要求。也就是說，假若沒有 中層人員在來年監察能力的提高，新的行政和溝通架構未必可以對學校發展產生應有的成 效。而從這段行動學習的預估中，可看到這個小組是掌握從行動中學習及在反思中規劃未 來行動的能力。 要使新的行政和溝通架構順利運作，監察的エ作是不容忽視的，中層老師的角色 起着非常重要的作用，他們一方面了解前線老師的推行情況，另一方面要監察新 架構的實施，這對中層老師有一定的專業要求。 （曹潔芬等，2011，頁 13） Fischer & Hamer（2010，頁 16）總結學校改革計劃時指出「當教師和行政人員能以一 個成熟的合作者參與訂定自己專業發展計劃時，學校便有教育質素、持續重整和改革努力 的產生」。從上文顯示，這個行動學習個案能促進該校中層人員重視自己專業的成長；「透 過行動研究的學習，中層人員可反思自己選擇課題的行動過程及其所產生的實踐智慧」（胡 少偉、余煊、陳湛明，2010，頁 35）。這個個案有成功之處，其經驗可歸納為一所學校要 237 得到改善，便要作一個適切的校情分析，檢視現有行政架構，看一看學校的溝通可否有改 善之處；而在這個校本變革的過程中，因引入適切的外力，使同工抱著以改善校務的學習 心態，在透過校本培訓和行動學習去檢討學校行政架構。在這個案中，新的行政架構雖然 變動不大，但過程中中層人員提高了學校的歸屬感和得到專業的成長，故值得關注學校發 展的前線同工參考。最後，由於這篇行動學習分享文章是以說故事形式撰寫，行文手法與 一般學術文章的習慣不同，焦點也不在於應用相關學理，而是向讀者介紹個案的經驗；再 者，因幾位合著者包括了來自培訓計劃和學校同工，故當中存有一定的主觀性，讀者參考 此文時亦要注意相關的限制。 參考文獻 甘艷梅（2005）。〈從創造條件到效果評估：改革實踐的全盤考慮〉。載李榮安、麥肖玲、 黃炳文（編），《香港校本改革──前線的探索》（頁 95-110）。香港，教育出版社 有限公司。 余煊（2010）。〈建立團隊與團隊領導〉。載胡少偉、余煊（編），《小學中層人員學習指 引》（頁 38-45）。香港：香港初等教育研究學會。 李榮安、麥肖玲（2005）。〈香港校本改革的建構：前線的智慧〉。載李榮安、麥肖玲和黃 炳文（編），《香港校本改革：前線的探索》（頁 1-13）。香港，教育出版社有限公司。 洪祥編著（2005）。《教育行政》。台北：鼎茂圖書出版股份有限公司。 胡少偉、余煊、陳湛明（2010）。〈培訓中層人員領導的一個經驗〉。《優質學校教育學報》， 第 6 卷，31-39。 高洪源（2007）。《學校戰略管理》。重慶：重慶大學出版社。 張素貞、吳俊憲（2012）。〈大學與學校專業夥伴合作之個案研究──以專業學習社群為焦 點〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》，第 8 卷 1 期，1-30。 張爽（2006）。〈重新認識學校、推進學校改進〉。《中國教育學刊》，第 8 卷，22-24。 張練成（2008）。〈淺談變革管理〉。載余煊（編），《學校的領導與變革：中層人員的挑 戰》（頁 62-74）。香港：中華基督教會香港區會。 教育局質素保證分部（2010）。《視學周年報告 2009/10》。2012 年 5 月 8 日，取自 http:// www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_756/qa_annual_report0910_c.pdf。 曹潔芬等（2011）。〈重整架構提升學校效能〉。載《2009-2010年度「優化小學的學校行政」 計劃》。香港：香港教育學院賽馬會小學。 238 優化學校行政的行動學習 梁歆、黃顯華（2010）。〈大學與學校協作下學校發展主任的理念、策略與角色：香港優質 學校改進計劃的個案研究〉。《教育研究集刊》，第 1 卷 56 期，99-126。 趙志成、麥君榮（2011）。〈「優質學校改進計劃」在香港教育改革下的作用：學校領導的 視角〉。《教育學報》，第 39 卷 1-2 期，39-65。 蔡進雄（2011）。〈論分散式領導在學校領導的實踐與省思〉。《教育研究月刊》，第 2 卷， 64-76。 Dutta, S. & Manzoni, J. F. (2009)。《工商管理經典譯叢．管理案例系統　過程再造、組織變 革與績效改進》，焦叔斌等（譯）。北京：中國人民大學出版社。 Fischer, J. & Hamer, L. (2010): Professional Development and School Restructuring: Mutual Processes of Reform. Middle School Journal, (41), 12-17. Jalonge, M. R., & Iseaberg, J. P. (2007)。《是什麼讓教師不斷進步──教師故事啟示錄》，張 濤（譯）。北京：中國青年出版社。 Lee, J. C. K., Dimmock, C., & Au Yeung, T. Y. (2009). Who really leads and manages the curriculum in primary schools? A Hong Kong case-study. The Curriculum Journal, (1), 3-26. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2004)。《行動研究：原理與實作》，朱仲謀（譯）。台北：五南 圖書出版股份有限公司。 Park, V., & Datnow, A. (2008). Collaborative Assistance in a Highly Prescribed School Reform Model: The Case of Success for All. Peabody Journal of Education, (83), 400-422. 239 徵集論文 我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括： • 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創意教學 • 家長教育 • 校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導 • 校本管理 • 學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢 • 學生培訓 • 教育改革評議 • 比較教育 • 高等教育 • 幼兒教育 • 特殊教育 • 美術教育 • 音樂教育 • 教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: • Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation • Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy • Creative teaching • Parent education • School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring • School-based management • Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling • Student development • Critique on education reform • Comparative education • Higher education • Early childhood education • Special education • Fine arts education • Music education • History of education 稿 例（修訂於 2012 年 12 月） (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在 A4 紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵） 請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者，作者應保留一份原稿，以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附中、英文題目，中、英文摘要（中文以 200 字為限，英文則約 150 字），以及中、英文關 鍵詞 3 至 5 個。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍予 修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2006 年，第 6 版）指引。中文格 式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。稿件及有關通訊請送交：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍 塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室香港教師中心《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。（電郵： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk） (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2012) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Language can be in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 3,500 to 7,000 words. 3. All articles should be accompanied with an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (around 150 words), a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words) and 3 to 5 keywords in English and Chinese. 4. All submissions will go through the anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the articles submitted. Once the final version of the articles has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadline for submission of articles is January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this Journal shall not be submitted to another journals for review or publication. 徵募審稿員 我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工，請以 電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（2565 0741）提交下列資料，以供聯絡。如有任何查詢， 歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。 姓名： 任職學校／機構： 聯絡電話： 電郵地址： 興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: （博士／先生／女士） (Dr / Mr / Ms)
Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 12 2013)
Category: DocumentsDocuments IconC M Y CM MY CY CMY K 8071_hkTecher_cover_1112_op.pdf 1 11/12/13 下午6:50 i 香港教師中心 香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據 1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建 議而於 1989年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培 訓，並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致， 發揮專業精神。此外，教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課 程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法，協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並 配合教師興趣，組織各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、一個常務委員會（常 委會）和六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72名委員組 成，其中 35位由教育團體提名及選出，35位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位教育局代表。 各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動 小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。 教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內，交通便捷，毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站，另有 多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備，內有電腦服務、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩 區及專題展板等。同時，教育局九龍塘教育服務中心設有演講廳和多用途會議室，供教 師中心舉辦各類會議、講座及工作坊等活動。歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。 詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁：www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub- committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corner, resting area and display-boards, etc. Moreover, multi-purpose meeting rooms and conference rooms for organising seminars, workshops and meetings are available at the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please visit our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物， 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc） 閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁　鋼 華東師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 李榮安 新加坡國立教育學院 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 iii 張國華 香港公開大學 梁湘明 香港中文大學 莫家豪 香港教育學院 陳建強 香港城市大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 葉蔭榮 教育局 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡江大學 鄧廣威 香港公開大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 顧明遠 北京師範大學 編輯委員會（Editorial Committee） 主編（Chief Editor） 簡加言 路德會西門英才中學 副主編（Vice-chief Editors） 胡少偉 香港教育學院 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 趙淑媚 香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學 委員（Members） 何景安 香港學科教育研究學會 李子建 香港教育學院 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 李宏峯 保良局羅傑承（一九八三）中學 梁兆棠 香港資助小學校長會 郭禮賢 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 葉建源 香港教育專業人員協會 雷其昌 羅定邦中學 iv v 主編序 《香港教師中心學報》是一份教育研究及教師專業教學的分享刊物。過去得到很多 學者及教師的支持，使學報能順利出版，今期也不例外。本期主題「新高中學制 ─ 學生 發展、教師發展、學校發展」，同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供寶貴的研究及分享文章， 連同特邀稿文，本期共選刊了十二篇。 經評審後，第一部分共收錄了六篇專題文章，內容包括：2012年香港中學文憑通識 教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序、新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核、新 高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究、通識教育科的現況及前瞻、新高中視覺藝術科考評 制度對課程潛在的影響、應用學習之反思與檢討。內容非常豐富，這些研究都是從資料 數據及課程實踐中得到的經驗分享，且特別針對過去實施了新高中課程後的檢視與反思， 實在很值得同行參考及研究。 第二部分是關於理論及政策評論，共有三篇文章，內容包括：測試分數可信程度研 究、臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究、新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革。這部分的內容看 來硬資料較多，但寶貴的是從不同角度看基礎教育正是我們要研究的範圍。香港正在研 究十五年免費教育的課題，對學前教育的探討同樣是香港教育制度的熱門課題，這部分 的研究對一直關注學前教育的前線工作者尤為寶貴。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，共有三篇文章。內容包括：教師對通識教育科文 憑試與高階思維能力培育關係認知的探求、在香港推行國民教育的討論、教師如何在校 本課程中引入口述歷史教學。這部分是前線教師的實踐分享，一直都很受教師歡迎，因 為教學講的是實戰，是具體操作，並檢視成效。因此，很受教師歡迎。 最後，要衷心感謝為學報擔任評審的專家們。學報能順利出版，評審員的功勞不可 少，我在這兒非常感謝尹紹賢先生、何世昌先生、何景安先生、李子建教授、李宏峯先生、 李偉雄先生、李國毅先生、周蘿茜女士、侯傑泰教授、胡少偉博士、胡志偉博士、英汝 興教授、袁達榮先生、曹錫光博士、梁兆棠先生、梁志鏘博士、梁炳華博士、梁偉傑先生、 梁雪梅女士、郭禮賢博士、黃素蘭博士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博士、葉建源先生、雷其 昌先生、趙淑媚博士、盧兆興教授、戴繼志先生、魏國珍女士、羅天佑博士及羅慧燕博士。 我謹代表學報編輯委員會表達我們真誠的謝意。 《香港教師中心學報》主編 簡加言 二零一三年十二月 目錄 Contents 一、主題：新高中學制－學生發展、教師發展、學校發展 1. Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination ......................................................... 1 FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze 2. Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong ...................... 21 S Y MAK Barley 3. Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study....................................... 49 YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man 4. 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 ............................................................................. 89 林德成、李子建 5. 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 ............................................... 101 陳國棟 6. 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 ........................................................................... 115 梁亦華 二、理論及政策評論 1. How much can we trust test scores? ...................................................................... 131 Kay Cheng SOH v 2. 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 ............................................................... 151 何慧群、永井正武 3. 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 ........................................................................... 169 胡少偉 三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. An inquiry of teachers’perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong ............ 183 LEUNG Lai Sim 2. 也要還國民教育一個公道 ................................................................................... 217 倪紹強 3. 在教學法與社會實踐之間： ..................................................................................... 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ ................................................... 223 朱耀光 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Abstract Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. Standards-referenced reporting (SRR) is adopted to report candidate performance, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5). Some LS teachers expressed doubts after the announcement of the grading results of the 2012 HKDSE LS subject. To address these concerns, this paper aims at reviewing the essence of marking and grading procedures for the 2012 HKDSE LS Examination. It is expected that the public could have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority after having a clear and overall picture about the whole procedure. Keywords Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination, Liberal Studies, standards- referenced reporting, marking and grading 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. In the HKDSE Examination, every subject adopts standards-referenced reporting (SRR) to report candidates’ assessment results. In SRR, candidates’ assessment results are reported, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5) with reference to explicit and fixed standards of performance stipulated as a set of level descriptors for a given subject. SRR has been adopted in Chinese Language and English Language of the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) since 2007. Some LS teachers raised concerns after the announcement of the LS grading results in the 2012 HKDSE Examination. One of the controversial points is that 2 the percentage of LS candidates obtaining Level 2 or above amounts to some 90%, which may seem to be “unreasonably” high. In this regard, this paper aims at explaining the essence of marking and grading procedures of LS. It is expected that the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority after having knowledge about the marking and grading procedures. In the following, the relevant marking and grading procedures of LS, and the related research studies and results will be highlighted. First, the LS assessment framework will be outlined. Secondly, marking arrangement for examination papers of LS will be mentioned; especially on the measures ensuring the reliability and validity in the marking process. Thirdly, moderation process of school raw marks on SBA will be studied, which aims at ensuring fairness and across-school comparability. After discussing marking process of exam papers and moderation process of SBA raw marks, the grading process, which is an essential part to determine the cut scores for various performance levels, will be examined. 2. Assessment framework of LS There are two components in the assessment of LS, namely: (i) Public Examination, and (ii) School-based Assessment. In the component of Public Examination, there are two papers – Paper 1 and Paper 2. The Public Examination component amounts to 80% of the total (Paper 1: 50% and Paper 2: 30%), and the SBA component amounts to the rest, that is 20%. Paper 1 consists of data-response questions, all of which have to be answered. Data- response questions aim to assess abilities such as identification, application and analysis of given data. The data define the scope and reflect the complexity or controversial nature of the issues involved; and such kind of questions also reflects the cross-modular nature of the curriculum. Paper 2 consists of three extended-response questions. Candidates are required to answer one question only. Extended-response questions with data as stimulus information provide a wider context for candidates to demonstrate various high-order skills, such as drawing critically on relevant experience, creative thinking, and communicating in a systematic manner. In addition to attending the public examination, each candidate of LS is required to complete an Independent Enquiry Study (IES) on a selected social issue, which is adopted as the mode of SBA in LS. The IES extends over a certain period of time and requires students to demonstrate various skills, such as data gathering, and analysis and presentation of findings. The IES is divided into three stages. The first is a preparatory 3 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination stage during which a candidate formulates the project title, specifies the objectives, considers suitable method(s), decides on the mode of presentation, plans for the enquiry and collects feedback from his/her classmates on the project plan. The second stage mainly involves data collection and organization. The third stage is the completion of the product which includes analysis and evaluation of data, conclusions on the results of the enquiry and a reflection on the enquiry process. 3. Marking arrangement 3.1 Marker training The HKDSE LS examination consists of open-ended questions focusing on the enquiry of current social issues in accordance with the nature of the subject. There was a worry that the number of qualified markers may not be sufficient for the subject, as LS is a new core subject for all candidates of HKDSE Examination. Therefore, the Authority conducted three rounds of marker training sessions in the year 2010-2011. During the first round (from October to December 2010), a total of 10 sessions were completed, and 569 teachers participated. The second round comprising 9 sessions, was conducted from January to February 2011 and 538 teachers participated. The third round was between June and October 2011 and 594 teachers participated in 9 training sessions. Each training session comprised a 3-hour markers’ meeting and post-meeting individual marking at the Assessment Centre. The training aimed to: • allow teachers to experience the marking process, including the markers’ meeting and the marking standardization process; • provide opportunities for teachers to better understand the marking criteria and the standards of HKDSE LS; • prepare teachers to be HKDSE LS markers and Assistant Examiners (AEs); • familiarise teachers with the Onscreen Marking (OSM) system; • collect marking statistics of teacher participants to facilitate the selection of markers for the live examination. During the markers’ meeting, participants were briefed of the marking criteria, standards and marking guidelines, illustrated by authentic performance in the sample scripts. Participants trial-marked some sample scripts. The scripts were then discussed in group meetings led by AEs who were experienced LS markers. Through the group discussions, with group size kept at 15 at most, participants aligned their marking standards and further clarified the marking criteria. After the markers’ meeting, participants marked 15 scripts of Papers 1 and 2 respectively on their own at the Assessment Centre. The marks of these scripts had been standardised by experienced markers in a previous exercise. Marking statistics, comparing 4 the characteristics of marks awarded by participants with that by experienced markers, were computed and sent back to participants as feedback. Marking statistics on the following aspects were discerned. • Mean of Mark Discrepancies: This is the average of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers. • Standard Deviation of Mark Discrepancies: This is the variation of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers reflecting the marking consistency; i.e., the lower the figure, the higher the consistency of marking performance. • Difference between the Mark Range of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This shows the degree of discrimination relative to that of experienced markers. • Correlation between Marks of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This indicates the degree of agreement between the marks awarded by the participant and those awarded by experienced markers, in terms of the rank order. In the first round, amongst the 569 participants (681 enrolled) of the training, 383 joined the individual marking after the markers’ meeting. In the second round, out of the 538 participants (606 enrolled), 394 joined the individual marking. During the last round of training, 542 out of the 594 participants (660 enrolled) completed the individual marking. Therefore, a total of 1,319 teachers participated in both the markers’ meeting and individual marking. The following tables show the overall picture of marking statistics for the participants of individual marking in different rounds: Table 1a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 1) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 1.83 1.93 1.91 1.89 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.36 2.39 2.40 2.39 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers -0.37 -0.46 -0.42 -0.42 Correlation between marks of the participant and that of experienced markers 0.84 0.84 0.81 0.83 5 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination Table 1b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 1) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies between 4 marks and -4 marks(a) 97.65 96.95 97.35 97.32 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies less than 2 marks(b) 19.84 18.27 18.71 18.94 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks(c) 94.78 93.65 94.90 94.44 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7(d) 97.13 96.45 96.03 96.54 Notes: (a) 4 marks were determined as the thresholds for mean of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (b) 2 marks were determined as the thresholds for standard deviation of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (c) Provided that the variations of marks assigned are identical between two markers, it can be shown that the difference in mark range being greater than 4 is rare, with chance being equal to some 0.15. (d) As a rule of thumb, in general correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 is regarded as high. Table 2a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 2) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 0.88 0.90 1.15 1.00 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.48 2.47 2.41 2.45 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers 1.37 1.24 1.22 1.27 Correlation between marks of the participants and that of experienced markers 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.73 6 Table 2b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 2) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancy between 4 marks and -4 marks 96.87 96.70 96.98 96.85 Standard deviation of mark discrepancy less than 2 marks 18.54 18.02 20.42 18.99 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks 89.56 88.32 88.66 88.85 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 65.27 69.29 72.21 68.92 For Paper 1, the averages in Table 1a displayed similar patterns in all the three rounds. The means of mark discrepancies were well within the “acceptable” level; i.e., below 4 marks. The mark ranges of the participants were just slightly smaller than that of the experienced markers, with an average for all participants being equal to -0.42 marks. The correlation was high with the overall figure being equal to 0.83. However, the averages of the standard deviations of mark discrepancies throughout these rounds were quite large; i.e., greater than 2 marks. From Table 2a, it was observed that the performance of the participants in Paper 2 was quite similar to that in Paper 1, with good performance on average in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies, mark range and correlation, but slight under-performance for the item of standard deviation of mark discrepancies. The mean of mark discrepancies for Paper 2 was much closer to zero, though the correlation was lower than that in Paper 1. From Tables 1b and 2b, an overwhelming majority performed satisfactorily in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies and mark range. The majority awarded marks that correlated well with that of the experienced markers, though the percentage of participants performing well in this aspect was much higher in Paper 1. For Paper 2, the percentage of participants with acceptable performance in terms of correlation and standard deviation of mark discrepancies had a slight increase from the first to the third Round. Based on these marking statistics, the percentage of discrepancy marking for Papers 1 and Paper 2 was (roughly) estimated to be around 20% for the live examination, which would be taken into consideration for manpower arrangement. In a nutshell, a total of 28 training sessions were conducted in 2011-2012. A total of 1,319 teachers experienced the whole marking process and were familiarised with the OSM system. To facilitate the selection of markers, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been employed to derive an integrated marking performance indicator based on the four marking statistics so as to maximise the discrimination power. In addition 7 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination to the marking statistics, other factors, such as previous marking experiences, would be considered when selecting markers for the live examination of LS. A large majority of these participants performed satisfactorily with reference to a number of marking statistics; especially on the mean of mark discrepancies, difference between the mark ranges and correlation. This indicated that they were able to grasp the marking criteria and adopt the marking standard reasonably close to our experienced markers. On the other hand, there was room for improvement in the consistency of marking performance of these participants. In addition, 23 experienced LS teachers served as facilitators in group meetings and gained experience as AEs. 3.2 Markers’ meeting and onscreen marking Immediately after the completion of the LS public examination, the marking process was started. Markers’ meetings with recruited markers were arranged in order to standardise the marking criteria and standards. Before the markers’ meetings, a representative sample of candidate scripts was selected and marked by the Chief Examiner and a group experienced senior AEs whereby the consensus on marking standards and marking criteria were arrived at through professional discussion. Some of these standardised scripts were used for marking standardization, training and qualifying purposes. After the markers’ meetings, markers then marked another set of standardised scripts which were used for testing whether they could grasp the marking standards and marking criteria properly so as to obtain the markers’ qualification. Only those qualified markers would be allowed to mark scripts of the live examination. In addition to manual procedures for ensuring marking quality, the Authority adopts innovative and advanced technologies to enhance the marking performance. In 2005, the Authority received funding from the government to modernise its information technology infrastructure, and to introduce OSM to improve the security, quality, reliability and efficiency of marking. The marking procedures with the use of OSM are outlined below: • Examinations for candidates conducted; • Examination scripts collected; • Examination scripts scanned and images saved; • Images of answers distributed to markers for viewing and marking via secure intranet system at designated Assessment Centres; • Marks at question level and annotations by markers captured by the onscreen marking system. For security reasons, marking is conducted at designated Assessment Centres. The primary function of these Assessment Centres is to facilitate onscreen marking of public examinations but they will also be used for the delivery and marking of a wide range of examinations and assessments, such as the Territory-wide System Assessment and a 8 variety of computer-based examinations. Moreover, facilities will be available for the training of examiners, markers, teachers and other assessment staff. The advantages of using OSM include the following aspects: • Security: Secure storage of scanned images of scripts, and elimination of the physical movement of massive scripts; • Marking: Real-time monitoring of marking consistency and quality control of marking, and flexible allocation of questions to markers; • Efficiency: More efficient and flexible script management processes, and higher efficiency in mark calculation; • Accuracy: Reduction of errors arising from mark entries, and elimination of errors associated with manual mark calculation and recording processes; • Data Availability: More detailed analysis of candidates’ performance, and more information on responses to individual questions and better feedback regarding candidates’ performance. In view of all the aspects mentioned above, OSM is considered as a better alternative to the conventional paper-based marking (PBM). Concerning marking quality, with the use of OSM a marker’s performance could be continuously monitored by comparing his/her marks awarded on standardised scripts with that of experienced markers. Thus, marking problems identified could be rectified at an early stage. Besides, it also facilitates the sample checking conducted by AEs on certain scripts of each marker. The Authority first introduced OSM in the 2007 HKCEE English writing paper. Afterwards, OSM was being implemented gradually in marking exam scripts for a number of subjects. To ensure that there is no adverse effect of OSM on the marking performance, the Authority has initiated a number of studies with tertiary institutes comparing OSM with PBM. A study (Coniam, 2009a, 2009b) examined English language essay scripts selected from the 2007 HKCEE English Language Paper 1B (Writing). To compare OSM with PBM, 30 markers, who had good rater statistics, were arranged to remark on paper 100 scripts, which they had marked onscreen nine months before. After the remarking, they were requested to complete a questionnaire in order to collect feedback on the exercise. From the questionnaire data, it was suggested that technologically, raters had no problems with OSM. Attitudinal differences surfaced, however, between new raters who had solely rated on screen as against experienced raters who had solely adopted PBM in their previous experiences. New raters felt that having to travel to a special marking centre was less of an inconvenience than did old raters. New raters, additionally, expressed a preference to mark on screen rather than on paper. The statistical analysis of remarking data was conducted from two perspectives. The first involved classical measurement statistics. Correlations between the two forms of rating and the amount of discrepancy scripts (where a third rating was required) suggested 9 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination that no bias existed favouring either form of marking. Secondly, using multi-faceted Rasch measurement (MFRM), a five-faceted design was employed, modeling raters, test takers, input prompt materials, rating scales, and, especially, the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit. For the method of marking - the major facet for investigation, the corresponding logit values of both methods were very close to zero. Therefore the hypothesis that the methods of marking (OSM and PBM) did not interfere scores awarded by markers was accepted. There is another study (Coniam, 2010) which has similar objectives as the first one; but the subject concerned is Advanced Supplementary Level (ASL) Liberal Studies. The study involved 14 markers who had previously marked ASL Liberal Studies scripts on screen in the 2009 Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination. In the study, the 14 markers remarked on paper a number of the scripts that they had marked on screen in the 2009 examination. Using multi-faceted Rasch analysis, a five-faceted design was employed to model markers, test takers, input questions, rating scales and the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit and suggested that the scores from OSM could be considered as reliable as those obtained from PBM. 3.3 Double marking arrangement With regard to marking reliability, one of the public concerns is that there may be a considerable degree of variability when marking open-ended questions of LS. In this regard, the Authority has decided to adopt double marking in LS public examination. Any LS question of a candidate will be primarily marked by two markers. In case that prominent discrepancy occurs between the two markers’ marks, third marking (i.e., discrepancy marking) will be undertaken. The average of the closest pair of marks1 will be taken as the final mark of the question concerned. Fourth marking may be involved, if necessary, to settle down any controversies. Due to the use of OSM, which facilitates immediate distribution of scripts and flexible allocation of questions, double marking could be conducted on question basis. The four questions in Papers 1 and 2 attempted by a candidate in the public examination of LS will be marked by at least eight markers. Such an arrangement eliminates the chance that a candidate’s assessment result will be dominated by a single marker who may be too harsh or too lenient. The Authority had undertaken a study (HKEAA, 2011a) to examine the impact when adopting double marking in the LS questions. In the study, four data-response questions and four extended-response questions, and the corresponding marking guidelines were prepared in both Chinese and English. The full mark of each of these questions was more or less 20. These questions were attempted by some 1,300 students from 15 schools _______________ 1 In OSM, the sum of the closest pair of marks is compiled instead for the sake of computational convenience. This, in fact, implies that the full mark of a question is doubled. 10 covering a wide spectrum of performance levels. The student responses were marked by 18 markers using double marking (with discrepancy marking). Each student attempted one data-response question and one extended-response question, resulting totally 2,530 responses. For these 2,530 student responses, double marking was conducted. The corresponding statistics on marking discrepancies are shown below. Table 3: Distribution of discrepancies in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 413 16% 16% 1 749 30% 46% 2 592 23% 69% 3 368 15% 84% 4 226 9% 93% 5 100 4% 97% 6 51 2% 99% 7 20 1% 100% 8 9 0% 100% 9 1 0% 100% 10 1 0% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - Some 16% of total responses, which had differences greater than three, required discrepancy marking. In general, third marking was already sufficient to ensure that the differences between the closest pairs of marks were less than or equal to three marks. There were only a small proportion of responses that required fourth marking. The corresponding distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking is tabulated below. Table 4: Distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 510 20% 20% 1 911 36% 56% 2 724 29% 85% 3 385 15% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - 11 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination The closest pair of marks of a response was used for calculating the average, which was the final mark of the response. Provided that the “true” performance of a response did fall in between the closest pairs of marks, the difference between the final mark assigned and the “true” performance would be less than 1.5 marks; i.e., less than 10% of the full mark of the question concerned. The correlation between the marks in the closest pairs (retained after conducting double marking with discrepancy marking) was found to be equal to some 0.8. This reflected a high level of marking reliability. In 2012 public examination of LS, it is found that the percentage of responses that requires discrepancy marking further decreases. It may be due to the fact that previous professional development courses and the targeted marker training sessions have familiarised school teachers with the marking criteria and standards of HKDSE LS. 4. SBA Moderation Process 4.1 The reasons of moderation SBA is a salient feature of the HKDSE Examination. SBA refers to assessments administered in schools and marked by the students’ own teachers. SBA in LS requires each student to carry out an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). The IES provides a valuable opportunity for students to independently carry out a focused enquiry into a contemporary issue of interest, and to present their views, ideas, findings, evaluations and personal reflections. After receiving the raw SBA marks from schools, the Authority has to undertake the SBA moderation process. The main reason for carrying out moderation is to ensure the consistency of assessment standards across schools. Teachers know their students well and thus are best placed to judge their students’ relative performance. However, they could not be aware of the standards of performance across all schools. Therefore, teachers in some schools may be harsher or more lenient in their judgment than teachers in other schools. Mark ranges of scores awarded in various schools may also be different from each other. To resolve these problems, the Authority employs appropriate methods for “moderating” the raw SBA scores submitted by different schools to achieve the following: • The comparability of SBA results across schools in order to ensure fairness for individual students and schools; • The quality, reliability and validity of SBA results; • Provision of useful feedback to schools for improving practice; • In LS, the SBA moderation is conducted using statistical moderation based on examination results and supplemented with sample review. 12 4.2 Statistical moderation Statistical moderation is particularly appropriate in situations where there is another measure available that can reflect SBA performance level. Typically this other measure will be students’ performance in the public examination of that subject. An advantage of the method is that it can be carried out efficiently and impartially within a reasonable amount of time and resources. The key assumption is that the overall performance in the public examination of students in a school can properly reflect the SBA performance level of the same group of students. Generally speaking, this is a valid assumption in the context of many academic subjects in public examinations. In the moderation process, the adjustments are applied only to school average and spread of raw SBA scores of students with reference to their public examination scores in the same school. Therefore, the ranking of students within a school remains unchanged after moderation. The school averages of examination scores are used to determine the corresponding performance levels on SBA, taking within-school correlations between students’ raw SBA scores and examination scores into consideration (HKEAA, 2010). 4.3 Sample review Some of the objectives of the SBA cannot be precisely assessed in the public examination due to different requirements. Moreover, students in SBA would possibly gain significant improvement under teachers’ supervision due to the efficacy of assessment for learning. If only schools’ public examination scores are used to adjust students’ raw SBA scores, for some schools the statistical moderated results may not fully reflect the students’ actual performance in the SBA; i.e., there may be some outlier schools whose statistically moderated scores differ greatly from the performance level demonstrated by students’ SBA work. Therefore, for 2012 HKDSE LS, each school was required to submit six samples of students’ work for reassessment which was conducted by a group of external assessors appointed by the Authority. The samples were chosen by the Authority using stratified random sampling. Students in each school were divided into a number of strata based on their raw SBA scores. Therefore, in each stratum the performance level of students on SBA should be similar with each other. Some students’ work was then randomly chosen from each stratum. The stratified sampling method could ensure that a fairly small sample of students’ work could adequately represent the full range of SBA performance of each school. For schools where only a few students were studying a particular subject, the work of all students had to be submitted. All the LS samples were then reassessed with reference to the previous standardised exemplars and a set of stipulated assessment criteria. If prominent discrepancies between external assessors’ scores and raw scores were observed, discrepancy marking would be conducted. It was observed that the discrepancy marking percentage was about 20% in 2012. The correlation between raw scores and results based on external assessment 13 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination amounted to 0.8. This reflected that the marking standards of school teachers were generally in line with that based on external assessment. With regard to possible sampling variations, the ratio of school average of raw SBA scores to sample average of raw SBA scores was examined for each school. The distribution of these ratios of 523 schools is shown below. Figure 1: Distribution of ratios of school means of raw SBA scores to sample means of raw SBA scores The 5% percentile of the distribution was 0.94 and the 95% percentile was 1.06. It implied that sample raw means were very close to school raw means for most schools. In addition, it should be noted that the mean mark of sampled students’ work from external assessment of a school would be adjusted upwards when sample raw mean was less than school raw mean; and vice versa. With such adjustments, it was expected that the sampling variations would be further reduced. To further enhance the reliability of the estimations of means and spreads of SBA scores of schools based on external assessment, Bayesian hierarchical modeling was employed so as to share information across different schools. The model is briefly described below. 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 14 Let Yi (a vector) be the marks based on external assessment of a school i; i.e., Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni. The number of students in the school is ni. The Bayesian hierarchical model is set up as follows: Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni ~ Normal(θi, σi 2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., there are m schools) θi ~ Normal(μ, τ2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all θi are sampled from a super-population) 1/σi 2 ~ Gamma(v0/2, v0σ0 2/2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all σi 2 are sampled from a super-population) The model is graphically displayed in the figure below. Figure 2: The structure of Bayesian hierarchical modeling showing relationship between data observed and parameters involved In Bayesian analysis, the parameters: μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2 are treated as random variables. To conduct the Bayesian estimation, some non-informative priors p(μ), p(τ2), p(v0), p(σ0 2) are set up respectively for μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2. Based on such a model, information could be shared across schools when estimating θi and σi 2. For schools with small sample sizes and/or extreme empirical values, the estimates of θi and σi 2 will be pulled towards the corresponding overall estimates (μ and σ0 2). In general, algorithms using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method are deployed for estimation in Bayesian hierarchical modeling. It is well known that such a hierarchical model could reduce the estimation error (Berger, 1993; Hoff, 2010; Gelman et. al., 2003) in different applications. In addition, a simulation study has been undertaken to gauge the magnitude 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 v0σ0 2 μ, τ2 θ1 θ2 θm-1 θm Y1 Y2 Ym-1 Ym θ1 2 θ2 2 σ 2 m-1 σ 2 m 15 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination of gain in accuracy when applying the model in the specific setting for SBA moderation (Fung, 2011). It is found that the total Mean Squared Error (MSE) in the estimation of school means could be reduced by some 30% using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, as compared with the one simply using sample means. After consolidating the sample review result of a school, it was compared with the corresponding result from statistical moderation. Due to possible variations incurred in the sampling and remarking process, an appropriate tolerance limit was set when comparing the two results. If the difference was within the tolerance limit, the statistical moderation result would be adopted as the school performance level on SBA. If the difference exceeded the tolerance limit, appropriate adjustments would be made to the statistical moderation result with reference to the sample review result in order to determine the school performance level on SBA. It is worth mentioning that in LS, the SBA marks of a student is divided into two parts, namely: (i) Task and (ii) Process. Only marks on the Task of a student will be moderated according to the procedures mentioned above. Marks on Process which includes students’ effort in the IES will not be subject to moderation, as students’ performance in this part may not be prominently associated with the examination results. Schools are expected to award the Process marks in accordance with the stipulated criteria. The Authority imposes quality control measures to ensure the fairness and reliability of the assessment on Process, which include monitoring by District Coordinators (DCs), providing feedback to schools and follow-up of any irregularities identified. In 2012, it is observed that the mean of Process marks submitted by all schools is quite appropriate (i.e., not too high or too low) and the spread is reasonable. The moderated Task marks are then combined with the un-moderated Process marks to form the total SBA score for inclusion in the subject result. For the Task component, in 2012 53.3% of schools fall into the “within the expected range” category2, while the marks of 21.5% of schools are higher than expected, and 25.1% lower than expected. Moreover, among the schools with marks higher or lower than expected, the majority only deviate slightly from the expected3. Thus, in 2012 the majority of schools falls into the “within the expected range” or “slightly higher/lower than expected” categories. It is supposed that teachers in these schools do have a good understanding about the marking standards. _______________ 2 Based on the difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks (D), a school is in the category of “within the expected range” when 0 ≤ D < 3 with full mark = 50. 3 The difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks is greater than or equal to 3 and less than 6 with full mark = 50. 16 5. Grading process based on professional expertise Under SRR, a set of draft descriptors has been developed for each subject to describe how a candidate typically performs at a given level. The main purpose of grading is to determine the minimum score needed for a candidate to attain a given level. This minimum score is known as the cut score. The HKDSE grading procedures include a series of tasks (HKEAA, 2011b) that begins before the actual marking of scripts. For any given subject, a panel of expert judges, which comprises the subject manager(s), the chief examiner(s) and selected assistant examiner(s) or markers from the individual components, is responsible for conducting the series of grading tasks, including: (i) sample script selection, (ii) marking standardization, (iii) post-marking exercise, and (iv) panel of judges grading meeting. After the 2012 public examination of LS, some samples that could illustrate performance particularly well in relation to the level descriptors were selected. After script selection, the panel discussed the scores to be awarded to discrete points in the sample scripts. These marked scripts were used as standardisation scripts for marking. After the completion of marking and moderation of SBA scores, the panel considered the selected written examination exemplars and SBA samples with reference to the level descriptors, and the previous released samples. The objective of the discussion was to make provisional grading recommendations (including preliminary cut score ranges) on each examination paper and SBA component through expert judgment based on samples of performance. In the panel judges grading meeting, panel members re-considered the level descriptors, question requirements, marking guidelines and a number of representative samples as well as a range of recommended cut scores for each level. Panel judges exchanged their views led by the Chief Examiner. With a number of rounds of discussions, they finally agreed on preliminary cut scores for each paper and SBA component, and for the subject. In determining the cut scores, consideration was made to the actual performance of candidates in relation to • the level descriptors; • performance samples from the HKDSE SRR Information Packages (HKEAA, 2009); • marked live scripts selected; • feedback from markers on the level of difficulty of each particular examination paper; • performance statistics of current papers and SBA component. 17 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination During this meeting, the panel of judges investigated the impact of amending the cut scores for each examination paper on subject grade distributions. Finally, the panel of judges decided on their recommendations for the cut scores for LS. A senior management team led by the Secretary General of the Authority reviewed and decided on the cut scores based on the recommendations made by the panel of LS, and submitted the cut scores from the panel of LS to the Public Examinations Board (PEB) for further discussion and endorsement. In 2012, after discussion in PEB it was endorsed that the recommendations made by the panel of LS were strictly followed without any adjustments. The cut scores for Level 5** and Level 5* were set with reference to the percentage in mark distribution so that Level 5** was awarded to the highest-achieving 10% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates and Level 5* was awarded to the next highest- achieving 30% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates. 6. Conclusions In this paper4, it is highlighted that the Authority has taken stringent measures to ensure the quality of marking and grading procedures adopted in HKDSE Examination of LS. Relevant researches were conducted to examine the impacts of the new measures as far as possible. It is expected that after having an overall picture of the marking and grading procedures, the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority. Currently, the Authority is now collecting opinions and feedback from various stakeholders on the assessment framework of LS in order to strive for further improvement in the future. References Berger, J. O. (1993). Statistical decision theory and Bayesian analysis (2nd ed.). Springer. Coniam, D. (2009a). Validating onscreen marking in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(3), 423-431. Coniam, D. (2009b). Examining negative attitudes towards onscreen marking in Hong Kong. CUHK Education Journal, 37(1-2), 71-87. _______________ 4 To facilitate the access to the content by the public, the paper is also available from the website of the Authority. 18 Coniam, D. (2010). Markers’ perceptions regarding the onscreen marking of Liberal Studies in the Hong Kong public examination system. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(3), 249- 271. Fung, T. H. (2011, July). Simulation study on the use of hierarchical Bayesian modeling in expert judgment for SBA Moderation. Paper presented at the 76th Annual and the 17th International Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Hong Kong. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., & Rubin, D. B. (2003). Bayesian data analysis (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Hoff, P. D. (2010). A first course in Bayesian statistical methods (1st ed.). Springer. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2009). Liberal Studies: Standards-referenced reporting information package. Further information available from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/resources/publications/list_of_publications/hkdse_srr_pub/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2010). Moderation of school- based assessment scores in the HKDSE booklet. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu. hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011a). Study in double marking of Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Liberal Studies practice questions’ answer scripts. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/ research/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011b). Grading procedures and standards-referenced reporting in the HKDSE examination. Retrieved from: http:// www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ 19 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination 2012年香港中學文憑通識教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序 馮子豪、唐創時 香港考試及評核局 摘要 2012年香港中學文憑考試的考生必須修讀通識教育科。香港中學文憑考試採用水平 參照模式匯報考生的表現，將考生表現分為各等級（1至 5）。部份通識科教師對 通識科考試評級結果表示疑慮。有見及此，本文回顧通識科考試的閱卷與評級程序， 期望當大眾認識相關的程序後，將對考評局所發的資歷更具信心。 關鍵字 香港中學文憑考試，通識教育科，水平參照模式匯報，閱卷與評級 21 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong S Y MAK Barley Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract School-based assessment (SBA) is a form of formative assessment involving feedbacks and appraisals to students based on their school-based projects; it enables students to identify and improve on their areas of weakness and teachers to adjust their teaching strategies accordingly (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2005). SBA is still a relatively new concept for most senior secondary school subjects in Hong Kong – yet it is now heavily incorporated into Hong Kong’s New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum since the introduction of the New Academic Structure (NAS) in 2009. SBA has spawned numerous debates on its efficacy in Hong Kong and worldwide. This study gives an overview of the current issues related to SBA in Hong Kong through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders by utilizing territory-wide data of 91 secondary schools in Hong Kong from the most recent NSS Curriculum Study conducted in 2011-12. Keywords school-based assessment (SBA), formative assessment, New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum, curriculum reform, Hong Kong education 22 1. Introduction 1.1 The current Hong Kong education system and school-based assessment In light of the rising competitiveness of the global environment, the Hong Kong’s education sector recognizes its need to strengthen Hong Kong students’ adaptability, creativity, independent thinking and life-long learning capabilities, which were limited by the traditional education system that restrained students from maximizing their potential. As a result, the New Academic Structure (NAS) was introduced in 2009 as one of the most ambitious education reforms in Hong Kong’s education history. The NAS reduced the number of secondary school years from 7 to 6, and increased the number of tertiary education years from 3 to 4: Hong Kong students are now required to study three years in junior secondary school, three years in senior secondary school, and four years in the tertiary education sector – a “3-3-4” education system. Under this configuration, the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum was implemented as the framework for governing the content of the senior secondary school years (Secondary 4 to 6). As opposed to the traditional senior secondary school curriculum, NSS involved a number of major changes, which consisted of designating Liberal Studies as one of the four core subjects, the introduction of the elective subject system, as well as an emphasis on Other Learning Experiences (OLE) – to name but a few. Major changes have also taken place in the assessment environment for senior secondary school students: the current education system has now shifted from a two- fold public examination system – the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) and Advanced Levels (AL) in Secondary 5 and Secondary 7 respectively to a single public examination, the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) in Secondary 6. Meanwhile, as both an assessment and reviewing tool for teachers and students, school-based assessment (SBA) was incorporated and is now playing a pivotal role in giving greater emphasis to formative assessment (as opposed to summative assessment) in the NSS Curriculum. Notwithstanding its great potential in realizing the aims and virtues of the NAS, SBA poses great challenges and complexities in its application. In this paper, the progress of the implementation of SBA in the Hong Kong context will be reviewed and discussed through the eyes of administrators and teaching stakeholders. 1.2 The implementation of SBA in the NSS curriculum In Hong Kong, SBA is an assessment administered in schools as part of the learning and teaching process, with senior secondary students being assessed by their subject teachers (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a). In total, it accounts for 20% of the students’ overall HKDSE Examination result. From 2012, SBA was incorporated in 12 subjects including Chinese Language, English Language, Liberal 23 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Studies, Chinese History, History, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Science, Information & Communication Technology, Design & Applied Technology, and Visual Arts. According to the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) (2013b), SBA will be extended gradually to other subjects starting from the 2014 HKDSE Examination, as indicated in Table 1 below: Table 1: Implementation Timetable (HKEAA, 2013b) Year of Exam Subjects - Chinese Language - English Language - Liberal Studies - Chinese History - Design & Applied Technology - History - Information & Communication Technology - Visual Arts - Biology - Chemistry - Physics - Science - Chinese Literature - Economics - Ethics & Religious Studies - Geography - Health Management & Social Care - Technology & Living - Tourism & Hospitality Studies - Literature in English - Music 2012 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2013 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2014 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2015 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2016 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2017 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2018 Implementation Implementation Optional trial 2019 Implementation Implementation Implementation The intention of HKEAA is to slowly incorporate SBA in most subjects (not implemented in Mathematics and Business, Accounting & Financial Studies while practical examination is implemented for Physical Education instead), in a progressive and gradual manner year on year, while reviews, research and public consultations are simultaneously ongoing as adjustments are expected during the implementation process. Due to the demanding nature of SBA (as explained in the previous section), HKEAA has responded with a list of streamlining measures in order to alleviate the current situation and to provide room for the future implementation of SBA in other subjects. These streamlining measures are as follows: 24 1) The SBA of Chinese Language and Liberal Studies will be “streamlined” (i.e. the reduction of the number of tasks, assessments and mark submissions in the SBA of subjects) in the 2013 HKDSE Examination; 2) For the 9 deferred subjects where SBA was originally scheduled to be implemented between 2014 and 2016, full implementation will be postponed to the 2019 HKDSE Examination, with optional school trials to be conducted in 2018. (HKEAA, 2013b) To better understand the needs of the education sector, HKEAA, the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Education Bureau (EDB) are working in close collaboration to gauge the views of schools, curriculum development and subject experts, as well as independent education institutions in the streamlining proposals since October 2011. These proposals include streamlining the SBA of the 9 subjects that are scheduled in the 2014 HKDSE Examination, advancing SBA streamlining in Chinese Language to the 2013 cohort and adopting interim measures for Liberal Studies, and postponing the implementation of SBA of the 9 deferred subjects to the 2019 HKDSE Examination (HKEAA, 2013b). 1.3 Why school-based assessment? SBA is by no means a new assessment tool; it is widely accepted and comprehensively implemented in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Canada and South Africa. SBA is regarded as a tool to more accurately reveal the true ability of the student, reduce the limiting effects of “exam fright”, and to increase the confidence of students as they have already learnt and brought to practice the examination contents and skills during the conduct of their SBA projects. In addition to this, students can also feel less anxious as they have already achieved a certain percentage of the final mark prior to their final exam (Kerr-Phillips, 2007). SBA is similarly viewed in Hong Kong as an integral component of teaching and learning, which made feedback and comprehensive appraisals possible, thus allowing both teachers and students to identify the latter’s strengths and weaknesses for the purpose of continual improvements and confidence building (HKEAA, 2012b). In addition, SBA is also proven to have positive effects on students’ public oral examination and better absentee rate than students from schools that do not submit SBA marks (Lee, 2009). Yet SBA is not without its problems and controversies. As indicated by a report published by the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU) in 2013, workload brought upon by SBA is overwhelming for both teachers and students. For the student, the demand for SBA is high in terms of its quality and quantity, sometimes exceeding that of a student’s ability (may even include tertiary education level contents). In addition, the heavy workload derived from SBA often incur extra lesson time, therefore limits students 25 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong from partaking in extracurricular activities. On the other hand, teachers are similarly affected by hosting the extra lessons, and marking the vast amount of students’ SBA work. Furthermore, the PTU report suggested that the inadequate proportion of SBA that makes up the final mark will ultimately be “unfairly” adjusted by the public paper examination, regardless of how well the student did in the former. In light of the above, some teachers have even suggested that SBA may negatively affect the quality of learning and teaching as a whole in Hong Kong (Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union, 2013). Echoing these negative views, the sheer amount of workload of SBA has led to another major issue in other countries – plagiarism; it is tempting for students to copy work off the internet in order to save time amidst a tight schedule and demanding workload, thus incurring further workload for teachers in cross-checking references. Not only are the students tempted to play outside the rules, teachers are also reported to have meddled with the grey areas of the SBA grading system in order to achieve better grades for their students. Even without the deliberate intention of providing lenient markings, teachers call for a more standardized grading system for SBA across subjects in view of the “appalling partiality” in this aspect (Kerr-Philips, 2007). On an extreme note, Michael Gove, the Minister of Education in England remarked at the London Festival of Education in 2012, when questioned on the efficacy of SBA, “if education can’t be externally assessed, it’s play”, thus his recent initiatives to downplay the role of SBA enhance summative assessments in the UK (Downs, 2012). In spite of the downside of SBA, it is still, no doubt, a tool to diversify the traditionally summative assessment tools (i.e. public paper examinations); it gives formative assessment a larger role for achieving continuous reviews on teaching practices, and sustainable improvement on the holistic learning and teaching environment. This paper will seek to provide an insight to the voices of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in order to provide an overview of the extent of success and acceptance of the implementation of SBA in Hong Kong’s NSS Curriculum. 2. Background of the study In 2011, the EDB of Hong Kong Special Administration Region commissioned the Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) of the Faculty of Education of The Chinese University of Hong Kong to undertake a major research project entitled New Senior Secondary Curriculum Implementation Study 2011 to reveal the progress made from implementing NSS. The study aimed at investigating various aspects of the NSS in 6 major themes, namely “Curriculum Planning”, “Learning and Teaching”, “Assessment”, “Managing Change”, “the Impact on Senior Secondary School Students”, and “Ongoing Needs and Concerns”. This paper will report on the findings related to SBA, a major theme under “Assessment”. 26 3. Methodology The NSS study selected 105 schools out of a pool of 447 secondary schools in Hong Kong by a stratified random sampling technique based on an objective indicator of student achievement (Group 1 are schools with the highest average student achievement, Group 2 the next highest and Group 3 is the lowest). In the end, 91 out of the 105 schools responded to the request to participate in the survey, thus spawning a high response rate of about 87%. The questionnaires were developed to gauge the views of the implementation of NSS from 6 different stakeholders; including School heads or deputy heads (SH), Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH), Secondary 6, 4 and 3 teachers (T6, T4 and T3), as well as Secondary 6, 4 and 3 students (S6, S4 and S3). The questionnaires were sent to the 91 schools and were administered by the schools’ personnel. The completed questionnaires were then returned by post between December 2011 and February 2012. The distribution of the returned questionnaires among the stakeholders is listed in Table 2 below: Table 2: Number of questionnaires returned from different stakeholders Stakeholders Sampling Number of questionnaires SH The school heads or deputy heads 86 KH All Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads 515 T6 Teachers teaching Secondary 6** 838 T4 Teachers teaching Secondary 4** 527 T3 At least 8 teachers teaching Secondary 3 (one per KLA) 378 S6 All Secondary 6 students 4,614 S4 All Secondary 4 students 5,888 S3 At least two classes of Secondary 3 students from each school 2,751 * For subjects comprising a compulsory part and elective modules, teachers who teach only elective modules are not required to complete the questionnaire. ** Some of the teachers placed themselves as T4 and T6, thus the data were counted for both stakeholders. SBA was a major theme under “Assessment” and since this paper seeks to identify the extent of how well SBA is incorporated into the administrative and teaching processes of the NSS Curriculum, this paper has drawn data only from the administrative and teaching stakeholders’ (SH, KH, T6, T4 and T3) views on SBA therein. The contents of the questions on SBA were similar but tailored to each stakeholder (Appendix).The questions on SBA were grouped into 4 major components designed to answer the research questions presented in the following table: 27 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Table 3: SBA components and research questions SBA research questions: To what extent… SBA component Views derived from: 1) Has SBA been successfully incorporated into the schools? (understanding and knowledge, scheduling and formulating support measures) 1) The implementation of SBA in schools SH, KH, T6 and T4 2) Has the grading of SBA been subjected to fairness and consistency, and the criteria be transparent to students? 2) The grading of SBA T6, T4 and T3 3) How confident were the teachers in implementing SBA? 3) The confidence of teachers in implementing SBA T6, T4 and T3 4) How useful has SBA been as a tool in generating useful feedback for the continual improvement of students’ learning? 4) The effectiveness of SBA T6, T4 and T3 The results and analysis section will be presented by bar charts in order to aid readers in visualizing the obtained data that are attached in the annexes of this study. 4. Results and analysis The incorporation of SBA into the senior high school curriculum is a relatively new one for most subjects and requires understanding and adaptability on the part of the schools and teachers in this period of transition. The procedures adopted by schools to ensure an effective implementation of SBA, knowledge transfer of SBA (i.e. from school to teachers and from teachers to students) and the support provided to the teachers by the schools are inextricable factors determining the success of the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. In this light, this section will look at the perception of the administrative and teaching stakeholders – SH, KH, T6 and T4 – to gauge the extent of assimilation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum in terms of the above aspects. A 6-point Likert scale was used to gauge the attitudes of stakeholders running from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The latter 3 points were used to calculate positive responses i.e. “slightly agree”, “agree”, “strongly agree”. Since the implementation of SBA is a new feature in the NAS, any positive responses are deemed significant, thus “slightly agree” is incorporated in the reporting of positive results. 4.1 Procedures adopted by schools to ensure effective implementation of SBA According to Figure 1 below, SH have responded with very high agreement levels 28 in items (in descending order): “The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (SH: 94.1%), “The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing)” (SH: 92.9%), “The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation” (SH: 88.2%). Figure 1: Procedures to ensure effective implementation of SBA by SH While the majority of the schools have implemented procedures and regulations for the effective implementation of SBA on a wider scale, they have also demonstrated micro management planning by assigning working groups and coordinators to manage smaller items among subjects. 4.2 SBA knowledge transfer The implementation of SBA can never be successful without the proper guidance provided to the teachers by HKEAA and their respective schools. Thus HKEAA has pledged to provide detailed guidelines, assessment criteria and exemplars to schools and teachers to ensure consistency in SBA grading, and as well as the provision of professional training and district coordinators to support schools and teachers to successfully implement SBA in the NSS curriculum (HKEAA, 2013a). In light of this, the acquiring and transferring of SBA information among stakeholders (i.e. from schools to teachers and from teachers to students) will be looked at. In this section, “SBA knowledge transfer” refers to both the acquiring and transferring of SBA information (e.g. assessment criteria, SBA weighting, number of SBA tasks, etc.) among stakeholders. According to the responses from SH, shown in Figure 2 below, the findings provided positive evidence of the schools having enabled the knowledge transfer of SBA information to other stakeholders in secondary schools. High agreement levels were 29 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong found in the items (in descending order): “Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (SH: 100.0%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (SH: 95.3%), “Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (SH: 95.3%), and “The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results” (SH: 89.4%). Figure 2: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by SH Similarly, KH have responded with highly positive feedback on the transfer of SBA knowledge among teachers and students. In descending order: “Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors” (KH: 93.8%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (KH: 91.1%), and “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (KH: 87.7%), as indicated in Figure 3 below: 30 Figure 3: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by KH By the same token, T6 responded with highly positive feedback in the following items, in descending order “I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T6: 93.6%), and “I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T6: 84.7%), as indicated in Figure 4 below: Figure 4: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by T6 According to SH as well as KH, their teachers have demonstrated a clear knowledge in understanding the contents of SBA (e.g. how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools) and have taken up a dual role as both a facilitator and an assessor. With such knowledge, teachers were able to help students in resolving their queries on SBA-related matters, guide them through the assessment requirements and methods in their respective SBA subjects, and explain to them the complementary nature of written 31 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong examinations and SBA in the public assessment. T6 on the other hand, have provided the same positive findings at the teaching level. 4.3 SBA support provided to teachers This section looks at the perceived support implemented and received by the administrative and teaching stakeholders in regard to the implementation of SBA. According to Figure 5 below, SH felt that “the school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (SH: 95.2%) and that “the school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (SH: 88.3%). Meanwhile, KH have responded with similar high levels of agreement to item “My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (KH: 87.1%), but relatively lower in “Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (KH: 68.5%). On the other hand, although more than half of T6 and T4 have responded with positive feedback to item “My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (T6: 61.9%, T4: 63.3%), a significant 40% have responded otherwise. Figure 5: SBA support viewed by SH, KH, T6 and T4 It is noteworthy to highlight the significant differences on the level of perceived school support provided for the teachers among SH and the teaching stakeholders (T6 and T4) – although SH may feel that they have provided enough, the frontline teachers may still feel more support is needed as the workload from SBA is high. The findings reveal 32 that KH should also collaborate more with KH from other subjects so as to devise SBA schedules in avoiding the overloading of work. 4.4 The grading of SBA In light of the autonomy given to teachers in grading their students’ SBA works, standardization is a crucial factor in determining fairness and minimizing discrepancies in students’ marks among both teachers and between schools, thus allowing a more accurate and better reflection on the quality of the students’ works accordingly. The information on the marking requirements of SBA works is essential to students, therefore such knowledge must be readily transferable and transparent. This section will look at the extent to which KH have ensured fairness in SBA grading at their schools and whether they and T6 have made SBA knowledge transferable to students. The findings revealed that the vast majority of Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) have taken into consideration and have ensured that there is reliability and fairness in SBA results. They adopted different measures as follows (in descending order): “My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers” (KH: 95.4%), “My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (KH: 93.9%), “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (KH: 85.6%), and “Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (KH: 81.1%), Figure 6 below: Figure 6: The grading of SBA viewed by KH 33 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong On the other hand, T6 have revealed their efforts in handling SBA queries (in descending order): “I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (T6: 86.3%) and “I have clearly explained to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T6: 81.6%), as indicated in Figure 7 below: Figure 7: The grading of SBA viewed by T6 It is a discernible fact that the grading of SBA is viewed by both KH and T6 to have been ensured in its fairness; mechanisms were in place to ensure objectivity and consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. Meanwhile, schools’ procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results have been clearly explained to the students, suggesting that students were provided with and were knowledgeable about obtaining information on their SBA results. Furthermore, it is noteworthy to mention that the majority of KH perceived their teachers to have understood how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools, and that the majority of T6 have made the marking criteria available to their students at their respective schools. 4.5 The effectiveness of SBA One of the intended functions of SBA is to enable teachers to provide feedback and comprehensive appraisals to students, thus allowing students to understand and improve on their areas of weakness. In addition to this, SBA can allow students to demonstrate their strengths - that are often neglected in traditional public examinations (e.g. presentation skills). This section looks at the extent to which feedback and the demonstration of students’ alternative skills are enabled by the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. As indicated by Figure 8 below, only around 50%-65% of stakeholders (T6, T4 and T3) agreed about the perceived benefits of SBA: “SBA enables students / me to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses” (*T6: 57.0%, T4: 57.9%), “SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations” (*T6: 56.9%, T4: 59.2%), and “I support School-based Assessment 34 (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently” (*T6: 45.7%, T4: 49.7%, T3: 65.5%). Figure 8: SBA feedback for learning viewed by T6, T4, and T3 The opinions of the teachers varied in the use of SBA as a feedback tool for students – while about 65% of T3 felt that SBA enabled them to provide useful feedback for students on a frequent basis, half of T4 and more than half of T6 felt otherwise. The use of SBA in enabling students in better understanding their own strengths and weaknesses and as a means to demonstrate their ability in areas not assessed in public examinations were rated relatively more positively by T6 and T4, despite a significant portion (about 40%) of them feeling that SBA could not do so. Although a significant portion of teachers were able to improve the learning and teaching environment by effectively implementing SBA, the results revealed that there are factors hindering some teachers from doing so. As a preliminary observation, these factors may include the overburdening of workload derived from SBA that prevented teachers from having the needed time to provide feedback for their students. 4.6 The confidence of teachers teaching Secondary 4 and the extent of success in implementing SBA by teachers teaching Secondary 6 Teachers’ confidence in implementing SBA can reveal their knowledge and understanding of SBA in bringing it to fruition; likewise, the lack in such confidence may also suggest their concerns in the implementation process. The scales of T4 (confidence scale) and T6 (agreement scale) are different due to their respective nature - of the lack of 35 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong experience in implementing SBA for T4, as opposed to the experienced T6. The findings suggested that the majority of T4 were comfortable in implementing SBA related tasks, as revealed by the high ratings in the following items (in descending order): “clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T4: 80.4%), “clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T4: 78.5%), “design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning” (T4: 77.4%), and “clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T4: 74.2%). It is noted that the item “handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T4: 59.1%) was rated relatively lower than the above, indicating that about 40% of T4 were not confident with their handling of workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 9 below: Figure 9: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T4 Meanwhile, the majority of T6 agreed to the items (in descending order): “I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning” (T6: 77.8%), and “So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly” (T6: 68.7%). However, less than 50% of T6 agreed with the item “I can handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T6: 45.8%), suggesting they are facing difficulties in handling workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 10 below: 36 Figure 10: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T6 This section has suggested that the majority of T4 have confidence in designing effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning, were able to implement SBA smoothly, and have clearly explained to students the contemporary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment as well as how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in their schools. In addition, T6 have revealed that they have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning and were able to implement SBA smoothly. On the down side, workload derived from SBA was troubling T4, as indicated by their relatively lower confidence in handling this aspect. By the same token, more than half of T6 have revealed their inability in handling workload derived from SBA. 5. Discussion The data reveal that the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum has been a successful endeavor by both Government and the education sector at the administrative and teaching levels; at the administrative level, the majority of the major players - i.e. SH as well as KH of the education sector revealed that they have fully incorporated SBA into their schools; support measures were provided for teachers in the implementation of SBA, whereby working group and coordinators were designated to help teachers coordinate their subjects, and measures were employed to ensure fairness, objectivity and consistency in grading SBA works. Meanwhile on the teaching level (T6, T4 and T3), teachers were well aware of their dual role in SBA (as facilitators of student learning and as assessors), whereby both teachers and students were also well informed of its contents, marking procedures (both by HKEAA and the school), and related information made readily available and transparent 37 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong at times of need. It is encouraging to see that the learning and teaching environment of the students was enhanced through the designing of effective SBA tasks. Notwithstanding the above positive views from the major stakeholders, the implementation of SBA was met by perceptions of its overwhelming workload. Despite the schools’ effort in scheduling subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year, a significant portion of T4 were skeptical of their ability to handle SBA workload whilst more than half of T6 from the sample felt that they were unable to handle the vast amount of work derived from SBA. As a general observation still yet to be tested in future studies, SBA workload might be the cause for the limited use of SBA for producing feedback for identifying strengths and weaknesses in students, thus helping them in their learning progress. To realize the goal of “learning and teaching with assessment” through the implementation of SBA (HKEAA, 2013a), teachers should undergo professional training in understanding the curriculum’s learning goals and related criteria so as to place further emphasis in producing assessment feedbacks for students – as the streamlining of SBA should provide more time for teachers to do so. And as suggested by Harlen (2004), the development of an assessment community is essential for allowing a constructive and positive discussion on SBA, in which different intra- and inter-school stakeholders among various geographical settings can contribute to this community. These discussion topics may include the distribution of resources, intra- and inter-school moderation standardization, teacher assessment, and ongoing professional trainings etc., so as to promote quality assurance for SBA. 6. Conclusion To maximize the benefits derived from the implementation of SBA, both the education sector and the Government bodies must identify the causes for the limited use of SBA in producing feedback and appraisals for the holistic development of students’ learning profiles. The immense amount of SBA workload felt by the teachers cannot be neglected, thus HKEAA, CDC, EDB and as well as the education sector have worked hand in hand in improving this aspect of the NSS Curriculum, as seen by the recent streamlining measures in SBA subjects. The education sector has yet to experience these measures and studies are required in the future to identify the effectiveness therein. As many believe in the high potential of what SBA can bring to the learning and teaching environment, an effective implementation of SBA in terms of its scheduling, standardization in grading, information flow and the overall support for both schools and teachers are inextricable components to the welfare and effective incorporation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum – in all of which the Hong Kong education sector has 38 demonstrated its professionalism in accomplishing these and its commitment to rising to new challenges. Acknowledgements The research reported in this study was supported by a grant from the EDB, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the EDB. References Downs, J. (2012). If it can’t be externally assessed, it’s play, Gove’s message to teachers. Retrieved from http://www.localschoolsnetwork.org.uk/2012/11/if-it-cant-be-externally- assessed-its-play-goves-message-to-teachers/ Harlen, W. (2004). Can assessment by teachers be a dependable option for summative purposes? Paper presented at General Teaching Council for England Conference, 29 November, 2004, London. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012a). Definition of school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/SBA/HKDSE/Eng_ DVD/sba_definition.html Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012b). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education examination: Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013a). Booklet on HKDSE examination - Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www. hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_ pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013b). Subject information on SBA. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/SBA/sba_hkdse/SBA_timetable.html Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union. (2013).〈新高中問卷調查結果發布（2013）〉. Retrieved from http://www.hkptu.org/8896 39 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Kerr-Phillips, F. (2007, August). School-based assessment: The need, the reality, the future: A perspective from the independent examinations board of South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.iaea.info/documents/paper_1162d20227.pdf Lee, W. W. C. (2009). The beneficial wash-back of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 8, 18-29. Retrieved from http://edb.org.hk/HKTC/download/journal/j8/(5)HKTCJ08-Article1-2.pdf Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Retrieved from http://www.oecd. org/education/school/34990905.pdf 40 Questionnaire for School Heads / Deputy Heads (SH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear School Heads / Deputy Heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the school’s internal assessment. 2. The school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. Appendix 41 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 5. Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 6. The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing). 7. The school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 8. The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation. 9. The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results. 42 Questionnaire for Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the internal assessment in my KLA/subject. 2. My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors. 43 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 5. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 6. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 7. Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 8. Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 9. My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. 44 Questionnaire for Teachers Teaching S4 (T4) and S6 (T6) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear teachers, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee School-based Assessment (SBA) [Items 1-4 are applicable to all S4 teachers except for Mathematics teachers] [Items 1-11 are only applicable to S6 teachers who are mainly teaching the subjects that SBA will be implemented in 2012] 1. I support School- based Assessment (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently. 45 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 2. My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations. 4. SBA enables students to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. 5. I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning. 6. I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 46 To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 7. I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 8. I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 9. I have clearly explained to students how the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) moderates the SBA scores in my school. 10. I can handle the workload brought about by SBA. 11. So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly. 47 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong For T4 only When I teach S5 in the coming school year, I am confident that I can… H ig hl y no t c on fid en t N ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly n ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly c on fid en t C on fid en t H ig hl y co nfi de nt 12. design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning. 13. clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 14. clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 15. clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school. 16. handle the workload brought about by SBA. 48 香港新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核 麥陳淑賢 香港中文大學教育學院　課程與教學學系 摘要 校本評核為進展性評估模式之一，透過回饋及評估學生專題研習的表現，讓學生了 解自己的弱項並加以改善，亦幫助教師調整教學策略（OECD, 2005）。校本評核就 大部份高中科目而言仍屬新概念，然而自 2009年推行新學制以來，校本評核已納 入新高中課程；其成效在香港、以致世界各地均備受爭議。本研究引用 2011-12年 度新高中課程實施調查研究數據（涵蓋 91所香港中學），探討學校管理及教學人 員對校本評核的觀點。 關鍵詞 校本評核，進展性評估，新高中課程，課程改革，香港教育 49 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man Educational Research Sub-committee, Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Abstract Students in Hong Kong show a widening range of learning abilities in secondary school as shown, for instance, by their performance in the Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination which was introduced in 2012 together with the 3-year New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum. This study examines how far their diverse learning needs have been catered for. Information was collected from the heads of core subjects from a large variety of schools through an online questionnaire survey. Findings include that catering for learning diversity is beset by problems such as resource shortage, the infrequent use of enquiry-oriented teaching methods and independent learning strategies as well as weaknesses in assessment arrangements in spite of considerable progress in extending learning opportunities outside the classroom. Concerted efforts must be taken by teachers, school heads and the government to improve the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in such ways that students irrespective of learning ability can benefit. Ways to rectify the situation include the reduction of teacher workload and provision of additional manpower, continuous curriculum review with far more teacher input, production of handy and up-to-date material resources, modification of teaching approaches and reforming of the examination so that it can really help to enhance learning rather than just its measurement. Keywords learning diversity, New Senior Secondary curriculum, Diploma in Secondary Education examination, questionnaire survey, teaching strategies 50 Introduction Primary school graduates in Hong Kong seeking admission to public-sector secondary education are allocated to three academic bands according to their scores in internal examinations and their schools’ overall performance in the preceding three years (Education Bureau [EDB], 2011). Within the same band, however, considerable differences in learning ability do exist. Differences in the mastery of knowledge are likely to widen both within and between groups as more subjects have to be studied in junior secondary school. They are becoming more obvious in the senior secondary from 2009 onwards because of the requirement for all students to complete a 3-year NSS curriculum instead of the 2-year Certificate of Education (CE) course. The more academic nature of senior schooling for all and the implementation of the policies of “catering for diversities” and “integrating disabled and low ability children in an inclusive environment” in a majority of schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005) are the reasons that are responsible. Teachers have to devote more attention to helping the more able develop further and the increasing numbers of below-average students to do well in the DSE examination (e.g. Chan, 2010), which by nature is more demanding than its predecessor in format, subject content and learning skills. Now that the first two cycles of the DSE examination are over and the trend of learning diversity is clear. Only 37.7% and 34.5% of the candidates in 2012 and 2013 could meet the university requirements of level 3 in Chinese and English and level 2 in Mathematics and Liberal Studies (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a, 2013). The respective proportions of students who could attain passes (at level 2) in these core subjects were 79.2%, 79.3%, 79.7% and 90.8% in 2012 and 80.3%, 78.1%, 80.7% and 88.0% in 2013 (HKEAA, 2012a, 2013). Given the substantial variations in performance, finding how far the diverse learning needs of NSS students have been catered for becomes imperative. This study is an attempt to do so with respect to resource provision, teaching and learning strategies and continuous assessment practices. The case with the core subjects is examined because students have to pass in all of them (and at least in one elective subject) before they are considered as having completed their secondary education successfully. Review of literature Diversity in learning ability In the literature, learning diversity is generally taken as the presence of variations in learning ability among students receiving the same type of education (Ackerman, Kyllonen & Roberts, 1999; Wu, Tu, Wu, Le & Reynolds, 2012). Its occurrence in the realm of academic knowledge is considered a function of both innate, inherited traits and everyday educational experience (e.g. Biggs & Moore, 1993; James, 2006; Jonassen & Grabowski, 51 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study 2011). The latter is probably more important than the former as it can be improved through the use of appropriate teaching strategies that are supported by well endowed resources and stimulating learning activities (Means, Chelemer & Knapp, 1991; Tomlinson, 2001). With their extensive classroom experience and understanding of students’ strengths and weaknesses, teachers are in the best position to reduce learning diversity (Chappuis, 2009), for instance, by giving individual attention to the weaker ones and helping students analyse practice papers from the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) two months ahead of the first DSE examination in late March 2012. Coping with learning diversity To begin with, teachers faced with the daunting problems of meeting varying needs and paces of learning in the same classroom do require support from a wide variety of school and community resources (Curriculum Development Council, 2009). Besides the hardware and software resources available in classrooms, schools should have additional manpower and plans to cater for the enrichment needs of higher achievers (such as stargazing and learning the elements of astronomy in physics, and debating in language subjects) and help the less capable ones to catch up (such as in the solution of simultaneous equations in mathematics). Even if resources are readily available, one size cannot fit all. To cater for learning diversity, writers have identified a variety of teaching skills that are required besides those suitable for the average student. For weaker ones, teachers for instance could make significant adaptations to classroom programmes, curriculum content, teaching and learning processes and even provide tailored plans that can help them rekindle their interest and confidence (e.g. Winebrenner, 1996; Westwood, 2008). For the talented and gifted then, a mastery of acceleration (e.g. offering guidance to the most able promoted to a higher class level or more advanced group), curriculum compacting (e.g. cutting out unnecessary drills and organising appropriate extension work instead), expert grouping (e.g. helping the more able ones develop further insights on a research topic), cluster grouping (e.g. providing specialised programmes at a central point for high-ability students from different schools) and mentoring (i.e. enabling capable students to learn after outside experts) and other appropriate methods are useful for helping them to learn faster and at more advanced levels than the average (Biggs & Moore, 1993; Winebrenner, 1992; Goodhew, 2009). Language teachers were called on to understand students’ personal stories before setting out to teach for instance (McDaniel, 2010). In a related context, Roland (2010) invited them to consider differentiated teaching as serving a buffet that could meet the criteria of variety, quality, balance and attractiveness for students at various ability levels. As Tomlinson (2001) has summarised, teachers should plan and teach with respect to student readiness, interest and needs. Even if their learning needs are well catered for, 52 students may obtain widely different scores in tests and examinations of the same scope and format. Although it is neither easy to close this performance gap nor simply to narrow it down, teachers should at least help all to score higher than what they are used to have (c.f. the aim of the United States No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2001) (Wiliam, 2006). Assessment has a key role here for helping the more able maximise their potential and the less able to make up for lost grounds (Chappuis, 2009). The role of assessment on checking learning diversity Testing students on a broad range of aspects (e.g. listening, speaking, reading and writing in language subjects) and at higher frequencies is considered an effective way of helping teachers understand better how much has been learnt by everyone and the improvements that are needed individually and by each ability group (Berry, 2008). Instead of concentrating on written work, teachers can identify with students more aspects or forms for assessment, such as skills in model-making, recording and video production as well as the delivery of oral presentations (Davies, Herbst & Reynolds, 2011). If appropriate feedback is given and due action is taken, assessment of learning that simply measures how much students have learnt can be changed into assessment for learning that helps everyone (Black & Wiliam, 2006a) to improve (albeit not necessarily at the same pace) and the more able to learn beyond the confines of the lesson (c.f. Black & Wiliam, 2006b). The lesson that can be learnt from the literature is that assessing students in a wider range of format not only could measure diverse learning abilities more effectively but also could encourage those who are otherwise lagging in one aspect or another to develop their potential further instead of giving up altogether. Methodology and instruments A multi-stage process was followed to determine how the teachers of core NSS subjects had been coping with learning diversity and preparing students for the public examination. The methodology and instruments used were developed by the researchers in early 2011. The consensus reached thereby about the scope of data needed was used to develop a framework for investigation and focus-group discussions in June with representatives from relevant subject organisations on the membership list of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. Questionnaires for teachers were designed and refined according to the results. Respondents were asked about their personal and school backgrounds, resource provision, use of teaching strategies and the arrangements for helping students to do better in the curriculum and examination. Unlike those for the three other subjects, the one for Mathematics asked how learning would be affected by the absence of school- based assessment (SBA) as stipulated for the foreseeable future. Versions in Chinese and English were administered to the teachers of Mathematics and Liberal Studies because their subjects could be studied and examined in one of the two languages. 53 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Data collection began with a series of pilot tests and further amendments in early 2012. A covering letter was sent in mid-April to secondary schools offering NSS curriculum (N=514) to explain the aim of the study and invite the heads of the core subjects to complete the survey through a hyperlink to the website HYPERLINK “http:// www.my3q.com” www.my3q.com within three weeks. Responses from the six groups of subject heads concerned (including those of Mathematics and Liberal Studies teaching in English or Chinese) were uploaded onto Microsoft Excel files and processed with the Statistics for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program (Stern, 2010; Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner & Barrett, 2011). The specific functions that were run included FREQUENCIES and DESCRIPTIVES for identifying general patterns and the mean, minima, maxima and standard deviation values of responses, CROSSTABS for determining whether pairs of variables were related, and CORRELATE for assessing the strength and direction of relationships (Muijs, 2011). Results School, student and teacher backgrounds Respondents to the questionnaire survey varied substantially in numbers across subjects, from 63 (out of 514) teachers each of English and Chinese to 90 (out of 514) teachers of Mathematics teaching in either language. All of them had long teaching experiences of 11 years or more. Unlike the others, Liberal Studies teachers had fewer than five years in their subject as it was only an elective offered in about 25% of schools at the Advanced Supplementary level before 2009. Training could be considered sufficient overall as the numbers of teachers who had taken the respective curriculum and assessment courses (e.g. 7.7 in Liberal Studies (EMI) on average) were greater than the numbers of student groups concerned (5.6). Most of them were teaching in co-educational aided schools sponsored by a variety of religious, welfare and community organisations (cf. Table 1). Students completing the NSS curriculum in 2011-12 had been allocated to their classes mostly by their performance in Chinese, English and Mathematics in Form 3 in the academic year 2008-09. The majority of schools were running five classes of Form 4 to Form 6 for this first NSS cohort. However, the mean number of groups in each school was about six in the case of Liberal Studies because of the availability of a government grant to employ one additional teacher for facilitating teaching in smaller classes. 54 Table 1: Responses about background information English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. School by type of sponsorship 1 = Aided; 2 = Government; 3 = Direct subsidy scheme Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. School by the sex of students 1 = Boys; 2 = Girls; 3 = Co-educational Mode = 3 N = 59 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode =3 3. Overall teaching experience 1 = 0 – 5 years; 2 = 6 – 10 years 3 = 11 –15 years; 4 = 16 – 20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.2 Mode = 5 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 4. Teaching experience in this subject 1 = 0-5 years; 2 = 6-10 years 3 = 11-15 years; 4 = 16-20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.0 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 1.7 Mode =1 Mean = 0.9 Mode = 1 5. No. of years with Liberal Studies at the Advanced Supplementary Level N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. Mean = 4.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 6. Mean no. of classes (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) Mean =3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.3 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 4 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode =5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 7. Mean no. of groups (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) 4.7 4.7 4.6 N = 59 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.9 4.9 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.6 8. Streaming of F3 students into F4 by 1 = Overall rank; 2 = Performance in Chin., Eng. & Maths.; 3 = other criteria Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 9. Mean no. of Form 6 teachers this year Mean no. of Form 6 students this year Mean no. of Form 6 classes this year Mean no. of Form 6 groups this year 5.1 156 5.0 5.0 N = 59 4.7 157 4.8 5.1 1.8 167 5.0 4.9 1.8 167 4.6 4.8 5.1 153 4.7 5.7 5.1 149 4.5 5.6 10. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic curriculum course in this subject Mean = 8.5 Mode = 4 N = 58 Mean = 8.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 5.7 Mode = 6 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 11. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic assessment course in this subject Mean = 7.5 Mode = 5 N = 57 Mean = 7.8 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 7.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. 55 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Provision of educational resources In spite of the need to minimize learning diversity in the core subjects, most of the schools had provided extra resources on an equal-sharing basis (cf. mode = 1 across row 1; mode = 3 across row 2, Table 2). The use of extra teachers, multimedia or other teaching materials and outside service support was less frequent than the deployment of teaching assistants (as in the cases of Chinese Language, Liberal Studies (CMI) and Liberal Studies (EMI); see row 4(b)) presumably because of funding constraints. Table 2: Responses about the provision of educational resources English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has your school provided extra resources to the subject to cater for learning diversity? 1 = Yes; 2 = No Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. The extra resources are 1 = provided to weaker students only 2 = provided to top students only 3 = equally shared among all students N = 52 Mode = 3 N = 39 Mode = 3 N = 27 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 N = 41 Mode = 3 N = 12 Mode = 3 3. No. of types of other resources provided to the subject Mean = 1.5 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.8 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.1 Mode = 1 4. Types of other resources provided to the subject (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (a) Extra teachers (b) Extra teaching assistants (c) Extra multimedia or other teaching materials (d) Outside service support Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. Teaching and learning strategies The most common activities held recently to enhance teaching quality were drama, opera and movie shows for the two language subjects, writing contests for EMI Liberal Studies and visits for Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies (row 1, Table 3). Liberal Studies teachers and Mathematics teachers had organised study trips or visits since Secondary 5 more often than others (row 2). More students who were weaker in English Language and EMI Liberal Studies had benefitted from these enhancement activities (row 3) than students who were weaker in Mathematics (both through EMI and CMI). 56 Table 3: Responses about enrichment activities in teaching English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Most recent type of activity held to enhance the teaching of the subject Drama / opera / movie N = 31 Drama / opera / movie N = 7 Visit N = 6 Museum visit N = 37 Visit Writing course 2. How often has your panel organised trips or visits since F5 to enhance the teaching of the subject? 1 = Very often; 2 = Often; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Occasionally; 5 = Rarely or none N = 62 Mean = 4.3 N = 57 Mean = 4.0 N = 42 Mean = 1.5 N = 41 Mean = 1.4 N = 62 Mean = 3.6 N = 62 Mean = 1.1 3. Have the trips or visits helped the weaker students to enhance their learning? (5 = Very much so; 1 = Not at all) Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 2.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 3.0 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.3 Mode = 5 The implementation of the NSS curriculum has led to the use of new strategies (row 1, Table 4). CMI Liberal Studies teachers recorded the use of much more strategies than other teachers (e.g. 2.1 vs. 1.1 each by English Language and Chinese Language teachers; row 2). Amongst the range of recommendations by the EDB (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007a, 2007b, 2007c & 2007d), team teaching was the most widely employed one while peer lesson preparation, project learning and small group teaching methods were used at similarly lower frequencies (row 3). All teachers except those of Liberal Studies in EMI schools reported the use of strategies to cope with individual differences within their subjects (row 5). For this purpose, strategies like curriculum tailoring and tutorials were practised at similarly higher frequencies than the others. Cooperative learning was the least widely used overall especially in the case with Chinese Language (row 5). More new strategies (2.2) were employed in CMI Liberal Studies than in other subjects and in EMI Liberal Studies (0.8) in particular (row 6). Meanwhile, the NSS curriculum has succeeded in extending the focus of study from textbooks to other materials in Liberal Studies (CMI and EMI) much more than in other subjects. It had much less effect on Mathematics (CMI and EMI) in this regard (row 7) as well as on time-tabling across all subjects (row 9). Learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered to greater extents in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other core subjects (row 8). 57 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Table 4: Use of new strategies by teachers English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has the NSS curriculum led to new strategies for teaching this subject in the school? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 2. Mean number of new strategies employed 1.1 1.1 0.6 N = 42 0.5 2.1 0.0 3. What are these new strategies? (a) Team teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (b) Peer lesson preparation (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (c) Project learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (d) Small group teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (e) Others (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1.2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 N = 42 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 4. Are there teaching strategies to cope with individual differences in the subject? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 5. What are these strategies for coping with individual differences in the subject? (a) Streaming (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 N = 43 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (b) Tailor-made curricula (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (c) Co-operative learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (d) Tutorials (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 (e) Others Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 6. Mean number of teaching strategies for individual differences 1.7 N = 59 1.4 1.2 N = 43 1.3 2.2 0.8 7. Has the NSS curriculum led to a shift in focus from textbooks to other materials? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 58 English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 8. Has the NSS curriculum encouraged your students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 9. Has the NSS curriculum led to flexible time-tabling arrangements in your subject? (1 = Yes, 2 = No) Mode = 2 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. The following pairs of statistically significant relationships between teaching strategies and resource provision are worthy of investigation (Appendix 1): (a) The frequency of organising trips or visits to enhance the teaching of the subject was significantly related to and even dependent on (i) the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students if Liberal Studies was taught in English (item 1), and (ii) the number of types or resources provided in the case of the students of English, EMI Liberal Studies and EMI Mathematics (item 2). Significant relationships between pairs of variables warranting further analysis were also found in the following (Appendix 2): (b) The number of new strategies for teaching the subject was (i) significantly related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 3), and (ii) significantly related to the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the case of English Language (item 4). (c) The number of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was (i) significantly related to the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 5), and (ii) significantly related to or even dependent on the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and CMI Liberal Studies (item 6). 59 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study (d) In the case of English Language, whether the NSS curriculum could lead to the use of new teaching strategies was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 8). (e) In the case of EMI Liberal Studies, (i) whether the NSS curriculum could bring a shift in focus from textbooks to other forms of learning and teaching materials was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 9), and (ii) whether the NSS curriculum could encourage EMI Liberal Studies students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 10). (f) The use of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (item 11). (g) Whether the NSS curriculum could encourage students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was significantly related to or even dependent on the shift in focus from textbooks to other materials in the cases of English Language, EMI Liberal Studies and CMI Mathematics (item 12). Continuous assessment A hallmark of the first two cycles of the NSS curriculum (2009-12 and 2012-13) is the requirement for students of English, Chinese and Liberal Studies to be assessed six times internally in prescribed areas through their second and final years of senior schooling and their scores sent to HKEAA prior to the start of the written examinations. The two most common forms of this school-based assessment (SBA) exercise were project work and internal tests. Mathematics does not have any SBA requirement although continuous assessment is still encouraged (CDC & HKEAA, 2007e, 2007f). A majority of teachers had taken courses offered by the EDB or other professional training institutes on updating their knowledge of the related assessment frameworks (row 15, Table 5). Their rating about the easiness and fairness of SBA was due to (i) similarity in the difficulty of assessment for all students and (iv) the marking of assignments by different teachers (rows 5 and 6). Teachers of English and CMI Liberal Studies also attributed their ratings to (ii) the dependence of student training on their relative performance, (iii) streaming of students by academic level and (iv) teaching of classes/ students by the same teacher. Teachers except those of EMI Liberal Studies reported a lack of preparation materials for students (row 2). The mean number of supporting items named 60 by teachers ranged from 1.5 in Chinese Language to 2.2 in CMI Liberal Studies only (row 3). Materials provided by the EDB, HKEAA and other organisations were used more often than others. In terms of usefulness then, reference exercises ranked highest among English, EMI Mathematics and EMI Liberal Studies teachers (row 4). Sample papers were regarded as more useful than others for preparing students to take the examinations in Chinese Language, CMI Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies. SBA for English, Chinese and Liberal Studies was generally considered by teachers as a fair but difficult procedure for their students (row 6 and row 5). This trend was especially noticeable in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (with the mean value equal to 3.9). The large amount of time needed was the main reason for making it a problem in Chinese Language and Liberal Studies (row 16). The assessment of listening, reading, writing, speaking and integrated skills in English Language was considered a challenge (row 12) for students. 61 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 1. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f co m pl ex ity to w ar ds th e da ily a ss es sm en t in y ou r s ub je ct a t t he N SS le ve l? 1 = m uc h le ss c om pl ic at ed ; 5 = m uc h m or e co m pl ic at ed M od e = 4 N = 6 0 M od e = 4 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 4 M od e = 4 2. A re th er e en ou gh su pp or t m at er ia ls fo r st ud en ts in p re pa rin g fo r t he ir H K D SE ex am ? (1 = e no ug h; 2 = n ot e no ug h) M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 1 3. W ha t a re th os e su pp or t m at er ia ls ? (1 = us ed ; 2 = n ot u se d) M ea n N = 5 9 M ea n M ea n N = 4 2 M ea n M ea n M ea n Sa m pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 55 0. 6 R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 58 0. 7 Sc ho ol -b as ed m at er ia ls 0. 6 0. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 0. 8 0. 70 0. 8 R ef er en ce b oo ks 0. 6 0. 6 1. 6( N = 4 4) 0. 6 0. 72 1. 0 O th er m at er ia ls su pp lie d by E D B 0. 6 0. 6 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 0. 75 1. 1 M at er ia ls p ro vi de d by o th er b od ie s 0. 8 0. 8 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 1. 04 1. 1 M ea n no . o f t yp es o f s up po rti ng m at er ia ls u se d 1. 6 1. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 1. 6 2. 2 1. 9 4. W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g m at er ia ls o r pr og ra m m es is m os t u se fu l f or p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e H K D SE e xa m ? (“ us ef ul ” in th e qu es tio nn ai re s f or te ac he rs o f C hi ne se L an gu ag e, C M I Li be ra l S tu di es a nd C M I M at he m at ic s) 1 = S am pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 2 = R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 3 = R ef er en ce b oo ks 4 = T ea ch er tr ai ni ng fr om E D B 5 = O th er s M ea n no . o f u se fu l m at er ia ls fo r p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e D SE N = 6 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N = 5 9 1. 0 1. 1 1. 4 1. 5 1. 8 2. 4 N = 4 4 1. 5 1. 6 2. 0 2. 0 2. 0 1. 5 N = 4 3 M ea n = 1. 5 N = 5 3 1. 1 1. 1 1. 4 1. 6 1. 8 2. 3 M ea n = 1. 9 62 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 5. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e ea si ne ss o f im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed a ss es sm en t fo r y ou r s tu de nt s? ( 1 = ve ry e as y; 5 = v er y di ffi cu lt) M ea n = 3. 5 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 6 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 9 M ea n = 2. 4 6. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e fa irn es s o f cu rr en t s ch oo l-b as ed a ss es sm en t pr oc ed ur es fo r s tu de nt s i n yo ur sc ho ol ? ( 1 = ex tre m el y un fa ir; 5 = e xt re m el y fa ir) M ea n = 3. 1 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 5 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M ea n = 3. 2 7. T he re as on s f or th e ab ov e ra tin g ar e (a ) 1= Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s ta ilo r-m ad e. 2 = Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s th e sa m e am on g al l s tu de nt s M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 (b ) 1 = T he tr ai ni ng fo r s tu de nt s i s t he sa m e. 2 = Th e tra in in g fo r s tu de nt s i s de pe nd en t o n th ei r r el at iv e pe rf or m an ce . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 (c ) 1 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y th ei r ac ad em ic le ve l. 2 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y an ot he r cr ite rio n. M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (d ) 1 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y di ffe re nt te ac he rs . 2 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y th e sa m e te ac he rs . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (e ) 1 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by o ne te ac he r. 2 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by di ffe re nt te ac he rs . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 63 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 8. W ha t k in d of c on tin uo us a ss es sm en ts h as yo ur sc ho ol p ro vi de d? (a ) U ni fo rm te st s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) A ss es sm en t o f c la ss w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 4 1. 5 N .A . N .A . (c ) R eg ul ar q ui zz es (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (d ) Pr oj ec t w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 9 N .A . N .A . (e ) O nl in e as se ss m en t ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 8 N .A . N .A . (f ) O th er s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 2. 0 2. 1 N .A . N .A . 9. Is th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k cl ea r en ou gh ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 10 . C an th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k en ha nc e le ar ni ng ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n = 1. 1 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 11 . Th e pu bl ic e xa m in at io n as se ss es a bi lit ie s in L is te ni ng , R ea di ng , W rit in g, S pe ak in g an d In te gr at ed S ki lls . H as y ou r s ch oo l pr ov id ed e xt ra tr ai ni ng o pp or tu ni tie s f or te ac he rs to u pd at e th ei r u nd er st an di ng o f th e ne w a ss es sm en t f ra m ew or k in th es e ar ea s? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 12 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra nk th e di ffi cu lty o f SB A in y ou r s ub je ct ? (1 = m os t d iffi cu lt; 5 = le as t d iffi cu lt) (a ) Li st en in g (b ) R ea di ng (c ) W rit in g (d ) Sp ea ki ng (e ) In te gr at ed S ki lls M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 13 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e pr es su re on te ac he rs fr om th e sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t o f I nd ep en de nt E nq ui ry St ud ie s ( IE S) ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 4. 5 M od e = 5 M ea n = 4. 4 M od e = 5 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 64 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 14 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f di ffi cu lty o f s et tin g in te rn al e xa m in at io n qu es tio ns ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M od e = 3 M ea n = 3. 4 M od e = 3 15 . H ow m an y pe rc en t o f t ea ch er s i n yo ur pa ne l h ad a lre ad y ta ke n th e as se ss m en t- re la te d tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s? 1 = 0 -2 5% ; 2 = 2 6- 50 % ; 3 = 51 -7 5% ; 4 = 7 6- 10 0% M od e = 4 M od e = 4 N .A . N .A . M od e = 3 M od e = 4 16 . W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g is th e m os t im po rta nt re as on fo r m ak in g SB A di ffi cu lt? 1 = La ck o f s up po rt fu nd in g 2 = La ck o f s up pl em en ta ry re fe re nc e fo r te ac he rs 3 = La ck o f t ra in in g fo r t ea ch er s 4 = D iv er si fie d ab ili tie s o f s tu de nt s 5 = H ig h de m an d on st ud en ts 6 = La rg e am ou nt o f t im e ne ed ed M od e = 1 M od e = 6 N .A . N .A . M od e = 6 M od e = 6 17 . W ha t a re th e ad va nt ag es o f n o SB A o n te ac he rs a nd st ud en ts o f t hi s s ub je ct ? (a ) Th er e is m or e fle xi bi lit y in cu rr ic ul um p la nn in g. (1 = Y es , 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n 1. 4 M ea n 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) S tu de nt s’ pr es su re c an b e re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 1 (c ) T ea ch er s h av e m or e tim e to p ro vi de su ita bl e tra in in g fo r d iff er en t st ud en ts . ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) 1. 3 1. 2 (d ) T ea ch er s’ da ily w or kl oa d ca n be re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 2 (e ) T he sc ho ol c an im pl em en t b et te r- fo cu ss ed su pp or t t ow ar ds p re pa ra tio n fo r t he p ub lic e xa m in at io n. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 2 2 1. 3 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 65 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 18 . N o. o f a dv an ta ge s o f n o SB A in th is su bj ec t N .A . N .A . 3. 9 4 N .A . N .A . 19 . M ea n no . o f c om m en ts p er te ac he r ab ou t t he N SS c ur ric ul um a nd D SE ex am in at io n N = 2 6 4. 5 N = 5 9 2. 7 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 2 4 4. 2 N = 6 4. 8 T he n um be r of te ac he rs w ith a v al id r ep ly to e ac h ite m is g iv en b y th e nu m be r N f or th e su bj ec t c on ce rn ed u nl es s st at ed o th er w is e. T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 66 Teachers of Mathematics need not administer SBA in their subject. They could name four advantages for this arrangement, with the reduction in teacher workload and reduction in pressure on students being the two most common (row 18, Table 5). English and EMI Liberal Studies gave far more negative comments about SBA. Statistically significant relationships warranting further investigation were found as follows (Appendix 3): (a) The degree of easiness in implementing school-based assessment was related to and dependent on complexity in daily procedures in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and EMI Liberal Studies. In the case of CMI Liberal Studies, the relationship was significant but the former variable was not dependent on the latter (item 13). (b) The degree of fairness for implementing school-based assessment in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on complexity in the assessment process (item 14). (c) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Listening (item 15) and Speaking (item 18) in English Language was dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (d) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Reading (item 16) and Writing (row 17) in English Language was related to but not dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (e) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Speaking in English Language was related to but not dependent on the proportion of teachers who had taken the assessment-related courses offered by EDB or other professional training institutes (item 28). (f) The pressure on teachers from the SBA of Independent Enquiry Studies projects in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on the proportion of teachers trained in assessment (item 30). Discussion School, student and teacher backgrounds Although no sampling has been made to invite teachers for participation in this study, the profiles of schools and teachers’ experience obtained are generally compatible with official statistics. Similarities can also be found in the mean number of Form 4 and Form 6 teachers, students, classes and groups, the criteria for streaming Form 3 students into Form 4, and the numbers of teachers who had completed the subject-based curriculum and assessment courses. In the light of these trends, the questionnaire replies can be taken as 67 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study representative of the views of NSS teachers although allowance should be taken for those of the non-respondents. Provision of educational resources Teachers’ responses suggest that educational resources are often insufficient especially if additional manpower is concerned and marked learning diversity does exist in the class. The situation is especially critical in the first few years of the NSS curriculum which emphasises the use of new teaching approaches, coverage of academic content at greater depth and breadth and the implementation of school-based assessments in a majority of subjects. The EDB had offered a teacher professional preparation grant and a curriculum migration grant to all schools but they were to be shared by all subjects. Special resources have been provided in Liberal Studies in view of the numerous controversial issues for in-depth analysis and the need for providing guidance on the completion of an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). However, no similar manpower or hardware support is available to other core subjects probably because they have long existed in the curriculum. This situation is hardly satisfactory in view of the intensive preparations needed for SBA in Chinese and English and the higher demands for students in Mathematics when compared with those of the CE examination that has been replaced. More efforts are certainly required for helping students master basic academic skills (e.g. communication, application and computation), more advanced problem-solving techniques and higher-order questions. Teaching and learning strategies Teachers in general have taken steps to cater for learning diversity in the classes through the use of appropriate teaching strategies without sufficient support in spite of the importance given to educational resources by writers in the literature section. Questionnaire responses revealed that drama, opera and movie shows, writing contests and visits were often used for enhancing teaching quality and facilitating in-depth learning. This trend could be beneficial to students who were weaker in writing as well as students who were weaker in oral presentations as both groups were given more opportunities to learn how to express themselves and interact with others in a variety of real-life situations. Whilst team teaching was often used in the classroom, peer lesson preparation was used at much lower frequencies. This finding is surprising in view of the close relationship between these two strategies. However, it might be a reflection of the need to be pragmatic when teachers had little interaction time inside the staff room amidst a heavy workload, or that cooperation among them had long been running smooth. On average, the use of strategies which emphasized class discussion, debate and other forms of collaborative learning in the core subjects with the advent of the NSS curriculum and the DSE examination was still limited. 68 To cope with learning diversity amongst students, teachers were often making more use of curriculum tailoring and tutorials than streaming and cooperative learning procedures possibly because of the lower degree of organisation and monitoring needed. Mathematics teachers (CMI and EMI) were the less frequent users of new strategies overall and for coping with individual differences in particular. The facts that school-based assessment was not required in their subject unlike the cases with English, Chinese and Liberal Studies and that individual differences were less marked here might be the reasons for this trend. Because of its issues-based nature, Liberal Studies is a subject which requires the interpretation and analysis of news and commentaries available in a variety of publications and electronic media (Deng 2009). Many teachers had accordingly changed the focus of study from textbooks to other materials to greater extents than their colleagues. In a similar vein, learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered more in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other subjects probably because of the higher priority accorded to learning directly from other peoples (like visitors from other countries), local community figures (like legislative councillors) and various organisations (such as news firms and environmental groups). Meanwhile, teachers of CMI Liberal Studies were the more frequent users of these new strategies than their colleagues in EMI schools probably because of the need to spend more time on teaching in English and worries about students’ ability to discuss controversial issues with insight in a second language. It is difficult for teachers to organise visits, overseas tours or other out-of-campus activities for their NSS students during school days in view of the disruption to the other classes and difficulties in finding appropriate substitute teachers. The urge to complete the syllabus and allow sufficient time for revision work before the mock examination could make the problem worse. Teachers also need more time to analyse past exam and sample papers with students and assess how far the goals of learning and assessment laid down in the curriculum and assessment guides for the subjects have been achieved. The impact of the NSS curriculum on the flexibility of time-tabling arrangements was minimal after all for these reasons because teachers have to spend more time on identifying the gaps and modifying their teaching and assessment strategies accordingly. Meanwhile, an increasing range of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities has been organised for NSS students in many schools in recent years. To improve their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is a useful step in this direction. Study tours should be also improved so that students can participate in at least one during their senior years and thereby get more diversified learning experiences irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. 69 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Continuous assessment The majority of teachers, especially those of English Language, Chinese Language and Liberal Studies, were concerned about the lack of preparation materials for continuous assessments as well as the written examination. These feelings were understandable given that they were not too familiar with the new curriculum and students who would otherwise be siphoned off by the Certificate of Education system could now proceed to Form 6 and face the more demanding DSE examination. In many cases, the only materials that could be relied upon were the sample questions released in early 2010 and the exercises first available in September 2011. Many teachers could not well estimate the number of marks required for getting a pass or any other specified grade and thereby decide on how and how much to teach and assess. Even after the release of practice papers in January 2012, their worries about marking standards and the amount of preparation needed had not been much allayed, as could be inferred from a press statement issued by the HKEAA (2012b). English, Chinese and Liberal Studies are the subjects which require school-based assessments. The teachers concerned in general felt that the notion of SBA was fair because the validity and reliability of assessment could be enhanced if more aspects of learning (say, oral presentation besides writing skills) were considered and especially if marking and moderation for all classes were done by two or more teachers. They were in agreement with the view in the literature that wider-ranging assessments could encourage weaker students to learn and give due consideration to their overall abilities. However, in spite of holding such a consensus, they considered SBA difficult to implement effectively even after completing the courses run or commissioned by the HKEAA. More focussed training and workshop programmes are surely needed so that teachers can help students of diverse abilities to overcome the challenges presented by overly broad and challenging subject content and skills especially in aspects of assessment in which students have insufficient confidence (such as in the oral section of the English Language examination; cf. HKEAA, 2010). Mathematics teachers were more relaxed in their responses about continuous assessment probably because of the absence of an SBA requirement. However, they still gave many negative comments (about 2.6 per person) such as concern about time shortage, calls for the establishment of modules M1 and M2 as a separate subject and dissent with the introduction of SBA to their subject agenda. Teachers of English Language and Liberal Studies (EMI) were more vociferous. Together they gave an average of 4.5 to 4.8 comments which described SBA as too time-consuming, tedious, dysfunctional for promoting critical and analytical thinking, too demanding on medium- and lower-ability students, and creating too much workload for teachers and panel heads. Teachers overall were not receptive of SBA at least in its present format. Many of their calls were a mix of downscaling and outright abolition, ridiculing the official description of SBA as a normal part of the curriculum rather than an add-on process (CDC & HKEAA, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2007d, 2007e, 2007f) in the course of teaching and learning. 70 Suggestions Student-oriented teaching, independent learning and continuous assessment are the three new features of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination that could help weaker students to perform better and even narrow their gap with the more capable. The first two can facilitate the mastery of enquiry skills while the last can motivate students to study harder at all times and provide a basis for teachers to modify their approaches whenever warranted. Unfortunately, students in face of heavy workload may easily lose sight of what the focus of the curriculum is. The assessment burden may become so great that teachers cannot spend enough time on everyday curriculum planning and the upgrading of teaching quality. This study overall does suggest that learning diversity at the NSS level has not been well catered for hitherto, like what Lam (2008) has observed of three student communities in a mainstream Hong Kong school. A multi-faceted approach is needed for redressing the weaknesses and ensuring the successful implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination. For overburdened teachers, the provision of additional manpower is essential because only by then could they spend more time on catering for learning diversities. To enhance the quality of teaching and student interaction during the lesson, the numbers of students should be reduced to a maximum of 30 in the more capable classes and 20 in the less able. Reducing the size of less able classes can give more opportunities to teachers finding the difficulties which their students are facing and the ways needed for addressing them. Streaming procedures that create a balance of abilities with the more able accounting for a high proportion (say, 40% to 50%) in the class should be practised if its possible benefits on students (Glass, 2002) are found to be greater than strict ability grouping procedures. Unduly difficult subject matter, wide coverage of content and skills and a lack of time for revision and self-reflection may encourage teachers to hang onto didactic approaches, students to follow the steps of others indiscriminately if only to play safe, and continuous assessment to become a means for widening the ability gap instead of otherwise. To prevent these undesirable trends from appearing, on-going reviews for the tailoring of subject content and reshaping of examination procedures are needed especially with dynamic curricula like Liberal Studies. To ensure that all students irrespective of ability can benefit, this exercise should be accompanied by efforts for widening and deepening the extent of teacher inputs and competence than what the EDB and HKEAA (Fung, Tang & Chan, 2011) have been doing so far. Many teachers have attributed resource shortage as an obstacle to the implementation of the NSS curriculum. The EDB should coordinate the production of suitable materials by universities, government departments, Quality Education Fund, Hong Kong Education 71 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study City and relevant subject organisations after conducting school surveys at regular intervals. Instead of providing teachers with CD-ROMs and other items that may become quickly outdated, they should give priority to the establishment and updating of websites especially on new subject content, recommended teaching-learning approaches and the use of assessment procedures for the enhancement of learning. Such materials should focus on independent enquiry so that even students of medium or lower ability can learn to identify subject matter of personal interest and investigate issues in a systematic manner. Offering suggestions for the purchase and production of resources that can meet the learning needs of individual classes and students is another essential step forward. The introduction of an equitable system that cares for lower-ability students and less well-endowed schools is also helpful for minimising learning diversity, as what the case with schools in Victoria, Australia has shown (Beeson, 2013). Teaching approaches that neglect the ability and needs of mixed-ability classes can be stumbling blocks for improving the effectiveness of learning. Teachers can help the more capable ones explore into complicated areas and advanced concepts and master the skills for independent enquiry by using reflective and application-oriented approaches such as brainstorming, report writing, interviews and debates. Encouraging these students to join enrichment programmes offered by the universities and the Academy for Gifted Education is useful in this regard. Such programmes can be made more valuable by listening carefully to teachers’ views and increasing the number of students who are served. As for the weaker ones, priority should be given to approaches which can help them analyse knowledge and clarify misconceptions, such as group tutorials, tailor-made exercises, simulation games and role plays (e.g. Dowson 2007; Hue 2007). Meanwhile, cartoons and other forms of drawing are particular problems since they can be viewed from different angles like the witch and the beauty scenario. Guidance for students here should focus on the interpretation and comparison of alternative views through a variety of interactive teaching-learning activities. Recent years have also seen sharp increases in the organisation of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities for NSS students in many schools. To enhance their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is useful for this purpose. The organisation of study tours should be improved so that everyone can participate and get more diversified learning experiences in at least one of them during senior school irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. Opportunities for giving detailed insights on oral and written responses in exercises, tests and examinations are often seriously limited because of heavy workload and tight 72 teaching schedules. Teachers in every subject need more training on giving feedback and directions for improvement to students at different ability levels with respect to both the compulsory and extension sections in the curriculum. It is the obligation of the EDB to provide more enrichment courses and encourage teachers to conduct action research into learning diversity within their classes. Organisations like the Quality Education Fund and Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre can help by running award schemes and school authorities may reduce the size or number of classes that the teachers concerned have to teach. Staff development programmes which focus on the sharing of experience with mixed ability classes should also be run to enhance collaboration within the same schools and/or with other schools under similar situations. If only for alleviating the problem of time shortage, EDB and HKEAA should also restructure and tailor the curriculum to include only the essential content and cancel one of the compulsory modules in all popular subjects. Incidentally, holding the written examinations for the core and elective subjects in late April from the third cycle onwards instead of in late March in the first two can also provide more time for enquiry-oriented learning and teaching and the preparation of high-quality projects for school-based assessment. Running supplementary lessons in the post-examination periods in Form 4 and Form 5 is another possibility because teachers would be more relaxed then and students could have more time for learning at greater depth and reflect on their own examination performance during the subsequent summer vacation. As highlighted by Berry (2006) about the role of assessment strategies for teaching and learning, continuous assessment is another area of the curriculum where critical review is needed at regular intervals. To strike a balance between breadth and depth, the EDB and HKEAA should consider the inclusion of SBA in the core subjects only as an elective and make it compulsory for students wishing to obtain higher grades and/or gain access to government-subsidised degree courses in local universities. Like the case of offering a higher grade for English Language students who opt for the more difficult paper in Reading than the easier one, this practice can give advanced students more drive to learn as well as appropriate leeway to who are less able or who are only be seeking a pass grade. As for Mathematics, students should be allowed to study module 1 or module 2 as a separate subject (say, called Further Mathematics) instead of just as an extension of the compulsory part. This arrangement is congruent with the views of questionnaire respondents as well as international practice, such as that in England where Level 5 in DSE Mathematics (Extension) is taken as comparable to Grade A in Mathematics at the GCE Advanced Level (HKEAA, 2012c). It gives more motivation to gifted students to study challenging subject matter (if only for enhancing their chances of admission to science and engineering courses at local and overseas universities), and alleviates the 73 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study burden on the less capable ones in studying a module that is far too advanced. It also reduces the workload of teachers, who can then concentrate on helping the more able to achieve even higher and provide a firm basis for realising their potential in the study of the subject. Their colleagues not teaching Further Mathematics can meanwhile devote themselves to remedial and example classes with those who are less prepared. More workshops should be run to enhance the teaching of compulsory topics in view of the great variations in learning ability involved. Conclusion The New Academic Structure along with the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in Hong Kong has been introduced for good purposes, such as enabling more students to learn at depth before leaving for work, vocational training or proceeding to tertiary education. It seeks to reduce the examination orientation of secondary education and promotes more student-centred, enquiry-based and reflective practices of learning and teaching in schools and classrooms (Quong, 2011). Society as a whole can benefit in the long term as the educational level, creativity and critical thinking ability of the younger generation are raised. Unfortunately, the implementation of New Academic Structure has generated a series of controversies and heated debate both in the educational sector and the general public, ranging from its desirability and date of first implementation at the start, to the worth and content of Liberal Studies as a core NSS subject and the acceptability of DSE qualifications to local and overseas universities. Based on the results and discussion above, it can be concluded that the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in the four core subjects has so far not taken sufficient care of the needs of both the more able and less able. Providing adequate resource support, enhancing a paradigm shift about the nature of school learning, improving the quality of teacher training and conducting critical reviews of both subject matter and assessment methods from time to time are all needed for rectifying the situation and thereby raising the standards of all students even if the ability gap cannot be narrowed down substantially. Continuous monitoring and review of the situation for each of the core and elective major subjects are needed so that more definite and insightful conclusions about the catering of learning diversity can be drawn and more effective solutions can be identified. 74 References Ackerman P., Kyllonen, P. C., & Roberts, R. D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and individual differences: Process, trait, and content determinants. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Beeson, G. (2013). Students with additional needs. In P. 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International Journal of Innovative Interdisciplinary Research, 1(2), 142-150. 78 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es A pp en di x 1 79 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 7. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol H el pf ul ne ss o f tri ps /v is its fo r w ea ke r s tu de nt s to e nh an ce le ar ni ng Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 94 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 28 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 10 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 48 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 27 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .2 36 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 13 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 82 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 9 > 0. 05 8. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um le ad in g to th e us e of n ew st ra te gi es fo r t ea ch in g th e su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 80 5* si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 52 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 37 9 si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 39 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 80 8* si g. = 0 .0 5 Ph i / C ra m er ’s V 0. 28 8* m od es t; si g. = 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 14 .4 07 si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 77 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 41 1 si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 16 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 2 0. 15 si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 45 ve ry m uc h st ro ng er ; C ra m er ’s V 0. 88 ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es ( co nt in ue d) 80 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 9. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um br in gi ng a sh ift in fo cu s f ro m te xt bo ok s t o ot he r fo rm s o f l ea rn in g an d te ac hi ng m at er ia ls Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 00 1 si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 04 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 5. 00 8 si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 91 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 97 1 si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 0. 84 2 si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 26 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 17 .4 * si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 77 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 10 . R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 93 2 si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 22 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 27 si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 51 5 si g. 0 .4 73 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 99 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 73 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 16 .0 00 * si g. 0 .0 03 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 33 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 03 < 0 .0 5 11 . R ec ei pt of e xt ra re so ur ce s to c at er fo r le ar ni ng d iv er si ty am on g st ud en ts U se o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 15 9 si g. 0 .2 8 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 37 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 01 si g. 0 .8 2 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 80 7 si g. 0 .0 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 47 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 94 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 67 9 si g. 0 .2 62 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 27 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 04 0* * si g. 0. 00 00 <0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .0 27 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 94 3 si g. 0 .6 84 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .5 13 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 84 > 0 .0 5 12 . N SS cu rr ic ul um le ad in g to a sh ift in fo cu s fr om te xt bo ok s t o ot he r m at er ia ls N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 37 7* si g. 0 .0 2 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 92 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 20 <0 .0 5* Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 62 3 si g. 0 .0 06 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 59 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 10 8* si g. 0 .0 43 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 99 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 12 2 si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .5 63 * si g. 0 .0 04 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 19 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut te ac hi ng a nd le ar ni ng s tr at eg ie s A pp en di x 2 81 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 13 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Ea si ne ss in im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 51 * si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 46 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 41 1* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 78 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 1. 59 3 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 60 5* * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 46 5* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .4 29 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 5. 27 8 si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 53 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 35 5* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 09 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 30 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .0 42 * si g. 0 .0 50 Ph i 1 .1 84 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 56 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 3 < 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .5 1* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 23 < 0 .0 5 14 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Fa irn es s i n im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 78 9 si g. 0 .0 67 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 7 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 92 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 32 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 12 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 6. 80 7 si g. 0 .3 2 > 0. 05 ; Ph i 0 .5 34 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 32 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 19 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 21 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 94 1 si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 05 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 16 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 00 14 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .4 59 * si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .1 96 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 43 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 79 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 27 * w ea k; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 15 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 81 8 si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 29 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 19 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 75 ** m od es t; si g. 0 .0 10 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 10 8 si g. 0 .5 40 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 88 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 08 5 w ea k; si g. 0 .5 19 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t A pp en di x 3 82 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 16 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .9 16 si g. 0 .4 33 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 06 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 33 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 27 8* w ea k; s ig . 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 57 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 17 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .5 10 si g. 0 .3 69 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 32 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 69 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 00 7 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 61 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 06 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 57 > 0. 05 / / 17 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 74 si g. 0 .2 33 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 83 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 25 5* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 16 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .0 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 00 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 41 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 88 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 33 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 63 > 0 .0 5 / / 18 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 20 3 si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 4 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .3 98 ** m od er at e; s ig . 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b -.3 70 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 1 si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 68 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 01 w ea k; s ig . 0. 44 8 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 01 > 0 .0 5 / / 19 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .4 26 si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 18 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 42 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 72 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 26 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .7 12 si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 12 6 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 41 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 17 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 05 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 83 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 20 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .0 49 si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 20 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 75 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 7 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 17 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 92 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .8 31 si g. 0 .6 60 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 19 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 60 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .8 76 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 20 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 / / 21 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .7 76 si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 76 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 2 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 03 8 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .7 4 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 71 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 56 si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 25 2 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 07 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .1 16 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 97 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 / / 22 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .4 30 si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .3 65 si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 52 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 / / 23 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 66 si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 06 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 3 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 84 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 85 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 28 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .9 10 si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 16 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 28 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 26 6* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 31 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 38 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 98 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 32 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 87 > 0 .0 5 / / 29 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .2 61 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 15 m od er at e; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 81 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 57 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 52 6 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 27 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 4 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 69 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 14 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 38 > 0 .0 5 / / 30 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Pr es su re o n te ac he rs du e to th e SB A o f In de pe nd en t E nq ui ry St ud ie s p ro je ct s / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7 .7 67 s ig . 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 83 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 23 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 22 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .9 56 * si g. 0 .0 14 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .0 31 v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 06 7 ve ry w ea k; si g. 0 .8 13 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 05 w ea k; s ig . 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 86 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 87 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te 新高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究 楊沛銘、李宏峯、黃金耀、黃炳文 香港教師中心教育研究小組 摘要 香港學生到了中學階段出現不斷擴大的學習能力差異，情況在與三年制新高中課程 同時推行的 2012年首屆中學文憑試表現得相當明顯。本研究審視學校如何照顧不 同學習能力學生需要的情況，所需資料是透過多間學校的四個核心科目科主任填寫 網上問卷獲得。研究發現包括了資源短缺，使用探究性教學法和自發性學習策略的 頻率偏低，在學習機會伸延到課室外取得相當進展，以及評核安排上有不少缺點。 教師、校長和政府必須協力合作，使用有效方法改善新高中課程和中學文憑試的推 行，使不同學習能力的學生都能獲益。改善情況的方法包括減輕教師工作量，提供 額外人手，有更多教師投入的持續性課程評估，製作適時的物質資源，改變教學法， 以及改革考試以便促進學習而非只是量度。 關鍵詞 學習差異，新高中課程，中學文憑試，網上問卷，教學策略 89 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 林德成、李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 本文從三種不同課程實施的取向，討論通識教育科的現況和發展。在課程實施的過 程中，學校和教師偏向以相互調適取向實施通識教育科課程，並以不同的單元設計 和教學方式進行，當中發現種種挑戰。本文建議，未來的課程實施宜邁向創生取向 （或稱締造取向）。 關鍵詞 通識教育，課程實施，課程發展 甲丶緣起及研究方法 時光飛逝，轉眼間曾掀起香港教育界激烈討論的通識教育科（下稱通識科），已推 行了三年，第一屆通識科的公開考試結果也已揭曉，初步衍生了一些成功的經驗，也察 覺到一些挑戰，是時候為它把把脈，以檢視其現狀，總結其經驗，思考其未來。 作為新生科目的通識科，能否取得持續的成功和發展，達到預期的效果，有賴於課 程之實施模式及策略的恰當選擇。因此為通識科「把脈」，是包括釐清其課程實施的理 論脈絡，亦同時需要檢視該科現今施行的狀況資料，方可得出具有啓發性的結論，冀有 利其將來之課程發展。本文除了筆者之課程理論探討，亦着重引用質化及量化資料及數 據之分析。量化資料是參考兩個民間大型通識科之現況調查（其一為 2012年，香港教 育專業人員協會（教協）、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查，調查對象 90 包括 647名通識科老師及 2,806名學生，內容主要涉及他 /她們對通識科之教與學的觀 感。另一為教協從 2010至 2013連續四年都有做的通識科老師觀感調查，平均每年皆有 800份有效問卷）。至於質化資料方面，主要來自筆者分別訪談兩位資深通識科專家暨 老師專業培訓員 ─ 陳岡博士及黃志堅先生。訪談以非結構形式進行，環繞着兩位對現 今通識科現況之個人觀感，及探討兩位對通識科前境作專家之闡析及建議。下文首先從 課程實施理論層次分析通識科現今之實施狀況，並作出專業之建議，望能導引通識科走 上較理想的發展蹊徑。再從量化結合質化之研究分析結果，找出通識科現今推行情況之 強弱項，並以專業意見提出強項之鞏固及弱點之修訂建議，目的亦是作出前瞻性之改善 建議。 乙丶課程實施模式之檢視 所謂課程實施，即將課程現狀導向所欲的學習結果，也就是將課程計劃付諸行動的 過程。就算再完善的課程設計，若不能得到教師的理解與接納，並將其在課堂中付諸實 施，都始終是「文本」而已（黃政傑，1994）。 一般而言，課程實施有三種模式（忠實模式、調適模式及創生模式）（李子建、黃 顯華，1996；鍾啓泉，2005），以下筆者先對這三種模式作一簡單分析，為通識科的課 程實施現狀的剖析提供理論的參照。 (1) 忠實取向（fidelity orientation）的課程實施，是指課程實施為忠實地執行課程計 劃的過程。因此，在這種取向下，課程成功與否，其標準在於最終實施之課程 與預定課程計劃的落差程度。實施的課程愈接近預定的課程方案，則愈為忠實， 也愈成功。反之，若與預定的課程計劃差距愈大，則愈不忠實，效果愈差。這 種取向強調的是預定計劃之優越性及重要性，負責實施的教師則被視為教學「技 工」，應忠實地執行課程專家所制定的各項細節。可以說，這種取向沒有給予 老師任何修訂或彈性調適課程的空間。忠實取向若走到極端的地方，可能變成 課程當局為了切實執行一己的課程觀，而設計一種「防老師」（teacher-proof） 的課程，要老師鉅細無遺的執行課程指引每項細節，因此損害老師的課程專業 地位。另外一種不利學生學習之情況，就是老師礙於形勢，往往把不適當的 課程硬套在學生頭上，或是奉行一種「陽奉陰違」式的「表面課程」（surface 91 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 curriculum）（Bussis, Chittenden & Amarel, 1976），俱大大損害學生學習利益。 (2) 相互調適取向（mutual adaptation orientation）是人們認識到「忠實取向」之限 制及缺憾而衍生的一種較符合現今教育脈絡及現代思潮的課程實施模式。在這 種實施模式下，教師作為課程實施者，會考慮中央頒布下來的課程應如何在其 課室裡實踐，或作出調整，以適應其課室情境的特殊需要。這意味着老師身為 課堂之課程實施者，總是在因應各種具體實踐情境而調整既定的課程方案，以 適應學生的特殊需要。因此，調適模式要求教師充分發揮自己的實踐智慧，對 中央課程、學校情境及學生之需要進行綜合考慮，以塑造有效的校本 /班本課 程。顯然，這種課程實施模式，對老師的專業要求很高。老師既要能充分理解 中央課程之關鍵概念、核心技能及態度，又要清楚其學生之學習能力、需要及 特性，才能剪裁一套能平衡中央及校本需要的課程。 (3) 創生取向（或稱締造取向）（curriculum enactment orientation）下的課程實施， 則是師生在具體的課堂情境中共同合作、創造新教育經驗的過程。因此，根據 這種取向，真正課程並不是在實施之前便預定下來，它是因應情境、人物而衍 生出來的，有着解放教育理性之功用。此種課程可能完全脫離中央課程而出現 為一種師生共塑的實驗性質的課程。 通識科課程作為一門文理綜合的科目，是由「自我與個人成長」、「社會文化」及 「科學、科技與環境」三個學習範疇組成，強調跨學科思維技能的「獨立專題探究」（課 程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2007）。其在學校和課堂層面的實施則涉及單元的規 劃、教學人員（及團隊）的組構、教師運用各教學方法和評估方式的變化、學生在「獨 立專題研究」的參與和學習，以及課程與公開考試的配合等不同環節，情況頗為多元化 和複雜。因此有效的實施，必然要求教師作為「課程主人」，因應自己所處的教學情境 對課程進行調適。因此，忠實取向的課程實施並不適用。 另一方面，現有的通識科中央課程指引在課程目標和內容架構上給出了頗為明確的 指引，同時亦為教師詮釋、修訂和剪裁課程提供了空間，即是說，中央的課程政策乃鼓 勵教師採取調適的課程實施取向 ─ 也就是鼓勵各學校因應其學校特色、學生程度、通 識科老師的課程知能及覺知，設計一個平衡中央通識科要求及個別學校師生需要的調適 課程。 92 然而，正如上文所說，課程調適對老師的課程知能及課程覺醒均要求甚高，缺乏 相應經驗的教師難免遇到困阻。因此，就較理想的情況而言，部份學者如林德成（Lam, 2007）認為通識科的推行宜以全校課程發展取向（whole-school curriculum development approach）較一個教師合作團隊的 2至 3位教師的組合為佳。這是由於少數教師的協作 可能會導致「小圈子」合作，而通識科以外的教師可能會採取「隔岸觀火」的態度看待 通識科，學科間將會出現競爭的情況。 林德成（Lam, 2007）根據過往目標為本課程和香港躍進學校計劃（Lee, 2006）的 經驗，認為若通識科以全校取向推行，能產生校內不同教師在視野上的融合（fusion of horizons）(Gadamer, 1975)，對學生和教師在議題上不同的見解能產生良性的互動和對 話，理性地探討對方觀點上可能存在的誤解與偏見。這種不斷互動而衍生話語融合的方 式在某種程度上符合創生或締造取向精神。這種全校課程發展取向，要求學校重視「互 動」、「溝通」和「決策」，「創造課程發展空間」，令學校成員能「集思廣益」、「建 立共享目標和信念」（Lam, 2007, p.52-56）。將這些條件及氛圍轉化成可操作性的學校 課程舉措，就是可以看成通識科（尤其是「獨立專題探究」一環）是一師生共同塑造之 通識探究旅程，學校是成功形塑為一所「思考的學校」（a thinking school），內裡孕育 多元聲音、多元批判、多元視界及多元締造之環境，有締造意識及能力之老師及學生可 跨越現今通識科之藩籬，互相支持砥礪下探索一面又一面之新的視界。這種情境氛圍正 正是通識科老師從現今之「調適取向」，慢慢邁向真正「創生或締造取向」之必經過程， 也標誌着「創生或締造取向」之可欲性（desirability）及可行性（possibility）。 朱嘉穎（2009）亦有類似看法。她從教師專業發展理念研究香港某大學開設有關通 識教育課程發展與教學的碩士課程學員的看法，部份結果顯示（頁 64-65）：「教師在 實踐理念的過程中，需要對所處的教學情境作出分析和判斷，並根據這些判斷對所採用 的理念作出適切的調適⋯⋯雖然，來自不同學校的不同教師對同一理念的解讀會因為個 人經驗和情境脈絡的不同而出現差異⋯⋯在彼此的分享和交流中，學員們增進了個人對 相關理念的認識和理解。更為重要的是，在一個有相同目標的學習共同體中，學員們找 到了志同道合的同行者，即使面對困惑，教師情感上的負擔也得到略微的釋放」。因此， 無論在校內或校外，如果個別或少數教師能超越校內「學科」藩籬，以開放互動的心態 建立校內及校外的「學習社群或共同體」，這有助於締造老師們對通識科的精神更接近 理解，就算不能建立完全一致的看法，至少「和而不同」，尊重對方多元的觀點。 93 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 易言之，就通識科的課程實施來說，傳統理論中所強調的相互調適取向是必要的， 然而當前更為重要的是鼓勵一種全校課程發展取向，建構師生及師師的學習社群，為學 校邁向創生取向的課程實施創造充足的條件和寬鬆的環境。 丙丶課程實施的問題與反思 探討通識科課程實施這課題，讓我們首先從課程的單元規劃來看，吳家傑、李子建、 楊秀珠（2009）根據他們所支援的學校經驗，認為單元規劃策略大致可分為三大類型。 第一類為六個單元鋪排，獨立地施教，然後以跨單元方式補習，偏向「科目本質」的立 場，較強調「獨特專有」的取向。第二類為六個單元鋪排，不過先讓學生認識不同單元 的相關概念，假定六個單元有相若的深度，偏向「單元本質」的立場和「兼容等同」的 取向。第三類是把六個單元再細分為 7至 12個主題，再按同一單元不同主題的深淺、 學生學習的需要作調動，較偏向「順序本質」和多元化的取向（吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠， 2009，頁 71）。這些策略反映出不同學校及教師對通識科課程的單元規劃具有多元化的 現象，究竟哪些策略較配合學生的需要和促進學生學習成果，仍有待進一步研究。 另一方面，通識科課程及評估指引中強調通識科的教學應達到三方面的效果，即所 謂的 ABC，Awareness、Broadening及 Critical / Creative thinking。 社會事宜的「察覺」（Awareness）是指學生對社會、國家以至國際大事產生興趣， 對自己身為社會公民的身份、權利及義務之覺醒。觀乎現狀，這方面通識科的課程實施， 似乎頗有成效，如愈來愈多的中學生參與公共社會活動（如社會示威），且其中個別領 頭者的表現令人刮目相看。但這些現象是否確實為通識科學習之結果，尚需實證研究加 以證實。許寶強亦有撰文，促各界更謹慎看待通識科之公開考試成績與近年來青年人參 與社運激增之微妙關係（許實強，2012）。 至於 Broadening所指的「擴闊知識及視界」則似乎並未「到位」，而且遭到教師 與學生之批判，認為課程覆蓋面太廣，令教與學均見困難。Critical / Creative thinking， 即批判 /創意思考。現階段學生在這方面的表現亦有待加強。有報章報導，網上討論區 發現年青人容易墮入簡單「二分法」謬誤，採取非黑即白及「不支持 XXX」等於「反 對 XXX」等角度看待事物。總體來說，年青人較前更關注社會政治事宜，但其視野及 批判思維，尚有改善空間。當然，這種觀察亦須取得實證證據，立論方能成效。 94 2012年度首屆文憑試結果出爐，通識科考獲二級程度的考生達 90%之高。從數據 來看，通識科的課程實施似乎是成功的，然而對課程實施者 ─ 教師的問卷調查卻顯 示，當前的通識科課程實施中尚有不少問題，亟需我們關注和回應。 有關通識科的實施情況，上文所說共做了兩個大型調查研究。現將兩個調查之重要 發現歸納如下： 2012年之教協、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查發現，老師認為 通識科發展的首六個主要困難和挑戰，依次是：（1）要照顧太多學生、（2）學生水平 不足以應付課程、（3）學生對課程內容不感興趣、（4）教育當局的考評指引不清晰、 （5）缺乏好的教材，及（6）教育當局課程指引不清晰等。學生方面，所面對的主要困 難和挑戰，包括：（1）課程內容太廣和缺乏焦點、（2）老師的相關知識及支援不足、 （3）通識的考核方法令學生難以捉摸其評分標準、（4）學習通識變成了背誦術語等的 考試技巧、（5）沉悶、（6）工作量太多，及（7）難度過高等等（頁 14）。另外，一 些重要的調查數據亦列舉如下： 1. 超過一半學生（55%）對獨立專題探究最不感興趣，有超過六成教師及五成學 生認為需要删除； 2. 有四成教師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時，是馬虎了事；甚至有約三成教 師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時，有弄虛作假情況； 3. 約六成教師和接近五成學生認為，通識科內容太多； 4. 接近一半教師不滿負責通識科和考評官員的專業水平，課程指引之清晰度，及 教學支援。 2012年教協所做的調查結果則顯示，連續四年通識科老師認為任教該科的最大之 四個困難，分別為：（1）照顧學生學習差異、（2）準備 /更新課程教材、（3）處理 獨立專題探究、（4）教授學生批判、反思和獨立思考能力，其中「照顧學生學習差異」 一項連續四年居於首位。 該調查有另一個令人感興趣的發現，有超過三成老師對帶領學生進行「獨立專題探 究」的信心在 5分或以下，為第二個最沒信心項目（第一個為教授「現代中國」）。而 且平均每位老師須帶領 35.7學生進行「獨立專題探究」，甚至有 18%老師竟是帶領 50 95 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 人之鉅！ 另外，有關修改課程建議方面，大多老師認為須「減少課程內容」（69%）、「删 減單元數目」（60%），或「將部份單元轉為選修」（57%）。 上述兩個調查結果跟質化訪談結果有頗大共同點（質化訪談是筆者圍繞着「你認為 現今通識科的現況及困難為何？」及「你對你所指出的困難有何改善建議？」兩大課題， 向兩位專家作一非結構式訪問）。問卷調查歸納出來的結果大致是（1）每班學生太多， 以致學習差異大、（2）學習範圍太深太闊，而且課程及考評的指引不清晰，以致老師 被迫「過度教學」（over-teaching）、（3）師生都對「獨立專題探究」感棘手，及（4） 老師對提升學生之批判思維及獨立思考能力欠信心。訪談結果也歸納出三點，指出目前 通識科教師最關注的問題分別是「過度教學」、課程指引中的目標轉化欠清晰及「獨立 專題探究」定位失衡。三者亦互為影響。「學習差異大」問題涉及學校資源及教育局的 「」措施，短期內也未見解決之契機，故此，本文暫不贅言。而對於提升學生 之批判思維一項，將於下文闡析。現集中分析其餘三個議題如下： 一、「過度教學」及改善建議 通識科之所以會導致「過度教學」，是因為六個單元對大多數老師和學生來說太闊 太深，老師們都因為憂慮公開考試要求很高、範圍很廣，而選擇多教一些內容，力求寧 濫莫缺，以保障考試成績。當然，這也與課程指引不夠具體清晰有關。例如在「科學、 科技與公共衛生」單元中，課程指引建議可探討下列課題及副題： 公共衛生與社會發展的關係，如： - 用於公共衛生服務的資源及資源分配情況 - 文化、制度及經濟等因素對生活模式的影響 - 教育對公共衛生的影響 （課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2007，頁 38） 上述第一個副題所包含的教學範圍較清晰具體，學生及老師能清楚知道哪些知識概 念跟此是相關的。但另外兩個副題所觸及之範圍則過於廣泛而至模糊不清，師生不知從 何入手。最近香港通識教育教師聯會做了一個中期通識科課程檢討，針對這「過度教學」 96 問題，作了三個「瘦身方案」建議，同時亦作出一忠告 ─「若删剪太多，則可能有損 通識作為必修科所需的闊度，宜小心平衡」（香港通識教育教師聯會，2013），值得各 界熱心通識科發展人士深思。 二、課程目標轉化不清晰 課程目標轉化對教與學的影響，固然與課程目標本身的闡述有關，但現時香港學校 教育中的考試的「倒流效應」（washback effect）（Wall, 1997）亦是問題的癥結之一。 因為，相對於課程目標指引，公開考試的形式和內容似乎更直接影響着教師對課程的規 畫、教學和校內評估的設計。如兩位訪談學者反映，教師希望評分標準能作較長期之穩 定化，及現行之「標準參照評核模式」（standard-referencing assessment）能更公開和清 晰，並且提供更多的答題範本（sample scripts），以便於他們因應評估標準來準備教學。 有關方面應對課程目標的轉化加以更為具體的說明，以幫助教師對教學的重點有更 清晰的理解與把握，但另一方面，持份者也應警惕這種「為測驗而教學」（teaching for the test）的課程實施行為，避免通識科老師為了應付公開考核之廣度，而犧性教學上之 深度，喪失了通識科獨有之意義及貢獻。（註：根據最新發表的《通識教育科課程與評 估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、評估有方》文件（香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評 核局，2013），內裡羅列不少各單元的學與教重點及建議探究例子，均切合實際教學目 標和學生需要，可消弭上文所批評之「課程目標不清晰」之弊）。 三、「獨立專題探究」之落差 「獨立專題探究」（Independent Enquiry Study, IES）定位失衡是另一較為突出的 問題。根據香港課程發展議會，通識科的獨立專題探究，「容許學生在獨立專題探究部 份選擇適合自己的興趣和志向的課題進行探究」（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局， 2007，頁 7）。IES是通識科學習重要的一環，其設計旨在提供一種自主學習的經歷， 讓學生負起學習的主要責任，並發揮自我管理能力，以進行自訂主題的探究研習。「而 教師的責任是幫助學生達到他們的學習目標，隨着學習者的能力增強，教師的輔助應該 逐漸減退，以便將學習的控制權逐步轉移到學生身上」（頁 81）。因此通識科的獨立專 題探究，如果實施得宜，可逐步邁向前文所說之創生或締造取向的課程實施理想。 然而教協及通識教師聯會的調查卻發現獨立專題探究中的「弄虛作假」情況不少。 97 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 能力不逮的學生做來叫苦連天，教師的教導、監督及批改也吃力不討好。原因是教師很 多時候將其視為學術研究，以致會操練學生統計方法、問卷調查及訪談技巧，而非一種 自主探究的學習活動，結果令學與教束手縛腳，效果不彰。 筆者建議撥亂反正，減低現在因公開考試而要求高度標準化的評估要求。考評局應 多下放權力予學校更好設計獨立專題探究，使之與校本評估作無縫式結合，為教師恢復 獨立專題探究本來面貌 ─ 探究為主的學習活動 ─ 提供空間。香港通識教育教師聯 會的中期報告也有檢討「獨立專題探究」之存廢，亦提出若果取消獨立專題探究，則「學 生［會］失去一個甚有學習意義的學習活動」，其言亦堪咀嚼。 丁丶課程未來發展之前瞻 對於以上問題的解決，通識科教師作為課程實施者亦有自己的觀點和建議。香港教 育專業人員協會教育研究部（2012）的調查結果顯示，教師認為下列九項措施是解決通 識科問題最有效益的措施（2010及 2011年前九名的排序相同）：（1）、（2） 增加通識常額教席、（3）更多專科資源、（4）增撥學習差異資源、（5）暫緩自評外評、 （6）轉為選修選考、（7）只評合格或不合格、（8）評審通識教科書，及（9）提供更 多到校支援（頁 34）。除了增撥人手和資源外，教師也期望在「獨立專題研究」和「課 程範圍」方面有所改善。需要強調的是外部的資源、環境與評核固然是影響課程實施效 果的重要且必要之因素，但通識科要真正邁向「創生或締造」的課程實施取向，更為重 要的是教師之間、師生之間應視通識科為一持續性之教與學成效之探索旅程，不可輕言 放棄。通識科出現問題的成因頗為複雜，可能是學生之獨立思考及批判思維能力不彰， 也可能是老師的教學效能有待強化或批判思維及意識不高。後者構成了重要的教師課程 知能及意識需再提升和探究之課題。這兩方面之提升都會有助老師課程績效，不容輕視。 要做到這種多元視域交流，以達致「視域的融合」，課程發展處、學校課程領導階層、 大學師訓機構及通識科教師學會組織，皆可多舉行全校老師專業對話、同儕對話、學者 老師對話、邀請外界講者、及師生對話等活動。藉着這些對話及視界交流才能令老師⋯⋯ 能正視自己的角色與生活，願意從新的觀點、運用新的思維，來重新檢視過 往「視為當然」的課程實務與「習焉不察」的教學實踐，才可能有所覺醒 98 （awakening），才可能激發「課程意識」（curricular consciousness）、促進「教 學覺知」（pedagogical awareness）⋯⋯（甄曉蘭，2003，頁 72） 有了這些「課程意識」及「教學覺知」，老師便會「知道」和「明白」更多，並能 建立一個多面向的知識庫，及擁有專業覺知精神，知所批判，及知所捍衛。只有這樣的 老師及其產生的多元批判情境脈絡，才能教導出有獨立理性及批判思維的下一代。也只 有這樣的學校課程氛圍才能產生真正的「課程共識」，乃至「視域的融合」，實現通識 科課程的「創生或締造」課程觀（白雲霞，2003，頁 60；李子建，2010，頁 14；Lam, 2007）。 因此日後通識科的發展，除了考慮及增加常額通識科老師外，大學、教師 教育機構、課程發展處及通識科老師學會，應多重視協力挑起提升老師課程知能及意識 責任；共同形塑一全港性的專業對話及視界交流平台，俾能讓通識科老師對不同聲音和 經驗多見、多聞、多思考、多交流，從以重構其課程觀及教學實踐。至於各學校之領導 層及課程領導亦宜配合這一大環境之對話交流氣氛，多做一些相應的教師發展工作。容 萬城（2005）指出三種專業教師發展模式皆適合通識科老師，分別為知識與技能發展、 自我理解及生態轉變 1（Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992；李子建，2002，2005）。筆者認為其 中之「自我理解」模式似適合本文所指之建構校本對話及視界交流氛圍。若能成功建構 及持續發展，及過渡至「生態轉變」模式，必能形塑全校學與教之多元化及批判思維模 式，令老師及學生得益，也令通識科獨有的學科貢獻得以彰顯。 鳴謝 本文承蒙資深通識科專才及老師培訓專家黃志堅先生及陳崗博士給予寶貴意見，令 內容充實及有實質可貴的論證及啓示，在此謹表謝忱。 _______________ 1 第一種知識與技能發展模式主要是培養老師反思和行動研究、團體學習、溝通和解難能力；第二種自我理解模 式多培養教師的反思、鼓勵老師與他人分享知識和收集資訊，藉以建構共同目的、願景；第三種生態轉變模式 乃重視團隊工作、教師學習的自主性，並透過建立互信而合作的變化、促進集體學習和學習社群的建立。 99 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 參考文獻 白雲霞（2003）。《學校本位課程發展理論、模式》。台北：高等教育出版社。 朱嘉穎（2009）。〈教師專業發展理念的剖析 ─ 以香港通識教育科為例〉。《教育學 報》，36（1-2），53-75。 吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠（2009）。〈從單元規劃看新高中通識教育科的課程詮釋〉。《香 港教師中心學報》，第 8卷，64-72。 李子建（編著）（2002）。《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》。香港：中 文大學出版社。 李子建（2005）。〈專業發展社群、教師發展與課程發展〉。《香港中文大學教育學院 第七屆兩岸三地課程理論研討會論文集》，頁 97-109。 李子建（2010）。〈「通識教育支援計劃」的理念〉。載宋兆國、吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠、 葉殿恩（合編），《新高中通識教育科學與教資源冊》（頁 10-18）。香港：香港 中文大學教育學院課程與教學學系「通識教育支援計劃 ─ 課程銜接與發展」。 李子建、黃顯華（1996）。《課程：範式取向和設計》。香港：香港中文大學出版社。 香港教育專業人員協會教育研究部（2012）。《新高中通識教育科調查報告》。香港： 香港教育專業人員協會。 香港通識教育教師聯會（2013）。《中期通識科課程檢討報告》。通識教育研究會。 容萬城（2005）。〈香港教育改革與「新高中通識教育」的實踐與挑戰〉。《香港教師 中心學報》，第 4卷，43-53。 教育局、香港考試及評核局（2013）。《通識教育科課程與評估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、 評估有方》。香港：香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評核局。 許寶強（2012.8.20）。〈考評反映學習成效 ─ 從香港中學文憑試通識科成績談起〉。 《明報》，專訊。 黃政傑（1994）。《課程教學之變革》。台北：師大書苑。 甄曉蘭（2003）。〈教師的課程意識與教學實踐〉。《教育研究集刊》，第 49期，第 1 卷，63-94。 課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（2007）。《通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中 六）》。香港：政府印務局。 嶺南大學群芳文化研究及發展部統籌、香港教育專業人員協會、香港通識教育教師聯會、 新界西通識專業網絡協辦（2012）。《新高中通識科課程內容研究調查報告》。香港： 嶺南大學群芳文化研究及發展部出版。 100 鍾啓泉（編著）（2005）。《現代課程論》，台灣：高等教育出版。 Bussis, A. M., Chittenden, E. A., & Amarel, M. (1976). Beyond surface curriculum: an interview study of teachers’ understanding. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. Gadamer, Hans-George. (1975). Truth and Method. London: Sheed and Ward. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G. (1992). Introduction. In A. Hargreaves & M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding Teacher Development (pp. 1-19). UK/New York: Cassell/Teachers College Press. Lam, J. T. S. (2007). Fusion of horizons: Implications for a hermeneutical learning community approach of implementing liberal studies in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(1), 39-61. Lee, J. C. K. (2006). Hong Kong: Accelerated Schools for Quality Education Project (ASQEP) experiences. In J. C. K. Lee & M. Williams (Eds.), School improvement: International perspectives (pp. 159-174). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Wall, D. (1997). Impact and washback in language testing. In C. Clapham & D. Corson (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education (Vol. 7: Language testing and assessment) (pp. 291-302). Bosten: Kluwer. The present and the future possibilities of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong LAM Tak Shing John & LEE Chi Kin John The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract This paper discusses the status and development of Liberal Studies from three different orientations of curriculum implementation. It is argued that schools and teachers tend to adopt a mutual adaptation orientation to implement the Liberal Studies curriculum with varying modes of module design as well as teaching and learning. Challenges are identified during curriculum implementation. It is proposed that it may be desirable to move towards a curriculum enactment orientation in future implementation. Keywords Liberal Studies, curriculum implementation, curriculum development 101 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程 潛在的影響 陳國棟 播道書院、香港美術教育協會 摘要 本文嘗試以「考評制度」及所引伸的現象，檢視視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式會否對 視覺藝術教育課程帶來影響。當中發現考評制度中四個面向，有可能對課程帶來影 響，分別為：（1）作品集呈交方法；（2）藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法；（3） 文字在評核中佔據的角色；（4）藝術評賞的考核安排。考評制度成效的關注層面， 並非只就學生成績的個人層次作判斷，而是檢視整個「考評制度的機制」，並須瞭 解學生學習成果是否達到預期設定的目標。 關鍵詞 考評制度，成就描述，藝術評賞 甲、前言 從最新有關「新高中視覺藝術科」（以下簡稱：視藝科）文憑試的教師意見調查顯 示，不少教師認為新高中課程推展後，並不認同視藝科於任教的學校發展前景更為理想 （視藝教育關注核心小組，2013）。另一方面，在以往七年改革期間，有學者藉課堂觀察、 訪問及抽樣調查研究，發現教師及學生基本上認同視藝科改革的方向；學者更指出「改 革能重現視覺藝術教育的本質價值」（黃素蘭，2011）。兩者的意見為何出現如此大的 分野？及至首屆文憑試視藝科成績揭曉，達至 5級或以上的僅有 6.1%。不少民間團體自 102 發進行研究、發表文章，以及舉行研討會，以不同持份者的角色作出回應。前線教師普 遍認為評核的準則、考核範圍及作品集的呈分方式等均是爭議所在。教育作為糾結複雜 的場域，要探討教育的現象，必須有一個切入點進行分析（吳毓瑩、吳麗君，2002）。 本文嘗試以「評估制度」檢視新高中視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式，對視覺藝術教育本質 所帶來潛在的影響。 乙、 考評改革回應時代轉變 全球化資訊泛濫，全世界都在尋找「學習」的新典範。Greeno, Collins & Resnick （1996）將認知與學習的不同觀念整理為三種主要觀點：（1）行為實徵觀點（The Behaviorist / Empiricist View）；（2）認知理性觀點（The Cognitive / Rationalist View）；（3） 情境社會歷史觀點（The Situative / Pragmatics-Sociohistoric View）。行為實徵觀點的評 量方式傾向以量化的觀點評量學習的成果，貼近傳統的紙筆測驗的方式；認知理性觀點 評量學生能否掌握學科的普遍性原則，以及其運用策略解決問題的能力；情境社會歷史 觀點強調學生主動的探索及參與的歷程（吳毓瑩，1998）。就當代藝術趨勢以言，後現 代藝術重視創作與情境的關聯性。現代學習理論強調學生應作為積極建構意義的參與 者，符合藝術創作强調自主性規律的特色。源於世界的知識，應是學生學習與評量的原 點（陳素櫻，1997）。學生除了展示知識，更重要是在真實情境中建構知識，並展現創 意及解難的能力。傳統考核偏重於知識的陳述，忽略建構知識歷程的重要性（林素微， 1998）。過往，香港高級程度會考仍側重素描等技巧性的評核，未能提升學生文化素養、 創意思維及自學能力等，視藝科校本評核採用能展現學生創作情境觀點的「作品集」， 作為實作評量的工具，讓人期望能彌補以往的不足。 丙、 實作評量 ─ 何謂「真實評量」中的「真實」需要？ 早於 90年代始，檔案評量模式為美國不同州的學校所採用（江雪齡，1998）。從 教與學的角度，檔案評量有助教師可定時就學生的表現作出回饋，為學生作出整理、反 思及修正，達至持續改進及學習歷程（鄭麗玉，2005）。特別是藝術課程更應讓學生呈 現多元性的藝術表現，每個獨立的個體均有機會建構不同審美觀念、創作思維及各種媒 材的運用能力（陳育淳，2005）。不同學者以不同專稱表達這些新評量模式，如「卷宗 評量」（吳毓瑩，1998）；「學習歷程檔案法」（歐滄和，1998）及「近檔案評量」（李 坤崇，1999）等。 103 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 不同持份者對課程中哪些是最需要「真實」評量的內容持不同的觀點。Wiggins （1990）指出教師編排教些甚麼，學生便學習甚麼，最後就只評量甚麼，這是對實作評 量錯誤的理解。也有學者指出若教師的教學目標旨在訓練學生應付公開考試，這種評量 也有人認為是真實評量的方式（吳毓瑩，1997）。筆者認為這同樣是錯誤的觀念，這種 評量方式只能回應「考試情境」的要求，並未重視當今社會情境歷史的因素。另外，有 學者指出核心能力可以是學生畢業後所能展現出來的能力（劉維琪，2010）。這種見解 較為貼近情境社會歷史觀點。 學者強調當代課程改革的成功，必須在社會的脈絡中進行（吳毓瑩，1997）。若評 量的目標朝向世界的真實評量方式，「課程」、「評量」與「真實應用」或「真實生活」 應互相緊扣，課程內容應可應用於真實世界，或有相關連繫的事物（Linn, 1995），如 以往 60年代以現代主義及形式主義的觀念，進行創作及藝術評賞。但當今後現代主流 藝術觀如概念藝術、媒體藝術、環境美學、生態美學及視覺文化都講求與創作情境的緊 密聯繫，視藝科的「課程與評量」設計必須顧及這些因素。 考評局十分強調考評世界的公認性，導致評分準則傾斜於量化及僵化的性質，為了 滿足考評「公認性」的「真實」需求，會否成為考評中最核心的目標？會否因而減低視 藝科本質的展現？甚麼是新高中文憑試「真實」的評量目標，並導引出正確的考評或課 程？這是學者對課程改革的深度觀察及爭論焦點。 丁、 持份者對考評改革的疑慮 台灣高中公開考試被戲稱為「一刀斃命」的高風險評量；而多元評量的教育改革， 也被負面地稱為「凌遲致死」（吳毓瑩、吳麗君，2002）。就本土情境而言，學者及教 師一方面認同改革的精神，另一方面對考評的方式極為疑慮。產生這種矛盾現象可歸納 為四種不同的意見：（1）作品集呈交的方法影響評分；（2）依據「成就描述」的藝術 評賞評核方法；（3）文字在評核中佔據過重的角色；（4）藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相 連的考核及評分安排。 一、作品集呈交方法影響評分效度 就視藝科而言，創作的檔案是展現個人藝術能力的最簡易的途徑。Valencia & Calfee提出檔案可以分為三種模式：展示型檔案（showcase portfolio）、文件型檔案 104 （documentation portfolio）及評鑑型檔案（evaluation portfolio）（鄒慧英，2000）。當 中評鑑型檔案屬於標準化的型式，主要功能與傳統客觀式測驗有相近的地方，檔案評分 的範圍已經事先決定，學生主導權相對較低。考評局採用的屬評鑑型檔案，因學生需回 應評分的量度準則，創作的思維受到限制，但學生仍有空間主導整個創作歷程，而爭議 點在作品集呈交方法所引伸的問題。 Mehrens（1992）建議在考慮採用實作評量的效度時，應從是否藉評量方法或工具 量度正確的領域、測驗內涵取樣是否適切、如何推論等問題方面考慮。大部份老師不 介意負擔額外的工作，但「作品集的定義及頁數的爭議」引起極大的討論（黃素蘭， 2011）。有誤傳作品集「越多及越大就越好」。相反，也有學者認為整理作品能有助清 晰及簡潔展現作品集表現，如篩選、整理、表達及分享等能力，都值得學習（黃素蘭， 2011）。也有不少教師支持將整件學生作品集呈交給考評局，作為檢驗學生校本評核的 證據。在討論有關校本評核評分方法的研討會中，有教育局代表曾提出「不准整理作品 集」，以及所有探索應在工作簿內進行的要求。有教師推測，這是為了避免學生有作弊 的現象而作出的安排。 考評局要求學生每一件作品集選取 12頁作代表（或 24頁縮印為 12頁），作品集 要求不可被編輯。最終，每一位學生將超過 100頁以上的作品集濃縮至 12頁，並且以 不超過 15 Mb的 PDF檔案呈交。這「並不連貫」的作品集選頁，如 Benjamin所言，作 為失去氛圍「壓縮影像」的印刷品（Benjamin，譯 2006），未知能否保持評量的效度。 考評局所舉辦的工作坊提出被選取 12頁的作品集，需展示「緊密發展性」的創作意念。 有教師認為 12頁的數量並未能反映學生最有價值的歷程，也很難反映彼此之間的關聯 性。老師反映「作品集只交數頁，又不能整理，根本不能顯現學生作品的過程」；「完 全不認同用以調分的 12+5頁『作品集』無須經過整理，調分員也能審核考生在創作過 程中的各種能力表現⋯⋯調分員可能未能全面評核學生的能力，會產生不公平的現象」； 「作品集應整本評核，甚至派員到校評審學生作品，如 IB課程一般⋯⋯」（《香港美 術教育期刊》，2013a）。盧雪梅（1998）指出「不能為了運用上的方便或簡單的理由， 把評量的層面給窄化或偏狹，評量者應配合教學目標選擇和其目的相合的評量方式和工 具，以落實多元化的評量」。 筆者最擔心為了容易獲取成績，「緊密發展性的創作意念作品集」的呈交要求，無 105 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 形誘導老師以「樣式化」的創作歷程指導學生，影響課程的本意。有老師認為「學習公 式化，用套路答題」（童傑，2013.4.29）。學生為了獲取高分數，最終仍是以「應試」 的態度去創作。老師只按照評分準則要求的四個重點教學，而學生於作品集中公式地進 行記錄及創作。創作思維應該是提升和多元的，並非一定以線性的邏輯推演主題，創造 力的意識也可以是擴散性、跳躍性及其他的可能性。學者從大量有關創造力的研究中仍 找不出一種必然的定律，只能找出表現創造力的不同特質。筆者擔心學生最終並未享有 真正創作的自主權，而自主性正正是創造新事物的創作者必須擁有的條件。筆者也懷疑 學生因只能呈交濃縮後的 PDF檔案，對創作中強調色彩、線條或調子細緻性風格的同 學不利，因檔案未能重現原貌，影響審核員（moderator）對作品判斷，進而影響分數。 課程改革期望學生能提升「後設認知」，進而「終身學習」，如 Dutt-Donter & Gilman （1998）認為「學生能自我反思及有系統的闡述其信念價值」，最終學生能「學會學習」， 但現在的安排是否能達到視藝科課程改革的目標及原意？ 二、藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法 實作評量雖能配合當代的教育情境，若運用於升學考試的性質，仍面對不少挑戰。 Mehrens（1992）認為實作評量要達至信度，評分者間的一致性、評分歷程的客觀性、 考核內部的一致性，評分者的選擇和訓練、明確的評分規範，以及定期檢視評分者的表 現等都是重要的元素。 視藝科有別於其他文憑試科目，視藝科較貼近當代文化的動向，學生跟隨當今藝術 創作及評賞的模式，形成他們勇於以多樣性的藝術形式以表現他們的想法。課程也同樣 趨向多樣化及動態化，並比其他科目為多。現今藝術評賞安排在文憑試中進行，文憑試 要求學生在 45分鐘的時限內，從五組（每組兩張）不同時代、國家或風格的相關主題 作品中，選出一組進行評賞，這安排引起極大爭議。藝術評賞主要要求學生以「成就描 述」中四個評分準則作為評論方向。而四個評分準則是於中小學課程中，採用了 20多 年費爾德曼（Feldman）的評賞模式（簡稱費曼模式）為依歸。費曼模式建構於現代主 義中形式主義的美學觀，而主張形式主義的學者認為觀者能單以作品所採用的藝術形 式，就能詮釋作品所要表現的訊息。此外，在「成就描述」中傾向依據量化性質的評核 方法（陳國棟，2012）。 筆者及一般前線教師都十分認同藝術評賞在藝術教育的必要性及重要性。爭議點在 106 於現今藝術評賞評核方式，未能回應當代藝術的發展之餘，也錯誤引導學生可隨意解讀 作品的態度。當代作品重視創作情境，作品形式或表達手法有可能因應創作情境，表示 出簡約及只隱藏單一訊息，而重點在於創作者要藉作品反映或諷刺哪一個社會的面貌， 將作品形式與作品相關背景兩者相連，才能學習到當代藝術評賞的精神，當中並不能單 單以量化方式評估藝術評賞的質量。 此外，筆者認為考評要在 45分鐘內完成過於困難，更嚴重的是在沒有賞評考核範 圍及沒有提供任何背景的情況下，學生無從稽考，但為了獲取分數，只好胡亂推敲，最 終以看圖作文的方式完成評賞。不少老師也同樣有相同的見解：「學生不可能對每一位 藝術家有所認識，如果強迫學生去評賞，最後只會做成一個『吹水』局面。（《香港美 術教育期刊》，2013b）。此外，也有老師認為「無明確範圍是其一，古今中外的作品 甚至廣告，也可以出題，學生難以準備好古今中外所有藝術家的師承脈絡才去應考。」 老師不諱言「學生有時只能看圖作文『吹水』」（童傑，2013.4.29）。學生也認為：「評 賞筆試『只能靠估』，猶如『看圖作文』，對自己是否正確解讀創作原意並無把握」（梁 子健，2012.1.11）。學者更嚴肅地指出：「更災難的是考生還要根據這個『吹水』的答 案，延伸其意念至創作卷中，因此其答題的取向將直接影響考生藝術創作的取態⋯⋯『胡 亂虛應』成為高中視藝的創作主流。」（黎明海，2013.5.9） 明確的評分準則也可能引導了學生詮釋作品思維的方向，最終只以單一評賞結構方 式進行，謝絕了學生運用其他評賞模式的可能性。教師為了針對考試要求，自然同樣依 從這種由四個步驟組成的評論結構編寫評賞課程。評賞課程的設計最終難逃單一化的命 運，考評雖然能達至信度的要求，但學生評賞寫作的方式，與後現代詮釋藝術的方法發 展背道而馳。筆者認為藝術評賞的評核應安排在校本評核中進行，此舉有助學生就被評 賞的藝術品，尋找更豐富作品的情境資料，進入更深度的詮釋。新的藝術觀念，應以新 的思維作出回應。本人曾參與由考評局舉辦有關評分員的工作坊，老師即場以考評局提 供的評分準則為一些學生評賞評論進行評分，目的是看看老師能否掌握以費曼模式為原 則的評分規則要求，在場一位老師提出考評局解讀費曼模式的方式，與她從台灣學者所 寫的論述及大學時所學習的有所不同。工作坊講員提出評分員必須以考評局提出的評核 準則作為依據，經一番議論後，老師最後憤而離場。從上述的事件反映考評局在評分方 式的培訓中無形左右了教師對藝術評賞的觀念，教師為了教導學生獲取分數，自然依據 評分準則作為課程編制的重點，評賞課程設計呈模式化，最終局限了學生的視野及發揮。 107 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 有關當局未能就考評信度的要求與當代藝術評賞課程發展作出合理的協調，考評信度凌 駕當代課程的發展。前國際藝術教育協會會長 Boughton（2005）認為後現代思潮挑戰藝 術在教育的觀念。視藝科的評量需顧及質性與量性兩方面，才能明確指出教師對學生表 現對藝術評賞的觀念的期待與正確的學習方向（史美瑤，2012；李坤崇，2006）。 三、文字在評核中佔據過重的角色 藝術評賞是首次安排在視藝科公開評核之中，文字在視藝科從未佔據如此重要的角 色。多元評估沿於多元智慧的觀念，旨在證明不同的人擁有不同的智慧，單一智力的測 驗未能反映人擁有不同能力的全貌。教育系統應從單一方向，以文字為主導的方向轉向 多元性的考核。」Garcia & Pearson（1994）指出：「傳統評量的題目往往代表著主流文 化及社會中高階層的價值觀，不利於來自弱勢文化及社會低階層的學生。故在此強調多 元文化的時代，這種不公平的傳統評量已受到了強烈的批評」。教協籌委梁德賢認為： 「弱勢學生最差是文字描述，他們愛創作但寫作及組織能力不一定強，結果只能有兩種 選擇：一是背誦，一是放棄。」（教協報記者，2011）。教育局（2011）強調公開考試 應「能有效、公平和客觀反映課程宗旨、構架、本科價值和學生能力」。文字正正並非 本科價值的目標，過量的文字要求扼殺有潛質的學生的直覺、創意及想像力的發揮。教 師認為：「評考模式對語文能力偏低的學生不公平，評賞部份應接受多元的評核方式， 如口頭匯報」（《香港美術教育期刊》，2013a）。 Boughton指出：「評核法的原意是給予學生機會，展示他們（學生）在美術創作 途上的歷時性（performance over time）及抒發作品背後的理論架構、哲學或個人反省」 （朱穎琪，1999）。若從另一個角度觀察，作品集的歷程是協助學生提升「後設認知」 的能力，也是檢視學生在創作層面中「後設認知」的表現能力。筆者認為「後設認知」 並非單靠文字表達，若老師或審核員能從學生完整的作品集中，觀察到無論在媒介、創 作手法、藝術情境不同方面作為參考，藉視覺性的探索中，瞭解學生如何經歷「接納、 變遷、解脫、到超越」的創作過程（蔡明哲，2006），文字只是擔當輔助的角色。 筆者發現老師未能將「視覺語言」及「文字」於視藝科課程擔當的角色，作出合理 的安排。一方面，老師應以擴展學生「視覺創作能力」、「視覺表達能力」及「視覺素 養能力」為己任。不少老師安排時間教導學生如何撰寫作品集及藝術評賞，課程中安排 創作能力的訓練相應減少。筆者從文憑試擔當監考員發現，不少學生創作及繪畫能力欠 108 佳。此外，從探討新高中會議中，任教大專的教師也表示現今的學生不懂繪畫。作為以 「視覺思維」為核心的科目，若學生將時間過量放在「文字」的要求，因而影響了創作 的質量，這是值得進一步的反思。 四、藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相連的考核及評分安排 以往藝術科的公開考試以技巧為主，學生只以「畫室模式化」的繪畫方式面對考試， 而未能反映後現代藝術發展的特色，就是重視情境及社會的意識。「當今『後現代社會 學』不再把個人主觀認知和外在的社會群體認知全然二分，藝術的創作和表達成為不全 然是個人對社會的反映，也受制於整個社會價值取向。」（陳秋瑾，1999）。 文憑試藝術創作部份佔總分 40%，評分準則分為五部份：（1）媒材及技法的選擇 和運用，（2）視覺元素及設計原理的選擇和運用，（3）創作與評賞的關係，（4）創 意與想像力及（5）主題傳意各佔 18%。新高中視藝考試中藝術創作必須與藝術評賞緊 扣相連，評賞在沒有考核的範圍下，學生並不容易確定作品的社會及文化等背景，若創 作建基於這不確定的第一因，學生如何延伸評賞作品文化及社會的維度，以及將個人的 情感及想像納入為創作的元素？學生只能以猜測的態度進行創作，在不確定的第一因 下，如何適當地運用其他評分項目如：視覺元素、設計原理、創意與想像力，而達至主 題傳意的效果呢？ 從分析發現，影響分數的並非單單「創作與評賞的關係」一項，而是不同評分準則 之間彼此串聯。當學生於「創作與評賞的關係」掌握得不理想時，其他評分部份也會受 到干擾。史美瑤（2012）認為採用評估表格須注意，若相關成就描述的文字過於公式化， 學生只會依照所訂出的規格來創作，因而抑制了學生的創造力。曾有學者以「素描」創 作為例，探討他們的創作及評賞背後的傾向，結果發現大部份的學生是以「具有共識」 （獲取高分的公式）態度及目標去進行創作或鑑賞；只有極少數學生能嘗試挑戰共識， 以另一種合理的角度或方式呈現答案（陳秋瑾，1997）。若「創作與評賞的關係」成為 他們創作的主要條件，他們將也會按照「具有共識」的態度進行創作，就是學生只能將 意念放在被評賞的作品，學生可能瞭解作品的意念，或只能是建基於懷疑之中，而非在 情境之上。學生的創意未能獲得自由和自主的思想空間。學生在作品集中要把自己的創 作硬性規定與藝術品評賞有聯繫，實在限制了學生的創意及發揮。 109 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 戊、 總結 一般人認為學生的學習與滿意程度均由老師負起全部的責任。這種歸因的邏輯令教 師承受不公平的看法。學者對這現象提出警告和呼籲，實作評量的推展並不能單建立在 信念上，而是要建立在實際的證據上（Linn, Bake & Dunbar, 1991）。這次大規模的教 育改革，評量成效的關注層面，並非只是學生成績的個人層次；檢視「評量的機制」， 檢視學生的學習成果是否達成預期設定的目標？如何進行改善或修正也應作為考量之一 （劉維琪，2010）。香港連續三年被選為全球化指數排名榜首，學者提出「情境社會歷 史觀點」最能回應當今全球化的社會情境。在當代藝術的觀念中，藝術創作重視創作者 個人經驗與情境互動為主，藝術評賞則重視藝術品的客觀情境，然而，文憑試的要求卻 剛剛相反。考評制度出現扭曲的現象，但教師為了讓學生獲取分數，只好以「應試模式」 編寫校本課程，故考評制度具有對視藝科課程潛在的影響性，干擾教師課程設計方向， 以下提出四方面作出回應： 1. Educational Testing Service（1990）的報告指出，重新設計實作評量的方案相對 現有測驗模式昂貴十倍以上。以實作評量（作品集）作為考核，必須考慮有否 足夠的經費持續運作這系統。考評局應提升運作的經費，來確保調分員能清晰 及完整地了解學生作品集的歷程及質量。 2. 依據現代主義費曼模式所建構的「成就描述」已經過時，應建立一種能回應當 代藝術文化的藝術評賞評分框架，讓學生能脫離單一的評賞模式，擴展學生的 視覺素養，而藝術評賞應安排於校本評核中進行。 3. 文字在評核中應只擔當輔助角色。考評局應提供正確的範例，並釐清視覺表達 及創作能力才是中學階段課程的核心。 4. 藝術評賞與創作的必然聯繫，只會扼殺學生的創意及創作的自主性，必須廢除。 兆基創意書院校監黃英琦指出，「藝術科目在舊制下雖是冷門，但現時是『令冷 門的更冷門』」；「我曾見過有學生很有興趣和天分，也因為考試而放棄藝術，令人感 到很殘酷」（童傑，2013.4.29）。視藝科考評及課程的「真實」需要是甚麼？是「以制 度為本」的運作考量？還是「以人為本」？還是為「香港創意人才培育」為主要考量？ 2012年台灣舉行的「SGHC全球化人力資本高峰會」，提出兩項重要的觀念：「如何避 110 免扼殺創意的事件發生」及「瞭解如何創造更有創意的人力」（Haren，2012）。「如 何避免扼殺創意的事件發生」是兩屆視藝科文憑試後，值得進一步探討的重要議題。 參考文獻 《香港美術教育期刊》（2013a）。〈前線教師對新高中視藝科文憑試回應〉。2013年 第 1期，6-7。 《香港美術教育期刊》（2013b）。〈學生李家豪心聲〉。2013年第 1期，8。 史美瑤（2012）。〈提升學生學習成效：評估表格（Rubrics）的設計與運用〉，《評鑑 雙月刊》，第 40期，39-41。 朱穎琪（1999）。〈訪問包頓教授（Professor Doug Boughton）〉。《香港美術教育期刊》， 1999年第 3期，8。 江雪齡（1998）。〈檔案評量法〉。《中等教育》，49（4），79-84。 吳毓瑩（1997）。〈評量的蛻變與突破 — 從哲學思潮與效度理論思考起〉。《現代教 育論壇蛻變與突破：紙筆及另類評量的理念與實務》，2，189-203。 吳毓瑩（1998）。〈我看、我畫、我說、我演、我想、我是誰啊？卷宗評量之概念、理論、 與應用〉。《教育資料與研究》，20，13-17。 吳毓瑩、吳麗君（2002）。〈從比較教育的取向討論測驗評量在教育銜接中之意涵 — 一個可能的研究途徑〉。《國立臺北師範學院學報》。第 15卷，313-316。 李坤崇（1999）。《多元化教學評量》。臺北：心理出版社。 李坤崇（2006）。《教學評量》。臺北：心理出版社。 林素微（1998）。〈實作評量在數學教學上的應用〉。載臺南師院測驗發展中心（彙編）， 《國小教學評量的反省與前瞻》（頁 89-105）。臺南市：臺南師院。 教育局（2011）：〈問與答 — 新高中視覺藝術科課程〉，2012年 11月 13日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/kla/arts-edu/q-and-a/nss-qa.html。 教協報記者（2011）。〈新高中視覺藝術科 — 培育創意人才？扼殺學生興趣 — 教 育工作者談視藝科課程與考核的嚴重謬誤〉。2012年 11月 13日，取自 http://www. hkptu.org/ptu/director/pubdep/ptunews/590/m01a.htm。 梁子健（2012.1.11）。〈文憑試視藝考生要靠估　評賞罕見當代作品　艾未未「兩腳桌」 也列題〉。《星島日報》，A06版。 111 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 陳育淳（2005）。〈大家一起寫情書 — 談視覺藝術教育的形成性評量〉。《美育雙月 刊》，第 146期，59-69。 陳秋瑾（1997）。〈臺北市立師範學院美勞教育系學生「素描」概念的探討〉。《臺北 市立師範學院學報》，28，399-418。 陳秋瑾（1999）。〈視覺藝術與哲學觀〉。《現代教育論壇：視覺藝術與哲學觀》，5， 203-208。 陳素櫻（1997）。〈回歸評量的本質談開放教育中的評量〉。載鄧運林（編），《開放 教育多元評量》（頁 19-27）。高雄：高雄復文。 陳國棟（2012）。〈以約翰．霍金斯（John Hawkins）「創意生態學」反思藝術教育的 生態兩難困境〉。《香港美術教育期刊》，第 2期，27-30。 童傑（2013.4.29）。〈視藝科負擔重師生叫苦　連夜趕報告掀起退修潮〉。《星島日報》， A13版。 視藝教育關注核心小組（2013）。〈九成視藝科教師對高中視藝科失信心　教育局及考 評局必須對課程及考評機制作出具體改革〉。《香港美術教育期刊》，2013年第 1 期，15。 黃素蘭（2011）。〈高中視藝科考試改革的風波〉。《香港美術教育期刊》，2011年第 1期，7-10。 鄒慧英（2000）。〈多元化的檔案評量〉。《國教之友》，52（1），16-23。 劉維琪（2010）。〈推動學生學習成果評量的機制〉。《評鑑雙月刊》，第 26期，6-7。 歐滄和（1998）。〈談學習歷程檔案法的點點滴滴〉。《教育資料與研究》，第 4期， 28-30。 蔡明哲（2006）。〈全球化與中國文人水墨畫的藝術界域問題 — 民族主義的張大千和 沒有主義的高行健〉。《哲學與文化》，第 33卷第 10期，115-132。 鄭麗玉（2005）。《教育心理學精要》。臺北：考用出版社。 黎明海（2013.5.9）。〈新高中視藝教育喪鐘再響〉。《星島日報》，F05版。 盧雪梅（1998）。〈實作評量的應許、難題和挑戰〉。《教育資料與研究》，第 20期， 1-5。 Benjamin, W.（2006）。《機械復制時代的藝術》，李偉、郭東（譯）。重慶：重慶出版社。 （原著出版年：1935） Boughton, D.（2005）。〈大夏講壇 20講：美國北伊利諾大學道．柏頓教授談「國際藝 術教育評價的現狀及發展趨勢」〉。《大夏人文》，2006年第 1期，44-45。 112 Dutt-Donter, K., & Gilman, D. A. (1998). Students react to portfolio assessment. Contemporary Education, 69, 159-65. Educational Testing Service. (1990). Helping America raise educational standards for the 21st century. Annual report. Princeton, NJ: Author. Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Assessment and diversity. In L. Darling-Hammand (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, 20, 337-391. Greeno, J. G., Collins, A. M., & Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Haren, F.（2012）。〈人才發展也要創意激發〉。SGHC 2012全球化人力資本高峰會議。 Linn, R. L. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice- Hall. Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Dunbar, S. B. (1991). Complex, performance-based assessment: Expectations and validation criteria. Educational Researcher, 20(8), 15-21. Mehren, W. A. (1992). Using performance assessment for accountability purposes. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 11(1), 3-20. Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. (ERIC Digest). Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED328611) 113 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 Potential impact of the assessment structure of the NSS Visual Arts on the curriculum CHAN Kwok Tung Evangel College, Hong Kong Society for Education in Art Abstract This article tries to link up the discussion on the topic of “the assessment structure” and “the outcome phenomenon” to evaluate and reflect the impact caused by NSS Visual Arts public examination. In the process of investigation, there are 4 aspects in the assessment structure of NSS Visual Arts Education public examination which are liable to influence the NSS Visual Arts Curriculum. They are classified as follows: 1. The ways of submitting students’ portfolios 2. The assessment ways of “rubrics” 3. The role of “Statement and Words” in the assessment 4. The assessment arrangement of “Art Appreciation” In summary, the evaluation of the complete assessment structure and the cognition of how students can achieve their learning targets should be the core items of detecting the true effect and result of the NSS Visual Arts Assessment Structure. Keywords assessment structure, rubrics, art appreciation 115 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 梁亦華 香港中文大學教育學院博士生 摘要 應用學習是香港新高中新設的組成部分，修讀學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選 擇，透過實際操作來掌握不同技能，其設計體現了「學生中心」、「體驗學習」、 「共通能力」等教改目標，然而文獻對有關課程教師之專業感知卻少有探討。為此， 本文通過實證研究搜集了第一手資料，彌補相關研究缺口，以助學界檢討與反思。 本文屬質性研究，筆者邀得八名應用學習科目教師參與，環繞課程設計、成效評估、 推行困難等作深度訪談，結果顯示教師普遍認同應用學習能激發學生學習動機，滿 足就業及職業導向的升學需要，而課程局限則在於財政資源、人手調撥及行政安排 等三方面。 關鍵詞 新高中課程，應用學習，職業導向課程 甲、背景 2005年，教育統籌局（現教育局）發佈《高中及高等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未 來的行動方案》文件，正式確立新高中課程的定位與功能。作為面向未來的教育規劃， 文件中提出了不少創新的課程改革，例如通識教育科被列為升讀大學的必修科、各式校 本評核、以及開設多達二十門選修科供高中生選讀。選修學科中，應用學習（Applied Learning, ApL）的課程可說是最能體現新高中精神的學科之一。由於應用學習下的學習 116 範疇極為彈性，學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選擇，透過實際操作來掌握不同技能， 正正回應了教改提出「學生為中心」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等範式 轉移的新教學模式（教育統籌局，2005）。 教育局課程文件之設計希望迎合社會與學生所需，然而任何教育政策亦需要前線教 育工作者的配合。正如著名學者 Andy Hargreaves所言，任何學校變革政策與實踐中， 教師也是改革理念與學生學習改進的關鍵（Hargreaves, 1994, p.7），只有教師認同政策 的積極意義，才能發揮政策的效用。故此，如要檢討新高中應用學習之實際功效，了解 新高中教師之專業感知必不可少。那麼在政府與公眾的影響下，接觸學生及統籌課程的 前線教師對應用學習又抱有甚麼看法？鑑於新高中課程推出時間不多，相關議題的檢討 仍未算全面，故此筆者希望通過是次研究，為應用學習的討論提供前線教師之真實意見， 以作學界檢討與反思之用。 乙、文獻回顧 一、應用學習的定位與目標 應用學習課程是新高中課程的新設選修科目之一，與其他新高中學科不同的是，其 方向並非以升學作唯一目標。應用學習之設立可視為對 2005年的教改文件《高中及高 等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未來的行動方案》的回應，其目的是讓學生「透過真實情境， 讓學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論，從而培養他們的共通能力。」（教育統 籌局，2006，頁 1）。2009年的《應用學習課程及評估指引（高中課程）》則進一步， 把課程目標擴展至協助學生「探討和了解就業及終身學習的取向」（課程發展議會與香 港考試及評核局，2009，頁 1）。明顯地，應用學習配合着 2005年教改文件所提倡，「學 生為中心的教學模式」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等教改目標，亦希望 為學生提供主流升學以外的機會。 課程設置方面，應用學習共有六個學習範疇，分別為（1）創意學習；（2）媒體及 傳意；（3）商業、管理及法律；（4）服務；（5）應用科學；和（6）工程及生產（課 程發展處，2010，頁 27）。學生最多可選修兩門，每門課程的總課時為 180小時。截至 2013/14年度，共有三十七門課程獲教育局官方認可（見附錄）。可見，應用學習的學 習範疇範圍頗廣泛，與就業市場亦有密切關係。 117 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 教與學方面，考慮到一般學校未必能對職業導向學科有相應支援，教育局建議學校 以兩種模式推行應用學習，包括︰ (1) 課程主要於課程提供機構的場地進行，並由該機構的導師教授。學校須按 課程提供機構的時間表，主要安排學生於星期三及星期六外出上課； (2) 課程主要於學校進行，並由學校教師聯同課程提供機構的導師一起負責課 堂的安排。學校須與課程提供機構訂定施行細節，包括如何分配教學工作 量、調配場地及設施、提供課堂支援等。 （課程發展處，2010，頁 5、7） 《教育局通函第 14/2013號》則對課程提供機構及學校的關係進一步說明︰ 推行應用學習的學校，可考慮利用課程提供機構提供的指引和支援，先讓校 內教師承擔較多的教學工作，繼而演變為由課程提供機構授權學校開辦課程， 但授課及評核部分的內部質素保證，則仍然由課程提供機構負責。 （教育局，2013，頁 3） 評核方面，應用學習的評核由課程提供機構進行，卻不是以五個等級指標顯示學生 成績，只設「達標」（Attained）和「達標並表現優異」（Attained with Distinction）兩級。 「達標並表現優異」者等同於甲類科目的第 3級或以上（課程發展議會、香港考試及評 核局，2009）。評核雖由課程提供機構負責，然而最終評級將由香港考試及評核局參考 評核準則和成就標準來調整（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2009）。 從上可見，學校與教師在應用學習的角色與傳統學科極為不同。教師雖參與程設計 與編排，卻不主導教學與評核事宜，更多是作為聯絡橋樑，擔任協調者，以至行管理者 的輔助角色。然而，如何確保教師對課程提供機構的教學成效與評估有足夠信任，讓兩 者合作無間？官方文件卻少有提及。 二、職業導向課程的不同觀點 應用學習雖有升學功能，但它幫助學生銜接勞工市場的目標亦是顯而易見。《應用 學習課程及評估指引（高中課程）》中表示，應用學習的前身為職業導向教育，學習內 118 容與「廣闊的專業和職業領域相關連」，以「加深（學生）對各行各業的認識。藉着了 解專業領域內的知識、技能和職場要求，學生得以訂立就業的方向」為目標（課程發展 議會、香港考試及評核局，2009，1.2-1.4）。一般而言，職業導向課程的學生成本較文 法中學的高，可是社會、教育學者及家長對職業導向的畢業生並不特別關注，甚至抱有 負面看法。不少教育社會學的學者認為，這是因為職業導向課程的社會地位，以及職業 導向社會教化功能與一般課程不同所致。 社會地位方面，Fisher（1967）聚焦於職業教育的歷史脈絡，指出它源於中世紀的 手工培訓，其時手工培訓經常被視作讓罪犯補救過失和罪過的方法之一，故此手工培訓 多與罪犯改造相關聯。澳洲學者 Phillip Hughes則着眼於制度與文化，指出中國自有科 舉以來便實施精英教育，教育機會只對少數官僚或富裕階層有限開放。由於教育普及率 長期極低，致使中國社會形成鄙薄勞動，輕視實踐的傳統文化觀（Hughes, 2005）；相 對而言，美國社會學家 Collins（1998）則聚焦於職業教育的社會地位流動功能。Collins 認為學生不能以手工勞動培訓提高社會地位，融入、以至帶領中產階級文化，是職業教 育注定不及文法中學受歡迎的主因。綜上可見，雖然各派學者對職業教育有不同見解， 但三者均認同社會對職業教育的偏見一直存在，並延續至今。乃至現時放棄文法中學， 接受職業導向課程者，不論就讀甚麼科目，行動本身已有負面標籤（Hughes, 2005）， 這亦成為中學發展職業教育的一大障礙。 除了社會與文化原因外，教育界對職業導向課程的教育及社會教化功能亦頗有異 議，如 Rury便指出不少傳統教育領導者對職業教育存在敵意，皆因他們認為職業教育 破壞教育的社會化功能及培養公民的理想，忽略傳播社會與道德責任（Rury, 1991）。 而更重要的是，以實務而非知識為主的課程會影響他們領導教育發展的地位，故此他們 傾向優化傳統教育，或發展共通能力為主的博雅教育（Liberal Art Education），而反對 在與傳統課程不相關的科目上進行無用的訓練（Cremin, 1961; Rury, 1991）；前線教師 方面，部份教師亦質疑職業教育的教學成效。例如黎萬紅及盧乃桂在 1997至 2000年間 於內地進行的質性研究顯示，不少教師認為職業教育畢業生所掌握的技能不足以應付瞬 間萬變的社會發展，而基礎能力不足又會影響他們終身學習，故他們對職業教育抱懷疑 態度（黎萬紅、盧乃桂，2003）。 雖然社會與教育界對職業教育不盡支持，但 Collins（1998）則認為，職業教育在 119 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 僱主心目中始終有其價值存在。一般學校系統強調角色學習、出席紀錄，以及大量教育 學生的效率原則，升學是按年齡，而非學習成績為標準，而考試往往抽離現實，未能回 應僱主需要，為社會提供合適人才。相對地，職業教育結合理論與實踐，正正能補足這 方面主流學制之不足。 綜上可見，官方、公眾、僱主、教育界等持份者對職業教育的立場不盡相同。鑑於 過去文獻對職業教育多着重宏觀社會分析，少有針對應用學習前線教師的個人感知，為 此，筆者希望透過本研究，了解前線應用學習教師對此課程的看法、課程推行的挑戰及 建議。 丙、研究方法 為了令本研究更為聚焦，本研究將環繞以下問題進行討論︰ （1）應用學習對修讀學生有何影響？ （2）教師如何看待應用學習的升學功能？ （3）教師如何看待應用學習的就業功能？ （4）教師推行應用學習時面對甚麼困難？ 本研究屬半結構性訪談（semi-structured interview）。Bogdan & Bilken（2007）指 出半結構性題目雖未讓受訪者完全主導過程，卻能讓研究者與受訪者雙方更聚焦於研究 議題之上，又能提供空間予受訪者自由地表達個人想法和經驗。為此，本訪談以上述四 條問題為引導，並緊隨着與受訪者個人認知及教學經驗相關的開放性問題，用以了解受 訪者感受，並在議題聚焦與受訪者主導間作一平衡。此外，本研究亦輔以與應用學習之 相關報導作比較分析，以期與訪談結果互相印證，確保資料與研究結果之效度。 本研究邀請了八名任教新高中課程，曾帶領應用學習一年或以上的教師作深度訪 談，其中任教於第一組別學校者有兩位、第二及第三組別學校者各有三位。由於應用學 習由 2010/11學年推行至今仍不滿三年，故本研究未有資深教師作比較。本研究採用便 利取樣法（convenience sampling），根據受訪者的可行性和意願來邀請研究對象。部份 學者認為選擇便利取樣的研究者無法確保受訪者的代表性，選取對象亦受到研究者個人 偏見影響（Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012），然而對比其他取樣方法，便利抽樣能保證研 究者和受訪者之間有較佳的關係與信任，有助取得更深層資訊，這對揭露一些涉及個人 120 真實想法、或須對學校政策或措施作批判性建議等的質性研究議題最為合適（Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012; Maxwell, 2005）。 基於研究道德之考慮，本文將以代號「教師 A至 H」代替受訪教師的身份，以作 闡述。信度方面，本研究的目的並非找出所有教師的共同觀點，而是希望透過新高中教 師之質性訪談，為新高中應用學習的議題提供藉得討論的可能性，供未來的課程設計者 參考及優化課程之用。基於便利取樣法所限，本研究的發現與討論不能推論至所有教師， 而只能反映部份教師根據自身經驗所歸納的個人觀感。 丁、結果與討論 總體而言，本研究的受訪教師均肯定應用學習的積極作用，然而在不同學校脈絡 中，教師對應用學習的看法卻稍有不同，亦提出了前線教師所面對的不同挑戰。綜合而 言，教師意見可循（1）學習動機方面；（2）升學方面；以及（3）就業方面以作探討。 一、學習動機方面 由於選修應用學習的學生根據各自興趣、性向及能力選取與其相符的課程，其學習 動機被假設會較一般課程為高（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2009）。本研究的 訪談亦印證了這點︰ 「⋯⋯應用學習的考核不是評分和評級，而是項目能否完成⋯⋯參加 ApL的 學生更有滿足感，以往上課漫無目的，現在卻很清楚自己方向，因為能學到 「實際的東西」，好像怎樣梳出某種髮型，怎樣因應不同場合來控制化妝深 淺（度）等，這些都可以在生活中應用出來。」（教師 B） 「⋯⋯有些學生為了自己的（珠寶）設計廢寢忘餐，假期仍經常回到視藝室 找參考書。」（教師 D） 「⋯⋯修讀了 ApL的學生現在上課沒那麼害羞了。因為他們在校外實習時經常 與不同人等合作，也要向客戶展示成果⋯⋯他們的自信和表達能力都增加了， 思考更靈活⋯⋯」（教師 F） 本研究中，受訪教師普遍認同應用學習能有效激發學生的學習動機，主要原因在於 它的學習內容具體而貼近學生生活，在現實中有應用機會；其次則為學習與考核形式的 121 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 改變，培養了學生溝通、協作、解難、自我管理等重要的共通能力，而該些應用學習科 目培養出來的能力，亦反過來幫助學生投入學校日常課堂，形成良性循環。 應用學習除了提升學生學習動機及共通能力外，某程度上亦能舒緩師生緊張關係。 教師 C在訪談中表示︰ 「⋯⋯以往不喜歡讀書的學生，等到十五歲便能離開學校找工作了。可是自 教育局推行十二年免費教育後，這些學生被迫『困』在學校至十七八歲。對 他們而言，應用學習既滿足他們的興趣，又能減少教師處理主流課程中學生 個別差異的困擾，這是教師與學生的雙贏模式。」（教師 C） 教師 C視應用學習為學生提供了非主流學習機會，是解決「課堂學習差異」的方 法之一。儘管此觀點以教師為中心，亦非應用學習的設立原意，但它卻從側面證明，應 用學習對其他學科學習，以及建立積極的課堂氣氛有着正面作用。 二、升學方面 課程發展處對應用學習的升學安排着墨不多，只着學校建立「升學及就業輔導支援 機制」，以及「為學生提供充足的資訊及指引」（課程發展處，2010，頁 10）。考評局 助理總經理（評核發展）傅德華進一步表示，若應用學習的選修科目，與大學選修科或 與專門行業有關，如時裝設計等，相信會獲優先考慮（《星島日報》，2010.8.13）。然而， 考評局的答覆，似乎未能釋除家長與學界疑慮，畢竟官方文件中學校只擔當提供資訊的 輔助角色。社會普遍認為應用學習的評級過於模糊，亦未必有助於升學。例如有家長曾 表示，應用學習的評級由舉辦課程機構負責，並無劃一標準，未必公平客觀，更難獲海 外機構承認（《東方日報》，2010.8.13）。部份教師更直接把選讀應用學習科目人數不足， 歸咎於它的評級無助於升學。例如，教評會副主席許為天便表示應用學習未受學界與社 會認可，因現時八大院校大部分只視應用學習成績為額外參考資料，其成績既沒列入資 歷架構，亦不算作大學學分，令學生「兩頭不是岸」（《東方日報》，2011.1.17）。 相對於社會各界的質疑，本研究的受訪者基本上亦持相似意見，例如，教師 A在 訪談中對應用學習的升學效能便不表樂觀︰ 「⋯⋯既選讀 ApL，就不要太在意是否廣泛認受，因為有能力修讀學術科目 122 的都不會選它，你不會為了興趣，放棄物理去讀美容化妝吧⋯⋯倒是毅進課 程把 ApL視作（香港中學文憑）合格科目之一。」（教師 A） 教師 E及 F亦認為應用學習對主流升學幫助不大︰ 「⋯⋯大學是計算等級的。升讀大學的話，以往操練舊試卷主導的傳統學科 才是正途。有部份大學甚至說只有考生在其他學科成績相若時才考慮 ApL成 績。既是這樣，我怎樣鼓勵學生修讀 ApL呢？」（教師 E） 「⋯⋯升大學都是看實力，我比你高一分，ApL零分我也贏了。」（教師 F） 雖然不算很明顯，但教師 A對選修應用學習的學生頗有偏見，頗有「職業教育屬 能力低下者修讀」的負面標籤，而受訪者亦普遍認為應用學習未必有助學生入讀大學。 可是，如果修讀學生的升學目標並非主流大學，教師的態度便較為開放︰ 「⋯⋯我會鼓勵跟不上主流課程的學生修讀美容、化妝等 ApL課程⋯⋯那邊 的升學機會比會考更高。」（教師 A） 「⋯⋯ApL有酒店管理等科目，為學生提供基礎理論與實踐經驗，對他們銜 接讀毅進及其他專上學院的課程很有幫助。」（教師 E） 從上可見，教師們認為選修應用學習課程並非缺少升學機會，如學生以專上學院的 副學士、高級文憑等職業導向課程為目標，則其升學機會比修讀傳統學科者更高。此外 與一般社會印象不同的是，雖然應用學習課程的成績評估由舉辦課程機構負責，但受訪 教師未有質疑校外評估的準確性，亦普遍肯定應用學習的教育效能。 三、就業方面 應用學習課程之職業導向色彩極為濃厚。誠如課程發展處所言︰「每個應用學習課 程均建基於不同行業或工業，以反映香港在社會、經濟和科技需求等方面的發展及環球 趨勢」（課程發展處，2010，頁 6）。學校實施時，除了職業相關的導引課程外，課程 發展處亦鼓勵學校安排職業講座、探訪活動及與職業相關的學習經歷，以幫助新高中畢 業生銜接就業市場。 然而，由於新高中學制推行不久，僱主對修讀應用學習課程的學生信心未算充足。 例如有酒店業僱主便表示，與修讀職業訓練局酒店課程的學生比較，會優先考慮職訓局 123 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 的學生，因為該些課程較實用，而文憑試的評級制度則顯得混亂，僱主難以從主觀性甚 高的評級了解畢業生水平（《明報》，2010.8.13）。可是本研究的訪談發現，不少教師 均肯定了修讀應用學習科目的就業價值︰ 「有曾任教的學生對我說，她往某連鎖化妝品店見工時，一輪面試後便獲聘 了。因為她在 ApL中受過美容訓練，面試時比其他未受訓練的求職者更有信 心，又具備相關知識基礎。」（教師 B） 「⋯⋯我們有修讀珠寶設計的學生⋯⋯她之前讀書是很差的，畢業後不但在 藝墟設立攤位，更成立網店售賣自己設計的首飾，總算有一技之長。」（教 師 F） 由此可見，受訪教師認為曾修讀應用學習課程的學生憑藉在學時期的工作經驗，面 試時比其他求職者更有信心，有助他們銜接就業市場或自行創業。不過，部份教師則表 示能力稍遜學生選修兩門應用學習科目，課業負擔可能過重，如專注於其中一門，通曉 一技之長可能較佳。 另外值得注意的是，訪談者亦談及應用學習課程偏重職業導向的隱憂： 「大部份（學生選擇的）應用學習課程，不是航空，就是酒店、多媒體⋯⋯ 如果經濟環境一變，他們能不能靠這一技之長生活呢？」（教師 G） 儘管應用學習以提供多元化課程為目的（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局， 2009，2.1），可是職業導向課程始終受到市場，即僱主需求與學生興趣所主導而集中於 某些項目，如航空工程、酒店服務等。長此下去，確實有可能逐漸集中於單一類別的課 程範疇，有違課程多元化的初衷。而本研究中教師的憂慮，亦呼應了文獻回顧部份內地 教師對職業教育畢業生的適應能力之懷疑。 戊、學校推動應用學習之挑戰 儘管本研究的受訪教師在不同程度上均肯定應用學習對學生的正面影響，然而他們 亦指出了推行應用學習時學校與教師所面對的困難。如上所言，職業導向的應用學習課 程所需資源比一般課程較多，故此學校資源問題一直是社會與教育界的共同關注焦點。 124 財政資源方面，教評會副主席許為天在應用學習推出之初，便指出教育局只資助 學校 75%費用並不足夠（《東方日報》，2011.1.17），教育局隨後於〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉承諾給予每校首十名選修生全額資助，其後每名學生津貼額為平均課程費 用的 75%（上限 8,330元）。然而學校或因資源所限而限制部份課程人數，令一些學生 未能完全根據性向與興趣選科就讀。 相對社會人士的關注焦點，教師之着眼點較多聚焦於人力資源及課時運用之上︰ 「⋯⋯新高中課程又有 IES（獨立專題探究），又有 OLE（其他學習經歷）， 全都是必修，而我們這些負責應用學習課程的教師都是兼教的，又要準備課 程，又要聯絡校外機構，又要商討合作細節。這麼多行政事項，我們哪有時 間精力處理？」（教師 E） 「⋯⋯我們根本沒有時間完成課程，經常要學生星期六，甚至長假期回來額 外補課，可是應用學習的學生卻都在星期六上課，很難為他們安排第二次補 課⋯⋯」（教師 D） 「⋯⋯大部份（高中）老師都去了操練past paper⋯⋯（新高中）課程時間緊迫， 學校會先處理學術科目，其他興趣性的發展，相對容易放手。」（教師 H） 從上可見，時間與人力資源是教師發展應用學習的兩大局限。新高中所面對的公開 考試壓力和其他課程改革所帶來的工作量，往往令相關教師無力兼顧應用學習課程的統 籌發展，而選修學生在核心課程的學習進度亦可能受到影響。至於校方投放多少人力資 源於應用學習課程，很大程度上視乎學校領導對課程的重視程度，教師角色頗為被動。 己、總結 本研究發現，新高中教師普遍認為應用學習有助學生就業及提升學習動機。教師對 應用學習的升學功能略有保留，可是如升學目標並非主流大學，而是職業為導向的專上 課程，則教師認為應用學習有助學生銜接專上教育。 對學校與教師而言，推行應用學習的主要局限在於財政資源、人手調撥及課程安排 三方面︰（1）有限的財政資助局限了部份應用學習課程的收生人數；（2）應用學習為 新高中教師帶來不少非教學的行政工作，加重高中教師壓力；（3）部份應用課程須與 125 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 校外機構合作，未必能遷就學校的主流課程進度或補課安排，降低了教師調節課程進度 的靈活程度。 總括而言，本研究的受訪教師均認同應用學習對學生學習動機、升學、就業等方面 有正面影響。雖然課程實施時受到資源和人手等方面所局限，然而這些並不影響應用學 習通過學生為本學習模式，促進學生性向多元發展的積極意義。然而，為了更好地達成 應用學習之目標，減少學校與教師承受的壓力，筆者認為教育局可循四方面優化應用學 習之實施︰（1）教育方面，局方宜給予學校更充裕的財政及人力資源，讓教師享有更 大的空間專注於應用學習之課程設計，並加強校外聯繫；（2）升學方面，局方宜向大 專院校加強推廣，介紹應用學習的課程特色，以及應用學習評核的信效度，以利選修學 生將來的升學銜接；（3）社會方面，局方宜加強推廣應用學習課程之宗旨、角色及實 施情況，提升課程認受性，釋除學生、家長及社會各界對應用學習的疑慮；（4）局方 可扮演學校與企業間的橋樑角色，擴大兩者的合作空間，增加選修的職業導向範疇，以 配合學生的多元興趣與學習需要。 參考文獻 《明報》（2010.8.13）。〈文憑試應用科簡介　家長潑冷水　憂評分主觀影響認受〉。A34版。 《東方日報》（2010.8.13）。〈中學文憑試認受性存疑〉。A06版。 《東方日報》（2011.1.17）。〈「應用學習」認受性低〉。A25版。 《星島日報》（2010.8.13）。〈家長憂「應用學習」海外認受性〉。F02版。 教育統籌局（2005）。《高中及高等教育新學制︰第一階段諮詢報告》。香港︰教育統籌局。 教育統籌局（2006）。《應用學習（職業導向教育）小冊子》。2012年 11月 26日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_5159/pam_cos_c.pdf。 教育局（2013）。〈教育局通函第 14/2013 號〉。2013 年 7 月 28 日，取自 http:// applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf。 課程發展處（2010）。《高中應用學習課程》。香港︰教育局課程發展處應用學習組。 課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（編）（2009）。《應用學習課程及評估指引（高中課 程）》。香港︰政府物流服務署。 126 黎萬紅、盧乃桂（2003）。〈教師對職業教育的看法 ─上海市及深圳市發展經驗的比較〉。 《教育發展研究》，第 10卷，44-49。 Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson / Allyn and Bacon. Collins, R. (1998). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. New York: Academic Press. Cremin, L. A. (1961). The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876-1957. New York: Knopf. Fisher, B. M. (1967). Industrial education: American ideals and institutions. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. Gravetter, F. J., & Lori-Ann, B. F. (2012). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth. Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times: Teachers’ work and culture in the postmodern age. London: Cassell. Hughes, P. (2005). Why access to TVET for all is essential if education for all is to be achieved. Prospects, 35(3), 253-267. Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Rury, J. L. (1991). Transformation in Perspective: Lawrence Cremin’s Transformation of the School. History of Education Quarterly, 31(1), 66-76. 127 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 - 6 - 高中應用學習課程（2013-15學年） Senior Secondary Applied Learning Courses (2013-15 Cohort) 課程一覽表 Course List 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 創意學習 Creative Studies 1. 設計學 Design Studies 643 形象設計 Image Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 639 創新產品設計 Innovative Product Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 628 珠寶藝術與設計 Jewellery Arts and Design HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 2. 媒體藝術 Media Arts 649 商業漫畫設計 Commercial Comic Art OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 646 多媒體科藝 Multimedia Entertainment Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 3. 表演藝術 Performing Arts 617 戲劇藝術入門 Introduction to Theatre Arts HKAPA 中文 Chinese 14,300 599 舞出新機－舞蹈藝術 Taking a Chance on Dance HKAPA 中文 Chinese 15,600 媒體及傳意 Media and Communication 4. 電影、電視與 廣播學 Films, TV and Broadcasting Studies 609 電影及錄像 Film and Video Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 650 電視資訊節目製作 TV Infotainment Production HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,600 5. 媒體製作與公共 關係 Media Production and Public Relations 661 公關及廣告 Public Relations and Advertising CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 651 電台主持與節目製作 Radio Host and Programme Production OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 商業、管理及 法律 Business, Management and Law 6. 商業學 Business Studies 663 應用商業研究 Applied Business Research HKIT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 8,500 595 國際商貿市場拓展 Marketing in Global Trade CityU (SCOPE) 中文 Chinese 11,500 664 實用電腦會計 Practical Computerised Accounting HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 597 認識金融服務 Understanding Financial Services OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 7. 顧客服務管理 Clientele Management 652 採購及營銷 Purchasing and Merchandising VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,500 653 零售管理 Retail Management HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,900 8. 法律學 Legal Studies 654 認識香港法律 Understanding Hong Kong Law HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 服務 Services 9. 款待服務 Hospitality Services 611 酒店服務營運# Hospitality Services in Practice# CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 615 酒店營運# Hotel Operations# VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 616 西式食品製作 Western Cuisine VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 10. 項目管理 Event Management 655 項目策劃及運作 Events Planning and Operation HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,100 11. 個人及社區服務 Personal and Community Services 665 幼兒教育 Child Care and Education VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 610 美容學基礎 Fundamental Cosmetology CCHES 中文 Chinese 10,330 附件一 附錄　應用學習的六大範疇及其選修課程表列（2013/15） 128 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康 護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文（普通話） Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構－授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 香港演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 香港浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 香港專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Technology HKIT 香港科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Technology HKU(SPACE) 香港大學專業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南大學持續進修學院 Lingnan Institute of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生，將獲教育局及學 校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康 護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文（普通話） Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構－授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Tech ology I 科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Techn logy HKU(SPACE) 大學 業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南 持續 Lingnan Institut of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生，將獲教育局及學 校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 (資料來源 : http://applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf 〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉頁 6-7) 129 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 Review of Applied Learning in NSS curriculum LEUNG Yick Wah Doctoral student of the Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Applied Learning (ApL) is a new component of the NSS curriculum, which responded to the paradigm shift of “student-oriented”, “experiential learning” and “development of generic skills” in the education reform. In ApL, students can choose their elective subjects according to their own interest and equip with different vocational skills through block practice. However, there is no comprehensive study on the teachers’ perception of ApL implementation. This empirical study, therefore, is intended to fill this research gap and can serve as a platform for further discussion. This study adopts a qualitative approach. The data was collected from the in-depth interview with eight ApL teachers, which focused on the teachers’ perception of curriculum design, effectiveness evaluation and challenges faced in ApL implementation. The findings revealed that the teachers agree the ApL curriculum can boost the student motivation and prepare students for further study in vocational training or for future employment. Nevertheless, the three main challenges encountered including insufficient financial resource, lacking manpower deployment and complex curriculum administrative arrangement limited the effectiveness of ApL implementation. Keywords NSS curriculum, Applied Learning, vocational education 131 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 How much can we trust test scores? Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Assessment plays a critical role in students’ lives. Due to the relative nature of educational measures, test results may be highly fallible and cannot be treated as if they are error-free. This paper illustrates several ways in which test scores can be misinterpreted thus leading to no small consequences on students, and how to get around them. Keywords assessment, examination, interpretation of test scores, score transformation, score reliability “The reliability of our national assessments is simply not good enough to warrant the trust that is placed in them. And one day, people are going to find this out.” The above quote from Dylan Wiliam (2000) comments on the British examination systems. Hong Kong and Singapore, both being ex-colonies, have inherited some elements of the British education system with much emphasis on examinations. Added to this is the historical influence of the Chinese imperial selection examination and the culture of valuing education as a mean to social upward mobility. A question that can be asked is whether Wiliam’s comment applies to Hong Kong and Singapore, or even East Asian nations like Japan, Korea, and Taiwan where much emphasis and a lot of premium have been placed on test scores, especially for administrative purposes such as selection, channeling, and certification. Naturally, test scores are taken very seriously by school administrators, teachers, and parents alike because employers and the public are doing the same. The questions arising from this situation are: Are we too serious about test scores? Should we not take them with a pinch of salt? With these questions in mind, this paper tries to put examination and test scores in the 132 current context of teaching and assessment. It also suggests six axioms following which teachers can more appropriately interpret test scores and use them more cautiously to help in guiding students’ learning. Assessment of and for learning In recent years, there has been much discussion on assessment of learning versus assessment for learning. The two approaches to assessment have different purposes, function, and procedures (Australian Education Services, n.d.). The emphasis on assessment for learning is a fairly new phenomenon in education as compared with the traditional focus on assessment of learning. Assessments often yield results test scores or grades which are supposed to indicate students’ learning – both achievement and difficulties. Information encoded in test scores tells about students’ learning after instruction is summative in nature. When scores are used for making decisions which have long-ranging effects on the students’ future educational opportunities, they are said to be high-stakes in nature. In this sense, this is assessment of learning which is by tradition almost the only purpose of examinations. Assessment is summative and retrospective, and is a measure of the product of learning. It can also provide information about the students’ learning as a process. When looked at this way, the information tells where learning has taken place and where corrective instruction by teachers and further efforts by students are needed. Through this latter practice of assessment for learning, assessment outcomes are used diagnostically and dynamically to guide further instruction and learning. Its nature is therefore formative and forward- looking. Although distinction can be made between summative assessment (of learning) and formative assessment (for learning), the fact is that from gathering assessment data to using the data is a long process and its impact can take a long time to actualize (Figure 1). Take for example, students are assessed by teachers using assessment tools such as tests, rubrics, projects, etc. Assessment outcomes are encoded and recorded as scores, marks, ratings, grades, descriptions, and work samples and labeled with descriptors such as excellenct, good, etc. by teachers using some conceptual tools (e.g., average, passing marks, acceptable grades). Some of the decisions are formative and useful for guiding further instruction and learning. Others are summative and associated with high-stakes “standards” for channeling, streaming, or tracking – basically, grouping pupils for further instruction. This long process (Figure 1) may happen within a year, as in school-based examinations for re-organizing students at the next higher class level. It may continue for a few years, as in the cases of the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in Singapore or Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination in Hong Kong. It does 133 How much can we trust test scores? not really matter whether one or more years are needed, as the process and its effects on pupils are similar or even the same. Figure 1: From assessment to consequences Test scores are used for decision-making. First, assessment of learning is high- stakes in nature and has long-term, irreversible consequences. Secondly, assessment for learning is for facilitating learning. In between the gathering of assessment outcomes and decision-making, there are several intervening steps. If the conceptual tools are not available to test score users (i.e. teachers, school administrators, curriculum developers) and the interpretation is improper, decisions will be irrelevant or even misleading. These mean a waste of resources in terms of time and efforts of both teachers and students. Test scores therefore should be cautiously interpreted, and statistical concepts are important assessment tools for this purpose. If learning is seen as a continuous, long journey through the educational highway from primary school to university, then end-of-year school examinations and end-of-stage examinations (such as the PSLE or the DSE examination) are used not only retrospectively to sum up what has taken place but can also act predictors and guides for further learning. In a broader sense, the dual function of assessment can break down the distinction between formative and summative assessments. One can go even further to doubt whether assessment at the end of each school year and each schooling stage is really summative or formative. With these concerns in mind, the six axioms are proposed below for enhancing the proper interpretation and use of assessment outcomes: 1. A score standing alone has no meaning. 2. Same scores may have different meanings. 3. A small difference makes no difference. 4. Weights may be non-functioning. 5. Assessors may be unreliable. 6. When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible. 134 Axiom no. 1: A score standing alone has no meaning When Albert scores 75 for his English assessment, what does this mean? Several interpretations readily come to mind: 1. He is far above the passing mark of 50; he has done well. 2. He is far below the perfect mark of 100; he has done poorly. The same mark leads to two different views because of two different expectations. If more information is available, interpretations will change: 3. The class mean is 75; Albert is average. 4. Albert’s score is 30 marks higher than the class’s lowest score of 45; well done. 5. Albert’s score is 5 marks lower than the class’s highest score of 80; could have done better. If the teacher has set a criterion score of, say, 70 (based on some reasonable grounds or past experience), then: 6. Albert has passed the test. What can we conclude from the above? A score standing alone has no fixed meanings; its meaning is dependent on reference to other relevant information. The first two interpretations made with reference to subjective expectations (of the teacher, Albert himself or his parents) are arbitrary in nature and hence should be avoided. The next three interpretations are made with reference to how his classmates performed in the same test. This is known as norm-referenced interpretation. The sixth interpretation is made with reference to a pre-set cut-score (which preferably has an empirical basis); it is a criterion- referenced interpretation and is the basis for the development of a very large number of standardized tests, especially in the USA. Standardized tests A standardized test (say, of Mathematics) has to go through many steps to develop such as: (1) identifying the instructional objectives, that is, mathematical knowledge and competencies to be assessed; (2) writing items for the identified objectives; (3) trialling the items with a large group of students for whom the test is meant; (4) conducting item- analysis to assess the efficacies of the trialed items; (4) selecting items which have been found to work well; (5) collecting data from another large group of students for whom the test is meant; (6) using the data to compile test norms (tables showing scores and the numbers of students getting each score); (7) releasing the finalised version; and (8) revising the test after, say, five years. These steps are not only time-consuming and labour-intensive but also require the collaboration of content specialists and assessment 135 How much can we trust test scores? experts, and of course teachers and students. No wonder test development has become a gigantic business in the USA dominated by a few organizations (e.g., the Educational Testing Service in Princeton). For a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of standardized testing, see Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? (ProCon.org, n.d.). If Albert has taken a standardized test of Mathematics, his score is compared with the very large group of students whose scores were used to compile the test norm. Then, his score may get him an equivalent T-score (a kind of standard score). And, what does this T-score mean? Why should we use it? Standard scores A T-score is a kind of standardized score peculiar to educational assessment. It is peculiar because of the relative nature of scores obtained by using educational measures as contrasted with physical measures (e.g., weight, height). Take Albert’s score of 75 for example. It is not a fixed quantity of a fixed quality like his weight and height for which there are standard instruments such as a weighing machine or a standard ruler. Albert’s score is relative (to the normation group) although such scores are always mistakenly seen as absolute. For a fuller explanation of what standard scores are, see Transformed scores – Standard scores (Mypage, n.d.). Let’s say the test taken by Albert is a 100-word spelling test. He gets 75 because he can spell three-quarters of the words correctly. This looks fine until he takes another spelling test consisting of 100 easier words. In this case, he may get 85, 95, or even 100. The converse is also true if the words are more difficult. In short, Albert’s score will vary with the tests (words) used to assess his spelling ability. Because of this, a different way of indexing Albert’s spelling ability is to compare him with other students who have taken the same test and interpret his score according to where he stands among the peers. Thus, instead of just saying how good he is in terms of the number of words he spells correctly, we can know how much better or worse his performance is when compared with the norm (documented as the norm table). This is where the T-score becomes helpful. When a standardized test is developed, the norm group of students has different scores, some very low, others very high, and most somewhere in between. For these scores, a mean (average) can be calculated as the “centre”. Since not all students get the same score, there is a need to describe how widely spread from the mean the scores are. For this, standard deviation (SD) is calculated. If the group mean is 67, then, Albert deviates from the mean by +8 and the SD of the scores happens to be 8, then, his score is one SD above the mean. This gives him a z-score of 1.00; z-score is another kind of standard score that will be explained later. Z-scores may take negative values and have decimals and so are inconvenient for 136 recording purposes. How to explain to parents that their children get negative scores (owing the teacher some marks?) is a major challenge. Besides, for different sets of test scores, standard deviations (SDs) are not the same. To overcome these problems, measurement experts come up with the bright idea of T-scores. From z-scores to T-scores The T-scores form a scale with a mean of 50 and a SD of 10. This is a scale universally agreed upon and used by measurement experts and so all tests can then have their original scores converted to it. An added advantage of using T-scores is that all scores from different tests can be considered “comparable”. If the set of English Language scores (including Albert’s 75) has a mean of 67 and a SD of 8, then Albert’s 75 is now converted according to the formula to a T-score of 60 (i.e., T-score = 50+10*(Score - Mean)/SD = 50+10*(75 - 60)/8) = 60). Aha! Have we not short-changed Albert by giving him a T-score of 60 which looks lower than his original raw score of 75? No. The conversion of original scores (those given by the test) to T-scores is like converting SGD or HKD to USD, using the appropriate currency exchange rate. The face value has changed but the buying power remains the same. So, Albert has not been short-changed. In this case, his T-score of 60 has placed him one SD above the mean of 50 and, according to the normal distribution (Figure 2), he is better than 84% of students in his class (i.e., 50% below the mean and 34% between the mean and one SD above it). Another way is to say that he stands at the 84th percentile and belongs to the top 16% of the students. So, by comparing with his peers, Albert has done pretty well (Figure 2). Figure 2: The normal distribution curve Thus, as you must have suspected by now, converting original scores to T-scores in actuality can change the basis of comparison and hence the interpretation of test results. As pointed out above, if Albert’s score of 75 for spelling test represents correctly spelling three-quarters of the 100 words, his score will be different when the words in the test change. But then, we argue. The idea is that Albert’s spelling ability at the time of testing is a fixed quality and should not vary with the test used and the same should go for his 137 How much can we trust test scores? peers – their ability should not change with different tests. However, we know that this is not true when different tests are used. By using T-scores, we can assess Albert in terms of his relative position (percentile) among his peers. When a more difficult spelling list is used, all pupils should get lower scores than previously, but their positions relative to one another should logically remain unchanged. This is an assumed advantage of using T-scores instead of the original raw scores. Axiom no. 2: Same scores may have different meanings The above examples show clearly that the use of raw scores can lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretations for the simple reason that the same raw scores from different tests may not have the same meanings when they are interpreted with different references. A few more fictitious but realistic cases should interest you. Performance comparison Albert has scored 75 in both Social Studies and Science. In which test has he done better? Since the marks are the same for the two subjects, Albert has done equally well in both subjects. Hold on! As pointed out earlier, this will be true if and only if both tests have the same mean and the same SD – a most unlikely situation. Thus, unless the scores are converted to the T-scale, we cannot be so sure; 75 for Social Studies may turn out to be a better score because it has placed Albert on a higher percentile, and the converse is also possible. In short, two scores from two different tests do not necessarily mean the same performance level; they need to be standardized (scaled) before comparison can be made valid. Are you puzzled? Dollars, cents and scores A money example will help to make this clear. The first three columns in Table 1 show the numbers of “dollars” that Albert’s father and uncle have. When we say they are equally rich (or poor) with 100 dollars, we are assuming that the monies in the four pockets are in the same currency. However, if monies in the left pockets are USD and they are converted to SGD (at a rate of 1.35), adding these to the SGD’s in the right pockets shows that Albert’s father is richer than his uncle. The same principle goes for the comparison of scores. Table 1: The values of monies Before conversion After conversion Pocket Father Uncle Currency Father Uncle Left (USD) 80 20 SGD 108 27 Right (SGD) 20 80 SGD 20 80 Total 100 100 Total 128 107 138 This is a reminder that two scores for two different tests cannot be directly compared because they represent different performance levels. Before comparing them, they have to be converted to the same scale (e.g., the T-scale) first. Axiom no. 3: A small difference makes no difference Sometimes (or rather often) we see people insisting that a small difference is a difference. For example, a teacher marking a composition with the mark range of 30 insists that an essay is worth 22.5, not 22 or 23! Another example can be about a student who has failed because he could only get 48, two marks short of the passing mark 50. Yet another example, one school celebrates because it scores half a percent more passes and gets one rank higher than its rival school. Are all these small differences real? All scores have error! We need to realize and keep reminding ourselves that all assessment scores have errors. Such errors are not what we normally called mistakes but are fluctuations due to sampling. They are, technically, measurement errors (Johnson, Dulaney & Banks, 2005). When we set test questions in any subject or any topic within a chosen subject, we are taking a sample of many theoretically possible ones (the universal of possible items). We then use these sampled items to test the students’ knowledge or competencies. If we set another test, students’ scores will change (remember Albert’s spelling test). If we test a group of students using even the same test on different days, their scores will also change. And, if we ask different teachers to mark the same set of compositions, even using the same marking scheme, the scores will also be different. Errors (fluctuation) in assessment are inevitable because of the sampling processes in constructing test questions and marking students’ responses to open-ended questions. There are basically two types of such errors: the random and the systematic (Changing Minds, 2012). Random errors have to do with chance. For example, a set of compositions are marked by one teacher on two days. Because she is in good health on the first and is ill on the second, she is likely to give higher scores to those compositions marked on the first day and lower scores to those on the second day (or, possibly, the other way round). If the teacher is aware of this inconsistency, she can double-mark the compositions a second time. If she then take the average of the two marks for each paper, the inconsistency is likely to cancel out. There are other conditions that lead to fluctuations which will cancel out in the long run. (Unfortunately, she may never do this and so students whose compositions are marked more strictly can only blame themselves for bad luck.). The common practice of double or triple marking and taking the average in large-scale examinations is to minimize such fluctuations which may affect score reliability. It is more appropriate for the marking of open-ended questions which involve students writing 139 How much can we trust test scores? their own answers, such as composition for Languages or essay-type questions in Social Studies, Literature, and even Science. Individual teachers have different expectations and marking habits influenced by their experience and personality. A teacher who has been teaching high-ability students naturally uses her experience with such students as a yardstick when marking compositions. She may also be, at the same time, a strict marker habitually giving lower marks. Thus, when marking a set of compositions, with her experience and personality combined, she will consistently (though unconsciously) give lower marks than what the compositions should deserve. This may give rise to systematic errors. Some of the teachers were so confident about their marking that they awarded half-a-mark! And, how important is the half-mark? Read this: “Do you know what is the importance of half a mark? It determines whether you pass or fail. It determines whether your report book is going to have all blue or a “one” or “two” red marks among the blues. This is called “pass” or “fail”, and how many subjects you pass or fail, it is going to determine whether you get promoted to the next level. This is all the olden days...” (Peace, 2008) For a set of answer sheets to be marked with a computer, one or more errors may occur such as in the coding of answer keys. If “c” is coded for the correct answer when it should be “b”, all students who have answered the miscoded items correctly will earn fewer marks than they deserve. Conversely, those answering wrongly may get a mark higher if they (lucky them) happen to choose “c” (the wrongly coded option). Such errors are also systematic because they do not cancel out in the long run. This type of errors adversely affects the score validity in that the scores do not accurately reflect students’ true ability. Due to such errors, measurement experts consider an observed score (the score a student gets after assessment) as consisting of two parts: the true score (which can truly represent student’s ability which the test is trying to estimate) and error score (the part of the observed score due to random errors as described above). It is not possible to measure students’ true scores directly. Knowing that there are fluctuations contributing to random errors, test developers take pains to minimize them through careful and multiple marking as well as by controlling the testing conditions. The argument is that by minimizing the errors, observed scores will reflect true scores more accurately (Trochim, 2006). There are several ways of evaluating score reliability. American experience shows that teacher-made tests generally have score reliability values of around 0.7 meaning that tests constructed by teachers yield scores which are about 70% trustworthy. This suggests 140 that teachers should not be dogmatic about the marks they give and definitely not about small differences! A score is not a point! In view of the errors which cannot be totally eliminated, measurement experts advise that a score should not be seen as a fixed point on a scale but as one possible point or a number of points within a specified range on the scale. This takes us to the concept of standard error of measurement (SEM). Let us say that the Chinese Language test has a SD=3 (which is rather small) and its score reliability in terms of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.7. The SEM should be 1.6 according to the formula SEM=SD*√(1 – r), where r is the reliability coefficient, alpha. Then, we ask ourselves how much confidence we want to have when reporting a score for this test. Let us be not too ambitious but choose to be 95% confident in making a statement about a student’s performance. Now, according to the normal curve, a 95% confidence level requires that we allow for an error (fluctuation) of 1.96 SEM (or rounded to 2 in SEM). Then, a score on this test will fluctuate with an error of ±2*SEM or ±3.2 (or rounded as 3). In Albert’s case, instead of seeing his score as a fixed point of 75, we should think of his score (for whatever subject) as falling between 72 (=75-3) and 78 (=75+3) in 95% of the times. This so-called band-interpretation of test scores is in contrast with the point- interpretation. Of course, band-interpretation makes administrative decisions (pass/fail, select/reject) more complicated and inconvenient. However, it is desirable for two reasons. First, it takes due cognizance of the fact that tests scores are fallible and hence should not be taken dogmatically. Secondly, when making important decisions on students, test scores should not be the only criterion; other information needs be considered, too. Misplaced confidence of spurious precision In view of the measurement errors (fluctuation) due to the sampling of subject content, student’s testing behaviour, and teacher’s marking habits, a small difference between two scores should not be taken too seriously. For example, a difference between 48 and 50 can well be due to measurement error. In other words, if 48 comes from the same English Language test taken by Albert with a SEM of 3, at the 95% confidence level this score will fall with the range from 45 to 51. Had the student taken the same test again and again, he will get between 45 to 51 marks. Since this mark range includes the passing mark 50, he should be passed. This example shows how confidence may be misplaced in small mark difference leading to erroneous decisions. The emphasis on a small, immaterial mark difference is called spurious precision, that is, a precision which is not really important or meaningful. Spurious precision may seem to be a spurious issue, but the consequences of basing important decisions on spurious difference may have long-lasting undesirable 141 How much can we trust test scores? consequences for students and the nation (in terms of manpower loss). As the author of How to lie with statistics, Huff (1954), says, “A difference is a difference only if it makes a difference.” As a corollary, it is a conceptual sin to make a spurious difference a difference in order to make it a difference. Is banding the solution? Perhaps it is the awareness of such problems of measurement error and spurious precision that has led to the use of banding, that is, grouping students within a specified mark range and giving them the same label (band). This is a partial solution but not a perfect medicine. Table 2 show the bands obtained by two pupils. Combining the bands, Albert has performed better than Bob has. After all, canceling out A-A and B-B, Albert is left with an A but Bob a B. Let’s assume that band B is for scores ranging from 60 to 84, and band A is for score 85 and above. It may just happen that the A’s Albert gets are the beginning scores of band A and his B is from the low end of band B. And, Bob gets the beginning score of band A just like Albert, but his B is from the top end of band B. Then, in terms of actual scores, Bob scores better than Albert and not the other way round. This example is given here only for illustration, but it does not mean this cannot happen. Table 2: Scores and bands of two students Subject Bands Scores Albert Bob Albert Bob EL A A 85 (A) 85(A) MT A B 85 (A) 84(B) Math B B 70 (B) 84(B) Overall (2A+1B) > (1A+2B) 240 < 253 So, is banding the solution? As the assessment expert Wiliam (2000) says, “A cure that is probably worse than the disease.” What can we do, then? Not much. One partial solution is to have more bands each with a shorter mark range. The logical extreme extension of this is to have too many bands and then we are back to square one. So, be cautious. Axiom no. 4: Weights may be non-functioning Every examination paper will consist of more than one part for assessing one specific item of knowledge or competency. A simple example is the case of a Language paper which has a written component and an oral component. Of course, the written component always comprises several different sub-sections such as vocabulary, grammar, 142 comprehension, etc. For the sake of illustration, just say it has only the written and oral parts. Usually, different parts of an examination are given different predetermined weights, for example, 80% for the written components and 20% for the oral component, to reflect their relative importance. The hidden message is, for this example, to let students (and their teachers and parents) know that oral language is important though not as important as the written part; the implication is not to neglect oral language since it is also to be assessed. The message is loud and clear. What is the effect in terms of final results? It is a well-known fact that test scores with a wider spread (SD) have more influence if they are summed for an indication of overall performance. Table 3 is a typical example taken from a Language examination. Table 3: Weights of components and scores in a Language examination Written (80%) Oral (20%) Total Albert 75 (1) 10 (3) 85 (1) Bob 70 (2) 12 (2) 82 (2) Calvin 65 (3) 15 (1) 80 (3) As can be seen, for the writing component, Albert is the best and Calvin is the worst, with Bob in between them. For the oral component, the orders are just the reversed. When the scores for the two components are added, the totals will rank Albert first, Bob second, and Calvin third. Thus, the final ranks are the same as the ranks for the writing component, and the oral component has no influence. This happens because the written component has a much wider range (a larger SD if calculated) than the oral component has. This will happen also when scores for different tests are added. Table 4 shows the performance levels in English and Mathematics of a class and the scores obtained by three pupils. The scores for the two tests are added and the totals are used to rank the students, Albert ranked first and so is better than Bob ranked second who in turn is better than third-ranking Calvin. The rank-orders are the same as those for English. Note that the SD of scores in English is double that of Mathematics. In this case, Mathematics (with a much smaller SD) plays no role in deciding who is better. Table 4: Weights for different subjects Subject Mean (SD) Albert Bob Calvin English 70.0 (4.00) 75 (1) 65 (2) 60 (3) Mathematics 65.0 (2.00) 59 (3) 62 (2) 61 (1) Total - 134 (1) 127 (2) 121 (3) 143 How much can we trust test scores? More complex situations So far, for simple illustration, we have been using examples involving two tests or two components. Things are more complex in reality. In Table 5, the raw scores obtained by Albert and Bob for four subjects suggest that they are equally good, both having a total of 270. If there is a scholarship or other award, they are equally qualified. However, as subjects have different means and SDs, simple summated scores are misleading. The totals for T-scores are different. Now, it is clear that Albert (with Total=199) is a more deserving candidate than Bob (with Total=193), if the difference of four T-scores is considered important enough. Table 5: Raw and T-scores of two students Subject Mean (SD) Original score T-score Albert Bob Albert Bob EL 70.0 (4.00) 75 70 63 50 MT 65.0 (8.00) 70 75 56 63 Math 70.0 (5.00) 65 60 40 30 SC 65.0 (5.00) 60 65 40 50 Total - 270 270 199 193 T-score transformation is employed for the PSLE in Singapore to solve the problem of unequal means and SDs among subject tests. The same problem exists when raw scores for school-based examinations are summed as indicators of the overall performance level. With computing facilities readily available, this problem can be solved by adopting the same approach what is done for the PSLE. Does summing up scores make sense? It is a common practice that different assessments taken throughout a year are given different weights to indicate their relative importance. A typical situation is that shown in the Table 6 where the two term assessments are given a weight of 15% each, the mid-year assessment 30%, and the end-of-year assessment 40%. Table 6: Weights for different assessments Term 1 Mid-year Term 2 End-year Average Marks 72 68 74 78 73.5 Weight 15% 30% 15% 40% 100% The problem of different means and SDs when original scores are summed for an overall performance indicator (total) will still happen. This means, in spite of the different intended weights, components having larger SDs will be more powerful in the final total, 144 rending those with small SDs non-functioning. Besides this persistent problem, there is also a conceptual issue. In this example, the four assessments are not mutually exclusive since some content tested earlier in Term 1 will be tested again later. Those tested for the mid-year may also be tested in year-end examination paper again. Such over-lap means that some content are over-tested or double-counted and getting double weight or more. Is this desirable? Furthermore, the four assessments are conducted at different points of the year and at different points a student has different achievement levels. When scores are added (even after weighting) and an average is derived at, does the average really show where the student is at the end of a year’s learning? If not, where is the more accurate indicator? Imagine that you are driving from Singapore to Penang (or from Hong Kong to Shanghai) and have to stop at three different places. Every time you stop, you record the distance covered. When you reach the destination, you calculate the average of the distances and say “on average, I have driven xyz kilometres from X to Y.” How will this sound to your friend? The message is that average does not always make sense. Stopping at different cities to record the distance covered is analogous to formative assessment, while recording the total distance traveled is analogous to summative assessment. It appears that the practice described above for finding end-of-year averages is a mix-up of these two different approaches to assessment. Things are a little bit more complicated than this. It is readily appreciated that some subjects are developmental in nature while others are cumulative. For cumulative subjects (perhaps, science subjects for which topics are discrete), adding marks obtain from different tests for an overall indication may make sense. On the other hand, for developmental subjects (such as the languages), what a student is able to do at the end of a year indicates the cumulative effect of learning; and, therefore, adding and averaging marks obtain from assessments taken over a year may not make sense. This is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and future research. Axiom no. 5: Assessors may be unreliable So far, our discussion has focused on scores and students, as if these are the only sources of misinterpretation. The fact is, teachers who mark the papers can also be a source of error, especially where open-ended questions are concerned. This is a century- old problem and is still around. If you think that this will only occur in the marking of compositions, you will be surprised that it can happen in the marking of Mathematics paper as well, as early research shows. 145 How much can we trust test scores? A concrete example of this problem is how a group of experienced teachers marked one and the same answer to a question on vitamins (Science!). The question asks candidates to name four vitamins and their common sources and to tell for each whether it can be stored in the body and whether it can be destroyed by heat. An answer to this question was photo-copied and 43 experienced teachers marked this one answer independently. They were to indicate whether it was a poor, weak, average, good or excellent answer. Also, they were to award a mark within the range of zero to 30 with the passing mark of 15 (By Singapore convention, 50% is a passing mark. What about Hong Kong?). The marks and grades given by the teachers are shown in Table 7. Table 7: Grades and marks awarded by teachers to the same answer Marks No. of grades given Pass / Failure given by teachersWeak Average Good 22-22.5 - 3 6 No. of passes = 41 20-21 - 9 6 18-19 - 10 - 15-17 1 6 - 42-14 1 1 - No. of failures = 2 Total 2 29 12 43 Median 14.5 18.5 21.5 - Range 5 10.5 2.5 - No teachers considered the answer as poor or excellent. Two teachers considered it as weak, 29 as average, and 12 as good – all for the one and the same answer to an essay- type question on a factual topic! Even within each grade, for instance “average”, the marks given varied as much as 10.5, again for the one and the same answer. Of the 43 teachers, two teachers failed it and 41 passed it. If this happens with just one answer, imagine what may happen when a paper consists of several open-ended questions. In this case, it may not be an exaggeration that whether a student passes or fails depends more on his luck or rather on who marks his answers. Earlier on, it was suggested that the teacher’s experience, marking habit, and personality play a role in inconsistency in marking. The 43 teachers were asked which schools they came from. There seems to be a relation (correlation) between the school type and the marks awarded. Teachers who came from the so-called good schools tended to give lower marks, and vice versa. This is perfectly understandable since teachers will (unconsciously or subconsciously) use the kind of answers they have been marking as a reference for marking this particular answer. In this example, the teachers’ personalities were not studied. Teachers’ idiosyncrasy in marking is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and research. 146 Perhaps, the awareness of such a problem has led to assessment experts to come up with suggestions such as the use of model answers, marking schemes (the old fashion name for assessment rubrics), product sample scale, post-marking moderation, statistical scaling, etc. These may help to reduce the size of the problem but none is a perfect solution, and one wonders if there ever will be one. Again, the best advice is to be cautious. Axiom no. 6: When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible At this point, it is good to take stock of what has been discussed so far. Traditionally, assessment results in terms of scores and grades are used to sum up student’s learning up to a point in time. This is assessment of learning. In recent years, assessment for learning gets a lot of attention. This is using assessment results to guide and direct further learning of the students. The two approaches have different purposes and different data are required. However, the reality is that, the same assessment results are used for both purposes, retrospectively as well as prospectively. Whichever approach is emphasized, the same process is involved: from collecting data by testing, through analyzing data to gain information about learning, and then to making decisions on instruction and on the students’ future development. Irrespective of the time span, such decisions have long-lasting consequences to the students and all around them – their teachers, school administrators, parents, and even the nation. Hence, assessment is a very serious business and deserves to be done well. Nonetheless, problems arise because of the relative nature of educational assessment which yields data that can be interpreted in a variety of ways, as contrasted with the case physical measurements such as weight and height that fixedly quantify fixed quality. Therefore, assessment results need contexts for them to be meaningfully interpreted. This peculiar nature of educational measurement gives rise to the problems relating to the following conditions: 1. Educational measures are relative and highly fallible. 2. Educational measures are samples which have measurement errors (fluctuations). 3. Weighting to reflect relative importance of sub-tests may or may not work. 4. Summing up scores of subtests or a few tests may be misleading. 5. Marking of open-ended responses are always unreliable. 6. Spurious precision of small difference is more often imagined rather than real. Each of these causes conceptual and technical problems that need be solved but perfect solutions are not available. All that can be done is to minimize the severity of misinterpretation as much as the teachers’ assessment competence allows. Conceptual 147 How much can we trust test scores? and technical problems are separate issues though always related. Technical problems are easier to handle. They can be solved to a large extent by learning relevant statistical techniques to treat the assessment data properly, if there is the will. Conceptual problems are more difficult. They not only call for a will to change but also require re-orientation through the melting of long-held erroneous ideas and crystallization of new shapes. This has been found to be difficult in education. Before the time comes, the only advice that can be given is for assessment data consumers (teachers, counselors, and school administrators) to be flexible and humble when interpreting them and using them. Conclusion There is no denial that test scores play a very important role in teaching and learning. For this one reason, they should be appropriately interpreted and used for the benefits of the teachers and their students. Misinterpretation leads to misinformation which in turn leads to misdirection and wrong actions. Valid interpretation of test scores requires some understanding of the basic statistical concepts involved as illustrated in this paper. Uncertainty in interpretations and the uses of test scores are not totally inherent in scores but, to a large part, in ours. Seen in this light, perhaps the title of this article should have been “How much can we trust our interpretations of test scores?”. As teachers, we assess students and thereby create test scores (and grades), but then as little Alice says in the Wonderland, “An author doesn’t necessarily understand the meaning of his own story better than anyone else.” Notes This paper is application oriented and written for practising teachers in this connection. Instead of following the traditional style of citing articles to support the arguments, readable and interesting websites are listed in the Reference list for those who wish to pursue the issues further in-depth. 148 References Australian Education Services. (n.d.). Key questions: What is assessment for learning? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.assessmentforlearning.edu.au/professional_ learning/intro_to_afl/introduction_key_questions.html Changing Minds. (2012). Measurement error. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// changing minds.org/explanations/research/measurement/measurement_error.htm Huff, D. (1954). How to lie with statistics. London: Norton. Johnson, S., Dulaney, C., & Banks, K. (February 2005). Measurement error. For good measure. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.wcpss.net/evaluation-research/ reports/2000/mment_error.pdf Mypage. (n.d.). Transformed scores – Standard scores. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://mypages.valdosta.edu/mwhatley/3900/standardized.pdf Peace. (2008). Science exam paper. In Kids World. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// totallykidsworld.blogspot.sg/search/label/how reliable is the school teacher ProCon.org. (n.d.). Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://standardizedtests.procon.org/ Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). True score theory. In Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/truescor.php Wiliam, D. (2000). The meanings and consequences of educational assessments. Critical Quarterly, 42(1), 105-127. http://www.aaia.org.uk/pdf/2001DYLANPAPER2.PDF 149 How much can we trust test scores? 測試分數可信程度如何？ 蘇啟禎 新加坡 摘要 學業測試結果，對學生有重大的影響。由於教育測量的相對性，測試得分可以有高 度的變動性，不可當作毫無誤差的資料。本文提出分數可能被錯誤解釋的幾個例子， 說明若錯誤解釋分數對學生可能產生的後果及如何避免。 關鍵字 測試，考試，分數的解釋，分數的換算，分數的信度 151 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 何慧群 國立臺中教育大學教育學系 永井正武 國立臺中教育大學教育測驗統計研究所 摘要 臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育目標之一是實踐教育正義，但是，後期中等教育適性 與分流不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大問題亟待受正視與解決。本文透過對照美 國、德國、法國國民教育體制，提出發展臺灣 12年國民基本教育的意見，旨在：（1） 倡導 12年國民基本教育是保障生存、創造生活幸福與生命意義的基礎工程，適性 與分流是教育手段；（2）指出 12年國民基本教育規劃採全納式與結構功能，前者 縱向銜接與橫向聯結，後者具階段性與功能化；（3）凸顯國中與國小階段教育是 12年國民基本教育基礎；（4）解釋 12年國民基本教育目標實踐繫於教師教育，與 （5）就 2014年臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育提出建議。 關鍵詞 12年國民基本教育，適性與分流，教育資源，全納式，教師教育 甲、前言 在知識經濟與創意經濟的時代，歐美工業發達國家、開發中國家如臺灣、南韓、印 152 度、紐澳，未開發國家如中國大陸、東南亞國家等在總體教育投資與推動教育革新是不 遺餘力的。另，在全球經濟競爭氛圍下，學校教育成為國家發展的基礎工具，國民教育 （National Education）、國民基本教育（National Basic Education）是打造國家政經發展 與社會和諧的基礎工程。 國民教育實施年限長短，反映國家綜合實力與社會現代化程度；而國民基本教育實 施年限延長採逐漸增加，多非「一步到位」。國民基本教育包含義務階段與非義務階段， 非義務階段教育呈現分化（differentiation）與歧異（diversity）態勢，二者合計12至13年， 前者年限是 9至 10年，後者年限是 3至 4年，教育結構計有 8+4、6+3、5+4、4+5、 4+2+3、9年一貫等。 綜觀臺灣國民教育發展與沿革，自 1968年實施九年義務教育至今，前期與後期中 等教育入學率近百分百，就學機會是供大於求，現階段後期中等教育問題是適性與分流 不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大，而「透過讀書改變命運」、「披星戴月只為進明星 學校」，卻又是莘莘學子寫照。基於教育正義與社會和諧，臺灣將於 2014 年實施後普 九之國民基本教育，統稱 12年國民基本教育。「他山之石，可以攻錯」，分析美、德、 法國等 12至 13年之國民教育體制，汲取國外經驗，冀以提出規劃 12年國民基本教育 參考。 乙、12年國民基本教育 綜觀全球教育發達國家之總體教育體制規劃，高中職以下教育年限約 12至 13年， 佔總教育時間四分之三，小學至後期中等教育具程序結構，包含初等教育與中等教育， 中等教育又分前期中等教育與後期中等教育。另，高中職以下教育辦學主體是國家，是 謂國民基本教育；分義務與非義務階段，是國家教育體制的基座，在整體教育發展上有 其重要性。 一、旨趣 12年國民基本教育旨趣，為學習者發展而言，奠基於以資質、性向、興趣、就業、 生涯與參與選擇取向之個性與有德行者（Humboldt, 1903）；為社會運作而言，具共同性， 但又由多元與歧異個體組合的政治、經濟與文化團體；為全球網絡國家境遇而言，匯聚 多元與層級網狀的綜合力與具競爭的實力。 153 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 12年國民基本教育，其中 9至 10年義務教育指政府有義務運用公共資源來保障所 有適齡學童接受的教育，具強制、普遍與免費原則；3至 4年後期中等教育不具強制性， 旨在提供國民較優適應力、保障社會轉型人資需求與厚實國家競爭力。 1. 提升國民素質 在數位科技與傳播科技助益下，對於全球化與多元化新增要素之教育，歐美先進國 家由延伸國民教育年限、做為補強之道，期以一則提升國民素質，二則正視世代、年代 與時代交替，三則符應世界潮流變換，四則補強主體意識，以及新世紀價值觀，相關內 容如態度、溝通、合作、正義、判斷力、表現能力、自律⋯⋯以及跨文化與親近自然之 人文素養等。 2. 發展學術理性 〈莊子．養生主〉：「吾生也有涯，而知也無涯，以有涯隨無涯，殆已。」經驗、 知識、智慧藉教育結構化、目標性與效益性傳遞，以達到積累、傳承與創造新的文化與 文明的目的。 人特殊性主要彰顯於：「人是理性的動物」、「人是會思考的蘆葦」、「我思，故 我在」、「知識即力量」、「存在決定意識」等，Newman（1801-1890）主張教育旨在 培育理智人，理智教育（mental cultivation）是真實心智教育（real cultivation of mind） 的基礎（Ker, 2011）。發展學術理性，意旨藉經驗描述與理論說明、具體比喻與科學論 證、哲學思辨，習得邏輯性、系統性與批判性的理性推理與歸納，並據以運用於學習、 工作與生活。 自認知科學、情緒智商、統觀悟性獲得重視，人有理性、感性與悟性逐漸形成共識。 邏輯理性並非理性的全部，Newman以感覺、情感和行動要素補充其教育理念，完善其 自由心智的教育思想（陳小紅、于汝霜，2009）。Hayek（1899-1992）在《自由秩序原理》 書中指出，新經濟型態的知識需包涵：（1）理性知識的集合，如學科知識、專家知識、 有關特定事實的知識；（2）邏輯理性不及的因素，如文化、制度、集體意識；（3）非 理性因素如直觀、領悟等（Hayek，譯 1998）。 3. 培養謀生技能 Spencer（1820-1903）主張，教學是為「完滿生活做準備」，並責付科學知識指導 154 人的活動與訓練人的心智（Spencer，譯 1962）。自 20世紀 90年代以來，數位化資訊 與傳播科技催生全球關聯網絡化與國際化，人類文明期由生產取向之農業社會、經濟與 服務取向之工商業社會，邁入至今日之科技與創意取向之資訊化社會，對應不同社會之 謀生技能各有所重，相關信念與價值體現於思考邏輯、態度與行動、專業與倫理等。 二、理論基礎 19世紀末，國民教育旨趣是發展國家意識；20世紀，國民教育旨趣是民主素養與 經濟職能發展並重；21世紀初則是主體意識、社會正義與創意取向知識經濟，由啟蒙、 文明，以至服務全球化知識經濟發展，教育旨趣逐漸聚焦於資質、創意取向之人力資源 開發。 1. 人力資本 21世紀，網路帶動知識快速消長、知識經濟創意發展趨勢與現代化高人力資本需 求，投資教育與創造人力資源成為全球各國發展重點。鑑於高等教育社會經濟效益有目 共睹與現代高等教育（Modern University）之「海納百川」機能，後期中等教育應規劃 學術、專業與職業取向之分化教育。另，觀諸教育發達國家之總體教育規劃涵蓋國民教 育與高等教育，12至 13年國民基本教育是高等教育基礎工程，國民教育扎根與深耕程 度影響高等教育的發展；相對的，在百輈爭流與百花齊放下，高等教育責付國民教育規 劃路徑，致令二者關聯呈雙向互動與回饋。 2. 多元智能 Mill（1806-1873）在《論自由》書中指出，人得到最為多樣化的發展具有絕對且本 質的重要性（Mill，譯 2011）。後現代倡導主體性、開放社會多元化與創意經濟發展趨 勢，多元主義與多元智能理論從而成為教育多樣態與奇異發展另一支撐依據。 Intelligence，韋氏詞典定義為：「學習，理解，或應付陌生或困難環境的能力」， 學者或側重推理思辯能力，或側重行為功能（Sternberg & Detterman, 1986）。1983 年，Gardner提出多元智能理論（multiple intelligence theory），認為智能具領域特殊性 （domain-specific），智力是「在某種社會和文化環境的價值標準下，個體用以解決自 己遇到的真正難題或生產及創造出某種產品所需要的能力」，智力不是一種能力而是一 組能力，智力不是以整合的方式存在，而是以相互獨立的方式存在的（Gardner, 1983, 1999）。 155 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 綜合上述，運用詮釋結構模式（Interpretive Structural Modelling, ISM）（Warfield, 1976, 1982）於各要素關聯構造（見表一），要素以 C表徵之，可得階層結構圖示（見 圖一）與關聯結構（見附錄）。 表一 12年國民基本教育要素一覽表 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1. 12年國民教育 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2. 義務教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3. 非義務教育 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. 現代化程度 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. 提升國民教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 6. 發展基礎學術 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 7. 培養基礎技能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 8. 夠人力資本 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 9. 多元智能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10. 適性揚才 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 11. 政府權責 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 12. 教育正義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13. 教育品質 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 14. 教育專業 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 15. 後現代 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 16. 主體性 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17. 全球化經濟網絡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. 多元主義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 圖一 12年國民基本教育運用詮釋結構模式 156 丙、美、德、法國家之國民教育 美、德、法國家之國民教育涵蓋：國小初等教育旨在啟蒙學習者性向與潛能，採多 感官、感知性學習典範，摸索、試探、情境操作、「分享」與「表達」體驗是該階段的 學習原則；初中教育賦予試探、定向、興趣培養任務，學習範式加重理性認知、理解比重； 繼起高中職教育則定位於銜接高等教育階段之學術與專業教育之前置預備性教育，提供 基礎學術、專業或就業發展的「分化」教育，是初中階段「定向」後的進階教育。 一、共同性 歐美文化共同根基是希羅古文化與基督宗教，差異影響因素是自然地域與人文社 會，美國主實用主義與政治哲學，德國與法國則主理性主義與價值哲學。教育共同性如 以人為本、兼具目的與工具性。 1. 學生中心 Key（1849-1926） 在《兒童的世紀》書中，開啟學童本位的教育理念（Key，譯 1925），她主張以 Rousseau（1712-1778）自然教育原則改革教育，教師為兒童創造適 當的環境，讓兒童在活動中自由學習，而自然是喚起美感的天然環境，其中可孕育優美 的感情。 國民基本教育旨在開發人的理性、情意與悟性，教育理念如學生中心、適性原則、 與資質利基，教育實踐由理念意識、個性特質到實質能力，三者關聯結構是整體、個性 與能力，今之教育哲學主結果取向表現力、生存力及其素質，學習績效是新生成教育概 念。另，開放社會對於天賦能力和天生才能之境遇成就現象，國民教育發展多採由年限 延長、量擴充、機會均等，到其後適性適才與質的提升。 2. 存在哲學 存在哲學在教育上的意義：（1）正視生命存在、（2）厚實個己存在利基，以及 （3）認知共生必要性。12年國民基本教育是普通教育（general education），藉多元情 境與多元系統知識，以利（1）啟蒙、（2）扎根多元化個性與智能利基、（3）學習求生、 適應與精神滿足、（4）建構共同價值基礎、（5）認知社會發展及其特性，以及（6） 養成終身學習習性。 157 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 3. 優勢利基 優勢利基理念源自於企業界，視域分宏觀與微觀面，前者指在全球競爭氛圍與知識 經濟發展趨勢下，國家優勢生成奠基於與時俱進的經濟產業與優質人資；後者指個人生 存之道是培育具達爾文式之優質之操作力與執行力。就現實與實用主義而言，不論是個 人職識能發展，抑或是國家型塑綜合力，掌握、創造與善用利基蓄勢以待勢在必行。 面對創意取向職識能訴求與多元智能理念，初始教育利基生成是在「天生我才必有 用」、「珍惜所擁有的，不看自己沒有的」根基上，責付為期 12年國民基本教育目標性、 結構化與系統性開發潛能與能力。 二、歧異性 今昔教育價值觀變化大，由重文輕理、重理輕工、重理輕文，以至近日理工唯實、 人文唯名，前者直接助益國家經濟發展與社會文明，後者是實現前者的基本前提，祇是， 前者受到重視遠大於後者。 1. 階級性 後期中等教育具階級性，可以德國為代表，「從十九世紀四十年代起，資產階級在 政經重要性趨近貴族，兼營工商業的貴族也開始向資產階級轉化⋯⋯文實中學正是適應 這一轉化而出現的。」（王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉，1984a）事實上，教育階級性現象 屬全球性。 2. 學術性 後期中等教育具學術性可以法國為代表，拿破崙設立國立中學（Lycee）與市立中 學（College），二者是中等學校主要類型，屬預科教育；1852年，中學課程設計出現文、 實分科的做法，具實科性質學校於 1891年改稱現代中學，畢業生在學業程度和升學資 格上被視為是不足的（王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉，1984b）。 3. 實用性 後期中等教育具實用性可以美國為代表，就讀綜合中學人次比例達 98%（劉怡慧， 2000），屬通才教育與性向興趣取向；課程設計彈性與多元化，教學模式主啟思、參與 操作與合作學習。 158 丁、12年國民基本教育 12年國民基本教育既是教育工程，並且是社會工程，前者強調專業性，後者意指 功能性；涵蓋國小、初中與高中職三階段，其中國小與初中階段教育屬義務性，高中職 階段教育屬非強制性，但負有承上啟下作用，是國民義務教育與高等教育之中介。另， 國小教育根基不牢，影響初中教育深耕；初中教育是高中職教育多元定性定向發展之基 礎。 一、教育哲學 為臺灣而言，教育哲學觀虛實併陳，前者反映於教育理念與另類教育方案，後者體 現於升明星學校、進一流大學為教育目標。 1994年，「410教改遊行」訴求開啟國內適性教育思維與多元教學模式，美中不足 是未能正視學習者天生資質歧異、性向多樣態、學習意願個別差異、家庭與社會之南橘 北枳效應，以及不察生存識能發展模組與生變性，致令今昔教育生態與文化氛圍變化不 大：（1）教育改革侷限於問題解決、應變之需，權宜性方案、補強方案成為政策性方案； （2）教育形式主義模糊教育本質、教育無脈絡性淡化教育旨趣，進而型塑單向度的社 會與單向度的人（Marcuse，譯 1990）；（3）知識應用性、工具性凌駕先驗理性旨趣、 理性演繹之意義性價值，以及（4）學習非為厚實人生幸福與探究宇宙真理之益，而成 了創造科技文明、滿足物質慾望之器。 可見未來，12年國民基本教育哲學亟待建構：首先，化解晉升好學校、最終進好 大學是教育唯一化意識；其次，凸顯理論、實務與實踐脫節乃是扭曲的教育；複次，責 付教育有厚實就業職識能、預視人生可能變化功能，最後，健全人格教育，倡導自我價 值認同與富社會責任感的國民。 二、義務教育 「求木之長，必固其根；欲流之遠，必浚其源。」根據聯合國教科文組織 1998年《世 界教育報告》顯示：義務教育平均年限為 8年，歐美發達國家平均年限為 10至 12年， 但免費教育則為 12至 13年（教育部，2003）。另，義務教育實施多分為二階段、三階段， 少有是為期 9至 10年一貫制的。 159 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 觀諸臺灣義務教育發展，1939年 10月 18日制定《義務教育實施要綱》，1943年 義務教育普及率 71%（維基百科，2012a）；1947年頒訂《臺灣省學齡兒童強迫入學辨 法》，1975年國民小學入學率達 99%，1984年國民中學入學率是 99%。1967年 8月 17 日台統（一）義字第五零四零號命令公告：「茲為提高國民智能，充實戡亂建國力量⋯⋯ 國民教育之年限應延長為九年，自五十七學年度起先在臺灣及金門地區實施。」 依據教育部統計處 2010年統計資料顯示，15歲以上人口不識字率降低至 2.09%， 國小畢業生繼續就讀國中比率，1966年為 59.04%，1971年增至 80.85%，2009年達 99.73%（維基百科，2012b）。義務教育旨趣：國家意識、掃盲、經濟發展與現代化， 以及提升國民素質與厚實謀生職識能。 三、後期中等教育 面對知識經濟與全球化競爭的市場機制，後期中等教育「向上提升」是必然趨勢， 後期中等教育與高等教育發展不宜各自為政；相反的，正視二者關聯生成，而高等教育 是後期中等教育的「進階教育」，後期中等教育是高等教育先導性「預科教育」，經濟 利益是結合二者之利器。 依據教育基本法第十一條規定：「國民基本教育應視社會發展需要延長其年限。」 （教育部，2011）21世紀初，臺灣總體教育即已進入「普及化」階段，2014年即將實 施之 12年國民基本教育似是補正其政治程序罷了。 後期中等教育發展狀況：自 1986學年度後，國小學生進入國中比率已達 99%；國 中學生進入高中職，1991學年度是 86%、2003學年度是 95%，但是，國中畢業生就學 機會率是 107% （教育部，2001）。 12年國民基本教育自準備階段進入「勢在必行」歷程：1983年，教育部提出「試 辦延長以職業教育為主的國民教育」；1990年，行政院提出「國中畢業生自願就學高級 中等學校方案」；1993年，教育部提出「發展與改進國中技藝教育方案──邁向十年 國教目標」，2001年推動高中職社區化，2004年成立「推動 12年國民教育工作圈」， 2007年成立「12年國民基本教育工作小組」，並完成「12年國民基本教育規劃方案」（張 文昌，2011.11.17）。2009年 9月 4日，教育部公佈 12年國民基本教育先導計畫《擴大 160 高中職及五專免試入學實施方案》，並將於 2010至 2011學年宣導推動，2012學年擴大 辦理（教育部，2009）。 2010年 8月第 8次全國教育會議綜合座談上，行政院宣布「12年國教由坐而言進 入起而行階段」，繼而於 2011年元旦文告宣示教育邁入新紀元，並「啟動 12年國民基 本教育，分階段逐步實施，先從高職做起，預定 2014年高中職學生全面免學費、大部 分免試入學。」（中華民國總統府，2011） 《12年國教：超額比序》，凸顯 12年國民基本教育政策待釐清與公諸論證之，臺 灣國民教育問題不是時間、財政、政治性，而是教育專業，即後期中等教育未先釐清其 在高等教育與前期中等教育之功能，滋生疑慮是可預期的；相對的，其在定位之際，務 必面對後期中等教育已存問題，如各縣市「明星學校」外之他校功能不明、校際教育效 益良莠不齊、來自政府的教育投資明顯不足，如私中與國立高中比例是 0.79：1，私立 職高與公立高職比例是 0.7：1（教育部統計處，2012a），以及長期忽視城鄉教育落差 與學習者資質或素質問題等。 戊、結論與建議 21世紀，高等教育是推動國家永續發展，提升國家競爭力的關鍵要素。就教育體 制而言，高等教育位居金字塔型體制最上層，其下是中等教育之後期中等教育，二者層 級關聯不宜切割各自考量。另，為絕大多數學習者而言，後期中等教育需求屬性與學習 者資質、興趣與就業考量等因素有密切關係。 一、結論 「學校要變好，教育要改革；教育要改革，政策要出爐。」教育是促進社會進步的 原動力，臺灣將於 2014年實施 12年國民基本教育，就《12年國教 OK，但請別搞掉明 星高中》、《論十二年國教隱憂 ─ 有想過會有一個世代被犧牲嗎？》對政策質疑，凸 顯下列問題： 1. 系統思維不足 綜觀國民教育發展及其沿革，一則相關體制建置具階段性，二則採用專家取向之政 161 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 策評估與分析（Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1987）。12年國民基本教育政策規劃未 能：（1）採目標導向思維，針對 21世紀國際競爭態勢，以符應國家需求、社會轉型與 學習者生涯發展進行全盤性思考；（2）採既有現況取向思維，檢證數據予以分析與批判， 並據以進行實證取向之興革，以及（3）依據理論與實務互為印證關聯思維邏輯，進行 與時俱進之層級關聯、點滴累積（piecemeal educational engineering）之政策規劃。 2. 教育資源分配不均 一般而言，國民教育普及程度與品質凸顯政府關注教育力度與挹注經費財力，依據 教育部統計處（2012b）資料顯示，（1）後期中等教育基礎學術、專業與職業教育結構 呈傾斜狀態，其中，基礎學術教育「炙手可熱」；（2）公立學校教育多為升學軌，私 立學校教育多為職業軌，公私立學校學生數比例約 1：1；（3）教育資源多集中於都會 區與公立高中類別學校；（4）私立高職學生數大於公立高職學生數，前者又多為社會 弱勢族群，與（5）公私立學校正式教師生態結構差異大。 二、建議 德國、法國後期中等教育學校類型有其歷史淵源與對應之意識型態，美國另闢蹊徑 創建綜合中學，以消除教育階級分化現象。「他山之石，可以攻錯」，取長補短是原則， 專業判斷是準則，以及責付學習者之準參與決定選擇教育。 針對上述結論，提出如下應變之道，系統化思維體現於國民教育體制結構化，教育 資源問題改善，則以模組課程範式與較適教師教育補強。 1. 12年國民基本教育結構化 綜觀歐美總體教育體制包涵初等教育、中等教育與高等教育；現今學制是 6+3+3+4，其中高中職教育扮演承先啟後功能，上承高等教育，下接形式普同、實質多 元之基礎教育。21世紀是終身學習與學習型社會的紀元，未來 12年國民基本教育組織 呈現多樣態，如 6+6、5+4+3、4+8、4+4+4、4+5+3年制等，小學教育旨趣是基礎扎根、 習性養成，可用年限約 4至 5年；綜合中學教育旨趣是試探、定性與發展深耕（Meyer， 譯 1999），可用年限約 8/2+3+3年（見表二）。 臺灣於 1968年實施九年國民義務教育，至今已逾 40餘年，待實施之 12年國民基 162 本教育不是量的擴增，而是質的提升與效益產出。2014年施行之 12年國民基本教育旨 在：（1）解構「考試還是考試」現象，（2）效益地發展新生代潛能與個性，以及（3） 落實合時宜的教育本質。 表二 12年國民基本教育階段目標與權重一覽表 認知 情意 技能 總計 類別特色 小學 4 3 4 3 10 人境體驗教育 前期中教 5 2+3、0+5 4 3 3 10 共性基礎教育 後期中教 3 5 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 5 30 分流個殊教育 總計 12 12 10 9 11 10 10 8 9 11 90 多元化 資料來源：研究者自行設計 2. 實施模組課程範式 歐美後期中等教育主全方位，一則符應多元智能理論，二則提供社會發展需多元人 力資源，三則構造後現代主體意識與後工業社會多元主義；相對而言，臺灣形式是雙軌 制教育，實質是單一性，執行一名符其實的升學教育。 依據高級中學法第一條規定：「高級中學以陶冶青年身心，培養健全公民，奠定研 究學術或學習專門知能之預備為宗旨。」（教育部，2010a）職業學校法第一條規定：「職 業學校，依中華民國憲法第一百五十八條之規定，以教授青年職業智能，培養職業道德， 養成健全之基層技術人為宗旨。」（教育部，2010b）另，符應多元需求如學習者資質、 性向、興趣、就業與生涯規劃需求，後期中等教育規劃需橫向分化與縱向層級取向的教 育。 後期中等學校定位呈多樣化，辦學機制彈性化。首先，或就全國 15學區予以橫向 校際分工、重點或特色學校發展，或採校內橫向多元化與縱向層級化；其次，規劃菜單 式（menu-based）模組課程範式（paradigm of modular curriculum），據以提供學術發展、 專業發展、職業發展與就業準備取向之教育；最後，所謂明星學校，實為專長與特色學 校，依學區統籌規劃設置，數量有限，責付其成為學區之學習領域燈塔。 階段 目標與權重年限 163 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 課程設計需兼顧普通教育與技職教育間之橫向轉換與縱向銜接，模組課程範式（見 表三）是未來課程典範，其將知識類別分為基礎理論與應用知識二類，5大學習領域與 10個次領域，課程組織依據年級而變化，由單一領域到跨領域、系統知識結構到主題課 程；課程難度分基礎、進階、探究與榮譽課程（honors courses）四級。 模組課程範式旨在：（1）滿足就近入學而生成之多元需求；（2）因應社會快速變化， 同一時間學習與發展多元與多層級職識能成為必要，能力分組教學與開設必選修科目是 對應措施；（3）在網際網路社會，學習跨越教室邊界，另類學習成為常態，如自主學習、 機動學習、網路學習、群組學習等；（4）特色學校與重點學校 /班級成為少數，多為滿 足特殊需求，如數理長才、語文專業、藝術性向、科技設計等，以及（5）整合學區內 可用與有限教育資源，統籌規劃與綜合運用之。 表三 知識類別與領域、層級課程範式一覽表 層級 知識類別與領域 基礎 / 核心課程 進階 / 選必修課程 高階 / 選修課程 理 論 知 識 哲學與文學 單元 / 冊課程 單元 / 冊課程 主題課程 語言與文學 單元 / 冊課程 數學與物理 數學與自然科學 應 用 知 識 社會與經濟 經濟與政治 科技與生態 科技與資訊科技 藝術與戲劇 藝術與文創 資料來源：研究者自行設計 3. 正視教師教育 文明成就與進展非為事先設定，而是把握箇中機會，是以，執行無排他性的國民 基本教育，有一定的難度，但是，適性與原創性國民教育有其根本重要性。國民教育願 景實踐高素質教師教育不可或缺，教師素質對學生學習成效發揮關鍵影響（Hanushek & 164 Rivkin, 2004; Heck, 2007），從而高品質與全納式（inclusiveness）之國民教育教師教育 需一體規劃之。 符應數位化與教育工程複雜性，教師教育範式進行典範轉移： 首先，思維邏輯由線性思維模式轉化為層級網狀思維模式； 其次，教師教育橫向類別分為小學、中學與技職，縱向層級分為 4至 6年制小學、 2+3年制前期中等學校、3年制學術、3年制科技與 2或 3年制職業； 再次，3年制學術取向之教師教育承擔前期與後期中等學校教育，3年制科技取向 之教師教育強調其研究設計、探究與分析職識能； 複次，2或 3年制職業取向教師教育，一則符應社會產業結構、類別需求，其中 2 年制屬就業取向教育，3年制高職教育是二專與四技之先導性基礎教育；二則採情境認 知、操作教學，三則實施就業教育、專業基礎教育； 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C代表概念、 g代表關聯。 2.每一行代表概念與概念之關聯發展或概念與概念之關聯發展路徑。 3. 概念結構圖示整體概念之關聯結構，據以瞭解概念與概念關係性與邏輯性。 4. 圖一，可讀取有關國民教育、12年國民基本教育結構與後中教育關聯結構。 國民教育 C1gC2gC11gC13gC17 C1gC2gC11gC13gC18 12年國教結構 C1gC3gC12 C1gC3gC14gC18 C1gC2gC14gC17 C1gC2gC14gC16 12年國教目的關聯構造 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC15gC16 後中教育關聯構造 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC1 168 Study on development of 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan - Referring to national education systems in USA, Germany and France Hui Chung HO Department of Education, National Taichung University of Education Masatake NAGAI Graduate Institute of Educational Measurement and Statistics, National Taichung University of Education Abstract One of the objectives of implementing 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan is to put educational justice into practice. However, actions are urgently needed to address the issues of the lack of adaptability and shunt in post-secondary education and the insufficiency between urban and inter-schools educational resources. This article compares the national education systems in USA, Germany and France with that of Taiwan and gives insight to the planning and development of the 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan. The aims of this article are: (1) to initiate a difference-based adaptive education as basic educational engineering for driving a “good” and “meaningful” life; (2) to acknowledge systematic division of school education and system thinking of 12 years’ coherency and inclusiveness ; (3) to pinpoint that primary schools (including elementary) and junior high schools are the foundation of the 12 years’ national basic education; (4) to explain the importance of teachers’ education, and (5) to give recommendations for the 12 years’ national basic education policy to be implemented in Taiwan in 2014. Keywords 12 years’ national basic education, difference-based adaptive education, educational resources, inclusiveness, teachers’ education 169 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 胡少偉 香港教育學院 摘要 廿一世紀是資訊科技發達和知識爆炸的時代，在全球化情境中，各地政府推出不少 教育改革以促進教育的發展；教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月公佈了「香港教育制 度改革建議」，對教育發展目標和改革提出建議。這篇文章整理新世紀後香港基礎 教育的改革與發展，並就香港教改的成效作整體評論；除了十多年來所推行的教改 和課改外，本文亦會分析中小學和幼稚園的發展，以及論述期間香港教育所面對的 學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等變化。 關鍵詞 香港教育，基礎教育，教育改革，教育發展 一、前言 二十一世紀是知識爆炸的時代，隨着知識生命週期的縮短、世界空間因資訊科技而 縮減，越趨頻密的全球一體化經濟，使人類社會產生了很多變化。在這個變革的環境中， 各地教育部門紛紛推出教育改革，以促進當地教育的發展和更好地培育下一代。在世紀 轉接之間，香港教育界熱烈地進行了教育制度的檢討和教育改革的討論；經過了年多的 諮詢，教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月向政府提交了《終身學習．全人學習 ─ 香港教育 制度改革建議》（教育統籌委員會，2000），提出了香港的教育改革的方向是「為學校、 教師及學生創造空間，讓學生可享有全面而均衡的學習機會，從而奠定終身學習的根基 170 及達致全人發展」（頁 i）。自此，香港教育改革正式啟動；十多年間，教統會先後發 表了四份「教育改革進展報告」，闡述教育改革七項重點工作的進展。香港特區政府除 推動這份教改報告書的建議外，亦就教育的其他方面發表了不少的政策，涉及中、小學 和幼稚園等教育階段，範圍包括學校管理、教師專業、語文教育和資訊科技教育等。可 見，香港在新世紀的教育改革是廣泛和全面的；當中，值得香港教育界高興的是「國際 權威顧問機構麥肯錫公司 2010年底發表報告，高度評價香港教育體系在國際上的表現， 並充分肯定香港教育發展的持續進步」（胡少偉，2012，頁 33）。這篇文章將整理新世 紀後香港基礎教育的改革與發展，內容除了分析教改和課改的推行外，同時也會綜合十 多年來中小學和幼稚園教育的主要發展，並論述同期相關的教育發展和就香港教改成效 作整體的評論。 二、 新世紀的教改藍圖 《學習的革命》指出「世界正飛速地經歷一場革命，這場革命將像以前文字、印刷 術和蒸汽機的發明那樣改變我們現在的生活；我們需要一場學習的革命，與技術、知識 和通訊爆炸相適應」（Jeannette & Gordon，1998，頁 8）。面對這場人類第三波革命， 教統會（2000）提出了教育改革的願景：建立終身學習的社會體系，普遍提升全體學生 的素質，建立多元化學校體系，塑造開發型的學習環境，確認德育在教育體系中的重要 使命，建設一個具國際性、具民族傳統及相容多元文化的教育體系（頁 4-5），並視這 次教改為一項長遠而全面的規劃，以使香港教育能追上時代的需要。在報告書中，教統 會批評過往香港的教育只培養少數的優秀人才，削弱了社會的公平，並表明改革方案旨 在形成新的競爭理念，塑造新的競爭機制，兼顧擇優與公平。為了避免「標籤效應影響 較低組別學生的士氣」（何景安，2009，頁 118），教統會將小學生升中派位組別由 5 個改為 3個，以減少因派位組別多而引起的不公平；其後，小學升中的自行分配學位的 比例，從 2007/08年度起提高至 30%，學生申請學校的數目亦由一所增至兩所，且不受 各區學校網所限制。這兩項教改措施使小六家長有較大的機會讓子女憑面試及校內成績 進入心儀學校；亦可見，香港教育改革的其中一個價值是為家長提供較多的擇校機會。 在上世紀末的教育檢討中，不少業界憂慮中小學教師工作繁重，未能有效地推行教 育改革；為了讓教師鬆綁，政府於2000年撥款為教師創造空間，讓中小學聘請教學助理、 文書人員，或者僱用外間服務，讓教師可專注教學和進行拔尖補底的工作。「有關建議 171 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 於 11月 17日獲立法會財務委員會通過，將預留作教育改革的 8億元中的 5億元發放給 中、小學，透過聘請額外人手或購買服務等方法，以減輕教師的工作量，提高教與學的 成效」（高國威、葉建源、張國華、黃炳文、梁潔茵，2004，頁 9）。2004年檢討報告 認為發展津貼普遍受到學校歡迎；在 2005/06年度，政府將學校發展津貼改為經常性的 撥款，並增撥有時限學校發展津貼，以協助教師應付校本評核和全港性系統評估推行初 期的工作，進一步減輕教師的工作量。透過新增公共財政以支持學校發展，讓教師可落 實教改工作，是香港特區政府推行教改的有效策略之一。 三、 課改的推展與中期成效 2001年發表的《學會學習 ─ 課程發展路向》報告書（課程發展議會，2001），參 考了國際 21世紀教育委員會於 1996年指出，「學會學習既可將其視為一種人生手段， 也可將其視為一種人生目的」（聯合國教科文組織總部，2001）；並以「學會學習」為 香港課改文件名稱，暗喻學校教育不再是「學會知識」，學習態度和技能比學會內容更 為重要。香港當年課改計畫用 10年改革中、小學課程，為學生提供一個均衡的新課程， 並將當時所有學科統整為八個學習領域；課程發展議會亦提出在首五年內透過創造更多 空間、引發學習動機、落實推行四個關鍵專案、幫助學生掌握中英數基本能力和培養學 生共通能力等五方面重點工作去落實課程改革。「制度政策和學校行政管理的改革，假 如未能直接或間接促進教師、學校或制度層面的課程教學的設計和發展，這些改革都可 算是無的放矢」（黃顯華，2001，頁 21）。為配合課改的推行，《基礎教育課程指引 ─ 各盡所能．發揮所長》於 2002年出版，進一步展示落實課程改革的校本方法；尤其 是對四個關鍵專案的推行有詳細說明，使各校能順利推展德育及公民教育、從閱讀中學 習、專題研習和運用資訊科技進行互動學習。 在推行課改的同時，政府對評核學生的制度亦進行了改革；教育部門於 2001年委 託考試及評核局發展與推行中、英、數三科的基本能力評估。經試驗後，於 2004年首 次在小三進行全港性系統評估；至 2006年在小三、小六和中三級作全面施行，評估項 目分為中、英、數三科，主要是以筆試進行，還包括兩科語文的說話評估和中文視聽資 訊評估，以全面評估學生讀寫聽說的能力。這個評估結果和資料可讓公眾瞭解基礎教育 階段學生的中、英、數基本能力；學校亦可參考全港性系統評估的校本資料，調整三個 主科的教學策略，以改善教師教學的效能。與此同時，正如內地學者景源（2011）指， 172 港府「要求實現『對學習的評估』和『促進學習的評估』兩種評價範式的平衡，變革了 學校的評價文化和評價方式」（頁 17）；鼓勵教師注意促進學習的評估，可使課堂教學 目標、學教過程和學生學習成果三者有一個更緊密的迴圈，從而優化課堂教學。 有關香港課改的成效，課改中期報告顯示「有超過 85%的受訪小學生和 75%的受 訪中學生認為老師普遍有『向我們提問、與我們討論、鼓勵我們發表意見』、『耐心聆 聽我們的發問及積極回答我們的問題』、『教我們用不同方法尋找資料，完成課業』， 以及『鼓勵我們自己尋找答案，解決問題』」（教育局，2008，頁 20）。時任課程發展 總監張國華於 2011年指出「學生在溝通能力、創造力及批判性思考能力上有明顯的進 步，在國民身份認同和承擔精神等價值觀和態度上均有正面的發展，並正發展成更加獨 立的學習者。」（鄭琰，2011，頁 10）。香港課改成效亦受到本地課程專家的肯定，香 港教育學院副校長李子建（2012a）認為「超過 90%的中小學校長認為學校能夠促進教 師共同備課、建立同伴觀課文化、提升校內的團隊文化和將學校作為一個學習社群」（頁 44）；並指出學校領導層和中層管理人員的素質差別是影響校本課程的關鍵因素。 四、 幼稚園教育的發展與提高 在 2000年的報告書內，教統會期望政府和公眾認識幼稚園教育的重要性，並就有 關提高幼稚園教育專業水準方面提出各項明確的建議，反映了當時香港幼師資格相對較 低；而提高幼稚園教師和校長的資格是幼稚園教改的一個亮點。同時，教統會建議政府 要加強質素保證機制和改善小一入學制度，以防止幼稚園教育揠苗助長的風氣。隨着世 界幼稚園教育的發展趨勢，課程發展議會修訂了 1996年學前教育課程指引，新編訂的 《學前教育課程指引（2006）》申明幼稚園教育是終身學習和全人發展的基礎，重視以 「兒童為中心」的核心價值；在該課程架構下訂有四項幼兒發展目標：「身體」、「認 知和語言」、「情意和群性」及「美感」；這份 2006年的學前教育課程指引比舊課程 更為全面、具彈性及多元化，可讓幼兒建立良好的學習基礎、正面的價值觀及基本的能 力與技巧。 「學前教育學券計畫」是由 2007/08學年開始實施，一方面保留私立幼稚園靈活應 變的多元化特色，另一方面則推動學前教育界全面提升質素，步入更具效益和更專業化 的新紀元。在 2009/10年度參加學券計畫的幼稚園有 820間，幼稚園學生約 117,000名， 173 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 分別約佔總數的 85%。這計畫雖顯示政府對幼稚園教育的承擔有所增加，但政策推出後 卻受到不少業界的批評，「新政策推行至今已進入第三個學年，過程中衍生了不少爭駁， 除了上述提及的問題外，其他情況諸如教師人手短缺、流動、流失和工作壓力等，均對 幼稚園教育專業的整個生態發展造成嚴重影響」（袁慧筠，2010，頁 11）。立法會教育 事務委員會（2010）曾召開檢討學前教育學券計畫會議，並通過議案「促請政府即時成 立包括業界及家長代表的委員會，立即檢討幼稚園學費津助制度」。在議會和業界的強 力關注下，教育局提前檢討這個原定推行五年的計畫；經公開諮詢和檢討工作小組的討 論，教育統籌委員會於 2010年底公佈檢討報告，在提出 12個改善學券計畫建議的同時， 該小組亦總結了學券計畫的成果。然而，大部份香港幼稚園同工的心願是政府推行十五 年免費教育；為回應業界的訴求，政府終於 2013年成立專責委員會研究推行十五年免 費教育的可行性。 五、 香港小學教育的三大發展 香港小學教育在這十多年除了推行教改和課改的建議外，在推行全日制、落實 和優化人力資源等三方面也有明顯的發展。在回歸年，特首提出把全日制學生比率 提高；1998年的施政報告提出推行小學全日制長遠的目標，計畫於 2007/08學年開始全 面推行小學全日制，讓所有小學生都有機會入讀全日制學校。2003年《小學全日制優點 研究》指出全日制在多方面比半日制可取，包括：全日制學校可以為學生提供一個更理 想的學習環境和更多元化的學習活動；可紓緩緊迫的上課時間，學校能更靈活地安排課 程；可提供較充裕的時間去使學生得到較全面的照顧等。「至 2002/03學年，政府已達 到了六成的小學生接受全日制教育的中期目標；據政府統計處 2007年的統計報告顯示， 84.4%的受訪者同意或非常同意『由於學生有更多時間和老師、校長和其他同學溝通接 觸，因此全日制小學就能夠營造出一個更有生氣的學習環境』」（郭少棠，2008，頁 148）。 在新世紀後，香港小學教育的一個爭議課題是的推行。教育局於 2004/05 學年進行一項追蹤性的研究，目的為評估在香港實施的好處，及識別發揮 最佳成效的教學策略和支持措施；當年有 37所小學參與研究，並以每班學生人數 25人試行。其後，教統局於 2005年 9月又在收錄較多清貧學生的學校試行 。隨着因學生人口下降，小學業界要求訴求不斷增加，行政長官於 2007 174 年施政報告公佈由 2009/10學年起，於公營小學的小一班級開始，分階段實施， 並會逐年推展至 2014/15學年，涵蓋小一至小六所有班級。2009年 9月，在 65%的香港小學順利實施；當年，教育局撥款 2億 1千 8百萬元，為教師提供在職培訓 課程和為學校提供代課教師。隨着「研究」於 2009年發表，教育局再調撥 1 億元，為正在實施的學校提供為期一年的額外文憑教師職位。在 2010/11年度， 實施的小學有 318所，佔全港公營小學 69%。 香港小學課改得到不少的讚賞，成功原因之一是政府增加小學的人力資源。政府於 2002年 9月在小學增設課程統籌主任的職位，以支持小學制訂課程發展策略和推行課改 的工作；有見於小學課程統籌主任的貢獻，政府將這個原定五年的有限期職位轉為常額。 而為加強改善中英數三個主科的教學，政府於 2005/06年向小學提供資助專科教學津貼， 為期三年；期後考慮到教師不滿以合約形式聘用，教育統籌局由 2006/07學年起為學校 提供額外常額教席，取代這個專科教學津貼，這使全日制小學每班的教師比例由 1.4提 升至 1.5。於 2008/09學年教育局又在小學開設高級小學學位教師的職級，明確小學副校 長要協助校長處理下列四方面的工作：（1）課程發展與管理，學與教及學生評估；（2） 全校參與的關顧輔導與學生支持；（3）人力資源管理；（4）學校管理、評估及發展。 小學副校長職級編制化，除了吸引人才出任小學副校長外，也提高了小學行政人員的士 氣，有助提升小學教育的管理質素。 六、 中學教育的改革與轉變 香港中學教育的一個實踐性發展，是將實施近三十年的九年免費教育延長；特首在 2007年施政報告中宣佈將公營學校提供的免費教育延伸至高中階段，由 2008/09年度起 生效。十二年免費教育不單可減少低學歷青少年過早地投入就業市場，亦有利適齡學童 取得報讀進修專上教育的資格，有利他們持續進修終身學習。另一方面，因應學生人口 減少，教育局在 2006/07學年推出班級結構重整措施，為未達開辦三班要求的中學，提 供多項方案供相關學校申請繼續營辦高中，以減輕收生弱勢中學被殺的危機。吸收了早 前小學縮班殺校所帶來教師壓力和怨氣的痛苦經驗，教育局於 2010年 11月提出「自願 優化班級計畫」，讓部份學生自然地流進收生不足的學校；這不但保障弱勢中學不用殺 校，亦避免了能力較強的學生錯配下移。與此同時，政府將世紀初 40名學生的中一班 額逐步減少；教育局於 2009/10學年已將中一每班派位人數調低至 36人，在 2010/11及 175 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 2011/12學年再減至 34人。政府於 2012年底更提出二一一方案，使 2016年的中一學生 班額可減至 30名學生；這措施不單保留中學教師的人力資源，又可免日後中一學生人 數谷底回升時，引來另一次香港中學教育的動盪。 香港特區政府在新世紀最為慎重的教改政策是推行新高中學制。2000年教統會未 有決定進行高中學制改革，經過 2004年的諮詢後，特區政府於 2005年公佈 2009年推 行新高中學制。新高中課程為學生提供一個均衡和有深度的課程，高中生除了修讀四個 必修的科目，包括中、英、數及通識教育科外，亦可根據個人興趣、性向和能力，從不 同學習領域或應用學習的範疇中選讀兩個或三個科目；同時，高中生還可透過其他學習 經歷，獲得德育及公民教育、體藝等的體驗，以廣闊的知識基礎去準備未來升學及就業 的需要。「經過三輪諮詢後，2007年 3月，課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局聯合編訂 的高中課程 4個核心科目及 20個選修科目的課程及評估指引公佈；2009年 5月，課程 發展議會編訂的《高中課程指引：立足現在，創建未來（中四至中六）》，為學校準備 和實施新高中課程提供指導」（彭澤平、姚琳，2010，頁 23）。新高中學制的改革經歷 數年的諮詢和優化，其改革亦與教改藍圖主張培育學生「終身學習、全人發展」的方向 一致，可算是香港改革中一個持續深入又推行成功的政策實例。 高中學制改革除影響高中各科課程和教學外，亦使中學公開考試產生了相應的變 化；香港中學文憑考試取代了原有的兩個公開考試，並在各科引入校本評核和以水準參 照模式彙報學生的成績。「水準參照模式中，考生的表現被分為五個等級，沒有及格或 不及格的概念，每個等級附有一套等級描述。為了更準確地反映考生實際的語文水準， 考評局由 2007年起改用水準參照模式彙報考生的中國語文科和英國語文科的成績，考 生所得的成績，反映出本身的知識和技能水準，不受其他考生的表現影響」（付宜紅， 2011，頁 44）。而對中學教師影響最大的評核轉變是校本評核，校本評核本意是透過多 元化課業評核學生在不同方面的表現，讓教師可以作出適時的回饋，從而提高學生的學 習成效；但校本評核卻同時引來高中教師大量的評核工作，加上學生的學習時數不足， 在第一屆文憑試舉行之後，不少關心中學教師的教育團體，要求政府和考評局即時檢討 校本評核及不再按原計劃於 2016年全面在各科內推行校本評核。 回歸前，政府訂定一刀切強行母語教學，要求各中學在初中分流為以中文或英文 為教學語言，這政策備受各方的批評；當中最為詬病的是其所造成的標籤效應，把中文 176 中學定為二流中學。政府於 2005年曾成立工作小組深入探討這難題，並提出維持師生 和學校皆具備條件的情況下，讓中學以上落車機制去強化當時的母語教學政策；但這個 不為各方支持的方案，公佈後受到不少抨擊。有見及此，教育局提出微調初中教學語言 政策。「賦予學校更大的空間，使母語教學有持續平穩的發展；微調安排由 2010/11學 年的中一開始實施，學校會根據『學生為本、因材施教』的原則，採用不同模式的教學 語言安排，以加強校內的英語環境，並增加學生運用和接觸英語的機會。」（教育局， 2010，頁 7）。為支持中學落實這個影響深遠的微調措施，教育局於 2009年舉辦了 16 場制定全校語文政策工作坊，同時亦調撥 5億 9千萬元為改變教學語言的非語文科教師 提供在職培訓課程及代課老師。初中教學課程微調後，使不少中學在初中階段有一校兩 語文授課的情況，增加了初中教師的教學難度，但相信措施有助中學生提高英語能力； 然而，其最終成效是否物有所值，則需視乎日後學生表現才可論斷。 七、 香港基礎教育同期的發展 在這十多年教育變革的時期中，除了以上教改、課改和中小幼教育的發展外，香港 基礎教育同步亦有三個不能忽視的發展，包括面對學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和 提倡學校自評文化；當中，最為震撼的是因學生人口的減少而帶來殺校的現象。政府審 計署於 2003年發表的第 41號報告書，批評教統局規劃失當，浪費了十多億港元資源， 並倡議減建 18所新校舍；加上學童人口的減少，小學面臨生源不足的困難，教統局於 2003年決定停辦小一收生不足的學校。在小一生源不足的情況下，有不少半日制小學合 二為一，；教統局亦於 2005年提出檢討建校計畫，將一些原已公佈的新建校舍停建。 而因殺校出現大量的小學超額教師，教統局於 2004年推出小學教師提早退休計畫，並 擴展至非殺校的小學教師；於 2005年受惠於特惠補償金計畫的教師有八百多名。據本 地學者分析「因收生不足而聯繫到學校關閉，在 2000至 2006年約有 110間小學被政府 所關閉」（Mok，2007，頁 201-202）；縮班殺校對香港教育影響之廣，連台灣學者亦 有關注，「教師的超額造成教師流失率的升高，顯現少子化大大衝擊香港的教育體系」 （黃宗顯、劉健慧，2010，頁 173）。 在學校管理方面，新世紀後影響最大的政策是推動學校自評文化。質素保證視學組 在 2002年提出學校表現指標，既讓學校瞭解到外評人員評核的要求，也是開展自我評 估的參考。在 2003年，教育局推行「透過學校自我評估及校外評核促進學校發展及問 177 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 責」，推行這個新視學制度時正是中小學教師開始感受巨大教改壓力之際，因而引來各 方對計畫的質疑和顧慮。為此，教育局騁請國際學者就這機制進行專門的研究，並肯定 「外評在核實及支援自評，以促進學校持續改善方面」（教育局質素保證分部，2008， 頁 19）。在總結首輪外評經驗後，教育局修訂了表現指標，《2008年學校表現指標》 把原有的 14個範圍精簡為 8個，又把表現指標由 29個精簡為 23個，使學校更能聚焦 地檢視工作表現；教育局並在每個表現指標內設有一組要點問題，學校同工在撰寫發展 計畫、周年計畫和周年報告時可參考這些要點問題。香港這個學校評估制度受到上海專 家張民生的讚賞，「在對上一年規劃實施情況的評估報告裡，評價時像一條條列出來， 相應地有詳細的評價結果呈現；對一個組織來說就是既要具備規劃能力，還要具備自我 評價能力。」（沈祖芸、羅陽佳，2007，頁 17）。 香港教育另一個受好評的發展，是教師受訓率和學位率皆有升幅。中學教師的受 訓率由 2001/02年度的 87.9%，提高至 2007/08年度的 94.2%。「而小學教師的受訓 率由 2001至 2002年度的 90.8%提升至 2006至 2007年度的 94.6%；學位率更由 2001 至 2002年度的 49.6%增至 2006至 2007年度的 80.4%」（胡少偉，2009，頁 201）。 下表一顯示出香港中小學和幼稚園的師生比率在過去的改善情況，中小幼師生比例從 2000/01年度的 18.6、22.0和 11.8分別降至 2010/11年度的 15.2、15.2和 9.8；反映政 府十多年來積極增加學校教師人手的比例，為各級學生提供更佳的教育服務。2007年 10月特首曾蔭權更宣佈「分兩期增加公營小學及中學的學位教師比例，於 2008/09學年 將小學及中學學位教師比例分別增至 45%及 80%，並於 2009/10學年分別增至 50%至 85%」（香港特別行政區政府，2007，頁 45），這個措施改善了中小學教師的就業環境 和提高了教師的士氣。 表一 香港中小幼學校的學生與教師比率 學校類別 2000/01 2003/04 2006/07 2010/11 幼稚園 11.8 10.2 9.4 9.8 小學 22.0 19.5 17.6 15.2 中學 18.6 18.0 17.0 15.2 178 八、 香港基礎教育改革的評價 「麥肯錫公司發表《世界上最進步的學校制度如何做得更好》的報告，該報告考察 美國部份地區、英國、智利、香港、加拿大等二十個國家和地區的教育制度，結果發現 雖然二十個教育系統有不同的表現，但是卻有六個共同的干預策略：建立教師的教學技 能和校長的管理技能；評估學生；改進數據系統；透過政府文件和教育法規輔助改革； 修訂標準和課程；保證對教師和校長合適的薪酬結構。」（李子建，2012b，頁 9）。回 顧新世紀後香港教改的發展，可發現與上述六個策略相近的例證。從另一個角度剖析， 香港教育十多年來除了落實教改建議和有效地推動課改之外，亦在幼稚園教育的課程和 資助兩方面有所提高；在小學方面，全日制的推行、的實施和人力資源的優化 是三項較大的發展。至於中學方面，除了落實新高中學制和公開考試變革之外，十二年 免費教育和初中教學語言微調也是影響深遠的教育政策；與此同時，面對學生人口下降 的挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等環節，亦是香港基礎教育在新世紀後不能 忽視的變化。 在教育變革的年代，香港教育界雖有不少怨氣，但學生成績進步卻也是公認的； 2006年全球學生閱讀能力進展研究顯示，在 45個參與地區中，香港小學四年級學生的 閱讀能力從 2001年排名第 14位躍升至第 2位。在學生能力國際評估亦發現，「與 2007 年比較，香港學生的數學排名保持在第三位，閱讀能力排名第四，科學第三；與前三期 研究結果比較，香港學生的三項能力的整體表現有進步，閱讀表現亦明顯比前兩次好」 （《星島日報》，2010.12.8）。2009年「香港學生的數碼閱讀能力在 19個國家和地區 中排名第五，逾九成港生的基本水準達到第二級或以上水準，高於 16個經濟合作與發 展組織成員國的平均百分比」（政府新聞處，2011）。簡言之，香港學生的閱讀能力於 教改和課改後在國際評比上有持續的提升。 若要分析推動香港基礎教育改革的動力，追求「提升教育質素」是香港教改、課改 和眾多相關政策的核心價值。當然優化派位機制、全面實施小學全日制、提供十二年免 費教育等政策則有追求「教育公平」的影子。至於增加小六家長擇校機會、進行幼稚園 教育學劵和因學生人口減少而帶來的競爭現象，則充滿了「教育市場化」的氣味。可見 上述三個核心價值主宰了十多年來香港教育的發展。而因文章篇幅所限，此文並沒有論 及香港的資訊科技教育、兩文三語政策、德育及國民教育、直資學校、教師專業發展、 179 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 校長領導、融合教育、非華語學童、跨境學童等環節的變化；這些教育政策的變化或多 或少也影響了香港基礎教育在新世紀的發展，並值得有興趣研究香港教育發展的學者去 深究。說到香港基礎教育改革的總體評價，教改「三頭馬車」之一程介明（2007）認為： 「教育改革是不會自動在民間通過市場運作產生的，是需要政府的強力干預才會出現和 成功的；從這個角度看，香港的教育改革，在這個不善於組織自己的社會裡面，能夠度 過這些風風雨雨，而基本能夠維持改革的核心價值，繼續向前，也說明香港有着無可估 量的生命力」（頁 14）。也就是說，香港新世紀後基礎教育改革有一定的成效，不能忽 視的原因是有效的中長規劃和持續地投入資源，這保證了香港教改在這十多年來穩定地 沿路前進。 參考文獻 《星島日報》（2010.12.8）。〈港生數理閱讀續居世界前列〉。取自 http://www.singtao. com/archive/fullstory.asp?andor=or&year1=2010&month1=12&day1=08&year2=2010& month2=12&day2=08&id=20101208g01。 付宜紅（2011）。〈攜手共進 ─ 從香港課程改革中我們能學到什麼〉。《基礎教育課 程》，第 4期，42-45。 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C. ( 2007). Quality assurance and school monitoring in Hong Kong. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 6(3), 187-204. 181 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 Educational reform on the basic education of Hong Kong in new century Siu Wai WU The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract The 21st century is the era of advances in information technology and knowledge explosion. Under globalization, countries all over the world are undergoing reform in education system. The HKSAR government released the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong in September 2000 and launched a comprehensive education reform in Hong Kong schools. This article is to review the education reform and curriculum reform in Hong Kong. It also addresses the significant development of kindergarten, primary and secondary education during this period. In the same time, the Government copes with the declining student population challenges, optimizing teachers’ forces and advocates of school self-evaluation. Finally, an overall comment on the effectiveness of the educational reform in Hong Kong will be given. Keywords Hong Kong education, basic education, educational reform, educational development 183 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong LEUNG Lai Sim Creative Teachers Association, EdD student of the University of Bristol Abstract Through a questionnaire survey of 41 Liberal Studies (LS) teachers from 40 secondary schools and interviews with 12 of them, the researcher compared the teaching processes and strategies for nurturing students’ higher-order thinking (HOT). The study seeks to find out whether the LS implementation process is aligning with the aims of the curriculum. Result show that teachers have a strong tendency towards examination-oriented learning while acknowledging the focus on knowledge-based learning as the main difference of LS and its public assessment component from those of the traditional disciplines, the emphasis of the subject on the mastery of basic concepts and thinking skills and the need for the nurturing of HOT. There was widespread agreement with the operation of the public assessment design in the subject. The more experienced ones further agree that examination-oriented strategies are compatible with the development of HOT. Keywords higher-order thinking, Liberal Studies public assessment, mixed method design 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all New Senior Secondary (NSS) students in Hong Kong from 2009 onwards. Its aims are to “broaden students’ knowledge 184 base and enhance their social awareness through the study of a wide range of issues”, “enable students to make connections across different fields of knowledge and to broaden their horizons” and “foster students’ capacity for life-long learning” (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007, p.1). The Education Bureau emphasizes that the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment should be well aligned (p.123-124). However, what are the views of teachers about the LS examinations in Hong Kong? What strategies do they use to help students learn effectively? Can the public assessment paper promote higher-order thinking (HOT) learning in LS? As the chairman of Creative Teachers Association and a researcher, the author conducted a study through a voluntary organization to find out teachers’ perception on the relationship between LS public assessment and the teaching and learning of HOT skills. Based on the findings, we outline the nature of LS and suggest some ideas for further research. 2. Literature review The education assessment system is regarded as important as the invention of the computer, steam engine and wheel (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). Its impact on human society is immense (Brown, Kennedy, Kerry, Fok, Chan & Yu, 2009; Cheng, 2010; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, Chan, Yu & Fok, 2006) as the behaviour of teachers, pupils and policy makers can be significantly affected. It even shapes the choices for human life in future (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). The implementation of assessment, including both formative and summative procedures, can affect students’ performance deeply and how far the purposes of the curriculum are being fulfilled. Studying teachers’ attitude towards LS public examination, guidance of students as well as the teaching and learning pedagogy involved would help us reflect the implementation of aims of the LS curriculum. HOT is a rich concept that has attracted diverse interpretations by local and international academics (Yeung, 2012; Watkins, 2001; Wang & Wang 2011). Different scholars have different interpretations and understanding with different directions and perspectives (Fisher, 2001; Pithers & Soden, 2000; Gardner, 2006). “A basic rule for assessment of HOT skills is to use tasks that require use of knowledge and skill in new or novel situations.” (Nitko & Brookhart, 2011, p.223). “Higher order thinking occurs when a person takes new information and information stored in memory and interrelates and/ or rearranges and extends this information to achieve a purpose or find possible answers in perplexing situations” (Lewis & Smith, 1993, p.136). In general, students are thinking at a higher order if they can put forward a well-reasoned view with reference to relevant concepts, discuss an issue from various perspectives, and demonstrate analytical and argumentative skills in the process. Moreover, HOT is a disposition for a people to pursue the meanings and nature of 185 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong life. Socrates (470-399BC) claimed that, “Wisdom begins in wonder.” (cited Cooper, 2012). Dewey (1897) argued that education should not aim only at gaining content knowledge, but also at learning how to live. The purpose of education is the realization of one’s full potential and the ability to use those skills for the future life. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of LS teachers needs to be investigated (Zhao & Fok, 2012) in this context. For instance, active learning pedagogies play an important role in enhancing higher order cognitive skills among students (Madhuri, Kantamreddi & Prakash Goteti, 2012). While the goal of issue-enquiry in an authentic context is to promote HOT skills (Preus, 2012), learning through enquiry demands that students explain, analyse, give reasons or comment about them by “gap filling” (Bartlett, 1958). Questioning, issue-enquiry, interaction, learning communities and Independent Enquiry Study (IES) are encouraged as a result. Reflective thinking, integrative thinking and deep thinking can be encompassed into HOT too (Wang & Wang, 2011). Compared with memorization and looking for correct answers, HOT seeks to develop the potential of individuality such as critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving skills (Zohar & Dori, 2003). “Liberal Studies plays a unique role in the NSS curriculum by helping students to connect concepts and knowledge across different disciplines, to look at things from more than one single perspective, and to study issues not covered by any single discipline. It is more than just about developing thinking skills and positive values and attitudes. The nature of Liberal Studies is different from that of General Education or Liberal Education in universities. It is a curriculum organization that suits the curriculum contexts of Hong Kong and achieves the learning goals identified for senior secondary education.” (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005, p.6-7) What does HOT mean in LS specifically? According to the CDC & HKEAA (2007), teachers can infuse HOT into the LS curriculum and help student achieve the learning goals identified for senior secondary education such as “to develop multiple perspectives on perennial and contemporary issues in different contexts”, to “become an independent thinker”, “develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving skills, communication skills and information technology skills” (p.5). LS assessment is claimed to adopt authentic assessment with hot issues and news are taken as the basis of questioning (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012). Unlike traditional examinations which emphasize knowledge reproduction abilities and low-level skills, complex thinking, personal opinions, ideas construction, and the elaboration of issues in contemporary contexts are demanded in the LS assessment. 186 The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) LS Seminar on Assessing Student Learning and the Assessment Framework for HKDSE LS 2014 (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2013) highlighted the nature and development of LS assessment procedures and noted the value of using contemporary issues, problems or incidents in assessment questions. By drawing upon personal experiences and conducting issue-based enquiries, candidates can demonstrate their abilities in understanding and the application of knowledge. Based on the definitions of HOT from scholars, the government and the LS teachers’ perceptions of LS learning and meaning in this paper, the author discusses and interprets the research topic during the process. According to the above discussion and analyses, in order to help students meet the aims of the LS curriculum, HOT-based pedagogy is essential. The development of HOT skills is the core purpose of teaching and learning in LS. Teachers need PCK which is the unique knowledge of teachers (Zhao & Fok, 2012). How teachers understand the subject matter and internalise to create an effective mode of teaching will affect the realization of HOT skills learning. And how teachers understand the teaching content and knowledge to internalise individual teaching pedagogy and methodology to let students manage and understand HOT skills is crucial for knowing the implementation quality of the curriculum aims. Research is a process of investigation. With the interpretive approach, this study was carried out to reveal teachers’ perceptions. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and a self-completion questionnaire survey. The implementation of HOT in LS was analysed from teachers’ perspective and discussed with reference to the views of academics, curriculum developers and teachers. 3. Research Design This study aims at (1) identifying teachers’ perception of the use of HOT pedagogy and the public assessment component in LS, (2) explicating the link between the two, and (3) examining the challenge of nurturing HOT in LS after four years of implementation. The questionnaire survey and subsequent semi-structured interviews were designed with the following research questions in mind: 1. What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? 2. How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? 3. What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? 187 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong A single-phase triangulation design based on the Convergence Model of Creswell & Clark (2007, p.64) was used for collecting data (Figure 1). During a meeting1 of markers in a simulation mock examination orgranised by Hok Yau Club (2012) in November, 2012, 48 copies of questionnaires (Appendix 1) without recording teachers’ names were distributed to LS teacher who have attended Education Bureau LS training courses. Quantitative and qualitative methods were given the same degree of importance in seeking the answers to the research questions. Figure 1: Triangulation Design in this study in relation to the Convergence Model 4. Research result and analysis 41 copies were returned and an 85% return rate was achieved. 44% of the participants have taught LS for four years or more, 32% have taught for three years, the other 24% have just taught for one or two years. Qualitative data collection was conducted by inviting 12 randomly selected teachers to a 10-minute semi-structured interview in December 2012 when they returned the marked scripts to the club. 11 interviews could be completed in due course and the responses were transcribed and analyzed2. Information about the questionnaire respondents and interviewees is given in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1: Information about the respondents in the questionnaire survey Total no. of teachers 41 Gender Male: 56% Female: 44% Length of teaching LS 1 yr: 7% 2 yrs: 17% 3 yrs: 32% ≥ 4 yrs: 44% Teaching LS since 2011-12 Yes: 66% No: 34% Teaching LS since 2012-13 Yes: 63% No: 37% _______________ 1 In order to ensure that the LS public assessment exam marking process is fair, objective and reliable, a system of marking is established, where each of the markers only marks one exam question. Every exam question will be marked by two staff. 2 The full interviews recorded documents in Chinese can be accessed from www.cta.org.hk 188 Table 2: Information about the interviewees Interviewees T1 T2 T3 T4 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Gender M M F F F M F M M M M NSS LS teaching experience (year) 4 2 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 Investigative issue 1 - What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? From the statistics of the questionnaires (part 1) shown in Figure 2, except item 1b, the data showed that 92% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with using direct training of answering skills, examination-oriented practices, sample papers and current issues to help students achieve better in the HKDSE LS. Figure 2: Teachers’ views about teaching strategies Statistics from questionnaires (part 2) in Figure 3 also showed that, except for item 2c & 2d, 90% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed that Sixth Form were more likely to use examination papers or sample questions to guide students for public assessment. Moreover, the issue-enquiry approach and current affairs discussion were preferred too. It showed that diversity teaching strategies or approaches were used for helping students obtain better results in public examinations. 189 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 3: Processes in the teaching of LS The strategies named by interviewees were well aligned with those named by the respondents in the questionnaires survey (Appendix 2). For instances, most teachers identified answering techniques as being very important for helping students perform better. Their responses focused on the training of answering techniques, use of sample questions for issue enquiry and application of constructivist concept to stimulate learning motivation and interest. For lower-ability students, one of the teachers would emphasise the memory of basic concepts and the needs for more practice. Authentic assessment is used for LS (Or, 2012). Students are asked to perform real- world tasks that demonstrate a meaningful application of knowledge and skills. Teachers adopt different strategies to help students answer questions about current issues. They are examination-oriented on the whole and have used a wide range of strategies and processes (Appendix 3a) because of the novelty of authentic assessment procedures. Investigative issue 2 - How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? Questionnaires (part 3) in Figure 4 showed that 95% of LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed “LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking.” 92% of them agreed “LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking.” More than 82.5% of teachers agreed, very much agreed or extremely agreed with items 3g, 3j and 3l. Nevertheless, 95% agreed that “It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning.” 190 Figure 4: Teachers’ opinions on LS (1) There were markedly different opinions on items 3b, 3e, 3f, 3h in part 3 between teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience and teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5: Teachers’ opinions on LS (2) A comparison was made between these two groups of teachers. More experienced teachers tended not to agree with statements like “Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other”, “Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results”, “Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result” and “Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation”. It reflected that more experienced teachers were more likely to accept examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy as being compatible with each other as shown in Figure 6. They were also in favour of the accumulation of factual knowledge and memorization of facts. However, almost half of the respondents held different opinions. Further research in these areas is desirable and needed. 191 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 6: Opinions on examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy The interviews revealed three types of opinions on whether LS public assessment teaching strategy is compatible with the nurturing of HOT skills during interviews. Feedback from the first group of teachers reflected that public examinations would hinder the development of HOT. Students were too directed towards tools for examinations and depended on memorisation for exams. Sharing opposite views, some teachers believed that the present examination model was capable of assessing the mastery of analysis, evaluation and creative thinking. Students were required to demonstrate a mastery of thinking skills and present a sound discussion based on evidence. They could not meet the criteria by only remembering facts without conceptual linkage. If examinations focus on the application of thinking skills, students also need to start learning from thinking. Some teachers felt that examinations could help high-ability students to develop HOT abilities but not low-ability students. Others however thought some of the thinking skills questions were too instrumental and could not help to promote independent thinking and encourage students to show their care for their living environment. Backed with confidence and strong rationales, five teachers out of eleven agreed that HKDSE LS could help students develop HOT skills during the process of teaching and learning in the lesson. Four of them considered that there were two sides to a coin. Only two of them considered it was an obstacle to the development of students’ HOT (Appendix 3b). Investigative issue 3 - What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? HOT nurturing in LS can be interpreted as developing multiple perspectives on current issues, to become independent thinkers, and to develop a range of skills for life- long learning (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.5). In order to nurture HOT skills, 90% or more of teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with items 1f, 1g, 2a and 2b shown in Figure 7. The discussion of current issues, issue-enquiry and group enquiry are often used. 78% of teachers agreed with the need to help students learn through activities such as role- 192 play, debate, situational learning. 65.9% of them would use methods for the teaching of thinking skills, such as brain mapping and six thinking hats, etc. Figure 7: Teachers’ pedagogy for developing HOT skills During the process of interview, teachers were asked about strategies, approaches and effective models and methods to develop independent thinking skills, diverse perspectives and life-long learning attitudes. Most of the teachers considered concept learning very important. The processes of discussion, interaction, argumentation or role-play through issues, current affairs or sample questions to promote analytical and critical ability, multiple-dimensional perspectives and individual thinking ability were followed in the lessons. IES was considered to develop independent thinking skills. Moreover, one of the teachers implemented “LS is life”. It is a combination of school curriculum and life experiences that help students to learn. Another recognised that teacher could nurture higher levels of thinking and analytical ability as LS is an integrated subject. Another expressed that different frames of analysis could be applied in different issues for discussion. More teachers would make use of current affairs as the basis for exploring and constructing teaching and learning content. Also they would use the sample questions as the basis for discussion from different perspectives. Teachers’ responses could be roughly divided into three groups, namely the nurturing of life-long learning, development of multiple-dimensional perspectives and scaffolding for independent thinking as shown in Appendix 3c. 5. Discussion 5.1 Examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning Most of the interviewees with more experience in LS were in favour of examination- oriented mode of teaching and learning (Appendix 1: 1c-1f). Investigative issue 1 reflected that teachers still focus on the public examination requirement and assessment-spirited 193 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong strategies to guide students for learning. This trend is compatible with the findings in many studies (Berry, 2011, p.17, cited Morgan, 1996; Preece & Skinner, 1999; Shen, 2002) that summative test requirements tend to dominate the assessment practice of many teachers. It is exactly the same as Broadfoot’s worry that “the assessment tail nearly always wags the curriculum dog” (Broadfoot, 2007, p.8) as curriculum and assessment can never really be separated. The public examination is influential, high-stakes exercise because priority is often given to result (Chapman & Snyder, 2000; Fischer, Bol & Pribesh, 2011; Berry, 2011). As pinpointed in the curriculum and assessment guide, “The most important role of assessment is in promoting learning and monitoring students’ progress. However, in the senior secondary years, the functions of assessment for certification and selection come to the fore. Inevitably, these imply high-stakes uses of assessment, since the results are typically employed to make critical decisions about individuals that affect their future” (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.121). The research findings show that the examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning mode of LS are different from the traditional “pyramid assessment system” which Berry (2011) claimed would encourage students to learn factual content by rote and memorising the model answers. Investigation issue 2 found that experienced teachers such as T9 were more in agreement with the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy. Similar finding of Zhao & Fok’s (2012), the PCK of experienced teachers (such as pedagogy for HOT teaching and learning) is significantly richer than that of novice teachers. Experienced teachers have firm and rational reasons to support the nurturing of HOT. Their views are more compatible with the emphasis of the curriculum reform which recognizes assessment is highlighted as the key for learning (Education Commission, 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 2002). As highlighted in the Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide, “assessment is an integral part of the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle.” (Curriculum Development Council, 2009, 4.2.1) and assessment policies have significant impact on supporting learning process. 5.2 Nature and development of HOT in LS assessment Over 82% of teachers in the questionnaire survey and 5 of the 11 in the interviews thought that the LS examination could help in developing HOT skills (Appendix 1: 3c, 3g, 3j, 3k, 3l and Appendix 3b: T4, T6, T8, T9, T10), and used a variety of strategies for this purpose (Appendix 3c). Most of them had a positive perception on the relationship between HOT nurturing and LS public assessment. They agreed that the LS public examination is greatly different from the traditional examination model in terms of mastery and understanding of concepts, investigation of issues, and perspectives of thinking strategies. Systematic steps on nurturing the learning process or whole school curriculum and the construction of similar thinking modes to stimulate learning were therefore encouraged (Appendix 3a: T7, T8, T9, T10 and Appendix 3c: T4, T6). 194 Actually, the blueprint of educational reform laid out in 2000 by Education Commission (2000) has led to the adoption of the policies of “Learning for life – learning through life” and “Learning to learn” The former emphasizes the building of life- long learning society while the latter (Curriculum Development Council, 2001) foster the development of independent learning (Kennedy, 2011). To realize these two aims, a paradigm shift and pedagogical changes by teachers are essential. However, in an examination-oriented city such as Hong Kong (Brown, et al., 2009; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, et al., 2006), the format and nature of the high-stake public examination seem not conducive to such changes. Nevertheless, the issue-enquiry approach in LS encourages the learning of HOT skills for the 21st century (Pink, 2005). In order to improve assessment literacy, EDB, HKEAA, international and local experts should work together in changing the rules of the assessment game as shown in Figure 8. Double marking can improve the validity and reliability of assessment (Coniam, 2011). However, only by successfully infusing HOT into the learning and teaching process, can the aims of the LS curriculum be achieved in practice. Figure 8: The LS curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle 195 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong The issue-enquiry approach and emphasis on authentic assessment that encourage students to express themselves logically, to assess, discuss and judge various issues (Or, 2012) are the characteristics of the examination design for LS. Students have to master the new features of the assessment framework including IES for school-based assessment, the use of standards-referenced grading (for three data-response questions and one extended- response question) in the written examination. Instilling HOT during the teaching and learning process is essential because it can help them analyse sensitive issues (such as the June 4, 1989 crackdown and the filibuster campaign in the legislature) (South China Morning Post, 2013, April 17) that may appear in the examination. 5.3 Challenge for the implementation of HOT in LS Although changes to the examination can be valuable vehicles for shaping instructional practices, success is not assured (Chapman & Snyder, 2000) and its influence can be largely a perception phenomenon (p.462, cited Madaus & Kellaghan, 1993). Teachers are often unable to make the necessary changes in the classroom to improve students’ performance. Most of them accept drilling with reference to past examination papers and simulated exercises in spite of believing that memorisation of facts is ineffective and realising that teacher can cause a negative impact on candidates. Others have used diverse strategies, skills and processes (Appendix 3a) to nurture HOT abilities. although they were still holding the traditional concept of viewing learning as hierarchical from lower order cognitive skills to more complex ones. Resnick (1987) challenged the concept that “all individuals, not just elite, can become competent thinkers” (Zohar, Degani & Vaaknin, 2001; cited Resnick, 1987). Zohar’s research finds that teachers’ beliefs about low-ability (LA) students and thinking are related to their general theory of instruction. If teachers see their role as transmitting knowledge and covering the curriculum rather than guiding students in thinking and constructing knowledge, or seeing learning as hierarchical in terms of cognitive levels, they may think that HOT is not equally appropriate for LA and high-ability (HA) students. However, any students who can provide an explanation of an authentic issue or describe the key features of new data can be regarded as using HOT skills. Although the curriculum guide has accorded priority to authentic assessment and the issue-enquiry approach to learning aligns with these aims, discrepancies among the intended, the implemented and the assessed curriculum are obvious (Cheng, 2011, p.69). As a new subject, LS has to develop and search for its disciplined knowledge and PCK. There are still lots of unknown and gaps for discovery. Research about teachers’ perceptions on HOT in LS and their opinions on constraints and challenges is helpful for evaluating the implementation of the curriculum in future. 196 6. The limitations of the research Studies on the relationship between public assessment and HOT are rare, especially in regard to LS. This study is a pioneer attempt for learning teachers’ perceptions in these areas. In view of the limited source and number of participants (who might be supportive of the examinations), the reliability of the findings is limited. Broader and more in-depth evidence should have been collected with data about the impact of the examinations on students. The relatively short interviews lasting for 10 minutes each is also a limitation to understanding. All these concerns should be addressed in future studies in this area. 7. Conclusion This study has adopted a triangulation design based on the Convergence Model to identify teachers’ perceptions on public assessment and the use of HOT pedagogy in LS. Most of the teachers are examination-oriented although a wide range of strategies has been used to help students face the high-stake authentic assessment. The more experienced teachers thought that the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategies were compatible with each other. And most of them had positive perception about the relationship between HOT nurturing and authentic assessment in LS. The LS examination is different from traditional examinations. Not knowing much about its requirements, it is natural for teachers to be more examination-oriented and accord high priority to the development of knowledge and the thinking skills. They have adopted different teaching strategies or HOT skills for helping students answer issue- based questions. However, this study has found that there are different interpretations of the meaning of HOT and there may be alternative or misconceptions about it especially in terms of pedagogy. Inquiry is necessary in this regard and the limitations in research design should be addressed in follow-up studies given the fact that LS is a core subject with the aims of enhancing life-long learning, multiple-dimensional perspectives, the scaffolding of knowledge and independent thinking. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to Hok Yau Club for providing a venue for conducting this research study, 41 LS teachers who participated in the questionnaire survey and 12 LS teachers who attended the interviews. 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Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 469-485. 200 LS Questionnaires for teachers 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，本學年，我運用以下教學策略： In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 34% 46% 20% 0% 0% 0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 7% 22% 49% 20% 0% 2% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計教學形式 與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 12.2% 56.1% 24.4% 7.3% 0% 0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計形成性評 估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 17.1% 56.1% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題 技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 37% 41% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 以時事議題作教學，增強學生高階思維 能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 17% 49% 34% 0% 0% 0% g. 參考坊間議題，讓學生分組探究討論， 以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 10% 46% 39% 5% 0% 0% Appendix 1 201 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，我認同中六學年透過以下教學過 程，以提升學生學業水平 : In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 12.2% 48.8% 29.3% 7.3% 2.4% 0% b. 課堂議題探究 Issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 12.2% 68.3% 17.1% 2.4% 0% 0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創 意解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 4.9% 31.7% 29.3% 24.4% 7.3% 2.4% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、 辯論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 2.4% 34.1% 41.5% 9.8% 9.8% 2.4% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 24% 54% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 32% 51% 17% 0% 0% 0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 34.1% 39.0% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% 202 3. 就通識教育科，我有以下意見： My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時，協助學生應試策略較導引學生 探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 30% 35% 30% 5% 0% 0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別，不能 相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0% 32.5% 27.5% 27.5% 10.0% 2.5% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨 立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5% 33% 54% 5% 3% 0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學 生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 2.5% 27.5% 50.0% 20.0% 0% 0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示 思考方法的能力，記憶與背誦無助提 升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 2.5% 22.5% 47.5% 20.0% 7.5% 0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試 成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 5.0% 22.5% 32.5% 27.5% 12.5% 0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重 視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 5.0% 30.0% 52.5% 10.0% 2.5% 0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生 學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.0% 27.5% 45.0% 20.0% 2.5% 0% 203 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌 握，將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 10% 28% 38% 18% 3% 3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求 廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 7.5% 37.5% 37.5% 17.5% 0% 0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度 思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 10.0% 42.5% 42.5% 5.0% 0% 0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終 身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.0% 30.0% 47.5% 12.5% 2.5% 2.5% 204 Experienced and less experienced teachers’ responses comparisons 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，本學年，我運用以下教學策略： In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 38.9%* 30.4%# 50.0% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 11.1% 4.3% 22.2% 21.7% 55.6% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計教學形式 與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 16.7% 8.7% 61.1% 52.2% 22.2% 26.1% 0.0% 13.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本，設計形成性評 估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 22.2% 13.0% 55.6% 56.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題 技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 50.0% 26.1% 33.3% 47.8% 16.7% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 以時事議題作教學，增強學生高階思維 能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 16.7% 17.4% 33.3% 60.9% 50.0% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 參考坊間議題，讓學生分組探究討論， 以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 11.1% 8.7% 44.4% 47.8% 38.9% 39.1% 5.6% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience Appendix 2 205 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績，我認同中六學年透過以下教學過 程，以提升學生學業水平： In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 16.7%* 8.7%# 44.4% 52.2% 27.8% 30.4% 11.1% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% b. 課堂議題探究 issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 22.2% 4.3% 55.6% 78.3% 22.2% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創意 解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 5.6% 4.3% 38.9% 26.1% 16.7% 39.1% 33.3% 17.4% 5.6% 8.7% 0.0% 4.3% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、辯 論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 5.6% 0.0% 38.9% 30.4% 27.8% 52.2% 11.1% 8.7% 11.1% 8.7% 5.6% 0.0% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 33.3% 17.4% 44.4% 60.9% 22.2% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 33.3% 30.4% 55.6% 47.8% 11.1% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 44.4% 26.1% 33.3% 43.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 206 3. 就通識教育科，我有以下意見： My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時，協助學生應試策略較導引學生 探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 41.2%* 21.7%# 35.3% 34.8% 23.5% 34.8% 0.0% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別，不能 相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0.0% 0.0% 29.4% 34.8% 17.6% 34.8% 47.1% 13.0% 5.9% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨 立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5.9% 4.5% 35.3% 31.8% 47.1% 59.1% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 4.5% 0.0% 0.0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學 生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 0.0% 4.3% 11.8% 39.1% 70.6% 34.8% 17.6% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示 思考方法的能力，記憶與背誦無助提 升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 0.0% 4.3% 5.9% 34.8% 47.1% 47.8% 29.4% 13.0% 17.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試 成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 11.8% 0.0% 11.8% 30.4% 23.5% 39.1% 35.3% 21.7% 17.6% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重 視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 11.8% 0.0% 23.5% 34.8% 47.1% 56.5% 11.8% 8.7% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生 學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.9% 4.3% 23.5% 30.4% 35.3% 52.2% 29.4% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 207 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌 握，將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 18.8% 4.3% 25.0% 30.4% 31.3% 43.5% 25.0% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求 廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 5.9% 8.7% 47.1% 30.4% 29.4% 43.5% 17.6% 17.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度 思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 11.8% 8.7% 41.2% 43.5% 35.3% 47.8% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終 身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.9% 4.3% 35.3% 26.1% 41.2% 52.2% 11.8% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 208 (a) The responders’ teaching strategies and teaching process Teaching strategies of the LS teachers: to guide students to know how to master the skills of answering issue-based questions, more sample paper questions practices, recitation of basic and crucial concepts, demonstration and reconstruction issue-enquiry approach of hot issues and so on. The following are some of the teachers’ responses. T1. “It is the focus of answering techniques because it is very important in LS.” T4. “It is true to write one time in the white block, to teach them how to write ideas or opinion. To try one time, two times, three times, to teach them how to write arguments. This is two kinds of training. To enhance their knowledge and answering technique need to be done at the same time.” T6. “In teaching, teachers should make use of current affairs to stimulate students’ interest not just teaching knowledge from textbook. To a certain extent, teachers should teach students’ test-taking skills, e.g. compared this year’s questions to previous year’s to find out the difference. Therefore, teaching knowledge is important, teaching answering technique is also important. After the completion of the sixth form’s curriculum, to enable students to do a variety of different kinds of questions to practice is necessary.” T8. “Students need to revise this subject, but students may not apply what they have learnt… In fact, the volume of opportunities students do is not too much. That kind of practice for an exam was not enough. Students should take further steps to quote some materials and to explain based on their understanding ... If you want to be effective in a short period of time, it is necessary for exam-based repetitive exercises and to know more of the criteria of the marking system, to know how to score and how to get higher marks. Or even to memorise some key words which will help in getting higher marks.” T9. “Students expect teachers to give information a little faster, or have digested a good idea to give them. The questions will be more drills in class, even if not practicing the test questions, but also will give students test mode on certain issues due to some of the framework opinions. ... Students’ learning culture is to look up to authority, or look up a credible answer they think. If they believe, they will go back, will repeatedly learn. ... A lot when the concept is difficult to construct, for example, you want the students to grasp M-type society, or inter-generational poverty, such as the concept of the discipline, and I think the teachers explaining to students would be more effective.” Appendix 3 209 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Teachers often use the teaching process: T7. “To establish the foundation of skills will start from Form Four such as what perspective thinking skills are. What the concept of ‘to what extent’ is. More in depth issues, and focus on how to analyze, more discussion of the questions will be on Fifth Form. More examination-oriented training of exercises and practice across different units are in the sixth.” T8. “When I teach in Form Four and Form Five, I will focus on course content and subject matter first. Then I will associate different units together. I have not started to catch all the key words of the exam questions at the beginning. However, I will start to drill students on how to answer the exam questions at the end of Form Five. Both training exam techniques and to grasp the concept advocated by the LS are necessary. T9. “More time can be spent on the process of constructing knowledge in Form Four and Five. There may be a variety of activities to help them to master the issues. Significantly in Form six, more drilling in answering techniques is in class…” On certain issues due to test mode, teachers will give students some framework views for examination.” T10. “In fact, we have slowly infiltrated some skills from Form Four. And then constantly increase and strengthen. We do not deliberately teach skills to test when the exam is coming. Usually we have to teach skills.” T11. “Class seems to do an examination question together with students, but the class content or material is a very informative process. The case constructs the entire scene as in the examination. Students face and deal with all the materials or subject matter in the classroom. They need to think and make decisions during the thinking process. The whole lesson is to repeat or duplicate the exam process, but a higher degree of complexity.” T12. “Using one LS question to associate key concepts is the strategy. Start from the beginning to say the question, (teacher) writes the topic on the blackboard. Throughout the entire class it is around this topic. Even with the introduction of some information, tell the students to talk about some concept, or explain some of the examples it is all around this topic. Usually students can learn LS exam contents and strategies in lessons. Different topics with the most appropriate analytical framework to teach …” 210 (b) The responders’ opinions on whether LS subject’s examination-oriented teaching strategy and nurturing a higher level of thinking skills are both compatible Some teachers believe that the exam will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills, because: T1. “If the teacher puts too much emphasis on test taking skills, it will indeed be a bad influence. Will at least reduce the students’ interest in learning.” T2. “They do not ask how to think, just ask how the high scores will be achieved ... (teachers) made it clear that this test, students will read. ” T3. “There are candidates who recite and memorise exercises of the HKEAA practice volume and sample papers during the simulation exam.” Three teachers to a certain extent believe that the exams will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T3. “I figured Liberal Studies for moderate or more students can improve their independent thinking, but moderate or less students’ learning is more narrowed.” T7. “There is a little paradox. Because I teach Band One students, they are more realistic. Without examination specifications to study and without proper fractions to promote them, their motivation will not be much. The exam really can compel the Band One students to pay attention to current events and to understand the social aspect. The exam can train students in multiple perspectives, but to truly be critical, there remain...” T11. “The exam needs ways of thinking…but it is a little tool in nature. If LS wants to cultivate the kind of independent thinking and hold onto the surrounding environment caring attitude, it is not necessarily encouraging. ... Conversely, exams do not help, if there is discussion of issues in depth during the lesson, it may help students to look at issues from different perspectives and in depth.” T12. “I think it is indeed stressed on exam skills ... they rely heavily on student expression. Indeed, it is not entirely linked to nurturing multiple perspectives and life-long learning ability, but I think it is helpful ...” 211 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Five teachers believe exams will not be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T4. “Students more now than before may be very utilitarian, but the test will still be able to give them a motive. Examination of the LS questions can help them to think about... For example one question with both for and against, they will ask if I only write the FOR side, how many marks can I get? If there is no exam to ask them to look at both sides, they may only answer the FOR side and they will not answer the AGAINST side. In order to fight for higher marks, they will think thoroughly. Therefore, exams can motivate them to learn more and learn in depth.” T6. “Thinking ladder of the Liberal Studies about the analysis, evaluation and creative thinking is higher-order thinking. Unlike the lower level which depends on copying or reciting to get answers. I think the standard of LS criteria is very high, but I think the students after a few years training, should do this.” T8. “Can really train students to think. However, most of the students’ language ability is weak, it needs a lot of time in this regard to improve. Sometimes students’ thinking is correct, but they do not know how to express it.” T9. “Part of the higher thinking skills is answering technique. If students can handle this well, they understand the questions and give answers clearly. Examination can test students’ level of higher thinking skills. They can fully understand thoroughly and give answers carefully. Nowadays, examination is more complicated to demand students’ higher level of thinking skills. It is not easy for them to take the easy route by ‘Catch the Road’ or recite answers. Fortunately, the exam mode is kind of complex, requiring candidates to have the skills of thinking, it is within the capacity, not in a short time you can develop. We do, the exam can reach the target of Liberal Studies.” T10. “When higher order thinking promotes multi-diversity with several angles, exams in LS in fact can obtain this. Because I’ve seen most of the candidates have in many ways analysed, even to the point of different stakeholders to answer. ... Because usually we apply discussion to explore, the public exam is to let you discuss and explore results written out. Taught through a consensus process in class, or with the examination as the strategy, there is not much gap.” 212 (c) Teachers’ experiences to develop students’ HOT skills Nurturing of life- long learning T3. “First, motivate students to read newspapers. There are some lively examples of real life from newspapers. Second, LS can also reflect the attitude of life, for example, a policy is feasible for young people. What impact? If there are such questions during examination, it is to help students to reflect on their own attitude to life, think about, and writing. It is the only way to improve.” T8. “We need to teach the basic concepts of LS. Of course, we need to direct students to discuss current affairs during the lesson to see how they give comments to the issues and associate the issues to the exam.” T2. “It is important to master the concepts. Use concepts to associate all the discussion. Explore different concepts via issue inquiry. Teach higher level of thinking skills from lower secondary form. “The most important is to be flexible. Do not be dragged by the discussion of current affairs, but direct by the conceptual discussion.” T4. “I feel higher level of thinking skills can be trained via discussion in depth during the lesson. We should let the students understand that issue. But how do they discuss? For example, if we know the causes of that issue, what is the impact of that issue? Detailed discussion should be the learning process during the lesson. There is a slogan at my school: LS is life. What they experience is LS. This subject matter may come from our living environment at any minute or even the current affairs from TV. We can get from anywhere and then fit into any single unit. If you can use Mind map, you can write anything which associates to the issue. This may be interesting.” T1. “LS cannot include all the training of how to think at school. It is mainly synthesis of all the subjects’ thinking methods.” 213 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Development of multiple- dimensional perspectives T9. “Basically, I believe the small group discussion, cooperative learning. Good organised cooperative group work will help a lot, but it depends on the effort done by the teacher. If teachers only throw to the students to think about a topic, students may not grasp this. This may be worse than directly taught. I think if the teacher organizes well cooperative learning or group discussions, teachers design the various steps, guide, appropriate materials, I believe it can lead to the construction of knowledge. Students will enjoy the learning.” T7. “There must be debate and discussion during the lesson, but the interactive activities are more important among students. If we want to train thinking in different perspectives, different people should explore the same subject in different perspectives. Guidelines will be given to them to discuss, to question, to criticise different viewpoints in groups. Questioning whether their suggestions or opinions are reasonable. LS curriculum is broad and time is limited in each lesson. There is no need for every subject to issue inquiry. It may depend on the importance of hot issues and time to look for or collect more materials before or after lessons.” T12. “We always stressed to students at different angles to see one thing. The easiest is the same anti-possible angle, and then some other aspects, such as a macro: an economic point of view, the political point of view, the social point of view, the cultural perspective; microscopic: personal basic necessities the angle, the angle of the point of view of different stakeholders, government, individuals, society, or some groups. So if he mastered these analytical frameworks or is thinking on the answer, he would have compared easily rendered to his higher-order thinking ... so that students know the different analytical framework can be used in different issues, or the contrary, the same issues to do with a different analytical framework. If he mastered these analytical frameworks or method of thinking, his ability to think critically, he sees anything that goes with these analytical frameworks.” 214 Scaffolding for independent thinking T11. “Through habits of scaffolding method used to help students or colleagues familiarize the subject, first observed facts, gradually penetrated into the push to higher-order observation. .... If the lesson has started from issue-based discussion of different cases, students may have interest and learn actively. In some cases students may not be interested in hearing, or on their own initiative. If it is introduced by teachers, students may have wider views and think in depth.” T6. “Higher-order thinking skills need to be divided into different stages to achieve. To motivate students’ interest it should start in Form Four and try to stimulate their interest of this LS subject. And then they will be interested in watching news. Independent thinking skills should be learnt and taught through Independent enquiry study in Form Five. To promote students’ analytical and critical ability should happen in Sixth Form.” *All interview transcripts can be seen in Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited website: www.cta.org.hk 215 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 香港教師對通識教育科文憑試與高階思維能力培育 關係認知的探求 梁麗嬋 創意教師協會、布里斯托大學教育博士研究生 摘要 筆者以一組來自約 40所學校的通識教育科教師為研究對象，收回 41位教師的意見 調查問卷，以及透過訪問其中 12位教師，相互引證，從而探究現職通識教育科教 師在面對本科文憑試情景下，較多採用什麼教學過程與策略，以培育學生高階思維 能力，而課程的實施又是否與其課程目標一致。研究結果發現受訪教師有強烈的考 試導引傾向，然而，他們對通識教育科及其公開評核試本質的理解，卻有別於傳統 以學科知識為本，相反，教師較多認識到新推行的通識教育科課程評估較重視學生 基礎概念的掌握與及思維能力的運用。研究反映受訪教師大體認同通識教育科公開 評核試運作與及高階思維能力的培育，愈資深的教師愈認同通識科應試教學策略能 與高階思維能力相容。 關鍵詞 高階思維能力，通識教育科公開評核，混合方法設計 217 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 也要還國民教育一個公道 倪紹強 香港教育學院 摘要 香港因推行國民教育科而引起爭議。有反對者結合着中國大陸與香港之間的矛盾， 認為這是洗腦科目。儘管在推行國民教育科上有些保留和限制，支持者相信課程既 有助學生認識中國國情，也可免於洗腦之嫌。中國幅員廣大，歷史文化深厚，更與 香港緊密相連。不再政治冷感的香港人不能因追求民主而「去中國化」，也要還國 民教育一個公道。 關鍵詞 國民教育，洗腦教育，香港的政治生態，去中國化 導言 香港因推行國民教育科而掀起的風暴，計有於 2012年 7月中旬數萬人聚集，在街 頭示威，以及 9月佔領特區政府的總部等。期間特區政府一再作出讓步，最後擱置課程 指引。這場風暴可說是暫告一段落，但這並不意味問題已經解決。本文期望對一些現象 稍作分析和討論，並且對一些根本的概念予以較深入的考量。遺憾的是，國民教育彷彿 被妖魔化了，與洗腦教育差不多劃成等號，也是時候需要還國民教育一個公道了。 論爭與民意爆發的背景 在應否推行國民教育科的問題上，部分人反對設立國民教育科，認為這是洗腦科 218 目，會毒害香港青少年的思想；也有部分是支持者，因為課程有助學生認識中國國情， 還有是沉默的大多數。圍繞着國民教育科大抵有兩項核心的爭議：（1）香港應否設立 國民教育科？（2）國民教育是不是洗腦課程？當一些主流報章都以洗腦來形容國民教 育科後，這個說法便流行起來，令到不少香港人一聽見這科便與洗腦聯繫起來，以致爭 議的理據在輿論的平台上，從未得到清晰的疏理，這是十分可惜的。取而代之的是情緒 化的反應，又刺激着不少香港人對共產政權恐懼的潛意識（陳立諾，2012）。 香港回歸至今，在一國兩制政策之下，中國大陸與香港漸次融合，香港人的焦慮感 卻不斷累積。在陸港融合的大策略中，似乎不能夠有效改善香港人生活質素之餘，更加 間接地推高了生活成本。再加上不少人相信普遍存在的所謂地產霸權、貧富懸殊等等因 素，進一步開放自由行只令到香港人更加擔憂。就在這背景之下開展國民教育科，使到 不少香港人憂慮自身的價值觀和自由會隨之而消失。這些深層次矛盾一直未得以恰當處 理，就是這段日子以來民意爆發的背景（馬家豪，2012）。 對推行國民教育的保留和限制 有學者和前線教育工作者早已指出，要國民教育科獨立成科委實有一定的困難。因 為學校的上課日程早已排得滿滿，要騰出空間迎接國民教育科，殊不容易。況且，國民 教育科大抵與常識科、通識科、中史科和中文科等的一些內容互相重疊，這是不爭的事 實。有學者認為，德育及國民教育科在學理上根本就不行，推行國民教育也只應該在公 民教育的框架內進行。特區政府仍然堅持以國民教育命名，不單與國際教育主流的趨勢 脫軌，也令人擔心此科目只會聚焦在國家的層面，收窄了學生的視野（梁恩榮、盧恩臨， 2012.7.18）。課程指引其中一個缺失就是假設香港是一個同質的華人社會，對於非華裔 人士來說，國民教育根本不能培養他們對中國人身份的認同和歸屬感，似乎他們更需要 的是世界公民的視野（梁恩榮、鄧秀貞，2012.7.18）。這些都是成立的。 贊同國民教育的聲音 有學者認為香港人的公民身份是一個客觀事實，應該予以肯定。如果否定這一身份 則是逃避現實。反對國民教育科的人大抵是一種情緒化的反應。香港人有責任了解中國， 這樣才能推動中國的進步。根據《亞洲週刊》的報道，曾公開表示支持國民教育科的學 者，包括香港大學專業進修學院院長李焯芬、香港大學歷史學者陸人龍、嶺南大學教授 219 也要還國民教育一個公道 何𠘙生、中文大學教授郭少棠等（陳立諾，2012）。其他公開贊成國民教育的學者不多， 就筆者在報章上所見，計有香港大學的程介明教授和李輝博士兩位、香港教育學院的甘 國臻教授等。大抵有不少學者和其他社會人士是表支持的，但礙於敏感的政治形勢，也 不願高調的表態。 有人指出政府不能讓步，如果讓步，就只會變得寸步難行了，以後簡單如要建造一 座橋或修築一條路，也可能會遭遇到絕食抗議，政府只能每次讓步，結果就什麼都做不 了（陳立諾，2012）。這也解釋到政府遲遲才作出讓步的原因。 有學者指出，不少政治領袖都以提升公民對國家效忠的意識為己任（Dawson, Prewitt & Dawson, 1977; Ngai, 2005）。學者又相信，不少國家每當觸及自身歷史的時候， 都會加以美化、光榮化、甚或神話化。學者李輝（2012.9.16）指出，嚴格來說任何國家 的國民教育都是某程度的「洗腦」。然而，在傳媒發達和言論自由的香港，若要進行沉 悶而死板的學校教育，大抵難以達到洗腦的效果。學者甘國臻（2012.10.30）認為，當 局提出的課程指引，已凸顯出討論爭議性課題的重要性，並且告誡老師，不應在課堂上 迴避討論這些具爭議的問題。因為這才可於課堂上引發出一個生動及熱烈的討論，這樣 又怎算得是「洗腦」呢？ 若仔細和持平地分析新科目提出的具體課程，新學科着重個人發展，以及建立心繫 國家、關懷中國歷史和成就的文化身份，內容亦可結合與《基本法》、民主、人權、法治、 國家象徵等有關內容的政治議題。這都與國際一貫做法相符，也不具爭議性。時至今日， 很難想像會有一個社會還可以不以積極裝備年輕人為己任，以配合未來社會的發展。學 校本身就是培育學生成為良好公民最適合的地方，社會也需要為他們提供這個學習機會 （甘國臻，2012.10.30）。 對於「會否身為一位中國人而自豪？」這個問題，是主觀和個人化的。然而，中國 有五千多年的歷史文化，乃四大文明古國之一。在九百六十多萬平方公里的土地上，共 有五十六個民族，豐富多姿。這個國家曾經有過光輝燦爛的文明、輝煌的歷史，乃是很 難在地球上其他的角落找到的。當然也有被列強欺凌、軍閥割據、抗戰和內戰等等的苦 難歲月。在中國歷史科早已不再是中學階段的必修科之後，我們很難期望年青人對中國 悠久的歷史有深入的了解。另一方面，一般香港人對中國的地理實在是一無所知的。在 220 1997年之前，香港作為英國人管治的殖民地，政治上固然與深圳河以北的政權割裂；在 教育課程上，殖民地政府刻意將中國的元素減到最少，比如中國歷史科會避開敏感的現 代史階段；地理科方面，中學生可能會研讀澳洲、美洲及歐洲的地理，但卻不會研習中 國的省份和相關的地理知識。 老一輩的香港人每當講述國家民族苦難之時，仍會眼泛淚光。新儒家的幾位大師如 錢穆、唐君毅、徐復觀等都曾在香港生活及講學，他們對近代中國的苦難有深刻的認識 與感受，對中華民族命運有一種強大的使命感，要肩負中華民族復興的重任，使中華文 化不至於花果飄零。香港從來都是中國人認識自己國家民族最有利的地方，因為有言論 自由，也不受制於國共兩黨鬥爭導致的扭曲（《亞洲週刊》，2012）。 具體來說，香港與中國大陸的關係越來越密切。而正在崛起的中國，其一舉一動時 刻影響着全世界，也影響着香港。而香港卻是中國的一部分，既是屬於「兩制」，也屬 於「一國」（程介明，2012.9.28）。 香港現在的政治生態 在九七回歸之前，香港人從來都是政治冷感的。又有人形容香港人是經濟動物 （Ngai, 2005；梁恩榮、倪紹強，2011）。由於是殖民地，國民身份模糊，有人形容香 港為「借來的地方、借來的時間」。然而，時移世易，香港的政治生態出現了結構性的 轉變，香港人很着意尋找和塑造自己的身份，果敢地為着不同的訴求和議題發聲，香港 人不再政治冷感了。某程度而言，這是一種進步。然而，不少香港人在尋找自己身份的 同時，漸漸對發生於中國的種種現象不滿或質疑起來。兩地的情況不同，價值觀是很有 差距的。其實，香港人在回歸前後，在文化上一直是認同中國的；但對不少人而言，回 歸後要與由共產黨主領的政權認同，確是有困難的。這當然與已習慣了中共管治的內地 人和新來港的同胞，有頗大的落差有關。筆者也對國內不少現象感到失望和憂心。近年 來，香港興起一些諸如「來生不做中國人」的論調，更有人認同殖民主義的崇拜，或者 在群眾集會時高舉英國的米字旗、殖民地的龍獅旗等。近年似乎有一種奇異的潛臺詞： 香港要民主，就要與中國大陸切割開來。將香港和中國大陸對立起來，認為香港的一切 都比中國大陸優越（《亞洲週刊》，2012）。這並不是理想的趨勢。 221 也要還國民教育一個公道 總結 有論者堅持只可以在公民教育的架構下推行國民教育，其實兩者也有相互重叠之 處，而兩者也不可偏廢。再者，切實推介國民教育的力度不足，語焉不詳，而整個討論 又受到過度政治化的氛圍所騎劫、傾向民粹的傳媒所誘導，實屬不幸。而整個論爭卻凸 顯了一系列的問題：香港人對自己身份的矛盾──既有濃厚的本土身份意識，卻要漸次 更牢固的體現國民身份的認同。而反對國民教育者要知道，許多沉默而不表態者，大抵 與他們對此課題是有不同見解的，更遑論身在國內的人士了。 不少人對反對國民教育的抗爭是表示支持的，也相信他們是出於良好意願（李展 華，2012.9.28）。但有學者卻認為，為了一本粗劣的國教手冊便抗拒國民教育科，進而 踏上疏離國家民族的道路，乃是純真的失誤（楊志剛，2012）。筆者很同意這個觀點： 香港要推動民主，但不能夠陷入「去中國化」的窠臼之中，香港不能贏得了民主，卻失 去了中國（邱立本，2012）。筆者不會執着定要設立獨立的國民教育科，也認同重振中 國歷史教育也可以是可行之法。然而，對中國國情如此陌生的莘莘學子，也實在需要更 多和更好的國民教育。其實政黨不等於政府，政府不等於國家。政黨和政府都可以更換， 國家卻是永存的。然而，不知怎的，反共輾轉變成了反華，複雜的議題却被簡單化；國 民教育就是不好；中國就是落後而腐敗的化身（《亞洲週刊》，2012）。但是，香港不 能像倒洗澡水的，把珍貴的祖國丟棄。也需要還國民教育一個公道。 參考文獻 《亞洲週刊》（2012）。〈香港人要尋回民間中國論述〉。第 26卷 37期，5。 甘國臻（2012.10.30）。〈我們應否摒棄國民教育？〉。《明報》，A32版。 李展華（2012.9.28）。〈放下敵我以港為家〉。《信報》，A24版。 李輝（2012.9.16）。〈不要把孩子和髒水一起潑掉！─ 德育及國民教育科的三方困局 及出路〉。《明報》，A29版。 邱立本（2012）。〈香港民主拒絕「綠營化」〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 42期，4。 馬家豪（2012）。〈香港國民教育風暴背後〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 37期，20-21。 222 梁恩榮、倪紹強（2011）。〈在全球化下的身分競逐〉，載梁恩榮、阮衛華，《公民教育， 香港再造！迎向新世代公民社會》（頁 180-191）。香港：印象文字及香港基督徒 學會。 梁恩榮、鄧秀貞（2012.7.18）。〈國民教育與少數族裔〉。《明報》，A36版。 梁恩榮、盧恩臨（2012.7.18）。〈在「公民教育」框架內的「國民教育」〉。《明報》， A30版。 陳立諾（2012）。〈反對廢除國民教育的學界聲音〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 37期， 22-23。 程介明（2012.9.28）。〈國民教育：宣傳與教育〉。《信報》，A17版。 楊志剛（2012）。〈香港人純真的失誤〉。《亞洲週刊》，第 26卷 37期，18。 Dawson, R. E., Prewitt, K., & Dawson, K. S. (1977). Political socialization (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Ngai, S. K. G. (2005). What kind of political socialization in secondary schools is needed in Hong Kong in the 21st century? (Doctoral Thesis). Hull: The University of Hull. Be fair to national education NGAI Siu Keung George The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract There has been a great debate concerning the implementation of the national education. Given there are gaps between the mainland and Hong Kong, the opponents claim that it is a kind of brainwashing education. Albeit that there are constraints and reservations for implementing national education, the supporters think that it is good to know more about China, and without being indoctrinated. China is such a great country, with rich historic cultures and being so closely related to Hong Kong. Hong Kong people, who are no longer apolitical now, should never abandon China, when striving for democracy. We should be fair to national education. Keywords national education, brainwashing education, political atmosphere of Hong Kong, desinicization 223 《香港教師中心學報》，第十二卷 © 香港教師中心，2013 在教學法與社會實踐之間：教師如何在 校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ 朱耀光 基督教香港信義會心誠中學 摘要 近年，口述歷史開始受到香港中學教師的重視，口述歷史的社會意義亦使歷史教育 突破學科邊界，成為跨科目的專題研習方法。然而，教師要將口述歷史教學引入既 有的校本課程，面對多重的限制。本文將會以兩位嘗試推行口述歷史教學的教師角 度，分析學校的課程取向、教師的教育理念、實際的處境如何影響口述歷史教學的 實踐。 關鍵詞 歷史教育，口述歷史，課程取向 甲丶 研究背景 過去十年的課程改革壓縮了歷史科的生存空間，但校本課程發展的空間和彈性亦為 歷史教育帶來生氣和活力。就以筆者的經驗為例，從 2005年開始，筆者以「同心圓」 模式將學校的初中中國歷史科及歷史科統整為歷史與文化科。2009年開始引入口述歷史 研習，與初中學生一起進行粉嶺戲院及粉嶺農村的專題研習（朱耀光，2012）。筆者於 2012年 9月借調到教育局中學校本課程發展組，嘗試推動口述歷史教學，幫助教師將口 述歷史加入到校本課程。雖然香港教師開始重視以口述歷史為教學方法，但口述歷史教 學和校本課程發展的關係仍在摸索階段。究竟，口述歷史研習只是教學法的創新，還是 課程取向的轉變？口述歷史應該以專題研習的形式進行，還是融入課堂教學之中？ 224 乙丶 口述歷史作為課程內容的回顧 扼要回顧口述歷史與中學歷史課程發展的關係，有助分析口述歷史對課程組織的影 響。歷史學一直被視為傳統的學科（discipline），歷史作為中學科目（school subject） 的發展亦受著歷史學術發展的影響（Stengel, 1997）。十九世紀以降，德國蘭克學派的 興起，令實證研究成為風尚，歷史研究亦務求「客觀」，追尋歷史事件的真實性成為歷 史學家皓首窮經的動力，中國史學家傅斯年便說過史學即史料學，史料搜集與考證成為 歷史研究的專業印記。經由歷史學者書寫 /生產的「客觀」歷史知識，成中學歷史教育 的學科內容。大多數歷史教師的任務，就是將「歷史知識」有效地轉遞給學生（吳翎君， 2004）。 然而，隨着教育理論的發展，以學科知識為本的歷史課程已受到嚴重的挑戰。例如， 受到皮亞傑的啟發，部份歷史教育學者相信兒童亦能透過故事發展歷史抽象思維，歷史 教育應該更強調抽象思維能力而非貌似客觀的歷史知識（吳翎君，2004）。湯普森（Paul Thompson）於 1978年出版的《過去的聲音》（The voice of the past: Oral history）更全 面挑戰以文獻研究主導的歷史學術研究。他開宗明義說，「所有歷史最終都視乎其社會 目的」。口述歷史，不單是歷史研究法的改變，更是歷史知識論的範式轉移。歷史知識 與社會意識密不可分，口述歷史令本來被遺忘的社群、或隱身在主流歷史論述的群體， 得到發聲的機會（Thompson, 1978；鍾寶賢，2000）。口述歷史始終以人為歷史的主體， 研究者透過提問、對話，以「交談說故事」（conversational narrative）的方法，取得歷 史資料，將不同的聲音、特別是文獻中沒有記錄的聲音放回過去的時空脈絡（嚴佳芳， 1995；楊祥銀，2004）。從上可見，歷史已不再是純粹的學術科目，口述歷史的出現， 已經預示了歷史學重回人文關懷和社會實踐的進路。 或許有人認為，口述歷史只是歷史學術界風波裡的茶杯，對中學歷史課程的影響有 限。不過，觀乎美國歷史教育的發展，從湯普森在《過去的聲音》為口述歷史教學打好 理論基礎之後，美國中學紛紛推動口述歷史研習開始，鄉村學校更積極以口述歷史推動 社區研習。就以狐火計劃（Foxfire）為例，口述歷史活動以燎原之勢，掀起歷史教育的 改革，多篇學生作品刊登於狐火學刊之內。美國歷史學者Neuenschwander（1976）預期， 口述歷史會在七十年代便會成為歷史教育的主流（頁 7）。雖然 Neuenschwander的預期 至今仍未實現，但口述歷史教學已經開始得到教育界的重視。香港歷史教育學者楊秀珠 225 在教學法與社會實踐之間： 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ （2002）研究 210位中學歷史科（準）教師及小學常識科（準）教師後，發現教師對香 港歷史的理解，很接近日常生活的歷史。她指出：「教師的歷史觀及本土史的觀念，直 接影響歷史教育的面貌，因為當我們鼓勵教師建立自己對本土歷史的看法時，亦同樣希 望學生開拓自己的歷史觀」（頁 41）。她鼓勵學生以口述歷史的方法，訪問自己的家人 關於日治時期香港的情況，又或者訪問父母，調查他們對六四的看法，她稱這種歷史教 學為學生的「聲音」。而「歷史教育工作者可以在私人與公眾、微觀與宏觀、主流與邊緣、 主觀與客觀、口述與文本、主幹與旁枝、常規與異數、平凡與出眾之間，去推展歷史想 像力的極限」（頁 55）。從此可見，關於口述歷史教學的討論，已經從學術界延伸至學 校的歷史教育中。 口述歷史教學不單帶動了歷史科的變革，也促使跨學科的研習。例如，美國社會科 （融合課程）便採用口述歷史，讓學生認識社區的地理位置及變遷，台灣的鄉土教育及 社區學習課程紛紛運用口述歷史方法進行教學活動（Dunaway & Baum, 1984；吳翎君， 2004；林慈淑，2007）。類似的口述歷史專題研習亦在香港出現，香港中華文化促進中 心從 2002年開始，便為教師及學生舉辦口述歷史工作坊，亦有以大澳、屏山和灣仔社 區為研究對象的口述歷史教育計劃。香港大學亞洲研究中心亦從 2001年開始推動「香 港口述歷史檔案計劃」，至 2006年開展「香港記憶」，其延伸部份即「記憶校園」， 協助師生以口述歷史方法整理學校歷史（王惠玲，2010；陳潔華，2004）。 丙丶 研究目的 關於口述歷史的優點和重要性，坊間已有大量文獻討論。不過，當教師接觸有 別於慣常使用的教學法時，若能展開課程的對話，尋找口述歷史教學與學校課程的關 係，最終不論教師是接受還是拒絕，都能體現校本課程的民主精神（鄭鈞傑、林智中， 2006）。對中學教師而言，口述歷史教學是教學法的創新，還是更根本的課程取向的轉 變？在學術理性（academic rationalism）為主流的學校課程中，教師又如何調適口述歷 史教學的社會取向，以配合校本課程的要求（Cheung, 2000；Cheung & Wong, 2002）？ 為了探討以上的問題，筆者邀請了兩位即將開展口述歷史教學的教師參與是次研究。兩 位受訪教師，都是教育局中學校本課程發展組歷史科教師網絡成員，他們曾參與該網絡 舉辦的口述歷史教學分享和工作坊，並表示會在學校推行口述歷史教學。1 226 是次研究主要以半結構性訪談（semi-structured interview）了解兩位教師如何因應 校情將口述歷史教學加入校本課程。筆者於 2012年 10月開始就口述歷史的教學問題與 兩位教師討論，並分析與口述歷史相關的課程組織原則，兩位教師亦於 2012年 11月底 擬定口述歷史的教學安排。於是，筆者於 2012年 12月中分別訪問了兩位教師，訪談時 間約四十五分鐘，訪談錄音後由筆者轉譯為文字，再由兩位教師檢視訪談譯稿，給予回 饋。 教師甲是高中歷史科科主任，是一位未足三十歲的年青教師，在調景嶺一所直資中 學任教，學生多來自中等收入的家庭。他在外國的大學主修歷史，回港後以兼讀方式修 讀教育文憑，亦主修歷史。他有五年的教學年資，在這所學校任教第五年，他主要任教 高中歷史科及初中通識科。去年教育局課程發展處曾到訪他任教的學校，建議學校可增 加初中的歷史元素，所以他未來要負責將更多歷史科的課程內容加進初中通識科。近年， 他亦積極參與歷史教學的交流活動，先後參加了教育局資優教育組的人文教師網絡及中 學校本課程發展組的歷史教師網絡。 教師乙是資深教師，大學時主修體育，副修哲學，1999年入職時在小學任教中文、 數學、常識和體育科，亦曾於中學任教中文科和體育科。他曾修讀中文科的教育文憑、 中文系碩士和文化研究碩士課程。在 2009至 2011年期間，他辭去教席，參與土地保育 工作。2012年 9月得到天水圍一所津貼中學校長的邀請，成為半職教師，教授高中通識 科及初中歷史與文化科。由於該校的學生大部份屬於第三組別，教師透過不同的教學形 式提升學生的學習動機，包括成立耕種小組，讓學生在校園的農圃中實踐農務。 丁丶 發現與討論 一丶 教師普遍認同口述歷史教學的社會意義 Cheung & Wong（2002）的研究發現，香港教師的課程取向多元化，甚至出現強大 的張力，其中學術理性、思維過程、社會重構、人本主義及科技取向交替影響教師的課 程設計（頁 242）。在訪談過程中，筆者發現兩位教師對口述歷史都有充份的理解。教 _______________ 1 承蒙高級課程發展主任梁寶芬女士提供網絡活動資料及聯絡受訪教師。 227 在教學法與社會實踐之間： 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ 師甲閱讀了很多外國、尤其是台灣的口述歷史文獻 2，而教師乙也讀過大量口述歷史著 作 3。他們並不會將口述歷史單單視為訓練學生歷史思維能力的方法，還很認同口述歷 史的社會意義。他們對口述歷史的理解，很接近 Cheung & Wong（2002）所指的社會重 構（social reconstruction）取向。教師甲希望學生藉著口述歷史研習了解調景嶺的過去， 並關注都市化對社區與社群的影響。他說： 「口述歷史有其對象，就是讓同學訪問當時人，那些是真真正正曾經發生在 社區的事情，在我們這個社會中發生，那些事情也可能是一些轉變。我們周 遭發生的生活，就是歷史。」 教師乙也希望學生藉着口述歷史研習，關注香港的農地及農業問題，並質疑政府為 發展而扼殺農業的政策。 然而，在深入的訪談中，筆者發現教師甲和教師乙的後設課程取向（meta- orientation）還有些微差異（Cheung & Wong, 2002）。雖然兩位教師都希望借助口述歷 史研習將學生的學習連繫到社會生活，但教師甲坦言，高中的歷史課程很着重考試和思 維能力，但歷史教育真正感動他的，是「讓學生在歷史科認識這個世界⋯⋯發現人類的 厲害之處。」台灣歷史學者林慈淑（2010）的《歷史，要教什麼？》說明了歷史教育在 學科知識、歷史思維能力和人文向度之間的張力，在公開考試、課程要求和時間限制之 下教師在課程內容上都必須有所取捨。所以，為了調解「思維能力」和「人文關懷」的 張力，教師甲只好在高中歷史課程的校本評核部份加入口述歷史教學，這種處理方式， 一方面可以配合課程要求，訓練學生搜集史料、整理史料的能力，又能在過程中培養學 生對社會的關懷。 教師乙的後設課程取向則較純粹，這與教師乙的背景息息相關。首先，教師乙具備 中、小學的教學經驗。Yeung & Lam（2007）指出，香港小學教師比中學更願意嘗試統 整不同的學科，他也直言： _______________ 2 教師甲在閒談間也時常分享台灣歷史學者張元老師對歷史教學的看法。 3 教師乙認為《又喊又笑：阿婆口述歷史》是口述歷史研究的典範。 228 「我並非歷史出身，我欠缺的只是知識，但我很清楚歷史的意義。⋯⋯其實 我並不關心學生是否在公開試取得好成績，我只想讓學生認識社區和自身的 關係。」 非歷史專科出身，令他免去不少學術的包袱。另外，他的學術背景亦很摻雜，語文 教育出身，後來兼讀文化研究碩士課程。 根據 Shriner, Schlee & Libler（2010）對不同學科教師的研究，發現語文教師比較願 意與其他學科的教師合作統整課程。這或許解釋了為何主修中國語言及文學的教師乙， 能夠專注於口述歷史的社會取向。他表示，在參加土地保育工作的時候，已進行兩次口 述歷史的研究，他認為「小歷史」也是一種文學修辭方法，以彌補「大歷史」的不足。 因此，不論任何科目，他都會在任教的高中的通識科和初中歷史與文化科加入口述歷史 研習，帶學生到上水的農村考察、與村民訪談，讓學生了解都市發展對香港農地帶來的 影響。 從上可見，口述歷史的課程取向充滿彈性，教師既可將口述歷史研習視為歷史能力 的培訓，亦可將口述歷史變為跨科的專題研習。歷史出身以及學科的要求，令教師甲不 斷在學術要求和社會取向之間摸索，而非歷史主修的教師乙則較無拘束地在不同的課程 推行口述歷史教學。不過，正如 Cheung（2000）所言，課程取向與課程實施之間仍有 一定的落差，教師甲和教師乙能否真正落實口述歷史的歷史思維培訓和社會關懷，仍有 待研究。 二丶 從口述歷史教學開始摸索跨學科合作的可能性 雖然筆者沒有以強度抽樣方式選擇訪談對象，但本研究的兩位參與教師都具有代表 性，教師甲的學校開辦初中通識科，而教師乙的學校開辦初中歷史與文化科，這些安排 大致參考了課程發展議會（2002）的建議： 1. 將個人、社會及人文學習領域內的學科，統整成綜合人文科 4，中國歷史科保持 獨立； _______________ 4 雖然教育局並不建議學校將初中的統整課程命名為「通識科」，但有部份學校為了與高中的課程銜接，仍把初 中的統整課程稱為通識科。 229 在教學法與社會實踐之間： 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ 2. 以中國歷史為主軸，統整中國歷史科及歷史科為歷史與文化科，其他學科統整 為綜合人文科。 根據外國推行口述歷史的經驗，如果教師甲在初中通識科加入口述歷史教學，應更 能發揮口述歷史的社會實踐意義。另外，教師乙除了在高中通識科外，如何將初中的歷 史與文化科開展口述歷史課程？ 教師甲雖然認同口述歷史的社會向度，但他認為在初中通識科中推行口述歷史比較 困難。他說： 「創校時初中通識科只為了銜接高中通識科，所以沒有很多人文學科的課程內 容，直至新高中開辦人文學科為選修科，才滲入人文學科的元素，我現在負責將 歷史的教材加入初中通識科。」 他更表示，初中通識科實際上是在不同的時段學習不同的學科內容，學科內容之間 並沒有連繫。運用 Tyler對課程統整的定義，這種組織方式只算是廣域課程，不同的學 科內容並未在共同的課程組織原則和關係（林智中、陳健生、張爽，2006）。教師甲表示， 初中通識科的香港單元是經濟科的同事負責，所以他未能在香港的單元加入口述歷史教 學。至於他負責編排的歷史內容，則是以順時序方式組織課程內容，主要教授古代文明 至工業革命的部份，也是口述歷史無法處理的時段。 至於教師乙任教學校的初中歷史與文化科，亦以順時序方式編排課程，但課程以中 國歷史為軸心，並以「思維能力」組織學科內容。這種課程組織大致參考了教育局課程 發展處（2007）提供歷史與文化科的課程綱要，「以中國歷史為主線，整合中國與世界 歷史與文化」。不過，這種強調思維能力的比較歷史課程，忽略了香港史內容，與教師 乙的社會重構課程取向有明顯的不同。教師乙如何處理在校本歷史與文化科加入口述歷 史教學呢？他說： 「我在每一個課題都會引入農業和食物議題，例如我在四大文明和中西方帝 國的課題中，都加入農業和食物的內容，從而建立學生的生活和知識的連繫， 而我在香港農村做的口述歷史便和農業和食物有關。」 230 雖然課程以思維能力作為組織學校內容，但教師乙卻以農業和食物重新演繹課程內 容，令課堂連繫至學生的日常生活，亦因此找到加入口述歷史教學的課程切入點。 本來，校本課程統整應能給予教師引入口述歷史教學的課程空間，不過，從兩位教 師的訪談得知，校本課程統整仍以學科主導（discipline-oriented）、思維能力和學術理 性取向，教師並不容易在課程規劃（planned curriculum）的層面參與統整工作，所以， 他們只能在課堂和個人層面將口述歷史加到課程之中，這亦限制了口述歷史的教學成 效。 三丶 以務實方式推動口述歷史教學 雖然課程統整未能即時為兩位教師提供實踐口述歷史的空間，但只要教師認同課程 理念，總能務實而漸進地帶來改變，正如 Park（2008）所言，關於課程統整的研究太集 中分析統整理想與現實的落差，卻未能肯定教師以務實方式（pragmatic approach）取得 統整的最大成效。 由於教師甲是歷史科主任，他可以自主編排歷史課程，將口述歷史研習用作校本評 核課業，增加口述歷史課程的認受性，他亦尋找教育局中學校本課程發展組的支援，以 取得外來的助力。至於初中通識科方面，他說： 「有歷史科訓練的同工較少，他們亦沒有接觸過口述歷史，我亦要自己去體 驗，及去思考課程發展配合在哪一個範疇。我不知道科組同事是否願意共同 開發。所以，我會以高中學生的口述歷史研習成果及專業支援換取同事的認 同。」 這種務實取向有別於由上而下的課程發展，教師先從實踐層面取得學習成果，然後 再以「調景嶺口述歷史研習」的成果建立同事間的課程對話，然後再探討「調景嶺社區」 能否成為初中課程的主題，這種由學習者開展的課程對話，才能落實課程統整的精神， 將由不同科目集合而成的廣域課程轉變為跨科課程（interdisciplinary curriculum）。 身為半職教師，教師乙明白自己在學校體制中的限制。教師乙一直表示會在高中通 識科引入口述歷史的研究方法，指導學生以香港農村與農業為題進行中學文憑試獨立專 題探究（Independent Enquiry Study）。然而，在本研究進行期間，教師乙告訴筆者，學 231 在教學法與社會實踐之間： 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ 校已規定學生獨立專題探究的主題必須與「傳媒」和「教育」有關，所以他只能在任教 的通識學生中，挑選有修讀歷史科的學生進行口述歷史研習。那麼，原任的高中歷史科 教師會有何反應？教師乙表示： 「（歷史科同事）只關心做出來的功課能否用作歷史科校本評核，我其實不 介意工作量增多了，我帶學生到古洞進行口述歷史研習，只希望學生明白香 港農民的真實情感。」 他甚至取得校長的支持，邀請農夫到學校教授種植方法，並在學校開闢農圃，讓學 生比對口述歷史實習與農圃經驗的學習成果。其實，據筆者觀察，教師乙正以時間換取 課程空間，先改變學生對社區農業的看法和態度，落實社會實踐和關懷，再以學生的學 習經驗推課程變革，這是他以半職教師換回來的「優點」（即教擔及工作量較少）。 兩位教師的務實方式未必會以白紙黑字的方式記錄在（學校）課程文件，但學生的 學習成果卻成為了校本課程發展的關鍵，令校本課程改革不再停留於教學法的改變。 戊丶結論及反思 過去關於口述歷史的教學研究呈現兩極化的走向，歷史學者雖然肯定口述歷史的 社會意義，但他們仍視中學歷史課程為歷史學術研究的從屬，只從歷史思維的角度， 將口述歷史組織到中學歷史課程之中，忽視了口述歷史的社會向度課程取向（Stengel, 1997；林慈淑，2007）；另一方面，鄉土學習和社區研習只將口述歷史教學視為帶有社 會向度的「課外活動」，卻忽視了學校課程的學術取向與口述歷史教學之間的張力。其 實，從是次的研究所見，從理解口述歷史的教學理念到課堂實踐，教師需要兼顧不同的 課程取向，有些是外在的，有些則是個人信念的，他們都希望取得更多同事及學生的認 同下，持續推動口述歷史教學。無視實際環境的限制可能為有心推動課程改革的教師帶 來更大的挫敗感，務實地因應學校處境而引入新的教學嘗試，反能帶來課程的對話，體 現校本課程發展的精神。 Marsh指出，「學校本位課程發展，是一種強調『參與』、『草根式民主』的課程 發展口號；是一種重視師生共享決定，共同建構學習經驗的教育哲學；也是一項需要 課程領導與組織變革的技巧」（李子建，2002，頁 113）可惜香港的校本課程改革仍是 232 單向的發展過程，由學校中層及管理層設計、再由分科討論執行，「中央 ─ 邊陲」 的課程發展模式並沒有改變。是次參與研究的教師從個人信念開始，因應教學進度、 學生回饋、同事的反應和社會變化修改口述歷史的課程設計，希望由學生的經驗課程 （experienced curriculum）找到突破點，帶動校本課程變革，這樣的校本課程發展才能 體現理念課程、計劃課程、執行課程和經驗課程之間的動態關係，亦會釋放更大的空間， 讓教師將口述歷史教學的社會取向融入校本課程。 參考文獻 王惠玲（2010）。〈補白、發聲、批判、傳承：香港口述歷史的實踐〉。《鄭洲大學學 報》，第 43卷第 4期。 朱耀光（2012）。〈口述歷史作為教學行動：尋找共同建構的初中香港歷史課程〉。論 文發表於台北、香港、廣州歷史教學研討會。台北：東吳大學歷史學系。 吳翎君（2004）。《歷史教學理論與實務》。台北：五南圖書。 林智中、陳健生、張爽（2006）。《課程組織》。北京：教育科學出版社。 李子建（2002）。《課程、教學與學校改革：新世紀的教育發展》。香港：中文大學出版社。 林慈淑（2007）。〈口述歷史在歷史教學上的應用？─ 一位大學教師的疑慮〉。台北： 發表於中研院台史所「第十一屆全國口述歷史工作會議」。 林慈淑（2010）。《歷史，要教什麼？─ 英美歷史教育的爭議》。台北：學生書局。 香港課程發展議會（2002）。《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引（小一至中 三）》。香港：政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會（2007）。《歷史科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》。香港：政府 印務局。 教育局課程發展處（2007）。《歷史與文化科（中一至中三年級）》。取自 http://cd1. edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/tc/history/New_History/about/about.html。 陳潔華（編）（2004）。《批判思考　創意教學：技巧和考察例子》。香港：香港大學 亞洲研究中心。 楊秀珠（2002）。〈尋找本土的故事：香港教師的歷史觀〉。《教育學報》，第30卷第二期， 41-62。 233 在教學法與社會實踐之間： 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學？ 楊祥銀（2004）。《口述史學》。台北：揚智出版。 鄭鈞傑、林智中（2006）。〈評「香港課程改革二○○一 ─《學會學習》」〉。載曾 榮光（編著），《廿一世紀教育藍圖？香港特區教育改革議論》（頁207-235）。香港： 香港中文大學。 鍾寶賢（2000）。〈「口述歷史」的社會意義〉。《當代史學》。取自 http://histweb. hkbu.edu.hk/contemporary/Jourvol3_3/jourvol3_3main.htm#3。 嚴佳芳（1995）。〈談「口述歷史」在高中歷史教學的運用〉。《建中學報》，第 1期， 99-103。 Cheung, D. (2000). Measuring teachers’ meta-orientations to curriculum: application of hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 68(2), 149-165. Cheung, D., & Wong, H. W. (2002). Measuring teacher beliefs about alternative curriculum designs. The Curriculum Journal, 13(2), 225-248. Dunaway, K., & Baum, W. K. (Eds.). (1984). Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology. Nashville, Tennessee: American Association for State and Local History. Neuenschwander, J. A. (1976). Oral history: As a teaching approach. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Park, M. (2008). Implementing curriculum integration: The experiences of Korean elementary teachers. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(3), 308-319. Shriner, M., Schlee, B. M., & Libler, R. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and beliefs regarding curriculum integration. Australian Education Researcher, 37(1), 51-62. Stengel, B. S. (1997). “Academic discipline” and “school subject”: Contestable curricular concepts. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 29(5), 585-602. Thompson, P. (1978). The voice of the past: Oral history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yeung, S. S. Y., & Lam, C. C. (2007). Teachers’ conception of curriculum integration: A problem hindering its implementation in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(2), 109-144. 234 Between teaching method and social practice: How do teachers accommodate oral history to school-based curriculum? CHU Yiu Kwong Fanling Lutheran Secondary School Abstract Recently oral history has been widely accepted and adopted by secondary school teachers. Its social meaning also makes it easier for teachers to adopt oral history as an interdisciplinary method of project-based learning. However, teachers are confronted with many practical problems while accommodating oral history to school-based curriculum. In the perspectives of two secondary school teachers who intend to promote oral history in their own schools as examples, this article will analyze how teachers’ curriculum orientations, educational beliefs, and practical concerns influence the way of teaching oral history. Keywords History education, oral history, curriculum orientation
Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal Volume 13 (2014)
Category: DocumentsDocuments Icon第+三卷 Volume Thirteen 教育局 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 第十三卷 Volume 13 出 版 ： 香港教師中心 地 址 ： 香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 出版年份 ： 2014 年 Publisher ： Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address ： W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing ： 2014 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 i 香港教師中心（教師中心）是根據1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議， 由 1987 年開始籌備，至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步提升 服務質素及切合發展需要，教師中心已於 2006 年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。 教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓，並為他們提供一個富 鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境，使他們更能團結一致，發揮專業精神。教師中心 致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會，推動課程發展，鼓勵教師設計及試用新教 材和教學法，向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念，並配合教師興趣，組織 各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設，也由教師管理，他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會（諮管會）、常務委員會（常委會）和 六個工作小組，負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組 成，其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出，35 位由教師提名及選出，另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構，與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任，其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員，以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。 常委會之下設有工作小組，負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作，包括專業發展小組、 出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。 教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外，亦經常與本港教育團體合作，籌辦推動教育專業 的活動，並會因應需要，贊助這些團體舉辦活動，以及為有關活動提供所需的場地和器 材。教師中心設有學科團體綜合辦事處，以支援學科團體策劃活動和處理會務。此外， 教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等，為教師提供所需的服務。 香港教師中心 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years’ preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-tier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total of 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well-equipped premises. At HKTC, there is also the Subject-related Organisation Office for relevant organisations to work in. Last but not least, HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc for teachers’ use. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre iii 顧問團（Board of Advisors） Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁　鋼 華東師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 李榮安 新加坡國立教育學院 《香港教師中心學報》（《學報》）乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物， 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校，而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁（www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/ journal）閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal iv 編輯委員會（Editorial Committee） 主編（Chief Editor） 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 副主編（Vice-chief Editors） 胡少偉 香港教育學院 張慧真 香港浸會大學教育學系 趙淑媚 香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學 委員（Members） 甘志強 港澳兒童教育國際協會 何景安 香港教師活動協會 何瑞珠 香港中文大學教育學院 李子建 香港教育學院 李宏峯 明愛屯門馬登基金中學 林偉業 香港大學教育學院 胡志偉 香港通識教育會 劉瑞珍 李求恩紀念中學 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 張國華 香港公開大學 梁湘明 香港中文大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 葉蔭榮 教育局 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡江大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 v 主 編 序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「教育規劃與教學實踐——回歸後教育政策檢視與前 瞻」，除了得到不少學者和教師就這個主題應邀投稿外，亦有其他熱心的教育 同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。有關文稿經過嚴謹的評審後，共有九篇文章 獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。 第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有三篇，內容包括：在香港推行十五年免 費教育的困境與出路、廿一世紀的香港高等教育、香港小學小班的教學實踐。 三篇文章都能就着各個不同學習階段所面對的現況和困難作出深入客觀分析， 值得教師和教育決策者參考。 第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章亦有三篇，內容包括：香港中學推行 的現狀及啟示、初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰、多元視角下的遊學 意義。教師及校長都可以就着文章內容作出反思，並且探索改善校內管理及教 學質素的方法。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享，有三篇文章。內容包括：以個案研究分 析香港小學的教育改革與學校領導的歷程、香港學校生命教育的教學與評估、 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗。它們都對改善學校行政和課程規劃提供詳 細描述，有助讀者理解推行教育改革時需要關注和克服的地方。 最後，要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工，當中包括：王秉豪博 士、申龐得玲博士、朱啟榮博士、何景安先生、李子建教授、李偉雄先生、李 輝博士、冼權鋒教授、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、袁國明先生、麥謝巧玲女士、 馮文正先生、馮潔皓教授、雷其昌先生、趙淑媚博士、蔡若蓮博士、鄧國俊博士、 鄭晚莊女士及簡加言博士。學報能順利出版，實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中抽空 幫助，以專業的態度評審各篇文章。 《香港教師中心學報》主編 楊沛銘 二零一四年十二月 目錄 Contents 香港教師中心........................................................ i 香港教師中心學報.................................................. iii 主編序.............................................................. v 一、主題：教育規劃與教學實踐──回歸後教育政策檢視與前瞻 1. Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions ...................................... 1 Hui LI & Ricci W FONG 2. Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century .......................... 15 Michael H LEE 3. 香港小學小班的教學實踐 .......................................... 35 章月鳳、李子建 二、 理論及政策評論 4. 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 ................................ 49 章月鳳、鄧耀南 5. 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 ........................ 65 梁亦華 6. 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 .............................. 79 林志德 三、 教育實踐與經驗分享 7. A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools ....................................... 97 LEUNG Lai Sim 8. 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估：以六所學校的孝親教學為例 ......... 125 江浩民、李子建 9. 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 ................................. 141 胡少偉、鄭志強 徵集論文 稿例 徵募審稿員 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 13 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2014 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions Hui LI Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong Ricci W FONG The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract 15-year free education has been implemented in Macau and some parts of Mainland China in recent decade. In light of the implementations, local early childhood educators and experts have since been debating whether Hong Kong should follow suit to offer the 3 years of early childhood education (ECE) for free on top of the existing 12-year free education. With reference to the policy implementation and outcomes in Macau and Mainland China, as well as the ECE context in Hong Kong, this paper seeks to (1) delineate the dilemmas in the debate about 15-year free education in Hong Kong; and (2) suggest how free ECE could be offered in a context-appropriate manner. We will discuss the issues based on the “3A1S” theoretical framework, which looks into the affordability, accessibility, accountability, and sustainability of ECE. Practical solutions for settling the ceaseless debate about 15-year free education in Hong Kong will also be proposed. Keywords 15-year free education, Hong Kong early childhood education, dilemmas in education policy 1 The Hong Kong government launched the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS) in 2007 with an aim to enhance and assure the accessibility, affordability, and accountability of early childhood education (ECE) in Hong Kong. The policy, however, has been criticized by both educators and the public for not responding to the appeal for providing 15-year free education (3-year free kindergarten education in addition to 12 years of free primary and secondary education), which the Macau government has started offering since 2007 (Fung & Lam, 2012). In this connection, the PEVS is argued to be an inadequate and backward move by the government. Aggravating the public’s dissatisfaction and the tension of the debate is the implementation of other 15-year free education policies in some provinces of Mainland China. Against this background, the public call to expand the existing 12-year free education framework in Hong Kong to include ECE persists (Legislative Council, 2010). Although the current-term Chief Executive (CE) of Hong Kong, Mr. Leung Chun-ying, made the launch of this 15- year free education policy one of his policy agendas when he ran for CE in 2012, the major arguments against this proposed policy center on the feasibility and credibility of offering free ECE when the structural and contextual factors of ECE in Hong Kong are taken into account. Li (2012, 2012.6.22), for instance, argued that offering authentic free kindergarten education in Hong Kong would in fact threaten the accountability and quality of kindergarten education on the whole. The Committee on Free Kindergarten Education was set up in 2013 in an attempt to resolve the debate and plan a sustainable policy that can reconcile different views in this issue, but discussions and debates regarding how the 15-year free education policy could be implemented in a contextually appropriate manner remain inconclusive thus far. Educational policymaking should be a rational evidence- based process that begins with an identified problem and ends with a contextualized policy for solving the problem. This paper is thus dedicated to providing a clearer picture of the ECE context in Hong Kong and delineating the dilemmas in this ceaseless debate, in an attempt to offer insights into solutions that could possibly reconcile the debate without forfeiting the quality of our ECE in the near future. 1. Debating on the ECE voucher in Hong Kong The ECE system in Hong Kong has been regarded as being entirely private, publicly underfinanced and bureaucratically neglected (Li, Wang, & Fong, in press). Since the Colonial era, all the kindergartens in Hong Kong have been run by non-profit-making organizations and private bodies, which are registered with and supervised by the Education Bureau (EDB). Since there is no public kindergarten in Hong Kong, public funding for ECE was so minimal that the sector was once depicted as the Cinderella of our education system that was ill-treated and neglected by the government (Rao & Li, 2009). The meager attention and public resources have resulted in the widely disparate quality of ECE provision in Hong Kong over the years. 2 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions A breakthrough occurred in 2007 when the Hong Kong government launched the PEVS to alleviate the financial burden of parents and to enhance the quality of kindergarten education. Instead of directly funding kindergarten establishments, vouchers are given to parents of children who are permanent residents of Hong Kong. To date, the value of the voucher was $16,800 per student per annum in the 2012/13 school year, and parents from low-income families are also eligible to apply for means-tested financial assistance from the Social Welfare Department to help cover the outstanding tuition fee and miscellaneous expenses incurred (Legislative Council, 2013). Nevertheless, the PEVS imposed five criteria on the eligibility of kindergartens to receive government subsidy: (1) the tuition fee per annum must not exceed $24,000 (half-day) or $48,000 (full- day) per student; (2) kindergartens must undergo Quality Reviews, both self-evaluation and external review conducted by the Education Bureau; (3) operational and financial transparency must be maintained; (4) teachers serving in the kindergartens must hold at least a Certificate in Early Childhood Education; and (5) kindergartens must offer local curriculum which is in line with the Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum (GPC) (Curriculum Development Council, 2006). Kindergartens that cannot fulfill the criteria could continue to operate as private independent kindergartens. As of 2011, about 80% of the kindergartens in Hong Kong had joined the PEVS and about 85% of kindergarten-aged children have benefited from the Scheme (Legislative Council, 2011). Taken together, the voucher system generated $2 billion of benefits for a total of 120,000 young children in the 2010/11 school year (Legislative Council, 2013). Striving to enhance the quality of kindergarten education service in Hong Kong, the PEVS aims to increase investment and enhance quality in ECE. The public, on the other hand, question whether offering a direct subsidy to kindergarten parents through the PEVS was an effective means to improve the quality of ECE. Fung and Lam (2008) analyzed the context of ECE in Hong Kong and agreed that PEVS could be a strategic means to improve the quality of early education by making use of market forces to strengthen parents’ voice and choice. They, however, argued that enhancing parental influences on the pedagogical autonomy of kindergartens could have an adverse impact on the program quality and urged for a direct subsidy to fund the operation of kindergartens. Nevertheless, Li, Wong, and Wang (2010) found that most of the parents reported in the survey that the PEVS had eased their financial burden (75%) and helped enhance the quality of kindergartens (61%), and most of the principals reported that the PEVS had increased the competition (77%). In this connection, the PEVS could promote the accessibility, affordability, and accountability of kindergarten education in Hong Kong. The market mechanism and private provision of ECE in Hong Kong have guaranteed unrestricted school choices for the parents of young children. The PEVS has further empowered parents to choose a school for their children by offering them direct fee 3 subsidies. In light of the market force, it was expected that the more credible PEVS- eligible kindergartens could attract more parents to enroll their children, and therefore more vouchers could be collected and cashed by the chosen kindergartens for teachers’ professional development and enhancement of their services. This, in turn, could push kindergartens to monitor and improve their education quality in order to attract more vouchers, i.e. monetary resources, for sustaining the kindergartens. The question then might be the discrepancies between parents’ desirable type of ECE and what the private kindergarten sector should provide according to the GPC (Fung & Lam, 2011). While the PEVS-eligible kindergartens are supposed to offer curricula that promote children’s holistic development, they have to satisfy parents’ demands for academic-oriented curricula in preparation for their children’s primary school admission and education in the long run. The tension results in the provision of many developmentally inappropriate and academic-oriented ECE curricula by the PEVS-eligible kindergartens. That said, pressure cast by parental choices of kindergarten may not necessarily enhance the quality of ECE (Fung & Lam, 2012). Still, we tend to believe that giving kindergartens the autonomy to develop their own curriculum and implement their own monitoring system under the PEVS is constructive in the long run. It helps retain the uniqueness of each kindergarten and the variety of kindergartens in the market for parents to choose from, and this could eventually help improve the overall quality of ECE in Hong Kong, indirectly. It is noteworthy that the key focus of the party that urges for free ECE is affordability rather than quality. Although it has certainly relieved the financial pressure parents bear for their children to receive kindergarten education, the PEVS was criticized for not making ECE completely free to the young children from low-income families. Some needy families had to pay extra school fee that could not be covered by the voucher. The government is very responsive and has revised the ceiling of the voucher and increased the voucher value to $20,010 for the 2014/15 school year. The financial burden on low- income families will be further relieved. However, the PEVS is bound to affect the income allocation of the richer and poorer families differently due to the income gap and the divergent valuation of education between the two groups. Li, Wong, and Wang (2010) found that the richer parents tended to spend the savings from the voucher scheme on interest classes and other educational purposes for their children, whereas the poorer parents would rather use the savings for family expenses instead of education. Hence to ensure that all children, regardless of socioeconomic backgrounds, could receive quality ECE, a motion was raised in the Legislative Council (2011) to urge the government to provide 15-year free education. 4 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 2. Defining 15-year free education with empirical evidence Since 2011, the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU), the Striving for 15- year Free Education Union, and like-minded scholars have coalesced into allies to fight for 15-year free education. They appealed through language and symbols perpetrated by the media to build audience receptivity to the concept of “15-year free education”, a political spectacle produced intentionally to sell their movement to the public. They repeatedly advocated that this free policy could solve all the development problems faced by kindergartens, enhance teachers’ remuneration, and establish a professional training system so as to raise the overall quality of ECE in Hong Kong (Li et al., in press). In this way, they successfully primed the public to believe that the policy is not only the sound bite, but also the panacea to solving all the problems in our ECE arena. However, the empirical articles collected in a recent special issue have jointly proved that the problems they listed in the appeal for free education could not be resolved simply by the means of providing 15-year free education (Li et al., in press). Instead, we consider the political spectacle of 15-year free education a man-made illusion. The real landscape of our kindergarten education is way more complex than what has been portrayed by the supporters of 15- year free education. That being said, this section will attempt to clarify the illusion by addressing two sets of questions with reference to empirical evidence: (1) what is the real meaning of free education? Does it mean that everything should be free and free to every child? (2) How can free education be offered in Hong Kong? Should the government pay the rent and teacher salaries for the kindergarten owners? If so, should the government pocket all the profit? In that case, why don’t we transform private kindergartens into public ones? Unless all these questions are appropriately addressed, we will not be able to arrive at a credible and contextualized solution for implementing free ECE, and therefore, 15- year free education in Hong Kong. The definition of 15-year free education could be derived from the Chinese contexts that have implemented such a policy. To this end, we invited Chinese scholars to evaluate the implementation of 15-year free education in Greater China and edited a special issue for the International Journal of Chinese Education (Li et al., in press). In the special issue, Lau, Li, and Leung (in press) explored the perceived impacts of this policy on the affordability, accessibility, and accountability of ECE in Macau. They found that only the public kindergartens were free to the eligible young children, and the parents who were enjoying free education further demanded for more subsidies from the government to make extra-curricular activities complimentary. In addition, it is very interesting to find that some private kindergartens that did not join the free education school system and charged very high tuition fees were much more attractive to parents than the free public kindergartens did. The parents interviewed by Lau et al. (in press) preferred those expensive private kindergartens to the free public ones, as they were more concerned about the quality. 5 In a similar vein, Cai and Hai (in press) analyzed the case of Ningshan County in Shaanxi Province, and found that the 15-year free education policy was, in fact, not literally free and not applicable to all children. Only public kindergartens delivered free education to a limited number of young children, whereas most of the kindergartens were privately-run and the tuition fees they charged were very high for the local standard of living. Again, they questioned whether the policy was suitable for the local economic and social contexts, and suggested the local government to consider more feasible and sustainable solutions. Li and Wang (in press) conducted an online research to analyze the affordability, accessibility, accountability and sustainability (“3A1S”) of the 15-year free education policies in four counties of western China. They found that the “free” education policies, which were neither “all kids free” nor “all fees free”, could only make ECE affordable, to a limited extent. Other problems in terms of accessibility, accountability and sustainability were primarily left unaddressed. They also pointed out that the policies were unlikely to be sustainable as the public funding entirely relied on the local coal economy and fiscal investment at the county level. All the above studies unanimously concluded that the 15-year free education policies implemented in different parts of the Great China region were mainly delivered by public kindergartens and schools. Children enrolled in private kindergartens and schools still had to pay for tuition fees since these educational establishments only received partial subsidies from the governments. More importantly, it is noteworthy that in most of the cases in Mainland China, free education only means free of tuition fee for children enrolled in public kindergartens, but three other types of fees are still incurred, namely, the fees for registration, learning materials, and healthcare. In other words, the implemented 15-year free education policies do not guarantee authentic free education to all children. Is this what we want in Hong Kong? Besides, the above studies found that the government funding strategies differed between public and private kindergartens in Mainland China and Macau. More commitment was made to financing public kindergartens, which were limited in quantity and/or quality. Private kindergartens were either neglected or were only partially subsidized by the governments. This enlarged the gap between what young children enrolled in public and private kindergartens would receive. The public-private divide in education policy risks perpetuating educational inequalities in many parts of Mainland China and deserves our attention. As for the Hong Kong context, in the absence of public kindergartens to deliver free ECE, government subsidies therefore will be supporting private kindergartens. Given the market-driven nature of our ECE services, offering full and direct funding support to private organizations will bring to the surface a host of dilemmas, which will be further analyzed in the following sections. 6 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 3. Understanding the dilemmas with the “3A1S” framework Many practical but very critical dilemmas need to be resolved to deliver the kind of free ECE expected by the public in Hong Kong. The first critical one is whether kindergarten education should be made free for all, which is about the problem of affordability. As a consequence of implementing the PEVS, the affordability of ECE is no longer a problem in Hong Kong. All the needy families and their children can get ECE for free. So, the questions might be: Is free ECE for all desirable? In particular, should taxpayers pay for the early education of children whose families can afford the cost of high-quality private programs? Will free ECE help achieve the ultimate purposes of education - to nurture human capabilities for our future society? What are the purposes of kindergarten education? All these questions have not been thoroughly addressed and would demand future inquiries and debates. The second dilemma is whether and how the government can completely pay the rent for every kindergarten - the problems of affordability and accountability. We believe that having the government pay rent for all the kindergartens is not a justifiable policy, as some establishments actually own the properties. They do not need and do not deserve this kind of governmental support (Li, 2012). So to speak, if the government pays for the rental, it will mean that the educational resources that should be shared by middle- to low-income families will then be transferred to the kindergarten owners, property developers and property owners. This will not help to solve parent’s affordability problem, but will make kindergarten owners free-riders. The third critical challenge is how to establish a feasible school place allocation system to achieve educational equality, which is per se, an accessibility problem of ECE. If children are enrolled simply based on neighborhood and personal interest in a free ECE system, there will likely be an inflation of the housing prices in affluent areas with elite kindergartens (e.g. Kowloon Tong), as parents attempt to move to these areas to be qualified for admission to the best possible kindergartens. Property developers and owners, rather than children, will benefit from this allocation, and the disparity between noble and ordinary kindergartens as well as that between the rich and the poor will continue to grow. Random assignment of kindergarten places is not a solution either, as it is infeasible to expect children to travel across districts for school (Li, 2012). The fourth dilemma is how to avoid two trade-offs caused by the so-called free education, which will ultimately affect the affordability and accountability of this policy. The most remarkable trade-off is that between affordability and accountability (Li, 2012), as the government will provide full financial support regardless of school quality. We can then foresee that kindergartens can simply sit back and pocket the money whether they are 7 doing anything to improve their education services or not. Adding to the problem is the fact that the government can do little to eliminate any of the kindergartens when they are not running well since they are privately owned. Without the ability to hold kindergartens accountable, the efficiency of governmental input will become a major concern. Devising ways to tackle this accountability problem would be time-consuming, yet imperative (Fong, in press). Another trade-off is that between affordability and quality (Li, 2012). Quality comes with competition and providing full and direct subsidy to kindergartens is merely a backward move. As kindergartens and the teachers involved are guaranteed to receive sufficient financial resources for operation without undergoing any competition, there is then no longer any incentive to strive for improvement. With two of the major stakeholders’ voices muffled (i.e., the parents will not have a say because they are not paying for their children’s education, and the government will not have any means to monitor the private schools), there is neither motivation nor competition over student enrolment. Not to mention quality education for children, which will accordingly tend toward an increasingly uniform mediocrity. Whether the kindergarten is good or not will no longer matters and consequently, the education quality will deteriorate. The fifth dilemma is also about the accountability - whether the governmental subsidy should go to parents or to kindergartens, which might be the tangible difference between 15-year free education and the PEVS. If the direct subsidy goes to kindergartens, the abovementioned four dilemmas will be valid and the quality and accountability of kindergarten education will be sacrificed. If the direct subsidy goes to parents, the four dilemmas will not be valid as parents can then make good use of their choices to promote competition among kindergartens, and accordingly, enhance the quality and accountability of ECE. The virtues of the PEVS are its flexibility, which allows kindergartens to enjoy the autonomy in curriculum development and mode of operation; and its ability to enable needy children to receive free kindergarten education. The last dilemma is whether 15-year free education policy is financially sustainable in Hong Kong. Implementing such a policy requires strong financial support. All governments have to thoroughly calculate the sustainability of its new free education policy. Otherwise, the fiscal deficit will make the policy impossible to sustain. For instance, Li and Wang (in press) found that the 15-year “free” education policies in the four Chinese counties were heavily dependent on the local coal economy. The skyrocketing coal price in the last decade has brought these governments enormous revenue. To make full use of the financial surplus, these county governments made a politically right and professionally manageable decision - implementing 15-year “free” education. However, it has not sufficiently attended to the problem of sustainability. A prolonged plunge in China’s coal prices has created risks for the economy of these counties. As one of these four counties is now suffering from fiscal deficit, the sustainability of their free ECE is thus doubtful in the long run. 8 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions 4. Searching for the practical solutions Fong (in press) took a closer look at the online community of Hong Kong to understand how the supporting and opposing parties have persisted in achieving 15- year free education. She found that both parties proposed an increase of the existing voucher value and a voucher that could sufficiently cover the tuition fee of full-day kindergarten programs. Both have called for the establishment of subsidy schemes to support teachers’ professional development and school development, as well as a teacher remuneration scale to enhance the quality of services and teachers’ working conditions. The supporters demanded additional administrative support whereas the opposing party suggested a reduction of administrative procedures. Hence, Fong concluded that the two parties in the debate shared the same set of goals - equal accessibility to all children and enhanced supports for teachers and education services. The only difference between the solutions proposed by the two parties might be whether the subsidy should go to parents or to kindergartens. In this connection, compromise between the two parties is possible and feasible. As highlighted earlier, direct subsidy to kindergartens will lead to all the abovementioned dilemmas. That being said, the final solution should be and could only be subsidizing parents with a modified voucher. Accordingly, the Chief Executive claimed, in his Policy Address in 2014, to modify the voucher to move toward the aim of providing 15-year free education and better quality of kindergarten education. More specifically, he proposed to: (1) increase the value of PEVS by $2,500 per year in the 2014/15 and 2015/16 school years. In other words, the voucher subsidy would be adjusted to $20,010 per student per annum (pspa) in the 2014/15 school year and $22,510 pspa in the 2015/16 school year, respectively. This will further alleviate the financial burden in respect of kindergarten education on parents and relieve the pressure on kindergartens in meeting the expenses, such as teachers’ salary, staffing and operating expenditure (including rental). (2) adjust the fee thresholds for the kindergartens under the PEVS. In the 2013/14 school year, the fee thresholds are $26,260 and $52,520 for half-day (HD) and whole-day (WD) kindergarten places respectively. The thresholds for HD and WD kindergarten classes would be adjusted to $30,020 and $60,400 respectively in the 2014/15 school year, and $33,700 and $67,540 respectively in the 2015/16 school year. In accordance with the established mechanism, the fee threshold for HD kindergarten classes under the PEVS is set at 1.5 times of the voucher subsidy, while the fee threshold for WD kindergarten classes would be 2 times of that for HD kindergarten classes. 9 (3) lift the fee remission ceiling to offer greater assistance to needy families to better facilitate their children’s access to quality kindergarten education. The fee remission ceiling under the Kindergarten and Child Care Centre Fee Remission Scheme (KCCCFRS) will be lifted from the weighted average fees of PEVS kindergartens to the 75th percentile of the school fees of the respective kindergartens to provide greater assistance to needy families in opening the doors to quality KG education for their children. (4) provide course fee reimbursement for principals and teachers serving in PEVS kindergartens to pursue relevant and approved courses in the 2012/13 and 2013/14 school years; and (5) study how to practicably implement free kindergarten education, and will make recommendations within 2015. We believe that these short-term measures are workable and appropriate in the Hong Kong context. First, the PEVS could equally allocate public money among all the eligible young children in Hong Kong, allowing low-income families access to almost-free ECE, while affluent families can continue to pay for more prestigious ECE provisions. Although high-socioeconomic status families are eligible to receive ECE for free if they send their children to PEVS-eligible kindergartens, they prefer to pay more for better ECE in reality, which complies with the principle of cost sharing and compensation. Moreover, the cap (thresholds) on the level of school fees charged by the PEVS-eligible kindergartens has served to bar out the more expensive kindergartens from receiving public resources. It is also noteworthy that the fee thresholds have been raised in the Policy Address 2014 to give parents more choices, which guarantees that the public money will go to the middle- to low-income families rather than the high-socioeconomic status ones. All these measures advocate the principle of helping the poor. But these are short-term measures. What is the long-term solution? Before proposing the long-term and ultimate solution, we need to reiterate the “3A1S” framework that Li et al. (in press) have used to evaluate all the ECE policies, namely, accessibility, affordability, accountability, and sustainability. Accessibility means every young child can easily attend a nearby kindergarten. Affordability means every family can easily afford the fees of the chosen kindergarten, and some fee exemptions could be offered to the needy families. In terms of accountability, every kindergarten, be it non-profit-making or for-profit, the extra fiscal input provided by the policy should be accountable to the government for improving education quality. As for sustainability, the policy should be financially sustainable and continuously affordable to the government. In our perspective, a modified voucher could best meet the goal of achieving accessibility, 10 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions affordability, accountability, and sustainability of our ECE. With the following modifications, the PEVS could achieve the target of implementing free ECE, as the scheme can then address all of the abovementioned dilemmas, and allow half of the young children population in Hong Kong to receive free ECE (Li, 2012). To these ends, we proposed the following modifications of the PEVS: (1) Increase the value of the PEVS, annually and gradually, to the level of 50th (2017-2018) or even 75th (2019-2020) percentile of the tuition fees of the non- profit-making kindergartens. Accordingly, 50% to 75% of the eligible young children will enjoy free kindergarten education through the modified voucher. (2) Launch the full-day voucher for families with both parents working and would therefore need whole day ECE. All the applications should be reviewed and approved by the educational authorities. Meanwhile, more full-day places should be launched gradually. (3) Simplify the procedures of voucher claiming. Eliminate the need for parents to apply for the voucher, and kindergarten can simply reimburse the money directly from EDB after collecting all the students’ identification information. (4) Cancel the restrictions on the eligibility of the PEVS and allow for-profit kindergartens to receive it. As long as the school fee is acceptable, the quality is good (judged by Quality Review), and the finance is thoroughly transparent, they can also receive governmental subsidy through the voucher scheme. In this manner, more families can benefit from the voucher scheme. (5) Establish a suitable mechanism for regular review of the fee thresholds to take into account factors other than changes in the cost of living, to build in flexibility and to enhance the sector responsiveness to changes in circumstances. This will allow kindergartens more room to increase their tuition fees to cover teacher salaries, rental and other operating expenses, instead of passing the additional costs onto parents. (6) Establish a scientific rental reimbursement system to subsidize the rental expenses of non-profit-making kindergartens. This system should monitor the ongoing changes in school rentals annually and the reimbursement should reflect the changes. But support for the rental and teacher salaries of for-profit kindergartens is not needed. 11 (7) Establish a school-based development fund to sponsor all the activities for school development and set up a teacher professional development fund for all the teachers. These funds could be operated as an earmarked Continuing Education Fund so that all the in-service teachers can apply for funding support to pursue degree or professional studies every 5 years. This initiative will definitely enhance the professionalism of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. (8) Develop and launch the teacher qualification allowance, which could be paid monthly to those teaching in voucher-eligible kindergartens, by the government according to each registered teacher’s qualification and performance. This policy has been well implemented in Macau, and will improve the treatment and qualifications of kindergarten teachers without unduly burdening school owners or parents (for details, see Li, 2012.6.22). We strongly believe that the above recommendations can help achieve an equilibrium among the affordability, accessibility, accountability, and sustainability of ECE, as well as satisfying all the stakeholders in our ECE context. Prolonged disputes construct nothing, but stagnation or even deterioration. Decades of research have told us that investing wisely in ECE is one of the keys that can equip our children for the multitudes of life challenges ahead. The question is, however, are we allocating our resources to children’s future or simply to ECE establishments for their survival so none of them will have to step out of the market? References Cai, Y. Q., & Hai, Y. (in press). Free early childhood education in rural China: A case study of Ningshan. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Curriculum Development Council. (2006). Guide to pre-primary curriculum. Retrieved September 12, 2012, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/ preprimary-kindergarten/overview/pre-primaryguide-net_en_928.pdf Fong, R. W. (in press). 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from the online communities. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Fung, C. K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2008). The pre-primary education voucher scheme of Hong Kong: A promise of quality education provision? Education Journal, 36(1/2), 153- 170. 12 Implementing 15-year free education in Hong Kong: Dilemmas and practical solutions Fung, K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2011). Empowering parents’ choice of schools: The rhetoric and reality of how Hong Kong kindergarten parents choose schools under the voucher scheme. Current Issues in Education, 14(1). Fung, K. H., & Lam, C. C. (2012). The tension between parents’ informed choice and school transparency: Consumerism in the Hong Kong education voucher scheme. International Journal of Early Childhood, 44(1), 31-52. Lau, M. M. Y. L., Li, H., & Leung, S. O. (in press). A multiple case study on the perceived impacts of the 15-year free education policy in Macau. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Legislative Council. (2010). Review of the Pre-primary Education Voucher Scheme (LC Paper No. CB(2)554/10-11(02)). Retrieved December 15, 2010, from http://www. legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/chinese/panels/ed/papers/ed1217cb2-554-2-c.pdf Legislative Council. (2011). Motion on “striving for 15-year free education” moved by Hon CHEUNG Man-kwong. Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://www.legco.gov. hk/yr10-11/english/legco_rpt/legco_motion02171-e.pdf Legislative Council. (2013). Background brief on issues related to the provision of 15-year free education (LC Paper No. CB(4)486/12-13(02)). Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr12-13/english/panels/ed/papers/ed0319cb4-486-2-e. pdf Li, H. (2012). Free early childhood education matters. OMEP-HK Newsletter, 12(2), 13- 18. Li, H. ( 李輝 ) (2012.6.22). 〈免費幼兒教育免誰的費？如何免費？〉. 《明報》, A36 版, 觀點 . Li, H., & Wang, D. (in press). Understanding the 15-year free education policies in China: An online study of four cases. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Li, H., Wang, D., & Fong, R.W. (in press). Editor’s Note - Sound bites won’t work: Case studies of 15-year free education in Greater China. International Journal of Chinese Education, 3(2). Li, H., Wong, J. M. S., & Wang, X. C. (2010). Affordability, accessibility, and accountability: Perceived impacts of the pre-primary education vouchers in Hong Kong. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 125-138. Rao, N., & Li, H. (2009). Quality matters: Early childhood education policy in Hong Kong. Early Child Development and Care, 179(3), 233-245. 13 如何在香港推行 15 年免費教育：困境與出路 李輝 香港大學教育學院 方蔚子 香港教育學院 摘要 澳門及中國內地某些地區已經陸續推行了 15 年免費教育，香港幼兒教育工作者和 專家近年來也在激烈辯論應否在港實施同樣政策。本文在參照澳門及中國內地有關 政策的基礎上，對香港現行學前教育學券制的情況及其推行 15 年免費教育進行了 文獻分析，並運用「3A1S」的理論框架（即「可支付性，可進入性，可問責性和可 持續性」）對實施免費教育所需面對的困境進行了詳細分析。據此，本文提出了切 合香港實際需要、切實可行推行 15 年免費教育的解決方案。 關鍵詞 15 年免費教育，香港幼兒教育，教育政策的困境 14 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 13 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2014 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century Michael H LEE Department of History, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Higher education, which comprises public and private universities together with self- financed community colleges, is an important component of the education in Hong Kong. Comprehensive reviews and reforms on higher education have been carried out in Hong Kong since the 1990s when it witnessed the processes of both quantitative expansion and qualitative consolidation, which led to several significant changes facing the higher education system. Some of the most remarkable issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government-university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. Examining the major developments of higher education in Hong Kong in the twenty- first century, this article analyzes the ways higher education has been transformed by the aforementioned four trends. Keywords higher education, quality assurance, internationalization, government-university relationship, private universities 1. Introduction Hong Kong is not immune from a global trend of higher education reform which aims at improving the quality of education and maintaining its relevance to socio-economic needs in the age of globalization when market forces and competitions are the core values. Globalization has been considered a strong rationale for restructuring the existing higher 15 education sector with the injection of new ideas of governance and management, which adhere to the business-oriented culture and practices prevailing in the private sector in response to the deep influence of public sector reforms spreading. The image of being ivory tower can no longer be sustained for universities as they are expected to make more contributions to research and development in order to enhance their international ranking and reputation. The development of higher education has aroused widespread concerns among stakeholders of the sector, including university leaders, academics and students. Various stakeholders have made their voices heard concerning the changing environment facing higher education in recent years when there has been ever growing social expectation on education outcomes by admitting more students on one hand and by producing a larger pool of well-educated and skilled manpower for socio-economic needs on the other. While universities are supposed to be more adaptive (Sporn, 1999), enterprise-oriented (Marginson & Considine, 2000) and entrepreneurial (Clark, 1998, 2004), both Lucas (1996) and Readings (1998) warn against a crisis looming to the higher education sector for universities have been under growing political pressure for reform in face of more acute competition for public or government resources which have become more limited as a consequence of more stringent budgetary control. In fact, as what Kennedy (1997) suggests, universities are controversial places, and they have drawn intense public scrutiny on their obligations and duties in order to regain public trust. Under this circumstance, academics’ work turns out to be more demanding for they have to teach, publish, serve, and even risk change. For higher education, many changes have been observed in the sector since the 1990s when it witnessed the process of massification or the rapid expansion of higher education with a significant increase in the numbers of both students and degree- awarding higher education institutions. This article analyzes the ways higher education has been transformed by identifying major issues facing higher education that are affecting the development of higher education in Hong Kong. These issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government- university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. There are four sections following this introductory section. The article commences by an analysis of the policy context of higher education in Hong Kong since the 1990s. The next section examines major issues facing higher education in Hong Kong. The penultimate section discusses major trends shaping the development of higher education in Hong Kong. The final section concludes the discussion. 16 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century 2. Policy context Globalization has significant impacts on how higher education to evolve and transform. Closely associated with higher education is the cluster of aims, values and general ideas, including the pursuit of truth and objective knowledge, research, liberal education, institutional autonomy, academic freedom, a neutral and open forum for debate, rationality, the development of the students’ critical abilities, autonomy, and character formation, the provision of a critical centre within society, and the preservation of society’s intellectual culture (Barnett, 1990). The university is a place of teaching universal knowledge where persons of broad knowledge, critical intelligence, moral decency, and social sensitivity are produced (Newman, 1996). It is expected to serve as the protecting power of all knowledge and science, fact and principle, inquiry and discovery, and also experiment and speculation. Modern universities have been developed following the Humboldtian model in Germany with more emphasis placed on science, research, graduate instruction, and the freedom of professors and students (Kerr, 2001). They have to strive not only for survival but also performance and resources for their sustainable development. In the age of supercomplexity, universities no longer monopolize the production of knowledge, but they continue to be a major producer of new frameworks for understanding through more vibrant research activities. What universities do is to prepare the students to cope with the world of supercomplexity, which is partly a result of globalization and the information technology revolution, with the qualities of self-reliance, adaptability and flexibility. Moreover, universities need to reconsider its enlightenment role in advancing the level of general understanding in society. It is a must for universities to adapt to new demands which would require radical changes in management and leadership (Barnett, 2000a, 2000b). Moreover, universities should ensure different views, ideas, and voices to be exposed to wider audiences (Barnett, 1997). The impact of globalization on the policy context of higher education has been widely attended. Globalization refers to a set of processes leading to a rapid integration of the world into one economic space through increased international trade and the internationalization of production and commodity culture with the laissez-faire principle (Bottery, 2000; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). It is closely associated with neoliberalism which “sees the market as the most effective way of determining production and satisfying people’s needs” (Stromquist, 2003, p. 25). According to Carnoy (2000), the relationship between globalization and educational change can be revealed not only from the expansion of higher education to cope with economic restructuring but also from the strong emphasis on the quality of education which is translated into quantifiable and measurable performance indicators to be compared at the international level. Certain reforms of higher education are finance-driven as universities are allowed more flexibility and autonomy in exchange for greater accountability. Higher education is not surprisingly 17 subject to financial constraints as a consequence of the shift towards neoliberalism and the rise of economic globalization (Bottery, 2000; Schugurensky, 2003). In this global context, universities are linked to the market and become more customer-oriented. They are under greater pressure to produce consumer satisfaction with an emphasis on market- oriented effectiveness. The role of university management has been strengthened with the cultivation of entrepreneurial culture within universities. The adoption of quality assurance and performance indicators comes with competition among universities for revenues and resources and the application of business principles and practices in university administration (Currie & Newson, 1998; Peters, Marshall, & Fitzsimons, 2000; Stromquist, 2003; Stromquist & Monkman, 2000; Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard, & Henry, 1997). Putting this global context to Hong Kong’s higher education, performance indicators have become more important when the allocation of public funding is not only based on student enrollments but also the competition for performance-based research funds. The General Research Fund under the Research Grants Council, which is part of the University Grants Committee (UGC), is a competitive funding scheme that enables academics to compete for research funds based on their own track records and the originality, merit, contribution and significance of their research projects. The overall successful rate of applications to General Research Fund between 2008 and 2012 was around 30-40 percent. For instance, in 2011-12, when a total of HK$557.5 million were allocated, the success rate was 31 percent, which is 10 percent lower than 2008-09 when HK$512.5 were allocated (Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, 2012). Moreover, there is the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), which was first conducted in 1993-94, to assess the research output performance of the UGC-funded institutions. The proportion of the active researchers at each cost centre is treated as a factor in determining the allocation of research funding for the next triennium. The second round of RAE was conducted in 1996 and the third in 1999. The fourth round was carried out in 2006 when the UGC decided to have the exercise undertaken at six-year intervals instead of three years after the third RAE in 1999. The RAE in 2006 served as the basis for distributing of block grants for research among the eight UGC-funded institutions in the triennium of 2008-11 (University Grants Committee [UGC], 2004). The fifth round of RAE has been scheduled in the academic year 2014-15. Apart from the development of performance-based funding mechanisms in the higher education sector, universities have to cope with the influence of managerial globalization which refers to the professionalization of management in tandem with the adoption of the more directive and assertive management style commonly found in the private sector. More professional managers are expected to play a more important role to lead universities and also to learn from other countries or institutions for the best practices of management (Bottery, 2000). Under the pressure for being more efficient, universities like other public sector institutions have to become more businesslike and incorporate good 18 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century practices of business management whilst professional managers should be innovative, dynamic, flexible, transparent, customer-centred, and strategic (Whitty, Power, & Halpin, 1998). Moreover, the language of efficiency, empowerment, rationality, and transparency dominates the ongoing processes of education reforms and restructuring in most parts of the world (Apple, 2001). Outcomes and outputs are measured against the goals, roles, and objectives set by universities and higher education institutions (Taylor, Rizvi, Lingard, & Henry, 1997). The notion of “fitness for purpose” has been emphasized for higher education in Hong Kong. For university governance and management systems, it is necessary to strike a balance between individual ability, institutional excellence, and adequate resources (UGC, 2002). While universities have to comply with the principle of public accountability, the collegial forms of decision-making have been considered an obstacle to managerial rationalities (Bok, 2003). The higher education sector in Hong Kong has similarly experienced rapid expansion and also more keen competition for funding, students, and academics since the 1990s. These changes also gave rise to the introduction of quality assurance systems with certain key performance indicators on teaching, research, and management (Postiglione, 1996). Performance-based funding mechanisms were introduced to boost the research performance among the UGC-funded institutions. These policy initiatives were made to ensure the universities to be more efficient, more accountable to the public, more cost- effective, and more responsive to socio-economic needs (Schugurensky, 2003). Changes like the development of Hong Kong as a regional education hub, the admission of a larger number of non-local students, and the restructuring of the university academic and curriculum structures are bringing many changes to higher education practitioners and stakeholders (Postiglione, 2002). Moreover, there are also widespread concerns about preserving the core values of academic freedom, institutional autonomy and internationalism (Postiglione, 1997). As discussed earlier, the policy context of higher education is influenced by globalization, which points to the rise of neoliberalism with the supremacy of market forces. This also denotes a reorientation of the relationship between universities and government for the latter is not a service provider but a service purchaser to allocate resources according to the former’s performance and achievements which are demonstrated through various quality indicators on the teaching, research and management aspects. With a strong emphasis on market competition among institutions, the notion of “quality” is understood from the educational and business perspectives. In order to maximize the value for money and improve cost-effectiveness and market relevance, the higher education sector is subject to much closer external scrutiny under the government’s funding body or the UGC, which performs its role as a service purchaser to ensure the quality of service providers. In addition, with the rise of managerialism, collegiality has 19 gradually been taken over by corporate rationality in the decision-making processes in universities (Schugurensky, 2003). 3. Major issues of higher education In this policy context, certain issues facing the higher education sector in Hong Kong have emerged and become dominant in the twenty-first century. These issues include the institutionalization of quality assurance mechanisms, the reorientation of the government- university relationship, the growth of private higher education institutions, and the internationalization of higher education to cater for Hong Kong’s strong intention to become a regional education hub. This section examines these issues and their impacts on higher education development. 3.1 Institutionalization of quality assurance The UGC defines quality assurance as “the maintenance of the highest possible standards, both in teaching and learning and in research, which are commensurating with an institution’s agreed role and mission” (UGC, 2002, p. 18). Universities are responsible for upholding the quality of education and research in order to maintain their competitiveness in the global market competition in higher education. Meanwhile the UGC has introduced and managed a series of quality assurance mechanisms covering three major areas of higher education institutions, namely research, teaching and learning, and management. As mentioned in the previous section, the allocation of research funds is subject to performance-based assessments and competitions. Apart from assessing the research performance, several reviews on the teaching and learning quality assurance processes and the institutional management were carried out. Teaching and Learning Quality Process Reviews (TLQPR) were carried out twice in 1995-97 and 2001-03. The objectives of TLQPR were to focus attention on teaching and learning, to assist institutions to improve their teaching and learning quality, and to enable the UGC and the institutions to discharge their obligation to be accountable for quality (UGC, 1999). Furthermore, Management Review (MR) was conducted in 1998-99 by the UGC to ensure individual institutions having the capacity and effective processes to manage devolved funds and resources to achieve their aims and objectives in face of financial reduction of 10 percent of the higher education budget between 1999 and 2001 (French, 1999, January). MR was aimed to support the institutions in enhancing the quality of management, to discharge the UGC’s accountability for ensuring that devolved funds and resources are managed appropriately, and to enhance the effectiveness of institutions’ internal resource allocation, planning and financial processes. The review was also aimed to promote the sharing of experiences and best practices by the institutions in the areas of internal resource of allocation, planning and financial processes relative to the institutions’ academic plans and objectives. 20 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century In 2007, the Quality Assurance Council (QAC) was set up as a semi-autonomous non- statutory body under the aegis of the UGC to carry out external quality audits targeting on the quality of teaching and learning in place of TLQPRs. The first audit was carried out on a four-year cycle between 2008 and 2011. The main objective of QAC audits is to assure the quality of student learning in UGC-funded institutions and ensure the UGC-funded institutions can deliver on the promises they make in their mission statements in line with the notion of “fitness for purpose” especially in the area of teaching and learning. What the QAC concerns is about the quality of student learning rather than research and managerial activities, which are only covered in the audit when they affect the quality of teaching and learning (Quality Assurance Council, c. 2007). The audit reports on individual UGC- institutions were released between 2008 and 2011 whereas individual institutions’ progress reports in response to the audit reports’ recommendations were released between 2010 and 2013. The second round of QAC audits, which would be carried out over a two- year period, would focus on promoting the enhancement of teaching and learning, and on assessing the strengths and weaknesses of current academic practice. More attention would be given to institutional strategies and policies for global engagements on the ways how students can participate in an increasingly global community, together with more specific coverage of taught postgraduate programmes and research training programmes (Quality Assurance Council, c. 2011). These developments reveal an irreversible trend of institutionalizing performance-based assessments and quality assurance in the higher education sector. However, the imposition of these quality assurance mechanisms has been criticized as a means not to improve the quality of education but incur much greater pressure for academics and university managers to comply with numerous quantifiable performance indicators. 3.2 Reorientation of government-university relationship The transition from quantitative expansion to qualitative consolidation since the 1990s has come with a more prominent role played by government in setting the direction of higher education development in Hong Kong. The UGC, as the government’s funding body and also policy adviser on higher education, has put more pressure on universities to modify the governance and management systems in order to improve their accountability. For instance, the University of Hong Kong (HKU) was the first UGC- funded institution underwent the governance review in 2003. One of the most significant changes was that the faculty deans would no longer be elected by academics. Instead they would be appointed by the top management according to the vice-chancellor’s recommendation (University of Hong Kong, 2003). This reflects the changing relationship between government and universities as the former has been more eager to look into higher education policy matters partly because of the policy to develop Hong Kong into a regional education hub. Furthermore, the rationale behind the government’s more proactive role in higher education is to ensure the public money for higher education being 21 spent smartly and wisely, and the universities can serve the political, social and economic needs. Apart from this, a few controversial incidents have aroused widespread concerns over the changing government-university relationship over the first decade of the twenty- first century. Since 1997, Hong Kong has been run according to the “one country, two systems” principle. According to the Basic Law of Hong Kong, all educational institutions, including universities and higher education institutions, should be allowed to preserve institutional autonomy and academic freedom (National People’s Congress, 1990, Article 137). Inherited from the British model and tradition of higher education, both institutional autonomy and academic freedom remain the most sacred values upheld by the academic community in Hong Kong. Whether institutional autonomy and academic freedom can be preserved in Hong Kong has drawn widespread concerns after 1997, when there were a few incidents triggering controversies over political interference in academic work. The first of such incidents happened in 1999 when the opinion polls on the popularity of the government conducted by a HKU’s research centre headed by Robert Chung were not welcomed by then Chief Executive Tung Chee-Hwa, whose aide paid a visit to HKU’s vice-chancellor to seek for his promise for not proceeding to opinion polls targeting on the performance of the government. The incident was resulted in the resignation of the vice- chancellor and the removal of the aide of then Chief Executive. Moreover, the incident was considered an infringement of the core academic value of academic freedom in a sense that academics should bear zero tolerance over political intervention into research and teaching (Currie, Petersen, & Mok, 2006; Postiglione, 2002). The second incident, which took place in 2002, is concerned about the merger plan between the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) as put forward by the former Secretary for Education, Arthur Li, who served as CUHK’s vice-chancellor in 1997-2002, to integrate the two universities into a strong comprehensive world-class university in Hong Kong. Nevertheless, due to the strong resistance of academics in both universities in response to the merger plan, the idea of having a merger between the two universities was not pursued in place of other viable initiatives of institutional collaboration and integration (UGC, 2004). The government subsequently proposed an idea of merging CUHK with Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) so as to strengthen the latter’s research capacity and also its reputation. Rather than a merger, a deep collaboration approach was deemed more appropriate and thus adopted. As a consequence, both institutions engaged in offering some joint undergraduate programmes with an aim of improving the quality of teachers’ training in Hong Kong. These two merger proposals were perceived as attempts by the government to intervene directly how certain universities should be run and to impose important policies with a top-down approach regardless key stakeholders’ responses and 22 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century reactions. In short, what the government did turned out to be violating the principle of institutional autonomy. The third incident happened in 2007 when the senior management of HKIEd, after the contract of its president Paul Morris was not renewed, disclosed that then Permanent Secretary for Education, Fanny Law, filed a complain to the institution against a few academics who critics and commentaries published in the local press had obstructed the smooth implementation of education reforms and policies. Moreover, Arthur Li was accused of posing a threat to the HKIEd’s senior management on cutting the number of student enrollments if the merger plan with CUHK was not accepted. Meanwhile, the senior management was also asked to issue a statement condemning a group of surplus teachers and a teachers’ union for protesting against the government’s refusal to secure those surplus teachers’ jobs in primary and secondary schools. In face of these controversies between government and HKIEd, then Chief Executive Donald Tsang appointed an independent commission to inquire into these allegations in relation to HKIEd in the same year. While the two allegations against Arthur Li and the government’s improper interference with institutional autonomy of HKIEd were not established, the one against Fanny Law on her improper interference with academic freedom enjoyed by a few academics working in HKIEd was established (Yeung & Lee, 2007). These incidents as mentioned above inevitably aroused widespread concerns, not only in the academic community but also the society, about the preservation of academic freedom and institutional autonomy by universities and higher education institutions. Meanwhile, the government’s more proactive role in higher education development cannot be denied. 3.3 Growth of private higher education The first decade of the twenty-first century witnessed the emergence and growth of private higher education in Hong Kong, which has long been dominated by the publicly- funded universities and higher education institutions. This is a result of a major policy shift to have a more diversified higher education system which is expected to comprise not only the UGC-funded institutions but also other private or self-financed higher education institutions with different strengths and specialties to cater for the ever growing demands for higher education in and out of Hong Kong, especially the Chinese mainland which is now a dominant source of non-local students for higher education in Hong Kong. It is believed that private higher education can not only diversify the sector but also provide more choices for students to choose from and also provide alternative pathways for students to receive higher education without relying overwhelmingly on the few UGC- funded institutions. 23 In line with the policy of encouraging more private higher education institutions or even universities to run in Hong Kong, a breakthrough development took place in 2008 when Shue Yan College was eventually granted the university status and formally upgraded to be the first private university. Other privately-run or self-financed local post-secondary colleges have planned to develop as private universities in the future, such as Chu Hai College of Higher Education, Hang Seng Management College, and the Caritas Francis Hsu College, which is run by the Catholic Diocese in Hong Kong. Some existing universities also involve in providing self-financed degree programmes. In 2012, Centennial College was set up by HKU to provide four-year self-financed degree programmes in humanities, social sciences and business studies to local and non- local students. In addition to these privately-run local higher education institutions, the government has also looked for renowned overseas universities to set up branch campuses in Hong Kong. For instances, the Savannah College of Art and Design (SCAD), which was founded in 1978 in the United States, set up its first Asian branch campus in Hong Kong in 2011 to offer undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the field of art and design. Another example is drawn from the Booth School of Business of the University of Chicago, which has set up its first Asian branch campus in Singapore for 10 years, decided to move its Asian campus from Singapore to Hong Kong in 2014 to offer mainly taught postgraduate programmes in business management. The move implies that Hong Kong has much better competitive advantage than Singapore for the former’s close proximity with the ever growing market of higher education in the Chinese mainland. The emergence of overseas universities’ branch campuses in Hong Kong, to a certain extent, suggests the good potential for Hong Kong to be developed as a regional hub of higher education. Apart from private universities, there has been also rapid development of community colleges which provide associate degree programmes for secondary school leavers since the early 2000s, when the government decided to ensure more opportunities of higher education by not expanding subsidized universities but by encouraging the private sector to run self-financed community colleges (Tung, 2001; Yung, 2002). While some of these self-financed community colleges are affiliated with the UGC-funded institutions, others are run by local charitable organizations like Tung Wah Group of Hospitals and Po Leung Kuk. It is not surprising to see competition between community colleges for student enrollments for they are market responsive by focusing on professional and vocational training programmes. In face of the rapid growth of such self-financed community colleges and associate degree programmes, the UGC recommended in its third major review of higher education in 2010, as what the UGC’s higher education review in 2002 suggested, to set up a single oversight body such as Further Education Council to oversee the quality of the non-publicly funded higher education institutions, including self- financed community colleges (UGC, 2002). The UGC also expressed its concerns about the credibility of self-financed associate degree programmes for which a clear identity 24 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century and character should be constructed together with a more stringent quality assurance mechanism to strengthen the public confidence on the sector (UGC, 2010). 3.4 Internationalization for education hub Internationalization is without doubt a popular issue widely discussed in many countries (De Wit, 2002; Knight, 2004). With reference to the higher education sector in Hong Kong, the concept of internationalization can be analyzed from two dimensions. On one hand, internationalization suggests a significant rise in the number of non-local or international students studying in Hong Kong’s universities. In 2003-04, there were 2,871 non-local students enrolled in the UGC-funded institutions. This was about four percent of the overall student enrollment. In the academics years 2011-12 and 2012-13, the numbers of non-local students studying in the UGC-funded institutions increased to 10,770 and 13,661 respectively. There were in total around 14 percent of non-local students enrolled in the UGC-funded institutions in both academic years. There had been much more non- local students studying in Hong Kong’s universities as the number of non-local students had grown fourfold from 2003 to 2013. Moreover, a majority of non-local students were originated from the Chinese mainland with a much higher percentage at over 80 percent as compared with those from other places in Asia or the rest of the world. In 2003-04, 2,536 students or about 88 percent of non-local students were from the Chinese mainland. Most of those mainland Chinese students enrolled in research postgraduate programmes (Trade Development Council, 2005). In both 2011-12 and 2012-13, slightly above 80 percent of non-local students were from the Chinese mainland which contrasts with around 12-15 percent from other places in Asia and 4-5 percent from the rest of the world (UGC, 2013, p. 82). These figures demonstrate that Hong Kong can attract a significantly large number of the mainland Chinese students to further their studies in Hong Kong’s universities. Nevertheless, although there had been an increase in the number of non-local students from outside the Chinese mainland, there is still much room for the UGC-funded institutions to strike a better balance between the proportion of the mainland Chinese students and the ones from Asia and other parts of the world. A possible reason for more non-local students to study in Hong Kong’s universities is that they are allowed to stay in Hong Kong for employment for one year after graduation (UGC, 2010). On the other hand, internationalization means more than the recruitment of non-local or international students. It also refers to the integration of the universities in Hong Kong into an active network of relationships with international counterparts. One way to do is to demonstrate their “world-class” performance through international rankings. Certain universities in Hong Kong have been ranked high in several international league tables on higher education, including those compiled by Times Higher Education Supplement and Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). Some universities made use of their institutional reputation to explore their markets for higher education outside Hong Kong, especially in the 25 Chinese mainland. They have been exploring opportunities of having collaboration with the Chinese universities to jointly offer self-financed taught postgraduate programmes and courses in China (Trade Development Council, 2005). Local universities can also make use of their own institutions’ international prestige and reputation to build up overseas partnership in offering programmes and in undertaking collaborative research projects. Moreover, internationalization is a process for making Hong Kong a regional education hub, which has been a policy goal since the mid-2000s (Tung, 2004). The competitiveness of Hong Kong lies on the provision of high quality of higher education by a number of top quality or internationally recognized world-class universities to non- local students, who are attracted to come to study in the city. These non-local students can possibly become valuable talents to contribute to Hong Kong’s long-term socio-economic development if they opt to work in the city after graduation. In this sense, the development of Hong Kong as a regional education hub as a goal of the internationalization of higher education policy is to create a large pool of local and non-local talents to keep the city on the track of sustainable development in the long run. Meanwhile, internationalization also implies a fundamental change of the character of higher education which is not just a public good to be guaranteed by the government but also a commodity for economic exchange as the cases shown in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, Canada and Singapore. This denotes the movements of some UGC-funded institutions to provide higher education outside Hong Kong like the case of CUHK which set up its first branch campus in Shenzhen in September 2014. Meanwhile, as mentioned earlier, there have been overseas renowned universities to come to Hong Kong like SCAD and Chicago’s Booth School of Business, all of which may help boost the city’s image of being a regional education hub in face of keen competition from other neighbouring countries like Singapore, Malaysia and the Chinese mainland, where they are also competing for more collaborations and partnerships with overseas world-class universities. However, one problem facing Hong Kong universities to be solved is to encourage not only the Chinese mainland students but also more students from Asian countries and other parts of the world to enable a greater diversity of nationalities and cultural backgrounds (UGC, 2010). 4. Discussion: Major trends of higher education Having examined the major issues facing the higher education sector in Hong Kong, this section shifts its focus on generalizing the trends shaping the future of higher education. It argues that the role of government in the development of higher education in Hong Kong has become more important with special reference to the cultivation of world- class universities and the transformation of Hong Kong as a regional education hub. 26 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century Similar to other public services, higher education is undeniably under the strong influence of the notion of public accountability. Universities are under constant pressure to be more relevant and responsive to market needs. While institutional autonomy in making decisions on academic matters and resource allocation entitled to universities is largely respected, there has been stronger emphasis on the importance of external scrutiny in the forms of quality assurance and audits to be institutionalized in the higher education sector in line with such prevailing ideas as “value for money” and “fitness for purpose”. Teaching, research and management have been regularly subject to the external scrutiny. The allocation of resources, especially those on research activities, has been pegged with the results of external audits as a means to stimulate better performance delivered by the publicly-funded universities. Universities have been encouraged to use resources more prudently and also look for alternative non-government sources of revenues to “decentralize” the financial responsibilities of higher education which has long been shouldered by the government. For instance, the Matching Grant Scheme was introduced in 2003 to cultivate a culture of social donations for publicly-funded universities (Leung, 2003). The cost of higher education to be shared in the society by motivating the establishment of community colleges and self-financed higher education institutions to provide non-subsidized programmes. While the government takes a step back from financing higher education with an excuse of uncertainty in economic performance, it has strengthened its role through the UGC to scrutinize and evaluate the performance and quality of public universities in order to protect the public interest in higher education. The universities in Hong Kong are at the crossroad between competition and collaboration. It is undeniable that universities are constantly competing with each other for famous and outstanding professors, talented students, research funds, international reputation, and social donations. While competition among universities is encouraged to stimulate institutional improvement, institutional collaboration is of equal importance to prevent unnecessary wastage of resources by eliminating and avoiding duplication of teaching and research efforts. Competition and collaboration are not mutually exclusive but they are complementary to each other to ensure a healthy development of higher education. It is especially true for Hong Kong where the higher education sector has long been suffering from the lack of collaboration that has resulted in unnecessary resource wastage. A two-pronged strategy of competition and collaboration among the universities should be adopted to ensure continuous self-improvement and more effective use of limited resources simultaneously. 27 Internationalization as a strategy leading to the making of Hong Kong as an education hub comprises core elements like exchanges of academics, students and knowledge across national boundaries, the recruitment of non-local or international students, the export of higher education by local institutions outside Hong Kong, and even the import of higher education from overseas universities in Hong Kong. Apart from getting more non-local students, especially those from the Chinese mainland, to study in Hong Kong, local universities have in recent years embarked on constructing collaborative relationships with the counterparts in the Chinese mainland in the forms of joint teaching and research projects as well as academic exchange programmes. A large number of the Chinese mainland students have been recruited to study in research and taught postgraduate programmes in Hong Kong’s universities since the late 1990s. The Chinese mainland has become the most important market of higher education for the eight UGC-funded institutions. The opening of CUHK’s branch campus in Shenzhen is an example to imitate and follow for exporting higher education from Hong Kong. The trend of internationalization does bring about both opportunities and dangers to higher education sector in Hong Kong. Further expansion of higher education can be expected for an ever growing market of higher education in the hinterland, the Chinese mainland, where demands for world-class higher education, including publicly-funded undergraduate and research postgraduate programmes as well as self-financed taught postgraduate programmes run by UGC-funded institutions, would become more prominent. Nonetheless, in the meantime, the quality of higher education needs to be assessed and scrutinized with both internal and external audits to ensure the academic standards would not be compromised with an influx of non-local students. Moreover, more attention should also be paid on whether and how overseas institutions which set up their branch campuses in Hong Kong can survive on the self-sufficient basis in the long run for they can mainly rely on the tuition fees as their incomes. The challenge is how to increase the number of students who can afford over HK$250,000 or US$32,000 a year for tuition fees at SCAD as a big contrast to HK$42,000 or US$5,400 levied by the UGC-funded institutions. Even more critical issue facing the process of internationalizing higher education in Hong Kong is how to get in more non-local, non-Chinese mainland students to study in this emerging education hub. It is important to rectify the common impression that what has been achieved since the early twenty-first century in Hong Kong higher education is not about “mainlandization” or regionalization but genuinely internationalization. 5. Conclusion Wang Gungwu, who served as HKU’s Vice-Chancellor between 1986 and 1995, points out that there has been a general decline in the confidence of Asian universities for the past three decades. In the past, many believed that it was due to the lack of 28 Hong Kong higher education in the 21st century funding and facilities which prevented universities for doing an excellent job. However, the focus has shifted to the inadequacies of university structures and on how to reform them in order to make sure of more efficient use of funds and facilities in order to make distinctive contributions and thus justify their existence. Although most universities aim at international excellence and reputation, they have met with frustration and have attributed this to the shortage of resources and also the lack of appreciation by their communities (Wang, 1992). In spite of these drawbacks facing most Asian universities, with no exception for the ones in Hong Kong, they are very much eager to strive for a world-class status as revealed from a series of international university rankings (Altbach, 2003). Clark (1998, 2004) suggests that the future of universities denotes the transformation towards the direction of “entrepreneurial universities”. The meaning of “entrepreneurial” in the context of higher education indicates “the attitudes and procedures that most dependably lead to the modern self-reliant, self-steering university” (Clark, 2004, p. 7). When most countries put a strong emphasis on the development of quality assurance system, the changing university-government relationship, and the policy and strategies of internationalization, these issues have also prevailed in Hong Kong over the past two decades since massification took place in the 1990s. While Hong Kong is striving to be a regional education hub, it is not immune from global practices adopted from the process of policy borrowing and learning. As what Currie (2004) addresses, if universities are going to be a model of institutions for the society, it is necessary to shore up democratic collegiality against the rush to managerialize the decision-making processes in universities. Moreover, there is a need for caution against picking up the latest management fad blindly without consideration about the unique context and nature of higher education. It is more important to uphold the core values of scholarly integrity and professional autonomy in face of greater pressure for public accountability. In conclusion, the first decade of the twenty-first century witnessed several fundamental changes in Hong Kong higher education. New policies and practices related to quality assurance, university governance, funding mechanism, private universities, community colleges, and internationalization were introduced. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Vol. 1, 32-44. 33 21 世紀香港高等教育 李曉康 香港中文大學歷史系 摘要 高等教育是香港教育中相當重要的環節。香港的高等教育體系，包括資助大學、自 負盈虧的私立大學及社區學院。1990 年代以來，香港的高等教育體系經歷了普及化 和急速擴張的階段，以及提升和鞏固教育質素的發展過程。與此同時，香港的高等 教育界亦要面對來自全面檢討和改革政策的變革和挑戰，為不同的持份者帶來前所 未有的衝擊。這些變革包括：質素評鑑制度的確立和制度化、政府與大學關係的變 化、私立高等院校的湧現，以及為配合香港發展成為教育樞紐而推行的高等教育國 際化政策。本文檢視香港高等教育在 21 世紀的重要發展，並分析和討論上述四項 重要變革對香港高等教育長遠發展所帶來的影響。 關鍵詞 高等教育，質素評鑑，國際化，政府與大學關係，私立大學 34 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 香港小學小班的教學實踐 章月鳳、李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 香港政府自 2009 年在小學推出政策，至 2013 年 9 月已有 344 所小學推 行，不少學校已推廣至小學五年級。的成效如何？本文結合文 獻對小班成效的綜述，透過對推行的兩所學校共 10 位教師進行焦點團體 訪談，初步剖析香港政策下的教師教學實踐，並提出進一步調整或深化 政策的意見和建議。 關鍵詞 ，教學實踐，香港教育，教師發展 甲、政策的推行 順應香港出生率遞減，小學收生人數減少的趨勢，香港政府於 2007 年宣佈實施 政策，自 2009-10 年度起，從小學一年級起，每班人數減至 25 人。對於政策下教 師的教學實踐，香港政府沒有很明確地在其綱領性文件提出具體要求。而 Galton & Pell 針對 2004 年參與「先導計畫」的 37 所學校進行研究，並提出有效的六大核心 原則，包括：（1）建立適切的教學目標；（2）運用多樣化的提問技巧；（3）鼓勵學生參與 課堂活動；（4）安排小組活動促進學生互相協作；（5）給予學生回饋，幫助他們反思學習 效能；和（6）使用有效「促進學習」的評估策略（Galton & Pell, 2009, pp. 5-6）。這六大原 則一直被公認為香港教育局、師資培訓機構、學校和教師推動政策及檢視 成效的主要框架。 35 對於政策是否能提升學習成績，世界各國的學者進行了眾多的研究和論證，但 是都未能達到統一的說法。他們發現，除了班級規模之外，學生學習成績的高低還會受其他 眾多因素影響，包括教學科目、學生程度、年齡和背景等（Blatchford, Bassett, & Goldstein, 2003）。但是不少學者都認為：實施小班能否帶來影響，要視乎教師是否有效地運用小班的 優勢來提升教學實踐的品質（Blatchford et al., 2003）。要鼓勵教師善用小班環境的優勢，促 進教師的專業發展是一個重要因素（Galton & Pell, 2009）。 為了促進政策的實施，香港教育局和各大學師資培訓機構在過去的五年內為教 師提供了大量關於專業的培訓。小班政策推行至 2013 年 9 月，已有 344 所小學（約 有七成公營小學）參加（Education Bureau, 2013），並推展至小學五年級。對於小 班政策第一週期推行的成效，現在是時候進行探討和反思，以便提出將來調整或深化政策實 施的意見和建議。 乙、小班環境下的教師教學實踐 縱覽世界各國關於小班成效的研究和討論，小班政策對教師實踐的影響主要體現在以下 五方面： 一、提升學生的參與 在中，教師會更多使用小組活動（Harfitt, 2013），減少全班教學的時間 （Blatchford, Goldstein, & Mortimore, 1998; Bascia & Faubert, 2012），分組時每組的人數更 少，以增加合作的機會（Yeomans, 1987）。使用小組活動可以提升學生的參與和與他人互動 的機會（Blatchford, Baines, Kutnick, & Martin, 2001; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985），更多展示 學生的作品（Blatchford, Russell, Bassett, Brown, & Martin, 2007）和使用更多正面的回饋。不 但師生在課堂中互動的量和深度都有增加（Blatchford, 2003; Finn, Pannozzo, & Achilles, 2003; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Özerk, 2001; Yeomans, 1987），師生在課堂以外的互動也會增多 （Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985），而且互動方式更多樣和個人化。很自然地，教師和每個學生 的關係會更緊密（Cakmak, 2009; Yeomans, 1987）。 36 香港小學小班的教學實踐 二、讓教師教學更個別化 小班環境提供一個契機，讓教師實施個別化教學（Blatchford, 2003）。首先，教師能更 深入瞭解每個學生及其需要（Bascia & Faubert, 2012; Cahen, Filby, McCutchen, & Kyle, 1983; Johnston & Davis, 1989; Robinson & Wittebols, 1986; Turner, 1990; Blatchford & Mortimore, 1994; Zahorik, 1999），更注重根據學生已有知識和學習需要確定教學目標（Galton & Pell, 2009）。在學習過程中，教師能更密切和近距離地監察學生的進度（Bosker, 1998; Cakmak, 2009），更細微地關注學生課堂行為，建立更良好的課堂氛圍（Yeomans, 1987），在互動中 更多聆聽學生發言（Finn et al., 2003），更注重按照學生的需要安排提問層次和互動方式， 並為學生提供更多個別化的支援（Blatchford, Moriarty, Edmonds, & Martin, 2002; Bascia & Faubert, 2012），包括拔尖和保底的工作。除了能更細微地照顧學生學習差異，教師也更關注 和瞭解學生社交情意上的需要和狀態（Bascia & Faubert, 2012），並加以提升和發展。 三、讓教師教學策略更多樣化 由於人數少的班級活動空間相對增大，加上管理學生的難度降低，教師擁有更多自由度 也更願意去選擇使用不同的教學策略（Pedder, 2006）。這些策略包括學生座位安排多樣化 （Yeomans, 1987）、教室規則制定多樣化（Harfitt, 2013）、課堂活動多樣化（Cakmak, 2009; Cooper, 1989）、提問方式多樣化，評估手段多樣化（Cakmak, 2009）等。 除了教學策略更加豐富外，教師在小班環境下教學策略的使用可以更精細和有深度。例 如提問技巧上，教師在中會使用更多開放式提問、挑戰性提問和追問，在提問學 生後等待時間增長（Bourke, 1986; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Harfitt, 2013），更鼓勵學生創 新和批判性思維（Özerk, 2001）。而教師經常給予學生回饋（Harfitt, 2013），對學生的評 估更直接、即時和準確（Cooper, 1989; Korostoff, 1998; Shapson, Wright, Eason, & Fitzgerald, 1980）。 四、增加教學時間和課程內容 由於小班的學生人數減少，教師用來組織學習、管理學生行為的時間和評估所需時間 減少（Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; Korostoff, 1998），教學速度更快，可用來教學的總時間 因此增加（Zahorik, 1999），而備課時間更加充足（Din, 1999）。相對於大班而言，教師能 37 更深入教授基本內容，並擁有更多時間教授補充資料或增潤課程（Pate-Bain, Achilles, Boyd- Zaharias, & McKenna, 1992）。相應地，安排給學生的課業量也會增多（Bourke, 1986）。 五、提升教師士氣、改善教育生態 政策除了帶來以上教師教學實踐在總量（時間、頻率、密度）和質量（多樣 化，深度、廣度和豐富度）都有改變外，其實也有可能帶來一種較人本化的學校管理模式 和教學生態（章月鳳，2013a）。這種人本化的學校管理模式會讓教師對學生的態度更正面 （Din, 1999），擁有更多自由度去選擇教學策略（Pedder, 2006），教學工作更有效率（Din, 1999），對教學的熱忱更高漲（Finn et al., 2003），以及更加喜歡教學工作（Blatchford et al., 2007）。 不過，在上述文獻中，探討政策在香港成效的研究卻不多。Galton & Pell（2009） 研究的是香港 2009 年大規模推行政策之前的情況。而 Harfitt （2013）則探討個別 中學教師實施的成效。其他研究也主要是針對個別學校情況的探討，未能反映 在香港小學推行成效的整體狀況。 丙、研究方案 有鑑於此，本研究團隊正進行的研究項目旨在探討香港實施政策對香港小學教 師教學實踐的影響。本文將彙報參與該項目的先導訪談的初步發現，探討兩所小學教師實施 小班政策的教學實踐並對政策的成效及影響因素進行初步討論。之後根據該訪談的 發現，再設計問卷全面瞭解香港小學教師實踐的整體狀況。 本先導訪談採用焦點團體訪談（Greenbaum, 1998）、方便抽樣的方法，對參與研究的兩 所學校的教師進行訪談，以回答以下研究問題： • 自實施政策以來，教師教學實踐是否有改變？ • 如有改變，是哪些改變？其改變的原因是什麼？ 38 香港小學小班的教學實踐 我們在 2013 年 12 月初對已推行的兩所屯門區的津貼小學（以下稱學校一和學 校二）進行先導研究。每所學校各選五位教師參與訪談，其中包括一位中層管理教師（如教 務主任）和四位任教不同科目的教師（中文、英文、數學、常識科各一位）。每次焦點團體 訪談歷時約一個小時，問題主要圍繞上文提到的小班環境下教師實踐變遷的五個方面。之後， 研究人員把訪談錄音完整謄寫成逐字稿，並採用內容分析法，從中抽取和上述研究問題相關 的內容進行分類、編碼、分析及整合，得出以下研究結果。 丁、研究結果和討論 學校一在 2008 年 9 月在一年級推行，比政府的計畫提早一年。至 2013-14 學年 全校每班都是 25 人左右。學校二則於 2009 年 9 月開始施行，到 2013-14 學年推行 至五年級。表一總結了兩所學校 10 位教師訪談的初步結果： 表一　香港政策下的教師教學實踐 學校一 學校二 校本政策 • 學校強調教師要運用 Galton & Pell 六個原則去優化課堂教學， 提倡教師使用合作學習和探究學習 • • 學校強調教師要運用 Galton & Pell 六個原則去優化課堂教學， 提倡教師使用合作學習和三高課堂 （「高動機，高展示，高參與」） 語文科推行戲劇教學，數學和常識 科推行探究學習 提升學生 的參與 • • • 教師推行合作學習，通過多元化小 組活動，增加學生參與 學校強調學生主導的探究式的學習 方式 師生關係和生生關係都更加融洽 • • • • 教師推行合作學習，通過多元化小 組活動，增加學生參與 教師秉承學校的宗旨，追求「高動 機，高展示，高參與」的課堂 學校提供多元化課外活動，增加學 生參與和展示機會 師生關係和生生關係都更加融洽 39 學校一 學校二 教學策略 個別化 • • • • • 教師更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要 因為教育局對評估內容統一，教學 內容沒有分層處理 分層的教學得益於同儕備課，比較 容易施行，課堂提問針對不同學生 需要設計問題和提問 教師雖然認同分層評估，但需要花 更多時間設計分層評估工具；由於 統考制度，學校政策未有推行分層 評估 學校資源優先分配在保底班，保底 力度大於拔尖力度 • • • • • 教師更深入瞭解每個學生及其需要 因為教育局對評估內容統一，教學 內容沒有分層處理 提問方式針對不同學生的需要設計 不同層次的問題和提問；活動安排 也有考慮對學生學習的適切性 考慮到公平性原則，也沒有推行分 層工作紙和分層評估 學校資源優先分配在保底班，保底 力度大於拔尖力度 教學策略 多樣化 • • 注重設計不同的活動讓學生進行小 組活動 課堂提問針對不同學生需要設計問 題和提問 • • 教師嘗試使用多種教學策略，針對 不同學生的需要設計問題和提問 學校提供多元化課外活動，讓學生 發展潛能，獲得成功感 增加教學 時間和課程 內容 • • 學生行為問題減少，教師可用更多 教學時間讓學生更深入地討論所教 的課題，所以課程內容沒有增加 評估每一份課業時間減少，但對成 績差的學生增加支援工作 • • 更注重學生的參與，提供 更多時間進行討論、彙報、回饋， 很難再增加課程內容 更注重學生的學習過程及其評估， 評估每一份課業的量減少，但是針 對學習過程的評估工作增多 教師士氣和 教育生態 • 對減輕他們的工作量沒有 太大幫助，對教學的質素 要求提高，增加了他們備課的工作 量 • • 對減輕他們的工作量沒有 太大幫助，對教學的質素 要求提高，增加了他們備課的工作 量 還帶來許多校本特色的課 外活動，也增加工作量 一、提升學生的參與 兩所學校的教師都認同，學生的參與程度能有所提升，是政策帶來的最大 改變。兩所學校的政策都非常強調教師要提升學生的參與程度，並在全校各科 推行合作學習和小組學習。在此校本政策影響下，教師都一致表示，他們更注重透過小 組活動提供不同的機會讓學生參與課堂活動。有教師還提到，他們備課時會經常思考， 如何按照學生不同的學習情況設計提問問題和安排活動。與此同時，教師發現學生較以 表一　香港政策下的教師教學實踐（續） 40 香港小學小班的教學實踐 往更主動參與師生和生生互動，即使是學習專注能力差的學生，通過小組合作，學習參 與度有所提高，違規行為亦自然減少。不過，因為缺少現成可用於小組合作的學習資料 和工作紙，他們往往須要多花一些時間進行備課或改良教學資源。 二、小班政策對教學個別化的影響 對於是否有使用個別化分層教學，教師都表示他們更注重按照學生學習的不同情況， 然後決定如何使用教學活動和分組合作，以強帶弱，讓學生都得到適當學習的機會。但 教師使用的分組教學策略大多只停留在對學生口頭的提問、回饋或支援上，並沒有使用 分層工作紙。原因除了是因為學校沒有硬性規定外，亦由於教師覺得設計分層工作紙需 要花費較多時間，而且也需要事先取得家長的認同，因而減低使用意欲。另外，儘管學 生的學習進度和成效不一樣，教師都覺得分層評估是很難在學校推行，因為所有學生最 終都要一起面對中央考試制度。所以教師對學生個別化的處理主要集中在對成績差學生 的保底支援和教學策略調整，而沒有系統地滲透至課程內容、課業安排和評估方式。 三、小班政策讓教師教學更多樣化 兩所學校的教師都表示，為了配合小班政策，自己會使用更多不同的教學策略。學 校一提倡教師使用合作學習和探究學習。學校二則根據每科的特色提倡各科教師實施一 些核心的教學策略，例如中英文科使用戲劇來教語言，數學和常識科則提倡探究學習， 還要求各科教師在每一節課最初五分鐘利用暖身活動來提起學生的學習興趣，而結束時 要總結該堂學生所學知識等。另外，學校二還為學生提供了豐富的課外活動，如藝墟等， 讓學生擁有更多平台來發展自己的才能和獲取成功感。教師教學的多樣化還表現在使用 更多方法去激勵學生，提問的方式和給予學生的回饋更加多樣化，更勇於嘗試不同的教 學模式。 四、對課程內容和教學時間的影響 受到統考制度的影響，的推行，並沒有改變兩所學校對課程內容的要求， 教師也不會教授學生更多的學習內容。而透過為學生提供更多參與的機會，教師更注重 讓學生更加深入和細緻地學習課程內容，包括進行深入討論和給予及時回饋。 41 小班政策的實施並未能有效增加兩校教師的教學時間，減輕工作量。雖然，他們修 改學生每一份課業的量減少了，但是其他工作量卻同時增加。首先，因為推行合作學習 和同儕備課，用於參與備課會議和準備教學資料的時間大量增加；其次，學校加強對成 績差學生的保底工作，所以需要使用更多時間和精力支援後進生；最後，學校提倡對學 生學習成效的評估更加細緻，同一份課業的批改和回饋都更加精細，也需要花費教師不 少時間。加上教師還需要同時背負大量其他教學工作以外的行政工作，包括當值、訓導 或輔導等功能組別工作等，令小班政策帶來工作量的減少顯得微乎其微。 五、受到校內教育生態的影響 小班政策的推行未能減輕教師工作負擔，反而增加他們工作的複雜度，亦未能令教 學工作效率有效提高。他們感到欣慰的是學校在注重學業成績的同時，也開始關心學生 社交情意的發展和關愛校園的建設，而教師也對學生的態度更加正面。無奈的是教學和 行政的工作壓力沒有相應減少，而學校過於細緻的規定有時也令教師覺得未能享受教學 的自主權，只是跟著學校的指示去做。 戊、結論與啟示 由以上關於兩所小學的個案研究發現 Galton & Pell 提出的六個原則成為了學校制定 校本政策的依據。六個原則的推行，讓教師更注重增加學生在課堂學與教的參 與，更關注學生的學習情況和需要。他們在教學策略中運用更豐富和多樣化的教學策略， 更及時和正面的評估和回饋，幫助學生學習和發展。但是由於學校校本小班政策的規定 和考試制度的限制，教師在選擇學習內容和評估方式都未必能夠做到個別化教學或分層 教學。雖然班級縮小似乎能讓教師減少評估的工作量，但在推行其他新型教學策略上卻 需要花費更多的準備時間，以至於無法有效減輕教師的工作量。 另外，小班政策對於教師實踐影響的深度和廣度，視乎學校管理層所制定的校本小 班政策對教師教學範式的導向。要讓政策順利推行並取得更好成效，需要學校 校本政策的配合和行政管理的大力支援（Bascia & Faubert, 2012）。這也印證了張倩、 周浩暉、李子建（2013）所講的，所處的學校情景關乎政策下教師實 42 香港小學小班的教學實踐 踐的專業發展。相對而言，在實現了人本化管理的學校裡（章月鳳，2013b），教師專業 自主權更得到尊重，協作精神更能得到發揮，小班環境的優勢才更有可能被善用，持續 提升學與教的品質，創設共融關愛校園。 本次先導訪談初步證實了上述總結關於所影響的不同層面，它的結果將會 是日後修訂問卷調查的根據。若條件允許，能收集到一些教師的課堂教學實踐片段，也 會有助於進一步發掘的實施情況和深入探討小班政策對教師實踐的影響。 鳴謝 我們要鳴謝香港教育學院中心為本研究提供資助，以及參與訪談的兩所學 校及校內 10 位教師寶貴的經驗分享。 參考文獻 張倩、周浩暉、李子建（2013）。〈研究的反思與建構〉。《中國教育學刊》， 2013 年 06 期，49-53。 章月鳳（2013a）。〈前言〉。載陳錦榮、章月鳳（合編），《中學集思錄》（頁 3-5）。香港：香港教育學院中心。 章月鳳（2013b）。〈人本的小班教育成就每一個〉。載《2013 年兩岸四地小班化教育 的正向創新實踐研討會文集》。臺灣：臺灣新竹教育大學。 Bascia, N., & Faubert, B. 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Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0031383012 0096761 Pate-Bain, H., Achilles, C. M., Boyd-Zaharias, J., & McKenna, B. (1992). Class size does make a difference. Phi Delta Kappan, 74(3), 253-256. Pedder, D. (2006). Are small classes better? Understanding relationships between class size, classroom processes, and pupils learning. Oxford Review of Education, 32(2), 213-234. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03054980600645396 Robinson, G., & Wittebols, J. (1986). Class size research: A related cluster analysis for decision making. (Research Brief). Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service. 45 Shapson, S. M., Wright, E. N., Eason, G., & Fitzgerald, J. (1980). An experimental study of the effects of class size. American Educational Research Journal, 17(2), 141-152. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1162479 Turner, C. M. (1990). Prime time: A reflection. Contemporary Education, 62(1), 24-27. Yeomans, R. (1987). Making the large group feel small: Primary teachers’ classroom skills - A speculation. Cambridge Journal of Education, 17(3), 161-166. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764870170308 Zahorik, J. A. (1999). Reducing class size leads to individualized instruction. Educational Leadership, 57(1), 50-53. 46 香港小學小班的教學實踐 Small Class Teaching practices in Hong Kong primary schools ZHANG Yuefeng & LEE Chi Kin John The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract Three hundred and forty four primary schools have introduced Small Class Teaching (SCT) into their classrooms since the adoption of this policy by the Hong Kong Government in 2009. Some of them even extended SCT up to primary five students. The article reports on a preliminary study about the impact of SCT by interviewing ten teachers in two primary schools about their teaching in small class setting. The conclusion is drawn together with suggestions and recommendations on further adjustment and implementation of the SCT policy. Keywords Small Class Teaching, teaching practice, Hong Kong education, teacher professional development 47 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 章月鳳 香港教育學院 鄧耀南 勞工子弟中學 摘要 現時香港出生率大幅下降，引致縮班殺校問題，香港各界普遍認同是解 決學校收生不足的長遠策略，為提升香港教育質素提供良好契機，以及是最能協 助弱勢學生的策略。政府於 300 多間小學推行，許多中學也有 的嘗試。本文報告「香港中學推行現狀及需要的問卷調查」及跟進訪談 的調查結果，展示香港中學推行的現狀、意向、困難及需要，並探討 在香港中學推廣的可行性。 關鍵詞 香港，中學的實踐，教育政策的研究 甲、研究背景 香港特別行政區政府於 2009-10 學年開始在小學分階段實施，到 2013-14 學年 已擴展至小學五年級，至今超過七成的香港小學（共 334 所）已開展，當中很多教 師都參加了專業發展課程和進修活動（葉建源、黎國燦，2012）。幾年以來，不少 學校在實施和優化學與教的工作上已取得一些階段性成果。到 2015-16 學年，香港 49 首批在的學習環境下成長的學生將升讀中學，為了讓學生在小班學習環境及學習經 驗上能順利銜接，探討香港中學應否推行的研究刻不容緩。Lai & Che（2011）指出， 若能借用小學實施的經驗，中學實施的步伐也會較穩妥。但是，如何將香 港的政策從小學過渡到中學的議題，仍需相關研究者持續的探討與貢獻（李子建， 2012）。 在出生率下降的現實環境下，由 2013-14 學年開始，香港升讀中一的人口在未來四年急 跌超過一萬，跌幅接近兩成，至 2017-18 學年適齡學生數目會再開始顯著回升，在幾年間將 會回升至現有水平。學童人口大幅波動，對教育界造成極大震盪。就 2013-14 學年，若以每 班派 34 人而言，將近有 160 班會被縮減，涉及數十間中學飽受縮班、甚至面對殺校的威脅， 導致很多在職教師面臨失業，大批新入職的年輕教師及有志投身教育界的準教師就業艱難。 若形容這為香港教育界的生態災難，絕不為過。香港教育界有建議是解決學校收生 不足的長遠策略，為提升香港教育質素提供良好契機，以及是最能協助弱勢學生的策略。根 據鄧耀南（2012），的精髓在於致力營造善待每一個學生及教師的課室學習環境， 它能為體現人本精神及運用知識建構教學策略提供契機和促進性條件；在促進學生有效學習 和為教師創造有利教學條件的同時，亦致力提升學業水準及收窄學生之間的差距（raise the bar and narrow the gap）；在改進學生的學習能力以至提升為未來生活作奮鬥的能量之餘， 亦能培育孩子立志於提升生命的意義和素質等，以成就全人發展的需要（Blatchford, 2003； Fullan, 2009；Galton & Pell, 2009；Hopkins, 2008；Macbeath & Dempster, 2009； 葉 建 源， 2009）。 就目前而言，在中學的實施成效仍未有確切定論（Anderson, 2000; Hattie, 2005）。英國倫敦大學 Blatchford 教授及其研究隊伍在 2011 年發表的研究論文中，探討了中 小學的班級規模對課堂互動和學生行為的影響，頗有參考價值。Blatchford 發現，不論在中學 還是小學，隨著班級人數減少，不單教師對學生的個別照顧增多，師生間的積極互動也同時 增加。相反地，隨著班級人數增加，學生在課堂的參與也會相對地減少，這對成績稍遜的中 學生影響最大，假如一班學生人數由 15 人增加至 30 人，這些學生在學習上出現不專注的時 間（time off-task）將增加一倍。因此 Blatchford 建議如果在中學實施，可優先照顧 成績稍遜的學生（Blatchford, Bassett, & Brown, 2011）。然而，亦有研究發現對提升 學業成就並不一定有顯著的成效（Brühwiler & Blatchford, 2011）。 50 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 中學的實施成效在學術界確實存在爭議，然而，某種形式的中學卻又 勢在必行。正如現任香港特別行政區行政長官梁振英先生在早前的競選政綱已列明：「為紓 緩部分學校在短期內收生不足的壓力，容許學校更大彈性決定初中班級人數，收生仍有困難 的學校可以利用小班。」梁特首將中學在政策上傾斜於弱勢學校及先照顧弱勢學生， 與美國教育研究協會的觀點相近。美國教育研究協會指出，假如資源緊拙，應集中協助最需 要支援的學生（American Educational Research Association, 2003）。因此，針對中一人口暫 時下降的問題，香港特別行政區教育局局長吳克儉亦公開表示以「1-1-1」與「2-1-1」減派方 案進行中一派位 1，即三年內暫時把中一每班派位人數逐步減至 31 或 30 人。雖然未來三年香 港中一的班額正逐漸下降，但研究普遍認為，如果只減少每班人數，而在教與學上沒有相應 的改變，所發揮的成效應該不大。正如 Hanushek（1999）所說，對教學影響最大的 因素應該是教師質素，而不是每班學生人數。Blatchford（2003）亦指出，小班的好處是不會 自然而然地產生的，為了給予學生更佳的個別化支援及更有效地運用其他教學環境（特別是 小班學習環境下的有效小組活動），教師的專業培訓至為重要。專門研究的葉建源 （2012）建議，好好利用人口下降這個契機提升本港教育質素，讓未來 10 年新畢業的準教師 能夠順利入職，為教育界注入新血，避免教育專業出現斷層。 雖然已有不少研究顯示，在小學階段確實能推動教師的教學和改善學生的學業 成就。但在中學階段，研究中學的文獻甚少（李子建，2012），而關於香港中學 的研究亦是相當缺乏（Lai & Che, 2011），只曾有 Harfitt 在 2010 年在這方面的研究。 Harfitt（2010）發現實施能為學生提供不一樣的學與教經驗。在小班課室，學生在課 堂中擁有更多的互動及參與的機會。除學生之間有較佳的同儕關係及對學校社區有較強的歸 屬感外，其研究亦發現任教小班的教師其焦慮程度亦較低。Harfitt 的研究結論提出教師專業 發展的重要性，以確保能善用和擴大實施所帶來的契機。本研究旨在檢視香港中學 推行的現況，為香港中學小班化提供實證的研究資料、觀點和建議，以及提出適時 及具政策含義的措施。 1 「1-1-1」方案：由 2013-14學年開始的第一年、第二年及第三年在每一班中一班級依次遞減一人；「2-1-1」方案： 由 2013-14 學年開始的第一年在每一班中一班級減派兩人、第二年及第三年在每一班中一班級依次遞減一人。 51 乙、研究方法 本研究採用混合研究方法（mixed method, Creswell, 2011），於 2012 年 2 月至 3 月期間， 在全港 544 間中學進行問卷調查 2，旨在瞭解香港中學實施的整體趨勢和意向。於 2012 年 6 月至 7 月間，刻意抽樣（purposive sampling）三間不同類型學校（包括官立學校、 津貼學校和直資學校）進行個案研究。選取這三類學校為代表的原因是因學校的資金來源不 同，這或可能影響學校推行的規模和深度。香港的中小學大致可分為四種類型：官 立學校、津貼學校、直資學校和私立學校，其中官立學校、直資學校和私立學校約佔學校總 數的 20% 左右，而大部分的學校屬於津貼學校。津貼學校是由非牟利的民間辦學團體所營辦， 它們使用政府資助的教育津貼辦學，提供小學 6 年、初中 3 年及高中 3 年的 12 年免費教育， 主要經費來自政府按照所派學生的班額數量多寡來計算的撥款，並受政府「資助則例」的嚴 格管理和約束，與官立學校同被視為「公營學校」。就直資學校而言，其來自政府的資源配 置上最多只有官、津學校的三分之二，但它們除了可自行收取學費之外，在課程設置及收生 方面亦享有較大的彈性。整體而言，直資學校所享有的資源相對地較官、津學校多一些。研 究人員分別和各校負責統籌工作的教師進行訪談，以深入瞭解個案學校推行 的現狀、困難和意向。調查所得的結果將有助為香港中學推行提出合適建議，並 思考部署相關之支援工作。 丙、問卷調查 問卷（見附錄）共寄出 544 份，回收有效問卷為 206 份，問卷回收率為 38%。其中 83% 為津貼中學，11% 為直資中學，5% 為官立中學，1% 為私校；38% 為主要收取第一組別學生 的學校，34% 為主要收取第二組別學生的學校，27% 為主要收取第三組別學生的學校 3。從 回收的 206 份有效問卷中，只有 3% 的中學從未實施過，而 97% 的中學（約 200 間） 已有不同程度推行小班的做法和經驗。其中，只有 53% 的中學已制定與有關的校本 政策。校本政策的制定代表學校對於的重視和常規化。 2 只包括本地的主流學校：官立學校、津貼學校和直資學校，不包括國際學校。 3 有關學生組別劃分，概括而言，是香港教育局隔年按同一間小學小六畢業生的「中一入學前香港學科測驗」 成績將未來兩個學年將派往中學的小學小六畢業生分為三個組別，第一組別學校學生的成績最好，而第三組 別學校學生的成績最差。 52 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 關於推行的方式，10% 的中學表示正全校進行，而餘下 90% 的中學則 在部分班級、部分科目或課程，或於部分時間進行。各校推行的原因，主 要是提高學生的學習效能（86%），只有 17% 學校表示推行旨在關注學生全人發展。 這與中學教學受考試制度影響而注重學生學習成績的現狀相吻合，因此，各校在中 採用了按學生成績的高低來分班的情況。雖然有社會人士懷疑中學推行的主要原因 是為了避免「縮班殺校」，但只有 9% 的中學表示推行小班是因為收生不足。由此可見，接 受調查的中學對多持正面和積極態度，認為能為優化「學與教」提供契機 和促進性的條件！ 各校採用多種小班班級規模並存的形式。有些學校每班人數主要是 21-25 人 （56%）或 15-20 人（53%）一班，還有 20% 的中學推行 15 人或以下的小班。而各校的 已涉及各主要科目，包括英文（92%）、通識（72%）、中文（72%）和數學（63%）， 其中有 16% 的學校已在所有學科推行。英文科小班化程度較高，可能是由於近年政 府在英文科投放的資源較多有關。 各校表示推行主要面對兩類困難，首先是和資源配套相關的困難，包括教師 人數不足（64%）、教育經費不足（63%）和沒有足夠的校舍設施（例如課室）（52%）； 其次是和教學支援相關的因素，包括缺乏受過培訓的教師（39%）和缺乏教學資源 （38%）。61% 的中學表示進行的教師未曾接受過相關的培訓，所以要成功推行中 學小班化，大量的師資培訓迫在眉睫。事實上，《香港小學終期研究報告》（Galton & Pell, 2009）指出，部分進行試驗教師的教學方法較單一，在小班上課卻無引入活 動教學，形式恍如一般的「大班」授課，無助發揮小班優勢及成效。Galton的研究亦明確指出， 教師是成敗的關鍵人物，而影響教師表現最重要的因素是教師專業發展！由此可見， 教師專業發展乃中學推行成效高低的關鍵所在。 雖然面臨以上種種困難，各校對於的成效是有目共睹的。能提高教學 的效能（91%），包括提高學生的學習技巧（77%）和學習成績（76%）、減輕課堂管理壓力 （60%）；其次是有助於發展學生的能力，包括提升學生的合作能力（57%）和培養學生良 好學習習慣（51%）；只有 50% 的學校表示能解決收生不足的問題。這再一次表明 53 中學實施，不只為了保護教師的工作，更看重於能為提高教學效能所帶來 的契機。 而到 2015 年 9 月，首批參與的小學畢業生將會升讀中學一年級。對於中學小班 化的遠景，各校都拭目以待，當問及在此之前若有額外資源協助推行，全部中學都 表示會嘗試。其中 50% 的中學更表示會在全校推行，其他中學則在部分班 級、部分科目或課程，或於部分時間進行。由此可見，在香港中學實施的訴求在中 學教育界已經深入民心，乃大勢所趨。 丁、個案研究 通過以上問卷調查，我們對於香港中學推行的現狀有初步的瞭解。參與問卷調 查的學校中，有 27 間表示願意接受跟進訪談，研究員有目的地抽選其中三間不同類別的學校 作為個案研究對象，深入瞭解在各校的實施情況。以下分別就三所個案學校推行 的契機、目標、現狀、強弱及需要進行具體闡述和分析。 如表一所示，學校甲為一間第二組別的官立學校，開始推行已有 6 年經驗。得 益於香港教育局給予中文中學專用於增潤英文科教學的撥款 300 萬，英文科組聘請一位編制 以外的代課教師，在英文科推行 6 年，重點關注照顧學生的學習差異。雖然中文科 和數學科也於部分年級推行小班，但礙於資源有限，故規模較小亦沒有常規化。學校乙為一 間第二組別的津貼學校，已經推行十數年。該校整合每年所有可用來提升教學的資 助（包括學校的發展津貼、科本的資源，如 2011 年通識科的啟動基金 50 萬等），分配給各 個科組，由各科組決定如何利用所配資源，減少各班人數。學校丙為一間第三組別的直資學 校，從新的教務主任 5 年前接任教務分配工作以來便開始推行。由於直資學校可以 收取學費，該校便利用經費聘請額外教師、擴建校園，在各科各級都有推行。香港 一般學校的教師編制為平均每班 1.5 位教師，而該校可以達到每班 2 位教師。由於該校具有 基督教背景，校長是教育心理學專家，教務主任也曾修讀神學，所以非常注重教師和學生的 生命教育，推行小班旨在促進學生的個人成長和全人發展，有別於學校甲和乙以提高學生學 習成績為主的目標。 54 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 表一　個案學校推行的契機和目標 學校甲 學校乙 學校丙 學校背景 屬於第二組別的官立學 校；6年小班經驗 屬於第二組別的津貼學 校；10 多年小班經驗 屬於第三組別的直資基督 教學校；5年小班經驗 推行小班 的契機 管理層認為小班比大班更 有利於教師照顧個別差 異；利用 300 萬資助聘請 一位編制以外的教師，推 行英文科小班（中文科和 數學科有類似做法，但資 源有限，規模較小）。 管理層認為小班比大班更 有助於提升教與學，學校 將有限的額外資源分配給 各科組聘請編制以外的老 師，儘量減少各班人數。 管理層重視生命教育，認 為小班比大班更有利於加 強師生關係；利用經費聘 請額外教師及進行校園擴 建，於各科各級都有推行 小班。 推行目標 拔尖保底，增加師生在英 語課堂的互動。 拔尖保底，減輕教師工作 量，增加收生。 促進學生的個人成長和全 人發展。 在分班模式上，三所學校的情況很類似。首先，各校都根據學生成績的高低進行分班， 如表二所示，有些學校按各科成績高低分班（如學校甲和乙），另一些則按成績總分高低分 班（如學校丙初中班別）。其次，各校每個年級中都有一班成績最好，學生人數比普通班多 一些，而成績最差一班學生人數則少一些（學生通常還會有紀律或行為問題）。值得注意的 是，由於資源比較多，學校丙於班級人數上能達到香港小學小班的人數標準（25 人左右）， 而學校甲和乙只能達到中班（30 人左右）的標準。 在教學模式上，學校甲和乙都進行分層課程，並對不同學生採用不同程度的考試卷，程 度較高學生的考試卷和程度較低學生的考試卷相比，內容涵蓋範園較大、題目數量較多、難 度也更高。學校甲和乙在評估成效方面偏向用學生成績計算改善的幅度，但學校丙 在這方面還未起步，教務主任認為不希望給教師太多的壓力。在教師所採取的教學方法上， 各校都沒有向教師提出改變教學模式的要求和進行相關的監督，所以各校在促進的 實施成效上，還沒有建立相關的質素保證機制。 55 學校甲 學校乙 學校丙 分班標準 及人數 主要按照成績分班分組， 並參考平時紀律和行為 表現，好班的人數較多； 尤其注重中一和中四的 資源投放，如：中一的 好班達 36-40 人，其他 三 班 分 成 四 組（ 每 組 15-30 人不等），每年按 學科成績進行調整，同 級同科組統一上課時間。 各科組按成績分班分組。 初中：兩班分成三組（英 文科資源多些，分成四 組）；好班的人數較多， 每年按學科成績進行調 整，同級同科組統一上 課時間；高中：在核心 科目五班分成六個固定 班（ 每 班 30-32 人， 中 班模式），選修課亦實 施。 由學校教務主任主要按 成績統一分班，並參考 心理輔導、紀律的表現。 兩班分成三班（共90人， 每班 25-35 人），好班 的人數較多，按總成績 每年調整。初中「一好、 兩平均」；高中按每科 成績分高中低，同級同 科組統一上課時間。 小班中的 教與學 英文科教師注重對課程、 教材和評估的調整，但 對教師教學模式的改變 沒有清晰的要求，未對 學生進行小組學習常規 訓練。 各科教師進行分層課程 （包括核心課程和增潤 課程）和分層評估。但 對教師教學模式的改變 沒有清晰的要求，未對 學生進行小組學習常規 訓練。 嘗試通過同儕觀課建立 教師協作文化，注重對 教師的個別輔導。但對 課程、教學模式和評估 的改變沒有清晰要求。 對學生紀律、常規和學 習習慣進行訓練。 小班成效 評估 注重每班學生成績排名 提高的幅度，沒有進行 個別教師教學成效的監 督和評鑒。 注重每班學生成績提高 的幅度，沒有進行個別 教師教學成效的監督和 評鑒。 運用學生問卷瞭解整體 教學成效以回饋教學， 沒有進行個別教師教學 成效的監督和評鑒。 表二　個案學校推行的現狀 綜觀各校推行的情況，各校均未能制定的校本政策，對理念 和願景未有周密的思考和系統的策劃，導致的實施在很大程度上只局限於改變班級 人數方面的多寡（量的改變），窒礙了的發揮及促進教與學的作用（質的提昇）。 由於教師的工作量大（一般每週 20 多節），參加培訓的熱情不高，過去幾乎沒有參加過關於 的培訓；而教育局對各校教師編制的死板規定，則成了各校不能增加教師人數以優 化的最大瓶頸因素（鄭燕祥，2004 年 4 月）。表三列出各校推行的強弱項 及期望可獲得的支援。 56 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 學校甲 學校乙 學校丙 學校強項 教師有參加照顧差異的 培訓，科本的教研活動 較活躍。 尊重各科的專業判斷， 允許各科彈性處理。 重視生命教育，對學生 的關愛文化較強。 學校弱項 缺乏針對的校 本政策，教師沒有參加 過培訓。 缺乏針對的校 本政策，只有小部分教 師參加過培訓， 教師參加培訓的熱情不 高。 缺乏針對的校 本政策，教師沒有參加 過的培訓，教 師隊伍年輕（尤其科主 任），教學經驗淺。 支援及需要 需要專業支援和教師培 訓，增加資源投入、教 師數量及擴建校舍。 希望可獲得持續的資助， 期望政府改變教師編制， 增加教師數量。 讓教師編制更靈活，增 加教師數量，減輕教師 工作量，需要 教師培訓。 表三　個案學校推行的強弱及需要分析 戊、調查結論及啟示 我們通過此次問卷調查發現，深受中學管理層推崇。個案研究更發現，各類學 校都認為小班比大班更能提高教學效能，照顧學生需要，從長遠看更有利於學生的全面發展， 加上未來幾年香港中學入學人數急劇下降，在中學推行小班教育為大勢所趨，且勢在必行。 雖然不少學校都各自爭取不同的資源和資助自行創造條件推行，但政府並沒有順應 學校的需求而在香港中學實施政策，以利用小班優勢進一步優化教學效能，提高教 育素質。政府現時為優化教與學所提供的各類資源，多屬短期性質並附帶許多行政要求，即 使學校可利用這些資助暫時推行短期的，但離的恆常化和機構化還很遙遠。 各類中學推行所面對的最大障礙，在於現行的教師編制下，令師生比例太高，教師 工作量太大，教師缺乏空間和意願去參與的培訓和思考如何優化小班教與學，以致 各類學校雖已具備的硬體和客觀條件，但卻缺乏發揮效能的教師專業知識 和力量。要解決這個問題，香港政府首要理清政策的發展方向，不要白白放棄小學 教育界在共同努力的付出下，於上所取得的階段性成果，理應加強在中學推行 的力度，調整教師編制，降低每班的學生數目，以及儘快實施中學的政策。 57 特首梁振英表明，容許部份中學彈性推行，這是非常可取的政策性建議。香港 教育界普遍期望新一屆政府可以儘快在中學推行，以解決在中小學銜接的 問題。要成功推行中學，政府在資源配套上要有積極承擔，以減低師生比例，而關 於的教師培訓也要從速進行，並提供持續的校本專業支援。在中學的實施， 是順應學校教育發展的需要和趨勢、提升教學效能和質素的重要政策性舉措。 鳴謝 鳴謝香港教育學院中心為本研究提供資助，以及參與問卷調查的所有學校提供 寶貴資料。 參考文獻 李子建（2012）。〈：議題、挑戰與展望〉。載葉建源、黎國燦（合編），《 論文集：邁向優秀的實踐》（頁 1-3）。香港：香港教育學院中心。 葉建源（2009）。《邁向》。香港：教育出版社有限公司。 葉建源（2012）。〈堅持每班至少減派 3 人 長遠中學邁向優質小班站出來就是力量！〉， 香港教育專業人員協會新聞稿。2013 年 11 月 13 日，取自 http://www.hkptu.org/ education/?p=7604。 葉建源、黎國燦（2012）。〈序言〉。載葉建源、黎國燦（合編），《論文集： 邁向優秀的實踐》（頁 V）。香港：香港教育學院發展與研究中心。 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London: Routledge. 59 附錄　香港小學推行現狀及需要的問卷調查 請在適用的空格上打 或在橫線上填上答案。 甲部：學校背景 1. 貴校成立： □ a. 少於 10 年 □ b. 10 至 20 年 □ c. 20 年以上 2. 貴校是屬於： □ a. 男校 □ b. 女校 □ c. 男女校 3. 貴校的宗教背景是： □ a. 沒有宗教 □ b. 佛教 □ c. 基督教 □ d. 天主教 □ e. 回教 □ f. 道教 □ g. 孔教 □ h. 其他 : 4. 貴校是： □ a. 津貼 □ b. 私立 □ c. 官立 □ d. 直資 5. 貴校大部分小六畢業生會升讀以下哪一個組別的中學？ □ a. 第一組別 □ b. 第二組別 □ c. 第三組別 □ d. 其他 : 乙部：推行情況及意願 6. 你認為以下哪些描述符合的定義：（可選擇多項） □ a. 班額人數減少至不多於廿七人 □ b. 是提升教育質素的契機 □ c. 解決「殺校」問題的策略 □ d. 照顧學生差異的促進性條件 □ e. 促進教師專業發展的機會 □ f. 課室內人本精神的體現 □ g. 為學校發展帶來契機 □ h. 方便運用知識建構教學策略 □ i. 為促進學生有效學習 □ j. 方便運用促進學習的評估 □ k. 為教師創造更豐富和有利於教學的條件 □ l. 致力提升學業水準及收窄學生之間的差距 □ m. 其他 7. 貴校推行的現狀是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 全校進行 □ b. 部分班級進行 □ c. 部分科目進行 □ d. 課程部分時間進行 □ e. 曾嘗試但現在已停止 □ f. 從未實施過 （如果答案是 f，請跳到第 19 題） 8. 貴校開始推行的學年是（例如 2009-10 學年）： 學年 9. 自 2009/10 學年開始，香港政府承諾於小學小一年級，開始分階段實施 。貴校是否有參加香港政府的推展計畫？ □ a. 是，時間為 學年（例如 2009-10 學年） □ b. 否 10. 貴校是否已制定和有關的校本政策？ □ a. 是 □ b. 否 （如果答案是 b，請跳到第 12 題） 60 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 11. 貴校關於的校本政策包括以下哪些項目？（可選擇多項） □ a. 的長期目標 □ b. 的課程安排 □ c. 的分班方式 □ d. 的教學方法 □ e. 的評估策略 □ f. 成效的檢視機制 □ g. 的考績要求 □ h. 的科本處理 □ i. 的教師專業發展 □ j. 的學習圈 □ k. 其他 12. 貴校推行的原因是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 收生不足 □ b. 拔尖 □ c. 保底 □ d. 提高教師教學效能 □ e. 減輕教師工作量 □ f. 提高學生學習效能 □ g. 讓學生有全人發展 □ h. 其他 13. 貴校推行過的小班人數為：（可選擇多項） □ a. 15 人以下 □ b. 15-20 人 □ c. 21-25 人 □ d. 26-30 人 □ f. 其他 14. 貴校哪些科目已實施？（可選擇多項） □ a. 所有科目　□ b. 中文　□ c. 英文　□ d. 數學　□ e. 常識 □ f. 其他 15. 貴校分班的形式為：（可選擇多項） □ a. 隨機分班 □ b. 按成績高低分班 □ c. 按教學語言分班 □ d. 按學生母語分班（例如華語、非華語） □ e. 其他 16. 貴校有多少位教師正實施？ □ a. 全校教師 □ b. 5 位以下 □ c. 5-10 位 □ d. 11-15 位 □ e. 15 位以上 17. (1) 上述教師有否接受過關於的培訓？ □ a. 全部教師從未受訓 □ b. 只有部分教師受訓 □ c. 全部教師都已受訓 （如果答案是 a，請跳到第 18 題） (2) 貴校教師接受培訓的時數及人數為： 接受培訓時數 人數 a. 少過 6 小時 b. 6-20 小時 c. 超過 20 小時 61 （3）為貴校教師提供培訓的機構或人士有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 教育局 □ b. 大專院校（請註明） □ c. 校內教師 □ d. 其他 （4）貴校教師曾經接受培訓的規模有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 全體教師一起培訓 □ b. 個別教師參與培訓課程 □ c. 以科組為單位進行培訓 □ d. 其他 （5）貴校教師接受培訓的形式有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 小班五星期進修課程 □ b. 小班實踐社群計劃 □ c. 專題講座 □ d. 校內教師分享 □ e. 課研（如備課、觀課等） □ f. 工作坊 □ g. 學習圈 □ h. 借調教師 □ i. 其他 18. 貴校實施對教師的教學期望是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 沒有任何期望 □ b. 要多使用小組學習的方式 □ c. 要增強師生互動 □ d. 要增強照顧個別學生的力度 □ e. 要對課程進行分層處理 □ f. 促進師生關系 □ g. 其他 19. 你認為下列哪個方案最能解決現時人口下降，部分學校收生不足的問題？ □ a. 殺校 □ b. 縮班 □ c. 小班 □ d. 其他 20. 貴校認為最理想的小班人數為： □ a. 15 人以下 □ b. 15-20 人 □ c. 21-25 人 □ d. 26-30 人 □ e. 31-35 人 □ f. 其他 21. 你認為實施的成效有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 解決收生不足的問題 □ b. 有助於提高學生成績 □ c. 有助於培養學生良好學習習慣 □ d. 能提升學生學習技巧 □ e. 能提升學生社交能力 □ f. 讓學生提升合作能 □ g. 讓能減輕教師工作量 □ h. 能減輕教學難度 □ i. 能提高教師教學效能 □ j. 能增進教師間的教學合作 □ k. 能提升學校管理效能 □ l. 達至更健康的學校教學生態 □ m. 其他 62 香港中學推行的現狀及啟示 22. 自 2009/10 學年開始，香港政府承諾於小學小一年級，開始分階段實施 ，推展至 2014/15 學年。如果在 2014/15 學年以後， (1) 仍有額外資源，貴校實施的意願是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 會在全校推行 □ b. 只在部分班級推行 □ c. 只在部分科目推行 □ d. 只在課程部分時間推行 □ e. 不會嘗試 (2) 若沒有額外資源，貴校推行的意願是：（可選擇多項） □ a. 會在全校推行 □ b. 只在部分班級推行 □ c. 只在部分科目推行 □ d. 只在課程部分時間推行 □ e. 不會嘗試 23. 貴校推行所遇到的困難有：（可選擇多項） □ a. 與辦學團體政策不符 □ b. 與學校教育目標不符 □ c. 教育經費不足 □ d. 教師人數不足 □ e. 缺乏受過培訓的教師 □ f. 缺乏教學資源 □ g. 學校的行政未能配合 □ h. 沒有足夠大的校舍 □ i. 同工間（包括校長、教師）對缺乏共識 □ j. 缺乏專業支援 □ k. 其他 丙部 : 模式、教學支援需要和跟進訪談 24. 貴校是否需要下列的支援以加強的推行？（可選擇多項） □ a. 提供關於策略的培訓 □ b. 協助編寫課程 □ c. 提供關於評估的培訓 □ d. 到學校進行示範教學 □ e. 提供關於提問技巧的培訓 □ f. 課研（包括觀課、評課等 □ g. 建立校本小班政策的培訓 □ h. 甚麼支援也不需要 □ i. 其他︰（請註明） 25. 我們將會對一些學校的教師進行跟進訪談，以便進一步瞭解模式及貴 校對專業支援的需要和院校協作方式 , 貴校教師是否願意參加該跟進訪談 ? □ a. 願意（請寫下姓名和聯繫方式） 姓名 : 學校 : 職務 : 電話 : 電郵 : □ b. 不願意 ～完～ 63 The implementation of Small Class Teaching in Hong Kong secondary schools and its implications ZHANG Yuefeng The Hong Kong Institute of Education TANG Yiu Nam Workers’ Children Secondary School Abstract Due to the demographic change, many people opined that Small Class Teaching (SCT) would be a long-term solution for the drastic secondary school enrolment decline. SCT has been officially adopted as an education policy since 2009/10 academic year by EDB and introduced in more than 300 primary schools. On the other hand, SCT has also been tried out in many secondary schools. This article reports a study in which a questionnaire survey was first used to obtain a whole picture of how SCT is used in Hong Kong secondary schools. In-depth case studies were then conducted to find out the implementation of SCT in great details. This study attempts to grasp the whole picture of how secondary schools in Hong Kong are using SCT, what challenges they are facing in introducing SCT and what strategies they use to tackle the problems. Implications on promoting SCT practices in secondary schools will be put forward, which may help inform the Government’s future policy of SCT. Keywords Small Class Teaching in Hong Kong, SCT in secondary school, research on educational policy 64 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型 組織的挑戰 梁亦華 香港中文大學教育學院博士生 摘要 自香港回歸以來，教育局推動了不同類型的改革措施，改革範疇從課程以至學校 架構等，這對教師工作及其教學信念之影響尤深，然而改革卻未必能贏得校內所 有教師之認同。作為學校領導，校長是帶領學校變革，落實教改措施的關鍵。近 年適逢香港中小學面臨校長退休潮，學校領導之責落在眾多初任校長身上，亦為 教改添加隱憂。 為瞭解初任校長帶領學校變革之困難，本文對學校變革的相關文獻作系統梳理與 述評，並環繞學者 Senge 提出的學習型組織理論，討論其變革管理的主張與在校 實踐的差距，從而揭示初任校長帶領變革的挑戰及潛在衝突，為未來各校討論建 立學習型組織及學校變革提供更深入反思的平台。 關鍵詞 校長領導，學校變革，學習型組織，衝突管理 65 甲、前言 改變，是過去十五年香港教育統籌委員會（教統會）推動教改的原動力。2001 年，教統 會提出「世界變了，教育制度非變不可！」（教育統籌委員會，2000）的口號，推出了不少 政策，如推行校本管理、一筆過撥款、優化直資計劃等，讓學校變革與行政管理更具彈性， 使之更能應對市場需求，而校長亦從以往行政架構中的學校管理者，漸漸過渡至領導學校管 理，以至主導變革的領導角色（梁亦華，2014；教育署，2002）。 推動與管理變革的理論眾多，而管理學者 Senge 所提出的「第五項修練」（The Fifth Discipline）對教育改革管理的影響可謂極為深遠。Senge 變革理論提出各組織須轉型成學 習型組織（learning organization），讓成員持續提升知識管理與運用能力的目標（Senge, 1990）。其後，Senge 出版《學習型學校》一書，進一步把其企業變革管理的主張引入學校 組織，並加入不少應用案例（Senge, 2000）。Senge 第五項修練及學習型組織的主張，不止 流行於世界各地，更成為了香港校長培訓、教師發展及其他不同教育政策的理念與培訓目標 （Walker & Quong, 2005；教育局，2012，2013）。 然而，學校變革需要針對舊有制度的不同弊端，領導者往往要面對不同阻力，其中最大 的挑戰可說是人際衝突管理。Nelson 等針對美國初任校長的質性訪談發現，人際關係問題是 各段訪談所湧現的唯一共同主題（Nelson, Colina, & Boone, 2008），而澳洲（Wildy, Clarke, Styles, & Beycioglu, 2010）、土耳其（Wildy et al., 2010）、韓國（Kim & Parkay, 2004）、中 國（朱廣清，2010）等地針對初任校長的研究亦有相同結果，可見校長能否化解校內各持分 者的衝突，是他們推動學校變革成敗的最大挑戰之一。然而近年香港資深校長的流失率連年 上升，據香港校長中心 2013 年的調查顯示，香港校長平均每年流失率約達 8% 至 10%（《文 匯報》，2013.6.11），處理人際衝突和帶領學校變革之責任越來越多地落在初任校長身上。 可是綜觀現時文獻，有關初任校長帶領學校變革及進行衝突管理之討論並不多。 為了瞭解初任校長所面對的挑戰，本文對學校變革的相關文獻作系統梳理與述評，並環 繞 Senge 提出的學習型組織之應用及學校變革的潛在衝突作討論。本文並非旨在找出一套適 合於所有學校的變革之法，而是希望透過結合實際環境的討論與理論剖析，為前線學校領導、 66 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 以至校長培訓政策之制訂者提供更深入反思的平台，優化政府及師資培訓機構對職前與在職 校長的支援。 乙、學校變革的相關理論 成功的學校變革能提升教育質量，但在實踐中，學校變革往往並非一帆風順。對於領導 者如何駕馭學校變革，不同學者所聚焦的議題均有不同。 第一類論點認為，變革之關鍵在於規章與體制。例如，Hargreaves（2003）強調決策體制 的重要，讓教師在變革中共同協作和參與校務決策；Leithwood, Menzies, Jantzi, & Leithwood （1996）則強調學校領導應以集體決策的方式領導變革，而非由上而下地強勢推行，如此既 能鼓勵員工針對系統而非局部作整體思考，亦能鼓勵員工自我超越，幫助團隊建立共同信念， 這呼應了近年不少學者提出在校內分權式領導（distributed leadership），以及在校外從中央 集權到校本管理，賦予校長辦學自主的教改主張（Griffith, 2004；Hallinger & Heck, 1998；張 兆芹、盧乃桂、彭新強，2011）。然而，協作與集體決策需要團隊成員經歷長時間磨合，對 彼此有一定了解與信任（Day, 2011），剛剛履職的初任校長卻未必符合這些條件。 第二類觀點認為，變革之關鍵在於領導者個人的行為與特質。例如，Sibley（1986）把組 織文化視為變革的基礎，強調學校變革中領導者與下屬持有共同願景的重要性。故此，領導 者能否引領下屬建立共同目標與價值觀，以及成員對組織是否有歸屬感，均是凝聚共同願景 的先決條件。Beck & Murphy（1996）及 Leithwood & Jantzi（2006）同樣重視領導者的角色， 但他們較強調良好同儕關係與宏觀的組織文化，認為學校領導者能否消弭個人與組織間的分 歧，以及他們能否激勵教師及鞏固教師對組織的承諾，建立好團隊互信才是成功組織的先決 條件。相對而言，Fullan（2001）更重視員工的心智及思考模式。他認為教師不止需要執行變 革的能力，更要理解其推行原因。換言之，教師視野必須超越課堂教與學，要對學校系統作 全面周詳的考慮。Fullan 並沒有否定建立信任或共同願景的重要性，但認為員工的認知模式 要有所提升，才能改變其故有信念，在組織中建立共同目標或信任文化，以深化變革的影響 力。 67 上述學者強調了共同願景、團隊學習、系統性思考等主張，那麼學校領導該如何促進學 校變革？對此，學者 Senge 提出了「學習型組織」的概念，他審視成功變革的組織，提出員 工須進行五項修練（參表一）。 表一　「學習型組織」五項修練（Senge, 1990） 修練項目 描述 自我超越（Personal Mastery） 是指員工會不斷挑戰自我潛能、清楚釐訂自我奮鬥目 標，因而努力不懈，奮發進取 心智模式（Mental Models） 是指員工勇於表白個人對事物之假設、其行為背後之意 義及個人價值取向 共同「願景」（Shared Vision） 是指員工對組織的投入及承諾，願為共同「願景」作出 努力及貢獻 團隊學習（Team Learning） 是指員工發揮互補不足之餘，更能承眾智、集眾力，將 集體智慧發揮得淋漓盡致，使各人從反思及回饋中與組 織共同成長 系統思考（Systems Thinking） 是指員工做出決定或任何變動前，能對系統作全面周詳 的考慮，而非片段地解決問題 Senge（1990）提出「學習型組織」的概念有一前設——「人們本質是好奇的，高超的學 習者」（intrinsically inquisitive, masterful learner）（p. 1），而組織願意改變的兩大原動力在 於恐懼（fear）與抱負（aspiration）（p. 57, p. 65）。故學習型組織的領導不應把下屬假設為「沒 有權力、願景與無力主導變革力量」（p. 71）的被動改革對象，而應扮演管家（stewards）、 導師（teacher）及幕後設計者（designer）的角色。領導的責任並非主導改革，而是建立一個 讓所有人瞭解系統複雜性、組織正面對的挑戰，能持續發展並擁有共同願景與信念的組織。 總括而言，領導者之素質對學校變革成敗有重要影響，而領導者與下屬的信念是成功變革管 理的重要關鍵。成功推動變革的領導者應鼓勵下屬自我超越，進行團隊學習，以及鼓勵下屬 發展適當認知與思考方式，凝聚團隊共識。 丙、學校變革的潛在衝突 上一部份闡述了成功學校變革的不同因素，但任何學校進行教育改革，也不能無視不同 教育制度與學校背景脈絡的影響，便直接把外來的成功變革策略移植過來（Creemers, 1994; 68 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber, & Hillman, 1996）。Senge 的學習型組織理論為變革管理提 供了討論框架，但卻有批評指 Senge 及其他學者聚焦個人領導技巧的理論，較少考慮如何透 過持份者落實變革（Caldwell, 2011）。此外，不少學者指出人們更願意留在舒適區（comfort zone），因循過往的成功經驗，不願意承擔風險（Fullan, 2001; Sackney & Walker, 2006）， 因此領導者與下屬對教改目標及其必要性的看法便會存在衝突。即或彼此能有共識，這也不 代表雙方能消弭衝突，例如領導者與下屬對學校發展的目標有一致共識，卻對達成目標的手 段，以及各個項目的緩急輕重有不同見解。這些滲合著共識的衝突又該如何解決？學界在討 論校長如何領導學校變革的同時，實有了解衝突之不同層次及管理取向之必要。 就性質而言，衝突可分為由主事者人格、動機等個人因素引起的情感衝突（affective conflict），以及針對具體事項的實質性衝突（substantive conflict）（DeChurch & Marks, 2001）。由於本文之主題環繞學校變革，故針對衝突的討論將聚焦於後者。誠如上文所言， 組織內的衝突不一定是雙方的完全對立，在分歧中亦可能存在著部份共識。隨共識之多寡， 實質性衝突可分為目標分歧及焦點分歧兩類（Gorton & Alston, 2012），此亦是初任校長推動 學校變革時所面對的主要衝突來源。 一、有待調和的目標分歧：危機感、歸屬感與變革需要 對每項政策而言，領導能否遊說各方達成變革的共識，是政策能否成功推動所不可或缺 的重要一環（Goodin, Rein, & Moran, 2008），然而初任校長如要遊說各持份者支持學校變革， 必先提出非變不可的理由。 為此，Senge 提出了兩個組織變革的原動力：「恐懼」與「抱負」。恐懼能帶來創造性張 力（creative tension），讓人們面對現實，接受學校變革；而抱負則為團隊帶來持續追求卓越 的原動力（Senge, 1990）。前者的關鍵在於員工的危機感，後者則在於員工對學校、以至工 作的歸屬感，以及學校能否凝聚共同信念。學者 Irwin（2003）針對政策本身，亦提出相似觀 點，認為政策主要取向有兩種：初任校長如要遊說各持份者支持學校變革，必先提出非變不 可的理由。為此，學者指出了推行政策的兩種取向：（1）問題管理取向（pathology control approach），即政策針對處理過去或現在組織所遇到的具體困難，並作預防；（2）追求卓越 取向（desirability striving approach），即政策是為了追求更卓越的質素，而非解決具體問題。 69 前者著眼於被動解難，後者則要求持份者主動迎接挑戰。Irwin 的著眼點與 Senge 不相同，但 基本而言仍是透過增加員工對現狀的認知，以及形成自我超越的組織文化來作變革動力。可 是在現實中，校長、高級教師及基層教師對現狀往往存在不同理解，組織身份亦有差異，往 往為初任校長之遊說過程帶來挑戰。 在學校層面，校內教師的危機感與歸屬感並不一致，不易求取變革共識。Day 有關教師 專業性的研究發現，學校高層需要面對校際競爭、收生不足等問題，而新聘的合約教師則因 為工作不穩定及初任教職，危機意識較高，較願意時刻進修以增加職場競爭力，亦傾向支持 學校變革。相對而言，入職五年以上，已獲終身教席者的危機意識最弱，其進修意欲相對較 低，亦較欠缺變革誘因（Day, 1999）。此外，不少研究指出教師會環繞各學科建立專業身份， 而各學科亦被賦予不同的社會地位。如一些社會地位較高的學科求過於供，該科教師的危機 感便相對較少（Beijaard, 1995; Null, 2010）。誠如學者 Sibley 所言，成員對組織擁有歸屬感 是凝聚共識、建立共同目標與價值觀的先決條件。那麼，教師背景的差異便構成了迴圈悖論： 合約教師及過剩學科的教師工作較不穩定，有較高危機感和變革意願，卻缺少歸屬感來構建 共同願景；長期聘任的教師有較大的歸屬感，更願意與學校組織建立共同信念，可是他們的 危機感亦相對較低，歸屬感與危機感在現實環境不能共存，成為學校啟動變革的潛在阻力。 在理論層面，不少學者對 Senge「危機感帶來變革動力」的說法亦持保留態度。 Hargreaves（2003）認為危機感源自競爭，而過度競爭會鼓勵教師各自將教學法隱藏起來，以 保持自己的競爭優勢；Argyris & Schon（1996）認為在零和競爭（zero-sum game）的文化下， 部份教師會隱藏意向及教學策略，以取得凌駕他人的權力；張兆芹、徐煒（2008）更指出， 教師團隊可能會演變成惡性較量與對抗，破壞共同學習的信任與意願。從上可見，過度競爭 可能演變成教師之間相互交流、建立學習型組織的一大障礙。可是，Senge 提出的學校變革 是由學習帶動，而非領導者強勢推行，Senge 只期待通過統一持份者信念來凝聚團隊精神， 建立歸屬感，進而期待團隊中各成員作無私奉獻，推動學校變革，對於個人與組織的目標分 歧卻未有具體回應，更沒有詳細描述領導者該如何在競爭與團隊信任間取得平衡。 總括而言，不同職級與背景教師有不同程度的歸屬感與危機感，影響著他們對學校變革 的支持程度。初任校長雖可鼓勵下屬自我超越，建立共同願景，但對一些已獲終身教席者或 70 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 任教強勢科目者，卻未必能產生預期影響效果。然而，校長純以競爭、營造恐懼與危機感來 推動學校變革，亦不恰當。因過度競爭可能會影響各成員的合作意願，甚至產生惡性對抗等 副作用。故此，初任校長在變革之初，要遊說不同背景的持份者支持變革方案，營造變革的 迫切性，實非易事。 二、有待調和的焦點分歧：問責對象與變革方向 比起恐懼，Senge（1990）認為建立組織抱負以凝聚共同願景，是成功學校變革的最重要 關鍵，因恐懼雖能帶來短期而劇烈的改變，抱負卻是持續學習與成長的動力。然而 Harvey & Green（1993）卻指出，不同持份者對「何謂優質教育」往往有不同理解，甚至同一人在不同 時間內對教育的看法也不盡相同。在現實層面，學校需同時向官僚與市場問責，角色複雜， 各持份者即使抱有同一抱負，其屬意之變革手段亦往往隨問責對象之不同而有不同焦點。 所謂官僚問責，是指學校要符合政府訂立的科層與規章制度等，通過管理與監督的品質 監控，以保證學校教育符合社會需求（Darling-Hammond, 1989）；而市場問責則強調學校向 教育消費者（學生與家長）提供證據證明教育效能（Leithwood & Earle, 2000），可是兩者焦 點與願景往往有所不同，甚至互相衝突。例如後者注重「可測量的教育結果」，傾向片面追 求考試分數與名校升學率，而扭曲其他非量化的教育目標（沈偉、盧乃桂，2011）。以香港 教學語言政策為例，1998 年教育署推出《中學教學語言指引》文件，認為母語教學能促進學 生學習，故強迫中學以廣東話教授初中課程，並接受署方監察。然而，學生及家長卻認為當 今大學教育以英語為主導，藉以與國際性專業及學術體系接軌，因此會較重視學生於中學會 考的英文科合格率與大學升學率（曾榮光，2006）。學校在官僚與市場問責兩者之間，應如 何取得平衡？況且，「減低學生學習的語言障礙」與「滿足學生升學需要」均是無可置喙的 價值取向，教師可能同時認同兩者之重要性，執行上卻有不同取捨。 要解決上述分歧，Gorton & Alston（2012）認為領導者可採取兩種策略：（1）容許各方 獲得表達自己觀點與說服他人的機會，透過討論而凝聚共識；（2）準確理解各方期望後，對 強勢意見作適當讓步，再把變革方向推廣成團隊的共同目標。對初任校長而言，前者著重協 調，卻需要冗長的時間供各方討論，凝聚共識，此舉將大幅影響學校變革之速度；後者重取捨， 能讓初任校長迅速推動學校變革，卻要求他們準確理解各持份者的期望，更要計算與之對抗 的後果。這對於認受性尚待建立的初任校長而言，實有一定風險。 71 三、推動與落實變革的領導與管理能力 在變革理論中，Senge 強調引入心智模式、自我超越、系統思考等內在歸因，與儒家「行 有不得，反求諸己」的文化傳統遙相呼應，但卻未有考慮信念以外，如校長能力或既有組織 文化等因素。在推動與落實學校變革的過程中，這些往往成為學校衝突的來源。 如 Goodin 等（2008）所言：「政策制訂主要是能否成功遊說的問題」（Policy is mostly a matter of persuasion）（p. 6），推動者往往需要透過理論或經驗來遊說各持份者，爭取變 革的認受性，凝造共識以避免衝突。可是欠缺實績支持下，初任校長只能依靠自身的個人魅 力、權威或遊說技巧來推動改革，如此校長個人素質便顯得極為重要。然而，香港絕大部份 校長均由副校長晉升（Kwan, 2009），Hartzell 等指出副校長工作以管理為主，他們專注於學 生紀律與教師間人事管理，致力於維持學校穩定，而非激勵團隊，主動推動變革（Hartzell, Williams, & Nelson, 1995）。Harris 等的研究亦有相似結論，他們指出初任校長多從副校長晉 升而來，他們擁有豐富的教學與行政經驗，卻慣於被動執行他人所訂下的課程或政策任務， 本身卻未必有領導經驗，致使他們成為校長以後未必有足夠決心推行變革（Harris, Muijs, & Crawford, 2003）。從上可見，初任校長雖然對學校行政有豐富經驗，但卻未必具備推行學校 變革所需的遊說能力，以往慣於追求穩定的副校長經驗亦可能影響初任校長堅持變革的決心。 除個人遊說技巧與變革決心外，校長對下屬的洞察力亦十分重要。如 Gorton & Alston（2012） 所言，初任校長需準確理解各持份者的期望，作出平衡以避免衝突。可是在華人社會，校 長要了解下屬的真正想法並非易事。Hofstede（2001）針對世界各地文化差異的跨國研究指 出，華人社會慣於避免衝突、講求面子與表面和諧，傾向隱藏自己真實情感與想法。華人教 師不論往上還是同儕間溝通，往往只說好話，又或點到即止（Pye, 1981；張兆芹、徐煒， 2008）。Triandis（1995）亦指出，中國人遇到衝突時，會傾向服從權威，採取忍讓態度， 可是這種建基權威的表面和諧是不穩定的，及後衝突往往以不同形態再次出現（Gorton & Alston, 2012）。對初任校長而言，他們與團隊未建立足夠信任，華人社會注重表面和諧，以 及對衝突的迴避態度，令他們難以真正瞭解下屬之心智模式，又或其願景與學校是否一致。 在實質事務上，如何落實變革措施亦是初任校長之重大挑戰。Macmillan 針對美國中學 變革的研究指出，初任校長往往過於樂觀，雖勇於推動改革，卻欠明確目標和周詳考慮，低 估實踐困難（Macmillan, 2000）。而澳洲、土耳其、韓國、中國、香港等地的研究進一步指 72 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 出，初任校長之主要挑戰在於財務管理（Kim & Parkay, 2004; Kwan & Walker, 2009; Wildy et al., 2010）、難以協調校內人事，以及與校外地方教育行政部門間的價值觀與利益衝突（Kim & Parkay, 2004；Nelson et al., 2008；Wildy et al., 2010；朱廣清，2010；姜濤、廖伯琴， 2012）。換言之，即使初任校長有足夠領導能力激勵下屬，欠缺管理能力仍難以落實相關變 革。 針對初任校長管理能力不足之原因，不同學者提出了各自觀點。Kwan & Walker（2009） 指出，初任校長之財務管理能力不足，源於他們沒有接受相關的系統性培訓，以及一般校長 不重視管理經驗的承傳，較少讓下屬涉足學校財政事宜，致使大部份初任校長只懂學校行政， 而欠缺財務管理經驗；姜濤等則認為，初任校長未能化解持份者的衝突，除了自身協調與遊 說能力有待改善外，與校長普遍只重變革本身，不重視如何使變革融入既有組織文化有莫大 關係（姜濤、廖伯琴，2012）。姜濤等的主張並非只限於前線校長，亦包括學校變革理論的 學者。張兆芹、徐煒（2008）的研究則聚焦於校長的項目分配與協調能力，指出學校變革成 效不佳的原因之一在於項目太多，彼此與組織文化欠缺協調與連貫；如校長未能配合學校組 織文化，便需要著力更新教師團隊的心智模式，把變革理念落實至日常運作之中，否則，固 有的團隊精神反會讓成員建立抗拒變革的防禦機制，以維護本身「行之有效」的習慣或價值 觀，進而成為變革阻力。可是，回顧 Senge 及眾多學者的變革管理理論，多重視領導者如何 推動和鼓勵變革的開展，卻未有詳細考慮變革所需的管理能力、經驗與組織文化的連貫性。 誠然，這些配合組織文化、經驗的承傳、項目分配與協調等與項目管理能力不能指引出成功 的變革方向，但它們卻是化解潛在衝突，避免變革失敗的基礎。 總括而言，校長與教師並非截然不同的兩個群體，前者也是從基層教師晉升而來，而初 任校長的價值觀及變革決心往往受到過去管理或教學的成功經驗所牽絆。此外，初任校長能 否洞悉下屬想法，把變革理念融入既有組織文化中，構築共同願景？又或他們是否有足夠管 理能力落實變革，對變革流程與過程中的潛在挑戰能有周詳考慮和準備？這些皆是初任校長 落實學校變革，化解衝突所不得不考慮的問題。 73 丁、總結 Senge 的五項修練及「學習型組織」的概念，對學校變革管理極具參考價值，然而它針 對私人企業之營運，而學校卻與私人企業有所不同。企業的最大目標在於盈利，組織只需向 市場問責，而學校的目標則是育人為才，既要向市場（家長與學生）問責，也要兼顧行政、 市場與自身專業的問責（Darling-Hammond, 2005），領導者與下屬間的目標與焦點分歧遠較 私人企業複雜。 綜合而言，初任校長要建立學習型組織，推動學校變革，必先面對三個問題：（1）對內 方面，初任校長該如何統合不同危機感與歸屬感的員工看法，建立共同信念與願景？（2）對 外方面，初任校長該如何平衡政府、教師、家長、學生等不同持份者的價值觀，為組織確立 明確的目標？（3）自身方面，初任校長應如何調節自身定位，裝備自己，完成從管理到領導 的角色轉換？這些對校長培訓、學校領導與變革，均是極為重要的研究課題。 參考文獻 《文匯報》（2013.6.11）。〈3 招盼紓「校長荒」　老手栽培接班人〉。A26 版。 沈偉、盧乃桂（2011）。〈問責背景下的教育品質：何為與為何〉。《全球教育展望》， 第 40 卷（2），56-61。 朱廣清（2010）。〈新校長需要什麼樣的培訓課程：來自對江蘇省常州市中小學校長的 調查〉。《上海教育科研》，第 7 卷，52-54。 姜濤、廖伯琴（2012）。〈從國際視角看初任校長領導力發展〉。《中國教育學刊》， 第 9 卷，20-23。 張兆芹、盧乃桂、彭新強（2011）。《學習型學校的創建——教師組織學習力新視角》。 北京：教育科學出版社。 張兆芹、徐煒（2008）。〈教師組織學習的障礙分析與對策研究〉。《教育發展研究》， 第 12 卷，8-12。 梁亦華（2014）。〈文本背後的價值取向：香港校長專業發展的延續與變革（1982- 2013）〉。《清華大學教育研究》，35（2），68-76。 74 變革與衝突：初任校長實踐學習型組織的挑戰 教育局（2012）。〈學生訓育及輔導服務：理念與指引〉。2014 年 1 月 6 日，取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/mobile/tc/teacher/student-guidance-discipline-services/principles- guidelines/index.html。 教育局（2013）。〈專業發展學校計劃〉。2014 年 1 月 6 日，取自 http://www.edb. gov.hk/tc/edu-system/primary-secondary/applicable-to-primary-secondary/sbss/sbps/ professional-development-schools-pds-scheme/index.html。 教育統籌委員會（2000）。《教育制度檢討：改革方案》。香港：政府印務局。 教育署（2002）。《校長專業發展指引》。香港：教育署。 曾榮光（2006）。〈香港中學教學語言政策改革：檢討與批判〉。《教育學報》，第 33 卷（1-2），221-243。 Argyris, C., & Schon, D. 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Educational Assessment Evaluation & Accountability, 22(4), 307-326. 77 Reform and conflict: The challenge of novice principals in the development of learning organization LEUNG Yick Wah Doctoral student of the Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Since 1997, Education Bureau of Hong Kong has launched the school reform measures in various aspects, from curriculum reform to school restructuring, which required a fundamental change in teachers’ belief about teaching and learning. Yet, the reform may not reflect a common consensus among teachers and generates conflicts in school. The school principal plays a crucial role in the implementation of school reform. However, there is an expected wave of retirement among experienced principals. More novice principals thus need to take a leading role in driving school change and bring new uncertainties. To understand the challenge of novice principals, this paper reviewed the literature on school reform and examined the potential conflict in the development of learning organization. The implementation gap between Senge’s theory and practice were critically discussed in order to address the challenge of novice principals when driving new school change and provide a wider platform for discussion of school reform, as well as the development of learning organization in schools. Keywords principal leadership, school reform, learning organization, conflict management 78 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 林志德 華南師範大學研究生 摘要 遊學是由來已久的跨文化現象，研究顯示它有助促進學習與增長歷練。考掘遊學 的知識系譜，這個跨學科的概念可視為旅行的分類，蘊含旅遊學、教育學等不同 學問元素。將遊學置於香港學校課程脈絡，它屬於全方位學習一環，扣連課程， 而持分者在遊學的論述和參與各有其角色。本文嘗試從多元視角探討遊學的意義， 首先概述其內涵及發展，然後討論當中的爭議與反思，進而提供建議，期望為遊 學的理念與實踐帶來啟迪。 關鍵詞 遊學的意義，教育旅行，教育旅遊，全方位學習，跨文化現象 導言 2014年 7月，國家教育部（2014）公布《中小學學生赴境外研學旅行活動指南（試行）》， 申明研學旅行需符合中、小學生的特點與需要，並豐富教育內容，可以選擇環保、科技、人 文、自然、歷史、藝術、體育等主題。研學旅行即遊學，乃穿越古今的跨文化現象（郭少棠， 2005；龔鵬程，2001）。考掘其知識系譜，遊學可視為旅行文化的一種概念，其歷史文化積 澱豐厚，透現跨學科取向，蘊含旅遊學、教育學等不同學問元素。遊學在香港學校課程脈絡， 屬於全方位學習一環，緊扣課程（全方位學習組，2003）。遊學的作用雖受質疑（林慧美， 2013.12.13；陳葒，2013.11.28；斯人，2013.12.05；趙志成，2013.12.05），但研究證明它有 79 助促進學習與增長歷練（Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Ho, 2012; Wong, 2012）。本文嘗試從多元視 角探討遊學的教育意義，首先概述其內涵，然後討論當中的爭議與反思，結合宏觀和微觀層 面的分析，並以知識管理的觀點進行剖析，期望為遊學的理念與實踐提供思考方向。 遊學的語源與歷史文化傳統 考掘遊學的知識系譜，先要從語源梳理錯綜複雜的概念。郭少棠（2005）指出，要解讀 中國旅行文化，需留意四個關鍵字：旅、行、遊（游）、觀，其中遊（游）字最富有構詞能力， 以它為前綴或後綴，可組合 287 個跟旅行有關的詞語，而遊學歸入遊（游）字下「直接相關 的詞匯——行動」類別，與遊歷、遊覽等詞語並列，可以視為旅行文化的概念。至於旅行和 旅遊的關係，旅行的內涵較廣，因為「旅遊偏於遊玩，旅行包括旅遊，審美和功能目的都能 包含在內，比旅遊的內涵稍寬」（李嵐，2013，頁 7）。由此可見，遊學、旅行和旅遊三者， 互有關連。 漢語思想文化語境的「遊」和「游」，除了繁體和簡體之別，兩個概念各有不同。以中 央研究院語言學研究所（2014）開發的「搜文解字」資料庫為例，遊字的解釋有二十項，而 游字的解釋有九項，不過《玉書》指出「遊與游同」。將遊和學搭配一起，可以激發兩種概 念的融通與轉化。至於如何實現遊和學並重、遊中有學、學中有遊的理想，正是下文探討的 重點。 從文化比較的視角解讀，遊學是由來已久的跨文化現象，展現生命轉化的歷程（龔鵬程， 2001）。根據瑞士學者卡爾．榮格（Carl Jung）為首的分析心理學觀點，旅行源自人類的集 體潛意識，屬於原始意象；當人處於壓抑的環境，真實或夢中的旅行，都可以提供超越現狀 的解放機會（Jung, Franz, & Freeman, 1964）。探尋歷史，遊學在中國的淵源，可追溯至春秋 時代（前 770- 前 476），士人、僧侶、貴族子弟尋師求學、傳播思想（劉香民，2010）。歐 洲方面，十八世紀的英國社會，興起一股赴歐洲大陸遊歷和學習的熱潮，稱作大陸遊學（Grand Tour），有助促進歐洲文化、藝術、科技等方面的發展，以及加強英國與歐洲大陸的聯繫 （Sweet, 2012）。 80 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 遊學的跨學科取向 遊學是跨文化現象，也是跨學科概念。旅行與學習的關係密切，旅行可鼓勵學習，而學 習需要可促成旅行（Falk, Ballantyne, Packer, & Benckendorff, 2012）。由於教育、旅行和旅 遊互有連繫，所以英語文獻有「教育旅行」（Educational Travel）的說法（Metraux, 1956; Tarrant & Lyons, 2012），也有「教育旅遊」（Educational Tourism）的說法（Duhs, 2013; Ritchie, Carr, & Cooper, 2003），兩種概念的本質和論述接近。聯合國教科文組織於 1956 年 出版第八卷第四期《國際社會科學季刊》，以「跨文化教育與教育旅行」為主題，「教育旅行」 在這一期導論的解說如下： 「教育旅行包含兩個概念：教育意指知識的獲取，而旅行意指移動的過程。兩者分 屬社會組織的不同範疇，合二為一則富有意義，亦在目前相當流行。」（筆者譯） （Metraux, 1956, p. 577） 從以上解釋可見，教育旅行蘊含知識和移動兩個重點，與漢語思想文化語境下遊和學扣連的 傳統，語碼有別，卻互相契合。 遊學與旅遊在本質上，有相通之處。根據旅遊社會學的觀點，旅遊屬於社會行為，旅遊 經驗基於遊客對於人物、地景、資訊等符號的收集與詮釋，其過程由社會建構，而遊客作為 凝視主體，跟凝視對象存在複雜的權力關係，加上凝視過程的內涵不斷變化，形成旅遊經驗 多元與流動的本質（Urry & Larson, 2011）。雖然遊學和尋常旅遊有異，而參與遊學的學生也 不是普通遊客，可是旅遊經驗和遊學經驗的本質同樣多元與流動。基於多元與流動的本質， 遊學潛藏各種構思和發展的可能方向，尚待探研。 遊學與閒暇活動，亦有關係。聯合國於 2010 年提出《世界青年行動綱領》，作為改善 青年狀況的政策框架和建議，當中確立十五個優先關注的領域，「閒暇活動」是其中之一， 又強調閒暇活動乃青年政策及服務重要一環，建議各地政府鼓勵青年參與旅遊活動（United Nations, 2010）。無論是設計或選擇閒暇活動，都可以考慮三個重要因素：尊重個人自主、 配合人生歷程、平衡不同需要（林志德，2013）。在閒暇活動的整體概念之下，遊學的策劃 和參與同樣需要深思熟慮。 81 香港脈絡下的遊學論述 儘管遊學牽涉的概念紛繁多姿，但是「遊學」一詞在香港使用普遍，分歧不大（香港旅 遊業議會，2007；曾德成，2013；教育局，年份不詳 a，年份不詳 b）。遊學目的地可以是境 內，也可以是境外。不過，遊學有時專指境外行程，例如香港旅遊業議會發出《經營遊學團 守則（修訂版）》，列明該守則屬於「外遊旅行服務→旅行團」的指引分類，並就跨境交通、 當地接團單位、寄住家庭等，詳列條文（香港旅遊業議會，2007）。又如教育局制訂《境外 遊學活動指引》和《戶外活動指引》，都是持續修訂的指引，其中《戶外活動指引》有專門 討論境外遊學的附錄（教育局，年份不詳 a）。香港脈絡下遊學的內涵，離不開這些由不同 話語構成的社會文本。 關於「遊學團」與「境外遊學」的闡釋，可參閱香港旅遊業議會和教育局的文本。香港 旅遊業議會（2007，頁 1）列明「遊學團」的條件包括： （1） 團員對象主要為十八歲以下人士；及 （2） 活動內容主要為語言學習、教育活動、文化／學術／知識交流、技能訓練、生活 體驗，或增廣見聞的戶外課堂／觀光活動等。 對於「境外遊學」，《境外遊學活動指引》申述如下： 「境外遊學活動是指由學校策劃、組織，並以校方委任領隊負責帶領學生到香港以 外地區作探訪、交流、研習或服務等活動。」（教育局，年份不詳 b，頁 1） 上述民間和官方文本，展示遊學的多元內涵，為遊學的計劃和推行，提供建議。 遊學與學校課程的關係，相當密切。遊學考察屬於全方位學習經歷，扣連課程，引領學 生成為終身學習者（全方位學習組，2003）。全方位學習的重點包括： 「全方位學習提供有助全人發展的學習機會。它讓學習者在真實環境中學習，以及 體驗課堂所不能提供的學習經歷，尤其是德育及公民教育、體藝發展、與工作相 關的經驗以及社會服務等。」（課程發展議會，2001，頁 84） 82 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 遊學作為全方位學習一環，體現學校課程的主導原則：「教導學生學會學習，促進他們 獨立學習的能力，達到終身學習的目的，以全面提高教育質素」（課程發展議會，2001，頁 9）。教育局前任總課程發展主任（全方位學習及圖書館）葉蔭榮總結香港的全方位學習有四 項特色：學習為本、緊連課程、靈活性和全面性，並指出它以政策、理論、研究和實踐的連 結及調節作為教育方針（葉蔭榮，2006）。同樣，遊學的持續發展，不可能單靠政策推動， 需要結合理論、研究和實踐，以促進成效。 遊學的爭議與反思 2013 年，香港傳媒報導有幼稚園擬舉辦為期十天的美國親子遊學團（《香港經濟日 報》，2013.11.23），引發遊學意義的討論（林慧美，2013.12.13；陳葒，2013.11.28；斯人， 2013.12.05；趙志成，2013.12.05）。本文無意為幼稚園應否舉辦遊學團定讞，只想探尋圍繞 遊學市場化和商品化、遊學空間的爭議，並以學與教的觀點作剖析。 關於遊學市場化和商品化的爭議，重點之一是遊學的教育價值。例如趙志成（2013.12.05） 認為「境外遊學倍增，但是否具成本效益，有否實質學習效果，還是一種炫耀式的消費經歷， 值得深思。」又如陳葒（2013.11.28）質疑「辦遊學團不一定為了學，甚至也不為了遊，很可 能只是為了顯示自己高人一等和快人一步。」所謂遊學是消費經歷、炫耀手段的說法，與消 費主義有關。 全球消費主義大行其道，市場思維和商業邏輯盛行，在地域發展、日常生活和教育，都 帶來影響。地域發展方面，根據空間政治的觀點，在全球化地域競爭下，地域之間競相仿效 成功經驗，生產被賦予特定意義的空間或景觀，例如：特色建築、節慶傳統、生活風俗等， 以供各種用途及消費（王志弘，2011）。日常生活方面，哈佛大學教授米高．桑德爾（Michael Sandel）提出，社會眾多原本不屬於市場操控的生活領域，包括：家庭、教育、宗教、人際 關係等，逐漸受市場的交換價值所支配，待價而沽（Sandel, 2012）。教育方面，恰巧哈佛大 學的前任校長德瑞克．伯克（Derek Bok）早已承認大學教育存在商業化的危機，學術理想常 會因為商業利益而犧牲，進修課程變成大學競相滿足學生欲望、增加收益的商品，而教育願 景能否達成，取決於大學對使命和價值的守護（Bok, 2003）。 83 面對市場思維和商業邏輯帶來挑戰，無論大學教育還是遊學，同樣可能淪為消費經歷或 炫耀手段。不過，正如我們不會輕言全盤否定大學教育的意義，有關遊學意義的討論亦應再 三思量。 至於遊學空間的爭議，關注點之一是遊學場景的選取。例如林慧美（2013.12.13）質疑「人 之初，近身的種種不優先學習，卻先要跑到老遠學異國風情？」又如斯人（2013.12.05）提出 「與其用學習時間去滿世界晃蕩，還不如老老實實在學校裡用功，現在網絡無邊界，有什麼 東西不能手到拿來？」所謂近身優先學習、網絡萬能的主張，源於對學習空間的理解。 遊學離不開空間移動，但其教育意義不可能僅由空間賦予。空間移動牽涉的場景固然重 要，可是遊學的計劃構思、團隊組織、行程安排、導覽重點、評估設計等相關因素，都會影 響學習效果。以香港本土情況為例，境外和境內遊學各具特色，中、小學在區本探究遊學方 面積累不少成果（陳志華、盧爾君，2008）。學界以外的本土旅行，得力於民間旅行組織推動， 更見百花齊放（郭志標，2013）。小如一所學校，亦可構思富有意義的學習經歷，例如有中、 小學在校內舉行數學遊蹤，在走廊、禮堂、操場、天台等地方進行數學解難活動（鄧幹明、 羅浩源、黃毅英，2006）。由此可見，場景並非遊學的全部，也不是教育意義的關鍵所在。 正如 Castells（1989）早已預告，流動空間的浮現取代地方空間的意義，將會成為社會趨 勢。論者或會質疑，世界各地學習場景的資料，在網絡俯拾皆是，足不出戶，也可以在網絡 上遊學。不過，網絡便捷，卻不可能完全取代真實的遊學經歷。科技發展使空間的內涵出現 變化，導致虛擬和實體空間並存，但是兩者在閒暇生活具有互動的關係（Lawrence, 2003）。 遊學的空間不限於行程涉足的地方，還可以包括出發前、後的學習及體會，例如：行前準備、 學習成果分享、小組討論、網絡學習、個人反思等。處身真實環境，跟不同人物、地景互動 的體驗，亦彌足珍貴。因此，遊學設計除了顧及場景以外，可以考慮為參與者提供不同時空 的學習機會，使遊學經驗更為多元及立體。 要確切審視遊學的教育意義，不可能只停留在印象式評論的表層，應當建基於理論和研 究。環顧香港關於遊學的學術研究，似乎集中探討參與學生的轉變（Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Ho, 2012; Wong, 2012）。Cheng（2009）的博士研究旨在分析香港中學生在中國連南瑤族自 84 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 治縣遊學及其前後的體驗，引證遊學有助學生獲得高階反思學習的機會，擴闊視野，學習與 不同文化背景的人相處；發展多元化技能，如計劃未來、適應無法預知的事件、與別人合作 解難等；比較當地人士與自己的生活，從中思考處境及相應行動；借鏡別人經歷，建立積極 的人生態度（Cheng, 2009; Cheng & Ho, 2012）。另一方面，Wong（2012）的博士研究旨在 探研香港中學生在中國內地不同地區遊學及其前後的體驗，發現遊學有助學生提高學習普通 話的動機，而學生可從兩地比較中反思，有助增進對內地和香港文化的認識，並促進批判／ 明辨性思考能力。實證研究顯示，遊學對於促進學習與增長歷練具有一定作用。 要提高遊學的學習成效，除了理論和研究以外，評估是重要一環，而評估的對象包括課 程與學生。課程評估方面，林德成（2013）指出香港課程改革以學生全人發展為重點，使學 生參與不同形式活動的機會增加，而這些活動包含預期之外的學習成果，宜採用不受目標所 限的評估模式，同時著眼於預期學習成果和預期之外的學習成果，以促進課程的成效。學生 評估方面，Biggs & Tang（1998）解釋教師和學生對評估的觀點有別，形成教學和學習的不 同序列，如圖一所示： 圖一　教學和學習的序列（Biggs & Tang, 1998, p. 453） 圖一表明學生對評估相當重視，學習活動及成果均取決於此。遊學作為一種學習方式， 可以引入促進學習評估。要達到促進學習評估的目標，教師可以靈活採用合適的評估策略， 例如：觀察、自我報告、學習日誌、學習合約、專題研習、學習檔案等，從而了解學生的表現， 並顯示其學習成果（羅耀珍，2008）。 85 圖二展示的四重架構，可用以剖析遊學在香港社會脈絡發展的情況。各領域與遊學的關 係，概述如下： 1. 於國家領域：相關部門及委員會，包括：民政事務局、教育局、公民教育委員會、 青年事務委員會等，在不同層面參與遊學相關政策的制訂及執行，而相關單位更會 舉辦或資助遊學活動。 2. 於公共領域：公益機構、志願團體、宗教組織、學校等，均可以因應各自條件及需要， 舉辦不同主題、性質和內容的遊學。 市民社會視角下的遊學 要較全面理解遊學在社會脈絡的內涵，可以借用 Janoski（1998）提出的「市民社會」 （Civil Society）四重架構分析，當中包含國家、公共、市場與私人領域之間糾葛複雜的關係。 學界對於「Civil Society」的解說莫衷一是，常見的漢譯有六種：文明社會、民間社會、政治 社會、市民社會、公民社會和公共領域（李琪明，2001）。王紹光（1991）根據政治思想史 的軌跡，指出「Civil Society」應譯為「市民社會」。市民社會的四重架構，如圖二所示： 圖二　市民社會概念圖（簡化自 Janoski, 1998, p. 13） 86 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 3. 於市場領域：企業、工會、旅行社、學習中心等，都可以籌辦遊學，例如一些旅行 社自行策劃或受委托舉辦遊學團。 4. 於私人領域：家庭、同儕等，都會影響學生在遊學的選擇及參與。例如有些學生較 重視友儕關係，參與遊學活動前，會先與同儕商議，結伴同行。 上述市民社會包含的四個領域，並非各自獨立運作，而是互為影響的。舉例說，志願團 體可以申請政府的資助，委託旅行社籌辦遊學，亦可安排合適活動，供參加者的家庭成員和 同儕投入其中。這四個領域交織成一幅動態大圖像，引證遊學不僅涉及學校教育，而是與不 同領域互有關連。同時，浮現一個有待深思的問題：在學習的前提下，如何協調各領域的角 色及參與，以促進遊學的成效？ 遊學知識建構的旨趣 運用市民社會視角，可以開啟遊學在宏觀層面的思考。微觀層面，討論遊學的理念與實 踐，可以參考德國思想巨擘哈伯瑪斯（J. Habermas）的知識論，他將人類的知識建構歸納為 三種旨趣：「技術——控制」、「實踐——理解」、「批判——自由」（Habermas, 1972）。 以教師帶領學生參與的遊學為例，這三種旨趣展現相應範式的遊學，在定位、重點、設計原 則、參與者角色及評估方向各具特色，如表一所示： 表一　遊學的知識建構旨趣 技術——控制 實踐——理解 批判——自由 遊學定位 成品產出 建構過程 解放機會 遊學重點 程序操作 溝通交流 啟迪智慧 遊學的設計原則 確保順暢的作業流程 促進內部溝通及 與外界的接觸 增進獨立、 自主和思考 學生角色 接收者 探究者 詮釋者 教師角色 帶領完成任務 創造學習機會 促使增權賦能 遊學的評估方向 重視預設標準 重視實際經歷 重視體會及轉變 87 於「技術——控制」範式，遊學可視為成品產出，重點是程序操作。這範式下的遊學意義， 在於確保順暢的作業流程，以工具理性作為依據。舉例說，香港旅遊業議會（2007）制訂《經 營遊學團守則（修訂版）》，當中包括「遊學團重要項目一覽表」和「團隊安全質量監察表」， 對遊學的籌辦和實施詳列注意事項。推行過程中，教師領導學生完成任務，而學生則是接收 者。評估方面，按照預設標準進行考量，而學習成效主要由教師判斷。 於「實踐——理解」範式，遊學可視為建構過程，重點是溝通交流。這範式下的遊學意義， 並非來自身體移動的經歷，而在於促進參與者的內部溝通，以及跟外界的接觸。推行過程中， 學生是探究者，而教師擔任引導者，為學生創造學習機會。評估方面，學生的實際經歷需作 整理分析，而學習成效不可能仰賴教師作出判斷。 於「批判——自由」範式，遊學可視為解放機會，重點是啟迪智慧。這範式下的遊學意義， 不限於恪守規條或複製成功經驗，而在於增進學生的獨立自主。推行過程中，學生是詮釋者， 而教師應對他們增權賦能，讓他們可以自由表達意見、展現潛能及激發想像，從反思中學習。 評估方面，學生的體會及轉變需要加以檢視，而學習成效不可能只是取決於教師的意見。 上述三種知識建構的旨趣，展現遊學的不同範式，為遊學的理念和實踐提供參考框架， 有助照顧參加者的多樣性。 遊學轉化學習的歷程 討論遊學的理念與實踐，可以借用「通過儀式」的概念。「通過儀式」原是指「伴 隨著從一個境地到另一境地，從一個到另一個（宇宙或社會）世界之過渡式進程」（van Gennep，譯 2010，頁 10），它可分為三個階段：分離、邊緣或閾限、聚合，而閾限階段屬於 模棱兩可及反結構的狀態（Turner, 2009）。Nelson & Harper（2006）參照「通過儀式」的觀 點，以學習者為中心，提出由四種循環狀態構成的轉化學習歷程，包括聚合狀態、分離狀態、 閾限狀態和再聚合狀態，學習者在不同狀態各有特點，如表二所示： 88 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 學習者的狀態 學習者的特點 聚合狀態 處於靜態，難以察覺新的可能 分離狀態 願意暫停懷疑，存而不論 閾限狀態 感受挑戰，質疑當前理解，以批判的心態，面對待決事情 再聚合狀態 經歷轉化或改變，置身於新的知識境界 表二　轉化學習的歷程 配合學習者在轉化學習歷程的狀態和特點，以學生為對象的遊學，可因應需要而加入以 下重點： 1. 聚合狀態：配合原有學習經歷而設計活動，為學生提供深化理解的機會，例如指導 學生在出發前搜集相關資料。 2. 分離狀態：舉辦行前簡介會，透過教師和學生之間互動，激發探索的好奇心，讓學 生預備接受新觀點。 3. 閾限狀態：提供多元化的行程，讓學生開放感官，檢視原有信念，注入新思維。又 可以安排分享會，讓成員之間進行對話，甚或互相質疑和詰問，從而釐清問題和觀 念，促進批判性思考能力。 4. 再聚合狀態：安排延展學習活動，例如行程結束後安排跟進課堂或活動，鼓勵學生 進行更深入的剖析，作出更睿智的判斷。 轉化學習歷程以持續學習為基調，目的是改變學習者的心智模式；對於遊學的策劃、組織和 推行，可以帶來啟迪。 遊學的知識管理 一次遊學完滿成功，其效用難以永久存留。從知識管理的視角分析，遊學應該是不斷積 累和創造知識的過程。知識可以分為內隱和外顯知識，內隱知識是個人的，與特別情境有 關，較難以形式化和溝通；外顯知識指可以運用形式化、制度化語言傳遞的知識（Polanyi, 2009）。無論個人參與層面或組織實施層面，遊學同樣蘊含內隱和外顯知識。舉例說，遊學 團成員之間的默契屬於難以言傳的內隱知識，而配合遊學的專題研習報告是外顯知識；學校 舉辦遊學的信念和經驗是內隱知識，而為遊學編寫的計劃書、工作手冊屬於外顯知識。 89 圖三展示的框架，可用以說明遊學知識創造的螺旋過程。共同化由特定範圍的互動開始， 以促使經驗分享，例如學生遊學期間對不同人物、地景、事件的觀察和體會，形成共鳴的知 識。透過對話與集體思考，內隱知識得以外化，例如學生以文字或圖畫表達感受，形成觀念 性知識。不同外顯知識的結合，可以產生新知識，例如學生各自在簡報會分享專題研習成果， 使不同知識接合，形成系統化知識。內化則透過邊做邊學，使外顯知識由實際操作轉為內隱 知識，例如行程結束後，學生仍會以各種方式學習及實踐。然後，個人的內隱知識會與別人 的內隱知識互動，再度啟動共同化，形成螺旋狀的循環。由此可見，遊學需要聚焦、深化和 持續，以促進學與教的成效。 根據日本學者野中郁次郎和竹內弘高提出的知識創造理論，知識創造包含四種知識轉換 模式：（1）由內隱轉換為內隱，稱為共同化；（2）由內隱轉為外顯，稱為外化；（3）由外 顯轉為外顯，稱為結合；（4）由外顯轉為內隱，稱為內化（Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995）。這 四種知識轉換模式，如圖三所示： 圖三　知識的螺旋發展（合併自 Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995, pp. 71-72, 圖 3-3 和 3-4） 90 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 小結與再出發 法蘭西學術院的院士米歇爾．塞荷（Michel Serres）從「知識吟遊者」的故事，敘說旅 行目的不在遠方，而是追求內在安頓，深信「沒有學習能夠避免旅行」（許宏儒，2011，頁 49）。本文探索遊學的意義與實踐，跨文化到跨學科，國際視野到香港脈絡，宏觀到微觀， 策劃到參與；知識系譜考掘本身便是遊和學並重的旅程。這旅程尋覓的目標，不是一服立效 的學與教萬靈丹，而是各種可行建議。本文借用不同理論作分析，各具啟迪作用：市民社會 四重架構，顯示遊學並非只涉及學校教育，需要多方面的配合；三種知識建構的旨趣，以及 四種循環狀態構成的轉化學習歷程，不約而同示範分層遞進的學習模式，為遊學的設計與推 展提供參考框架；知識管理的觀點，說明遊學的持續發展有賴各種知識的接合和轉換。這一 系列理論的共通點是，確認遊學經驗變化多端，呼應 Urry & Larson（2011）指旅遊經驗本質 是多元與流動的論調。當然，任何理論得視乎實際情況，靈活運用，或加以調適，以配合遊 學經驗多元與流動的本質。 唐代（618-907）文豪柳宗元在〈始得西山宴游記〉一文，以「然後知吾嚮之未始游，游 於是乎始」作結，意思是他知道以前的遊歷不算是遊歷，而真正的遊歷從該文敘述的這一次 才開始（何沛雄，1990，頁 32）；更重要是，語句點明往昔不過是形軀之遊，而這一次卻是 精神層次之遊（鄧城鋒，2012）。顯然，教育工作者不會期望學生參與遊學僅是身體移動， 而是期望學生藉經歷在思想、知識、技能、價值觀和態度有所獲益。展望遊學在香港脈絡下 持續發展，在其多元意義的基礎上，可以透過政策配合、理論建構、研究開展、分享平台建 立等多方面配合，匯聚教育專業層面內外的討論，為全社會創造遊學的論述和參與機會，由 個人到群體，從組織到跨組織，啟動內隱和外顯知識的螺旋轉換，使遊學知識積澱與創新， 以多元視角促進學生的全人發展，為推動學生學習的遊學再出發作好準備。 91 參考文獻 《香港經濟日報》（2013.11.23）。〈幼園豪華遊學團　收費 2.4 萬至 3 萬〉，A18 版。撰文：杜潔心。取自 http://www.hket.com/eti/article/d3561e66-c657-42ff-b381- 2dcaaaf0aaf0-534610。 中央研究院語言學研究所（2014）。〈「搜文解字」資料庫〉。2014 年 8 月 15 日，取 自 http://words.sinica.edu.tw/sou/sou.html。 王志弘（2011）。〈導言——文化治理、地域發展與空間政治〉。載王志弘（編），《文 化治理與空間政治》（頁 9-28）。台北：群學出版。 王紹光（1991）。〈關於市民社會的幾點思考〉。《二十一世紀》，第 8 期，102-114。 全方位學習組（2003）。〈全方位學習經歷優質架構：理論與實踐〉。2014 年 8 月 15 日， 取自 http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/lwl/QF/pdf/Quality_LWL_Experience_chi_May2004. pdf。 何沛雄（1990）。《永州八記導讀》。香港：中華書局。 李嵐（2013）。《行旅體驗與文化想像：論中國現代文學發生的游記視角》。北京：中 國社會科學出版社。 李琪明（2001）。《兩岸德育與意識型態》。台北：五南圖書。 林志德（2013）。〈關懷學生的生命成長——閒暇活動的再思〉。《教師中心傳真》， 第 82 期，頁 4-5。 林慧美（2013.12.13）。〈旅人時光：有個快樂童年〉。《東方日報》，E11 版。 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(1998). Assessment by portfolio: Constructing learning and designing teaching. In P. Stimpson, & P. Morris (Eds.), Curriculum and Assessment for Hong Kong: Two components, one system (pp. 443-462). Hong Kong: Open University of Hong Kong Press. Bok, D. C. (2003). Universities in the marketplace: The commercialization of higher education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Castells, M. (1989). The informational city: Information technology, economic restructuring and the urban-regional process. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 93 Cheng, K. T. (2009). Learning through reflection in an educational tour: A visit to Liannan by Hong Kong secondary school students (Doctoral Dissertation). Hong Kong: Open University of Hong Kong. Cheng, K. T., & Ho, K. K. (2012). A reflective learning taxonomy for an educational tour. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 11(3), 243-260. Duhs, A. (2013). Education tourism. In C. A. 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Teacher Education Quarterly, 33(2), 7-21. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press. Polanyi, M. (2009). The tacit dimension. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Ritchie, B. W., Carr, N., & Cooper, C. P. (2003). Managing educational tourism. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Sandel, M. (2012). What money can’t buy: The moral limits of markets. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Sweet, R. (2012). Cities and the grand tour: The British in Italy, c.1690-1820. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tarrant, M., & Lyons, K. (2012). The effect of short-term educational travel programs on environmental citizenship. Environmental Education Research, 18(3), 403-416. Turner, V. W. (2009). The ritual process: Structure and anti-structure. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction. 94 遊於是乎始——多元視角下的遊學意義 United Nations. (2010). World programme of action for youth. New York: United Nations. Urry, J., & Larson, J. (2011). The tourist gaze 3.0. London: Sage Publications. van Gennep, A. （2010）。《過渡禮儀》，張舉文（譯）。北京：商務印書館。（原著 出版年：1909） Wong, K. Y. (2012). Study tours by Hong Kong students to mainland China: Their effects on the identity and motivation to learn Putonghua (Doctoral Dissertation). Durham: University of Durham. 95 Tours begin - Multiple perspectives on the meaning of study tours LAM Chi Tak Postgraduate of South China Normal University Abstract Going on study tours is a long-standing cross-cultural phenomenon. Research studies reveal that study tours are conducive to learning and gaining experiences. In digging up the genealogy of study tours, this interdisciplinary concept can be considered as a category of travel which embraces the elements of different disciplines such as tourism and education. Putting study tours in the context of the Hong Kong school curriculum, it can be classified as a part of life-wide learning and linked with curriculum, and stakeholders play different roles in the discourse and participation of study tours. This paper attempts to explore the meaning of study tours from multiple perspectives. It starts with a general overview of connotations and development of study tours, and then a discussion on the controversies and reflections. Recommendations are thus provided in the hope that they would yield insights into the concepts and implementations of study tours. Keywords meaning of study tour, educational travel, educational tourism, life-wide learning, cross- culture phenomenon 96 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools LEUNG Lai Sim Creative Teachers Association, EdD student at the University of Bristol Abstract This study uses Dimmock and Walker’s cross-cultural comparative framework to investigate the interface between societal cultures and leadership styles in two primary schools in Hong Kong. The analysis shows that educational development and curriculum reform at the schools was influenced by global culture and by the local Hong Kong subculture. This case study illustrates the effect of leadership styles and culture on the development of educational reform in Hong Kong in the past 15 years. Keywords cross-cultural comparative framework, educational change, educational leadership, narrative inquiry 1. Background In education, visions of the future proliferate (Facer, 2011). In Hong Kong, a financial and commercial centre influenced by globalisation and nationalisation, education professionals face both challenges and opportunities. Successful educational reform requires a system based on professionalism rather than managerialism. According to Dewey (1938), every experience is both personal and social. This study uses the narrative inquiry method (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Clough, 2002; Trahar, 2013) as a qualitative strategy to understand the author’s own experiences in two schools and then uses those 97 perceptions to make generalisations about educational reform. As a Primary School Mistress (Curriculum Development) (PSMCD) for four years and as a General Studies panel head for eight years, the author experienced growth, conflicts and challenges. This study is an attempt to interpret the process of educational reform in the schools in which the author served. The broader global culture, the local subculture of educational changes and the educational system in Hong Kong, together with changes in the schools influenced educational development and curriculum reform at these schools. A comparison of the two schools illustrates the effect of different leadership styles and broader cultural, social, national and global forces on the schools. Dimmock and Walker’s (2005, p. 24) cross- cultural comparative framework, Fullan’s (1999, 2009) three phases of organisation development and other theories are used to deeply examine the cases. Finally, a relatively more comprehensive approach to educational reform is presented. 2. Methodology “ There is no better way to study curriculum than to study ourselves.” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988, p. 31) “ When we see an event, we think of it not as a thing happening at that moment but as an expression of something happening over time. Any event, or thing, has a past. A present as it appears to us, and an implied future.” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 29) John Dewey is one of the most influential people in narrative inquiry (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 1). For him, every experience is both personal and social. An individual’s perceptions of knowledge, values or pedagogy can reflect a person’s attitude towards temporary and historical social influences (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Dewey, 1938). This research adopts the methodology of narrative inquiry. The author served as a curriculum development leader in two related half-day primary schools sharing the same building for eleven years and witnessed their growth and separation. Historical and interpretive research methods are used to analyse this process. The book “Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000) provides theoretical support for this study. Understanding the process of educational reform in these two schools through the author’s personal reflections and assumptions and her interpretation of relevant theories may reveal some insights into education professional development. Intensive and up-close participation are part of the author’s strategy of qualitative research. 98 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools 3. Framework for the case study Hong Kong is an international financial city. It has an open system and changes in education follow global trends that are then modified by local commercial and Confucian cultural influences. “ A key direction for educational leadership and management in the twenty- first century is to embrace an international, cultural and cross-cultural comparative perspective.” (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, p. 15) Dimmock and Walker provide a detailed justification for their approach. According to their cross-cultural comparative framework, shown in Figure 1 (Dimmock & Walker, 2005, p. 24), a school is influenced by the societal culture, which in this case study the author identifies as a mix of traditional Chinese and modern global cultural influences. Figure 1. A cross-cultural school-focused framework for the comparison of educational leadership 99 The local community continues to be influenced by hybrid Chinese cultural traditions (Walker, 2004, p. 78), such as Chinese beliefs about relationships, organisation and leadership. However, economic globalisation requires that education in Hong Kong also follows the trends seen in most developed countries. This trend is related to the Third Way (Shirley, 2011), which uses a managerialist and market-oriented approach to enhance quality in education and subsequently economic growth (Tang, 2011). The education reforms spreading around the world are driven not only by market conditions, but also by concepts of managerialism and performance (Ball, 2003; Tang, 2011). This approach has ushered in a new orthodoxy of testing, accountability and data-driven decision making (Shirley, 2011). As a result, “educators learned to game the system by cutting back on untested subjects and by concentrating on drilling students for exams” (Harris, 2011, p. 165). Hong Kong as an open system is strongly influenced by the outside world (Cheng, 2009). These new educational theories, ideas, paradigm shifts and practices have been imported over the last two decades. The regional subculture, which the author defines as Hong Kong educational reform, also deeply influences schools’ educational leadership styles. Due to the political transition in July 1997 and the fast-changing economic environment in the Asia-Pacific Region, Hong Kong has experienced great transformational change within the last two decades: “In the last ten years, the Education and Manpower Bureau implemented numerous initiatives to change nearly every key aspect of the school system, from the administrative structure to the curriculum organization; from the school governance and management to the classroom teaching and learning; from the application of information technology to the examination system; and from the school external and internal evaluation to the accountability to the stakeholders” (Cheng, 2009). Primary schools have been affected by curriculum reform, assessment reform and changes in the school places allocation mechanism. School-based management, school self-evaluation, external school reviews, performance indicators and so on restrict, construct and direct the way schools are run. The administrative process controls and assesses the performance of schools. Due to the city’s colonial past, many administrators are accustomed to following instructions and avoiding mistakes; this can make them short-sighted. At the same time, there is a global trend towards the development of pedagogy for knowledge-based societies rooted in life- long learning. Since the change in sovereignty, the educational system in Hong Kong has changed rapidly. Nurturing quality citizenship is an essential component of this new system. New posts for educational leaders are increasing (Education Bureau, 2012). In addition to traditional positions such as “Senior Assistant Master/Mistress” and “Assistant Master/ Mistress”, there are now posts for “Senior Primary School Master/Mistress” (SPSM), “Primary School Master/Mistress” (PSM) and “Assistant Primary School Master/ 100 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Mistress” (APSM). However, the authority for school development is still mainly in the hands of the principal and the SPSM, who generally emphasise managerial skills rather than professional educational development. Management development is shaped by performance pressures, which are dominated by a measurement paradigm, whereas educational development focuses on learning paradigms that emphasise the importance of learning construction in the classroom and the effectiveness of students’ authentic learning experiences. For instance, managers in Hong Kong support the “Territory-wide System Assessment” (TSA) and “Pre-Secondary One Hong Kong Attainment Test” (Pre-S1 Test) by providing more drilling exercises for children (Tang, 2011). In this paradigm, strong leadership directs educational development and both principals and teachers expect to be given clear directions for achieving short-term goals (Walker, Dimmock, & Pang, 2002). Schools are influenced by societal culture, regional subcultures and their position in the wider educational system with each school also having its own organisational culture. Organisational structures, leadership and management processes, curriculum, and teaching and learning are the four elements that interact to create schooling. In the following section, the author makes use of the framework given in Figure 1 to interpret her own experience of curriculum reform and development in Hong Kong schools. 4. Case study outline and background A school is a complex system that undergoes multiple processes of development. A leader’s mental models or beliefs are part of the system and, along with the structure, determine the system’s behaviour. Therefore, analysing school leaders’ thought processes and their effect on changes in the school system can help us to understand the system more completely. The two half-day primary schools discussed in this study (hereafter called “School A” and “School B”) were established in 1992 and were originally located in a public housing estate. They are run by the same school-sponsoring body and before 2005 they shared the same building, vision, mission, developmental plan and strategies, teaching and learning curriculum, teacher management and assessment papers and so on. Most of the students’ parents are grassroots workers without good educational backgrounds, so they rely on the schools to educate their children. The administrators and professional leaders of the schools before 2005 were eager to promote and integrate new ideas, thinking skills and creativity in the teaching and learning process collaboratively. For the pre-2005 period, these two schools’ reporting lines showed that it can be treated as one system. For instance, the principal of School B was in charge of the General 101 Studies and English departments for both schools and the principal of School A was in charge of the Chinese and Mathematics departments in both schools. As a General Studies panel head, the author was at that time responsible to the principal of School B. In 2005, the two half-day schools separated to turn into two individual whole-day schools and the well-developed cross-disciplinary curriculum could no longer exist. There was no further collaboration or professional development interaction between the two schools. The creation of effective and student-centred interdisciplinary project learning modes in the classroom stopped. In the post-2005 period, School A has focused on subject development and has de-emphasised interdisciplinary teaching and learning. This study examines the following questions: 1. What problems arose from the interaction between the educational changes and leadership styles? 2. Why was the more than 10-year investment of time and resources into building and integrating the curriculum abandoned? 3. What can we learn from this case of leadership changes? 5. Analysis According to Fullan’s notion (1999), the process of school improvement has three phases: “initiation”, “implementation” and “institutionalisation or abandonment”. These two schools underwent two cycles of school improvement; the first was from the establishment of the school until 2002 and the second was from 2002 until the present. 5.1 Analysis of the first change cycle The first 10 years of development are outlined in Table 1. 102 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Table 1. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the first cycle of change Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 1992-1994 Initiation Target focus – As School A and School B were newly established at that time and were run by a not very well-known school- sponsoring body, both schools needed to secure a stable intake of students. The keen competition and demand for accountability drove the adoption of private corporate management practices for running the school, in theory at least, more effectively and efficiently. Relevance – The two schools collaborated successfully. They shared a professional vision, mission, goals, developmental strategies, educational planning system and assessment structure. Innovation was driven by hidden “market” needs and educational professionalism. Readiness – The schools established an employment system and psychologically prepared administrators for their roles. Resources – There were many opportunities for promotion, four core leaders were employed from an experienced school, the two schools were located in a new development area with a big pool of students and keen competition. School system – The two schools shared a building and other resources. Effective management Long-term professional developmental strategies and plans Leaders believed in the use of an up-to-date pedagogy of learning High expectations and clear vision and mission Engaged many young and enthusiastic teachers Active co-operation Formal and concentrated management and leadership 103 Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 1994-1997 Implementation Change agent – The principals, vice- principals and assistant masters and mistresses of the two schools were the agents of change. The leadership styles of the two principals were different, and the co-operation made good use of their managerial and transformational leadership styles. Professional development – The schools followed Hong Kong’s educational reform (Education Commission, 1990, 1992, 1997) trends. They adopted an effective and student-centred approach, promoted professional development, emphasised an activity approach, had regular planning meetings and lesson observations and shared teaching aids. Staff members were organised as one school. The same set of examination papers was used at both schools. Power-concentrated – They used a paternalistic approach, top-down, fight for survival among schools to push the managerial thinking mode, the acceptance of hierarchy and respect for senior teachers. Action plan – The action plan was for school-based management School-based management Managerial and professional working teams Successful promotion and managerial system High demand and good results for student allocation to the better secondary schools Reinforcement of development strategies Table 1. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the first cycle of change (continued) 104 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 1997-2002 Institutional- isation The schools were characterised by successful teacher developmental strategies and an institutionalised school culture that meant teachers were eager to learn, to try and to share for the good of students. Because the schools had already experienced a paradigm shift and pedagogical reform, they successfully implemented the educational reforms in Hong Kong (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). The schools developed information technology where teachers started to learn how to both store materials in, and retrieving materials from, the school server. Action plan – The plan focused on school- based management and school-based curriculum development, well-planned integrated project learning twice a year. Teachers were eager to follow the lead of senior teachers. The principals started to delegate authority for school self- assessment among their senior staff. The schools creates a collaborative culture for quality learning and teaching. School- based curriculum developed. Both schools joined the “School Around the World” project (HKSAW Steering Committee, 2002), and created a framework for project learning for General Studies. The schools adopted a modern and up-to-date teaching and learning mode: a student-centred activity approach that included out-door activities, other learning experiences, school- based curriculum reform, project learning, etc. Stakeholders experienced the positive values of the school culture. The schools were appreciated by parents. Table 1. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the first cycle of change (continued) 105 As new schools established in 1992, School A and School B followed the recommendations in the seven reports of the Education Commission’s policy recommendations from 1984 to 1997 (Education Commission, 1984, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1996, 1997), which reflected the paradigm shift from quantity to quality. Leaders developed a widely shared vision for the schools. They built a consensus on school goals and priorities, and maintained high performance expectations for staff and students. Modelling good professional behaviour, building school culture and collaborative structures, and providing intellectual stimulation through teacher-sharing were the dimensions of leadership practice (Bush, 2005) in the schools in this period. Gradually, the schools built collaborative structures and professional cultures. Although the leadership styles of the principals of the two schools were completely different, where one was perceived as more managerial in approach while the other was perceived as more transformational (Bush, 2005), they both respected each other and co-operated successfully to lead the schools. While managerial leadership may ensure the implementation of a school’s vision and strategy, it may be argued that transformational leadership engages with staff and other stakeholders to produce higher levels of commitment to achieve the goals of the organisation that are linked to such a vision (Bush, 2005). During the first change cycle, managerial leadership dominated the administration, and professional leaders executed the educational reforms smoothly and effectively. Gradually, the schools built their own cultures, analysed using the dimensions of societal culture as shown in Table 2 (Walker, Dimmock, & Pang, 2002, p. 40). Table 2. Comparison of leadership in the two schools with different cultural settings Dimension of societal culture Leadership in culture School A School B Power-distributed/ power-concentrated • Leadership from the top • Teamwork and empowerment • Respect for seniority of management more than for education • Goals mainly set by top administrators • Acceptance of wide power and status differentials between principal and teachers • Delegation/decentralisation with control • Leadership from the top • Teamwork and empowerment • Respect for seniority of leadership • Goals set by top administrators • Acceptance of wide power and status differentials between principal and teachers • Power-concentrated 106 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Dimension of societal culture Leadership in culture School A School B Group-oriented/ self-oriented • Emphasis on the “group” as a collective to which the individual has to conform • Closed confrontation of differences • Emphasis on personal “goals” • Drive to secure commitment and high morals • Support for teachers seen as essential • Maintenance of social networks Consideration/ aggression • Conflict resolved through edict • Teacher and students status based on effort and achievement • Assertiveness seen as a virtue • Decisiveness and emphasis on career are valued • Overt competition promoted Pro-activism/ fatalism • Belief that we can do little but accept life’s eventualities • Low tolerance for ambiguity • Long-term view of evolving change • More on care and support and personal interest • Hierarchy, standardisation and conformity stressed • Belief in capacity to shape and influence the present and future • High tolerance for ambiguity • Sense of urgency • Adherence to mutual duties • Pro-activism Generative/ replicative • More likely to adopt innovations • Experimentation in classroom common and encouraged, while traditional approaches to teaching and learning endure • Problems solved mainly through referral to precedent • Appear more predisposed toward innovation • Experimentation in classroom common and encouraged • New ideas and ways of working valued • Original policies and ways of operating Limited/holistic relationships • Formal rules and regulations applied equally to everyone • Tasks stressed as much or more than relationships • Care taken not to alienate people • Greater attention given to relationship obligations • Valued as much or more than tasks • Advancement based mostly on performance and competence Table 2. Comparison of leadership in the two schools with different cultural settings (continued) 107 Over their first 10 years (1992-2002), these two schools developed into well-known and high quality schools. Parents in the region wanted their children to study there. During this period, school improvements came from the schools’ own initiatives and the leaders were aware of the importance of school development. With strong leadership and the recruitment of young, energetic and enthusiastic teachers, the schools built up relatively ideal systems. The school professional development culture became institutionalised. As a result, educational reform at these schools occurred before the push from the government. The schools’ system for reinforcing development is illustrated in Figure 2. Figure 2. The first cycle of school development: Reinforcing loop for better development 5.2 Analysis of the second cycle of change Responding to the changing world, the Hong Kong government initiated large scale and pedagogical changes in education at the end of the twentieth century. The Education Commission in 2000 claimed to adopt the principles of student-focused, “no-loser”, quality and life-long learning (Cheng, 2009). In 2002, the government provided each school with a temporary curriculum development officer, a post called the Primary School Masters/Mistresses (Curriculum Development) (PSMCD), for five years, to help principals carry out curriculum reform smoothly and deeply. Later, the post became permanent. 108 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Eight key learning areas, generic skills, values and attitudes were emphasised (Education Commission, 2000). As an APSM and a panel head of General Studies with experience in project learning and curriculum design, the author was recommended for the post of PSMCD in School A. She was responsible for carrying out school-based curriculum development during this time. The processes of the second cycle of development and the outcome are outlined in Table 3. Table 3. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the second cycle of change Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 2002-2003 Initiation The new PSMCDs in the two schools collaborated closely to further and deepen the schools’ education curriculum reform. Eight key learning areas, generic skills, values and attitudes were emphasised (Education Commission, 2000). The process encouraged teachers to experience a paradigm shift from traditional teaching and thinking modes to a student-centred and school- based curriculum. An interdisciplinary curriculum including project learning, other learning experiences, moral and civic education, thematic teaching, life-long learning, and application and learning by doing were widely promoted (Curriculum Development Council, 2001). School management encouraged more teacher autonomy for the daily implementation of change. A three-year curriculum development plan was proposed and agreed on. Top-down demands for further and deeper educational reforms concentrated on quality learning and teaching were received from the Education and Manpower Bureau. Drafted and confirmed three- year school- based curriculum development plan 109 Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes 2003-2006 Implementation Based on previous experience and teachers’ abilities, the PSMCDs of the two schools collaborated on a three-year interdisciplinary project learning curriculum development plan (Figure 3). The principals of the two schools agreed and supported more teachers’ participation in curriculum construction, lesson plan design and implementation. Starting from Primary 4 in 2003 until Primary 5 in 2005, two school teachers co- operated and shared the workload of teaching these levels. To build up long-term teaching resources, the schools proposed for and carried out a Quality Education Fund (QEF) in 2004. With the help of these extra resources, the schools constructed two websites for long-term learning. The three-year plan was carried out successfully. A cross-disciplinary curriculum that included project learning, other learning experiences, moral and civic education, thematic teaching, life-long learning and learning by doing was developed during this period. In this period, School A had three principals, one after another. The change in personnel did not change the school’s management culture or the thinking mode. Management without vision is rightly criticised as “managerialist” but vision without effective implementation is bound to lead to frustration (Bush, 2005). In 2005, the two half- day schools separated to turn into two whole-day schools. The disagreements about the two schools’ future co-operation and the diversified school development strategies reflected in the widening gap between the cultures of the schools. The new principal of School A followed the school’s tradition and the senior administrators’ culture, which was more likely “managerialist”. The principal of School B had a school vision that created new challenges. Teachers were required to support the vision and targets of the principal. Conflict between the two schools’ administrative cultures became an explosive issue. Moreover, external changes in the market- driven system and business managerialism increased the conflict. In 2006, the two schools stopped curriculum collaboration. Table 3. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the second cycle of change (continued) 110 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Years and phase Characteristics Outcomes Post-2006 Modification & abandonment The culture and styles of the resultant two whole- day schools were very different. School A had an external school review in 2006. After the review, the school stopped integrating cross-disciplinary project learning and General Studies project learning into daily classroom learning. Project learning became part of a one to two weeks learning sessions after examinations. The school allocated more resources to the learning of languages, Mathematics, TSA and exam drilling exercises. The well-established cross-disciplinary project learning curriculum was abandoned. Life-long learning, multi-diversity learning experiences and integrated professional cultures were de-emphasised. School B tried many innovations based on a student-centred and caring vision. Teacher development and parental and community involvement created a good environment for students. Student-centred pedagogies were promoted. After eight years of development, the school became one of the best-known schools in the area. The principal won awards for leadership. The school engaged staff and other stakeholders to produce higher levels of commitment to achieve the goals. Both schools had shifted from an internal change agent to changes mandated by an external agent (Tang, 2011). The abandonment of the new paradigm in School A shows the power of the traditional culture. The school went through the first and second change cycle but did not undergo the third change cycle, which required leaders to make fundamental paradigm shifts to promoting the life-long learning abilities of children. However, with transformational leadership, the principal of School B successfully motivated senior and new teachers, parents and community followers and provided good services for students. Due to a good foundation and good exam results, School A could attract enough students. It paid more attention to exam-oriented teaching and the learning of languages and Mathematics. Owing to the falling student population in the school area, School B struggled for survival. It continued to emphasise a student- centred approach with a vision. Transformational leadership was used to encourage teachers and stakeholders to help achieve the goals. Table 3. The characteristics of the school improvement process and the outcomes of the second cycle of change (continued) 111 Figure 3. A three-year interdisciplinary project learning curriculum development plan In the initiation and implementation stages, the author experienced, at first hand, the perception of children who were learning happily and effectively. The students created project books with highly advanced ideas, such as they pretending to be reporters or Olympic ambassadors while practising English or Putonghua with each other. They used what they had learnt in Mathematics lessons to conduct surveys and then made presentations with PowerPoint or by using craft materials. The group work process in the classroom allowed them to communicate and disagree with each other. They learnt how to solve problems and give their ideas in tangible shape or form. Parents sometimes joined in and helped to guide their children’s learning. At the beginning of the project, children set their own learning targets and co-operated with each other to learn. Their learning, therefore, became more meaningful and target-orientated. Throughout the two or more months of interdisciplinary preparation and learning, their learning outcomes were rich and substantive. These processes helped them to construct their learning and helped to enhance their learning outcomes (Figures 4 and 5) during lessons. Students used 112 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools different methods such as mind maps to visualise their thinking about the spirit of Hong Kong. Most of them were happy to creatively express their feelings. Their thinking skills, particularly their creative thinking skills, were thus aroused. The outcomes of the projects and the action research were, respectively, shared at the Hong Kong Education City and in the Fourth Thinking Qualities Initiative Seminar at Hong Kong Baptist University (Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited, 2013). Figure 4. Project structure and concept map of the Primary 4 “In search of Hong Kong spirit” project 113 Figure 5. Project structure and concept map for assessment of the Primary 5 “Beijing Olympics” project Six years after leaving the school, the author had a chance to meet five New Senior Secondary school graduates who had experienced the six-year project learning programme in School A. A questionnaire was designed to collect their views. With permission, the author recorded conversations with them, to analyse their thoughts about the effect of project learning in primary school. All of them still remembered the happy learning experiences in the Primary 5 “Beijing Olympics” Project (Figure 5). One of them remembered specific strategies for thinking and learning learnt. Many said that the generic skills and abilities they gained through project learning in primary school allowed them to become leaders of project learning groups in secondary school. They found that not many pupils from other schools had the same level of experience as they did. Their experience inspired them to actively participate in the Liberal Studies lessons. They thought they could integrate concepts and produce school-based reports that were more effective, interesting and thoughtful due to their primary school learning. 114 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools Ten years were spent building the rich materials and the well-developed project learning model and framework. Many examples remain on the website. The experiences and pedagogies have been shared and published on several occasions. However, the administrators of School A decided that the neo-liberal styles of performative culture that use test regimes as indicators of school performance were more important for school development. They could do little but accept life’s eventualities. In 2006, after an external school review, School A abandoned the used of an interdisciplinary project as part of normal classroom learning. They restricted the pedagogy and methodology of project learning to a short period of one or two weeks in the academic year. The author believes that “drilling exercises” for the TSA and Pre-S1 Test took curriculum time away from any meaningful learning (Tang, 2011), something that is, unfortunately, common in schools in Hong Kong. Today, as a well-established system with good outcomes for students and experienced teachers, the new school system is welcomed by parents. Due to School B’s location being far away from residential areas and the declining student population, the new school struggled for survival during the second cycle. Without support from School A, School B continued to innovate with student-centred and happy learning pedagogy. With a transformational leadership style, the principal engaged with staff and other stakeholders to produce high levels of commitment to the school’s goals (Bush, 2005). Today, the school has a record of success. It has received a Green School Award, a Love School Award and a Community, Family and School Collaborative Project Award. 5.3 Analysis of the change process According to Dimmock and Walker’s framework, during the first cycle of change, the schools successfully collaborated in school development. They developed into two successful schools and had the chance to separate into two whole-day schools. In the second development cycle, the initiation and implementation stages of change were smooth and successful. Facing the demands of top-down educational reform, the two schools collaborated closely and adopted the same three-year development plan. With their traditional culture of collaboration, the two schools successfully applied to QEF to obtain more resources for curriculum development. With the two schools’ shared resources, they built a shared interdisciplinary project model and website resources over four years. However, the different cultures of the two schools widened when they separated. Although the principal of School B wanted the two schools to continue to co-operate as before, the administrators of School A strongly rejected this idea. Although in the first cycle, School A adopted a new mode of teaching and there was a paradigm shift from a traditional teaching method to the activity approach, the school leaders were influenced by traditional Chinese beliefs about relationships, organisation 115 and leadership. It was not a religious school and Catholic, Buddhist and Christian teachers worked there; diverse beliefs and cultures existed and they were all respected. However, traditional Chinese culture influenced the social order at the school. Every teacher had his or her occupational position and there was a clear hierarchical structure. Harmonious relationships among colleagues were based on respect for hierarchy, and a set of formalised codes of behaviour tied the whole school together. Teachers expected the principal to be strong (Walker, Dimmock, & Pang, 2002). During the transitional period when changing principals, the school senior administrators insisted on a culture of ‘managerialism’. By devoting more time to better exam performance results and free more time for teachers, they supported the school’s traditional values in deep structures. They did not support the interdisciplinary pedagogy that the principal of School B believed in. They did not really understand or believe in the spirit of an integrated learning strategy. The professional leaders had to replace their long-term development strategies with short- term development strategies. Standardisation and data-driven decision making dominated the development direction at that time. As the educational development strategies and ideologies of the two schools were different, then when School B moved out of the school campus, the co-operation between the two schools stopped. Each school continued to develop its own culture, thinking mode and system of development. “ Since management is culture-bound, it would be unrealistic to expect top down structural reform will effectively introduce an attitudinal change in organizations. If reforms are to be successful, they require a strong commitment and a change of values and attitudes on the part of leaders and subordinates.” (Leung & Chan, 2001) From its foundation, School A promoted a structure of hierarchical power relationships, where teachers were expected to respect management’s seniority in decision making. As a result, senior administrative decisions were to be seen as final and did not involve a process of consultation or transformational change. Individuals had to follow the “group” collective needs rather than their own personal “goals”. Conflicts were resolved through edict. Hierarchy, standardisation and conformity were stressed. Management had a tendency to mandate change from the top with active responses only welcomed from senior teachers. During the change process, the PSMCD concentrated on curriculum design, preparation of the teaching materials and instruction and not much on the participation of the senior teachers in the discussion. Most teachers did not have a feeling of ownership of the cross-disciplinary design and construction. Moreover, the second stage of the curriculum reform overwhelmed the teachers. It did not match the needs of their performance culture, which was shaped by increasingly popular external accountability measures. Public assessment made test results very high-stake goals. In their fight for survival, school administrators turned to extreme managerialism. 116 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools In addition to the local organisational culture that affected School A’s u-turn, Hong Kong’s regional culture also influenced the school’s decisions. With the existence of the “bottle-neck” in school education (Cheng, 2009), curriculum reform had become a heavy burden to teachers. The Committee on Teachers’ Work reported that teachers worked about 50 hours a week in 2006 (Tang, 2011). High mood disorders, suicidal tendencies and resignations were some of the negative effects of the syndrome in Hong Kong at that time. As a result, administrators at schools sought to ease the teaching burden, giving more time to training students in languages, Mathematics and examination preparation. The impact of this is that the focus on short-term results was methodologically and pedagogically different from the focus on life-long learning and professionalism. During this period, the global educational culture was also changing, and these changes influenced educational management in Hong Kong greatly. Along with most modern cities and countries in the world, Hong Kong experienced the Second Way and the Third Way of educational reform. In the Second Way period, governments introduced standardisation to promote accountability and used marketplace models of reform to drive innovation (Harris, 2011, p. 164). The Third Way reforms were based on a new orthodoxy of testing, accountability and data-driven decision making (Shirley, 2011). The government provided funding based on accountability and markets to ensure high performance. Professionalism was emphasised and developed (Yu, 2002; Wan, 2011) and life-long learning was promoted through the teaching of generic skills and project learning. However, data-driven decision making and target-obsessed distractions were the characteristics of the market-driven model of reform. As a result, the pressure for summative assessment increased in order to narrow any achievement gaps. Worst of all, the Third Way resulted in a narrowing of the curriculum in the form of teaching to the test and an over concentration on data rather than on student needs (Harris, 2011, p. 164). The fallacies of the Third Way educational reforms affected schools’ control systems. The change reinforced the current examination-oriented assessment practices. The world-wide failure of the Third Way has been pointed out by Hargreaves and Shirley (2009). They propose a Fourth Way that focuses on the function of professionalism. They believe that change should be driven by a need for change itself rather than by the outcomes of the change. The focus is on changes in the classroom and in students’ effective learning. The notion is similar to that promoted by the two case study schools in the first and the second phases. The schools promoted and implemented learning in the classroom through the lens of professionalism. Teachers were concerned with the effectiveness of student learning through activities. Constructivism and the promotion of rich experiences were the curriculum design pedagogies. However, the managerialism of the Third Way of educational reform caused arguments and conflicts, affecting both schools’ development. 117 The global norm of managerialism and the trend towards data-driven decision making influenced the development of the schools. Moreover, with the separation of the two half- day schools into two whole-day schools and the replacement of principals in School A, the culture of the schools and the styles of school leadership played a crucial role in the schools’ development. The main administrators of School A practiced managerial leadership, which helped to ensure the implementation of the school’s vision and strategy. However, the “managerialist” approach also lacked the student-centred vision after the separation of the two schools. In contrast, the transformational leadership (Bush, 2005) of the principal of School B successfully engaged staff, parents and social human resources, who worked together to achieve the school vision. 6. Strengths and limitations of narrative inquiry The author made use of her own experiences at two schools to investigate educational changes and leadership in the last two decades. The case study helped to organise the author’s analysis of the two schools’ development processes. As a researcher, the author made use of materials from the websites, reports, student interviews, reflections and memory. With the help of a literature review and the framework of Dimmock and Walker (2005), this study investigated the changes in these schools at the macro-, meso- and site-levels. The organisational culture and wider societal cultural framework help us to understand the decision making of the leadership during the period of educational reform. Understanding how the processes of organisational development and cultural change are influenced by trends in global and regional cultures, societies and individuals helps us to understand the strengths and weaknesses, the successes and failures of educational reform in Hong Kong. To a certain extent, the two schools reflect the complex interaction of global, local and individual school contexts during the process of educational reform. Yet, the interpretation of data, events, relationships and descriptions from only one angle may be biased. Nevertheless, the subjectivity of the author’s findings and interpretations is itself a social phenomenon. Although the reliability and validity of the data collection and interpretation could be improved through more interviews from different stakeholders, the author’s mind-set remains deeply influenced by particular temporary and historical social influences. Many experts believe that a person’s way of thinking comes from their life experiences. First-hand experience is the most profound and influential. Under globalisation, second-hand information from developed countries is becoming common. It is only local people who understand their own culture who can ensure that this does not result in internal contradictions and struggles (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). The main findings of this study may not be generalisable to other schools, but it is valuable to interpret the whole from a particular angle. They are helpful for promoting further 118 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools investigation and discussion. More cases will help to reconstruct the broader process of educational reform. Different stakeholders may offer different interpretations and arguments. This study offers a case study for reflection and further discussion. 7. Conclusions The case study indicates that education in Hong Kong has undergone numerous changes in the last two decades, with a variety of school-based curriculum initiatives. Some of the schools are still management-oriented and school leaders strongly influence school development. Some transformational leaders have successfully motivated followers to adopt a paradigm shift from managerialism to professionalism. Managerial leadership is an essential component of successful leadership. Transformational leadership effectively improves student outcomes (Leithwood, 1994), but only with effective implementation. Many schools have carried out the first phase of the change process, but have not continued into the second and third phases. This case study shows that without essential systems and mental mode changes, educational reform will not be effective and consistent. Although curriculum development with project learning, interdisciplinary school-based teaching and learning has been implemented in schools with the creation of new posts such as PSMCD and APSM, without the support of the principals and the co-operation of senior administrators, the curriculum reforms will not be successful. Further educational reform now needs to consider how to develop whole school professionalism, which will guide teachers to construct and carry out life-long learning for the next generation. Moreover, to promote Hong Kong as an education hub (Education Commission Working Group on the Development of Education Services in Hong Kong, 2011), the primary schools should prepare students to be young learners with a global view of active citizenship. Educational reforms that follow global changes too closely without considering our own context may hinder leadership development in the Pacific- Asia areas especially in Mainland China. Nowadays, the developed countries are looking at the Fourth Way of educational reform (Shirley, 2011). However, without foundations, logical thinking, practical investigation, educational research, contextual needs analysis and pedagogical support, we can only follow behind the modern world and cannot make good decisions that are appropriate to our own region and its place in the global world. As educators, we need to be concerned about the relationship between management and educational leadership at schools. Moreover, we should pay more attention to the relationship between the needs of our own city and educational reform. Preparing the next generation to face the complex and diverse world as potential leaders is our responsibility. There are still many things that educational leaders need to discuss about the best ways to nurture our students. The author hopes this case study will allow people to use the parts to see the whole. Then, our educational reform can match the needs of our stakeholders. 119 Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the guidance of Professor Leon Tikly during the course of the “Leading for Educational Change in Organisational Settings” unit and Dr Sheila Trahar on the course of “Learning and Teaching in the Global University” unit in the University of Bristol - Doctor of Education Programme. References Ball, S. J. (2003). The teacher’s soul and the terrors of performativity. Journal of Educational Policy, 18(2), 215-228. Bush, T. (2005). 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A shift in Hong Kong principals’ leadership conceptions. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3(1), 37-47. 122 A case study of educational change and leadership in Hong Kong primary schools 香港小學教育變革與領導的個案研究 梁麗嬋 創意教師協會、布里斯托大學教育博士研究生 摘要 本研究採用 Dimmock 和 Walker 兩位學者的跨文化比較的框架為香港兩所小學之教 育變革和領導文化作探究。分析表明，香港學校課程變革受全球化社會教育大趨勢、 本港教育變革次文化，以及學校自身過程的領導變化等因素影響。個案展示與比較 不同領導風格處身宏觀文化社會、國家與全球化下對本港過去十五年教育改革的影 響。 關鍵詞 跨文化比較框架，教育變革，教育領導，敘事探究 123 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 江浩民 香港教育學院宗教教育與心靈教育中心 李子建 香港教育學院課程與教學學系 摘要 近年香港社會急劇轉型，學童問題日趨嚴重，自殺、霸凌、濫藥等情況日熾。不 少社會賢達以為問題源於學童缺乏對生命的關愛及省思。故此，不少辦學團體、 學校和教育工作者嘗試透過生命教育方式，開展德育及公民教育專項，強健學童 心志，藉此回應知識型社會及資訊科技時代對學童成長的挑戰。 本文並非學術研究，旨在分享生命教育專業經驗：透過六所香港學校推行的孝親 教學單元，嘗試疏理校本生命教育課程的現況，討論其良好經驗，並提供改善建 議。 關鍵詞 生命教育，孝道教育，香港的德育及公民教育 125 甲、引言 為回應知識型經濟及資訊科技時代的契機與挑戰，香港政府在回歸後推出了一系列 教育改革措施（香港特別行政區政府行政長官辦公室，1999）。而在 2001 年後，在教育 局的政策文件，如《學會學習——課程發展路向》及《基礎教育課程指引（小一至中三）》 等，均指出發展德育的重要性 1。在這個背景下，近十多年，不同辦學團體 2、學校、教 育工作者，乃至教育當局 3，更嘗試以生命教育作為德育的載體。 在 2011/12 年度行政長官卓越教學獎德育及公民教育範疇中，全部得獎學校均是以 生命教育方式推行公民教育，從中可見這種模式能有效陶育學生正面價值觀，並得到教 育工作者的認同。究其原因，除因其內涵不悖教育當局的指引外 4，更可能與其重視情意 激盪的教學方式有關。傳統的德育課程設計較傾向認識概念，如指出孩子保護自己的方 法，但這種做法令學生只對有關價值觀有知識上的認知，而無法推動他們行動。而生命 教育重視情意激盪，感染和幫助學生更深入體會相關概念，從而作出抉擇和行動（陳美 華、李尚穗、簡秋蘭，2011） 1 在 2001 年課程發展議會發表了教改藍圖：《學會學習——課程發展路向》。課程改革的宗旨除了幫助 學生培育共通能力，以獲取和建構知識，成為擁有終身學習技能的終身學習者外，更重視正面價值觀和 態度的培育，以全面發展學生潛能，幫助學生在新社會環境中安身立命，為本港社會、國家及世界作出 貢獻（課程發展議會，2001）。在 2002 年，課程發展議會再發表了《基礎教育課程指引（小一至中三）》 （下稱《指引》），期望學校在十年內（2012 年前）幫助學生實踐七個學習宗旨，其中「責任感」、「國 民身份認同」和「健康生活方式」，均與德育直接相關。為此，當局將德育及公民教育列為五種基要的 學習經歷及四個關鍵項目。考慮學生個人群性發展需要和當時社會情況，《指引》開列出五種首要培育 的價值觀和態度：「堅毅」、「尊重他人」、「責任感」、「國民身份認同」及「承擔精神」（課程發 展議會，2002）。在 2008 年，教育局公佈了《匯聚百川流．德雨育青苗：新修訂德育及公民教育課程 架構》，作為《指引》的補充。在這份課程架構中，除了清楚開列每個學習階段的學童成長需要及學習 期望外，亦多加了兩項首要價值觀：「關愛」和「誠信」（教育局，2008）。在落實校本德育課程方面， 局方建議學校將德育項目計入課時，及採用生活事件方式，整合不同範疇的價值教育，以促進學生的全 人發展（課程發展議會，2002；教育局，2008）。至於具體開展的模式，則未見有太多著墨。 2 在 2002 年香港聖公會東九龍教區成立了生命教育資源中心，全面支援屬校及友校開展生命教育的學與 教（香港聖公會東九龍教區，2013）；循道衛理聯合教育於 2005 年發展「優質生命教育發展計劃」， 發展屬校的生命教育的正規、非正規和隱蔽課程（梁錦波，2013）等。 3 近期，教育局發佈了《遊戲中覓方向．體驗中悟道理——生命教育互動學習教材》。該教材從「認識生 命」、「欣賞生命」、「尊重生命」和「探索生命」四方面，提供一系列配合生活事件的教學材料，具 體地說明如何在德育及公民教育框架下開展生命教育專項（教育局，年份不詳）。 4 據孫效智（2001）的看法，生命教育是新穎的概念，有不同的定義。而較廣泛來說，其目標是啟發生命 智慧，整合知情意行，深化價值反省。而且，生命教育涉及多個範疇，包括宗教教育、情緒教育和人格 調整等，十分廣泛。簡言之，生命教育貫通天人物我，重視宗教、自然、個人和他人之間的關係。而這 些內涵，均與教育當局揭櫫的首要價值觀有暗合處。 126 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 根據梁錦波（2013）的說法，生命教育於香港已有十多年的實踐經驗。所謂十年樹 木，實有需要整理本地的生命教育開展經驗，並討論推行過程中的良好經驗和找出可改 善之處。故此，本文擬透過評析六所致力推動生命教育小學的孝親單元，整理其推行經 驗，提出發展建議 5。 乙、中國儒家經典中的孝親觀念 筆者根據儒家經典《論語》、《孟子》、《禮記》和《孝經》，以電腦檢索方式搜 索含「孝」字的文句，發現共有 128 句，頻次達 152 次。而近儒唐君毅（1960）指出， 孝行為仁之本，而「由孝父母，而及於父母之父母，及於祖宗。孝之擴充，為孝於整個 之民族，而忠於民族之歷史與文化」。由此可見，行孝是踐行儒家道德倫理價值的重要 標準之一。 雖然本文的主旨並非探究孝道在中國文化的哲學本質。然而，由於儒家經典的孝親 價值涉及教師如何理解孝親的重要根據，而這些理解又直接影響教師編訂課程目標、教 學步驟及評估標準，故此，有需要先略為釋述孝親的內涵。 「孝」字的甲骨文是「 」，其中上部「　」是「老」字「　」的省略，而下部「　」 則是「子」字。「孝」是會意字，其圖示方式為老人在上，小子在下，即有兒子（小子） 攙扶父母（老人）的意涵（許慎，1972）。而《說文解字注》根據《禮記》為「孝」字作注， 注文為：「善事父母者」，即善於侍奉父母長輩（段玉裁，1981）。至於怎樣才算是善 事父母的孝者呢？按楊國樞、葉光輝（1991，頁 47）的理解，孝可分為四個層面： 5 本文之所以會選用孝道主題說明本港生命教育的推行現況，其原因有三：首先，不論宗教文化背景，不 少學校及教育工作者均將孝親內涵列入德育課程中。以一項本地生命教育支援計劃為例（為保障參與計 劃學校的私隱，計劃名稱將以匿名方式處理（下稱：某生命教育計劃）。下文處理辦法相同，不贅）， 有三成學校同工已選擇了孝親作為試行單元的主題。故此，選用孝親內涵說明主題，較易引起讀者的共 鳴，切合專業分享的定位；再者，孝親涉及公民教育中的多個價值觀，包括「尊重他人」、「責任感」及「承 擔精神」，也是中國重要的文化內涵之一，與「國民身份認同」有關。故此，孝親內涵符合課程要求。 最後，生命教育揭櫫的知（知識）、情（情感）、意（意志）、行（抉擇）均能在孝道單元中彰顯（詳 見正文）。這有別於一般只能教導知、情、意的主題，如性教育。故此，透過孝道主題單元，可以較全 面了解本地生命教育的發展優勢和局限，較為切合題旨。 127 層面 定義 孝知 孝的認知層次，即子女對父母的良好認識、瞭解及信念 孝感 孝的感情層次，即子女對父母的良好情緒或感受 孝意 孝的意志層次，即子女對父母的良好行為意向或反應傾向 孝行 孝的行動層次，是上述三個孝道態度層次的實踐 礙於主題所限，茲不為上述四端列舉經典原文。有關解說可見楊國樞、葉光輝 （1991，頁 48-52）。從上文所見，在規劃孝道課題時，不應只停留在認知層面（孝知）， 亦應重視為人子女對父母應有的態度和抉擇（孝感和孝意）。以上四者，即為生命教育 揭櫫的四端：知（認知）、情（情感）、意（抉擇）、行（行動）。 丙、 香港學校的生命教育學與教——以六所學校的孝親 單元為討論中心 為了解香港學校生命教育學與教的推行概況，筆者從某生命教育計劃中，選取了六 個跟孝親相關的教學作說明。而在某計劃的成果彙編（下文稱作「彙編」）中，載有這 六所學校的教學目標、教學材料和評估等資料，可以分析其施行目的及實踐過程中所面 對的困難及處理辦法。 一、策劃生命教育項目的考量因素 在進行學校支援過程中，支援團隊成員觀察到教師普遍認同孝親教育。例如，教師 均坦言是受近年的倫常慘案等新聞啟發，他們認為「百行以孝為先」，當學生透過孝親 單元，學會孝敬親人，除了能緩和學生與家人之間的衝突，也能幫助學生推己及人，尊 重他人。從這個觀點看，教師策劃生命教育項目的考量因素，包括對社會需要或社會改 良的角度作出抉擇，他們認為孝親教育可以培育學生遵從社會秩序、養成學生感恩和尊 重他人的性向，達到移風易俗之效。 此外，教師重視開展課程的可操作性，如教學資源的獲得。在學校支援過程中，不 少中層老師有意無意間反映，推行孝道教育肇始於其優質教材。由於現時市面有不少有 關孝親的繪本、閱讀篇章和歌曲，加上台灣也有類似的課程，有助老師搜集良好教材。 128 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 教學策略／活動 學校甲 學校乙 學校丙 學校丁 學校戊 學校己 在課堂直接講授 講宗教故事 教師分享自身的生命故事 講繪本故事 電影欣賞 戲劇 體驗活動（如：護蛋行動、 模擬懷孕、種植等） 詩詞誦讀／歌曲頌唱 生命禮儀（如：畢業禮、 啟動禮等） 詩歌創作／藝術品創作／ 撰寫心意卡／文章寫作 學生討論及分享 課後行動 因此，一般教師對孝親教學不持反對態度。相信這亦是中層老師在編訂課程內涵前的考 量因素。 二、生命教育項目的主要教學及評估策略 吳宗立（1999）認為，生命教育宜以多元化方式進行，透過不同的體驗活動，幫助 學生主動建立及發揚其情意。在彙編中，每所學校均採用了不同的教學策略。茲將其選 用策略及有關說明表列如下： 從上表中，可以將不同學校採用的教學策略 ／活動作出以下分類： • 課堂直接講授：透過教師面授，直接向學生傳授價值內涵。 • 故事及影視材料分享：透過教師自身故事、宗教故事、繪本故事、電影及戲劇，利 用小故事說出大道理，並讓學生觀察在他者身上的生命故事，再作相關引導，以反 思自身處境。例如，其中一所具基督教背景的學校透過聖經的比喻「浪子回頭」， 教授學生父母無私的愛和對子女的包容，以故事形式，加深學生對有關概念的認 識。 129 • 體驗式學習：透過盆栽種植、懷孕體驗、護蛋行動等以學生為中心的體驗活動，讓 學生代入指定角色。再透過解說（Debriefing）方式，澄清學生的觀察，讓他們自 行說出個人感受及反思。 • 詩詞及歌曲頌唱：透過教授文藝作品（包括詩詞及流行曲）的文本，間接向學生傳 授價值內涵。再鼓勵學生集體頌唱或誦讀文藝作品，利用集體力量，將價值內化。 例如，其中一所學校教授學生歌唱流行曲〈真的愛你〉，並在過程中講解歌詞的意 思，令學生對孝道有更深的印象，並增加情意激盪的效果。 • 生命禮儀：透過啟動禮、畢業禮等禮儀方式，增加情意激盪的作用。如在畢業禮中， 學生會透過歌舞表現及詩詞誦讀，感謝父母的恩情，讓學生在邁向新階段時，同時 反思過去父母的付出。 • 創作：透過創作不同的藝術作品（如：心意卡、新詩仿作、短文、視藝作品等）， 讓學生表達所學所感。 • 學生討論及分享：在教師帶領下，讓學生自行就生活經驗或教師提供的個案作出討 論及反思，教師透過個別分享時段，聚焦學生的所思所感，並作出更深層次的引導。 • 課後行動：透過指定的行動（如：替父母完成家務），將課堂所學價值以具體的方 式實踐出來。 在評估方面，根據彙編，參加學校的評估方式主要分為兩類，一類屬於活動紀錄及 工作紙，另一類是學生回饋、老師和家長觀察。前者為學校常用的課業，茲不贅。而後 者則有不同的展現形式，包括：教師的教學反思、學生個人反思及回饋、家長的評鑒等， 幫助了解課程的成效。 而在活動紀錄上，各間學校的形式不同。例如：乙和丙校要學生紀錄個人孝行，在 日常生活中實踐孝親。學校透過孝親紀錄表，根據學生行孝的次數和感受，評估活動成 效。而甲、丙、丁和戊校則會要求學生在進行活動（如護蛋）時，紀錄對活動的感受。 130 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 丁、香港生命教育課程及實踐的良好經驗 良好經驗一：有效處理完整孝親教育的知、情、意、行內涵 從以上例子可見，香港學校採取多元的教學策略。透過課堂講授，教師將生命教育 的基本知識直接傳授予學生，處理孝知（知）的需要。接著，無論故事分享、創作和體 驗活動等，旨在激盪學生的孝感（情）和孝意（意）。 根據彙編，在體驗活動後，受訪學生表示能體驗父母的辛勞，會在將來努力回報父 母。家長反映學生較過往更願意承擔家庭責任及嘗試向父母表達謝意。從學生和家長的 感言中，可以看到以生動多元的教學方式能激盪學生的孝感和孝意。而為何這些教學策 略能有效激盪學生情意呢？筆者擬以體驗活動模擬懷孕為例，作出說明。 綜合乙、丙和戊三所學校的經驗，在模擬懷孕活動中，老師先會透過「為寶寶命名」、 「為寶寶畫上臉蛋」等方式，讓學生代入為人父母迎接新生命的喜悅之中，並透過「產 前講座」等項目，提昇這份喜悅和帶出初為孕婦的不便，為之後的懷孕活動立下指示； 其後，透過預設種種障礙的模擬懷孕活動（如：逛市場等），讓學生在現實環境中感受 母親在懷胎時的辛勞；接著，透過解說，教師邀請學生分享，並透過已為人父母的教師 作生命分享，帶領學生思考為人父母的艱難，反思怎樣在生活中孝順父母；最後，透過 立願儀式（如：寫心意卡、祈禱等），讓學生決志以行動孝順父母。筆者認為，以上以 學生為中心、漸進、軟性的教學方式，有助逐漸發展他們的孝知、孝感和孝意，有效處 理情意教學目標。 至於孝行方面，學校老師通常以課後活動輔以工作紙及學生滙報方式作出處理。學 校乙的一位家長對學生在活動過程中的孝行轉變作出描述，認為學生較以往主動與家長 分享生活點滴。在日常生活中，學生更主動地照顧自己，也有幫忙做家務，家長對此表 示感動。 從以上教學例子可見，學生在經歷了一系列以孝知、孝感和孝意為目標的活動後， 即時在孝行上有所轉變。然而，這種行為改變是短暫的還是長遠的，目前未能作定論， 尚有需要作進一步觀察。 131 良好經驗二：透過統整，在有限課時實踐生命教育，並對學生發展作持續支援 香港大部份學校的生命教育課的課時不多 6。由於課時有限，倘若學校要處理課程開 列的所有價值課題，則不能在課堂中兼顧知、情、意、行的教學。故此，不少香港學校 巧妙地透過課程統整方式，延展學習空間。例如，一些學校會在學科中（如：在中文科 的課文教授孝順的方法）先行教授孝知內涵（知），從而騰出生命教育課空間，更集中 醞釀學生的孝感和孝意（情、意），而孝行則以課後工作紙形式予以展示（如：設計孝 行紀錄表，鼓勵學生紀錄其行孝過程）。而另一些學校則在學科中（如：在音樂堂教授 讚頌親恩的歌曲、在視藝堂設計心意卡送給父母）處理孝感和孝意課題（情、意），而 知識的傳授（孝知），以及行動成果的檢視（孝行），則會安排在生命教育課處理。從 以上例子可見，學校透過課程統整，令生命教育能在正規課程時間進行，有更多空間灌 輸有關價值，解決受課時限制的問題，也能提高各科的連貫性（陳健生，2008）。 另外，開展課程前的目標定位工作，及課程完結後的跟進工作也是需要處理的問題。 根據團隊成員觀察，部分學校在籌備課程時，已考慮部分學生的個別需要（如：有家庭 問題的學生）在課前作出輔導。在教學後，學校會鼓勵老師觀察學生的情緒反應，方便 訓輔組同工跟進。 蔡培村（2001）指出，課程統整能將複雜的輔導概念放在各科教導，是有效將教訓 輔合一的方法之一。從團隊成員所見，不少學校在教訓輔合一上，有清晰理念：先透過 班級經營，確認目標；然後透過課程統整，延展學習空間，幫助學生從知、情、意、行 四個方面全面掌握價值內涵；最後以訓輔個案跟進方式，對個別問題個案作出跟進。 戊、香港生命教育課程及實踐的改進建議 一、現況分析 在與參與學校交流經驗時，老師們均指出生命教育評估存在相當難度。 6 按課程發展議會及教育局的德育及公民教育指引，建議學校在第一及第二學習階段，安排約 19% 課時、 第三學習階段安排約 8% 課時，及於第四學習階段安排約 5% 課時，進行德育及公民教育（教育局， 2008）。 132 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 在評估生命教育的成效時，不少學校均會選擇慣用的評估方式——學生課業評估。 然而，由於不同教育工作者的測量標準不同，故存在一定的評核差異。而且，課業評估 通常偏重文字表達，部分語言能力尚未發展完善的學生（尤其初小及有特殊學習需要的 學生），可能較難仔細以文字方式，指出個人情感和意志的轉變，影響了評估的準確性。 故此，部分學校以問卷方式，輔助課業評估，更全面了解課程的成效。透過問卷方式， 可以更全面了解家長與學生對課程的評價，而從家長對學生家中表現的反饋，更可以分 析課堂教授的正面價值能否轉化成學生的行為，以補充一般紙筆課業評估的不足。 但由於老師未有接受長期、專業的擬寫問卷培訓（梁恩榮、吳迅榮，2004），學校 支援團隊成員發現，一些生命教育評估問卷設計，仍有進步空間。 二、優化評估的方向 為了優化學校的評估工具，本文參考楊國樞、葉光輝（1991）和楊國樞、葉光輝、 黃曬莉（1989）制定的孝行測量工具為例，說明生命教育評估的可能發展方向：在大學 學者的帶領下，參考心理測量量表及情境測驗，優化評估工具。 此項測量工具將孝道分為孝知、孝感、孝意和孝行四個不同層面，並以李克特量表 和情境測驗進行測量。這種設計既能了解受試者對不同孝道層面的贊同程度，更能深入 探究受試者選擇背後的動機。另外，本文選用楊國樞、葉光輝的評估工具，是因為他們 能根據生命教育的概念分類孝道思想，較能個別測量出課程在知、情、意、行四個層面 上的教學成效。而楊國樞、葉光輝、黃曬莉的情境測驗，其測驗問題與真實環境相似， 一般用作探索人格的測驗（葉重新，2010），則有助深入了解受訪者對孝道的看法。 然而，此類測量表雖能有效評估受訪者對孝道的認知、感受及實踐等，但該量表本 用作測量高中生及成人，所以對中小學生而言，用字可能較為艱深，而題目的處境未必 與其真實生活有關。事實上，不少能評估生命教育概念的量表無法應用在中小學，往往 也是受這些因素所影響。因此，下文將會提出一些改善建議，以供同工參考。 133 建議一：用淺白的字詞代替學童不懂的艱澀字詞 據參與計劃的老師反映，評估困難包括學生無法理解部分問卷的用字。故此，筆者 建議學校可參考《小學中文科常用字表》，改寫問卷的用字。以楊國樞、葉光輝（1991） 孝行測量表為例，其中一條「為了不增加父親的困擾，你在外是否應該言行小心，少惹 麻煩？」，「困擾」一詞或對初小學生較艱澀，影響他們理解題目內容。 有論者認為，倘學生因種種原因，無法自行解讀問卷的內容，調查者也可讀出題目， 給學生作答（Hopkins, Stanley, & Hopkins, 1998）。然而，這方法雖能在一定程度上幫助 文字閱讀能力較弱的學生了解問題內容，惟所需的人力資源較多，而調查者亦有可能在 解題過程給予學生作答暗示，影響問卷調查的客觀性。 建議二：考慮學生的程度，將複雜概念簡化 由於大部份孝道評估工具都是針對高中學生及成人而設計的，故此，當將之用在小 學生身上時，便要將部份學生未必能理解的複雜概念稍作修訂。以楊國樞、葉光輝、黃 曬莉（1989）的處境題為例，受訪者需要從「順從父母的意思，另覓伴侶產子」，還是 「保持美滿的婚姻」之間作出選擇。這個兩難局面涉及「不孝有三，無後為大」的觀念， 學生未必能清晰掌握，故較難作出回應。 建議三：處境題目要生活化，或乾脆刪減以留待日後再用 在參考情意量表時，前線同工可能要考慮問題提及的狀況是否與學生的生活有關。 若前線同工面對以上問題，可能要將題目處境改為與訪問者的生活有聯繫，或將該題刪 去。以楊國樞、葉光輝（1991）的情意量表為例，其中一條「為了照顧父親，你是否應 該有自我犧牲的精神？」，相信較難令學生代入處境作答。若具體地開列自我犧牲的內 容（如：放棄打電玩的時間），或會令學生更能代入處境。 134 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 己、小結 本文並非學術研究，然而，經初步整理部分學校在推動生命教育的經驗後，發現學 校在課程統整、輔訓教合一、教學策略等方面有較佳表現；然而，在評估方面，不少學 校仍有進步空間。 傳統評估方法可分作認知測驗和情意測量（Hopkins, Stanley, & Hopkins, 1998）。而 在本港的評估發展，較多著眼於認知測驗評估。至於反映典型表現的情意測量，則仍有 很大的發展空間。其實，在西方亦有研究顯示，教師在評估學生的情意反應時，面對不 少困難（Schon, Hopkins, & Vojir, 1980）。而情意評估，相信困難不僅僅在於生命教育範 疇，在整個教育界也是難題之一，尤其評估對象是心智尚未成熟的學童。 筆者相信，若大學學者願意參考心理測量量表及情境測驗並加以優化，在應用於中 小學時，或許便能突破上述的困難。首先，教育科研同工可以透過訪談等觀察方式，了 解前線教師的評估難點，並就這些難點，按上文提及的三項建議，發展新的評量工具或 修訂現有用於成人身上的評量工具。然後，在前線老師的幫助下，以嚴謹方式測試評估 工具的效度。最後，透過教師專業發展方式作知識轉移及聆聽前線教師的需要，對評估 工具作出微調。相信在這種模式下，或能突破現有情意評量的困難，從而做到從評估 （Evaluation）反饋策劃（Plan）及教學落實（Implementation），建立「策劃——落實—— 評估」的良性循環，讓生命教育更臻至善（教育局質素保證分部，2008）。 鳴謝 荷蒙六所學校參與計劃，並蒙童中樂先生協助校對引文、查找核實資料及整理文稿， 作者謹申謝忱。 135 參考文獻 《小學中文科常用字表》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://lcprichi.hkbu.edu.hk/。 《孝經》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/xiao-jing/zh。 《孟子》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/mengzi/zh。 《論語》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/analects/zh。 《禮記》。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://ctext.org/liji/zh。 吳宗立（1999）。〈生命教育的規劃與發展〉。《菁莪》，11（1），頁 44-49。 段玉裁（1981）。《說文解字注》。上海：上海古籍出版社。 香港特別行政區政府行政長官辦公室（1999）。《一九九九年施政報告》。香港：香港 特別行政區政府行政長官辦公室。 香港聖公會東九龍教區（2013）。2014 年 1 月 30 日，取自 http://www.ekhkskh.org.hk/ LRC/index.htm。 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Paper presented to the American Educational Research Association, Boston. 137 附錄 六所學校的孝道教育單元、施教對象、評估方法和教學材料 學 校 單元 施教 對象 教學策略／活動 教學材料 評估方式 甲 惜福．感恩． 孝順活動： 真的愛「您」 小二 • 體驗活動 （護蛋寶寶） • 故事和繪本賞析 • 向父母呈獻 感恩卡 • 在卡紙上寫上感 謝父母的話 • 工作紙 （蛋寶寶成長日記） • 親親我的寶貝繪本 工作紙 • 真的愛你承諾 行動表 • 護蛋寶寶家長信 • 護蛋寶寶工作紙 • 教師觀察 • 工作紙 （蛋寶寶成長 日記） • 行孝記錄 乙 以科目統籌方 式進行生命教 育：感恩． 孝順系列 小四 • 圖書閱讀 • 誦讀〈遊子吟〉 • 領唱有關母愛的 流行曲 • 戲劇教育 • 製作心意卡 • 分享有關聖經 故事 • 中文課、宗教課、 戲劇課、視藝課、 音樂課教案 • 父母恩——讀書札 記 • 〈遊子吟〉課業 • 父母恩記錄冊 • 教師觀察 • 感恩卡 • 讀書札記 • 新詩創作 • 給爸媽的信 • 孝順記錄冊 丙 全校動起來： 感恩與惜福 小六 • 繪本欣賞 • 產前講座 • 模擬懷孕 • 為小孩（氣球） 改名及畫圖 • 愛，由我開始（行 動紀錄表） • 我的小寶寶及反思 工作紙 • 製作小學紀念冊教 案 • 模疑懷孕活動反思 問題紙 • 英文寫作、中文科 教案 • 模擬懷孕教案 • 家長及學生感言 • 教師觀察 • 〈小學紀念冊〉 • 學生心意卡 • 新詩創作 丁 感激之情在 心頭： 體驗親恩． 報答劬勞 小五、 小六 • 產前講座 • 模擬懷孕 • 栽種植物 • 電影及繪本欣賞 • 製作感謝卡 • 歌曲頌唱 • 分組活動觀察紙 • 「給種子一個家」 工作紙及投映片 • 「感恩父母的愛」 工作紙及投映片 • 教師觀察 • 感恩卡 • 栽種活動紀錄 工作紙 • 分組活動 觀察紙 138 香港學校生命教育的教學與評估： 以六所學校的孝親教學為例 學校 單元 施教 對象 教學策略／活動 教學材料 評估方式 戊 以行動情， 情生意動， 「飲水思源」 系列 小四 • 圖書閱讀 • 歌曲欣賞 • 課文教學 （中文及聖經科） • 體驗活動 （模擬懷孕、 護蛋行動） • 我的寶貝蛋工作紙 • 護蛋行動反思工作紙 • 自評表（護蛋行動） • 護蛋行動日程表 • 飲水思源教案（孝順） 及工作紙 • 模疑懷孕活動自評表 • 愛的小記者工作紙 （訪問母親） • 模擬孕婦障礙教學 計劃 • 家長評鑒表 • 學生寫作 • 學生即場 分享 • 心意卡 • 學生對家長 懷孕時的訪 問記錄 己 觸動、沉澱、 反思、感恩、 實踐：感謝 生我育我的 人 小六 • 電影欣賞 • 詩歌頌唱 • 盆栽種植 • 繪本欣賞 • 新詩創作 • 分享見證 （教師及傳道人） • 畢業獻禮 • 製作成長冊 • 以行動表達感恩： 在畢業禮透過不同方 式向父母表達謝意 • 成長冊 • 生命教育專業實踐教 案或活動設計 • 學生和老師 的回饋 • 學生的 感恩卡 • 植物成長手 六所學校的孝道教育單元、施教對象、評估方法和教學材料（續） 139 Teaching, learning and assessment of life education in Hong Kong: A case with the teaching of filial piety in six schools KONG Ho Man Raymond Centre for Religious and Spirituality Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education LEE Chi Kin John Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract Under the backdrop of recent rapid social transformation in Hong Kong, students’ problems like committing suicides, bullying and drug abuse have become increasingly critical. Some suggested that a paucity of students’ caring for and reflecting on lives is the origin of the above-mentioned problems. In assisting students to respond the challenges of knowledge-based society in the era of information technology, many sponsoring bodies, schools and educators develop moral and civic education through life education to strengthen students’ values. This article aims at discussing the good practices and identifying possible improvements on school-based life education curricula exemplified by the teaching modules of filial piety in six Hong Kong schools. Keywords life education, education of filial piety, moral and civic education in Hong Kong 140 《香港教師中心學報》，第十三卷 © 香港教師中心，2014 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 胡少偉、鄭志強 香港教育學院 摘要 根據國際文獻，知識管理在教育領域的應用與推廣，相對於其他行業來說起步較 遲。香港初等教育研究學會曾於 2010 至 2012 年期間推行「知識管理與小學發展」 計劃，在十間小學推廣和實踐知識管理的理念。筆者兩人從中選取三個成功的小 學個案，分別從知識管理系統、知識管理的領導和組織分享三個角度闡述學校應 用知識管理的實況。為了有效描述這個案的經驗，筆者兩人除採用該計劃的資料 外，還約見三校負責同工作深入訪談，剖析三校推行知識管理的應用細節。 關鍵詞 知識管理，學校發展，香港小學教育 甲、知識管理在教育的應用 知識管理的概念來自商界的策略管理，並視知識為促進組織發展的資源（Prusak, 2001）。上世紀，已有不少企業利用知識管理概念整理組織，從而利用轉化成組織的知 識促進企業的發展。知識管理在教育領域的應用與推廣，相對於其他行業來說起步較遲， 2000 年國際經濟合作與發展組織公佈的《學習社會中的知識管理》，指出知識管理在 「公共部門包括教育部門，知識傳播與應用程度較低」。Sallis & Jones（2004）在《教 育知識管理》一書亦指出，學校正進入經濟效益越來越依賴組織創造知識的能力的時代， 社會期望學校為競爭激烈的知識型社會發展人力資本，並管理好教學知識。由於教育和 141 課程的改革，大量新知識迅速湧現，大眾期望學校管理人員強化校內獲取知識的能力， 而教師也需發展自己的學習，整理好內隱知識和促進組織知識的分享。Serenko, Bontis, Booker, Sadeddin, & Hardie（2010，頁 3）也指出，有關知識管理或人力資本的核心概念 於近十年才冒起，但其多元學科取向使相關研究在不同學科內既有吸引力亦有很多成果。 基於上述國際文獻的發現，香港學校也應引入知識管理概念，以促進學校發展和教師專 業成長。 香港方面，李子建教授於 2004 年在〈課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點〉 一文內，提倡利用知識管理推動學校成為學習型組織，知識管理經過共同化（或稱社會 化）、外化（或稱表達）、結合（或稱整合）及內化這四個方式螺旋轉化（Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995），成為有利學校組織和教師個人發展的新知識。教師就可按其校情，在 變化不斷的社會中適應新要求，以適切方式推展校務和提昇教師的專業發展，最終令學 校發展和學生得益。進行知識管理的目標是在組織建立系統以儲存知識，並發展一套機 制把知識轉化為智慧資本（Edvinsson & Malone, 1997; Stewart, 1997），換言之就是創造 一個學習型組織（Bollinger & Smith, 2001）。知識管理是指能被收集、整理、共享和分 析的個人或集體知識、應用知識和其他知識資產，這些都能令與知識相關的效率提升至 最高（Wiig, 2004）。在學校教育的層面，知識管理不單為教師提供方法討論教學，發展 學生的學習資源，也保留了富經驗教師的專業知識，增加他們在教學和學習表現的效率， 支持學校發展知識社群，促進學習文化（Leung, 2010）。綜合而言，應用知識管理能使 學校和教師皆得到發展和成長。 乙、支援學校應用知識管理的計劃 知識是人類的資源，與學習過程緊密關連，面對教育改革和社會發展的挑戰，學校 應研究如何提升自身的學習能力，好好管理新訊息和知識。Sallis & Jones（2004）把有 建設性使用學校固有訊息和知識以提升表現、管理和運作的過程定義為知識管理。學校 的知識管理可以視為一套策略管理的方法，讓學校組織內的教師發展一套實踐或知識策 略，以收集訊息和分享所知，引發改善教學與學習成果和學校學習能力的行動，最終達 至學校的持續發展。香港初等教育研究學會曾於 2010 至 2012 年期間舉辦了「知識管理 142 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 與小學發展」計劃，在香港十間小學推廣和實踐知識管理的理念，以提高知識管理在香 港小學的普及與應用。在年半的計劃內，香港初等教育研究會向參與小學提供系統培訓、 校本診斷、校本教師培訓、友校參觀、內聯網和支援行動學習等專業學習活動，以提高 參與小學教師對知識管理的理解與應用，從而促進學校校務和教師專業的發展，使學校 管理得更有效。在這個知識管理專業發展計劃中，該會提供了「知識管理在小學的應用」 及「提昇校本知識管理」兩個系統課程，每個課程都有 9 小時的專題學習，分別由學者 講解理念及前線同工分享經驗。與此同時，計劃又給予參與學校同工提供各 7 小時的校 本診斷和培訓，各校可按校情需要進行不同重點的培訓，在每間學校進行校本培訓前還 會派出代表先進行焦點訪談，以分析及診斷各校同工對培訓的期望，使培訓更能促進各 校教師的專業發展。 這個「知識管理與小學發展」計劃兩期共有十所參與學校，分別是﹕打鼓嶺嶺英公 立學校、荃灣公立何傳耀紀念小學、香港教育學院賽馬會小學、嶺南大學香港同學會直 資小學、聖公會德田李兆強小學、中華基督教會基法小學（油塘）、保良局百周年學校、 佛教林金殿紀念小學、香港教育工作者聯會黃楚標學校和聖公會聖馬太小學。這十所小 學的同工在參與計劃過程中，須完成一個行動學習和就校本的知識管理經驗作分享。本 文首名筆者為該計劃籌委會成員之一，經參考同工的學習成果後，認為其中三所學校的 個案既有成效又有校本特色，故聯同本文次名筆者，分別從知識管理系統、知識管理的 領導和組織分享的理論架構（Cheng, 2013），去闡述這三所學校（下文分別稱為：甲 校、乙校、丙校）在應用知識管理的情況。選擇這三個個案的一個重要原則，是基於這 三個個案分別包含推行知識管理的三個關鍵因素：資訊科技（Alavi & Leidner, 2001）、 組織領導（Cavaleri & Seivert, 2005）及分享文化（Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Pan & Scarbrough, 1998）。 內地學者劉倩倩（2014）在《隱性知識顯性化研究綜述》一文指出：「眾多的研究中， 只有極少數隱性知識共用的研究有實證或個案研究」（頁 147），因此，將學校在應用 知識管理的個案經驗作外顯，對於其他學校運用知識管理去改善學校管理工作和促進教 師專業發展具參考價值。 143 知識管理的其中一個措施是系統地整理組織知識，甲校是十所參與計劃學校中，最 善於運用知識系統去建構和整理學校的顯性和隱性知識。乙校的分享焦點在於促進科組 主任成為知識管理者的歷程，「在現代企業管理中高層企業主管擔負著制定和實施知識 管理的主要職責，同樣學校主管也擔負著制定實施知識管理的主要任務」（王萌亞、金 玉梅，2011，頁 25）。丙校則著重於組織的知識分享，Cheng（2012）指出，「知識分 享是個人學習能力與組織學習能力的預測因素，這顯示知識分享是提升學校學習能力最 重要的知識流程」；丙校經驗說明了善用外來專業計劃，可促進校內教師交流的分享， 從而發揮學校推動正面文化的發展策略。為了有效解釋這三所學校應用知識管理的經驗， 筆者兩人除了採用香港初等教育研究學會相關計劃資料外，還約見三所學校的負責同工 作深入訪談，以三角檢定方式核實各校推行知識管理實踐的細節。 一、學校的知識系統 「學校中的知識管理並不是定義為『知識』本身得到管理，而是一種管理思想和管 理行為，其工作包括教育教學知識的找尋、研發、整理、儲存、流通和利用，從而實現 教育知識的信息化和價值化」（樊平軍，2010）。知識管理的一個重點是透過資訊科技 將組織知識儲存於資料庫中，經過適當地分類並儲存相關知識，有效促進校內同工分享 與利用組織的知識。學校應用知識管理首先要制定一個知識管理系統，才可有效累積和 儲存學校個人和組織的知識，方便同工搜尋和分享學校的資訊和知識，並作有效的運用 和創新。甲校作為一所有幾十年歷史的學校，校內儲存文件數量越來越多，有效儲存和 整理這些資料正是刻不容緩。藉著參與這個校本專業支援計劃，正如下文負責同工在訪 談中所分享，學校引入了更多資訊科技，將學校教學和管理的數據、資料和文檔存入一 個知識系統內。在構建組織內的知識地圖時，知識編碼是一項比較頭痛的事情，因為編 碼方案既要考慮現實，又要考慮學校長遠需要，如果考慮不周全，知識地圖的編碼規則 就得被迫經常修改變更。正如易凌峰、楊向誼（2006）所說「知識制圖對組織內的知識 進行分類配合組織的專業術語，將知識分門別類地歸納在不同的範疇內，並標示其間的 關係」（頁 25）。 「 因為學校儲存文件數量不斷增加、存放地點分散、資料容易變黃、提取資料 及檔案費時、難於監察資料儲存和應用與儲存的效率低等原因，學校藉參與 144 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 這計劃認真地將所有學校文件檔案資訊化，使學校資料、資訊和知識更有效 地儲存和分類，以方便同工提取和分享學校的資訊和知識。」 （甲校負責同工訪談的分享） 「知識地圖是表述或分類知識關聯和知識概念的工具，它不僅可以揭示知識的位置 和知識間的關係，還可以成為隱性知識界面，起到了一種為詳細知識搜索導航的功能， 依據知識地圖對知識內容的科學的分類，可以幫助使用者快速查找其所需要的知識點」 （張瑞珏、李馨、周霞霞，2014，頁 25）。甲校同工經討論後決定配合香港的視學系統， 將資料分成「管理與組織」、「學與教」、「校風及學生支援」和「學生表現」等四範疇； 圖一是甲校的知識地圖，這個知識地圖能將學校文件資料和知識清晰地編碼和存檔，校 內教師就能按系統編碼逐級尋找所需的資料和知識，為學校管理的效率提供優化的基礎。 圖一　甲校的知識地圖 （引用：香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 10） 與此同時，甲校在參與計劃過程中還利用 Google 的優惠平台，發展了一個全校學生 個人檔案、學生學習概覽、學校影片和學校相片資料庫，不單可使校內師生瀏覽相關資 料，使學生家長透過網絡了解學生在學校學習或參與校外活動的情況，加強家校溝通， 促進合作，亦有利於學生家長在家進行親子溝通。資訊科技雖是知識分享的必要條件， 145 但它可以使知識分享變得更有效率，能影響所蒐集的資訊量和所需花費的時間。甲校能 利用資訊科技建立一個學校知識系統，不單使歷年的學校資料文件有效處理，並使同工 在找尋和更新資料文件時，有較高的行政效率。該校同時亦建立了學生資料庫，有效促 進學生資料的處理和家校溝通。 二、知識管理者的領導 知識領導在知識管理的定位是扮演了整合知識資源和推動知識管理的關鍵角色（張 文權、范熾文，2011）。理解知識管理作用的同工皆知道，有效的知識領導是需要以推 行知識管理作為發展任務，帶領校內同工落實應用知識管理。而明確知識管理者的角色 與職責，是落實學校知識管理的重要策略；知識管理者作為促進知識分享的領導者，其 「任務是瞭解學校和教師的資訊需求，監督保證知識庫內容的品質和深度，對知識庫進 行維護，確保知識庫的及時更新，並提供相應的檢索幫助等」（譚朝陽、李紅波、黃利妮， 2014，頁 93）。乙校參與這個計劃的優化策略，是確立學科主任在校內的知識領導角色， 並要求學科主任承擔組內溝通的責任，推動各級組長將學科知識有效傳播。下文引出該 校負責同工在訪談時，說出科主任和各級級長在知識溝通與傳遞的功能。 「 在計劃過程中有機會重新整理學校科組的工作，科組由科主任、科顧問、級 長組成，負責聯絡和統籌班級。以往科主任要以一對全校教師將資訊傳遞， 訊息傳遞較難；現在科主任只須將重點向六個級長交代，再由級長轉達給各 級老師，令隱性和顯性知識較易傳遞。」 （乙校負責同工訪談的分享） 學科主任是中層管理者，在上層和下層間扮演中介角色，並位於垂直和橫向資訊流 通的交界，是學校組織的知識溝通者和創造者。「知識管理者責任在於協調部門內成員 的工作，使得知識能共同分享而不致支離破碎」（程晉寬，2014，頁 8）。為了充分發 揮中層人員作為知識管理的領導角色，乙校在各科內除設一位科主任外，在四個主科內 更設兩位副科主任。與此同時，該校亦在科內設各級組長，負責處理級內科務文件資料， 這可確保各級學科教學的資料妥善儲存和編碼。此外，該校同時亦清晰地確定學科手冊 的內容（見下表一），以便新任同工順利承接和開展科務。「科組主任必須負責整理科 146 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 組的共有知識，將相關資訊和知識放入學校的知識地圖內，讓這些科組內的知識成為學 校的組織知識，可供其他人利用和改良，從而有益於校內團隊推行各項工作和任務」（香 港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 34）。乙校能釐定學科主任擔任科務知識管理的領導責 任，並在科內設立六級級長，這明顯地推動了科務文件和各級教學的交流，有利學校整 理學科的顯性和隱性知識。 表一　科組人手架構與學科手冊 1. 本校在「學與教」的人手架構中，各學科均設科主任一名，而主科中包括：中文、 英文、數學及常識設兩名副科主任；術科則設一名副科主任，協助科主任管理 科務、制定課程政策、課程實施及組織活動等，並作為教師與校長間的溝通橋 樑，向校方交換意見。此外，在各科各級均設級組長，負責聯絡及帶領分級備 課等會議，並處理文件存檔（包括軟件及硬件）。 2. 各科每年均制定學科手冊，讓各科任老師依照科本指引進行教學。學科手冊大 部份內容每年相若，包括：（1）教學宗旨、目標及課程組織；（2）科組架構圖； （3）科主任、副科主任及級組長的職責；（4）用書表；（5）教具及參考書；（6） 家課及堂課指引；（7）各級教學及評分指引；（8）評估指引；（9）編寫進度 表及評估準則。而少部份內容須每年更新，包括：（10）年度老師名單及（11） 工作分配及年度週年計劃及關注事項。 （引用：香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 23） 三、組織的知識分享 在知識管理理念下開展的教師知識的產生、交流、共用和轉化的活動，可「張揚教 師個體在知識產生過程中的主體地位，調動教師學習的主動性和積極性，促進組織和 個體知識管理能力提升，使教師知識觀、學習觀持續更新」（王彥飛，2010，頁 105- 106）。丙校這三年的其中一個發展策略是建立正面文化，為了落實這個學校發展策略， 校方曾安排教師接受 NLP 身心語言學課程培訓，由熟知這個正面心理學的課程專家到校 147 進行五天培訓，然而因財務和行政限制，學校並未能為個別新同事提供相關培訓。正如 下文丙校負責同工的分享，學校藉參與這個知識管理計劃的機會，透過組織校內教師講 故事的方式，促進新舊同工對正面文化的交流，使新同事很快就了解正面文化的內涵。 在校本講故事圈教師分享活動中，「上一個傳授者在自己解釋基礎上又吸收了新的理解， 從而又對知識進行了新的分析加工，這種反覆將在學校全體成員中不斷的進行，這種過 程使得單一的傳授變成了交互傳遞」（周舉坤，2012，頁 40）。丙校善於利用參與這個「知 識管理與小學發展」計劃，提供多些校內同工分享隱性知識的機會，營造了學校的正面 文化，並加強了同事間隱性知識的交流。 「 知識管理對不了解學校文化的新同事有很大作用，因為他們不會很仔細閱讀 行政手冊。透過正面文化分享會，知道大家也重視正面文化，了解大家的價 值觀／大方向。參與後察覺實行得較以前有系統，又加強了分享部分，間中 會在科組中有系統地把隱性知識分享，大家知道的都多了許多。」 （丙校負責同工訪談的分享） 「倘若每一位教師都願意並主動地將珍貴的隱性知識顯性化，讓更多的教師分享之， 那麼，不僅教師的個體發展成為可能，教師共同體的發展亦成為可能」（周洋，2014， 頁 52）。為配合推廣正面文化和促進校內教師的分享，該校設計了一個校本教學觀課 表（見下表二），從觀課表內的範疇和參考項目可見，該校同工已將正面文化融入日常 課堂教學的細節。利用這個觀課表，可使授課教師在教學設計和教學時留意正面文化的 體現，又可讓觀課同工在觀課時反思正面文化，有益於觀課後同工間交流和分享。正如 Connelly & Kelloway（2003）指出，知識分享的文化為成功知識管理的基石，而信任則 是促使組織成員樂於與他人分享知識與經驗的關鍵要素。丙校同工能有效建立分享正面 文化的氣氛，其一原因是該校教師人數不多，同事間彼此信任。任何一個組織若信任度 不足，將會影響組織內同工分享隱性知識，不利同工將知識社群化和外顯化。這個案例 引證了丙校同工在相互信任的環境下，善用參與這個知識管理計劃的機會，利用教師故 事圈和正面文化觀課表，促進同工們在校內分享正面文化。 148 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 表二　正面文化教學觀課表 （引用：香港初等教育研究學會，2012，頁 30-31） 範 疇 參考項目 十 分 同 意 同 意 不 太 同 意 不 同 意 不 適 用 備註／意見 和 諧 師生關係良好、鼓勵、支持 學生間關係良好、協調、支持 合 作 氣 氛 老師提供參與機會 鼓勵師生互動 老師鼓勵回應 老師鼓勵朋輩互動 老師鼓勵發問 師生互相尊重 學生有興趣、專注、積極、自信、自發、開放 正 面 教 學 語 言 ／ 態 度 措詞用語正面 給予學生足夠時間思考作答 發問難易適中 具體指出學生的成就 老師能跟進學生的回應 老師能贊同、獎勵 營 造 課 堂 關 愛 教師友善、親切、負責、熱心、投入、 鼓勵學習、支持、啟發 教師對學生意見的回應： 理解、關懷、尊重、開放 教師鼓勵學生學習、探索； 發展學生潛能追求卓越 149 丙、個案討論與分析 筆者兩人在十所參與計劃的學校中，選取這三所學校作為個案分析，原因是這三所 學校在知識管理的不同環節有成功的經驗，並呈現出推行知識管理的關鍵要素。上文可 見，甲校的成功經驗是利用資訊科技系統建立校本知識地圖，「建立知識地圖的目的在 於應用，不斷拓展應用領域，通過各種評價體系對知識地圖進行評價、反饋信息，從而 逐漸完善知識地圖」（蘇新寧、任皓、吳春玉、朱曉峰，2004，頁 105）。甲校同工透 過參與這個知識管理計劃，全面檢視校內知識和資訊的儲存系統，並創建了一個共用的 知識編碼系統。甲校能於一個學年內檢視了校內文件，更建立了一個編碼系統和學生資 料庫，其成功實踐知識管理的原因，是在於甲校能善用集權式領導來促進校本知識地圖。 正如 Merat & Bo（2013，頁 13）所說，假若一間公司能執行一個有效的編碼策略，一個 集權式領導系統會較為可行。由此觀之，在一所學校，如果學校領導層沒有決心，不願 調撥資源，絕不可能在一年間以資訊科技建立一個知識管理系統。 「處於知識經濟社會，知識為學校提升競爭力的關鍵因素，誰對知識進行妥當的管 理，將決定誰能在社會中主導大局。因此，教師必須從傳統的知識傳遞者，轉型為知識 生產者；學校領導者也不應只是傳統的人員、物質、資源管理者，而應同時為學校知識 的管理者」（李安明、謝傳崇，2003，頁 70）。乙校的成功經驗是透過參與計劃去推動 學科主任成為知識管理者，學校制定措施要求學科主任負責管理科內文件，並透過級長 促進教學內隱性知識的分享。「知識管理要求學校管理者超越組織管理的層面，理解知 識獲取與管理的流程和職能之間的戰略關係，推動教師獲取和共享知識，組織教師不斷 開發知識，資助和支持對知識展開深化」（任佩佩，2012，頁 32）。在知識型社會，學 校能否成為一個專業社群，其關鍵因素是校內中層人員是否做好知識管理的領導角色； 乙校決策層建立了一個完整的學科知識管理者的政策，使學科主任除了做傳統管理角色 的同時，也負責管理科內的顯性和隱性知識，領導同事專業的成長。 「信息不是免費的，獲取知識、傳遞知識、創新知識都需要成本，包括時間、教育 資源等；一旦校園能形成共享知識的文化氛圍，將不但大大降低個體獲取知識的成本， 而且能夠減少知識管理系統的管理運作成本」（鄭康、諶啟標，2010，頁 17）。丙校同 工能將正面文化成功深化，全賴校內領導善用知識管理策略，以教師故事圈和正面文化 150 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 觀課表作措施，推動同工分享和交流正面文化，既減低了同工獲取正面文化的知識成本， 亦使新舊同工對正面文化的隱性知識得到充份的外顯，並成為共有的學校組織知識，究 其成功原因，正如 Cheng（2013）所說，擁有一個關懷、和諧的工作環境，可讓全校教 職員工在互相信賴與支持的氛圍中，進行知識的分享與創新。由此可見，丙校同工間的 信任，是學校建立分享文化的重要因素。在推行計劃的過程中，丙校亦豐富了校內專業 社群的發展，使學校同工得到有效的專業成長，亦有助學校關注的事項得到順利推行。 丁、知識管理應用的經驗與限制 「個人知識管理不僅會影響到教師專業發展，也涉及到學校整體素質能力的提高， 因此學校建立一些相關政策和組織團隊協作機構，完善相關管理制度」（回智光， 2014，頁 103）。知識管理在香港學校教育仍是一個新興的學校發展策略，不少學校同 工對知識管理的理念和運作仍不大了解。本文分析了三所曾參與香港初等教育研究學會 「知識管理與小學發展」計劃的小學在推行知識管理的成功經驗，印證了學校知識管理 文獻（Cheng, 2012, 2013）中資訊科技、知識管理的領導及分享文化對實踐知識管理的 重要性。正如 Nonaka & Krogh（2009，頁 641）認為，組織科學的其中一個學術目的是 提供管理實踐的知識，這不單需要學者去發展試驗理論，亦同時要求他們提出應用於組 織的知識以解決具體問題。從上述三個個案，可了解到利用資訊科技建立校本知識地圖， 制定學科主任擔任知識管理者的領導角色和推動學校的分享文化等知識管理策略，的確 能促進學校發展和提高校內教師的專業能力。 本文引用了香港初等教育研究學會的公開資料和三間學校負責同工的分享，介紹了 三校成功運用知識管理的實施細節；然而，正如黃雪盈（2008）指出，「個案研究法詳 細地描述個案在一個時段內的狀況，可以用來測試現有的理論，以作輔助或補充之用」， 故本文重點不是發展知識管理的新理論，而是論述相關學理在個案的實踐情況，以印證 可在學校有效地應用知識管理的三個關鍵因素：資訊科技、組織領導及分享文化。而因 應文章的篇幅所限，本文並沒有論述參與「知識管理與小學發展」計劃的其他七所小學 的經驗，在此僅作聲明。最後，本研究的另一個限制是研究員未有進一步搜集三校其他 同工對計劃的看法，相信有關做法可為這個質性個案提供更豐富的素材，亦使讀者了解 更多成功運用知識管理的經驗。 151 參考文獻 王彥飛（2010）。〈教師共同體的構建策略探析——基于知識管理理論視角〉。《華中 師範大學研究生學報》，17（3），105-108。 王萌亞、金玉梅（2011）。〈學校知識管理的實施策略探究〉。《教學與管理》，第 21 期，24-26。 任佩佩（2012）。〈學校知識管理的基本理論架構〉。《江西教育》，Z6 期，32。 回智光（2014）。〈個人知識管理與教師專業發展研究〉。《鞍山師範學院學報》，16 （1），101-104。 李子建（2004）。〈課程領導與教師專業發展：知識管理的觀點〉。《香港教師中心學報》， 第 3 卷，15-27。 李安明、謝傳崇（2003）。〈運用知識管理理論與策略以提升學校效能之研究〉。《國 立臺北師範學院學報》，16（2），49-78。 周洋（2014）。〈隱性知識共用視域下教師發展平台的構建〉。《江蘇第二師範學院學 報（社會科學）》，30（3），50-53。 周舉坤（2012）。〈知識重構：現代學校管理中的知識探究〉。《當代教育科學》， 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Journal of Knowledge Management, 2(1), 55-66. 153 Prusak, L. (2001). Where did knowledge management come from? IBM Systems Journal, 40(4), 1002-1007. Retrieved from http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/404/ prusak.html Sallis, E., & Jones, G. (2004)。《教育知識管理》，王如哲、黃月純（譯）。台北： 五南圖書。（原著出版年：2002） Serenko, A., Bontis, N., Booker, L., Sadeddin, K., & Hardie, T. (2010). A scientometric analysis of knowledge management and intellectual capital academic literature (1994- 2008). Journal of Knowledge Management, 14(1), 3-23. Stewart, T. A. (1997). Intellectual capital: The new wealth of organizations. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited. Wiig, K. M. (2004). People-focused knowledge management: How effective decision making leads to corporate success. USA: Elsevier. 154 支援學校應用知識管理的香港經驗 Experiences for supporting schools to apply knowledge management in Hong Kong WU Siu Wai & CHENG Chi Keung Eric The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract According to international literature, the application and promotion of knowledge management in the education area is still in a preliminary stage when compared with other areas. In 2010-2012, the Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association launched the “Knowledge Management and the Development of Primary Schools” Project to promote and put into practice the vision of knowledge management in ten primary schools. In this paper, the two authors extracted three successful cases from the ten schools to explicate how the selected schools applied knowledge management in their context in terms of three perspectives, namely, knowledge management system, knowledge management leaders and organization sharing. In order to describe the experiences gained from the three cases effectively, the authors also had in-depth interviews with the responsible colleagues in the three schools apart from adopting the data from the Project so as to analyze the details of the three schools in launching knowledge management. Keywords knowledge management, school development, primary school education in Hong Kong 155 徵集論文 我們歡迎教育界同工投稿，內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主，課題可包括： ． 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 ． 創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 ． 創意教學 ． 家長教育 ． 校本教職員培訓，包括教師入職培訓及輔導 ． 校本管理 ． 學生支援及學校風氣，包括輔導及諮詢 ． 學生培訓 ． 教育改革評議 ． 比較教育 ． 高等教育 ． 幼兒教育 ． 特殊教育 ． 美術教育 ． 音樂教育 ． 教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: ．Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation ．Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy ．Creative teaching ．Parent education ．School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring ．School-based management ．Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling ．Student development ．Critique on education reform ．Comparative education ．Higher education ．Early childhood education ．Special education ．Fine arts education ．Music education ．History of education 徵募審稿員 我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作 的同工，請以電郵（info@hktc.edb.gov.hk）或傳真（2565 0741）提交下列資料，以 供聯絡。如有任何查詢，歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。 姓名： 任職學校 / 機構： 聯絡電話： 電郵地址： 興趣範圍： Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: （博士 /先生 /女士） (Dr / Mr / Ms) 稿 例（修訂於 2013 年 12 月） (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在 A4 紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法（如郵寄地址、電話、電郵） 請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者，作者應保留一份原稿，以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附以下資料之中英文版本，包括題目、作者姓名、所屬機構、摘要及關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。中 文摘要以 200 字為限，英文摘要則約 150 字。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審，需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件，當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿稍 予修改或請作者自行修改，或不予採用。稿件一經定稿，請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負，其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註，請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》（2006 年，第 6 版）指引。中 文格式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為 1 月 31 日。稿件及有關通訊請送交：香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍 塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室香港教師中心 《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。（電郵： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk） (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有，非得許可，不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間，不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2013) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Manuscripts can be written in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be between 3,500 and 7,000 words. 3. All manuscripts should be accompanied with the following information in both English and Chinese: title, author’s name, affiliation, abstract and 3 to 5 keywords. The English abstract should be around 150 words, and the Chinese abstract should be not more than 200 words. 4. All submissions will go through an anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the manuscripts, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the manuscripts submitted. Once the final version of manuscripts has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For manuscripts in Chinese, please refer to the format and style used in the latest issue. 7. Deadline for manuscript submission is on January 31 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. Once the review process of this Journal begins, contributors shall not send the submitted manuscript to other journals for review or publication.
Educational Research Award Scheme Reports Collections 11/12
Category: DocumentsDocuments Icon。 目錦 續者的話 ......................................................................................4 申學 推廣從閱讀中學習 .........................................................................5 勞工子弟中學 黃晶榕(主要研究員) 且多嘉慧、蔡麗如、 金卓麟 、 李麗彩 、 李韻儀 、黃思慧(其他研究員) Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation ......... 26 Concord ia Lutheran School - North Point LEE Ch i Shing The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination ......................................... 54 TWGHs Mrs Fung Wong Fung Ting College LAM Kang Mei 小學 探討應用「合作學習J 教學黨時於小二及小三中、英、數科目 對改善學生的學習態度和成績..... ........ ..... ........ ..... ........ ..... ........ .. 80 聖怕多祿天主教小學 馮停珍 學習單位分數的概念以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 .........109 鳳漢第一小學 黃鳳珠、陳巧帥、洗文標、楊詠盈 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with 。ther activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment......... 124 YLPMSAA Ying Yip Pri mary School LAM Nga Kit, Rachel 幼種固 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力............ ............. ........142 善一堂安逸幼稚圍 溫志倫 四至五萬見童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念轉變 ........ ............. ........168 國際英文幼稚圓 黃晨芸 。。 3 。。 。 編者的話 香港教師中心教育研究小組收到參與「教育研究獎勵計劃 2011 /12J 的研 究報告超過十篇。編輯委員會從中選出八篇刊登於《教育研究報告匯編》。本 年度的研究範圍相當廣泛，包括中學校長就觀課對改進教學質素的行動研究、 小學生從合作學習中獲得的學習成果 ，以至幼兒對地心吸力的理解。研究內容 涵蓋了中文、英文、數學 、 科學多個學習領域，以及教師發展與觀課的關係。 整體來說 ， 參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題，先進行文獻探 究， 再提出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分析， 再作出結 論和建議，最後以系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來 。 研究報告反映他們在文 獻比較和數據分析方面 ，都有相當深入和精闢的見解 ， 對學生的學習問題 ， 以 及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的討論，並提出具體可行的建議 。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與 「教育研究獎勵計劃J 的同工，在有限的時 間及經驗下，仍然全力以赴 ，成功完成整項研究計劃 。他們為提升教育質素所 付出的努力，值得讚賞 。 我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品，均能夠為課堂學習提供 實際而深入的分析基礎 ，並闡釋當中行之有效的方法。讀者可以多參考研究報 告的建議，應用在日常教學工作，進一步僵化教學的效能。我們更希望這些報 告能敢發同工就相闊的課題，展開更多、更全面的研究 。本人亦謹此向《教育 研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致意，感謝他們在百忙中抽空審閱各篇研究報告 。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持， 本會定能持續推動教育研究，鼓勵 教師進行更深入和持續性的教育研究， 不斷提升教學效能和質豪。他山之石 ， 可以攻玉 。 期望各位讀者對此 《教育研究報告匯編》內容能提出書面意見，相 互交流，集思廣益。 4 1 教育研究報告匯編 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 20 1 3 年 1 2 月 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 推廣從閱讀申學習 黃晶榕博士(主要研究員) 學嘉慧 、 蔡麗如 、 金卓麟 、 李麗彩 、 李韻儀 、 黃思慧(其他研究員 ) 勞工子弟中學 摘要 本行動研究旨在從三個不同的層面 ， 包括 ， 第一課堂一一課程與教學層面、 第三課堂一一校內環境與活動層面 ， 以及第三課堂一一校判、環境與活動層面 ， 探討培養本校中一級學生閱讀習慣，及提升其閱讀能力的方法和成效。研究結 果發現 ， 經歷過上述三個層面洗禮的中一級學生 ，在短短的一個學期內 ， 其閱 讀習慣及閱讀能力均有明顯的改善 。 引言 課程發展議會於 2001 年正式公布了 《學會學習 . 課程發展路向> ' 把 「推 廣從閱讀中學習J 9ì]為課改的四個關鍵項目之一。 由此可見 ， 閱讀是擴闊學生 知識、增加智慧的關鍵。然而， 本校雖然有六十多年的歷史 ， 但在閱讀環境 、 閱讀風氣，以至部份學生的閱讀能力都未如理想，亟待改善。因此，藉著是決 「教育研究獎勵計劃J ' 本研究小組 (成員包括六位中文科教師和一位圖書館 主任)建基於謝錫金教授事前的指導，嘗試從三個不同的層面一一校內課程與 教學層面、校內環境與活動層面，以及校外環境與活動層面，逐級來推動閱讀， 以培養學生的閱讀習慣並提升其閱讀能力。不過 ， 由於受到人力及時間資源所 限 ， 本行動研究現階段只聽焦於探討中一級的校本經驗。 研究小組希望是項研究 ， 有助本校教師更了解與掌握這些來自基層家庭 (大 多數學生都是居住在九龍東和九龍中的公屋和唐樓) ，學習能力稍遜的中一級學 生之閱讀習慣與閱讀能力，從而制定出更適切的發展計劃，並加以實施、擴展， 最終把本校發展成為一所人人愛閱讀 ， 人人懂閱讀的閱讀學校。 此外 ， 相信有關 的經驗亦可為其他學校提供參照與借鏡，以達至共同進步的願望。此乃本研究的 目的 。基於以上的想法， 本研究定立了以下一道探究問題 . 本校中一級學生受到 上述三個不同層面的影響 ， 其閱讀習慣與閱讀能力出現了甚麼轉變 ? 文獻研評 前蘇聯著名文學家高爾基(年份不詳)曾經這樣說 「熱愛書吧，這是知 識的泉源|要熱愛書 ， 它會使你的生活輕鬆，它會友愛地幫助你了解紛繁複雜 的思想、情感和事件，它會教導你尊重別人和你自己，它以熱愛世界、熱愛人 類的情感來鼓勵智能和心靈。 j 這段引吉，道出了 閱讀的重要性，闡明了閱讀 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 / 1 2 I 5 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 能夠幫助人類智性和心靈的發展。 其宜， 持有類似觀點的古今中外人士多的 是，唐朝著名詩人杜甫 ( 767) 曾經講過 「男兒須讀五車書 。」因為他相信 看書可以擇升人品 。英國大文豪莎士比亞(年份不詳)也這樣說 ﹒「人的美醜 是先天帶來的命運，有沒有素養則是書籍造就的命運。 j 而韓國著名作家南美 英 ( Nam， 1997)貝1]認為 : I閱讀 ，是我們終身學習的基礎 ， 基礎教育的靈魂 ， 人生成功的基石。 J 由此可見 ， 古今中外的名人雅士都非常推崇閱讀 。 綜合不同學者的分析 ， 閱讀的好處離不開以下幾點 : ( 1 )閱讀能夠帶來 持久的樂趣 ; ( 2 ) 閱讀能夠提高思考能力 ; ( 3 ) 閱讀能夠加強新舊知識的聯結， (4 ) 閱讀能夠提升情感智商 ; ( 5) 閱讀能夠塑造良好的價值觀 ( 6 ) 閱讀 能夠淨化人的心靈世界(黃晶樁 ， 2012 ; Nam , 1997 ; Routman, 2003) 。至 於推廣閱讀的策略 ， 不外乎就是要解決指導方法的問題、書籍的問題和閱讀時 間的問題 ( Krashen ， 2004) 這正是本校從三個不同的層面，包括 課程 與教學層面、校內環境與活動層面、校外環境與活動層面來推廣閱讀的依據 。 至於閱讀能力方面 ， 本研究小組根據祝新華 (2005) 的分析，把要學生發 展的閱讀認知能力依次分為複述 、 解釋、重整、伸展、評鑑和創意。 而教與學 的模式，大致是採用謝錫金、羅嘉怡、林偉業和李黛娜 (2011 ) 提倡的 自 主學 習循環模式，即目標設定與策略規劃一策略的實行與監控一學習過程中進行調節 一自我學習評價與回饋。 以此循環模式來設計教學活動、 創設自學經歷及重覆演 練行為(有關此方面的能力培養及具體的教學策略示例， 可參閱附件四) 研究后法 本研究本質上是教育行動研究 。 研究小組基於 Lewin ( 1946， 1948 ) 和 Kemmis ( 1981 ， 1982) 規劃、 行動 、觀察和反思的行動研究精神 ， 及參照 Sagor (2006 ) 所提倡的「選擇一個焦點一明確理論一確定研究問題一收集數 據一分析數據一報告結果一採取明智的行動J 之行動研究模式來開展的。 不過 ，由於受到人力資源及時間所限 ， 是決的研究對象只聚焦於中一級四 班共 135位學生 。至於搜集資料的方法 ，則是採取質性與量性相結合的研究法 ， 包括 ， 透過問卷調查，了解學生在本行動研究前後，閱讀習慣及閱讀能力的轉 變 ; 透過師生的個別訪談，深入了解上述三個層面的措施對學生的閱讀習慣所 帶來的影響 ， 透過測卷分析(例如行動研究前後學生的課業質棄) ，了解上述 三個層面的措施對學生閱讀能力的影響 ， 透過教師及/或家長的觀察 ， 以互相 印證從 (學生) 問卷調查、 (師生)訪談及(學生)文件分析所得的研究資料 。 為了確保研究的信度與效度 ， 除了在研究方法(問卷調查、訪談、文件分 析和觀察等)及資料來源(教師、學生 、家長等)方面採取三角校正外， 在整理 和分析資料階段，研究小組亦邀請了小組以外的教師和學生代表 ， 共同審視研究 資料與研究報告 ; 與此同時 ，並曾透過私人關係 ，尋求大學專家的專業意見。 基於本校的校曆安排 ，並配合是項獎勵計劃的時間表 ， 本研究小組按照以 下的進程推行本行動研究。 大致而言， 2011 年 11 月至 2012 年 1 月是研究的 計劃期; 2012 年 2 月至 5 月是實施期，過程中有系統地收集評估數據，並持 6 1 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 續地作出檢討、改進，而自 2012 年 6 月至 8 月，研究小組整體地總結與反思 是項教育行動研究的得失， 並撰寫成書面報告 ， 呈交教師中心。基於行動研究 的精神 ， 本校在等待教師中心評審本研究報告的同時，已逐步把是項行動研究 擴展至中三級賓施。 階段 時間 研究事項 中一級四位中文科老師、科主任 、圖書館主任和 2011 年 11 - 1 2 月 副校長共同討論是否參與本計畫IJ; 其後， 正式成 立本研究小組，並遁表申請參加本獎勵計劃 。 計劃 教師中心審批本研究計劃的同時 ，研究小組己著手 2011 年 12 月- 探討落實本研究計劃的可行性 ，並初擬好調查問 2012 年 1 月 卷(參閱附件一) ，及對個別師生作出先導訪談， 以取得初步的資料 ，進一步完善本研究計劃 。 實施 研究小組根據上述的研究計劃 ， 正式開展本行動 研究，過程中並根據上文所提及的研究方法，有 與 2012 年 2-5 月 系統地搜集各類研究數據，以冀發揮進展性評估 評估 的效益。 總結 2012 年 6 月 研究小組整體地總結、 反思整個研究計劃的得失 ， 以助將來進一步完善相闊的策略與措施。 與 研究小組依據本獎勵計劃的要求，撰寫書面報告， 反思 2012 年 7-8 月 並於 8 月內呈交教師中心。 等待評審結果的同時， 本校將基於首輪行動研究 的經驗及其後檢討、反思的結果，逐年把是項研 下一輪 2012 年 9-12 月 究成果擴展至中三級各班 。 如果時間與人力資源 研究 許司， 本校亦將持續地參與未來的獎勵計劃，以 冀透過循環不息的教育行動研究 ，推動本校教與 學的改善與發展。 基於上述的學校和學生背景，以及本研究所定下的研究目的和研究問題， 研究小組從以下三個層面來推動中一級學生閱讀(三者同時進行 ，並沒有先後 次序)。第一課堂 ， 校內課程與教學層面 。本研究小組選取原著/名著教學 ， 以 《小王子> (短篇小說) 和《三國演義> (白話版，短篇小說)兩書作為教 材，於課堂上教授學生相闊的閱讀策略 。 例如教師透過《三國演義》之〈走馬 薦諸葛〉一文教授學生如何評價小說中的人物時 ， 課堂上會指導學生選擇一個 適切的角度去評價小說中的人物，過程中學生須重整資料，加以證明，以支持 自 己的見解(具體課堂教學示例可參閱附件四)。而本研究小組選擇上述作品 作為教材 ， 是由於這些小說題材健康、文字優美、篇幅適中 ，且穿越古今中外， 故選作中一級的語文科教材一一此乃回應了 Krashen ( 2004 ) 的觀點， 透過第 一課堂指導學生閱讀方法 ，是推動閱讀的重要一環。 第二課堂 校內環境與活動層面 。本研究小組一方面透過社會網絡，徵集 到大量的固書(約 1 0，000 本 ) ， 擺放在全校課室及其他學生常聚會的地方 ， 務求讓大家隨時隨地、川頁丰拈來、有書可讀， 另一方面 ， 研究小組亦透過舉辦 不同的閱讀活動，如名著電影欣賞、午問講故事活動等 ，以推動學生多閱讀 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 7 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 此乃回應了 Krashen ( 2004 ) 的觀點， 透過第二課堂為學生解決書籍的問 題，有助推動閱讀 。 第三課堂 校外環境與活動層面。本研究小組了解到學生喜歡上網及閱讀 圖文並茂的電子書，故於校內圖書館增設電子終端機，讓學生隨意瀏覽電子圖 書，又推出網上圖書閱讀計畫IJ ' 鼓勵學生透過互聯網閱讀電子圖書一一此等措 施 ， 可擴闊學生的閱讀空間，回應了 Krashe n ( 2004 ) 的觀點， 透過第三課堂 增加學生的閱讀時間， 是培養學生閱讀習慣的關鍵。 簡括而吉， 有關第一課堂至第三課堂的措施與進程如下表所示 策略 措施 進程 2011 -2012 第一課堂 選取原著/名著教學 . 以 《小王子) (短篇小 (中 一) 說) 1 和《三國演義) (白話版， 短篇小說) 2012-2013 校內課程與 2 兩書作為教材。因其題材健康 、文字優美、 (中一 、三) 教學層面 篇幅適中 ，且穿越古今中夕|、 2013-201 4 (中一 、 二 、 二) 發動學生、家長、校友及社會人士捐贈圖書， 於各課室增設圖書閣 於圖書館加設電子閱讀平台 於天井開設午問故事天地 於自修室播放名著電影 鼓勵學生撰寫讀後感 ， 然後投稿至報刊 教師和學生於早會時分享閱讀心得 是年已開展 (參閱附件三 ) 第二課堂. 透過圖書館推動各種閱讀計劃 校內環境與 舉辦書展等文化活動 活動層面 對中一級進行閱讀調查 (即本報告附件一所示) 參加教育研究獎勵計劃(即本研究) 組建圖書館家長義工隊 舉辦親子閱讀活動 舉辦作家分享活動 來年開展 出版優秀作品文集 改良圖書館及自修室閱讀環境 第=課堂 . 校外環境與 增設電子書並推出網上圖書館閱讀計劃 持續進行中 活動層面 1 聖埃克蘇佩里著 ﹒ 馬振騁 (20 10 ) 0 (小王子》。香港 三聯書店(香港)有限公司。 2 羅貫中茗 ， 王征編寫 ( 201 1 ) 0 {三國演義》。香港 中攀書局。 8 1 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 研究結果及分昕 本研究小組經過一學期的工作與研究，並基於問卷調查結果，得知中一級 學生在閱讀習慣方面出現7以下的轉變 . 前測時，有 67.4%中一級學生表示，自 己閱讀課外書的原因是由於 「閱 讀是個人興趣，自己喜歡閱讀J '抱持這種態度的學生，於後測時上升至超過 71 . 1% 。 前測時，有 1 6 . 3% 的中一級學生因為 「感到無聊，沒事可做J 而閱 讀，於後測時上升至 1 8.1 % 。由此顯示更多學生把閱讀視為其中一種消遣活動 (見表一 ) 0 Krashen ( 2004 ) 指出，這種想閱讀而閱讀的自由自主閱讀 ( Free Voluntary Read ing ) ，有大好機會提升語文能力。 你ashen 這種見解 ， 也曾得 到多個宣證研究(如 日ley， 1998 ; Greaney, 1970) 的支持。不過， 一部份學 生因為「感到無聊，沒事可做J 而閱讀，出於這種動機而閱讀顯示學生的態度 消極。故學校及教師宜多鼓勵學生，從閱讀中尋找自己的興趣 ， 並豐富相關方 面的知識，這樣將漸漸改變和培養出學生積極的閱讀態度。 表- 中一級學生閱讀的原因和動植 學生百分比(%) 個人興趣，老師佈置為 7 豐富作為與他我感到無 自己喜歡 的作業或自己的 知人交流 的 聊， 沒甚 爸媽叫我識 ， 提高題材 麼事可做 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 67.4 後測 (5/201 2) 71 .1 看的 語文水平 3.3 2.4 6.5 4.8 6.5 3.6 16.3 18.1 不論前測和後測，都有超過士成的學生表示 ，沒有固定的時間進行閱讀。 這顯示大部份學生未能把閱讀視為日常活動 ，沒有規劃好閱讀時間 。可幸的是， 前測時只有 3.4%的學生會在晚上做完功課後閱讀 ， 至後測時則上升至 8.5% 。 由此顯示出更多學生願意在完成課業後 ， 繼續花時間進行閱讀(見表三)。故 學校宜更好地規劃 「午間讀報節J '並鼓勵各科教師盡量地在正規課程中引入 課外閱讀 ，更有系統、更廣泛且持續地培養學生的閱讀習慣。 表二 中一級學生一般看書的時段 學生百分比(%) 沒有固定 晚上完成 上課時 午膳 通常 時間 作業後 大息時 在假日 前測 (1/2012 ) 71 .3 3.4 2.3 2.3 20.7 後測 (5/2012) 74.4 8.5 3.7 。 。 13.4 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 9 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 前測時，有接近三成的中一級學生表示， 他們的父母從不閱讀圖書 ， 至後 測時，這項數字下降至 17 .8% 。另一方面 ，表示父母間中會閱讀圖書的學生由 34. 1% 升至 41 .7% 。 由此顯示出更多學生帶動了父母共同閱讀 (見表三)。據 部份家長解釋，當他們發現自己的子女閱讀圖書，自己或多或少受到影響，減 少7看電視的時間，偶然更會翻翻子女的課外書， 或以讀報的方式陪讀 。 據最近的 「新地喜閱指數 2012J 問卷調查 ，發現來自勞工階層的家長只 有 32. 3% 有閱讀習慣(宰翠時 '2012 ) ，此乃與本校家長的情況相近 ，故若 能透過學生推動家長共同閱讀 ，將帶來良性的循環 。 是故， 學校來年可更善意 舉辦親子閱讀活動，或以圖書館義工服務的形式， 吸引家長到校參加各顯型的 閱讀活動和閱讀服務 ，最終達至親子共閱讀的 目標 。 有不少文化界及教育界的 人士(如天衛文化編輯部， 2010 ; Nam, 1997 ) 持有類似的觀點，他們指出父 母是否具備良好的閱讀習慣，是影響孩子是否閱讀的關鍵 。換吉之，推動學生 閱讀的同時別忽略家長。 表三 中一級學生的父母閱讀圖書的習慣 學生百分比(%) 從不 甚少 間中 經常 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 28.4 30.7 34.1 6.8 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 17.8 34.5 41.7 6.0 前測時 ，有 6 .7% 的中一級學生表示， 他們沒有擁有一本屬於自己的課外 圖書 ， 至後測時已降至 3 .5% ;而擁有 26 至 100 本圖書的中一級學生，由之前 的 1 5 .9%上升至 24 .7% 。 由此顯示學生擁有少量課外書的人數漸漸增多。然而 ， 擁有 25 本以下課外書的學生，大約有t成 ， 顯示大部份學生所持的圖書量仍 然不足(見表四) oKrashen ( 2004) 指出，要推動閱讀首先要解決書籍的問題 。 故學校可從不同方面求取贊助支持，以豐富學校的閱讀環境，協助學生解決書 籍的問題。在過往一學期， 本校曾透過不同的途徑，從不同的出版集團、書局 、 校友、教師及其他社會人士身上， 募集到超過一萬本中英文課外圖書 ， 擺放在 各課室讓學生自由取書閱讀。當然 ， 學校日後亦可更多地以獎品的形式逮贈學 生圖書 ， 教師亦可鼓勵學生更多地借用學校或公共圖書館的圖書回家閱讀，以 補足個人藏書量的不足。 表四 屬於中一級學生個人的韓外圖書 (本) 學生百分比 (%) 。 1-10 11 -25 26-100 101 -200 201-500 其他 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 6.7 40.0 25.0 15.9 3.4 4.5 4.5 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 3.5 43.5 23.5 24.7 1.2 1.2 2.4 10 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 其一 ， 支持 「原著/ 名著教學j 。 中一級學生普遍贊同 「學校把更多的課 外讀物引入課程/課堂教學中，以幫助同學培養閱讀習慣J .由前測的 55 .2% 上升至 62.4% 。 在課後訪談中 ， 不少學生都指出原著/ 名著的故事性是吸引他 們追讀的主因，其次 ，原著/ 名著教學讓他們有更多想像空間， 有更多表達自 己想法的機會。 由此顯示學生對學校運用 「以書為本J 的閱讀教學 ，反應積極 (見表五 ) 表五 中一級學生對器外讀物引入課程 l 語堂教學的意見 學生百分比 (% ) 極不贊同 不贊同 贊同 極贊同 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 5.8 1.2 8.0 5.8 55.2 62.4 31 .0 30.6 其三 ，支持擺放圖書於學校不同位置。 前測時，有 13 .8% 的中一級學生十 分贊同「學校擺放更多的固書在校園不同的地方 ，讓學生隨時隨地可自由閱讀， 將有助養成學生的閱讀習慣J . 至後測時上升至 17. 7% ; 而表示贊同的學生由 48.3% 上升至 54 . 1 % 。事宜上，從觀察所見 ，愈來愈多學生會在小息時拿取課 室書架上的圖書閱讀，由此顯示大部份中一級學生以行動支持學校在不同位置 擺放圖書的安排 (見表六 ) 表六 中一級學生對學校擺敢圖書於按國不同地方的意見 學生百分比 (%) 前測 ( 1 /20 12 ) 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 極不贊同 不贊同 11 .5 9.4 26.4 18.8 贊同 48.3 54.1 極贊同 13.8 17.7 其三 ， 支持同學問互相交換課外圖書閱讀。不論前測或後測， 均有超過六 成學生， 支持 「學校鼓勵同學帶備一本課外圖書， 擺放在所屬的課室中 ， 以互 相交換閱讀J (見表-t) 表七 中一級學生對學校數勵同學間交換圖書閱饋的意見 學生百分比 (%) 極不贊同 不贊同 贊同 極贊同 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 13.8 20.7 50.6 14.9 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 7.1 29.4 50.6 12.9 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 竹 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 其四 ，支持午間讀報節加入圖書閱讀。計劃開始時，有 26 . 1 % 中 一級學 生十分贊同「午間讀報節除了可以閱讀報紙外， 亦可以閱讀其他中文 /英文圖 書J . 至後測時增加至 37.6% :而極不贊同本項措施的學生，由前測的 11 .4% 下降至 2.4% 。 由此顯示大部份學生贊同午間讀報節加入閱讀其他中文 /英文圖 書 (見表八) 義八 中一級學生對午間讀報即加入中文/英文圖書閱饋的意見 學生百分比(%) 極不贊同 不贊同 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 後測 ( 5/2012 ) 贊同 51 .1 26.1 37.6 極贊同 11 .4 2.4 11 .4 12.9 47.1 其五， 支持學校增設電子閱讀平台 。 前測時，有 35.2% 的中一級學生十分 贊同 「學校在不同的地點增設電子網絡平台，讓你有更多機會接觸電子圖書、 原著/名著電影J . 至後測時上升至 37 .6% :而表示贊同的學生也由 45.5% 上 升至 51 .8% 。 由此顯示大部份中一級學生支持學校增設電子網絡平台，讓學生 接觸電子圖書及名著電影的安排 (見表九) 表九 中一級學生對學校增設電子閱績平台的意見 學生百分比(% ) 極不贊同 不贊同 贊同 極贊同 前測( 1/2012 ) 5.7 13.6 45.5 35.2 後測 (5/2012 ) 2.4 8.2 51 .8 37.6 惟大多數學生依然未能建立網上閱讀的習慣。 前測時 ， 有兩成中一級學生 表示甚少閱讀網上文章或小說 ， 至後測時增加至 34 . 1% :而經常閱讀網上材 料的學生則由 5.7% 升至 11 . 8% 。 由此顯示學生一般未習慣網上閱讀 ，只有少 數學生經常會閱讀網上材料(見表十)。這與上文所提及的 「新地喜閱指數 2012J 的問卷調查結果一致 ， 該調查發現 87 .2% 的讀者依然習慣閱讀印刷本 的書籍 ， 網上閱讀或閱讀電子書仍未算普及(宰翠時 . 2012 ) 。故學校宜安排 不同的學習活動 ，例如要求不同學科作出配合 ， 鼓勵學生閱讀網上指定及非指 定的材料， 以輔助學習。與此同時 ， 教師亦宜引導學生使用互聯網搜尋適切的 閱讀材料 ， 以擴闊知識字買域 ， 應付將來在職場和生活上的需求。 義十 中一級學生閱續網上文章/綱土小說的習慣 學生百分比(%) 前測 ( 1/2012 ) 後測 (5/2012 ) 昕 一m-m 中 - o -1 司 叫 一 2 - 4 偉 - 4 - 3 帥 一 切一川 uu- m一叫 12 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 推廣從閱讀中學習 可幸的是，不論前測或後測，均有超過六成學生支持 「學校通過電郵或其 他網絡平台 ， 定期向學生發怖一些合適閱讀的電子圖書/篇章/閱讀心得J (見 表十一)。由此可見，學生仍然期望學校透過互聯網向他們發放閱讀資料，故 學校可匯集學生常用的電郵地址(除本校為學生提供的 e-class 戶 口外 ) ，並 加強網上資源的開發 ，以便可以定期且有效地向學生發送一些有價值的學習材 料或閱讀資訊 。 表十一 中-級學生對學校通過網絡向學生體放開續資料的意見 學生百分比(%) 極不贊同 不贊同 前測 (1/201 2) 後測 ( 5/2012) 10.2 9.4 17.0 17.6 閉 - w-m 極贊同 17.0 15.3 前測時 ， 有 17% 學生要用一個月 才能夠看完一本書，至後測時增加至 25.7% ; 而從不閱讀的學生人數也由 5.7% 下降至 2.4%。 由此可見 ， 中一級學 生閱讀一本圖書的時間 ， 較計劃開始時縮短 ， 顯示出整體學生的閱讀速度有所 提升(見表十二) 表十二 中一級學生看完一本課外圖書所需的時間 學生百分比(%) 幾天/ 約一季 半年或 約一個月 ( 二至 從不閱讀 一星期 三個月 ) 以上 前測 ( 1 /2012 ) 70.5 17.0 2.3 4.5 5.7 後測 (5/2012 ) 67.1 25.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 有研究小組成員表示[\"從課堂所見，學生處理大篇幅的資訊性文章之能 力有明顯的提升。 j 或許，這是由於課堂上教師經常使用篇幅甚長的名著小說 作為教材，並要求學生要在特定的時間內閱讀並作口頭匯報 ，故學生已習慣7 要快速地閱讀長篇章，或許，教師常常選用篇幅較長的文章作為測考題，故學 生有很多快速閱讀的訓練 ，閱讀的速度在不知不覺間得到提升。 從中一級學生在「閱讀理解評估J 問卷(參閱附件三)的表現來看 ， 學生 在複迪、 解釋題型問題的後測答對率有 72.5% '相比前測答對率高出 11 .7% 。 由此可見學生對於資料的認知提升J ' 對篇章的理解也加深7 。或許 ， 這是由 於課程中引入原著/名著教學 ，教師往往很善意透過課堂上的提問與追間 ，鼓 勵學生作出多角度的思考並作口頭回答，故整體學生的複述、解釋閱讀能力因 而有顯著的提升。 此外，在推動原著/名著教學過程中，教師常常會運用分組 合作學習的技巧，故幾乎每一位學生於每一節課都有複述、解釋特定章節的故 事內容之機會 ，結果他們此方面的語言表達能力有明顯的提升 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 13 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 從中一級學生在 「閱讀理解評估j 問卷的表現來看，創意閱讀能力題型答 對率高達 81% .而相比前測成績 ，進步了 19 .7% 。由此顯示學生喜歡在此想題 型上下功夫。或許 ， 這是由於在整個原著/名著教學推行時 ，大部份教材都沒 有預設的參考答案，答案往往是在師生的對話間形成，所以答案的靈活性自然 大增。此外 ，教材的設計也很有意識地引入學生推測的題目，如 r你會如何 為該篇章定題目? J 、 「如果你是故事中的主角，你會作出這種選擇嗎?為甚 麼? J 、「你認為故事中的主角，與現宜生活中的哪一個人物很相似?為甚麼 你有這種看法? J 類似的提問鼓勵了學生發揮創意，久而久之，便形成能力。 在本研究中，尤其是在原著/名著教學環節，學生在開始時往往會被告知 此一閱讀課的閱讀目的、 學習 目標，故學生在閱讀歷程中須不斷檢視自己是否 已掌握文旬的意思，是否能夠回應閱讀課的目的或目標。例如教師在教《三國 演義》之〈走馬薦諸葛〉 一課的開始環節，會告知學生該節課的學習目標是 「學 習如何評價小說中的人物J .其學習重點則包括下表各項(參閱表十三)。這 樣做的好處，讓學生能夠根據預設的閱讀目標，持續檢視自己的學習進程 ， 這 是培養閱讀監控能力的有效方法之一(余建萃. 2002) 表十三 〈走馬蘭諸葛〉一文的學習重點 學習範疇 內 容 語文基礎知議 學習重點 摘錄要點， 概括內容 聽 策略 學生聆聽匯報，並於工作紙上摘錄要點 學生概括說話者的內容 學習重點 回應別人觀點， 並加以評價 說 策略 學生分組討論及匯報 其他學生評價說話者的匯報內容 學習重點 重整能力、評價能力 讀 策略 學生從不同角度評價徐庶，並能從文中找出證據作支持 (完成工作紙) 學習重點 人物描寫 寫 策略 寫作一位我敬佩的英雄人物 宣用文尋人敢事 思維 批判性思維 情意品德 通過評價人物，學習徐庶忠君愛國 ，劉備禮賢下士、寬宏仁 厚的高尚情操 自學能力 如何訂立「目標J 、 「規劃J 、 「監控j 和 「檢視J 14 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 事宜上， 從觀察所見，本行動研究前後，多數學生的書冊上都是由雪白變 成五彩繽紛 ，多7很多閱讀的痕跡 ，多7很多文字或符號以標示出內容重點或 疑難，此外， 遇到難題， 亦有更多學生會主動查察網上資料或向師友發間，以 解答教師預設的閱讀問題。這印證了余建華 (2002 ) 的觀點 ， 要提高學生的閱 讀理解監控能力，可以從培養他們良好的閱讀習慣，傳授必要閱讀策略和培養 他們自 主閱讀意識等方面著手一一這正是本研究所要推動與發展的重點內容之 重整能力題型答對率僅得 45.6% '前測和後測結果比較未見有改變 ，反映 學生的閱讀重整能力在學期內都沒有應有的進步。或許 ， 使用篇幅較長的原著 /名著作為教材 ， 原意是希望學生閱讀故事性的圖書 ， 能有持續性 ，從而培養 出學生的自學動機與習慣。然而，也有其不足之處，對著一部篇幅不短的小說 ， 要中一級學生釐清篇章內容的關係，並從篇章某處或多處撮取信息，概括段意， 歸納內容及總結主旨 ，實際上並不容易。因為教師帳本不可能在課堂上引導學 生閱讀整鄧小說 ，只能截取書中某些章節或片段作為課堂教學示例 (參閱附件 四)。換吉之， 學生須具備自主學習的精神與態度 ，並要把課堂所學遷移至其 他頗似的學習情境 ， 這樣，閱讀重整能力才有可能提升。牟懷松 (2011 )提醒 我們， 閱讀重整能力是需要經過不斷的訓練，成績才會提高的，其中 「思維導 圓 j 就是幫助學生快速理清文章的思路，把握行文的順序 、 詳略鋪排的良方。 反思、總結與建議 誠如課程發展議會 (2001) 所吉，閱讀是學會學習的關鍵，而學會學習則 是終身學習的根源 (Nam， 1997)。故本校銳意藉著本教育研究獎勵計劃的契 機 ， 逐步開展全校閱讀。 綜上所見，本校從三個不同的層面來推廣中一級學生閱讀，成效是顯著的， 既幫助更多學生培養出良好的閱讀習慣，也有效地擇升了學生的閱讀速度 ， 及 複述、解釋、創意及監控的閱讀能力。不過，本研究欲透過第三課堂一一校外 環境與活動層面來擴竟學生的閱讀空間，這方面的努力雖然得到學生的支持 ， 但仍未見具體的成效 ， 仍須堅持、改進。此外， 學生的閱讀重整能力也未見明 顯的改善，仍有待研究小組進一步探討筒中的原因及改善措施。 回顧整個行動研究歷程， 本研究小組從確定研究焦點，至IJ撰寫研究計劃， 然後執行主施，並在行動過程中持續收集數據 ，以作為檢討改善的依據，此一 過程有效地促進了教與學的發展。就學生學習的角度而言，透過是決研究實踐， 大大擴闊了他們的閱讀空間 ，最終幫助了相當部份的學生培養出良好的閱讀習 慣及提升其閱讀能力。正所謂教學相長也。當本研究小組基於校本發展的需要， 建立起專業的學習社群，並聚焦於閱讀問題，及透過系統化的行動研究來探討 教學問題之同時， 亦發展出探究教學的態度、習慣與能力。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 15 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 當然，在整個研究過程中， 本研究小組亦曾面對過不少的挑戰，包括 (1) 本研究小組需要在百忙之中抽時間收集及整理研究數據、撰寫研究報告，這是 相當奢侈的行為 ，故建議學校盡可能在人力資源方面作出支援 ，例如調動教學 助理協助收集研究資料及處理研究數據 (2 ) 在推展本行動研究的過程中， 本研究小組發現跨學科的配合對推動全校閱讀是至關重要的 ，故建議學校把閱 讀定為學校重點發展的項目之一 ，並要求各科把課外閱讀融匯至正規課程中 ， 且要建立機制， 監督 、檢討其實施成效 ( 3 ) 上文曾提及大部份學生均未能 培養出閱讀網上資源的習慣，普遍學生的個人藏書量也不足，大多數學生的閱 讀重整能力都未如理想，此等問題都有賴研究小組進一步研究，探求良方 ，而 在資源許可的情況下 ，亦宜邀請大學專家提供專業意見，促使理論與實踐互相 碰撞 ，進一步推動從閱讀中學習的發展。 總的來說 ，對於是次研究的成果，本研究小組感到滿意而不滿足。基於行 動研究的精神，本研究小組將在來年繼續研究，探求更有效的方法來推動學生 閱讀並提升其閱讀能力。此外 ， 本研究小組亦希望以此回饋社會 ，為其他有意 推廣全校閱讀的學校創設經驗，以買現本獎勵計劃的精神及兌現我們在本研究 計劃中的承諾。 最後， 本研究小組要特別感謝香港大學中文教育研究中心的謝錫金教授 、 林偉業博士、許守仁先生和吳鴻偉先生，正因為得到他們的指導與協助，本教 育行動研究才得以順利開展，並按計劃實施。 16 I 教育研究報告匯緝 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 參考文獻 天衛文化編輯部 (201 0 ) 0 {孩子一生的閱讀計畫。。台北-天衛文化圖書股份有限公司 。 牟懷松 (201 1) 0 {閱讀有法一一提升閱讀重整能力》。香港 中華書局有限公司 。 余建華 (2002) 0 <初中生閱讀理解監控能力的研究> 0 2012 年 8 月 2 日擷取自網頁 www.lw23.com/lunwen 765166957/ 杜甫 (767) 0 <題柏學士茅屋> '裁於 《全唐詩》。北京 北京銀冠電子出版有限公司 。 辛翠時 (201 2-7-26 ) 0 <新地喜閱讀> 0 {星島日報} 'B2 頁 。 祝新華 (2005 ) 0 {閱讀認知能力層次 測試題型系統的進一步發展》﹒發表於新 加坡教育部在職老師培訓課程-語文測試中的效度與信度 (2003-2005) 高爾基( 年 份不詳) 0 {名 人名 吉} 0 201 2 年 8 月 3 日擷取 自 網 頁 。 http:// hk, knowledge.yahoo.com/question/question?q id=7006102602615 莎士比亞(年份不詳) 0 {名人名吉} 0 201 2 年 8 月 3 日擷取自 網頁 : http://blog yam .com/mistyfang/a前ic le/11816967 黃晶榕 (2012 ) 0 <為甚麼要閱讀7) 0 {勞校家庭通訊} '2012 年 7 月 。 香港。 勞 工子弟中學 。 課程發展議會 (200 1) 0 {學會學習 課程發展路向》。香港 政府印務局。 謝錫金、羅嘉怡 、 林偉業、李黛娜 (201 1) 0 {培養學生自 主學習資源套(中小學適 用) }。 香港 香港大學、優質教育基金 。 日ley ， W, (1998) . Raising /iteracy /θve/s in third wor/d countries: A method that works Culver City, CA.: Language Education Associates Greaney, V, (1970). A comparison of individualized and basal reader approaches to reading instruction , Irish Journa/ of Education, 1, 19-29 Kemm侶， S. (1 981). The action research p!anner. (1st Ed.). Geelong , Australia: Deakin University Press. Kemm侶 ， S, (1982) , The action in retrospect and prospect. In S. Kemmis & R McTagga此 (Eds) ， The action research reader, (pp, 27-46). Geelong , Austra lia: Deakin University Press Krashen, S, D. (2004). The power of reading: !nsights from the research. (2nd Ed.) , Westpo肘， CT: Libraries Unlimited; Portsmouth , England : Heinemann Lew叭 ， K. (1946) , Action research and minority problems , Journa! ofSocia!!ssues, 2 , 34-46 Lewin, K, (1948). Reso/ving socia! conf!icts: Se!ected papers on grouρ dynamics New York, NY Harper & Brothers Nam , M. Y. (1997). How to /ead your chi/d to read. Seoul , South Korea Daekyo Publishing Co., Ltd Routman, R. (2003) , Reading essentia/s: The 5ρeCI丹'cs you need to teach (iθading we//. Portsmouth, England Heinemann Sagor, R, (2006). Guiding schoo! improvement with action research. Alexandria, Egypt: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 17 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 附件一:勞工于弟中學中一級學生閱讀習慣問卷圖畫( 2011-2012) 填寫日期 : 2012 年一另一臼 各位同學 : 請你細閱下列的問題 ， 並寫出你自己真實的意見和戚受 ， 以便我們能夠更了解大家的閱讀 狀況 ，並在課程與教學 、 學校環境方面作出配合 。 你只需根據個人的想法 ，在以下每題中圈出 或寫出你的看法即可 。 所有資料只用作研究分析之用，絕對保密 ，多謝合作 ! 20 1 2 年 l 月 甲部:基本資料 學生姓名 : 性別 : 男口 女口 勞工子弟中學遴歐 ( ) 年級:中一 口 中二 口 中三 口 中四日 中五口 班別 A 口 B 口 C 口 D 口 你最常用的電郵戶口是 (請小心填寫 ， 以便將來可透過此電郵寄發相關的閱讀資訊/資料給你) : | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 乙部:每題只圈出最重要的一項選擇 1. 你平均多長時間會看完一本課外國書? A.幾天/一星期 B 約一個月 C 約一季(二至三個月) 2. 你為甚麼要閱讀? A.個人興趣，自己喜歡 B.老師佈宜的作業或爸媽叫我看的 C 為7豐富自己的知識，提高語文水平 3. 你平時關績的國書通常從哪哀來? A.買的 B.送的 C倍的 18 I 教育研究報告匯編 D半年或以上 E 從不閱讀 D.作為與他人交流的題材 E.我無聊 ， 沒甚麼事做 D煥的 E 其他(請填寫) : 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 4. 你喜歡看哪一類國書? D.歷史 、 地理類A 卡通、漫畫類 B 宗教哲學類 C科學 、 科技類 E 語文類(詩詞 、 散文、小說、劇本等) F.其他(請填寫) : 5. 你一般在甚麼時候看書? A.沒有固定時間 B晚上完成作業後 C 上課間 6. 平日你的父母閱讀園書嗎? D.午膳大息時 E.通常在假日 A.從不 c.偶爾(間中) B.甚少 D.經常 7. 屬於你個人的課外國書約有多少本? 一一一一一一本 8. 如果要你向同學推介一本好書，你會選擇哪一本?請寫出你推介此書的其中一個主要原因 。 書名 : 原因 : 9. 除了傳統的因書外，你有閱讀網上文章/網上小說的習慣嗎? A.從不 B.甚少 C.偶爾(間中) D.經常 10. 你贊同學校把更多的課外讀物引人課程/課堂教學中，以幫助同學培養出閱讀的習慣嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 C 贊同 D.極贊同 11 擺放更多圖書在校園不同的地方(如課室 、 兩天操場 、 飯堂 、 小貿部、更衣室) ，讓同學隨 時隨地可自由閱讀，將有助你養成閱嶺的習慣? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 C.贊同 D.極贊同 1 2 你贊同班主任鼓勵同學帶備一本課外國霄 ，擺放在所屬的課室中 ， 以便互相交換閱讀嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 C 贊同 D.極贊同 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 19 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 1 3. 你贊同學校在不同的地點(如圖書館 、 自修室、小賣部、飯堂等)增設電子網絡平台，讓你 有更多機會接觸電子間吉 、 原著/名著電影嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 c.贊同 D.極贊同 1 4. 你贊同學校通過電郵或其他網絡平台 ， 定期向你發布一些合適你閱讀的電子回書/篇章/閱 鑽心得嗎? A.極不贊同 c.贊同 B.不贊同 D 1 5. 本校圖書館目前所推廣的閱讀活動非常吸引你參加? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 c.贊同 D極贊同 1 6. 你認為本校當前的午間讀報節是否有效地被運用 ， 以協助同學培養出閱讀的習慣? A.完全沒有效 B沒有效 c.有能 D.十分有效 1 7. 你贊同目前的午間讀報節除了可以閱讀報紙外，亦可以閱讀其他中文/英文圖書嗎? A極不贊同 B.不贊同 1 8. 你平日會帶同學校派發的報紙回家閱讀嗎? A 從不 B.甚少 C 贊同 D.極贊同 C傌爾(間中) D.經常 1 9. 你期望有更多的機會分享 、 欣賞到老師和其他同學的損害心得嗎? A.極不期望 B不期望 c.期望 D.極期望 20. 你贊同本校組織 「誼書會J ' 總同學有更多機會定期分享交流設苦心得嗎? A.極不贊同 c.贊同 B.不贊同 D.極贊同 2 1. 你贊同各科老師經常向你推介不同種類的好書，幫助你對課外圖書有更廣 、 更深的認誡嗎? A.極不贊同 B.不贊同 20 I 教育研究報告匯編 c.贊同 D.極贊同 一問卷完 ，謝謝 !一 。 。。 推廣從閱讀中學習 附件二:勞工于弟中學 閱讀活動剪影 (2012) 第二，.盒:絞肉零纜典語﹒槽面-)守教室增設厲害\" B守自侮宣摘設各著電，早 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 /12 I 21 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 22 I 教育研究報告匯編 7 第三課堂:校外環境與活動層面 一增設電子書並推出網上圖書館閱讀計劃 Q ﹒龜 . • .. :人間闢輯 , (瓣〉 五... :墓，也眼紅 : 叉.->，*，iII舍10\"'\" :剛通貨府 。 推廣從閱讀中學習 附件三:勞工于弟中學 閱讀理解評估 (2011-2012) 本問卷源自本校與香港大學中文教育研究中心夥伴協作 ， 有關 「 自學計創」的測卷 。 基於版權的緣故 ， 此處不宜刊登該問卷內容 ， 惟設者可直接向該中心查閱 。 閱言實理解指引 (一) 本評估汲IJ卷總分共 42 分 。 (二) 學生須用黑色或深藍色原子筆作答本評估卷 。 (三) 學生須作答全部問題，題目按有關文章回答問題 。 (四) 全卷共有四篇文章 ，共 23 題問題 。 (五) 學生須把答案填寫在本卷指定的橫線或空格內 。 在綴線或空格以外的答案 ，將不予 評改 。 第一篇 、 運動鞋 第二篇、 一位公正的法官 第三篇 、 禮物 第四竊、家長缺乏對校園欺凌的認鐵 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 23 。。 。。 。 推廣從閱i賞中學習 附件四 : 原著 l 名著數學設計示例 〈三國演義〉 之〈走馬薦諸葛〉 一 、基本資料 級別 : 一甲班 課題 : {三國演義} 之〈走馬薦諸葛〉 課節 : 兩課節 任教老師 : 勞工子弟中學本嘉慧老師 日期 : 20 1 2 年 3 月 8 日 指導 : 香港大學中文教育研究中心林偉業博士 、 許守仁先生 二、學習目標 學習如何評位小說中的人物。 三 、預期學習成果 學生能夠選擇一個過切的角度去評價，小說中的人物 ， 並自主重整資料加以證明 。 四 、 已有知誠 1. 學生對(走馬薦諸葛 〉 的故事內容有初步的認知 。 2. 學生對人物評論的角度有基本的認識 。 五、學習重點 學習範疇 內 甘哼， 語文基礎知識 學習重點 摘錄要點，概括內容 聽 策略 學生聆聽匯報 ， 並於工作紙上摘錄要點 學生概括說話者的內容 學習重點 回應別人觀點，並加以評價 說 策略 學生分組討論及匯報 其他學生評價說話者的匯報內容 學習重點 重整能力 、 評價能力 頭 策略 學生從不同角度評價徐民主 ， 並能從文中找出證據作支持 (完成工作紙) 學習重點 人物描寫 寫 策略 寫作 :一位我敬佩的英雄人物 質用文 : 尋人做事 思維 批判性思維 情意品德 通過評價人物 ， 學習徐庶忠君愛國 ， 劉備禮賢下士 、 寬 宏仁厚的高尚情操 自學能力 如何訂立「 目標」 、 「 規直到」 、 「監控」 和 「檢視」 24 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 推廣從閱讀中學習 六、學習材料 {三國演義)(國文普及本)、工作紙 、 電腦簡報 t 、評估方式 1. 教師觀察 2. 學生涯報 3. 工作紙 八、教學流程 流程 學習重點 學習活動 要求學生課前閱讀小 l 留意故事的情節發展 。 課前預 說內容，以便課堂上討 2.留意故事中不同的人物描寫手法 。 習 論交流 。 (在家完成) 引人 明確學習目標 : 1. 學生重申評論人物的角度 。 人物評論 2 學生複述故事內容 。 被習故事內容 ( 10 分鐘) 1.教師簡述工作紙。 2 教師引導學生如何j匯報及評價 。 3學生分成五組 。 4學生各就一個角度評價徐庶 。 ( 10 分鐘) 5 小組同學分別向組員灌報 。 6.聆聽灌報的同學需摘錄筆記，並就以下幾方面向組 閱讀 : 重整資料，評價 內同學發表意見 人物 。 一你是否同意其評價與分析? 一同學的評價與分析是否合理客觀?所選取的證據 展開 聆聽 : 摘錄筆記，概括 是否佮當? 內容，提出評 一你有沒有其他補充資料? {頁 。 7.老師到各組參與討論，並給予過切的指導和回韻 。 ( 15 分錢) 說話 : 有條理地j匯報 。 8.每組完成j匯報後，選出一位表現較佳(評價角度清 晰 、 引證要充份)的同學向全班j匯報 。 9 老師邀請同組同學解釋推舉該位同學j匯報的原因 。 (同 6 ) 1 0.聆聽灌報的學生需摘錄筆記 ，並就以上幾方面向全 班同學發表意見 。(同 6 ) 11 .老師就同學的意見給予回餒 。 ( 1 5 分鐘) 學生靜心思考，並就以下幾方面反思自己的學習成 果 。 ( 5 分鐘) 總結 檢視自己的學習成果 1. 你是否學習到如何評傲。人物? 2. 如做到，有甚麼證明?能否在其他方面運用所學? 3 如做不到 ，你不明白甚麼?用甚麼方法解決? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 25 。。 。 Imp roving Teac hing through Classroom Observation Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Abstract Lee Chi Shing Concordia Lutheran School - North Point Improving teaching and learning is always of paramount importance to a good school and the key to excellence in teaching lies in teacher e仔ectiveness. The major task of a school head is to ensure a continuous improvement in the quality of teaching and learning in his/her school. Indeed, the term instructional leadership has always been used to mean almost the same thing as principalship This study examines the possibility of adopting action research-Iesson observation 1 as an alternative approach to traditional appraisal lesson observation2 for improving the quality and effectiveness of teaching. It explores and tests the appropriateness of such an approach by inviting 20% of the teacher population to participate in two rounds of lesson observation and follow-up measures, such as: self-reflection, exchange of professional ideas and wa lk-through observations. Questionnaires were given out and interviews were conducted periodically so as to collect opinions from participating teachers about the action research project. Working hand in hand , the parti cipating teachers concluded that action research-Iesson observation could work as an alternative means to the traditional appraisal lesson observation to improve teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers. They evaluated the usefulness of action research­ lesson observation and agreed that it was a good mechanism and a more suitab le tool that helped teachers further improve their teaching quality and effectiveness. Measures to ensure the successful adoption of the action research-Iesson observation as an alternative to traditional lesson observation were also examined in the conclusion. For simplicity's sake, lesson observation in action research is sometimes termed as the action research­ lesson observation , There is no difference in meaning between classroom observation and lesson observation in this article The writer uses the two terms just lor the sake 01 stylistic variation 26 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation Introduction This study was conducted in a school 45 years of age; the very same school I have been serving as Principal since 2007. More than half of the teachers have been teaching in the school for more than 15 years, and there have been three principals so far in its history. The school used to be a band 2 school (out of 5 bands) decades ago. Many of the teachers are well qualified with 38% of them holding master's degrees. The staff turnover rate is low, and most of the new staff has been hired as replacements for retiring teachers. There is a strong sense of camaraderie and their strength lies in working as a team to support one another's teaching and meet student needs W ith the succession of principals and changes in students' demographics and academic ability, we are now considered a Band 2-3 school. Teachers remain very professional and are willing to understand how to change their teaching methods for meeting the different levels of readiness and interests of students. Many students involved in this study are low achievers with poor background knowledge. On the whole they are willing to learn and cooperate and are always willing to participate in classroom learning. Teachers ' good classroom management allows for orderly classrooms. The school has been striving for improvement and excellence since I became Principa l. In 2010 , the Education Bureau (EDB) conducted an External School Review (ESR) with our school and the report released in 201 1 agreed that we had made some fruitful progress in all four domains, namely, Management and Organisati on, Learn ing and Teaching, Student Support and School Ethos, and Student Performance. Our performance was so impressive that we were invited by EDB to a school-based experience sharing session on \"Enhancing the Effectiveness of Learn ing and Teaching through the Using of Diversified Strategies\" in June the same year In spite of sign ifi can t improvements in teach ing and learning, we still need to work hard towards excellence. So far we have been following a trad itional appraisal-oriented lesson observati on schedule w ith an administrator observing lessons at an assigned time and examining teachers' strategies and skills (such as planning and organisation, communication skil峙 ， class interaction and knowledge and attitude) and students' learning attitude, strateg ies and use of generic skill s . These observati ons are conducted annually in the hope that we can improve year by year and give useful feedback to teachers. However, there are limitations to the impact of lesson observation on changing teachers' practices that are worthy of study The appra isal nature of our schedule simply mininises the openness and willingness of the teachers to truly accept suggestions and comments, and is thus a hindrance for progress towards improvement 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 27 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation In this research , we chose to study our lessons with an action research approach because of its power for professional development and enhancing self-reflection. Basically it is a well-ordered inquiry for teachers to discover what works best in their own classrooms, and can help us to improve. By understanding their teaching more thoroughly and systematically, teachers can make their lessons more effective and gather meaningful feedback for improvement Literature Review Long ago, Lewin (1946) defined the characteristics of action research as \"using a spiral of steps , each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action. Its participatory nature is well suited to work in the school and can equip teachers with the power of systematic reflection on their everyday practice. \" As an interacti ve inquiry process, it \"can balance problem-solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis and thereby enhances the understanding of underlying causes and the making of predictions about personal and organisational change\" (Reason & Bradbury, 2002). “It is a challenge to traditional social science by moving beyond reflective knowledge created by outside expe前s and sampling variables to an active moment-to-moment theorizing , data collecting and inquiry occurring in the midst of emergent structure\" (Torbe肘， 1991). Knowledge is always gained through action and for action. Lesson observations based on action research is a systematic inqui ry with the goal of informing practice in a particu lar situation. It is a way for teachers to discover what works best in their own classroom situat ion , occupying a midpoint on a continuum from teacher reflection on one end to traditional appra isal lesson observation on the other. It is more data-based and systematic than mere self-reflection but less formal and controlled than traditional lesson observation. Teachers use data readily available from their classes in order to answer practical questions about teaching and learning in their classrooms. Lesson observation based on action research integrates the two roles of teaching and action research. “Teachers are the most suitable people to conduct action research in school because of their thorough understanding of student needs, classroom contexts and the instructional issues\" (Stenhouse, 1975). Through school­ based action research , teachers can learn to be more reflective about their practice and how to make improvements. To enhance student learning , teachers need to \"observe and gather evidence for planning. In doing so, teachers can understand how students learn in a naturalistic environment and the improvements that are needed\" (Johnson, 1993). They can also become “more aware of and sensitive to plann ing, reviewing and self-reflection on conducting our lessons for betterment in our classroom teaching\" (Elliot, 28 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation 1991; Au , 2004). As Lan (2001) stated, “classroom observation as a means to improve teaching quality among teachers is widely recognized \", and this is no exception to our school. By means of lesson observation, professional dialogue and sharing, we could benefit as teachers and deliver lessons of better quality. Methodology Keeping in mind our goal of finding an effective alternative method to improve teaching and learning, our study here investigates the following questions 1. Can action research-Iesson observation be an additional or alternative means for improving the teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers? 2. How do teachers evaluate action re search-Iesson observation in comparison with traditionallesson observation? We adopted the action research approach for studying our lessons because of its ability to initiate a reflective process of progressive problem­ solving among individuals working with others in teams. Following the release of the ESR report, we decided that it would be timely to examine other ways of evaluating teachers' pe付Ormance and how to help them more effectively We therefore launched a pilot study to improve our teaching quality through a series of classroom observations and found a system of evaluation that could be used as replacement or supplement by the school when necessary and follow-up measures to ESR recommendations. The objectives and targets of this study were clearly stated and explained to all teachers in the first staff meeting in late August I recruited some middle managers who wanted to enhance their teaching effectiveness and invited some teachers w ho, based on their appra isal reports and my records of walk-through observation, needed to improve. They were not at all incompetent, but were invited mainly because they represented the teaching characteristi cs and styles that were most common in our school. They came from a variety of subject backgrounds including English Language, Chinese Language, Mathematics, Travel and Tourism, BAFS and Science. Among them, there were experts, veterans and the less experienced. Some of them were used to asking questions or keen on maintaining an orderly classroom and supportive learning atmosphere Others were good at providing opportunities for students to partici pate while some were eager to demonstrate their practices. AII of them were professionals in the sense that they were willing to try new measures for continuous development and do their best in their duties. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 29 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Nine teachers agreed to participate in the pilot scheme after discussion in various staff meetings. An orientation meeting was held with them on 10th October. As Principal , my role was to act as a catalyst, conductor of the study and observer in the classroom. Details of the schedule, procedures, means of data collection and how different forms would be used were explicitly explained (Appendices 1 to 6). There were three main stages in the process: 1. pre-observation including teachers' written self-reflections and individual interviews; 2. a series of classroom observations including an observation of 5-minute time segments and two rounds of a whole-Iesson observation w ith teacher's self-evaluation, and professional dialogues, plus a classroom walk-through observation3 to collect some quantitative and qualitative data of the teacher teaching; and 3. post-observation follow-up including professional dialogues and teacher self-reflections To get the most from this study, all participants completed a worksheet for self-reflection (Appendix 2) which was based on the Common Core of Teaching (CCT) form revised by Connecticut State Department of Education in 2010. The CCT was used because it was in line with the quality of effective lessons that the school had been trying to achieve so fa r. Each teacher first selected a rating that could best describe his/her practice so that he/she could understand his/her teaching and himself/herself as a teacher more. The worksheets were given to me for getting a deeper understanding of them and comparing their own perceptions with my observations later. In summary, a spiral approach was applied in this study to ensure that, through a cycle of planning, action, fact-finding, sharing and evaluation and development, the knowledge acquired could help us progress and improve. 3 The classroom walk-through observation is a classroom visit where the research conductor here is present to look for predetermined evidence of specific practices. Its aim is to provide direct and specific feedback to teachers based on the snapshot observed. Feedback can then be given to teachers for improvement (Downey. et.al.. 2004) 30 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Findings As a compass to lead us through the right way to move forward , the Teacher Self-reflection Worksheet revealed the directions for improvement and indicated major concerns for lesson observation. Replies informed me of the norm of teaching in the school , helped teachers identify their own areas of competence and mastery and showed the areas where they could act as leaders or mentors. As shown in Tables 1 and 2, the areas to target for self­ improvement, growth or professional learning were mainly about Instruction for Active Learning (Domain 4), Planning for Active Planning (Domain 3) and Assessment for Learning (Domain 5). I integrated these domains with our recent developmental focus in teaching and learning concentrated on four aspects that the school had been striving to improve, namely: teacher engagement, student engagement, grouping strategy and using instructional time effectively. In the subsequent interviews , I invited teachers to name a domain which they would like to pay more attention to and describe their strengths and weaknesses in detai l. During the class observations that followed, I recorded what happened in the lesson in 5-minute segments especially in the areas of teacher engagement, student engagement , grouping strategy and the use of instructional time (Appendix 3) The records about the general picture of lessons in the school (Table 3) were subsequently returned to participants. In the second interviews that followed, we discussed their teaching practices more thoroughly and figured out their major concerns on which they wanted to get more professional training and improvement. Questioning and catering for learner diversity were what teachers wanted to deal with most (Table 4). The first concern might have been due to the recent trend in our school in response to the ESR report's criticising us for not asking higher-order questions in the lesson The second was the response to the increase in the variations of student ability within the classroom in recent years. To cope with it, teachers might use whatever methods they could think of, organise group work or promote cooperative learning (Table 5) 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 31 。。 。。。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation i 且 -J'PH CD,U ?- 因H 扁 E豆 H 但~ 已 tH。 ，且且c已~去4 b 。CuaU 在~ 斗ci C且站苟B cm通uv話~ 口 • 口 這 言 t- t- g t- t- E 這 熹 言 •- 戶- •- 言 •- •- •- t- •- 言 t- •- •- •- t- •- s 一 •- •- r- •- 一 t- •- 一 Ei iii iijiiii iii iiii iii i i ii i j i i iji i iisij;i i i j j ijiiijj s jii a tjji i ijj 且 i i iii iii izi i;zi 量 S10re:J]1Jl在 lJJ ] 。 E Z Z E h h H E O E a 。 - O〉 O O -伺 已 。 一ωω O 』 。 』 已 苟Z 呵 。 s z o ω - 呵 。 。 』 。 ω 呵 。 』 《O Z H H 2。 a 伺 已 。 一 個ω O Z O』 - E O ω - E O Z ω 呵 。 L F F O - a何 iF 教育研究報告匯編32 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation Table 2 Summary of Teacher Self-reflection Worksheet (Domains and indicators showing where teachers wanted to get improvement, growth and professionallearning most) Areas to Target for self- improvement, growth and professional learning in Teacher Self-Reflection CCT Indicators Worksheet NO. of Percentage of Teachers' Teachers' Choice Choice Domain 1.: Content and Essential Skills I am proficient in discipline-specific knowledge 。 0% and skills I am an e仔ective communicator and use a variety 11 .1% of communication strategies I am proficient in using technology resources to 2 22.2% enhance instruction Doma in 2. Class room En vironm ent , Student En gagement , and Commitment to Learning My classroom is responsive to the learnin g needs of all students including those with special 11 .1% needs and those with a varying of learning styles My classroom is safe, orderly, and conducive to 。 0% learning I provide exp licit modeling and instruction in appropriate routines, transitions, and personal 2 22.2% interactions I use proactive and positive behavior intervention 3 33.3% strategies Domain 3.: Planning for Active Learning I routinely assess and build on students' prior 2 22.2% knowledge I routinely share an objective or learning target 。 0% for each lesson I routinely build in a vari ety of strateg ies and resources in order to d iffe rentiate instru ction 4 44 .4% e仟ectively I routinely look for interdisciplinary connections 4 44 .4% to make learning authentic and relevant 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 33 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Areas to Target for self- improvement, growth and professional learning in Teacher Self-Reflection CCT Indicators Worksheet NO.of Percentage of Teachers' Teachers' Choice Choice Domain 4. : Instruction for Active Learning I use technology resources when possible to 4 44.4% enhance instruction and engage students I routinely monitor and adjust instruction based 。 0% on formative assessment I routinely use discourse, inquiry-based learning, 4 44.4% and higher order thinking in activities Domain 5.: Assessment for Learning I routinel y u se a va riet y of assessment techniques to allow students to demonstrate 4 44.4% mastery I use both formati ve and summative 3 33.3% assessments to give students feedback I collect data on student performance to inform 3 33.3% decision making Domain 6.: Professional Responsibilities and Teacher Leadership I partic ipate in collaboration w ith co lleagues 2 22.2% around sharinÇ) best practice and data I app l y new knowledge lea rn ed thro ug h professional development and discourse in my 3 33.3% classes I am aware of and consistently implement 11.1 % Concordia Lutheran School-NP Initiatives I create a positive and respectful environment w ith s tud en t , f am il y , a nd communi t y through maintaining regular and proacti ve 2 22.2% comm unica ti on and seek in g t o build relationships 34 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improv ing Teaching through Classroom Observation Table 3 Normal Lessons Recorded in 5-minute Segments during Classroom Observations Time Segments in minutes 5 I W l u I W I H I ~ l u l ~ I ~ I ~I~ 1 肉，時n個ge I Rank (No. 叫。ccurrence in each time segment) 01 Occurrence Grouping Strategy 1. Independe nt work 1 3 3 2 2 。 。 。 1 1 1 15.22% 3 2. Pairs of students 。 。 。 。 。 1 1 。 。 。 。 2 .17 % 7 3. $ma ll groups 。 1 1 。 。 2 1 1 2 。 。 8.70% 6 4. Mixed groupl index 。 。 。 。 1 2 3 。 1 1 1 9 .78 % 5 5. Whole class a. Attn. to teacher 6 5 6 6 6 3 2 4 3 4 3 52.17% 1 b. Attn. to student(s) 1 1 。 3 。 1 2 5 1 2 。 17.39% 2 C. Attn. to media 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。% 6. Transition 2 1 1 。 。 3 。 3 1 1 。 13.04% 4 Teacher Engagement 1. Active with students a. lecturing 7 3 4 2 5 4 2 1 2 1 2 35.87% 2 b. Oiscussion 1 2 4 6 3 4 2 4 4 5 3 4 1.30% 1 c. Indiv/Group help 。 2 1 2 3 3 5 1 3 1 l 23.91% 5 2. Observing studen阻 1 5 2 2 3 5 6 2 3 。 1 32.61% 3 3. Transition 5 1 5 1 4 2 2 1 2 1 。 26.09% 4 4.0ther 1 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1.09% 6 Student Engagen、ent 1. 0 student off task 8 8 6 8 4 9 4 5 4 3 2 66.30% 1 2. 1-3 students off task 。 1 3 1 4 。 5 4 4 1 2 27.17% 2 3. 4-6 students off task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1 。 1 .09% 3 4. 7-10 students off task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1 1.09% 3 5. >10 students off task 。 。 。 。 l 。 。 。 。 。 。 1.09% 3 U釗ng Instructional Time Effectively 1. Content teaching 6 5 6 7 4 6 3 2 2 5 2 52.17% 2 2. Routines & procedures 9 5 6 6 4 6 7 8 3 4 2 6 5.22% 1 3. Digr回到。n (。仟 topic) 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 1 。 。 。 1.09% 4 4.0the r 2 4 3 Z 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 42.39% 3 Table 4 Major Concerns Identified by Teachers for Lesson Observation Major concern of 。bservation Number of teachers selectin9 it Percentage Questlonlng 4(out of 9) 44.4% 55.6% Catering for Learner Diversity 5 (out of 9) Table 5 Methods to be Chosen to Cater for Learner Diversity “Catering for Learner Diversity\" as the major concern of No. of teachers selected Percentage 。bservation a) Whatever Methods Teachers 1 (out of 5) 20% Could Think of b) Grouping and Group Work 2 (out of 5) 40% c) Cooperative Learning 2 (out of 5) 40% 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 35 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation I set out to observe lessons with respect to the major areas of concern identified by teachers , followed by teacher 's self-reflection, professional dialogue and walk-through observation. Teachers also invited me into the classroom to observe when they were ready. In each lesson , evidence of good practice and the areas for improvement were recorded. The lesson observation form was completed by me accordingly (Appendix 3) wh ile each teacher filled in the self-eva luation form (Appendix 4) to reflect on his/her teaching. Every teacher and I then met to share our ideas. Having identified their strengths for further development, teachers also named their weaknesses and thought of ways to avoid or remedy them in later lessons The priority of the professional dialogue was how the researcher and the participating teacher could work together to make his/her teaching more effective and efficient. In the final stage of data gathering, walk-through observations were conducted to make sure both the researcher and the participating teachers knew they were on the right track. More chances for professional sharing and discussions could also be provided , and these were ve叩 important for our teachers , especially those who always wanted to improve further. Discussion To answer the two research questions “Can the action research-Iesson observation be an additional or alternative means for the school to adopt so as to improve teaching quality and effectiveness of teachers?\" and \"How do teachers evaluate the action research-Iesson observation in comparison with the traditional lesson observation?\", I requested all the participants to complete the evaluation form in written form (Appendix 6) after the first round and in spoken form after the second round. At the end of the post-observation professional dialogues, they shared their feelings and thoughts about the action-research lesson observation they had undergone and compared it with the traditional appra isal-Iesson observation system they had experienced previously. AII of them also gave an account of the merits and demerits of the two systems in written form in the first and verbally in an individual interview the second time (Appendix 6). Their comments are summarised in Table 6: 36 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Table 6 Merits and Demerits of Traditional versus Action Research Observation Action Research-Iesson Traditional Appraisal Lesson 。bservation 。bservation Merits Demerits Merits Demerits Comprehensive Time-consuming Time-saving Lack of continuous study of teaching follow-up and feedback Systematic Exert greater Less pressure for Assessment investigations to pressure on usually there is one purpose instead enhance teaching teachers lesson observation of seeking qualityand only improvement in e仟ectiveness teaching Help to develop Demanding as An e仟ectlve means Tense atmosphere habits of reflective teachers' workload of teacher appraisal as appraisal takes teaching among is high system of teaching place teachers Focus on the A complicated A quick and simpler Straight-forward process and process to get way to complete the but incomplete in outcome of teaching Improve昨lent task of the lesson nature and learning, observation bringing along insights to improve teaching quality and e仟ectiveness Cooperative Time is needed to Authority to conduct Emphasis on and seeking for create trust and the appraisal the grading improvement respect among lesson observation and conclusion teachers and the is stipulated in the of teachers' conductor school hierarchy performance, neglecting the opportunity to seek for teaching improvement. Act as a formative Norm referenced Criterion- Act as a summative assessment of referenced assessment of teaching and teachers and evaluation for evaluation of Improvement pe斤ormance 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 37 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation The comments given by teachers in the two rounds were similar and consistent with their sharing about the action research-Iesson observation with the traditional appraisal lesson observation system in professional dialogues. Seven of the nine teachers for instance regarded the former as more helpful than the latter for improving their teaching quality and effectiveness and agreed that it was a suitable tool to be chosen as an addition or alternative to that used nearly in all schools including ours. The other two thought that both observation systems were acceptable. The consensus of them and the seven others was that the former could enhance teaching quality and effectiveness, promote the development of reflective teaching among teachers , and work as a formative assessment of teaching and evaluation for improvement (Table 6). From their responses, I also learned they had agreed that action research was an effective means for professional development. Their responses in depth are discussed as follows Analysis of strengths and weaknesses Teachers felt that action research could help them to analyse their strengths and weaknesses. One teacher commented,“As compared with the traditiona l lesson observation, the action research-Iesson observation could give a broad and an in-depth analysis of my strengths and weaknesses in my teaching techniques and behavioral pattern.\" Another said \"it was a kind of in-depth lesson obse川ation\" and “it could help to make me become more familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of my teaching and guide me to a better delivery of lessons with good quality and effectiveness.\" Setting Clear Objectives with Teacher's Major Concerns This characteristic of action research could serve as a guiding principle for seeking improvement. AII teachers for instance told me in their individual interviews that the observation record helped them to figure out their major concerns and where they wanted to learn further. They valued the data collected from the classroom observations and ranked it as the third most helpful element among all the different parts of the action research. As one of the teachers sa肘，“Action research-Iesson observation helped me to analyse my lesson in various dimensions. It gave me a full picture of what went on and hence indirectly improved my teaching effectiveness.\" Another teacher added, “The action research-Iesson observation, with a series of lesson observations, reflections, walk-through observations and professional exchanges of ideas, was a continuous process of lesson study with a sharp and clear objective to improve teaching quality and teachers' effectiveness.\" 38 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Effect of follow-up measures 一 professional dialogue and self-reflection Although lesson observation was an integral part of our study, whether it could function was largely dependent on the self-evaluation and the professional dialogue afterwards. Teachers in general considered these two processes valuable because they helped them understand their lessons better and consequently to know how to improve. Thus they all gave high ranks to self-evaluation afterwards, self-evaluation before and professional dialogue after observation as helpful parts of action research (Table 7). Table 7 Ranking of Different Helpful Mechanism of the Action Research that can Improve Teaching Helpful Mechanism of the Action Research Ranking Teacher Self-reflection before the action research 5 Quantitative data gathered to gain a general picture of the lesson 3 The teacher can decide which domain and areas he or she wants 6 to focus on Actual lesson observation 4 Teacher self-evaluation to do reflection after the conduct of the 2 lesson observation Profess iona l dialogues to exchange ideas after the lesson observations Walk-through observations 6 Professional Dialogue AII teachers ag reed that the profess ional dialogue after lesson observations was inspiring and cou ld give them insights on how to plan and teach their subsequent lessons. They felt that observation had helped them analyse their teaching more deeply and lots of useful ideas could be exchanged in the professional dialogues. One teacher said, “The professional dialogues after the observations gave me some understanding on how to better plan my lesson.\" Another added \"Plenty of ideas were exchanged in the professional dialogues. The evaluations and observations allowed us and the researcher to look at teaching from di仔érent perspectives. \" 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 39 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Self-reflection Teachers ranked self-reflection before the study and self-reflection afterwards the fifth and second respectively in terms of usefulness. Their feelings were positive overall as indicated in the following statements they gave, such as \"The evaluations and observations allowed the participating teachers and the conductor to look at their teaching from different perspectives\" and \"It has given me a lead on what 1 have to improve.\" Walk-through Observation as a Follow-up Measure Teachers also viewed walk-through observation afterwards as useful for ensuring what they had learnt could be put into practice in subsequent lessons. To take one teacher's statement as an example,“1 think the previous traditional appraisal lesson observation did not have any follow-up measures but the walk-through observation of the action research-Iesson observation did help us to examine whether we have improved our teaching or not.\" Reflections and Recommendations Following an action research approach can allow teachers to improve their teach ing practices and effectiveness. As participants in this study expressed, the quantitative data collected from the detailed observations, actual lesson observations, self-reflection and professional dialogue were all essential to making this possible. By requiring a consistent, prolonged period of observation and receiving continuous feedback, teachers could understand their own teaching more thoroughly and systematically and therefore teach more e仔ectively. The professional dialogues after the lesson observations and walk-through observations could also provide chances of continuous learning through professional sharing among colleagues. Without focusing on or discussing what has happened in the classroom, teachers may jump to conclusions about why things are happening. They may only notice reactions of the more noisy and outspoken students, without trying to gain a deeper understanding of what are really going on. Lesson observation, reflection and professional sharing in an action research context are useful for the collection, recording and analysis teachers' thoughts about students' performance of the students and identifying ways for pos iti ve change 40 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation It is difficult for teachers to form the habit of doing self-reflections after lessons as they are really busy and their jobs are demanding if they want to survive in the school setting. The action research process can help them to see more of the objective reality of their classrooms through the collection of quantitative data, professional exchange and self-reflections. The more familiar teachers are with their lessons, the more easily they can understand their effectiveness and the more likely they can make improvements. As we can see from the data, teachers valued the action research as a more efficient way for them to understand their teaching better and help them to seek improvement. They thus agreed that it could be an additional or alternative means for improving teaching quality, perfecting their practice, trying new ideas and activities and seeking continuous improvement. Self-reflection by itself may be too subjective and biased and cannot produce a reali stic and satisfactory improvement. Ideas and comments from a third person can make the evaluation of lessons and reflection on teaching performance more objective, comprehensive and fruitfu l. Seeing the importance of this third person (the researcher in this study) , the teachers in this study gave high ranking to lesson observation and professional dialogue as the means for teachers to seek improvements in their work in the classroom Mutual trust and respect between the researcher and participating teachers are vital to the identification of good practices and weaknesses Without trust and respect, lesson observations might cause fear, anxiety and reluctance to participate. Teachers may be suspicious of the researcher's intention and the exchange of ideas can become a superficial process and a waste of time. Developing a trustful and respectful atmosphere between the principal and teachers is needed before the present study can be conducted meaningfully in the school. Open-mindedness is important as no two persons are the same. To promote useful dialogue, both the researcher and teachers shou ld be open to new ways of teaching and its assessment and be prepared to work collaboratively. Teachers in this study certainly experienced more continuous pressure than what the traditional appraisal-oriented lesson observation would bring Nevertheless, they all agreed that the action research lesson observation approach was more useful for the improvement of teach ing quality and effectiveness, especially in the analysis of strengths and weaknesses and the setting of 0叫ectives . Frequent self-reflection , professional dialogue, sharing and walk-through observation are the measures that are helpful in this regard 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 141 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation References Au , Y. S. (2004)。 “Raising teachers' com.ρetence in action research \" (in Chinese) downloaded from http ://content.edu . tw/primary/soc iety/ks一ck/nine/n4.htm on 25 August 2004. Connecticut State Department of Educat ion (2009) . The Connecticut Plan for Secondary School Reform: Academic and Personal Success for Every Middle and High School Student. Hartford , CT: Connecticut State Department of Education Connecticut State Department o f Education (2010) . Common Core of Teaching Foundational S.比i//s. Hartford , CT Connecticut State Department of Education Cross , P & Steadman , M. (1996) . Classroofη Research: 1mρlementing the Scholarship of TIθaching ， San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Downey, C., Stef旬， B. , English, F. Fra詞， L. & Poston, W (2004). The three minute C的ssroom walk-through: Changing school supervβory practice one t，θ'achθr at a time. Thousand Oaks Corwin Press Duckworth, E. (1986) . Teaching as Research. Harvard education Review, 56(4), 481 - 495. Ellio仇， J. Action Research for Educational Change . Philad elphia: Open Univers ity Press, 1991 . Goswami, D. & Stil lman , P. (1987). Reclaiming the Classroom: Teacher Research as the Agency for Change. Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook. (EDRS No. ED 277 022) Johnson, B. (1993) . Teacher-as-researcher. ERIC Digest. Retrieved on August 25th, 2004 at http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed355205.html Lan, S. F. (2001). \"Educators opinions on classroom observation as a practice of staff development and appraisal \" Teaching and Teacher Education 2001, n.2, pp. 161-173 . Paper presented at the Twelfth Annual Conference of the International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement in San Antonio, the United States, January 3rd to 6th , 1999 Lewin, K . (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues 2(4) 34-46 Reason , P & Bradbury, H (2007). Handbook of Action Research , 2nd Edition London: Sage Short , K . (2002) . Research Proposal for Action research/ T，θacher Research Retrieved on September 20th 2011 at www.pdfartic les.com/topic/proposal+of+e xperimental+research .html Stenhouse, L. (1975). An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Develo.ρment London: Heinemann Stringer, Ernest T. (1996) Action Research: A Handbook for Practitioners. Thousand Oaks, California. Torbert , W (1991 ) The Power of 8alance: Transforming Selt, Society, and Scientific Inquiry. Sage Publication . 42 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Appendix 1 Details of Programme Implementation Action Research 一 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Details of Programme Implementation 1. Invite teachers to take part in the action research. Teachers who want to improve their teaching and who need to improve their teaching are recruited 2. Hold a meeting with all the participating teachers , discuss with them the details of the action research and reach an agreement of the actual run­ down of the programme. 3. Help the pa此icipating teacher to understand more about his/her teaching and himself/herself as a teacher more by giving each teacher a worksheet of teacher self-reflection (Form A). Teachers return the worksheet after completion 4. Go into the classroom and observe the lesson of the pa吋cipating teacher to collect some quantitative data of the teacher (Form B), letting both the teacher and observer understand his/her teaching more 5. Interview individually w ith the participating teacher to find out which domain and areas he or she wants to pay more attention. 6. Conduct the lesson observati on of the action research. Complete the lesson observation form (Form C). The teacher has to fill in the self­ evaluation form to do teaching reflection (Form D). 7. Have a professional dialogue to exchange ideas w ith the teacher and agree on a plan for his/her future development in improving teaching effectiveness. 8. Conduct walk-through observations to monitor and address the progress of the participating teachers (Form E) 9. Start the second round of the lesson observations and repeat steps 6 to 8 agaln 10.lnterview the participating teachers. 11.lf needed. another round of lesson observation will be launched 12.Share findings of the action research. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 43 。。 。。 。 Imp roving Teac hing throug h Classroom Observation Appendix 2 Teacher Self-Relfletion Worksheet CLSNP Teacher Self-Re flection Worksheet (Form A) Please complete the rating scale to review the Common Core ofTeaching (CCT) that is borrowed and revised from Connecticut State Depan ment of E冠ucation (20 I 0). This information wi ll help you to understand your teaching and yoursel f as a teacher more. It wíll help 10 guíde goaJ setting and professional developmcnt planning. SCICCl the rating that best describes your practice in each indicator. Give the completed worksheet 10 the principal 叩 that he can use it during the action research ....... .._.~.‘呻 . .. _.幫....c- ....v...Jn c-..v.. ..\".. , ...0'10:-.... VJ J V' ''' IV P' v\".v. c. .II>J . .........VH ...... U\"P' v...,...\"'\".. CCT Indicators Domain 1.: Contcnt a nd Esscntial Skills 1 am proficient in discipli ne-speci日c knowledge and skills I am an cITcct ive communicator and usc a varicty of communication strategics I am proficicnt in using technology resources 10 enhance instruction Domain 2. : Cla串串room Environment, Student Engagement, and Commitment to Learnine My classroom is responsive to the learning needs ofall students inc1 uding those with special needs and those with a varying of learnin且 styles My classroom is sa鳥， orderly， and conducive to learning pl eprrsoovn1dal e explicit modeling and mstructionmappmprtate routln白， transitions, and Interactlons I use proactive and positive behavior intervention strategies Oomain 3.: Planning for Active Learning I routinely assess and bui ld on students' prior kno、vledge 1 routinely share an objective or learning target for each lesson 1 routinely build in a variety ofstratcgies and resources in order to d i fTere川late instruction efTectiveJy I routinely look for interdisciplinary c-onnections to make learn ing authentic and relevant Dom制的 4.: Instruction for Activc Lcarning I use technology resou閃閃 when possiblc 10 enhancc ins truclion and cngagc students 1 routinely 1110nitor and adjust ins truction based on formative assessment I routinely use discourse, inquiry.based learning, and higher order thinking in actlvltles Domain 5.: Asscssmcnt for Learning I routinely use a variety of assessment techniques to allow s tudents to demonst'fate mastery I use both formative and sUllllllative 目seSSlllents to give s tudents feedback I collcct data on studcnt performancc 10 inform dec isiol1 making Domain 6.: Professiona l Responsibilitics and Teachcr Leadership I participate in collaboration with colleagues around sharing best practice and data 1 apply new knowledge learned through professional development and discourse in my classes I am awarc of and ωnsistcntly implement Concordia L叫he悶n School - NP Initiatives I create a positive and respectful environment with student, family, and community through maintaining regular and proaclive communication and seeking to build relationships Tlle ,alillg scale: 1= a,ea 10 la啥叫fo， self-illlpro間l1Ienι g，oWIII. 0' p，ofessiollallearni幣 2=a,eu ofcoIIψelence 3={I,ea of lIIaslery. abilily 10 m elllo, 0' acl 的 leaclle， leade, ill IIIis domaill Teacher s ignature (Name Principal si且nature (Namι L.ce Chi Shin~ ) 44 I 教育研究報告匯編 The ratin2 scale 2 Date reviewed Date received 3 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation 。VERVIEW The Common Core of Teaching articulates the art and science of teaching as essential knowledge, skills and qualities. These foundational skills and competencies are grouped by domains but, in practice, are to be viewed as integrated parts of the complex and dynamic process of effective teaching The CCT should be used to help guide and build teacher competence continuing throughout a teacher's career. Domains of Teacher Peñormance Domain 1 Domain 2 Domain 3 Domain 4 Domain 5 Domain 6 Content and Essential Skills Teachers understand and apply essential skills , central concepts and tools of inquiry in their subject matter or field. Classroom Env ironment , Student Engagement and Commitment to Learning Teachers promote student engagement, independence and interdependence in learning by facilitating a positive learning community Planning for Active Learning: Teachers plan instruction in order to engage students in rigorous and relevant learning and to promote their curiosity about the world at large Instruction for Active Learning: Teachers implement instruction in order to engage students in rigorous and relevant learning and to promote their curiosity about the world at large Assessment for Learning: Teachers use multiple meas ures to a nalyze student pe rform ance and to inform subsequent planning and instruction Professional Responsibilities and Teacher Leadership: Teachers maximize support for stud ent learning by developing and demonstrating professionalism, collaboration with others, and leadership 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 45 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Appendix 3 Classroom Observation Form CLSNP Classroom Observation Form to Gain a General Picture of the Lesson (Form B) Name of teacher IPeriod: IRoom ISubject: Date: IClass level ITOpiC: Time Segments in 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Remarks minutes Grouping Strategy 1. Independent work 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. Pairs of students 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 3. Small groups 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4. Mixed group/ indep 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 5. Whole class a. Attn. to teacher 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 b. Attn. to student(s) 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 c. Attn. to media 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 6. Transition 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 Teacher Engagement 1. Active with students a. Lecturing 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 b. Discussion 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 c. Indiv/Group help 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. Observing students 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 3. Transition 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4.0ther 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 Student Engagement 1. 0 student 0仟 task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. 1-3 students 0仟 task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 3. 4-6 students off t ask 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4. 7-10 students oft t ask 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 5. >10 students off task 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 Using Instructional Time Effectively 1. Content teaching 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 2. Routines & 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 procedures 3. Digression (oft topic) 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 4. Other 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 46 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Definitions Grouping Strategy 一 Indicate how students are working at the time of the Observations. Choose only one category that is indicated and best fits the definition of what is going on in the classroom. 1. Independent work - when ALL students are working on an assignment or project that is to be completed independently by the student. NOT if the student is working independently on part of a group project 2. Pairs of students - when students are working together in pairs on an assignment that is to be completed jointly. NOT if the students are working in pairs as part of a group project. 3. Small groups - when students are working in groups larger than two to complete an assignment or project. AII students should be involved in a group. If some are working independently on behalf of the group, then it would not be considered small groups 4. Mixed groups - This category should be scored when the students are in a mixture of different groupings. For examp悟， if some students are working in small groups while others are working individually, this category should be scored. 5. Whole class - when the entire class is focused on one person or media. a. Attn. to teacher - when the class is listen ing to the teacher giving instructi ons, lecturing , or engag ing in some activity that requires the attention of the class b. Attn. to student(s) - when students are presenting work to the class or taking part in a discussion with the teacher. This should only be scored when the students are actually talking. For examp峙 ， if the students are presenting information and the teacher begins talking during the scoring interval, the attention to teacher should be scored. Also, if the teacher is engaging in discussion and a student is talking, this category should also be scored. c. Attn. to media - when the students are watching a video or engaging in any activity that requires them to focus on a media object as the primary activity. If a teacher is using the technology as part of a lesson and they are talking or leading the class discussion, “AUention to Teacher\" should be indicated even if the students appear to be paying attention to the media or technology. “Attention to media\" should be indicated if the students are primarily paying attention to media to receive information about the lesson and the teacher has minimal involvement. Teacher Engagement 一 Indicate what activity in w hich the teacher is engaged in each interval 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 47 。。 。。 。 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation 1. Active with students - they are actively engaged with students in one of the following manners a. Lecturing - the teacher is talking to the class and is either presenting material to be learned or giving instructions about a task. b. Discussion - the teacher is actively engaged in a discussion where students are contributing substantially to the task or lesson. In order for this to be scored when the teacher is talking , the teacher must be responding directly to a student's response during the moment the interval is scored. This interval is also scored if the teacher is silent and is listening to a student respond to a question c. Individual/group help - the teacher is actively engaged in assisting a group or individual on a task they are completing. For this category they must either be actively listening to a question from a student or talking to the student/group 2. Observing students - when the teacher is walking around the class and observing the class as a whole while they are engaged in an activi句. They should NOT be engaged with any particular student or group in order to score this interval 3. Transition - the teacher organizing or helping students organize for the next task 4. Unrelated activity - the teacher is doing something that is not related to the task at hand, such as sitting at their desk, talking on the phone, or out of the room. This category shou ld also be checked when a teacher is not visible during video observations. Student Engagement - At the beginning of the interval, count the number of students who appear to be off-task, or are not engaged in the activity. This can be done by quickly glancing over the room and seeing if students are obviously not involved in the activity 0仔 task behavior is defined as: a) not oriented toward teacher or task while li stening to instructions, b) not following instructions appropriately, c) not oriented toward the task It should be fairly obvious that the student is not engaged in the classroom activity in order for this to be scored. For example, if the teacher is lecturing and a student is not looking directly at the teacher, but also not engaged in any other activities, thi s would still be considered on-task. Off-task behavior needs to be quite obvious in order for a student to be considered off-task. Using Instructional Time Effectively 一 Indicate what activity in which the teacher is engaged in each intervaL This can be done by quickly paying attention to what the teacher is doing about. Digression means 0仟-topic and nothing related to the teaching objectives and content. 48 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 Improv ing Teaching th rough C lassroom Observation Appendix 4 Self Evaluation Form CLSNP Self- evaluation Form - Teaching Reflection (Form D) Name of teache r: IPeriod: IRo om : ISubject: Date: IClass level: ITopic: Stimulatin g Questions for Self-evalua tio n Comme nts Lesson Objcctives *Were Ihc objcclives displaycd on b申ard or clearly art iculatcd? *Did studenls understand what 1 did in the lesson? * Was what wc did too easy Or too difficult? * What problems did the sludents have (if any)? * Was there a clear Olllcome for the sludents。 * What did Ihey learn or practise in Ihe lessons? Was it lIseful for Ihem? Acfivifies and Maferials *Whal dif他renl malerials and aClivities did 1 use? Were Ihey appropriale (i.e. to carry oUllhe teaching objectives; 10 Sll il lhe standard ofthe sludents)? *Did Ihe matcrials and activities keep Ihc stlldenlS interested? *Could 1 have donc any parts ofthe Icsson ditTerently? 叫Nhal could bc done if the malerialsl activities planned did not work? Motivation and Sludcnts *How might this I.sson bc rclalcd to previous class \Vork, future class work or to areas of importance in the studenlS' lives? *Was thc lesson designed 10 appeal to the studenls' interests and developmental tasks? *Werc all thc students on task ( i.e. doing what thcy were supposcd to bc doing)? *1 f not, when was thal and why did it happen? *Which parts of the lesson did Ihe sludents seem to enjoy most? And least? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 49 。。 。 Imp roving Teac hing throug h Cla s sroom Obs ervation Lesson Management and Strategies *Did activitics last the right length of timc? *Was the pace ofthe lesson right? * Did I usc wholc c1ass work, group work, pair work or individual work appropriatcly? *Wcrc thcrc sufficicnt cxamples bcing includcd to demonstrate the idea, contcnt or p閃閃dure? What did I use thcm for? Did thcy work? *Were my instructions clear? * Did students undcrstand what to do in thc lesson。 *Did I providc opportunities for all the students to participatc? *Was I aware ofhow all thc students wcre progressing? *I-Iow qucstions wcrc used in thc Icsson? Sufficicnt and cffcctive? *Was cnough work planned to kecp students cngagcd in productive tasks suitcd to their capacitics? *I-Iad provisions bccn made for individual differences (catcring for learncr diversi ty)? Were they suitablc? *Was feedback immediate and adequatc? *Could I regard my students as active learners? What evidcnce could I find? What measurcs did I use to encouragc them to Icam activcly? Overall *Did any discipline problem(s) occur? How could these problems be prcvcntcd? *Was thc assignment c1ear and concise? Did thc students know what they wcrc to do? * ).)ad time been a llocated to do the conclusion and consolidation。 *What scemcd to be the most important things happcning Or missing in the lesson。 *What was the emotional/affi凶tive atmosphere in the )esson (e.g. energy, excitement, engagement, boredom, irritation, Îndiffcrcnce .. .)。 *Did it appear that the students experienced learning? 50 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 Improv ing T eaching th rough C lassroom Observation Appendix 5 Observation Feedback Form nv U A U 瓜 吋 W A U 叫 “ ru V O S 仆 ， a l 問 時 叮 巾 P 伯 H V 恥 U L U 叫 他 趴 峙 叭 訓 J 叫 g A w m 汰 的 前 mr w e 叫 d 副 L m I L X 洛 訓 W 泡 S 1 c t h n v d h ( 缸 M J 阻 n 岫 m k < EnAHNS K W 巾 S O P U 叫 ‘ h m u e 叫 什 e b 叫 叩 如 加 m 尸 m w 附 圳 州 間 」 凹 叫 m M 吋 r - - 叫 m b m ι m 叫 叫 叫 你 悄 恥 t u 叫 自 ιm M Bm n E - t E N r 、 2 叫 別 S l 汀 h n l r I A 咒 。 巴 r h WH b - m g 出 h k m 叫 侈 品 M I -- w I AM M ﹒ 仙 肘 。 切 m R 紅 - m E 蚓 . 珊 ， 叫 叫 叫 “ 叫 師 叫 叩 白 蚓 仙 恥 叫 m w b 巴山 ( \"他 一 叫 a g m M 吋 叮 川 d a 由 巴 扭 扭 M m 1 - a E E e w n m v h s 刊 b k w H W M ! 叫 & H m j 山 川 一一 此 - S C B 訓 ， 叫 m b l o o m g 叫 V j j 啥 叫 叮 p m h m =恥 -一 州，叫 m m m 呵 叭 向 u州 州 白呵 白 峙 仙 一岫 恍 呵 M M = 1 - 肉 ， 川 H 旭 U u n g g a 此 間 心 甘 G A I ( 、 I H Y 呵 。 = u - u 川 M K RM 仙 。耐 仙 n 一 戶 叭 \" 。 侃 侃 叫 ι 閻 明 恥 法 叫 叫 = x - 心 叫 H V I 叫 他 已 江 戶 u n d n h K EN - 而 F = 帥 - m 叫 一仙 一 仙 似 附 翩 翩 必 U W M M M m M 岫 川 叫 : = 帥 一 句 以 i G i Q j t ul 札n n mj k i k i u j M M m u h h 川 α j FM j h j 加 - - T a- - 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ­ b x- e- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - ω - 惘， - m一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 ­ e E 帆U FI l l - - FI l l - - I l - - I l l - - - I l l - - l l l I l l - - I l l - - - I l l - - l l l I l l - - I l - - I l l - - l l l I l l - - l l l I l l - - l l l I l l - - l I l l - - I l l ­ F I U 「 | → l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l - n S 一 一 份 立 一… 開 b s 一 - o U C 句 話 - - 創 叫 “ 亂 !怎 o s - - 則 由 - u 4 a - - I A L K 巴H BEE - - k ucv 到 C 一 - M K O B -U M -- - w 〈 峙 的 H U 創 口 一一 一 啥 叫 K 叮 祖 叫 m 肘 w n = - Bm 白 M m m 趴 『 一- - 0 。 \" 、 法 制 ， 白 K M 汀 間 ， - i 一一 - a u d I A 由 肥 到 l g 割 拙 ，、 一- - E a 此 X U 仇 d ' \" 、 C 心 - 划 一一 - b E 叭 呵 s r 叫 們 恥 帥 的 心 m v d w i - -W E 叫 - 州 州 削 - M m 由 叫 一晰 的 問 甘 心 川 p m 一 一- 啊 叭巴阻 叭 ，呻 伽 叫 叫 m 雌 叫 叫 吋 仙 叫 e N U - - -M EM 叩 圳 揖 心 U J A 心M m 叫 “ m ﹒ 叩 叫 你 ，m J -- i -u側 目 叫 恥 州 叫 叫 峙 的 勵 帆 心 叩開J m M 枷 巾 ， 酬 。 = 侃 一- m m 吼 叫 p h b m 叭 叭 h u…W M 叫 巾 巾 叫 叫 阿 = 凹 - u r e 間 \" u u s g h K E J h u h = w - B H O 叫 l h 』 - c g n s 咒 n 一 帆 B W A C = 山 - k g y 叫 山 間 M W 。 但 m B m - m i 叫 -m m 圳 。 -附I E M C 向 = 叫 一 站 -n 一 間 ， 叫 叭 叭 仙 g m M 叫 純 白 圳 副 缸 時 側 ， 叫訓 的 = n - 眩 目 h U BM 巴 U 內 凡 』 n u m e v w v g 、 副 n l n a M IH - - 戶、 - 1 且 可E f 、 v ' \" “ n u 鳴 \" - \" “ 呻 d g a a J U U 隨 叫 i p ι ' ‘ PUV M U P - - 的 - M一伽 - U mE M - b E 臼 - 臼- L mE b - 凶 ， 的 - M - M 限 制 ， 臼 - h 叫E H 卅 日- ﹒ 恥­ 以 一 心 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 -OLv - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - ­ tn - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ­ T - 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 一 - - 一 一 - 一 一 一 一 一 一一一Olhers( ) I __Olhers ( EEvid伽e叩nc叫閃洽叫ofC臼01叫帥lCOω叫or叫di咱a Lu叫咐1伽h祖eran S伽o叫l-N附P 1圳nt川1刊岫t 一一一一Ob均~e叫凶Ives臼 dis叩play戶ed on board I _一一Procedures in pμla臼 and being used 一一一一一Lμearn川'1111川n咚1泡皂 Ihrough a叫凶l川川V叫叫I IJ附e的s I 一一一一一Appropria時圳denl praise 一一一_ Working 叫nd川dually/in pairslin gro叫ps I 一一一_Instruclion appropria旭 10 sludents 一一一_ Dealing wilh sludent learning diversily I 一一一_SlUdenl work displayed 一一_Aclive learning alm的phere I 一一 Respe叫心1 behavior I positive regard 一一_Class ro山間: Sll的nts SltlJng prope句 and sti ll I 一一_Speci日c co悶tructl間的eedback Class routine: textbooks on the desk Room 、vas wilhout clutter, including walls 一_ Class rouline:* nOlebooks on the des岫eing used I 一_Effective time managemenl 一_Class routine: _ sleeping! _ off.斗的k students 一一一* Reading!wriling!lislening!speaking 一一一_ Presenling in 仕onl of classmales 一一一_Applying learning skills 一一一_Asking a wide range of queslions Effic ienl use of malerials Formative assessment 一__Personal ， posilive inleraClions wilh sludenl 一一一_Conneclions wilh pr ior learning 一一一一Equilable， consistent application ofrules Real-world connections/sludent intereSIS -一一_Assessment oflearning (rubric, selιassessment) 一一一_Re-Ieaching l relearning material Consolidalion oflhe lesson Notes * Delete as necessary 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 51 。。。 Imp roving Teac hing through Cla ssroom Obs ervation Appendix 6 Evaluation Evaluation after the imolementation of the First round Action research - tmorovin!! Teachin!! throu!!h Classroom Observation 1. Did lhe 1\" round of lhe aclion research-Iesson observalion help you 10 unders land your leaching more and syslematically? Ifyes, in what way? Ifnol, why couldn'l il help? Which part oflhe aClion research could help you 10 improve your leaching? Rank lhem from 1 10 7 ( 1 represents it can help you most and 7 represents il can help you least) ))))))) a) Teacher Self三Reftecl ion before lhe aclion research 一----……一一一一……一 ( b) Quanlilalive dala galhered 10 gain a general picture of lhe lesson 一一一一一- ( c) The leacher can decide which domain and areas he or she wants 10 foc l1s on 一一 ( d) Act l1al lesson observalion 一一一一一一一一一一一一一一-------------------- ( e) Teacher selιevalualion 10 do refteclion after lhe conducl oflhe lesson observalion- ( f) Professional dialogues 10 exchange ideas after lhe lesson observalions 一一一- ( g) Walk-lhrough observations 一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一- ( 2. 3. Compare lhe aClion research-Iesson observalion wilh lhe previous/ lradilionallesson observalion. Which one could help you 10 improve your leaching qualily and e仟eCliveness? Why? 4. Please give an aCCOl1nt of lhe merils and demerils of lhe 2 syslems of lesson observalion Aclion Research-Iesson Observalion Previous/ lradilional Lesson Observation Merits Demerils Merils Demerils 教育研究報告匯編52 也 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation Action Research-Iesson Observation Previousl trad itional Lesson Observation Merits Del1leri ts Merits Del1leri ts 5. The 2nd round of act ion research will begin soon. What 11l0difications or recol1ll1lendat ions would yOll l ike to sllggest? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 53 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination TWGHs Mrs Fung Wong Fung Ting Col lege Abstract This study investigates the effectiveness of using the process writing approach to motivate New Senior Secondary 2 students for writing tasks and assist them in improving writing competence. Twenty eight students, who have learnt writing under the process writing approach for half a year, were asked to complete a questionnaire survey, interviews and assessments to evaluate the e仔ectiveness of this approach. Results showed that process writing could motivate students to write to a certain degree and help them improve their skills although this was not as obvious as their change in attitude. In sp ite of limitations ， 的e process writing approach could be implemented in the New Senior Secondary (NSS) English Language curriculum to prepare students for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) examination Introduction Having taught English for eight years , I find that 'writing ' is the most difficult part for our students. Many students lack ideas and cannot elaborate on their thoughts. They do not have enough vocabulary to express themselves in correct sentence patterns and grammar. Students often consider the writing process exhausting and unpleasant. According to journals in the field, process writing is the best way for teaching writing skills because it promotes active and supportive learning. This paper focuses on whether the approach could help and motivate my Senior Secondary 2 students to write In the NSS English Language Curriculum implemented since 2009, process writing is recommended by the Curriculum Development Council as 54 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion an approach for maximising teaching effectiveness. Thus, another purpose of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of this process approach for teaching students to write in depth (of around 400 words) on one of the elective areas with appropriate language, content and organisation. Process writing is a teaching methodology. According to the Elementary English Language Arts Curriculum page (Washington Country Public Schools , 2002), it is \"writing instruction in which a teacher guides pupils through certain stages, or steps, to complete their writing pieces\" and is viewed as “a recursive, nonlinear cognitive process in which the writer moves back and forth\" (Tang, 2006). Writing under this approach is divided into the stages of pre-writing , drafting, revising , editing and publishing. What the teacher has to do is to act as a facilitator and organiser of learning activities (Iike brainstorming, group discussion and peer response) and to support students in developing knowledge and skills at different stages. Normally, marks will not be given before the end of the publishing stage Process writing has been introduced into Hong Kong since the 1990s However, it faces constraints which are well documented in re search papers. Many teachers have returned to a product based approach or are implementing it on occasion. Three local research papers are discussed below in relation to the study of its implementation in the local context. Literature review Ng (1999) has implemented the process writing approach with her top Secondary 2 students to promote creativity and a sense of collaboration , using activities such as peer conferencing and peer eva luation. In the first tri訓 ， students' writings were rich in ideas but contained many grammatical mistakes. In the second tri訓 ， grammatical mistakes were underlined for peer evaluation before students submiUed their fair copies. Unfortunately, most of her students failed to correct the mistakes for their peers. AII the English teachers in her school acknowledged the above phenomenon and agreed to teach with the approach in the following year but without peer conferencing due to limited teaching time. Lam (2000), a local teacher-researcher, conducted a systematic study of process writing with respect to whether it could help his low-banding students improve and raise their motivation and confidence in writing After two trials , eight Band 3 Secondary 1 students in his school wrote on the topics 'How to spend their coming Easter holiday?' and 'How to spend their coming summer holidays'. In each trial, the teacher brainstormed with students together, gave them some words to use and corrected their errors Students were asked to provide as many ideas as they could. In the following lesson, they put their ideas into organised text and help their peers to proof- 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 55 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination read with reference to a guided worksheet. They then gave a presentation in front of the class. The teacher and other students offered suggestions for improvement, and everyone had to make revisions according句. Finally, the teacher marked their written work and students did the corrections. AII were asked to complete a questionnaire survey about attitude towards writing. A comparison of the work done in Lam's study showed significant improvements in content, since 75% of students could write more in the second draft and perform better in capitalisation and tenses. Many mistakes were still found in the use of singular and plural forms of nouns and verbs, spelling and punctuation, so there was no significant improvement in terms of accuracy overall. Questionnaire results , however, indicated that 93.8% of students were in favour of learning through the process writing approach rather than the conventional one. 81.3% of them were interested in pre­ writing activities because of its usefulness for generating ideas and helping them get the right words and expressions. The reaction was mixed as 43.8% of them contended that pre-writing activities were not useful in organising thoughts and only 56.3% of them thought that their classmates' suggestions were useful for improving accuracy in expression. Two-thirds (68.8%) even thought that the suggestions could not help to improve the content of writing To conclude, Lam noted that pre-writing activities could help to raise interest and confidence and that the division of the writing process into small bits could enable low achievers to maintain interest and confidence through the receipt of instant feedback. Unfortunately, Lam's study involved only eight subjects and was not carried out in a naturalistic setting. Asking students simply to choose 'yes' 。r 'no' in his questionnaire instead of using a Likert scale also means that more precise data about attitude could not be drawn. A follow-up interview should be conducted so that implications need not been drawn all directly from numerical data. Instead of examining written work on two occasions, a systematic pre-test, post-test design should be used to facilitate comparison While pre-writing activities are important for arousing interest , peer reviews are considered by many as more effective for helping students learn (e.g. Ho, 2004) because readers can more easily learn how to revise their own drafts and understand what others need to improve on. In his study of Secondary 4 students in a 8and Two CMI school , interviews and questionnaires were used for getting information about the challenges faced by teachers and their students. Two teachers out of three felt frustrated by students' low level of English proficiency, failure to understand the terms used in the peer review worksheet and inabilities in identifying grammatical mistakes and expressing ideas clear旬. Weaker students also could not get sufficient attention in spite of their special needs and their inability to explain thoughts clearly 56 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Ho's study (2004) after all revealed that peer response in process writing could not cater for the needs of weaker students well. This was in contrast to the finding of Lam that process writing with both pre-writing activities and peer review were helpful. The discrepancy between these two studies is worthy of further examination in Hong Kong because the approach has been recommended for use in the senior secondary curriculum implemented since 2009 Research questions The present study of feasibility and effectiveness seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. 00 NSS students like process writing more than the traditional way of learning? 2. 00 they think that process writing can help them prepare for the HKOSE examination? 3. Ooes process writing help to improve their quality of writing in the HKOSE examination? To answer the second and third questions , we have to look at whether process writing can help students to generate more ideas, organise thoughts systematical旬， master proof-reading skills and use appropriate language in writing. The subjects involved were 28 Secondary 5 students from a band two class which also included some band one and band three students. Procedure Specifica l旬， students had to write a short story based on the NSS elective modules 'Learning English through Orama' and 'Learning English through Short Stories' and a drama topic (Appendix 1). Three students from the top, middle and bottom levels of English proficiency were then invited to an informal pre-test group interview when they were asked to express their views on writing and were informed about the nature of the writing process approach AII students had already had dictations on the words and expressions related to drama and short stories so as to familiarise themselves with the necessary language. They were divided into groups of four and asked to complete the pre-test questionnaire survey (Appendix 11 ) about writing. They also wrote a composition based on the NSS electi ve modules 'Learn ing English through Orama ' and 'Learn ing English through Short Stories' (Appendix 1) and read it aloud to their group members. Group leaders jotted down the main points (Table 1) and made a presentation 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 57 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination In the lesson thereafter, students in pairs spent around 20 minutes to study the assignments from two others w ith the help of a task sheet (Appendix 111). First, they had to evaluate the content, organisation and language which were used by ticking the right boxes ('Done', 'Partly done' and 'Forgot to do') Second旬， they put stickers next to the paragraphs or words they appreciated and correct the mistakes which had been underlined. They also rewrote the part(s) they did not like and give suggestions for improvement. In the writing and editing lesson, the teacher commended on some of their good works and gave a list of the paragraphs which students liked (Appendix IV). Students were given 70 minutes to rev ise their w riting , ask the teacher and peers for assistance and complete the editing. They did the corrections at home according to the teacher's comments. Table 1 The collective plan Para 1: -When andwhere I watched it -Why I wantto seetheperformance -Mentiontheperformancewasoutstandir港， &make one leël\"n manyth ingsa以XJtdrama -I wou細 liketo share myexperiencewithyou. Para 2: -Tell thenameoftheplay -Thepur防范eoftheperfαmance -What isthe plët( a切凶手 Para 3: -Talkaboutwhat made itou目前ldir道 -e.g. plots, props，當tingskill5, what thedirector did Para 4: -Conclusion: the performancewasremarkaωe -feeli r穹 -What l'Ve learnt -Recommerld ittothestuden臼 Finally, students completed a post-test survey (Appendix V) about the application of the approach to the writing of short stories and drama scrip峙 ， and were classified into three groups according to the quality of language they had used. Three of th em were then interv iewed about the ir writing experiences and other related v iews for enriching the data collected from the questionnaire. By adopting a pre-test post-test design, their performance in the examination writing papers could be compared w ith that in the test writing papers for assessing how far the quality and length of their writing had improved 58 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Findings Table 2 shows the length of writing by the three interviewees produced in the test and examination. Two subjects had written more on their ideas than before for better elaboration and organisation. However, there is no significant evidence showing that the process approach could help them to write in depth Table 2 Length of writing by the three subjects No ofwords No ofwords Change in the examination in the test Student W 276 229 + Student S 351 390 + StudentA 511 490 *W-the weak student, S-the strong student, and A-the average student Tables 3, 4 and 5 analysed the variations in students' performance in the test and examination. Although all had improved in their use of tenses , whether process writing could lead to improvements in the command of English and proof-reading skills is not clear. This finding is similar to that of Lam (2000), which was that students had made fewer mistakes in tenses but not in other aspects of grammar. The implication is that the use of tenses is easier to master and proof-read Table 3 The writing performance of the weak student in examinations and tests 5tudent W Error % Error % in test Change in the examination Subject-verb 5.3% 0.0% + Agreement Singular/Plural 24.4% 6.9% + Tense 。 .0% 96.3% Spelling 5.1 % 0.4% + 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 59 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination Table 4 The writing pe叫。rmance of the average student in the examination and test Student A Error % Error % in test Change in the examination Su叫ect-verb 4.8% 5.0% Agreement Singular/Plural 6.7% 11.8% Tense 4.4% 12.9% Spelling 1.1 % 0.5% + Table 5 The writing pe斤。rmance of the strong student in the exan可 ination and test Student 5 Error % Error % in test Change in the examination Su叫ect-verb 13.6% 12.5% + Agreement Singular/Plural 0.0% 1.8% Tense 3.4% 12.1 % Spelling 1.6% 0.2% + Meanwhi峙 ， some improvements cou ld be noted in the test and examination papers (Table 6). The weaker, average and strong students scored 1.5, 2.5 and 2.5 marks for instance. These mark increases could be indicators of improvement in writing quality following the use of the process approach although there is no evidence to show that students could write more, had done better in proof-reading skills or changed in their attitude towards writing. Instead, they might have been influenced by the topic chosen as only one and two students chose to write on 'Learning English through Drama' and 'Learning English through Sports Communication' respectively in the examination. 60 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Table 6 Marks obtained by students Content Grammar 。rganisation Total W's test writing 1.5 3.5 W's exam writing 2 1.5 1.5 5 A's test writing 3 2 2.5 7.5 A's exam writing 4 3.5 3.5 11 8's test writing 3.5 3 3.5 10 8 's exam writing 4.5 4 4 12.5 Table 7 shows the attitudes towards process writing. In the pre-test survey, the mean mark for each item was 2.8 only as there was a lack in ideas, words and expressions for short story/drama writing. 8 tudents seldom made a draft or had the ability to proof-read especially with respect to grammatical mistakes. The increase in the mean mark to 3.6 in the post­ test survey implies that with the use of the process approach, students were becoming more positive towards writing. Even the weaker ones improved a lot (to 56.3%). The mean mark given by the medium-ability group (3.8%) was higher than those of the other groups Table 7 Students' attitude towards writing Attitude towards Attitude towards Mean writing shown in the writing shown % increase in the post-test pre-test questionnaire questionnaire Overall 2.8 3.6 26.3% Weak 2.0 3.1 56.3% Middle 2.7 3.8 38.0% High 3.0 3.7 24.0% 5 -- 8 trongly agree, 3 -- Neutral, 1 -- 8 trongly disagree In the post-test study, students showed slightly positive attitudes towards process writing with no item less than 3 (Table 8) and the mean mark being 3.7. 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 61 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination Table 8 Students' attitudes in the post-test questionnaire survey 01 You now like short stories/drama writing more. 3.4 02 1 feel it easier to do short stories/drama writing. 3.4 03 You have more ideas for short stories/drama writing. 3.6 04 It is easier to think of short sto叩Idrama words and expressions 3.6 for writing. 05 It feels easier to make a draft for short stories/drama writing 3.5 06 It is easier to find and correct your own grammatical mistakes. 3.3 07 You have tried your best in the drafting activities 3.5 08 You enjoyed the drafting with your students together 3.5 09a 0 0 you find the drafting activities useful for (a) getting ideas? 3.0 09b 00 you find the drafting activities useful for (b) organising 3.7 ideas? 09c 0 0 you find the drafting activities useful for (c) finding the right 3.2 words and expressions? 09d 00 you find the drafting activities useful for (d) learning how to 3.6 write a draft? 010 You enjoyed reading your classmates' writing. 3.7 011 You have tried your best in helping your classmate to improve 3.7 his/her writing quality 0 12a You have learnt the following things from your classmates' 3.7 writing : Ideas 012b You have learnt the follow ing things from your classmates' 3.5 writing: Grammar 0 12c You learn the following things from your classmates' writing: 3.7 Organisation. 013a Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing 3.7 in ideas 013b Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing 3.6 In grammar. 0 13c Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing 3.5 in organization 014 You have a better idea on how to do proof-reading 3.5 015 It is easier to rewrite than writing the first composition. 3.6 0 16a You find your rewritten compos ition better than the first 3.6 composition in terms of language 016b You find your rewritten compos ition better than the first 3.8 composition in terms of content 016c You find your rewritten compos ition better than the first 3.7 composition in terms of organisation 62 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Table 9 shows the attitudes towards the learning of ideas in process writing. Students slightly agreed (mean = 3.7) that process writing could help them get more ideas. They agreed a bit that they could get more ideas from the drafting activities, reading of their peer's writing and peer review in both the short and long terms Table 9 Students' view on using process writing to learn more about ideas Area Question Mean 16) You find your rewritten composition better than the first 3.8 composition in terms of content 12) You learn the following things (ideas, grammar and 3.7 organisation) from your classmates' writing of ideas Ideas 13) Your classmates' suggestions help you improve your 3.7 writing of ideas 3) You have more ideas for short stories/drama writing. 3.7 9) Do you find the drafting activities useful in 一 3.5 getting ideas? Mean = 3.7 Students agreed that these activities had helped to improve their writing quality in the short term . In the interviews, both the average and weak students expressed that drafting could help them write in greater depth (Table 10). Drafting was widely reported as useful for the gathering of ideas for writing (Ng, 1999; Lam, 2000 and Ho, 2004) just like reading their peers' writings and peer review, although 68.8% of the students in Lam's study thought otherwi峙， Table 10 Responses of two interviewees about drafting activities Teacher : What is your opinion towards the drafting activities? Student W : Those activities were quite good! W hen I was doing my writing , I could write more Student A : Agreed! My writing cοuld include more ideas. These activities enriched my content. * W-the weak student; A-the average student 教育研究獎勵計劃 11112 I 63 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination With respect to organisation , students slightly felt that (mean = 3.6) process writing was useful (Table 11). They agreed that to some extent they could learn to organise ideas well from drafting activities, reading their peers' writing and peers' review. In the interviews (Table 12), both the strong and average-ability students said that drafting activities amongst others were effective. The mean mark of 3.7 侶 ， however, different from Lam's study where 43.8% of students felt that pre-writing activities were not useful in organising thoughts. Table 句 1 Views on using process writing to learn about the 。rganisation of ideas Area Question Mean 9) 00 you find the drafting activities useful in: 3.7 b. organizing your ideas? 12) You have learnt the following things from your classmates' writing 3.7 。 organisation 16) You find your rewritten composition better than 3.7 the first composition in terms of organisation Organisation 9) 00 you find the drafting activities useful in: 3.7 d. learning how to write a draft? 13) Your classmates' suggestions help you improve your writing in 3.5 。 organisation 5) It feels easier to make a draft for short stories/ 3.5 drama writing . 8) You enjoyed the drafting with your classmates 3.5 together Mean = 3.6 Table 12 Responses of two interviewees about drafting activities Student S : When 1 wrote my draft, apart from considering the content, 1 discovered 1 needed to pay attention to contextual factors, format and writing purpose. Orafting was not easy at all Student A : 1 could learn how to organize the information from my peer's writing. This was fantast肥， *S-the strong student, A-the average student 64 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Students somewhat agreed (mean: 3.5) that process writing helped improve their English skills (Table 13). They found peer review more useful than the others in helping them improve their writing. This finding is similar to Lam's, where 56.3% of students thought peer review was beneficial and found their partners' suggestions useful for improving language accuracy Table 13 Views on using process writing to learn the use of language Area Question Mean 13) Your classmates' suggestions helped you improve your writing in 3.6 b. grammar 4) It is easier to think of short story/drama vocabula可 3.6 and expressions for writing. 16) You find your rewritten composition better than the 3.6 first composition as far as: a. language Language 14) You have a better idea on how to do proof- 3.5 reading. 12) You have learnt the following things from your classmates' writing 3.5 b. grammar 6) It is easier to find out and correct your own 3.3 grammatical mistakes. 9) Do you find the drafting activities useful in: 3.2 c. getting the right words and expressions? Mean = 3.5 The average mark for learning grammar (3.5) was lower than those for learning ideas (3.7) and organisation (3.6). In her interview, the strong student explained that she had to use her grammatical knowledge to help her peers so it was hard for her to learn grammar from her peers at the same time 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 65 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination Attitudes changed after the process writing project Some questions in the post-test were the same as those in the pre-test and so differences in the scores for these items could reflect their changes in attitude toward writing. As shown in Table 14, students rated these identical statements more highly in the post-test than in the pre-test. Process writing thus could make students feel easier with the writing of short stories or drama writing , gathering the necessary vocabulary and expressions, making a draft and figuring out their own mistakes in their own work. It appeared to be more useful than the traditional way of teaching in catering for the writing needs of students at di仟erent ability levels. Table 14 Responses to some questions in the pre-test and post-test Questions Post-test Pre-test results results 01 You like short stories/drama writing. 3.3 3.1 02 It is easy to do short stories/drama writing. 3.3 2.8 04 It is easy to think of the right short story/drama 3.6 2.7 vocabulary and expressions for writing. 06 It is easy to make a draft for short stories/drama 3.5 2.6 writing. 09 It is easy to find out and correct grammatical 3.5 2.5 mistakes when you do proof-reading. Overall speaking, students had a slight positive attitude towards the process writing and agreed that it could help them improve on 'grammar', 已organisation ' and 'content' . Students at average proficiency levels were more in fa vour w ith the approach. The change in attitude was greater amongst the weaker students because they cou ld get more support here than from the traditional approach. Irrespective of proficiency lev訓 ， students generally agreed that process writing could help them improve on 'content' , 已organ isation ' and 'ideas' Among the various activities involved , peer review and the reading of peer writings were considered more useful than the others for the generation of ideas. They also thought the pre-writing activities could help them make proper drafts and improve organisation whi le peer review could help them improve their grammar. However, even the more able students found the task challenging as they had to activate their grammatical knowledge and proof-reading skills. In general , students in the present study found it slightly useful for helping them how to write although they could only make slight Improvemen峙， 66 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Discussion The above findings are similar to those of the three studies mentioned in the literature review in spite of differences A ttitude towards the effectiveness of process writing Attitude is important to the success of process writing. The post-test survey in this study showed that students liked process writing more than the conventional method. This finding echoes Lam's in which seven out of his eight subjects expressed in favour. Contrary to Lam's study in which 43.8% did not find the pre-writing activities useful in organising their thoughts, the students in the present study generally found pre-writing activities useful for organising thoughts and gave a mark of 3.7 to the question '00 you find the drafting activities useful in: b. organizing your ideas?' in the post-study questionnaire. This trend could be due to the greater attention of this study to organisation as well as contextual and genre information while Lam's study was more concerned with the generation of ideas for writing Students in the present study agreed that reading their peers' writings and peer review were useful in helping them learn ideas. In the post-test survey, they gave 3.7 marks to both items 'You learn the following things from your classmates' writing: a. idea' and ‘Your classmate's suggestions help you improve your writing in: a. ideas'. But this is not the case in Lam's study where nearly 70% of students considered peer review incapable of helping them improve their content. This difference in finding could be due to peer review design - Lam's peer review worksheets only required students to evaluate peers in term of grammar, while the present study required them to comment on their peers in terms of grammar as well as content and organisation. This is why Huang (2004, p.18) stated that how the writing process instruction was implemented played an important role in whether it would be likely for the students to acquire basic writing sk il 帖. Moreover, unlike his Form 1 students, the Form 6 students in the present study were more mature when giving constructive and useful feedback to their peers and so would be slight more positive towards peer review and reading peers' writing. The adoption of process writing could encourage students (especially the weaker ones) become slightly more positive . This change in attitude may be due to the short-term effect produced by process writing , particularly its pre-writing activities. In the post-test interview, the weak student clearly pointed out that the pre-test activities had given him more ideas to write. This is the immediate positive effect he was exposed to , and is compatible with Lam who expressed that weak students could get more ideas in the pre-test activities. 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 67 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination But even though the weak students' attitude had changed, they were not as positive as the students of medium to higher ability because of the lack in competence to comprehend and evaluate their peers' writing. That is why Ho (2004) stated that peer review could not benefit the weaker ones as two­ thirds of his subjects were frustrated by their low English standard and could not understand the peer review task sheet, identify grammatical mistakes and express their thoughts clearly. Similarly, only 56.3% of the Form 1 students in Lam's study thought peer review was useful. In the present study, students liked process writing the most. Process writing provides a supportive yet competitive environment for learning how to write according to the three interviewees who had expressed a wish to compare themselves with one another. Average-ability and strong students did not mind reading those writings which were better or worse than theirs because they could either learn from their peer's writing or help their peers by giving comments with their linguistic and cognitive knowledge. This positive feeling had not been mentioned in the previous three studies Improvement in English proficiency Gaining students' empathy is important but whether process writing is effective for teaching them how to write is another question. The present study shows that students' writing quality improved in grammar, content as well as organisation. Their increase in scores may indicate that process writing could in general help students at different proficiency levels to prepare for their short story/drama writing secti on in the HKDSE examination This generalisation is, however, not applicable to performances in some grammatica l items and proof-read ing skills in sp ite of improvements in the usage of tenses and proof-reading. Incidentally, Lam also found fewer mistakes with tenses when comparing his su叫ects' drafts and fair copies in spite of the need for further proofs. Conclusion The present study finds that process writing motivates the students to write to a certain degree and helps them to improve in terms of the organisation and content of writing. However, since the student participants at different proficiency levels had different needs and wishes, their overall attitude towards process writing was only slightly positive. The marks they got in the examination shows that they had made improvements but not in the skills of proof-read ing. Further research is needed to see whether the increase in scores is due to improved proficiency or the nature of the writing task. In general, improvements in writing are not as obvious as the change in attitude 68 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion The present study has some implications on teaching. The extensive implementation of process writing in the average and strong English classes could create a positive and supportive learning environment for language developmer況 ， since they already have sufficient competence to complete a variety of process writing tasks. The approach could also be applied to weaker class provided that more attention is given to pre-test writing activities and peer review. Instead of asking students to evaluate their peers' writings , it would be better for the teacher to share a piece of writing in front of the class. This would eliminate the feeling of failure and a more positive learning experience could be promoted. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 69 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination References Education and Manpower Bureau (2007). English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6). Hong Kong Ho, C. H. (2004). Implementation of Peer Response in Secondary 4 Englis力 的衍ting Classes in Hong Kong: A Case Study Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press Huang , M. C. (2004) . The Use of Process W.卅ing and 的的rnet Technology in a Taiwanese College English Writing Class: A Focus on Peer Rθviews. The Pennsylvania State University Press Lam , L. M. (2000). Process Approach To Teaching Writing: A Case Study Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist University Press Ng , P. (1999) . Ado，ρting Process Writing， 的 G. T Sachs (200.勾 Action Research in English Language T，θaching. Hong Kong: The City University of Hong Kong Press. Tang, X. F. (2006) . Principles in Teaching Process Writing in a Learner-centered Classroom. Sino-US English Teaching 3:2. Washington Public Schools: Elementary English Language Arts. (2002) The Writing Process. Retrieved 0叭 June 3, 2002, from www.wcboe.k12md .us/mainfold/curric/elemela/DevWrtgPcs. htm 7 0 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Appendix 1: Topics for the present study One drama question and one short story question were chosen for the present study. The questions are shown as below. The former one was used for process writing project 1 and the latter one was used for the project 11. Learning English through Short Stories (EP-DSE-ENG LANG 2-4) You are a repo口er for the school ma也azme. You recently attended some even的 at the Hong Kong Book Fair. Your favourite one was a talk by three di fferent authors on what makes a good short story. You are now writing an article about the event, expla ining why you found it interesting and what you learn t. .-.-._._. Contextual information: . Draft Who are you? To whom you are writing to? Relationship: (formal/informal /semi-formal) Aim(s)/purpose(s) ofyour writing? Format: _. _._._._. You are a member ofthe Drama Society. You recently went to see the opening performance ofa play. The performance was outstanding. Write a review ofthe per formance for the school newspape巳 describing what the play was about and explaining what made it outstanding. • 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 71 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDS E Writing Examination Appendix 11: Pre-test questionnaire Name:一一一一一 Class:一一一一一 ( Strong Agree Neutra l Disagree You like short stories/drama writing. 5 4 3 2 2. lt is easy to do short stories/drama writing. 5 4 3 2 3. You always have sufficient/enough ideas for short 5 4 3 2 stories/drama writing. 4. It is easy to think of the right short story/drama 5 4 3 2 vocabulary and expressions for writing. 5 You always lllake a draft before you write for short 5 4 3 2 stories/drallla. 6. It is easy to lllake a draft for short stories/drallla 5 4 3 2 wntmg. 7. You always do proo什eading after writing. 5 4 3 2 8 You know how to do proo仕eading after writing. 5 4 3 2 9 It is easy to find out and coηect your grallllllatical 5 4 3 2 lllistakes when you do proofreading. 10. What do you want to learn most when you write for short story/drallla questions? 1 1. What do you want your English teacher do to help you do short stories/ drallla writing? (include dra庇ing， proofreading...) 72 1 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Appendix 111: Task sheets used for two topics Evaluator: Writer: 3 Expositive article Well I OK I Could Done I I have wntten better Forgot to do 1. Has indicated the question she/he attend吋 clearl 2 -1 -4 6. 7. Has told what was learnt 8. Has told his/her fee lin Task 2: a) Highlight and put stickers next to the ideasl paragraphsl words that you like. b) Put a ‘?' if you want him/her to write more. c) Correct the underlined mistakes. Task 3 (optional) Find other mistakes and correct them. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 73 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination 74 教育研究報告匯編 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wril ing Examinalion Task 4 Rewnte a part I . Thepa此 which I think could be rewritte明 better was How? Rewrite it here , , {…………~-一一………一…………………暉，一，一一……一， An Example ofTask 2 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 75 。。 。。 。 T he Use of Process Wri ting to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDS E Writing Examination Appendix IV: Worksheets for appreciation 、，vorksheet fo r Sho rt St or Apprecia tio n I Readn可ore Ma問arel Atwood shared her secretto us. She lold b吾吾面面而云面吾吾as small, she liked reading books s。 she could write a good sl旭ry. She thoughl reading books could lel us learr、 from the books and ~ could Improve our w耐ng skills.(Canman) sQttOI:!..... _ ( ~ ~ ， c. ..- ....-1. 些~J Attitude towards writing a sh。吋 story -ptiLtt;trrtt晶晶晶宮ng story makes -them feel creatin也 their own world. 中heir rõle was like a God who∞ntro悔 everything. When I hea叫 thaf. 1-- ﹒ ∞uldn't burn outto laugh. I :- ，堅‘ 自 discover that writi甸的ort -‘盔， 回 到ories is a閥V~。用du個 且直反 「宮、， I pressu間 (moélified from E曲， …伽g) 76 I 教育研究報告匯編 為 Use of adjectives • I learnt that the story wi ll be lively if you have good writing skills, like adding more adjectives to the story to let readers image the scene. (Kwok) I learnt how to use the words such as 'clever' . 'naïve' , 'cruel' and evil to describe the characters in my story (modified from Kwong's writing) Write with heart SOHOT\" G 50rr、e students blamed that they couldn't write a good 5tOry, but in fact, they didn' t u5e their heart 個 write a 5tOry 50 they may havea m陷under5tanding for writing. (Ng) Fa ith • I have learntwe must havefaith In our life. JR Jowllng commented that It washardforherto be a gooda叫hor. Shewrote 。n recelpts when she .r-、\"\"- was free. We have to J L.._ J_ 、 spend many !lmes to be a 戶口-^^-\./ \ goodwriter. Butif we Ql~ ) keep golng, frlends and 恥于一 r I parent5wlll supportus 蒜、抖咱也/\"'\" (modifiedfrom Kwong's writing) 也 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Characterization One of them said ‘Let the storv wrile itself . Diffe rent cha racters had different persona lities. Let them d。 the things they want in the story. And what you could control was the context and way to report their things. (modified from Lee's writing) worksheet for Drama Script Writing Plot Encourage the others to write • -The aulhors encourage us try 10 write and don'l feel s cared to fail (Ng) 1 shared this play to all of you because the storyline seemed amusing and inspiring. You ∞uldn 't imagine that a teddy bear can have a dream like this. (Heidi) 1 think the content was creative and interesting . (Yuki) Moral Lesson This drama had one message to te ll us. That is the more countries you visit, the more you can learn about life . (Zhang) ln the play, in order to save her friend ‘Angel May ',‘Angel Mary' killed May's lover ‘Evil '. May blamed Mary but Mary didn 't feel regret at a ll. She thought that was friends were for. However, nowadays, there is no 什iendship among Hong Kong people . (modified from Cheng's writing because it was too long) Acting skills They had enough practice before their performance. ln the performance, they did make any mistake. Next, their performanc括 can make the audience got into characte r and understand the ir emotion . (Ng) Actors in the play used facial expression correctly and hence the audience knew what the feelings of actors were. (Zam) Theme 1 love this performance because the theme o f the perfo rmance is re lated to environment. A fter watching this theme , 1 think more people will have the responsibility to do something to help our environment. (modified 什om Kristy 's writing) Light The thought of the character was vividly c心nveyed by the actor with the he lp/assistance of spotlight. For instance/example, in the scene which the male leading role failed to find his love, the lighting changed from the floodlight to the spotlight. This drew the attention of the audience to the male leading role. (modified from Toby's writing) Props The props were fascinating. 1 appreciated the final scene. The stage was fill ed with dried flowers. lt conveyed the romantic feeling vividly. (modified 什om Toby 's writing) The ir make up was so good. Their costumes show which characters are rich and poor clearly. 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 77 。。 。。 。 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDS E Writing Examination (什om Carman) Director How did the director of this play make this play become outstanding? The di rector Mr Mak used the sad ending to close the play since he wanted to make the audience became more shocked with the play. (Kwok) The director of this play wanted to trick the audience by some special twists. In scene two of th is play, a role called ‘Miss Chan, the dancing teacher ofthe team was acted by a boy. This made all the audience laugh. (Law) M usic Moreover, they also added singing elements to the performance. This made the drama more interesting and funnv 78 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 The Use of Process Wriling 10 Prepare Senior Secondary Two Sludenls for Iheir HKDSE Wriling Examinalion Appendix V Post-study Questionnaire on Writing Lessons Name:_一一一一一一_ Class:一一一一一一-( Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly agree disagree Now, you like short stories/drama writing more. 5 4 3 2 2 You feel easier to do short stories/drama writing 5 4 3 2 3 You have more ideas for short stories/drama 5 4 3 2 wntmg. 4 It is easier to think of short story/drama 5 4 3 2 vocabulary and expressions for writing 5 It feels easier to make a draft for short stories/ 5 4 3 2 drama writing. 6 It is easier to fínd out and coπect your own 5 4 3 2 grammatical mistakes. 7. You have tried your best in the drafting 5 4 3 2 actIvltIes. 8 You enjoyed writing the draft together you' re 5 4 3 2 your c lassmates. 9 Do you fínd the drafting activities useful in: a. getting ideas? 5 4 3 2 b. organising your ideas? 5 4 3 2 c. getting the right words and expressions? 5 4 3 2 d. leaming how to write a draft? 5 4 3 2 10. You enjoyed reading your classmates' writing . 5 4 3 2 11. You have tried your best in helping your 5 4 3 2 classmate to improve his/her writing. 12. You learn the following things you' re your classmates' writing. a. Ideas 5 4 3 2 b. Grammar 5 4 3 2 c. orgamsat lOn 5 4 3 2 13. Your classmate's suggestions helped you Improve your wntmg m: a. ideas 5 4 3 2 b. grammar 5 4 3 2 c. orgamsat lOn 5 4 3 2 14. You have a better idea on how to do 5 4 3 2 proo仁reading. 15. It is easier to rewrite than writing the fírst 5 4 3 2 composltlon 16. You fínd your rewritten composition better than the fi rst composition as far as ___ is concemed: 5 4 3 2 a. language 5 4 3 2 b. content 5 4 3 2 c. orgamsallon 17. Any other comments: 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 79 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 提討應用 I告作學習j 教學策略 於IJ\二及小三申、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度間成績 摘要 馮停珍 聖伯多樣天主教小學 為配合的擴展，聖伯多祿天主教小學本學年於小二及小三，以 「探 討應用合作學習教學策略對改善學生中文、英文和數學科的學習態度和成績j 為研究題目，並與過去兩年的研究結果作比較，希望從中獲得歐示，以強化 的成效。研究結果顯示 ，應用 「合作學習J 教學策略能提升學生的學習 態度，而學生的學業成績亦有上升的趨勢。此外，以教師學習圈方式來推行課 堂研究 ， 能有效提升教師的專業技巧 。 引言 不少有關合作學習的研究顯示，應用合作學習教學策略能幫助兒童掌握社 會技巧、改善人際關係、增進課堂學習氣氛與及有效提升學生的學習興趣(劉 秀擾. 1998 ; 周立勳. 1998 ; 陳俐煙. 2012 ; Hsiu呵. 2012 ; Drakeford. 2012 ; Tsay & Bra旬. 2010 ) .因此，大部份學校為提升教學效能，都積極鼓 勵老師應用合作學習教學策略。 聖伯多祿天主教小學於 2009 至 2010 年度開始 ，為改善學生的學習態度 和提升老師的教學技巧，以 「合作學習J 教學策略進行教學行動研究，為期三 年 。過往兩年，學校聘請校外專業人士先後分別帶領小四中、英、數、常科目 老師 ( 2009/2010 年度) .及小三中、英、數科目老師 (201 0/20 11 年度)以「合 作學習j 教學策略規劃課題，進行教學 ， 希望藉此提升學與教的效能。 為配合學校的擴展，學校本學年參與了 由香港教育學院 研中心舉辦的 「促進主踐社群以優化j 校本支援計畫IJ. 為小三數學科 老師提供支援，而行動研究的對象亦改為小三及小三學生，研究科目為中文、 英文和數學科，繼續以 「探討應用合作學習教學策略，對提升教師的教學技巧 ， 以及改善學生的學習態度和成績j 為研究題目 ， 研究結果除反映學生本年度的 表現外，亦與以往研究結果作比較，希望能從中獲得敵示以強化 「合作學習j 的教學成效。 80 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用 「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 文獻;單詞 教育局於 2004/05 學年開始進行香港 「的研究報告J . 2008/09 學年完成 ，根據研究結果 ，為教師建議以下六個 「J 的設計和教學原 則 ﹒ 學習 目標 . 以學習過程為重點，向學生閻明學習目標， ﹒ 提問技巧 提問時讓學生有更多時間思考， ﹒ 學生參與 鼓勵學生參與課堂討論， ﹒ 學生協作透過三人/小組活動 ，促進學生互相合作， ﹒ 提供回饋 協助學生自己找出錯處， ﹒ 評 估善用評核結果，改善日後的教授方式。 為促使教師改變有關教學策略的觀念 ， 研究報告建議推廣 「學習圈J 的支 援模式 (國一) .以便學校與學校間 ，以及學校內的不同科組分享教學經驗， 每次共同探討某一特定教學課題 ，讓教師互相觀摩和評鑑課堂教學和策略運 用 ，以提升參與教師的專業水平 (教育局 . 201 0 ) 固一教師學習團 共罔備課 • C 同儕觀課 >評課 並非一套特定的教學方法，它只是把老師從大班教學的國局中釋 放出來，令教學更靈活。並不等於合作學習 ， 事實上， 無論大班小 班，課堂襄個人學習、小組學習、全班學習三種形態也會交替出現(葉建源， 2009 ) 。香港的老師常以合作學習為小組學習的主要策略 ， 原因是老師們希望 可以透過合作學習的理念以強化小組學習的成效(葉娟卿 、蘇詠梅、黎敏兒， 201 0 ) 。學校本學年把推行至小三年級，因此研究亦川頁應以小三及小 三學生為對象 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 /12 I 81 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 研究目的及后法 教研進入第三年， 學校繼續探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略對學生的學習 態度和成績的影響 。學習態度包括 學習興趣 、 對課堂的投入程度 、 參與程度 和互助文化。研究結果將與過去兩年研究結果相比較 ，期望獲得更多歐示 。 研究採用行動研究法 ，分別由課程主任帶頭小三中文 、 英文和數學科及小 四中文和英文科共五個不同的學習圈 ，以及由香港教育學院發展研 究中心古學俊導師帶領小三數學科老師進行此項研究 。 2011 年 11 月開始至 2012 年 6 月期間，同級科任老師組成不同的教師學習圈 ，共同設計應用合作 學習的教學計劃，並由該級科任老師輪流試教 ， 同一學習圈的科任老師一問參 與觀課評課，並修訂教學設計，接著由下一位科任老師試教已修訂的教學計畫~ , 科任老師又再次參與觀課、評課及優化教學計畫IJ' 如是者直至同級所有班別完 成為止。小三數學科以此模式共進行兩個課題的規畫IJ' 古學俊導師共參與五次 觀課和評課會議，而課程主任則參與全部會議， 協助或帶領討論環節 。 此外， 教研計劃內所有課堂均進行錄影，並交回科任老師作個人專業發展之用，學校 亦可徵求老師同意後引用部分片段作教學分享用途。 基於學校時間表的規範以及人丰問題，安排代課會較為困難， 小三中 、 英 、 數及小三中 、 英文科教師學習圈簡化為 同級科任老師共同備課 、 於一班進行 問儕觀課 、評課 ，並在修訂教學計劃後，其餘科任老師於所屬班別進行教學 ， 最後於同儕備課時段進行課後檢討 ， 分享教學心得。校方於6 月進行資料收集 、 分析及反思 。 三年級有三班 '2A ( 1 4 人 ) 、 28 ( 21 人 ) 、 2C ( 27 人 ) 共 62 人 。 三年級有四班 3A ( 18 人 ) 、 3 8 ( 17 人 ) 、 3C ( 26 人)及 3D ( 28 人)共的人 。 當中 28 、 2C 、 3C 及 3D 以普通話作為中文科的授課語吉，其餘班別則以廣東 話為授課語吉 。 士班皆以混合能力分班 ，老師會採用異質分組以觀察合作學習 的成效。此夕|、，為照顧有特殊教育需要的學生，學生於中文和英文課堂時 ' A 、 B 班學生會混合再分為大、小兩組 ' A 班人數較少，多數為有特殊教育需要學 生，而 B 班人數較多，當中並沒有特殊教育需要學生 。 在外援人員古先生及課程主任帶頭下 ，所有參與研究的教師透過問儕觀 課 ， 記錄學生的反應(附件一) ，並於課後評課會議交流心得，以及對教學設 計進行反思和修訂。參與教研的老師與其他科任老師於分科會議及評課會議上 分享心得 。 參與班別以問卷進行前測和後測，比較學生對中文、英文和數學科 的學習態度以評估研究的成效。問卷共 15題，以四點量表法(非常喜歡、喜歡、 不喜歡、非常不喜歡)方式填答， 主要調查學生學習態度的三個因素(對學科 的學習興趣、對學科的投入程度和參與程度) ，以及課堂合作互助文化(表一 及附件三) 研究比較三年級三班及三年級四班上學期測驗(貫驗前) 和下學期大考(實 驗後)研究科目的成績是否有進步 。 82 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用 「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 裹一學生學習態度問卷分析 題號 題目 範疇 我對中文科的喜歡程度是 2 我對英文科的喜歡程度是 學習興趣 3 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 4a 在中文的課堂 ， 我專心上課 4b 在英文的課堂 ， 我專心上課 4c 在數學的課堂 ， 我專心上課 投入程度 5a 在中文課堂內 ， 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5b 在英文課堂內 ， 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5c 在數學課堂內 ， 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 6a 我積極參與中文課堂內的學習活動 (例如 : 常舉丰發問及 答間 、 積極參與小組討論等) 6b 我積極參與英文課堂內的學習活動 (例如 ， 常舉丰發問及 參與程度答間 、 積極參與小組討論等) 6c 我積極參與數學課堂內的學習活動 (例如 : 常舉手發問及 答間、積極參與小組討論等) 整體而吉 7 在課堂內 ，我會協助我班的同學學習 8 在課堂內 ， 我班同學會協助我學習 互助文化 9 我班同學能互相幫助， 互相勉勵 為使川頁利推行 ， 學校制定J I校本政策J 文件 ， 當中腫 列各項相關措施 ， 包括教師培訓、 環境 、 校本課程及評估等。 此外 ， 學校更把 「合作學習j 列為策略之一 ，把各班的座位編排 、分組方式 、 組別命名及各項分組常規等詳細描述 ，務求統一學生分組的常規 ， 令全體老師 使用同一準則， 以提高合作學習的成效。文件於 8 月公佈，並於 9 月及 1 0 月 由班主任及科任老師合作推行(表三)。學生於 11 月 份己能初步掌握分組常 規 ，有利各科推行合作學習的教學活動。 此外 ， 課程主任亦於 9 月初為三、 三 年級進行學生學習態度問卷調查 ， 作為自後研究比較之用 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 83 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、 英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 義二研究進程 日期 進行事項 2011 年 8 月 舉辦 「促進貫踐社群以優化j 工作坊 派發 í 11-12 年度較本J 政策文件 9 月 於小三及小三班別進行前測問卷 9 至 1 0 月 班主任於班內進行分組，科任老師於課堂協助建立小組技巧訓 練 ， 包括 分組、組形、認識暫停訊號、基本社交及溝通技巧 訓練 11 月至 中、英、數科目選定課題進行共同備課 2012 年 5 月 中、英、數教師學習圈進行同儕觀謀和評課 2012 年 6 月 小=數學科於各班課堂中應用第三次合作學習教學策略 6 月至 7 月 資料搜集、分析 2011 年 11 月至 2012 年 5 月期間，各學習圈已完成首輪以「合作學習 J 為重點規劃課題 ，並透共同備課、觀謀和評課及修訂教學計劃 。 2012 年 6 月， 三年級數學科參與老師再以學習圈模式進行第二輪互相觀摩及進行教學交流。 課堂研究活動至此結束 ，共設計及完成試教t個教學計劃(表三)。當各項合 作學習活動完成後，課程主任隨即於三、三年級進行學生學習態度問卷調查 ， 收集教師意見和訪問學生以檢視研究的成效。 義三教學計I1J大綱 年級 科目 課題 中文 三上 12 . 一一 吹泡泡 英文 Book 2B (Chapter 3) 一一- Free time 數學 2 上 A 冊 12 一一盤體 中文 =上的- 跳高，擬人法 英文 Book 3B (Chapter 1 ) 一一- Meet my class 數學 3 下 A 冊 10 一一 三角形 (一) 數學 3 下 B 冊 19 一一 毫升 研究發現個分昕 總結參與老師的 「問儕觀課紀錄J ' 於應用合作學習教學策略的課堂表現評分 為 3 分或以上的結果如下 ﹒ 學生參與課堂的機會 ( 100% ) . 課堂的學習氣氛( 100%) ﹒ 照顧學習差異 ( 96 .2%) ﹒ 提升學習的效能 (96 .2% ) 84 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 參與教研計劃的老師於評課會議及分科會議上， 一致認同環境有 利應用合作學習教學策略。教師更能照顧學生個別差異並給予適切指導，尤其 是當進行分組活動時 ，由於學生活動空間較大，有助分組活動的進行。此外 ， 大部份老師認同透過學習圈的模式進行教學交流， 更能觀察學生的反應與及促 進同儕互相交流和學習。雖然每班學生的背景及棄質不同 ，修訂後的教學計劃 未必能符合所教的班別 ， 科任老師需因應其學生的特質再自行調節 ，但老師在 觀謀和評課的過程中， 確賞能促進同儕互相學習與及提升個人專業技巧。從老 師觀察所得 ，大部分課堂學生表現投入、學習氣氛濃厚、 在互動互補的情況下 能激發學生的創作能力和增加生生互動的機會。老師更反映透過訓練學生分組 常規的同時能提升學生的課堂紀律 。 學生學習態度問卷調查結果(附件四) ， 學生對學科的學習興趣及投入程 度選擇喜歡及非常喜歡的答案結果見下: 投入程度 級別 科目 學習興趣 4 專心上課 5 愛動腦筋解決 學習上的疑難 三年級 中文 +3.18% +1.62% +1 .61% 英文 +4.84% +1.61% +1 9.44% 數學 +1.61 % +8.07% +1 .61% 平均 +3.21 % +5.66% 投入程度 級別 科目 學習興趣 4. 專心上課 5 愛動腦筋解決 學習上的疑難 中文 +2.25% +2.25% +2.25% 英文 +5.56% +1.12% +13.48% 年級 數學 +4.5% +4.5% +2.25% 平均 +3.94% +4.31% 三 、 三年級學生於中文、英文和數學三科學習興趣和投入程度均有不同 的升幅 。學習興趣方面 ﹒ 三年級 +3 .21 %、三年級 +3.94% '當中，無論三、 三年級，學生對英文科的學習興趣均有較大的提升 ( +4 .84%， +5 .56%) 。 投 入程度方面，兩級升幅分別為 +5.66% 及 +4 .31% '相差不大，較明顯的升 幅是在英文科課堂，學生較研究前更喜愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難(三年級 +1 9.44% ' 三年級 +13 .48%) 學生的參與程度結果比較 ， 兩級差異較大， 三年級平均上升 1 0. 76% '三 年級則只上升 了 2.62% ; 當中 ， 三年級英文科 (+1 4 .52%) 及三年級數學科 ( +6 .74% ) 為升幅最大的科目 。 課堂互助文化方面， 三年級較三年級的平均 升幅顯著，分別是 +12.9% 及 +1 .87% ' 當中三年級以 「在課堂內 ，我班同學 會協助我學習j 的升幅最大 ，有 +24 .3% 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 85 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 綜合問卷調查結果，可見於課堂應用 「合作學習J 教學策略有助提升學生 的學習興趣和投入程度 ，當中，以英文科的改變最為突出。原因可能是老師在 設計應用 「合作學習J 的教學活動時 ， 能打破一般課堂以老師為主導的教學模 式， 轉而以學生為中心的教學模式， 讓學生透過互動進行學習。此舉不但為學 生提供較生動的學習情景，同學亦可透過以 「互賴達標J 原則設計的課堂活動 ， 激發同學主動學習，間接提升學生的學習興趣和投入感，而學生於不同科目表 現差異的原因有許多，但相信除學習模式的轉變外，教學活動的設計亦是主要 關鍵。 問卷調查結果顯示， 三、三年級在互助文化方面的升幅差異亦較大， 究其 原因 ，相信是三年級學生於去年的課堂已習慣了老師應用 「合作學習J 進行教 學 ， 他們對分組學習已有一定程度的掌握，而學生的前測數據已很高 (平均 87.27% ) .因此，升幅較小 ，相反， 小三學生由於是初次參與應用 「合作學習J 教學策略的課堂活動，學生自然感覺與傳統教學的上課模式分別較大， 升幅亦 較明顯 。總結學生態度問卷調查結果，見下列表五 。 蠢五學生學習態度總結 級別 範曙 前測 (%) 後測 (%) 平均上升 /下降 百分比 (%) 學習興趣 81 .73% 84.94% +3.21% 三年級 投入程度 12.27% 18.03% +5.66% 參與程度 67.2% 77.96% +10.76% 互助文化 68.28% 81 .18% +12.9% 學習興趣 81 .65% 85.75% +4.10% 三年級 投入程度 82.77% 87.08% +4.31% 參與程度 80.9% 83.52% +2.62% 互助文化 87.27 89.14% +1 .87% 圖二:應用「合作學習J 學生態度問卷調查結果 (2011-12) 20 11-2012年廣學生學習庸置慮問蕪湖進 14.00駕 12.00駕 1 0.00認 ￡ ~ 8. 00萬 t恤 s 酬 4. OO~ 2.00駕 o. Oo~ 學習興趣 拉入忽皮 喜與忽皮 一 級 級 一 一 年 年 一 一 - - = 一一 一• • 一 互助文化 86 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 比較全級學生 (共的人)於上學期測驗及大考成績 ，有以下發現 (表六)。 表六 學生學黨成績的比較 級別 科目 進步人數 (人) 百分比 (%) 平均進步人數百合 tt (%) 中文 50 80.65% 三年級 英文 28 45.16% 59.67% 數學 33 53.21 % 中文 49 55.06% 三年級 英文 55 61 .80% 63.05% 數學 67 75.28% 小三學生於中文、 英文和數學科有進步的人數百分比分別為 80 .65% 、 45 . 16% 、 53 .21% ' 三科平均進步百分比為 59. 67% '約半數學生成績有進步 ， 當中文科的進步較明顯 。小三學生於中文、英文和數學科有進步的人數百分比 分別為 55 .06% 、 61 .80% 、 75 .28% '三科平均進步百分比是 63.05% '與三 年級的結果相若 。 大考後 ， 課程主任於二年級三班以隨機抽樣形式對六名學生進行訪問，讓 他們就課堂應用合作學習教學策略的觀感發表意見 ， 參與學生包括 2A 秋盈、 歐駿、 28 嘉慧 、 阿正 、 2C)翠詠、金堂 。 訪問內容如下 ， 1 老師在課堂教學加入小組合作學習 ，你喜歡這種學習方式嗎 ?為甚麼 ? 2 你覺得採用這種方式學習 ， 會否增加你的學習興趣? 3. 同學之間能否互相幫助完成任務? 4 你的同學有幫助你嗎? 5 你有否幫助你的同學? 6 你覺得課堂學習氣氛濃厚嗎? (是否所有同學皆進行學習活動?) 7 有否增加你對學科的投入程度 ? 8 同學之間是否有更多溝通、協作的機會? 9. 你最喜歡哪一科採用 「合作學習j 教學? 中文、英文、數學? 受訪學生一致贊成老師多採用 「合作學習 J 於課堂教學 ， 原因是同學們覺 得活動有新鮮感 、有趣和可以在課室中走動， 透過小組活動不但增強了個人的 學習自信 ， 還增加了彼此溝通的機會。 此外，同學亦反映「合作學習j 的課堂 學習氣氛較傳統教學的學習氣氛為佳 。最後， 學生最希望老師應用「合作學習J 的科 目 是常識科， 其次是英文科和數學科。另一方面，學生表示不喜歡與欠自 律 、晶行差同學合作 ， 因為最終多要獨自完成工作，亦有一名學生表示，雖然 分組時沒有搬動柏椅的必要，但仍覺得很麻煩。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 87 。。 。。 。 探討應用 「合作學習」 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 常識科不是本研究的重點科目，但在訪問過程中發現，不少常識科老師已 在各班應用「合作學習J 策略進行教學，同學們反應正面，相信對提升學生的 學習興趣很有幫助。調查同時發現，一些學生對較陌生和難掌握的科目(例如 英文科和數學科)課堂設計如包含 「合作學習j 的活動，學生明顯會有較高的 參與感和投入感，原因可能是學生在活動的過程中常常被要求完成一些個人任 務 ， 因而迫使其提升學習的主動性;加上 「合作學習J 的課堂較活潑，為同學 提供大量生生互動的機會，故學生的學習態度較傳統教學為佳。比較二年級 2009 至 2012 年三年的研究結果如下 (表六) 表六 2009-2012 研究結果比較 平均上升 / 下降百分比 項目 2009/10 ( 小四 ) 2010/竹 (小二) 2011 /2012 ( 小二) 1 . 學習興趣 +11 .36% +7.31% +3.21% 2 . 投入程度 +12.38% +9.36% +5.66% 3 . 參與程度 +12.50% +8.11% +10.76% 4 . 互助班風 +11 .36% +4.74% +12.9% 5 . 學業成績 65.94% 67.27% 59.67% 綜合三年研究結果，應用 「合作學習J 教學策略後 ， 小三至小四學生對中、 英 、 數科目的學習興趣、投入程度、參與程度及互助班風等皆有不同程度的上 升 ，正好印證J í合作學習j 的設計理念 以互動合作為動力資源的一種教 學活動 ， 強調學生的參與、溝通和合作以提升學生的學習動機 ，使其樂於學習 (王坦. 2002 ) 。學業成績方面 ，雖然連續三年研究結果顯示約有六成學生的 學業成績有上升，但這現象是教師應用了 「合作學習j 教學策略的直接結果或 是間接結果?又或當中並無因果關係?基於研究缺乏控制組和限於研究時較短 暫， 其可信性有待進一步研究 。 整體而言 ， 學生普遍喜歡老師於課堂應用 「合作學習J 教學策略 ，大部份 學生表現合作和積極 。 此教學策略亦能配合的理念 ， 有助強化 的成效 ，值得繼續推行。 總結三年研究經驗 ，教師實踐合作學習教學時必須注意以下各項(洗玉珍 、 何明生. 2008) 1 擬定切合學生的學習目標和學習材料， 2 選擇合適的 「合作學習j 活動形式， 3. 引入合作要素的活動， 4 注意課室管理的安排 ， 包括 ， 座位 、秩序管理 、進程控制等 ; 5 決定評估的方法和， 6固 定期檢討教學成效。 88 I 教育研究報告匯編 反思及建議 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 校本行動研究持續了三年，學生不但在學習態度上有改變，連帶課堂紀律 亦有改善 。學校成功地應用 「合作學習J 作為小班學策略之一 ，並配合 的發展把策略逐年擴展。校內大部份老師對此教學策略亦已有一定認識，部 份參與教研老師對筒中技巧更掌握純熟，可擔任教師學習圈的領導角色。 以教師學習圈的模式進行教研 ， 能提供機會讓老師作專業的交流和分享。 在學校此模式已具雛形，要進一步使之成為學校文化與及提升學習圈的質素和 成效，有賴課程主任仔細策劃和推行 ，相信透過分享與及校長的支持 ， 可令老 師較容易接受並認同學習圈的價值。學校日後如需推行新措施 ， 亦可鼓勵較積 極的老師先參與，期望能產生鱗魚效應 1 以帶動改革。 個蝕 I1lfea.,,,u 歷時三年的研究，結果成績美滿，應用合作學習教學策略能提升學生於課 堂的學習興趣、投入程度、參與程度和互助文化等 ，同時亦令學生的學業成績 有增長趨勢。此外， 合作學習能配合的優勢，促進教學的效能 ; 而教 師學習圈的課研模式 ，貝IJ讓老師得以互相交流和觀摩，有助促進教師專業的發 展。基於時間和人力資源的限制 ，是次研究未能確實應用合作學習對提升學生 學業成績的影響 ，有興趣者可深入探究以增加研究的可用性。 1 車主魚效應、 (Catfish Effect) 。鈴魚效應是指新加入的競爭者參與可以激勵整個國隊的士氣 ， 此 方法用於現代人力資源管理 ， 用以喚醒員工的危機意識從而促使他們改進自己的工作 。在挪威 ， 生猛的沙甸魚比急凍的要貴好幾倍 。 有說﹒在當地長期以來只有一艘漁船能做到將生猛的沙甸 魚帶上岸 ， 而筒中祕訣 ﹒只有船長一人知 ， 旦始終沒透露半句 。 他離世後 ﹒ 漁民在他的漁獲盛 器中發現 條給魚東游西竄，原來裝入魚槽後，由於環境陌生 ，便四處游動 ， 沙甸魚為閃遨牠 而改變其一貴的惰性 ， 加速游動﹒以求保命 ， 終得以存活下來 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 89 。。 。。 。 探討應用 「合作學習」 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 書考，目 王坦 (2002) 0 {合作學習的理念與實施》。 北京 中國人事出版社。 周立勳 ( 1998 ) 0 <分組合作學習中兒童的情意表現〉﹒ 《嘉義師院學報> ' 12' 39- 72 。 林建平 ( 1997) 0 {學習輔連理論與實務》。台北 五南圖書出版有限公司 。 ;先玉珍、 何明生 (2008 ) 0 {合作學習教學手冊一一理論和教學實踐》。香港 . 香港 合作學習協會 。 教育局 (201 0 ) 0 {研究報告> 0 2011 年 7 月 21 日 ，取白 。 www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_ 4228/ed0513cb2- 1484-6-c.pdf 葉娟卿、蘇詠梅、黎敏兒 (201 0 ) 0 {策略:促進思維及小組學習》。香港 學術專業固書中心 。 葉建源 (2009) 0 {邁向》。香港 教育出版社有限公司。 陳俐烽 (201 2 ) 0 {合作學習教學法與一般教學法於園小五年級音樂科教學之比較研 究》。 國立屏東教育大學博碩士論文全文系統， etd-0501107-162449-846? 劉秀媛 ( 1998) 0 {合作學習的教學策略》。 公民訓育學報， 7 ' 285-294 。 Hsiung , C . M. (2012) . The Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning. Journalof Engineering Educati凹， 101(1), 119-137. Drakeford , W. (2012). The Effects o f Cooperative Learning on the Classroom Part ic ipation of Students Placed at Risk fo r Societal Failure . Psychology Research, 2(4), 239-246 Tsay , M ., & Brady , M . (2010). A Case Study of Cooperative Learning and Communication Pedagogy: Does Working in Teams Make a Di fference? Journal ofthe Scho的rship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 78-89. 90 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件一 聖伯多祿天主教小學 「合作學習」同儕交流觀諜表 觀諜日期 : I B等問 : | 科目 . * 中文 / English /數學 \"王別 . |授課老師 : 備課老師 : 教學語言 : 廣東話 口 普通話 口 英語 口 課題 : 表現指標 優點/建議/備誰 一. 學習 目 標 口學習目標具體清晰 口學習 目標建基於學生已有知識 口 課堂完結前，能與學生總結學習重點 二.教學組織 口 教學內容能配合教學目標 口教學活動能切合教學目標 口 教學活動編排有序 三. 教學策略 口能提供有層次的提問 口 能照顧學習差異 口 足夠的師生/生生互動 四.應用「合作學習」策略 口活動能應用合作學習策略 口所有學生有參與學習的機會 口組員的個人任務明確通切 口 小組的集體任務明確 口活動能達到Ji.賴達標的目的 口 活動能促進組員闊的相互學習 口 小組活動時間分配恰當 口活動能反映學生對學科的認識 五.其他 口善用資源促進學習 口已建立良好的諜室常規 口提出適時/正面/具體的回饋 配合學校關注事項 「 合作學習」總評 整體評分 (4 分為最佳 ) 4 3 2 l 學生參與課堂的機會 2 課堂的學習氣氛 3. 照顧學習差異 4回 應用「合作學習 」 教學策略提升學習的效能 5 其他 (例如 : 學生的學習興趣、投入程度等) 觀諜及吉乎課教師簽署 ﹒ 日期 : 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1/12 I 91 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件二 聖伯多祿天主教小學 J)l 問卷調查 各位同學 : 言青根據個人情況，誠實地回答下列題目，在適當 的方格內加上J 。 我對中文斜的喜歡程度是 2 我對英文斜的喜歡程度是 3 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 4a 在主主益的課堂，我專心上課 4b 在主主益的課堂，我專心上課 4c 在主笠盟的課堂，我專心上課 5a 在主主課堂內，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5b 在莖三三課堂內，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 5c 在主笙課堂內 ，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 6a 我積極參與中文課堂內的學習活動(例如 : 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6b 我積極參與主主課堂內的學習活動(例如: 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6c 我積極參與蓋全課堂內的學習活動(例如: 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 整體而言: 7 在課堂內 ， 我會協助我班的同學學習 8 在課堂內，我班同學會協助我學習 9 我班同學能互相幫助，互相勉勵 92 I 教育研究報告匯編 喜歡程度 ( 4 分為最高) 4 3 2 非常 喜歡 不喜歡 非常不 喜歡 喜歡 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件三 負責老師:陳老師 聖伯多祿天主教小學 課堂活動設計 | 年級:二年級 單元及課題:單元六第十二課 吹泡泡 學生已有知識: 1. 已理解課文內容 2. 理解課文詞語的意思 學習目標 : 1. 學習句式 r 像.. .... J 2. 垮養學生的想像力 教學重終點: | 教學節數: I 節(35 分鐘) 教學時，宜引導學生說也被描述事物和用來描述的事物之間相像的地方，並著重垮養學生的 想像力 。 第三教節 教學流程: 1. 讀課文 2. 老師說出教學目標，並請學生在課文中找出 r 傢.. .... J 句子 3. 老師舉出例子:泡泡又圈又大，像一個個氣球 。說明原本的事物、周作比喻的事物，相像 的地方 4. 小組活動:找出相像的事物 (工作紙 :9 題) ， 匯報 5 . 小組活動:完成工作紙第一題第一小題 。每人進一個句子 a. 用簡報于'1ti1 4 種事物 ，要學生找出和它們相像的事物，相像的地方 b. 每人口頭造句 c. 匯報 6. 個人工作 : 重組句子 7. 分是且造句 8. 繼續第一題 :找出相應的事物 ， 造句 9 總結 備注 : 1. 學生活動需時，建議教學節教改為 2 節 2. 有學生未能找出事物相像的地方 ， 可增加一個找事物相像的地方的練習 3. 如學生能力弱，可以在圖片上附加詞語說明 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 93 。。 。 。 。滿 叫 斗 回 嘯 適 「 吭 W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 J M n寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別 向聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且為 海 Level: P.2 Topic: Bk 2B Ch.3 Free time Leamingo峙ectives: 1. To review previously leamt weekly activities with pupils 2. To talk about weekly activities 3. To ask and answer about weekly activities T - Teacher P - Pupils Procedures: Time Interaction Learning activities Questioning / Exposition / Introduction Teaching HW / Aids Classwork 3' T -P Revision - P read aloud the weekly activities on textbook P.23 - textbook - P read aloud the weekly activities again with the words being covered P.23 5' T-P Match the weekly - P do the matching on the activity worksheet - visualizer -Activity activities with the - T checks the answers with the whole class worksheet suitable p ictures - P look at the pictures and read a loud the weekly activities partA 10' P-P Talk about weekly - P choose five weekly activities and put the appropriate stickers on the table - visualizer - Activity (pair work) actlvltles “My notebook\" worksheet - P tell the ir weekly activities to the whole class part B - P take turn to tell his / her weekly activities to the pa閃ner “ l (gotochurch)ona(ySsu)nadnad ys()F .\" “ I'm free on (Tuesdays) and (Fridays).\" 17 ' P -P Ask and answer - Pupil A asks Pupil B about his / her weekly activities - visualizer - Activity (pair work, about weekly and puts the appropriate stickers on the table “ 's notebook\" worksheet group work) actlvltles - Pupil B answers the questions according to the table “My notebook\" part C - Pupil A writes about Pupi l B's weekly activities ac∞rding to the table “ 's notebook - P take turn to tell their classmat郎， weekly activities to the other group members “ what do you do oonn((SSuunnddaayyss)).。l\" “ 1 (go to church) on (Sundays). I'm free on (Mondays).\" <D .þ. t單 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 - lt's difficult to remove the back sheet ofthe stickers. So it is suggested to use glue to stick the pictures - For Part C, Round table is recommended after the pupils have taken turn to present their weekly activities in their group. - Double lessons are recommended. Rema r ks 聖伯多祿天主教小學 數學科教案 範疇 : 圓形與空間 日期: 2011 年 1 1 月 9 日 f&.別 : 2B 時間: 35 分鐘 負責老師 : 馮老師 課題 :2 上 A 冊 第 12 諜錐體(第一教節) 學生已有知識: 1.能辨別柱體和錐體 2.能辨別角錐和圓錐 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻博 3 個 腦 嗨 ，柵 欄 目 迅 部 本節教學目標: 1. 讓學生認識錐體的各個面 2. 學生能分辨各種錐體 教具:柱體、錐體 、 紙圓錐體 、 「柱體和錐體」的動書投影片、匯報卡 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 一.分辨柱體和錐體 導入 1.教師出示不同的立體，著學生從中找出錐體 。 提問 立體圖形有: 3' 柱體、錐體和球體 二.複習錐體的概念 1. 鼓勵學生說出錐體的特點。 (它們都有一個尖頂，底是平的 。) 初步概念 2. 教師播放 「柱體和錐體」的動畫加深學生的認識 。 言才吉侖 錐體的概念 5' 3. 著學生分組，把每組不同的立體分為柱體和錐體 4. 看各小組 1 號同學到鄰組輸查答案。 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N <D (]1 。 。 。滿 叫 斗 回 嘯 適 「 吭 W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 J M n寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 三.認識不同的錐體 1.說故事: r 小明和小芬參加了一項比賽，小明要找尋角錐 (老師出示) ，小芬要找尋圓錐(老師出示) ， 現請各組同 學把小組內的角錐和圓錐分為兩姐 。 2 .老師總結，角錐和國錐都有一個尖頂，底是平的 ， 而圓錐 辨別 錐體的特點 6' 的底是一個圓形。 3.堂課研習 提問課文 (P.7 1 )中的物件像甚麼立體? (角錐/圓錐) ﹒鼓勵同學說出一些與角錐和圓錐相似的物件。 (雪糕、筒/告示牌) 四.認識錐體的特點 發展 1. 教師展示不同的錐體，將尖頂向上 ，並拈每個錐體只有一 個底，其餘的稱為側面 。 2 . 教師引領學生發現錐體的側面都是三角形 。 3 . 教師出示四角錐體並指出，錐體以底命名，因此，這是一 個四角錐體，並說出: r這是一個四角錐體 ， 共有 5 個面， 它的底是一個四邊形 」。 觀察 雄體的特點 12' 4. 教師提問 : r 圓錐體的倒面是甚麼形狀?J 讓學讀想。 5. 教師剪開一個紙圓錐體，與學生一起找答案 。( 曲面) 6. 分組活動: - 學生分組找出不同錐體的底(以貼紙貼上以識別)。 - 學生於每人取一個錐體 ， 觀察後依指示於組內輪流介 紹 。「 這是一個 x 錐體，共有 x 個面，它的底是一個 x 形 」。 學生輪流到鄰組介紹 。 <D σ〉 草草 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 時間 總結 1. 老師看某一小組派組員匯報結果 匯報 6' 鞏固 1. 家課 : 書 ( P.72-73 ) ，活動冊 : Ex12 ( P.25) 練習 3' 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H 桐 川 、」 J 仙 n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻 博3個 腦 嗨 ，柵 欄 目 迅 部 備註 : 1. 教學活動有意義，能達到課堂教學目的 。 2. 能力較弱的學生可以二人一組進行活動。 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N <D --.J 。。 。 探討應用 「合作學習」 教學策略於小二及小三中、英、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 科目: 中文 年級: 三年級(上學期) 盡早次: 第十三諜跳高 擬人法教學設計 教具: 電腦 、 投影機、實物投影機 、 簡報 、工作紙(一)、 工作紙(二) 、 工作紙(三) 教節.-教節 時限: 35 分鐘 已有知織: 1.學生 已掌握課文的字詞反能朗請課文 2.在九 、 十課中，學生對擬人法已有初步認織 教學目的: 1.為看課堂的互動，把聆聽 、 說話、閔坡和寫作結合 。 2.1t擬人法有進一步m1哎，並能用擬人法創作句子 。 教學計畫: 時間 教學內容 綻開技巧 教具 3 分鐘 一. 引起動機 1. 提問: ﹒ 「 可憐的風兒沒有家，跑來跑西也找不到一個休息的地方;飄 思考 電腦 流的霎沒有家，天一陰就急得不住地流眼淚。 J 分析 投影機 詩歌衷的風真的會跑嗎? (不會) 雲兒真的會流眼淚嗎? ( 不會) 'lt物投影機 ﹒ 「 大海輕輕歌唱，唱給船兒聽'。昌給海鷗聽，。昌給夕陽聽 。 」 持司主衷的大海真的會唱歌嗎? ( 不會) 簡報 作者為甚麼說風兒有家，雲流眼淚? 大海會歌唱? (待學生思考一下 ) 他逢周 7 甚麼修辭手法來寫這首持?為甚麼? (因為海浪的聲音好像人們的歌聲，作者運用擬人法寫作， 把文章中的日月星辰 、 花草樹木等事物當作人來描寫，被它 們有人類的居民情 、 思想、動作，這種寫作方法，幫助我們把 事物寫得史加生動和有趣 ﹒ ) .現在，就讓我們史深入地學習擬人法 。 (教書課題:擬人法) 10 分鐘 二. 閱讀短詩 ， 分析詩中哪些內容運用了擬人法 ﹒ 1. 老師分派工作紙 ( 一 ) ，每組-張，各有一首不同的短持 。 分析 電腦 2. 兩人一組討論 ( la 、 Ib 組做工作紙一 a; 2a 、 2b ~且做工作紙一 思考 投影機 b. . . . . .如此類4ft) ，用鉛筆在詩中圈出這用了擬人法的字詞，然 討論 實物投影機 後 la 、 Ib ~且互吉于大家的工作紙，找出 共識，由四位同學選出 交流 簡報 一人匯報， ，11.峙 4 分鐘 。 工作紙(一) 3. 分組匯報 。 98 I 教育研究報告匯編 時間 20 分錶 2 分鐘 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 教學內容 提間技巧 教具 三.運用擬人法創作句子 。 1. 老師舉例說明運用擬人法的好處 。 長。3截 電腦 .例 1 : 在微雨下，燈柱默默地守護看來往的行人，為他們 理解 引路 。 投影機 (能為事物添上鮮明的成情色彩，加強成染力 。) 實物投影機 例 2 : 青山含笑歡迎客人至1) 來 。 (能化青爭為動，令事物顯得具體生動。) 簡報 利用對話使動物、物件變成有人的思想 。 句子: 工作紙(二) a.一排水彩筆躺在文具金衷，好像在說 : í我會給國畫盎 上美麗的色彩。 /畫上美麗的圖案 。 l b.'J、樹在春風中搖擺，好像在說 : í 多舒服啊 ! /風姐姐， 謝謝你送給益的禮物。 l 2. 眉己對活動 : 隨機叫學生出來西己對句子。 分析 蝴蝶穿起漂亮的衣裳 ， 在花開展現美妙的舞姿。 「 老爺車 」 喘著烏氣 ， 艱難地爬上斜坡 。 堅強的樹幹雖被風吹彎了腰， 仍咬緊牙關挺下去 。 S雷射唱機放闕，候。籠， 快樂地高歌。 3. 老師引 導學生創作擬人法句子 。 現象 聯想到的某種 想要補充說明的事 行為或成受 應用 風很大 生氣 屋外的風生氣 7' 他不但「呼呼呼」 創作 地叫 若，還是生情地掀起屋頂，拔起 合作 樹木。 兩很大 嚎句大哭 兩姐姐像是受到刺激一樣，喙。句大 哭，眼淚像是闖不緊的水龍頭一 樣，都停不下來 。 見不章，)太 躲起來 膽小的太陽和月亮躲起來了。 陽月亮 ﹒颱風天的情景 : 4. 老師分派工作紙(二) ，每位且一張 。 5. 要求學生分組討論 ， 根據圖片內容 ，用擬人法完成句子(先 四人一組合寫，然後與其他組Jl1) 交換批改 )0(限時 5 分鐘)。 6. 分組匯報，老師用實物投影機展示學生作品，並作出評構 。 四. 總結 電腦 1.老師重申利用擬人法創作可令事物描寫得更加生動和有 投影機 趣。 實物投影機 2.完成書第 53 頁和作業 ( 十三) 簡報 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 99 。。 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 」J M n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 Primarv 3 Book3B Ch.l Meet mv class Language focus: Use prepositions to talk about positions Lesson objectives: Students are able to • distinguish di旺erent prepositions about positions- in front of, behind, on the right of, on the left of, next to, between • cooperate in a small group and make a seating plan with the use ofprepositions to ta lk about positions • present the work to other students Teaching procedures Time Tasks I Activities Teaching Resources I Materials 1 min Revise the prepositions about positions: -Word cards (6) in front of, behind, on the right of, on the left of, next to, between 3 mins Warm IIp exercise-body movement to show positions -Letter cards A I B (15 sets) -students work in pair (student A and B), each of them ho1ding a card AlB -teacher g ives instruction with the use of prepositions to ta1k about positions e.g. A is in front ofB. - students use their body movements to show their understanding 8 mins Pairwork -Instruction card 1, 2 and a -students work in pair set of name cards (Mike, -student A reads the sentences on the instruction card 1 to B Tom, Ben, Gigi and Mary) -student B uses the name cards to make the seating plan on the desk (13 sets) (vice versa) -Power point 8 mins Grollp work -Large papers (8) -students work in groups of 4 -Markers (8) -students cooperate to make a seating p1an with the use ofpreposit ions about positions -A blank seating plan (8) -students in tums write the sentences to show where the students (Mike, Tom, Ben, Gigi o o t專 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻博 3 個 腦 嗨 ，柵 欄 目 迅 部 and Mary) sit -They have to draw a simple seating plan while they are writing the sentences IOmins Presentation -student presents their seating plan to other group. -students have to arrange the seating plan while they are listening to the presenter. -Presenter gives 1 mark to the group ifthe seating plan is correct. (Tíme may only be availablefor the presentation ofround 1 only ifit is α single 1間on) (Presentation ofround 2 to 4 will continue in the ne，耳t lesson) Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 No. 1 presents No. 2 presents No. 3 presents No. 4 presents Group 1 - Group 2 Group 1 - Group 3 Group 1 - Group 4 Group 1 - Group 5 Group 2 - Group 3 Group 2 - Group 4 Group 2 - Group 5 Group 2 - Group 6 Group 3 - Group 4 Group 3 - Group 5 Group 3 - Group 6 Group 3 - Group 1 Group 4 - Group 5 Group 4 - Group 6 Group 4 - Group 1 Group 4 - Group 2 Group 5-Group 6 Group 于一Group 1 Group 5-Group 2 Group 5-Group 3 Group 6 - Group 1 Group 6 - Group 2 Group 6 - Group 3 Group 6 - Group 4 3 mins Conclusion -Read aloud the prepositions about positions -Homework (worksheet) Remarks: 1. lt is suggested that for students of lower abilities, teacher should revise the concept of ‘left' and 'right' . 2. Most of students are interested in the activities and able to do the ‘warm up exercise' and ‘pair work' . 3. 3A can't do group work, so they do the activity in class 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N o 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 」J M n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 範疇:圓形與空間 日期 : A T ) - - -一 汁 某 一 ti - - s q f 、 市 內 一 一 情 -如 祿 廿 一 E ? i f 一 的 學 一 聖 i - 負責老師 : 余、蕭、何、章 課題 :3 下 A 冊 10.三角形( 一 ) 112 o N t專 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 本節教學目標: 1.複習三角形的特徵 2.認識等邊三角形及不等邊三角形的特徵 3.學生能夠按三角形的特徵作出分類 教其: 圓丹 、 powe巾。int 、工作紙 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 1.各位同學，你們能否分辨出下列圓形? 利用 powerpoi nt 5' (圓形 、正方形、長方形、平行四邊形、三角形 ) 展示一些 已學過 的圓形 2.觀察一些三角形的實物， 著學生說出其特性 。 利用 powe叩oint 導入 展示一些三角形 的生活例子帶入 課堂主題 :三角 形 。 。。 獨 立 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 岫m w m暴 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 FX m時 喇 喇 姻博 3 個 腦 嗨 ，柵 欄 目 迅 部 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 1.老師利用簡報與學生重溫三角形的特性 。 利用 powerpo int 三角形特性: 8' (其中一些三角形是有缺陷的) 展示一些真正及 1.三條邊 (直線和 初步概念 2.展示一些真正及疑似的三角形實物，給予學生一些時間思 疑似的三角形實 閉合 ) 考，讓學生自行說出它們是否三角形及說出原因 。 物 2.三隻角 3.畫角時要畫上 弧度 1.老師派發工作紙，內有等邊二角形及不等邊三角形，學生 利用學生發現兩 等i是三角彤的特性 : 16' 利用直尺進行量度，然後自行發現不同三角形的特性，最 種三角形的特性 l 三條邊的長度相 :等 2.三隻角大小相同 後作分組報告 。 (2 人/4 人一組) 帶出 r.等邊三角 不等邊三角形的特性 深究 2.老師總結學生量度的結果，分別帶出等邊三角形和不等進 形 」 和「不等進三 1.三條邊的長度都互 三角形的特性，因而稱為 「 等邊三角形」和「不等邊三角 角形」這兩個名字 不相等 形 J' 並解釋 「等邊」 是「相等邊長」 的意思。 2.三隻角的大小都不 相同 1.今天我們已對三角形的特性作複習 。 3' 總結 2.看學生說出等邊三角形和不等邊三角形的特性。 1.請回家完成書本 P.58 及 60 讓學生利用所學 鞏固 的重點完成書本 練習 。 草草 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N o w 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 個 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H桐 州 、」JN n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 聖伯多祿天主教小學 數學科教案 範疇 : 容量 日期: 級別 :三年級負責老師:余、蕭、何、章 課題 : 3 下 B 冊 19.毫升 o A t專 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 畫面 本教節教學目標: 複習公認的容量單位「升 J ( L ) 、「 毫升 J (ml ) 利用自製量杯進行量度活動，加強對容量單位的認識2. 學生能估量日常器血的容量3. 教具: 圖片 、紙條、容量 > 1 升的膠樽 6 個、紙條、鉛筆、量杯 6 個、工作紙、水杯 (6 ) 、水壺 ( 6 ) 、 益力多樽 (6) 、碗 (6) 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 導入 1. 提問學生知否捐血的血容量=? 一複習「升」、 「毫升」 的 一 l 升= 1000 毫升 5' 毫升( 350-450 毫升 ) 換算 。 2. 提問學生?毫升= 1 升 一板書: 3. 各位同學， 你們能否分辨出下列 l 升= 1000 毫升 哪些器血，容量少於 1 升(水桶 、 一展示不同器血的圖片讓 7](杯 、 汽水罐 、油桶) 學生判斷 。 初步概念 1. 提問學生有何方法可準確量度一 一展示一個水杯讓學生思 一可利用量林量度較小 2' 。 。。 濟 叫 斗 油 油 「 吟 脊 悔 喝 」 簿 憐 總 目 申 琴 、 」 J U H桐 川 、 」 J 仙 n 寸 ， 叫 阱 ， 蹲 鞏固 FX m時 喇 喇 個博 3 個 腦 嗨 ，柵 欄 目 迅 部 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 個水杯的容量。(量杯) 考。 器血的容量 。 2 . 展示一個 l 升的量杯 深究 1. 學生用自製量杯量度下列器血的 一讓學生先行估量各器血 一可自製量杯量度不同 15' 容量: 的容量。 器血。 7](杯、 7](壺、益力多樽、碗 2. 引導學生在一個直身的透明容器 一讓學生思考加上刻度的 上貼上紙條，把 1 00 毫升的水注 不同方法 。(將紙條對摺 入透明容器，每注入 1 00 毫升水 出現 4 個刻度，每度= 力。一刻度，共注入 10 次記上 1000 250 毫升) 毫升11 升。(四人一組) 展示輔助工具 量杯 3. 比較以上不同容器大小 。 (每注入 1 00 毫升 ，使 加上 l 刻度 ) 一讓學生利用剛量度的結 果，完成工作紙 應用 1.計算一天飲水量? 一完成工作紙 一一天要飲 6心杯水 5' 總結 1. 1 升 = 1000 毫升 2. 1 升的量杯可量度較小的器Jl且 3 . 可憑觀察對一些較小的器且進行 冒雪 Z滑 到 滑 油 畫雪 ~ 墮 N o ()l 。 。 。滿 叫斗 回嘯 適 「 吭W 脊 個 圈 」 峭 時 岫 祖 辦 單 恥 琴 、 」 J U H淘 」J M n 寸 ， 料 ， 蹲 鞏 固 艾 別向 聯 姻 博 雪 個 喝 戀 柵 欄 且 為 海 教學程序 教學內容/活動 教學策略 小結 時間 估量 鞏固 1. 完成課堂學習冊 P.12 o σ3 草草 m E詢 :作} 甚話 時 闖 蓋面 備言主 : 一個諜節時間不足，連堂較佳 ; 可考慮學生只製作 500 毫升，對一些能力較弱的班別可派發每組 100 毫升的容器 ， 例如 ; 益力多樽及一小桶清水，可減省傾倒水的時間 。 2. 可羞學生把各組完成刻度的作品放在一起作比較，深究結果不同的原因。 3. 深究活動:著學生加畫 50 毫升刻度，容器則更準確。 4. 學生對活動的興趣很大，教師指示必須清晰 。 。 探討應用「合作學習J 教學策略於小二及小三中、英 、 數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 附件四 聖伯多祿天主教小學 二年級 問卷調查前測、後測結果比較 全級人數 : 62 人 各位同學. 喜歡程度 ( 4 分為最高) 吉青根據個人情況，誠實地回答下列題目，在適當的 前測 f皇親'1 上升或 方格內加上J 。 (非常喜歡且喜歡) (非常喜歡且喜缸) 下降百 總 百分比 叫￡也 百分比 分比 車走 數 我對中文斜的喜歡程度是 51 82 .3% 53 的 48% +3. 18% 2 我對英文斜的喜歡程度是 49 79.03% 52 83.87% +4.84% 3 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 52 的 87% 53 的 48% + 1.61 % 平均 . +3.21% 4a 在土豆豆土的課堂，我專心上課 46 74.19% 47 75.81% + 1.62% 4b 在蓋率益的課堂，我專心上課 44 70.97% 45 72.58% + 1.61 % 4c 在主笙益的課堂，我專心上課 45 72.58% 50 80.65% +8.07% 平均. +3.77% 5a 在主主課堂內， 才是愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 44 70.97% 45 72.58% + 1.61% 5b 在革主課堂內 ， 我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 38 61.21% 50 80.65% +19.44% 5c 在主笙課堂內，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 50 80.65% 51 82.26% + 1.61% 平均 ﹒ +7.55% 6a 我罪責極參與土豆課堂內的學習活動(例如: 43 的 35% 48 77.42% +8.07% 常舉手發問及答悶、積校參與小組討論等) 6b 我發極參與基主課堂內的學習活動(例如 39 62.90% 48 77.42% +14.52% 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6c 我殺極參與主笙課堂內的學習活動(例如 : 43 69.35% 49 79.03% +9.68% 常拿手發問及答問、積槌參與小組討論等) 平均 : +10.76% 7 在課堂內，單是會協助我班的同學學習 44 70.97% 52 的 87% +12.9% 8 在課堂內，我班同學會協助我學習 39 62.90% 54 87.10% +24.2% 9 我班同學能互相幫助，互相勉勵 44 70.97% 45 72.58% + 1.61% 平均. +12.9% 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 107 。。 。。 。 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三中、英、數科目 以改善學生的學習態度和成績 聖伯多祿天主教小學 三年級 問卷調查前測、後測結果比較 全級人數 : 共 89 人 各位同學 . 喜歡程度 ( 4 分為最高 ) 2青根據個人情況，誠實地回答下列題目 ，在適當的 前測 後淇'1 方格內力。上J 。 (非常喜歡且喜歡) ( 非常喜獸且喜歡) 總數 百分比 總數 百分比 我對中文斜的喜歡程度是 70 78.65% 66 80.90% 2 我對英文斜的喜歡程度是 64 71.91% 69 77.53% 主'、 我對數學科的喜歡程度是 84 94.38% 88 98.88% 平均: 4a 在主主盟的課堂，我專心上課 76 的 39% 78 87.64% 4b 在基主益的課堂，我專心上課 72 80.90% 73 82.02% 4c 在盈盈益的課堂，我專心上課 84 94.38% 88 98.88% 平均: 5a 在主主課堂內，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 70 78.65% 70 80.90% 5b 在英文課堂內，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 58 的 17% 70 78.65% 5c 在主笙課堂內，我愛動腦筋解決學習上的疑難 82 92.13% 84 94.38% 平均 : 6a 我積槌參與土豆課堂內的學習活動( 11'j-!(曰 : 68 77.53% 68 77.53% 常舉手發問及答悶、積極參與小組討論等) 6b 我積極參與主主課堂內的學習活動(例如 : 70 78.65% 71 79.78% 常正學手發問及答悶 、 積拯參與小組討論等) 6c 我手貴極參與皇笙課堂內的學習活動(例如: 77 86.52% 82 92.13% 常~手發問及答問 、 積極參與小組討論等) 平均 : 7 在課堂內 ，我會協助我班的同學學習 76 的 39% 77 86.52% 8 在課堂內，我班同學會協助我學習 77 86.52% 79 88.76% 9 我班同學能互相幫助，互相勉勵 80 的 89% 82 92. 13% 平均 : 108 I 教育研究報告匯編 上升或 下降百 分比 +2.25% +5.56% +4.5% +4.10% +2.25% + 1.12% +4.5% +2.62% +2.25% +13.48% +2.25% +5.99% 土0% + 1. 13% +6.74% +2.62% + 1.13% +2.24% +2.24% + 1.87% 學習單位分數的1時 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 以~!ft分數tlU念及分數大JJ\tt較的研究 摘要 楊詠盈 、 洗文標 、 黃鳳珠 、 陳巧卿 鳳漢第一小學 在小學數學學習領域中，分數的課題以螺旋式學習的模式出現，分數所涉 及的概念是環環相扣 ， 所以我們更加要重視分數認識的單元。在本研究中，教 師嘗試把單位分數作為教學重點，藉此探討以單位分數為整套分數學習的基礎 時，學生對於分數的認識 ，以及在分數大小比較的概念上是否能掌握得更好 。 研究顯示若教師在教學上， 重視單位分數的概念和數學語吉的培養，學生的學 習成效更高，對分數能有更透徹的理解。 研究背累 在教育工作中 ， I教學相長J 是每位教育工作者都渴望得到的成果。教育 除了希望學生學會學習，還希望教師在教學過程中不斷反思 ， 積極改進，優化 課堂。課堂研究是指教師採取的一種行動 ，其目的是提高教學水平，並在實踐 中檢驗教育理論 ( David Hopkins , 2009 ) 。 同時，香港課程發展議會 (2002) 提出的《基礎教育課程指引 一各盡所能 ﹒ 發揮所長》建議以協作行動研究模 式，作為教師專業發展及校本課程發展的轉變策略 。行動研究、教師發展及校 本課程發展之間有密切的關係。 很據課程指引的安排，由小三開始，分數的課題以螺旋式學習的模式出現， 學生在分數學習的能力強與弱 ，取決於小三對分數概念的學習情況 ，我們希望 透過教學研究更準確地評估學生對分數的理解程度，以及學習上的難點， 再進 行共同備課和互相觀摩 ，以改善教學策略及優化課堂 ，藉此強化學生在分數概 念和數學方面的理解及解說能力 ，為日後更高階的分數課題莫下重要的基石 。 我們在研究小三分數教學的單元中 ，既積極推動教師互相合作及交流，又提升 學生在分數概念的理解能力 ，切實做到 「教學相長J 的目標 。 在第一學習階段 「數 J 的學習範疇中，整數學習皆以實物輔助，以具體 的物件配合數數活動，使學生在整數學習及運算方面得到完整的發展 。 很多 研究者認為學習分數的難處在於學生不能把舊知識過渡至新知識 (鄭振初， 2006) , I分數J ~R整數雖然皆是有理數 ，但分數學習的起點較為抽象，分數 (真分數)所表示的為非自然數 ， 學生要清楚知道真分數是比 0大而又比 1 小 ， 但卻難以如整數般以數數活動道出，學生有點無所適從 。 以我校過往的經驗為 例，小三學生在分數的認識紙筆評估中， 成績尚算滿意 ，但是當老師提問學生 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 109 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 甚麼是三分之一時，大部份學生只能說出三份中的一份， 甚少學生提及等分的 重要概念，情況叫人失望 。另外，當提問學生如何得知分數值的大小時 ， 發現 學生都有如機械式般說出 「分母的數值較小 ， 所以分數值愈大J 等口訣，但老 師再追問當中的原因時，學生便啞口無吉。 在課程發展議會 ( 2002 ) 編訂的數學教育學習領域課程指引中 ， 數學科的 課程宗旨首要是培養學生的批判性思考 、創意、構思 、 探究及數學推理的能力， 以及利用數學來解決日常生活的問題 。 如果學生只集中於背誦結果 ， 那麼便會 妨礙了數學上推理及思考的發展。鄭振初 (2006 ) 指出學生覺得分數難學 ， 其 中一個原因是分數教學中有太多口訣，並且經常以口訣代替概念。三年級的口 訣例子有 「如果分母相同 ，分子愈大，分數值則愈大.如果分子相間 ， 分母愈 小 ， 分數值則愈大j 。 這麼兩句如此相似的句子 ，如非真正理解分數的本質 ， 確實一點也不好記 。經過反思，我們認為學習分數時，不應只是流於表面背誦， 因此，我們在本學年三年級的分數認識教學設計上， 會更加強調「單位分數J 以強化學生在等分概念及分數比較上的7解。並且我們深信單位分數是整套學 習分數的共通概念，所以嘗試在三年級引入及為此作研究。 文獻提討 分子是 1 '分母大於 1 的自然數的分數叫做單位分數(柯召 、孫琦 ， 2002 ) 。劉秋木( 1996 ) 指出兒童假如有7單位分數的概念 ，很容易就可以 導入真分數的概念。以單位分數開始 ， 一個整體等分為四份 ，當中的一份稱為 四分之一(頁384 ) ; 四分之三就可說成個整體等分為四份，當中的一份的兩倍 ， 四分之三就是成個整體等分為四份 ，當中的一份的三倍 。 林碧珍 (2006 ) 指出 單位分數教學的重要概念「整體一是甚麼J '教師要求學生指出整體一在哪裡? 接著是平分成幾等份，教師也需要要求學生指出等份份數在哪 ?一份在哪裡 ? 江慧 (2008 ) 提出分數單位是作為分數的計數單位 ， 是所有後績知識、技 能的基礎 ，包括分數的意義 、分數的基本性質、分數的大小比較、約分、過分、 分數的加減法、分數的乘除法以及有關分數的實際問題的解決 。 他強調要學習 分數 ，首先是認識分數單位 。 林碧珍 (2006 ) 指出學生在比較兩個分數時，學 生能用語吉說出 「分的比較少，格于就愈大J '即相對同一個整體 ，分的分數 愈少 ， 每一份就佔得愈多 ， 但是學生是無法配合著分數的符號說出1比1大， 4 -- 6 他們即使能口黃理論，但解釋卻未能完整配合 。 楊德清、洪素敏 ( 2008 ) 引 述 Cramer et al. (2002 ) 'Hart ( 1988) Post, Cramer, Behr, Lesh & Harel ( 1992 ) 指出許多學生由於不了解分數的意 義 ，受整數基棋影響 ，將分數的分母都份和分子都份視為兩個獨立的數 ， 因而 1 \".~ 1 在進行比較分數大小時，產生7一些迷息。 例如比較一和一時 ，由於整數學習 -~'-' \" \". -- '\" 2 , . 3 時 3>2 '所以學生得出結論J_> 止。 游政雄、呂玉琴 (2002 ) 指出中年級學童 3 2 普遍地運用整數知識來處理分數問題，學童直接拿分子作比較來解同分母分數 大小比較問題，即可正確回答問題;但學童在處理異分母的分數大小比較問題 時，將分子和分母分開作整數大小比較，以決定分數的大小 ，卻造成錯誤的回 110 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 答。鄭振初 (2006) 指出強記計算次序不僅沒有生成概念，還加重學生的記憶 負擔和心理負擔， 而且經常要求學生記口訣 ，容易養成學生不求甚解的態度。 綜合上述參考資料，學生在分數大小比較中所遇到的困難，是在學習概念時知 識不夠清晰及牢固 ，若在分數認識時出現了誤解，將影響日後整套分數學習。 因此 ，我們認為在小三分數的認識時 ， 可先強調學習單位分數 ， 再運用單位分 數中倍的概念認識真分數。 而一般的教科書只是先說明分母是等分的意思，分 子就是所估的份數。我們認為這只是一個結果，教師是有必要向學生說明結果 的由來一一單位分數的倍。 研究問題，后法 本研究主要問題如下 . ( a ) 在教授小三分數時引入 「單位分數J ' 能否提升學生在解答分數大小比 較類型題目的成績? ( b ) 運用 「單位分數」 為基礎 ，在課堂中強調單位量 ，並要求學生運用數學 語吉解釋 ， 能否提升學生對分數概念及分數大小比較的認識? 是次研究的對象是四班三年級學生，共 104 人。兩班為實驗組，另外兩班 為控制組。 而兩組中各分成高、中及低能力三組 ，每個能力組別皆選出兩位學 生作訪談。收集數據的方法包括 前測(附件一)、 後測 (附件二) 、前後測 訪談及同儕觀課。先以前測成績將研究對象分組，按成績分出高、中及低能力 三組學生， 再按班別分成實驗組與控制組。研究者會在課堂前進行多次共同備 課及課後檢討 。 在主驗班上宣行研究者設計的課堂，在教學過程中強調以 「單 位分數J 理解分數的基本概念，並要求學生運用數學語吉解說如何比較分數的 大小 。 兩組所花的教節相同，課堂教學重點如下 ， 教學重點 控制組 以下教學重點是參考教科書列 11 . 出 12 1 認識分數作為整體的部分， 2 認識分數的各部分名稱 1 3 . 3 認識在分數中， r 1 J 表示全 1 4 部或整體 15 4 . 明白分數可用作表示一組事 物的部分 16 5 能夠從 「整體中的一部分J 17 找出實際數量 18. 實驗組 認識分數作為整體的部分， 說出運用分數可用作表示整體的部份 (連續量/離散量*) 正確地讀出一個分數及辨別各組成部份， 認識單位分數， 並能正確地分份， 認識單位分數倍的概念，以此說明分數 的分份及取份， 認識在分數中， r 1 J 表示全部或整體， 將全部物件的數量作為分母， 認識以單位分數倍的概念比較同分母分 數的大小，6 能夠比較問分母分數的大小， 7 能夠比較問分子分數的大小 。 9. 認識以單位分數倍的概念比較問分子分 數的大小 。 * 整個流程會分別應用於連續量及離散量 上各一次 。 * 第 4，5 ， 7 及 8 項為本研究就教科書上的 教學重點加以修改及更詳細地列出 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 111 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 以3血為例子 一般只會強刊整體向成的取去 2 份就是 三分之三。而在宣驗組中 ， 我們不僅要求學生能說出這點，學生要知道三分之 三就是將一個整體平均分成 3 份 ，其中一份佔全圓的三分之一 ，而分子是 2 ' 則是取去三分之一的 2 倍。我們希望在開始認識分數時把這重要的關係展示給 學生，令學生在分數大小比較時進行得更容易。 以比較主及生為例子， 三是指5 -_ -5 2 個 j_ ，而且是指 4 個 土， 學生要清楚明白 2 個比 4 個少，所以不論分母是甚5 - - 5 -- - ~ -~ 5 2 _ 4 . T7 ,,/ 2 T'2. 2 麼，這麼看似複雜的比較又回歸整數比較上， 所以一<一。 又以一及一為例子 ， 5 5 ---3--- 5 學生應能說明由於 11固1比 1 1固立大， 所以即使 2 個土也是比 2 個工大。而在3 .......u ' ''\"'\"\"''' 5 '''' 111 ' /'''''' 1...0\"-.. - 11-'-\"\"1 3 課堂上 ，施教者要多引導學生討論，鼓勵解釋答案。 由於四班課堂不是由同一施教者進行 ，雖然已經進行多次共同備課 ， 統一 教學內容 ，但畢竟各班的施教者(科任老師)不是同一人 ，難免因而出現誤差 。 研究結果及分昕 在量性的評量方法中，我們透過比對前、後測的測驗分數，可分別得知各 組高 、 中 、 低能力學生在分數大小比較的能力上有否提升 ，實驗組與控制組之 間的成績差異及進步比率 。 而質性的訪談中，由學生親自說出在前測及後測時 如何解答開放題題目，從而得知學生的概念是否正確，教師亦可以檢討教學設 計 。 前測卷的首八題的題目為計分題，答對得 1 分，答錯 0 分， 再將得分按比 例倍大 。 按前測首八題的成績把學生分成高中低能力三組 ， 高能力組別學生得 分為 70 分以上， 中能力學生為 50 分至 70 分之間 ， 而 50 分以下的學生為低 能力組另IJ 。 固一為實驗組中各組別的前後測平均成績 ，明顯地 ， 三個組別的學生成績 均有提升 。 當中以低能力組別的學生升幅為最大，由平均分少於 40 分提升至 接近 90 分;而中能力組別的學生成績平均分也有接近 30 分的上升，高能力組 別的學生成績平均分也有約 1 0 分的上升 。 圖二為控制組中各組別的前後測平均成績 ，同樣地， 三個組別的學生成績 均有提升 。 而低能力組別的學生升幅亦為最大，約有 50 分提升 ，而中能力組 別的學生成績平均分約有 20 分提升 。 高能力組別的學生成績平均分亦也有約 10 分的上升 。 11 2 I 教育研究報告匯編 100 80 60 ~ 40 主F 侍 20 l∞ 80 令 ω 宿、 有← 40 20 。 圖一:責接組 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 各能力組別的前後測平均分 你 4且 中 高 組別 圖二:控制組 各能力是且別的前後測平均分 中 組別 íii 表一及表二分別說明兩個不同能力組別學生的平均成績進步百分比。從數 據上可見兩個組別的學生均有進步 ，而且兩組的低能力組別學生皆有最明顯的 進步。而兩個組別中以實驗組的進步較多，可見引入 「單位分數J 是有助中低 能力學生的學習。表三的數據顯示了，宣驗組與控制組各能力組別學生後測的 t­ 檢驗 ，從兩組高能力學生的 p 值得知兩組之間的成績沒有顯著差異 。 而兩組的 中能力及低能力組別學生的後測分數均有顯著差異，拒絕接受虛無假設， t!D實 驗組的中、低能力學生的平均成績比控制組的中、低能力學生的平均成績高。 雖然不是三個組別學生的成績一致說明兩組學生成績間有差異，估計是因為兩 個組別的高能力學生水平相約及本身在前測時的成績己得不錯，所以進步的空 間比中、低能力的學生較少，以至不能從 t- 檢測中得到顯著差異。而取中、低 兩個組另1]學生的成績對比 ，可見引入「單位分數J 更能擇升學生在解答分數大 小比較類型題目的成績 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 11 3 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 圖一:責接組 圖二:控制組 --------- 平均成績進步百分比 --------- 平均成績進步百分比 問3 8.9% 同 6.9% 中 54.0% 中 38.4% 1ft 128.5% 低 11 9.3% 表三實驗組與控制組各能力組別學生後瀾的 t- 擒驗 t (觀測值) P﹒值 (單尾 ) 顯著水平 α 結果 局能力 0.964 0.825 0.05 接受 Ho 中能力 2.363 0.011 0.05 拒絕接受 Ho 低能力 。. 242 0.405 0.05 拒絕接受 Ho 假設 μ x 為控制組同學後測的平均成績， μ y 為宣驗組同學後測的平均成績 Ho : μ x - μ y H1μx <μ y 檢測 Ho μ x - μ y 及 H1 μ x <μ y 從收集的數據中得出，中 、 低能力各組別學生的成績皆有進步，實驗組的 進步較多，可見引入「單位分數j 更能提升此類學生在解答分數大小比較類型 題目的成績。兩組高能力學生的學習成績及進步百分比差別不大 。 在前測時， 我們在實驗組與控制組中隨機在各個能力選出兩位學生，共十二位學生作追蹤 性研究 ，前測及後;則後這十二位學生亦會接受一次訪談 ， 科任老師亦會定時紀 錄及留意他們的課堂表現 。 這部份我們每組各選取三位在半開放式題目答案中 有明顯改變，及能寫出數學語吉的學生討論 。 題目一 : r間分母分數的大小tt較j 參閱表囚，在前測的訪談時，宣驗組的學生都盡力去解釋小盈比小明吃得 較多 。然而在組織上仍欠條理 ， 未能準確解釋哪個分數比較大 。 在上表展示的 後測卷中，顯示經過學習單位分數後，各能力組別的學生也能寫多一些 ， 盡力 將分數的意義用文字紀錄，可見他們的表現均有改善 。 當中以 S1 及 S3 的表現 較佳 。 以下為 S1 訪談時的部份內容 . 老師 你能說明為什麼你認為小明比小盈吃得較少 ? S1 因為蛋糕一個平均分成 1 0 份，每份就是一樣，一份叫做 1 個蛋糕 ， 10 小明吃了一份的 3 倍，小盈就吃 5倍，我們比較倍數就知哪個吃得多 ， 5 比 3 大 ， 即小盈吃得較多 ， 所以小明吃得較少 。 114 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 凹 的回答表現出她的思路很清晰 ， 充分了解題目中的單位量 ， 她亦運用倍 A-- 3 _ 1 1 , 1 TI 5 1 1 1 1 1 的概念去解釋。以及她帶出重要概「一一一←+一 及一=一+一+一+一+一， 心、1 0 - 1 0 '10 ' 1 0 /X. 1 0 - 1 0 ' 1 0 ' 10 ' 10 ' 1 0 明確知道本身的單位量並不安分子的影響 。 同樣地， 83 在訪談時的對話內容 跟 81 亦類間，此處不贅 。 而 82在解說時則未能全面運用單位分數的概念表述 ， 最後亦只急於集中說出結果 「當分的份數一樣時 ， 取的份愈多 ， 表示分數數值 愈大J 0 82 所說的話沒有錯 ，她對分數大小比較的內涵亦有保存 ， 亦同樣達 到解題的效果。總結三位在主驗組學生的後測訪談中，我們看見學生能解釋得 這麼全面 ， 這絕對是對同分母大小比較有深入認識的表現 。 表四 實驗組同學作答眉目一 一個蛋糕平均分成 1 0 件，半盟吃了三個 ， 半盈吃了三個 ， 半盟比半盈吃得較 10 多/少/ 一樣多?請說明 。 前測 | 後測 壘，φ -ualllll. \ 吃 訴 那 位 叫 ‘ l 川 壘 的 代 玉 U U之 吟 ) 川 討 d m峙 。 小 7 q 力 得J 別 高 2| S2 ;~ I 中 組 \ S3 低 \" (!Y -. J?\"'\". r-1IP只有-何制主 平的 施展句俏J'.NIl\ 時Zτ 肉 i得 &PO'l.]令{嘻嘻h零星中必3色， -J‘聶 z 毛主主 俏的 ep吃叫神童 車制甸的，旬， AJ戶巾… J斜立品編輯士主嘴 愉角萃，山山幽 \_ - :土皇cWJ令發 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 11 5 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 義五 控制組同學作答眉目一 3 ,_ ，~_~_ 5 一個蛋糕平均分成 1 0 件， 企盟吃7一個，企盈吃7一個，坐盟比企盈吃得較 10 ~- 10 多/少/ 一樣多?請說明。 前測 後測 S4 /r闕i--t，旦旦旦吃 1時U坐'z，!I.i)?_S，Iß 1，(生EEr~ 三個i'!羊肉分居民l'f持社旱情，e= 9唔，研以主空r01b 高 ,p-. 矗立嗯?﹒ 控 S5 望這 2迅州屯國駐;2制 中 ó~~ 組 i盟叫主屯悔恨 / 聶τ品 :;性怖的星lh1個為啞的品岱 S6 =有立 J t Æ< of.拘 4J DZ 低 'J- eA 'IM':,t ·乞 t!~)>J因為t忌諱 =2to 于所以州Eq乞 ff卓在衍。 司lth.. J， 8~蚓、生墊''ÏJ句辜的、 參閱表五，比較實驗組與控制組的學生，明顯看到控制組的學生在用文字 方面的解釋較弱 。 此組的教學沒有特別被要求多作口語作答的訓練 ， 亦沒有特 定的介入策略，所以可見兩組學生在紙筆作這類開放題目作答之間的差異 。 但 是這組學生並不是不能解題 。 在訪談中， 三位學生亦能正確地比較出哪個分數 較大或較小 。 老師 . 你能說明為什麼你認為小明比小盈吃得較少? S5 : 一個蛋糕有 1 0 份，小明吃得 3 份，小盈就吃了 5 份， 所以小明吃得 比小盈少 。 S5也能用比較分子的方法去解釋哪個分數較大或小 。而 S4 的答案也要頁同 。 S6 貝IJ用了分數相減的概念即十分之三減十分之五， 明顯他對分數理解有點模 糊不清 。 這三位控制組的學生，雖然在紙筆評估中也能答對，但對於這種貫作 評量表現稍遜，因此我們未能因此而評價出他們對間分母大小比較有多深入的 認識 。 11 6 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 題目二 : r間分子分數的大小tt較j 從表六，我們可見在前測時，三位實驗組的學生都沒有清楚說明如何比較 這兩個分數 ，甚至答案是不正確的。 而經過學習後 ， 他們可以詳盡地解釋哪個 分數較大或小。訪談時他們的解釋亦多能說出當分子相同 ，因為分份愈大， 分 數值就愈小。面對同分子比較時 ， 學生沒有選擇以單位量去解釋，即未有指出 因為什固立比 1 個立的數值大，所以即使 2 個工也會比 2 個立大 。這可能是用 3 -~' '~5\"'~\"~\" \"\"\"\" \" ~ - '~3 單位分數去解釋同分子分數比較時較困難，所以學生亦未能就此完整解釋。同 樣地，表t的控制組學生面對此題時亦未能清楚解釋。 表六 賣軍金組同學作答眉目二 媽媽買了啦啦一樣的朱的送給盟和峙 '!b盟吃掉了;餘的，而 三l堂吃掉了 :餘的 '!b盟比過吃得較多/少/一樣多?請說明 。 前測 後測 SI 局 刊盪口tr手令之三 ，這偽、Et之三， d、胡吃1二 佇之三J還能三1J'ι 通圈圈刊叫\"有 d、θ且 宜帥JGHb1 醫D~!4嘻t嘲，~，嘻e乞;盒?的民兮何l巷， hv建l葫閉獄看眼壘E均。?adH草tF t質 S2 自主J札驗 中 關n~1在且 +且全 v'í傷秒。 ~ J力也學愈占咐會:數也愈大e 世部電&f@ 伊 6 \3\"惜t你包給恆4、 - 的~~ lt. in .... • ~ '\ S3 qt zh 切干，自色 ä 向:品旦 司學韋古巴份年所起會以主小司矢 低 ~b .}.主呢?手牽挂宇久豈知 '竺U2tJ鐘時 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 112 I 117 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 義七 控制組同學作答眉目二 媽棚媽買釘了兩酷盒數鰱量一卅樣的蛛朱古的力送齡給.1半姐b且江盟盟和!b且之 4鐘b溫1壘盈吃盼掠了哼;盒蛛朱古的力' ~姐b旭三週盟比!b立郵得轍較多扣/少/ 一樣多?語說明 。 前測 | 後測 td冉O喝L它E包例裝如F 抖! '1'!ß. t'1啥時訓-\.1 S 陌司~ I (;1 6寸;.!V~化，一，、, 一 的將JEob bb i的. 也且tt. ，}益叫~ ~ ， 園的和盆地 |舖 ':ld:'~ 心T嘲石靠比社錯)~.蠱了 i| 2 | 回咱 主 - R 叫 主 弓 可叫U S P、 r h' ，a ql ;1;說:;可于11 )囡圳特4峙 - 臼可書李~，旬'1/.i、811 糾且屯 恃斗志勻。 主驗組學生在後測時都能說出分數重要的概念 均分 ，而且能詳細地解釋 如何對兩個分數作出比較 。實驗組學生在同分母分數比較上能更清楚地解釋分 數值較大的原因，在同分子分數比較上的解釋能力跟控制組相若，教師可在下 一教學循環時再加強此部份的教學。 在整個分數單元教學過程中 ， 三年級的科 任老師進行了t決問儕觀課 ， 並就每課節作檢討及提出優化方案。 在學習分數 的認識過程中，學習均分及以 1 作分子的單位分數的課堂時，實驗組與控制組 的學習氣氛相差不大， 但在之後分數大小比較的課堂上， 兩個組別的學習情況 就有所不同 。 11 8 I 教育研究報告匯編 也 。。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 宣驗組的學生展示了一種積極討論的氣氛，而且他們運用不少正確的數學 語吉作討論 ，當有同學提出相反意見時或解釋未能完整時，另外一些同學會積 極表達意見或再以別的觀點去說明以作補充 ，在討論過程中，完整且充滿數學 意義的答案便出現了 。 以下便是其中一位任教主驗組的科任老師認為學生在課 堂中表現良好的片段. 4 l 司 / 』 q d A 『 pb n o 師 生 師 生 師 生 師 生 生 這道題目的答案是甚麼 ? 三〉土 。 5 5 為什麼 ? 三 ( > I 三/〈 ) t 2 _ 1 將一樣東西分做 5 份 ， 一個拿 2 份 ， 另一個只拿 1 份 ， 所以一>一 。 5 5 東西要平均分 。 將一個東西平均分成 5 份後 ， 那麼每一份是多少 ? 東西平均分成 5份後每一份是吉 。 東西平均分成 5 份後 每一份是這個整體的吉 。 拿 2 份即是有 2 個吉 。 所以就是拿 2 個比 1 個多啊| 這麼一來一固的討論 ， 真叫科任老師滿足 ，對話問充滿了意義 ， 整個討論 中學生能運用單位分數的概念 ， 去說明問分母分數的大小比較 ，當中涉及的不 只是師生互動，還有生生互動，這正是教師希望見到的學生學習態度。四位科 任老師亦表示在課堂上， 深深感受學生對分份與取份有了良好的基礎 ，而且對 單位量的掌握很牢固 ， 才能有就樣認真的討論 。 控制組的科任老師表示控制組 的課堂討論氣氛沒有這麼熱烈， 學生的答案多是簡短的，在運用數學語吉討論 的過程表現稍遜。 反思及建議 我們深感以單位分數為基礎建構分數概念 ，比只運用分份與取份的概念 ， 所花的課時較長， 學生初學運用一個單位分數，去說明一個真分數的意思時也 感到疑惑 ， 經歷了幾節講解後，大部分學生亦能用單位分數的倍這個概念 ， 去 說明一個分數的意思。 這正正是教師所希望見到的 ， 學生的學習不再只是流於 表面的背誦，數學學習的意思不只重於學生能解決一道題目，而是明白題目背 後的學理。學習數學的能力不再只是能解題， 要求多一點， 我們期望學生能解 釋，語吉是思維的載體，採取以訓練學生 「說J 來促進他們「想J 的方法進行 教學，逐步培養學生的邏輯思維能力。久而久之，學生會 「想 j 會 「說 j 既培養了 學生的語吉表達能力 ，又發展 7 學生的邏輯思維能力(馮克誠 ， 1999) 。 此單元後，我們看見學生多了討論數學 ， 學習變得更加互動 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 11 9 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 我們深信學生這樣認識了分數後，對他們在四年級學習分數加減法會起一 1 . 2 n + 1::'3 LJ_~ J.rn~~ ..4 Jr:o 1 ~n r'\ Jr:o 1 -= 定的幫助 。例如計算一+一時，學生會知道 1 個一加 2 個一就是 3 個一 ，就造5 5 - - - - . . .- .~ 5 樣又能把不熟悉的分數目歸至整數加的概念。同樣 ，在之後的分數除法亦是同 2 . 1\"'\"，I3~/r.I:1 1 一概念 ， 一一 一就是 2 個一除以 1 個 就是 2 。單位分數就是這麼重要的一個3 3 n w '_ - '~ 3 概念， 貫穿整個分數學習領域 ， 很值得我們在課堂上引入 。 同時 ， 亦鼓勵同工 設計教學時多引導學生多說數學語言，重視學生的學習過程，教學就能更相得 益彰。 基於是決研究 ，在量性訪談時發現學生在運用單位分數解釋同分子分數比 較時的表現有待改善，期望日後及下一教學循環時 ， 科任老師能把這部分的演 練加強，強化學生的數學語盲 。建議老師在此部分可做更多額外課堂例子，讓 學生邊做邊說，以加深記憶 。而在整套教學設計上 ，建議下次可加入一些學習 日誌，期望學生能把自己每天學到的知識整理 ， 這樣就能使其數學概念及數學 語吉更鞏固。對於未來就此課題的研究發展 ，由於本港的數學課程，分數是以 螺旋式學習的模式出現，建議研究者可繼續追蹤貫驗班的學生在學習分數的表 現 ，以本學年學習單位分數為基礎 ， 再設計日後的分數課堂 ，在高小分數的課 題以單位分數解釋 ， 一則能再為本研究題目作更強的顯誼 ， 三則使學生的學習 更連貴 。 作為教育工作者， 應常檢討教學策略 ， 往往在教學研究的過程中， 同工會 有很多意想不到的收獲， 透過問儕之間的討論方知自己的課堂成效。在教學研 究的歷程中 ， 受惠的除了學生 ，更是教學者 ， í教學相長J 的目標是值得我們 堅持及繼續。 120 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 參考書目 David Hopkins 著﹒ 楊曉琮譯 (2009) 0 <教師課堂研究指南〉。 上海，華東師範大學 出版社 。 江華 (2008) 0 {分數概念教學體系三種版本的比較研究》。 福建師範大學 。 楊德清、洪素敏 (2008 ) 0 <分數摘救教學之歷程的研究> . (教育研究與發展期刊》。 4(2) .頁 85- 1 吧 。 林碧珍 (2006 ) 0 {數學教學案例一分數篇》 。 台北，師大書苑有限公司 。 鄭擴初 (2006 ) 0 (分數教學分析 ﹒ 概念和運算》。 香港 ，九拿出版社。 香港課程發展議會 (2002 ) 0 <.基礎教育課程指哥|一各盡所能 ﹒ 發揮所長》。 香港， 政府印務局 。 課程發展議會 (2002) 0 <數學教育學習領域一數學課程指引 (小一至小六) )。 香港， 政府印務局 。 ;當政雄‘呂玉琴 (2002) 0 < 台灣北部地區國小中年級學童分數概念之研究> . <固 立台北師範學院學報) 0 15 ' 頁 37-68 。 馮克誠主編 ( 1999 ) 0 <.小學數學課堂教學方法實用全書〉。 呼和浩特市，內蒙古大 學出版社。 劉秋木 ( 1 996 ) 0 {園小數學科教學研究〉。台北，五南圍魯出版有限公司 。 教育研究獎勵計到 11 /12 I 121 。。 。。 。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 附件一 : 前測 姓名: ( 請在橫線上填上適當的答案 班別: 一一一- 1 _~ 5 l 比較 一和 一 ， 分數值較大的是一一一一 。 6 6 2 _~ 2 2 . 比較 一 和 一 ， 分數值較大的是 一一一一 。 8 6 3 在 ;'?'?這三個分數中 ， 分數值最小的是 一一 。 5 5 5 在- ， 一 ， 這三個分數中， 分數值最小的是一一一一 。 9 6 10 8 6 10 5 把 一一，一一，一一 由小至大排列 。 1 3 13 1 3 44 4 6 把一，一 ， 一由小至大排列。 9 65 )-H7 -u / ak-- > < -1/ 8 - 1 7 一 號 - 1 號 一( 括 < 括 〉 其 - l 其 = U 3-L UU 7 -8 9 一個蛋糕平均分成 10 件 ，半盟吃7三個，半盈吃了三個，半盟tt.12盈吃得較多/少/ 一 10 -- - 10 樣多?話說明 。 lωO 媽棚媽買財7兩酷盒數掘量一樣枷的朱姑古力她送給己企t岫三 把她的;盒朱古力吃掉，已l動.12盈吃得較多/少/ 一樣多 ? 請說明 。 122 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 學習單位分數的概念 以強化分數概念及分數大小比較的研究 間件三 : 後到 姓名: ( ) 班別: 一一一- 2月在橫線上填上適當的答案 3 __ 5 1. 比較一 和一分數值較大的是 一一一一 。 8 8 3 __ 3 2 比較- 5 和了，分數值較大的是 一一一一 。 在 2 6 古'?了， 1了這三個分數中， 分數值最小的是一一一一 。 7 77 4. 在一 ， 一， 一這三個分數中 ， 分數值最小的是一一一一 . 13 9 11 7 39 5 . 把一， 一 ， 一由小至大排列 20 20 20 5 5 5 6. 把一 ， 一 ，一由小至大排列 9 6 14 U一切 格 <瞇7 一切 8. 斌空格 5 已 5 5 一 ，一，一 9 (__) 11 9. 一個蛋糕平均分成 1 0 件 ，企盟吃了三個，企盈吃7三個，心盟比企盈吃得較多/少/一10 '- ~. - - - 10 樣多?說說明 。 lωO 媽棚媽買釘了兩酷盒數啦量一樣棚的朱古的力送臨給L企姐b旭立週盟和4企b且2 了哼;盒餘朱古的力，岫t瞌鐘吃蜘得較盼多/少/一份?詞說明 ﹒ 教育研究獎勵計到 11 /12 I 123 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Abstract YLPMSAA Ying Yip Primary School Success grows out of strugg/es to overcome dlfficu/ties How can 1 increase my students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an Engli sh as a Foreign Language (EFL) env ironment? This action research study shows the effectiveness of using songs incorporated w ith other activities such as body movements, dance and mini-drama to motivate students and deve lop the ir confidence in speaking. Students sang w ith some body movements in the first cycl e . In the second cyc怡 ， they sang with a dance and a mini-drama. The data collection tools 1 used were questionnaires , interviews, students' diaries and observation sheets As a result of this research proje仗， 1 found that students had acquired new vocabulary and become motivated and ga ined more confidence to speak both inside and outside their English lessons through participating in di仟erent activities like singing, dancing and acting. 1 view action research as a way to improve my skills in order to become a more effective teacher. 1 believe that the better learner 1 am, the better teacher 1 will be. 124 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Background This research study was conducted at YLPMSAA Ying Yip Primary School, a subsidised mainstream school located in Tin Shui Wai. The vast majority of students do not have the oppo內unity to communicate in English because of their predominantly Cantonese-speaking environments at home and in school. They have very limited chances to use English in their everyday lives and so the language is not very meaningful and authentic to them. Most students only rely on their teachers and seldom take the initiative to speak even during English lessons. Genuine interest in using the language is missing. 1 identified this problem and tried to find ways out by conducting an action research study with thirty-two Primary 3 students in an elite class. 1 was their class teacher and so had more time to communicate with them and create a more authentic English learning environment. They loved singing in Putonghua and could recite the Iyrics quickly. This inspired me to investigate the effectiveness of using English songs as a main source (incorporated with other activities such as body movements, dance and mini-drama) to increase their motivation and confidence to use the language in a Cantonese­ dominated environment. Literature Review Brown (2000, p.17) points out that “motivation is one of the most Imp。此ant factors in your success in English\". 1 believe 1 need to use different activities to develop students' intrinsic motivation to learn and speak English As students loved singing, 1 inferred that songs could be used to arouse their interest in learn ing. Studies, in fact, identify songs as useful pedagogical tools to learn and speak English. Morales (2008) , for instance, considers that students can improve their speaking skills and pronunciation when they sing. They can discuss different topics in the Iyrics like love, revenge and hate, and also express their opinions and reflect on the content of the songs Using songs in class also provides more chances for students to practise the rhythm, stress and intonation patterns of the language and to use Iyrics as a stimulus for class discourse (Orlova, 2003). According to Shumin (1997) , \"L2 or foreign language learn ing is a complex task that is susceptible to human anxiety (and is often) associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration , self-doubt, and apprehension\" Schoepp (2001 ) suggests that \"the enjoyment aspect of learn ing language through songs is directly related to affective factors\", which include things such as feelings, emotions, anxiety, frustration , motivation and confidence (Lin , 2000). Understanding them would enable us to know how and why songs can help students learn and speak English 教育研究獎勵計到 11 112 I 125 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The affective filter is mentioned in the hypotheses of Krashen (cited in Schoepp, 2001), which explains why a positive attitude in learning exists when the affective filter is weak. Schoepp suggests that singing is a method to achieve a weak affective filter and can be used to present topics and stimulate discussions about attitudes and feelings. It provides a comfortable atmosphere and brings variety and fun to learning. Domoney & Harris (1993) & Little (1983) also find that pop music is a major source of English outside the classroom. Exposure to authentic English is an important factor in promoting learning in an EFL environment, so teachers can consider using songs as part of the speaking activities In the literature, drama is also considered a means for learning to speak. According to Barbu (2007), using drama as a teaching technique can result in real communication such as involving ideas, emotions, feelings , appropriateness and adaptability. Maley & Duff (2005) also state that drama is an enjoyable experience and motivation is fostered and sustained through the variety and sense of expectancy generated by the activities. Similar research studies (Maley & Du仟， 2001 ; Phillips, 2003) suggest that drama can be an interesting way of motivating language learners and teachers. Students can play, move, act and learn at the same time (Phillips, 2003). Drama activities \"give the students an opportunity to use his own personality in creating the material in which part of the language class is to be based\" (Marley & Du符， 2001 ). This was why a script based on the story of a classmate who was going to leave this school had been written by a group of my students and then revised by me in the second cyc怡， Drama activities are useful for the development of oral communication sk il 峙 ， as well as reading and writing. They help students communicate in English including those with limited vocabula可 (Aldavero ， 2008). The benefits of using drama in language lessons have been summarised by Desiatova (2009) as follows Drama gives learners an experience (dry-run) of using language for genuine communication and real life purposes by generating a need to speak. It encourages guessing the meaning of unknown language in context. Learners need to use a mixture of language structures and functions (“chunks\") if they want to communicate successfully . Drama makes language learning an active, motivating experience Drama helps learners gain the confidence and self-esteem needed to use the language spontaneously. By taking on a role , students can escape from their everyday identity and “hide behind\" another character. Giving students special roles encourages them to be that character and abandon their shyness. . Drama emulates the way of acquiring language through play, makes the aud ience believe and enhances meaningful interaction . Drama makes what is learned memorable through direct experience and affect (emotions) for learners with different learning styles. 126 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment • When students dramatize, all communication channels (sight, hearing and physical exercise) are used and each student will be drawn to the one that suits them best. This means that they will be actively involved in the activity and the language will \"enter\" through the channel most appropriate for them. Drama can develop students' ability to empathize with others and thus become better communicators. . Drama can help learners acquire language by focusing on the message they are conveying but not the form of utterance. Drama after all can improve oral communication methodology and provide students with an opportunity to use English meaningfully, authentically and purposefully with targeted audiences. Vernon (2009) supports the view that students potentially read and then repeat their lines over a period of time By repeating the words and phrases, they become familiar with them and can say them with increasing fluency by encouraging self-expression; drama motivates students to use language confidently and creatively. Goodwin (2001) states that drama is a particularly effective tool for teaching pronunciation because various components of communicative competence are practised in an integrated way. Desiatova (2009) also agrees that using drama can encourage students to speak and communicate with others through non­ verbal communication channels , such as: body movements and facial expressions, and even with limited vocabulary. Involvement in the negotiation and construction of meaning during a drama performance can give insights into the relationship between context and language, and encourage students to link the language they are learning to the world around them (Maley & Du汗， 1978). In a similar vein, Kao & O'Neill (1998) contend that confidence levels would increase when students have something to talk about and, most Impo付antly， when they know how to express their ideas Research aims and methodology Apart from teaching course-book materials in the lesson, I investigated the effectiveness of using activities like singing , body movement, dancing and acting to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak out in an enriched EFL environment whereby they had more opportunities to use and speak in the language. The research questions are as follows 1. How can I motivate my students and make them feel confident to speak English in an EFL environment? 2. Should songs be considered useful pedagogical tools to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English? 3. What other activities can be used with singing to further increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English? 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 127 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Action research is \"any systematic inquiry conducted by a teacher in the teaching/learning environment to gather information about how their pa忱的ular schools operate, how they teach, and how well their students learn\" (Mills, 2003 ， ρ5). Its most important function \"is to facilitate the 'reflective cycle' , thereby providing an effective method for improving profess ional action\" (Walla凹， 1998, p.18). 1 used an action research approach to investigate the effectiveness of using songs incorporated w ith other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak in English following a reflective cyclic pattern. It is a four-step process: identifying an area of focus, collecting data, analysing and interpreting the data, and developing an action plan (Mil峙 ， 2003) which is evaluated continuously in order to improve teaching. There are two cycles in my study (Figure 1): Figure 1 The research cycles in this study Singing contest in December 20 11 (At the end ofthe first term) /8~ [ / 13. Analyz弓 English Carnival in late June, 2012 (At the end ofthe se∞nd term) 方回\ 巨至立 The first cycle of the study began w ith an introduction to “W hat a Wonderful World\", “Top of the World\", \"Last Christmas\", \"Lemon Tree\" ， 唱hining Friends\" and \" B旬 ， Big World\" for the school contest in Oecember 20 11. Students voted “B旬 ， Big World\" 的 the first English song they would ever sing in the contest just because the melody and Iyrics were simple. Some students could not recite the Iyrics at first. 1 showed the video a few times to stimulate their v isual senses first. Students worked in pairs to fill in the blanks while they were listening to the song. The first ten pairs (out of sixteen in the whole class) to finish the worksheet would get stickers as positive reinforces. 1 also explained the theme of the song and meaning of the words to them. They sang it during recess and lunch break for two weeks. They performed quite well in the s inging contest and won a prize. A few students suggested that body movements could have been incorporated when they sang. 128 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Oata collection was done with questionnaire surveys, interviews and observations. AII students were asked to fill in the questionnaires after the singing contest as I wanted to find out the effectiveness of using songs to increase their motivation and confidence to speak English. Two more capable students and two less capable students were interviewed. They shared their opinions in learning (i.e. speaking) English in these two weeks, and their w illingness to participate in different activities was observed. Follow­ up interviews were conducted for collecting further information about the effectiveness of using songs with respect to the following questions: 1. Oid you have fun in the singing contest? 2. Are songs useful for motivating you to speak in English? If yes, how? If no, why? 3. 00 you speak more in English now than in September? Have you gained more confidence when you speak in English to your classmates now? 4. Other than singing with some body movements, what other activities would you like to incorporate if you have a chance to sing on the stage again? There would be another chance for my class to pe斤orm on the stage My students would like to sing in English during the English Carnival at the end of the second term. After reflecting on what we had done in the first cycle , I made some changes in the second and gave them more time to prepare. I chose a song about friendship, which was more closely related to their real life experiences and should therefore be more motivating. “We're AII in This Together\" was sung because it was an inspirational and lively song about school life. Students sang it together with a dance and a mini-drama. The script (Appendix) was written by students and revised by me. A girl was about to leave the school and so the class decided to dedicate the drama script to her and perform it on stage. They hoped to encourage her to study hard, strive for her dreams and never give up. What they did this time was more meaningful and purposeful compared to the one in the first cycle Fir哎， I showed the music video (with Iyrics) and explained the theme of the song and meaning of its Iyrics in the lesson. Second旬， I divided students into groups of four. They listened to the song three times and finished the worksheet together. Thirdly, we sang the song in recess time and lunch break. A week l at前， they learnt to dance while singing and I asked for eight volunteers to write the drama scri 阱. I revised the script in the final stage When the script was ready, students worked in groups of fi ve (a narrator and four characters) and performed the mini-drama. They chose the best group to perform it during the English Carnival by voting. Meanwhi怡 ， I included mini­ drama in the second cycle after receiving students' feedback because of its funny and entertaining nature and ability to maintain students' motivation to speak out. 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 129 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The data collection tools 1 used this time were surveys, students ' diaries and observation records. Students were also asked to fill in the questionnaires and write their reflection in their diaries after the performance so that 1 could find out how far singing together with a dance and a mini­ drama had increased their motivation and confidence to speak English Data Analysis and Results The first cycle The questionnaire results collected in the first cycle were positive. In September, 75% of students spoke in English to their classmates and teachers during the English classes, with 3.1 %, 12.5%, 31.3%, 28.1 % and 25% stating \"all the time\",“always\",“sometimes\" , “seldom\" and “never\" respectively Table 1 Changes in the habit and frequency of speaking in English In the beginning of the school year (Early September, 2011 ) 1 a. Oid you speak English to your classmates Yes 24 and teachers Q虹坦9 English classes? No 8 1 b. Refer to 0.1 a 一 If yes, how often did you AII the time speak in English to your classmates and Always 4 teachers during English classes? Sometimes 10 Seldom 9 Never 8 2a. Oid you speak in English outside classes? Yes 6 No 26 2b. Refer to 0.2a 一 If yes, when did you speak in Recess , lunch break English outside the classes? At the end of the first term (after the singing contest) 3a. 00 you speak English to your classmates Yes 28 and teachers 也血9 English classes now? No 4 3b. Refer to 0.3a 一 If yes, how often do you AII the time 5 speak English to your classmates and Always 8 teachers during the English classes now? So行leti口les 11 Seldom 4 Never 4 4a. 00 you speak English outside classes now? Yes 22 No 10 4b. Refer to O.4a 一 If yes, when do you speak Recess , lunch break, in English outside classes now? the park, at home * There are 32 students in this class. 130 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The population of students who spoke in English to their classmates and teachers during the lesson increased from 75% to 87.5%, with 15.6%, 25%, 34.4%, 12.5% and 12.5% of them stating “all the time\",“always\", “sometimes\", “seldom\" and \"never\" respectively. Students spoke in English more often after choosing to sing an English song in the singing contest Only 18.8% of students spoke in English outside the lesson in September However, this proportion rose sharply to 68.8% at the end of the first term after the singing contest. Students spoke in English not only during recess and lunch breaks but also outside the school , such as: in the park and at home. The findings were encouraging, showing that their attitude towards speaking in English was positive. Three out of four students enjoyed themselves in the performance They all told me that they had never thought of having the courage to sing in English in front of their schoolmates. Three students sa id that songs could motivate them to speak more English because they could learn more vocabulary from the Iyrics. Three others also reported that they spoke more English when they discussed something about the song. As one student said,“The learning atmosphere was less threatening , so I was more willing to express my ideas in English. \" Four of them told me that they had gained slightly more confidence in speaking in English now There was a student, however, who had not enjoyed himself in the performance and even felt a bit embarrassed during the interview. He told me that he disliked this song because its theme was about love and the mood was sad, and wanted me to choose a song with a happy mood and closer connection to his daily experiences. Furthermore, four other students suggested that I should include a mini-drama and dance instead of just having some body movements. Their suggestions were all very constructive. Curti s (2001 , p.75) contend that teachers could learn “a great deal about themselves, their students and their teach ing and learn ing environments through action research\". I really did after going through the first cycle. At fir訟， most of them, especially the boys, were shy and sang very softly. However, after understanding the meaning of the words and listen ing to the song several times, they found it easier to remember the pronunciation of some difficult words with the rhythm. I heard them singing not only in my lessons, but also during the recess and lunch break. They even requested me to sing as a motivator before sta此ing the lesson. As Brown (2002, p.17) points out,“Motivation is one of the most important factors in your success in English\". I believe that my students were motivated to speak as a result of my introducing this English song to them. I was glad to hear them speaking in English not only to me, but also to their friends and other teachers. I realized that it was a “good start\" 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 131 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The atmosphere is also a major factor for learning (Baird , 2001). As students felt more relaxed and found it easier to recite the Iyrics through singing, they became more confident in speaking out too. Some students rewrote part of the Iyrics in their weekly diary as follows: 勻'm a sma/l sma/l boy in a big big school it's not a big big thing if you can 't see me\" “It's a sma/l sma/l bird in the blue blue sky it's not a big big thing if you can 't see 缸， “It's a fierce fierce dog in the big big house it is dangerous Ifyou go in\" I displayed the three Iyrics on the board as encouragement and designed some activities based on them. I divided the class into groups of four. Each group chose one piece of work, made up a story and chose a leader to tell it to the whole class. They also tried to sing with the new Iyrics. The level of anxiety was lowered even for the passive students after participating in these activities The interview feedback was valuable too. I should have selected the songs more carefully. The theme of 唱旬 ， Big Wor肘， was about love and my students did not have such experience. Morales (2008) states clearly that teacher should choose a song that has the right characteristics to fulfil students' needs and interest and can introduce new elements of the language that are wanted. In the next cycle, I should also choose songs and incorporate them with other activities like mini-drama and dance to further increase students' motivation and confidence to speak in English 132 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment The second cycle Table 2 The results of the questionnaires about the changes in students' attitudes towards speaking in English Rating scale 4: very high (greatest) 3: high (great) 2: low (Iess) 1: ve叩 low (Ieast) 0: no In September 2011 (The beginning of this academic year) Items - How would you rate your 4 3 2 可 。 1. Motivation for speaking English 4 7 15 2 4 2. Confidence in speaking English 2 13 8 8 3. The enjoyment of speaking English 7 7 2 6 10 4. Anxiety about speaking English 6 5 7 4 10 In December 2011 (After the singing contest) Items - How would you rate your 4 3 2 可 。 1. Motivation for speaking English 5 15 8 2 2 2. Confidence in speaking English 4 8 13 4 3 3. The enjoyment of speaking English 8 8 3 8 5 4. Anxiety about speaking English 5 5 8 3 11 In late June 2012 (After the English Carnival) Items - How would you rate your 4 3 2 。 1. Motivation for speaking English 17 12 2 。 2. Confidence in speaking English 13 11 3 3 2 3. The enjoyment of speaking English 16 6 6 3 4. Anxiety about speaking English 。 4 4 3 21 As shown in Figure 2, students' motivation level for speaking English in September 20竹 ， December 2011 (after the singing contest) and late June 2012 (after the English Carnival ) was rising throughout the school year. 1 n the beginning, 12.5% of students had \"no\" motivation and only 12.5% had “very high\" motivation for speaking English. However, the propo內ions dropped to 0% with “no\" motivation and rose to 53 .1 % with \"very high\" motivation after the English Carnival. 教育研究獎勵計到 1 1112 I 133 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Figure 2 Changes in students' motivation for speaking in English 18 16 14 12 安 10 品 8 6 4 2 。 Very High High Motivation Low Very Low No Level The results concerning the confidence in speaking in English throughout the school year were positive as shown in Figure 3. There were only 9.4% of students w ith high or very high levels of confidence in September 2011. This percentage rose sharply to 75% with high or very high levels after the English Carnival. Figure 3 Changes in students' level of confidence in sp倒king in English 14 12 10 ~ 8 b5 6 4 2 。 Very High High Confidence Low VeryLow No Level Students' enjoyment in speaking also kept on increasing throughout the year (Figure 4). The percentage of students w ith the \"greatest\" level of enjoyment of speaking English rose to 50% after the English Carnival. At the same time , the proportion of students w ith no anxiety in speaking rose from 31.3% in the beginning of the first cycle to 65.7% at the end of the second (Figure 5) 134 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Figure 4 Changes in students' level of enjoyment for speaking in English Enjoyment 20 15 U也832 lO 5 。 Gre泌的 Great Less Least No Level Figure 5 Changes in students' level of anxiety about speaking in English Anxiety 25 20 UE8 f 3 l5 10 5 。 Very High 而且h Low Very Low No Level According to their own diaries, the changes in enjoyment and motivation are also encourag ing and more students enjoyed learning and speaking English through a variety of activities. Some of their reflections were quite inspiring and impressive “I was an actress in this drama. At the beginning, I was afraid because I had to speak a lot of Eng/ish in front of my schoo/mates in the hal!. Candy and Tina always said, 'You can do 仗 ， We read the script in recess and after lunch. / read it to my dad, tOO. I am quite confident in speaking English now and I am not afraid of speaking English in front of people. \" “I am very happy. I know some difficult words in the song, e.g celebration, dreams come true and we 're al! stars. When I sing and dance, English is not so difficu/t. I speak more English now I taught my mum how to sing the song. She is happy. \" 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 135 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment “I can speak in English to my friends now Jerry, Marco and Lily taught me how to sing and dance so I could do it on the stage. I started to have an interest in learning and speaking English. I want to have many English lessons. I love singing English songs and dancing. Dancing helps me understand the meaning of some difficult words. I often listen to English songs on YouTube now. \" “I am the narrator and need to present a long paragraph to my schoolmates on the stage. I have gained more confidence in speaking now. I think I can do it. I like speaking in English at school and outside the classroom. Although the practice was harsh, it gave me a lot of fun. I have learnt that team spirit and helping each other are very important for a good show. \" “Last year, I had no confidence to speak English. Thi s year, I have some confidence because I have spoken English in front of many people on the stage in the school hal l. Ms. Lam is very friendly to me and always says ， 寸ina ， you can do it! ' 80 I know I can do it. \" “I am confident in speaking now. I was frightened but happy on the stage. I was an actor, singer and dancer. I didn't like English before but I like it now. I think I am a star. I feel a little bit proud of myself because I could do something that was impossib悟. If we always learn English like this, I can learn more.\" “I have not had the experience of learning English in such a fun way before! I sang and danced at the same time. I sang the song to Ms. Lam. Ms. Lam was happy. I sang the song with my classmates. We sang the song very loudly and happily. Many teachers said we were ve叩 good . \" A few of them were quite shy and dependent on their peers at first but they felt confident afte附ards . I was happy to see them teaching each other to read the Iyrics and scripts. I heard them speaking in English more often The motivation and confidence to speak in English have increased obviously in this class. The classroom was filled with fun and laughter. Body movements had been incorporated in the fi rst cyc怡. 8tudents' feedback from the interviews suggested that dance could be incorporated with singing just like drama. Both body movements and dance belong to the bodily/kinesthetic area of intelligence in Gardner's (1993) Multiple Intelligence Theory. Teaching through it could increase motivation and achievement in classroom assessment (Greenhawk, 1997). 8 tudents sang and had some body movements in the first cycle but they sang and danced in the second Teachers used a wide range of techniques and methods to cater for learning diversity. The development of bodily/kinesthetic intelligence can certainly help to enhance motivation to speak in English in a fun-filled way 136 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Discussion On the basis of the findings in this study, 1 strongly believe that songs are useful tools for learning English. The use of songs incorporated with other activities like a dance and a drama not only helps them develop speaking skil峙， but also help them internalize new vocabulary, improve pronunciation , intonation and fluency in a language-rich environment. Their anxiety level can be markedly lowered in such an encouraging and non-threatening atmosphere In the second cycle, 1 chose a song which was related to my students' experiences and interests. They told me that the experience was more challenging, enjoyable and fun. They helped and learned from each other Their attitudes to speaking in English had changed too. Even the ve叩 quiet and unmotivated ones were willing to participate in the activities this time Enjoyment and enthusiasm could motivate them, and they have a positive attitude now. Edge (1993, p.106) also supports this idea, saying “The more they enjoy the language skills , the more language ability they are likely to acquire. \" Most of my students could also realise the value of interaction in English. Using songs incorporated with a dance and a mini-drama can help in vocabulary learning too. Drama with dialogue provides students w ith communication skills by placing them in a context that seems real. It makes the language easier to internalise and remember and can therefore support the learning of English as a foreign language. It was a valuable experience for my students to write a tailor-made drama script which was related to their real experiences. They were motivated to use English creatively. As a result, they were emphatic and gained a lot of sati sfaction after the performance As a teacher, 1 have gained valuable experience too. When students work together cooperatively, they are capable of doing something that look impossible to achieve, such as: singing with difficult vocabulary and dancing at the same time. It was amazing that junior primary school students could perform such a good show. 80th the peers' and teachers' encouragements had boosted their confidence in speaking. Dornyei (2001) also agrees that confidence can be promoted throug h experience with success and the reduction of anxiety 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 137 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Conclusion The action research in this study involved inquiring into actual practices through a process of planning, acting, observing, reflecting and modifying on an issue in order to modify and enhance my teaching skills. Students' motivation and confidence to speak in English have increased as a result The study allowed me to implicate, reflect , improve and innovate, and provided a stepping stone for me to further examine how to motivate students to speak English in Hong Kong. Apart from teaching the materials in the course books, teachers should also use a va riety of activities to nurture a language-rich environment for students to use and speak English with pleasure and joy. The data collected from students suppo此ed my assumption that using songs incorporated with other activities like body movements, dance and / or drama are e仔éctive in increasing their motivation and confidence to speak. Teachers should choose songs that students are interested in and familiar with, while bearing in mind that their own patience is also very important. Students are like babies who fall many times before they can walk. Teachers should accept that their students do make mistakes but students can find joy in speaking activities and thereby develop a positive attitude toward learning if all preparations are done. This view on the pa此 of teachers would ce付ainly help to increase students' motivation and confidence to acquire language ability and improve their speaking skills 138 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment References Aldave巾 ， Vanesa, & Alonso. (2008) . Drama in the development of oral s，ρontaneous communication. Encuentro 17. Retrieved on 1/8/2010 from http ://www encuentrojournal. org/textosl Alonso. pd Baird , A (2002). More speaking please! Guidelines, 24(2), p.29-33 Barbu , L. (2007). Using drama techniques for teach的gEnglish. Retrieved on 17-7- 2010 from http://forum.famouswhy.com/index.php? Show topic= 1150 Brown , H. D. (2002). 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Multiple Intel ligences meets standard s. Educati onal Leadershi戶， 55(1 ) ， 62-64 Kao , S. M. & O'Neill , C. (1998) . Words into Worlds: Learning a second language through process drama. Stanford, London : Abbex. Lin , P. Y. (2000). Multip侶的telligence theory and English Language teaching http:highschool. eng.nccu.edu.tw/paper/ying.doc. Date of assess , 22-02-2002. Little , J (1983). Pop and rock music in the ESL classroom. TESL Ta伙， 14, 40-44 Maley, A & Duff, A (1978). Drama Techniques in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Maley, A & Duff, A (2001). Drama techniques in language learn的g: a resource book for communication activities for languagθ 的achers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Maley, A. & Duff, A. (2005). Drama Techniques in language learning: A resource book for communication activi ties for的nguage teachθrs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mills, G. E. (2003). Action research: A guide for the teacher research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril l/Prentice Hall 教育研究獎勵計到 11 112 I 139 。。 。。 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Morales, N. C. (2008). Using Rock Music as a Teaching-Learn ing Tool. Profi/e , June 2008, nO.9, p .163-180 。rlova ， N. F. (2003) . Help ing prospective EFL teachers learn how to use songs in conversation c lassroom . The 的ternet TESL Journa/, 9.3. http://ites/j. org/ Techniques/Orlova-Song . htm I (1-8-2011). Phillip, S. C. (2003) . Drama with chi/dren . Oxford : Oxford University Press Schoepp, K. (2011) . Reasons for using songs in the ESL/EFL c/assroom . Retrieved on 17-2-2006 from http://iteslj.org/Aritcls/Schoepp-Songs .html Shumin, K. (1997) . Factors to consider: Developing ad ult EFL students' speaking abilities . Eng/ish Teaching Forum, 25(3) . Retrieved on 29-11-2005 from http :// exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/voI35/n03/p8.htm Vernon , S. A (2009). Bθnefits of using games in the c/assroom. Retrieved on March 20, 2009, from www.teachingenglishgames.com Wal lace , M. J (1998) . Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge Cambridge University Press 140 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 The effectiveness of using songs incorporated with other activities to increase students ' motivation and confidence to speak English in an EFL environment Appendix - Drama script (We're Friends Forever) Narrator: This story takes place in a P.3 class. Kelly comes from a broken family. Her parents left her since she was a baby. So, her grandmother took care of her. Until the day, her grandmother was in the hospital and was about going to die. Kelly's mother came from Canada and promised that she w ill take care of Kelly Candy Damien Candy Tina Candy Tina Candy Kelly Tina Kelly Candy Kelly Candy Kelly Tina Candy Kelly Tina I'm going to leave this schooL My grandmother is going to die and... (crying) Yeah! Candy. Come and play together. It's fun! (shout loudly and happily) No. Damien Candy, you look unhappy. What happened? My grandmother is going to die... and I will have to leave my friends and teachers in this school... Why? I have lived w ith my grandmother since I was a baby. I don 't know anything about my mother. She is a stranger to me. What I know is she lives in Canada. And... I need to leave my friends and teachers in this schooL Hi. What happened? Her grandmother is going to die and so she will leave us and live with her mother in Canada soon Sorry, Candy. It's ok. My grandmother wants me to be a good teacher. I want to be a teacher in Tin Shui Wai. I grew up in Tin Shui Wai. Many of my friends do not have parents to take good care of them and so I know a good teacher is very important for them. If I go to Canada, my dream can never come true. No, Candy. Even if you go to Canada, there are always children who need help. My uncle lives in Canada too and he told me that it was difficult to find a good English teacher in the China town So No matter what happens, if we strive for our dreams, they will come true. Yes. Even if you are going to leave this school, we w ill still be friends. We should work hard together and our dreams will come true one day Really? Yes! Of course 教育研究獎勵計到 11112 I 141 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 透過情晏教學法提升幼見運用代 名詞的能力 摘要 之囚士Æb IlID. ，心 l悶 善一堂安逸幼稚園 研究員在任教幼兒班 (3-4 歲的幼兒)過程中，發現他們在談話及分組活 動中，不清晰地運用代名詞 。有時，幼兒會告訴教師 í我是我的老師 。 j 其 實幼兒是想表達 「你是我的老師 。 j 卻不懂得運用 「你 J 字 。 幼兒在語吉學 習上有 「 自我J 的傾向 ， 一方面可反映幼兒在人稱代詞掌握與應用上， 另一 方面則可見於其在語吉習得之上，如何受生活背景與已有知識影響(黃翼， 1 959 ) 。以本研究員任教的地域為例， 社區資源缺乏 ， 照顧者甚少帶兒童出 外，所以幼兒的生活經驗甚少。謝錫金 (2006 ) 曾引用 Huxley ( 1970) 的研 究 ，指出兩名實驗兒童的話語中，以「我j 開頭的形式最為普遍 ( Lee ，Wong & Leung, et a l., 1996 ) 對兒童在閱讀理解及運用 「你j 、 「我 J 這些人稱代詞 作出研究，發現兒童最先運用人稱代詞先是與 「我j 有闊的。不僅是外國的兒 童 ，就是中國兒童也有這種傾向。 Tse ( 1990) 以 60 名 3 歲至 5 歲 11 個月 大 的粵語兒童為研究對象，並按年齡及性別劃分為 3 個組別，結果發現所有組另IJ 兒童均會使用 「我j 、「你J '而 「他/她j 及 「他們 / 她們j 貝IJ出現得稍晚， 且在 3 個年齡組別中亦不多用 。 陳個眉(1995 ) 指出兒童習得人稱代詞的次序 為 「我j 、 「你 J '最後為距離自身最遠的 「他J 。反映兒童以自我中心之傾向。 皮亞傑的實驗表明 ， 學前兒童的大部分談話 ， 是屬於自我中心的 。 他亦指 出，愈年幼的兒童愈會有自我中心的趨勢 (Vygotsky ， 2007) 。 研究員在任教 期間觀察幼兒的語法 ， 都屬於自我中心，而且有點混亂 ，例如自吉自語以 「我j 為中心 ，並不有效地進行交流 ， 亦不期望任何回答 。有鑒於此，研究員選擇透 過不同的情景及語文活動為研究的重點， 透過活動從中幫助幼兒掌握口語表達 的能力及運用代名詞的技巧。 再者現時香港亦較少人探討及研究學齡前的兒童 語文發展 ，期望給予幼兒教育的工作者一套新的語文發展體系以作參考 。 研究目的、問題、高法 本研究期望能透過情景教學法 ， 認識幼兒如何運用不同的代名詞 ， 提升他 們運用代名詞的能力 ，以及在不同情景下應用， 提升幼兒正確使用人稱代詞的 能力。 142 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 研究問題包括 1 . 情景教學法能否有效提升幼兒運用不同的代名詞的能力? 2 情景教學法如何擇升幼兒運用代名詞的能力? 3 在哪一種情景下，幼兒能更有效運用代名詞? 本研究將全敬的人平均分為三組 ， 每組 20 人 。研究者以三個月時間進行 相關的教學計劃，為宜驗組 (一)及(二)進行教學 ， 包括前測和後測 ，並以 觀察記錄分析兩組幼兒對運用代名詞的能力。 研究假設透過以角色扮演 (情景)教學的幼兒運用代名詞的能力比較強， 以語文活動教學的幼兒運用代名詞的能力較為弱，假設教師所設計的情景教學 法 ， 是提升幼兒運用代名詞的重要元素 ，而幼兒學習代名詞是可以透過互動去 掌握。 文獻回顧 謝錫金 (2006 ) 認為在學習或工作等活動上， 我們都離不開語吉，所以從 小培養和發展幼兒的語吉 ，讓幼兒正確地掌握語言是十分重要的。幼兒學會了 語吉 ， 可以進行比較複雜的思維活動。語吉可輔助幼兒學習 ，在幼兒教育的過 程中具有重大的意義 。 不論向幼兒進行思想品德教育，或是教幼兒學習歌唱、 繪畫、遊戲等 ， 都必須運用語吉。此外， 只有幼兒具備一定的語吉水平， 才能 聽懂老師和同伴的說話 ， 接受教育和進行社交活動。因此不少學者提出幼兒的 語吉發展過程為社會化過程之體現(陳個眉. 1995 ;周兢﹒ 1 997 ; 黃瑞琴， 1998 ) 季池( 1981)更深入地把代名詞 「我j 、 「你j 、 「他J 、 「這 j 、 「那 j 這五個詞分為兩頓 「我j 、 「你」、 「他J 是一頸、說語的人自稱為 「我J 說話的人把聽話的人稱為「你J 說話的人向聽話的人說及另一個人，稱為 「他j 。邵敬敏( 1999) 認為這些詞不但出現的頻率特別高，用途特別大 ，個 性特別強，而且用法也豐富多彩，如果不加以仔細的辨析，就會犯 「錯誤J 其中代詞，主要起替代、指示、 疑問三種作用 ， 因此大體上可以分為三類 人 類代詞，即是人稱代詞有 ﹒ 自己(我) 、別人(你) 、人家(他) 、 大家(我 們)等 。 要注意的是「您J 表示單數尊稱，至於表示複數的尊桶，以前常用「您 三位J 、 「您幾位J 等 ，近來「您們j 已經在書面語上比較普遍地使用 j. 口 語也偶爾可以聽到。 幼兒對語吉的掌握均有一致性，就是從自我開始。黃翼認為幼兒最初掌 握的語言是單字旬，旨在表現嬰兒一己的需要、利益、情緒等。 與其說是描 述事實， 倒不如說是熱切表示自己對事物的願望和態度有密切關係(黃翼 ， 1 959 ) 。因此，陳個眉指出兒童習得人稱代詞的決序為 「我J 、 「你 J .最 後為距離自身最遠的「他J (陳惘眉. 1995) 。另外在 1970-90 年代的一些 本地研究中 ， 均發現兒童以本名代替「我J 是頗常見的現象 (Chan & M戳， 1992 ) .亦反映兒童以自我中心之傾向。 呂叔湘( 1 998 ) 主張學習語吉的一般過程是 「模仿一變化一創造j 。 幼兒 學語吉的第一步是模仿。 在語吉教學中要注意模仿的重要性。學習語吉不是學 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 143 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 一套知識，而是學一種技能。 大人說 「給我一杯茶J ' 小孩子跟著說 「給我一 杯茶J '是模仿 。說 「給我一塊糖J ' 就是加以變化。把已經熟悉的語吉材料 下加入新的組織 ，也屬於變化 ， 例如 「把它吃了 J 和「吃得乾乾淨淨J 組織成 「把 它吃得乾乾淨淨j 。這些都是三四歲的兒童就能做到的。 幼兒能在不同的故事情景下 ，更有效地學習代名詞。 Richards & Rodgers ( 1997 ) 認為 「情境語言教學法J 主張口語為語言根基，而結構為口說能力的 中心。它採用對文化教學的歸納式方法。單字或結構的含意 ， 不是經由所教語 吉或當地語吉的解釋而獲得 ，而是經由某種情景下所用形式的方法歸納出來。 因此，這種教學法期望學習者， 能透過某種情景下運用相關的字詞 ， 引伸文法 結構與字彙到新的情況中 ，是由歸納所產生的。研究員預期幼兒能應用其在課 堂上所學語言於日常生活當中。 Richards & Rodgers ( 1997) 引用 Pittman ( 1963) ，指出在學習初期 ， 學習者被要求只聽與重複教師所說的，並且嘗試回答問題與命令。 例如教師會 由一些故事中，選擇一些適當的情景予學生聆聽。其後，教師鼓勵幼兒主動參 與情景 ，在互動中運用相閥的詞語。教師擔任三個主要的角色 。在課程陳述 (演 譯情景)的階段，教師擔任模範， 建立學習的語文結構所需的情況 ，請幼兒重 複被仿效的新結構 。教師要運用問題、命令及其他從學習者引出正確句子的提 示 。下一步 ，在課程實施的階段，教師在較少受控制的情況下， 給予幼兒更多 使用語吉的機會。 最後， 教師要觀察幼兒的表現來整合課程 ， 讓幼兒有修正及 複習的機會。 研究后法 幼兒的口語發展，由字至詞 ，由詞至旬，加上許政緩等( 1996 ) 指出兒 童的語吉發展對心理發展亦具備促進作用 。 以是決研究的代名詞為例，促使兒 童間的互動和自我意識的發生，故此兒童在代名詞之習得亦是以「我J 為先， 「你j 次之，與自身距離最遠的 「他j 貝IJ較後習得。因此，是決研究集中在幼 兒運用代名詞的發展及概念的掌握。 本研究將透過對話錄音 、 筆記和整理，分析幼兒運用代名詞的各項表現。 研究的實驗組(一) 將會進行十四次教學活動，其中刺用t份教學計量IJ' 每個 活動重複教學兩次 ，並且由「我J 開始延展至 「你j 、 「他/她(佢) J 和日 常生活環境。研究的責驗組(二) 將會進行十五次教學活動 ，其中利用五份教 學計劃 ，每個活動重複教學三次。然後，比較兩組幼兒的學習成果。 研究對象為三至四歲的幼見 (K1) ，研究員把全級幼兒共 60 人平均分為 三組，每組三十人 (不分男女及年齡 ，以隨機方式進行)。第一組(全日幼兒 A班 ) 利用情景教學法進行教學 ，並且重調幼兒以第三身的身份進行角色扮演 ， 為宣驗組(一) (假設幼兒是故事或情況中的一個角色 ，以該角色的身份回答 相關問題) 。第三組(全日幼兒 B 班)是透過語文活動進行教學，並且重調幼 兒以第一身的身份進行互動學習 ，為實驗組 (三) (即是 ，在幼兒回答問題時 ， 以自己的身份來作答)。最後一組(上午幼兒班)為控制組，只會進行前測和 後測， 並且按校方編排的課程進行學習。 144 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 研究者會為宜驗組(一) 、 (二)及控制組進行前測和後測。研究者以兩 個月的教學計劃為實驗組(一)及實驗組(三)進行教學，計劃前後都會進行 前測和後測，以觀察記錄分析兩組幼兒對運用代名詞的能力。本研究是採用行 動研究法 ， 行動研究是指研究員(教師)本身作為一個參與研究工作者，並且 透過應用研究方法技巧，對個人的教育實務工作進行系統反思的過程 。此研究 是依從本人在教學經驗發現 ，剛入學的幼兒運用人稱代名詞表達及溝通感到困 難 ， 故此以幼兒班(三至四歲的幼兒)為主 。 目的在於透過活動提升幼兒運用 代名詞的能力。研究者借助了觀察法和評量表來了解幼兒運用代名詞的能力。 研究者主要採用觀察法 ，對於幼兒運用代名詞的掌握，觀察幼兒的表現並 做出觀察紀錄 。研究工具是採用多元資料搜集法 ，主要是多角度收集資料， 豐 富分析素材。整個研究過程中主要以錄音進行 ， 然後配以文字以紀錄內容及分 析。對於幼兒使用代名詞表現能力的評估 ，研究者會運用參與性觀察，以降低 幼兒的心理防衛和了解其真貫的表現 。 由於要清楚個別幼兒對概念的認知，所 以會透過焦點觀察進行事件取樣。目的在有系統地即時記錄幼兒的反應 。而且， 研究員會運用評量表作為測試工具。鋒音筆會記錄整個活動過程 。 在活動後， 研究者聆聽片段，並採用紙筆記錄及評量，測試在不同情景下幼兒對運用代名 詞的能力。鑑於個人私隱的關{萃 ， 故此上述數據在研究前已獲取校方及家長的 同意，並承諾資料只作研究用途 。 本研究步聽分為 1 教學活動設計 ;2 擬訂代名詞前測評量表; 3 . 教學活 動的推行 ; 4 . 活動的觀察及記錄 ; 5 . 後測評量表 ;6 資料整理分析與詮釋 ; 7 研 究結果與討論 ; 8 . 因應研究結果進行反思 ， 以分析教學活動的成效及深入討論 。 本計劃包括質與量的研究 ， 所以會用評量表為三組幼兒進行前測和後測，分析 三組幼兒在計劃前和計劃後對於代名詞的掌握， 亦會用觀察法和戰事記錄來觀 察幼兒在活動中表現。研究員會把整個教學過程錄音 ，以便分析使用。目的是 了解在語文活動中有否促進幼兒對代名詞的掌握 。 教學方面， 會選擇在幼兒平日上課的課室進行 ， 減低幼兒陌生的感覺 ， 給 予幼兒開放、安全及可以自由表達自己的環境下進行研究 。 在觀察方面 ，研究 員會運用非掩飾觀察法，與幼兒一邊玩耍，一邊觀察。 對於質化的資料，研究員會比較及分析不同教學活動 ， 對幼兒的學習表現 的影響，以探討教學的成效和學習代名詞的成功原因。對於量化的資料，會以 圖表方式 ，顯示研究結果 ，利用幼兒前測和後測的結果進行對比分析， 了解情 景教學對幼兒運用代名詞的成效。 研究結果 很據表一 ，研究結果的標準差，最常用作統計分怖程度 。 這些結果為非負 數值 ， 與數據資料具有相同單位。由於結果屬正數，而且數值亦少於 2' 顯示 這幾組數，都較為集中 。 即代表這些幼兒的個別差異較低 ，而且在學習後的標 準差更有所下降 。因此，在教學活動後有平均的增長，差異亦更進一步減少。 這代表兩組幼兒的學習能力相當接近，同時反映活動的效果。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 145 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 義一:控制組及實驗組在前後瀾的標準差 *標準差(表現項目) 前測 後j貝IJ 控制組 1.15 1.02 質驗組 (一) 1.14 0.91 實驗組 (二) 1.09 0.94 (*標準差是比較兩組數的趨向性集中 ，例如 控制組與實驗組 (一) 作比較， 以了解每組幼兒的整體表現 。) 計劃推行的結果 研究結果顯示這兩種教法 ， 均能提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 。 從觀察紀錄 中分析及觀察到兩組貫驗組的兒童在經過教學活動後，能運用代名詞能力有不 同程度的提升 。 參考表三 ，實驗組(一) 在前測和後測的平均值有八倍多的增 長 ，實驗組(三) 在前測和後測的平均值有t倍多的增長 ，控制組在同樣的計 算下則只有一倍多的增長。 義二:控制組及實聽組在前後瀾的平均數 * 平均數(表現項目 ) 前測 j表現IJ 控制組 1.45 1.75 實驗組(一) 1.4 11 .75 實驗組(三) 2.05 8.95 (* 將一組兒童的表現總水平相加起來， 再除以該組兒童的人數 。 ) 這顯示兩個宣驗組相對控制組都有增長 。造反映兩個宣驗組的教學活動具 一定的成效 。 其中，兩個宣驗組，都存在一定的差異 。 主驗組(一)對比宣驗 組 (二) 的增長較大 。這顯示透過情景教學的成效較佳 ， 形成實驗組(一)的 幼兒在後測的表現項目有所提升(參考區一) 圖一: '膚景教學東芥有茗詞的寵7J 回 回 品 掛 ( 前測與後測的增長率) 146 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 在表三中，研究員運用 T檢定法來比較三組數據，若在 P值大於 0 . 1 以上， 即反映控制組數據是有所差異 。 由於 ，控制組的幼兒並沒有經驗過相閥的教學 活動，所以這些差異是幼兒生活經驗的累積而成 。兩組實驗組的 P值少於 0. 01 以下，顯示著有非常明顯的差異 。 結果反映出是決研究能達至一定的效果 。 不 過，研究員認為還有不足的地方，例如評量表的表現項目較少，未能全面及客 觀地檢查幼兒的能力，建議增加表現項目。 表三:以下擒定法比較三組數攝 分數 P 值 控制組的平均增長 0.3 。 11 * (後測.前j~IJ ) 實驗組 (一) 的平均增長 10.35 0.00** (後測-前;貝IJ) (2.4 7833E-18 ) 成對 質驗組 (二)的平均增長 6.9 0.00** (後測-前;貝IJ) ( 3 .76521 巳 15 ) 成對 實驗組 (一) 與控制組比較 9.5 0.00** (實驗組 (一) 一控制組) ( 1 .91809巳29 ) 不成對 實驗組 (三)與控制組比較 6.7 0.00** (實驗組 (三 ) 一控制組) ( 5 . 11542巳24 ) 不成對 *差異達到 0 . 1 以上有所差異 H 差異達到 0. 01 以下有顯著的差異 綜合上述，幾個表的數據都顯示兩種教學法都是有效的 。 若要知道哪一種 較為有效，就必須再深入比較實驗組(一)與賞驗組(二)的數據。首先 ，由 平均增長率來看，可以得知實驗組(一)相對實驗組(三)有較大的增長 。整 體幼兒的學習表現較佳。在表三中，實驗組(一)與控制組的比較是 9.5 .相 對實驗組(二)的 6.7 高 2 . 8 。這反映實驗組 (一)的情景教學法更為有效 。 討論 本港有關如何幫助兒童學習人稱代名詞的研究仍很缺乏，相關文獻甚少 。 本研究只可就有關課題作初步建議及分析。本研究發現 ，幼兒透過情景教學的 課程後，對有關故事或情景中的人物十分好奇。 他們亦會經常向研究員問及 ， 書中的說話是由誰講述或表達 。 他們在情景中，不知不覺地明白人與人之間的 關{系。特別是相對實驗組 (三)運用語文教學的幼兒，更表現出深感興趣。研 究員觀察認為是有情景的代入，使幼兒能置身當中，投入活動 。 黃翼 (1 959 ) 指出幼兒在語吉學習上有 「 自我J 的傾向， 一方面可反映幼 兒在人稱代詞的掌握與應用，另一方面則可見於其在語吉習得之上，如何受生 活背景與已有知識影響 。 由於情景教學法的活動內容 ， 均為具生活化背景的素 材，例如《有禮貌》及《良好的行為》等。所以當教材與幼兒的已有知識相關時， 幼兒是較為容易掌握和應用。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 147 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 在後測中，相對宣驗組(二)的幼兒學習表現上 ，可以觀察到情景教學法 的幼兒表現較佳。其中 ，研究員發現他們在運用「他J 的能力上更為明顯。與 呂叔湘( 1998 ) 所主張的接近 ， 學習語吉的一般過程是 「模仿一變化一創造J 因此，在教學活動中，研究員會給予幼兒機會模仿情景中人物的對話。經過模 仿後 ，幼兒可以互相交換人物角色 ， 產生變化形成新的經驗。幼兒並能在生活 中按實際需要來創造及使用代名詞。 由於上述的因素及在有系統的情景下 ， 這 種教學法的成效較切合幼兒的需要。 在實驗組(三)的語文活動中 ，後測結果顯示幼兒在掌握 「我J 和 「你J 的能力有明顯的提升。研究員在檢視課程中，可以得知原因。在第一個活動中， 以認識自己，對「我J 產生概念為開始 。 在活動中給予兒童照鏡子 ， 教師從旁 說出兒童的名字 ， 讓兒童增加對自我的認識。教師告訴兒童鏡子中的人 ，就是 「我j 。活動中，幼兒開始運用 「我j 來代替自己的名字。活動三，就是在活 動一的基礎上設計 ，並深化相關概念。例如教師刺用四至五件日常物品，請兒 童辨別自己的物件並說出這是屬於誰的 ，以學習運用句式 「這是我的 。 J 來表 達屬於自己的物品。然後，研究員與兒童以電話對話及互相傳球的遊戲，來學 習 「你J 和 「我J 。最後， 活動四及五才涉及 「他J 的概念。雖然. I我J 、 「你J 和 「他J 的概念 ， 按陳個眉 (1 995)指出 ， 兒童習得人稱代詞的決序為 「我J 「你J .最後為距離自身最遠的 「他j 的理念來設計，但是兒童在掌握 「他J 的概念上，卻未如理想。研究員認為是活動內容的概念不具體 ，有改善的空間， 例如在玩滾球遊戲中 ， 兒童不明白 由 「你J 傳向 「他J 的概念。 這兩種教學活動除了能提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力外 ，研究員更發現活動 對幼兒有其他的得益。 在情景教學法中，教材的情景包括《有禮貌》及《良好 的行為》 等德育故事。幼兒在運用禮貌語方面亦有所提升。雖然，禮貌語並非 本研究的項目，但是幼兒更明白如何與人相處，例如當兒童接受別人的幫忙後， 會主動說「謝謝你J 總結及建議 本研究目的是透過情景教學法 ，讓幼兒明白如何正確運用代名詞，並且促 進幼兒同儕之間的互動，亦期望幼兒能正確地表達自己。研究員在兩種教學法 當中，歸納出情景教學對幼兒相對較為有效 。這些期望及目的，都透過是次研 究來達到，也能提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力. &D驗證研究的成效。 研究員在進行研究時 ，是根據不同文獻資料， 再自行設計情景活動，也是 行動研究之一 ，目的在於提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 。 王文科 ( 1991 )提出 行動研究的目標是把研究方法應用於教室情境中的教育問題，以提升學生的能 力。所以，情景活動的目標十分明確，就是解決小朋友自我表達的需要。 研究員運用全級幼兒班來進行是次研究。 由於研究員主要在推行計劃的班 別中試教，所以無法準確深入地分析每組幼兒之間的分別，亦未能準確分析幼 兒班兒童平日的學習情況及生活經驗 。 因此，研究員建議下決可以利用上午及 下午班，由研究員負責擔任教師，就更能觀察幼兒的學習情況。 再者，全級幼 兒的人數眾多，研究員需花很多時間進行評估及教學，建議增加研究人員的數 量，以更有效地收集數據 ， 同時透過共同備課及反思 ，了解兒童的能力及不同 148 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學法的成效，並且有系統地進行研究。 此外， 透過是次研究 ，研究者建議可以把整個相關的教學活動推行到全校 主施，讓每一位兒童都能透過語文活動，提升他們運用代名詞的能力。研究員 有關透過是次研究 ， 能與從事幼兒教育的同工分享、互相學習 。 過程中更讓研 究員明白到研究的意義 ， 嘗試更多不同的教學方法以提升兒童的能力 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 149 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 書考，目 李池 ( 1 981 ) 0 {常用詞使用法》。 香港， 上海書局有限公司。 協康會 ( 1988 ) 0 {兒童訓練指南活動指引 語吉》。 香港，協康會 。 王文科 ( 1991) 0 {教育研究法》。台北，五南圖書出版有限公司 。 王明仁 ( 1993 ) 0 {語法學習和教學》。 北京 ，北京語吉學院出版社 。 完昭尤(主編) 0 ( 1993 ) {幼兒語吉教案 100 例》。 廣西 ，廣西師範大學出版社 。 欒平 、劉希朋、田善繼(主編) ( 1995) 0 {現代漢語進修教程，語法篇》。 北京， 北京語吉學院出版社。 易杏英、王金貴、齊敏、石筠強 ( 1 996) 0 {幼兒園教育活動一教師參考周書 語言 領域》。 北京 ， 人民教育出版社。 jack C. 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The foundation for critical thinking 150 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 附件一 教學計創一包括實驗組(一) 和實驗組(二) 情境教學(一) 活動日期 : 20 1 1 年 11 月 29 日一 1 2 月 l 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒A班(實驗姐一) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節 ， 以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 : 1. 學習以情景形式 ， 運用代名詞(主要是 「我J) 。 2. 透過愣竄來學習代名詞 。 3. 培華書幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 60mins 教師展示囝卡 ， 給幼兒欣賞 。 2. 教師提問幼兒園卡的內容 ， 並且引導幼兒說出俏嶺中角 色在{故甚麼? 3. 教師透過 〈好品德、} 的故事情致-來引導幼兒說出代名 詞 。 4. 教師說出故事的內容 ， 並示範如何在適當的俏索下正確 地運用代名詞如 : J 青菜 、 肉 、 蛋我都吃，不挑食營養才會均衡 。 J 弟弟 、 妹妹年紀小 ， 我會幫忙照顧他們 。 J 洗完手記得關7.)(龍頭，才不會浪贊水資源。 J 早睡早起，瞪眼充足，我每天都很有精神啊 ! 5. 教師說幼兒讀述一次情殼中的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情景中所運用的代名詞，例如 : 我 。 7. 諂幼兒進行模擬遊戲，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8. 在棋擬遊戲中 ， 教師說幼兒向對象說話時要用手指向老 他，以帶出第二身或第三身代名詞 。 9. 重溫一次活動的情境 。 10 鼓勵幼兒作句，表達自己 . 我會 。 教具/教材 注解 故事盤及 圖卡 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 151 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(二 ) 活動日期 201 1 年 12 月 6 日 一 1 2 月 8 日 地點 . 課室 任教老師 ﹒ 溫志倫主任 班別 . 全自幼兒 A班(實驗組一) 人數 : 20 位兒童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節 ， 以分組形式進行扮演。 教學目標 ﹒ 1. 學習以情景形式，還用代名詞(主要是「我」和「你J) 。 2. 透過情景來學習代名詞。 3. 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 60mÎns 教師展示國卡 ， 給幼兒欣賞。 故事書及 2. 教師提問幼兒園卡的內容，並且引導幼兒說出倩 國卡 索中角色在做甚麼? 3. 教師透過{好品德}的故事情景來引導幼兒說出 代名詞 。 4. 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒 ， 並且示範如何在過 當的情景下正確地運用代名詞，如: J 我會把髒衣服放進洗衣籃，不會到處亂丟， 製造髒亂。 J 哎喲 ! 不小心跌倒了 ! 沒關係 !我會自己 爬起來 。 J 吃完東西後，我會把紙盒丟進垃圾桶襄 。 J 朱古力蛋糕看起來很好吃呀 ! 我會和妹妹 一起分享。 J 我會愛情玩具，不玩時就放進玩具箱。 J 爺爺、娜娜最疼我了 ，我應該尊敬孝順他們 。 J 媽媽煮飯很辛苦，我會幫忙擺碗筷 。 J 我最勇敢，不怕看牙醫，定期檢查，才不會 蛙牙。 J 我不會隨便採摘花朵，漂亮的花應該讓大家 欣賞 。 5. 教師請幼兒覆述一次情崇的對話。 6. 教師重調及介紹情索中 ，所運用的代名詞，例如 我和你 。 7. 教師提問幼兒上述的情景是否正確 。 8. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲 ，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 9. 在模擬遊戲中，教師詣幼兒向對象說話時要用手 指向若他，以帶出第二身或第三身代名詞 。 10. 重溫一次活動的情境 。 1 1. 鼓勵幼兒作句，褻遙自己:我會 。 152 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(三) 活動日期 : 20 1 1 年 12 月 1 3 日一 1 2 月 1 5 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼見 A班(實驗組一) 人數 : 20位見童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節，以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 . 1. 學習以情景形式，運用代名詞(主要是「我」 、 「你」和「他J ) 。 2. 聆聽情景內容說出相關的代名詞 。 3. 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 60mins 教師展木圖卡，給幼兒欣賞 。 故事書及 2 教師提問幼兒固卡的內容 ， 並且引導幼兒說出情景中角色在做甚麼? 國卡 3 教師透過 {有禮貌}的故事情景來引導幼兒說出代名詞 。 4 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒，並且請幼兒用心聆聽情景內容 ， 指出相 關的代名詞，如 : J 需要別人幫忙的時候 ， 我會說﹒ 「請你幫我，好嗎? J J 走路不小心撞到人時 ， 我會很有禮貌地說聲 : r對不起! J J 東東把心愛的玩具借給我玩，我會對他說 : r謝謝你 ! J J 看到行動不便的人，我會蓋起座，並小心扶持他。 J 在街上 ，遇到朋友真開心， 我會跟他打招呼，問聲 ﹒ 「你好嗎? J J 早上 ， 爸爸準備出門上班，我會到門口送他，並揮手說: r再見 ! J J 到公園溜滑梯，我會排隊輪流玩，這樣大家又能玩得開心 。 J 看見行動不便的老公公要過馬路時，我會幫忙抉他安全過馬路。 J 我會排隊等候巴士 ，也會遵守秩序上下車 ， 絕不爭先恐後 。 5 教師請幼兒覆述一次情景的對話。 6 教師重調及介紹情景中，所運用的代名詞。 7 講幼見進行模擬遊戲，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8 教師抽取學生 ， 進行與教學情景相關的提問。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1 112 I 153 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(四) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 1 0 日 一 l 月 12 日 地點 : 諜室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 全日幼見 A班(實驗組一) 人數 : 20位見童 形式 :每二十分鐘為一節 ，以分組形式進行扮演。 教學目標 : l 學習以情景形式，運用代名詞(主要是 「我」 、 「你 」 和 「他J) 。 2 為不同的情景內容配上，惘關的代名詞 。 3 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 60mins 教師展木固卡，給幼見欣賞 。 故事書及 2 教師提問幼兒圓卡的內容 ， 並且引導幼兒說出情景中角色在做甚 圓卡 麼? 3. 教師透過 《有禮貌〉的故事情景來引導幼兒說出代名詞 。 4 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒 ，並且請幼見用心聆聽情景內容，指 出相關的代名詞，如: J 吃完飯要離開座位時，我會將椅子歸位，並說 ﹒ 「請慢用 ! J J 上完廁所，我不但會洗手，還會將衣服整理好再離開 。 J 進人別人的房間前 ，我一定記得先敲門，絕不會冒冒失失闖 進去。 J 爸爸媽媽工作很辛苦 ， 當他們休息時 ，我一定會輕聲走路才 不會吵醒他們 。 J 吃飯的時候 ， 我會細嚼慢嘸 ， 不會敲打碗筷 ， 以免造成別人 的困擾 。 J 打噴瞻的時候，我會用手遮住口鼻，這樣才有禮貌 。 5 教師請幼兒覆述一次情景的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情景中所運用的代名詞 。 7. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8. 教師抽取學生，進行與教學情景相關的提問 。 9. 教師會展示新的圖片，請幼兒為圖片配上適合的情景。 154 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(五) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 1 7 日一 l 月 1 9 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 . 溫志倫主任 班別 . 全日幼兒 A班(實驗姐一) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每二十分鐘為一節 ， 以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 l 學習以價實形式 ， 還用代名詞(主要是 「我」 、 「你」和 「他J) 。 2. 為不同的情};l內容配上相關的代名詞 。 3 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 60mins 教師展71τ國卡，給幼兒欣賞 。 2. 教師提問幼兒園卡的內容，並且引導幼兒說出情景中角色在做甚麼? 3. 教師透過 {衛生與保健} 的故事俏致來引導幼兒說出代名詞 。 4. 教師說出故事的內容給幼兒 ，並且請幼兒用心聆聽情景內容，指出相關 的代名詞，如 ﹒ J 我不會撿地上的東西吃 。 J 我會注意口腔衛生，經常保持口腔清潔 。 J 弟弟最愛哭了 ， 我更要和他玩呢 ! J 我和明明是好朋友 。 J 吃飯的時候 ，我會細嚼慢瞧 ，否則會肚子痛 。 J 打噴暖的時候，我會用手遮住口缸，這樣才有讀貌 。 5. 教師請幼兒讀述一次情景的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情直是中所運用的代名詞 ﹒ 7. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8 教師抽取學生，進行與教學情至是相關的提悶 。 9 教師會展示新的圖片，請幼兒為國片配上適合的情殼 。 教具/教材 故事會及 國卡 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 155 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(六) 活動日期 ﹒ 20 1 2 年 2 月 14 日 一 16 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 5.且志倫主任 班別 . 全日幼兒 A班(質驗過一) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 . 每二十分鐘為一節 ， 以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 l 學習以故事形式，運用代名詞。 2. 透過聆聽故事來學習代名詞。 3 培養幼兒在互動使用代名詞。 時間 教學內容 60mins 1. 故事講述 2. 教師請幼兒先觀察間片後，再說出故事情景 。 3. 《毛蟲家族去購物〉 這一天 ， 毛蟲爸爸和毛蟲媽媽帶著小毛蟲來到7城裡最大的購物中心。 小毛蟲好喜歡跟著爸爸媽媽去購物 ! 他們東看看 、 西瞧瞧，挑選自己最 喜歡的東西。 J 班班他還7一盒玉米片，艾見則挑7一罐軟糖，小布藍尼拿7 一盒巧克力夾心餅。 J 毛蟲姆媽把要買的東西放進手推車裡，毛蟲爸爸推著車子跟著 走 。 J 他們準備要去收銀處結帳時 ，遇見7松鼠太太史庫琪 。 史庫琪 太太也來買東西 。 她買了許多許多，手推車裡的東西多到都掉 出來了 。 J 班班 、 艾兒和小布藍尼趕緊幫史庫琪太太把東西撿起來，小心 地放回手推車裡去 。 J 小毛蟲合力幫忙史庫琪太太把沉重的手推車推到收銀處前 。 史 庫琪太太對小毛蟲說 : r太謝謝你們了 1 你們真是個好孩子 ! J J 毛蟲爸爸和毛蟲媽媽看見小毛蟲能主動幫助別人，心裡很高 興。毛蟲爸爸選為他們各人買了一個冰淇淋甜筒作為獎勵呢 ! 4. 分組扮演及提問一些情景下如何使用代名詞 。 5. 教師請幼兒覆述一次情景的對話 。 6. 教師重調及介紹情景中 ， 所運用的代名詞 。 7. 請幼見進行模擬遊戲，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 8. 教師抽取學生 ， 進行與教學情景相關的提問 。 156 I 教育研究報告匯編 教具/教 材 故事書 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 情境教學(t: ) 活動日期 ﹒ 20 1 2 年 2 月 21 日 - 23 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 . 全日幼兒 A班(實驗告且一 ) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 ﹒ 每二十分鐘為一節，以分組形式進行扮演 。 教學目標 : 1. 學習在日常生活中運用代名詞 。 2. 邁過模擬遊戲來學習代名詞 。 3. 培養幼見在互動使用代名詞 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教 材 60mins 教師展示之前所學習的情境，請幼兒講述內容 。 固卡 2 分組扮演及提問一些情景下如何使用代名詞 。 3. 教師講幼兒覆述一次情景的對話 。 4 教師重調及介紹情景中所運用的代名詞。 5. 請幼兒進行模擬遊戲，教師從中觀察是否正確 。 6. 教師抽取學生，進行與教學情景相關的提問 。 7. 教師製作模擬日常生活的環境，請幼兒運用正確的代名詞來褻 達 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 157 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 實驗組(二)語文活動(一 ) 活動日期 : 20 1 1 年 1 1 月 28 日 一 12 月 2 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒 B班(實驗組二) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每十五分鐘為一節 ， 以分組形式進行，每組五位幼兒 。 教學目標 : l 初步認識自己 ， 對 「我」產生概念 。 2. 能作自我稱呼 。 3 學習運用句式 : f我叫(兒童的名字) 0 J 時間 教學內容 15mins 給兒童照鏡子或欣賞自己的照片 ， 教師從旁說出 兒童的名字 ， 攘見童增加對自我的認識。 2 教師告訴見童鏡子中的人，就是 「我」。 3 教師展示自己的名牌，告訴兒童這是我的 。 4 教師利用貼有兒童照片的名牌 ， 教他讀自己的名 字 ，然後問 : f你叫也名? J 鼓勵他說出自己的 名字，我叫 。 5 分組時 ，請兒童選擇不同的名牌，逐一到教師面 前，先說出自己的名牌，然後說出句式 「這是我 的名牌」。 158 I 教育研究報告匯編 教具/教材 一照片 一鏡子 一名牌 一 自製名牌 注解 個人方式 ， 單 對學進行 小組教學 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(三)語文活動( 三) 活動日期: 20 11 年 12 月 5 日 - 9 日 地點 :課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒 B班(買驗告且二 ) 人數 : 20位見童 形式 : 每十五分鐘為一節，以分組形式進行 ， 每組五位幼兒。 教學目標 : l 初步認識 「你」 和 「我」 的概念。 2. 在互動的情況下 ， 運用「你」 和 「我」。 3. 學習運用句式 : r我想耍 ， , J 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 15mins 教師展示不同見童的物品 。 日常物品 小姐教學 2 利用四至五件日常物品 ，請見童辨別自己的物件 並說出這是屬於誰的。如 : r條手巾邊個呀 ? I這 是我的。 J r個書包邊個呀? J r這是你的。 」 3. 跟兒童開茶會 ， 教師詢問兒童。如 : r邊個想食 蛋糕? J r邊個想飲汽水? J 4 鼓勵兒童以 「我」來代替自己的名字來表示需 耍 ， 並且學習句式 ﹒ 「我想要， 。 l 5 教師展示兒童的看國認字卡片 ，把它們分成兩 認字卡片 份，兒童和教師各持一份 。 6. 教師拿出一張卡片 ， 向見童 : r我有一尾魚 ， 你 有甚麼?請你給我看一看。」 7 教師請兒童拿出一張卡片說 : r我有一輛小汽 車，你有甚麼?請你給我看一看。」 8. 遊戲可反複進行，或請兩位兒童自己進行小組互 動。 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 112 I 159 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(二)語文活動 (三) 活動日期 : 20 11 年 1 2 月 12 日 一 16 日 地點 : 課室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 金日幼兒 B班(官驗組二) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 . 每二十分鐘為主題活動 ， 以分組形式進行 ， 每組五位幼兒 。 教學目標 . 1. 在互動的情況下，迎用 「你」 和 「我」 的能力 。 2 學習使用電話的方法 。 3 培養兒童使用代名詞的能力 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 60mins 教師展木電話，並且提問幼兒如何使用它 。 電話 全班 2 教師請幾位學生嘗試使用電話 ﹒ (主題教 3. 教師說其中一位兒童跟他玩打電話遊戲，以對答 學) 式來進行，如 「你好 ! J r我是老師 。」 「你條邊個? J r明仔? J 「條邊個極佢? J r陳小明」等 4回 教師未能後 ， 再說幾位學生嘗試使用電話，並且 從中觀察 。 5 教師請兒童在分組活動中，譜兒童使用電話進行 兩人一組 互動 。 160 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(二)語文活動(四) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 9 日 1 3 日 地點 : 大肌肉室 任教老師 : 溫志倫主任 班別 : 全日幼兒 B班(實驗組二) 人數 : 20 位兒童 形式 :每十五分鐘為一節，以分組形式進行 ，每組五位幼兒 。 教學目標 : l 初步認識 「你J 、 「我」和 「他」 的概念 。 2 在互動的情況下，運用 「你」 、 「我 」 和「他」。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 60mins l 與兒童坐在地上玩滾球遊戲 ， 一面玩， 一面說: r碌俾你J 0 (以小組形 波 式進行 ，教師強調「俾盔」 的代名詞) 2 兩位教師 ( A 、 B) 與兒童一起吃果仁 . A將果仁給 B ' 並說 : r俾你 J ' 果仁 然後 B將果仁交予兒童，並說 : r俾你J ' 請兒童將果仁交予 A. 並棋仿 以上說話。(可以利用以上三人組合，進行其他活動並教導其他代名詞) 3 教師分辨出示屬於自己的東西 ， 並說 「我釀。」及分辨屬兒童的東西， 並說 : r你嗽 。」 然後請兒童做 。 4 教師問 ﹒ 「邊個有手巾? J r 邊，個若睦鞋? J 要求兒童舉手並答 ﹒ 「我慨/ 你嗽 。」 5 教師與兒童各有數件不同的食物 ， 教師問 : r邊個有百力滋 ? J 並示範 食物 答 ﹒ 「我有J' 然後間一樣的兒童有而教師無的食物，如﹒ 「邊個有糖果? J 示範答 : r你有」然後輪到兒童作答 。 (可增加人數帶出「他」的代名詞) 圖片 6 利用有關人物圖片，教師問 「佢你邊個? J r佢做緊包野? J 等要求兒 童亦使用 「佢」 的代名詞作答，如 「佢你媽媽 ! J 或 「佢食野」等。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 161 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 教學活動 實驗組(二)語文活動(五) 活動日期 : 20 1 2 年 l 月 16 日 - 20 日 地點 : 音樂室 任教老師 ﹒ 溫志倫主任 班別 ﹒ 全日幼兒 B班(質驗在且二) 人數 : 20位兒童 形式 : 每三十分鐘為一節 ， 以小組教學形式進行 ， 每組十位幼兒。 教學目標 ﹒ 1. 認識 「你」 、 「我」 和「他」 的概念 。 2. 明臼在互動下 ， 非參與及距離自身最遠的是 「他」 。 時間 教學內容 教具/教材 注解 60mins 教師介紹見歌{老師喜愛一 } 手指棒 音樂 2. 請見童聆聽教師朗誼示範。 活動 3. 教師請學生以固形的方式坐下 ， 教師站在固的中心 。 4. (見歌)老師喜愛我我我 (請幼兒用手指指向自己) ， 老師 喜愛你你你 (請幼見用手指指向教師 ， 以回應互動者) ， 老 師喜愛他他他 (請幼兒用手指指向身邊的一位小朋友) 5. 教師利用手指棒與個別兒童對唱 。 6. 教師利用手指棒與小姐兒童對唱 。 7. 教師利用手指棒與全班兒童對唱 。 8. 教師請輪流兒童出來圓的中心 ， 來帶領其他兒童唱歌。 162 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 附件二 評量表 表現項目 表現水平 能達到 未能達到 掌猩姓名外 ， 運用 「我 」 知道相片內的小朋友是自己 ， 能 知道相片內的小朋友是自 的能力 。 說出句式 「這是我的相片」 、 或 己，卻未能正確地表達相片 r(兒童的姓名)是我」 。 中的內容 。 2. 知道「我」 是有意義 ， 代 知道這些物品，都是屬於自己 ， 知道這些物品， 都是屬於自 表屬於自己的東西。 並且能說出「全部(物品的名稱) 己 ， 卻未能正確地褻遠有關 都是我的。 」 的內容。 3. 初步分辨「你」 和 「我」 明臼一條毛巾是屬於成人， 另一 明白兩條毛巾分別是屬於 的所代表的用途 。 條毛巾是屬於自己，能正確地說 誰，但未能正確地表遂有關 出 「一條毛巾是你。 」 及 「一條 的內容。 毛巾是我。 」 4. 分辨「你」 和「我」的意 會分辨兩類不同的物品是屬於 知道這些物品 ， 都是屬於 義。 誰 ， 能說出 「這是我的 。」 或「這 誰 ， 卻未能正確地表達有關 是你的 。」 等句式來表達。 的內容 。 5. 運用「你」 的能力，進行 明白在互動對話下 ， 還用 「你」 未知道如何運用適合的代 提悶 。 來提問同學相關的問題 。 名詞進行提間 。 6. 初步運用「他」 的能力。 在第一條提問後，懂得正確地運 經過兩條問題後 ， 只能說出 用 「他」 來表達課室中的其他小 班中其中一位幼兒的名稱 。 朋友。 7. 在適當的情覺下 ， 運用 明臼成人與幼兒互動下 ， 為距離 不能掌握正確地運用 「他」 「他」的能力 。 自身最遁的 「他J ' 並且以「他」 的能力 。 作為回答 。 8. 在逍遙，的倩景下，運用 明白成人與幼見互動下，明白國 不能掌握正確地適用 「他J 「他」 的能力 。 中的小朋友卻不在其中，並且以 的能力 。 r {-也 」 作為回答 。 9. 運用 「他」的能力 。 明白教師與幼兒互動下 ， 另一位 不能掌握正確地運用 「他」 幼兒為 「他J ' 並且以 「他」作為 的能力 。 句子的開始 。 10 在適當的情景下，運用 在對話中能正確地理解及運用 不能掌握正確地運用 「你」 、 「我 」 、 「他」的能 「你」 、 「我」 、 「他」來配合情景。 「你」 、 「我」 、 「他 」的能力 。 力。 11 在適當的情景下 ， 運用 明白運用 「我」來，表達自己的 不懂得運用 「我」來，表達 「我」 的能力 。 需要 。 自己的需要 。 12 . 在適當的情景下 ， 還用 懂得運用 「你」 來，向同儕進行 不懂得運用 「你」 來溝通 。 「你」的能力 。 互動 。 1 3 . 在適當的情景下 ， 運用 透過情景理解人物的關條 ， 並且 未能理解情景人物的關 「他」 的能力 。 利用 「他」 來表達 。 餘，不會利用 「他」來表達 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 163 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 附件三 前測、後測的問題 教師以個別形式向兒童進行以下提間 '7解兒童對運用代名詞的各項目能力 : 教師在事前提示幼兒在整個活動中，除7幼兒自己的姓名外 ， 更應當試運用其他詞彙。 T: 代衰教師的提問內容 : 項目一 : 草根性名外，盜用 「我 l 自可能力。 展示一套全班幼見的個人相片集 ， 教師並指出相關幼見的相片給幼見看 T: 小朋友 ， 這幅相片內的人是誰? 答案 : 我i自己(要運周代名詞，不接受幼兒用自己的姓名) 。 項目二 : 知道 「我 ，.患有煮義，代表屬於自r，的東西。 T: 教師拿出幼兒的個人物品 ， 包括 . 個人學生證 、 書包 、 親子週記及個人相片集(這些物 品皆有幼見的相片及姓名)，教師把每一件物品提問見童這是什麼?請兒童說出來，這些物品 是誰的? 答案 : 我(的) /自己(的)(不接受幼兒用自己的姓名)。 項目三 : 初珍分辨「你 l 和 「我 l 的所代表的用途 。 教師展示兩條毛巾， 一條為紅色; 一條為藍色 。 T : 教師讓兒童自己選擇其中一條毛巾，先提問幼兒手上的毛巾是誰，再提問幼兒邊個有他 手上相反顏色的毛巾，例如 : 教師手上的毛巾是誰? 答案 : 我(的)/你(的)(不接受幼兒自己本身的姓名及教師的名稱) 。 項目四 : 分辨 「你 l 和 「我 l 的煮義 。 兒童己能分辨四件物品 ， 其中兩件是學生的個人物品;兩件是教師專用的物品是屬於誰? T: 小朋友 ! 請你把物品分類，並告訴我它是屬於誰的? 164 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 答案 :這是你的 ， 這是我的(不接受幼兒用自己的姓名及教師的名稱) 。 項目五 : 運用「你 1 的能力， 進行提間 。 T: 你想問同學 x ， 誰是他的好朋友呢?應該說甚麼呢 ? 答案 : 請問你的好!JIi友是誰呀 ? (不接受有同學X的名稱) 。 項目六 : 初步運用 「你 1 的能jJ。 T: 小朋友 ! 課室內還有甚麼人呢?請幼兒選擇其中一位同學的名稱 ，再問幼兒可以用甚麼 詞語來表示? 答案 : 他(不接受有同學的名稱) 。 項目t : 在適當的情景下，運用 「他 1 的能力 。 T: 教師與幼見互動期間， 提問幼兒你的校服和誰一樣 ， 再問幼見可以用甚麼詞語來表示? 答案 : 也(他)(不接受有同學的名稱) 。 項目八 : 在適當的情景下 ，運用 「他 1 的能力 。 T: 請觀察以下圖片，這位小朋友在做甚麼呢? 答案 : 佢(他)在做功課。 項目九: 運用 「他 l 的能力 。 T: 教師讚賞幼兒 X今天樂於助人 ， 你又會說甚麼呢? 答案 : 佢(他)好幸 。 項目十 : 在適當的情景下，運用 「你 1 、 r ，我 l' r他 l 的能力 。 T: 教師出示對話機，告訢幼見 ﹒ 「你好 ! 我是老師，請問你是誰 ? J 及「你想請哪一位小朋 友聽電話(請指出來) ? J 答案 : 我是X泣 ，我想找他(佢) 。 項目十一 : 有滴當的情景下， i軍用 「我 l 的會長 1J 。 T: 你想向教師表達 ， 要去洗手間 ， 應該說甚麼呢? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 165 。。 。。 。 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 答案:我想去洗手筒 。 項目十二 : 在適當的情景下 ，運用 「你!的能7了 。 T: 園中這位小朋友未清潔雙手 ， 就想進食蛋糕 。 你會說甚麼使他洗手呢? 答案 : 讀者T、法手 。 項目+三 : 在適當的情景下 ， 運用 「他 1 的能7了 。 T: 翼翼告訴你，園中這位小朋友幫她找到她的小狗 。 你認為是誰的行為正確呢? 答案:佢{他) 。 166 I 教育研究報告匯緝 自 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 例証 T: 代表教師 C: 代表兒童 在語文活動中兒童的表現 : 因証二 T: 你在鏡中看到甚麼呀? (教師指著鏡子) C: 達明囉! T: 你呀 ! 遺有呢? C : 有鼻 ， 有口 ， T: 你呀!個鼻同口保邊個嫁? C: 達明嫁 ! T: 對啦~你可以講這是我的鼻和口 。 T: (教師請幼兒指著鏡子)教師請幼兒說出這是我 盟証L T: 小閉友 ! 這條毛巾是邊個嫁? (教師手中拿看) C: 你老師 ! T: 除了叫老師還可以叫甚麼呢? C: 五知道 ! T: 這條毛巾你五像你手上呀? C: 無呀 ! T: 像老師手上 ， 不是你你手上 ， 你可以說不在我手上 C: 條呀 ! 我無呀 ! 因為，像你手上喂 ! 且証三 T: 如果有人需要別人幫忙的時候 ， 你會說甚麼? C: 我會說 : ，-請你幫我 ，好嗎? J T: 如果有人把心愛的玩具借給你玩的時候，你會說甚麼? C: 我會對他說 : ，- 謝謝你! J 創証旦 T: 如果在街上 ， 遇到朋友的時候 ， 你會說甚麼? C: 我會對他說 : ，-你好嗎? J 教育研究獎勵計劃 11 /12 I 167 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 四至五接見童對地兢地心吸力 避恩的棚急轉變 斗:t- ~ -++ 頁展云 國際英文幼稚園 摘要 關於兒童對地球的知識學習 ， 兒童的樸棄理論( na\"1問 theory)有兩種看 法，分別是一致的 (coherent ) 或分散的 ( fragmented ) ( Mart惘， Han & Brenda, 2008 ) 。透過 「指向概念轉變教學J 的教學策略 ， 結果顯示能有效地 改變 4-5 歲兒童對地球(地心引力)的概念轉變。也發現兒童對地球知識的學 習是一致的 ，即能夠回答 「為甚麼j 問題(鄧賜平等 ， 2002) 引言 在台北市的國科會目標導向計劃成果報告中指出，科學教育常以小學中高 年級以上學生為對象，較不重視低年級階段，更忽略了幼稚圍階段，錯失培養 科學和態度的重要時期 。科學知識抽象難明，包括物理(地球)一向被認為不 適合學前兒童應當深入探討的科目，故此關於兒童對地球的迷思，特別是在香 港，相閥的研究很少 。 這也帶出了一些問題 「兒童在甚麼時候才適合學習科 學 7 J 17 世紀的洛克， 在反對 「天賦觀念j 的同時，提出了一個有名的論點， 即「白紙說j 。他指出 「我們可以假定人心如白紙， 沒有一切標記， 沒有一切 觀念 J (洛克 ， 1981 ' 第 68 頁)。所以我們應反省是否低估了兒童的能力 ， 從而一口咬定地球的科學概念與學前兒童完全無關? 研究目的及問題 本研究希望透過7解兒童對地球的迷思 ，從而制定一套關於地心吸力的有 效教學策略。而研究問題則包括 - 1 兒童對地球(形狀)的迷思是甚麼? 2 兒童對地球(地心吸力)的迷思是甚麼? 3 比較 「指向概念轉變的教學j 與 「教導式教學J '哪一種的教學策略更為有 效? 168 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 文獻;單詞 關鍵字的定義 迷思概念兒童進入課堂前就已在日常生活及以往的學習中形成了大量的經驗 。 這些經驗中有些與科學的解釋基本一致 ，有些與科學的解釋相違背，我們把這 些違背科學解釋的概念稱為迷思概念(徐傑、張俊、李青、馬柳新 ， 2009) 概念轉變 是兒童對日常生活中已經形成的迷思概念，進行修正和改變的的過 程 ( Posner， 1982) 學者對見重地就知謎學習的不同觀點 關於兒童對地球的知識學習，兒童的樸棄理論有兩種看法 ， 分別是一致的 (coherent) 或分散的 (fragmented ) 0 Marthe , Han & 8renda ( 2008 ) 的 研究透過紙筆測試 (paper-and-pencil test) ，收集大量數據，研究結果顯示 兒童對地球的知識會隨著年齡的增長而慢慢了解 ， 這亦支持了兒童對地球的樸 素知識是分散的 。 所謂兒童的認識是零散的，是指兒童認識與知識之間是有關係的，不具內 哥哥|生(內在一致性) ，兒童之前和之後的說法可以是互相矛盾的， 認識沒有連 續性 。兒童的認識具有零散性，是不內眾的、不連貴的， 因而這額的研究並不 多見 。 DiSessa (參見 Reiner， et al., 2000 ) 曾指出，兒童的知識僅僅是一些 「碎 片J (knowledge in pieces ) ， 是一些片段的搜集 ，鬆散地聯摟在一起的知識點 。 除此之外， 亦有學者持有不同的見解。近期關於兒童樸棄理論的研究表明， 兒童對周圍世界的認識有獨特的模式 。這些樸棄理論認為 「一個理論包含一系 列關於某一頭域實體 ，以及這些實體間關係的信念。理論尤其不同於其他類型 的心理表徵，理論是解釋性的，能夠回答為甚麼的問題J (鄧賜平等 ， 2002 ' 第 23 頁)。也就是說 ， 兒童關於物理 、心理 、生物的認識並不是零散的。相反， 兒童在各領域的知識，是相互聯繫地使用一系列概念 ，並根據這些「關係J 解 釋和預測周圍的各種現象 。因此本研究將會研究兒童對地球知識的習得 ， 是分 散的或一致的 ， 如果結果顯示兒童司透過一些教學策略能有概念上的轉變 ， 亦 即證明兒童地球知識的獲得是一致的或不是零散的 。 教學策略 「指向概念轉變的教學J 乃相對於「教導式教學J '前者以兒童為中心， 教學活動是針對兒童的迷思概念設計的， 在教學過程中 ， 教師尊重兒童並給予 充分展現其迷思概念的機會 ，既重視兒童與物的互動 ，也重視人際的互動 ，使 兒童通過與同伴和教師的交流，協調自己已有的信念 ，觀察多方面的事實證據 (徐傑、張俊、 李青 、 馬柳新 ， 2009) 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 169 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 皮亞傑的觀點指出，兒童是通過與環境的相互作用而建構知識的。他 們不是等待命令 ，而是不停試圖弄清楚所面對的一切 ( Rosa li nd & Kar凹， 2003 ) 。 卡密 (Constance Kam ii) 也認同皮亞傑對兒童獲取知識的觀點， 他 認為孩子通過遊戲和不同的活動解決了他們思想構成挑戰的問題時，應該受到 獎勵，但過程中，孩子必須運用具體的材料去主動解決真正的問題 ( Rosalind & Karen, 2003) 另一方面 ， 著名的教育學家布魯納亦提出 ，科學學習的策略一一發現學習， 其特徵是教師與學習者在探棄學習過程中的協助關係 ， 學習者從探蒙中主動學 習活動。當學習者遇到學習的分歧點，他們要作出選擇思維，決定解決問題之 假設 ， 總結所搜集之各種資料，繼而解決問題(陳峰津 ， 1982 ) 總結以上的學習策略理論，這與研究中所運用的 「指向概念轉變的教學j 理念是一致的 ， 兩者均著重兒童與人或環境之間的互動和交流，讓兒童主動觀 察 ，有完份探棄的機會 ，當中必須要有實物的操弄和探棄。 研究后法 一 . 研究對象 學校 國際英文幼稚圍 (九龍塘) 班級 .低班 年齡 4-5 歲 人數 4 人(貫驗組) 女 2 人 男 2 人 4 人 (對照組) 女 :2 人 男 2 人 二.研究過程 7解見童的迷思過程 首先透過半結構式的問題(附件三) ，以歸納兒童對地球形狀和地心吸 力的迷思，為彌補 4-5 歲兒童語吉表達上的不足，老師請兒童繪畫出地球的形 狀，人住的位置和天空的位置等(附件一)。另外， Georg旬， Gavin & Robin, 2006) 發現使用預設選擇題和立體模型選擇方法所得出的結果顯示，兒童對於 地球知識的理解更傾向科學性。所以，老師請兒童選擇預設選擇題(附件三) 和最接近對地球想法的立體圓形(附件四) ，從而了解他們對地球形狀的迷思 。 針對兒童對地球(地心吸力)迷恩的數學黨時 教學為期兩個星期 ，每星期兩堂 ，每堂半小時 。 研究員將研究對象分為實 驗組和對照組，兩組學生均進行 「問題訪談J 前測(附件三) 。 每組四人，性 別和組另IJ均以隨機抽籤形式決定。宣驗組的學生接受 「指向概念轉變的教學J 將其相對的教學稱為「教導式教學J 。 完成四堂後兩組學生均進行「問題選擇 和問題訪談J 的後測 。(附件五) 教學設計分四堂 ，每堂都會針對一個科學概念 ， 逐步讓兒童達至對地心吸 力的概念轉變 。 當中教師會注重提問技巧和材料的準備，以增加兒童與教師、 兒童與兒童、以及兒童與物料之間的互動。四堂的目的如下 (1 )讓兒童親身感受地心吸力的影響 ， (2 )透過光碟讓兒童了解地心吸力來自地球，地心吸力將地球上的所有事物 170 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 吸向地球， ( 3 ) 和 ( 4 ) 透過磁石實驗 ，讓兒童明白即使人居住在地球的下方亦不會跌下 的原因是地心吸力 (詳細教學內容請閱附件六)。其模型解釋如下圍所示 ‘三刻﹒ ~ J;j<.面姑 且為與i也f車 上不 同物件相吸 的磁石 。 真實的磁石實驗模型製作過程如下 在發泡膠球上貼滿 國釘，將報紙條用白 膠漿貼在球上，最後 塗上水彩 。 以硬卡紙繪 畫人形後剪 出，在底部貼 上磁石 。 -戶 一/ 人、屋和樹核型等的底部貼 上喝石 ， 模型所用的物料不 能太重 。 (磁石之間的力代表地球的 .學乏， , 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 171 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 三.評量與分析芳法 違恩的評量方法 透過半結構式的問題訪談與繪畫後，從兒童的對話中歸納他們對地球的形 狀和地心吸力有那些迷思，然後初步統計不同迷恩的種類和人數。與形狀有關 的迷思歸納見表一 ，而與地心吸力有關的迷思歸納見表三。 地心曠力教學實峙的評量芳:垂 進行前測和後測，以分析和比較哪種教學策略有助兒童對地心吸力的概念 轉變。測試的工具分別會以 「問題選擇和問題訪談J 選擇進行 。 而測試問題會 在了解兒童地心吸力迷思的種類再歸納後才設立。若果宣驗組的兒童在進行 「指向概念轉變教學J 後，回答問題一(表三的實驗組)的答案為 8 (她不會 掉下來 ， 因為地球有地心引力)的人數有明顯增加，另判、回答問題三的答案為 7 (球會掉到地球的中心)的人數亦有明顯增加，即表示 「指向概念轉變教學J 能幫助兒童對地心吸力的概念轉變。 研究結果 一 、 見童對地球(形狀)的迷恩 義一:以預設選擇117解兒童對地球形狀迷恩統計固 模式 間 中空的圓 扁平的地球 兩個地球 義二: 偏見畫選擇暈接近地球形狀的立體圓形統計固 選擇球體 .人數 人數 4 4 。 。 結果 此統計圖表示所有兒童在立體圓形的選擇中都選擇7球體，他們認為球 體是最接近地球的立體形狀 。 172 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 表三:以前蜂進一步7解兒童對地球形妝的迷恩統計圖 ﹒人在文 111 中立的因 兩個3也時已 二、見童對地球(地心明力)的遮恩 表四:兒童對地心引力的迷恩(在7解兒童地心吸力迷恩的種麵後歸納出的測 試問題) 實驗組 ， 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面，她會不會掉下來? 前測(人數) 後淇IJ (人數) a . 她會掉下來， 掉到太空去 。 2 。 b 她不會掉下來 ，因為地球有電會吸住他。 。 c . 她不會掉下來， 因為人會 「黏j 住地球。 。 d 她不會掉下來 ，因為地球有地心引力 。 (正 。 4 確的地心引力概念) 問題 2 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩 ，丰持一個球。 如果她把球丟下 ， 球 會到那兒? a . 球會掉到太空 。 。 b 球會掉到海襄 。 (兒童畫了一個國圈代表地 。球 ，在地球下畫7海) c . 球會掉到下面 。 (兒童畫了個圓形代表地球 ， 。在圓形的下方畫7一條線代表地下。) d 球會掉到地球的中心 。(正確的地心引力概 4 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 173 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 對照組 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面 ， 她會不會掉下來? 前測 (人數 ) 後測 (人數) a. 他不可以站在地球下面 ，因為如果這樣人的 。頭會朝下， 整個人反轉7 。 b 他會掉到金星，因為地球下一個星球是金星。 。 C. 他會掉到地上 。(兒童畫了 一個圓圈代表地 。 2 球 ，在地球下畫了一條線代表地上) d 他不會掉下來 ， 因為他住在國家裊面 。 。 8 . 他不會掉下來，因為他住在屋襄。 。 f 他不會掉下來 (正確的地心引力概念) 問題 2 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩，丰持一個球。如果她把球丟下，球 會到那兒? a. 球會掉到太空 3 。 b 球會掉進屋裊 。 。 C . 他會掉到金星，因為地球下一個星球是金星 。 。 d 球會掉到地上 。(兒童畫了 一個國圈代表地 。 2 球 ，在地球下畫了一條線代表地上) 8 . 球會掉向地球的中心 。(正確的地心引力概 。 三、比較『指向攝念轉變的教學」輿「教導it教學J '哪一種的教學黨時更能 對見重地心咽力的概念轉變更為有數? 表五:比較實驗組和對照組對地心曙力概念轉變統計圖 5 4 高峰 S -< 2 1 。 地心吸力概念轉變統計圖 ---對!貝寧、組 ---實驗生且 結果 統計區中 ， 對比實驗組和對照組的兒童概念轉變情況 ，實驗組中的四位 兒童在進行 「指向概念轉變教學j 後均能答出球會跌向地球中心(正確的地心 眼力概念)。相對於對照組的 「教導式教學j 只有一個兒童能達至地心吸力的 概念轉變。 由此可見， í指向概念轉變教學J 較 「教導式教學J 能更有效達至 地心吸力的概念轉變 ， 意即是前者教學更為有效 。 174 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 討論與建議 一、兒童對地球(形妝)的迷恩 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 方法一 方法二 ﹒選擇正侈的地球形狀 方法三 方法一 . 預設選擇題， 方法三 立體圓形選擇，方法三 . 問題訪談 比較三種了解見童對地球形狀迷恩的方法，結果顯示方法一和三兒童選擇 的地球形狀更接近現宜。正如 Geo凹陷， Gavin & Rob i n 發現使用預設選擇題和 立體模型選擇方法，令兒童對於地球知識的理解更傾向科學性，同時亦發現兒 童對地球科學的認知較我們認為的更多。 在立體圖形選擇中 ，所有兒童均選擇最接近地球的形狀是球體。意即他們 認知到地球的形狀，可能是周遭的大人告訴他們的 。但與生活中他們所見的地 面是平坦的，推測地球應該是平的，這些的生活經驗與科學概念相違背時，造 成了他們對地球形狀的迷思。接看他們會合理化和意義化在認知上的衝突 ，而 產生他們心目中的地球的形狀與人的關係。 訪談內容， 老師.人住原地球邊度? {韋{韋.我住係香港。(兒童在地球上點出香港的位置) 老師.人可唔可以住但堪球下面? {韋{韋.可以 ， 因為呢個襄邊有個國家。 老師.人如果住係呢{盟國家 ， 人會唔會跌? 偉偉.唔會，因為垃球會包住佢。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 175 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 固一:地球是中宜的圍，人居住在下半球體的橫切面平坦盧 偉偉在合理化他對地球形狀的認知衝突 ， 他畫了圓代表地球的形狀是圓 的 ，又將人畫在地球中心的平地上，以意義化生活經驗與認知的矛盾。 二、兒童對地球(地心吸力)的迷恩 兒童對人與地球關係的迷思 ì.原於他們缺乏對地心吸引力的認知，所以他 們會認為人是住在地球襄面 ，因為若地球是球體 ，人不能站立於地球的下方 ， 在他們的生活經驗中 ， 任何東西在球的下方是會跌下的。 由以上的研究所得，有 50% 的兒童認為人是住在地球襄面(參閱表一) 兒童有此一迷思 . Glynn & Yeany(1996) 解釋為兒童相信地球是空心球體 ， 因 為他們不能理解人們如何能生活在球體底端而不掉落下去 ，和他們無法克服他 們先有概念地球是平的與地球是圓理念問矛盾。另一個造成迷恩的原因 ， 是由 於他們暫時未能理解甚麼是地心引力 。 基於缺乏對地心吸力的認知， 然後透過 不同的教學活動再配合 「指向概念轉變的教學j 後，看看是否能讓兒童理解地 球的地心吸力。 了解地心吸力的訪談記錄. 老師. 人 可唔可以生活原地球下面? 頓頓 - 可以，茵為有問屋。 老師.咱揉揉場度有無屋。 頓頓.無。 老師 . 無屋都唔會跌，點解呢? 頤頤 ; 因為有平地就唔會跌。 老師.如果有個女仔企原地球下面 ， 佢會唔會跌落黎? 頓頓 - 唔會，茵為有屋。 老師.如果個女仔手持個球 ， 佢一放芋 ， 球會點樣? 頓頓.個波波會跌落間屋度。 176 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 )....~、 、 主; \ 固二:見畫認為人住在屋聾，就可以住在地球的下方 三、比較『指向攝念轉變的教學j 輿『教導it教學 J '哪一種的教學實時更能 對見重地心吸力的攝念轉變更為有數 表五:比較實驗組和對照組對地心吸力攝念轉變統計圖 地心吸力概念轉變統計圓 5 4 緝 令 -< - 2 1 。 -H且也組 -一貸給他 由表五所得的結果， I教導式教學j 能更有效違至地心吸力的概念轉變， 即是此教學方法更為有效。正如布魯納 (Brune r， 1 96 1 ) 曾說過 「學生不是一 個被綁於椅條上的傾聽者，他應該是活躍地涉入學習過程中。 j 這視于我們有 否給予他們發現概念的機會 ，他認為任何時間先許之下 ，兒童應該給予機會讓 他們自己發現概念，容許學習者發現訊息與組織訊息是學習解決問題技巧所必 須的 (Cliatt & Shaw, 1992) 。這與 「指向概念轉變的教學j 的教學原則是一 致的。教學過程中的第一堂，我們已讓兒童感受地心吸力和其方向，再加上不 同的書籍、光碟和實驗，讓兒童有充分展現迷思概念的機會。 環境的配合也是教學有效的其中一個因素 ，正如皮亞傑的觀點指出，兒童 是通過與環境的相互作用而建構知識的 ( Rosali nd & Karen, 2003) 。兒童透 過地球儀、放大鏡和圖畫書等的環境刺激和互動，以建構地心吸力的知識。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 177 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 固三:見童正在標索地球儷上的不同國家，並在過程中討前曾經圭過的國家 四 、 對研究的融示和建讀 研究員在本學年有更多的時間與研究對象進行訪談，能更深入地了解兒童 對於地球形狀和地心引力的迷思，進一步制定有效的教學策略 ，所以足夠的研 究時間是相當重要的。 由於每一個地方的兒童認知有所差異 ，在應用其他研究 者的訪談問題時， 也要因應兒童的反應做調整， 例如大部份兒童不明白甚麼是 終點，即使回答也與問題完成無閥，也就是說即使開了也對該研究沒有幫助， 最後此問題應取消 。 實驗組 : 圖四 : 教學前所繪畫的地球 國五 : 學後所繪畫的地球 對照組 戶_-一 .、\" \" b \B 。能「 刊 國六 : 教學前所繪畫的地球 圓仁 : 教學後所繪畫的地球 178 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 比較國四和圓五， 見童在經歷 「指向概念轉變的教學J 之後， 對地球有更 多的了解 ，兒童能表達地球會發生的不同事情，例如有龍捲風和火山爆發 ，而 兒童所繪畫的方向都是符合地心吸力的方向和概念。 相較於 「教導式教學J 兒童對於地心吸力迷思仍然存在。另外，在教學的第一天讓兒童親身感受地心 吸力 ，有助兒童7解這項概念。兒童在訪談的過程中亦會運用先前所做的實驗 ， 例子如下 ， 兒童對地心吸力的訪談記錄 老師-人可唔可以生活原地球下面? 泰泰 : 可以。 老師.如果有個女仔企種堪球下面，佢會唔會跌落黎? 泰泰.唔會 ， 因為有地心眼力。 老師.陣德地心吸力? 泰泰 : /1ß.豆子i以我堪跳起，就會被埋心眼力吸落黎。 五、對數學的融示和建鵬 在教學過程中，改善教學的第一步 ， 便是老師必須明白 ， 兒童對老師要教 授的東西會有不同的理解，於是老師的首要任務 ， 便是要找出兒童對學習內容 不同的理解 ， 然後再思考如何建構教學 ，讓兒童掌握新的知識。在是決研究中 ， 老師首先透過繪畫、訪談問題、立體圓形選擇和選擇性問題，以了解兒童對地 球的形狀和地心吸力的迷思，從而制定有效的教學策略。其次，老師要放下對 兒童的框框 ， 運用有效的提問引導他們思考。尤其是較為抽象的概念一一地心 吸力 ， 老師就更需要有充足的耐性。老師本身除了要掌握所要教授知識的關鍵 屬性，也要明白兒童對於理解關鍵屬性存在的困難，這才能將地心吸力的概念 凸顯出來，再配合 「指向概念轉變的教學J 研究結果顯示這能有效達致地球地心吸力的概念轉變。如果有更寬足的資 源，可讓兒童有更多的親身經驗，例如帶他們到太空館，與幼兒一問閱讀更多 與地球有闊的圖書。或與他們一同觀看和討論地球光碟，進行更多地心吸力的 宣驗，亦有助兒童建構知識。 個蝕 11苟且且，，，U 透過 「指向概念轉變教學j 的教學策略 ，結果顯示能有效地改變 4-5 歲兒 童對地球(地心吸力)的概念轉變。也發現兒童對地球知識的學習是一致的 ， 即能夠回答 「為甚麼J 的問題(鄧賜平等， 2002 ) 。這次的研究更進一步證宜 了，不應小看兒童對科學的熱愛和能力。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 179 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 書考，目 洛克 ( 1 981 ) 0 {人類理解論(上冊) }。 北京 ， 商務印書館 。 徐傑 1割愛 、 李青、 馬柳新 (2009) <大班幼兒沉浮概念轉變的教學研究> . {幼稚教責﹒ 教育科學版} 0 2009 年第 01 期 。 險峰津 ( 1982 ) 0 {布魯納教育思想之研究》。畫灣商務印書館股份有限公司， 台北市 。 鄧賜平 、劉明 (2002 ) 0 <兒童認知發展研究的沿革與新發> .載弗拉維爾等 《認 知發展} (序第 5-32 頁 ) 。 上海 ， 華東師範大學出版社。 Brewer, W. F., Hendrich , D. J. , & Vosniadou, S. (1987, January) . Alternate knowledge systems: A cross-cultural study of cosmological schemata. Paper presented at the second meeting of the International Society on Cross-Cultural Cognition , Honolulu. Bruner, J (1961). The act of discovery. HalVard Education Review, 31, 21-32 Clia哎， M. J P , & Shaw, J. M. (1992). He仰的9 children explore science. New York Macmillan Panag iotaki G., Nobes G, & Bane門ee R. (2006) Children' s representations of the earth: A methodological comparison , 8ritish Journal of Oevelopmental Psychology, 24, 353-372 Straatemeier M ,van der Maas H.L.J. & Jansen B.RJ. (2008): Children' s knowledge of the earth: A new methodological and statistical approach . Exp. Child Psychol Glynn, S.M., &Yeany, RH. (1996) 0 {科學學習心理學》。 台北市 ，心理出版社。 Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A. , Hewson P. W., et al.(1982) Accommodaton of a scienti fic conception : Toward a theory of conceptual change . Science Education, 1982, 66:211 -277 Reiner, M., Slotta , J. D. , Chi , M. T. H., & Resnick , L. B. (2000). Naïve Physics Reasoning : A commitment to substance-based concept ions, Cognition and Instructio月， 18, pp.1-34. Charlesworth R. & Lind K.(2003) 0 {兒童的數學與科學》。 新加坡，新加坡商亞洲湯 姆生國際出版有限公司 。 180 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 附件一 繪畫地球形狀 | 性別 ; 男/女 | 年齡 : 一一-歲一一個月 | 訪問者 : 1. 地球是甚麼形狀的?人住在地球的哪裡? 2 你能不能蓋一個地球，然後畫出人住在地球的哪裡? 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 181 。。 。。 。 四至五鐵兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念、轉變 耐件二 訪談 : 有關地球形狀和地心吸力的迷恩 了解地球形狀主li恩的訪談問題 :. 地球是甚麼形狀呢?. 人們住在地球的甚麼地方呢?. 人們可住在地球的底部嗎? (如果兒童答可以，應繼續追問其原因。) • 如果你挖一個洞，貫穿地球，你會看到什麼?. 從這些棋型中逛一個與地球形狀相同模型(附件五的立體圖型) 。. 人們住在地球的哪邊?用你的模型指給我石﹒ 。 7解地球地心吸力迷恩的訪談問題 :. 人可以生活在地球的底部嗎?. 現在記著這是地球(展示地球儀) ，假設有一位女生站在地球底端，她會掉下去嗎?. 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩，手持者一個球 。 如果她鬆開手，球會到哪呢? (問題參考資料來源 : Brewer, Hendrich, & Vosniadou, 1987 ) 182 I 教育研究報告匯緝 。 。。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 附件三 選擇題 : 這裡有幾幅圖，你覺得哪一幅最接近地球的形狀? 1.地球是方的，人住在上面 2. 地球是碟子的形狀，人住在平面上 3. 地球是天上的球，人住在地上 4. 地球是為的球，人住在表面上 會 5. 地球是個球，人住在球的裡面 6. 地球是個球，人住在地球的表面 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 183 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 附件四 對地球想法的立體圖形 不同立體模型(請兒童選擇最接近地球的立體模型) (由上至下 、 左至右說明立體模型 : 長方體 、 上面和下面是平的立體 、 球體、 只 有上面是平的立體 、 像碟般的圓形模型 ) 184 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 。。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 附件五 見童對地心吸力的逃恩(在了解兒童地心吸力迷恩的種類後歸納出的測試問題) 實驗組 : 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面，她會不會摔下來? 前測(人數) 後測(人數) a 她會掉下來，掉到太空去。 2 。 b 她不會掉下來 ，因為地球有電會吸住他 。 。 c 她不會掉下來，因為人會 「黏」住地球 。 。 d 她不會掉下來，因為地球有地心引力 。(正確的地心引力概念) 。 4 問題 2: 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩，手持一個球。如果她把球丟下 ，球會到那兒? a 球會掉到太空 。 。 b 球會掉到海襄 。 (兒童畫了一個圓圓代表地球，在地球下蓋了 。 海) C. I求會掉到下面。(兒童畫7個圓形代表地球，在圓形的下方宣 。 7一條線代表地下。) d. 1求會掉到地球的中心 。 (正臨的地心引力概念) 4 對照組: 問題 1 : 假使有個小女孩站在地球的下面， 她會不會摔下來? 前測(人數) 後測(人數) a 他不可以站在地球下面，因為如果這樣人的頭會朝下，整個人 。 反轉了。 b 他會掉到金星，因為地球下一個星球是金星。 。 c 他會掉到地上 。 (兒童畫了一個圓圓代表地球，在地球下畫了 。 2 一條線代表地上) d 他不會掉下來，因為他住在國家里面。 。 e 他不會掉下來，因為他住在屋里 。 。 f 他不會摔下來(正碌的地心引力概念) 問題 2: 如果在地球下面的這個小女孩，手持一個球 。 如果她把球丟下，球會到那兒? a 球會掉到太空 3 。 b 球會掉進屋里 。 。 c 他會掉到金星，因為地球下一個星球是金星。 。 d. I求會摔到地上 。 (兒童畫7一個囡囡代表地球，在地球下畫了 。 2 一條線代表地上) e 球會綽向地球的中心 。 (正稚的地心引力概念) 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 185 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 附件六 教課 班級 ﹒ 低班 年齡 : 4-5 歲 人數 ﹒ 10 人 (實驗組) 10 人(對照組) 教學步膝 | 教學材料 第一堂 I 球 、 石頭 、 筆等 目的 . 撥兒童親身戚受地心吸力的影響和方向 1. 老師準備一個球 ，提問兒童當老師放手後， 球會怎樣?為甚麼? I 紙和筆 2. 老師可嘗試不同的物件做同樣的提問。是否在課室內物件才會向下跌 ? 在其他地方 ， 會有同樣的結果嗎? (向兒童戚受地心吸力是無所不在) 3 . 老師請見童自行操弄此質驗。地點轉換為課室、操場和音樂室等 。 4. 待實驗後 ， 老前提問 : f物件跌的方向是 ? J 5. 老師讓見童跳高後 ， 最後會怎樣 ? (跌下)為甚麼? (再一次讓見童戚 受地心吸力亦影響人 ， 同時戚受地心吸力的方向。當然兒童此時並不知 道 「地心吸力」的專有名詞。) 6. 老師請見童將實驗的結果繪畫出來。當中請兒童同時記錄物件跌下的方 向。 第二堂 I 光碟 目的 . 透過光碟撥兒童了解地心吸力來自地球 ， 地心吸力將地球上的所有事 物吸向地球。 教學步路 : 1. 重浪兒童第一堂所戚受的地心吸力，提問兒童為甚麼物件總是向下跌 H尼? 2 . 老師繼續提問 : 如果不想令物件跌下有甚麼方法?將物件的重量提升後 提問同一問題。課室中的各樣物件均貼近地下 ，如何改變其方向 。 兒童 有機會需合力將桌子搬起。(讓兒童再一次戚受地心吸力和其方向，亦讓 見童戚受所有物件均受地心吸力的影響) 3 . 說兒童觀看光碟，光際內會提及所有人和物件都會受地球的地心吸力吸 5 1 。 第三/四堂 : 目的 . 透過磁石實驗，讓見童明白即使人居住在地球的下方亦不會跌下的原 因是地心吸力。 教學步膝 1. 老師展示地球棋型，將兩個人形紙板， 一個有貼磁石， 一個則沒有貼磁 石，分別放於地球棋型的下方，請見童觀察有甚麼不同 。 2 . 請見童親身{故此質驗，提問為甚麼其中一個人形紙恨不會跌下 。 3 . 請兒童親身戚受兩個磁石之間產生的磁力 。 (從而明白地心吸力如磁石 186 I 教育研究報告匯編 於人型和屋的 紙板棋型底部 貼磁石 地球棋型(巴貼 滿磁石) 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 般， 雖然看不見，但力仍存在。而且地心吸力比磁石的力大得多) ※準備物料時需留意人型的磁石面要與地球的磁石面相吸。(磁石兩面分別 會有相吸與排斥的力) ※間告角會放宜相關閏苦，讓兒堂可隨時閱讀。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 187 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 附件七 地心吸力的訪談記錄 前測 後浪。 對照組 學生一 地心吸力 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面 ? 翹翹 : 可以 。 要盡翹 : n宮會。 老師:如果有個女仔企徐地球下面，佢會唔會跌落 老師:如果有個女仔企像地球下面，佢會 黎? 唔會跌落黎? 翹翹:唔會，因為地球有地心吸力。 翹翹:唔會，因為有地心吸力 。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手，球會點樣? 老師: 11判奈地心吸力? 翹翹:跌落下面，外邊條太空。 翹翹:即f急地球會吸住個人，不會跌。 老師 : 老師在諜室示範放手後球會跌落遠? 老師:請畫出。 翹翹 : 地下 。 翹翹:地球地下有D吸力。 老師: 點解地球無跌去太空? 老師: 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手 ， 翹翹 : 唔知。 球會點樣? 翹翹 : 波波會跌落地球既地下 。 (畫出地 老師 : 人可唔可以住條地球衰退? 球的地下 ，在國的線上 ) 擱翹 : 日吾可以 。 老師 : 地球有無海洋 ? 老師 : 點解唔可以? 翹翹 : 有。 翹翹 : 因為地球裳邊有火 。 老師 : 地球有無雲 ? 老師 : 人如果住條里邊會點? 翹翹除了地球的下方 ， 其他地球的上方 要過翹 : 會燒死 。 都有雲。 老師 : 地球下面住了人， 抬頭見到甚麼 ? 翹翹 : 見到太空。 老師 : 如果下雨 ， 商會落去邊 ? 如翹 : 落去地下 。 老師 : 點解金部部落去地 ? 翹翹 : 因為佢向住方向嘛。 老師 : 點解全部都向住地下 ? 翹摺 : 停了一會兒。 老師 :人住你地下 ， 海、樹都{奈地球地下 條因為峰 ? 翹翹:地心吸力 。 188 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生二 老師 ﹒ 人可11吾可以生活條地球下面? 偉(章 ， 可以，因為呢到有國家 。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面，佢會H吾會跌落 黎? (韋偉 : 日吾會 。 老師 :如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手 ，球會點樣? 偉偉 : 就有跌左地球下邊 ， 如果一方手就會跌落呢 度(下邊)。 老師 :咐下邊停、時? 偉偉: 太空 ，一放手就會跌落去太空。 老師 ﹒ 點解人可以住條地球里面 ? 偉偉 ﹒ 地E求你天空上邊，所以人就可以住條主黨邊 。 偉(章 ， 人住係地球地下的屋 。 老師 : 佢真條住你呢度會點?之前人可以住你人既 下面，依家人點解唔可以住f奈地球上面? 偉偉 : 因為佢m包住野，佢咐撥就會昀11低 。佢條腳 你下邊，頭條上遍 。 (繪畫畫了頭頂看地 E求) I頁個地球上去。 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 偉偉 ﹒ l事會。 老師 ， 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ，佢會 唔會跌落黎? 偉偉 : 唔會，因為佢條地球人遍。 老師 : 人單既意思、既條呼? {剝奪 地球里邊 。 老師 ， 如果女仔企條里邊就唔會跌 ? 偉偉 . 像。 老師 : U甘如果女仔條地球下邊會唔會跌? 偉偉 ﹒ 啊(表現奇怪的眼神) ，唔會。 老師 ﹒ 點解H吾會 ? 偉偉 ﹒ 即f寄:似呢個咐。 老師 ， 即條佢企企餘， 反轉 ? 偉偉 : 像。 老師 : 佢企企條點綴皮串串? 偉偉 ﹒ 咐就會跌落去 。 老師如果佢企條地球下遷就會跌落去。 偉偉 ， 像。 老師 ; 如果個女仔手持個球， 佢一放手， 球會點樣? 偉偉 . 會跌，跟住會上返。 老師 點樣上返? {韋偉 ﹒ 沒有回應 。 老師:咱如果女仔放手，個波波會點? 偉偉:會跌左落去 。 老師:跌去邊? 偉偉:地球下一個星球條峰? 老師:好似像火星。 偉偉:會彈落火星 ， 又彈落水星 ， 彈黎彈 去。 老師:如果像個曙彈既j皮波 ， 咐個波渡會 跌去邊? {韋偉:會跌去火星，跟住就停左像度。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 189 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 學生三 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 頓頓 :可以， 因為有間置。 老師:明你操場度有無屋? 頤頤 : 無。 老師:無屋都唔會跌，點解呢? 頤頤:因為有平地就唔會跌? 老師:如果有個女仔企{奈地球下面，佢會唔會跌落 黎? 頤頤 : 唔會，因為有屋。 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手，球會點樣? 頤頤 : 個波波會跌落間屋度 。 (在科學性的選擇題中，頤頤避了地球的形狀似波 波，而人住在地球里邊。) 190 I 教育研究報告匯編 老師 :人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 頤頤 : (遲疑 。 ) 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ， 佢會 唔會跌落黎? 頤頤 : 你間屋里邊就得 。 老師:如果你地球下邊，人會唔會跌落 去? (老師繪盡了一個人在地球的底端) 頤頤 : 如果有地下就可以 。 老師﹒哦，如果呢到有地下 ，佢可唔可以 企f涂地下? (兒童表示在園形(地 球)的下方有條線代表地下) 頤頤 :佢就跌地下 ，跟住企返起身。 老師 .餅、哦，佢跌落地下 ， 跟住企返起身 就無事l啦? 老師 : 呢個地球， 下面就有個地下。 頤頤 : 係啊 。 老師 :如果策，個地下，佢會跌去邊呢? 頤頤 :會跌去好危險既地方。 老師 : {象嘩地方咐危險? 頤頤 : 唔知道 。 老師:咱可唔可以企像上面? 頤頤 : 會碌走左 。 老師:咐企條則邊得唔得? 頤頤 : 會(滑)在落去。 老師:會(滑〕去遠? 頤頤 :跌去好危險既地下。如果下邊有地 下 ，佢就會(清〕左地下 ，跟住企 返起身就無事 。 老師. 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手 ， 球會點樣? 頤頤 :球會跌落地下。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生四 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面中 元元 : 唔可以，人會反峙 。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ， 佢會日吾會跌落 黎 ? 元元 : 唔會。 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手，球會點樣? 元元 : 地下(畫了在圓形面 ， 畫了一條線代表地下 ) 老師 : 除了地下 ，地球上有無海洋 、 有無樹、有無 屋? 元元 : 有。 老師 : 屋會唔會跌 ? 元元 : 唔會 ， 因為地球會黏穗 ， 黏穩樹 、 海。 老師 : U甘會唔會黏住元元? 元元 : 會 。 老師 : 點解選第 67 元元 : 因為人住你上邊 。 老師 : 會唔會住條里邊? 元元 : 因為你見到地球個肚胸好大 ， 跟住你就會走 開。 老師 : 你住條真邊，見1I吾到地球肚惘，咐仲會l嘻會 驚肚胸? 元元 : 因為你見到路 ， 就會跌落天空。 老師 : 天空條邊 7 (老師蓋在地球的周固有天空， 兒童點頭)周圍都有天空。 元元 : (點頭) 老師 : 噹樣成個天空包住地球? 老師 : 咐條、可唔可以站在地球的另一方，他會見到 天宣嗎 ? 元元 : U甘樣就會跌落地下，就會撞到暈左啦 ! 老師 : 咽地下係遠 ? (元元在地球的下方畫了一條線代表地下 ) 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 元元 ， 唔可以。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ， 佢會 H吾會跌落黎? 元元 : 會跌 ， 跌落地下(在表示地球的下 方 ， 畫了一條線代表地下) 老師 . 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手， 球會點樣? 元元 ; 呢度。 老師 固 地球下方你睜地方? 元元 ﹒ H吾知。 老師 ﹒ 可唔可以企條呢度? 元元 ， 因為坐條到可以好舒服。 老師 : 如果呢到你人，雲會條邊度?請你 畫出黎 . . .. 老師 :人可唔可以企條呢度 7(地球上方) 元元可以。 老師 . 咐可唔可以企條則退 。 元元 - 可以。 老師 : 點解可以? 元元 - 因為地球會黏住 。 老師 ﹒ 咱可11吾可以企你呢到 ? 元元 ﹒ 唔可以。 老師 - 點解唔可以?呃個成個都條地球， u尼個可以黏住，點解H吾可以黏住呢 個人 7 (地球底端的人) 元元 : 因為你蹲在頭 ， 你個頭{奈地下呢 度。 老師 . 條唔像個頭會跌落地下? 元元 - 像啊。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 191 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 實驗組: 學生五 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 穎穎 : 唔會。 穎穎:唔可以，因為會跌落去 。 老師:如果有個女仔企條地球下面，佢會 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面，佢會唔會跌落 唔會跌落黎? 黎? 穎穎: 0吾會 ， 因為有地心吸力。 穎穎:會跌落去 SPÞI白 。 老師:地心吸力條點，點樣吸住? 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手，球會點樣? 穎穎:會吸住我地腳。 穎穎 : 球會跌落去下邊 ， 會碌落下邊，跟住跌落 老師 . 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手， SPACE 度。 球會點樣? 老師 . 有無見過 SPACE? 穎穎 : 會跌去太空。(畫了圈以外的地方 穎穎 : 像黑，有地球，像圓形，有邊圍住 。 是太空) 老師 - 你可唔可以畫出黎。 老師 :咐地心吸力吸唔吸到波波? 穎穎 : (畫7個士星。 ) 穎穎 : 吸H吾到。 老師 : (指苦地球儀)呃個條地球，藍色條代表時? 老師 : 咱之前我地做過實驗 ， 手拿若波波 綠色代表峰 ? 一放手，波波會跌去邊? 穎穎 . 藍色代表海，綠色代表士地。 穎穎 : 跌去地下。 老師 : 人可唔可以站在土地上面? 老師 : 地球個地下你還 ? 請你畫出黎。 穎穎 : 可以 。 老師 : 咐仲會日吾會跌落太空? 老師 ﹒老師指君:地球上邊的土地間 ，人可11吾可以住 穎穎、 : 0吾會， 因為. ..... f和尼個土地 。 老師 : 咱人口吾會跌落太空，條因為呼? 穎穎 ; 可以。 穎穎 : 因為地心吸力 。 老師 ， 指智地球不同位宜的綠色部份(問兒童)人 老師 : 咐波波跌落地下你因為暐? 可唔可以站立? 穎穎部條因為地心吸力 。 穎穎 ; 可以。 老師 . 咐建築物會l事會跌落太空? 老師 ， 形容呢個條地球 ， 周國仿:你先前形容的 穎穎 : 0吾會，因為地心吸力。 SPACE' 人可唔可以站立在地球的下方? 老師 : 咐樹/海洋/火山? 穎穎 : 唔可以 。 穎穎 : 因為地心吸力 。 老師 : 地心吸力可以吸住所有野? 穎穎 : 你啊。 老師 ﹒ 咐如果個女仔放手，個波波會l嘻會 跌蒞太空 。 穎穎 : 0吾會，因為地心吸力。 192 I 教育研究報告匯編 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生六 老師 : 人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 明明 : 可以。 老師:如果有個女仔企{奈地球下面 ， 佢會唔會跌落 黎? 明明 : 唔會，會 。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球 ，佢一放手 ，球會點樣? 明明 : 波波會跌落海 ， 因為無人住，就會聽落去海 。 老師 : 人點解可以黏住地球，有無膠水? 明明 : 因為佢既腳會黏住地球 。 老師:人站在下邊時，人一放手，球會跌去邊? 調研 : 球會跌落海度 。 (明明繪畫 : 圓圓代表地球 ， 人在地球下方 ， 圓圓 下方有海 ， 球會跌落海度 。 當問及先前兒童說地球上的藍色部份代表海洋 ， 而 此時又將海洋蓋在地球的下方峙，兒童不懂得回 答 。 ) 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 明明:唔可以 。 老師:如果有個女仔企f余地球下面，佢會 唔會跌落黎? 明明:唔會，因為有地心吸力。 老師 : 峰條地心吸力? 明明 : 吸住人。 老師:峰都可以吸? 明明:水、建築物、山。 老師 : 所有野? 明2月:你。 老師 . 如果個女仔手持個球， 佢一放手， 球會點樣? 明明 ﹒ 地下。 老師 ﹒ 地下你遠? 明明 ﹒ 呢度1奈地下(在代表地球的圈遷 ， 蓋了紋代表地下。即女孩站立的位 置) 老師 : 會唔會飛出去 ? 明明 ﹒ 唔會 。 老師 點解唔會? 明明 : 因為有地心吸力。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 193 。。 。。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷恩的概念:轉變 學生t 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 撤銷:唔可以，因為會跌。 老師:如果有個女仔企條地球下面，佢會唔會跌落 黎? 錦姆:會 ， 跌落地下。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球 ，佢一放手，球會點樣? 鐵鉤 : 會跌落地下。(指著課室的地下，然後解釋 球一方手 ， 是會跌落地下) 194 I 教育研究報告匯編 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 織餓 : 唔會。 老師 : 如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ， 佢會 唔會跌落黎? 磁鐵 : 唔會 ， 因為有地心吸力。 老師 ﹒ 峰f余地心吸力? 錦姆 : 就像有野吸住。 老師 : 地心吸力黎自邊度? 姆姆 : 黎自入邊的地方 。 老師 : 邊度地方?地球入邊? 鐵鐵 : 唔(點頭)。 老師 . 咐除左人仲. . . .. . 餓餓 : 羊 、 牛. .. ... 老師 : 所有動物? 甜甜 : 樹 、 屋 、 小既動物、食物、車 、給 老師 : 咐紙呢? 餓餓 : 都會吸住 。 老師 : 所有野都可以? 站站 ﹒ 唔(點頭) 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球， 佢一放手 ， 球會點綴? 餓做 ﹒ 會跌落地下 。 老師 ﹒ 點解可以跌落地下? 蹦蹦 : 因為有地心吸力吸住 。 老師 : 如果手上拿住蘋果，放手會點樣? 餓餓 . 會跌落地下 ，因為地心吸力 。 老師:如果手上拿若杯水，放手會點樣? 蹦蹦跌落地下 。 老師 . 地心吸力過水都可以吸住? 餓餓:唔。 。 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷息的概念:轉變 學生八 老師:人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 泰泰:唔得 。 老師 :如果有個女仔企條地球下面 ， 佢會唔會跌落 黎? 泰泰:會跌落去太空 。 老師:如果個女仔手持個球 ，佢一放手，球會點樣? 泰泰:波波會跌落太空度。 老師 : 太空f寄:邊? 泰泰 : 地球的周圍條太宜。 老師人可唔可以住條太空 ? 泰泰 : 唔得，太窒無床無玩具，~電腦 。 老師 : (老師在諜室示範放手後球會跌落地下 ， 沒 有跌向太室。) 泰泰人一放手， 一放手就會中。個直跌去太空 ， 人(主{奈地球里邊，有個臣就會跌去太室。 老師 : 條線代表呼? 泰泰 : 條線代表陸地，放手就會跌去陸地。(繪畫 : 圓閻代表地球，人在地球里邊 ， 在自己的腳 下查7一條線代表陸地。) 老師 ﹒ 地球里邊有時~? 泰泰 : 地球里邊有削I~以L ' 同埋樹 。 老師 :人可唔可以生活條地球下面? 泰泰 : 可以。 老師 ﹒如果有個女仔企f奈地球下面，佢會 曙會跌落黎? 泰泰 : 唔會 ， 因為有地心吸力 。 老師 : [洋條地心吸力? 泰泰 ﹒ 即好似我地跳起，就會被地心吸力 吸落黎。 老師 : 地心吸力仲會吸住呼? 泰泰 : 例如車 ， 全部野會被吸住。 老師 : 如果個女仔手持個球，佢一放手， 球會點樣? 泰泰 : 會跌去太空。 老師 : 咱如果條課室 ， 一放手波會跌落 邊? 泰泰 : 地下。 老師 : 咐地球既地下1年遊? 泰泰 : (在地球的圍上宣7一條線代表地 下 。 ) 老師 : 今次波波會跌去追 ? 泰泰:地球既地下。 教育研究獎勵計劃 1 1112 I 195 。。 。。 196 。 教育研究獎勵計劃 香港教師中心教育研究小組於 200 1 年開始推行教育研究獎 勵計劃(獎勵計劃) ，目的在於鼓勵和支持前線教師進行教學行 動研究及教育研究 ， 加強自我反思能力和創造力 。獎勵計劃既鼓 勵中 、小學教師積極研究外，更希望幼兒教育的教師主動參與， 推動幼兒教育 。 為鼓勵更多教師進行行動研究，獎勵計劃鼓勵教師自定研究 主題，成功申請並在指定時間內完成的研究計畫1] ，經教育研究小 組審批研究報告，可獲獎勵金以資鼓勵。此外，獲教育研究小組 選為優秀的作品，將輯錄於《教育研究報告匯編} ，作為教育界 同工的交流與分享之用。 有關研究獎勵計劃的詳情，教師可參閱香港教師中心網頁 Chttp://www.edb.gov.hk/hktc ) ，或致電 3698 3698 向本中心職 員查詢。 香港教師申，已諮詢管理委員會 (2012-2014 年度) 教育研究小組 召集人 : 楊沛銘博士 小組成員 : 鄭敵然先生 張佩嫻女士 招祥麒博士 賴炳華先生 李少鶴先生 李宏宰先生 梁秀婷女士 李志霖先生 徐國棟博士 徐慧旋女士 黃金耀博士 。 。。 197 。o () 198 香港教師申，已諮詢管理委員會 (2010-2012 年度) 教育研究小組 召集人 : 楊沛銘博士 小組成員 : 朱國強先生 張佩嫻女士 趙丹琳女士 趙淑媚女士 莊聖謙先生 莊月華女士 何頌賢先生 李少鶴先生 李宏宰先生 利耀雄先生 洗儉恆先生 黃炳文博士 黃金耀博士 徐慧旋女士 編輯委員會 主編 : 楊沛銘博士 委員 : 張佩柵女士 鄭傲然先生 梁秀婷女士 李宏宰先生 李少鶴先生 李志霖先生 徐慧旋女士 徐國棟博士 黃金耀博士 。 。。 199
Educational Research Award Scheme Reports Collections 14/15
Category: DocumentsDocuments Icon3 目錄 編者的話 ...............................................................................................................................5 中學 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 ..........................................6 勞工子弟中學 鄧耀南（主要研究員） 黃麗燕、岑嘉慧、盧顯珺、廖穎茹、黃潔萍（其他研究員） 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 ..........................................................................41 五育中學 吳善揮 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong..............................................................63 Caritas Tuen Mun Marden Foundation Secondary School Kwun-hung Li To know is not to use: the gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing .................................................81 S.K.H. St. Simon' s Lui Ming Choi Secondary School Bronson Hui University of Oxford Daniel Fung Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students ............................................................................105 HHCKLA Buddhist Leung Chik Wai College Selena T. C. Tam & Dr. Eva Chiu 小學 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 ..........................................131 鳳溪第一小學 吳麗琴、李佩霞、陳小敏、馬望寧 香港教育大學 何志恆博士 幼稚園 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 .........................149 香港教育大學滙豐幼兒發展中心 張曄（主要研究員）、黎培莉、關珊（其他研究員） 5教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 編者的話 編者的話 香港教師中心教育研究小組收到參與「教育研究獎勵計劃2014/15」 的研究報告超過十篇。編輯委員會從中選出七篇刊登於《教育研究報告 匯編》。本年度的研究範圍相當廣泛，包括透過合作學習提升學生的課 堂參與、把朗讀劇場融入文言文教學，以至透過電子教學平台提升學生 辨析修辭手法的能力等。 整體來說，參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題，先進行 文獻探究，再提出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分 析，再作出結論和建議，最後以系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來。研 究報告反映他們在文獻比較和數據分析方面，都有相當深入和精闢的見 解，對學生的學習問題，以及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的討論， 並提出具體可行的建議。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與「教育研究獎勵計劃」的同工，在有 限的時間及經驗下，仍然全力以赴，成功完成整項研究計劃。他們為提 升教育質素所付出的努力，值得讚賞。我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品，均 能夠為課堂學習提供實際而深入的分析基礎，並闡釋當中行之有效的方 法。讀者可以多參考研究報告的建議，應用在日常教學工作，進一步優 化教學的效能。我們更希望這些報告能啟發同工就相關的課題，展開更 多、更全面的研究。本人亦謹此向《教育研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致 意，感謝他們在百忙中抽空審閱各篇研究報告。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持，本小組定能持續推動教育研 究，鼓勵教師進行更深入和持續性的教育研究，不斷提升教學效能和質 素。他山之石，可以攻玉。期望各位讀者對《教育研究報告匯編》內的 文章提出意見，相互交流，集思廣益。 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 2016 年 12 月 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 6 教育研究報告匯編 透過合作學習提升 中一級學生課堂參與的 教育行動研究 鄧耀南 ( 主要研究員 ) 黃麗燕、岑嘉慧、盧顯珺、 廖穎茹、黃潔萍 ( 其他研究員 ) 勞工子弟中學 摘要 不少學術研究都發現，合作學習不單能有效提升學習動機，使學 生積極參與課堂討論，亦能提升學生的學業成績 (Arends, 2004；Jacob, 1992, 1999；Johnson 及 Johnson 等，2000；Slavin, 1990, 1995, 1999；黃政 傑及吳俊憲等 , 2006)。本行動研究目的是探討合作學能否有效促進學生 的學習動機和課堂參與，並進而提升學生的學業成績。研究小組透過質 化與量化相結合的混合研究策略，除了有系統地運用問卷調查、訪談、 文件分析及課堂觀察等多元化方法來進行本行動研究之外，更在資料來 源（教師、學生等）方面採取三角校正，以進一步提升研究的信度和效 度。研究結果發現中一級學生透過合作學習，在短短四個月，其學習動 機和課堂參與都得到明顯的提升，而學生在通識、中文、數學及英文科 的學業成績亦得到不同程度的提升。 研究背景和目的 課程發展議會於 2002 年公布了《基礎教育課程指引－各盡所能 ‧ 發揮所長（小一至中三）》，而課程改革在過去十年取得不少成就、優 勢和經驗，而學校在這十多年課改中的主要進展，包括學與教範式的轉 移，即教師更注重提供機會讓學生參與學習，並體現了從教師主導轉移 向以學生為本的學與教範式（課程發展議會，2014）。然而，本校雖然 有七十年的歷史，但在教學上仍以教師主導為主，學生在課堂上的學習 動機和課堂參與都偏低，亟待改善。從 2014 年持分者問卷數據反映不 同持分者包括教師、家長和學生本身都認同學生對學習的觀感偏低。在 數據為本的基礎下，本校《2014-2017 三年發展計劃》的其中一個重要 關注事項便是推動教學範式轉移，即推動各科的課堂教學模式由講授式 （老師主講學生多聽）轉移至體驗式（老師少講學生多做）；並透過合 作學習策略的運用將學生的學習逐步由被動式學習轉移至參與式學習。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 7教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 我們相信合作學習只是衆多教學策略的其中一種，它絕不是最好， 更不是唯一的教學策略。鄧耀南曾明確指出在設計任何課堂教學時，首 要考慮的是適當教學目標的釐定 ( 包括學習及過程目標 )，而不單只是 教學策略的考慮。我們應根據不同的教學目標去設計相應的教學策略， 而絕不應該片面地及機械地運用某一類教學策略 ( 例如合作學習 )，否 則就容易出現誤用及濫用的情況 ( 鄧，2012)。 我們深信前綫老師能明白學生的學習需要，亦最瞭解學生的已有知 識基礎和最能拿揑適切的教學目標。故任何人在未充份考慮學校文化脈 絡、課室實際環境、老師的專業發展配套、學生的教育需要及具體的課 程和教學目標下，便聲稱某一個教學策略是最好的，「鼓勵」甚至由上 而下地「指令」老師在課堂中「必須採用」某個教學策略的話，這不單 違反教師發揮教學專業判斷的重要原則，亦對促進學生的有效學習未必 有實質的幫助。 然而，我們為什麽決定要推行合作學習呢 ? 這個決定主要是建基於 學生學習需要的考慮。事實上，2014 年 11 月初的先導訪談結果顯示， 本校中一級學生的課堂參與並不理想，這和老師常用的講授式教學策略 及課堂上缺乏參與機會有關。因此，藉著今次教育研究獎勵計劃，我們 成立「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」行動研究小組，在中一 級中文、英文、數學及通識課堂引入合作學習，並在「教學策略」、「小 組常規」和「課堂環境」三方面作出調整，希望透過合作學習，首先改 善學生的學習動機和課堂參與，再進而提升學業成績。此乃本行動研究 的目的。基於以上的構思，本行動研究訂立了一道探究問題 : 本校中一 級學生能否透過合作學習，提升其學習動機、課堂參與和學業成績 ? 文獻析評 很多研究都證明合作學習能提升學習成效 (Slavin，1990，1995)。 Jacob 在 1992 年的研究結果顯示，教師和學生在合作學習過程中變得 更為主動、有創造力、理解、探究、具冒險精神及喜愛上課 (Jacob， 1992)。Slavin 的研究亦指出教師在教學過程中善用合作學習的結果，不 單使學生在讀、寫及語文等方面的學習出現明顯的進步，也促使家長和 教師們均十分支持這樣的教學方式，其中最顯著的情況是大多數學生 能培育出熱愛學習的態度，並獲致具體的學業成就 (Slavin，1999)。合 作學習成為課堂教學中經常使用的學習策略，尤其深受中、小學教師 所喜愛，同時被公認為教育改革中最成功的項目 (Jacob，1999；Slavin， 1999)。Arends 亦認為合作學習能完成小組共同的學習目標，包括：提 升學習成就、學會包容及接納的態度及發展良好的社交技巧 (Arends， 2004)。事實上，Arends 在 2004 年曾綜合分析 45 篇有關於合作學的研究， 發現其中有 37 篇都是明顯地指出，運用合作學習比一般學習方式更能 有效提升學生的學業成就，另外 8 篇則發現與一般的學習方式沒有太大 的差別，但沒有任何一篇相關研究顯示合作學習會為學生的學習帶來負 面影響 (Arends，2004)。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 8 教育研究報告匯編 黃政傑及吳俊憲 (2006) 曾就台灣有關合作學習的不同研究成果作出 了綜合分析 (meta-analysis)，指出運用合作學習確能提升學生學習成效， 並表示合作學習是可行的一種教學 ( 或學習 ) 策略或方法，值得推廣和 落實。實施合作學習帶來的其中一些成果包括能提升學業成績，例如相 關學科或學習領域知識和技能的掌握；增進弱勢學生學習成效及促進正 面的學習態度，即能有效提升學習動機，使學生喜愛上課，並願意積極 及主動參與課堂討論 ( 黃政傑及吳俊憲，2006)。由此可見，「合作學 習」不單具有實證研究基礎，更是經實踐驗證的有效教學策略 (Johnson 及 Johnson 等，2000)。 研究方法 本研究是教育行動研究。研究小組基於 Lewin（1946，1948）和 Kemmis（1981，1982）規劃、行動、觀察和反思的行動研究精神，及參 照 Sagor（2006）所提倡的選擇一個焦點明確理論確定研究問題 收集數據分析數據報告結果採取明智的行動之行動研究模 式來開展的。 由於受到人力資源及時間所限，是次的研究對象只聚焦於中一級三 班共 113 位學生，年齡為 12 至 13 歲。至於搜集資料的方法，則是採取 質化與量化相結合的研究方法，包括：1. 透過量化問卷調查，了解學生 在本行動研究前後，在課堂參與及學習動機上的轉變；2. 對學生的個別 質化訪談，深入了解實施合作學對學生的課堂參與及學習動機所帶來的 影響；3. 將中一級學生在中文、英文、數學及通識科在上學期考試成績 與下學期考試成績作出比較，以了解實施合作學對學生學業成績的影響 和變化；4. 教師量化問卷調查和質化訪談，了解教師對實施合作學的評 價、觀感、觀察及意見； 5. 共同備課、同儕觀課及發展性評課的參與和 課堂實地觀察，以互相印證從學生問卷調查、老師意見調查、老師訪談、 學生訪談及文件分析 ( 包括教案、教材及考試成績 ) 所得的研究資料。 為了確保研究的信度和效度，除了在研究方法（問卷調查、訪談、 文件分析和觀察等）及資料來源（教師、學生等）方面採取三角校正外， 在整理和分析資料階段，研究小組亦邀請了小組以外的教師和學生代 表，共同審視研究資料與研究報告。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 9教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 行動研究計劃進度 基於校本情況，並配合是項獎勵計劃的時間表，行動研究小組按照 以下的工作進程來推展本行動研究。大致而言，2014 年 11 月至 2015 年 1 月是研究的計劃期；2015 年 2 月至 5 月是實施期，過程中會有系統地 收集評估數據，並持續地作出檢討和改進；而由 2015 年 6 月至 8 月，研 究小組總結與反思是項教育行動研究的得失，並撰寫成書面報告，呈交 教師中心。基於行動研究的精神，本校在等待教師中心評審本研究報告 的同時，已逐步把是項行動研究擴展至中二級實施。 表 1 行動研究進程及時間表 階段 時間 研究事項 先導訪談 2014 年 11 月 了解中一級同學在課堂參與及學習動機的情 況。 計劃 2014 年 11-12 月 中一級四個核心科的科任老師、教務組成 員、副校長共同討論是否參與本計劃；其後， 正式成立研究小組，著手分析中一級學生先 導訪談結果，以取得初步的基線資料，並遞 交申請表格參加研究獎勵計劃。 2014 年 12 月 - 2015 年 1 月 待教師中心審批的同時，研究小組進一步探 討落實本研究計劃的可行方法，並初步擬訂 相關「學生問卷」，期望有助完善本研究計 劃（參閱附件一）。 實施與 評估 2015 年 2-5 月 研究小組根據上述的研究計劃，正式開展本 行動研究；研究計劃正式在改善「教學策 略」、「小組常規」和「課堂環境」三個方 面進行調整；過程中根據上文所提及的研究 方法，有系統地搜集各類研究數據，藉此得 以持續地評估計劃並作改善實踐之用。以冀 發揮進展性評估的效益。 總結與 反思 2015 年 6 月 研究小組總結及反思整個研究計劃的得失， 以助將來進一步完善相關的策略與措施。 2015 年 7-8 月 研究小組依據本獎勵計劃的要求，撰寫書面 報告，並於 8 月底呈交教師中心。 下一輪 研究 2015 年 9-12 月 等待評審研究結果的同時，本校將基於行動 研究的精神及首輪行動研究的經驗及其後檢 討、反思的結果，逐步把合作學習擴展至中 二級實施。如果時間與人力資源許可，本校 亦將持續地參與未來的獎勵計劃，以冀透過 循環不息的教育行動研究，達至持續改善， 並擴大教育成果的目的。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 10 教育研究報告匯編 基於上述的校本情況和學生背景，以及本研究所定下的研究目的和 研究問題，研究小組從以下三個層面（「教學策略」、「小組常規」和 「課堂環境」來推動中一級合作學習先導計劃。 在教學策略方面，主要研究員在校內前後舉行了三次有關合作學習 的校本工作坊，除了介紹合作學習的定義、優點、限制，並重點介紹了 合作學習最常用的六個教學策略 : 包括「數字頭」 (Numbered Head)、「閱 讀及相互解釋二人組」(Read and Explain Pair)、「獨思、配對、分享」 (Think- Pair- Share)、「圓桌輪流寫」(Round table)、「三步採訪」(Three-step interview) 及「拼圖法第二代」(Jigsaw II)。研究小組與中一級老師合作， 就著教師在中一級日常教學中所面對的問題，先進行共同備課，然後由 其中一位教師進行第一輪教學，其他教師則共同參與觀課，並於課後進 行同儕式發展性評課，除了肯定教師的良好教學實踐之外，亦力求改善 課程內容和教學的安排及合作學習教學策略的運用，以便實施第二輪教 學。如此循環往復地進行了三輪的備課、觀課和評課活動，中一級四個 科目在四個月內前後總共進行了八個學習圈。 圖 1: 中一合作學習計劃學習圈的運作流程 在訓練學生小組常規方面，我們於 2014 年 7 月中的新中一英語學 習銜接課程按同學在中一入學試中、英、數的平均分，進行排序，再按 性別進行異質分組，並將 4 人小組組員的角色分配為組長、總書記、匯 報員及大總管。在 8 月尾進行的中一迎新課程，除了教授合作學習基本 常規，例如「開始手號」及「停止手號」之外，並透過教師講解、片段 展示和個別示範去教導中一學生如何在 4 秒內由 2 人小組轉變為 4 人小 組的座位安排，能夠快而靜地達標的小組獲 1 個「小組學習龍虎榜」的 積點。我們透過組名和學習歷程案檔的設計來促進合作學習小組的形 成，並透過「反思咭」、「讚賞咭」及「小組承諾書」的運用來促進「小 組反思及展望」。此外，所有學習活動都以合作學習的形式來進行，讓 中一學生能熟習合作學習的教學策略及常規之餘，亦同時培養學生的小 組社交技巧和匯報能力。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 11教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 在課室環境方面，我們從新規劃中一級課室的硬件安排，以方便合 作學習的實施。除了設計了小組座位安排之外，亦購置了小組文具、 計時器和設計了「反思咭」、「讚賞咭」、「小組學習龍虎榜」(Bonus Point)、「小組承諾書」及「合作學習守則」等（參閱附件二）。 研究分析及結果 本研究小組經過四個月的實踐和研究，並基於問卷調查、訪談、文 件分析及課堂觀察的結果，得知中一級學生在學習動機和課堂參與方面 出現了以下的轉變。在學習動機方面，實施了合作學習之後，中一級學 生對「我覺得上課是一件有趣的事」及「我樂意參與老師要我進行的課 堂活動」的認同感大幅提升。在「我覺得上課是一件有趣的事」的意見 上，同意的百分比 ( 即完全同意 + 大部分同意，下同 ) 由前測的 21.9% 大幅上升至後測的 67.2%，不同意的百分比 ( 即完全不同意 + 大部分不 同意，下同 ) 則由 34.1% 大幅下降至 8.9% ( 見表二 )。在「我樂意參與 老師要我進行的課堂活動」的意見上，同意的百分比由 33.8% 大幅上升 至 73.4%，不同意的百分比則由 43% 大幅下降至 5.4% ( 見表三 )。由此 可見，在實施合作學習之後，大部分中一級學生都認為上課是一件有趣 的事，並進而樂意參與老師要同學進行的課堂活動。學生問卷的分析結 果與學生訪談的結果脗合，合作學習能有效地提升學生的學習動機。 表二 中一級學生對「我覺得上課是一件有趣的事」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 0.0% 21.9% 44.0% 18.4% 15.7% 後測 (6/2015) 31.7% 35.5% 23.9% 5.4% 3.5% 表三 中一級學生對「我樂意參與老師要我進行的課堂活動」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 6.7% 27.1% 23.2% 16.2% 26.8% 後測 (6/2015) 32.9% 40.5% 21.2% 3.0% 2.4% 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 12 教育研究報告匯編 在課堂參與方面，在實施了合作學習之後，中一級學生對「我會主 動投入時間參與學習」及「我能專心上課」的認同感大幅提升。在「我 會主動投入時間參與學習」的意見上，同意的百分比由前測的 22.7% 大 幅上升至後測的 69.2%，不同意的百分比則由 43.9% 大幅下降至 5.5% ( 見 表四 )。在「我能專心上課」的意見上，同意的百分比由 22.8% 大幅上 升至 67.4%，不同意的百分比則由 42.9% 大幅下降至 5.5% ( 見表五 )。由 此可見，在實施合作學習之後，大部分中一級學生都認同自己會主動投 入時間參與學習，並能專心上課。學生問卷的分析結果與學生訪談的結 果一致，合作學習能有效地促進學生的課堂參與。 表四 中一級學生對「我會主動投入時間參與學習」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 1.8% 20.9% 33.4% 21.9% 22.0% 後測 (6/2015) 28.0% 41.2% 25.2% 3.2% 2.3% 表五 中一級學生對「我能專心上課」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 0.9% 21.9% 34.3% 12.4% 30.5% 後測 (6/2015) 29.1% 38.3% 27.2% 3.6% 1.9% 在學習成效方面，在實施了合作學習之後，中一級學生對「我覺得 我的學習成績在進步中」、「我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進步中」及 「我對自己在這個學科的學習能力有信心」的認同感大幅提升。在「我 覺得我的學習成績在進步中」的意見上，同意的百分比由前測的 25.7% 大幅上升至後測的 66.2%，不同意的百分比則由 47% 大幅下降至 7.2% ( 表六 )。在「我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進步中」的意見上，同意的 百分比由前測的 20.1% 大幅上升至後測的 63.1%，不同意的百分比則由 44.8% 大幅下降至 9% ( 表七 )。在「我對自己在這個學科的學習能力有 信心」的意見上，同意的百分比由前測的 23.8% 大幅上升至 65%，不同 意的百分比則由 39.2% 大幅下降至 8.5% ( 表八 )。由此可見，在實施合 作學習之後，大部分中一級學生不單認為自己的學習成績在進步中和感 到對自己在學科的學習能力上具有信心，亦認同班上整體的學習成績都 在進步中。學生問卷調查的研究結果顯示，在實施了合作學習之後，能 有效地提升學生對課堂學習的信心及成效。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 13教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 表六 中一級學生對「我覺得我的學習成績在進步中」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 3.7% 22.0% 27.4% 15.4% 31.6% 後測 (6/2015) 29.0% 37.2% 26.6% 4.6% 2.6% 表七 中一級學生對「我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進步中」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 2.9% 17.2% 35.1% 18.8% 26.0% 後測 (6/2015) 25.2% 37.9% 27.9% 5.5% 3.5% 表八 中一級學生對「我對自己在這個學科的學習能力有信心」的意見 (N=113) 學生百分比 (%) 完全同意 大部分同意 沒有意見 大部分不同意 完全不同意 前測 (2/2015) 1.8% 22.0% 37.0% 12.4% 26.8% 後測 (6/2015) 27.0% 38.0% 26.6% 5.0% 3.5% 從 2014 年 11 月初向三班中一，每班抽取高、中及低學業成績水平 學生各一名，共九名學生所進行的先導訪談（參閱附件三）中，學生表 示在實施合作學習先導計劃之前，教學較為「傳統」及以教師主導為主， 「多數依據教科書教學」，而「每科都以抄筆記及直接講授為主」。學 生甚少有課堂參與的機會，「未有太多小組學習的經驗」。更有三位同 學表示由於「對老師及學校都欠歸屬感，以致降低學習動機和課堂參與 意欲」，即使有課堂參與的機會都「不想參與」。簡而言之，學生的課 堂參與很低，亦缺乏學習動機。 在 2015 年 6 月初再訪談同一批學生，在後續訪談中發現，教師在 實施合作學習之後，教學轉變為以學生為本，受訪學生表示在通識和英 文課堂中「分組是常態」，同學亦已「習慣小組教學」。在課堂參與方 面，同學認為合作學習能促使組員「更重視完成學習任務，組長和組員 之間會互相支援，以鼓勵全組參與及順利達成任務」，亦認為這種學習 模式「較適合自己」，並引用例子指出「覺得學習英文時有機會多與同 學交談是較好的，同學亦己經習慣互相支援」。在學習動機方面，同學 表示「很喜歡中文科一起寫作的教學活動」，並對通識科角色扮演的討 論活動留下深刻印象，認為「角色扮演很有趣味」，因為與同學一起參 與學習時既有「小組之間的競爭和小組之內的合作」。在學習成效方面， 同學表示經歷合作學習活動之外，「對活動學習內容有更深刻的印象」， 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 14 教育研究報告匯編 亦有同學表示對英文科一個關於健康食物的活動留下深刻的印象，因為 「在小組活動中一次過運用 ( 遷移和應用 ) 了之前在同一單元中所學的 很多英文生字」。正如馮停珍 (2013) 的研究發現，合作學習能提升學習 興趣，亦令學生的學業成績有增長的趨勢。 從學生訪談結果分析，合作學習能鼓勵教師推動教學範式的轉移， 令學生角色由 「被動的聆聽者」轉化為「主動的學習者」。受訪同學 亦認為合作學習能促進課堂參與和提升學習動機，並對提升學習有一定 的成效。 由於很多研究都證明合作學習能提升學生學習成效 (Slavin, 1990, 1995)，故當本行動研究發現合作學習能有效促進學生的學習動機和課堂 參與之後，亦想進一步檢視合作學習能否提升學生的學業成績。研究小 組將中一級上學期考試成績平均分與下學期考試成績平均分作出比較， 發現通識科的升幅最大，上升了 9.2 分 ( 見表九 )。這可能與師生互動和 生生互動的增加，促進了通識科的知識和概念建構有關。而中文科和數 學科增加了 1.4 分，英文科則增加了 1.1 分。由於實施時間只有短短的 四個月，對基礎知識要求較高的學科而言，時間可能並不太充裕。從本 校 2014 年中一生入學前香港學科測驗的成績數據得知，當年中一級新 生在語文和數學的知識基礎一般較薄弱，合作學習對該些學科的成效相 對較一般。黃政傑及吳俊憲 (2006) 的綜合研究發現合作學習在中文、英 文、數學及社會科能有效提升學生的學業成就。雖然研究小組相信合作 學習的實施，對學生的學業成績有正面的影響，但在中文、英文及數學 科的成效只屬一般，這值得進一步的探討和研究。 表九 中一級學生在中文、英文、數學及通識科上學期與下學期考試 分數的比較 (N=113) 上學期平均分 下學期平均分 平均分的變化 中文科 46.17 47.57 增加 1.4 分 英文科 39.1 40.2 增加 1.1 分 數學科 55.7 57.1 增加 1.4 分 通識科 44.8 53.5 增加 9.2 分 研究小組總共觀察了 8 個連堂課節，透過課堂觀察 ( 附件四及五 ) 所得，教師所採用的合作學習策略主要是「獨思、配對、分享」、「閱 讀及相互解釋二人組」 、「數字頭」、「圓桌輪流寫」、「三步採訪」 及「拼圖法第二代」等。小組人數由 2 人、4 人至 6 人都有，主要視乎 教學目標和策略的配合而靈活調配。在課堂裡，教師的角色由以往的「知 識直接倒灌者」逐漸改變為「輔助學習的促導員」(facilitator)，而學生 的角色亦漸由被動的接受者 (passive learner) 逐漸改變為主動學習參與者 (active learner)。整體而言，課堂的教學效果良佳，教師的教學設計大都 能提供充足的課堂參與、師生互動和生生互動的機會。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 15教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 據課堂觀察所得，學生的學習動機良佳，能積極參與教師所設計的 課堂活動。學生的課堂表現與學生訪談、學生問卷及教師問卷的結果脗 合。自實施合作學習之後，學生在上課時「魂遊四海」、「打瞌睡」及 「無所事事」的偏離學習行為 (off-task behaviour) 的現象顯著地減少，而 「課前預習」、「小組討論」和「回答問題」，甚至「主動提出問題」 的行為則大幅提升。此外，所有學生全部能於 4 秒之內將坐位面向黑板 的傳統課室安排轉變為小組坐位安排，並迅速組成 2 人、4 人或 6 人小 組。教師在課堂上亦能善用「開始手號」及「停止手號」協助課堂管理 及小組活動的進行。教師將同學以數字頭方式分派角色，並以正面獎勵 的方式來運用「小組學習龍虎榜」(bonus point)，以提升小組組員的學習 動機和課堂參與。整體而言，學生的學習動機和態度有明顯的改善。 據課堂觀察所得，全部被觀察的課堂都以小組形式安排座位，以方 便合作學習活動的實施，讓同學進行互動，交流意見，補充說明、指出 建議和疑問。在進行小組合作學習活動時，全部教師都會巡視各個小組 進行學習活動的情況，主動識別學生的學習需要和給予適時的支援。而 大部分學生除了關心自己的學習，亦積極上課發言願意主動和小組組員 分享學習成果。整體而言，課堂的學習氣氛變得更和諧、更積極。 教師問卷 ( 參考附件七 ) 以不記名方式進行，共派出 10 份問卷，收 回 9 份有效問卷。所有受訪老師都認同合作學習能提升學生的學習動機 和課堂參與，他們認為「能提高學生參與課堂的程度，使學生較以往主 動投入課堂」、「學生上課參與增加，課堂學習氣氛亦提高」、「能提 高學生參與課堂的程度，使學生較以往主動投入課堂」及「學生的課堂 參與提升了，師生關係更好，學生學習動機得到提升，專業成長令人感 到開心」。在提升學習成效方面，88.9% 的受訪老師認同採用合作學習 之後，學生的整體學習成效有所提升 ( 見表十 )，然而亦有教師指出「課 堂學習氣氛提高，對數學概念的理解有幫助，但學生在準確地表達及運 用相關概念上，尚需改善。」 表十 中一級合作學習教師意見調查 (N=9) 項目 同意 不同意 1 採用合作學習後，我覺得學生的課堂參與有 提升。 100.0% 0.0% 2 採用合作學習後，我覺得能提升學生的學習 動機。 100.0% 0.0% 3 採用合作學習後，我覺得學生的整體學習成 效有提升。 88.9% 11.1% 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 16 教育研究報告匯編 另一方面，有教師表示因為實施合作學習，「教師工作量增加」了， 並表示因為「課前預備所花的時間較多」，故「希望在共同備課的工作 上，能得到更多的專業指導」。在 2015 年 6 月 18 日舉行的中一合作學 習先導計劃分享會中，教師明確表示為實施合作學習先導計劃而付出了 精神和時間。然而，當觀察到學生在課堂參與及學習效能的提升時，教 師取得了成功感。正如資深的黃老師說 :「辛苦是一時，學生和教師的 獲益卻是終生的」。 總結、反思和建議 綜合以上的研究分析，本校透過實施合作學習先導計劃，發現中一 級學生在短短四個月，其學習動機和課堂參與都得到顯著的提升。總結 而言，合作學習對學生的學業成績產生了正面的影響，而學生在通識、 中文、數學及英文科的學業成績亦得到不同程度的提升。回顧整個行動 研究歷程，本研究小組從確定研究焦點，到撰寫研究計劃，然後執行實 施，並在行動過程中持續收集數據，以作為檢討改善的依據，此一過程 有效地促進了教與學的發展。當本研究小組基於校本發展的需要，建立 起學習圈，並聚焦於學習動機和課堂參與的問題，及透過系統化的行動 研究來探討教學問題之同時，亦發展出探究教學的專業習慣、能力與態 度，此乃教學相長之謂也。 當然，在整個研究過程中，本研究小組亦面對不少的困難和挑戰， 包括：(1) 研究小組需要在學校忙碌的工作之中抽時間收集、整理及分 析研究數據和撰寫研究報告，這是相當奢侈的行為，故建議學校盡可能 在人力資源方面作出支援，例如調動教學助理協助收集研究資料及處理 研究數據；(2) 在推展本行動研究的過程中，研究小組發現計劃對提升 學生的學習動機和課堂參與具卓越成效，相信只要持之以恆，將可優化 課堂教學，擴大學術成果，故建議學校把合作學習定為學校重點發展的 教學策略之一；(3) 共同備課、同儕觀課及發展性評課的配合對推動合 作學習至關重要，故除建議學校邀請學者專家為教師提供專業指導之 外，亦會要求相關科長參與計劃，收以身作則之效。來年將實施第二階 段計劃，故需要建立機制，監督、檢討實施成效；(4) 上文曾提及學生 的學習動機及課堂參與雖然得到大幅提升，但語文及數學科的學業成績 卻仍未見顯著的提升，這問題有賴研究小組進一步研究，探求良方；而 在資源許可的情況下，亦和邀請大學專家提供專業意見和支援，促使理 論與實踐互相結合，進一步推動合作學習。 基於行動研究的精神，本研究小組將在來年繼續研究，將合作學習 先導計劃推展至中二級，期望能進一步提升學生的學習動機和課堂參 與。此外，本研究小組亦希望以此回饋社會，為其他有意推廣合作學習 的學校分享相關經驗，以實現本獎勵計劃的精神及兌現我們在本研究計 劃中的承諾。 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 17教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 參考文獻 王坦 (2001)。合作學習 -- 原理與策略。北京：學苑出版社。 王凱 (2004)。論合作學習的局限性。《香港教師中心學報》，2004(2)。 香港合作學習協會 (2004)。合作學習完全手冊。香港：香港合作學習協會。 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Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning 10 (2): 78–89. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 20 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之前測及後測 問卷調查 (2015 年 2 月及 2015 年 6 月 ) 勞工子弟中學中一學生學習經驗問卷調查（前測） 親愛的中一同學： 這份問卷可以讓我們瞭解你的學習情形。請先細閱每句句子， 然後想一想您自己的內心感受。請用鉛筆將選項空格填滿 ( 只選一 項 )，它們並沒有絕對正確答案，請依您自己的經驗選取不同程度的 選項，研究結果可作教師改進教學之用，個人填答結果絕對不會被 公開，也不會影響你的成績，請放心。 「透過合作學習提升中一級別學生課堂參與」行動研究小組 謹啓 2014-15 年度中一級 ____ 班，學號：____________，性別：□男生 □女生 一、課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於整體科目而言 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4 我樂意參與老師要我們進行 的課堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5 我覺得我的學習成績在進步 中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6 我覺得班上整體的學習成績 在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7 我對自己在這個學科的學習 能力有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 21教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 勞工子弟中學中一學生學習經驗問卷調查（後測） 親愛的中一同學： 這份問卷可以讓我們瞭解你的學習情形。請先細閱每句句子， 然後想一想您自己的內心感受。請用鉛筆將選項空格填滿 ( 只選一 項 )，它們並沒有絕對正確答案，請依您自己的經驗選取不同程度 的選項，研究結果可作教師改進教學之用，個人填答結果絕對不會 被公開，也不會影響你的成績，請放心。 「透過合作學習提升中一級別學生課堂參與」行動研究小組 謹啓 2014-15 年度中一級 ____ 班，學號：____________，性別：□男生 □女生 一、中文科的課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於中文科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行的課 堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進 步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習能力 有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 二、英文科的課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於英文科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行的課 堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績在進 步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習能力 有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 22 教育研究報告匯編 三、數學科的課堂參與和學習動機 四、通識科的課堂參與和學習動機 題 號 對於數學科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行的 課堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步 中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績在 進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習能 力有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 題 號 對於通識科 完全 同意 大部分 同意 沒有 意見 大部分 不同意 完全 不同意 1. 我覺得上課是一件有趣的事。 □ □ □ □ □ 2. 我會主動投入時間參與學習。 □ □ □ □ □ 3. 我能專心上課。 □ □ □ □ □ 4. 我樂意參與老師要我們進行 的課堂活動。 □ □ □ □ □ 5. 我覺得我的學習成績在進步 中。 □ □ □ □ □ 6. 我覺得班上整體的學習成績 在進步中。 □ □ □ □ □ 7. 我對自己在這個學科的學習 能力有信心。 □ □ □ □ □ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 23教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 附件二 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之課室環境剪影 (2015) 合作學習小組座位安排 合作學習小組文具匣 合作學習守則 小組活動聲量管理 小組學習龍虎榜 小組學習歷程檔案 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 24 教育研究報告匯編 附件三 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之學生訪談 先導及計劃後訪談：焦點訪談小組 目的 : 了解中一級同學在核心科目及通識科的學習現況 ( 重點了解課堂 參與情況 ) 訪問安排： 中一級三班各 3 名同學 ( 高、中、低能力各一位 )，分班進 行小組訪談。 計劃前的訪問日期： 1A 2014 年 11 月 5 日，1B 11 月 4 日，1C 11 月 5 日 計劃後的訪問日期： 1A 2015 年 6 月 9 日，1B 6 月 8 日，1C 6 月 8 日 1. 現時中、英、數及通識課堂的上課情況是怎麼樣的 ? 同學的座位編排 ( 課堂環境 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 老師通常是怎樣進行教學的呢 ?( 教學策略 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 有沒有讓你們坐在一起討論 ? ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 有沒有讓你們每個人都參與課堂活動 ( 怎樣參與 )? ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ 印象最深刻的活動 ( 每人 1-2 個 )? ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 25教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 2. 比較現時 ( 中學 ) 和小學在課堂上的分別 ( 先導 ) / 比較計劃前和計劃 後在課堂上的分別 ( 計劃後 ) 上課模式 ( 小組常規、課堂環境 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 教學方式 ( 教學策略 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 參與方式 ( 小組常規 ) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 3. 對現時各科學習的觀感 (1 - 5 分 ) 以 5 分為最高 有多喜歡 ? 為什麼 ? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 有多大的盼望想參與課堂活動 ? 為什麼 ? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 4. 有什麼具體活動建議給老師去改善你們的課堂參與 ? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 26 教育研究報告匯編 附件四 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之觀課表 勞工子弟中學「小組合作學習」觀察表 教師姓名：＿＿＿＿＿＿ 科目、任教單元：＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿ 公開課日期：2015 年　月　日 層 面 評鑑標準 評鑑項目 文字敘述 評量 傑 出 優 良 滿 意 待 改 進 A 教 學 前 的 準 備 A-1 選用適當教 學策略來配 合單元 A-1-1 教學目標及主題能與選用 的合作學習策略配合 : 使用的合作學習策略是： ＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿ A-2 小組人數 適切 A-2-1 小 組 人 數 合 宜 (2-6 人 )， 能兼顧學生的參與機會與 小組意見的多樣性 A-3 課室空間安 排合宜 A-3-1 班級座位能合理地採用小 組形式 A-3-2 小組與小組的距離合宜 A-3-3 學 生 進 行 分 組 合 作 學 習 時，彼此採用面對面良性 生互動 B 教 學 中 的 實 施 方 式 B-1 教師講解合 作學習策略 和配合事宜 B-1-1 說明學習目標 ( 小組任務 ) B-1-2 強調積極互賴 B-1-3 提醒個別的績效責任 B-1-4 解釋成功標準或獎勵標準 B-1-5 說明期望的合作社交及行 為表現 B-2 教師隨時掌 握並適時介 入 B-2-1 教師能巡視各小組的學習 情况 B-2-2 教師能為小組適時提供協 助 ( 介入 ) B-2-3 教師能指導 / 提醒學生與 人合作的技巧 B-3 學生積極 參與 B-3-1 所有學生都積極與組員互動 □ 用心聆聽 □ 幫助同學 □ 鼓勵同學 □ 發言討論 □ 認真參與 □ ＿＿＿＿＿＿＿ □ ＿＿＿＿＿＿＿ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 27教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 層面 評鑑標準 評鑑項目 文字敘述 評 量 傑 出 優 良 滿 意 待 改 進 C 完 成 合 作 學 習 後 的 評估 C-1 評 估 小 組 合 作 學 習 的成果 C-1-1 小組進行滙 報 / 總 結 / 測 驗 或考試達標的人 數 C-1-2 給予小組表 揚及鼓勵 C-1-3 評估小組運 作效能：在課堂 最後，預留時間 給學生進行自我 反省 課堂軼事紀錄表 時間 學習活動或小組事件紀錄 備註 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 28 教育研究報告匯編 附件五 「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之教師工作坊 及觀課活動剪影 (2015) 教師分配小組角色及運用 「開始手號」 教師即時介入小組及促進小組 課堂參與 學生運用「拼圖法第二代」 進行合作學習 同學展示小組學習成果 教師進行同儕觀課 合作學習教師工作坊 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 29教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 附件六 : 教學設計及教材示例 1. 中文科教案 《一家九口的支柱》 分 析 文 章 如 何 運 用 借事抒發情感 辨識直接及 間接抒情 引入：何謂「支柱」？ 開展： 1. 同學朗讀第一段。 2. 老師請學生刪去第一段中不重要的句子。 刪除準則：（補充、舉例、解釋說明） 3. 兩人一組，分甲同學、乙同學 4. 甲同學先向乙同學分享自己刪減及保留的原因； 然後乙同學向甲同學分享。（每人約 1 分鐘） （合作學習策略：Think Pair hare） 滙報指引： 你好，我刪去了……，保留了甚麼……因為……。 謝謝你聆聽我的分享。 5. 老師選取 2-3 位同學向全班分享（最好是選取 有差異的，便於比較）。 6. 老師引導學生歸納第一段段意及作用，可先請 同學自行於筆記簿或工作紙上擬寫，再作評 講。 7. 同學朗讀第二段。 8. 老師以提問方式引導學生找出該段的主要事 件。（運用時、地、人、事） i. 記敍六十年代暴動時，建築系畢業的父親到 紡織廠工作，養活一家九口。 ii. 記敍父親為子女織毛衣 9. 同學填寫工作紙。 10. 老師引領學生歸納第一件事 11. 學生仿照第一件事，歸納第二件事 12. 老師總結 1/1-2 段（總寫 [ 符號 ] 分寫、襯 托），並著同學仿作：＿＿＿＿的支柱。 13. 如時間許可，請同學分享，老師即時回饋。 總結：學生反思 1. 在這一堂學會了甚麼？ 2. 我是否做到 ( 學到 ) 我所訂的目標？ 3. 如果我做到，我究竟用了甚麼方法？哪個方法 是最好，我下次也繼續用？ 4. 如果我未能做到，究竟是甚麼原因？ 5. 我在學習的過程中，我曾經遇到甚麼困難？我 用了甚麼方法解決這個困難？ 撮寫 綜合 時間線 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 30 教育研究報告匯編 引入：重溫上節課所學 開展： 分析 3-6 段 1. 分四人小組 A 總隊長 B 大總管 C 秘書 D 滙報員 每位同學獲分配一段（不同顏色） A 總隊長（第 3 段） B 大總管（第 4 段） C 秘書（第 5 段） D 滙報員（第 6 段） 指引： （1） 每位同學閱讀各段，並運用曾學過的方法（如刪除 法、時地人事）找出該段所記敍的事情及所反映的父 親形象。（約 3 分鐘） （2）形式專家小組，各專家分享自己的分析，並互相給予 意見。（約 5 分鐘） （3）各專家回到自己的小組，輪流滙報自己的分析，秘書 負責摘錄筆記及完成工作紙上的時間線。 （4）同學滙報時要控制聲量 同學必須細心聆聽 同學必須投入 同學必須尊重他人 3. 老師檢視同學是否已完成工作紙，並邀請 1-2 組滙報， 請同學評價，老師回饋。 4. 老師引導同學分析各事的共通點（父親為家庭默默 [ 符 號 ][ 符號 ] 犧牲了甚麼？付出了甚麼？刻畫了父親甚麼 形象？） 5. 老師引導同學分析文章鋪排的策略。 6. 老師引導同學分析全文的情感及表達手法。（總寫 [ 符號 ] 敍事 [ 符號 ] 抒情） 7. 全文表達作者對父親的感情的詞句不多，但我們卻能感 受到作者所抒之情，為甚麼？ 總結：學生反思 1. 合作學習跟以往的學習模式有甚麼不同？ 2. 合作學習對你的學習有甚麼幫助？ 3. 在這一堂學會了甚麼？ 4. 我是否做到 ( 學到 ) 我所訂的目標？ 5. 如果我做到，我究竟用了甚麼方法？哪個方法是最好， 我下次也繼續用？ 6. 如果我未能做到，究竟是甚麼原因？ 7. 我在學習的過程中，我曾經遇到甚麼困難？我用了甚麼 方法解決這個困難？ 分析文章如何 運用借事抒發 情感 辨識直接及間 接抒情 時間線 綜合 時地人事 綜合 A B D C 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 31教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 2. 英文科教材 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 1 for Treasurers Schools should offer students’ nutritious, well-rounded lunch at a lower price. School meals should be lower in fat and higher in nutrients that a growing child needs. The average school lunch should cost about $20, as suggested the Education Department. Take a look of the following two menus provided by a school tuck shop and a fast food shop close to school. Hamburger Meal School Tuck Shop A Fast Food Shop A Contents Price Contents Price 7 oz. fresh beef burger Mixed Vegetable Salad 10 oz. Fresh Fruit Juice $20 3.5 oz. frozen beef burger French Fries 8 oz. Coca Cola $40 Pizza Meal School Tuck Shop A Fast Food Shop A Contents Price Contents Price Low-Fat Cheese Pizza Slice Tossed Green Salad Fresh Whole Orange 8 oz. Skimmed (Fat free) Milk $20 Special Pepperoni Pizza Slice 8oz Chocolate Sundae 8 oz. Soda $40 In your group, 1. compare the prices of school canteen lunch meals provided; 2. discuss if our school canteen provides reasonably priced meals. Support your points with evidences. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 32 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, everyone! I am the treasurer. (b) Idea 1  Explanation  examples (c) Idea 2  Explanation  examples (d) Ending I think the price of our school lunch is ____________ (adjective) because _________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ I suggest that ______________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ I think the portion of our school lunch is __________ (adjective) because _________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ I suggest that ______________________________ _________________________________________ _________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 33教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 2 – For the Chairpersons of the Student Union Before deciding on the lunch menu, schools should Does our school do that? ( Yes / No) 1. Interview students and teachers 2. Give out questionnaires 3. Ask dietitians 4. Meet the service providers who can provide healthy, nutritious and environmentally friendly meals 5. Examine / check the new menu and take out foods which have a lot of fat, salt and sugar. 6. Run activities for students 7. Offer students a clean and pleasant place for students staying in for lunch. 8. Give students enough time for lunch 9. Encourage parents to prepare healthy lunch boxes for students 10.Give lessons on health education In your group, discuss if your school has done the above. (a) Do all people get involved? (b) Is there anything which can be better? 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 34 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, every one! I am the Chairperson of the Student Union. (b) Idea 1  Explanation  examples I think all people do / don’t get involved because ____ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ I suggest that ________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ (c) Idea 2  Explanation  examples I think ______________________can be better because ____________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ I suggest that ________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ (d) Ending Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 35教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 3 for Green Officers Schools should use environmentally friendly lunch service and go with the rule of ‘Reducing Waste and Minimizing Wastage’ promoted by the Environmental Protection Department. The following green practices are strongly encouraged at school. Has our school canteen done that? ( Yes / No) 1.On-site portioned meal service is preferred. 2. Polystyrene boxes should be avoided. 3. Reusable lunch containers and cutlery should be used. 4. If disposable lunch containers have to be used, schools should find an environmentally friendly way to recycle to products. 5. Portion food in a flexible manner to avoid wastage. 6. Provide students with reheating facilities like microwave ovens for students. In your group, discuss if your school canteen is a green canteen. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 36 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, every one! I am the Green Officer. (b) Idea 1  Explanation  examples (c) Idea 2  Explanation  examples (d) Ending Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 37教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Healthy Schools, Healthy Kids Text 4 for Health Officers The quality of school lunch depends very much on the choice of ingredients and the cooking methods used. An ideal and healthy lunch should provide for one third of the daily nutritional needs of a school child. The following are rules of a healthy lunch. A healthy school canteen should Has our school canteen done that?( Yes / No) 1. Provide grains and cereals such as rice or noodles, vegetables and meat in the ratio of 3:2:1 by volume; 2. Contain fresh vegetables and fruits; 3. Provide whole grains, fat reduced dairy products and other calcium-rich food items; 4. Use lean meat, fish or skinned poultry; 5. Use low fat cooking methods such as steaming, boiling, minimal oil stir-frying or baking; 6. Use only vegetable oils, such as olive oil, in limited amount for cooking; and 7. Limit the use of foods with added fat or oil, poultry with skin, whole fat dairy products, preserved food and sauce of high fat or salt content. 8. Keep hot dishes above 60℃ and cold dishes at 4℃ or below. In groups, discuss if your school canteen provides proper lunch meals. Support your points with evidences. 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 38 教育研究報告匯編 Part 1 Problem & suggestions In your expert group, find out the problems and give some suggestions with specific examples. Part 2 Presentations Welcome back to your home group! Now it’s time for you to give a presentation on the passage you read. Content (a) Greeting Good morning, every one! I am the Health Officer. (b) Idea 1  Explanation  examples (c) Idea 2  Explanation  examples (d) Ending Problems Suggestions points examples points examples 1 1 2 2 3 3 (new) (new) I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I think _____________________________________ because ___________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ I suggest that _______________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育行動研究 39教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 附件七 :「透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與」計劃之教師意見調查 一、教學成效評估 二、對合作學習的觀感 題目 同意 不同意 1. 採用合作學習後，我覺得學生的課堂參與有提升 □ □ 2. 採用合作學習後，我覺得能提升學生的學習動機 □ □ 3. 採用合作學習後，我覺得學生的整體學習成效有提升 □ □ 實施合作學習後，我的觀感是 : 經過實施合作學習，我覺得有困難 / 需要學校支援的是： 41教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文 教學之研究 吳善揮 五育中學 摘要 香港學生一向視文言文學習為畏途。當中的主要原因除了是因為他 們認為文言文過於艱深之外，還因為文言文作為中文科考試必考的材 料，使他們在學習的時候倍感壓力。在久而久之的情況下，學生自然失 去學習興趣，部分學生更選擇放棄學習。在這樣的背景下，本研究立足 於學生的學習興趣，以 40 名初中一年級學生為研究對象，探討朗讀劇 場如何提升中一學生學習文言篇章的興趣，進而影響他們的文言文學習 效能。研究結果發現，朗讀劇場能夠提升中一學生學習文言文的動機， 並有助改善他們理解文言篇章的能力。 關鍵字：文言文教學、閱讀能力、朗讀劇場、學習興趣 前言 香港學生失去學習文言文的興趣，不願意學習。學生因為學習困難 而逃避文言文的學習，致使他們不願意接觸文言作品，在這樣的情況 下，他們連最基本的文言字義和句式也不懂，最終使到他們的文言理解 水平每況愈下（吳善揮，2014）。同時，大部分教師在教授文言篇章之 時，只強調背誦當中的名句、思想重點、寫作特色等，結果使到學生之 學習目標失去焦點，而且更沖淡了他們的學習興趣（莊豐石，2009）。 其實，文言文學習既與學生的生活經驗脫節，而學生也不明白學習文言 文的作用為何。再者，在現今的教育制度下，他們學習文言文的唯一目 的，就是為了應付公開考試中文言篇章理解的部分，這本已大大增加了 他們的學習壓力，再加上沉悶死板的教學方法，這更使到他們對文言文 學習不感興趣，乃至產生厭惡感。由是觀之，若要提升文言篇章的學與 教成效，教師便必須要由學習興趣著手。 42 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 教師宜運用創新的文言文教學方法，一洗文言文古板沉悶的形象， 培養學生之學習興趣，進而提升文言篇章的學與教效能。例如：有研究 者以多媒體動畫配以白話解說來施行文言文教學，結果發現大部分研究 對象學習文言篇章的興趣都得以提升，並且成為了主動的學習者，促進 了整體的學習成效（羅綸新、齊瑮琛，2012）。有研究亦指出教師可以 借助圖畫、音樂、遊戲等不同的手段，誘發學生學習文言篇章的興趣， 以有效地加深他們對文本的深入理解（李迎春，2012）。教師在教學實 踐的時候，可以引入故事性較強的篇章，並將之改編為小話劇、小品， 讓學生表演後再進入教學的環節，當中的視聽效果可以加強學生領悟篇 章內容的能力（嚴春香，2010）。由此可見，只要教師能夠活化教學方 法，學生的學習興趣便能夠得以激發出來，而他們理解文言篇章的水平 也得以提升。 由是之故，本文旨在透過實徵性研究，以朗讀劇場為文言篇章主要 的教學法，探討朗讀劇場如何提升初中學生學習文言篇章的興趣，以及 能否藉此提升他們閱讀文言篇章的基礎能力。 文獻回顧 文言篇章教學能夠提升學生對中國文化的認知水平。文言篇章作品 是中國歷史及文明重要的組成部分，當中蘊含著極為豐富的文化內涵、 以及人文精神價值 （安傳芳，2011）；文言作品是中國古代傳統精英 文化的象徵，大部分作品皆出自於古代優秀的才子之手，蘊含中國古 代文化精神重要的精髓。因此學習文言作品，不但能夠加深學生對文 化發展脈絡及其價值之了解，而且亦能夠提升他們的文化及人文素養 （梁義勇，2013）。文言文知識是學習中國傳統文化的重要基礎，只有 學生能夠培養出一定程度的文言文閱讀能力，便能夠有效學習中國傳統 的文化，並且讓中國寶貴而優秀的傳統文化得以傳承下去（呂筱晶， 2008）。由此可見，文言篇章蘊含著豐富的文化知識，亦是中國文化精 神傳承下一代的重要媒界，因此只要教師能夠提升學生的理解能力，那 麼他們定必可以藉此掌握中國文化的知識，並且讓中華民族的優良傳統 精神得以繼續傳揚下去。 文言篇章學習能培養學生的品德情意。文言文不但是古代文章的精 華，而且更承載了中華民族優秀之傳統文化，具有極為重要的人文教育 功能（呂小平，2013）。文言篇章包含著多樣性的道德教育價值，例如： 愛國精神、仁愛思想、孝親美德、天人合一的精神、自強不息的態度等， 這都有助促進青少年的心理健康和道德成長（李平，2011）。中學時期 階段正是個體身心發展之重要階段，亦是青少年內在的人生觀、價值 觀、道德觀漸漸形成的關鍵時期，文言文教學正好滿足了青少年的成長 需要，讓他們藉此學習傳統的優良品德，使人格得以變得更完備，進而 促進身心健康的發展（晉春，2008）。由是觀之，作者在創作文言作品 43教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 之時，往往在字裡行間寄寓了德育思想，體現了「文以載道」的精神。 只要教師按著學生之需要而選取適合的文言作品作為教學材料，那麼他 們的道德情操便可以得以培養，並成為社會的良好公民。 文言篇章學習能夠加強學生的審美能力。中國語文科課程的主要宗 旨，在於培養學生的審美能力及情趣，即能夠透過美文的欣賞過程，領 略語言文字及思想內容之美 （香港課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局， 2007）；教師應藉著文言文教學引導學生發展自主的審美意識，即透過 歷代美文的鑑賞去培養學生賞析藝術的能力，最終達至陶冶學生性情、 提升個體品位、昇華內在思想的最終目標 （文娟，2008）；文言文具有 多樣化的教學美，包括形式美 （文體及語言）、人物美 （主角的人格 美）、情感美 （作者抒發的感情）、哲思美 （正確的思想及價值觀）、 意境美 （作者建構的意象氣氛） （陳靜嬋，2005）。由此可見，文言 文篇章既能夠作為審美教育的工具，也能藉之提升學生的語文能力，實 在是語文教師不能夠忽略的學習瑰寶。 朗讀劇場，顧名思義就是戲劇的一種，當中包含了朗讀及戲劇兩個 主要元素。朗讀劇場與一般戲劇表演的最大分別，就是朗讀劇場不需要 學生設計道具、服裝、化妝、背景音樂、舞台走位等。演員既不需要背 誦台詞，也不需要在舞台上頻繁走動，只需要在舞台上坐下或站立，以 富於感情、抑揚頓挫的聲線去把劇本的一字一句朗讀出來，即以聲線打 動觀眾的心，進而使觀眾從中有所領悟 （何洵怡，2004）。當然，演員 也可以配以簡單的動作及表情，以加強朗讀劇場表演的傳情達意。在朗 讀劇場裡，一般由敍事者 （介紹背景或總結）、數名演員 （透過朗讀 劇本以互相對答） 所組成。在劇場落幕後，擔任主持的同學便會提問 觀眾問題，以確保他們對劇場內容有所掌握，接著教師可以因應不同的 學習目標而進行延展活動。例如說話方面，教師可以要求觀眾向演員提 問交流。寫作方面，教師可以要求觀眾撰寫信件給特定的演員；文學方 面，教師可以引領同學分析朗讀劇場裡不同人物的性格或內容主題 （何 洵怡，2005）。 朗讀劇場能夠提升學生學習文言篇章的學習動機。學習動機的多寡 對於語言學習能否取得最終的成功具有極為關鍵的作用 （Kimura, Nakata & Okumura, 2001）。有研究顯示，以戲劇融入寫作教學，不但能夠提升 學生的學習動機、提升他們的課堂參與度，而且更能夠藉此提升他們 的寫作能力，即對語文學習具有正面效益 （Cremin, Goouch, Blakemore, Goff & Macdonald, 2006）。實徵性研究亦發現以戲劇融入幼兒的美感教 育之中，不但能夠提升他們的想像力、創造力及表達能力，而且更能夠 大大提升他們的學習動機及興趣 （鄧詠之，2011）。由是觀之，學習 興趣及動機是學生學習的首要前提。戲劇既然能夠提升學習者的學習興 趣及動機，將之應用於文言篇章的教學之中，相信亦可以具有同等的成 效。 44 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 朗讀劇場能夠有助學生深刻地掌握文言讀本的內容。有研究發現以 戲劇教學法融入通識教育科的學習之中，能夠加強學生對學習議題的思 考深度（Chan & Law, 2012）。以戲劇手法教授文學作品，既能夠讓學 生有效而有趣地去探索這個世界，也能夠讓他們更深入地檢視所閱讀的 故事，促進了他們綜合及理解之能力（李瑞媛，2012）。研究發現，以 朗讀劇場融入國中融合班之中文教學，學生能夠藉此加深對文本內容及 感情的掌握，並且獲得一定的效益（吳善揮，2015）。由此可見，戲劇 教育能夠提升學習興趣。在這樣的基礎上，學生的自發性學習行為便能 夠得以誘發出來，使他們更願意在相關的議題進行自主學習，乃至因發 掘到更多的樂趣而不能自已。同時，學習不再是走馬看花，而是刻在他 們的心板上，使他們的學習體會可以變得更深刻。 朗讀劇場能夠拉近學生與文言篇章的距離。研究顯示戲劇表演能夠 為課堂營造輕鬆的學習環境及氣氛，為聽障孩子的學習帶來很大的樂 趣 （陳晞如，2014）。在課外閱讀活動中，讀者劇場能夠有效提高不同 學生之閱讀興趣，並且為增進閱讀理解能力及技巧，建構了一個娛樂性 與實用性兼備的平台，使他們變得更願意學習（梅明玉，2007）。在教 授文言文的時候，教師可以引入課本劇，讓學生根據原著作品的版本， 發揮自身的創造力—加入現代的元素，以改編原有的故事情節，這項 作法能夠有效地拉近文言文與學生之間的距離（馮素琴，2011）。簡言 之，朗讀劇場不但使課堂變得輕鬆，而且更能夠照顧到不同學生的學習 需要，大大增加了他們的學習意願，拉近了學生與文言文的時代距離， 為提升文言篇章理解能力建立了良好的前設基礎。 研究方法與程序 本文的研究假設是： 1. 朗讀劇場能夠提升初中學生學習文言篇章的興趣。 2. 朗讀劇場能夠提升初中學生理解文言篇章的能力。 本研究以筆者任教學校的 40 名初中一年級學生為研究對象，並將 之分為「實驗組」及「控制組」，並盡量確保兩組學生之能力相若，以 提升本研究的信度。前置測試（下稱前測）的成績顯示兩組學生的文言 篇章理解能力大致相約。兩組學生對文言篇章的學習興趣不大，並且出 現逃避學習的情況，不願意認真學習文言文作品，而考試成績亦自然不 理想（文言篇章理解部分）。研究對象的人數分佈如下： 表 1 研究樣本的分組 組別 實驗組 控制組 人數 18 22 45教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 本研究把研究對象分為兩個組別：「實驗組」與「控制組」，教師 皆對兩組學生實施合共二十節（每節課為 35 分鐘）之文言篇章教學， 研究歷時四個月；當中的教學內容、方法和程序如下： 筆者於「實驗組」的班別施行以朗讀劇場為本的文言篇章教學，教 學材料為四篇故事性較強的文言短文，包括：〈濫竽充數〉、〈刻舟求 劍〉、〈狐假虎威〉、〈紙上談兵〉，以讓語文能力較薄弱的研究對象 可以更易掌握當中的內容，並對相關的文言文學習產生更大的學習興 趣，同時此舉亦能夠配合朗讀劇場的實施，這是因為朗讀劇場是由人物 角色、情節等基本要素所組成，而文言文故事正好具有此等基本要素。 當中的教學過程側重於提升學生理解文言篇章內容的能力。當中的作法 和程序如下：（1） 學生參與前測，以讓筆者在開展研究之前，初步掌 握學生的文言篇章理解問題及水平，進而設計更切合學生需要的教學計 劃；（2） 教師直接教授閱讀文言篇章的基本方法，包括：常用文言字詞、 文言句式等，以使他們能夠具備閱讀文言文的基礎知識；（3） 教師與 學生重溫六何法，以提醒學生記敍文的基本要素，以利他們擷取文言文 故事內容的重點，而在往後的文言篇章學習，教師也會要求學生以六何 法擷取文章中的要點；（4） 教師教授學生朗讀劇場的理念、元素及實 施方法，並以上年度學生創作的劇本為例，教授學生如何撰寫劇本；（5） 教師邀請學生一起表演預先設計的朗讀劇場，以為同學作朗讀劇場的示 範，並使他們可以更具體地掌握朗讀劇場的實際流程；（6） 教師播放 相關的文言篇章動畫，以使學生對文言篇章的內容具有基本的理解，並 作為引起他們學習動機的工具；（7） 教師與學生討論相關的文言篇章 內容，並一起完成學習工作紙；（8） 在教師引導學生完成簡短的劇本 後，便收集劇本進行批改；（9） 教師向學生發還劇本，讓他們自行分 組及練習朗讀劇場表演；（10） 教師於課堂實施朗讀劇場，當中的流程 包括：學生表演、敍事者提問觀眾劇場的基本內容（答對者可獲教師獎 勵朱古力乙枚）、同學向表演者作出深度提問、教師給予口頭回饋及評 語；（11） 學生參與後置測試 （下稱後測） 及半結構式訪談，以讓筆 者量度是次研究的真實成效。由於筆者合共教授學生四篇文章，故步驟 （6）至（10）會重複四次。 至於「控制組」方面，其教學程序與「實驗組」之主要分別，在於 「控制組」沒有實施朗讀劇場的教學法，當中的教學程序為：（1） 學 生參與前測；（2） 教師直接教授學生閱讀文言篇章的基本方法，包括： 常用文言字詞、文言句式等，以使他們能夠具備閱讀文言文的基礎知識； （3） 教師教授學生指定四篇的文言篇章（與「實驗組」相同），並一 起討論及完成學習工作紙；（4） 學生參與後測。 46 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 本研究透過紙筆評估（前測和後測）、學生訪談，量度是次研究的 真實成效。筆者對「實驗組」實施前測、後測（附件一及附件二），並 透過 SPSS23.0（統計產品與服務解決方案）的 Independent Samples T-Test 及 Paired Samples T-test，量度研究對象在前測、後測中所取得之平均得 分，並對所取得的結果進行分析，以瞭解研究對象在參加是次以朗讀劇 場為本的文言篇章教學後，能否提升自身的文言文理解能力。同時，本 研究亦會對「控制組」實施前測、後測，以確保研究的信實度。前測、 後測的設計模式如下： (1) 以故事性較強、篇幅較短的文言篇章作為兩次測試之閱讀材料； (2) 兩次測試的題型皆相同，以免學生因為測試模式不同而影響到作 答的表現，進而影響到研究的信度； (3) 為保持評閱的準確度，在批改開始前，筆者先從所有答卷中抽取 三份試卷作為樣本，之後邀請了具豐富教學經驗的中文科教師一 起進行試改，然後再就評分標準進行討論，最後由筆者按照共同 制訂的評分標準評閱所有答卷。 學生訪談方面，筆者將就以下問題與受訪對象進行討論： (1) 學生如何看待朗讀劇場對提升他們學習文言文的興趣之作用？ (2) 學生如何看待朗讀劇場對於提升他們的文言文理解能力之作 用？ (3) 學生如何評價這次研究的成效？ 是次研究將實施半結構式訪談，即是由研究者先按著研究的核心問 題，設計相關的訪談問題，以引導受訪者環繞研究所關注的核心議題表 達看法。其後研究者會按照訪談的實際情況而提出開放式的問題，一方 面可以避免訪談內容偏離研究所關注的問題，另一方面亦可以提供一定 的自由空間讓受訪者表達內心的看法。本研究邀請了五名「實驗組」學 生 （三男、兩女） 參與訪談，以讓筆者了解是次教學的真實成效；筆 者採用了便利取樣法，即按照受訪者的意願邀請受訪對象，雖然這個取 樣方法的限制就是未必能夠確保受訪者之代表性，可是由於筆者與受訪 者之間存有高度的信任，使他們更願意說明最真實的看法，這有助提升 本研究的信度。本研究的結果雖然未必能夠推論至全香港的學生身上， 可是對於前線中文科教師在文言篇章教學設計及實施方面，仍然具有一 定的參考價值；基於研究倫理的關係，本文將以「學生 A 至 E」來代替 學生的真實身分，以利本文的分析。 在研究信實度方面，筆者在徵得受訪學生之同意後，採用了錄音機 作為工具，以保留原始的訪談資料。之後，筆者再將之化為文字稿，並 整理成一份摘要，邀請受訪學生檢核當中的內容，以確保筆者沒有誤解 他們的看法；接著，筆者便對錄音稿的內容進行篩選、分類，並邀請了 擁有質性研究經驗的大學研究助理共同參與資料分析的工作，以增進彼 47教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 此的思考，以及避免筆者的主觀看法影響到研究結果的客觀性。同時， 本研究亦採用了多角檢核法，透過收集、結合和分析多元化的資料，包 括：學生訪談、學生課業、教師反思日誌，以相互印證筆者所發現的研 究成果。以上作法都有助維持資料分析過程的客觀度，進而提升整項研 究的信實度。研究流程如下 （圖 1） : 圖 1 研究流程圖 研究結果與討論 整體而言，參與是次研究的學生之文言篇章理解能力均得到明顯的 提升，當中紙筆評估的測試結果如下： 表 2 實驗組、控制組之前測成績比較 (Independent Samples T-Test) 測試滿 分：25 分 學生數目 平均差 顯著性 顯著性(雙尾 ) A–B 40 -0.747 0.611 0.367 注：A為實驗組，B為控制組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。 根據 Independent Samples T-Test，「實驗組」(M=3.3889、SD=2.58705) 與「控制組」(M=4.1364、SD=2.56896) 在前測之成績並沒有顯著分別， 而 p>.0 5(p = 0.367)；可見「實驗組」與「控制組」學生之文言篇章理解 能力相約。 表 3 實驗組、控制組之前測及後測成績比較 (Paired Samples T-Test) 測試 滿分：25 分 平均數 學生數目 標準差 平均數的 標準誤 t 值 A ( 前測 – 後測 ) 8.91667 18 5.90675 1.39223 6.405*** B ( 前測 – 後測 ) 0.50000 22 2.70361 0.57641 0.867 注：A為實驗組，B為控制組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。 根據 Paired Samples T-test，「實驗組」學生的得分平均數有著極為 顯著之上升，而 p < .001 （p = 0.000）；「控制組」學生的得分平均數 則沒有任何顯著的改變，而 p > .05（p = 0.396）；簡言之，以朗讀劇場 提升學生閱讀文言篇章之理解能力是具有一定的成效。 48 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 整體而言，受訪學生均認同本次研究之成效，並指出朗讀劇場能夠 引起他們學習文言文的興趣之原因，包括：提供活動機會、課堂氣氛輕 鬆、表演有趣、減少理解的阻礙。由此可見，朗讀劇場拉近了文言文學 習與學生的距離，誘發出他們對文言文的學習興趣，化被動學習為主動 學習，開啟了文言文學習的首要一步。 「我沒有想過可以把文言文的故事表演出來，而比較老師以 往在教授文言文時，自己只顧自己不斷說，我比較喜歡這樣 有趣的上課形式。」（同學A） 「朗讀劇場的教學方法很輕鬆，既不用死記硬背劇本，也不 用像真的戲劇一樣準備道具和服裝，只要看一看劇本便可以 了，沒有很大的壓力，我很喜歡這樣的學習方式。」（同學 B） 「有些同學在朗讀劇場的表演很好笑，他們扮演得很神似， 所以讓你很留心地看他們表演。」（同學 C） 「朗讀劇場不是用文言文表達，所以會較有興趣，至少你聽 得明白，不會感到想睡覺。」（同學D） 受訪同學認為精彩的朗讀劇場表演，不但有助提升他們的學習專注 度，而且更使到他們的學習過程可以變得更深刻，進而提升當中的學習 成效。 「有一組同學的表演很好笑，表情誇張、動作生動、聲線洪 量，使我至今還記得那篇文章的內容。」（同學 B） 「雖然不是所有同學的表演都很精彩，可是有一組同學扮演 的狐狸真的很奸，而那個老虎亦真的扮得很蠢，令人發笑， 記憶很深刻。」（同學 E） 朗讀劇場的環節及流程設計，包括提問角色問題、角色回答問題、 給予獎勵分數、給予小禮物等，對於學生而言都具有一定的趣味性，也 能使他們專注於課堂學習之上，這對於文言篇章學習而言，具有誘發學 生積極學習的作用。 「作為觀眾的我可以向同學提問問題，這個真的很好玩，因 為我可以藉此機會挑戰表演的同學，又可以取得老師的獎勵 分數。」（同學 C） 「同學需要以表演角色的身分，在限時內回答同學指定的問 題，真的是很刺激，因為有些問題很尖銳。」（同學D） 49教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 「朗讀劇場很好玩，既可以看表演，回答問題又可以有糖 吃……我們又可以學習到文言文的內容，完全不會覺得沉 悶。」（同學 E） 從以下受訪同學之意見中，我們可以知道朗讀劇場劇本的編撰模 式，讓學生建立解讀文言篇章的常規模式，即學會了從何入手解構文章 的內容重點，包括先以六何法找出文章內容的關鍵、思考文章背後所帶 出的道理，這都有助學生更有效地解讀故事性較強的文言篇章。 「老師教授我們以六何法找出文言篇章的重點內容，以讓我 們可以得以掌握故事當中的重要人物、情節、過程等，以便 編寫劇本……這使我學會閱讀文言篇章的時候，都會先以六 何法去分辨當中的內容，我發覺這會比較容易理解當中的要 點。」（同學A） 「朗讀劇場要求我們在結尾的時候，由敍事者總結出劇場所 帶出的道理及教訓，這讓我每次看文言篇章的時候，都會思 考一下作者想藉故事說明什麼道理。」（同學 C） 受訪同學都認為是次朗讀劇場教學的活動，為他們介紹了自學文言 篇章的工具，讓他們在遇到文言篇章理解的困難時，可以嘗試自行解決 當中的問題，這為他們自我提升文言篇章之理解能力建立了一定的基 礎。 「老師會要求我們在撰寫劇本的時候，自己上網尋找語譯， 又或者查網上文言文字典，若下次不明白的時候，也可以自 己上網找。」（同學 B） 「老師曾在課堂播放那些文言故事的動畫片段，而影片所展 示的情節都是故事的重點內容，幫助我們理解文言篇章故事 的內容……下次遇有不明白的地方，我也可以嘗試從 youtube 上看看有沒有相關的影片。」（同學 C） 部分受訪同學指出雖然朗讀劇場能夠提升他們學習文言篇章的興 趣，可是若教師沒有重點教授他們閱讀文言文的方法，那麼對於提升解 讀文言篇章的能力之效用則不大，可見本研究在文言文閱讀方法之教學 方面仍然有所缺乏。 「雖然朗讀劇場很有趣，但是我覺得未必可以因此而明白文 言文的內容，因為我覺得自己仍然未看得懂那些字句。」（同 學D） 「我覺得若不明白那些解讀文言文的方法，縱使老師用了朗 讀劇場的方法教導我們學習文言文，也是沒有什麼用。」（同 學 E） 50 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 受訪同學 C認為朗讀劇場為他提供了思考的空間，即其在撰寫或演 出劇本之時候，需要扣連文意，思考角色的感情，使他對於文章內容有 更深入的理解；受訪同學D則認為朗讀劇場的角色扮演環節能夠讓他深 刻地體會角色的感受，進而產生較深刻的感悟。 「在寫台詞和代入角色演出的時候，我需要揣摩角色的感 情……這使我更加明白文章作者想透過文言文表達什麼感情 思想。」（同學 C） 「在演出過後，我依然未能夠忘記我扮演〈濫竽充數〉南郭 先生的情節 ...... 因為我在扮他害怕被拆穿的時候的心情，我 覺得自己扮得很神似，也真的能夠明白騙人那種極為恐懼的 心情，所以感受較深。」（同學D） 從以下的訪談結果中，我們可以得知以朗讀劇場融入文言篇章教學 取得一定的教學成效，包括培養學生的學習興趣、提升學生之專注力、 推進學習之深度。這就是說朗讀劇場可以作為教師教授文言篇章的導入 工具，以有效地引起學生學習文言篇章的動機及興趣。 「我覺得朗讀劇場的確使文言文課堂變得有趣，亦會使我較 專心觀賞同學的表演。」（同學A） 「朗讀劇場使我對所學的文言篇章有更深入的了解，這大概 可能是因為我們要編寫和熟讀劇本才可以演出吧！」（同學 C） 「老師用朗讀劇場教導我們學習文言篇章，的確讓同學們變 得比較專心，也使我們更願意聆聽老師的教導。」（同學D） 由於學校中文課堂的時數有限，再加上實施朗讀劇場需要耗費不少 的時間，包括監察學生撰寫劇本、修訂學生的劇本、讓每組同學表演等。 筆者只能於班級內實施為數四次的朗讀劇場；所謂「熟能生巧」，實 施短短四次的朗讀劇場，未必能夠完全有效、全面地提升學生閱讀文言 篇章能力，故有受訪同學表示朗讀劇場未能夠提升他閱讀文言篇章的信 心。 「我覺得學習興趣是能夠得到提升的，可是我覺得四次的劇 場完結後，我還是沒有信心可以解讀文言篇章的內容。」（同 學 E） 51教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 受訪同學 D表示他仍然未能夠掌握很多不同的文言字詞之意思，這 反映了在施行朗讀劇場融入文言篇章教學的模式時，筆者在文言字詞及 句式的基本教學方面仍然有所不足。 「遇有較深奧的文言篇章，我還是未必能夠掌握其內容大意， 因為我不會解釋很多的字詞。」（同學D） 受訪同學 B認為若教師一起參與朗讀劇場的表演，定必可以提升課 堂的氣氛，筆者亦相信此舉能夠促進學生與教師的關係，進而有助提升 課堂教學之成效。 「如果老師可以經常與我們一起組成朗讀劇場表演，我想我 們都會更開心。」（同學 B） 總結 透過朗讀劇場的實施，學生學習文言篇章的興趣得以提升。學習興 趣是有效學習的前提，若個體對於學習欠缺興趣，那麼他們便會視學習 為苦事，學習成效亦自然變得低下；相反，當個體對於所學習之事產生 濃厚的興趣，那麼興趣便會化為他們努力追求的推動力，使他們更願意 自發自主地學習。事實上，是次研究站立在學生的興趣之上，以戲劇之 方式作為文言篇章之教學工具，既不要求學生背誦台詞，也不用他們製 作繁複的道具，他們只需要嘗試以帶有感情的聲線讀出台詞，並配以簡 單的動作即可，這對於能力稍弱、學習動機低的學生而言，尤見成效。 因此，本研究能夠有效提升學生學習文言篇章之興趣。 經過朗讀劇場的實施後，學生閱讀文言篇章的能力得到一定的提 升。本研究施行之時，著重學生運用六何法去理解篇章內容和編寫劇 本，這為學生建立了閱讀故事性文言篇章之常規，使他們可以掌握解構 文言篇章內容的切入點，在經過四次的訓練後，他們自然可以六何法從 文言讀本中擷取重要的資訊，並由此發掘重要的文章脈絡及線索，進而 對內容大意作出更準確的推敲。可見，以朗讀劇場為本的文言篇章教學 有助提升學生閱讀故事性較強的文言篇章之能力。 朗讀劇場融入文言篇章教學能夠強化學生對篇章的感悟。閱讀文學 作品的最終目的，就是讓學生產生個人的感悟，進而反思自己的生命問 題；本研究讓學生扮演文言故事裡的不同角色，使學生透過代入角色， 思考角色背後的感情思想，以使他們在演出時可以掌握到適當的語氣及 聲線。經過這樣的思考過程，學生自然能夠產生更深刻的內在感受，並 從文本內容中得到更大的啟發，進而提升他們的文言篇章理解能力。可 見，本研究能有助學生對文本內容產生更深刻的感受。 52 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 建議 香港中學文憑考試經過改革及檢討後，香港教育局於高中重新實施 範文教學及考核，學校可以藉此機會重整校本的文言篇章課程，例如： 學校可以提升學生學習文言篇章興趣為初中級別中文科課程之教學目 標，並以故事性較強之文言篇章為主要的教學材料，同時把故事性較強 的指定文言範文〈廉頗藺相如列傳〉劃分至初中教授，那麼教師便可以 更具空間及彈性實施朗讀劇場，以建立初中學生學習文言篇章之興趣， 為他們於高中階段學習指定文言範文建立厚實之基礎，同時減少了他們 學習文言篇章的焦慮感。 為配合於文言篇章教學裡實施朗讀劇場，故筆者選取了四篇文言故 事為教學材料；筆者發現學生普遍喜歡閱讀具故事情節的文言篇章作 品，也比較喜愛聽別人說故事；因此筆者認為中文科教師可以在日常教 學裡，多說文言故事，以引起學生對之的學習興趣。當然教師亦可以考 慮設置讀書會，於午休或放學的時間，為學生講解文言故事，這既可以 增加他們的學習興趣，亦可以在日積月累的情況下提升他們的文言文理 解水平。 本研究只以文言故事作為朗讀劇場的主軸，故此筆者建議後續研究 者可以朗讀劇場教授其他類別的文言文，如：說理、議論等，以驗證朗 讀劇場能否提升其他類別文言文之教學成效；另外，礙於課堂時數所限， 本研究只能於班級裡實施為數四次的朗讀劇場，而研究時間亦只有四個 月，因此筆者建議後續研究者可以增加研究的時間，以驗證實施朗讀劇 場的時間長短會否影響學生的文言理解水平之提升。 參考文獻 文娟 （2008）。中學文言文教學中對學生古典情懷的培養。成都大學學報（教 育科學版），22（8），108-110。 安傳芳 （2011）。關於高中文言文教學的幾點思考。南昌教育學院學報，26 （9），105。 吳善揮 （2014）。香港高中學生的中文閱讀能力問題研究。臺灣教育評論月刊， 3（8），55-62。 吳善揮 （2015）。「朗讀劇場」教學應用於國中融合班之初究。特教園丁，30 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Connecting drama and writing: Seizing the moment to write. Research in Drama Education, 11（3）, 273-291. Chan, S., & Law, M. （2012）. Learning to write critically: drama as pedagogy and the implications for cultural criticism. The Journal of Drama and Theatre Education in Asia, 3（1）, 69-92. Kimura, Y., Nakata, Y., & Okumura, T.（2001）. Language learning motivation of EFL learners in Japan-A cross-sectional analysis of various learning milieus. Jalt Journal, 23（1）, 47-68. 54 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件一：〈濫竽充數〉工作紙 55教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 56 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件二：〈刻舟求劍〉工作紙 57教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 58 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件三：〈狐假虎威〉工作紙 59教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 60 教育研究報告匯編 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 附件四：〈紙上談兵〉工作紙 61教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 63教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Kwun-hung Li Caritas Tuen Mun Marden Foundation Secondary School Abstract Key themes in Applied English Linguistics include ESL writing and the quest for suitable instructional approaches. This article investigates the practicability of implementing a learner-centered approach in teaching argumentative writing to senior secondary ESL learners in Hong Kong. This article presents a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest classroom-based research study conducted by a front-line English teacher documenting the effects of utilizing a learner- centered approach on teaching argumentative essay-writing based on the learning needs stated in the initial needs analysis questionnaire filled by the experimental group. Subjects were 60 Secondary Five ESL students in a secondary school with mainly Non-Chinese Speakers in Hong Kong. By collecting quantitative data including the pretest and posttest scores and running descriptive statistical analysis, it was found that a learner-centered teaching approach enhanced learners’ motivation and performance in ESL writing. Pedagogical implications are then discussed from the point of view of extending the learner-centered approach to teaching other ESL skills including reading, listening and speaking skills because a learner-centered approach seems to be beneficial to learners with low motivation and lower ability. 64 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Introduction (A) Background Learner-centered curriculum is a large area of investigation developed by various professional educators. However, according to the English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (2007), the main focus of curriculum development is on ‘School based curriculum’, of which schools are free to design their own approaches of teaching based on the general guidelines of the Education Bureau (EDB). Since this approach is still fresh and at the testing stage in education sector in Hong Kong, there is a need to test its validity in a practical manner before including other areas of ESL teaching and learning. Also, as most of the subjects are working adults who want to improve themselves and get good results in the public examinations, this learner-centered approach of learning may best suit them. As they are more mature, they could be able to identify their learning needs clearly and they can provide feedback to the teacher using this approach. This can facilitate the research in this area and hence provide possible suggestions for improvement of this program which can pave the way for further implementation of this program in other aspects of English language learning. (B) Area of investigation Therefore, this research only applies on the writing part of ESL teaching. In this research, Several aspects on the implementation of learner-centered curriculum to local secondary school ESL students would be investigated, including: 1. Students’ interest in ways of learning writing skills; 2. The impact of implementing a learner-centered approach of teaching on students’ learning outcomes; 3. The impact of implementing learner-centered approach of teaching on students’ motivation of learning. Literature review The main focus for this research would be the implementation of a ‘learner-centered curriculum’. The word ‘implementation’ refers to ‘realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model, design or specification, etc.’ (Ellis, 1994, p.11), and this research study was to ‘plan and design’ as well as evaluate the learner-centered curriculum. According to Burton (1987), there are three main foci in a learner-centered curriculum. First, it focuses on the individual learner. Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 65教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Second, the materials should be selected from various sources since the teaching methodology may not suitable for every student. Third, it focuses on how to train students to deal with practical needs in the society. The same view is shared by Nunan (1997, p.5) who views that this curriculum involves ‘collaborative effort between teachers and learners since learners are closely involved in the decision-making process on the content of the curriculum’. But before implementing such a curriculum, a needs analysis should be conducted in order to identify the ‘language proficiency and literacy’ of students (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005). Needs analysis is common for teachers who teach English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as a tool to assess the needs and ability of students in different settings (Dudley-Evans, 1998). In a needs analysis questionnaire, there are mainly two parts—current situation and expected situation, assisted by some questions on how the students would like the teachers to conduct the course (Dudley-Evans, 1998). In this research, the types of questions will be set according to secondary school setting and focus on the writing part of English. Only the concepts of a needs analysis will be used but not the format of it because the questions should be set according to the junior students’ level and so the language and format cannot be too sophisticated. The questions in the needs analysis were set according to the content that was to be covered in the writing lessons and different methods of assessments and course design with reference to various journal articles. For example, in the needs analysis for this research, the first part of the interview was adopted from Dudley-Evans (1998)’s sample ‘Pre-course information questionnaire’ on the background information of participation in the course. Question 5 on students’ knowledge on writing an essay is to check their understanding towards ESL writing skills. This is essential as suggested by Ferris & Hedgcock (2005), before the design of the course, teachers must know their understanding towards the target knowledge so that the teachers can develop the teaching materials accordingly. As for the expected situation part in the needs analysis, the questions on how the students like to learn writing skills was based on several concepts adopted from McGarrell and Verbeem (2007) and Reid (1993). McGarrell and Verbeem (2007) suggest that asking students to hand in drafts and provide instant feedback can draw the motivation for instant and ‘substantive revision’ so as to allow students to have chances to express their opinions quickly which enhance their learning and motivation to learn. The same view is shared by Reid (1993) that students would be more interested in revising their drafts in order to 66 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong present their better piece of work to the others and students would be more confident in their works if they are given chances to revise their work under suitable instructions. According to Dudley-Evans (1998), every learner-centered course needs to have feedback and assessment in order to check if the course is conducted according to the needs analysis and whether it achieved the expected outcome of participants. Course evaluation for motivation change and understanding checking will be conducted at the end of the course, as suggested by Shin (2003), a ‘reflective teacher’ should not only keep a journal as a lesson record, but conduct course evaluation so as to evaluate on the lessons conducted and make improvement. Here, the authors of the article disagree with the concept of writing an entry at the end of course evaluation. This is not applicable to the current research as this research focus on learner-centered teaching, the teachers’ own assumption may not help to improve the quality of the course and to evaluate the overall performance of students (Shin, 2003). Therefore, in the research, the end of course questionnaire has been set, apart from the end-of-unit writing. Research questions Set against the background that has been examined, the present study aimed to investigate the practicability of implementing a learner-centered approach in teaching argumentative writing to senior secondary ESL learners in Hong Kong. The specific research questions are: 1. What were the preferred ways of students in learning writing skills? 2. Would students be highly motivated if they can learn according to their own preference and needs? 3. Would students have a better understanding towards the subject matter and improve their academic results if they can learn according to their own preference and needs? Research design and methodology (a) Subjects Students included 60 students from two Form 5 classes from a secondary school that mainly admits Non-Chinese Students (an Affordable International School) in Hong Kong. This school was selected on the basis of convenience and the writers’ sufficient Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 67教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 knowledge and understanding with the students as the teacher- researchers have had nearly 5 years of contact with them. One class received the learner-centered approach of instruction while the other class received the teacher-centered approach. Both courses lasted for 4 lessons in 4 weeks. Each lesson comprised one hour. (b) Procedures The analysis started with students’ essay writing. The two groups of students would write up one piece of essay with a given topic closely related to their life: the negative effects of playing computer games. The writing time was limited to 50 minutes and they were informed that this was part of a research study of educational purpose, but not to mention the pieces of writing would have no effect to their examination results in order to maintain their motivation. This test served the initial test for the research. Questionnaires (Needs analysis) were then given at the beginning of the course as the foundation for further analysis. A set of questionnaires were distributed and the students were given 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire which included their learning behavior on English writing and the advice on their preferred way of learning. The questionnaire aims at collecting information of 1) Students’ own ways of handling writing questions; 2) Students’ preferred mode of learning; 3) Preferred content of learning materials. The questions are used to finding out the desired ways of learning to fulfill the needs of the students. Sets of teaching material were developed according to the students’ responses collected from the questionnaires. It is believed that a more learner-centered design for the materials would better arouse students’ learning interest on writing. The two groups of students were then divided into two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group was given instructions according to the materials with emphasis on students’ opinions and preferences stated in the needs analysis questionnaires. To be exact, the material chosen were also ‘suggestive’ rather than ‘definitive’ (see appendix), acting as a model for teachers to develop their own variations, which is the nature of the learner- centred curriculum (Nunan, 1989); the other group would be taught in a more traditional or conventional chalk-and-board method without the implementation of a learner-centered approach. It is thought that the students’ performances can be compared by using this format. 68 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Initial test Needs Analysis Implementation of Learner- Centered Curriculum (Experimental group) No intervention or board and chalk talk (Control Group) Evaluation and end-of- unit Test Yet, the school authority did not allow the video-taping of lessons in class. Therefore, in order to look at the situation of lessons, teacher’s observation was used to serve this function. It is believed that since the first author of the article was the one who delivered the course, he would be more sensitive towards the understanding of students and their learning needs as well as their abilities. Furthermore, 4 sets of interviews were conducted. There were 2 sets of individual interviews and 2 sets of focus group interviews, and all of them were based on the questions at the end of evaluation questionnaire (see Appendix 3). Participants of the focus groups were selected from the experimental group in order to have a better understanding on students’ attitude towards the course. On the other hand, the participants of individual interviews were selected in a random basis from both the control group as well as the experimental group in order to gather feedback from both groups. Interviewing was selected as the research method because it was the appropriate method to understand students’ thoughts in a greater detail. Further analysis would be taken by transcribing the recorded data. Evaluation sheets were given to all students participating in the research study to obtain the feedback opinion of the students. It was designed in a questionnaire format with questions covering different aspects of teaching and learning in the implementation of learner- centered curriculum. This questionnaire aimed at obtaining a more comprehensive understanding of students’ own personal reflection towards the introduced way of teaching. After that, an end-of-unit test was taken. The teacher asked the students from both groups to complete another piece of writing which shared a same topic with the one before the research study. This procedure was believed to be able to provide evidence of students’ progress after the implementation of learner-centered approach of teaching. To sum up, the flow of the study could be expressed in a flow chart as follows: Table 1.1 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 69教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 (c) Data analysis In the post-course analysis, 4 sets of materials were used for the complete analysis in this project, namely: 1) Needs Analysis questionnaires, 2) teacher observation form, 3) initial and final test paper and 4) end-of-unit evaluation form. The results of the needs analysis questionnaires would be processed right after data collection. The questionnaires were grouped and analyzed carefully. This would prevent the potential setbacks of qualitative analysis of being subjective in the process of analysis. The initial and final test papers were used to identify students’ abilities and performance before and after the course. Teacher observation forms were used to analyze student’s motivation throughout the lessons in both the experimental and control groups. Teacher noted the class atmosphere as well as students’ responses when delivering lessons with sets of materials that were suggested by the students in the questionnaire. Students’ writings were analyzed and evaluated with the marking scheme of HKDSE writing rubrics. The results were analyzed from the following aspects, including the structure of writing, the organization of writing and forming ideas. The rubric was important to assess students’ performance as well as the impact of implementing the learner-centered curriculum to the experimental group. The end-of-unit evaluation forms were used to cross-check students’ motivation and learning atmosphere as stated in the teacher observation form. Questions consisted of their perception on writing after receiving the learner-centered approach of teaching and their knowledge on writing argumentative essays after the course. These kinds of knowledge testing could also cross-check the validity of the improvement or performance in the initial and post course writing test. Results and discussion (a) Needs Analysis The aim of this analysis was to identify students’ needs and their learning behaviour in English. The format of this needs analysis was modified from the needs analysis form in Teaching ESL Writing (Reid, 1993) because of its comprehensiveness. This kind of needs analysis also serves the function of knowing what we did not know, 70 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong not wasting our students’ time, appearing much more professional and knowing how we should analyse the data (Reid, 1993). On the other hand, other than these, another crucial point of using this analysis is that whenever data is being collected, is to know beforehand what will happen to the raw data and to the information derived from it. Therefore, a further discussion can be facilitated in the later part of this research to serve this purpose. There were altogether 60 forms received (30 from control group and 30 from experimental group). Here are some of the important questions stated in the questionnaire and their results: From the above results, it is suggested that students had more anxiety in writing in English than other aspects in learning English. They had very limited chances to learn English apart from the English lessons. They also regarded English as a tool only for their career and many of them did not truly want to learn English for interest. Moreover, most of the students wanted to improve their forming ideas in writing essays as well as organization. They may have already realized that it would be hard to improve their language within a short period of time. Judging from their learning behavior, it is suggested that students in general had very limited exposure in learning English through visual Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 71教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 aids and they seldom had the chance to develop ideas with teachers directly. (b) Initial test (Without giving grades) After the needs analysis questionnaires, students were given the initial test. The assessment rubric was Grammar, Organization and forming ideas. The topic was ‘Physical Education should be made compulsory in schools’. After the extensive marking of the test, both groups were proven to have similar abilities. Students had weak understanding on the structure of an argumentative essay and they lacked language abilities and ideas to express themselves in the essay. (c) Teacher Observation (Delivery of the course) Instruction for the control group with teacher-centered approach: Students in this group were quite shy in answering questions asked by the teacher, like what the model essay was about. Some students lacked motivation as they were just given structured notes, a draft paper and model essays. Some of them gave up the lesson and did something else in the lesson which may cause behavioural problems at the same time. Instruction for the experimental group with learner-centered approach: Students were attracted by the PowerPoint slides possibly because of the visual impact. Also, students were more willing to answer questions. Some students even copied down the points that the first author of the article made in analyzing the model essays. Moreover, they took the initiative to ask questions in Cantonese like repeating the main points that the first author had advised to seek confirmation. It is obvious that students were more motivated in attend the experiential lessons. (d) End-of-unit test The aim of this test was to test the effectiveness of the approach and compare the results of students receiving different teaching approaches. A question with the same format as the initial test was given to students as the End-of-unit test. It is because the results could hopefully be easier to compare if the format (elements) of both tests are the same. Experimental Group: Most of them did improve when compared with the initial test. But those that under-performed in the initial test 72 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1. Do you like writing now? Do you feel that you have achieved something? Yes 30% Yes 80% No 70% No 20% Q1c Q1e attained greater improvement and the quality of their pieces kept up with the rest of the class. It may be because the teacher provided face-to-face support in forming ideas and drafting essays so that they were motivated to write something for the sake of the public exam later on. For those students who performed better in the first test, probably because they lacked grammatical accuracy and sentence forming skills and this course mainly focused on the organization and forming ideas in writing essays, according to the needs analysis. Control Group: Students’ performance was as expected. Students improved in terms of organization and forming ideas, but for the low achievers in the first test, it seemed that they did not have improvement, probably because they lacked motivation or the lessons were too boring for them, such as examining the model essays with lecturing and some planning. (e) End-of-unit evaluation The aim of this evaluation was to evaluate and cross-check the effectiveness of different teaching approaches through receiving written feedback from students apart from the test. There were altogether 60 forms received (30 from control group and 30 from experimental group). Here are some of the results: Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 73教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2. What areas of writing would you like to know more about after completing the unit of lessons? Sentence forming 70% Sentence forming 50% Grammar 30% Grammar 50% CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 3. Do you find the teaching methods and content used by the teacher help you to understand more on writing an essay? Why or why not? Yes, provide good model and they are useful 60% Yes, because it is interesting 70% No, it is boring 40% Yes, it is useful 30% Q3c Q2c Q3e Q2e 74 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 4. Please write down your understanding of argumentative essay again at the best of your knowledge. A. Discuss things on two sides 20% A. Talk about things on both sides 40% B. Can you tell me once more 20% B. Persuade the others 40% C. Introduction, body and conclusion 20% C. Don’t know 20% D. I don’t know 40% CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 5. Do you want to have the similar teaching methods applied to other areas of English like reading, speaking and listening? Yes, it is similar to what we learnt before 80% Yes 100% Leave it blank 20% Q4c Q5c Q4e Q5e Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 75教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 6. Can you suggest some ways to improve the course? No 100% More model essays 20% More vocabulary items 40% No 40% Q6c Q6e Experimental group: Students viewed that the new (learner- centered) approach of teaching writing was quite successful although they did not show a sheer ‘passion’ in writing right after the lesson. The PowerPoint slides grabbed their attention and they were more confident in writing the piece of essay with teacher guidance in essay planning and forming ideas. Control group: Students viewed that the conventional (teacher- centered) approach was generally okay and the approach was similar to what they faced when they were in the daytime secondary schools. However this approach was quite boring and some of the students were playing cards at the back of the classroom. They did not think their interest in writing would be enhanced after that writing lesson. Both groups had a rough idea on what an argumentative essay was and they deemed that they could handle the next piece of essay with what they have learnt in the lesson. Conclusion The results show the success of the implementation of a learner-centered approach in helping students improve the writing performance in argumentative essays. The first author developed materials with reference to students’ preference in the needs analysis. 76 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong The teacher-researcher then delivered the materials and jotted down his observation in class. Later, the teacher-researcher evaluated the effectiveness of this course through an end-of-unit test and evaluation forms. Generally speaking, students had greater improvement in both learning motivation and performance after receiving the learner- centered instructional approach, as shown in the evaluation forms and end-of-unit test scores. Therefore, the pedagogical implications will be to extend the learner-centered approach to teaching other ESL skills including reading, listening and speaking skills because a learner-centered approach seems to be beneficial to learners with low motivation and lower ability. Yet, it should be noted that the dynamics and culture of the two classes may affect the validity of this test. The experimental group students were generally more willing to learn and the atmosphere was more welcoming while the control group students were more susceptible to the lack of learning interest and they tended to be more reticent. Therefore, when implementing this approach, the teacher may need to take into consideration of the classroom dynamics whether this approach will be suitable for different learners. This needs further research by frontline ESL teachers and teacher-educators. Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 77教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 References Br i nd l ey , G . ( 1989 ) . As s e s s i ng a ch i evemen t i n t h e l e a r n e r - c en t e r ed curriculum. National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research: Macquarie University. Burton, J. (1987). Implementing the Learner-centered Curriculum. National Cen t r e f o r Eng l i s h Language Teach i ng and Re s ea r ch : Macqua r i e University. Curriculum Development Council (2002). English Language Curriculum: Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (P1-S3). Hong Kong: The Government Printer. Dudley-Evans, R. (1998). Development in English for Specific Purpose: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ferris, D., & Hedgcock, J.S. (2005). Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process and Practice. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Harmer, J . (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Pearson Education. McGarrell, H., & Verbeem, J. (2007). Motivating revision of drafts through formative feedback. ELT Journal, 61(3), 228-236. Nunan, D. (1988) . The learner-Centered Curr iculum: A study in second language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olson, C. B., & Land, R. (2007). A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing instruction for English language learners in secondary school. Research in the Teaching of English, 41(3), 269-303. Reid, J, M. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing. Prentice Hall Regents. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Rollinson, P. (2005). Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class. ELT Journal, 59(1), 23-30. Seliger, H. W., & Shohamy, E. (1999). Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shin, S. J. (2003). The reflective L2 writing teacher. ELT Journal, 57(1), 3-9. Walker, R. & Perez Riu, C. (2008). Coherence in the assessment of writing skills. ELT Journal, 62(1), 18-28. 78 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Appendix 1 Initial Test: Writing task Time limit: 1 hour Situation: You are Chris Wong, a student of Happy Secondary School. Since you are one of the top students in the school, your teacher asks you to write an essay on ‘Physical Education should be made compulsory in schools’ and you essay will be posted on the main notice board at school in order to let other students see how clever you are. Write an essay on that topic with no more than 250 words Appendix 2 Need Analysis on writing an essay in junior secondary level Part 1 Current Situation (A)Background knowledge 1. How much time do you spend on English every day? Please circle the answer. A.0-2 hours B. <2-4 hours C. More than 4 hours 2. Do you like English? Please circle the answer. I-------------------------I---------------------------I-----------------------------I Love Like Fair Hate 3. Do you like writing in English? Why or why not? _____________________________________________________ 4. To you, what is the difficulty of writing comparing with reading, speaking and listening in your English learning experience? A. It is already very easy B. B. I think it is just the same with the others C. It is slightly more difficult than the others D. It is the hardest one among the others (B) Operational questions 5. Do you know what any essay is? What is the structure of it? Please write down your understanding at the best of your knowledge. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong 79教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 6. What is your handling procedure when faced with writing questions? A. Write immediately (just write what you think instantly) B. Draw a mind map and then write accordingly C. Write a draft on another paper and then copy it into the answer book D. Write up a structure of the essay on another paper first and then write a full text on the Answer book with complete sentences and ideas. Part II Expected situation: 7. Which part of writing do you want to improve more? A. Organization B. Language structure and usage C. Ideas forming 8. How would you like to learn writing skills? A. Lecturing Demonstration of how to handle a question  Writing B. Lecturing Discussion Group writing C. Lecturing Model essay  Writing D. Lecturing Writing  Draft and correction E. Others: (Please specify) ______________________________________________________ 9. Mode of instruction that you preferred: you can circle more than one A. Chalk and board B. PowerPoint slides C. Games D. Video Clip on how to learn writing skills Appendix 3 End of unit evaluation 1. Do you like writing now? Do you feel that you have achieved something? _____________________________________________________ 2. What areas of writing would you like to know more about after completing the unit of lessons? _____________________________________________________ 80 教育研究報告匯編 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong Appendix 4 Teacher Observation Form Control Group Experimental Group Attentiveness I n t h e s e 4 l e s s o n s , students were not very attentive. Some of them ignored the instruction of the teacher and did their own things. Maybe the lessons are too boring, some mature students w e r e t o o t i r e d t o b e a t t e n t i v e t h r o u g h o u t the lesson. Sleeping is common among them. Since Visual Aids were used, students were quite attentive. Some of them sit straight throughout the lesson. When they were asked to participate in in-class activity, they were more willing to do it. Some students from other c lasses even jo in our lessons and become sit-in students. Taking initiative to learn Students in general are quite shy. They simply did not take initiative to learn actively and simply wait the teacher to spoon-feed knowledge to them. Students were more active in answering questions raised by the teacher. S o m e o f t h e m e v e n take the chance to ask questions and jot down important points that were made by the teachers. 3. Do you find the teaching methods and content used by the teacher help you to understand more on writing an essay? Why or why not? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 4. Please write down your understanding of argumentative essay again at the best of your knowledge. _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 5. Do you want to have the similar teaching methods applied to other areas of English like reading, speaking and listening? _____________________________________________________ 6. Can you suggest some ways to improve the course? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 81教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing Bronson Hui S.K.H. St. Simon' s Lui Ming Choi Secondary School Daniel Fung University of Oxford Abstract One major goal of vocabulary learning is to empower learners to use selected words whenever they need. However, there seems to be a phenomenon that some learners possess the necessary productive word knowledge, such as spelling and grammatical features of the target words, but still find it difficult to use the words correctly. This piece of research reports the process of identifying the potential developmental gap between knowing a word and using it in writing. It involved 12 Form 6 students from a local secondary school using English as the medium of instruction. They completed the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test which measured their productive word knowledge, and the results were adjusted and compared with the lexical profiling of their four pieces of writing for investigating if the words used by the learners belong to: (1) high frequency K2 words (i.e., the second most frequent 1,000 words in English); (2) mid frequency K3 words (i.e., the third most frequent 1,000 words); or (3) low frequency K4-K5 words (i.e., the fourth and fifth most frequent 1,000 words). In order to find out whether these two measures revealed a difference between knowledge and usage, a correlation test was first performed. Results confirmed that knowledge and usage were two different concepts. A follow-up t-test comparing the expected and actual proportion of use showed a significant difference with 82 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing high frequency K2 words, but not K3 and K4-K5 words. We argued that there was a gap between knowing and using a word as well as students’ strategy to opt for lower frequency words. Pedagogical implications are discussed in relation to how teachers can assist learners in bridging this gap. Introduction Vocabulary is an essential part of language learning. In the case of receptive skills (i.e., reading and listening), studies have demonstrated that a foreign language user needs to know a high percentage of the words within a piece of text in order to gain adequate comprehension (e.g., Hu & Nation, 2000; Laufer, 1998; van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2012). This percentage of words known by foreign language users out of the total number of words in the text is termed lexical coverage (Adolphs & Schmitt, 2003). For example, when the lexical coverage for a learner is 80%, it means that s/he knows 80% of the words in the text. Hu and Nation (2000) used non-words (i.e., words that do not exist) to replace real words in fiction texts in order to mimic language learners’ encounter of unknown words. The researchers created four levels of lexical coverage (i.e., 80%, 90%, 95% and 100%). That is, in the case of the 80% lexical coverage, 20% of the real words were replaced by non-words (e.g., ‘rane’). In other words, it was expected that out of all the words of the text, 20% were unknown to the participants prior to the study. Participants were asked to read the text and complete a 14-item comprehension test in the format of multiple choice questions. Adequate comprehension was defined as being correct in at least 12 items (i.e., 86% of 14). Results showed that none could attain adequate comprehension at 80% lexical coverage; and only 4 out of 16 (25%) and 6 out of 17 (35%) passed the comprehension threshold at 90% and 95% coverage respectively. It was only when the coverage reached 100% that the majority (15 out of 17) showed adequate comprehension in the test. From these figures, the authors suggested that the lexical coverage threshold for adequate comprehension should be between 95-100%, and hence proposed the figure of 98%. One of the key implications about this figure is that researchers can enumerate the number of words a learner needs to understand authentic texts and set a pedagogical goal for vocabulary learning. For example, van Zeeland and Schmitt (2012) suggested that a learner To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 83教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 needs to know 2,000 to 3,000 words based on a 95% coverage figure in order to understand spoken text. When the calculation was based on a 98% coverage figure, an understanding of 6,000 to 7,000 words was required. For language teachers in Hong Kong, the question is whether or not this target is achievable as most of their students learn English as a foreign language. One problem is that the goal of language learning is not confined to comprehension. Helping them to use the language (i.e., to speak and write to express meaning) with proper vocabulary is also an important target. Vocabulary knowledge can be receptive (or passive) and productive (or active) in nature (Pignot-Shahov, 2012). This distinction is closely related to the question of what it means to know a word. To address the issue, Nation (2013) identified three aspects in this connection. The first aspect is knowledge of a word’s form such as its written form (i.e., spelling), spoken form (i.e., pronunciation), and its word parts (e.g., prefixes like pre-). The second aspect is the understanding of its meaning, including the concepts and/or referents that the word refers to, as well as its associations with other words, such as ‘good’ being an antonym of ‘bad’. The last one is the knowledge of its usage, namely its grammatical features (e.g., parts of speech), collocations and other constraints on use. The mastery of the first two aspects (i.e., form and meaning) would suffice for comprehension purpose. An understanding of the third aspect (i.e., use) is essential when one needs to produce language in a sensible manner. As a result, there appears to be a gap between receptive and productive knowledge. Indeed, using their Computer Adaptive Test of Size and Strength (CATSS), Laufer and Goldstein (2004) confirmed that receptive vocabulary is generally larger than productive vocabulary of an individual, and that the gap is likely to be a difficulty hierarchy. The logical question in practical and pedagogical terms is how a teacher could bridge this receptive-productive gap. Lee and Muncie (2006) asked their participants to read a text on Titanic, the British passenger liner that sank in the Atlantic in 1917. The text contained 42 words or lexical phrases that were explicitly taught as novel vocabulary items. After that, the participants completed a writing task in which they had to describe a hypothetical experience on Titanic. The participants used only as few as 18.4-20.9% of those target vocabulary items in this piece of writing. This result is taken as evidence that reading and explicit vocabulary instruction alone cannot lead to satisfactory vocabulary use. In another attempt, the researchers asked students to 84 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing write on the same topic again. This time, the author provided students with scaffolds of a composition structure frame which helped the students focus on the target vocabulary. More than that, the target items were listed for the students, and the students were explicitly encouraged to use the target items in their writing. In this writing, the use of target vocabulary augmented to 67.5-68.7%. In the third attempt after two weeks, the scaffold was still the writing frame. Students were asked to recall the items and write them down before they started to write (instead of being able to refer to the items listed for them). This time, students produced 50.5-63% of the target items. In a similar vein, Lee (2003) asked her participants to write about cruel sports after reading a passage on bull fighting and receiving explicit instruction on the target vocabulary items. The participants were able to produce 63.2% of the target vocabulary items in the passage that they had learnt. This percentage was compared with 13.2% of use before the vocabulary instruction. From these two studies, it may be concluded that post-reading vocabulary instruction, explicit scaffold, provision of the items as well as encouragement to use the target items could encourage students to use newly learnt vocabulary items in their production. These studies have brought about two issues. First, two reasons could account for failure to use the target items in writing -- (1) the learners had not actually learnt the items; and (2) the learners have learnt the items but did not use them. The existence of these two possibilities makes the case obscure in the sense that teachers/ researchers may find it difficult to pinpoint specifically what caused students’ failure to produce the target items. Another issue that requires attention is that in both studies, the participants were asked to write on a topic that was very closely related to the vocabulary instruction that they had received. In the case of Lee and Muncie (2006), both the reading text and the writing task were about Titanic. Similarly, Lee (2003) had bull fighting as the topic of the reading, and cruel sports as the writing theme. On one hand, using a similar theme may offer a better context for the learners to try out with the newly learnt vocabulary items. On the other, it is not entirely clear if the learners could produce those target items in another novel context. This uncertainty is particularly important because, after all, one major goal of vocabulary learning is to empower students to use the items freely so that they are able to use the words to express themselves as they wish. In other words, these items should be readily available whenever they need them. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 85教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 If the ability to produce the newly learnt vocabulary across various contexts is an important goal of teaching vocabulary for production’s sake, it implies that there might be multiple levels of productive vocabulary. This notion may address a key problem which affects language teachers in Hong Kong who are used to assessing their students through different formats of vocabulary tests. Students may excel in vocabulary tests in the formats of dictation, fill-in-the- blanks and so on, showing all Nation’s (2013) aspects of vocabulary knowledge of a word, such as spelling and grammatical features. However, they may still find it difficult to demonstrate a wide range of vocabulary use when they speak. It is, in fact, likely that many language teachers have been asked by students how newly learnt vocabulary could be used in everyday life. To answer such a question, it is essential to first empirically identify such a gap between general productive knowledge and the ability to use these vocabulary items. It is only after such a gap is identified that teachers and researchers could look for ways to bridge this gap. Some may comment that this gap is commonly known, implying that teachers should notice students’ problems of not being able to produce newly learnt lexical items. While we feel reluctant to agree totally, we acknowledge that some teachers may have a subjective impression from their experience, that knowing a word does not mean using a word. At the same time, we maintain that empirical identification is necessary. As far as we know, no study has specifically documented this final stage of vocabulary development. One of the many reasons why such a gap is merely taken for granted by many is that the measures of general productive knowledge and actual use are often two separate vocabulary measures that researchers employ as dependent variables. For example, looking at the vocabulary size of students in Chinese- and English-medium schools, Lo & Murphy (2010) used both measures without comparing them directly. The present study aims exactly at this comparison, and argues for the importance of bridging the gap between knowing and using vocabulary, once it is identified. Methodology and Procedures The participants in the present study included 12 Form 6 students in a local secondary school using English as the medium of instruction in most content subjects, such as Geography and History. These students were recruited from the same Form 6 class whose teacher the researchers of this study had personal contact with. All participants 86 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing were native speakers of Cantonese, and had learnt English as a foreign language for at least 11 years (6 years of primary and 5 years of secondary school at the time of participating in this study). These students were expected to sit for the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. The Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT) (Laufer & Nation, 1999) was used to measure the general productive vocabulary knowledge of the participants. It requires test-takers to provide a vocabulary item in a given context presented in a sentence. Therefore, it is a test of controlled productive vocabulary knowledge in that test- takers are prompted to offer a word that fits into the context provided. This format of testing also echoes with the assessment practice of some local teachers who give fill-in-the-blanks exercise to students. Therefore, the findings of this test may be of particular relevance to local teachers in Hong Kong. There are two versions of the PVLT, but only Version 1 was used in this study lest doubts might be cast on any potential differences between the two versions. Two examples are given to illustrate the format of the test. They are used to elicit the target words 'hungry' and 'usual'. 1.They sat down to eat even though they were not hu___________. 2.This work is not up to your usu________standard. Note that the initial letters of the target words are always given so that test-takers could not insert a word other than the target word that might also be semantically appropriate in the context. The way in which this test could determine one’s productive vocabulary size is based on the frequency of occurrence of the target words in English as represented by the British National Corpus. This corpus contains a huge collection of authentic English texts, from which the frequency of occurrence is determined. The most frequently occurring 1,000 words in English are known as K1 words; K2 words are the next 1,000 words in the line of frequency; and K3 words the next 1,000 words and so on. In the examples above, 'hungry' and 'usual' are K2 words. For each level, there are 18 questions in the PVLT. Three levels were used in this study, K2, K3 and K4-K5. Laufer and Nation (1999) combined K4 and K5 into one level (i.e., K4-K5) for easier and more practical assessment of knowledge about these relatively low frequency words. With three levels used, the total score for the test in this study was 54. The items were pseudo-randomised using Microsoft Excel’s RAND function which assigns a random To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 87教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 number to each item (one could type ‘=RAND( )’ in any cell). The random numbers were sorted in ascending order to determine the order of the item presented in the actual test taken by the participants. The test was administered by the teacher of the class. Within a month after the administration of the PVLT, four writing samples were collected from each student. The task requirement and the format resembled those in the questions in the HKDSE. The themes and genres are tabulated below (Table 1). Writings 1 and 2 were assigned as homework for students, and Writings 3 and 4 were parts of the students’ formal assessment at school, which were timed. Participants could choose to write on one of the questions in Writings 3 and 4. Table 1: The themes and genres of the writing tasks Theme Genre Writing 1 Walkathon Expository in a poster Writing 2 An artist and her exhibition Feature article in a school newspaper Writing 3 (participants are asked to choose one) An ou ts tand ing student award Nomination H i p - p o p d a n c e performance Promotional leaflet Teenagers fighting for a girlfriend Recount in a school newspaper article Writing 4 (participants are asked to choose one) Goal setting Speech Popular culture Magazine article Social harmony Letter to the Editor Results and Discussion In this section, results obtained from the PVLT are first presented, followed by those of the free writing tasks. Recalling that the former is a measure of general productive knowledge and the latter one of actual productive use, this paper seeks to compare the findings from these two measures to shed light on the hypothesized discrepancies of the two levels of productive knowledge. 88 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing The PVLT consisted of 18 questions at each level of K2, K3, and K4-K5 words. One mark was given for every correct item. The marking of the test did not take grammatical accuracy into consideration. For example, when the word ‘attached’ was required, members in the same word family such as ‘attach’ and ‘attaches’ were also accepted. In other words, all inflected forms of the words belonging to the same word family were counted as correct. Although grammatical features of a word are part of word knowledge, the PVLT was treated purely as a test of vocabulary instead of a test of grammar in this study. Another rationale is related to the validity of comparison between the PVLT and free writing tasks in that grammaticality was also discounted in the corresponding measure of the students’ free production. As Table 2 indicates, the 12 students who took the PVLT showed a huge variation in their productive vocabulary knowledge. Students showed a decreasing score from K2 through to level K4-K5. This was not surprising because the higher the level, the lower the frequency of the words used in everyday language and hence the more unlikely that students would have got exposed to them. Table 2: Results of PVLT N=12 K2 (max= 18) K3 (max= 18) K4-K5 (max= 18) Total (max= 54) Mean (SD) 12.75 (2.56) 8.92 (3.48) 4.58 (3.09) 26.25 (8.31) Students were also asked to write four essays of 200-500 words each. Their work was then typed onto the computer. Some of the content words which had been given as prompts were removed so that the remaining words were only those given by the students instead of being copied from the questions. Incidentally, quite a number of students started their essays with a large number of words copied from the questions. The processed text was input to the Vocabulary Profilers (available on www.lextutor.ca/vp) for their analysis of their lexical frequency profiles (LFP). Table 3 shows the total number of words in the students’ four writings, in their respective frequency levels of K2, K3, and K4-K5. Again, it was not surprising to find a decreasing number of words used by students as the frequency levels went up. In fact, it is normal for low frequency K4-K5 words to appear less frequently in a text given that it is their low frequency of existence in English that defines them as words at the K4-K5 level. Although this trend does echo with the results of the PVLT, we still need a valid comparison to identify the potential differences between the two measures. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 89教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Table 3: Lexical frequency profiles of the free writing tasks N=12 K2 words K3 words K4-K5 words Total number of words Mean (SD) 107.08 (29.60) 45.67 (22.45) 17.83 (11.27) 1500.17 (237.00) This paper compares students’ PVLT scores and their free writing in order to identify whether there is a difference between general productive knowledge and the actual productive use of vocabulary. To this end, the PVLT score was computed according to the following formula so that it could be compared directly with the corresponding measures in free production. PVLT score X Adjustment factor = Expected production An expected proportion of production was thereby obtained for each participant and for each lexical frequency level. For example, a student (S1) knew 16 K2 words. The knowledge of these 16 K2 words represented 50% of the total of 32 marks he scored in the PVLT (i.e., all K2-K5 words that he knew). Then, this 50% was multiplied by the adjustment factor for K2 words, which is 1.4 (the calculation of the adjustment factor is described below). As a result, the expected production rate of K2 words in his free writing would be 50% X 1.4 = 70%. In other words, for every 100 K2-K5 words that he used, 70 K2 words were expected. This expected production could then be compared with his actual production in free writing as reported in the previous section. The following explains how the adjustment factors were obtained for each level. First, the production of native speakers was considered to be a useful reference point. Corpus data (i.e., data from a huge collection of authentic texts written by native speakers) are of use here. According to Nation (1990: 17; 2001: 15), K2 words have a natural occurrence of 7.7%; K3 words 4.3%; K4-K5 words 4.6%. To put it in another way, there are on average 7.7 K2 words in every 100 words in any authentic texts. Note that these three percentages do not add up to 100% because there are also K1 words as well as K5+ words in a corpus. Rather, K2-K5 words account for only 16.6% of words in a corpus (see Figure 1 for a visual representation of these numbers). Out of this 16.6% of natural occurrence (i.e., K2-K5 words 90 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing only), K2 words have a proportion of 46.4% (7.7%/16.6%); K3 words 25.9% (4.3%/16.6%); and K4-K5 words 27.7% (4.6%/16.6%) (see Figure 2 for a visual representation). Given that a native speaker would have a full PVLT score of 100% (33.3% of the items from K2 words, 33.3% from K3 words, and 33.3% from K4-K5 words), an adjustment factor for K2 words would then be 1.4 (i.e., 46.4/33.3). It means that if a learner knows a proportion of 33.3% K2 words out of all K2-K5 words that s/he knows in the PVLT (e.g., knowing 10 K2 words and 30 K2-K5 words in total, or knowing 8 K2 words and 24 K2-K5 words in total), we expect 33.3% X 1.4 = 46.4% of his free writing production to be K2 words. By the same logic. The adjustment factors for K3 and K4-K5 words are 0.78 (i.e., 25.9/33.3) and 0.83 (i.e., 27.7/33.3) respectively (Table 4). However, this calculation was only valid if we could assume that native speakers know all of the K2-K5 words in the PVLT. Such an assumption should be valid because when Laufer and Nation (1999) designed the PVLT, native speakers were first asked to validate the test and the results indicated that all the items of the PVLT were retrieved accurately by at least six out of seven of them. Figure 1 Proportion of natural occurrence of words at different levels based on Nation (1990: 17; 2001: 15) To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 91教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Figure 2 Proportion of natural occurrence of K2-K5 words Table 4 Calculation of adjustment factors for all levels based on native speakers’ production Levels Natural occurrence with K2-K5 (%) PVLT by native speakers (proportions of words known in each level out of K2-K5 levels) Adjustment factor K2 46.4 33.3 = 46.3/33.3 =1.4 K3 25.9 33.3 =25.9/33.3= 0.78 K4-K5 27.7 33.3 =25.9/33.3=0.83 The computation of the PVLT score with the use of the adjustment factor has a number of advantages. First, as mentioned earlier, the low frequency words should be, logically, more unlikely to appear in an essay. In other words, because low frequency words are by definition less likely to appear in any texts, expecting students to use them may be problematic. For example, ‘abolish’ is a K5 word. It has a frequency of 545 occurrences in a million-word corpus. Therefore, it would be erroneous to assume that ‘abolish’ should appear (at least once) in a student’s writing containing fewer than 500 words. In a similar vein, one cannot claim that students knowing 92 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing a certain proportion of low frequency words would produce the same proportion of such words actual writing. Therefore, it was considered appropriate to use an adjustment factor to ensure that the rareness of low frequency words is taken into account in the present comparison. Furthermore, the calculation of the adjustment factors also considered how native speakers actually use language. This was important because to some, at the very least, using English in a similar way to the native speakers may be one of the goals of learning the language. Finally, this way of calculation has also taken into account the ‘imperfect’ vocabulary knowledge of our learners at different frequency levels of K2-K5. In sum, an adjustment factor helps to translate the PVLT scores (i.e., general productive knowledge) to an expected proportion of occurrence in free writing. For high frequency K2 words, the adjustment factor is 1.40 (46.4/33.3), with the proportion of 33.3% of the PVLT score translating into 46.4% of expected occurrence in free production. For mid frequency K3 words, the factor is 0.78 (25.9/33.3); for low frequency K4-K5 words, the factor is 0.83 (27.7/33.3). Turning to our participants in this study, we can now calculate the expected percentage of words in the respective K2-K5 levels in a piece of free writing, which can then compared with their actual production as reported in the previous section (Table 5). Table 5: Comparison of expected and actual production of word families in different levels N=12 K2 (%) K3 (%) K4-K5 (%) Expected (PVLT X 1.4) Actual Expected (PVLT X 0.78) Actual Expected ( P V LT X 0.83) Actual Mean 70.45% 61.59% 26.28% 27.66% 13.27% 10.75% Meanwhile, a similar trend between expected and actual production was observed in that students were expected to produce mostly K2 words, followed by K3 and finally least K4-K5 words, and they have seemingly done so in the free writing tasks. Therefore, it appeared that students’ knowledge of words could be well put to actual use. This might seem contrary to the notion that there are differences between knowing a word and using a word. However, it would be too soon to arrive at a conclusion before conducting statistical tests, which could help us identify potential statistical relationships between the data. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 93教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 First, we wanted to look more closely into the relationship between expected and actual use of vocabulary and identify any potential correlation. Pearson’s correlation test can help us find out whether these two variables were so closely related to each other that they might be considered one single concept. If a positive and significant correlation is found, it would mean that the expected and actual use of vocabulary generally increase and decrease together. If this is the case, it will suggest that general productive vocabulary knowledge and actual use are likely to be very similar concepts and follow the same developmental pattern. In contrast, if knowledge and use are two different concepts, and hence follow different developmental patterns, negative or no correlation would be expected, meaning that the data increase and decrease in opposite direction, or that they have no linear statistical relationship at all. Shapiro-Wilk tests confirmed that the data fulfilled the normality requirement for the performance of the Pearson’s correlation test (all p-values n.s.). The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Pearson’s correlation test results N=12 K2 words K3 words K4-K5 words Correlationn between expected and actual production r = .098 r = -.332 r = .181 Significance value p = .763 (n.s.) p = .292 (n.s.) p = .574 (n.s.) All the correlations were non-significant in statistical terms. This lack of correlation can be explained by the arguments presented above that knowing and using vocabulary are two different concepts, and hence there was no statistical linear relationship between general productive vocabulary knowledge and actual use. In other words, we could reject the notion that knowledge is the same as use as some might suggest based on the descriptive data. To put it in a more specific way, the lack of significant correlation showed knowing more K2 (or K3 or K4-K5) words as reflected by the PVLT does not necessarily mean that learners would produce more of those words in free writing. 94 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing While the correlation tests suggested that knowing and using vocabulary were indeed different concepts, the picture of the students’ use of vocabulary was still very obscure. For example, one logical question to ask was why there were such differences. To seek a clearer picture, a direct comparison of the differences in proportion between the expected and actual use of vocabulary might be revealing. As such, a statistical test of difference was required. Given that normality was met according to the results of Shapiro-Wilk tests (all p-values n.s.), a dependent-samples t-test for each frequency level was carried out. This dependent-samples t-test can identify the potential mean differences between students’ expected and their actual production. If there are significant differences found, it can give indications to the existence of a gap between the two concepts. The results are tabulated in Table 7 and presented graphically in Figure 3. Table 7: Comparison of expected and actual production of word families in different levels N=12 K2 (%) K3 (%) K4-K5 (%) Expected (PVLT X 1.4) Actual Expected (PVLT X 0.78) Actual Expected (PVLT X 0.83) Actual Mean 70.45% 61.59% 26.28% 27.66% 13.27% 10.75% Difference ( A c t u a l - Expected) -8.86% 1.38% -2.52% t ( 11 ) = 2 . 5 8 6 , p=.025*, r=.615 t (11 ) = -0 .588 , p=.568, r=.175 t ( 11 ) = 1 . 4 5 3 , p=.174, r=.401 Figure 3 Mean expected and actual proportions of vocabulary at different frequency levels To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 95教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 In the light of the results, with high frequency K2 words, the actual percentage was significantly lower than the expected percentage of production (p<.05) with a large effect size (r=.615). It means that our participants used fewer K2 words in their free writing than what had been predicted by their knowledge in the PVLT. As for K3 and K4-K5 words, there was no significant difference. In other words, while descriptively students used more K3 words and fewer K4-K5 words than expected, these differences were not statistically significant. Two explanations are proposed here for to account for this pattern. First, students might have given up high frequency K2 words and opt for those with lower frequency (e.g., K3 and K4-K5). Second, there might be a developmental gap between general productive knowledge and actual production. The reasons for each of these proposals are detailed in the following. First, students could be opting for lower frequency words. There was indeed good motivation for the students to do that because two of the four writings were formal assessments which resembled the public examination format. In the HKDSE writing paper, as in the formal assessments, a good piece of writing (e.g., scoring 5 or above out of a total of 7 in the Language domain) needs to demonstrate a ‘wide’ vocabulary ‘with many examples of more sophisticated lexis’ (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012: 9). In order to demonstrate their vocabulary knowledge and score higher, they could be trying to avoid the high frequency words (i.e., K2 words) and produce words of lower frequency (i.e., K3 and/or K4-K5 words). However, whether or not this strategy to opt for lower frequency words alone could account for the data fully is reserved for discussion later. Second, there might be a developmental gap between knowing and actually using vocabulary items. To illustrate, we can focus on the K2 level. The students appeared to have acquired general productive knowledge of the K2 level given an overall attainment of 70% in the PVLT at this level. However, their failure to use the words at this K2 level as much as expected could imply a developmental gap between general productive knowledge and actual production. In fact, the correlation results presented earlier also tended to support the existence of such a gap between knowledge and use. Given that the correlation figures were all non-significant, knowing and using vocabulary items were indeed two different concepts. At this point of discussion, one could logically doubt whether or not either one of the 96 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing explanations (either a developmental gap or opting for lower frequency words) alone could account for the data fully. It is argued that both factors could have a role to play here. To explore how both explanations are playing a role in accounting for the t-test results, three hypotheses are proposed here for testing – (1) opting for lower frequency words alone explains our results fully, (2) existence of a developmental gap explains our results fully, and (3) both together explain our results fully. Hypothesis 1: Opting for lower frequency words as the sole explanation This hypothesis is that students opting for lower frequency words is the sole explanation for the t-test results. In other words, there was no developmental gap between knowledge and use. With the K2 level, the explanation seemed to hold that students might be opting for lower frequency words (i.e., K3 and K4-K5) and hence we found K2 words being produced significantly less than expected. The use of fewer K2 words, then, would logically contribute to the use of more K3 and/or K4-K5words because a decrease in proportion of actual use at one level should cause an increase at other levels. However, there was no significant difference between the expected and actual use of K3 and K4-K5 words. With respect to the K3 level, there might still be a chance that hypothesis 1 was correct. One could argue that while students might have replaced some K2 words with K3 ones, they might at the same time have replaced some other K3 words and opted for low frequency K4-K5 ones. In other words, the effect of discarding high frequency K2 words for mid frequency K3 words might have been counter-balanced by the trend of opting for low frequency K4-K5 words. This counter- balancing might explain why we found no significant result for the K3 level and why hypothesis 1 could continue to hold. However, when the K4-K5 level is considered, it becomes clearer that hypothesis 1 in fact could not be valid. This is because if students opted for lower frequency words to replace K2 and K3 words in a similar fashion, we would see more actual production of K4-K5 words than expected. However, the t-test revealed no such difference. In fact, the actual use of K4-K5 words was even less than expected descriptively. Taken together, while the decreased proportion of use at K2 level should logically lead to an increase in proportion at one or To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 97教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 more levels (K3 and/or K4-K5), this was not the case and therefore, the hypothesis of students opting for lower frequency words as the sole explanation could not hold in light of the results. Although one might suggest that the students could opt for words of even lower frequency (e.g., K5+), readers are reminded that the calculation of proportion in this study was only based on the range of K2 to K5 words. Figure 4 summarises the arguments towards such a conclusion. True (K2 words used statistically significantly less than expected) Poss ib l y t rue ( the effects might have been counterbalanced a n d h e n c e n o significant difference) False (no significant difference revealed, and K4-K5 words actually used descriptively less than expected) Figure 4: Summary of arguments related to hypothesis 1: Opting for lower frequency words as the sole explanation Hypothesis 2: Existence of a developmental gap as the sole explanation The second hypothesis contends that the existence of a developmental gap was the sole explanation for the observed pattern. First, there were significantly fewer K2 words being produced than expected in free writing, which appeared to conform to hypothesis 2. Specifically, this could have resulted from the fact that students were not able to put the words that they knew productively into actual use in free writing. 98 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing If hypothesis 2 was also true for K3 and K4-K5 production, we might as well find a similar trend of these words being used less than expected. However, this was not the case since no significant difference at these levels was found as mentioned above. In fact, students even used more K3 words than expected descriptively, counter-arguing that a developmental gap could account for the observed pattern fully. Taken together, while the pattern for K2 production might be explained by hypothesis 2, the findings with K3 and K4-K5 words did not conform to this hypothesis, which, therefore, needed to be also rejected. Hypothesis 3: Both explanations contributed to the results together Hypothesis 3 holds that the two explanations (i.e., opting for lower frequency words and the existence of a developmental gap) together contributed to the t-test results. First, for high frequency K2 words, the two explanations could both contribute to the observed less proportion of K2 production, that is the students would use fewer K2 words than expected. If there was an effect of students opting for lower frequency words, more actual production of mid frequency K3 words would be observed together with the less use of fewer higher frequency K2 words (as mentioned above when discussing hypothesis 1). At the same time, this expected increase might be counter-balanced by two opposite effects – that some other K3 words were replaced by low frequency K4-K5 words, and that there was a developmental gap making students not able to produce the K3 words that they had knowledge of. Indeed, there was no significant difference between expected and actual use of K3 words and this result could be accounted for by this counter-balancing of different effects. As a result, hypothesis 3 appeared to hold. Finally, for K4-K5 words, there was also no statistical difference between the expected and actual production in free writing tasks. Such finding can again be possibly due to the balancing of the increase of the use of K4-K5 words related to students being motivated to replace the K2 and K3 words and the effect of the existence of a developmental gap which brings about an observed less use of low frequency K4-K5 words in free writing. Hypothesis 3 still holds for this frequency level of vocabulary. Figure 5 summarises all these arguments related to hypothesis 3. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 99教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 True (K2 words used statistically significantly less than expected) Poss ib l y t rue ( the effects might have been counterbalanced a n d h e n c e n o significant difference) Poss ib l y t rue ( the effects might have been counterbalanced a n d h e n c e n o significant difference) Figure 5: Summary of arguments related to hypothesis 3: both explanations contributed to the results together So far, the validity of three hypotheses for explaining the t-test results has been discussed. The first one is that students have opted for lower frequency items because they wanted to show off their vocabulary. However, it has to be rejected because K3 and particularly K4-K5 words were not being used more often than expected. Second, the existence of a developmental gap between general productive knowledge and actual use could not be the only explanation either. This hypothesis was rejected because of the non- significant differences between the expected and actual use of K3 and K4-K5 words. Hypothesis 3, that both explanations were playing a role together, appears to be the only logical explanation for the findings. Although findings have been deliberated and considered through their limits, these potential explanations are merely speculative. Further research is needed if the discrepancies between knowledge and use are to be understood. The use of such methods as interviews and think-aloud protocols might shed some light, for instance, on the 100 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing issue about whether writing with more lower frequency words than expected was a conscious choice or not. Meanwhile, one thing is clear, and that is the existence of a discrepancy between expected production as deduced from the PVLT scores and the actual use of vocabulary in free writing. Just as the title of this paper has suggested -- knowing a vocabulary item is different from using it in free writing. As far as the developmental gap is concerned, there appeared to be multiple levels of productive vocabulary. A student knowing all of Nation’s (2001, 2013) aspects of vocabulary knowledge of a word, even up to the aspect of use, may not be able to produce the word freely in their writing. Indeed, as Nation (2013) has indicated, there is usually a big gap of how ‘vocabulary shown to be known on tests like the Vocabulary Levels Test is actually being used in meaning- focused performance’ (p 562). This identified gap also points to the need to look at the comprehensiveness of Nation’s (2001, 2013) aspects of lexical knowledge. The present study is one of the first to identify the discrepancies between knowing and using vocabulary, and it is believed that understanding more about this issue can produce important pedagogical implications for second language learning. Pedagogical implications One of the most important implications here is the recognition of the insufficiency for students to possess only general productive knowledge of vocabulary. In other words, that students are able to excel in fill-in-the-blanks exercise and assessment tasks does not automatically guarantee that they will be able to use the relevant vocabulary items in an unguided context. Therefore, one key aim for these learners is to be able to use the words appropriately in writing, rather than simply knowing the spelling and grammatical features of the lexical items. Teachers should not stop pushing students to their limits until the latter demonstrate correct use of the lexical items in writing and speaking. With this goal in mind, there could be a couple of strategies that teachers may consider using. It must be acknowledged, however, that the effectiveness of the proposed teaching strategies may still be subject to further empirical research. First, teachers should consider assigning more writing tasks with relatively less guidance, such as free writing tasks. For weak learners, the scaffolding may be crucial assistance for them to complete a To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 101教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 writing task. However, especially with the more proficient learners, guidance, or even the provision of a particular context, could promote the use of certain vocabulary items and at the same time possibly posing constraint to the use of others. This constraint could deprive students of the opportunities to formulate and test their hypotheses regarding the use of vocabulary in a trial-and-error manner. In a similar vein, teachers should encourage students to use newly learnt vocabulary items in their writing, again, allowing them to formulate and test hypotheses regarding actual use. Teachers, for example, could ask students to highlight the items that they would attempt to use so that the teacher could pay special attention to these when marking. These attempts may deserve more feedback and encouragement because they are evidence of students’ putting efforts into actually using the words that they have recently learnt. Second, teachers could teach vocabulary in semantically-related sets. For example, ‘vital’, ‘crucial’, and ‘significant’ may be taught together with ‘important’. Presenting items in this fashion could help students assimilate new knowledge to their existing store and enhance their lexical richness through opting for another word, which is exactly what has been observed in the present study and should be further encouraged. For example, students could replace ‘important’ with ‘vital’ in writing and thereby enhancing their lexical richness. However, it is also worth noting that, in a strict sense, no two words are absolute synonyms, meaning that no two words are totally interchangeable across all contexts. Therefore, a simple substitution may not always work. At the same time, to a certain extent, trying to use the new lexical items albeit possibly making mistakes is an important, if not inevitable, step in language learning. Teachers should not discourage the use of items during classroom exercise simply because of the mistakes that might be made. On the contrary, if teachers are able to identify potential confusion, they could provide even more information about the words to make the case clearer for students. Indeed, the confusion arising from the use of semantically-related sets has been reported in and supported by some studies (e.g., Papathanasiou, 2009). However, we note that Papathanasiou (2009) used vocabulary recall (i.e., asking students to recall the target items when given their meanings) as her learning outcome measure. Recall involved students’ general productive knowledge of the vocabulary, while the focus of our study is at the level of free productive use. Importantly, more recent studies (e.g., Ishii, 2015) questioned whether the source of confusion was in fact the semantically-relatedness, or the visual features of the experimental materials. Until more evidence emerges, teaching semantically-related sets is still worth trying. 102 教育研究報告匯編 To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing Another key, but perhaps indirect, aspect of pedagogical implication of this study is the demonstration of potential use of research tools by in-service teachers. While language teachers may still rely heavily on such assessment forms as dictation and fill-in- the-blanks exercise, teachers can make the best of some of the tools used in this study. These tools are useful and reliable as they are already commonly used in research (e.g., Lo & Murphy, 2010). The PVLT is useful for testing the size of one’s productive vocabulary. The Vocabulary Profiler could not only be used by teachers to analyse students’ vocabulary range in actual production. It could also be introduced to students who may use it as a self-assessment tool. It is unfortunate that these useful tools are yet to be fully utilised in the daily process of teaching and learning by teachers. It is hoped that the present study could inspire readers to give it a go. Conclusion This study has identified the discrepancy between knowing and using vocabulary in free writing. This discrepancy was attributed to a hypothetical developmental gap and students opting for lower frequency words in order to show off their lexical range. If we agree that one major goal of vocabulary learning is to produce a range of vocabulary learnt in free writing, then we as education practitioners should put in more effort in teaching vocabulary beyond the level of general productive knowledge. We suggested two examples of what we could do to bridge the gap of vocabulary knowledge and use, although the effectiveness of these suggestions still has to be tested by further empirical research. At this point, we would also like to call for more studies about the use of vocabulary in free writing. After all, to know is not to use. To know is not to use: The gap between students' productive vocabulary knowledge and their actual use in free writing 103教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 References Adolphs, S., & Schmitt, N. (2003). Lexical coverage of spoken discourse. Applied Linguistics, 24(4), 425-438. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination: English Language (Practice Paper) Marking Schemes and Tapescript . Hong Kong: HKEAA. Hu, H. M. & Nation, P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language , 13(1), 403-430. Ishii, T. (2015). Semantic connection or visual connection: Investigating the true source of confusion. Language Teaching Research , 19(6), 712-722. Laufer , B. , & Goldste in , Z. (2004) . Test ing vocabulary knowledge: Size , s t r e ng t h , a nd compu t e r a d ap t i v ene s s . Language Lea rn i ng , 54 (3 ) , 399-436. Laufe r , B . , & Nat ion , P . (1999) . A vocabu la ry - s ize t e s t o f con t ro l l ed productive ability. Language Testing , 16(1), 33-51. Laufer, B. (1998). The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language: same or different. Applied Linguistics , 19(2), 255-271. Lee, S. H. (2003). ESL learners’ vocabulary use in writing and the effects of explicit vocabulary instruction. System, 31 (4), 537-561. Lee, S. H., & Muncie, J. (2006). From receptive to productive: Improving ESL learners' use of vocabulary in a postreading composition task. TESOL Quarterly, 40 (2), 295-320. Lo, Y. Y. , & Murphy, V. (2010) . Vocabulary knowledge and growth in immersion and regular language-learning programmes in Hong Kong. Language and Education, 24, 215-238. Na t ion , I .S .P . (1990) . Teach ing and Learn ing Vocabu la ry . New York : Newbury House. Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nation, I.S.P. (2013). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Papathanasiou, E. (2009) . An Invest igat ion of Two Ways of Present ing Vocabulary. ELT Journal, 63 (4), 313-322. Pignot-Shahov, V. (2012). Measuring L2 receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Language Studies Working Papers, 4 , 37-45. Van Zee l and , H . , & Schmi t t , N . ( 2013 ) . Lex i ca l cove r age i n L1 and L2 l i s t en ing comprehens i on : The s ame o r d i f f e r en t f r om r e ad ing comprehension? Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 457-479. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 105教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Selena T. C. Tam & Dr. Eva Chiu HHCKLA Buddhist Leung Chik Wai College Abstract Written corrective feedback (WCF) has long been considered effective in improving students’ writing accuracy. However, it is still uncommon in writing classes in secondary schools in Hong Kong (Lee, 2011, 2013). In this study, a Planning, Experimentation and Reflection (PER) model of change was adopted to investigate the individual responses to the focused feedback and the peer feedback as well as the individual factors affecting their responses. Findings of the study show that the numbers of mistakes students had made reduced while the numbers of errors corrected increased. More able students were also able to mark their peers’ writing. It was found that language abilities might be a factor affecting students’ uptake of WCF. Introduction Two types of WCF namely selective marking and peer feedback, have long been promoted in the Curriculum Guide since 1999 (CDC, 1999) and believed to be effective in improving students’ writing accuracy. However, they are still uncommon in writing classes in secondary schools in Hong Kong (Lee, 2011, 2013). Teachers usually have to mark all aspects of students’ writing and students sometimes find it uneasy to make improvements in all these aspects. In fact, a lot of research has revealed that selective marking and peer feedback are more effective than their traditional counterparts (which are unfocused marking and teacher feedback) in improving students’ accuracy as well as their long-term language development in the western contexts 106 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students and even the local context (Ferris, 1999, 2006; Lee, 2005, 2013). Focused marking may help learners pay attention to fewer types of error so that they can understand the errors more (Ellis et al., 2008). Peer feedback can let students understand more about their strengths and weaknesses (CDC, 2002). Overall, it is worth trying out these WCF in the secondary writing class. This study aims at helping students improve their writing accuracy through the use of these WCF. In this study, a Planning, Experimentation and Reflection (PER) model of change was adopted to investigate the individual responses to the focused feedback and the peer feedback as well as the individual factors affecting their responses. Literature Review Theoretical Perspectives of Written Corrective Feedback Written Corrective Feedback (WCF), which is also called error correction or grammar correction, refers to the “correction of grammatical errors for the purpose of improving a student’s ability to write accurately” (Truscott, 1996, p. 329). WCF has been regarded as a normal way of improving students’ writing accuracy and a necessary part of the writing curriculum (Hendrickson, 1978, 1980; Truscott, 1996). It originated from the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Before 1960, language experts who believe in the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claim that learners make errors in the second language because they are affected by their first language. In other words, their errors can be avoided if they realize the differences between the two languages. Error correction is needed for this reason (Hendrickson, 1978; Selinker, 1969). Also, the audiolingual approach in 1960s encourages the teaching of a second language by memorizing dialogues, studying all the grammatical rules, and avoiding the making of errors (Hendrickson, 1978). In the late 1960s, SLA scholars found that even first language (L1) students would make a lot of errors during their first language acquisition. Therefore, they believed that students’ errors were just a natural part of their language learning process. It means that teachers should tolerate some of students’ errors so as to help them become more confident in expressing themselves using the second language. Also, errors are just as a signal which shows students’ progress in the language learning process (Corder, 1967; Hendrickson, 1978; Lantolf, 1977). Different learning theories have different views on WCF. For the subscribers to SLA theories, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis informs them of the importance of comprehensive marking. However, Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 107教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Krashen’s (1985) Monitor Model implies that WCF is ineffective because learning is different from acquisition, which is a subconscious process. In addition, learners acquire the linguistic features of the second language in a predictable order which is not affected by the teaching order. Thus, corrective feedback, which is a conscious process that requires teaching, does not have any role in developing students’ acquired knowledge. However, interaction theories by Long (1996) and Swain (1985, 1995) support the positive role of WCF. These theories state that L2 input must be pushed to give modified output in interactions. That is, learners need to pay attention to the form in the input and the output in order to incorporate the explicit linguistic knowledge into their L2 system as L2 intake, and internalise the knowledge into their long-term memory. The internalisation process is affected by mediating factors such as learners’ amount of attention, motivation, individual cognition and affection. Other learning theories tend to advocate the positive role of WCF. The skill acquisition models developed by McLaughlin (1990) in the 1980s claim that language learning is just like the learning of cognitive skills and simple processes that can eventually lead to the development of complex behaviour. The socio-cultural theory by Vygotsky’s (1987) states that cognitive development is a result of social interactions between people. Learning happens when a less knowledgeable person interacts with someone more knowledgeable. Lantolf and Thorne (2007) think that if scaffolding occurs in the zone of proximal development in the learner, it can successfully help him or her develop his L2 abilities and become more ‘self-regulated’. As WCF is a way of interaction that is based on students’ levels, it can foster the mastery of the second language. Types of Written Corrective Feedback WCF can be categorised into three types. The first type is about who should give feedback, i.e. teacher feedback or peer feedback. The second type is related to how to give feedback, i.e. indirect feedback or direct feedback. The third type is about the extent to which feedback is given, i.e. focused feedback or unfocused feedback as well as treatable or untreatable errors. Teacher feedback means that teachers are responsible for providing WCF to students in L2 writing classes while peer feedback refers to the comments provided by learners’ peers. Direct WCF is defined as that “provides some form of explicit correction of linguistic form or structure above or near the linguistic error. It may consist of the crossing out of an unnecessary 108 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students word/phase/morpheme, the insertion of a missing word/phrase/ morpheme, and the provision of the correct form or structure”. Indirect WCF refers to that “indicates that in some way an error has been made but it does not provide a correction” (Bitchener & Knoch, 2010, p. 209). According to Ellis et al. (2008), focused WCF refers to “(the selection of) specific errors to be corrected and ignores other errors” (p. 356). The extent to which it is focused is dependent upon the number of errors selected. Unfocused WCF refers to the extensive correction of all the errors in students’ written work. It responds to multiple errors and is believed to be a common practice in foreign language writing classrooms (Furneaux et al., 2007). For treatable and untreatable errors, Ferris (1999) explained that errors occur in a patterned and rule-governed way. Students can use a grammar book or set of rules to handle the error. Untreatable errors are the problems with missing words, unnecessary words and word order. They are idiosyncratic and so students need to use their acquired knowledge of the language to correct the error. Thus, according to Ferris (2006), indirect feedback could be given to treatable errors while direct feedback can handle untreatable errors. Empirical Evidence on Written Corrective Feedback A lot of research has been conducted in Western contexts to show the efficacy of WCF. For the role of WCF, Truscott (1996) argued that error correction did not have a role in writing courses, as proved by his study and the SLA insights. However, Ferris (1999) found that the empirical evidence presented in Truscott’s study was limited and the methodologies of the previous studies were problematic. Short-term studies revealed that WCF helped students improve their accuracy in their text revision. Also, students believed it is useful. Her belief is that effective grammar correction is selective, prioritized and clear. Regarding different types of WCF, Bitchener and Knoch (2010) found that indirect WCF succeeded in engaging L2 learners in guided learning and problem-solving. It allowed students to reflect on the existing knowledge and foster long-term written accuracy and acquisition. Ellis et al. (2008) claimed that focused CF was theoretically more effective because students could pay attention to a limited number of types of errors and they might understand the nature of errors and the correction more. Empirical studies showed that focused WCF was more effective than unfocused WCF for improving accuracy in text revision as well as immediate and delayed post-tests (Bitchener & Knoach, 2009, 2010; Ellis et al., 2008; Sheen, 2007; van Beuningan et al., 2012). In terms of the Asian context, Lee (2005, 2011) investigated Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 109教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 the current feedback practices in the L2 writing classrooms in Hong Kong secondary schools using case studies approach. The results revealed that the majority of teachers used unfocused, direct and comprehensive WCF which was extremely time-consuming and ineffective. However, it was perceived to be useful and it was the panel policy. Another study (Lee, 2008) pointed out that more proficient students preferred more WCF strategies while less proficient students benefited more from the focused WCF. For peer feedback, research by different scholars found that trained peer’s responses could enhance the quality of students’ revision (Berge, 1999; Harmer, 2004). Hedgcock and Lefkowitz (1992) observed that students appreciated the peer WCF because they could understand how teachers think and have a new conception of what writing involved. Empirical Evidence on Individual Factors Bitchener (2012) stated that individual and contextual factors were the mediating factors affecting the extent to which students engage with WCF. They resulted in learning in terms of uptake, internalization and consolidation. Sheen (2007) found that two individual factors might affect students’ retention and uptake from WCF, which were analytic ability and learners’ attitudes. She reported that direct CF was more effective for students with higher analytic ability with or without the meta-linguistic explanation. Also, high- aptitude students benefit more from meta-linguistic explanation (Sheen, 2007). Storch and Wigglesworth (2010) found that three affective factors mediated the process of WCF uptake, which were beliefs, goals and attitudes. Findings of research on how learners’ attitudes affect peer responses vary (Hu, 2005; Srichanyachon, 2012). Methodology Background of the Study As mentioned above, this study used the PER design to examine how students respond to the focused WCF and peer feedback as well as the possible factors affecting this. The participants were an average-ability class of Form One students in a Band Two CMI (Chinese as the medium of instruction) school in the New Territories. Most of them did not live in an English-rich environment because they were from the less well-off districts and they studied nearly all the subjects in Chinese. They usually could not write error-free sentences in English. About one-third of them joined tutorial classes after school. 110 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students It was a normal practice for teachers to use unfocused and direct feedback in marking students’ writings. All the 21 students in this class completed the study. Most of them were weak at writing, especially in the areas of idea elaboration and grammatical accuracy. For the sake of in-depth case study, six of them were selected according to their results of the Usage Paper and the Writing Paper in English Language examinations in the first term as well as their motivation to learn English. Two of them were of higher ability. Two of them were of average ability while the remaining two were of weaker ability. Their motivation to learn English, as observed by the main researcher, varied. The Usage Paper, the full mark of which was 50, involved eight marks for explicit tense questions and 24 marks for implicit tense questions (e.g. forming questions, cloze passages). The Writing Paper was based on a descriptive passage in the past tense. The backgrounds of the students were as follows (Table 1), Table 1 The examination results and background of the participants Name Usage Writing Total Background 50 marks 70 marks 300 marks Mary 27 50 201.5 motivated to learn English but not good at wr i t ing accuracy Ann 32 33 180.8 not very motivated but the English foundation is fairly good Peter 17.5 46 162.3 motivated to learn English, but espec ia l ly weak at writing accuracy Lucy 22.5 28 151.0 motivated to learn English, g o o d a t s u b j e c t - v e r b agreement but not good at sentence structures Paul 21 22 137.5 not very mot ivated but willing to try when being encouraged Kate 6.5 13 61.6 lower IQ, unable to write accurate sentences, but motivated to learn The numbers in italics mean that they are below the passing marks. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 111教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 This study covered four writing cycles. In each writing cycle, students were first taught the target grammar item and asked to use it to write a text of about 150 words. The teacher then marked their texts using the focused WCF and students were asked to do the corrections. For peer feedback, it was the students who marked their peers’ texts instead of the teacher. The writing cycles were conducted by the main researcher, who was the subject teacher of the class. The co-researcher supervised the implementation of the study, analysed the data and evaluated the whole project. Research Questions The study aims to investigate the following questions, 1. How do Form 1 students respond to focused marking and peer feedback and how do the two types of WCF affect students’ writing accuracy? 2. What are the individual factors affecting students’ responses of these feedback? Research Design The three-stage PER model of change was adopted in this study (Taylor et al., 2005). During the planning stage, the aim was to identify goals and design strategies for improving students’ writing accuracy. Students were expected to use the target grammar items to write personal letters and descriptive texts. The experimentation stage consisted of implementation, observation and evaluation. The use of WCF strategies and target grammar items was emphasized during the pre-writing lessons while students were asked to finish their work during the writing lesson. They were required to revise their texts within the class time during the post-writing lesson. The reflection stage was about reviewing the actions and planning for future actions by asking students to respond to a questionnaire and conducting semi-structural interviews with them. According to Law et al. (2010), there were advantages of using the PER model in action research. By using a problem-solving and critical approach in learning and teaching, changes in pedagogy, which become an open venture, can be located and shared. It is expected that focused WCF and/or peer WCF can become part of the regular curriculum in our junior form English Language classes after this study. 112 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Planning Data were collected with two tense tests, four texts with focused marking and revisions, bilingual student questionnaires as well as semi-structural interviews. A pre-tense test and a post-tense test were used to see if there was any improvement in the acquisition of the target linguistic items (see Appendix 1). The four writing cycles were all videotaped and conducted in timed settings. Two writing cycles focused on the present tense (pre-present tense assessment and post- present tense assessment) while the other two focused on the past tense (pre-past tense assessment and post-past tense assessment). Four writing topics with which students were familiar were used as prompts for students to write up to the word limit (150 words). As the simple present tense and the simple past tense are the key grammar items in the Form one English Language Curriculum and the major verb forms used in different text types, they would be set as the target grammar items in all the writing cycles. Indirect feedback was given since tenses were the linguistic items that occurred in a systemic way and students were able to use the set of rules to handle their tense errors. Only the errors relating to the main verb would be marked as students were used to making grammatical mistakes relating to sentence structures and other grammatical rules which made their writing difficult to understand. In addition, the main researcher would use direct WCF to correct a few of their major errors to make their writing comprehensible. Each cycle consisted of three steps. The first step was to explain the target grammar items explicitly. Students were given a focused marking sample and the main researcher explained what focused marking was and how they could correct the underlined errors (Appendix 2). They were asked to write the topic in about 30 minutes (Appendix 3) with relevant key words given as an aid. The researcher then underlined their errors selectively. The second step was to ask students to revise their texts within 20 minutes. They had to correct the underlined errors by themselves. The third step was to ask them to fill out a questionnaire to express how far they could understand the focus of the tasks, the type of teacher feedback they preferred and their views on the focused WCF (see Appendix 4). The third writing cycle, which was about peer assessment, had a different second step. The main researcher allocated copies of students’ writings to their classmates and asked them to underline the errors regarding Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 113教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 the past tense in the main verbs. Students then corrected their errors based on their peers’ marking and their own judgment. Later on, the main researcher marked the photocopies of the writing and asked students to correct their own work once more. The two sets of text plus revisions were compared. Students had to fill out a questionnaire about how far they could understand the focus of the tasks, what they could learn from their peer assessment, and what they could learn from assessing their peers’ writing (see Appendix 5). At the end of the four writing cycles, six students participated in the semi-structural interviews (Appendix 6) about how far they had understood focused WCF and peer feedback when compared with the normal marking practice of the teacher and how they felt about these. A post-tense test was administered after the study to investigate their performances of using the present tense and past tense (Appendix 7). Experimentation A pre-tense test was given to students before the start of the project to assess their ability to use the correct verb forms. The results showed that students’ performance in using the simple present tense was more stable while that in using the simple past tense varied. Also, their pre-tense test results generally aligned with their First Term English Language Examination results, except for Peter and Lucy (see Table 2). Table 2 Students' results of the pre-tense test Name Present Tense Past Tense % of correct items % of correct items Mary 75% 76.9% Ann 75% 92.3% Peter 25% 0.0% Lucy 75% 84.6% Paul 75% 46.1% Kate 25% 15.4% 114 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students The first writing cycle is about writing a 150-word description of a friend using the simple present tense. The uses of the present tense and the forms of ‘be’ and other verbs were taught explicitly. Results showed that only Peter was able to write about the word limit while others wrote about 100 words, except Kate who had difficulties in writing. The number of mistakes they made in the use of present tense ranged from four to seven. Students who made more mistakes were more able to correct their errors. Paul and Peter, who was not good at English and not very motivated, corrected nearly all of the errors. Kate, who had a lower IQ, was also able to correct 71% of the errors. Lucy, who was an average student, was willing to try to correct her errors, although she could not use the correct verb forms (see Table 3). Table 3 Students’ results in the first writing cycle (Pre-present tense assessment) Name No. of words No. of mistakes No. of errors corrected % corrected Mary 99 4 2 50% Ann 104 4 1 25% Peter 146 6 5 83% Lucy 94 4 0 0% Paul 113 6 6 100% Kate 53 7 5 71% Data from the first questionnaire revealed that all students except Kate realised the focus of the task was on present tense. The majority of them wanted the English teacher to highlight some of their errors. Only Lucy preferred comprehensive marking. All of them believed that selective marking was useful because they knew their errors about the present tense. The second writing cycle focused on the simple past tense the task required asking students to write a descriptive text of a trip to Ocean Park in 150 words. After delivering the past tense lesson, students were given some key words about the park to prompt them to write more (e.g. names of the places). Three of them could reach the word limit. The number of mistakes regarding the past tense ranged from one to six. Mary and Ann, who were more able students, Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 115教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 corrected nearly all the past tense errors and realized that they needed to use the past tense. However, Mary made mistakes in the verb forms (i.e. spelling) whereas Ann failed to locate the main verbs. Kate was willing to do the corrections but could not correct most of her errors (see Table 4). Table 4 Students’ results in the second writing cycle (Pre-past tense assessment) Name No. of words No. of mistakes No. of errors corrected % corrected Mary 152 6 5 83% Ann 130 5 5 100% Peter 143 2 1 50% Lucy 75 5 1 20% Paul 97 1 1 100% Kate 65 6 1 17% Results from the second questionnaire were similar to those from the first. Kate still misunderstood the focus of the task. This time, it was Peter who preferred comprehensive marking. Again, all of them showed their positive attitude towards focused marking. Lucy said it helped her memorize the verb forms better. Mary thought that it could give her more practices on tenses. Paul expressed that it focused on the tenses and so he could correct them by checking the tense table. The third writing cycle was about peer assessment (the past tense). Students were asked to write a personal letter about teenage problems using. The main researcher then distributed their writings and to their peers based on their abilities. Two pieces of writing were marked by more able students. Two were marked by average students while the other two were marked by less able students. As the topic was something new, none of them were able to write up to 150 words. Results indicated that average and more able peers tended to identify and correct more corrected mistakes while the less able students failed to locate them. Also, the percentages of the number of errors corrected based on teacher assessment were higher than those based on peer assessment. From the perspective of post-past tense assessment, the percentages of errors corrected were obviously higher than that in pre-past tense assessment, especially for the weaker ones namely Peter, Lucy and Kate (Table 5). 116 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Table 5 Students’ results in the third writing cycle (Past tense/peer Assessment) Name No. of words No. of corrected mistakes marked by peers No. of mistakes marked by teacher Marked by student who was No. of errors corrected based on peers No. of errors corrected based on Teacher % corrected based on peers % corrected based on Teacher Mary 98 1 1 less able 1 1 100% 100% Ann 102 4 6 average 3 6 75% 100% Peter 116 1 5 less able 0 4 0% 80% Lucy 120 7 10 average 4 8 57.1% 80% Paul 84 2 2 more able 1 2 50% 100% Kate 91 5 6 more able 0 3 0% 50% The results of the third questionnaire survey indicated that less able students tended to misunderstand the focus of the task. They, except Paul, believed they could learn from marking their peers’ writing. Mary stated in the interview that she could learn from marking her peers’ writing. Paul and Lucy did not think they could learn from their peer’s feedback. The fourth writing cycle served as a post-present tense assessment. Students were asked to describe a member in their families in the present tense. As the cycle was conducted right after the second term test, students were not very motivated and they, except Mary, wrote only about 100 words. The percentages of error corrected were also higher than those in the pre-present tense assessment. Lucy was the only one who did not show any improvement (see Table 6). Table 6 Students’ results in the fourth writing cycle (Post-present tense assessment) Name No. of words No. of mistakes No. of errors corrected % corrected Mary 141 5 4 80% Ann 103 2 2 100% Peter 81 4 4 100% Lucy 85 6 0 0% Paul 60 2 2 100% Kate 70 6 4 67% Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 117教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 A test on tenses was administered after the writing cycles. Results revealed that students generally showed improvements in their use of the present tense. However, they performed worse with regard to the past tense. The weaker ones even got no marks in past tense items (Table7). Table 7 Students’ results in the final test Name Present Tense Past Tense % of corrected items % of corrected items Mary 50% 20% Ann 88% 20% Peter 88% 40% Lucy 88% 0% Paul 88% 0% Kate 25% 0% Semi-structural interviews were conducted after the post- tense test. The results showed that all students found focused WCF useful because they could focus on a few errors only. However, as the focused WCF was indirect, Paul and Kate expressed that they preferred “direct answers from the teacher”. Lucy found indirect WCF difficult but she still liked it. All of the writing cycles were observed by the two researchers. During the WCF lessons, students were found to be more focused when they revised the texts when compared with their regular writing lessons. They were more aware of the importance of subject-verb agreement, as proven by the fact that they asked the teacher what verb forms they should use after different subjects. Also they were more willing to correct the errors by themselves. 118 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Reflections Despite the growth of WCF research studies showing its effectiveness, the adoption of WCF strategies in Hong Kong is still under-investigated. The present study provides empirical evidence on how students responded to the focused and peer feedback and how WCF strategies affected their writing accuracy. The majority of students responded to focused WCF on the present tense positively. They understood the focus of the task and claimed that they liked focused marking. When the pre-present tense assessment was compared with the post-present tense assessment, students showed improvements in reducing the numbers of mistakes made and also increasing the numbers of errors corrected. Students,except Kate and Lucy, performed obviously better in the post-tense test than the pre- tense test. Kate was a very weak student and tended to misunderstand the focus of the task. Lucy, who was weak in writing, failed to benefit from focused WCF in terms of accuracy. She still made a lot of present tense mistakes in her writing and could not correct them. However, she had shown some improvements in tense tests. Students believed that focused WCF on the past tense was useful and commented very positively about it despite making quite a lot of mistakes in the post-past tense assessment. They said that it helped them memorise the verb forms better. Paul, who was weak and not motivated to learn, even pointed out that focused and indirect WCF helped him focus on the verb forms in the main verbs and so he could correct them by checking the tense table on his own. As conended by Ellis et al. (2008), focused WCF might help learners pay attention to fewer types of error so they understand the errors more. Also, the increase in the percentages of error corrected in the post- past tense assessment was obvious, especially in the cases of weaker students. These conformed to previous studies that less proficient students could correct treatable errors by themselves and benefit from focused and indirect feedback (Ferris, 2006, Lee, 2008). Students did not perform well in the post-tense test probably because it was more difficult than the pre-tense test. The results of the peer assessment depicted that more able students were able to mark their peers’ writing. Mary even expressed that she could learn from the process. The possible reason was that peer feedback let students understand more about their strengths and weaknesses (CDC, 2002). The weaker ones, however, did not believe in their peers’ assessment, as shown by the lower percentages of the number of errors corrected. Lucy, Paul and Peter were concerned Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 119教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 that their peers might not be able to mark their errors. Their worry was in line with Harmer’ findings (2004) that peers had to be trained in order to provide useful feedback. Nevertheless, most of the students claimed that peer assessment was useful because it could help them check their writing one more time. With respect to individual factors, learners’ language abilities might have an effect on students’ uptake of WCF. Mary and Ann, who are more able students, showed improvements in the percentages of numbers of errors corrected in post assessments. They might have better metalinguistic knowledge and so could use grammar rules to handle focused and “treatable” errors. For the weaker students, the main researcher observed that the focused WCF successfully helped them focus on the errors, but they failed to correct them because they did not know the correct verb forms, as proven by the fact that they kept asking the researcher the spelling of the verb forms. The second possible factor was students’ beliefs. The weaker ones did not believe in their peer’s judgement on their writing and so they did not respond to their WCF even though some of them were correct. After all, the effect of learners’ attitudes was not very obvious as less motivated students were still able to benefit from the WCF. There are some limitations in the present study. All the writing tasks in this study were low-stakes. Students knew that these were for research purpose only so they became less and less motivated towards the end of the study. They were not very willing to respond to the indirect WCF because it required problem-solving and was different from their feedback they received in regular lessons. In terms of research design, the levels of difficulty of the two tense tests were different and so it might slightly affect the reliability of the study. Due to time-frame limitations, peer assessment and the post-past tense assessment needed to be done in one writing cycle. Training can be provided to students on how to use selective mark before the study. In terms of future actions, the writing cycles could become part of the regular curriculum or even daily assessment in order to encourage students’ active use of the language. Also, indirect feedback should be used in some of the writing lessons to familiarise them with feedback. Further research could be conducted with more than one class of students in quasi-experimental settings to determine the efficacy of WCF in between-subject groups. Contextual factors such as social relationships between teachers and learners as well as learners’ educational background can also be investigated. 120 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Conclusion This study has adopted a PER model of change to examine students’ responses to the focused and peer WCF and the individual factors affecting the responses. Students found focused WCF useful in helping them acquiring the present and past tenses. The weaker ones had also benefitted from focused and indirect feedback as they could focus on a few errors and use the grammar rules to handle errors. The more able students could mark their peers’ writing selectively, but the weaker students did not believe in their peers’ feedback. Learners’ language abilities and students’ beliefs might be the factors affecting the uptake of WCF. It is obvious that students overall responded to the focused WCF and peer assessment positively. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 121教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 References Berge, Z.L., (1999). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendation from the field. Educational Tecnology, 35(1), 22-30. Bitchener, J . (2008). Evidence in support of writ ten corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(2), 102-118. Bitchener, J. (2012). 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The effects of focused and unfocused written corrective feedback in an English as a foreign language context. System, 36(3), 353-371. Ferris, D. R. (1999). The case for grammar correction in L2 writing classes: A response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(1), 1-11. Ferris, D. R. (2006). Does error feedback help student writers? New evidence on the short- and long-term effects of writ ten error correction. In K. Hyland & F . Hyland (Eds . ) , Feedback in second language wr i t ing : Contexts and issues (pp. 81–104). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Furneaux, C., Paran, A., & Fairfax, B. (2007). Teacher stance as reflected in feedback on student writing: An empirical study of secondary school t eache r s in f ive coun t r i e s . IRAL- In te rna t iona l Rev iew o f App l i ed Linguistics in Language Teaching, 45 (1), 69-94. Harmer, J. (2004). How to teach English: An Introduction to the practice of English Language . London: Longman. Hedgcock, J . , & Lefkowitz, N. (1994). Feedback on feedback: Assessing learner recept ivi ty to teacher response in L2 composing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 3 (2), 141-163. 122 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Hendr ickson, J . (1978) . Er ror cor rec t ion in fore ign language teaching: Recen t t heo ry , r e s ea r ch , and p r ac t i ce . Mode rn Language Jou rna l , 62 , 387–398. Hendrickson, J . M. (1980). The treatment of errors in writ ten work. The Modern Language Journal, 64 (2), 216-221. Hu, G. (2005). Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching Research, 9 (3), 321-342. Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications (Vol. 1, p. 985). London: Longman. Lantolf , J . P. (1977). Aspects of change in foreign language study. The Modern Language Journal, 61 (5-6), 242-251. Lantolf , J . P. , & Thorne, S. L. (2007) . 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Handbook of second language acquisition , 2, 413-468. M c L a u g h l i n , B . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . “ C o n s c i o u s ” v e r s u s “ u n c o n s c i o u s ” learning. TESOL quarterly, 24 (4), 617-634. Selinker, L. (1969). Language transfer. General linguistics, 9 (2), 67-92. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in i ts development. Input in second language acquisition, 15 , 165-179. Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of HG Widdowson , 125-144. Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 123教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused writ ten corrective feedback and language ap t i tude on ESL learners ' acquis i t ion of a r t i c les . TESOL Quarterly,41 (2), 255-283. Sr ichanyachon, N. (2012) . 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Springer. 124 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Appendix 1 Pre-Tense test Fill in the blanks with the correct tense of verbs. One day Leonado da Vinci came (come) to an old man. He 1. _____________(want) the old man to 2. ___________ (teach) him to draw. The old man 3. _________________ (welcome) him, then 4. ____________ (give) him an egg and 5. ______________ (tell) him to draw it. Leonado 6. _______________ (work) quickly and 7. _____________ (show) his drawing to the old man. “8. ________________ (draw) it again!” 9. _________________ (say) the old man. Soon after, Leondao 10. ________________ (draw) another egg. His picture 11. ________________(look) good but the old man 12. ________________(make) him do it again and again. Then Leonado 13. ______________ (become) angry. He 14. ________________ (say), ‘I can 15. _______________ (draw) an egg in two minutes. Why 16. ______________ you ____________ (keep) me waiting? Please 17. ______________ (teach) me how to draw now.” The old man 18. ________________(smile) and said, ‘Yes, you 19. _____________(be) right. You can draw an egg quickly, but it 20. __________________(take) you many years to draw on very well.’ (Items 2 and 16 are excluded) Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 125教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Appendix 2 Focused Marking Sample to Students Sandy is my classmates. She is 12 years old. She wear a long ponytail. She was energetic and intelligent. She like sports and she always get good marks in exam. She likes tell jokes. We think she is always funny. She is sporty. She hobby are dancing. She in many place join dance club. She joins many competitions and was won many prizes. She teach me how to dance. play ( ) She have other hobby. She like play guitar. Every Sunday, I shows the guitar with her. I very like her! She is my best friend! Appendix 3 Topics of the Writing Tasks Writing Cycle Topic Focus of the Cycle 1 Describing a friend Pre-present tense assessment 2 A trip to Ocean Park Pre-past tense assessment 3 A personal letter Post-past tense assessment Peer assessment 4 Describing a family member Post-present tense assessment 126 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Appendix 4 Questionnaire for the First and Second Writing Cycles Form 1 English Language WCF Study Questionnaire This study aims to find out your views about the use of selective marking and peer feedback. Circle the answer that suits you most. All your answers will be treated confidentially. 此研究的目的是找出你對選擇性修改文章及學生互評的意見。請選擇最 適合你的答案。所有答案均會保密。 1. What is the target grammar item in this writing practice? 是次寫作練習是著重於哪一種文法 ? A. Present tense B. Past tense C. Future tense D. Prepositions 2. Which of the following do you like best? 以下哪一種你最喜歡？ A. My English teacher highlights all of my errors. 我的英文老師指出我的作文中的所有錯誤。 B. My English teacher highlights some of my errors. 我的英文老師指出我的作文的某些錯誤。 C. My English teacher does not highlight any of my errors. 我的英文老師沒有指出我的作文中的任何錯誤。 3. Do you think selective marking (e.g. only marking the tense in your compositions) can help you learn tense better? Why or why not? 你認為選擇性改修改文章 ( 例如只修改文章中的時態 ) 能幫你學習時 態學得更好嗎？為什麼？ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 127教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Appendix 5 Questionnaire for the Third Writing Cycle This study aims to find out your views about the use of selective marking and peer feedback. Circle the answer that suits you most. All your answers will be treated confidentially. 此研究的目的是找出你對選擇性修改文章及學生互評的意見。請選擇最 適合你的答案。所有答案均會保密。 1. What is the target grammar item in this writing practice? 是次寫作練習是著重於哪一種文法 ? A. Present tense B. Past tense C. Future tense D. Prepositions 2. Do you think you can learn tense better through peer assessment (e.g. helping your classmates mark their writing) Why or why not? 透過學生互評 ( 例如幫助同學改文 )，你認為你能從中學習時態學得 更好嗎？為什麼？ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3. Do you think you can learn tense better from your classmates’ feedback (e.g. letting your classmates mark your writing) Why or why not? 你認為你是否能從同學的反饋中 ( 例如讓同學改你的文章 ) 能幫你學 習時態學得更好嗎？為什麼？ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 128 教育研究報告匯編 Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Appendix 6 Semi-structural Interview Questions 1. 你知道選擇性修改文章和綜合性修改文章 ( 即平時老師的改文方式 ) 的分別嗎 ? 2. 就第一篇作文而言，這是一篇個人檔案，要形容一個人，你知道要用 什麼時態嗎 ? 3. 你知道為什麼要把某些字劃下橫線嗎 ? 4. 你認為這種方法能提點你用正確的時態嗎 ? 5. 就第二篇作文而言，這是一篇記叙文，你知道要用什麼時態嗎 ? 6. 就第三篇作文而言，你認為如果同學先幫你修改文章，你能更容易發 現自己的錯誤嗎 ? Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students 129教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 Appendix 7 Post Tense Test Complete each blank using the correct form of the given verb. The first one has been done for you as an example. Sasha’s Blog First Day 1 September 2013 I (e.g.) am (be) really nervous about the more difficult work for this year. I (1)_____________________(not do) very well last year, but I (2)_________________(hope) I can (3)______________________ (do) better this year. In addition, I (4)__________________(be) a Form 1 student this year, so the school (5)__________________(be) new to me. I (6)_____________________(try) to cope with the new environment. I’m afraid I am not at the same level as my classmates. I am so glad Michelle and I are in the same class. My class teacher (7)__________________(be) Miss Ho, and she (8)___________________(seem) to be a very nice teacher. This morning she (9)___________________(talk) to us patiently about the school, and the things we (10)___________________(do) in the next two months. I (11)_______________(feel) so happy when she (12)___________________(tell) us she would also be our English teacher. I (13)____________________(hope) I can do well this year, and I (14)_____________________(want) to make as many new friends as possible. How (15)___________________(be) your first day at school, Janet? Posted: 1 Sep 9.45 p.m. (Item 10 is excluded) 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 131教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 透過電子教學平台提升學生 辨析修辭手法的能力研究 吳麗琴、李佩霞、陳小敏、馬望寧（鳳溪第一小學） 何志恆博士（香港教育大學） 摘要 本行動研究旨在探討透過電子教學平台能否有效提升學生辨析修辭 手法的能力，研究對象為四班小學六年級學生。研究員運用電子教學平 台作為媒介，設計了三節有關明喻、暗喻、排比的電子課堂。研究結果 顯示，透過電子教學平台既能有效提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力和興 趣，也能提高教學效能。 研究背景 學習修辭手法是小學中國語文科教學其中一個必備環節，學生能正 確認識和分辨不同修辭手法，才可以在寫作時應用出來，從而提高表達 效果。《小學中國語文建議學習重點，2008》也指出，學生在寫作範疇， 要學習「運用合適修辭手法以提高表達效果」（頁 12）。 本校教師在中國語文科課堂，一向都會利用課文，以螺旋式教授修 辭手法，因應學生的年級遞升而增加深度，讓學生學得更深入。然而， 本學年四位六年級中文科教師發現，隨課文教授修辭手法，學生的課堂 表現雖然令人滿意，可是考試表現卻顯示學生辨析修辭手法的能力還有 待提升。 香港在世紀之交推動課程改革，「運用資訊科技進行互動學習」 是 其 中 一 個 重 要 的 課 程 改 革 項 目。 江 紹 祥（2010） 引 用 Nuutinen、 Sutinen、Botha 及 Kommers 等學者的研究成果，指出「電子通訊介入的 學習為學生營造一個自主探究、合作學習的環境，能讓學生專心投入課 堂學習，從多角度反覆討論學習課題，從而使他們有更多機會深入學習 相關課題」。江紹祥（2011）進一步指出，電子學習環境可以為教師節 省教學的時間，提高教學效率。即使教師只是應用簡單的電子簡報進行 教學，已能夠節省在黑板重複板書的時間。再者，電子教學對學生的 認知發展也有不少好處：可以強化學生的認知過程（Coffey, 2005; Ware, 2004）、減少認知負荷（Sweller & Chandler, 1994）、幫助學生理解抽象 的概念（Wheeler, Yeomans & Wheeler, 2008）。 132 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 為了掌握電子學習的教學效能，我們訪問了曾獲 eClass 港澳區中小 學教學設計比賽 2014 個人組別（小學組）冠軍的冼文標老師。冼老師 表示，使用電子教學平台（power lesson），可以按校本需要設計課業內 容，又可即時評估學生表現，即時知道學生的答對率等。然而，電子 教學也有其缺點，例如教師需要更多時間設計課業。而且進行教學時， 也可能會出現網絡系統不穩定的情況，影響教學，故此需要技術人員支 援。綜合以上研究及教學實踐，電子學習可以發揮以下的作用： •加強學生對科目知識的認知； •促進教學的評估； •貼合校本教學需要； •提升教學效果。 過去相關研究實踐已經證實電子學習可以提升學生對科目知識的認 知，而運用修辭手法的能力需要提升。故此，是次研究將透過電子教學 平台教授辨析修辭手法，從而探究運用電子教學平台在提升學生辨析修 辭手法的效能。我們預期是次研究的結果，可以作為面對同樣困難的教 育工作者的參考，有利香港語文教育工作的發展。 根據《小學中國語文建議學習重點》（2008），學生需運用合適修 辭手法以提高表達效果（頁 12）。無論在寫作、閱讀的學習領域範疇， 學生均需要辨析不同的修辭技巧，例如：明喻、暗喻、襯托、對比等。 在應用的時候，學生有混淆不清及未能準確判斷的情況。故我們希望藉 着是次研究，探討電子教學平台在提升學生辨析修辭手法的效能，強化 學生辨析修辭手法的能力，為日後語文學習奠下重要基礎。 研究方法 是次研究的對象是六年級學生，四班合共 120 人。其中一班是尖子 學生（6A），另外三班（6B，6C，6D）的學業表現平均。各班學生人 數分佈如下： 班別 學生人數 6A 36 6B 28 6C 28 6D 28 表 1：實驗班別的學生人數 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 133教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 本研究兼用質性及量性方法探究運用電子教學平台在提升學生辨析 修辭手法的效能。研究主要利用「前測——後測」的實驗方式，結合課 堂教學活動觀察及學生訪談，收集數據，以作研究之用。研究員先採用 一份前測卷（附件一）評估學生辨析寫作修辭手法的能力，以了解學生 在相關領域的程度。前測卷分為三個部分：測卷甲部 10 題，要求學生 辨別句子運用的修辭手法。10 道題目涵括明喻、暗喻、擬人、排比、誇 張等修辭技巧，各佔 2 題，全面而均衡的反映學生辨別修辭手法的能力。 測卷乙部共有 2 題，要求學生辨別段落中所使用的修辭手法，用線間出 來，並圈出有關句子運用的修辭手法，以反映學生辨析寫作片段運用修 辭手法的能力。這部分涵括的修辭手法，跟甲部一致。綜合甲部及乙部 數據，可以反映學生辨析句子及段落的修辭手法的能力高下。測試卷丙 部收集學生對修辭學習的看法，請學生圈出對一些句子，例如「我喜歡 平日的中文科課堂學習」的同意程度。 完成前測後，研究員根據學生的前測表現，選取其中三項表現能力 較弱的修辭手法 --「明喻」、「暗喻」及「排比」進行課堂教學活動， 通過電子教學平台（power lesson）讓學生掌握有關能力。是次研究，運 用電子教學平台的方式主要如下： • 學生從觀察教學簡報、瀏覽影片片段、通過「拖拉遊戲」等途徑找出 修辭手法； • 學生透過電子學習平台展示他們選擇、辨析、分類的成果； • 研究員利用「即時投票方式」展示學生辨析修辭手法的成果，引發討 論，提供回饋； 在進行電子教學後，研究員以相應的後測卷（附件二）評估學生的 相關能力有否提升。後測卷的題型、題目數目、題目涵括的修辭手法， 以及題目的深淺程度，跟前測卷一致。比較前測卷及後測卷有關「明 喻」、「暗喻」及「排比」項目的數據，可以反映學生在電子教學嘗試 前後的能力變化。後測卷跟前測卷一致，也設置「擬人」、「誇張」兩 種修辭手法的題目，以測試學生在沒有電子教學下，相關修辭手法辨析 能力變化，以作研究參照。後測卷也有收集學生對修辭學習的看法，還 加上「丁項」，邀請學生圈出對老師運用電子學習平台的評價。 為了進一步探究學生在是次教學研究的經驗與感受，研究者從前後 測結果對比學生的表現，每班選出三位（四班共 12 位）在前後測成績 對比「較大」、「一般」、「較小」的學生進行訪談，蒐集學生對是次 研究的改善策略的意見（附件三）。結合「前測——後測」的數據，特 別是測試卷丙部的意見調查，從學生意見的角度，探究是次研究對學生 學習的成效，發揮「三角交叉檢視法」（triangulation）的作用。 134 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 研究結果及分析 比較前測卷及後測卷甲部（辨析句子的不同修辭手法）的平均答對 人數，發現四班實驗組的學生在進行電子教學（powerlesson）實驗後， 除了「誇張」手法，其他 4 類修辭手法（明喻、暗喻、擬人、排比）辨 析的答對率均有提升，詳見表 2： 前測／ 後測 （升降 變化） 明喻 (%) 暗喻 (%) 擬人 (%) 排比 (%) 誇張 (%) 6A 94.44/97.22 (+2.78) 77.78/91.67 (+13.89) 100/100 (0) 100/100 (0) 98.61/100 (+1.39) 6B 62.5/82.14 (+19.64) 46.43/69.64 (+23.21) 87.5/89.29 (+1.79) 89.29/94.64 (+5.35) 92.86/83.93 (-8.93) 6C 73.21/87.5 (+14.29) 67.86/69.64 (+1.78) 87.5/96.43 (+8.93) 89.29/98.21 (+8.92) 94.64/85.71 (-8.93) 6D 82.14/89.29 (+7.15) 60.71/76.79 (+16.08) 94.64/94.64 (0) 94.64/94.64 (0) 96.43/87.5 (-8.93) 各班 平均 答對率 78.07/89.04 (+10.97) 63.19/76.94 (+13.75) 92.41/95.09 (+2.68) 93.31/96.87 (+3.56) 95.64/89.29 (-6.35) 表 2：比較前測卷及後測卷（甲部）辨析修辭手法答對率 四班受試學生辨析 5 類修辭手法的答對率的上升幅度，依次為暗喻 (+13.75%)、明喻 (+10.97%) 及排比 (+3.56%)。值得注意的是，上述學生 表現最為理想的修辭手法，均與電子課堂內容（明喻、暗喻、排比）有 關。相反地，沒有進行電子課堂的擬人、誇張法，情況完全不同：擬人 法雖仍見進步 2.68%，而學生在誇張法的表現，出現倒退 (-6.35%)。從 學生的實作表現，可以清楚反映電子課堂對學生辨析有關修辭手法的幫 助。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 135教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 在暗喻修辭辨析方面，根據前後測資料分析，6A ，6B 及 6D 班學 生較有顯著進步（見圖 2）。 根據前測卷及後測卷（甲部）辨析修辭手法的表現，四班受試學生 的變化幅度明顯不同。在明喻修辭辨析方面，根據前後測資料分析， 6B，6C，6D 較 6A 班學生進步得更顯著。（見圖 1） 97% 100% 100% 89% 89% 89% 89% 79% 71% 82% 82% 96% 93% 93% 96% 96% 136 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 在段落中找出修辭手法方面，分析前後測資料，同樣發現學生有顯 著進步：四班受試學生在前測兩道題目的平均答對率為 72.03%；到了後 測，受試學生在兩道題目的平均答對率為 82.89%，上升了 10.86%。反 觀四班受試學生在「乙部（辨析段落中的不同修辭手法）」的表現，也 可發現班級的個別表現變化差異： 6A (%) 6B (%) 6C (%) 6D (%) 受試學生 平均答對率 (%) 前測 91.67 67.86 62.5 62.5 72.03 後測 95.83 (+4.16) 78.58 (+10.72) 78.58 (+16.08) 78.57 (+16.07) 82.89 (+10.86) 表 3：比較前測卷及後測卷乙部（辨析段落中的不同修辭手法）答對率 1 本校 6A 精英班為全級成績排名首 36 名的學生，中、英、數科成績必須合格。而其餘 學生則按隨機分配編入 6B、6C 及 6D 班，成績相若。 比較四班受試學生的前後測表現，6A 進步幅度相對較小 (+4.16)， 6B，6C 及 6D 三班的增幅較大（大於 10%）。究其原因，本校 6A 班為 精英班 1，學生能力較其他班學生強。其他班學生個別差異較大，部分 學生起初未能掌握相關的知識，然而透過電子課堂，學生得以鞏固修辭 知識，進步較大。 前後測卷丙部關於學生辨析修辭手法興趣的數據改變輕微，前後測 卷丙部四個句子的同意率，由增加 2.5% 至減少 1.7%，顯示學生對平日 上課形式和電子課堂的觀感沒有因為經歷這一次電子學習而大幅改變。 值得注意的是超過七成學生一直喜歡平日的中文課堂（前測 72.5%；後 測 75%），感到「平日的中文科課堂學習比較沉悶」的學生低於一半 （前測 44.2%；後測 46.7%）。在未進行電子課堂學習前，相信「利用 電子教學平台學習修辭手法，較由老師解說更為有趣。」的有 77.5%； 進行電子課堂學習後，同意率略降至 75.8%。至於「我認為老師使用電 子教學平台教授修辭手法，使我學習得更好。」這句子，前測同意的有 76.7%，後測同意率輕微減少（75.8%）。上述情況反映學生認為老師使 用電子教學平台教授修辭手法，是使他們學習得更好的原因。學生認同 通過運用電子教學平台（power lesson）的學習效能之餘，肯定了教師能 善用電子課堂學習的重要性（見表 4）。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 137教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 項目 ( 全級人數：120 人 ) 同意程度（5 分為最高） 上升或 下降百 分比 前測 （ 十 分 同 意 及同意） 後測 （十分同意及 同意） 人數 百分比 人數 百分比 1 我喜歡平日的中文科課堂學 習。 87 72.5% 90 75% +2.5% 2 平日的中文科課堂學習比較 沉悶。 53 44.2% 56 46.7% +2.5% 3 利用電子教學平台學習修辭 手法，較由老師解說，更為 有趣。 93 77.5% 91 75.8% -1.7% 4 我認為老師使用電子教學平 台教授修辭手法，使我學習 得更好。 92 76.7% 91 75.8% -0.9% 表 4：學生對中文科課堂觀感 表 5：學生對不同電子學習活動的態度 根據後測卷丁部（學習活動）的數據發現，超過七成學生喜歡是次 老師使用的教學平台的不同電子教學活動（見表 5）。明顯地，學生喜 歡這些活動，提高了學習動機，因此在修辭辨析的能力也有所改善。 項目 ( 全級人數：120 人 ) 喜歡程度（4 分為最高） 後測（十分喜歡及喜歡） 人數 百分比 1 播放影片 104 86.7% 2 拖拉遊戲 107 89.2% 3 選擇題 107 89.2% 4 是非題 107 89.2% 5 在排比句下間線 91 75.8% 138 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 回應研究問題，為更深入了解在前後測成績對比較大、一般及較小 的學生對於運用電子教學平台學習修辭手法的看法，我們於 2015 年 6 月 19 日分別訪問了六年級四班共 12 位學生。歸納以上三類學生的意見， 發現三類學生均表示喜歡運用電子教學平台學習修辭手法，主要原因包 括： • 活動有新意，能吸引同學； • 互動性強； • 更專心上課； • 即時練習、運用、提問、作答及訂正； • 可隨時翻查題目； • 多思考、多動腦筋。 受訪學生也指出了電子課堂能幫助他們學習修辭的原因，包括： • 練習有挑戰性、有成功感； • 如果答錯，老師會先顯示答案，再逐一提問原因； • 不用等老師也可完成筆記； • 電子學習活動的吸引力很大。 受訪學生認同老師運用電子教學平台教授修辭手法，原因包括： • 有趣、有新意； • 能吸引平日不專心的同學； • 不像口述教學，如聽漏不能追，電子學習會一步一步同做，可以 專心去學，真正了解學習內容。 綜合以上訪談結果，我們發現學生即使存在學習表現差異，但均認 為運用電子學習平台來學習辨析修辭手法較平日課堂更有趣、吸引，能 令他們更專心上課。更重要的是，電子課堂讓他們可以即時了解自己的 學習表現。學生可按需要自行調校學習的進度，例如：可隨時翻查題目， 重看內容。此外，電子教學平台提供即時顯示答案的功能，學生能馬上 得到回饋，提升學與教的效能，解釋了是次教學設計能有效強化學生辨 析修辭手法能力的原因。 反思及建議 是次研究的實驗，證明了透過電子教學平台教授學生辨析修辭手法 的成效，也反映了電子教學的強項與不足之處。是次研究的電子課堂嘗 試，引證了電子教學以下的作用： • 有趣、吸引，能令學生更專心上課； • 讓學生可以儘快得到回饋，提升學與教的效能； • 讓學生可以即時了解自己的學習表現，從而按需要自行調校學習 進度。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 139教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 學生在電子課堂的過程中的熱烈反應，投入學習，也可以見諸課堂活動 （圖 3-5）： 圖 3：學生課堂表現（一） 圖 4：學生課堂表現（二） 140 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 是次研究，從學生的意見調查，也反映教師才是電子教學平台 （power lesson）的主人，何志恆（2013）在一個以香港教育大學中國語 文教育榮譽學士課程學員為對象的研究，發現準教師在「電子學習設計 較傳統面授教學更能促進學生的學習成果？」的議題上，反應分歧：選 擇「非常同意」或「同意」的共有 17 人（54.84%），但是表示「不同意」 的也有四成以上（45.16%），可見問題在受訪者眼中極富爭議性。是次 研究的對象，雖然是小六學生，但是他們從學習過程也體會到電子課堂 成功與否，教師才是主要的關鍵。以是次研究為例，教師能否善用「即 時投票方式」展示學生辨析修辭手法的成果，引發討論，提供回饋，是 活動能否發揮教學效能的關鍵。 進行教研能提供機會讓老師作專業的交流和分享。經過共同備課及 同儕觀課，同事可集思廣益，交流和分享學習心得。還有，本教學設計 可保存於電子教學平台資料庫，方便老師日後可取用及按學生的需要作 出修訂。此外，可把教學設計承傳下去，讓新老師較易享用前人的成果。 從學生訪談得知，部分學生指出活動設計較重複，因而感到沈悶，因此 我們建議活動設計可更多元化，避免重複。 圖 5：學生課堂表現（三） 總結 總括而言，我們透過教學實踐，證實電子教學方式在修辭手法教學上能 強化學生對修辭手法的認知、有效提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力，還可 以提升學生學習語文的興趣。另一方面，這次電子教學嘗試，也可以證 實在引導程度一般的學生理解較為抽象的概念起了正面的作用，甚至學 習能力強的學生效果更為顯著。透過比較學生辨析不同修辭的表現，更 可以確定電子課堂的教學作用，教師日後也可以將有關教學策略應用於 其他修辭技巧，或其他語文教育項目，以促進教學的效能。 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 141教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 參考參考文獻： 江紹祥（2011）。《電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇》。《香港教師中心學報》， Vol.10, 頁 1-8。 何志恆（2013，12 月）《電子學習的可行性研究 : 以文學教學為例》「漢語文 教育及國際漢語教育的建設與發展」國際研討會論文」，香港教育大學、 四川師範大學（成都、中國）合辦。」頁 1-10。 課程發展議會（2008）：《小學中國語文建議學習重點（試用）：語文學習基 礎知識聽說讀寫》，香港：政府物流服務署。 Coffey,J .(2005).LEO: A concept map based course visualizat ion tool for instructors and students. 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British Journal of Educational Technology , 39(6), 987-995. 142 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 （附件一） 2014 – 2015 年度 中文科六年級行動研究 前測卷 姓名： ________________ ﹙ ﹚ 班別：六﹙ ﹚ 成績：_________ 性別：男 / 女 年齡： ______________ 日期：_________ 甲、辨別下列句子所用的修辭手法，把代表答案的英文字母填在（ ） 內。每題 1 分，選項可重覆使用。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 1. 年紀小小的弟弟，哭聲比雷聲還要響亮。 （ ） 2. 鬧鐘又在大吵大嚷了，快點想辦法讓它安靜下來吧﹗ （ ） 3. 我喜歡到郊野公園，欣賞蔚藍的天空，腳踏青翠的草 地，觸摸碧綠的小溪。 （ ） 4. 初生小老虎外形好像小貓一樣。 （ ） 5. 近年的天氣越來越熱，夏日的高温幾乎要把人融掉。 （ ） 6. 春天是一個魔術師，悄悄給大地換上了新裝。 （ ） 7. 大雁在天空飛翔，是多麼的逍遙自在，是多麼的無拘 無束，是多麼的輕鬆寫意啊﹗ （ ） 8. 電腦突然罷工，令明天快要交報告的哥哥非常無奈。 （ ） 9. 木棉花盛開的時候，仿如一團熊熊的火焰，在樹上熾 熱地燃燒。 （ ） 10. 從山頂往下看，厚厚的雲層變成了波濤洶湧的海洋。 （ ） 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 143教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 乙、 辨別下列段落中所使用的修辭手法，用線間出來，並圈出正確答 案，提示：每段只有一種修辭手法。 1. 2. 外婆走得突然，留下的就只有幾件物品作紀念，其中有這雙親手為 我沖洗乾淨的塑膠拖鞋，一直留在我的身邊，捨不得丟掉。直到現 在，每次我接觸到那灰舊的鞋面時，彷彿輕撫着外婆温暖而多皺的 手。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 我把死去的小麻雀埋在老槐樹下。我呆呆地看着牠長眠的地方， 自覺對不起牠。我聽見老麻雀在哀鳴，牠們似乎在為牠唱輓歌＊。 ＊輓歌：哀悼死者的歌 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 丙、 請閱畢下列各項後，在最合 適的選項下加 。 十 分 同 意 同 意 不 同 意 十 分 不 同 意 無 意 見 1 我喜歡平日的中文科課堂學 習。 2 平日的中文科課堂學習比較 沉悶。 3 利用電子教學平台學習修辭 手法，比起由老師解說，更 為有趣。 4 我認為老師使用電子教學平 台教授修辭手法，使我學習 得更好。 144 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 （附件二） 姓名： ________________ ﹙ ﹚ 班別：六﹙ ﹚ 成績：_________ 性別：男 / 女 年齡： ______________ 日期：_________ 甲、辨別下列句子所用的修辭手法，把代表答案的英文字母填在（ ） 內。每題 1 分，選項可重覆使用。 2014 – 2015 年度 中文科六年級行動研究 後測卷 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 1. 在寧靜的角落裏，沒有吵雜的人聲，沒有擠迫的人 潮，沒有喧鬧的叫賣聲。 （ ） 2. 蟋蟀是大自然的演奏家，鳴叫聲響徹草叢每個角落。 （ ） 3. 那一串串燦爛的花兒，猶如一串串爆竹，熱烈地燃 燒。 （ ） 4. 柏基曬得黑黝黝的，膚色比木炭還要黑。 （ ） 5. 天空中的太陽好像一個大火球。 （ ） 6. 香港雖然不下雪，可是北風還是會令人們冷得全身 都結冰。 （ ） 7. 鉛筆乖乖地躺卧在文具盒裏，等候主人的差遣。 （ ） 8. 從觀景台眺望，宏偉的建築物變成了小小的積木。 （ ） 9. 每當我使用這台電腦時，它總會拒絕聽從我的指令。 （ ） 10. 公園裏的植物，紅的火紅，白的雪白，青的靛青， 綠的碧綠。 （ ） 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 145教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 乙、 辨別下列段落中所使用的修辭手法，用線間出來，並圈出正確答 案，提示：每段只有一種修辭手法。 1. 2. 有人說，十歲的孩子崇拜父親，二十歲的青年人鄙視父親，四十歲 的中年人憐憫父親。然而，對我來說，父親是值得我一輩子崇拜的 人。我們的作業父親每天都要一道道地檢查，詳細地寫上家長意 見，他被老師稱為「最稱職的家長」。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 這一天，牠又蜷縮在角落裹。忽然，窗外的老麻雀又叫了起來， 牠立刻眼睛睜得大大的，張開翅膀騰空而起。牠在屋裏盤旋了一 圈，就衝向玻璃窗。只聽「嘭」的一聲，撞在玻璃上，牠像一塊 石頭似的墜落在地上。我衝過去，雙手托起小麻雀，無數次地呼 喚牠，但牠再也沒有醒來。 A. 明喻 B. 暗喻 C. 擬人 D. 排比 E. 誇張 丙、 請閱畢下列各項後，在最合適 的選項下加 。 十 分 同 意 同 意 不 同 意 十 分 不 同 意 無 意 見 1 我喜歡平日的中文科課堂學 習。 2 平日的中文科課堂學習比較沉 悶。 3 利用電子教學平台學習修辭手 法，比起由老師解說，更為有 趣。 4 我認為老師使用電子教學平台 教授修辭手法，使我學習得更 好。 146 教育研究報告匯編 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 丁、試選出你對老師使用電子學習平台教授「修辭」的喜歡程度： （在適當的內加 ） 喜歡程度 方法 十分喜歡 喜歡 不喜歡 十分不喜歡 播放影片 拖拉遊戲 選擇題 是非題 在排比句下 間線 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力研究 147教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 （附件三） 2014 – 2015 年度 中文科六年級行動研究 修辭辨析：訪談 姓名： ________________ ﹙ ﹚ 班別：六﹙ ﹚ 日期：__________ 1. 在過去上中文課，你學過修辭嗎？老師用甚麼方法教修辭 ? 你喜歡嗎 ? 為甚麼 ? 2a. 你們喜歡運用電子教學平台學習修辭手法嗎？為甚麼？ 2b. 你認為最大的得著是甚麼？（試舉一個例子） 3. 電子教學方式，能幫助你學習修辭手法嗎？為甚麼？ 4a. 學習修辭辨析後，對你的寫作有幫助嗎？ 4b. 承上題，有甚麼幫助？（如 4a 答沒有，請跳到第 5 題。） 5. 你對於這次老師運用電子教學平台進行修辭有甚麼看法？ 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 149教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題 建構活動中對空間概念的 認知與迷思 張曄（主要研究員） 黎培莉、關珊（其他研究員） 香港教育大學滙豐幼兒發展中心 摘要 在幼兒教育階段的學習過程中，教具或實物的應用有助幼兒更好地 理解及建立數學概念，而在眾多用於教學的教具或實物中，積木有著無 法取代的地位。建構積木有助於促進幼兒於不同範疇的能力發展，其開 放性和可再造性的特徵尤其能為幼兒建構數學概念及經驗提供充裕的發 展空間和機會。就此，本研究透過讓三至四歲幼兒進行積木主題建構活 動，探討其在空間概念發展過程中所顯現出的認知表現與迷思，並為教 師瞭解幼兒在積木建構活動中的行為表現提供參考。研究結果顯示，在 積木主題建構活動之後，幼兒對二維和三維空間的認知水準有所提升， 在積木建構過程中，幼兒會對空間關係和空間利用方式這兩個方面產生 迷思。 研究背景與問題 在幼兒教育階段，積木是幼兒不可或缺的遊戲，建構積木有助促進 幼兒各方面能力的發展。但由於積木所佔的空間較大，且需保證充足的 建構時間，故教師往往只在教室中設置一個區域讓幼兒自由建構，（在 教學過程中則較少用到），在積木區中常常會出現以下狀況：（1）積 木擺放混亂，閒置於狹小的角落中；（2）積木區環境佈置單一，未能 為幼兒的建構行為，提供適切的環境刺激；（3）積木遊戲被視為「自 由活動」，教師未有產生重視此建構活動，並較少將幼兒的積木建構行 為作為評估幼兒學習的憑證；（4）成人認為木質積木具有一定危險性， 因此限制幼兒操作的機會（馬祖琳等，2009）。就此，若能在日常教學 中引入積木作為教具，並對其運作過程和結果進行分析，則能有效提高 積木的使用率及學習效能。 150 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 在早期數學方面，建構主義學習理論中有關數學教學，強調在遊戲 中學習，以實物操作的學習方式為主（魏美惠，2005）。有研究指出， 在幼兒教育的數學教學中，教材教具的使用，應配合幼兒的心智發展， 使幼兒對數學更加容易理解 （劉秋木，1996）。還有多個研究表明， 在數學教學中教具或實物的應用，有助於幼兒建立數學概念（劉蘊如， 1993；黎佳欣，2007；張麗芬，2009）。由此可見，在幼兒階段的數學 教學及學習過程中，利用教具或實物有助於幼兒數學概念的形成與發 展，而由不同立體幾何圖形構成的積木則十分適合扮演這一角色。此 外，以往的文獻中較少涉及教具或實物的應用對幼兒數學概念中空間概 念的影響。在幼兒空間概念學習的相關研究中，也甚少針對三至四歲幼 兒的發展與表現。因此，本研究可為前人的研究作出補充及擴展。 本研究旨在透過讓三至四歲幼兒進行積木建構活動，探討在教學中 協助幼兒利用積木進行探索學習的方法，分析幼兒在二維平面空間轉換 為三維立體空間過程中對空間概念的認知與迷思。主要研究問題有： 1. 積木建構活動的形式與內容 2. 三至四歲幼兒在積木建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 文獻探討 在幼兒教育階段，積木被公認為有助幼兒發展的玩具或教具，其種 類繁多，且具開放性，能滿足不同年齡階段及幼兒不同範疇的發展需 求，積木建構活動對幼兒數學概念的學習和認知功用更是顯而易見。 幼兒在積木遊戲中可發展比較、測量、加減法、型式對稱、部分 與整體及等積關係等數學概念（Adams & Nesmith, 1996； Casey, Bobb, Sarama & Clements, 2003；Leeb-Lundberg, 1996； 吳 雅 玲 & 許 慧 欣， 2008）。同時，積木遊戲還有助於發展位置和方向的空間關係（Andrews, 1999）。其中在數學範疇的發展概念有：形狀、大小、配對、測量、體積、 面積、深、寬、高、長、排列、數字、分數、分類、比較、空間等。 在積木建構活動中，幼兒積木建構表現與作品的複雜程度、年齡及 幼兒發展相關。Johnson（1996）在對幼兒建構單位積木進行研究之後， 認為幼兒積木建構水準的發展主要有： 階段一 對積木之間的空間關係的理解和操作。 階段二 對各建築模型之間的空間組合的理解和構成。 階段三 在主題和情節背景下對建築物之間關係的再現和表達。 在此基礎上，幼兒積木遊戲的發展及表現特徵可闡述為以下七個階段 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 151教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 ( 表一 )： 表一 Johnson（1996）之積木建構發展階段 階段 建構範例 表現特徵 第一階段 攜帶 抱著或拿著積木到處走， 或在地上隨意擺放 第二階段 堆疊 水準並排 垂直造塔 寬邊造塔 長邊造塔 第三階段 架橋 簡單架橋 多重式架橋 第四階段 圍牆 簡單圍牆 連接式多元表現圍牆 第五階段 型式與對稱 部分對稱 整體對稱 第六階段 早期表徵 部分命名 整體命名 第七階段 晚期表徵 先命名再建構 資料來源：修改自 Wellhousen & Kieff (2001)；吳雅玲（2007） 152 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 首先，建構主義學習觀認為，幼兒的學習動機來自對新知識的衝 突，個體會相應提出質疑及問題，從現有的知識體系為當前的衝突找出 適當的概念知識作連繫，試圖想出可行的假設去學習，並透過實際行動 進行探索，把新的事物建構成新的概念知識，形成概念的改變，重整為 個體的知識體系，在此建構學習觀點基礎上帶出的學習循環，便成為實 踐「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式的理論依據（鄭美蓮、陳 聲珮，2013）。而本研究基於建構主義學習理論的積木主題建構活動， 正是以「問題 - 探索 - 經驗」自主建構學習模式為框架，教師與幼兒共 同商議感興趣的建構主題，再在操作中發現問題，憑藉幼兒的已有經驗 探索解決問題的方法，最終透過討論、建構、互動等過程獲得符合個人 發展層次和需求的經驗。 其次，建構主義認為知識具有適應性，並會作為概念系統存儲在個 人的知識體系中，知識的學習是一個自主和主動的過程，透過自我調節 及抽象思考，原有的知識概念系統會作出改變，從而建立或重整新的知 識體系（陳聲珮、鄭美蓮，2006）。在此基礎上所產生的「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式可應用於不同範疇的活動中，過程中幼兒在已 有經驗感興趣的問題引導下，透過親自操作和探索而獲得第一身經驗。 本研究中的積木建構活動以「問題」、「探索」、「經驗」為活動設計 及實施元素，並透過操作積木來探索建構建築的奧秘，是以建構主義為 導向的教學活動。而與傳統教學相比，以建構主義為導向的教學活動有 許多不同之處 ( 表二 )（朱湘吉，1992）： 表二 傳統教學與建構主義教學設計的比較 比較項目 傳統教學設計 建構主義教學設計 哲學基礎 •客觀論 •知識本身有恆真價值 •建構論 •意義是經由社會協調而來 學習內容 •適合學習動作技能、語文 資訊及具體概念 •簡化現實世界 •適合學習解決問題及認知策 略等進階知識 •呈現現實世界的真實面貌 學習者 •可在教學過程中調整個別 差異 •重視學習者的起點行為 •被動接受知識 •學習者的先前知識影響學習 結果 •強調學習者有自我管理的能力 •主動參與學習 學習情境 •正式教學 •情境學習 學習項目 •人造的 •真實的 成果評量 •重視教學與成效 •以學習目標為評量標準 •重視學習的過程本身 •目標中立（goal-free）導向 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 153教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 再次，在建構主義教學方面，社會建構論認為，學校是幼兒汲取知 識及形成概念的一個重要場所，教師在幼兒學習的過程中扮演著重要的 角色。周淑惠（1999）提出，尤其是三至五歲幼兒在遊戲建構中，應比 其他年齡層幼兒需要更多的鷹架支援與引導。因此，教師身為鷹架者， 藉由各種活動和時間的調配，輔以不同的教學方式，達到顧及到每一位 幼兒的需求，可透過團體討論促進幼兒思維，透過小組教學讓幼兒與小 組成員有更密切的互動機會（陳惠敏，2007）。 另外，一個適性發展的教學方案，應當以幼兒為中心，教師鷹架， 協助幼兒探索學習，在課程設計上採用跨多個領域，統整課程，而幼兒 的空間概念教學，應可採用方式來協助他們獲得空間概念（周淑惠， 2000）。就此，本研究中進行的積木主題建構活動是以建構主義學習理 論為框架，把幼兒提出的問題作為出發點，在教師的鷹架之下，讓他們 透過不同階段和程度的探索來確立符合其學習興趣和發展能力的主題， 從而在建構積木的過程中，循序漸進地獲得相應的概念和經驗，形成有 主題的探索式積木建構活動。 空間概念是個體最早發展的物理知識之一，亦是後續高階科數概念 發展的基礎（洪文東、楊志強、張琪，2009）。幼兒空間概念的學習對 其相關概念發展會產生重要影響，在許多有關幼兒空間概念的研究中， 不同研究者對幼兒空間概念之定義亦作出了探討 ( 表三 )。 表三 幼兒空間概念之定義 研究員 研究年份 空間概念的定義 吳貞祥 1978 累積各項的空間經驗，發展成空間知覺後，經過思考 與協調，方能慢慢形成抽象的概念，稱為空間概念 NCTM 1989 空間概念包括空間關係——位置、方向、距離以及利 用空間的方式——組織佔用空間和空間形狀與空間建 造等子概念。 周啟、 洪木利 1993 空間概念主要包括為：方向、大小、形狀、長度、面積、 體積等六個基本概念。 NCTM 2000 在兒童認知發展中，能運用上下、左右、前後、內外 等方位語詞描述兩物的相對位置。 陳埩淑 2005 空間概念包含空間關係含有位置 ( 在上、在下、在前、 在後、在裡、在外…)、方向 ( 朝上、朝下、往前、往 後、往旁、往右 )、距離 ( 靠近、遠離 ) 及空間定位概 念（在一定空間中安排、組織、或建構周圍的物體）。 P o o l e , Miller & Church 2006 藉由空間知覺發展出有關方向、距離和位置概念之理 解，建立在位置、距離、與位移的空間概念知覺的發 展基礎上。 邱淑亞 2006 空間概念包括瞭解位置、方向、距離等空間關係和相 關語言，以及空間運用的活動。 154 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 由上述定義可見，空間概念主要體現於對位置、方向、距離這三個 方面的知覺，以及對空間利用關係的理解。因此，結合本研究中所進行 的積木主題建構活動，研究中所提及的空間概念，則以上述空間概念之 定義為基礎，具體講空間概念闡述為在積木主題建構活動中幼兒對空間 關係（位置、方向、距離）以及空間利用方式的理解及表現。 傳統幼兒數學活動對空間感應學習的描述並不多，然而空間能力是 決定人在科學進展的關鍵，也是用來輔助思考，獲取資料、設計問題或 解決問題的手段。科學的進步跟空間智能的發展有緊密的關係（Gardner, 1983）。學齡前階段的幼兒，正處於視覺空間發展的「空間期」，對於 周遭環境事物的認知與學習會愈來愈敏銳，是幼童學習空間概念最恰 當的時間（洪文東，2011）。（空間具體來說是指物質本身的廣延性， 表現為物質的位置、規模和體積，與此相關的研究主要通過幼兒對物質 空間方位關係及數形關係的認識，來揭示幼兒空間概念發展規律（趙新 華，1993）。） 幼兒空間概念指在幼兒認知發展中，能運用上下、左右、前後、內 在等方位詞語描述兩物的相對位置（NCTM, 2000）。空間概念包含空間 關係含有位置（在上、在下、在前、在後、在裡、在外、在中間、在旁 邊）、方向（朝上、朝下、往前、往後、往旁、往右）、距離（靠近、 遠離）及空間定位概念（在一定空間中安排、組織、或建構周圍的物體） （陳埩淑，2005）。若以幼兒空間概念發展階段作為劃分依據，進一步 細化空間概念發展階段與幼兒年齡及發展特徵之間的關係，有研究者綜 合文獻資料，將 Piaget 的幼兒空間概念發展依據年齡階段分為拓撲階段、 投影空間和歐氏幾何空間，並綜合為「Piaget 幼兒空間概念發展表」（表 四）( 陳奕翰，2013）： 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 155教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 表四 Piaget 幼兒空間概念發展表 年齡 階段 特徵 特徵說明 1 約 3-4 歲 前運思期 (Preope ra t iona l period) 自我中心傾向 不可逆性 符號代表實物 知覺集中傾向 幼兒已發展出有關接 近、分離、次序、包 圍、連續的概念。 2 約 4-8 歲 前運思期至 具 體 運 思 期 之 間 (Preoperational period to period o f c o n c r e t e operations) 自我中心傾向 不可逆性 符號代表實物 知覺集中傾向 序列化 去集中化 守恆 類包含 幼兒逐漸理解物體位 置與物體間的相對關 係，並漸漸形成二維 和三維空間轉換已有 幾何學的概念，但這 種概念仍然無法擺脫 視覺影像。 3 約 9 歲 以上 形式運思期 (Period of formal operations) 假設演繹推理 命題推理 組合推理 幼兒之空間理解已成 熟，他們能從視覺迷惑 中找到解決方案，將所 有物體間的空間關係 統整為個體所具有的 概念。 資料來源：整理自 ( 陳奕翰，2013) 空間概念是學習幾何之前的必備階段，幼兒教育時期是幼兒學習空 間概念最恰當的時間，如果幼兒錯失空間概念的學習，則其進階幾何學 習的效果會受到影響（Clements, Sarama, & DiBiase, 2002）。由此可見， 在幼兒教育階段，對幼兒空間概念進行培養與發展則顯得十分必要。依 據幼兒空間概念發展特徵，幼兒由四歲開始，便逐漸形成二維和三維空 間轉換的幾何學概念，而積木有不同形狀的，有助幼兒建構三維空間， 因此，若在積木建構活動中，以二維和三維空間轉換為線索，探討幼兒 對空間概念的認知和迷思則十分有意義。 研究方法 在香港教育學院滙豐幼兒發展中心隨機抽取全日幼兒班進行研究， 班級總人數為 15 人，其中男生 7 人，女生 8 人，平均年齡為 3 歲 11 個月。 積木建構區是幼稚園課室中必備的學習區之一。為了讓幼兒熟悉積 木，使他們對積木建構活動產生興趣，並配合課題的探索進程，在開展 「小小藝術家」的主題教學之前，便在課室內創設了積木建構區，並透 過多次現場觀察幼兒的遊戲情況之後，依據幼兒的需求持續完善積木建 構區的設計。積木區在設置時主要依循以下原則（馬祖琳等，2009）： 156 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 一． 空間：避開動線 二． 積木櫃：每一層格儘量置放一種形狀的積木，將不同形狀分開放置， 方便幼兒拿取。教師將每一種形狀的積木按尺寸在紙上描 畫下來，再剪貼在每一層格前，方便幼兒自行收拾。 三． 預留取放積木之走道。 四． 牆面：可適當在牆上張貼展示、記錄，以作引導。 五． 配件：視乎幼兒遊戲需要，適時加入。 研究採用「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式來設計積木建 構活動的教學內容。「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」學習是以建構學習理論為 依據，主要透過問題、探索、經驗三個學習階段，刺激幼兒在學習新事 物時，把原來的概念作出適當的轉換，建構新的概念，培養良好的學習 能力（陳聲珮、鄭美蓮，2013）。 學校每學年均開展七大課題。本研究利用幼兒在每年三月至四月中 旬進行「小小藝術家」課題，於全日幼兒班（三至四歲）加入積木建構 活動，讓幼兒有充足的時間利用積木進行探索。在此課題探索焦點問題 訂立過程中，幼兒延續上一個課題「快樂的中國人」中的探索興趣， 繼續對「戲曲藝術」展開探索。期間由於幼兒對「戲曲表演場地」這一 問題產生濃厚興趣，教師便與幼兒共同確立新階段探索焦點 --「搭建戲 院」，同時利用積木作教具與幼兒共同展開以「搭建戲院」為主題的活 動。 透過「問題 - 探索 - 經驗」自主建構學習模式來進行建構活動，教 師將搭建鷹架引導幼兒以「搭建戲院」為探索焦點，利用積木將二維空 間（平面設計圖）轉換三維空間（利用積木建構平面設計圖所表的內 容），並從空間概念中的空間關係（位置、方向、距離）以及空間利用 方式這兩個方面出發，獲得幼兒空間概念表現的證據。在此基礎上，研 究在「小小藝術家」課題探索期間，進行為期三週的積木主題建構活動， 每週進行四次，每次持續 40 分鐘，共計十二次教學活動，藉此瞭解過 程中，幼兒對空間概念的認知與產生的迷思。 有關概念的研究或評測工具往往不是讓幼兒回答對或不對的情況， 研究員需要深入瞭解幼兒回答的理由（楊志強，2011）。由於幼兒表達 能力有限，部分概念表達技巧對其學習可能有難度，因此一般幼兒概念 的評測多以現象觀察、動作實作方式及簡單的紙筆測驗輔以口頭或實體 詢問方式來進行（洪文東，2011）。本研究所採用的研究工具分為幼兒 在積木建構活動中的表現與迷思，以及空間概念的評量與分析兩個部 分。 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 157教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 在分析幼兒積木主題建構活動的表現與迷思方面，使用研究者編制 的「積木主題建構活動記錄表」記錄每次活動的內容，從空間關係（位 置、方向、距離）以及空間利用方式兩方面分析幼兒於每次活動中空間 概念的迷思。在幼兒空間概念的評量與分析方面，主要使用「幼兒園教 育質量評價手冊 -- 工具七 -- 幼兒發展評測 - 測查圖卡」，在研究開展前 期及後期，分別對幼兒空間概念的認知發展狀況進行測評，透過比較結 果獲知幼兒在積木主題建構活動前後空間概念認知差異。該評量工具主 要對幼兒空間認知中三維空間和二維空間的認知發展狀況進行比較和分 析，各測查項目均涉及空間概念中空間關係（位置、方向、距離）以及 空間利用方式兩方面內容。 研究結果及分析 「積木主題建構活動記錄表」重點記錄在「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」 自主建構學習模式下，幼兒於積木主題建構活動中的探索建構過程，以 及產生的空間概念迷思 ( 表五 )。 表五 積木主題建構活動記錄表 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （空間概念的 認知） 活 動 一 1. 在什麼地 方看戲？ 2. 戲院有什 麼功能？ 3. 戲院裡有 什麼？ 1. 初建舞臺 2. 門的位置（1） 3. 門的位置（2） 4. 門的位置（3） 1. 幼兒用平面 建構的方式 表示戲院內 部的樓梯。 2. 幼兒選用條 形積木組合 成長方形舞 臺。 3. 幼兒選用方 形積木排列 為座椅。 4. 幼兒選用條 形積木，調 整積木間距 離，縱向建 構為門。 1. 空間關係 幼兒對戲院門的位 置和方向產生分歧 及討論，主要有以 下建議： a. 舞臺後面 b. 座椅與樓梯之間 c. 樓梯旁邊 158 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （ 空 間 概 念 的 認知） 活 動 二 1. 戲院的門在 哪裡？ 2. 如何從門進 入戲院？ 3. 戲台有什麼 特點？ 4. 戲院的座椅 有 什 麼 特 點？ 1. 再建舞臺 2. 確定門的位置 3. 搭建幕布，示範 如何進入戲院 4. 加高舞臺 5. 增加椅背 1. 幼兒合理編排 舞臺、座椅、 樓 梯 和 門 的 位 置， 各 部 分 保 持 有 一 定空間距離。 2. 幼兒利用「玩 具 公 仔 」 示 範 進 入 積 木 搭 建 的 戲 院 空間的順序。 3. 幼兒選用長條 形 積 木 表 示 幕布。 4. 幼兒以座椅為 參 照 物， 產 生 並 實 踐 加 高 舞 臺 的 概 念。 5. 幼兒表現對座 椅 結 構 的 認 識， 包 括 椅 面和椅背。 1. 空間關係 幼兒對幕布的位 置及形態產生分 歧，主要有以下 建議： a. 直放 b. 橫放 2. 空間利用方式 a. 幼兒對如何安 排及建構幕布 產生疑問 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 159教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （空間概念的認 知） 活 動 三 1. 戲院的幕 布是怎樣 的？ 2. 真實的戲 院是怎樣 的？ 1. 觀察樓梯及座椅 2. 以身高為參照量 度舞臺高度 3. 觀察幕布 4. 觀察舞臺 1. 發 現 樓 梯 和 座 椅的層級空間 分佈特點。 2. 從 高 處 觀 察 並 用形狀詞彙描 述舞臺形狀。 3.參照自身身高， 描述舞臺的高 度。 4. 從 向 上 的 角 度 觀 察 舞 臺 特 色。 5. 舞 臺 左 右 兩 邊 各有樓梯。 6. 知 道 幕 布 有 橫 向 開 合 的 特 點。 1. 空間關係 a. 戲院各設施 的位置 b. 舞臺與地面 的距離 c. 門、座椅、 樓梯、舞臺 的方向 2. 空間利用方 式 a. 戲院中各個 設施的組織 安排方式 160 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （空間概念的認 知） 活 動 四 1. 正式搭建 戲院有何 預 備 工 作？ 2. 什麼是設 計圖？ 3. 如何畫設 計圖？ 1. 商討畫設計圖的 方法 2. 幼兒用不同形狀 代表戲院不同部 分 3. 戲院設計圖完稿 1. 用 大 長 方 形 代 表舞臺。 2. 用 正 方 形 代 表 座椅。 3. 用 小 長 方 形 代 表樓梯。 4.分辨前後位置。 5. 於 畫 紙 的 不 同 位 置 畫 舞 臺、 座 椅、 樓 梯、 門。 6. 戲 院 不 同 部 分 的空間分佈。 1. 空間關係 a. 戲院各設施 的位置 b. 舞臺與地面 的距離 c. 門、座椅、 樓梯、舞臺 的方向 2. 空間利用方 式 a. 在二維平面 圖紙上組織 戲院中各個 設施的方式 b. 戲院各部分 的陳列方法 和建構先後 次序 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 161教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （ 空 間 概 念 的 認知） 活 動 五 1. 在哪裡搭建 全日幼兒班 的戲院？ 2. 如何搭建戲 院的舞臺？ 3. 如何搭建舞 臺左右兩邊 的樓梯？ 4. 如何搭建戲 院的座椅？ 1. 幼 兒 商 討 搭 建 戲院的位置 2. 確 定 在 積 木 區 搭建戲院 3. 搭 建 舞 臺 及 舞 臺旁樓梯 4. 搭建座椅 1. 預 測 搭 建 戲 院 的 空 間 大 小。 2. 以 身 體 為 參 照 物，「 感 知 」 舞 臺 大 小。 3. 在 舞 臺 左 右 兩 邊 縱 向 搭 建樓梯。 4. 在 與 舞 臺 相 隔 一 段 距 離 內 縱 向 排 列 座椅。 5. 以 直 角 的 形 式 搭 建 座 椅。 1. 空間關係 a. 門的方向、位 置、以及與其 他設施的距離 b. 座 椅 的 方 向 （前面、後面） c. 座椅的位置和 方向，座椅之 間的距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 選擇並安排建 構戲院的空間 b. 舞臺、舞臺旁 樓梯和座椅的 空間分佈 c. 舞臺、舞臺旁 樓梯和座椅的 建構方法 162 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （空間概念 的認知） 活 動 六 1. 門的位置 在哪裡？ 2. 從門的位 置可以看 到什麼？ 3. 如何搭建 門？ 1. 參照設計圖，選用適切形狀 和數量的積木搭建門，有幼 兒認為門的位置在座椅後面 2. 有幼兒認為門應該設於座椅 旁邊的位置 3. 有幼兒認為門的位置在座椅 和舞臺之間 4. 再次參看設計圖及觀察真實 座椅後，幼兒指出從門的位 置可以看到椅背 5. 幼兒決定將門設於座椅後面 1. 前面、後 面、旁邊 的空間概 念。 2. 二維平面 圖轉換為 三維立體 積 木 建 築。 3. 從門的角 度看戲院 內部的空 間結構。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞臺的位置 b. 舞臺旁樓梯 的方向，舞 臺旁樓梯與 舞臺的距離 c. 座椅的位置 和方向，座 椅之間的距 離 2. 空間利用方 式 a. 門的建構方 法，調適門 柱間距的方 法 b. 組織、安排 門與戲院其 他部分的位 置 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 163教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （ 空 間 概 念 的 認知） 活 動 七 1. 真實戲院門 的位置在哪 裡？ 2. 真實戲院的 樓梯是如何 分佈的？ 1. 從門的位置觀察 座椅和樓梯。 2. 從門的位置觀察 舞臺。 3. 嘗試觀察和行走 不 同 位 置 的 樓 梯。 4. 從 座 椅 之 間 穿 行。 1. 空 間 概 念： 門 前 面、 座 椅 後 面（ 椅 背 ）、 座 椅 旁 邊、 舞 臺 旁 邊、 舞 臺 前 面、 座 椅 之間。 2. 幼 兒 觀 察 到 從 門 的 位 置 可 以 看 到 座 椅 的 椅 背， 同 時 有 條 樓 梯 直 通 舞 臺。 3. 從 門 的 位 置 至 舞 臺 之 間 有 條 樓 梯。 座 椅 兩 旁 各 有 一 條 樓 梯。 4. 樓 梯 有 一 級 比 一 級 高 的 特點。 5. 舞 臺 兩 旁 各 有 一 條 樓 梯， 每 條 樓 梯 都 有 四 級 階梯。 6. 座 椅 之 間 有 空 間 可 以 穿 行。 1. 空間關係 a. 從 門 的 角 度 看 座 椅、 舞 臺、 樓 梯 的 方向及位置 b. 戲 院 各 部 分 之間的距離 2. 空 間 利 用 方 式 a. 戲 院 不 同 部 分 的 組 織、 安排方式 164 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （ 空 間 概 念 的 認 知） 活 動 八 1. 在參觀戲 院之後， 如何用積 木搭建出 更符合真 實戲院的 模型？ 2. 舞臺兩邊 的樓梯是 怎樣的？ 1. 第一種樓梯搭 建方案 2. 第二種樓梯搭 建方案 1. 透過加高基底來 縱 向 加 高 積 木 模型。 2. 橫向擴展積木模 型， 形 成 左 右 對稱。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞 臺 旁 樓 梯 的 方向 2. 空間利用方式 a. 舞 臺 旁 樓 梯 的 組 織、 建 構 方 法（ 方 形 或 長 條形） 活 動 九 1. 舞臺的高 度是怎樣 的？ 2. 舞臺的形 狀是怎樣 的？ 3. 如何將舞 臺調整為 長方形？ 4. 如何將舞 臺與樓梯 拼接？ 1. 加高舞臺，平 衡舞臺和樓梯 的高度 2. 幼兒調整積木 形狀和位置， 使舞臺成為一 個長方形 3. 將兩種不同形 態的樓梯與舞 臺拼接 1. 增加舞臺積木層 數， 縱 向 提 升 舞臺的高度。 2. 舞臺的形狀為長 方 形， 且 左 右 對稱。 3. 樓梯的高度與舞 臺的高度一樣， 舞 臺 兩 邊 的 樓 梯等高。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞 臺 的 方 向， 以 及 與 地 面 的 距離 b. 舞 臺 旁 樓 梯 的 位 置 和 方 向， 以 及 與 舞 臺 的 距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 組 織 安 排 樓 梯 與 舞 臺 之 間 的 位置關係 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 165教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （ 空 間 概 念 的認知） 活 動 十 1. 舞臺兩邊 的樓梯是 一 樣 的 嗎？ 2. 如何將兩 邊樓梯變 得一樣？ 3. 舞臺前面 的座椅如 何排列？ 4. 舞臺前面 有多少排 座椅？ 1. 選擇一種樓梯 搭建方案，重 新搭建拆除的 一邊樓梯。 2. 搭建舞臺前方 的座椅部分 1. 樓梯的高度 和 大 小 須 配 合 舞 臺 的 高 度 和 大小。 2. 座椅以「一 排 排 」 的 形式排列。 3. 座椅位於舞 臺前方。 1. 空間關係 a. 舞臺旁樓梯的位置和 方向，以及與地面的 距離 b. 座椅的位置、方向， 以及與舞臺的距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 建構舞臺旁樓梯 b. 安排座椅的數量 c. 組織並建構座椅的位 置 活 動 十 一 1. 座椅之間 有 空 間 嗎？ 2. 如何排列 座椅？ 3. 樓梯的位 置 在 哪 裡？ 1. 調整座椅之間 的空間。 2. 調 整 座 椅 位 置，使之分為 兩個區域 3. 於兩個座椅區 域之間搭建樓 梯 1. 座椅之間有 可 供 穿 行 的空間。 2. 座椅之間有 樓梯穿過。 3. 樓梯呈長條 形排列。 1. 空間關係 a. 座椅之間的距離 b. 座椅與地面之間的距 離 c. 座椅間樓梯的方向和 位置 d. 座椅間樓梯與座椅和 地面的距離 e. 座椅間樓梯頂部與地 面的距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 組織安排座椅的分佈 形式 b. 安排不同區域座椅之 間的距離 c. 建構座椅間樓梯的方 法 d. 座椅間樓梯的頂部位 置出現懸崖式結構， 如何建構才能使「觀 眾」順利進場？ 166 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 活 動 活動表現 迷思 問題產生 探索過程 經驗表現 （ 空 間 概 念 的 認 知） 活 動 十 二 1. 座椅應該 建多高？ 2. 如何調整 進入戲院 的樓梯？ 1. 增加座椅高度。 2. 調整樓梯外形。 3. 利用公仔模擬進 入戲院看戲。 1. 座椅間樓梯的不 同 梯 級 對 應 不 同行的座椅。 2. 從底部向上搭建 樓梯。 3. 模 擬 看 戲 過 程 中，依據公仔的 寬度和高度，調 整 門 的 寬 度 和 高度。 1. 空間關係 a. 座椅間樓梯各 梯 級 與 座 椅 的距離 b. 門的位置 c. 門的橫向距離 與縱向距離 d. 座椅間樓梯頂 部 與 地 面 的 距離 2. 空間利用方式 a. 組織建構座椅 間樓梯 b. 安排座椅間樓 梯的數量 c. 組織建構門的 高度和寬度 在空間概念的評量與分析方面，主要使用「幼兒園教育質量評價手 冊 - 工具七 - 幼兒發展評測 - 測查圖卡」來瞭解幼兒二維及三維空間概 念的認知狀況。其中，對二維空間的認知測查是透過讓幼兒通過指認圖 片來回答有關空間概念的 17 道問題，對三維空間的認知測查是讓幼兒 透過身體動作來做出有關空間概念的回答，共 11 道問題（劉佔蘭等， 2011）。在計分方法上，幼兒回答正確得 1 分，回答錯誤得 0 分，二維 空間的認知總分為 17 分，三維空間的認知總分為 11 分。最後，再依據 幼兒的最終得分，統計分析幼兒空間概念的認知水準、幼兒空間概念認 知的性別差異、幼兒空間概念認知的年齡差異。具體結果及分析如下： 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 167教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 圖一 幼兒空間概念的認知水準 由圖二可見，透過積木主題建構活動，幼兒對二維空間中以物為參照 的靜態空間之認知水準由 86.7% 提升至 90%，對三維空間中以物為參 照的靜態空間之認知水準由 84.4% 提升至 85.56%，對以自我為參照 的動態空間由 73.3% 提升至 80%，對以他人為參照的動態空間之認知 水準由 63.3% 提升至 86.67%。 圖二 幼兒空間概念的認知水準（細項） 1. 幼兒空間概念認知水準 由圖一可見，在積木主題建構活動開展前後，幼兒對二維空間概念的 認知正確率由 80.78% 提升至 81.96%，對三維空間概念的認知正確率 由 77.57% 提升至 84.24%。對三維空間概念的認知正確率提升程度略 大於對二維空間概念的認知正確率提升程度。 168 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 2. 幼兒空間概念認知的性別差異 由圖三可見，在積木主題建構活動開展之前，男生和女生對二維空間 概念的認知水準並無明顯差異，男生對三維空間概念的認知水準為 77.3%，女生對三維空間概念的認知水準為 76.1%，男生對三維空間 概念的認知水準略高於女生。在積木主題建構活動開展之後，男生對 二維空間概念的認知水準為 82.35%，女生對三維空間概念的認知水 準為 81.61%，男生對二維空間概念的認知水準略高於女生，而男生 和女生對三維空間概念的認知水準並無明顯差異。 圖三 幼兒空間概念認知的性別差異 3. 幼兒空間概念認知的年齡差異 由圖四可見，積木主題建構活動開展之前及之後，幼兒空間概念認知 水準隨月齡的增長基本呈上升趨勢。 圖四 幼兒空間概念認知的年齡差異 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 169教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 結論與建議 綜合上述，本研究結果表明教師能在教學中利用積木作為教具，並 因應幼兒的學習興趣與幼兒共同訂定建構主題，透過「問題 -- 探索 -- 經驗」自主建構學習模式進行主題建構活動。在鷹架教學下，積木主題 建構活動的進行有助於提升幼兒在二維空間和三維空間認知上的表現， 且男生和女生對二維及三維空間概念的認知水準並無明顯差異，幼兒空 間概念認知水準隨年齡的增長基本呈上升趨勢。於本研究過程中，幼兒 對空間概念主要產生以下迷思：1. 空間內物體的位置；2. 空間內物體的 方向；3. 空間內物體之間的距離；4. 利用空間安排、組織或建構物體位 置、方向或距離的方式。就此結果，可供教師在同類型教學和評估中作 參考資料，藉以提升教學質素。 有部分因素會對研究結果產生影響，若再進行深入探究，可將以下 建議作為借鑒。其中，由於本研究僅取用一個班級（15 人）作為樣本， 因此建議在多個班級或不同幼稚園開展研究。一方面可擴大樣本，減少 因不足所造成的差異性影響，另一方面可獲得更多數據，繼而對研究結 果的差異性再進行深入分析。另外，由於本研究課室空間和地理位置限 制，在教學過程中幼兒僅能圍坐一邊，造成部分幼兒視線阻礙，因此建 議將幼兒分坐兩邊，並於中間開展建構活動，以讓所有幼兒更清楚積木 建構進展。 170 教育研究報告匯編 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 參考文獻 朱湘吉 (1992)。新觀念、新挑戰－建構主義的教學系統。教學科技與媒體，2， 15-20。 吳貞祥 (1978)。兒童數、量與空間概念的發展 , 臺北 : 臺北市立女子師專。 吳雅玲 (2007)。幼兒單位積木的表現形態與建構歷程之研究。國立台南大學幼 兒教育學系碩士論文 ( 未出版 )，台南。 吳雅玲、許惠欣 (2008)。積木遊戲－幼兒單位積木的遊戲型態。幼兒教保研究 期刊，2，19-43。 馬祖琳、戴文菁、臧瑩卓、林意紅、愛彌兒幼兒園教學團隊著，馬祖琳主編 (2009)。幼兒創造性思考的表徵經驗 -- 台中市愛彌兒幼兒園積木活動紀實。 臺北：心理出版社。 周淑惠 (1999)。幼兒數學新論：教材教法。臺北：心理。 周淑惠 (2000)。促進幼兒教師與幼師所屬幼稚園之專業發展研究。國科會專題 研究補助編印，編號：NSC88-2413-H-134-005。 周啟、洪木利 (1993)。我國學生質量及加速度概念發展與變項關係之研究 ( Ⅰ )。 國科會專題。 洪文東 (2011)。空間主題教學活動對幼兒空間概念學習與認知之影響。美和學 報。 洪文東、張琪、楊志強 (2009)。利用主題活動提升幼兒期兒童的空間概念之研 究。中華民國第二十五屆科學教育學術研討會，國立台灣師範大學。 陳奕翰 (2013)。樂高積木教學對國小五年級學童提升空間能力之相關研究。未 出版之碩士論文，國立台灣藝術大學藝術與人文教學研究所碩士班，新北 市。 陳埩淑 (2005)。教小一辨左右前空間概念教學之研究。台中教育大學學報，19 (2)，53-68。 陳惠敏 (2007)。發展幼兒建構式數學課程之行動研究。樹德科技大學幼兒保育 學系碩士論文，未出版，台中。 陳聲珮、鄭美蓮 (2006)。問題──探索──經驗：走上建構學習的征途。香港， 香港教育學院。 張麗芬 (2009)。結合圖畫書與數學的教學方式對幼兒數學能力之影響。臺北市 立教育大學學報，40（2），107-144。 鄭美蓮、陳聲珮 (2013)。自主建構學習模式：「問題 - 探索 - 經驗」學習，輯 於陳惠玲、關珊 ( 主編 )《「敢」問「感」學：課程設計與推行》，( 頁 43- 76)，香港，香港教育學院滙豐幼兒發展中心。 趙新華 (1993)。兒童空間概念發展研究述評。心理發展與教育 , 03。 劉佔蘭等 (2011)。中國幼兒園教育質量評價，( 頁 266-269)，北京：教育科學出 版社。 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念的認知與迷思 171教育研究獎勵計劃 14/15 劉秋木 (1996)。國小數學科教材教法。台北：五南。 劉蘊如 (1993)。福祿貝爾恩物教學對幼兒數學能力發展之影響。臺北市：國立 臺北師範學院附設實驗國民小學附屬幼稚園。 黎佳欣 (2008)。角落情境下幼兒數概念發展之個案研究。未出版之碩士論文， 臺北市立教育大學兒童發展碩士學位學程，臺北市。 魏美惠 (2005)。近代幼兒教育思潮（第二版）。臺北：心理。 Adams, P. K., & Nesmith, J. (1996). Blockbusters: Ideas for the block center . Early Childhood Education Journal, 24, 87–92. Andrews, A. G. (1999). Solving geometric problems by using unit blocks. Teaching Children Mathematics , 5(6), 318-323. Casey, B., Bobb, B., Sarama, J., & Clements, D. ( 2003). The power of block building. Teaching Children Mathematics, 10 (2), 98-102. Charlotte & Milton Brody ( 2008). The block Book . Published by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. C l e m e n t s , D . H . , S a r a m a , J . , & D i B i a s e , A . ( 2 0 0 2 ) . P r e s c h o o l a n d Kindergarten Mathematics: A National Conference. Teaching Children Mathematics , 8(9), 510-515. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind . New York: Basic Book Inc. Johnson, H. M. (1996). The art of block building. In E. S. Hirsch (Ed.), The block book (3rd ed.)(pp.9-25). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Leeb-Lundberg, K. (1996). The block builder mathematician. In E.S. Hirsch (Ed.), The block book (3rd ed.)(pp. 35-60). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Nat iona l Counci l o f Teachers of Mathemat ics . (1989) . Curr icu lum and evaluation standards for school mathematics . Reston, VA: Author. Na t iona l Counc i l o f Teache r s o f Mathemat i c s . (2000) . P r inc ip le s and standards for school mathematics . Reston, VA: Author. Poole , C. , Mi l le r , S .A. , & Church , E .B. (2006) . Development : Ages & Stages—Spatial Awareness. Early Childhood Today , 20(6), 25-30. 172 教育研究獎勵計劃 香港教師中心教育研究小組於 2001 年開始推行教育研究獎勵 計劃（獎勵計劃），目的在於鼓勵和支持前線教師進行教學行動 研究及教育研究，加強自我反思能力和創造力。獎勵計劃既鼓勵 中、小學教師積極研究外，更希望幼兒教育的教師主動參與，推 動幼兒教育。 為鼓勵更多教師進行行動研究，獎勵計劃鼓勵教師自定研究 主題，成功申請並在指定時間內完成的研究計劃，經教育研究小 組審批研究報告，可獲獎勵金以資鼓勵。此外，獲教育研究小組 選為優秀的作品，將輯錄於《教育研究報告匯編》，作為教育界 同工的交流與分享之用。 有關研究獎勵計劃的詳情，教師可參閱香港教師中心網頁 （http://www.edb.gov.hk/hktc），或致電 3698 3698 向本中心職員查 詢。 173 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 （2016-2018 年度） 教育研究小組 召集人 ： 李少鶴先生 小組成員： 張佩姍女士 張慧真博士 方耀輝先生 劉餘權先生 梁永鴻博士 盧巧藍女士 彭耀鈞先生 潘步釗博士 鄧怡勳博士 曾偉漢先生 楊沛銘博士 174 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 （2014-2016 年度） 教育研究小組 召集人 ： 楊沛銘博士 小組成員： 張佩姍女士 張慧真博士 趙淑媚博士 賴炳華先生 劉餘權先生 李少鶴先生 李宏峯先生（2014 年 4 月 1 日至 2015 年 8 月 31 日） 梁永鴻博士 曾偉漢先生 徐國棟博士 徐慧旋女士 黃金耀博士 175 編輯委員會 主編： 楊沛銘博士 委員： 張佩姍女士 劉餘權先生 鄧怡勳博士 曾偉漢先生 胡少偉博士
Educational Research Award Scheme Reports Collections 17/18
Category: DocumentsDocuments Icon教育研究報告匯編 教育研究獎勵計劃 17/18 香港教師中心 地址： 九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 電話： 3698 3698 傳真： 2565 0741 電郵： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址： www.edb.gov.hk/hktc 香港教師中心 教 育 研 究 報 告 匯 編 教 育 研 究 獎 勵 計 劃17/18 香 港 教 師 中 心 香港中文大學教育學院校友會 3 目錄 編者的話 5 中學 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing ............ 6 Gertrude Simon Lutheran College Chan Yiu Fai Fred, Chan Ka Man Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? ....................... 23 HKUGA College Yu Ka Kit Steven 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 .................. 55 東華三院郭一葦中學 黃家慧 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 .......81 路德會西門英才中學 周志聰、何家豪、翁志明 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 ......... 95 聖公會聖馬利亞堂莫慶堯中學 陳志堅、蔡仁桂、莊繞蔓、曾笥湲、蔡淑榕 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式” 課題教學的成效探究） .......................................... 119 順德聯誼總會翁祐中學 阮啟崙、楊明揚、孫福濤、黃俊邦 小學 Pied Pipers: A Gamified Non-formal Curriculum Design Intended To Enhance Student Learning Motivation for the Recorder ................... 141 Po Leung Kuk Hong Kong Taoist Association Yuen Yuen Primary School Li Yun Xuan Merak 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 .......... 159 沙田崇真學校 劉佩義、易理斯 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 ..............175 青松侯寶垣小學 麥桂英、徐智強、黃錦杏、戴英傑 劉珈瑗、何諾衡、何澤華 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 ............................... 209 仁德天主教小學 林偉倫 4 幼稚園 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 ............... 221 保良局瀝源幼稚園暨幼兒園 溫志倫、陸矜兒、韓詠恩 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 ........................ 255 鳳溪幼稚園 李杰雯、嚴淑霞、劉嘉敏、江佩珊 香港教育大學 何志恆 特殊學校 教師專業發展：探討溝通 (C)、關係 (R) 及結構 (S) 的教學策略對 不同能力之中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 ................... 279 明愛樂進學校 李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲 5 教育研究報告匯編 編者的話 編者的話 香港教師中心教育研究小組收到參與「教育研究獎勵計劃 2017/18」的研究報告超 過二十篇。編輯委員會從中選出十三篇刊登於《教育研究報告匯編》。本年度的研究範 圍相當廣泛，包括翻轉教室、電子學習、自主學習、創意教學、有效教學策略等與最近 課程與教學發展相關的課題。 整體來說，參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題，先進行文獻探究，再提 出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分析，再作出結論和建議，最後以 系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來。研究報告反映他們在文獻比較和數據分析方面，都 有相當深入和精闢的見解，對學生的學習問題，以及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的 討論，並提出具體可行的建議。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與「教育研究獎勵計劃」的同工，在有限的時間及經驗 下，仍然全力以赴，成功完成整項研究計劃。他們為提升教育質素所付出的努力，值得 讚賞。我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品，均能夠為課堂學習提供實際而深入的分析基礎，並 闡釋當中行之有效的方法。讀者可以多參考研究報告的建議，應用在日常教學工作，進 一步優化教學的效能。我們更希望這些報告能啟發同工就相關的課題，展開更多、更全 面的研究。本人亦謹此向《教育研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致意，感謝他們在百忙中抽 空審閱各篇研究報告。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持，本小組定能持續推動教育研究，鼓勵教師進 行更深入和持續性的教育研究，不斷提升教學效能和質素。他山之石，可以攻玉。期望 各位讀者對《教育研究報告匯編》內的文章提出意見，相互交流，集思廣益。 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 2019 年 11 月 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 6 教育研究報告匯編 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing Chan Yiu Fai Fred, Chan Ka Man Gertrude Simon Lutheran College Abstract With writing proficiency viewed as an important aspect of language instruction for teachers, there is increasing interest in how instruction could be improved to better accommodate the needs of multilingual learners. Procure is a method of teaching writing without paying attention to grammatical errors. Instead, teachers using this approach encourage students to write as much as possible. To evaluate how the Procure approach could motivate students to express more comprehensively in writing, a systematic action research study was conducted on innovations in English- as-a-foreign-language writing instruction in a Hong Kong secondary school. Positive empirical evidence was found in support of the following hypotheses: (1) the Procure approach is useful in helping students express their own ideas; (2) students' motivation in learning English is enhanced by the Procure approach; (3) instant and meaningful feedback on composition is made possible after following the Procure approach in writing lessons; and (4) students' critical thinking ability can be promoted by putting less emphasis on grammatical mistakes. This definitely encourages students to write more. By trial and error, they can finally write better. Introduction In an interview for a summer job of a bank, two candidates shared their views according to the questions asked. Candidate A, from an international school, made multiple grammatical mistakes in his sharing, but he contributed a number of ideas. Candidate B, who is from a local band one school, made no grammatical mistakes in his presentation but contributed nothing impressive in the discussion since he did not dare to make even an error. At the end, A won the job and B lost. What is the reason behind? Coverage! Some students with a satisfactory mastery of English may become highly anxious when they try to express themselves orally without making Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 7 教育研究報告匯編 mistakes. However, why does not candidate B have the same level of self-confidence as candidate A? Procure can give the answer in this situation. Learning a second language (L2) is never an easy task for most of the students in Hong Kong. Conveying meaning and expressing ideas fluently in the second language could be very challenging in the first place. A significant proportion of DSE candidates in fact have found it difficult to handle writing tasks according to content and language requirements. What Leki et al. (2008) took up in their synthesis was to identify the variables involved and find out their impact on writing performance in a second language. These inter-related variables are related to the characteristics of (a) second language writers, (b) their writing processes, and (c) the writing quality required. Generating enough creative ideas and expressing them in grammatically correct sentences within a short time can be very challenging. Students at lower language competency levels can only write with a limited numbers of words and a narrow range of ideas. There is always a discrepancy in expectation between teachers and students. Teachers tend to blame students on the lack of length and ideas, while students often argue that they have ideas but cannot express them enough. If this problem persists, harmony in the classroom as well as learning efficiency and efficacy can be harmed. The Procure strategy, which can take care of both process and product at the same time, is often adopted to facilitate the development of writing ability as a whole. For process writing, teachers usually give more guidance on the discovery and formulation of ideas via social discourse. Product writing focusses more on the development of linguistic ability. The Procure is a strategy designed to reap the benefits of both approaches in enhancing writing motivation at the beginning stage and facilitating the improvement of linguistic ability at the second. Students are hereby encouraged to express and expand their ideas at the first stage and refine their grammar at the second in the hope that their writing work can be substantially improved in terms of the content given and language competency. Good writing ability is important for students to further their study. A significant amount of work has focused on academic genres, particularly on generic structure and features in this connection. Research findings show that the structural and textual features of genres vary both within and across academic disciplines, and that such variations have embodied different social relationships between the reader and the writer as well as different values and beliefs underlying discursive practices in various discourse communities (Chang & Swales, 1999; Conrad, 1996; Hyland, 1997; Hyland, 1999a; Hyland, 1999b). For a long time, teachers have found it difficult to motivate students to write longer pieces of work and express more ideas in assignments. As a Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 8 教育研究報告匯編 result, attempts to promote second language acquisition often end in failure. Procure can be one of the possible solutions to this problem. Literature Review Self-expression is an important element in second language acquisition. Dai (2010) reported about a creative writing course for university sophomores, which incorporated methods widely adopted in the West (such as writing workshops). Students were encouraged to write about things that interested them and in ways that facilitated their self-expression. The course was found to be effective in promoting critical thinking skills because writing was no longer presented as a tool for language learning but also a creative enterprise for students to explore the various aspects of their lives. Unfortunately, grammatical mistakes can undermine students’ interest and motivation to write. Teachers need to find a way to encourage them to write more. Conceptualising writing tasks \"as a social/cognitive act of entering a discourse emphasizes both the problem-solving effort of a student learning to negotiate a new situation and the role the situation will play in what is learned” (Flower, 1990, p. 222). The view that writing is typically a socially situated, communicative act is later incorporated into Flower’s (1994) socio-cognitive theory of writing. In a social cognitive curriculum, students are taught as apprentices in negotiating an academic community and developing a mastery of strategic knowledge. Writing skills are acquired and used through negotiated interaction with real audience expectations, such as in peer group responses. Instruction should, then, afford students the opportunity to participate in transactions with their own words and the writings of others (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). By concentrating on the conscious awareness of how people will interpret their work, students are encouraged to write with a greater sensitivity to readability (Kern, 2000). Valuable insights from research in second language acquisition and writing development can assist in developing instructional techniques that seek to link the two processes -- acquiring a second language and developing writing skills, especially for academic purposes. Both Flower (1994) and Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) have stressed the benefits of process approaches to writing instruction and the need for more knowledge-transforming tasks. Taking the concept of “knowledge transformation” further, Wells (2000, p. 77) argues that writing approached in this way can also be seen as an opportunity for knowledge building, “as the writer both tries to anticipate the likely response of the envisaged audience and carries on a dialogue with the text being composed”. However, if students have not developed learning strategies to monitor their writing errors, and if they cannot receive enough conceptual feedback at the Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 9 教育研究報告匯編 discourse level, the positive effects of instruction may backfire. Approaches that can be used effectively in second language classrooms show us what is at stake for instructors and students alike. Focussing on error correction could be highly desirable, but problematic. In addition, there are many contradictory findings in the literature. The initial impulse for many teachers when reading L2 students' work is to edit it, that is, focus on the structural aspects so that the writing can better resembles target language discourse. Teachers can correct errors; code errors; locate errors, and indicate the number of errors. To its benefit, attention to errors “provides the negative evidence students often need to reject or modify their hypotheses about how the target language is formed or functions” (Larsen-Freeman, 1991, p. 293). However, if this focus on error becomes the totality of the response, then language discourse, and text are equated with structure. It is then assumed that the instructor has the authority to change the student’s text and correct it (Rodby, 1992). In addition, some feel it may not be worth the time and effort to provide detailed feedback on sentence-level grammar and syntax, since improvement can be gained by writing practice alone (Robb, Ross, & Shortreed, 1986). Practice alone may improve fluency, but if errors are not pointed out and corrected, they can become ingrained or fossilised in writing as mentioned earlier. Researchers into learning English as the first language (L1) are often in favour of or focussing on conception and organisation, and not on mechanical errors, except for a “note reminding the student that the final copy needs to be edited” (White, 1994, p. 109). However, survey reports about L2 have indicated that students both attend to and appreciate their teachers’ comments on grammar problems (Brice, 1995; Cohen, 1987; Ferris, 1995, 1997; Leki, 1991; Radecki & Swales, 1988). In support of this claim, Fathman and Whalley (1990) concluded from their research on feedback and revision in an ESL context, that grammar and content feedback, whether given separately or together, has a positive effect on rewriting. However, grammatical feedback often has more effects on error correction than content feedback has on the improvement of content. Grammatical and rhetorical feedback should thus be attentive to the writers’ level of proficiency and degree of readiness (Ferris, 1995, Hedgcock & Lefkowitz, 1996; Lee, 1997; Leki, 1991). Overly detailed responses may overwhelm L2 writers and discourage substantive revision, whereas minimal feedback may result in only surface modifications to the text. Furthermore, learners may be uncertain about what to do with various suggestions and how to incorporate them into their own revision processes. More research on the effectiveness of responses on the revision of writing should be examined. Recently, the role of teachers as the key to the success of language learning is increasingly recognised by both Chinese education administrators and teachers Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 10 教育研究報告匯編 themselves. Motivated by this recognition, there is a surge in the amount of research into Chinese writing teachers surges for the purpose of improving their professional practices. Findings obtained by Lee (2010, 2011b) suggested that professional practices could be developed through teacher education, which was previously perceived by many as making little difference to the quality of teaching. The positive impact of teacher education include changes to teachers' beliefs (Yang & Gao, 2013) of their existing practices, the development of professional knowledge and skills, as well as the enhancement of readiness for teaching students how to write better (Lee, 2011b; Lee, 2013). Educators also need to be mindful of pedagogical policies or practices that can impact negatively on learning opportunities (e.g., teachers’ excessive error correction), to evaluate the affordances for second language writing development and assessment provided by new technologies and multimedia, and to determine whether and how abilities taught in writing courses for language learners actually transfer to writing practices in other contexts (James, 2009). For instructional practices, teachers should foster students’ writing through assigning extensive writing tasks, as well as purposeful, judicious responses to students' work (Hyland & Hyland, 2006), through extensive reading and vocabulary development in the second language (Albrechtsen, Haastrup, & Henriksen, 2008). They can do so by modelling relevant text types and discourse interactions (Schleppegrell & Colombi, 2002; Hyland, 2004), enhancing students’ self- control over their composing and learning processes (Cumming, 2006), and organising curricula and assessments that are appropriate to learners’ abilities, purposes, and interests (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996). Montgomery and Baker (2007) further pointed out that students tended to value their teachers’ comments and feedback a lot and regard them as effective medicine for improvement. Feedback is commonly found in writing assignments. Both teachers and students believe that feedback provides opportunities for students to improve their writing (Montgomery and Baker, 2007). No matter whether teachers are using direct feedback or indirect feedback, these two methods do focus on how to improve students’ writing quality. Chandler (2003) was concerned with the length of time it takes for teachers to provide different kinds of written feedback: correction, underline, describe and outline. Obviously, to give detailed feedback whether directly or otherwise can cost a lot of marking time. Providing written feedback to students can be very stressful for teachers because they are afraid of destroying students’ confidence by giving negative comments. If students feel that their teacher likes their essay, they will gain more confidence and make more effort in future. If they feel that their teacher does not like their essay, however, they may develop negative attitudes which will affect the rest of Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 11 教育研究報告匯編 their assignments. Therefore, when teachers provide written feedback to their students, it is important that they point out the positive features as well as the errors. Research Design Action Research was conducted in a Form 5 classroom to see if ‘Procure’ does mean ‘acquire’ in reality. 'Procure' is a kind of writing strategy that could help students improve their performance in English writing by encouraging them to write more without paying much attention to grammatical errors. Action research can be initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a \"community of practice\" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Learning writing should be a continual process and the amount of inputs from teachers should be accumulative. In the present study, the strategy was to divide a writing task into 2 stages. At the first stage, students were assigned to groups and discussed the topic with the classmates. After exchanging ideas among their peers, students were asked to produce that piece of writing according to the required format and the ideas that they had gained in their discussion. The teacher then collected their work and gave credits to relevant ideas expressed in the writing piece. Some irrelevant ideas would be pinpointed and feedback was given in relation to the content. Before proceeding to the next stage, the teacher jotted notes on the common grammar mistakes in students’ work. At the second stage of the Procure writing strategy, students received their marked writing pieces and the teacher gave general feedback on the content of the writing. Their attention was then drawn to some of the more common mistakes that appeared and how to correct the related grammar structures. At last, students were asked to produce the second piece of writing based on the feedback on the first writing and the instructions given by their teacher. The number of words and range of ideas in a passage of the same genre were counted and compared with the works in the first semester. A questionnaire was given to students about the changes in learning attitudes. This was followed up by interviews with students at different levels of English proficiency. A focus group was selected for this purpose to have an in-depth understanding of the effectiveness of recasting. Collection of Data A class of 32 students participated in the research without knowing about the research setting in advance. The questionnaire based on 5-point Likert scale items was given out to test for the change in their attitude towards the learning of English. The focus group interview was then conducted to get more in-depth understanding about Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 12 教育研究報告匯編 the students’ views on the use of the 'Procure' approach in writing lessons. Three boys and three girls were randomly selected from the class to participate in the interview in order to avoid gender bias. Analysis of Data The 5-point Likert scale items used‘5’ to indicate ‘strongly agree’ and ‘1’ to indicate ‘strongly disagree’. Ten questions were included in the questionnaire to ask how the use of procure in writing lesson has affected the attitude of students towards learning English. In general, students agreed that the Procure could increase their motivation to express their ideas in writing. The mean values for the questions of ‘I am more willing to submit the writing assignment.’ and ‘I am more eager to express my views on issues mentioned in the question.’ were 4.03 and 3.07 respectively. These show that the approach had helped students build up their confidence in expressing their ideas. Scale Number 5 7 4 10 3 13 2 2 1 0 Table 1: Students are more willing to submit the writing assignment in English. The average for the question of 'I am more willing to submit the writing assignment' is 4.03 out of 5. Procure can increase the level of satisfaction of students in attending English lessons. The mean values for the questions of ‘I find the writing lessons more enjoyable.’ and ‘I find that learning English is easier than before’ are ‘3.97’ and ‘4.03’ respectively. These showed that Procure can offer students more pleasurable experience in learning English. Meanwhile, Procure can facilitate the feedback more effectively. The mean value for the question of ‘I find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to me.’ is 4.09. This proves that the students are in general satisfied with instant feedback from teachers. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 13 教育研究報告匯編 Scale Number 5 14 4 8 3 9 2 1 1 0 Table 2: Students find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to them. The average for the question of 'I find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to me.' is 4.09 out of 5. Procure could help students develop the ability to solve problems and generate new ideas to tackle issues encountered. The mean values for the questions of ‘I find that my ability to think about ideas has been enhanced.’ is ‘4.09’. This shows that the students became more confident in providing solutions to the problems instead to avoiding them. Scale Number 5 12 4 12 3 7 2 1 1 0 Table 3: Students find their ability to think about ideas has been enhanced. The average for the question of 'I find that my ability to think about ideas has been enhanced.' is 4.09 out of 5. Most importantly, Procure did provide incentives to students to master a second language more effectively. The mean values for the questions of ‘I find that learning grammar is more important.’ and ‘I spent more time on reading books and newspapers Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 14 教育研究報告匯編 Scale Number 5 13 4 11 3 7 2 1 1 0 Table 4: Students reported that they would spend more time on reading books and newspapers in English. The average for the question of 'I spent more time on reading books and newspapers to develop my own ideas in English.' is 4.12 out of 5. Discussion Students became more motivated to express their own ideas. Since teachers always pinpointed their grammatical errors and thereby reduce incentives to share their views, students were more passive when writing. As a result, the length of writings was so short that teachers could not find out concretely what students' ideas were. By using Procure, however, greater attention was paid to the sharing of ideas. Students were now more used to expressing their views on issues of personal interest. Their grammatical mistakes were scaled down at the preliminary stage. This would definitely encourage students to write in greater length and convey their messages more freely. Students became more eager to find the meanings of words and phrases and express their ideas since they were now less anxious about making grammatical mistakes. In order to express their views, they will focus on finding new words and phrases. As a result, they were more eager to look up words and phrases from the dictionary. They would indirectly enhance their word power and increase their vocabulary bank so that their language proficiency could be strengthened gradually. This contributes to the increase in self-confidence in using English. to develop my own ideas in English.’ are 4.06 and 4.12 respectively. This proves that students had not put lesser emphasis on grammar and reading. Instead, they had spent more time on reading and better understood that learning grammar was undoubtedly important when they wanted to elaborate on their ideas. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 15 教育研究報告匯編 More effective and efficient assessment methods can be introduced. Marking compositions is demanding for teachers since they have to put diverse focuses on students’ content, language and organisation. It takes a long time for marking assignments. Students need to wait for a long period of time before they can get back their assignment. Unfortunately, they might forget what they had written since they had many different kinds of assignment to do. As a result, the effectiveness and efficiency of teacher’s written feedback are undermined. By using Procure, teachers need not focus on language usage but the content and organisation of composition. The time spent on marking is reduced. Instant feedback is now possible. More assignments can be given to students to promote the habit of writing. Teachers’ workload is greatly reduced but the learning outcomes can be enhanced. Students’ errors can be meaningful resources for teaching grammar. Their writings provide abundant resources of common errors for others to learn and improve grammar usage. In the past, students tended to write as little as possible in order to avoid making mistakes. Teachers could hardly find out the critical weaknesses of students since these were hidden. However, students are now more willing to express their own ideas. Longer passages are produced and more mistakes can be found from their writings. Teachers could easily collect the data about what the weaknesses of students were. Such information will provide valuable resources for the formulation of teaching strategies to help students improve their language ability accordingly. Conclusion and suggestions As a result of the advancement in information technology, knowledge is easily accessible and skills become more readily obtainable. The teacher’s role has changed from information provider to learning facilitator. The key to success of teaching and learning is the motivation of students to learn and acquire new knowledge. If teachers can give enough incentive for students to express themselves, their eagerness to learn will be enhanced. As a result, the learning outcome will become more fruitful. In the context of second language acquisition, students face dual challenges in terms of grammar and content. It is not easy for them to overcome these two challenges at the same time. Many L2 students lost confidence in language learning since they were given many crosses to indicate how many mistakes they had made. Finally, they dared not express their ideas and the whole process of second language acquisition ended in failure. In order to solve the problem, the teacher needs to find ways to help students build up their confidence to overcome the anxiety. For the dual challenges, it is better for L2 students to deal with content first since this can provide resources to tackle the grammar problems. Learning grammar is important, but the Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 16 教育研究報告匯編 rules are better learnt in context. Without the contribution of students, grammar teaching is not easy. By using Procure, students became more motivated to learn and write a longer piece of work so that teachers could have resources in designing their teaching strategies. When students want to express their ideas, they will find ways to do so. Learning grammar can be quite self-regulated. Feedback is of utmost importance to students in the writing process. Without individual attention and sufficient feedback on errors, improvement may simply not take place. We must accept the fact that L2 writing contains errors. It is our responsibility to help learners develop strategies for self-correction and regulation. Indeed, L2 writers require and expect specific overt feedback from teachers not only on content, but also on the form and structure of writing. If feedback is not part of the instructional process, then students will be disadvantaged in improving both writing and language skills. In order to learn more about L2 writers’ use of language in the process of writing, we need to apply to L2 writing the research methods utilised in exploring the composing process in L1 writing, such as think-aloud protocols. We also need to understand how students compose in both their native languages and in English to understand more about their learning strategies (especially in monitoring errors), the role of translation, and transfer of skills. Certainly, ethnographic research in L2 writing that examines the writing process, along with the acquisition of communicative competence, will help to create a more comprehensive theory of L2 writing. References Albrechtsen, D., Haastrup, K., & Henriksen, B. (2008). Vocabulary and writing in first and second languages: Processes and development. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brice, C. (1995). ESL writers’ reactions to teacher commentary: A case study. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 394 312). Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12(3), 267-296. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 17 教育研究報告匯編 Chang, Y. Y. & Swales, J. (1999). 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Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 330-345. Leki, I. (1990). Coaching from the margins: Issues in written response. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom (pp. 57-67). New York: Cambridge University Press. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 19 教育研究報告匯編 Leki, I. (1991). The preferences of ESL students for error correction in college-level writing classes. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 203-217. Leki, I. (1993). Twenty-five years of contrastive rhetoric: Text analysis and writing pedagogies. In S. Silberstein (Ed.), State of the art TESOL essays (pp. 350-370). Virginia: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Leki, I. (1997). Cross-talk: ESL issues and contrastive rhetoric. In C. Severino, J. Guerra, and J. Butler (Eds.), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 234-244). New York: Modern Language Association of America. Leki, I., Cumming, A., & Silva, T. (2008). 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(2002). Developing advanced literacy in first and second languages. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Wells, G. (2000). Dialogic inquiry in education: Building on the legacy of Vygotsky. In C. Lee & P. Smagorinsky (Eds.), Vygotskian perspectives on literary research (pp. 51- 85). New York: Cambridge University Press. White, E. (1994). Teaching and assessing writing. (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers. Yang, L., & Gao, S. (2013). Beliefs and practices of Chinese university teachers in EFL writing instruction. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 26(2), 128-145. Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 20 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 1 Student Questionnaire 1. I am more encouraged to express myself in the writings. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 2. I am more willing to submit the writing assignment. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 3. I am more eager to express my views on issues mentioned in the question. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 4. I am more willing to look up the meaning of words and phrases from the dictionary. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 5. I find the writing lessons more enjoyable. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 6. I find that learning English is easier than before. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 21 教育研究報告匯編 7. I find the feedback is more instant and meaningful to me. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 8. I find that learning grammar is more important. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 9. I find that my ability to think about ideas has been enhanced. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) 10. I spent more time on reading books and newspapers to develop my own ideas in English. A. Strongly agree (5) B. Agree (4) C. Neutral (3) D. Disagree (2) E. Strong Disagree (1) Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing 22 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 2 Focus Group Interview Questions 1. When you think about writing, what is the first thing that comes to mind? 2. What are the obstacles in learning English? 3. Can you notice the changes in marking style of teachers in recent assignments? If yes, what are they? Please give me example(s). 4. Did you spend more time on developing your own ideas in writing assignments in the second semester? 5. Can you notice the changes in your performance in recent assignments? If yes, what are they? Please give me example(s). 23 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? Yu Ka Kit Steven HKUGA College Abstract This quasi-experimental study investigates whether instruction at the submicroscopic level supports students’ understanding of the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level under the contexts of translocation and dissolution. Two instructional groups in a secondary school in Hong Kong (aged 12/13, n = 26 and n= 29) were taught with one of the two interventional focuses. One group associated with particle ideas learnt about the explanation for the contexts of mass conservation. The other group involved students in practical work without reference to the particle ideas. Data were collected by means of pre- and post- assessments using a diagnostic instrument called the Conservation of Mass Test (CMT). Results suggest that understanding about mass conservation was comparable between the two instructional groups. Implications for the junior secondary science curriculum are discussed. Introduction The conduct of the current study is motivated by the recently revised junior science curriculum in Hong Kong (CDC, 2017) on the one hand and the scarcity of comparisons about teaching interventions in the literature for improving conceptual understanding about the conversation of mass at the macro level on the other. A number of learning objectives have been delineated in the revised curriculum. For example, students should be able to recognise that mass is conserved when a solute is dissolved. The suggested learning and teaching activity is the measurement of the change in volume and mass when a small amount of table salt is stirred in water. Students are expected to understand the conservation of mass of the solution despite its contraction in volume, as well as a similar experimental result in a translocation 24 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 process when alcohol is mixed with water, although the conservation of mass in this context has not been clearly stated in the curriculum. Literature review Literature in science education has consistently indicated that developing a conceptual understanding about the conservation of mass is challenging to secondary school students from intuitive to counter-intuitive scenarios in different types of context and educational background (Driver, 1985; Stavy, 1988, 1990; BouJaoude, 1991; Barker, 1995; Galili & Bar, 1997; Barker & Millar, 1999; Valanides, 2000; Özmen & Alipaşa, 2003; Agung & Schwartz, 2007; Parker et al, 2012; Meerman & Brown, 2014). Teaching interventions about the conservation of mass tend to focus on explaining the phenomenon by using particle ideas (Cheng, 2016) or involving students in practical work with assigned sequences (Taylor & Coll, 1997). There is general support for the implementation of multiple representation in teaching and learning chemical concepts (Indriyanti & Barke 2017; Cheng & Gilbert, 2014; Johnson, 2010; Treagust and Chandrasegarana, 2009). Little research however has been conducted to evaluate the impact of teaching at the submicroscopic level on learning at the macroscopic level (Papageorgiou & Johnson, 2005). As suggested by Johnstone (1982; 1991), Chemistry is difficult to learn because of its multi-level of thoughts associated in a triplet relationship, namely at the descriptive and functional level, representational level and explanatory level. At the descriptive and functional level or macroscopic level, chemists sense and experience properties and phenomena which are perceptible and measurable in daily life or inside the laboratory. At the explanatory level or submicroscopic level, they also make use of particulate models to explain and predict chemical phenomena. Equations and signs are used to communicate concepts and ideas at the representational level or symbolic level. Chemists can jump freely across these three levels, but not so students. When a phenomenon is presented, students could only operate at the macroscopic level and describe what they observe. It can be difficult for them to jump to the submicroscopic and symbolic levels. In addition to the inability to manouvre within this conceptual triplet, Gilbert and Treagust (2009) accounted for the difficulties in studying chemistry in terms of the lack of macro-level experience, misconceptions at the submicroscopic level and misunderstanding of conventions at the symbolic level. The intrinsic nature of Chemistry has made it a challenging subject to learn. It is important for teachers to be familiar with the triplet relationship and present chemical concepts effectively at the macroscopic level to start with. Johnstone (2000) emphasized the importance of introducing ideas at this level because students could find chemical changes more tangible and therefore easier for the development of 25 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 long-term memory and understanding. Nelson (2002) reviewed chemistry teaching before and after 1960s, and suggested a progressive teaching approach starting from something observable at the macro-level before interpreting it at the submicroscopic level. Taber (2011) argued that learners often misunderstood the key role of models for explanation purpose. All these studies revealed that understanding at the macroscopic level should be highlighted prior to any further study at the other two levels. The macroscopic, submicroscopic and symbolic levels of understanding are considered equally important in the field of chemistry education. For example, Johnson (2010) proposed a substance-based framework for teaching about the particulate nature of matter. It started with the teacher introducing physical properties such as melting and boiling points, solubility as well as evaporation and condensation rates before developing a particle model with students to explain changes at the submicroscopic level. Treagust and Chandrasegarana (2009) reported that emphasizing the triplet relationship in teaching helps students understand chemical changes such as the combustion of reactive metals, reactions between metals and dilute acids, neutralisation as well as precipitation processes. Their study noted that the experimental group who had learnt relationships in the triplet format could achieve significantly better results on the Representational Systems and Chemical Reactions Diagnostic Instrument than the traditional group who had only been taught at the macroscopic and symbolic levels. Similar results reported by Indriyanti & Barke (2017) indicated that learning at the submicroscopic level would help students develop a deeper understanding of the mole concept. Cheng and Gilbert (2014) meanwhile recommended a teaching sequence at the submicroscopic level to explain the conservation of mass during the combustion of magnesium in oxygen. Researchers agree that it is necessary to link up the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels when teaching about chemical concepts. Students often have difficulties in understanding about the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level and in predicting the exact weights of reactants after certain physical or chemical changes. Some 15-year-old students could explain the conservation of mass when sugar is dissolved in water in terms of the concept that “Not one of the two substances would have gone anywhere else except in the pan ... even though sugar cannot be seen it is still present.\" (Driver, 1985, pp.154). Any explanation linked to the particulate level was not expected for understanding the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level. The difficulties associated with learning about the conservation of mass are not limited to primary, secondary or university students. Many science teachers, doctors and even dietitians (Driver, 1985; Stavy, 1988, 1990; BouJaoude, 1991; Barker, 1995; Galili & Bar, 1997; Barker & Millar, 1999; Valanides, 2000; Özmen & Alipaşa, 2003; 26 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Agung & Schwartz, 2007; Parker et al, 2012; Meerman & Brown, 2014) also find it hard to understand the conservation of mass. Some of them often failed to predict the weights of reactants accurately under different situations. The triplet relationship of chemical knowledge is taken as the norm for lesson design in the current study. With reference to the concept of conservation of mass, the effectiveness of an approach focusing on the macroscopic level only and another focusing on the macroscopic level supported by the submicroscopic level is compared. Results could offer insights for curriculum development in the junior science curriculum. In view of the findings obtained by earlier researchers, six types of processes involving the conservation were studied here by students at the at the macro level, namely 1. translocation, 2. solution, 3. thermal expansion or compression, 4. change of state of solids and liquids, 5. gas release or absorption, and 6. energy release or absorption (Figure 1). These six changes were derived from a study of relevant scenarios in the literature, and could be grouped as physical changes or chemical changes. They are not mutually exclusive because each of them is dependent on the focus of the question. For example, photosynthesis is a process for green plants to produce food by absorbing sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. When the focus is put on how carbon dioxide would contribute to the weight of green plant, photosynthesis can be considered as a Type 5 process. When the focus is put on how light absorption would contribute to the weight of a green plant, it becomes a Type 6 process. Figure 1: Six types of context in learning about the conservation of mass 27 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Type 1: Translocation Translocation is a process by which an object is moved from one place to another. It can also be the movement of certain parts of the object resulting in physical separation or a change in shape. Galili & Bar (1997) interviewed children aged 5 to 11 about whether the weight of a non-deformed plasticine ball would be the same as the same ball after being deformed into one of three possible shapes: disc, cylinder or division. 80% of them had not referred to the conservation of mass when talking about translocation. Some students indicated that the weight of the ball would increase as it touches the hand many times. Performance improved gradually as students became older. Unfortunately, when pre-service primary school teachers were asked to compare the weight before and after mixing water and alcohol, a significant proportion (5 out of 20) of them believed that weight could not be conserved (Valanides, 2000). Type 2: Solution Students also encounter difficulties when learning about a solid substance dissolving in a liquid. Piaget and Inhelder (1974) reported that students' ability to reason about the solution process is dependent on an awareness of observable features. When students saw that sugar disappeared after dissolving into water, they predicted that there would not be any change in weight. Driver (1985) reported that more than a half of the students aged from 9 to 14 thought that the weight of a sugar solution would be less than the sum of the original weights of sugar and water. They thought that since the sugar solution is in liquid form it would weigh less than the solid form of water, or that sugar disappears when they are dissolved. A similar result was noted by Barker (1995). 250 students were asked to predict the weight of a sodium chloride solution compared to the weights of the sodium chloride crystals and water involved. Only half of them believed that mass was conserved. Type 3: Thermal expansion or compression Students misinterpreted the weight of hot water being greater than that of cold water as a result of expansion upon heating. A majority of them failed to judge the equality of weight between samples of hot water and cold water of the same mass (Stavy, 1990). Type 4: Changes of state of solid and liquids Literature often reports about students’ belief that liquids weigh less than solids. Stavy (1990) suggested that students aged 6 to 15 thought that the masses of 28 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 reactants would increase during a precipitation reaction in which solids are produced. According to Özmen & Alipaşa (2003), about 20% of Turkish students aged 15-16 predicted that the mass of barium sulphate would increase because of the formation of solid precipitates. Agung & Schwartz (2007) reported a similar result, as more than a third of Indonesian students aged 17-19 claimed that the formation of precipitates would lead to an increase in the total mass of the chemical system. Type 5: Gas release or absorption Many students misunderstood that gas has less weight than solid and liquid. They may even perceive gas as a weightless entity. In this connection, BouJaoude (1991) interviewed 20 Grade 8 American students aged 13–14. Some of them replied that the decrease of mass in burning wood was due to the destruction of matter during combustion. In another study (Özmen & Alipaşa, 2003), students' responses about the decrease in mass after the combustion of phosphorus under sunlight in a sealed flask also suggest that phosphorus was used up and so the mass of reactants would decrease. Type 6: Energy release or absorption Some students believe that energy carries mass. A common misunderstanding regarding the autotrophic feeding habit of plants in this connection can be found in the study by Stavy (1988). Some biology undergraduates thought that sunlight is a material that is added to the mass of plants instead of offering activation energy to drive photosynthetic reactions. Similar findings can be found in the answers to multiple- choice, true/ false questions and essay questions (Parker, et al., 2012). Some students considered sunlight but not water and carbon dioxide as the source of mass gain in plants. More than 50% of family doctors, dieticians and physical fitness trainers believed that the weight loss in humans was due to the conversion of fats into energy (Meerman & Brown, 2014). This conception is in contradiction with the scientific finding that respiration would turn fat into water and carbon dioxide which would be released primarily from our skin and lungs respectively. Difficulties about the understanding of mass conservation are thus independent of learners’ age and educational background and the context of study. Even thinking with respect to the same context, the outcome could be diverse as well. Stavy and Triosh (2000) attempted to account for such misconceptions with an intuitive rule theory. Students were found to have reacted in similar ways with respect to a wide variety of scientifically unrelated situations. Their responses given with respect to the same context can be correct if they fit in to their intuitive thoughts. Two of the rules 29 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 concerned, namely more A – more B and same A – same B, are discussed in the following. Intuitive rule: More A – More B In the Type 1 context about translocation, Valanides (2000) interviewed 20 female primary student teachers from different science backgrounds. All interviewees expressed that volume was not conserved when alcohol was mixed with water. Five of them further believed that the mass was not conserved. They mentioned that “we do not have conservation of volume\" and that \"mass would not be conserved as well.” The reduction in mass in this context led them to think of the reduction in volume. They considered that larger volumes mean more mass. This explanation is also in line with the intuitive line of thought: More A – More B. In the Type 2 context about the process of solution, students reasoned about the weight of the sugar solution by referring to the rise in water level. They confused volume with weight and thought that greater volume would lead to more weight (Driver, 1985). With respect to the Type 3 context about thermal expansion then, Stavy (1990) studied children's understanding of mass conservation during the thermal expansion of water. Many children aged 6 to 10 believed that water after heating was heavier because its volume was greater. Intuitive rule: Same A – Same B This intuitive rule was identified after referring to students’ response to comparison tasks. One of the well-known experiments about the conservation of liquids conducted by Piaget (1965) was also linked to this intuitive rule. A majority of children aged 7 to 11 in his study agreed that after water was transferred from one container to another, its volume would remain unchanged because it was the same kind of matter. They would also believe that the weight of water would remain the same. However, this intuitive rule of same A - same B does not always lead to correct responses. When some Grades 10 to 12 biology students were asked to compare the volume of a cube before and after dividing into four boxes, they all indicated that the volume was the same. 30% of them believed the surface area remain the same because of no change in volume (Livne, 1996). The theory of intuitive rules is thus helpful for explaining learners’ poor achievements in mass conservation questions across various contexts and scenarios. It also gives insights about how misconception can be corrected to support the development of the conceptual prevalence model which is more appropriate to the design of the teaching intervention. Meanwhile, students have developed certain intuitive rules to predict the outcome of mass conservation before the lesson. 30 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Conceptual change however is a learning pathway from intuitive thinking towards scientific understanding. The introduction of the desired scientific concepts which is universal in counter-intuitive scenarios often has to start with changes in students’ existing ideas. To help students explain macroscopic phenomena, Cheng (2016) reported about a 40-minute lesson design in which practical work was performed in orchestration with the procedures in assessment for learning. The lessons started with a puzzling phenomenon of volume contraction without changes in mass during the mixing of water and alcohol. The mixing of beans and sago was used as an analogy before the introduction of the particle model. Papageorgiou and Johnnson (2005) conducted an intervention study about how the introduction of the particle model could help students’ description and explanation of solution processes and changes in the physical state of matter. Nearly all students aged 10 or 11 in their study described phenomena according to the scientific view, and gave explanations by referring to particle ideas. Although the ideas they developed were not perfect, the 12-hour intervention for the experimental group still led to encouraging results. Last but not least, Taylor and Coll (1997) also arranged a sequence of practical work starting with the solution of potassium permanganate crystals, followed by the placing of sugar in water. A more significant improvement for the experimental group was recorded over the control group who studied only the solution of sugar. The finding showed that carefully arranged practical work sequences could offer visual support to learners and that giving more scenarios for exploration could reinforce their mastery of concepts. However, in the literature, there was no interventional comparison between instruction at the macroscopic level only and instruction at the macroscopic level supported by the submicroscopic representation in the context of mass conservation. Research Questions Referring to earlier studies, Johnstone (1982) argued that the triplet relationship was an important concept in Chemistry and yet it would not be necessary to cover all the three levels at the same time during the teaching and learning process. Learning at the macroscopic level only could not provide meaningful experience to students. Researchers are in favour of exploring at the macroscopic level at first and at the submicroscopic level next when teachers are seeking to help students master the whole concept (Johnstone, 2000; Nelson, 2002; Taber, 2011). Little work however has been done about how far learning at the submicroscopic level would improve understanding at the macro level. As a result, a quasi-experimental study was conducted hereby to investigate the impact of intervention at the submicroscopic level on understanding about the conservation of mass at the macro level. The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of two types of instructional interventions, 31 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 namely instruction at the submicroscopic level and instruction at the macroscopic level in supporting the development of Secondary 1 students’ scientific understanding of the conservation of mass. The following research questions were examined in this connection: (a) How do the two instructional groups compare in terms of their understanding of the conservation of mass after participating in an intervention program? (b) How would Secondary 1 students’ understanding of the conservation of mass in different contexts, namely Type 1: translocation process and Type 2: the solution of substances in water, change after instruction at the submicroscopic and macroscopic levels respectively? Methodology Science is a compulsory subject for Grades 7 to 9 in Hong Kong. The science curriculum was updated recently (CDC, 2017). Changes to be noted in Grade 7 about the understanding of mass conservation are summarised in terms of the context type in Table 1. Physical changes Type 1: Translocation (e.g. mixing water and alcohol) Type 2: Dissolving (e.g. dissolving sugar) Type 3: Thermal expansion or compression (e.g. measure weight and volume of coloured liquid under heating or cooling) Type 4: Change of states between solid and liquid (e.g. melting of ice) Type 5: Gas release and absorption (e.g. boiling of water) Table 1: Expected understanding about the conservation of mass at the Grade 7 level Physical changes Unit 6.3 of the junior science curriculum (CDC, 2017) states that students should be able to recognise that mass is conserved when a solid is dissolved. The suggested learning and teaching activities in this connection involve the measurement of changes in volume and mass after a small amount of table salt is placed in water. Students need to recognise that mass is still conserved even if volume decreases in due course. The logic here is similar to that adopted by them with respect to the case mixing alcohol and water as stated in unit 6.1, where students are expected to recognise a contraction in volume. To further extend the concept that an increase in the volume of an object would not necessarily lead to greater weights, they are also asked to judge the equality of weight in the context of thermal expansion. After learning the contents 32 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 of unit 6.2, students should be able to compare the properties of matter in different physical states correctly. The conservation of mass during a change of state can also provide a good opportunity to help students deepen their understanding of the context at the macroscopic level. Grade 7 students meanwhile are expected to understand the conservation of mass under contexts 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Table 1). In the current intervention study, attention is given to understanding the conservation of mass under contexts 1 and 2. The participants in this study were 54 Grade 7 students coming from two classes taught by the same teacher in a direct-subsidy EMI school. One of the two classes was taught at the submicroscopic level (N=25). The other class was taught at the macroscopic level (N=28). The intervention program was composed of three 40-minute lessons targeting on contexts 1 and 2 (translocation and the solution process respectively). During the first lesson, both classes were given an introduction to the notion of mass conservation using daily-life examples supplemented by the demonstration of practical work (refer to Appendix 1 for the handouts). The second and third lessons were designed differently for the two groups (Appendices B and C). Students in the submicroscopic-level group were asked to use the particle model to explain the puzzling phenomenon of volume contraction but mass conservation (a) during the mixing of water and alcohol and (b) the solution of sugar in water (Cheng, 2016). Students in the macroscopic-level class performed practical work about different types of (a) mixing and (b) dissolving in accordance with the teaching plan suggested by Taylor and Coll (1997). Given that both groups had not been introduced to the particle theory before, their score in the diagnostic instrument could reflect differences in teaching effectiveness of the two instructional interventions. To collect data about the effectiveness of the two teaching interventions, a multiple-choice diagnostic instrument called the Conservation of Mass Test (CMT) (Appendix 4) was used. Scores for gauging the changes in understanding about the conversation of mass were collected by using an online survey tool called Qualtrics®. This instrument contained 21 multiple-choice items about translocation and solution concepts. The questions used for this purpose were based on daily life scenarios such as eating, drinking, cutting of pizza slices and the solution of honey in water. With respect to the context type 1 about translocation, intuitive understanding about immersing metal balls into water is based on the more volume, more weight rule. This rule however cannot hold for scenarios like the formation of soapy foam or the mixing of water with alcohol. The converse intuitive same volume, same weight concept is represented by separating a pizza into slices or folding a paper crane. This rule however cannot be used for predicting the weight of a man after eating a donut or urinating. Under the same context of translocation, it was divided into four intuitive rule quadrants as shown in Table 2. 33 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Type 1: Translocation More A, More B Same A, Same B Intuitive •weight after adding metal balls into water •weight after the mixing of water •weight after the mixing water with oil •weight after the same amount of water is poured into containers of different shapes and sizes •weight of a pizza after being cut into four slices •weight after model clay is pressed into various disc shapes •weight after a piece of paper is folded into a crane •weight after a glass cup is broken Counter- intuitive •weight after mixing water and alcohol •weight after the discolouration of a solution by activated charcoal •weight after the formation of foam in a soapy solution •weight after a man has just eaten a piece of doughnut •weight of a man just after urination •weight after water is removed by a sponge •weight after a piece of dried fish maw is placed into water Table 2: Intuitive rule quadrants of type 1 about translocation Regarding the context type of type 2 about dissolving, weight is conserved although the sum of the volume of the solute and the solvent is more than that of the solution. This phenomenon is only in line with the counter-intuitive thinking of more volume, more weight. The contraction in volume here is not followed by weight reduction as what students are used to predict. Six scenarios are given below to illustrate the counter-intuitive quadrant (Table 3). Type 2: Dissolving More A, More B Same A, Same B Intuitive not applicable not applicable Counter- intuitive •weight after white sugar is completely dissolved in water •weight after brown sugar is completely dissolved in water •weight after coffee powder is completely dissolved in water •weight after some table salt remains undissolved in water •weight after a tea bag is immersed in water •weight after honey is added to water not applicable Table 3: Intuitive rule quadrants of type 2 about the solution process The 21 items were content validated by a science education expert and an experienced chemistry teacher. A pilot test was given to a group of 25 Grade 8 students. The CMT had an excellent internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha α = 0.93. The mean item difficulty value was found to be 0.60, and the discriminating power was equal to 0.76. Values of the difficulty index and discriminating index could be found in Appendix 5. The difficulty index was calculated by using the percentage of students with correct answers while the discrimination index was calculated by the differences in the number of correct responses between students in the top and bottom quartiles divided by the number of responses in each quartile. The wordings and visual 34 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Table 4: Intervention timeline of the study Instruction at the submicroscopic level (N=25) Instruction at the macroscopiclevel (N = 28) 12/3/2018 Pre-test 13/3/2018 Teacher’s demonstration of mass conservation in translocation and dissolving 15/3/2018 Post-test I 26/3/2018 Discussion of demonstration work using submicroscopic representation about mass conservation in translocation Students ’ pract ical act iv i ty about macroscopic phenomena of mass conservation in translocation 27/3/2018 Discussion of practical demonstration using submicroscopic representation about mass conservation during the solution process Students ’ pract ical act iv i ty about macroscopic phenomena of mass conservation during the solution process 28/3/2018 Post-test II Data analysis in this study was centred on students’ performance within the two groups and between the two groups in terms of the overall CMT result and that in the intuitive quadrants of different context types respectively. Response collected from the pre-test and post-tests would be graded. A correct choice would bring one mark. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the mean score of the pre- test performance between two groups. If the result indicated a significant difference between the mean score of the two groups, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed to compare the mean scores in post-test 2 between two groups while controlling the pre-test result. Pair-samples t-tests were conducted to analyse the changes in performance within the groups from the pre-test to post-test 1 and from post-test 1 to post-test 2. representation in the questions were improved according to the suggestions from the same science education expert and experienced chemistry teacher. For example, the diagram used in each question gave the values of volume and weight so as to reduce reading time needed by students. The CMT had a high internal consistency coefficient of α = 0.79 (pre-test), α = 0.85 (post-test 1) and α = 0.91 (post-test 2) which was greater than the threshold value of 0.5 for multiple-choice items (Nunally & Bernstein, 1994). Students were told clearly about the purpose of the study, and all their parents signed the consent form needed. Two instructional strategies were evaluated in a pretest-posttest design using quantitative data. The intervention timeline is summarised in Table 4. Both the 40-minute pre-test and post-tests were based on the 21 multiple- choice questions in the CMT. Participants were encouraged to select the choice which best represented their own thinking. They were assured that assessment results would not be counted as school examination grades. 35 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Results and discussion A paired samples t-test was conducted to evaluate students’ achievements in the CMT as follows. (a) Overall performance In response to the first research question about the overall students’ performance in mass conservation, there was a significant increase in scores for the submicroscopic class from the pre-test (M = 12.54, SD = 4.62) to post-test 1 (M = 17.35, SD = 4.56), t(25) = -4.88, p < .001 (two-tailed). The mean increase in scores was 4.81 (p = 0.05, with the 95% confidence interval ranging from -6.84 to -2.78. However, there was no significant difference between post-test 1 scores (M = 17.35, SD = 4.56) and post-test 2 scores (M = 17.85, SD = 4.55), t(25) = -0.504, p > 0.05 (two-tailed). The mean increase in the scores was 0.5 (p = 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -2.54 to 1.54). As for the achievement of students in the macroscopic class, there was a significant increase from the pre-test (M = 8.48, SD = 3.39) to post-test 1 (M = 15.17, SD = 4.39), t(28) = -8.08, p < .001, two-tailed). The mean increase in scores was 6.69 (p = 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -8.39 to -5.00). Similar to the case with the submicroscopic group, there was no significant increase in mean scores from post-test 1 (M = 15.17, SD = 4.39) to post-test 2 (M = 16.31, SD = 6.00), t(28) = -1.52, p > 0.05, two-tailed). The mean increase in the identity scores was 1.14 (p = 0.05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -2.67 to 0.39). The results obtained above thus indicated that both intervention programs could improve students' understanding of mass conservation. On the basis of the teacher's introduction about the concept, students should could develop their own scientific conceptual models. There was no regression for the mean score for both learning at the submicroscopic level or performing hands-on activities. In other words, teaching based on the macroscopic level only or on the submicroscopic level could enhance the scientific thinking mode among learners. (b) Students performance in Context types 1 and 2 in both groups Students' performance under context 1 (about the translocation process) showed significant improvements from the pre-test to post-test 1. However, there was no considerable difference from post-test 1 to post-test 2. Significant improvements appeared in context 2 responses about from the pre-test to post-test 1 but not from post-test 1 to post-test 2. 36 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Performance by the macroscopic class in the CMT With respect to context 1 (about translocation), the results of both groups indicated a significant improvement from the pre-test to post-test 1. However, there was no significant difference from post-test 1 to post-test 2. As for context type 2 (about the solution process; an example of the more A, more B counter-intuitive rule), there was a significant improvement for the macroscopic group from the pre-test to the post-test 1 (M = 3.03, SD = 2.04) and to post-test 2 (M = 4.03, SD = 2.24), t(28) = -2.23, p < 0.05 (two-tailed). Nevertheless, there was a significant improvement for the submicroscopic class from the pre-test to the post-test 1 but no significant difference from post-test 1 to post-test 2. The result thus indicated that more exposure to hands-on activities could help students understand the conservation of mass when a solid is dissolved. Unlike translocation that covers different quadrants of the intuitive rules, the macroscopic understanding of dissolving only belongs to the quadrant of more A, more B counter- intuitive scenarios. Practical work conducted by students could help them generalise the conservation of mass and the process of solution. However, this gain could not be found in the scores of the submicroscopic class, suggesting that the submicroscopic explanation of mass conservation was less effective than the repeated practical work in this context. Is the performance of CMT of the submicroscopic class better than that of the macroscopic class? In response to the second research question, an independent samples t-test was performed to compare the pre-instructional ability between the two classes. There was a significant difference in the mean pre-test scores of the submicroscopic class (M=12.54, SD = 4.62) and the macroscopic class (M=8.48, SD=3.39) [t(53)=3.74, p=0.000]. The pre-test score of the submicroscopic class was significantly greater than that of the microscopic class. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error of the difference 95% Confidence Interval of the difference Lower Upper Pretest Equal variance assumed 3.603 .063 3.742 53 .000 4.056 1.084 1.882 6.230 Equal variance not assumed 3.680 45.503 .001 4.056 1.102 1.836 6.275 Table 5: Independent samples t-test for the pre-test results of both groups. 37 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 ANCOVA was conducted to compare the effectiveness of the two instructional interventions whilst controlling for the pre-test score. Levene’s test for equality of variances was performed. It was found to be not significant, [F(1, 53) = 1.337, p > 0.05], indicating no violation of the homogeneity of variance assumption. There was no significant difference in mean score [F(1,52)=0.021, p = 0.886, p > 0.05] between the two classes. When the performance of the two classes under contexts 1 and 2 was compared, no significant difference could be found. Table 6: ANCOVA table for post-test 2 result while controlling pre-test result between both groups Dependent Variable: Posttest2 Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Corrected Model 194.268a 2 97.134 3.470 .039 Intercept 1058.418 1 1058.418 37.809 .000 Pretest 161.932 1 161.932 5.785 .020 Treatment .576 1 .576 .021 .886 Error 1455.659 52 27.993 Total 17613.000 55 Corrected Total 1649.927 54 a. R Squared = .118 (Adjusted R Squared = .084) ANCOVA was also performed to compare achievements with respect to translocation and the solution process under different intuitive-rule quadrants. Results indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean score [F(1,52)=0.839, p = 0.364, p > 0.05] between the two groups for both types of mass conservation in all the quadrants. Both groups were thus comparable in terms of understanding about the conservation of mass. Teaching at the submicroscopic representation would not hinder the understanding of the macroscopic phenomena. It is consistent with the result in the study of Papageorgiou and Johnson (2005). Limitation of the study Only two classes participated in this study. They cannot be assumed the same in terms of ability. Students would have different levels of prior knowledge, cognitive growth and preference to certain pedagogical activities. The teacher would have taught them in different ways and students' level of understanding would therefore vary substantially. Conclusion and Implication The impact of Secondary 1 students’ learning at the submicroscopic level on the understanding of the conservation of mass at the macroscopic level has been studied. 38 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Based on the answers in the diagnostic instrument, the Conservation of Mass Test (CMT), there was no significant difference between the instructional group taught at the macroscopic level only and the instructional group taught at both the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels. Both instructional approaches could thus improve students’ understanding of the conservation of mass. Data collected in this study suggested that learning at the submicroscopic level has not hindered the development of scientific conceptual thinking about the conservation of mass at the macro level. Introducing the particulate level of understanding can be appropriate to students aged 12 or 13 in their early secondary school life. In accordance with the ideas of Papageorgiou and Johnsone (2005), effectiveness in the teaching of particle ideas depends on aim and strategy. This study aims to call for the attention from researchers in curriculum studies, especially for those in Hong Kong. In the latest junior science curriculum (CDC, 2017), the placement of the conservation of mass as a macroscopic phenomenon was arranged into the unit about submicroscopic behaviour which was highly abstract. Although students in the submicroscopic group were required to learn the particulate nature of matter which was absent in the macroscopic group, they could also achieve a comparable result as that of students in the macroscopic group. This macroscopic understanding of mass conservation at the submicroscopic level can still be successful if classroom teaching is following the lesson design in this intervention study as recommended by Cheng (2016)’s report. First, it is important to admit that the concept of mass conservation is challenging for learners and so a classification of mass conservation contexts is necessary for facilitating understanding. Some context types (e.g. translocation) are composed of intuitive and counter-intuitive scenarios that make the conservation of mass complicated to master. People can conserve some contexts but not all. The proposed framework of contexts in mass conservation and the diagnostic test can help understand the progress of students’ learning of the phenomenon. Explicit linkage of different context types of the mass conservation into the curriculum design is needed to progressively develop a scientific conceptual model among learners. Second, it is important to highlight the teaching sequence of lesson design at the macroscopic or submicroscopic level. In general, the lesson design focusses on intuitive scenarios of mass conservation in the first place, such as predicting the weight after stacking wooden blocks or mixing water from two containers. The counter- intuitive scenarios such as weight after drinking water were utilised to activate the scientific mental model. For students in the submicroscopic group, it would be strange and uncomfortable when particle ideas were transferred without explicit linkage to 39 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 more familiar scenarios. The beans and sago activity with extensive teacher-guided discussion was therefore set prior to the introduction of the particle model as suggested by Cheng (2016). Similarly, for students in the macroscopic group, hands-on activities in the solution of sugar by itself could help to develop durable understanding of mass conservation. The solution of copper (II) sulphate and brown sugar in water does not only provide visual (Talyor & Coll, 1997) but also conceptual support to learners when seeking to understand the phenomenon of mass conservation. Hence, learners would not treat the mass conservation as error but an authentic law in nature. As a result, this study cannot simply conclude that the impact of teaching at macroscopic level supported by submicroscopic level was comparable with that of teaching at the macroscopic level only. Third, the result of the study could be interpreted as meaning that learning at the macroscopic level supported by the submicroscopic level is not superior to learning at the macroscopic level. This is consistent with the argument made by Johnstone (1982) that it is not necessary to go through the submicroscopic level when planning for the study of chemistry in the curriculum. If learning at the macroscopic level only is already sufficient to achieve a comparable achievement in mass conservation with teaching at both macroscopic level and submicroscopic level, why do we bother to teach at the submicroscopic level? Could teaching at the macroscopic level only also lead to comprehensive and meaningful learning that is helpful in the solution of problems in daily science problems? This study can offer some insights to the curriculum planner about the teaching and learning of concepts at the macroscopic level. Further research is needed to address related issues such as those about the learning attitude of the macroscopic group and submicroscopic group and the impact of learning at the submicroscopic level in other contexts of conservation of mass. 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Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 1(2), 249-262. 43 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 1 Worksheet used in the first intervention lesson 44 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 2 Worksheet used in the second and third intervention lesson of the submicro group 45 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 46 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 3 Worksheet used in the second and third intervention lesson of the macro group 47 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 48 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 4 Conservation of Mass Test (CMT) 49 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 50 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 51 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 52 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 53 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 54 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 5 Difficulty index and discrimination index of individual items in pilot test 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 55 教育研究報告匯編 摘要 非華語學生在主流學校學習中文的情況，備受社會和教育界關注。本研究計劃以閱 讀教學為試點，透過行動研究探索繪本教學法對非華語學生運用閱讀策略的成效。研究 發現，繪本教學有助初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」，在閱讀能力測試展示了不同 程度的進步，而且對閱讀中文的觀感有正面轉變。在 2001 年，教育局提倡「從閱讀中學 習」。學生從「學會閱讀」發展到「從閱讀中學習」，是課程改革的四個關鍵項目之一。 研究者希望以上的學習方式，可以成為非華語學生「學會閱讀」中文的其中一個切入點。 研究背景和目的 研究者任教的中學屬於非華語學生人數「低濃度」的學校，初中年級的非華語學生 與華裔學生比例是「1：21」。非華語學生與華裔學生一起上課，鼓勵他們融入主流。研 究者所見非華語學生來港的時間不一，在入讀香港學校之前的學術水平不同，要他們追 上同年級、同年齡的本地學生中文水平，是教師和學生同樣面對的難題。此外，非華語 學生的家庭支援各不一樣，父母可能不熟習中文，族語或英語是母語，他們學習和運用 中文這種第二語言的主要地方就是學校。 在中文閱讀方面，非華語學生普遍會遇到很多困難。原因是認識的漢字不多，缺乏 漢語詞彙。中文語法與他們的母語不同，加上識字困難等種種因素，對閱讀大量中文字 卻步（許守仁，2013）。要幫助非華語學生進行閱讀理解，教師先要教導學生運用適合 他們中文水平的閱讀策略，為「學會閱讀」開拓切入點。 《中國語文課程補充指引（非華語學生）》指出，如果學生年齡較大才開始學中文， 教師應該配合他們心智發展較成熟的特點，啟發思考，協助他們建構知識。對初接觸中 文的學生而言，閱讀材料以簡易、詞彙少而貼近生活者為佳（課程發展議會，2008）。 研究者嘗試透過繪本教學的方法，並選取詞彙較少，多以日常生活為題材的繪本故事作 為閱讀材料，啟發非華語學生運用其中一個基本的閱讀策略 –「故事線策略」，掌握故 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握 「故事線策略」的成效 黃家慧 東華三院郭一葦中學 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 56 教育研究報告匯編 事脈絡，理解內容。研究者希望非華語學生在掌握「故事線策略」後，能漸漸減低對閱 讀大量中文字的抗拒感，享受「從閱讀中學習」的樂趣。 研究問題 本研究計劃探討以下問題： 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」有什麼成效？ 文獻綜述 繪本，即 picture book，是通過一連串連貫的圖畫與相對較少的文字，互相結合來 傳遞信息或講故事的書。繪本是依靠文字語言和視覺語言，即圖文的互相關係共同產生 敍述故事的內容，書中的圖片是作為書的內容在每一頁都出現，並且對故事的完整敍述， 以及作者意圖的完整表達有著不可或缺的作用（Nikolajeva，2001）。 繪本教學法的重點，在於事前做詳細的計劃並依循原則，包括要有明確和具體的學 習目標，需兼顧文本和圖像的閱讀，能正確引導學生享受閱讀的樂趣，並能引發學生不 同的思考而非要求既存的答案（李玉貴，2001）。開展繪本閱讀教學時，教師首先要對學 生有閱讀方法上的指導，幫助他們掌握閱讀繪本的技能，從單幅圖片開始，引導學生學 習把握畫面整體內容。其次是因應繪本所講述的內容，針對性地檢視學生閱讀（盧萍， 2011）。學生可以從繪本的封面或故事標題預測故事情節，依據繪本的插圖、重覆的語 句在情節上作預測的掌握（賴瑋珍，2005）。繪本作為文句脈絡的教學效果顯著，從上下 文意中加強學生對詞彙的瞭解，於閱讀中理解詞彙的用法（邱小芳、詹士宜，2009）。由 是觀之，教師善用繪本圖文合一的特點引導學生閱讀，可促進閱讀教學的效果。 「故事線策略」是一種閱讀理解的基本策略，文章的走勢一般稱之為「起」、「承」、 「轉」、「合」。「故事線策略」是指學生掌握出現在全篇文章裡，這種既定模式形成 的主軸，故事線的呈現包含「跨越（開始）[ 起 ]」、「事件（衝突）[ 承 ]」、「解決 [轉 ]」、「結束（過渡）[合]」（陳純純，2012）。既然故事線是構成文章的重要框架， 教師訓練學生運用「故事線策略」，使學生對內容有基本的理解，才能進一步整合和分 析內容。 本研究參考學者祝新華（2005）提出的閱讀認知能力理論，設計評估非華語學生閱 讀能力的前、後測試。閱讀認知能力有六個層次，包括「複述」、「解釋」、「重整」、「伸 展」、「評鑑」和「創新」。其中第三層次「重整」是分析綜合的能力，包括能分析或 理清篇章內容，抽取篇章的重要資訊，以及概括段篇主要意義。測試「重整」能力的題 型有六種，包括理清篇章內容的關係，根據篇章內容分段分層，從篇章某處撮取特定信 息，從篇章多處撮取特定信息，概括段意或層意，以及概括全篇內容（岑紹基、羅燕琴、 林偉業、鍾嶺崇，2001）。本研究參考上述理論，設計前測和後測，配合相關題型進行 評估。學生在繪本教學的模式下，在其「重整」能力方面出現的變化，反映他們對「故 事線策略」的掌握。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 57 教育研究報告匯編 本研究參照教育局「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構」，評量非華語學生閱讀能力 的表現。「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構閱讀能力學習成果（一至八階）」之中，「NLR （1.1）3」（能理解短小段落的大意）至「NLR（2.1）3」（能簡單指出閱讀材料的寓意） 均為對內容理解、分析和綜合的基礎評估級別（課程發展議會，2014）。本研究依據以 上架構，對照非華語學生「重整」能力的變化，從而探討他們掌握「故事線策略」的成效。 研究方法和工具 本計劃以行動研究的方式進行。行動研究是實踐本身的改進，是一種革新的過程， 是在於某個人或某個團體自己的，而不是其他人的實踐之改善。教師應該身兼行動者和 研究者兩種角色（楊小微，2002）。由此可見，這種研究的方式鼓勵自我反省，有利在 研究的基礎上不斷改進。 參與本研究的初中非華語學生有 6 人，包括中一級 4 人，中二級 2 人，平均年齡 12 歲（巴基斯坦裔 5 人，泰國裔 1 人）。本校按非華語學生的年齡和學習需要編排課後增 潤班，以照顧學習多樣性，支援他們學習中文，鞏固或增補其所學。6 位非華語學生屬 於同一組增潤班，他們的共通點是學習動機相若，對自己的中文學習表現有期望。該組 增潤班每星期上課 3次，每堂 45 分鐘。 本研究由「規劃」、「行動」，以及「歸納和檢討結果」三個階段組成（表一）。 表一：研究設計與流程 階段 日期 實施項目 一、規劃 2018 年 2 月 •按「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構 閱讀能力學習成果 （一至八階）」劃分學生的中文水平。 •劃分本研究的對照指標 （控制組） 及實驗組。 •擬訂「前測」和「後測」的評估卷及評分標準。 •擬訂「前訪談」和「後訪談」的問題。 二、行動 2018 年 3 月至 5月 •進行共同閱讀小組，向學生講解「故事線策略」的概念，以及本行 動研究的目的和其參與的重要性。 •為學生分別進行「前訪談」。 •進行「前測」，時限 45 分鐘。 •於 6 次接續的課堂，研究者將實驗組抽出原本課堂，以繪本教學法 為他們進行閱讀教學；控制組則保留在原有增潤班，不改變其學習模 式進行閱讀課。 •進行「後測」，時限 45 分鐘。 •為學生分別進行「後訪談」。 三、歸納和 檢討結果 2018 年 6 月至 7月 •對照「前測」與「後測」結果。 •檢視「前訪談」和「後訪談」的內容。 •歸納本研究結果及進行檢討、反思。 資料搜集和數據分析會同步進行。在第一階段，研究者根據 6 位非華語學生在二月 份，於增潤班進行的閱讀理解測驗之答題表現，參照「中國語文課程第二語言學習架構 閱讀能力學習成果（一至八階）」劃分他們的中文水平（表二）。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 58 教育研究報告匯編 實驗組 控制組 學生 閱讀理解 測驗成績 達到之 評級表現 中文水平 比較 學生 閱讀理解 測驗成績 達到之 評級表現 中文水平 比較 A （中一） 20/50 NLR（2.1）2 較高 Y （中二） 27/50 NLR（2.1） 3 最高 （相對較接 近一般華裔 學生水平） B （中一） 18/50 NLR（2.1）2 較高 C （中一） 12/50 NLR（1.1）4 較低 D （中一） 8.5/50 NLR（1.1）3 最低 E （中二） 13/50 NLR（1.1）4 較低 表二：學生在行動研究前的中文閱讀水平參考（2018 年 2 月） 6 位非華語學生在該次測驗相對分數最高的 1 人（學生 Y），將會保留在增潤班如 常上課，其學習表現是本研究的對照指標（控制組）。另外 5位非華語學生（學生 A, B, C, D, E），是本研究的實驗組。研究者將其抽出進行繪本教學，擬訂「前測」和「後測」 的評估卷，以及「前訪談」和「後訪談」的問題。按照學生的閱讀水平，選定合適他們 的前、後測閱讀材料和具體考核的閱讀能力範圍。前測、後測的閱讀材料選自兩本深淺 程度相若的繪本，將內容編製成純文字的形式供學生閱讀。兩份測試卷各有 7 題（附件 一），題型和分數比例相同（表三）。 表三：「前測」與「後測」題型列表 題號 答題方式 佔分 考核能力項目 1 填空 30 分 NLR（2.1）2 能理解閱讀材料的內容 2 判斷 4分 NLR（2.1）2 能理解閱讀材料的內容 3 簡答 3分 NLR（2.1）1 能對閱讀材料中的具體事件提出簡單的看法 4 選擇 2分 NLR（2.1）1 能理解閱讀材料的時地人關係 5 填充 2分 NLR（2.1）2 能理解閱讀材料的內容 6 詳答 4分 NLR（2.1）2 能對閱讀材料中人物的性格、行為提出簡單的看法 7 詳答 5分 NLR（2.1）3 能指出閱讀材料的寓意 前、後訪談（附件二）採用「半結構式」（謝錫金，2013）進行，首先在訪談開始 之前設計幾個問題，根據繪本閱讀這個主題設定訪談範圍，再按照實際情況向研究對象 作追問。 研究者先為 6 位非華語學生進行一次共同閱讀小組，向他們講解「故事線策略」的 概念（附件三），以及是次行動研究的目的和其參與的重要性。實驗組和控制組將會在 這個階段進行前、後測，以及前、後訪談。至於教學行動方面，研究者在 6 次接續的增 潤班課堂，將實驗組從原有課堂抽出，以繪本教學法為他們進行閱讀教學，內容的深淺 程度相若（附件四）。控制組保留在原有增潤班，其上課和學習模式不變，由原有科任 老師如常以平日的篇章講授方式，教導學生理解內容、段意和主旨。 在第三階段，研究者對照實驗組和控制組的前、後測數據，分析學生在各個考核能 力項目中的分數變化，檢視學生前、後訪談的內容，歸納繪本教學對非華語學生「重整」 能力的影響，從而探討繪本教學能否幫助非華語學生掌握和運用「故事線策略」。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 59 教育研究報告匯編 研究結果 本研究計劃在2018年 7月 10日完成，研究結果從兩方面進行分析，包括量化的前、 後測評估成績，以及質化的前、後訪談內容，從而歸納研究結果。 繪本教學對中文水平愈低的非華語學生有愈顯著影響。在量化的數據分析方面，首 先對照學生在前、後測的全卷總得分（表四）（圖一）。 表四：學生在「前測」與「後測」各項考核能力的得分及分數變化百分率 考核能力項目 題號 佔數 測試 實驗組 控制組 學生 A 學生 B 學生 C 學生 D 學生 E 學生 Y NLR（2.1）1 3,4 5 分 前 4 3 0 0 0 4 後 3 4 0 0 0 4 NLR（2.1）2 1,2,5,6 40 分 前 22 25.5 8.5 6 10 29.5 後 21 27.5 15 15.5 16 32 NLR（2.1）3 7 5 分 前 2 2.5 0 0 0 2.5 後 1 3 0 1.5 0 3 總分 （50 分） 前 28 31 8.5 6 10 36 後 25 34.5 15 17 16 39 分數變化 % -10.7% 11.3% 76.5% 183.3% 60% 8.3% 圖一：前、後測分數比較 學生 A 和 B 在實驗組中文水平相對較高，學生 A 的後測成績沒有正增長，而學生 B 略有進步。中文水平相對較低的學生 C 和 E 在後測成績有明顯進步，分數皆增長超過 50%。中文水平相對最低的學生 D，後測增加 11 分，所得分數仍然相對最低，但其增長 超過 100%。控制組學生 Y 是中文水平相對最高的非華語學生，後測增加 3 分，分數增長 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 60 教育研究報告匯編 圖二 在理解內容，以及對人物的性格、行為提出簡單的看法方面，實驗組學生 B、C、D 和 E 都有進步。他們的答題表現雖然未達到控制組的水平，但學生中文水平愈低，進步 愈大；其中，學生 C、D和 E分數變化的正增長比控制組大（圖三）。 圖三 8.3%，表現與前測成績相若。實驗組學生的成績尚未能追上控制組的指標，但學生B、C、 D、E 都能展示不同程度的進步。比較實驗組及控制組的全卷總得分變化。實驗組學生的 分數正增長較為明顯，學生中文水平愈低，繪本教學對其影響愈大。 另外，有關於學生在前、後測的各個考核能力的項目得分，在理解時地人關係，及 對事件提出簡單的看法方面，實驗組只有學生 B 的答題表現有正增長，達到控制組水平 （圖二）。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 61 教育研究報告匯編 圖四 在指出閱讀材料的寓意方面，實驗組只有學生 B 和 D 有進步，學生 B 達到控制組的 水平；而學生 D 在前測完全沒有答題，後測能用自己文字寫出帶有因果關係，略能回應 問題的完整句子，有明顯進步（圖四）。 研究者運用學生 t 檢驗（Student's t-test）檢定實驗組學生在前、後測的數據 差異程度作為參考，透過 T-test 程式運算，p value 為 0.052，對照期望值 p value （p < 0.05）的標準，結果顯示實驗組學生在前、後測的總體表現接近具有顯著差別 （statistical difference）。由此觀之，中文水平較低的非華語學生在繪本教學的模 式中學習，對故事的起因、經過、發展和結局這條故事線有所掌握，感受到故事的感情 色彩，開始能夠針對人物的性格、行為，或故事的寓意提出一些簡單的看法。總括來說， 上述數據呈現繪本教學法有助訓練非華語學生的「重整」能力，對學生掌握「故事線策 略」有正面影響，中文水平愈低，成效愈顯著。 至於，質化分析方面，從學生訪談獲得的資料，總述如下。 在「前訪談」方面，關於閱讀中文時會遇到的困難，實驗組 5 位學生都遇到理解句 子、段落大意的困難。學生 A 表示篇章漢字太多，讀了也不太明白。學生 B 無法理解篇 幅長的文章內容。學生 C 和 E 表示縱使認得文章裡有學過的字詞，卻無法明白文章的內 容。學生 D 認為辨別中文字詞困難，例如會將寫法近似的漢字混淆，解讀錯誤。另外， 控制組學生Y表示，尚有信心閱讀白話文，但當要辨識修辭或理解成語，便感到有難度。 為了解決在中文閱讀時遇到的困難，6 人主要都是問老師、問同學，或使用線上翻 譯工具。其中，實驗組學生 C 會嘗試查中文字典；學生 D 和 E 認為書很厚、字很多，但 知道不看不學就不會懂，於是死記硬背。控制組學生 Y 則會從互聯網搜尋相關資料或答 案。關於平日閱讀中文的習慣，實驗組主要靠自己能認得的字詞去猜測文章內容；控制 組學生 Y表示會嘗試找出關鍵詞，或根據覺得重要的句子來思考內容。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 62 教育研究報告匯編 由是觀之，控制組對中文閱讀的觀感和方法較接近一般華裔學生。相反，實驗組學 生的識字量存在很大的差異，因此對閱讀大量中文字無從入手，要理解內容顯然是艱澀 的過程，於是訓練他們掌握基本的閱讀策略具有意義。歸納「後訪談」所得意見，實驗 組學生大多認為閱讀繪本的學習模式，對學習中文有幫助，能反映繪本教學對掌握「故 事線策略」有效果。 學生 A 認為閱讀整個故事後，最深刻的是每個人物角色的經歷，開始能夠找到哪些 文字可以協助自己表達看法。學生 B 表示昔日無法從純文字篇章中找到答案的線索，現 在習慣要留意故事的起因、經過和結果，對思考人物行為或所發生的事件有幫助，於是 在閱讀後想表達的意念也增加。學生 C 認為圖像能協助扣連文字的意思，閱讀的心情也 變得輕鬆。學生現在明白找出文章的起因、經過和結果的重要，可以完成課業，覺得閱 讀中文也有樂趣。學生 D 表示閱讀繪本不但有文字可讀，且有圖畫可看，對人物行為或 所遇上的事件產生共鳴。他反思自己的生活，也曾經有故事人物的想法，或做過類似的 行為，於是能較自如地表達感想。不過，學生E覺得仍未完全明白情節之間的前因後果。 總括來說，學生 A、B、C和 D覺得繪本教學對掌握故事的情節和發展有幫助。 對於和老師一起閱讀繪本最深刻的地方，實驗組大多學生表達的觀感正面，認為這 是饒有趣味的學習過程，感到自己的閱讀習慣也隨之產生變化。學生 A 和 C 表示現在會 到圖書館借閱感興趣的中文課外書。學生 B 表示以前完全不會看中文書，現在懂得閱讀 繪本，認識的中文字多了，會出現「今日要看完」的目標，開始覺得自己也可以做到中 文閱讀理解。學生 D 認為自從接觸繪本之後，昔日見到中文字就反感的情況減少，現在 縱使遇到閱讀困難，也認為自己應該繼續嘗試。至於，學生 E 仍認為背誦是可以解決中 文難題的最快方法。 結論 根據量化和質化的研究結果，研究者認為故事線正正能幫助面對文章篇幅較長的初 學者理清閱讀內容。學生開始掌握「故事線策略」，漸漸由只能運用詞語或短句表述不 完整的故事片段，發展至略能連繫情節的因果，反映學生已建構重整故事的習慣。學生 學會了閱讀大量中文字的方法，對閱讀中文的抗拒感減低，對故事的結局產生興趣，完 成閱讀任務，獲得的成功感和滿足感也隨之提升。 反思及建議 研究者在進行繪本教學的 6 次觀察中，發現學生在閱讀繪本後，於課堂以廣東話描 述故事的起因、經過、結果，各個情節之間的關係，以及掌握整個故事的脈絡，其口語 表達漸見清楚而詳細。研究者認同學生付出的努力，學生 D和 E在第 1、2次繪本閱讀課 中，明顯不習慣複述及總括故事內容，但2人在課堂上回答問題或主動發言的次數漸多， 表現用心。同時，學生透過聆聽其他同學的看法，同儕學習，有助拓展彼此的思維。總 括來說，大部分實驗組學生的課堂表現與教學目標相符。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 63 教育研究報告匯編 參與本研究的非華語學生人數和族裔的數目，對獲取的數據有局限性，因此研究樣 本的代表性亦難以全面；但是，本教學計劃對非華語學生閱讀中文有著鼓舞的作用。研 究者認為結果反映非華語學生，尤其是年紀愈小，愈接近剛起步學習中文，其成效愈顯 著。台灣學者指出在已有的研究顯示，運用繪本教學對小一受試者在口語理解和閱讀理 解的立即成效表現上比對照組優（張妙君，2004）。本研究實驗組學生 A、B、C 和 D 都 是中一級學生，他們開始運用和掌握閱讀「故事線策略」，並且略能提升閱讀層次–不 局限於識字層面，而是掌握脈絡、重整內容的技巧。 此外，值得關注的，是學生的閱讀動機無疑有所提升，同時其閱讀習慣也獲得正面 的沖擊。研究者期望是次教學經驗分享，尚能顯示繪本教學為初中非華語學生帶來的正 向影響，並為其他教師提供教學設計的參考資料。非華語學生在香港學習中文，教師採 用的教材和教學方法，對學生的學習動機和成效之影響，都是值得探討的主題。 參考文獻 岑紹基、羅燕琴、林偉業、鍾嶺崇（2001）。《香港中國語文課程新路向：學習與評估》。 香港：香港大學出版社。 李玉貴（2001）。〈以「圖書」「故事」「書」培養寫作能力〉。《研習資訊》，18(5)，5-23。 李慧琼（2015）。《回歸童心的繪本閱讀教學策略研究》。寧波大學碩士專業學位論文， 3，1-52。 林偉業、張明慧、許守仁（編）（2013）。《飛越困難，一起成功：教授非華語學生中 文的良方》。香港：香港大學出版社。 邱小芳、詹士宜（2009）。〈詞彙導向之繪本教學對國小學習障礙學生閱讀表現之研究〉。 《特殊教育與復健學報》，20，75-117。 邱皓政、林碧芳（2017）。《統計學：原理與應用》。台灣：五南圖書出版股份有限公司。 祝新華（2012）。〈閱讀能力層次及其在評估中的運用〉。《香港教育局課程發展處： 小學中國語文評估系列之一：「促進學生閱讀能力評估：提問與回饋」研討會（修 訂）》。取自：http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/ kla/chi-edu/resources/primary/lang/2012.5.5_dr_zhu_level.pdf 張妙君（2004）。《以圖畫故事書進行國小一年級提早寫作教學歷程之研究（未出版之 碩士論文）》。新竹：國立新竹教育大學台灣語與語文教育研究所。 陳純純（2012）。《閱讀理解策略教學對小學生閱讀理解能力及后設認知之影響》。華 東師范大學，學科教育，博士學位論文。 楊小微（編）（2002）。《教育研究的原理與方法》。上海：華東師範大學出版社。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 64 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(2001). How picture books work. New York: Garland Pub. 參考繪本 阿濃（2015）。《漢堡包和叉燒包》。香港：新雅文化事業有限公司。 車寶金（2016）。《伊索寓言繪本（陳馨祈譯）》。新台北：風車圖書出版有限公司。 達妮拉．庫洛特（2016）。《好忙好忙的聖誕節（林硯芬譯）》。台北：采實文化事業 股份有限公司。 馬克斯．維特惠思（2016）。《怪獸發電廠（陳立妍譯）》。香港：新雅文化事業有限公司。 彭懿（2017）。《不要和青蛙跳繩》。香港：新雅文化事業有限公司。 雪倫．任塔（2016）。《跟着動物消防員過一天（侯秋玲譯）》。臺北：小魯文化事業 股份有限公司。 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 65 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 前測評估卷 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 66 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 67 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 68 教育研究報告匯編 前測評分準則 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 69 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 70 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 71 教育研究報告匯編 後測評估卷 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 72 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 73 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 74 教育研究報告匯編 後測評分準則 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 75 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 76 教育研究報告匯編 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 77 教育研究報告匯編 附件二 學生訪談問題 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 78 教育研究報告匯編 附件三 「故事線策略」教案 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 79 教育研究報告匯編 附件四 繪本教學教案 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」的成效 80 教育研究報告匯編 附件五 6位非華語學生的中文閱讀水平參考（行動研究前） 81 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、 學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 周志聰、何家豪、翁志明 路德會西門英才中學 摘要 香港長久以來的數學課都是用傳統模式上課，形式不外乎聽寫及操練，在課堂中讓 學生討論數學，甚至研究數學的機會不多，高中情況更甚，主因都是由於老師需要就公 開試內容趕課，他們希望盡早完成課程內容，盡早操練，可惜的是很多時因為這種教學 方式，學生在寶貴的課堂時間中失卻深入了解數學的機會，最終造成一個高分低能的局 面。他們在公開試獲得良好成績，但往往對學習內容只是工多藝熟，欠缺理解。在這種 情況下，本研究重點研究能否有一個兩全其美的教學模式，一方面學生學得深入，同時 又可以學得好（成績好、進度快）。本研究以 29 名高中學生為研究對象，透過在課堂中 改用自主學習模式，探討如何提升學生在課堂中的參與度，繼而改善其學習效能。研究 結果發現，自主學習模式能有效提升學生的學習興趣及學習動機，並有助學生對數學的 理解，提升學業成績。 文獻回顧 「智慧的思想」是通過「通用編碼系統，允許超越數據到新的和可能富有成效的 預測」的經驗創造出來的（Bruner, 1957, p.234）。教師需要為學生提供「循序漸 進」的學習環境。經常性的規律可以幫助那些積極的學習者建立自己的知識（Bruner, 1960）。「建構」意味著的是」解構」（解釋）而不是「建立」（組裝內部知識）。組 織和更新自己的協作（模式）是一個新的經驗，並且過程中會遇到新的演譯。學習者根 據目前的理解，適應和吸收新信息。此外，Bruner 同意 Piaget，孩子們適應學習及有天 生的好奇心（當他們看到新的東西，他們會嘗試了解它是如何自動運作的），兒童的認 知結構隨著時間的推移而發展，孩子們是活躍學習過程中的參與者（他們非常不願意放 棄其既定的模式或想法，並且可能會拒絕對先驗知識提出的新挑戰）。學習者需要學習 或如何改變自己的思維或學習風格。 元認知一詞是指對認知，思考和認知知識的認知。 Flavell（1976, p.232）將元 認知定義為認知和控制知識。例如，如果一個學習者注意到他比B學習 A有更多的麻煩， 或者如果他在接受 C 作為事實之前刺激他，他應該仔細檢查 C。Flavell（1979）將元認 知分為三個組成部分： 82 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 1. 元認知知識就是把孩子當作一個認知處理者來了解自己和別人。 2. 元認知調節是對認知的調節和一系列有助於人們控制學習經驗的活動。 3. 元認知經驗是與當前正在進行的認知工作有關的經驗。 一個自我調節的學習者的共同概念，在他或她自己的學習中是元認知的、動機的 和行為上的主動（Zimmerman, 1986, 1989b, 1990）。似乎齊默爾曼和布魯納的觀點 也是一樣的，他們同意學習者積極參與學習。從元認知上來說，他們會計劃、設定目 標、自我檢查和自我評估他們的學習。在動機上，他們正在積極參與自己的教育。基於 Flavell 已經告訴孩子們認識自己和他人作為認知處理器的定義，自我調節的學習者開 始並指導自己的努力來獲取知識和技能（Zimmerman，1989a）。 根據齊默爾曼（Zimmerman，2011）的分析，自主學習是一個過程模型，自主學習 不僅是改變教學模式，而且正在改變「什麼是學習」的認知。齊默曼將自主學習模型分 為三個階段： 1. 預想階段是強調學生自動學習的階段，他們可以規劃、設定目標、自我檢查和自我評 估學習。 2. 績效階段是強調自我控制與同行和社會合作的階段。 3. 自我反思階段是強調自我評價的階段，反映出完美的目標。 林崇德（1995）提出學習動機是指推動個體進行學習活動的內部原因或內在動力。 朱敬先（2000）認為學習動機是個體追求成功的一種心理需要，即是學習者發現學習動 機的意義與價值，而嘗試驅策自己追求成長之傾向。鄭采玉（2008）認為在學習過程中， 引起、維持學習活動的內在動力；並且在學習活動中，促使其自發的投入心力、朝向所 預定的學習目標的心理歷程。吳鴻松（2009）認為引發學習者認真學習的動力，追求預 訂目標的需求，是驅策個體持續學習、引發行為並期待成果的一種心理歷程。綜合以上 學者的看法，學習動機的定義是學生在學習的過程中，學生會因心理需要而進行學習活 動，並在活動中自發投入心力及產生學習的動力，本研究比較傾向使用鄭采玉（2008） 的定義。 中國大陸近 10 年興起以「導學案」代替「教案」的自主學習模式，「導學案」源 於山東杜郎口中學，該校進行了課堂改革，把課堂由以教師為主導的「教」走向引導學 生主動學習的「學」，藉此還課堂給學生，從而提高課堂的教與學效能（張暘、蒙澤察， 2013）。「導學案」教學模式是先學後教，讓學生先在家中預習並自學一些基礎知識， 從而釋放課堂時間集中處理深層問題。 另一方面，與內地相鄰的台灣近年有翻轉教室（flipped classroom）的興起，有 由大學研究學者推動的（呂冠緯，2015；葉丙成，2015），也有個別老師自發使用（潘 玉龍，2017；盧胡彬、陳雅青，2015）。2007 年美國中學科學教師 J.Bergmann 與 A. Sams 創立翻轉教室教學模式，他們為了解決學生缺課的情況，在上課前預先錄製好教學 影片並上載到網站，讓學生先在家看影片講解自學，再於課堂上以學習活動做跟進。 83 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 香港課程發展議會在 2002 年編定的《基礎教育課程指引—各盡所能•發揮所長（小 一至中三）》，制定了七項的學習宗旨，其中一項是期望學生在 10 年內能夠發展創意思 維及掌握獨立學習的能力（課程發展議會，2002）。在 2014 年，香港課程發展議會修訂 《基礎教育課程指引—聚焦•深化•持續（小一至小六）》，明確指出自主學習應是學 校未來重點發展的項目之一，期望學生在完成小學後，擁有獨立的學習能力，特別是自 我管理能力及協作能力（課程發展議會，2014）。趙志成（2014）分析香港學校於自主 學習大致可分為三個取向：（一）「導學案模式」：源於中國大陸「還課堂給學生」的 觀念，以「預習」及「導學案」來配合課堂上不同形式的學生學習活動；（二）「元認 知取向」：源於西方認知發展理論，強調學習者在學習過程中自我調適（self-regulated process）的角色；（三）「翻轉教室」：運用網絡資訊及電子科技（e-learn），增潤 （reinforce）學生學習。 近年，香港有不少學校開始以自主學習的學與教模式進行授課，當中大部分學校都 是參照杜郎口中學的教學模式，加上各校安排教師到中國內地不同地區（如：廣州、山 東等）作跨區訪校交流以及在香港建立自主學習的學習圈，從而建立校本的自主學習教 學模式。現時已有不同的中學開始嘗試以自主學習教學模式進行教學，例如：粉嶺救恩 書院、東華三院馮黃鳳亭中學、潮陽百欣小學、中華基督教會扶輪中學等。由於自主學 習著重學生課前備課、課內展示、課後反思。學生需要透過自學、互學、共學等過程， 培養主動學習和探究精神。老師在整個過程中的角色是一個學習促進者，課堂內老師只 是指出學習重點及難點，給予學生適時的回饋，提升教學效能。課堂內學生能主導課堂、 主理所學、建構及內化知識，成為學習的主人。由於香港的學校均是參照杜郎口中學的 教學模式而再在此基礎上發展，例如「導學案」教學模式配以電子學習或融合翻轉教室 在其中。 在網路如此發達的現在，不難在網上搜尋到有關自主學習的研究報告，例如：崔其 升（2013）的《杜郎口中學：取消導學案》、東華三院馮黃鳳亭中學（2016）《「專題 研習」的課程規劃與實踐––讓學生成為自主學習者》、高寶玉（2018）研究《香港自 主學習的探索：融合東西方理念的嘗試》等，這些文獻都有不同的記載及研究分析自主 學習。在廣闊的網絡位世界中，教師難以找到分析自主學習在數學課堂應用的文獻記載， 多數的文獻都是以語文或電子學習為主。 研究背景 在 2002 年課程發展議會發表了《基礎教育課程指引一各盡所能·發揮所長（小一至 中三）》，過去十多年課程改革讓學校教學上進步了不少，尤其在學與教的模式上改進 了不少，由傳統的講授形式開始慢慢加入學生參與這一環，讓課堂由教師中心（Teacher center）轉移至學生中心（Student center）。本校已有 40 年歷史，可是在教學上仍 然是以教師為中心，學生在課堂中的參與度頗少，以致學生的學習動機偏低。有見及 此，本校在《2014-2017 三年發展計劃》中的關注事項加入了自主學習（Self-Regulated Learning）。由於自主學習是以學生為課堂中心，課堂中大部分時間都需要學生參與， 84 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 而課堂中的所有活動，均需要學生有高度參與，於是清晰的課堂目標及常規成為必要的 一環。 本校所採用的自主學習模式，主要有三個向度，名為課堂教學「二三三」「二元素」： 設導學案、老師少講（前提）；「三步驟」：預習、展示、評點（過程）；「三檢視」： 角色、參與、達標（總結）。自主學習是培訓學生與同學合作，制定學習目標和診斷他 們的學習需求（Knowles, M.S., 1975），學校所訂立的課堂教學「二三三」框架亦是以 此為基礎。 備 課 說 課 上 課 評 課 議課、磨課、定 課 …… 是 過 程 （個人或集體） 教研四部曲 課堂教學 「二三三」 原則 「二」 「二元素」：設導學案、老師少講 導學案：老師必須在課前為學生擬一份導學案（預習） 老師少講：注意上課時間分配 「三」 「三」 年級 教師佔用比例 大約講授時間 中一 1/4 10 分鐘 「三步驟」：預習、展示、評點 預習：- 課前導學案（預習 /老師安排時間給學生完成） - 導學案的內容和次序必須與老師教的一致 展示：- 課堂中必須有環節讓學生展示所學成果（課室的小黑板） - 老師主動邀請同工觀課，展示學生成果，建立同學自信 評點：- 老師須扣緊課堂目標，評點（補漏）及提升學生 「三檢視」：角色、參與、達標 根據學習金字塔的理論作以下檢視 檢視角色：小組討論，同學是否進入角色 檢視參與：實際演練（邊做邊學），是否所有同學都有機會參與 檢視達標：應用及指導別人，同學是否都能達標 本校初中學生已在兩年前進行自主學習模式上課，上課前學生要完成導學案內的預 習題目，而課堂中老師會先提醒同學該課節內的課堂目標（ASK，A：態度、S：技巧、 K：知識）及重點。老師多以提問方式讓同學了解課堂重點及內容，這部分不會多於 10 分鐘。接著，老師會給予隨堂練習協助同學鞏固所學，同學會進行小組討論並會用大或 85 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 小黑板進行展示，老師會隨時進行點評，同學亦會進行互評。在座位安排方面是基於其 學習能力，每組會由四至五人組成，其中包括一位能力較強同學，兩位能力一般同學及 一名能力稍遜同學，藉此加強同學間互動並照顧學習差異（Blatchford, 2003; Finn, Pannozzo, & Achilles, 2003; Hallinan & Sørensen, 1985; zerk, 2001; Yeomans, 1987）。教師增加不同的小組活動，亦可減少教學的時間（Blatchford, Goldstein, & Mortimore, 1998; Bascia & Faubert, 2012）。 高中方面，本校暫時仍以傳統教學模式進行教學，為了解自主學習模式的效用。本 校選擇了一班同學在數學課中進行嘗試，從而了解同學在學習過程中的得著。教師亦透 過收集數據以及學生回應，再作出分析，探究學生在成績及學習動機上是否有改善。 研究目的 透過自主學習模式提升中五級學生課堂參與的教學行動研究．這方法只是在眾多教 學策略的其中一種，不一定是最好或最有效，更不是唯一的方法。本校抱持開放及「摸 著石頭過河」的態度進行嘗試，目的只是為了讓老師上好每一課，讓同學的學習更有效。 參與此教育研究獎勵計劃前，本校已成立了自主學習研究小組，當中由負責學與教的副 校長以及中、英、數三位科主任帶領整個小組，為了讓課堂教學「二三三」的框架得以 順利進行，並從備課節中了解同事遇到的困難，透過共同備課、說課、評課等，優化課 堂教學。 研究問題 1. 自主學習模式能否提升學生的學習動機、課堂參與？ 2. 自主學習模式能否提升學生的學習成績？ 研究設計 本研究是教育行動研究，由於人力資源有限，所以研究對象會聚焦於一班中五學生 共29位學生，年齡為16至17歲。學生的學習及數學成績只是一般，在同級中屬於中下， 同時學生的家庭並不富裕，家庭支援不多。選取他們的主因是由於該班學生長久以來家 庭支援較少，只靠在校學習，沒有學生出外補習，這樣可減少外在因素影響研究結果， 讓研究變得更直接及單純。搜集資料方法會是採取質化與量化結合的研究方法，包括：1. 透過問卷調查，了解學生在研究過程中，在課堂參與及學習動機上是否有改善﹔ 2. 對 個別學生進行訪談，深入了解使用自主學習對學生的課堂參與、學習動機、成績、學習 進度等所帶來的影響﹔ 3. 比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績，了解自主學習模式的教 學法對學生成績的影響。 86 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 階段 日期 研究事項 申請 及 預備 2017 年 11-12 月 數學科主任、科任老師、數據回饋組共同討論是否參與本計劃；成立研究 小組，著手分析中五學生先導訪談結果，以取得初步資料，並遞交申請表 格參加研究獎勵計劃。 2017 年 12 月至 2018 年 1 月 待教師中心審批申請的同時，研究小組進一步探討落實本研究計劃的可行 方法，並初步擬訂相關持分者「問卷」。 實施 與 評估 2018 年 2-5 月 根據上述的計劃，正式展開研究；研究計劃正式在改善「學生參與」、「學 習動機」和「學習成績」三個方面進行探究；過程會根據上文所提及的研 究方法及設計，有系統地搜集各類研究數據，並交予數據回饋組分析。 總結 與 反思 2018 年 6 月 研究小組總結及反思整個研究計劃的得失，以助將來進一步完善相關的策 略與措施。 2018 年 7-8 月 研究小組依據本獎勵計劃的要求，撰寫書面報告，並於8月底呈交教師中心。 計劃進度 數據分析 數據分析部分主要由問卷調查及比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績兩部分組成。問 卷調查會以平均值輔以標準差作分析，從而了解學生對改用自主學習模式上課的意見。 另外，比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績部分，會用學生 t 檢驗方式比較兩班學生在前 測及後測的成績。研究者採用學生 t 檢驗方式，是會抽取了兩組能力相約的學生。一組 使用原本的教法，稱為控制組，另一組使用新的教法，稱為實驗組。學生學習課程結束 後，比較新的教法是否比原本的教法來的有顯著的分別。 研究結果與討論 問卷調查結果主要是透過網上問卷收集班中 29 位同學（16 男，13 女）對實施自主 學習於數學課堂中的想法，問卷調查中會有 15 題問題，其中 1代表非常不同意，而 4是 非常同意： 表一：問卷調查結果（n=30） 題目 平均值 標準差 （1） 自主學習有助老師知道我是否明白所教的內容 3.13 0.52 （2） 自主學習有助解決我的學習數學的困難 3.37 0.59 （3） 自主學習能讓我更專心上數學課 3.13 0.58 （4） 自主學習能使我主動學習 3.33 0.62 （5） 自主學習能幫助我提升學習數學的興趣 3.1 0.6 （6） 自主學習讓我不懼怕學習數學 3.23 0.66 （7） 自主學習有助我提升數學成績 3.27 0.54 （8） 自主學習有啟發我的創造力 3.33 0.58 （9） 自主學習讓我認真預備數學預習 3.17 0.56 （10） 自主學習讓我更有自信提出數學問題 3.17 0.67 （11） 自主學習讓我有更多與同學討論的機會 3.57 0.55 （12） 自主學習讓我明白老師的講解 3.2 0.48 （13） 自主學習能提升學習數學課題的進度 3.43 0.57 （14） 自主學習讓我有更多展示機會（例如：做示範、學生講解） 3.47 0.53 （15） 我喜歡用自主學習模式上數學課 3.43 0.64 87 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 表二：問卷調查結果棒形圖 根據表一及二，很容易發現所有題目的平均值都高於 3，這表明學生喜歡在數學課 中使用自主學習模式。對問題 3-6, 8, 10, 15 的回應表明學生認為自主學習模式可以使 他們更加專注、主動學習、不怕學習數學。他們更有信心提出數學問題、激發他們的創 造力及提升學習數學的興趣。這些項目顯示自主學習模式幫助學生營造舒適和積極的學 習氛圍。 另外，有關問題 1, 2, 7, 9, 11, 12-14 的結果，自主學習模式可以幫助教師檢查 視學生的學習、幫助學生解決學習數學的困難、幫助學生提高數學成績，讓學生認真準 備課堂預習、給學生更多機會與同學討論，可以增強學習進度，讓學生更多展示機會。 這些項目顯示自主學習模式幫助教師和學生有更多的互動和提升學生的學習成績。 比較校內能力相近班別的數學成績 為了解學生在數學學習中成績的變化，研究者在進行自主學習前先取得實驗組最近 的考試成績與校內能力相近班別（控制組）的成績作比較，他們並於實驗進行後再作一 次比較，從而了解學生在運用不同的學習模式會否有顯著分別。 表三：前測成績 N 平均值 標準差 標準誤平均值 實驗組（A） 29 57.3034 17.51557 3.25256 控制組（B） 30 75.2533 12.48858 2.28009 88 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 表四：前測成績比較（註：*p<0.05、**p<0.01、***p<0.001） F 顯著性 t值 自由度 顯著性（雙尾） 平均值差異 標準誤差異 A-B 3.082 .085 -4.544 57 .000 -17.94989 3.94988 根據表三及表四的資料所得，利用獨立樣本t檢定比較實驗組、控制組之前測成績， 實驗組（M=57.3034、SD=17.51557）與控制組（M=75.2533、SD=12.48858）在前測成績 並沒有顯著分別，而 p>0.05（p=0.085），可見實驗組與控制組學生的數學能力相約。 表五：後測成績比較（註：*p<0.05、**p<0.01、***p<0.001） 平均值 學生數目 標準差 標準誤 平均值 t值 顯著性 （雙尾） A（前測 -後測） 63.0172 29 8.84795 1.64302 3.478 0.002 B（前測 -後測） 59.0967 30 18.93715 3.45743 4.673 0.000 表六：後測成績比較（平均值） 根據表五，研究者利用成對樣本 t 檢定比較實驗組、控制組之後測成績，實驗組學 生的數學成績有顯著上升，而 p<0.01（p=0.002）﹔相反，控制組學生的數學成績顯著 下降，而 p<0.01 （p=0.000）﹔從以上結果可得知，運用自主學習模式在數學課中，能 有效提升學生的數學成績。根據表六，可見實驗組的學生後測成績比前測高，而控制組 的學生後測成績比前測低，可見能力相近的學生在兩種不同的教學模式，成績有顯著的 分別及不同趨勢。 89 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 表七：5位學生的訪談結果 問題 學生 回應 1. 你喜歡在數 學課堂上用 自主學習模 式上課嗎 ? A 喜歡，自主學習模式可以幫助我更集中上課，因為小組內的組員會經常提醒我。 此外，與 4名學生一起組成小組並與小組成員合作，可以幫助我更快地學習。 B 使用自主學習模式上課可以讓我們有更多的機會成為演講者，這樣我們不僅可 以聽老師，還可以和同學一起學習，這樣可以使學習過程變得愉快及快速學習。 C 自主學習模式使我學習比以前更快（1 個月學習 3 個課題），同時亦使我可以 趕上主題的概念。這給了我們愉快學習和展示的機會。 D 這讓我們的班上課愉快。不過，我在課上有點迷糊，但我可以請同學幫助我。 E 我喜歡自主學習。我相信這可以讓我更加專注於課堂。 2. 在數學課堂 上用自主學 習模式上課 後，對你的 數學成績有 何影響 ? A 自主學習模式可以幫助我提高學習成績，因為當我遇到困難時，我可以問同學。 B 整班的學習成績都在提高，因為我會請教同學來教我如何做習題。老師需要我 們在課前做預習，讓我們在上課前已對準備教的課題有印象。 C 我們的學術成績保持在中文班的第一。自主學習模式可以改善整個班成績，不 僅僅是一些學生。 D 在我的中學學習中，今年我的數學成績是最好的一年。 E 我的數學考試成績很好，因為我可以有不明白的地方可以與同學討論。 個別訪談 個別訪談是在班中挑選了五位同學參與，其中學生 A在數學成績比較優異，學生 B、 C、D數學成績比較一般，而學生 E數學成績稍遜。訪談問題如下： A. 你喜歡在數學課堂上用自主學習模式上課嗎 ? B. 在數學課堂上用自主學習模式上課後，對你的數學成績有何影響 ? 從表七中，可見接受訪的五名學生喜歡在數學課中使用自主學習模式，他們喜歡 與同學一起工作，因為老師允許他們在課程中詢問同學問題，從而在討論過程中加深 了解課堂內容。這一發現表明學生單獨實現的努力並不能保證成功（Nicholls, 1978, 1984）此外，學生們認為數學課的氣氛很愉快，他們有更多機會展示他們所學到的知識。 再者，一些學生認為在自主學習模式下，他們的學習進度可能比使用傳統學習模式更快。 另外亦可以看出，由於同學與同學合作，所有學生都認為在數學課上使用自主學習模式 可以提升他們的學業成績。 總結 在問卷調查中，可見大部分學生都十分認同自主學習模式可以使他們更加專注、主 動學習、不怕學習數學、更有信心提出數學問題、激發他們的創造力。自主學習有助培 養在上課前的預習習慣、提升學習數學的興趣、幫助學生營造舒適和積極的學習氛圍、 同時亦幫助教師和學生有更多的互動及提升學生的學習成績。 在量化分析中，實驗組學生與控制組學生的基礎能力沒有太大異同。實驗組學生經 過一段時間改用自主學習模式上課後，兩組學生前測與後測成績均有明顯不同，在數據 90 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 綜合研究所得，學生無論是在課堂參與、學習動機、成績、學習進度等均有所提升， 而且提升的效果亦非常明顯。可是此結果受制於時間及資源所限，未能取得更多研究樣 本及作更深入研究。 建議 明顯地，自主學習模式可以增強學生的學習動機並提高他們的學業成績，因表現出 主動、有學習動機和個人責任的學生能取得特定的學業成功（Zimmerman ＆ Martinez- Pons, 1988）。本研究通過在數學課中使用自主學習模式展示了一個成功的例子；但是， 這只是使用自主學習模式的結果，而不是過程。如要成功使用自主學習模式，教師需要 幫助學生自我調節，並幫助他們在課堂上建立課堂常規，而有自我調節能力的學生，可 中可見實驗組學生的後測平均分比前測高，而成對樣本 t 檢定結果亦顯示學生前測與後 測成績有顯著分別。反觀，控制組學生的後測平均分比前測低，而成對樣本 t 檢定結果 亦顯示學生前測與後測成績有顯著分別。綜合以上兩個情況，實驗組學生的數學成績有 顯著進步，而同時控制組學生的數學成績有顯著退步，這是一個值得進深探討的情況。 在質性訪談中，無論是成績優異或成績稍遜的學生，他們都喜歡使用自主學習模 式在數學課中。因為在課堂中，學生可以與同學討論從而加深了解課堂內容。此外，學 生們認為數學課的氣氛很愉快，因為他們可以有機會展示學習成果（透過互評或學生說 課），學生認為課堂中與同學互動，除了加深了解課堂內容，同時亦可讓他們更快掌握 所學，加快進度，亦有助提升學業成績。 91 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 以通過使用元認知來區分（Zimmerman, 1990）。之後，老師應該教學生如何在課前做好 準備。這兩件事是影響使用自主學習模式結果的主要因素。 在這項研究中，只是比較個別班別的學業成績，並從在香港使用自主學習模式的學 生中獲得一些意見。為了獲得更有說服力的證據，應該從更多學生和教師中獲取更多樣 本數據。可是，如果要從更多班別中取得樣本，必需要有更多老師願意嘗運用自主學習 模式上課。 本研究如再續研究，可以更多收集樣本，同時擴闊研究的教學課題，屆時可以更全 面了解自主學習模式的應用是否在不同課題上均有效，以及不同能力的學生是否均可受 惠於新的教學模式。 參考文獻 朱敬先（2000）。《教育心理學》。臺北：五南。 吳鴻松（2008）。《科技大學成人學生學習動機與學習滿意度關係之研究─以南部某科 技大學為例（未出版碩士論文）》。高學師範大學。高雄市。 鄭采玉（2008）。《國小學生社會領域學習動機與學習滿意度關係之研究（未出版碩士 論文）》。國立屏東教育大學。屏東縣。 呂冠緯（2015）。〈跨越翻轉教學的鴻溝〉。《教育脈動》，1，65–75。 東華三院馮黃鳳亭中學（2016）。〈「專題研習」的課程規劃與實踐––讓學生成為自 主學習者〉。 林崇德（1995）。《高中生心理學》。臺北：五南。 粉嶺救恩書院（2014）。《自主學習–教學錦囊》，頁 4。 高寶玉（2018）。《香港自主學習的探索：融合東西方理念的嘗試》。 崔其升（2013）。《杜郎口中學：取消導學案》。 張暘、蒙澤察（2013）。〈「導學案教學」與「翻轉教室」的價值、限度與共生〉。《全 球教育展望》，42（7），10-17。 葉丙成（2015）。《為未來而教：葉丙成的 BTS 教育新思維》。臺北市：親子天下。 葉炳煙（2013）。〈學習動機定義與相關理論之研究〉。《屏東教大體育》，第 16 期， 285-293. 趙志成（2014）。《香港推行自主學習的探索》。第 42 卷第 2期，143–153。 92 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 教育研究報告匯編 潘玉龍（2017）。（翻轉教室導入體育教學之應用）。《中華體育季刊》，31（2）， 87-99。 課程發展議會（2002）。《基礎教育課程指引–各盡所能發揮所長（小一至中三）》。 課程發展議會（2014）。《基礎教育課程指引–聚焦•深化•持續（小一至小六）》。 盧胡彬、陳雅青（2015）。〈翻轉課堂〉。《歷史科電子報》，2。 Bascia, N., & Faubert, B. 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New York: Routledge. 95 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生 學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 陳志堅、蔡仁桂、莊繞蔓、曾笥湲、蔡淑榕 聖公會聖馬利亞堂莫慶堯中學 摘要 香港中學生在寫作時，往往描寫粗疏，情感單薄，立意欠深刻。問題癥結在於學生 日常生活體驗不足，觀察欠具體仔細﹔而語文課堂的教學模式較單向，較少互動機會， 未能全面照顧學習需要。為了加強學生的寫作能力，本校中文科團隊在三年前引入虛擬 實境，盼能豐富學生生活經驗，讓學生投入寫作課堂，並從中學會仔細觀察。是次研究 共 38 名中三學生參與，結合質化及量化分析，旨在進一步探討虛擬實境對提升寫作教學 的效能。 關鍵詞 虛擬實境，電子教學，教學模式，學習動機，寫作能力 緒論 社會普遍期望學生具備良好的語文能力，以應付各項生活任務（不同情景和處境）。 學生如果能夠達到有效溝通和解難的水平，並且成為「終生學習者」（課程發展議會， 2002），便可以回應「學會學習，具備終身學習的能力」的目標 （課程發展議會、香港 考試及評核局，2007 & 2015）。由此可見，語文學習當中寫作和說話是輸出，自然是絕 不能忽視的過程。教育局曾就中國語文教育的發展與規劃制定多份課程文件（包括《中 國語文教育學習領域課程指引（小一至中六）》（香港課程發展議會，2017）、《中國 語文課程及評估指引（中四至中六）》（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局，2015）和《中 學中國語文建議學習重點（試用）》（課程發展議會，2007）等），提到對學生寫作能 力的期望，其中包括選材，運用寫作策略（如想像、聯想）、組織結構、整合材料和意 念等。然而，從近年公開考試報告（包括全港性系統評估和香港中學文憑試可見，學生 的寫作表現較期望的標準遜色。 上述的落差難免令語文老師疑惑：學生在語文學習上遇到甚麼困難？教學上又應採 用甚麼策略以促進學生的語文學習，從而加強整體學與教的效能？教師正積極尋求方法 96 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 以改善學生的語文問題。近年教育界積極推動電子學習，並鼓勵教師運用科技以提升學 習效能。為了提升學生寫作能力，我校中文科團隊於三年前引入電子教學，結合虛擬實 境和語文學習，並在初中寫作課堂上應用。本校研究團隊曾於中三級開設「地景文學」 單元，以今昔北角為例，製作一系列讀寫教材，旨在讓學生於體驗虛擬實境的過程中。 學生透過對照文本和虛擬實境相片中所觀察到的景物，以個人視點切入，發掘寫作素材， 通過眼前景物以引發深刻反思。就校本經驗，本校積極與各間大學和中學進行交流，亦 曾在學界分享過一些研究成果。 是次研究建基於過去的研究基礎，以塔門為學習情境，讓學生有機會走出鬧市、遠 離繁喧，認識香港的另一面向。塔門近年成為「旅遊勝地」，許多自然風光也漸受破壞， 因此我們亦希望藉虛擬實境為這個「消失中的隱世天堂」記錄一時一地的景色，為下一 代保留較完整的地景素材，亦讓學生從中反思城市發展如何影響人與自然的關係。通過 課堂體驗，學生應對細節有更深入的觀察，並通過寫作展現個人的觀察和反思。 綜合而言，本次研究共有兩大意義： （1） 將科技元素融入語文教學，結合有系統的讀寫教學，建構「具學習意義」、「以 學生為本」的寫作課堂，為教學效能增值。 （2） 讓學生觀察社區真實面貌，從具體情境中觀察細節，發掘個人感興趣的寫作素材。 文獻探討 《中學中國語文建議學習重點（試用）》（課程發展議會，2007）建議學生在寫作 能力上掌握「直接描寫、間接描寫、人物描寫、景物描寫、場面描寫等方法」，這與如 何透過運用寫作手法以呈現個人所觀察的事物有關。文件亦提到學生適宜運用寫作策略， 包括「聯繫生活經驗及已有知識以構思寫作內容」、「多讀多聽、多觀察，運用聯想和 想像，豐富寫作內容」，這些都涉及日常生活中的體驗和觀察，並由此延伸出多元、獨 特的寫作意念。以上各種策略可反映教育局對中學生寫作能力的關注，亦期望學生能達 到基本的寫作水平。 2017 年全港性系統評估（香港考試及評核局，2017）的中學三年級中文科報告，對 「達到基本能力水平的中三學生表現」有以下描述：「大部分的作品對人物的描寫略嫌 粗疏」﹔而表現良好的作品「往往能以小見大，從日常生活，引出個人體會及感受」、「描 寫細緻、情感真摯」。相近的描述亦見於 2017 年香港中學文憑試寫作能力卷的閱卷員報 告（香港考試及評核局，2017），其中指出學生「觀察粗疏」、「對場景、人物的描寫 較為粗疏」、「抒發的感情又較為浮泛，致未能寄託真摯細膩的情感」。歷年的公開考 試報告均指出考生在寫作表現的不足，與「選材」、「內容立意」和「情感」有關。（詳 細描述見附件 1及附件 2） 由此可見，「觀察」對學生的寫作非常重要。學生在觀察過程中可以捕捉細節，不 論是人物、景物的動態或靜態。當學生掌握相當細節後，才能誘發對人事、景物的情感， 再將這些意念轉化成內容。長遠而言，學生的寫作能力才能得到提升，寫出仔細具體、 97 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 真情實感的作品。因此，我們希望在中三級嘗試引入虛擬實境，希望為學生有機會在寫 作過程時，結合具體的體驗。從中觀察更多細節，學生關於人物及場景的描寫便可以更 立體，抒發更真實的情感。 祝新華（2011）提到「傳統的作文評估以教師為主體，學生只是被評估的對象。由 於現代教學強調學生的自主學習，學生須對自己的學習負責」。但是學生在傳統寫作課 堂中的角色較被動，主要透過老師講授內容作為輸入，較難實踐「自主學習」。虛擬實 境結合寫作教學的模式正好提供平台，讓學生在任務中探索不同情景，綜合運用各種知 識和能力，成為自主學習者和問題解決者。學生從中能夠開拓知識，通過整理的過程， 轉化成個人的學習成果。同時，電子平台配合科技元素，讓老師施教時享有更大的靈活 度，並提高互動性。 虛擬實境寫作教學讓學生更有效學習，既可強化與刺激學生學習意願與表現 （Nehme, 2010 ; 蔡政宏、謝文惠，2011），亦讓學生通過協作和互動，增加學 習 效 能。 平 台 體 現 了 SAMR 模 型 中 的「Redefinition」（SAMR 模 型 由 Dr. Ruben Puentedura 提出，以檢視電子教學在傳統教學上的應用。模型共分四層，第一層為 「替代」（Substitution），科技成為替代工具，但沒有改變功能；第二層為「擴充」 （Augmentation），科技成為替代工具，並提供功能性的改善；第三層為「重新設計」 （Modification），運用科技重新設計重大任務；第四層為「重新創造」（Redefinition）， 科技與形式有機結合，突破傳統的框架）。學生置身於不同場境中，自主選擇所觀察的 對象／事物。這種學習模式打破傳統教學的限制，為學生提供互動的寫作體驗，增加學 生的參與度，提升學生語文學習效能。 虛擬實境寫作教學亦體現了教學創新。科技元素有助優化教學活動，提升學習過 程的層次，亦提升了電子教學的應用性。這套教學模式印證了 TPACK 理論（Shulman， 1987）（TPACK 強調學科知識、教學知識和科技知識三者的互動。三者不能分割，有機 結合有助促進學習效能），強調教學法、科技元素和學科知識的配合，通過科技形式 和互動的教學法以提升學生學習中文的動機。老師可調整教學策略（Broko & Putnam, 1995；Nehme, 2010），讓學生更投入課堂。因此，本科團隊希望虛擬實境能成為一個「增 加價值」的工具，以促進教學效能。 研究設計 就著研究問題「虛擬實境教學多大程度有助學生描寫文的寫作？」，本研究安排了 本校3A班學生參與研究，共38位，年齡介乎14至 16歲。運用工具為塔門地景VR相片、 EduVenture VR 教件（EduVenture VR 系統由香港中文大學學習科學與科技中心研發，系 統提供簡易教材編輯器（Composer）讓教師編寫校本教件。配合手機及應用程式，學生 可以在室內參加「戶外學習旅程」。研究員會在 EduVenture VR 擬定任務流程，學生須 細心觀察，並回答所附問題。任務就全景照片、影片設計問題，提問方向包括辨析環境 的感官刺激、人物活動、地景位置、個人感受。學生在教師引導下，於課堂工作紙上摘 錄觀察所得，最後組織成寫作大綱。）、寫作工作紙（見附件 3）。 98 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 在資料分析過程中，蒐集方法分為質性與量性。質性研究包括學生作品分析，量性 研究則包括學習動機問卷（見附件 4）及寫作評量表（見附件 5）。 質化分析 本次研究就著學生的寫作成果進行質性分析，其中包括作品中所呈現的立意深度和 描寫手法運用，從而評估學生的寫作表現。研究分三個階段進行，詳情可見下表。 項目 日期 參與對象 階段一﹕ 課堂前 準備 1、擬定語文學習重點 （如細節描寫、場景描寫、情與景的關係等） 2018 年 1 月 計劃負責老師 2、選取地點（如塔門）及合適地景篇章。（可參附件6） 2018 年 1 月至 3月 3、選定重要地景（如鄉公所、青年會和龍景亭等）。 （可參附件 6） 4、實地考察，拍攝 360 全景照片和影片，並上載至 EduVenture VR。（可參附件 7） 5、製作 EduVenture VR 教件 利用平台設題功能，在所選的 14 張圖片中嵌入導引題目 和設定作答指示。 ＊題目的設定主要分為兩大類，一類是與閱讀篇章內容 互涉和呼應，另一類是學生的即時觀察和觀感。 （題目見附件 8） 6、教材製作﹕（1）擬定閱讀篇章題目、 （2）寫作指引工作紙 7、製定具體教學流程（見表 2） 8、修訂寫作能力評估量表 9、共備會議﹕閱讀能力教學 2018 年 4 月 計劃負責老師、 中三級任老師 階段二﹕ 課堂教學 10、閱讀教學課堂﹕教授所選篇章及討論 2018 年 5 月 中三級任老師、 實驗組學生 11、虛擬實境寫作課堂﹕虛擬實境體驗 （結合 EduVenture VR 平台）、課堂討論（師生互動、 同學交流） 階段三﹕ 課堂後 跟進 12、著學生完成學習動機問卷 計劃負責老師、 中三級任老師 13、寫作實踐﹕學生回家完成寫作課業 14、老師批改寫作課業（配合評量表） 15、教學回饋 16、數據輸入及分析（質化、量化） 2018 年 6 月至 8月17、總結、檢討 表 1：研究流程 量化分析 本研究的量化分析，包括寫作能力評量和動機問卷數據。老師採用了寫作評量表作 為批改工具，以評估學生的寫作表現。研究者按照學生取材立意的深刻程度及對描寫手 法的掌握程度，細分成七項評量準則。教師批改時按各項準則給予 1 至 4 分，給分與學 生水平成正比關係。寫作評估的批改老師並沒有任教研究對象，以保證研究成果的客觀 99 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 性和信度。完成寫作課堂後，學生會填寫學習動機問卷，問卷參照 ARCS 動機設計模式 （John Keller，1983）設計，他將心理學的動機理論與教學設計模式結合，提出學習動 機、教學設計與學習成果間相互影響，旨在優化課程設計，以促進教學。本問卷共設 20 道題，題目均為正向題，記分範圍為1至4分。問卷共設20題，主要是針對「引起注意」 （Attention）、「切身相關」（Relevance）、「建立信心」（Confidence）、「獲得滿足」 （Satisfaction） 四方面（見附件 4），各題得分愈高，表示學生學習動機愈強。 研究以 8個課節進行，詳見表 2。 節數 教學活動 教學目標 4節 閱讀教學﹕ 老師指導學生閱讀文本，通過提問引導學生 理解作品中的內容和寫作手法，並思考當中 內容和情意。 （1）學生能掌握細節和場景描寫。 （2）學生對塔門面貌建立基本認知。 （3）學生能理解作者的感受和作品中的情懷。 任課老師在寫作課堂前向學生講解課堂流程，並著學生預先下載 EduVentureVR 及教材套（《塔門 之旅》）。寫作課堂開始時，學生需戴上一副 VR 眼鏡，。 2節 寫作課堂﹕ －學生透過 EduVenture VR 觀察塔門的社區 環境，並根據預設指示按次序經歷一連串的 地景，回答不同問題。 （觀看不同場景時，畫面會出現導引問題。 學生可藉調整觀察的角度，觀察環境四周的 不同人事、景物，以發掘不同素材。） －學生在觀察不同地景面貌的同時，可同步 在寫作工作紙上作紀錄。 －虛擬實境體驗後，會隨即展開課堂討論。 老師會向學生提問，引導學生思考不同片段 和情景﹔亦會安排分組討論，交流所見所感 和個人習得，共同組織意念。 （1）學生通過對讀（文本中的地景與個人觀 察到的影像），以豐富寫作素材。 （2）學生能通過虛擬實境發掘出不同的細節， 並將不同片段整理成具體的寫作意念。 （3）學生可通過即時觀察以加強觀察力和敏 感度，引發對景物的情感。 ／ 寫作實踐﹕ 學生需回家完成寫作任務，題目為「遊歷一 個地方，看到眼前景象，往往會興起一番感 受。試「_________ 漫遊」為題，描寫你對一 個地景的觀察，並就個人體會，抒發你的感 受」。（可選塔門／感興趣深刻的地方） （1）學生可通過寫作實踐時運用各種描寫手 法，展示描寫作力。 （2）學生能體味社區情味，培養個人對社區 的人文關懷。 2節 寫作回饋﹕ 教師會因應學生寫作表現（寫作立意和運用 描寫手法的能力等），給予學生回饋。 （1）老師有意識地結合本單元的學習重點， 以引導學生了解個人寫作上的不足，從而對症 下藥，改善問題。 （2）老師能引導學生反思城市與人的關係。 表 2：教節內容重點 由於是次研究希望進一步了解虛擬實境如何有助學生提升寫作能力，故寫作題目並 不限於塔門的描寫。若學生選擇以塔門作為寫作主題，通過閱讀篇章的輸入、老師的讀 寫指導，以及寫作課堂上的親身觀察和同儕討論，理應可以在作品中呈現相關的細節， 並抒發個人感受。 100 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 3：學習評量表結果（詳見附件 3） 平均值 1. 學生能選取不同的場景加以描寫。 3.24 2. 學生能選取獨特的角度加以描寫。 3.18 3. 學生能做到情景交融。 3.00 4. 學生能運用細節描寫呈現城市風景。 3.13 5. 學生能運用多角度描寫呈現城市風景。 2.95 6. 學生能運用感官描寫呈現城市風景。 3.29 7. 學生能運用人物描寫呈現城市中的人物。 3.00 註﹕每項以 4分為滿分 學生在接近所有題目的平均得分皆為 3 或高於 3 分，反映這種學習模式讓學生得到 理想的學習體驗，在立意和寫作手法方面，均有不錯的表現，能掌握學習重點。（可見 附件 10）實驗組表現最好的三項為「能運用感官描寫呈現城市風景」、「選取不同的場 景加以描寫」和「學生能選取獨特的角度加以描寫」，平均分數分別為 3.29、3.24 和 3.18。表現最弱的一項同為「運用多角度描寫呈現城市風景」，平均分數分別為 2.95。 數據顯示，實驗組學生在參與虛擬實境寫作活動後，能運用感官描寫呈現城市風景、選 取不同的場景加以描寫和選取獨特的角度加以描寫。 就著以上幾項的評量標準，研究團隊選取了較典型的例子，就其中的內容和技巧等 稍作分析作品如何符合相關的描述。現分析如下﹕ 感官描寫 虛擬實境讓學生更具體掌握外在環境的細節，因此在不同場景中也能運用感官描寫 以呈現有關地方的特色，避免概念化的描寫。 另一方面，虛擬實境作能夠提升學生對細節的敏感度，讓學生在日常觀察中可以發 掘更多細節作為寫作素材，因此若學生選擇以其他地方作為寫作重心，亦可遷移有關描 寫能力，由此觸發個人情思，思考情與景的關係。 結果與討論 虛擬實境對學生寫作能力的影響 寫作能力測驗成績設七項評量準則，第一至三項評量學生取材立意能力，第四至七 項評量學生運用描寫手法的能力。所收集的 38 份學生作品均以此量表評改，學生整體成 績如下： 101 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 作品示例 從示例 1A 見，學生有 意識運用聽覺及觸覺 描寫，豐富文章內容。 示例 1A 學生透過虛擬實境獲 得多元的感官經驗， 並透過感官描寫呈現 大自然的美。 示例 1B 示例 1B 和 1C 反映學 生充份掌握感官描 寫， 例 如 起 伏 有 節 的浪潮聲、海風和海 浪的聲音等，運用了 聽覺描寫﹔而小草在 風中和陽光中的擺 動、彈起的海浪等， 運用了視覺描寫﹔ 光腳踏在沙上的感 受，則是觸覺描寫。 可見，學生在虛擬實 境體驗中獲得感官的 刺激，並轉化成具體 仔細的文字。 示例 1C 表 4﹕學生感官描寫示例及說明 示例 1D 可見，學生留 意到牛吃草的聲音和 牛的活動等，並能靈 活運用視覺和聽覺描 寫，以呈現畫面。 示例 1D 102 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 場景描寫 虛擬實境讓學生有機會接觸不同場境（地點），並在不同情景中具體仔細觀察當中 的面貌。以下三個示例，分別來自三位學生的作品，當中的幾個段落反映出他們取材豐 富，有意識選取不同的場景加以描寫，文章能細緻呈現地區的多元面貌。 描述及說明 學生示例 示例 2A ﹕塔門書寫學 生在塔門碼頭外留意 到破舊的信箱、特產 攤檔之設計等，突出 塔門這漁鄉與城市隔 絕，並流露個人感受。 場景﹕碼頭外的風景 示例 2B ﹕學生描寫沿 途所見的風光（居民 休閒的衣著、公廁設 計等），藉此對照塔 門與市區的不同。除 此，塔門居民和設施 也成了「塔門風景」 的一部份。 場景﹕沿途所見的風景 103 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 5﹕學生場景描寫示例及說明 描述及說明 學生示例 示例 2D ﹕學生具體描 寫在穿過市集後所觀 察到的場景，並能仔 細描寫人物老的衣著 和事物特色。 場景﹕穿過市集外的人 示例 2E ﹕學生能具體 描寫在草地上所見的 自然風景並由此作出 聯想，可見學生有意 識描寫細節，配合想 像，豐富立意。 大草地的風景 示例 2C ﹕學生集中 描寫塔門市集的人， 包括衣著較隨意的遊 客和只顧玩手機的店 主。學生留意到兩旁 建築物、建築廢料和 失修的牆，反映學生 有意識在描寫場景時 加入各種人事、景物 的細節。 場景﹕市集風景 104 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 是次寫作課堂運用虛擬實境，目的不只在於讓學生認識塔門這地方。因此在寫作任 務的設定上，採用了半開放題型，學生可選擇個人感興趣、深刻的地方作書寫的對象。 在其他並非以塔門為書寫對象的作品中，學生亦有意識運用場景描寫以呈現地區面貌。 是次研究希望了解結合虛擬實境的寫作體驗，是否能夠讓學生在寫作實踐時運用不同的 描寫手法以深化文章的立意，並做到能力上的遷移。以下示例可以成參照（見表 6）。 描述及說明 學生示例 學生通過虛擬實境的 觀察體驗，提升了個 人對事物的敏感度， 並培養出真情實感， 引起反思。 示例可見，學生能發 掘出場景中的事物， 並在觀察的過程中， 引發出個人的感受或 反思。例如學生從小 朋友玩耍，想起童真 的美好和長大後的煩 惱﹔從老婆婆漫步， 想起人老去後，一切 會變慢。從滑板場上 練習者的堅持，他們 想到背後代表著不同 夢想、不同故事，未 來可能成就出一個傳 奇﹔從足球員的表情 反應引起個人對成敗 的反思等。 表 6﹕學生場景描寫示例及說明（荔枝角公園書寫） 105 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 學生示例 有別於一般人會描寫的酒 家外在設計，學生留意到 「酒家的海鮮銷售量」﹔ 另外，即使瓊林學校並不 起眼，學生仍留意到校舍 被雜草掩蓋，只有綠色鐵 閘相伴的情景。 示例 3A 在示例中，學生留意到在 同一時空，大家進行不同 的活動，心情有所不同。 故此，學生描寫在城市 一隅不同人物的活動和 情態，並選取野餐者、照 顧寵物的工人姐姐、躺在 草地休息的人作為描寫對 象，選取的角度獨特。 示例 3B 獨特的描寫角度 虛擬實境的其中一大特點在於學生能以個人視點切入，選取個人感興趣的角度，轉 化成寫作意念，融入作品中。學生在虛擬實境教材中，經歷不同場景，故可自行調整個 人視點，發掘有趣的描寫角度。虛擬實境比傳統寫作教學所運用的圖片及影片更貼近真 實，有助學生具體仔細地掌握地景面貌，避免千篇一律的選材和抽象空泛的描寫。它亦 能開拓學生對外在環境的感知有機會接觸更多細節，捕捉個人化的場景描寫。以下是一 些學生示例（見表 7）﹕ 虛擬實境記錄了一時一 地的情景，讓學生可隨 時捕捉不同角度的事物。 在示例中，學生在登上 觀光船後，選取了上和 下兩個視點進行觀察，並 透過文字呈現﹕「船邊低 頭向下望，有不少細碎的 岩石」、「向上看，見到 一條彩虹在頭上，水氣滿 佈」，視點亦相當獨特。 示例 3C 106 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 學生示例 虛擬實境較能開拓學 生對外在環境的感知。 示例 3D 中，學生選取 了由草地望上天空的 角度，描寫自己「一 伸手就能觸到似的」， 可見其中距離之近﹔ 又選了望向大海的角 度，描寫波浪形態和 海上的船。 示例 3D 示例 3E 中所描寫的對 象是一位「與眾不同」 的遊客，學生留意他 的 行 為 非 常 特 別， 「肆意踢在厚實的玻 璃板上」，又「來往 踩踏行走」，令玻璃 出現「斑駁的刮紋」。 而學生亦因為這獨特 的角度而生出特別的 感受﹕「以往只能仰 望的高樓大廈現在卻 如孩子的玩具任由踐 踏。」 示例 3D 107 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 描述及說明 學生示例 在示例 3F 中，學生留 意到「海浪侵蝕作用」 對岩石的影響，亦注 意到「奇形怪狀的岩 石聳立在懸崖峭壁」 的畫面，角度非常獨 到。 示例 3F 在示例 3G 中，學生 留意到蟲對嫩草的喜 愛，又留意到蟲消失 後所留下的痕跡，「葉 子的邊位缺了一個 角」。 另外，學生留到老牛 們吃草之際，「眼睛 是看著我們（遊人） 的」，觀察角度非常 特別，並由此生出「是 我們的到來打破了這 裡的寧靜嗎」的反思。 示例 3G 表 7﹕學生示例及說明 由以上學生寫作示例可見，學生的選材和觀察角度亦相當獨特，並能運用多元的描 寫手法呈現。在學生的寫作學習經驗中，虛擬實境並非純粹的電子工具或科技元素，亦 是能夠提升對外在環境感知的媒介。學生可以結合虛擬實境的觀察，配合寫作教學工作 紙和各種課堂活動，逐漸累積寫作素材。 108 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 相關 元素 題目 平均分 相關 元素 題目 平均分 引起 注意 平均 3.4 1. 我認為 VR 寫作課有趣、新 鮮。 3.32 切身 相關 平均 3.39 2. 我認為能在 VR 寫作課完成 學習任務很重要。 3.37 5. 我認為 VR 寫作課所運用的 學習材料具吸引力。 3.5 6. 我認為 VR 寫作課的學習內 容切合我的興趣。 3.42 9. 我認為 VR 寫作課引發了我 的求知欲。 3.42 10. 我認為 VR 寫作課讓我覺得 描寫技巧是值得學習的。 3.5 13. 我認為在 VR 寫作課中，我 得到意外的收穫。 3.34 14. 我能將 VR 寫作課堂上所學 的內容聯繫日常生活。 3.29 17. 我認為 VR 寫作課堂有助我 維持專注力。 3.42 18. 我認為 VR 寫作課堂的學習 內容實用。 3.37 建立 信心 平均 3.42 3. 我有信心學會 VR 寫作課上 所教授的知識。 3.37 獲得 滿足 平均 3.42 4. 我認為參與 VR 寫作課能獲 得滿足感。 3.37 7. 我認為 VR 寫作課所運用的 學習材料難度適中。 3.37 8. 我享受 VR 寫作課，並希望 了解更多有關此主題的內容。 3.37 11. 我認為 VR 寫作課的學習內 容容易理解。 3.61 12. 我非常享受參與 VR 寫作 課。 3.39 15. 我認為在參與 VR 寫作課 後，我有信心能在描寫文創作 中取得及格成績。 3.29 16. 我認為能在 VR 寫作課內完 成學習任務，讓我感覺良好。 3.5 19. 我認為 VR 寫作課堂有助提 升我學習寫作描寫文的自信。 3.45 20. 我認為運用 VR 學習寫作讓 我感到很愉快。 3.47 表 8：ARCS 動機問卷分類結果（詳見附件 4） 註：每項以 4分為滿分 虛擬實境對於學生學習動機的影響 本研究共收集問卷 38 份，問卷結果及分析內容見表 8： 綜合以上數據，四項範疇的平均得分均高於 3.4 分，可見參與課堂的學生對虛擬實 境寫作課堂都持正面態度，並認同問卷的描述，反映有關課堂有效提升學生學習寫作的 動機和自信（可見附件 9）。在「引起注意」（attention）方面，各題得分均高於 3.3 分，可見虛擬實境寫作教學有助引起學生參與課堂的興趣。其中「學習材料具吸引力」 獲最 3.5 分，足見課堂教材及設計能引發學生對學習的動機，鼓勵學生積極參與，提高 學生主動性。 在「切身相關」方面，各題得分均高於 3.2 分，可見學生認同所學習的事物與生活 息息相關，關係密切，其中「學習內容切合興趣」獲 3.42 分，可見這種學習模式配合學 生的興趣，學生亦願意投入學習過程。在「建立信心」方面，接近每題得分均高於3.3分， 反映學生能掌握課堂學習重點，明白當中內容，從而建立個人學習信心。當中「學習內 容容易理解」得分為 3.61 分，反映出學生能理解課堂學習內容，有助學建立自信，強化 內在學習動機，促成良性循環。在「獲得滿足」方面，各題得分均高於3.3分，當中「感 覺良好」一項得分 3.5 分，可見學生對課堂有正面評價，從中產生持續學習的興趣。 109 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 總結與建議 是次研究結果反映了：虛擬實境寫作教學有助提升學生的描寫能力和學習動機。就 描寫能力而言，學生可以透過虛擬實境的親身觀察，以及當中的細節，配合地景篇章、 導引題目和課堂交流等。學生能清楚了解社區面貌的不同面向，對社區有更立體的認識 和更深刻的體會，從而引發對社區的情思，並遷移到寫作上。這種教學模式亦強調學習 自主性和學生課堂參與，故此可以提升了學生的學習動機。 傳統寫作教學多要求學生憑個人想像建構文章，即使老師在課堂上有為學生安排學 習材料以作輸入，但這些教材往往較零碎，且多由老師單向講授以「灌輸」寫作概念， 學生相對被動，沒有親身經歷，故未能通過觀察過程以發掘細節。加上一般課堂運作受 限於各種因素，如課時、資源安排、地域限制等，無法安排學生到不同社區親身體驗。 而受到現今社會文化影響，學生較少機會接觸外在事物。以上原因令到學生未能在日常 生活中仔細觀察，難以在作品中呈現具體細節和抒發深刻感受。這亦印證了公開考試報 告對學生寫作能力的描述。教師可以見到學生寫作立意不足，未有充份反思，與缺乏生 活體驗和觀察有很大關係。 結合虛擬實境的教學模式正好補足以上不足，能為學生提供更多經歷不同情境的機 會。這種方式有助學生獲取細節，從而對所觀察的事物產生真情實感，進一步建構文章。 過程中，學生有機會觀察社區面貌，結合閱讀名家名篇，有助深化學生思考。 語文學習重視積累，學生透過虛擬實境深入觀察社區，從而豐富寫作意涵，提升寫 作深度。整體而言，學生的學習動機得以提高，寫作取材更多元深刻獨特，他們藉着對 場境的仔細描寫，抒發所思所感，豐富立意。本校團隊亦期望學生能反思城市的變遷和 人文價值，有助提升學生的人文關懷。 建議 是次行動研究希望進一步了解虛擬實境和學生的學習動機及寫作能力之關係，在目 標和操作上與過去的經驗不盡相同。在操作上難免有不少可進步、優化的地方。為了方 便往後的研究者繼續在這研究基礎上進行更深入討論，以下會就各限制因素略作說明。 是次研究只設八個課節（每課節為三十五分鐘），或許未能照顧到各種因素，例如 學生的學習能力和老師的教學模式等。本研究團隊建議往後的研究者可延長研究的時間， 一來可讓學生有充足時間消化和吸收所學，並將所學遷移到寫作上，二來可照顧班內學 習多樣性。是次參與研究人數只有 38 人，研究結果難免有其限制。因此，本研究團隊建 議往後安排更多學生參與有關研究，例如以全級、所有初中學生作為單位，以收集更多 作品樣本，提升信度。 研究員共選用 14 張 VR 相片，展示了塔門不同地景和特色景物。正如引言提及，塔 門景貌漸漸受到人為因素影響，加上季節性因素，故未必能夠將所有特色的景物通過虛 110 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 擬實境拍攝下來。若能拍攝更多不同的景物，相信能讓學生對塔門有更深入和全面的認 識。另外，教材未能展示塔門民居的情況，我們建議往後可嘗試拍攝更多有關的虛擬實 境影像，讓學生對塔門居民的生活面貌有更多的理解。 本研究以社區地景為重心，從而了解虛擬實境結合寫作教學對學生寫作能力的成 效。由於涉及課程規劃的考慮，故現階段先集中描寫能力。本研究團隊建議往後可考慮 研究虛擬實境能否提升學生其他寫作能力，例如說明、記敘和論說能力等，以進一步探 討虛擬實境的效能。本研究集中探討一班學生的學習情況。若能加入對照組別，相信效 果會更明顯。建議其他學校在實踐時可引入對照組別，以進一步加強研究信度。 參考文獻 香港考試及評核局（2017）。《2017全港性系統評估報告》。香港：香港考試及評核局。 香港考試及評核局（2017）。《2017 香港中學文憑考試考試：中國語文科考試報告及試 題專輯》。香港：香港考試及評核局。 香港課程發展議會（2007）。《中學中國語文建議學習重點（試用）》。香港︰香港政 府印務局。 香港課程發展議會（2017）。《中國語文教育學習領域課程指引（小一至中六）》。香港︰ 香港政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（2015）。《中國語文課程及評估指引（中四至 中六）》。香港︰香港政府印務局。 祝新華（2011）。〈促進學習的寫作評估的重要策略之一：建立多元的評估主體系統〉。《涓 活清泉—小學中國語文課程的探索與實踐》。頁315。香港：香港教育局課程發展處。 蔡政宏、謝文惠（2011）。〈科技內容教學知識（TPACK）理論架構對教師專業發展之啟 示〉。《新竹縣教育研究集刊》，第 11 期，43-76。 Broko, H., & Putnam, R. T. (1995). Expanding a teacher’s knowledge base: A cognitive psychological. perspective on professional development. In A. Anning (Ed.), A national curriculum for the early years (pp. 35-65). Philadelphia: Open University Press. Mishra, P. & Koehler, M.J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017- 1054. Nehme, Marina (2010). E-learning and Students' Motivation. Legal Education Review, 20(1), 223-239. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational. Review, 57, 1-22. 111 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 年份 描述 2017 大多數作品能圍繞主題寫作，然而內容略嫌平淡，鮮有新意。 2016 大多數作品內容平淡，選材狹窄。 2015 不少學生立意不清，內容平淡，鮮有新意。 2014 不少學生立意不清，內容平淡，鮮有新意。 2013 不少學生審題立意不清，內容平板，鮮有新意。 2012 學生選材狹窄，內容千篇一律，有些立意不清，結構鬆散，沒有深刻的感 情和細緻的觀察。 附件 1﹕近年全港性系統評估報告對學生寫作表現的描述 年份 描述 2017 ．「對人物和場景的描寫較為粗疏，也因此未能寄托較為真摯和細膩的感情」 ．「觀察力一般，寫人、物較為表面，思考尚欠嚴謹」 ．「能運用不同描寫手法渲染氣氛的也不多」 ．「對事物的特點掌握不清，所抒發的情感亦較虛浮」 ．「描寫粗疏，主因之一是欠觀察和想像力」 ．「生活經驗不足，自然難以選取合適的素材下筆」 ．「對生活欠缺體會和反思，故不易寫得獨特和細緻動人」 ．「平日若沒有用心觀察和思考，自然難以從中勾選合適的事物下筆」 2016 ．「對人物和場景的描寫較為粗疏，也因此未能寄托較為真摯和細膩的感情」 ．「觀察較粗疏、浮泛」、「觀察力一般，寫人、物較為表面，思考尚欠嚴謹」 ．「對事物的特點掌握不清，所抒發的情感亦較虛浮」 2015 ．「胡亂寫景的情況較為明顯」 ．「選材相若，或因生活經驗有限」 ．「疏於細緻的描述，輕重不均，詳略失衡」 ．「最後抒發感受、反思亦只能簡單提及，未有深刻體會」 2014 ．「胡亂寫景的情況較為明顯」、「胡亂加插大量的景物描寫，干擾文章的 主題發展」 ．「未能充份發揮想像，構思較為單一」 ．「平日的觀察能力不足，對於事物的描寫、刻劃和想像有待改善」 2013 ．「取材平淡」 ．「部分取材天馬行空，嚴重脫離現實」 2012 ．「不少考生對日常生活欠缺觀察、感悟和反思」 ．「對平素學習材料未能消化、體會和提煉」 ．「描述膚淺平凡，甚或抽離現實，毫無說服力」 附件 2﹕近年考評局對考生卷二（寫作能力）表現之描述、一般評論和建議 112 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 3﹕寫作工作紙 113 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 4﹕ ARCS 動機問卷 114 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 5﹕寫作能力評量表 附件 6﹕研究所運用的閱讀篇章和涉及的地景 （單元設計及 EduVenture VR 教件） 塔門景物／地景 閱讀篇章 1、塔門碼頭 2、塔門信箱 3、新漢記海鮮酒家 4、內街 5、塔門鄉公所 6、海傍街 7、塔門海傍 8、塔門青年會 9、草原 10、塔門的牛 11、龍景亭 12、石灘公園 13、營地 14、黃昏的碼頭 散文﹕ 1、可洛《末日絮語》（節錄） 2、陳志堅《來去塔門》 3、方麗霞《塔門、我們》 新詩﹕ 4、劉偉成《牛》 5、麥樹堅《塔門》 115 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 7 ﹕ EduVenture 教件設計中的影像（共 14 張地景相片） 塔門碼頭 塔門信箱 新漢記海鮮酒家 塔門民居 塔門天后廟 塔門鄉公所 塔門海傍街 塔門海傍 塔門草地 116 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 塔門青年會 塔門的牛 塔門石灘 公園營地 龍景亭 黃昏時份的塔門碼頭 附件 8﹕ EduVenture 教件設計中的題目（配合地景） 117 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 9﹕學生動機問卷調查結果 附件 10 ﹕寫作評量表的評分結果 118 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及寫作能力成效研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 11 ﹕學生作品示例（寫作課堂） 119 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 數學實驗教學 （實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方 公式”課題教學的成效探究） 阮啟崙、楊明揚、孫福濤、黃俊邦 順德聯誼總會翁祐中學 摘要 傳統單向式的數學教學模式對於成長在資訊科技發達年代的當下香港中學生而言稍 欠趣味和吸引力。部分學生將數學學習片面地概括為背公式、按計數機，達不到學習成 效之餘，也在逐步消耗學習熱情。本次行動研究希望通過將「數學實驗活動(Mathematics Experimental Activity)」融入課堂，以提高學生學習動機與課堂參與度。學生的角色 由過往的「知識吸收者」轉為「知識建構者」。老師的角色則由過往的「知識傳授者」 轉為「知識引導者」，最終使教學效能得到提升。 緒論 在應試壓力的影響下，本港數學教學模式或多或少地傾向於以操練為主的教學模 式，使得學生往往看不到數學知識的全貌。舉例來說：部分學生重視公式定理的內容與 應用，而忽視其證明。這種「投機取巧」的心態使學生逐漸失去對數學應有的思維能力 與思考模式。 同時，本校作為「一條龍」中學，既有能力較佳的學生，亦有能力一般及能力稍遜 的學生，對照顧學生學習差異需求殷切。本校曾與香港大學教育學院合作，將「豐富任 務 (Rich Tasks)」的教學理念融入課堂，我們同樣會將「豐富任務」的元素融入到這次 實驗教學的實踐中，透過分層教學活動，充分照顧學生學習差異。 在本次行動研究中，我們以中二級「恆等式 (Identities)」課題為實踐課題，經驗 告訴我們，不同屆、不同能力的學生都會在這基礎課題上犯上類似的錯誤。針對此課題， 我們將三款實驗教具（附錄 2）及三份配套工作紙（附錄 4）整合成一多元實驗教材套， 照顧學習差異，探討實驗教學模式是如何影響教學效能。實現實驗教學模式與電子教學 模式的有機結合，目的是幫助學生從「演繹」走向「歸納」、從「結果」走向「過程」。 同時，我們亦希望能將實踐經驗及有價值的發現與教育界同工分享。 120 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 文獻探討 「從做中學」也就是「從活動中學」、「從經驗中學」。它使得學校內知識的獲得 與生活過程中的活動聯繫了起來。兒童能從那些真正有教育意義和有興趣的活動中學習， 從而有助於兒童的成長和發展（Dewey，1916 著 / 2001 譯）。 在數學實驗課中，學生由於親自動手操作，從一個旁觀者和聽眾變成一個參與者， 因此更容易對實驗結果、產生結果的原因、新的知識以及新的方法等產生強烈的好奇 心，在很大程度上能夠使學生的好奇、好玩、好動的天性得到滿足，進而激發學生的數 學學習興趣，從而主動參與到學習活動中，有助學生深刻理解所學的知識（董林偉， 2012）。建構主義認為，數學知識並不能簡單地由教師或其他人傳授給學生，而只能由 每個學生根據自身已有的知識和經驗主動地加以構建（舒亞非，2006）。情景認知理論 強調知識存在於外部環境，主張在具體學習任務中進行鍛煉，數學的學習應該在“真實 的情景”中發生 (李開惠，2005)。 作為課程內容的數學實驗，應體現活動化、操作化特徵，重視學生在數學實驗活動 中的主體地位，使學生處於積極自主地動腦動手、探索驗證、討論交流實踐活動中。數 學實驗應為抽象的數學思維提供直觀的思維背景，使靜態的數學結構表現為時空的動態 過程，使抽象的內容直觀化、具體化，為學生進行數學論證提供感性的、直覺的材料（邵 光華、卞忠運，2007）。本次行動研究所安排的三個實驗活動均體現活動化、操作化特徵， 也以動態過程為學生提供直觀化材料。 全部教育都離不開經驗。教育是在經驗中，由於經驗，為著經驗的一種發展過程 （Dewey，1938 著 / 1991 譯）。數學有經驗與演繹二重性。現在的數學教育（從中小學 數學教育到大學數學教育），確實都比較片面地強調數學演繹性，忽略數學經驗性（馮 偉貞，2016）。早於 1912 年的國際數學教育大會上，學者就曾討論過「中學數學教學中 的直覺與實驗」，數學實驗教學早已在數學教育界受到關注與研究。以當時英國為例， 英國對於實驗幾何的重視，始於斯賓塞（Herbert Spencer）所提倡的發明幾何，再到後 來貝利（John Perry）所強調的數學實用性價值，聯繫實際對學習數學的重要性。會議 當時在劍橋舉行，英國的中學開始對實驗幾何重視起來。對於幾何分為 3 個階段：1. 注 重實驗歸納；2. 注重演繹，但是實驗歸納並非全部取消；3. 注重嚴格推理。 如果單純運用代數方法進行教學，學生理解平方差公式時就沒有表象作支撐，容易 引發學生死記硬背、機械記憶的現象。讓學生在剪拼過程中經歷知識的形成過程，有助 培養他們的創造性思維品質和積極的數學情感。學生能在短時間內用這麼多方法解決問 題，顯示了他們的巨大潛力（王擁軍，2009）。課例創設的四個實驗活動，均順應學生 已有的知識經驗和認知水平。學生經歷這樣遞進式思維的層層洗練，既獲得對算理的理 解，也積累實驗經驗，為後續的學力發展做了不可或缺的鋪陳。 所查閱的文獻反映數學實驗教學獲得到一致肯定。其中也有在初中代數恆等式課題 進行類似的實驗教學的實踐案例。在設計的初衷上與此次行動研究一致，均是為了讓學 121 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 生探索代數恆等式的幾何意義。但是，我們對能用多種方法解決問題的學生所佔百分比 和對執行四個實驗活動的時間控制存在疑問。有見及此，本次行動將根據授課班級的整 體水平，從三個實驗活動中挑選兩個進行。我們除了考慮時間的因素，更重要的是照顧 學生學習差異；有別於一般數學實驗活動，所實踐的是「分層數學實驗活動」。 研究方法 本研究採用行動研究方式進行，以探討「數學實驗教學 (Mathematics Experiment Teaching and Learning)」的成效為核心。研究者將三個實驗活動融入到教學內容，每 個實驗活動有相應的實驗教具及配套工作紙，幫助學生從多角度感知與理解「平方差公 式 (Difference of two squares)」、「完全平方公式 (The perfect square)」，並透 過數學教學軟件「Desmos」（附錄 3）鞏固所學。「Desmos」作為互動教學平台，能將 學生配對任務的答題情況實時反映予老師頁面，方便老師監察各個學生的答題情況與答 題進度。從中探討數學實驗教學： 1. 能否深化學生對「平方差公式」與「完全平方公式」的理解並改善公式誤用的情況？ 2. 能否提高課堂上學生的學習積極性？ 「恆等式」課題為數學科必修部分中二階段的課題，而掌握並正確運用「平方差 公式」與「完全平方公式」為該課題的核心，亦是學生數學素養上的基本要求。經驗告 訴我們，各屆中二學生，不論能力高低，都容易出現類似的公式誤用情況，即是將兩條 代數恆等式與「乘法分配律（Distributive law of multiplication）」、「指數定律 （Indices law）」混淆。研究者就此課題為學生安排了三個實驗活動（「摺疊布塊」、 「拼接膠片」、「拼砌積木」），考慮到課堂時間上的限制及學生能力上的差異，學生 於課堂上（三連堂，1.5 小時）只需進行當中的兩個實驗活動，不同能力組別的學生對 應不同的實驗活動組合，詳情如下： 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 摺疊布塊實驗 摺疊布塊實驗 拼接積木實驗 拼接膠板實驗 拼接積木實驗 拼接膠板實驗 根據學生的學習表現進行質性和量性分析，以檢視於此課題運用數學實驗教學所得 之成效。 兩個學年不同能力組別學生人數如下（按中一階段數學科年度總評成績劃分）： 人數 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2016-2017 16 25 16 2017-2018 16 24 17 122 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 實驗名稱 實驗難點分析 摺疊布塊 實驗 學生需根據工作紙上的指示摺疊實驗布塊，並完成有關問題。要求學生有較強的圖像及 文字解讀能力，難點在於如何理解布塊「重疊部分」，是三個實驗活動中難度較大的一個。 拼接膠板 實驗 學生需根據工作紙上指示拼接膠板，對學生圖像解讀能力較布塊實驗低，但也正因提示 較少的緣故，學生易感到無從入手，難點在於需通過手動比較確定未知邊長度且不能使 用其他量度工具。 拼接積木 實驗 學生需根據工作紙指引拼接積木部件，相比實驗布塊與膠板，學生對積木部件感覺較為 熟悉，難度相對較低，但同樣有積木部件「重疊部分」作為難點。 在實驗活動的分配上，我們讓能力較佳組別的學生進行兩個難度較大的實驗，同 時也希望能力一般組別的學生也能體驗「摺疊」，故為其安排摺疊布塊實驗，能力稍遜 組別的學生則無需進行摺疊布塊實驗。 表一：「數學實驗教學」模式和「傳統教學」模式教學設計上的對比 （詳細內容請參閱附錄 1） 數學實驗教學 傳統教學 回顧舊知識 多項式運算與面積計算 （工作紙，15 分鐘） 多項式運算與面積計算 （工作紙，15 分鐘） 理解新知識 學生分組自主根據工作紙上的指引操作兩個實驗 活動並完成工作紙上相應內容（工作紙，55分鐘） 直接教學 （工作紙，40 分鐘） 應用新知識 運用 Desmos 軟件完成恆等式配對練習 （電子白板，15 分鐘） 完成並講評工作紙上相應練習 （工作紙，30 分鐘） 總結課堂 重溫三條代數恆等式並作常見誤用舉例（5分鐘） 重溫三條代數恆等式並作常見 誤用舉例（5分鐘） 教學模式 學習環節 階段 日期 研究內容 構思與規劃 2017 年 12 月 至 2018 年 1 月 構思適宜作「數學實驗教學」的實踐課題 分析同級不同屆的學生成績數據 選定課題 前期準備 與 教學實踐 2018 年 2 月 至 2018 年 4 月 向學生介紹「數學實驗教學」的理念、運作、行動研究的意義及學生 參與的重要性 準備三套實驗教具（一套教具能直接購得，其餘教具需訂造或老師自 行製作）及配套工作紙 於中二級全級進行該課題的教學實際，並安排至少一名老師作課堂觀 察員 安排「後置測試」檢視「數學實驗教學」下的教學成效 觀察與分析 2018 年 5 月 至 2018 年 7 月 進行「延遲後側」，分析所得數據，評估教學成效是否具持續性 進行教師面談和學生問卷調查 撰寫教研報告 反思與檢討 2018 年 8 月 修訂並遞交教研報告 研究者將本次行動研究分為四個階段進行，程序如下： 表二：計劃中不同階段的劃分與工作重點 123 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 本學年中二級各組別學生的在中一階段數學科總評成績，與上學年中二級各組別學 生（即本學年中三級學生）的中一階段數學科總評成績相若，我們將兩批學生近似看作 與就讀中二級前數學水平相若。本研究以「後置測試」和「延遲後測」作總結性評估。「後 置測試」（附錄 5）為本校數學科的持續評估測試，不同學年相同級別的持續評估內容 難度相若。「後置測試」讓能力起點相若的兩屆中二級學生，在過往傳統教學模式下和 本學年數學實驗教學模式下所得的評估成績具較強可比性。 「延遲後測」主要為評估學生對恆等式的正確運用會否具持續性。完結此課題教學 並脫離較集中的專題作業操練下，檢視全體中二級學生後續對三條代數恆等式的掌握與 運用情況。本研究亦會為全體中二級學生作問卷調查，了解學生對數學實驗課堂的意見 與看法，並進行教師訪談，了解任教老師的教學體會與感悟。 研究結果 表三：2017-2018 學年中二級學生及 2016-2017 學年中二級學生於中一階段期末總評成 績（滿分：300） 學年 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆 181.27 121.47 98.24 2016-2017 屆 182.13 124.76 101.43 表四：後置測試（本課題持續評估測試 1）成績分析 學年 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆平均得分率 92% 69% 41% 2016-2017 屆平均得分率 86% 55% 40% 得分率百分變化 + 6% + 14% + 1% α= 0.05 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 t值 1.58 2.22 2.80 自由度 30 47 31 t 界值 2.042 2.012 2.040 上表數據反映出兩屆中二級學生在三個不同能力組別層面的中一期末評估數據對 比。我們可見兩屆學生在完成中一階段學習時整體數學水平是相若的，這也是選擇中二 級作為研究對象的原因之一。 表五：後置測試（本課題持續評估測試 2）成績分析 學年 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆平均得分率 86% 58% 39% 2016-2017 屆平均得分率 82% 54% 37% 得分率百分變化 + 4% + 4% + 2% α= 0.05 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 t值 2.00 4.45 0.70 自由度 30 47 31 t 界值 2.042 2.012 2.040 124 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 兩屆中二學生所使用的兩份持續評估測試卷是一樣的，持續評估測試 1 和 2 分別考 查了學生對恆等式的運用與逆運用。根據表四，各組別學生的平均得分率均較上屆同學 的平均得分率高，其中能力一般組別的學生得分率升幅最高，超過 10%。t 檢驗的結果顯 示，能力一般組別和能力稍遜組別的 t 值均高於臨界值，反映實驗教學對這兩組學生的 成績產生顯著性差異。根據表五，各組別學生的平均得分率同樣均較上屆同學的平均得 分率高，但整體升幅情況沒持續評估 1 所呈現的顯著。t 檢驗的結果顯示，能力一般組 別的 t值高於臨界值，反映實驗教學對該組學生的成績產生顯著性差異。 綜合兩次後置測試的成績數據，可以說「數學實驗教學」對中二學生學習「恆等式」 課題有著明顯的積極影響。能力一般組別的學生在持續評估 1 的成績升幅和其在持續評 估 2 的成績升幅以及 t 檢驗的結果更說明：「數學實驗教學」對於中等數學能力的學生 而言幫助最大。表五所呈現的升幅放緩情況，一方面由於考查內容為因式分解，要求學 生能對三條代數恆等式作逆運用，難度上略微較持續評估 1 大。另一反面，持續評估 1 的考核日期為數學實驗課堂結束後不久，而持續評估 2 則發生在數學實驗課堂結束後的 稍後日期，可能受學生學習積極性變化所影響。 級測與持續評估測試同為本校數學科綜合評核學生的方式，其中級測難度較持續評 估測試大，題量更多，測試時間也更長。本次研究所使用的級測試卷與上屆中二所使用 的不同，但難度相若，同為恆等式課題的專題測試。 根據表六，本屆中二學生於該課題的整體級測表現優於上屆中二學生。能力一般組 別的學生成績升幅達到 6%，學生平均分合格。我們進一步發現，本屆能力一般組別的學 生的中一期末成績雖較上屆同組別學生的中一期末成績低，但無論是在兩次持續評估測 試中還是專題級測中。本屆能力一般組別學生的平均得分率升幅都領先全級，組別的平 均分亦達到合格水平。t檢驗反映，能力較佳組別和能力一般組別的t值均高於臨界值， 實驗教學對這兩組學生的成績產生顯著性差異。能力一般組別的學生為「數學實驗教學」 模式下學習「恆等式」課題的最大受益群體。 表六：延遲後測（本課題專題級測）成績分析 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 2017-2018 屆平均得分率 70% 51% 32% 2016-2017 屆平均得分率 66% 45% 33% 得分率百分變化 + 4% + 6% - 1% α= 0.05 能力較佳組別 能力一般組別 能力稍遜組別 t值 3.16 2.79 1.30 自由度 30 47 31 t 界值 2.042 2.012 2.040 表七問卷調查結果所示，受訪學生大致肯定「數學實驗教學」之成效。不同組別學 生在學習能力及學科表現上差異較大，但他們對「數學實驗」課堂的評價大致相同。學 生普遍認為以動手做實驗的模式學習數學，能夠幫助他們掌握知識、提升學習興趣與學 習自信心。 125 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 自我評價（能力較佳組別） 非常 不同意 不同意 普通 同意 非常 同意 1 2 3 4 5 1. 在動手做實驗過程中，更能掌握所學。 0% 0% 0% 37% 63% 2. 我很投入「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 6% 38% 56% 3. 我對於「數學實驗」課堂感到有好奇心。 0% 0% 19% 81% 0% 4. 我認為動手做實驗讓我提升學習動機。 0% 0% 0% 31% 69% 5. 我認為動手做實驗提升我對數學的興趣。 0% 0% 0% 25% 75% 6. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂讓我提升課堂自信心。 0% 0% 37% 50% 13% 7. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂有助我提升本科成績。 0% 0% 25% 63% 12% 8. 我期待未來的「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 25% 63% 12% 表七：「數學實驗教學」之效能調查問卷結果 自我評價（能力一般組別） 非常 不同意 不同意 普通 同意 非常 同意 1 2 3 4 5 1. 在動手做實驗過程中，更能掌握所學。 0% 0% 12% 21% 67% 2. 我很投入「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 8% 13% 63% 16% 3. 我對於「數學實驗」課堂感到有好奇心。 0% 0% 25% 25% 50% 4. 我認為動手做實驗讓我提升學習動機。 0% 0% 33% 50% 17% 5. 我認為動手做實驗提升我對數學的興趣。 0% 17% 42% 37% 4% 6. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂讓我提升課堂自信心。 0% 8% 50% 34% 8% 7. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂有助我提升本科成績。 0% 8% 29% 50% 13% 8. 我期待未來的「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 25% 67% 8% 自我評價（能力稍遜組別） 非常 不同意 不同意 普通 同意 非常 同意 1 2 3 4 5 1. 在動手做實驗過程中，更能掌握所學。 0% 0% 47% 47% 6% 2. 我很投入「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 18% 41% 41% 0% 3. 我對於「數學實驗」課堂感到有好奇心。 0% 0% 17% 71% 12% 4. 我認為動手做實驗讓我提升學習動機。 0% 18% 18% 59% 5% 5. 我認為動手做實驗提升我對數學的興趣。 0% 12% 29% 47% 12% 6. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂讓我提升課堂自信心。 0% 6% 41% 41% 12% 7. 我認為「數學實驗」課堂有助我提升本科成績。 0% 5% 59% 24% 12% 8. 我期待未來的「數學實驗」課堂。 0% 0% 29% 65% 6% 研究者亦從三個不同能力組別的學生中分層抽樣進行面談，希望能更深入地了解到 學生對「數學實驗」課堂的評價。受訪者一致覺得「數學實驗活動」具新鮮感，期待更 多的「數學實驗」課堂。其中一位能力較高的學生表示，除了實驗活動讓他印象深刻以 外，於電子白板利用「Desmos」做配對練習同樣讓他感到新鮮。研究者也發現當學生得 知有機會在同學面前借助電子白板做配對練習時，顯得格外專注。即便祇是在座位上觀 看組員在台上的作答情況，亦顯得非常投入，讓課堂氣氛變得積極、踴躍。另外，受訪 的能力稍遜學生一致認為「數學實驗」課堂具趣味，相比單向地聽老師講課，他們更願 126 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 意自己動手操作。能力稍遜組別的學生，很難因為一次實驗課堂而在成績上取得顯著進 步，現階段而言，相比他們學科成績，我們更欣然看到該組別學生數學學習興趣的提升、 學習態度的端正，從觀察員的觀課匯報、問卷調查及學生面談中均能反映這點。 讓學生自主建構數學知識是本次行動研究的核心價值。老師則充當知識「引導者」 的角色，學生以小組形式進行實驗活動，老師適時提供指引，保證了「生生互動」及「師 生互動」。我們的三個實驗活動同時也滿足照顧學生學習差異的需求。能力稍遜的學生 能完成一些簡單的證明，部分能力較高的學生更能做到「一式多證」。我們也鼓勵學生 上台講解自己的證明方法，增強學習自信心。正如學生所說，使用這三條代數恆等式時 更加「心安理得」。 結論與反思 經過質性和量性分析，本研究肯定了在中二課程「恆等式」課題上採用「數學實驗 教學模式（Mathematics experiment teaching mode）」較「傳統教學模式（Traditional teaching mode）」更有利於教與學。後置測試和延遲後測的結果反映出，學生對「平方 差公式」和「完全平方公式」的掌握更扎實，公式誤用情況也較以往有了明顯改善。不 同班級的學生於實驗課堂也整體表現積極，絕大多數學生均能投入到實驗活動中。 本次行動研究中其中一個限制，是本學年任教中二數學的人員安排較上學年有輕微 變動。部分班級的評估數據受到教學模式和任教老師影響。在未來進一步的行動研究中， 或可增加「同課異授」環節，即相同老師分別按實驗模式和傳統模式為能力相近的兩個 班級授課，既分析同一學年的兩組具可比性數據，亦分析不同學年的兩組具可比性數據， 豐富數據分析上的維度。此外，若在延遲後測（即專題級測）上選用與上屆學生相同的 試卷，會讓所得數據更具參考價值。在實踐過程中，我們發現不同能力組別的課堂上， 均有個別學生更專注於獨立完成實驗工作紙，較少參與動手做實驗。教師在課堂上需作 清晰指示，在今後實驗工作紙的設計上，也需下更多心思，才可以避免學生能跳過實驗 過程直接作答題目，導致有違實驗課堂的本意。 在實踐過程中，我們發現電子白板與教學應用「Desmos」的結合在課堂中實驗活動 結束後持續保持學生學習專注度上發揮著積極作用，普遍學生樂於接觸電子工具，也對 以觸屏方式答題感到新鮮，使濃厚的學習氛圍得以延續。 在本次行動研究以後，我們對今後相關主題的行動研究有了更多的想法。上述提到 的電子白板與「Desmos」的結合讓我們有意後續探討「實驗教學模式」與「電子教學模 式」的疊加可以如何影響教與學。教學雙方對數學實驗有著諸多誤解，大量文獻把數學 實驗定位在「基於計數機的實驗（computer experiment）」，恐怕這是中學數學實驗教 學沒能得到該有的重視和普及的重要原因（馮偉貞，2016）。我們希望今後能發掘出更 多讓學生動手做實驗的課題，強調「觸覺」在學生學習過程中的地位，並通過經改良的 行動研究計劃作進一步研究。無論是這次行動研究的發現或是直覺判斷，大家都會趨向 127 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 王擁軍（2009）。〈情境實驗創新——《平方差公式》教學片斷與反思〉。《湖北教育（教 育教學）》，第二期，58-59。 李開惠（2005）。〈20 世紀最有影响的數學教育家費賴登塔爾〉。《中學數學研究》， 第 5期，F003-F004。 邵光華、卞忠運（2007）。《數學實驗的理論研究與實踐》。《課程 . 教材 . 教法》， 第三期，39-43。 舒亞非（2006）。〈數學實驗的歷史考察與理論研究〉。Doctoral dissertation，廣州 大學。 馮偉（2016）。《高中數學實驗活動選編》。北京：科學出版社。 董林偉（2012）。〈數學實驗：促進初中生數學學習的一種有效方式〉。《中國數學教育： 初中版》，第 5期，2-5。 Dewey, J. 著，王承緒主譯（1916）。《民主主義與教育》。中國：人民教育出版社。 Dewey, J. 著，姜文閔主譯（1938）。《我們怎樣思維：經驗與教育》。中國：人民教 育出版社。 於認為「實驗教學模式」優於「傳統教學模式」，我們沒有摒棄「傳統教學模式」的想法， 甚至有意探討會否存在某些課題基於兩種教學模式下所得教學成效是相近的，或者是傳 統模式下教學成效更佳。學生看待「數學實驗」教學的態度會否在曾經歷過數學實驗課 堂後有所改變？這些均為我們未來行動研究的潛在研究方向。 128 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 1 129 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 2（實驗教具） 130 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 3（Desmos 教學應用） 131 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 4（中英實驗工作紙） 132 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 133 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 134 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 135 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 136 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 137 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 138 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 139 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及“完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 教育研究報告匯編 附錄 5（後置測試 1及 2） 141 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder Li Yun Xuan Merak Po Leung Kuk Hong Kong Taoist Association Yuen Yuen Primary School Abstract Pied Pipers, a gamified non-formal music curriculum, was designed to enhance students' motivation in learning to play the recorder and develop self-learning skills. This case study report depicts the implementation of the program. Changes in program participation, its effectiveness and student perception about this musical instrument throughout its course of implementation were evaluated and discussed. Results showed that although participation was diminishing over time, the program had motivated students to learn and play the recorder. Factors attributing to the success of the program were examined. Background The benefits of learning to play the recorder has long been established in music education literature. The recorder can act as an extension of the voice, provide another medium for students (especially to those who do not enjoy singing) for producing and creating melodies, and thereby help them obtain a more satisfying experience in music (Burton and Reynolds, 2018). It is also an accessible and inexpensive instrument that provides motivation for learning music notations. Many children, having developed finger dexterity and breath control through learning the recorder, can take up the study of orchestral wind instruments easily as well (Carroll, 1968). The recorder can be an important stepping stone for stimulating interest in music and enhancing young students' mastery of fundamental instrumental techniques (Sloboda & Howe, 1992). Like the case in many schools, playing the recorder is a compulsory task in our school-based music curriculum at Po Leung Kuk Hong Kong Taoist Association Yuen 142 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Yuen Primary School (YYPS). All Primary 3 to 6 students are required to play the recorder during music lessons. Unfortunately, many of them are little motivated and not well prepared. They are used to leaving or misplacing their instruments at home or somewhere in their classroom drawers. Playing the recorder is seen as a chore. Students are only seen practising the recorder when assessments or examinations are approaching. This indifference for playing the recorder is discouraging given that they generally have positive attitudes towards music. A majority of them have already been learning at least one instrument through in-school or private training. Many are participating in the activities of music-based groups such as the choir or orchestra as well. The music teacher was in recognition of the benefits to students of learning the recorder and their reasons for not learning it wholeheartedly. A gamified non-formal curriculum called Pied Pipers was therefore designed to address this problem. This paper reports the implementation of this. Changes in program participation and its effectiveness as well as student perception about the instrument are evaluated and discussed. Literature Review Gamification is a hot topic of discussion especially about its capabilities in supporting user engagement, enhancing positive patterns, increasing user activity, social interaction and the quality or productivity of actions in various fields of learning (Hamari, Koivisto and Sarsa, 2014). Deterding et al. (2011) defines gamification as the use of game design elements in non-game contexts. It is often taken as a teaching approach that uses game design principles and can be used to promote interest and motivation in students (Kocadere and Çağlar, 2018). While gamification is still a growing phenomenon, Dichev and Dicheva (2017) argue that the practice of gamified learning has outpaced researchers’ understanding of its mechanisms and methods. Contrasting theoretical foundations behind different studies and limitations to experimental designs produces inconsistent findings on the effectiveness of gamification as a tool for motivating or engaging users (Seaborn and Fels, 2015). Some studies have reported that gamification could increase learning motivation (Yapıcı and Karakoyun, 2017), promote attention and engagement in class (Khalil, Ebner and Admiraal, 2017) and enhance learning performance (Ortiz-Rojas, Chiluiza and Valcke, 2017) and motivation. Other empirical studies however report that gamification has little positive effect on student participation or motivation as a whole (Lauberheimer and Ryan, 2016; Hanus and Fox, 2015). This inconsistence of findings about the effectiveness of gamification could be due to the over-simplification and over- generalisation of the intervention. Sailer et al. (2017) argues that since gamification 143 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 can take many forms and can combine game design elements in many different ways, the impact of different design elements within a given context should be the focus of enquiry instead of the effects of gamification as a general construct. Dicheva, Dichev, Agre & Angelova (2015) suggest that more substantial empirical research is required for generalizing the reasons for the strength and weakness of gamified designs. Below are some of the commonly implemented mechanics and dynamics identified by Thiebes, Lins and Basten (2014) (Table 1). Table 1: Common Gamification Mechanics and Dynamics; excerpts from Gamification M&D (Thiebes et al., 2014) Mechanics and dynamics Description Immediate feedback Allowing players to be aware of progress or failure in real time Goals Underlying activity adapted as challenge for the users Badges Rewards and goals whose fulfillment is outside the scope of core activities of a service Leaderboards Display used to illustrate competition to drive competition behavior User levels Indication of player proficiency in the overall gaming experience over time Social facilitation Individual users achieve better results in presence of other users In the context of music education, the benefits of gaming as a pedagogical method have long been acknowledged by teachers. Niland (2009) argues that games can be an engaging medium for children to explore musical elements and concepts. Perlmutter (2015) suggests that games are capable of motivating students to master the content on one hand and promote social skills like patience and teamwork on the other. Singing and movement games commonly used in music lessons can help students develop location coordination and awareness of free space as well (Hart, Burts and Charlesworth, 1997). There is increasing interest for research on the application and effectiveness of video games as a teaching medium for music (Margoudi et al., 2017; Chow et al., 2013; Gower and McDowall, 2012). Pied Pipers is a school-wide game-based non-formal music curriculum model which aims at enhancing motivation for learning to play the recorder, creating a musically engaging environment at school and helping students develop self-learning skills through gamification mechanisms. It uses badges and a flipped classroom model to motivate and assist students. Students are invited to “challenge” music teachers or trained student-examiners stationed in the music rooms during recesses by performing set pieces. When a student successfully performs a set piece, he or she will obtain a badge in the form of a collectable Pied Piper Card. This program targets students between Primary 3 to 6 as recorder performance is a compulsory element of the music curriculum. 144 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Grade proficiency level Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 Repertoire *Piano Sonata No.11 *Autumn Scene *The Celebrated Chopped Waltz *Old Jeremiah *Crescent Pair *Suteki Da Ne *William Tell Overture *Hallelujah Chorus *Spagnoletta *Symphony No. 1, Movement III *Ode to Joy *Girl with the Flaxen Hair *Pilgrim *He’s a Pirate *Spring *Walking in the Air *Arirang *PLK School Song *Mute City *Endless Love *Habanera *Saria’s Song *String Serenade No.13 *The Entertainer *Colonel Bogey March *1812 Overture *Gavotte *Morning Wood Required technique and subject knowledge for performance (accumulative throughout progression of scope and sequence) Fingerings: E4, G4, A4, B4, C5, D5 Rhythms: quavers, crotchets, minums, dotted minums, semibreves Fingerings: D4, F#4 Rhythms: dotted rhythms, anacrusis, tied notes Performing pieces in canonic motion Fingerings: C4, E5, F5 Rhythms: semiquavers, syncopated rhythms Performing pieces with accidentals Fingerings: C#4, Eb4, G#4, Bb4, C#5 Performing pieces with key changes Performing pieces with chromatic movement Performing pieces with disjunct melodic contours Table 2: Repertoire corresponding to grade proficiency levels of school-based scope and sequence The flipped classroom is a teaching model where the learning of subject content is shifted outside of the class, to be followed up by the teacher in class (Bäcklund and Hugo, 2018). Although not intended as a part of the formal music curriculum, the learning process initiated by Pied Pipers is comparable to the flipped classroom model. None of the recorder set pieces have been taught to students during regular music lessons. Instead, students are expected to learn the pieces on their own before making an attempt to “challenge for levels”. These set pieces are posted on walls and bulletins all around the school. Students are invited to practise playing their recorders in front of any Pied Piper Poster during recess, class periods and after school. To facilitate The pieces set for students are transcriptions of popular music coming from a variety of genres including classical repertoire, folk songs, film music and video games etc.. Several of the teacher's original compositions were adapted for use as well. All set pieces (Table 2) are specifically arranged or composed so that the techniques (such as fingerings and tonguing) and subject knowledge (such as notation literacy) required to perform each piece correspond to the scope and sequence of different grade proficiency levels in the school-based recorder curriculum. 145 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 1: The YYPSPiedPipers YouTube channel At the challenge booths, if a student fails to perform a set piece adequately, the music teacher or trained student-examiners will help him or her play the piece again by modelling or vocalising proper fingerings, pitches and rhythms or by using other proper techniques. Students are free to visit the music rooms and approach the examiners for extra tutoring even when the challenge booths are closed. The dynamics of students learning set pieces on their own with resources provided out of class and receiving individualised assistance from a tutor resemble those of a flipped classroom. Children possess a natural motive for collection (Baker and Gentry, 1996). Pied Piper Cards are designed to appeal to this natural desire in attempt to motivate them to participate. The aesthetic composition of Pied Piper cards resembles that of the collectable cards in popular trading card games. Each level is associated with the artwork of an original creature presented on the face of each card as well as the posters of set pieces. A minimalistic design was used, composed with simple strokes using only the associated colours for its respective levels. The level-specific colours are intended for helping students identify related materials for each level at a distance. Each card is named after a term commonly found in classical music scores, and shows the name for each level on its faces. The back of the cards allows students to write their names, class and class numbers on their personal collections. effective self-learning, fingering charts are displayed at the bottom of the posters to help students identify correct fingerings for notes in the set pieces. At home, students may also visit the YYPSPiedpiper YouTube channel and practise their skills with the aid of play-along video demonstrations. 146 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 2: A card and a set piece design Methodology The Pied Pipers Program has been operational in three phases at YYPS since March 2017, with each featuring different game mechanics. The present action research study started at the same time with the following questions in mind: (a) How did student participation in Pied Pipers change over time? (b) How effective was the Pied Pipers as a non-formal curriculum in enhancing students’ ability to play the recorder? (c) How did students' perception of playing the recorder change after the implementation of Pied Pipers? Phase 1 (March 10th 2017 – July 7th 2017) featured ten set pieces and Pied Piper cards. Set pieces were arranged into levels. Participants had to make challenge attempts starting from level 1 and progress towards level 10 sequentially. Each student was restricted to only one challenge attempt per day. The level achievements of all students were displayed on a leaderboard mounted in the music room after daily updating by the music teacher. Students attaining level 10 by the end of phase 1 were awarded a new recorder. Details regarding rewards for various levels of achievement were disclosed to students in the beginning of the program. The release of set pieces was arranged to favour sustained engagement and participation. During the initial launch of phase 1, only levels 1 and 2 were available for challenge. Subsequent levels were released in 1-2 week intervals. As a final attempt to attract new participants, an extra level (Level EX) with no level prerequisites or restrictions was introduced two weeks before the cut-off date of the program. Throughout phase 1, students were only allowed to obtain one copy of each card. This measure was intended to boost the novelty of Pied Piper Cards, prevent the lowering 147 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 3 Pied Piper cards released in phase 1 Slight modifications were made to the game mechanics of the program during phase 2 (September 29th 2017 – March 2nd 2018). First of all, the leaderboard system was removed. All cards released in Phase 1 were made available. Students were free to challenge any levels without level pre-requisite restrictions and obtain multiple copies of each card. In addition, new cards with designs based on festivals celebrated in Hong Kong were released monthly throughout the period of the program. Students were only allowed to make one challenge attempt per day, like the case in phase 1. of participation rates caused by students trading or giving cards to their peers, and help students develop an awareness of the need to take care of their own belongings. Figure 4: Pied Piper Cards released in phase 2 Essentially, the game mechanics for Phase 3 (March 14th 2018 – June 29th 2018) were identical to those for phase 1. Students were no longer allowed to challenge for previously released cards. Instead, a completely new series of levels comprising 11 new set pieces and Pied Piper Cards was released, and the leaderboard was reinstalled. Students were expected to progress sequentially from level 1 to level 10 once again. Those who could attain level 10 by the end of phase 1 were awarded with a new recorder. At the onset of phase 3, only levels 1 and 2 were made available (Figure 5). Subsequent levels were released once in 1 to 2 weeks. A newly designed extra level (Level EX) with no prerequisites was released two weeks before the cut-off date of phase 3. Like the case in phase 1, students could only obtain one copy of each card and make one challenge attempt on any day. 148 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 5: Pied Piper cards released in phase 3 Throughout the course of the program, any student who was capable of performing a set piece had to sign in a registry which gave his or her name, class and the Pied Piper Card that had just been obtained. Recorded information was uploaded to a database for analysis. Changes in student participation throughout the different phases of the program were then examined. The effectiveness of the Pied Pipers program was evaluated by analysing the card acquirement record of each student. Since each set piece was corresponding to a grade proficiency level in the school- based recorder curriculum, card acquisition records could show clearly whether students had been prompted by Pied Pipers to perform pieces that were well above their grade proficiency levels. Perceived changes in students' mastery of recorder techniques in relation to the grade proficiency level and scope were then investigated. A questionnaire regarding impressions for the program was administered to participating students (n=189) and non-participants (n=245). The teacher's observations throughout the program were also recorded to provide additional qualitative data about the implementation of Pied Pipers. Findings The study revealed that 55.2% of the 507 Primary 3 to 6 students at YYPS participated in phase 1 of Pied Pipers (n=280). In phase 2, 41.7% (n =213) of 511 students participated in the program. The participation rate of the same student population in phase 3 was 31.7% (n=162), and the player base shrank throughout the three phases (Table 3). Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 Phase 1 72 52 82 84 Phase 2 79 49 56 29 Phase 3 61 40 47 14 Mean 70.67 47.00 61.66 42.33 RSD 12.84% 13.28% 29.47% 87.06% Table 3: Distribution of participants across grade levels 149 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 The grade level with the most drastic decline in playing rate over time was Primary 6. In Phase 1, they had the most number of participants (n=84). However, their participation had dropped significantly in phase 2 (n=29) and remained at lower levels in phase 3 (n=14). The relative standard deviation (RSD) of participation rates across the three phases of Pied Pipers was calculated. The grade level with the most consistent player base was Primary 3. The proportion of Primary 3 students was the largest throughout the program (μ=70.67) with the lowest RSD of 12.84%. In phase 1, an average of 86.4 challenge attempts were made by students weekly. An 7.3% increase in weekly participation rate was made by students in phase 2, when the number of attempts totalled 92.7. The average number of weekly challenge attempts made for phase 3 decreased by 13.7% to 80. Overall, the weekly participation was highest over the course of phase 2. The trend in weekly participation for Pied Pipers is illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 6: Change in weekly participation over time. A high rate of inconsistency in weekly participation could also be noted. The relative standard deviation in overall weekly participation of the program was high (59.04%). When the three phases were compared, participation during phase 2 appeared the most stable with a standard deviation of 42.86% only. The respective values for participation during phase 1 and phase 3 were 80.05% and 53.06% respectively. Primary 3 students were the keenest challengers of all, making an average of 34.41 attempts per week. Primary 6 students were the least active participants and had only 11.88 weekly attempts on average. The rates of participation by Primary 4 and 5 students were more consistent, as shown by their lower relative standard deviation values of 66.55% and 68.27% respectively. 150 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Table 5: Average number of copies a participant owns for cards in their collection in Phase 2 Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 All participants 1.34 1.25 1.16 1.11 1.21 To examine the effectiveness of the Pied Pipers program, students' participation was investigated with cross-reference to their grade proficiency level in the formal recorder curriculum. 40.71%, 63.38% and 45.58% of them were found to have performed at least one piece above their grade proficiency level. Phase 2 allowed students to challenge for any number of copies of Pied Piper cards without level pre-requisites. 40.85% of the participants (n=87) collected extra copies to add to their existing collections. Students at lower grade levels tended to collect more than students at higher grade levels (Table 5). There were five cases with students collecting 7 or more copies of the same card. Table 6: Number of students who had obtained cards above the grade level during each phase Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Total % out of all participants Phase 1 72 27 15 114 40.71% Phase 2 77 39 19 135 63.38% Phase 3 53 27 18 98 45.58% Meanwhile, 434 students in Primary 3 to 6 were given a questionnaire regarding participation in Pied Pipers (Tables 7 and 8). 189 participants and 245 non-participants responded. Results showed that the desire to obtain a full collection, the aesthetics of the cards, enjoyment for the program, interest in music or recorder playing, the wish to challenge oneself and the influence of peers were all major determinants of participation. 90% of the respondents (n=171) expressed that participation in Pied Pipers had led to the improvement of their recorder skills. The obstacles for students' participation in the program included their obligations to other school activities, their feeling that the program was too difficult, as well as a lack of interest. 42% of non- participants who had responded to the questionnaire (n=103) expressed that they would like to join the program next year if time is available. Table 4: Average weekly number of challenge attempts made by students Primary 3 Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6 Phase 1 24.13 17 25 20.27 Phase 2 45.15 19.05 19.05 9.4 Phase 3 29.77 21.15 23.08 6.0 Mean 34.41 18.98 22 11.88 RSD 70.67 66.55 68.27 136.35 151 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Table 7: Responses by participants to question 2 in the questionnaire Reasons for participating in Pied Pipers Number of students I want to collect the cards 178 (94.1%) I like the card designs 176 (93.1%) The program is fun 171 (90.5%) I enjoy playing the recorder/music 169 (89.4%) I want to challenge yourself 154 (81.5%) My friends are also participating 134 (70.8%) Table 8: Responses by non-participants to question 8 in the questionnaire Reasons for not participating in Pied Pipers: Number of students Too busy with duties or other activities 96 (39.2%) Too difficult 61 (20.8%) No interest 45 (18.4%) Prefer other activities during recess 24 (9.8%) Dislike recorder 19 (7.8%) Long queues 12 (4.9%) Others 13 (5.3%) Discussion and analysis A steady decline in the proportion of participants in the Pied Pipers program could be expected as the situational interest of students would decay over time (Palmer, Dixon, and Archer, 2016). The high percentage deviation of weekly participation over the course of the program could be due to a myriad of causes. One of these factors was the large number of other functions, activities and field trips organised throughout the school year. Students might have participated in these events at the expense of Pied Pipers. Another factor contributing to the large variations in participation was the release of new musical pieces from time to time -- there were instant surges in participation by keen collectors who already had good sight reading skills and were therefore capable of performing set pieces almost immediately. Other students might require more time to practise, and thus were less able to participate at once. There was also a wish to wait until after long queues had disappeared. A combination of many factors of course could lead to the fluctuations in overall motivation for participation. Further research is required for identifying these factors and understanding better how these factors interact with each other. The relatively consistent participation during phase 2 could be due to its altered game mechanics. During this phase, students were allowed to challenge for any Pied Piper cards without pre-requisites as well as to collect multiple copies of each card. This relaxation of requirements might have motivated them to participate in the 152 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 program more regularly (Sailer et al., 2013). It is also interesting to note that many students were attracted to get extra copies of the Crescent Pair during this phase. This was the only card in the program that had a set piece arranged as a duet (a piece that required two players). The popularity of this card might be connected to the chance which it gave to students for more interaction among themselves (Shi et al., 2014). Results showed that Primary 3 students had the highest and most consistent participation rates. As the youngest learners of the recorder in school, their transient motivation for mastering a new instrument could have boosted their willingness to participate. This assumption was supported by the spike in their weekly participation rates phase 2, which was the time when they first received recorders of their own. According to the questionnaire results, the lower participation rates of students at higher grade levels was largely attributable to the more numerous obligations they had during recess. As community duties were often given to senior students at these times, so it was natural for them to be unable to participate. One solution to this issue could be to make additional manpower arrangements so that students with duties could challenge for Pied Piper cards outside recess time. 61 students voiced out about the difficulty of the set pieces. The reduction of the overall difficulty of set pieces could encourage weaker recorder players to participate. However, this change should be handled with caution as it might disengage the better ones (Hamari et al., 2016). Without changing the overall difficulty of the program, more set pieces with lower requirements in recorder performance competencies can be released to motivate students who are frightened off by the difficulties. There are limitations to the research model of this study. First of all, students who had failed to obtain Pied Piper cards were not taken account of. The same was true with students who had learnt to play the set pieces as levels were being released but who could not visit challenge booths within the assigned times. The data collected for the study could not fully express the effect of Pied Pipers on student motivation in playing the recorder. The attempt to quantify the effectiveness of the program by comparing participants’ grade levels and the difficulty of pieces that they had to perform had their limitations as well. The results of students being able to perform set pieces above their grade proficiency could be affected by external causes such as whether a participant has received private tutoring outside of school for instrumental techniques or musicianship. Meanwhile, although the evaluation of the overall effectiveness of the program through quantitative means could be somewhat biased, the research method had at least demonstrated that the implementation of Pied Pipers could encourage students to perform above their grade proficiency level. The positive effects of the program is 153 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 evident when looking at results of the questionnaire answered by participants. Almost all questionnaire respondents (90%) agreed that participation in the program had helped them improve their recorder skills. Overall, Pied Pipers has encouraged students to learn more about playing the recorder. Whenever the recess-time bell rang, the school immediately resonated with the sounds of recorders. Huge lines of students were formed outside the music room daily hoping to take part in the challenge. Holders and albums of Pied Piper cards could be seen in the hands of students everywhere. When challenge booths were closed, students gathered in the music room to do their own practice. Many parents commented that the program had motivated their children to practise playing regularly at home as well. The view count of over 26,000 on the YYPSPiedPipers YouTube channel was strong evidence for this observation. Interestingly, the program had also inspired some students to design their own Pied Piper cards and compose their own recorder pieces. A group of Primary 4 students shared with me their YouTube Channel with video demonstrations of their own recorder compositions, in a fashion similar to that of the official channel. Students with very weak fine-motor skills have also approached the music teachers or student- examiners for tutoring on recorder playing techniques due to enhanced interest in Pied Pipers. With the help of extra tutoring and motivation to practise for the program, many of them have become skilful recorder players. There were even alumni who came back for a visit to challenge for the newest Pied Piper cards. The implementation of the program has certainly helped students develop positive attitudes towards recorder playing. Its success can be attributed to the following elements of the program: Figure 8: Pied Piper cards designed by students Figure 7: Students queuing for the Pied Pipers challenge 154 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 9: Students showing off their card collection 1. The use of Pied Piper cards The aesthetic and original designs of the cards definitely played a pivotal role in motivating student participation in Pied Pipers. This is confirmed by the survey results where “card designs” and “desire for collection” were selected by students as the primary factors for their participation. A portion of students might have taken interest because they knew that the cards had been designed by the teacher. Pied Piper cards were taken as more than just a symbol. They had become icons around which the entire program revolved (Figure 9). The aesthetics of the design had helped to get students into the experience of the game (Kapp 2012). 2. Accessibility Posters of Pied Pipers set pieces were placed everywhere inside the campus. Whether students were in the playground, outside the school hall, in the corridor or inside classrooms, they could catch glimpses of the program materials. With little effort, they could already access the set pieces. The permission given to them to roam around the school for the posters has helped to engage students' attention to the program as well (Figure 10). Figure 10: Students learning to play their recorders during recess 3. Support of teachers Colleagues showed much support for the implementation of the programs. Despite the noise, teachers on duty welcomed recorder practices during class periods and recesses. Some colleagues, including the social worker, had even taken up the challenge to collect Pied Piper cards themselves. In Phase 1, a Primary 6 class achieved 100% participation as a result of their class teacher’s direct participation. With non-music teachers showing enthusiasm as well, many students had become more engaged in the program. 4. Synergy with the formal curriculum Just the Pied Pipers program alone is not enough to help students develop into competent recorder players. This informal curriculum was designed to stimulate students to play and practise. Fundamental recorder techniques however can only be mastered through learning experiences in regular music lessons. The basic techniques 155 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 established in music lessons provided students with the necessary skills to approach Pied Pipers. In this connection, increased frequency instrument could lower skill discrepancies within the class. Synergy between the formal music curriculum and Pied Pipers has surely helped to expedite learning in the classroom. 5. Student examiners Before the initial launch of Pied Pipers, the plan was to have five music teachers including the researcher to act as examiners for all challengers throughout the program. However, the overwhelming number of participants had made it very quickly that manpower was not enough. Several Primary 5 and Primary 6 students were therefore trained as helpers. Their duties were to act as examiners, but these soon extended to data collection, management of card inventories, the maintenance of discipline in the music rooms during recess, and tutoring younger students on recorder techniques. By the end of phase 2, a team of 14 student examiners was formed. Their work had become an integral element of success in the program. Many student examiners also took on the role as mentors and receptionists for younger students. When a younger one was unable to perform a set piece adequately, a student examiner would model for him or her and teach the proper recorder techniques. Unsuccessful challengers were given words of consolation, which was considered as a motivational game-based learning by Plass, Homer & Kinzer (2015) for example. The affective support which student examiners provided for their juniors might be an encouraging factor as well. Many of the latter were seen lining up for assistance from the examiners from time to time. In the questionnaire replies, two students had in fact expressed that their wish to become student examiners in the future as their primary reason for participation in the program. Figure 11: Student examiners at work 6. Careful implementation of the program An intricate series of tasks had to be handled from time to time to ensure the successful operation of Pied Pipers. Colleagues' efforts in the coordination of graphic design, composition and arrangement of set pieces, printing of materials, recording and editing and uploading of video demonstrations for each set piece, publication of Pied Piper set pieces, training and organisation of student examiners and communication with other teachers had also contributed greatly to the implementation of program design as a whole and enhanced the quality of program delivery. After all, a well planned and monitored program alignment is essential to the development of gaming experiences for effective learning (Caponetto, Earp and Ott, 2014). 156 Pied Pipers: A gamified non-formal curriculum design intended to enhance student learning motivation for the recorder 教育研究報告匯編 Conclusion The purpose of this action research study was to investigate the effectiveness of Pied Pipers for enhancing student motivation in learning to play the recorder. Results showed that though participation had diminished over time, the program was able to motivate students in learning and playing regularly. It could help students improve their techniques and develop positive attitudes towards the instrument. The success of Pied Pipers could be attributed to the use of aesthetic physical badges in the form of collectable cards, a high level of accessibility to participants, the support of teachers, the synergy of the program to the school-based formal music curriculum, the work of student helpers and the careful implementation of the program. To better understand the capacity of Pied Pipers as a non-formal curriculum model for learning the recorder, further research on how different game mechanics affect the participation and learning effectiveness of students should be conducted. Gaming mechanics that can promote motivation through increased social interaction between participants may be investigated in future for example. 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Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, 8(4), 396–414. 159 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生 高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 劉佩義、易理斯 沙田崇真學校 摘要 本次教學研究的主要目的，是希望透過群文教學去提升學生的高層次思維閱讀和自 主閱讀的態度。研究對象是小學四年級學生，透過課堂上教師對學生多層次提問，並逐 一分析學生在此群文教學中完成的課業，去探究群文閱讀是否能幫助學生提高概括分析 能力，掌握閱讀策略。研究者期望能夠達到以下結果 : 群文閱讀教學能提升學生的高層 次思維閱讀以及促進學生自主閱讀的態度。研究結果顯示配以認知策略的群文教學，能 令學生拓寬閱讀面、提升閱讀深度及提高閱讀興趣。最後本研究也會針對研究結果提出 管理實務建議及說明研究限制。 文獻回顧 教改下閱讀教學的位置 教育局自 2002 年開始提倡「從閱讀中學習」的教育理念（課程發展局，2002）， 但在其閱讀領域的目標並不聚焦。直至在 2014 年，教育局於「從閱讀中學習」的範疇中 描述了學習成果，強調學生透過閱讀聯繫文本以及個人生活經驗，從而反思感悟，建構 對世界的認知。課程文件提到：「學生在閱讀時，可連繫個人知識、學習經歷，以至整 個世界的事務，從而深入理解文本的內涵，建構意義」。基於以上課程發展議會以及教 育局於 2014 年對「從閱讀中學習」這課程理念的闡釋，反映從閱讀語文閱讀逐漸形成以 文學經驗為基礎，資訊經驗為延伸的閱讀過程（謝錫金等，2005）。「從閱讀中學習」 的文件內容，也反映出閱讀涵義是一種功能性語文能力（functional literacy）的概念 （劉潔玲，2009）。 閱讀教學的自主性 在更新的課程文件中（課程發展局，2015）進一步豐富有關語文閱讀的課程目標。 第一，透過運用不同閱讀策略去閱讀，並且著重閱讀素養及深度「拓寬閱讀面，增加閱 讀量，提升閱讀深度」，銳意令學生能發展高階閱讀思維能力，促進對文本作更深入的 思考，得出新的見解。第二， 當局著重學生均能在閱讀的量與質層面上取得學習成果， 並且能運用不同的閱讀策略去閱讀課文以外的閱讀材料。它將閱讀視為是促進自主學習 160 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 的重要因素：「學生具備這種閱讀能力和習慣，將有利於自主地從閱讀中汲取各類新知 識」。如同內地教育學者葉聖陶先生對於語文的閱讀教學的目標同樣是：「期望學生具 有獨立閱讀的能力，同時強調學生的學習自主性」。劉潔玲教授（2009）進一步闡釋不 同層次認知的閱讀教學能促進發展自主閱讀的元素：「轉變為更重視不同層次認知能力 的訓練，通過策略教學幫助學生成為靈活和自主的閱讀者」。 單元教學的流弊 何文勝（2002）指出單元教學的理念是一個有系統而且配合學生認知結構發展的教 學體系，各篇之間的篇章應該要有緊密的聯繫，以體現教學過程的階段性及連續性。然 而，反觀現今的單元設計模式存有不少流弊，尤其是因為閱讀教材之間的排序大多以技 能取向為主，只選取某些語文技法去授課，容易讓學生的閱讀經驗變得零碎。內地學者 洪鎮濤（1993）曾指出內地八十年代盛行的單元教學存有流弊，他提到當時語文教學實 際上是「以指導學生研究語言取代組織學生學習語言，以對語言材料（包括內容和形式） 的詳盡分析取代對語言材料的感受和積累」，他亦提到單元教學容易流於著重語文的工 具性，而忽略人文性。 另外，曹順祥、過常寶（2002）提出由於單元結構本身的連續性和遞進性，以文體 和語文為單元主題，勢必會導致對文體知識和語法知識進行瑣碎的切割，形成一些煩瑣 的知識。單元教學較常見以文體教學模式出現，教師習以為常地將文體劃分成記敘文、 說明文、議論文三類，這種結構分析也只出現在語文教學當中，一旦走出這一領域，這 些基礎知識變得毫無意義。 群文閱讀教學的啟示 群文閱讀教學是老師在一個單位時間內指導學生閱讀一組相關聯的文章，結合教材 及課外讀物，針對相同的議題，進行多文本的閱讀教學（徐秀春，2015）。繼而讓學生 從互動學習中，包括比較、討論等同儕協作學習方式，提升其閱讀數量、速度，及關注 其在多種多樣文章閱讀過程中的意義建構。這種教學令學生集得不同的閱讀策略，再往 後的單篇文章閱讀，或是整本書閱讀中能使用內化的閱讀策略，提升積極主動性。 研究目的 /問題 綜上所述，本研究的目的是鑑於現時教育政策上對閱讀層面的重視、閱讀教學模式 上的轉變、單元教學對長遠語文學習的流弊，另闢蹊徑去進行新的閱讀教學模式。群文 閱讀教學則能彌補單元教學的不足，助於解決當前問題的及教學模式，群文教學能幫助 學生提高概括分析能力，掌握閱讀策略，將理論及實踐相結合，最終使學生拓寬閱讀面， 增加閱讀量，提升閱讀深度，並且令學生能發展高階閱讀思維能力。 1. 群文閱讀教學能否提升學生的高層次思維閱讀？ 2. 群文閱讀教學能否促進學生自主閱讀的態度？ 161 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 研究設計（方法與工具） 研究對象 本研究對象是四年級學生，本校四年級在中文科分為六班，其中五班的各班人數約 25 至 27 人，是按成績平均分班。他們的學習能力、成績等較平均，而學習進度亦是經 五班的中文科任老師共備決定，教學模式亦相約。還有一班為IRTP（抽離式課堂班別）， 這班學生人數較少，只有 8 人。這班的學生各有不同的學習需要，他們的學習能力及成 績較弱，故被抽取出來進行。這班的教材及上課進度需要進行適量調節，為免 影響該班學生學習進度，故將以另外五班作為研究班別。 本研究會以「人與自然的關係」作為群文閱讀教學的主題去設計校本單元，選取不 同文體及作品作為閱讀教材。針對研究問題一，筆者將會以學生的課業作質性研究。在 進行研究期間，為學生設計不同類型的教學活動及札記工作紙（進展性評估），老師憑 著專業觀察及根據學生的札記內容，去檢視學生的學習進展及高思維閱讀能力的提升情 況。 針對研究問題二， 筆者將會因應學生的閱讀興趣進行前後測。在進行研究前會先 讓學生完成問卷及訪談，了解學生在閱讀興趣上的取向。待完成研究計劃後再進行後測 訪談。 計劃進度 階段 時間 研究內容 訪談（前測） 2017 年 12 月 進行初期訪談，了解學生對閱讀興趣的程度，並取得數據。 數據分析 2017 年 12 月 - 2018 年 1 月 分析先導訪談結果，以取得基線資料，初步了解四年級學 生的閱讀興趣及態度。 計劃執行 2018 年 4 月 正式啟動行動研究計劃。 課堂研習、課堂觀察及教師訪談。 中期訪談，了解學生對閱讀興趣的程度改變，以調整教學 模式。 訪談（後測） 2018 年 5 月 進行後期訪談，以取得數據分析研究結果。 總結及反思 2018 年 6 月 研究員總結整個研究結果，反思研究內容，分析學生於計 劃中的學習效能。 2018 年 7 月 -8 月 撰寫書面報告，並於 8月 31 日前呈交教師中心。 預期成果（只適用於教學行動研究計劃） 1. 透過群文閱讀教學，能提升學生的高層次閱讀思維能力。 2. 透過群文閱讀教學，能提升學生的自主閱讀的態度。 162 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 教學設計闡釋 本次教學設計會透過有系統的策略教學結合閱讀的階段，目的是讓學生學習不同的 認知策略，並能有意識及靈活運用，以培養閱讀的自主能力。 本教學設計的主題是「環境與我」，分別以地球（母親）及種子（子女）敘事視角 來感悟大地與人們之間的聯繫。配合主題的探討，本設計以群文閱讀組織閱讀教材的方 式配合學習目標，希望讓學生透過不同性質、題材的閱讀材料，進行不同階段的整合閱 讀，結合不同視角去探討環境與個人之間的情感。 教材的編排理念則是沿用群文閱讀組織教材的理念：整合形取向，從不同的角度去 探討主題，讓學生在其後第三節至第五節進行不同整合對讀的階段：目的是幫助學生從 多元角度去思考閱讀主題。除了饒有趣味的課文及新詩外，還會以繪本《沉睡的種子》 與不同的的文本在不同的閱讀階段進行對讀。外國學者 Hassett 以及 Curwood（2009） 認為繪本是多模態的閱讀材料，能幫助學生拓展建構意義的途徑。Martens（2013）指出 繪本是一種揉合多元模式的讀物，包括：語言、視覺、圖像空間及圖像姿態（Gestural, 指插圖位置的移動），認為繪本的故事性質是圖文相互交織而成的。繪本是適合不同 年齡的學生閱讀的，即使是中年級學生也能將繪本的內容詮釋較為複雜的意義，展現 出洞悉能力（Pantaleo, 2014）。同時，現今的繪本蘊含較為抽象的概念、複雜的主 題，能促進學生在閱讀過程中展現出鑑賞能力以及能詮釋文本的多元意義（Pantaleo, 2014）。繪本能作為蘊含批判閱讀素養的教學。蘊含的這個特質正好與認知取向的閱讀 策略重視讀者展現批判思考的能力遙呼相應（Dole, et al.,1991）。 除了教材上的設計與編排，整個教學設計同時基於進展性評估的理念，以真實性及 多元化的形式去評估學生的理解程度。在感悟作品的階段，則是課堂上的進展性評估課 業，並運用以批判思維為基礎的揣摩評點法。研究者根據每節課的認知策略的教學重點， 設計相關的標準，讓學生去分析作品的內容及作法。當每節課完畢後，學生回家完成的 札記亦是進展性評估之一。目的是讓學生敘寫每節課後閱讀不同材料後的感悟，每次札 記反映學生對大地的形象及種子的視角去體會主題的積累，並反思人類與地球的關係。 課堂研習內容 有關研習內容的編排，本研究結合了書本教材及各種不同類型的課外讀物，在針對 相同的主題上，進行多元的閱讀教學。縱觀以下教材，包含各種類型，如說明文、繪本、 新詩及歌曲，圍繞「環保」這個議題，學生在閱讀篇章時會面對相同的思考、討論、發現， 從而逐步加深對主題的了解。 163 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 課節 篇章 /教學內容 認知閱讀策略 進展性評估課業 主題的面向 第一至 三節 課文（單元四） 《地球媽媽生病了》 （附件一） 說明文智略 摘要策略 擬人法智略 延伸閱讀篇章 《老鷹看世界》 母親（地球）的視野 -地球的現況 -人類與大地的關係 第四至 五節 繪本 《沉睡的種子》 （附件二） 繪本智略 （圖文互讀 分析法） 對種子的聯想 手工製作： 我的大自然萬花筒 孩子（種子）的視野 -生命的起源 第六至 八節 新詩 《愚公外傳》（附件三） 《樹》〈倒下的櫟樹〉 （附件四） 新詩智略 （意象分析） -意象 情感 對樹木的聯想 人類與大地的關係 -環保 -人類對地球的影響 第九節 歌曲 《還地球幸福的笑臉》 （附件五） 聆聽理解能力 學生想法分享 總結性課業 反思人類能為地球做的事 結果與討論 提升學生高層次閱讀思維能力 回應第一項研究預期成果，透過群文閱讀教學，能提升學生的高層次閱讀思維能力， 尤其是外國學者 Anderson 等人（Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D.R., 2001） 修訂了 Bloom 的閱讀能力層次提倡的認知歷程向度（cognitive process dimension）裏的分析 （analyzing）及評鑑（evaluating）兩個較高層次的思維能力。以下會從不同階段的教 學及學生的課業去闡述學生這兩方面閱讀思維能力的提升。 在分析層次的思維能力方面，在這研究中，筆者利用課本文章《地球媽媽生病了》， 從地球的視角與學生分析地球現在面臨的情況，讓學生了解整個地球現在處於危難之中。 教師先運用說明文及摘要策略（「總 - 分 - 總」說明文文體圖式）教導學生閱讀文章， 讓學生掌握應用能力（applying）後，以延伸閱讀篇章《老鷹看世界》去檢視學生掌握 摘要策略的情況（此為應用能力），繼而需要讓學生從動物的角度去分析人類活動（城 市發展）對大地造成的影響。 學生了解地球的狀況後，教師帶領學生從種子的視覺看生命的起源，感悟種子和 地球的關係。透過閱讀繪本《沉睡的種子》，以圖文閱讀分析法讓學生掌握閱讀繪本的 策略。根據學生在課後的進展性評估（附件六）表現可以得知，學生普遍能聯繫繪本細 節，歸納及分析種子的特點，並且能體會種子的生命及生存對地球的正面影響，更從中 學習種子對生存的執著的品德情意。學生運用「勇敢」、「聰明」、「獨立」等詞語形 容種子，可見學生的分析能力提升，他們能了解繪本中帶出種子生存意志的頑強，並反 思種子對地球的生存意義。 在評鑑層次的思維能力方面，筆者設計的新詩課業中（附件三及四《愚公外傳》和 《樹》<倒下的櫟樹 >），以意象分析與學生探討人類與大地的關係，從而反思環保的議 題，評鑑人類對地球的影響。經過老師在課堂中以六層次提問問題（附件七）引導學生 逐層推展理解新詩內容及意像，為學生提供具體的方法歸納篇章的重點。在理解新詩內 164 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 容後，學生分組討論地球環境過去及現在的狀況，並分析人類對地球的影響。從圖片中 （附件八）可見，學生能從廣度及深度歸納出地球的轉變，以匯報的形式向班上同學展 示所思所想，把地球面臨的危機訴說出來。另外，在進展性評估（附件七）亦能從改寫 櫟樹的命運這問題中，引發學生反思人類對地球的作為，思考人類該如何幫助地球。 在最後一節課，教師以一首討論環保議題的歌曲《還地球幸福的笑臉》作為總結。 歌曲傳播環保的概念，希望為海洋環保增添力量，同時以這首歌曲帶出即使我們個人的 力量微小，但集腋成裘能為地球帶來正面的改變。學生在聆聽歌曲後完成最後一份進展 性評估課業（附件九），反思本主題教學單元學習到的閱讀策略及品德情意。從學生課 業中可得知學生均能整合整個群文閱讀的主題（大自然、環保與珍惜等關鍵字詞），並 且能連結自己的日常生活，反思有何生活例子可以回應主題（環保）。 提升學生自主閱讀態度 回應第二項研究預期成果，透過群文閱讀教學，能部分提升學生的自主閱讀態度。 在前期訪談（附件十），與學生進行了一項問卷調查。數據所得發現在單元教學的學習 模式下，對閱讀產生興趣的學生並不多。在研究對象五班四年級學生 132 人當中只有 10 人對閱讀有興趣，普遍認為現行的教學模式（單元教學）課程沉悶，閱讀篇章未能引起 閱讀興趣。直至中期（計劃執行期間），再次進行問卷調查。在同一問卷題目中，學生 經過五節群文教學模式下學習閱讀策略後，對閱讀產生興趣的學生增加至 70 人，升幅高 達七倍，原因一般為篇章體裁不同，增加閱讀新鮮感。至整個群文教學完結，對閱讀產 生興趣的學生人數升至 126 人，達致預期成果。 學生除了對閱讀提升興趣，更喜歡以群文教學模式學習，附件十一的圖表顯示全級 百分之九十六的學生也喜歡群文教學學習模式。在最後的訪談中，許同學認為群文教學 圍繞同一主題，但文章體裁不同，讓她更有興趣閱讀，期待下一篇篇章的出現。及後班 中更有學生自行找了有關本研究主題（環保）的新聞報導與老師、同學分享，這種學習 精神正正是自主學習的態度提升。 研究限制和改善之處 是次研究的方法較集中於學生的課業作質化研究，雖然能分析學生在分析以及評鑑 題目上的表現，但忽略了其他影響發展高層次閱讀能力的因素，比如是學生的閱讀習慣 以及閱讀書籍的數量等。 因此，這個研究可以改善之處是將學生分為不同的組別並進行 前後測，蒐集學生在進行研究前後在高層次思維閱讀的表現作對比，以及分析其他影響 因素，並進行 T- 檢測（T-test）或 inferential statistical test，蒐集更多客觀的 數據，為日後的優化群文組織的框架作參考。 另外，是次研究實踐時間較短，未能針對學生的學習情況作緊密追縱。閱讀素養及 能力非短期能培養，本次研究員在兼顧教學、行政、活動等事務，只能將是次研究模式 165 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 實踐於一個單元上。雖然這九節課也能初步發現學生透過主題式的群文閱讀教學模式可 以提升自主閱讀興趣，惟未能進一步追縱不同學習程度學生的學習情況。如學校有時間 及空間，可以將群文教學應用於整個校本課程上，並組成一隊核心小組編排相關課程。 長期進行群文閱讀教學，對培養學生高層次閱讀思維及自主閱讀能力更有幫助。 結論與建議 群文閱讀與主題統整 本次研究圍繞環保的人文議題，群文閱讀教學對發掘人文主題有正面的影響。尤其 是透過不同面向的閱讀材料幫助學生建構對主題的認識，代入不同的視角去反思篇章中 不同人物的立場，從而批判人類對環境的態度以及行為，最後幫助學生有意識地整合整 個教學中的閱讀篇章。群文閱讀教學的確能在閱讀的廣度讓學生接觸不同切入點去了解 學習主題，避免了單元教學以能力為組織的主題割裂的流弊，同時也能兼顧學習語文的 人文性（對主題的感悟與反思）以及工具性（閱讀思維策略）。 老師設計了一項手工製作的教學任務，讓學生把大自然中不起眼的種子、花朵等帶 回校製作萬花筒，融合繪本中種子與地球關係在生活中。這項教學設計進一步強化學生 的概念知識（conceptual knowledge）（Bloom, 2001），能有效協助他們聯繫生活知識， 發掘主題。除此之外，在進行行動研究期間，學生在課堂中投入討論、積極分享的態度 更是令人鼓舞。群文閱讀教學模式鼓勵學生透過閱讀不同題材的文章來學習，當中提供 不少討論、匯報的學習時間。學生在課堂中越來越投入，更能主動發言，清楚表達自己 的意見，亦能根據組員的意見給予適當的回饋。學生在愉快、輕鬆的環境下學習，課堂 學習氣氛濃厚，使學生更能吸收學習內容，參與課堂的機會大大增加。然而，本教學研 究歷時不長，對於學生提高自主閱讀態度的影響不明顯，而群文閱讀教學對教師選材及 自設課程的要求較高，因而有以下的建議： 群文閱讀的選材編排 閱讀篇章對閱讀教學十分重要，選材優秀則能對理解主題點石成精，否則無法打動 學生。筆者建議前線教師可以圍繞主題選取不同文體的閱讀教材，並且以不同的作者視 野讓學生接觸閱讀的廣度，並且配以不同文體（genre），讓學生最後能建構文體智略 （schema）。在此需要注意的是教師在選材時，要重視一些典型突出的文體特點，才能 讓學生透過這些策略去處理較深層次的閱讀。 加強運用電子平台 群文閱讀教學的一個特點是著重學生理解主題的過程。隨著不同篇章的輸入，學生 能根據這些篇章的不同角度視野的切入，作出多角度（以這次研究為例，可以從城市發 展、萬物生命的價值以及對大自然的獲取與回饋這些方面）思考，並且對主題理解有所 166 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 不同。因此，前線教師若運用電子平台讓學生在不同的閱讀階段進行分享，加強學生之 間的互動，則能加深學生個人與群體間的品讀與感悟。 跨學科閱讀課程與資源 群文閱讀與範文教學模式往往容易混淆。筆者認為兩者的差異是在於拓展閱讀廣度 後有否加深學生對主題的發掘。那麼，教師可以如何透過群文閱讀教學來增加閱讀的深 度呢？更新的課程文件（課程發展議會，2015）中強調學校需要建立圍繞同一主題的跨 科閱讀課程，設立跨學科閱讀課程的目的同樣也是圍繞培養學生高階思維能力。當局推 動的跨學科閱讀課程與當中的資源（時間），是將語文科習得的閱讀策略作為支點，作 為閱讀其他科目材料的共通能力，若如能夠長期推行，也能幫助學生建立自主閱讀的態 度。更重要的是這樣的跨學科課程及資源，可以讓群文閱讀教學發揮最大的教學效益。 同時，教師著重不同篇章之間的比較與整合，會有助學生發掘主題的深度。 參考文獻 何文勝（2002）：建構語文單元教學設計的理論依據：兼論語文單元教學的組元方法， 載何文勝、編、何國祥及譚邦和（合編）《新世紀的中國語文教育》，頁 91-112， 香港，香港教育學院。 洪鎮濤（1993）。〈是學習語言，還是研究語言——淺論語文教學的一個誤區〉。《中 學語文》，第 5卷。 徐秀春（2015）。〈當前小學群文閱讀教學研究綜述〉。《小學教學參考》，第11卷，1-4。 曹順祥、過常寶（2002）。〈談談中國語文科的單元教學設計 〉。《啟思教學通訊》， 第 2卷，7-11。 劉潔玲（2009）。〈香港中學生在國際學生評估計畫的閱讀表現對語文課程改革的啟示〉。 《教育科學研究期刊》，第 54 卷，第 2期，85-104。 課程發展局（2002）。《從閱讀中學習。基礎教育課程指引 – 各盡所能 ‧ 發揮所長 （小一至中三）》。取自 https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum- development/doc-reports/guide-basic-edu-curriculum/be_chi_cover.pdf. 課程發展局（2015）。《學校課程持續更新︰聚焦、深化、持續：更新中國語文教育 學 習 領 域 課 程 》。 取 自 https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum- development/renewal/CLE/ppt_CLE%20KLA.pdf. 謝錫金，林偉業，林裕康，羅嘉怡（2005）。《兒童閱讀能力進展：香港與國際比較》。 香港：香港大學出版社。 167 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 Anderson, L. 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Journal of Children’s Literature, 40(1), 15–26. 168 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件一：課文（單元四）《地球媽媽生病了》 169 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件二：《沉睡的種子》進展性工作紙 170 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件三：新詩《愚公外傳》 附件四：《樹》<倒下的櫟樹 > 171 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件五：《還地球幸福笑臉》歌曲 172 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件六：繪本《沉睡的種子》-進展性評估表現 附件七： 173 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件八：學生匯報及分享 附件九：進展性評估課業學生作品 174 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及自主閱讀的態度 教育研究報告匯編 附件十：學生在不同階段對閱讀產生興趣的人數統計 附件十一：喜歡群文學習教學模式人數統計（後測） 175 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 探討運用電子學習資源來提升 學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 麥桂英、徐智強、黃錦杏、戴英傑、劉珈瑗、何諾衡、何澤華 青松侯寶垣小學 摘要 在第一學習階段中，學生在三年級開始接觸分數。學生要學好分數，老師須在教學 設計上花心思，再配合教具的應用或實物操作，才能讓學生建立鞏固的分數概念。本行 動研究旨在探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能，研究對象為三、四年級 共九班學生。研究員運用了各種電子學習資源包括電子分享平台、電子即時評估軟件及 分數應用軟件來幫助學生建構分數概念。從前測、後測及學生問卷的結果顯示，運用電 子學習資源既能幫助學生有效學習分數外，亦能提升學生的學習動機。 研究背景 分數是小三學生首次接觸的課題，分數概念較整數概念更為抽象。他們要經歷從學 習整數過渡到學習分數，當中會遇上學習困難。整數概念對於初小學生是比較容易理解 的，因為他們在生活中是經常接觸到整數。例如：小明有兩粒糖，這件事對他們很容易 理解，因為他們曾有親身看見及觸摸過兩粒糖的經驗。當學生開始學習分數時，他們要 明白到分數作為一個物件（整體）的部分及分數作為一組物件（整體）的部分，加上要 掌握比較分數的大小，如果沒有實體操作及圖像的協助下，他們往往會墮入分數的迷思 中。例如：比較同分子異分母的分數時，會得出 1/5>1/3 的結果。這是因為學生受整數 的概念及運算所影響，導致學習分數時出現的錯誤。課程發展議會（2014，分章 3D，頁 4）提及「資訊科技能強而有力地激發學習動機，亦能照顧不同學習需要的學生。透過設 置饒富趣味的學習環境，因應不同學生的學習特性，能促使他們運用相關的資訊科技技 能，獲取及建構知識。」江紹祥（2007）亦指出運用電子資源作為認知工具能夠有效提 昇學生學習分數的效能。有見及此，本校於三及四年級教授分數時，引入各種電子資源， 包括：促進學習分享交流的軟件 Nearpod，促進進展性評估的軟件 Plickers 及 Kahoot， 及幫助學生建構分數的認知軟件。 176 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究目的 是次行動研究旨在探討三、四年級學生使用電子學習資源能提升學生對學習「分數」 概念的效能。其中包括以下兩個目的： 1. 使用電子學習資源能提升學生學習分數的效能。 2. 使用電子學習資源能幫助學生理解及掌握各種分數比較的策略。 文獻探討 分數概念學習的研究及建議 不少學者都一直對有關學生的分數能力進行研究，希望找出數值學習和分數學習之 間的關係。鄭振初（2006）引述Kieren於1988年把有理數的學習分為為整體和分部關係、 比例、分數、量度和運算這五個範疇。Kieren 認為學生分數學得不好的原因，是分數和 整數各有不同心理領域，學生要用不同的心像圖、操作過程和語言來學習分數概念。鄭 振初（2006）亦引述 Behr And Post 於 1988 年指出要學好分數必須要先多做整數運算， 和多學習量度和面積概念。很多研究者認為學習分數的難處在於學生不能把舊知識過渡 到新知識，學生無法用「數學」的計算方法或概念來認識分數。鄭振初（2006）提出教 授分數概念其中的一個建議是「用圖形解釋分數問題」，以加深對分數概念的認識。因 此本研究選取一些以用圖形解釋分數概念的認知軟件，讓學生能夠建構分數概念。 電子學習環境促進學習 隨著資訊科技在教育領域的廣泛應用，由電子資源和電子通訊衍生的電子學習環境， 已為學校教育帶來的種種機遇。江紹祥（2011）指出研究顯示認知工具能透過具體可操 控的教學設計輔助認知過程（Coffey, 2005; Ware, 2004），減少認知負荷（Sweller & Chandler, 1994），幫助學生理解抽象的概念（Wheeler, Yeomans, & Wheeler, 2008）。例如：學生可親手操控專門為學習分數設計的認知工具，藉著具體的圖形來理解 抽象的分數概念。正如梁玉麟、勞傅燕華和江巧妍（2011）所言，「分數的概念則較為抽 象，涉及把整數均分後再取份，是學生學習的一個難點。」江紹祥（2011）指出教師透過 電子學習不但可更具效率地向全班學生派發及開啟工作紙，更可隨時轉播投射某項教學內 容及學生學習成果（Bottge, Rueda, Kwon, Grant, & Laroque, 2009）。教師若能配合 良好的教學設計，則可進一步運用電子通訊環境把高效教室經營成為利於互動學習的環 境。故此，我們期望藉此行動研究，探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能， 協助學生理解這個抽象的學習難點。以下為是次研究中運用的各項電子學習資源的特色： 177 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 1: 各項電子學習資源的特色 電子學習資源 特 色 Plickers 作為促進學習的進展性評估軟件之一，老師透過 Plickers 網站製作題目庫，可在 課堂開始及完結時即時收集學生數據。它的好處是學生只需手持獨有的圖咭便能 回答選擇題，除了提昇老師檢視學生學習成效的效率外，也能大大降低對資訊科 技硬件的要求。 Kahoot 作為促進學習的進展性評估軟件之一，學生利用平板電腦進行學習。除了能讓老 師檢視和收集學生學習數據外，它的好處是富有精美的畫面和吸引的聲效，能大 大提昇學生的學習動機。 Nearpod 學習及分享交流的軟件，除了能提供一個平台讓學生即時展示學習成果外，也能讓 老師作出即時回饋及讓學生之間作出分享和交流，大大提昇師生及生生互動的機會。 分數應用軟件 作為學習分數的認知工具，軟件中運用圖像及重疊功能幫助學生建構分數概念、 增強分數的數字感，及有助學生發展各種分數比較策略。 研究設計及過程 是次行動研究我們以「老師作為研究者」的觀點來推展，以前測、後測及學生問卷 調查來收集資料，然後進行分析和反思，並以 Spss 軟件（Paired Samples T-Test）瞭 解本次研究的真實成效。參與是次研究分別為三年級共五班及四年級共四班。三年級共 有五班：一班為挑選班（學生能力最高）、一班為次挑選班（學生能力稍高），另外三 班為普通班（學生能力一般）。四年級共有四班：一班為挑選班（學生能力最高）、一 班為次挑選班（學生能力稍高），另外兩班為普通班（學生能力一般）。是次研究沒有 設立對照組，所有班別都引入電子資源教授分數，以前測及後測成績作對照，來監定學 生在電子學習模式下能否提升學習分數的效能。 是次研究共分為三個階段，分別是預備階段、執行階段及總結階段。下表為有關各 階段的日程： 階段 進行項目 三年級 四年級 預備階段 擬訂研究計劃目的 2017 年 10 月至 2018 年 2 月設計研究方法和工具 文獻探討 執行階段 前測 2018 年 4 月至 2018 年 5 月 2018 年 3 月至 2018 年 4 月 分析前測資料 擬訂教學流程和活動 實施教學 總結階段 進行後測 問卷調查 分析後測資料 資料整理 2018 年 6 月至 2018 年 7 月 2018 年 5 月至 2018 年 7 月撰寫報告 表 2: 研究計劃實施階段 178 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 預備階段於 2017 年 10 月至 2018 年 2 月期間進行，我們在預備階段中主要是擬定 是次研究計劃的問題及目的、設計研究方法和工具，以及作文獻回顧。 執行階段於 2018 年 3 月至 2018 年 5 月期間進行，我們在此階段進行前測，收集學 生對此課題的認識程度及找出學習難點。我們亦藉著所收集前測數據，按每班學生學習 差異設計每節學習目標，以便提升學習效能。下表分別為三、四年級的教學流程及教學 目標： 表 3：三、四年級的教學流程及教學目標 年級 施行時段 學習單元 教學目標 電子學習資源 四 年 級 2018 年 3 月至 2018 年 4 月 4N7 分數二 分數比較 運用 作為中間人來比較異分母分數的大小。 Plickers、分數應用軟件 運用「分子分母之差」來比較異分母分數的 大小。 Plickers、Nearpod 運用「通分母」來比較異分母分數的大小。 Plickers、Nearpod 運用「通分子」來比較異分母分數的大小。 Plickers、Nearpod 三 年 級 2018 年 4 月至 2018 年 5 月 3N6 分數一 分數的 認識（一） （二）及 分數的 比較 認識分數作為整體的部分。 Plickers、Nearpod、 分數應用軟件認識分數與 1的關係。 認識分數作為一組物件的部分。 Plickers、Nearpod、 Kahoot、分數應用軟件依總數和分數找出一組物件的部分是多少。 比較同分子分數的大小。 Plickers、Nearpod、 Kahoot、分數應用軟件比較同分母分數的大小。 老師在教授各教學目標時，均會按需要而運用不同的電子學習資源，包括有：協 助學生建構分數概念的分數應用軟件（圖 1-3）、促進生生互動及培養學生辨別能力的 Nearpod、及促進學習的評估工具 --Plickers 和 Kahoot。老師每完成一個學習目標，均 會運用 Plickers 即時收集學生在課堂上的數據，以便課後老師就著數據來分析學生對該 課節學習目標的掌握程度。如發現整班學生對該課節的學習目標掌握未如理想，老師即 時調整下一節的教學內容及策略，以加強學生對此目標的掌握程度。如老師發現某些學 生學習表現未如理想，會於下一節課堂對他們進行個別指導。 （圖 1） （圖 2） （圖 3） 179 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 當完成整個教學單元後，老師便會進行後測及問卷調查。老師運用這些結果分析學 生對分數概念的學習效能。老師亦藉此檢討整個單元的教學策略，並針對教學難點作出 優化，供來年科任老師參考。此外，老師從數據中找出學習未如理想的學生，並作出個 別指導。最後，老師把搜集所得的資料作分析及整理，然後撰寫報告。 研究結果及分析 三年級研究結果： 老師在教授「分數的認識」及「分數的比較」此兩個課題，分別各進行了一次前測 及一次後測（附件一及附件二）。前測目的是了解學生的已有知識及將會學習的內容的 掌握程度，以便老師找出學生的不足之處及學習難點，以編定教案設計、選取合適電子 學習軟件、編排 Nearpod 互動教學活動、擬定及編排 Plickers 小測題目及 Kahoot 問答 遊戲題目。 根據前測1各班答對率（附件五）顯示，我們發現學生對分數的各部分名稱（第1題）、 認識「分數作為一組物件的部分的認識」（第 5 題）及認識「依總數和分數找出一組物件 的部分是多少」（第 7-9 題）的概念表現稍遜。對於小學生首次接觸分數來說，實在有點 抽象。完成前測 1後，我們利用 Nearpod 設計互動教學活動，活動中以圖形或圖案為主， 配合生活化情境，讓學生更具體掌握分數的概念。 Nearpod 互動教學活動（分數的認識一、二） １. 以下是按前測 1第 1題所擬的題目： 請在下圖的分數中，標示出「分子」和「分母」。 學生於 Nearpod 上回答： 透過學生在Nearpod上寫出「分子」和「分母」，加強對分數的各部分名稱的掌握。 180 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 （b）承上題，1 隻比卡超從樹後跳出來，現在比卡超佔全部寵物小精靈的幾分 之幾？ 學生於 Nearpod 上回答： 透過學生在 Nearpod 上寫出添加比卡超數量後（1 隻比卡超從樹後跳出來），學生 能掌握比卡超的數量（分子）增加時，而寵物小精靈的總數量（分母）也同時增加。 3. 以下是按前測 1第 8題所擬的題目： 明輝有 12 個蘋果，他把蘋果平均分成 6 份，每天吃掉 1 份。請在下圖圈出 6 份蘋 果的分組方法。 問：明輝共吃掉了所有蘋果的 1/6，他共吃了蘋果多少個？ 學生於 Nearpod 上回答： 2. 以下是按前測 1第 7題所擬的題目： （a）比卡超佔全部寵物小精靈的幾分之幾？ 學生於 Nearpod 上回答： 181 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 透過學生在 Nearpod 上把蘋果的總數均分為 6 等分，具體地顯示均分的份數，再找 出其中一個等份的數量，即 12 的 1/6 是 2，加強學生對這個概念的掌握。 表 4：三年級前測 1及後測 1（分數的認識一、二）全級答對率分析 全級人數為 103 人 題號 測試目標 前測 1 平均答對率 後測 1 平均答對率 平均進步 百分率 Q1 對分數的各部分名稱的認識：寫出分子和分母 52% 95% +43% Q2a 對分數作為整體部分的認識：把全個蛋糕的 填色 91% 98% +7% Q2b 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識：把 4 件蛋糕中的 （吃去的部分）圈出 86% 94% +8% Q3 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識：找出部分物件（足 球）佔全部物件（球）的幾分之幾。 63% 92% +29% Q4 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識：找出部分物件（沒 有着色的星星）佔全部物件（星星）的幾分之幾。 64% 87% +23% Q5 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識：添加物件數量後 （多一粒草莓放進水果禮盒），部分物件的數量（分子） 增加了，而物件的總數量（分母）也同時增加。 41% 73% +32% Q6 對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識：找出部分物件（黃 色波子）佔全部物件（波子）的幾分之幾。 69% 91% +22% Q7 測試學生對分數作為一組物件的部分的認識：添加物 件數量後（再送給3粒黃色波子），部分物件的數量（分 子）增加了，而物件的總數量（分母）也同時增加。 19% 60% +41% Q8a 依總數和分數找出一組物件的部分是多少：（先把橙 分成 5等份，圈出 2份，找出 10 的 是 4） 16% 75% +59% Q8b 依總數和分數找出一組物件的部分是多少：（先把橙 分成 5等份，圈出 2份） 17% 64% +47% 平均分（滿分 10） 5.1 8.3 +3.2 表 5：三年級前測 1及後測 1成績比較 注：*P<0.05 測試滿分：10 分 平均值 標準差 t 顯著性（雙尾） 前測 1 －後測 1 -3.1400 .8620 -8.146 .001* 從前測 1 及後測 1 的結果（表 4）顯示，三年級學生的第一次前後測成績有顯著的 進步，以10分為滿分，成績由前測的平均5.1分提升到後測的8.3分，平均進步了3.2分。 再者，題目1、7及8是全級平均進步百分率最高的三道題目，各平均進步達40%或以上。 以成對樣本 T檢定（Paired Sample T-Test）比較三年級學生第一次前測和後測的 差異，數據顯示前測（M = 5.14，Sd = 1.44）和後測（M = 8.28，Sd = 1.32）的得分 存在顯著的差異 ; T（4）= -8.15，P = 0.001。從結果顯示，運用電子學習軟件有助提 升學生學習分數的效能。除了提升學生的學習興趣外，還能夠協助他們掌握概念，並且 能增加課堂的互動性。 182 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 （圖 7） （圖 4） （圖 5） （圖 6） 表 6：三年級前測 2及後測 2（分數的比較）全級答對率分析 全級人數為 103 人 題號 測試目標 前測 2 平均答對率 後測 2 平均答對率 平均進步 百分率 Q1 圖像題：比較同分母分數的大小的掌握。 （涉及兩個、三個分數） 58% 84% +26% Q2 46% 56% +10% Q3 算式題：比較同分母分數的大小的掌握。 （涉及三個分數） 80% 87% +7% Q4 63% 86% +23% Q5 算式題：比較同分母分數的大小及同分子分數的大小 的掌握，從而比較三個分數的大小。 27% 69% +42% Q6 開放題：比較同分子分數或同分母分數大小 的掌握。（涉及兩個分數） 73% 87% +14% Q7 47% 84% +37% 平均分（滿分 7） 3.9 5.5 +1.6 學生完成「分數的認識」這課題後，跟著學習「分數的比較」。根據前測 2 各班答 對率（附件七）顯示，我們發現學生在比較三個分數的大小方面（第5題），表現明顯稍遜。 於是，我們利用分數應用軟件於課堂活動中，學生使用這個軟件來比較同分子分數的大 小 （ 例如：比較 與 的大小）（圖 4及圖 5），確實很有幫助，尤其圖形的重疊展示功能 （圖 6及圖 7），在提升學生學習分數的效能方面，比起以往的單向式簡報更為有效。 表 7：三年級前測 2及後測 2成績比較 注：*P<0.05 測試滿分：7分 平均值 標準差 t 顯著性（雙尾） 前測 2 －後測 2 -1.5600 .4506 -7.742 .001* 前測2及後測2的結果（表6）顯示，三年級學生的第二次前後測成績有明顯的進步， 以7分為滿分，成績由前測的平均3.9分提升到後測的5.5分，平均進步了1.6分。再者， 題目 5是全級平均進步百分率最高的題目，平均進步達 42%。 183 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 以成對樣本 T檢定（Paired Sample T-Test）比較三年級學生第二次前測和後測的 差異，數據顯示前測（M = 3.94，Sd = 0.74）和後測（M = 5.5，Sd = 0.94）的得分存 在顯著的差異 ; T（4）= -7.74，P = 0.001。從結果顯示，運用分數應用軟件協助學生 掌握分數比較的概念具有一定的成效。 四年級研究結果： 老師在教授「分數比較」這單元前進行了一次前測。前測目的是了解學生對已有知 識及對將會學習的知識的掌握程度，以便老師找出學生的不足之處及學習難點，對於稍 後的教案設計有著很大的幫助。四年級前測共有 11 題（附件三），我們設計了第 1 至 8 題來評估學生對於三年級時已學會的「基本分數認識」的掌握程度。而第 9至 12 題則用 作評估學生對將會學習的「分數比較」的掌握程度。附件九為各題目的評估目標及結果。 前測 從這次前測結果中，我們發現學生對於部份已有知識的掌握程度不太理想，例如第 1 題和第 6 題。在第 1 題中，只有 62% 的同學完全答對。完全答對的是指同學能選出正 確答案 C 和 E。25% 學生只選了答案 C 或答案 E。大部份答錯的同學都是多選了答案 A 或 答案 D。由此可見，部分學生對於「均分」概念還未鞏固，所以我們應加強學生對均分 概念的掌握。由第 6 題的結果顯示，只有大約六成學生能完全答對 6B 及 6C 的問題。答 錯的同學錯誤認為 大過一半，亦有部份同學錯誤認為 少過一半。由此可見當分母是一 個奇數時，學生便較難於辨別這個分數的一半是多少。因此在是次的教學設計中，我們 加強了學生對 的掌握，從而懂得利用以 作為中間人進行分數的比較。 學生對於將會學習的「分數比較」的掌握程度不高，只有 47% 的同學答對第 10題， 部份學生錯誤認為 > > 。我們期望在稍後的課節中，透過探究活動讓同學能發現「分 子分母相差一」的分數比較當中的規律。此外，只有 32% 的同學答對第 12 題，有部份同 學將答案錯誤地寫為 >2> > 。由此反映當學生面對多個分數比較時，未能掌握同時 運用多於 1項的策略來處理這類題目。 歸納以上前測的結果及分析，我們有以下結論： 1. 同學對於分數的已有知識基本上已掌握，但仍需加強鞏固「均分」概念； 2. 需加強鞏固以 作為中間人來比較分數的大小； 3. 只有 47% 同學答對「分子分母相差 1」的分數比較題目，我們希望能藉着探究活動讓 學生發現「分子分母相差 1」的分數比較的規律和意義。 4. 同學比較多個分數時表現較差，部份同學未能適當運用各種策略來比較多個分數。 就着這次前測的結果和分析，四年級老師設計了以下的教學策略及運用各項電子資 源來達至本研究的兩項目的。當分母是一個奇數時（例如 ），學生難以辨別這個分數是 否大於一半。因此，教師要加強 概念及教授「 作為中間人來比較分數策略」。於是， 184 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 我們運用了以下這個分數認知工具幫助學生鞏固 的概念。首先著學生在軟件中按出 和 的分數圖像（圖 8），然後利用軟件的重疊功能把 和 的圖像重疊一起（圖 9），於是 學生便能清楚看見兩個分數圖像的大小是相同的（圖 10），從而明白兩者分數的數值是 相等。透過幾次的實際操作，學生「看見」以下結果： = = = ，再而自行發現出「當 分數值是 時，分子ｘ 2= 分母或分母是分子的 2倍。」（圖 11） （圖 10） （圖 11） （圖 8） （圖 9） （圖 12） （圖 13） （圖 14） 當學生掌握 分數概念後，透過軟件的協助下能進一步鞏固以「 作為中間人」來比 較異分子分母分數的大小。首先，著學生在軟件上按出 的分數圖像（圖 12），然後利 用軟件的重疊功能把 和 的圖像重疊（圖 13），學生便能清楚看見 比 小（圖 14）。 跟著，學生依照工作紙上的步驟進行估計、驗證及計算（圖 15），更能發現出「當分數 值大於 時，分子ｘ 2 是比分母大。」及「當分數值小於 時，分子ｘ 2 是比分母小。」 這兩項的關係。 185 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 （圖 15） 在教授「分子分母相差一」、「通分母」及「通分子」此三個分數比較的策略時， 四年級老師除了用工作紙去引導學生建構分數比較策略的概念外，還運用了 Nearpod 此 電子平台讓學生互相分享他們發現的結果（圖 16）。正如以上文獻探討部分中，江紹祥 博士及一些學者指出，電子資源大大提高了學生交流分享的效率，使課室成為一個互動 學習的地方。自運用了Nearpod作為分享學生作品的平台後，不但提高學生的學習動機， 亦使學生們更加投入和主動去發現各種分數比較策略的概念。老師透過 Nearpod 亦可即 時檢視學生的工作紙，並能有效率地挑選出學生佳作或學習難點作展示，讓全班同學一 起學習和討論，從中使他們培養出互相欣賞、評鑑及學習的能力。課堂完結後，老師更 可運用 Nearpod 的紀錄，去檢視學生的學習進度及成效，藉此找出學習未如理想的學生 作出跟進，及調整下一課節的教學目標及策略。 （圖 16） 後測 教授「分數比較」整個單元後，我們進行了一次後測（附件四），目的是了解學生 對已會學習的知識的掌握程度，及評估我們的教學策略是否有效。此外，這些寶貴資料 亦會用作明年教授此單元時參考之用。在這次後測中，第 1、2、3A、3B、3C 和 4 題是和 前測卷（附件三）中的第 6、10 至 12 題相同或十分類似，目的是評估學生經過這次學習 186 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 8：四年級前測及後測全級答對率分析 前測 題號 後測 題號 評估目標 前測 平均答對率 後測 平均答對率 上升 幅度 Q6 Q1 認識大於、小於、等於 的概念 66% 81% 15% Q10 Q2 懂得分子分母相差一的分數比較 47% 84% 37% Q11a Q3a 懂得以擴分或約分來比較分數 50% 87% 37% Q11b Q3b 懂得利用帶分數及假分數互化來比較分數 50% 92% 42% Q12 Q4 懂得利用各種策略比較假分數、帶分數、真分數的大小 32% 85% 53% 表 9：四年級前測及後測成績比較 注：*P<0.05 測試滿分：10 分 平均值 標準差 t 顯著性（雙尾） 前測－後測 -1.44000 .11776 -24.457 .000 整體而言，四年級學生的前後測成績有顯著進步。以 10 為滿分，他們的成績由前 測的平均 7.1 分提升到後測的 8.5 分，平均進步了 1.4 分（附件九及附件十）。以成對 樣本 T 檢定（Paired Sample T-Test）比較四年級學生前測和後測的差異，數據顯示前 測（M = 7.0，Sd = 0.84）和後測（M = 8.5，Sd = 0.73）的得分存在顯著的差異; T（3） = -24.46，P = 0.001。從結果顯示，運用電子學習軟件有助提升學生學習分數的效能。 此外，從後測結果得知，約 80-90%（第 1 至 5 題數據）的同學都能懂得運用以下策 略來比較分數： 1. 為中間人 2. 分子分母相差一 3. 通分母； 4. 通分子； 5. 懂得先以整數部分來比較分數大小，再用通分母來比較。 當同學面對四個或以上的分數比較（第6題）時，就只有約75%的同學能完全答對。 由此可見，當要同時運用多個分數比較策略時，少部份同學仍未能完全掌握或靈活運用 不同策略來作分數比較。 單元後是否有進步。第 3D、3E、5、6、7 題則用作評估在學生是否懂得運用通分母、通 分子及各種策略來比較分數。後測結果可參閱附件十。 後測分析及前後測比較 我們把前測和後測的結果來作比較，發現學生在後測第1、2、3A、3B、3C和4題（即 前測中的第 6、9 至 12 題）中的表現都有進步。從以下數據（表 8）顯示，學生經過這 次學習單元後，對於某些學習重點掌握程度有著明顯的進步，尤其以後測第 4 題最為顯 著，由前測的平均 32% 提升到後測的 85%，平均上升了 53%。 187 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 10：四年級學生運用各種分數比較的策略統計 *總人次為 69 人，即所有答對第 7題的人數。 分數比較的策略 人次 通分子 16 通分母 43 先用大於 、然後通分子 2 先用大於 、然後通分母 4 先運用通分母比較（ 和 ），再運用通分子比較（ 和 ） 3 先運用通分子比較（ 和 ），再運用通分母比較（ 和 ） 1 我們特別設計了第 7 題（解難題），目的是想看看同學在解難過程中運用了甚麼策 略，以下是同學運用了各種策略的統計數字： 從以上數據（表 10）得知，86% 同學（59 人）都只懂得運用單一策略來解決這條分 數比較難題，而只有 14%（10 人）的同學會採用多於一種的分數比較策略。由此可見， 當同學面對分母的數字是比較小（不大於 12）的多個分數比較時，同學偏向只用通分母 或通分子來將全部分數的分母或分子統一，然後再作比較。原因是通分母或通分子是一 個「萬試萬靈」的方法，同學只要懂得「通分母」或「通分子」，便能比較多個分數。 最令我們意外的是雖然有超過 80% 同學已掌握 1/2 「作中間人」的策略，但只有 6 位（7%）同學懂得或願意先運用大於 1/2 作標準，然後再運用通分母或通分子來比較餘 下的分數。其實這個方法是最快捷簡單的，但卻只有少數的同學懂得或願意運用。原因 可能是同學對分數的數字感仍然不強，未能很快找出大於或小於一半的分數。再者，他 們可能是執意著只使用一招殺手鐧—「通分子」或「通分母」來比較分數。這點很值得 我們明年在教授「分數比較」時再作深入探討。 學生的觀感 完成整個單元教學後，三、四年級老師與學生進行了一次問卷調查，藉此收集學生 對運用電子資源學習分數的一些主觀感受。調查結果（表 11）顯示，大部分三年級及四 年級學生均認為電子學習資源有助他們理解分數的概念。此外，84% 三年級學生及 79% 四年級學生十分同意電子學習資源有助他們掌握如何比較分數的大小。由此可見，學生 都認同電子學習資源對他們學習分數是具有效能的。 表 11：三、四年級學生問卷調查結果 年級 十分同意 同意 不同意 十分不同意 透過電子學習資源， 有助我理解分數的概念。 P.3 90.9% 6.9% 1.1% 1.1% P.4 82.4% 17.6% 0% 0% 透過電子學習資源，有助我掌握如何比較同分母分數 的大小及同分子分數的大小。 P.3 84.1% 10.2% 3.4% 2.3% 透過電子學習資源，有助我掌握如何比較分數。 P.4 78.8% 21.2% 0% 0% 188 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 反思與結論 是次研究利用成對樣本 T 檢定及各項數據表述工具作分析，報告顯示三、四年級學 生在使用電子學習資源下，在課堂前後有顯著的差異。學生運用分數認知軟件協助建構 分數的概念、以 Nearpod 來進行分享和互動交流，並利用 Plickers 和 Kahoot 作為即時 的進展性評估，確實能夠提升他們學習分數的效能及幫助他們理解和掌握各種分數比較 的策略。學生對分數學習不再感到艱深及抽象，反之，逐漸地增強他們學習分數的信心 及興趣。 從參與老師的意見中，他們認為運用電子學習資源後，學生的學習動機提升了不少， 課室亦變為高效互動的學習環境。正如江紹祥（2011）所言，「教師若能配合良好的教 學設計，可進一步運用電子通訊環境把高效教室經營成為一個利於互動學習的環境」。 為提升學與教效能，在未來的教學中，我們仍會繼續運用電子學習資源進行教學，並加 強校內專業交流文化。總結而言，這是一次成功的行動研究，效果非常理想，不但能提 升學生學習分數的效能，亦加強了學校的團隊協作文化及增進教師的專業知識和能力。 參考文獻 江紹祥（2007）。《數碼教室與教學效能的提升》。2017 年 10 月 7 日，取自 http:// www.hkedcity.net/article/teacher_tv_seminar/120727001/Dr._KONG_Siu_ Cheung.pdf。 江紹祥（2011）。〈電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第10卷， 1-8。 梁玉麟、勞傅燕華和江巧妍（2011）。《數學課堂學習研究實踐與數學基本概念的教學》。 中國：安徽教育出版社。 郭永賢（2011）。《課堂學習研究概論》。中國：安徽教育出版社。 鄭振初（2006）。《分數教學分析：概念和運算》。台北：九章出版社。 課程發展議會（2014）。《基礎教育課程指引─聚焦‧深化‧持續（小一至小六）》。 香港：教育局。 Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., Kwon, J. M., Grant, T., & LaRoque, P. (2009). Assessing and tracking students’ problem solving performances in anchored learning environments. Education Tech Research Development, 57, 529-552. Coffey, J. (2005). LEO: A concept map based course visualization tool for instructors and students. In S. O. Tergan, & T. Keller (Eds.), Knowledge and information visualization (pp. 285-301). Berlin, Germany: Springer. 189 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1994¬). Why some material is difficult to learn. Cognition and Instruction, 12(3), 185-233. Wheeler, S., Yeomans, P., & Wheeler, D. (2008). The good, the bad and the wiki: Evaluating student generated content for collaborative learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 987-995. 190 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 191 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 192 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件二 193 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件三 194 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 195 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 196 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件四 197 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 198 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件五 199 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件六 200 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件七 附件八 201 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件九 202 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件十 203 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件十一 204 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件十二 205 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件十三 206 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 207 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件十四 208 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的效能的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件十五 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 209 教育研究報告匯編 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 林偉倫 仁德天主教小學 摘要 「時間」本身概念複雜抽象，可是「時間」主要在初小的數學課程內教授，使到小 朋友學習相關概念倍感吃力，當中三年級學生需要計算時距 –「開始時間」、「活動時 間」及「結束時間」，而學生表現強差人意，原因往往是學生混淆「60 進制」和「10 進 制」。因此，是次的教學研究計劃會針對上述學習問題，以行動研究的方式，以自製一 套的「時間線」去教授學生找出「開始時間」、「活動時間」及「結束時間」，並以此 進一步探討及比較一般教科書教授時距的教學成效。 關鍵詞 時間，時距，60 進制，10 進制，開始時間，活動時間，結束時間 本校由 1983 年創辦，是位於屯門的一所屋邨學校。由 09/10 年度起，本校推行 ，以加強學與教效能。本校於 17/18 年度開設 22 班，當中三年級設有五班，另設 有數學加強輔導班（共 6班），目的是希望學生在數學科的學習差異縮窄。 研究背景 「時間」本身概念複雜抽象，而時間課題有很多教學目標。馮振業（2010）指出時 刻的描述比日期的描述複雜，前者包括文字報時、指針鐘面報時、跳字鐘面報時，當中 還要分 12 小時報時制和 24 小時報時制兩種。除了教學目標廣泛外，教學時間亦十分緊 迫，學生未能及時進行鞏固深化，學習相關概念倍感吃力。台灣學者陳雪枝（2002）的 研究結果指出，二年級到三年級之間的學童已具備初步時刻概念。四年級以上的學童則 更能精確掌握時刻概念。另一位台灣學者陳穗秋（2002）在訪談時指出，學童要到四年 級以上才具有完整的順序概念，至於完整的週期概念則是六年級以上的學童才具備。著 名發展心理學家 Piaget（trans. 1969）指出學生時間概念的發展是要經過一段相當複 雜的發展過程。 可是根據數學教育學習領域－數學課程指引（小一至小六）（香港課程發展議會， 2000），所有時間的課題全部在第一學習階段完成。而到了三年級時，學生需要學習計 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 210 教育研究報告匯編 算時距 –「活動時間」及「結束時間」及 12 小時報時制及 24 小時報時制的轉換。可是 去到高年級時候，竟然沒有與時間相關的課題，以致學生表現有很大的差距。其實學生 本身對時間差距有初步概念，可是不同的教科書中提及不同的報時方式和教授方法，實 在影響了學生對於時間進位「60 進制」和一般運算「10 進制」的混淆，這正正是學生在 時間度量範疇表現未如理想的主因。因此，是次的教學研究計劃會針對上述學習問題， 以行動研究的方式，以自製一套的「時間線」去教授學生找出「活動時間」及「結束時 間」，並以此進一步探討及比較使用一般教科書進行教授時距的教學成效。 研究目的和問題 有別於長度、重量和容量等其他「度量」範疇的課題，「時間」課題的內容重點以 生活應用為主，而並非運用學生以往方法：先直接比較→走向自訂單位→到最後介紹公 認單位。當學生在二年級開始除了要記下「年」、「月」、「日」、「星期」、「時」、 「分」不同的時間單位外，還要學習將「聯動鐘」或「跳字鐘」進行報時，甚或要將「跳 字鐘」轉化為「指針鐘面」去記錄報時，形成了認知衝突。另外，二年級學生更需要對 指針走動的正比例規律有一定的理解，對他們而言實在十分吃力。學生到了三年級學習 各時間單位的關係，在單位化聚部分會把數學「10進制」的方式拿來當作時間的進退位， 使對時間量容易產生錯覺，因為 1日＝ 24 時，但 1 小時＝ 60 分和 1分鐘＝ 60 秒是兩種 化聚單位量。它們一個是「滿 24 進 1」，一個是「滿 60 進 1」，容易混淆。本研究採前 後測設計的研究方式，去評估學生是否能夠掌握所學，並以這些數據去探討其教學成效。 提出下列的研究問題，以作為資料收集和分析探討的方向： 首先，採用時間線進行時距教學時，教師如何教授及考量的重點是甚麼？ 其次，探討採用時間線融入時距概念教學的班別（實驗組），其教學成效是否較普 通教學班別（對照組）為佳？ 研究方法 是次研究對象是三年級學生，3班共67人。三班能力相若，將會分為實驗組(3C班 ) 及對照組（3B及3E班），實驗組會採用自製「時間線」去教授學生找出「開始時間」、「活 動時間」及「結束時間」。對照組則根據教科書（1.透過撥動聯動鐘找出時間及運用「時 間直式」去找出時間）去教授學生。各班人數分佈如下（表一）： 表一：各班學生人數 班別 學生人數 3C（實驗組） 21 人 3B（對照組） 22 人 3E（對照組） 24 人 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 211 教育研究報告匯編 本研究主要利用前測及後測得實驗形式，結合教學活動的觀察及學生訪談，收集好 以上資料及數據作研究用。研究員首先透過前測卷（附件一）評估學生的時間觀念，以 了解學生是否混淆時分之間的關係。前測卷分為「活動用去時間」（甲部）、「結束時間」 （乙部）兩個部份，共 10 題。完成前測後，研究員發現 3班學生表現最弱的部分為「活 動用去時間」（涉及「時」「分」及「分」「秒」的活動時間），研究員於是根據學生 的前測表現，選取表現最弱的部份進行課堂教學活動。 在進行課堂教學活動後，研究員會以相應的後測卷（附件二）分析實驗組與對照組 學生的學習成效。後測卷的題目類型會稍微調整（題目主要為學生前測較弱的部份）， 但是其深淺程度不變。之後完成整個教學及後測流程後，研究員也會從實驗組選出 6 位 學生（能力高中低各兩位）進行單獨訪談，目的是收集學生的感受和意見（附件三）。 結合上述數據，探究時間線教學是否能夠達到「學、教、評」三大方面。 教科書的教授時間計算方法主要分為兩種：透過撥動聯動鐘找出時間及運用「時間 直式」去找出時間。 是次課堂設計會嘗試運用時間線的橫軸（下稱「神奇時間線」）表徵入手，因為這 樣會令到時間的時刻和時間的關連較容易突顯。它並沒有跟從教科書採用圓形鐘面上呈 現，設計目的是避免學生混淆時間的大小刻度，也避免了學生運用「時間直式」去找出 活動時間。「神奇時間線」是以時及時半作中間人，讓學生小心處理跨時或跨分（滿 60 進 1）的問題。（見圖一） 圖一：「神奇時間線」示例 有了方法和工具，其教學策略會先將時間的化聚「先聚再化」，意思指較細單位（例 如：分）累進成較大單位（例如：時）叫「聚」，由較大單位（例如：日）分成較細單位（例 如：時）叫「化」。教學活動的設計需要配合三年級學生的認知發展。會先做「聚成」部分， 然後做「化成」部分，各部分題目的層次採由簡到繁，層層遞進。以圖一「神奇時間線」 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 212 教育研究報告匯編 圖二：本校校本教學策略 學生觀察「神奇時間線」然後個人思考→之後與鄰座互相討論問題→再向全體同學 口述解題結果（配合本校「思考、討論、分享」的教學模式）→之後記錄解題結果→最 後由學生親自寫出解題的摘要紀錄（教案詳見附件四）。 據課堂觀察所得，學生的學習動機不俗，能夠積極回應教師所設計的「神奇時間線」 進行課堂活動。起初教師引入「神奇時間線」這個學習工具時，學生感覺會有點不知所 措，特別教師最初示範列出「神奇時間線」去找出時間距離的步驟時，學生更有點一頭 霧水。但是經過教師深入示範、講述及梳理後，大部份學生在課堂中段漸漸掌握透過「神 奇時間線」去找出時間距離，部份能力較高的同學化身作「小老師」，即場協助較弱的 同學完成題目。 授課完畢後會利用後測及訪談去評估學生的表現，從而得知採用時間線的教學效能 是否較其他組別高。希望透過上述的教學策略去了解學生學習時距的學習成效。 研究結果及分析 是次有 1 班為實驗組（運用神奇時間線去進行教學），兩班為控制組（運用教科書 教授），採用兩班作為控制組的原因是想取較多控制組的資料去比對實驗組學生的資料。 「實驗組」學生在參與是次研究後，在找出「活動時間」及「結束時間」都有所進步， 以下為測試結果（表二）： Independent Samples T-Test 備註：A 為實驗組，B 為控制組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。 表二：實驗組、控制組之前測成績比較 學生數目 平均差 顯著性 顯著性 ( 雙尾 ) A-B 67 1.34 0.114 0.001 為例，教師會先著學生找出開始時間與整時相距多久（30 分鐘），然後再著學生找出整 時與結束時間相距多久（15 分鐘），最後再將兩者相加便可以找出答案，其教學流程如 下（圖二）： 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 213 教育研究報告匯編 根據 Independent Samples T-Test，「實驗組」（M=12.95、 SD=1）和「控制 組」（M=12.51、 SD=1.47）在前測的成績並沒有任何顯著之分別，而 p>.0 5 ﹏ p =0.001）；這反映出「實驗組」和「控制組」學生能力相約（表三）。 Paired Samples T-Test 表三：實驗組、控制組之前測成績比較 平均數前後比較 學生人數 標準差 平均數的標準誤 t值 A（前測 -後測） 3.05 21 1.33 0.29 -7.27 B（前測 -後測） 2 46 1.59 0.23 -6.11 根據 Paired Samples T-test，「實驗組」學生的平均得分有顯著的上升，但是相 對而言，實驗組學生的進步分數較控制組學生為高。這就是說，以「神奇時間線」作為 找時間距離的教學策略是有成效的。另外，比較兩班前測卷及後測卷的平均分數，也發 現實驗組及對照組學生後測卷的平均分數都較前測卷為高，詳見圖三。 圖三：各班學生前測及後測分數 三班在施教後的答對率均有明顯的上升，當中實驗組在「活動用去時間」表現有顯著 進步。從學生課堂及後測表現情況來看，這次運用「神奇時間線」而不採用撥動聯動鐘及 「時間直式」的教學模式大致上是成功的，學生大致上能夠掌握相關的時間計算技巧。根 據前測卷及後測卷來看，三班學生在甲部（找出活動時間）及乙部（結束時間）的表現有 不同程度的進步，當中 3C班（實驗組）學生較另外兩班（對照組）有顯著的進步。 質性資料能反映出「實驗組」學生認同是次研究具有一定的成效，透過學生訪談可 以獲得可信及準確的資料，好讓研究員作出比較分析。時間線應用在教學實踐，主要想 試驗學生在不用時間直式及撥動聯動鐘的情況下，運用「神奇時間線」去找出兩個時刻 之間的時間距離。研究員當初還很擔心學生未能掌握所學，因此在所有教學活動完結後， 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 214 教育研究報告匯編 圖四：實驗組學生上課情況 圖五：教師正指導實驗組學生 如何繪畫「神奇時間線」 反思及建議 是次研究大致上能夠讓學生提供一種另類方法去處理時間距離的問題。但是也有一 些反思空間，詳列如下 : 誠如上述所說，運用「神奇時間線」找出「活動時間」及「結束時間」步驟較為繁複。 學生作答「跨分鐘」或「跨小時」的題目，需要留意是否「滿 60 進一」。另外，涉及同 時處理「分、秒」和「時、分」更需要分開兩個單位處理。研究員在課堂上備有口訣讓 學生深化，但是仍然須要反思一下如果再教授此課題時，如何將課堂聚焦、深化及持續， 從而促進學與教的效能。 其次，研究員在施行此教學策略時所學的節數較其他班別為長，研究員認為因為這 是教師與學生第一次教授和學習，教師需要較多時間去摸索。故此研究員建議可以提早 訪問了 6 位分別高中低能力的實驗組學生，他們給研究院員的反應不俗，他們一致認為 去年學習時間這個課題教師教授的方法比較抽象，不容易理解。但經過這系列的課堂後， 他們都同意撇除了時間直式可以讓他們減少「滿 60 進 1」的混淆與及「神奇時間線」可 以讓他們容易找出活動時間及結束時間。 「我覺得課堂用時間線去計算答案較用直式去計算更加清晰，不用轉換太多（時間） 單位，我十分喜歡用這種方法。」（高能力學生 1） 「用直線（神奇時間線）去找出活動時間十分有趣，老師不斷教我們用畫彩虹去逐 步找出答案，我很喜歡老師教學。」（中能力學生 1） 「我可以用簡單的加法去計算答案」（低能力學生 1） 但是，中能力及低能力學生指出運用「神奇時間線」找出「活動時間」及「結束時間」 步驟較為繁複，這部份值得令研究員商榷。 「用神奇時間線去找出活動時間步驟太多，又要畫彩虹又要將小時和分鐘分開處理 （相加）。」（中能力學生 2） 「要記住的步驟好多，如果簡單一點就好了。」（低能力學生 2） 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 215 教育研究報告匯編 由二年級時間課題教授，好讓二年級學生提早掌握「神奇時間線」的教學步驟及模式。 另外，教師也可以將這種教學策略分享予其他數學科同事，透過共同備課及同儕觀課， 他們可以將教學設計優化，從而作出修訂，讓這種教學策略能夠承傳起來。 圖六：教師正教授如何運用 「神奇時間線」 圖七：學生與全班分享及討論答案 總結 綜合以上資料，研究員發現運用時間線去教授時間距離的策略大致上是成功的。學 生在三年級與二年級學習時間課題的方式，與時間線造成認知衝突，但是他們很快便能 夠適應「神奇時間線」的繪畫和解答步驟。總括而言，受訪學生皆認同本次教學策略， 研究員希望透過這次機會能夠拋磚引玉，與初小數學老師分享教授處理跨時或跨分（滿 60 進 1）的時間距離的問題。 參考文獻 香港課程發展議會（2000）。《數學課程指引（小一至小六）》。香港：香港教育署。 陳雪枝（2002）。《報讀時刻之研究》。台灣：國立台北師範學院數理教育研究所碩士論文。 陳穗秋（2002）。《國小學童的時間順序與週期概念》。台灣：國立台北師範學院數理 教育研究所碩士論文。 馮振業（2010）。〈時間教學的疑難及困擾〉。《數學教育》，第 29 期，2-9。 鍾靜、鄧玉芬、鄭淑珍（2003）。〈學童生活中時間概念之初探研究〉。《國立臺北師 範學院學報》，第 16 卷，第 1期，1-38。 Piaget, J. (1969). The Child’s Conception of Time. (A. J. Pomerans, Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Scott, K. (1997). The Acquisition of Some Conversational Time Concepts by Pre- School Children. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24-28, 1997). ED407155. 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 216 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 217 教育研究報告匯編 附件二 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 218 教育研究報告匯編 附件三 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 219 教育研究報告匯編 附件四 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 220 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 221 教育研究報告匯編 摘要 本次研究目的以培養幼兒建立科學探索精神，並透過第一身體驗及操作對日常生活 的事物有更具體和深入的認識。當中幼兒能在過程中體驗空氣與風的特徵，鼓勵他們主 動探索生活中的科學，並將所掌握的科學概念嘗試應用在日常生活中。本次研究會讓幼 兒參與校本編排的科學實驗活動，讓幼兒透過親身體驗及操作，更具體理解「空氣與風」 的概念，從而思考如何在日常生活中進行應用。研究結果顯示，在研究員引導下，幼兒 進行一系列體驗的科學活動後，幼兒在各項評估項目中均有進步。他們能更具體了解「空 氣與風」，對日常生活科學的探索的意識亦有所提升。 研究的背景、研究動機 幼兒在一個豐富的教學環境下，讓他們有機會進行探索和體驗，在操作的過程中， 會刺激他們運用邏輯推理能力解決問題（Venger, 1988）。Vygotsky（1986） 指出，兒 童學習抽象的科學概念時，必須有親身操作的經驗，從而引發他們的思考。幼兒生活中 離不開「空氣」和「風」，但其概念較為抽象。本次研究針對 5 至 6 歲高班幼兒，他們 開始學習抽象的概念，但更需要配合具體的操作經驗。學者周淑惠（2003）曾經提出「具 體操作」和「抽象概念」是互相影響，緊密交織。幼兒在學習抽象的科學概念時，若能 配合具體操作的經驗，更能發展一個穩固的概念系統。 幼兒在學習新知識的過程，會透過感覺、想像、組織之間相互作用，從而建構知識 （周淑惠，2003）。他們應透過一系列相關聯、有系統和組織的活動，並基於幼兒舊有 生活經驗。實際操作活動能夠引導幼兒邏輯思維發展，從而協助他們建構知識（林寶山， 1989）。在過往的教學中，幼兒只是較為單向及欠缺操作的機會，未能具體掌握相關概 念。期望透過是次研究能探討體驗及操作式教學的好處，從而提升教學效率。其中，這 次行動研究的概念較為抽象，過往不同的教學計劃及教材套，亦未有詳細地探討此主題。 因此，本研究會設計著重感官及操作的教學計劃，並以「空氣」和「風」作為主題。 透過體驗及操作式教學， 提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 溫志倫、陸矜兒、韓詠恩 保良局瀝源幼稚園暨幼兒園 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 222 教育研究報告匯編 文獻探討 本研究在教學設計的理念是參考建構式學習。它是一種科學研究出來的學習理論， 也是重視學習者身心之間的主動歷程。在過程中，幼兒透過觀察、提問、整理和反省來 建構知識。他們需要透過具體操作學習相關知識和概念。研究員將運用此教學理念在本 研究時持續實踐此理論。幼兒對於教師提出的問題會作出不同角度的思考。這個過程可 以激發幼兒探究的欲望，實驗是科學過程的重要特徵（周淑惠，1998），它所根據的假 設是幼兒透過經驗和親身參與科學實驗，能夠將所學知識概念與生活聯繫並且加以運用。 幼兒階段是要通過提問並對相關事物或事件進行簡單的觀察、調查與研究來理解概 念，從而掌握有關的科學內容（吳放，2007）。本研究也著重讓幼兒親身操作，為他們提 供發現學習的機會，及由經驗中發現道理的學習過程（柯谷蘭，2004）。課程發展議會 （2017）鼓勵幼兒運用多種感官進行探索，以發現大自然的奇趣事物和現象，並探索這 些現象與我們日常生活的關係。Vygotsky（1986）指出，幼兒必須以經驗來思考科學概念。 具體（自發性概念）與抽象（正式科學概念）之間來回思索，二者相互影響、緊密交織 成長，最後才可以發展成一個穩固的概念系統（周淑惠，2003）。課程發展議會（2017） 建議教師宜盡量讓幼兒在自然環境和真實世界中親身進行探索和發現知識。本研究設計 教學計劃時，會按課程發展議會（2017）內選擇容易觀察、變化明顯和步驟簡單的活動 給幼兒參與。 關鍵字的定義 杜威的「教育即生活」觀念是教學要重視幫助幼兒發展思想、增加生活技能的興趣。 杜威（1992）認為教師應儘量設計與幼兒生活經驗有關的科學活動，讓新知識的學習有參 照點，易於移轉，並從中增進學習效果（周淑惠，1998）。是次研究的老師也選擇空氣 和風，這是幼兒日常生活常接觸的事物。也是從兒童的能力、興趣、需要出發，與其生 活經驗有關，促進兒童在原有基礎上繼續發展（Ralph Martin.,C.J，2002）。在「操作 式幼兒科學活動」中，本研究強調以幼兒第一身經驗作為學習科學方法。布魯納（Bruner） 強調教材設計應配合幼兒的表徵發展階段，故此幼兒透過感官及直接操作去學習科學是 最佳的方法（施燕，1999）。幼兒透過五官來體驗，從實踐中學習，更能培養解難能力（課 程發展議會，2017）。 空氣在自然狀態下空氣是無色無味無臭的，並佔有空間（邱照麟，2000）。它的特 性是較為抽象、較為難知覺（張敬宜，2000）。我們生活的環境中空氣無所不在，它的 流動會生成風。對多數仍處於具體操作期的高班幼兒，空氣的特徵比較抽象。本研究將 運用生活事物（見附件八），讓幼兒體驗空氣的存在，使抽象的概念具體化。空氣的上 下流動叫做「對流」，空氣水平移動便是風。風是大規模的氣體流動現象。氣象學經常 用風的大小和風的方向來描述風。 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 223 教育研究報告匯編 空氣和風在幼兒生活中無處不在，幼兒天生對自然事物充滿興趣。大自然有很多有 趣的現象，本研究會以簡單和具體為原則，設計一系列生活化的活動讓幼兒能透過操弄 實物和教具，運用多感官進行探索，從而引發他們了解抽象的科學概念。研究者再以日 常生活的經驗，讓幼兒初步認識現今科技與我們的關係，並引起他們探索這些現象與我 們生活關係的興趣。 研究目的 研究員計劃透過是次教學活動，讓教師有機會在增強操作機會下，更為有效地引導 幼兒掌握抽象的科學概念。教師會設計一系列校本的體驗式活動（見附件九），讓幼兒 參與其中和操作用具（見附件八），引發幼兒的好奇心和學習動機，來建構他們的抽象 概念。讓幼兒將抽象的概念（即：空氣和風）與生活事物互相連接，帶到生活應用的層 面上。幼兒需要從直接的生活經驗、感官的接觸、富趣味的活動來學習。 研究員在下學期安排高班教師，利用評量表（見附件二），以了解幼兒對掌握空氣 與風概念的情況。研究為期 3 個月，由 2018 年 1 月至 2018 年 3 月，每星期 2 堂，每堂 三十五分鐘，共設計 10節教學活動。本次研究以校內 40位 5-6歲高班幼兒為研究對象， 當中按幼兒的能力平均分成兩組，分別是控制組和實驗組，每組 20 人作為是次研究對象 （見附件一）。 研究問題 1. 甚麼是「空氣」和「風」的概念？ 2. 幼兒如何有效學習「空氣與風」之間的關連概念？ 3. 體驗及操作式教學與主題教學的對比？ 研究過程 研究採用行動研究法，參與幼兒會進行前測及後測，當中設計 10 個教學活動（見 附件九），分別從「空氣的存在」以及「風的特徵」角度出發，作檢視研究對象的變項 及分析結果。為了切合主題，研究會根據每個向度，選取不同的教學用具配合課堂教學。 讓幼兒能透過第一身感受體驗空氣形成風的過程，藉此加深幼兒對各個課題的認識、關 注和興趣。本次行動研究，是以幼兒園高班為對象，將全級幼兒按能力平均分為兩組， 即是實驗組及對照組，再配合教師的課堂檢討和記錄作研究方法。實驗組會為幼兒進行 體驗和操作式教學活動，對照組則按校本的課程來認識這兩個概念。對照組主要是在主 題「秋天」中，以主題書形式引導幼兒建立風的概念。在推行教學計劃期間，研究員會 觀察幼兒的表現並作記錄，客觀分析幼兒之表現。然後再替兩組幼兒進行後測，並把前 測和後測的結果進行數據處理及分析，以評估教學成效。 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 224 教育研究報告匯編 研究者為參與研究的高班幼兒進行前測及後測（見附件二），他會先自行編寫評估 表，評量研究對象在前測時取得的基線和在後測的結果，以分析和撰寫幼兒對空氣和風 的概念。「質」和「量」測試同步進行，研究者會為課堂作現場觀察及記錄幼兒參與教 學活動的表現，當中包括教學檢討（記錄當天教學情況及其對「風」和「空氣」的教學 活動反思），過程中有助研究員了解教學成效，對於研究對象概念掌握和探究幼兒對空 氣與風的認知均有幫助。 項目內容 實行時間 項目目的 搜集階段 9/2017- 12/2017 - 尋找支持的理論根據 -準備合適的教具 -佈置教學環境 前期評估 12/2017- 1/2018 - 設計評估表及準備評估工具 -評估幼兒已掌握的科學概念情況 -了解幼兒對空氣與風概念，從而設定合適的教學計劃 實施階段 1/2018- 3/2018 - 推行體驗和操作式教學活動，促進幼兒對空氣與風的興趣和掌握相關 概念 整理階段 1/2018- 5/2018 - 評估幼兒經過教學計劃後的學習成效 -整理資料及分析活動成效 分析撰寫階段 4/2018 - 分析兩組幼兒在前測與後測之間的分別，以了解教學法的成效 -個人反思 -總結活動成效 研究分析 經過兩組幼兒在前測和後測的統計後（見表一），研究結果顯示實驗組平均對掌握 空氣與風的概念，有 72.22% 的增長，對照組有平均 2.22% 的增長。即是實驗組比較對照 組有 7成的增長，反映體驗及操作式教學有助幼兒明白空氣與風的概念。在設計及推行具 體驗及操作式教學活動（見附件九）後，幼兒能按他們的認知能力，自行探索空氣的存在。 幼兒能運用感官認識空氣的存在，再進一步體驗風的形成。較過往在「秋天」的主題中， 他們利用以課本 /教材套學習得更為有效和具體。其中本研究的教學活動「空氣追追追」 中幼兒能運用可觀察的塑膠袋找出空氣，使空氣更具體化，教師讓幼兒明白空氣的存在， 他們便可以逐步掌握風是空氣流動，以身體來體驗風的流動（見附件九），幼兒透過觀 察肥皂水和吹泡泡的活動中，明白空氣存在及吹泡泡的泡泡在空氣中飄動，以證明風的 存在。本研究的教學教具亦分出層次，按幼兒的興趣和能力，逐步發展。研究員先提供 膠袋及氣球讓幼兒找出物件內的空氣，以了解空氣的存在，並運用吹泡泡以深化幼兒對 空氣的存在及初步認識風的流動。其後，教師提供風車、電風扇及風力船，讓幼兒認識 風速、風向和風力，並運用測風機找出風的力量，以主動探索空氣與風。本研究課堂設 計的目的是讓幼兒體驗空氣與風的存在，並透過教具（見附件八）讓幼兒在操作過程中， 了解空氣與風的關係，以便進一步探索空氣與風在日常生活的關係。 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 225 教育研究報告匯編 評估項目 實驗組在前測與 後測增加百分比 對照組在前測與 後測增加百分比 1能說出如何運用感官證明充氣物品內存在空氣，例如： 用手按壓皮球。 95% 5% 2 能說出空氣在生活中的運用，例如：將物品充氣。 80% 0% 3 能說出風在生活中的運用，例如：吹乾衣物。 85% 5% 4 能說出充氣物品在打氣前後的兩項變化。 50% 5% 5 能運用兩個身體部位產生風，例如：口、手。 60% 0% 6 能說出如何利用物品證明空氣的存在，例如：膠袋。 75% 0% 7 能說出如何利用物品證明風的存在，例如：風車。 65% 0% 8 能說出空氣的兩項特性，例如：無色、無味。 70% 5% 9 能說出風是由流動的空氣形成。 70% 0% 平均增長率 72.22% 2.22% 表一：兩組前測與後測的百分比（附件六至七）自行做到的表現 在教學計劃中，幼兒透過與人或環境之間的互動，進行實物操弄和探索，從而掌握 「空氣與風」之間的概念。教師在幼兒學習過程中，設計真實的情景，使幼兒體驗如何 解決問題。由不同的物品證明空氣的存在，再進一步尋找風的來源。在實驗組和對照組 的幼兒中，在評估表中（見附件六）題號 1：能說出如何運用感官證明充氣物品內存在 空氣，例如：用手按壓皮球，有 9 成 5 的差異，即表示幼兒較少運用感官來體驗和證明 空氣的存在。在題號 2 中：他們能說出空氣在生活中的運用，例如：將物品充氣，有 8 成的差異。這反映幼兒能透過體驗式學習，將經驗運用於生活中。在題號 8 中：他們亦 能說出空氣的兩項特性，例如：無色、無味，有 7 成的差異。這反映運用感官進行探索 抽象概念上，體驗式的教學方法比較傳統的主題教學更為有效。綜觀上述的教學活動， 幼兒能有系統地體驗空氣的存在。相對主題教學，研究者以直接灌輸及教師為主導的活 動，體驗式的教學方法更為有效。在主題教學中，若有幼兒對空氣產生不當的理解，便 會影響活動的成效。相反，體驗式教學研究員提供適當的機會，讓幼兒嘗試了解風的存 在。 在體驗式教學活動設計上，主要分為兩個核心概念，一是空氣，二是風。主題教學 則主要是風為主。研究員強調每堂都會設計針對性開放式提問，鼓勵幼兒操作教具，逐 步讓幼兒達至對「空氣與風」的概念。當中研究員會注意幼兒體驗的時間和操作的機會， 在促進師生互動的環境下，提升學習成效。研究者在活動計劃前，先檢視過往使用的主 題教學內容及課程，然後根據幼兒的年齡、認知能力和興趣作出活動的編排，亦以空氣 與風為主題。雖然，這個概念較為抽象，但這是幼兒在生活上經常接觸的事物。在重新 設計下，幼兒在課堂表現投入，學習氣氛濃厚，能激發學生的操作能力和增加生生互動 的機會。 在表二中，研究員運用 T 檢定法來比較數據，P 值大於 0.1 以上反映對照組數據是 有所差異。對照組的學生並沒有經驗過相關教學活動（見附件九），所以這些差異是學 生生活經驗的累積而成。實驗組的 P值少於 0.01 以下，即表示有非常明顯的差異結果， 反映是次研究能達到一定的教學效果。研究員發現幼兒的學習正如前文的文獻所指，需 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 226 教育研究報告匯編 分數 P值 對照組的平均增長（後測 -前測） 0.2 0.59* 實驗組的平均增長（後測 -前測） 6.5 0.00** （2.26404E-07）成對 對照組與實驗組比較 6.3 0.00** （5.33535E-12）不成對 * 差異達到 0.1 以上略有差異 ** 差異達到 0.01 以下有顯著的差異 表二 要透過具體及可操作性的物料進行學習，並在有系統的學習後，幼兒能掌握較為抽象的 概念（空氣與風）。幼兒透過震動的空氣和奇妙好幫手等（見附件九）科學實驗，能夠 將所學的空氣概念與生活聯繫並且加以運用。本港現時有關空氣與風的教學內容，以季 節為主（秋季），並且主要是教導風的內容。這些教學內容較為忽略幼兒了解空氣的重 要，而且並沒有將空氣與風這兩個概念連繫。因此，對照組的幼兒只是按傳統的教學內 容來認識空氣與風，所以未能有效將這兩個概念連繫。而且空氣與風的概念密切，若幼 兒只是學習風的概念，未建立空氣與風之間的關係則會更加抽象。 研究員在教學活動中，能善用其他工具（見附件八）來輔助學習將更多的科學元素 融入教學計劃中，例如：風力移動器。讓學生透過實物操作來思考和體驗空氣的存在和 風的流動，從而建立相關的概念。教學計劃能使幼兒充分體驗有關的內容，認識不同概 念之間的關係，對空氣與風有更整全的了解，例如：空氣的存在。研究員在設計教學計 劃時，以著重培育幼兒好奇心，探索生活與大自然的現象，並鼓勵幼兒運用多種感官進 行探索，以發現風的特性，例如：風力。 結論和建議 本港有關如何幫助幼兒學習大自然現象（空氣與風）的研究，仍很缺乏，相關文獻 甚少。本研究可就有關課題作出初步建議及分析，在體驗及操作式教學下，能提升幼兒 運用感官進行探索的能力。研究員建議將體驗及操作式活動融入在其他教學主題中，並 選取較抽象的概念來推行，例如：光和影。研究者會帶領及讓各級教師推行相關活動， 以使教學相長，並豐富幼兒的學習經驗。幼兒透過體驗和操弄下，能夠體會到大自然與 生活之間的密切關係，並在適當的引導下，幼兒亦會關注自己的生活環境。施燕（1999） 指出實質操作能夠提升幼兒掌握抽象概念的能力，發展他們高階層思考能力。過往的教 學主要是以主題書形式教導幼兒建立風的概念。即未能由空氣的概念開始，讓幼兒先掌 握對風的基本概念。對幼兒而言，體驗式活動不僅是刺激認知學習，更提供動手操作的 機會。研究員發現善用教材及配合教學主題，能誘發和滿足幼兒求知欲，使他們抱積極 的態度來探索事物。再者，教學內容能配合幼兒的興趣和能力，引發他們的學習動機。 此研究是以培養幼兒對周遭世界的好奇心，讓幼兒接觸有趣及豐富的素材，透過探索的 過程，培養他們對大自然的喜愛和興趣。 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 227 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 吳放（2007）。〈美國幼兒科學教育的內容與評價標準〉。《山東教育–幼教園地》， 第 23 期，2-31。 周淑惠（2003）。〈幼兒自然科學概念之發展概況與其啟示〉。《幼兒教育專輯》，第 206 期，19-28。 周淑惠（2003）。《幼兒自然科學概念與思維》。台北：心理出版社。 林寶山（1989）。《教學原理》。台北：五南圖書出版公司。 施燕（1999）。《學前兒童科學教育》。上海：華東師範大學出版社。 柯谷蘭（2004）。《幼兒科學學習教師專業能力行動研究》。取自 www.tmue.edu.tw/~cdi/materials/20040703/03.pdf。 課程發展議會（2017）。《幼稚園教育課指引》。香港：教育局。 Edom, H. and Butterfield, M.（1994）。《科學實驗動動手系列 2 -- 空氣》。台北： 神燈出版社。 Harms, T., Clifford, R.M. and Cryer, D.（2007）。《幼兒學習環境評量表修訂版》。 台北：心理出版社。 Heddle, R.（1994）。《科學實驗動動手系列 4 -- 人體》。台北：神燈出版社。 Venger, L. A (1988). The Origin and Development of Cognitive Abilities in Preschool Children. International Journal of Behavioral Development. 11(2), 147-153. 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 228 教育研究報告匯編 附件一：研究對象背景 附件二： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 229 教育研究報告匯編 附件三：實驗組前測結果 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 230 教育研究報告匯編 附件四：實驗組後測結果 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 231 教育研究報告匯編 附件五：對照組前測結果 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 232 教育研究報告匯編 附件六：對照組後測結果 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 233 教育研究報告匯編 附件七：實驗組前後測統計　能自行做到的表現 附件八：對照組前後測統計　能自行做到的表現 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 234 教育研究報告匯編 附件九：使用教具方法 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 235 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 236 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 237 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 238 教育研究報告匯編 附件十：教學計劃 （一） 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 239 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （二）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 240 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 241 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （三）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 242 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 243 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （四）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 244 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （五）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 245 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 246 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （六）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 247 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 248 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （七）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 249 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 250 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （八）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 251 教育研究報告匯編 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 252 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （九）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 253 教育研究報告匯編 教學計劃 （十）： 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對「空氣與風」的概念 254 教育研究報告匯編 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 255 教育研究報告匯編 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語 發音研究 李杰雯、嚴淑霞、劉嘉敏、江佩珊 鳳溪幼稚園 何志恆 香港教育大學 摘要 口語是人們日常學習及溝通，以至交流情感的工具。《幼稚園教育課程指引》 （2017，頁28）指出，香港人口大都以中文（口語主要是粵語）為溝通媒介，學校應該「先 讓幼兒多發展中文方面的能力」，並「為幼兒提供生活化和富趣味的聽、說經驗」，從 而「豐富讀、寫的經驗。」其實，不少幼兒教育理論也認同「感官學習」對幼兒的重要性。 本研究以行動研究方式，以 29 位介乎 5-6 歲「高班」幼兒為研究對象，嘗試透過「多感 官學習法」改善幼兒的粵語發音。研究結果發現 100% 受試幼兒能透過「多感官學習法」 改善粵語發音，也提高了說粵語的信心，顯示「多感官學習法」引導學前幼兒掌握粵語 發音的可行性。同時，家長問卷也顯示「多感官學習法」得到家長的認同。 緒論 研究動機 根據香港特別行政區政府統計處（2016）《主題性住戶統計調查第 59 號報告書》 香港人語言使用情況統計，發現廣州話（即粵語）最為廣泛（88.1%），其次是普通話 （3.9%）、中國其他方言（3.7%）（頁 95）（附件一）。而本校七至八成學生以粵語為 溝通工具。何文匯（2009）認為絕大部分香港人以粵語為母語，粵語教學應當受到重視。 謝錫金（2014）指出，3 至 6 歲兒童期是語言發展的重要階段。什麼因素最能促進 幼兒的語文能力發展？不少學者肯定「感官學習」在幼兒語文學習發展的重要性，正如 教育家蒙特梭利（Montessori，1870-1952）所說，「來自智力的東西，沒有一件不是 來自感官」（魏麗卿，2013），蒙特梭利認為嬰兒自出生起便透過感官與世界互動和學 習。6 歲前的幼兒，正處於感官知覺發展黃金時期。感官學習得到的刺激，是幼兒腦部 運作的關鍵元素，對幼兒日後學習至為重要（Tim Seldin，2015）。認知心理學家皮亞 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 256 教育研究報告匯編 傑（Piaget，1896-1980）指出，幼兒從感覺及知覺認知事物，才可逐漸發展抽象概念 （葉 郁菁、施嘉慧、鄭伊恬，2016）。 課程文件也認同感官探索對幼兒的重要性。《幼稚園教育課程指引》（2017）指出 「幼兒喜歡以感官進行探索以認識新事物」，教師應「鼓勵幼兒運用感官進行學習，促 進他們的全面發展」（頁 10），幼兒課程設計應「提供生活化、重視感官探索和富趣味 的學習經歷」、「採納感官探索及遊戲為主的策略」（頁42），引導幼兒「運用各種感官， 例如視覺、聽覺、味覺、嗅覺、觸覺進行探索，以認識身邊新事物」（頁 17）。 幼兒階段是語文發展的重要時機。然而，根據研究者的課堂觀察，幼兒普遍出現粵 語發音欠準確，或讀音謬誤的情況。即使香港土生土長的幼兒，說話時也會出現懶音和 錯音，例如將「張」錯讀成「莊」、把「洗手」說成「抵豆」。幼兒發音不準確，咬字 不清楚，難免影響課堂學習，以至人際溝通。相反，說話清楚、明確，可增加自信，改 善人際交往。 研究目的及問題 綜合幼兒語文學習理論，教育工作者若能利用幼兒 6 歲前語言發展黃金期作早期介 入，有助促進幼兒語言發展。另一方面，「多感官學習」的教學作用得到廣泛認同，透 過不同的感官來學習語言，學習可事半功倍。香港小童群益會（2010）建議的幼兒學習 語言輔導策略，就強調「多感官學習」方式。 是次研究，旨在以行動研究方式，檢視「多感官學習法」在改善幼兒粵語發音問題 的效能。 文獻探討 「粵」是「廣東」的別稱。「粵語」，是指以廣州話為代表的方言，又叫「廣東話」、 「廣州話」、「廣府話」。「粵語」是語言學專有名詞，學術上稱「粵方言」（何文匯， 2001，頁 vii）。 粵語音節由「聲母」及「韻母」組成，「聲母」即是語頭輔音。如果「韻母」是開音節， 則由單元音和聲調組成。如果是合音節的話，會以單輔音結尾。（賴玉華，2006，頁 4） 粵語有 19 個聲母，多是清音，包括 8個爆破音（b, d, g, p, t, k, gw, kw）和 5個摩 擦音（f, s, h, dz, ts），另有3個鼻音（m, n,ŋ）、2個半元音（j, w）和1個側音（l） （賴玉華，2006，頁 5）。羅頌華、梁長城（2011）發現 2 至 6 歲幼兒的粵音錯誤中， 聲母比例最高（89.8%），其次是輔音尾韻（37%），元音及複元音錯誤較少（14.8%）。 以中學生為對象的研究同樣顯示聲母錯誤情況嚴重，陳雄根、何杏楓於 1999 年邀請了 200 名學生進行調查，發現受試者聲母方面出現較多錯誤，例如將 n 聲母誤讀為 l、將 聲母和零聲母混淆、gw 聲母誤讀為 g、c和 s聲母發音不準等。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 257 教育研究報告匯編 以上的研究發現，與研究者平日的教學觀察頗為相似：從日常談話和朗讀兒歌活動， 可見幼兒的聲母誤讀較多，特別是 n 聲母和 聲母，如將「男」誤讀為「藍」、「餓」 誤讀為「哦」；亦有幼兒把 gw 聲母誤讀為 g，如將「果」讀作「嗰」。綜合前人研究成 果及研究者平日課堂觀察，是次研究，將聚焦幼兒經常出現錯誤的聲母。 「多感官教學法」簡稱為 VAKT（visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile），是 一種主要經由視覺、聽覺、動覺和觸覺等四種感官獲得訊息的學習方式（Mercer & Mercer，1993）。人類的認知發展源於對事物的感官知覺。Olivier & Bowler（1996） 指出，人類的五官並非獨立運作。雖然視覺往往是學習的第一步，但從早期生命開始， 嬰兒便會把看到的資訊與手摸、耳聽、口嚐、鼻嗅等其他感官收集的資訊聯成網絡。 綜合視覺、聽覺、動覺與觸覺的學習模式，可以協助幼兒運用不同感官經驗內化學習 （Olivier & Bowler，1998）。蒙特梭利主張幼兒以感官活動經驗真實的世界，從而學 習抽象的概念（Montessori，1964）。「蒙特梭利教學法」是現時幼兒教育者及家長重 視的教學方式之一。施淑娟、薛慧平（2006）指出，「蒙特梭利教學法」的核心就是感 官教育，結合多種感官來引導幼兒認識抽象的概念。它不但有助幼兒發展對事物的理解、 奠定智能發展的根基，亦能促進幼兒數學和語文的學習。教師可以利用一些方法，例如 當幼兒說話時，以「加強訊息」的方法，讓幼兒看清楚說話者的嘴形。他們或用圖片、 示範，以至多感官教材輔助口頭說明，或利用肢體動作，協助學習語文。 過去不少研究肯定感官教育的語言學習作用，例如王璇、陳艷、李勝活（2013）以 粵語母語功能性構音障礙兒童為對象的課程。教師可先以辨音練習引導受試者認識發音 錯誤，然後通過聽覺語音刺激、構音類似運動、口腔功能鍛煉、觸覺訓練等，改善學生 的發音方式，並且指導家長在家裡跟兒童自行練習。研究證實受試者的發音有顯著改善。 根據教育局言語及聽覺服務組（2010）《如何幫助子女改善粵音失誤》家長工作坊 教材，學生常見的「粵音失誤」包括聲母出錯、聲母省略、複合聲母簡化、鼻音韻母出錯、 韻尾出錯，教師可以提出三個改善「粵音失誤」的技巧：「口頭提示」、「視覺提示」、 「觸覺提示」。三個提示均與感官教學有關，例如以圖畫、模型或運用鏡子提示幼兒發 音位置，或請幼兒將手指放在鼻側，感受鼻子發音時的振動。 研究者參照上述文獻，設計「多感官教學法」，並透過行動研究方式進行實踐，收 集數據，以評估「多感官教學法」在改善幼兒粵語發音的成效。 研究方法 是次研究的對象為 29 位「高班」幼兒，包括 27 位五歲幼兒及 2 位六歲幼兒，15 男 14 女。其中 19 位幼兒在家中以粵語為慣用語，2 位在家中以粵語加上英語為慣用語，2 位在家中以粵語加上普通話為慣用語，另外 6 位則以普通話為慣用語言。受試對象的家 庭成員及慣用語言，詳見附件二。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 258 教育研究報告匯編 是次研究兼用質性及量性方法探究「多感官學習法」提升幼兒粵音發音的效能。研 究主要利用「前測—後測」實驗方式，結合課堂教學觀察，以及學生問卷和家長問卷收 集數據。研究者利用 t-test 確保數據具統計學顯著性。 本研究先採用「粵音測試表」作為前測卷（附件三）評估學生粵語發音能力。「粵 音測試表」共有 25 個字，由學生獨自逐一讀出表上所列的字，研究員評估其讀音，並作 錄音。學生朗讀字詞錄音片段經研究小組成員聆聽核實，確保研究信度（reliability）。 「粵音測試表」所選 25 個字，聲母分屬「g」、「l」、「gw」、「n」及「ŋ」。 所選聲母是根據前述文獻，例如羅頌華、梁長城（2011）所列的學生常見錯誤聲母，以 及研究者教學觀察受試幼兒經常讀錯的聲母。研究者從受試學生曾認讀的字，包括已習 教材《兒歌樂》訂定測試內容，以確保「粵音測試表」選字符合受試學生的認讀程度。 每組聲母測試共有 5個字，測試總數為 25 個字，全面及均衡地反映學生在常見錯誤聲母 的發音能力（表 1）： 聲母︰ g 高 雞 狗 角 哥 聲母︰ l 龍 旅 了 路 冷 聲母︰ gw 果 骨 國 過 瓜 聲母︰ n 男 女 鳥 檸 怒 聲母︰ŋ 我 牛 鵝 餓 顏 表 1：前測卷內容 完成前測後，研究員進行 5 教節「多感官聲母學習」活動，每教節 30 至 45 分鐘， 改善學生的粵音發音。教學流程方面，教師首先以兒歌引入，簡介五個粵音聲母後，利 用「口頭提示」結合「視覺提示」讓幼兒學習聲母「g」和「gw」，透過示範及口頭提示 幼兒認讀字詞，例如「gw」字，雙唇先撮成圓形，再慢慢張開口，然後讓幼兒對著鏡子 作「視覺提示」自我檢視。結合「口頭提示」和「視覺提示」的教學，則請幼兒對鏡子 檢視發「l」音時，舌尖有否抵著上齒齦。 其次是以「口頭提示」結合「觸覺提示」學習聲母「ŋ」和「n」。口頭提示後， 研究者請幼兒按著鼻子，自我檢視發音時鼻子有否震動。表 2 列出不同感官的教學運用 方法。 視覺提示 觸覺提示 口頭提示（聽覺） 教學法 聲母 gw p p 視覺提示 + 口頭提示 聲母 g p p 視覺提示 + 口頭提示 聲母ŋ p p 觸覺提示 + 口頭提示 聲母 n p p 觸覺提示 + 口頭提示 聲母 l p p 視覺提示 + 口頭提示 表 2：聲母與感官運用 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 259 教育研究報告匯編 教學期間，研究者利用幼兒辨別聲母紀錄表、課堂觀察紀錄、拍攝影片及相片作為 分析數據，觀察幼兒學習期間的粵音表現。 過去不少相關研究邀請受試者的家長參與，取得正面成果。根據王璇、陳艷、李勝 活（2013），家長在家中的相應練習，可以強化教學效果。因此，研究者於進行教學活 動前向家長派發《親子粵語正音小冊子》（附件四），簡介粵音聲母的發音方法及發音 部位、聲母的發音秘訣，以及「視覺提示」、「口頭提示」和「觸覺提示」的應用方法。 該小冊子目的是增加家長對粵音及多感官學習法的了解，引導家長與子女在家中利用多 感官教學法練習聲母發音，鞏固所學。 進行「多感官學習」後，研究員以相應的後測卷（附件五）評估學生的粵語發音能 力。後測卷的題型、題數、字詞聲母，以及深淺程度，跟前測卷一致。針對前後測對照 作用，並避免幼兒憑藉記憶回答，前測和後測卷各有 3 個字重複，加上 2 個深淺程度相 若的同聲母字。每組聲母測試共 5 個字，測試總數為 25 個字（見表 3）。比較前測卷及 後測卷的數據，可反映學生進行「多感官學習」前後粵語發音能力的變化。 前測的測試內容（共 25 字） 聲母︰ g 高 雞 狗 角 哥 聲母︰ l 龍 旅 了 路 冷 聲母︰ gw 果 骨 國 過 瓜 聲母︰ n 男 女 鳥 檸 怒 聲母︰ŋ 我 牛 鵝 餓 顏 後測的測試內容（共 25 字） 聲母︰ g 高 雞 狗 家 腳 聲母︰ l 龍 旅 了 藍 梨 聲母︰ gw 果 骨 國 龜 光 聲母︰ n 男 女 鳥 你 農 聲母︰ŋ 我 牛 鵝 眼 牙 表 3：前後測卷測考字詞 評估方面，研究者將測試生字連同其圖像製成電腦簡報，讓幼兒逐一認讀。研究員 一邊錄音，一邊利用「粵音測試表」筆錄結果。測試後，研究隊伍成員覆聽，確認測試 結果，及確保研究信度。 為了進一步探究學生的學習成果，研究者透過《幼兒粵語正音活動評估問卷（前 測）》（附件六）及《幼兒粵語正音活動評估問卷（後測）》（附件七） 收集數據。兩 份問卷均有 7題，首 6題一致，都是涉及： （1） 幼兒運用粵語的信心； （2） 自評粵語發音準確度； （3） 粵語發音意識，例如留意鼻音、口型； 比較兩份問卷，可以反映學生進行「多感官學習」前後說粵語的信心和意識等方面 的改變。 兩份問卷的第 7 題不同。「前測問卷」提問學生指導自己粵語發音的人，反映學生 學習粵語的背景；「後測問卷」第 7 題請幼兒畫出 / 寫出自己在是次活動學習了什麼， 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 260 教育研究報告匯編 表 4：是次研究的進行步驟 研究結果及分析 是次研究，29 位學生參與整個研究過程。以下分析，將以該 29 位學生的表現為根 據。 「前測—後測」實驗 字詞認讀率 「粵音測試表」共有 5 個測試聲母，各有 5 字。受試學生共 29 人，每個聲母共有 145 測試樣本（29 人 x 5）。對比「粵音測試表」前測及後測數據，可見學生進行「多 反映學生對是次研究的評價。由於受試學生年紀尚輕，研究者讀出題目，確保幼兒理解 問卷內容。 研究者也設計了家長問卷：《家長粵語正音活動評估問卷（前測）》（附件八）及 《家長粵語正音活動評估問卷（後測）》（附件九），收集家長對是次活動的意見。兩 份問卷各有兩部分，第一部分相同，主要提問家長對於孩子學習粵語的態度，例如「我 認為運用粵語的能力對孩子十分重要」。至於第二部分，「前測問卷」提問家長「你以 為什麼方法可以改善孩子的粵語表達能力？」探討家庭如何協助學生學習粵語。「後測 問卷」則請家長舉例說明孩子參加正音活動後粵語發音有否進步，由他們對於孩子參與 有關課程作出的評價。是次研究，蒐集了學生及家長的意見，結合「前測—後測」的數 據，從學生及家長的角度，探究是次研究對學生學習的成效，發揮「三角交叉檢視法」 （Triangulation）的作用。 是次研究透過上述教研步驟，從量性和質性兩個角度，探究「多感官學習法」在改 善幼兒粵語發音的成效，詳見下表： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 261 教育研究報告匯編 前測 後測 比較前後測 聲母 認讀正確樣本 認讀正確率 認讀正確樣本 認讀正確率 認讀正確率變化 gw 116/145 80.00% 117/145 80.69% +0.69% g 114/145 78.62% 135/145 93.10% +14.48% ŋ 15/145 10.34% 72/145 49.66% +39.32% n 46/145 31.72% 101/145 69.66% +38.24% l 98/145 67.59% 113/145 77.93% +10.34% 表 5：前測卷及後測卷聲母認讀正確率 根據 Independent Samples T-Test，學生在前後測五個測試聲母中，「g」聲母表 現顯著提升（t值為-3.192，p值為0.003，p <0.05），其次是「ŋ」聲母（t值為-4.985， p 值為 0，p <0.05）及 n聲母（t值為 -6.171，p 值為 0，p <0.05）。 是次研究的「多感官學習」，包括視覺、觸覺及聽覺，以「視覺及口頭提示教學 法」教導幼兒「照鏡子觀察嘴形 / 舌頭」學習聲母「gw」及「g」和「l」，及以「觸覺 及口頭提示教學法」教導幼兒「觸摸鼻子震動」學習聲母「n」及「ŋ」。比較學生的 前測和後測表現，發現「觸覺及口頭提示」對學生的幫助較大：學生在「ŋ」及「n」 聲母的字認讀正確率明顯進步（平均 +38.78%），其次為「gw」及「g」聲母的字（平均 +8.50%）： 感官提示 具體教學方法 聲母 認讀正確率變化 認讀正確率平均變化 視覺提示 + 口頭（聽覺）提示 照鏡子觀察嘴形 gw +0.69% +8.50%g +14.48% 照鏡子觀察舌頭 l +10.34% 觸覺提示 + 口頭（聽覺）提示 觸摸鼻子震動 n +38.24% +38.78% ŋ +39.32% 表 6：感官教學與認讀正確率變化 根據 Independent Samples T-Test，「視覺及口頭提示教學法」前後測相差的 t值 為 -3.330，顯著性 p值為 0.002（p <0.05），「觸覺及口頭提示教學法」前後測相差的 t值為-6.842，顯著性p值為0（p <0.05）。T-Test數據證明兩個教學法具有顯著成效： 感官提示教學方法 平均值 標準差 t p（雙尾） 視覺 +口頭提示教學法 -1.65517 2.67630 -3.330 0.002 觸覺 +口頭提示教學法 -3.82759 3.01270 -6.842 0 表 7：感官教學法與認讀正確率 T-Test 分析 感官學習」後，後測的認讀率明顯提升，上升幅度最高為「ŋ」（+39.32%）和「n」 （+38.24%），其次是「g」（+14.48%）、「l」（+10.34%）、「gw」（+0.69%），詳見 表 5： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 262 教育研究報告匯編 認讀信心 研究者發現大部分幼兒進行「粵音測試表」（前測）時，聲量較細，語音節奏和速 度較慢，停頓時間較長，間中出現斷斷續續的情況，見圖 1-3： 圖 1：幼兒甲前測聲音檔圖 圖 2：幼兒乙前測聲音檔圖 圖 3：幼兒丙前測聲音檔圖 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 263 教育研究報告匯編 進行「多感官聲母學習」後，幼兒粵語發音聲量適中和肯定，速度較快和流暢，粵 語發音更有自信，以下將以幼兒甲、乙及丙為例說明（圖 4-6）： 圖 4：幼兒甲後測聲音檔圖 圖 5：幼兒乙後測聲音檔圖 圖 6：幼兒丙後測聲音檔圖 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 264 教育研究報告匯編 圖 7：幼兒進行辨別聲母遊戲時表現 幼兒積極參與多感官學習活動，在運用鏡子觀察口形和舌尖有否抵著上齒齦，以觸 覺鼻子有否震動時，都積極嘗試，見圖 8： 圖 8：運用鏡子觀察口形和舌尖有否抵著上齒齦 幼兒除了觸摸自己的鼻子，也會觸摸研究者和同伴的鼻子，以感受震動情況，加深 印象，見圖 9： 圖 9：二人利用觸覺感受對方以鼻音讀出 「多感官學習」課堂觀察 幼兒於「多感官學習」活動期間，依「先認識、再辨別、後讀出」三個階段學習聲母。 研究者發現幼兒對課堂專注，留心聆聽，見圖 7︰ 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 265 教育研究報告匯編 幼兒投入學習過程，表現愉快，也逐漸掌握聲母發音方法，適當和清楚地運用嘴巴、 舌頭和鼻子來發音。研究者亦發現幼兒進行「二人小組」互動式學習，例如利用觸覺感 受對方以鼻音發音、合作找生字、拼砌句子後朗讀，比個人學習更積極投入。有些幼兒 更會主動協助及提示身旁的同學，互相提點。 圖 10：幼兒正進行「二人小組」互動式學習 幼兒問卷 是次研究，共派出 29 份幼兒粵語正音問卷，收回 29 份（100%）。問卷調查顯示， 幼兒用粵語跟別人說話的信心，由前測 82.76%，到後測提升至 96.55%，上升 13.79%， 可見多感官粵語活動有助提升幼兒說粵語的信心。另外，前測有 51.72% 幼兒認為自己粵 語發音準確，至後測升至 86.21%，上升達 34.49%： 問卷項目 認同程度 1.我有信心用粵語跟別人說話。 前測 24 人 （82.76%） 4 人 （13.79%） 1 人 （3.45%） 後測 28 人 （96.55%） 1 人 （3.45%） 0 2.我認為自己的粵語發音準確。 前測 15 人 （51.72%） 14 人 （48.28%） 0 後測 25 人 （86.21%） 4 人 （13.79%） 0 表 8：幼兒運用粵語的信心 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 266 教育研究報告匯編 根據 Independent Samples T-Test，幼兒「認為自己的粵語發音準確。」（題 2） 前後測相差 t 統計值為 -3.360，p 值為 0.002（p <0.05），證明幼兒自評粵語發音準確 度顯著提升；至於「有信心用粵語跟別人說話。」（題1）前後測相差的t統計值為-1.722， p 值為 0.096（p >0.05），顯示幼兒對粵語發音的信心還不太顯著。 問卷調查也反映幼兒在多感官聲母學習後，更有意識留意自己和別人說話時的口 型：在前測問卷，分別有 72.41% 和 62.07% 幼兒表示會留意自己說話時的鼻音及口型； 在後測問卷則分別上升至 86.21% 和 96.55%，升幅分別為 13.8% 和 34.48%。至於幼兒留 意別人說話時的鼻音及口型方面，則由前測的 58.62% 和 44.83%，分別提升至 89.66% 和 93.10%，升幅分別為 31.04% 和 48.27%： 問卷項目 認同程度 3. 我會留意自己說話時的鼻音。 前測 21 人 （72.41%） 4 人 （13.79%） 4 人 （13.79%） 後測 25 人 （86.21%） 4 人 （13.79%） 0 4. 我會留意自己說話時的口型。 前測 18 人 （62.07%） 10 人 （34.48%） 1 人 （3.45%） 後測 28 人 （96.55%） 1 人 （3.45%） 0 5. 我會留意別人說話時的鼻音。 前測 17 人 （58.62%） 7 人 （24.14%） 5 人 （17.24%） 後測 26 人 （89.66%） 3 人 （10.34%） 0 6. 我會留意別人說話時的口型。 前測 13 人 （44.83%） 12 人 （41.38%） 4 人 （13.79%） 後測 27 人 （93.10%） 2 人 （6.90%） 0 表 9：幼兒說粵語的留意事項 問卷項目 7. 誰人會指導你的粵語發音。 老師 家人 朋友 29 人 （100%） 20 人 （68.97%） 6 人 （20.69%） 表 10：指導幼兒粵語發音的人物 後測問卷的第 7 題是開放式問題，邀請幼兒自由表達在學習活動中印象最深刻的文 字（數目不限）。結果顯示，幼兒對「ŋ」聲母的字最深刻，寫出了包括「我」、「牛」、「眼」、 「牙」、「鵝」等43個字。其次是「gw」聲母的字，學生寫出了「瓜」、「果」、「國」等25個字。 至於「鳥」、「女」、「男」、「你」、「狗」、「高」，分屬「n」和「g」聲母，各佔 6個，顯示 幼兒認為學習「ŋ」聲母印象最深刻，見圖 11 及圖 12： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 267 教育研究報告匯編 圖 11：幼兒進行粵語正音活動評估問卷 圖 12：部分幼兒在後測的最後一題寫下或畫 出最深刻的文字，不少幼兒畫出鼻子，亦有 幼兒畫出正在由小變大的嘴型。 家長問卷 是次研究，共派出 29 份家長粵語正音問卷，收回 27 份（93.10%）。 問卷項目 認同程度 1. 我認為運用粵語 的能力對孩子十分重要。 前測 22 人 （81.48%） 5 人 （18.52%） 0 0 後測 25 人 （92.59%） 2 人 （7.41%） 0 0 2. 我對孩子運用粵語 的能力有信心。 前測 20 人 （74.07%） 5 人 （18.52%） 1 人 （3.70%） 1 人 （3.70%） 後測 21 人 （77.78%） 6 人 （22.22%） 0 0 表 11：家長對幼兒說粵語的看法（一） 比較家長前測及後測問卷，發現家長認同孩子運用粵語能力的重要性由 81.48% 提 升至 92.59%，更多家長認同孩子運用粵語的重要性。至於對孩子運用粵語的能力信心， 前測問卷有 74.07% 家長表示非常認同，到後測階段，非常認同的家長佔 77.78%，提升 了 3.71%。不過，根據 Independent Samples T-Test，家長肯定幼兒運用粵語能力的 重要性一項，前後測相差的 t 統計值為 -0.700，p 值為 0.490（p >0.05）；而家長對 幼兒運用粵語的能力有信心一項，前後測相差的 t 統計值為 -0.941，p 值為 0.355（p >0.05），顯示上述兩項增幅還不算顯著。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 268 教育研究報告匯編 問卷項目 認同程度 3. 我的孩子的粵語 發音準確。 前測 11 人 （40.74%） 11 人 （40.74%） 335 人 （18.52%） 0 後測 13 人 （48.15%） 12 人 （44.44%） 2 人 （7.41%） 0 表 12：家長對幼兒說粵語的看法（二） 根據Independent Samples T-Test反映，家長肯定幼兒的粵語發音準確不太顯著， 前後測相差的 t 統計值為 -0.848，p 值為 0.404（p >0.05）。另一方面，家長問卷也 反映是次研究對家長本身也帶來不少改變，例如家長表示認識粵語正音的從前測問卷的 33.33%，到後測問卷增至 59.26%，上升 25.93%，這可能跟是次研究派發給家長的教材 有關。而家長表示十分認同「我經常以粵語與孩子溝通」，也由前測 62.96%，升至後測 66.67%，上升了 3.71%。 更多家長「十分認同」鼓勵孩子說好粵語，由前測問卷 92.59%，上升至 96.30%， 上升 3.71%，沒有家長表示「不認同」或「非常不認同」，顯示更多家長認同孩子認識 粵語正音。 問卷項目 認同程度 4. 我認識粵語正音。 前測 9人 （33.33%） 15 人 （55.56%） 2 人 （7.41%） 1 人 （3.70%） 後測 16 人 （59.26%） 8 人 （29.63%） 1 人 （3.70%） 2 人 （7.41%） 5. 我經常以粵語與 孩子溝通。 前測 17 人 （62.96%） 7 人 （25.93%） 1 人 （3.70%） 2 人 （7.41%） 後測 18 人 （66.67%） 6 人 （22.22%） 0 3 人 （11.11%） 6. 我會鼓勵孩子 說好粵語。 前測 25 人 （92.59%） 2 人 （7.41%） 0 0 後測 26 人 （96.30%） 1 人 （3.70%） 0 0 表 13：家長對幼兒說粵語的認識與態度 問卷調查也反映家長肯定孩子說粵語的能力，前測問卷表示「十分認同」和「認同」 孩子的粵語發音準確性的家長有 81.5%，後測問卷上升至 92.6%，上升了 11.1%。反映家 長認同進行多感官學習後，幼兒的發音有所改善： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 269 教育研究報告匯編 以 Independent Samples T-Test 比較前後測問卷第四、五、六題，t統計值依次序 分別為 -0.775、0.137、-0.570，p 值分別為 0.445、0.892、0.574（p >0.05），顯示 家長上述幾項改變還不算顯著。家長前測問卷的最後一題，請家長表達可以改善孩子粵 語表達能力的方法，大部分家長認為多說、多講、多聽、看電視、唱兒歌、玩遊戲和閱 讀等，可以改善幼兒粵語表達的能力。 圖 13：家長於前測的問卷自由表達可以改善孩子的粵語表達 家長後測問卷的最後一題，邀請家長評估孩子參加是次研究後的粵語發音表現。 55.6% 家長認為孩子參加正音活動後，粵語發音表現有很大進步，另外 40.7% 家長認為 「有進步」。 問卷請家長舉出幼兒粵語發音進步的例子，他們的回饋包括學生從是次研究所學的 多感官方法和活動，如：運用鼻腔送氣，留意口腔外形，也更注意發音等，家長證實了 幼兒在家中練習所學。同時指出在家中與幼兒一起利用小冊子讀繞口令，可見研究加入 親子教育的正面作用。研究結果印證了王璇、陳艷、李勝活（2013）關於家長可以強化 和鞏固訓練效果的論點，並顯示是次研究活動能發揮家校合作的作用。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 270 教育研究報告匯編 圖 14：大部分家長認為幼兒參加活動後有很大進步，部分家長在 後測的問卷寫出很多幼兒在粵語發音進步的例子。 反思與討論 是次研究，參照了王春英（2012）的研究成果，以及教育局言語及聽覺服務組 （2010）的設計，以多感官學習法改善幼兒發音。研究結果顯示，幼兒利用多感官教學 法改善粵音聲母發音成效顯著，對比前後測數據，發現學生認讀 5 個聲母的測試字詞均 有進步，由 0.69% 至 39.32% 不等。 研究數據證實了以「先認識、再辨別、後讀出」的教學流程，再配合「口頭提示」、 「視覺提示」、「觸覺提示」，可以有效引導幼兒學習粵語聲母，改善錯音和誤讀。 微觀多感官教學法的應用，多感官教學有助學生改善粵語發音。其中利用「視覺提 示 + 口頭提示」來學習「gw」、「g」及「l」聲母的平均增長率為 8.50%，而利用「觸 覺提示 + 口頭提示」學習「ŋ」及「n」聲母的平均增長率高達 38.78%。當然，感官教 學的選擇，必須因應聲母特質，也要照顧學生的學習需要。研究者從課堂觀察，發現當 幼兒觸摸自己或他人的鼻子來學習鼻音時，比起以視覺觀看嘴形變化或舌頭動作更易掌 握，可見觸覺學習是聲母學習不容忽視的策略。是次研究亦引證了「多感官學習」對幼 兒學習發音的正面作用，幼兒透過親身運用視覺、聽覺及觸覺的感官刺激學習。不同聲 母、不同感官教學，帶動的能力升幅雖有不同，但研究數據均是正增強的，證明感官學 習法在提升幼兒語言學習的正面效果。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 271 教育研究報告匯編 是次研究是根據文獻及研究者的教學觀察，聚焦於粵語聲母的學習。從學生學習表 現，印證了多感官學習法在改善學生粵語發音的正面作用。然而，研究者在測試中也發 現部分幼兒出現韻母讀錯的情況，例如「藍」laam4 誤讀成「欄」laan4、「狗」gau2 誤 讀成「攪」gaau2、「冷」laang5 誤讀成「懶」laan5。粵音包括聲母、韻母，是次研究 的經驗可以作為將來相關研究的參考，例如研究透過「多感官學習法」改善學生粵語韻 母發音。 此外，研究者亦發現學習粵語不只是個人的事情。若是二人，或是更多成員的小組 共同學習時，可能會有更大的效果。是次研究，研究者在教學過程加插互動式學習，發 現幼兒更感興趣、更愉快投入，他們跟同儕互相協助，學習也更起勁。從幼兒問卷發現， 一直指導幼兒學習語言的是教師及家長，其實同儕合作也是將來相關研究的可能發展方 向。 總結 是次研究透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒的粵語發音，證實「多感官學習法」有助 改善受試幼兒的認讀能力，也提升了認讀信心，顯示「多感官學習法」在引導學前幼兒 掌握粵語正確發音的可行性，驗證了課程文件倡議的「採納感官探索及遊戲為主的策略」 在幼兒課程設計的重要性（課程發展議會，2017，頁 42）。研究數據也顯示適當的教學 設計、互動學習及家校合作的元素等，有助提高「多感官學習法」的教學效果。 母語學習對於任何國籍的人來說，也十分重要。奠定了學習基礎後，吸收各種知識、 學習外語等，自然得心應手。作為教師，應該以有趣和具體的教學法，例如多感官教學 法，讓幼兒好好學好母語，為未來的學習打好基礎。 參考文獻 王春英（2012）。〈多感官教學法在語文教學中的運用〉。《動動畫世界：教育技術研究》， 第 4期，106。 王璇、陳艷、李勝活（2013）。〈粵語兒童功能性構音障礙治療初探〉。《實用醫學雜誌》， 第 29 卷，第 11 期，1828-1830。 何文匯（2001）。《粵音自學提綱》。香港︰香港教育圖書公司。 何文匯（2009）。《廣粵讀》。香港︰明窗出版社。 施淑娟、薛慧平（2006）。《兒童內在生命的發展—蒙特梭利感覺教育》。台北︰心理 出版社。 香港小童群益會（2010）。《親子聽說閱讀樂》。香港︰小童群益會。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 272 教育研究報告匯編 香港特別行政區 政府統計處（2016）。《主題性住戶統計調查第 59 號報告書》。頁 88，取自 https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B11302592016XXXXB0100.pdf。 教育局言語及聽覺服務組（2010）。《『如何幫助子女改善粵音失誤』 家長工作坊》 教材。取自 http://www.wynps.edu.hk/CustomPage/27/ 言語治療師主持家長講座簡 報 .pdf。 陳雄根、何杏楓（2001）。〈香港中學生粵語發音問題研究〉。《教育學報》，第 10 期 1 號，71-96。 葉郁菁、施嘉慧、鄭伊恬（2016）。《幼兒發展與保育》。台北︰五南圖書出版股份有 限公司。 課程發展議會編訂（2017）。《幼稚園教育課程指引》。取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/ attachment/tc/curriculum-development/major-level-of-edu/preprimary/KGECG- TC-2017.pdf。 賴玉華（2006）。《廣東話國際音標正音手冊》。香港：經濟商學院。 謝錫金（2014）。《香港幼兒口語發展第二版》。香港：香港大學出版社。 魏麗卿（2013）。《感官教育的重要性》。取自 http://www.cmf.org.tw/masterdoc/ sensory.php。 羅頌華、梁長城（2011）。〈香港學前兒童的語言障礙〉。《香港幼兒學報》，第 10 期 1 號，17-23。 Mercer, C. & Mercer, A. (1993). Teaching students with learning problems. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Montessori, M. (1964). The Montessori method. New York: Schocken. Olivier, C., & Bowler, R. F. (1996). Learning to Learn. Big Apple Tuttle-Mori Agency, Inc. Olivier, C. & Bowler, R. F.，丁凡譯（1998）。《多感官學習》。台北：遠流。 Seldin, T. 著，許妍飛譯（2015）。《在家也能蒙特梭利》。台北︰天下雜誌。 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 273 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 274 教育研究報告匯編 附件二：受試幼兒家庭語言背景資料 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 275 教育研究報告匯編 附件三： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 276 教育研究報告匯編 附件四： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 277 教育研究報告匯編 附件五： 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 278 教育研究報告匯編 附件六： 附件七： 附件八： 附件九： 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 279 教育研究報告匯編 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R） 及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的 影響 李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲 明愛樂進學校 摘要 優秀的特殊教學的本質，在於與學生建立有效的溝通橋樑（Communication – C），保 持良好的師生關係（Relationship – R）及鞏固的課堂結構（Structure – S）（容家駒、李 兆庭、黃健雲，2016；李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲，2017）。從 2014年開始，本校（中度智障 特殊學校，兼收自閉症學生）開展了一個命為「CRS」的教學計劃，以行動研究的方式作課堂 觀察，歸納出教師們提升溝通、師生關係及課堂結構有效的教學策略，統稱為「CRS教學策略」 （李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲，2017）。然而，這些能提升課堂教學的「CRS教學策略」，在顯 著的學習差異之下，可能只適合本校中等認知能力水平的學生，而對本校能力較高或能力 稍遜的學生，則未能獲取最大的禆益。本研究以觀課錄影的方法，觀察和分析不同能力的 中度智障學童，面對這些教學策略時的反應。研究發現，運用較多「CRS教學策略」的課堂， 中等能力學生的確會有更高的參與度。對於能力較高的學生，最能提升他們學習效能的， 並非「CRS教學策略」，而是教學內容及目標是否具挑戰性及適合學生的認知水平。能力稍 遜的學生及在課堂中沒有出現明顯行為問題的自閉症學生，則較常被忽略。研究指出，照 顧學習差異的重點並不單是使用「CRS教學策略」或相關技巧，而在使用者-教師留意和掌 握學生的進度，並調整自己的教學，這樣對學生的學習效能，有著決定性的因素。 關鍵詞 : 中度智障 Moderate Intellectual Disability 自閉症譜系障礙學童 Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 校本自閉輔導教學計劃 School-based Autistic Resource Teaching Program 照顧學習差異 Learning diversity 有效溝通 Effective Communication 良好師生關係 Good Teacher-pupil Relationship 結構化的課堂規劃 Structure Teaching 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 280 教育研究報告匯編 研究背景及文獻探討 本校為一所政府資助的中度智障特殊學校，常額編制共有 12 班，容納 120 位評為 中度智障的學生，年齡主要以 6 至 18 歲為主，由教育局學校支援組轉介。中度智障兒 童普遍邏輯思考能力較低，記憶力弱，注意力較為短暫，有顯著和不同程度的認知學習 困難（Drew & Clifford, 2006）。學校超過 6 成（約 70 名）的學童兼診斷為自閉症， 39 位同學沒有口語能力，他們主要的特性是社交、溝通及語言表達和接收的能力有顯 著的遲緩（張正芬，1996；Drew & Clifford, 2006）。因此，學生之間有著明顯的認 知、語言、行為、社交情緒等的學習差異。面對這些挑戰，教師需針對每個學生的個別 學習、溝通及發展需要，設計出個別的教學目標、策略及活動–即「個別化教學計劃」 （Individualized Educational Plan, 簡稱 IEP）；再根據這些 IEP，設計出整班的 活動結構安排。而教師建立有效的溝通橋樑（Communication）、保持良好的師生關係 （Relationship）及鞏固的課堂結構（Structure），即「CRS」之教學元素，不單能協 助教師更有效執行 IEP，也能令整班的活動和教學更為活潑和有效（容家駒、李兆庭、 黃健雲，2016）。 有效溝通（C – Communication） 溝通能力能幫助學生表達所想所求，亦能表達目的、動機或意圖，例如要求物品、 資訊、或維持互動等（Watson, Lord, Schaffer, & Schopler, 1989）。本校的中度智 障學生，特別是自閉症的學生，都帶有語言及溝通發展的障礙（張正芬，1996）。自閉 症的學生經常使用很多非慣例式語言，例如仿說（Echolalia）等來表達自己（林寶山， 1993）。研究指出，約有 50％的自閉症兒童沒有溝通性的語言能力，也缺乏與別人互 動和溝通、基本社交應對能力（宋維村，2000；林寶山，1993）。對於同時有認知能力 障礙的中度智障的學童來說，更會造成顯著的溝通及社交上的困難（Drew & Clifford, 2006）。Watson et al.（1989）指出，自閉症兒童在表達和接收時，均有不同程度的限 制，例如沒有方法表達自己內心世界，也不能理解其他人的對他的情緒和反應等。如果 溝通障礙未能得到處理及疏導，他們的自信心會受到很大的影響，繼而阻礙了學習，情 緒及行為也會開始出現問題。故此，學生的溝通能力成為了本學年的重點關注項目之一。 與自閉症學生溝通時，必需細心留意他們的各種細微表達：包括目光注視，指認，動作 和手勢等，來了解他們的意圖，從而提升溝通的質素。 良好師生關係（R – Relationship） 教師能在班房和學生建立良好的關係、提供正面訊息，令課堂和諧和順利地進行。 溝通與關係是密切而互相影響的；不良的溝通會把師生關係完全破壞和推倒（張宗義、 林嘉珮、邱莉萍、洪靜春、鄭雅尹，2011）。由於自閉症兒童存在很多人際關係上的障礙， 當中包括不注意別人、迴避別人的眼光，參與協作性團體活動的能力也很薄弱（王大延， 1996；宋維村，2000；林寶山，1993；徐美蓮、薛秋子，2000）；因此與自閉症學生建 立關係，要比一般學生更長時間（宋維村，2000；林寶山，1993）。與自閉症兒童溝通時， 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 281 教育研究報告匯編 教師一般會較多使用誇張的聲線、動作、表情，甚至獎勵，去改善學生互動的動機和師 生關係，使學生多留意教師的訊息，以便幫助學生投入、參與課堂（徐美蓮、薛秋子， 2000）。 結構化的課堂規劃（S – Structure） 結構化課堂規劃 Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication handicapped（TEACCH）的概念，承自美國北卡羅萊納州立大學 Mesibov 及 Schopler 等教授所提出自閉症的結構化教學法 (‘TEACCH’, Schopler, Mesibov & Hearsey, 1995)。本文所提及的結構化規劃，引伸至教師在課堂組織、規律、秩序和安排的任何介 入方法，都不限於 TEACCH 所提及的結構化課堂規劃。 沒有結構的課堂，會容易讓自閉症學生感到混亂和無所適從，令他們很難掌握課堂 的學習重點（Schopler, Mesibov & Hearsey, 1995)。有目的及有系統的整合，能幫助 學生去理解課堂的組織，對環境有更合適的反應或回應，以減低學生因不了解教師的期 望而產生的焦慮或擔憂（楊蕢芬、黃慈愛、王美惠，2003）。本校近六成的學生患有自 閉症，結構化的安排更能幫助他們學習。因此，清晰的教學目的和步驟，流暢、有步驟 的教學，班房環境能減低自閉症學生的焦慮，教學時間分配上能讓學生有足夠時間接觸 教具，教學上能照顧學習差異等等，都有助學生提升學習效能。 研究目的和研究問題 上年（2017-18 學年）我們曾以行動研究的方式，從不同學科／教學領域及課堂的 觀察、課堂錄像及參與同事的諮商，歸納出教師有效的教學策略及提升課堂質素的要訣， 統稱為「CRS教學策略」（李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲，2017）。這些「CRS教學策略」就是： 表一：「CRS 教學策略」：說話方面 說話方面 如何稱呼學生的名字 合宜的提問能引發學生答問題 語氣親切有禮 ( 你可唔可以⋯⋯、唔該 ) 老師能清晰地說出重點字句； 說話快慢高低 表二：「CRS 教學策略」：共同關注方面 共同關注方面 與學生有合宜的身體接觸(拍掌、拍一拍學生的肩、握手)； 答問題後與學生互動，如拋接豆袋 和學生握手 一同拍手 擊掌 \"Give Me Five\" 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 282 教育研究報告匯編 表三：「CRS 教學策略」：教具方面 教具方面： 充足預備合宜的教材教具：咪、實物； 視覺提示 (包括圖象和文字運用 )、 使用溝通卡、提示卡、工作紙； 多媒體教學，如運用影片，平版電腦，Apps 應用程式 表四：「CRS 教學策略」：表情及動作方面 表情及動作方面： 有笑容 與學生有目光接觸 用誇張的表情及聲調面對面的溝通； 用手勢配合 表五：「CRS 教學策略」：獎勵方面 獎勵方面： 食物獎賞； 口頭讚賞；正向讚賞 一對一的讚賞； 讚賞口號 (如 \"very good very good\")； 讚賞後說明學生做得好的原因 表六：「CRS 教學策略」：結構方面 結構方面： 清晰呈現包括學習目標／步驟／內容／成功準則； 暢順教學流程； 清晰說明班房規則和獎賞準則； 照顧同學們的學習差異及班房的區域／佈局 使 用「CRS 教 學 策 略 」， 能 提 升 師 生 溝 通（Communication）、 師 生 關 係 （Relationship）和課堂結構（Structure），改善教學質素，但這些教學策略，又是否 能夠提升不同能力學生的參與度和互動呢？就學生的認知水平、言語理解及表達能力、 社交技巧、記憶能力和專注力等，我們可大致有以下分類：第一種中等能力的學生，佔 整體學生人數的 70-80%，他們的特點是有一定的表達能力（口語或非口語）和專注力， 他們在一般在教師引導和要求下，能夠參與課堂活動和達到大部份老師的要求。第二種 屬能力較高的學生，約佔整體學生人數的 10-15%，他們比一般學生的主動參與和持續專 注於課堂活動，也能達到甚至超越教師的要求；第三種屬能力稍遜的學生，約佔整體學 生人數的 10-15%，他們的特點是比一般學生難以表達所思所想，亦有困難持續專注課堂 教學活動和達到教師的要求。我們的研究問題是：這些提升教學的「CRS 教學策略」， 可能只適合本校中等能力的學生，而在面對顯著的學習差異時，對本校能力較高或能力 稍遜的學生，則未能獲取最大的禆益。因此，本研究將以觀察和分析不同能力（高、中、 能力稍遜）的中度智障學童，面對這些教學策略時的反應，探討照顧中度智障學生的學 習差異需要留意的地方。 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 283 教育研究報告匯編 研究方法 研究計劃 是次行動計劃是建基於2016-2017學年「行動研究先導小組」的結果及反思而延續， 並於 2017-2018 學年九月再次成立「行動研究教研小組」（以下簡稱「教研小組」）進 行更深入的研究，成員包括兩位 2016-2017 學年「行動研究先導小組」的教師成員及一 位新任的本校教育心理學家。研究分為二個週期（上、下學期）進行：第一週期的行動 計劃時間為2017年11月至12月；第二週期行動計劃時間為2018年1月及2018年3-5月。 1617 學年的研究對象為本校教師，而是次研究之對象則為本校自閉症學生。 「教研小組」於二零一七年九月開始第一次會議，探討研究設計、方法及工具（附 件一）。「教研小組」從本校自閉症學生中選出高能力、中能力、能力稍遜學生各一位 作觀察，並錄影課堂作記錄。每次觀察一名代表學生，有助小組仔細分析該學生的細微 反應，如眼神、表情和行為。研究方法及工具包括觀察表、課堂錄影及分析。「教研小組」 會在多個教學錄影影片中，找出學生在課堂中對老師教學上的反應並就著在上一年度已 歸納出「CRS 教學策略」（表一至表六）作分析。 研究設計及工具 第一週期（二零一七年十一月至十二月） 根據上一年度的行動研究，本年度第一週期主要會修訂校本課堂觀察表（附件一）， 修訂後的紀錄表會用作本研究的成效評估。在「CRS」方面，建議在「曾運用的有效策 略／安排」分為三項「C」、「R」、「S」，並以質性的形式紀錄。增設了「觀察」 一欄，給觀察者在觀察課堂時紀錄學生的上課行為並加以分析。內容針對有效溝通 C （Communication），如圖一。溝通佐證會以目測及影片記錄的方式，記錄學生與老師課 堂的情況。有回應的會給予 p ，沒有回應的給予 x，由同學間引發，加註 S代表。學生 主動示意的，而施教者有回應的會給予＋號，沒有回應的則給予－號（李兆庭、周聿琨、 黃健雲，2017）。 圖一：校本觀察記錄表：溝通評分 在良好的師生關係 R（Relationship）方面，如表二的記錄表會以 1-5 分為評量準 則，1分代表非常不快或負面，5分為非常快樂或歡愉，3分是中性的情緒或無特別表情。 （會以動作、說話或表情令到學生與教師在關係上有改變）。當接收者由中性情緒作出 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 284 教育研究報告匯編 圖二：（校本觀察記錄表：關係評分） 至於結構化的課堂規劃方面（Structure）： 會保留 0 至 2 分作為評分標準。0 分代表沒有，1 分代表有呈現或指示但不清晰。而 2 分代表有清晰 呈現或指示。課堂組織考慮的因素修訂為 1. 學習 目標／步驟／內容／成功準則－清晰指示及要求； 2. 教學流程／教學時間分配；3. 方法。4. 班房區 域／不同地區的功能／佈局。5. 其他如圖三。 圖三：（校本觀察記錄表：課堂結構評分） 因應本校的課節安排，原本的錄影時間表需要調適。而觀課錄影會由本校資訊及通 訊管理員協助拍攝。觀課錄影的對象是由本小組商議（參見附件二），並按學生的階線 評估及專責老師的意見分組，分成高能力學生、中能力學生及能力稍遜學生三組。我們 亦會在每組別選取兩名學生，第二位為後備。學生的名字會在研究中隱藏，以確保其私 隱。當完成所有課堂錄影後，會分別安排時間及負責觀察溝通（C）部份，或觀察關係（R） 及結構（S）的部份並在教學研究會議中互相交流意見。 錄影了三位不同能力的自閉症學生的表現後，「教研小組」作出CRS觀看錄影片段。 分析時間在日常教學工作以外，即早上或學生放學後進行。教研小組三人分別對該學生 的溝通（Communication），關係（Relationship），課堂結構（Structure），以每 5 分鐘觀察 1 分鐘的形式，進行細微的表情和反應觀察，並進行紀錄，然後會進行討論和 分享。每段錄影會由教研小組觀看兩次或以上。 第二週期（二零一八年一月至五月） 當第一週期的分析完成及整理後，本小組會於校務會議中，向同事匯報相關行動研究 的進度。此外，學校的教研組建議教學組長於下學期的課堂中加強相關的CRS策略的實踐。 有正面回應，如展現笑容、眼神接觸等，評分會由 3 升為 4 或 5。另一方面，加入差額 一欄，方便觀察者記錄及分析（李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲，2017）。 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 285 教育研究報告匯編 統計方法 是次研究採用敘述性統計（descriptive statistics）（Sprinthall, 2011）去描 述學生，原因有二。第一，是次研究為探索性研究，旨在觀察和探討照顧不同能力的自 閉症學生時需注意的地方，而敘述性統計則更能準確反映學生的本來面貌。第二，每名 自閉症學生的行為、情緒和脾性均存在重大差異；根據個別學生的行為反應，去推論和 預測所有同組別學生的行為和學習態度，雖然對教學有其參考價值，但亦容易出現以偏 概全（overgeneralization）的結論。 研究結果及分析 經過 2017 至 2018 的「CRS」行動研究，從不同學生的課堂錄像觀察中看到課堂老 師均有運用「CRS教學策略」中提議的方法。例如在溝通方面，老師會稱呼學生的名字， 並使用提問句，引發學生回答問題。過程中，老師授課的語氣親切並清晰說出重點字句。 在良好的關係方面，大部份課堂老師有運用身體接觸技巧，如拍掌加強與師生之間的互 動，保持良好的師生關係。從課堂結構方面分析，大部份課堂均清晰呈現學習目標，教 學步驟和內容及成功準則，整體教學見流暢，另在觀課錄影分析後，結果如下： 溝通 (C) 從表七中，學生甲屬於我校能力稍遜的學生。他的表達能力稍遜，沒有口語能力。 專注力也較低，課堂上常出現疲倦，想睡覺及呆滯狀態。另常迷失於自我世界，也有自 己嬉笑的情況。老師運用不同的 CRS 策略以一對一教學，但學生在回答後伏在桌上，並 無特別表現及反應。老師也曾運用不同的課堂教學活動，如提問、運用多媒體素材及視 覺提示，學生也反應一般。整體課堂 A及 B來說，學生並沒有特別和老師有互動和交流。 另外，學生乙能力中等，而且是非口語。專注力一般。從表七中看出，該學生在課堂 A 及 B 的時候，在教師引導和要求下，也能參與課堂活動和達到大部份老師的要求並作出 回應。雖然如此，但出現主動示意的行為相對較少。大部份都是老師作引發。此外，表 中顯示，能夠成功作出雙向溝通的次數相對比較少。再者，學生丙屬能力較高的學生， 他比一般學生的主動參與性高。而持續學習的專注力也在課堂活動中顯現出來。互動溝 通的能力最為明顯，教師只運用了普通的提問策略，已經可以達到雙向的溝通。 學習細項 課堂 學生甲 學生乙 學生丙 1. 能提升 Communication 有意義的溝通 課堂 A 1 3 5 課堂 B 1 3 3 2.Relationship 良好關係 課堂 A 3 4 3 課堂 B 3 4 4 3.Structure 課堂組織與佈局 課堂 A 2 5 3 課堂 B 2 3 2 表七：每位學生不同課堂錄影的總覽表，整體分數為最低 1分，最高 5分。 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 286 教育研究報告匯編 關係（R） 學生甲、乙和丙與老師的關係均屬正面。而學生乙和丙與老師的關係較好，事實上 「C」和「R」的關係是息息相關的，若有更多有效的溝通次數，師生的關係「R」也會相 對良好，學生更願意投入課堂。從表七中看到，學生乙和丙的分數較為明顯，原因可能 是老師採用了較多的「CRS 教學策略」和學生溝通，而基於學生的能力也較好，反應會 是較正面，投入程度也較為良好。然而，在學生丙課堂 A中，雖然有效溝通的次數較多， 但學生於此堂的關係轉變不是十分明顯，原因可能是學生對於此堂的科目本身的興趣不 大，故大多呈現中性的情緒或無特別表情。 結構（S） 課堂的結構是與課室管理有關的。從數據得知，學生乙A課堂的教學安排最為嚴謹， 原因是教師採用了結構化教學模式進行課堂，座位是有特別安排的。更有分組教學，讓 學生在最有利的位置上課。另外，老師的提問方式流暢度也相對良好。另一方面，學生 甲和學生丙的課堂安排，分數屬於一般，反映了在課堂結構上仍有改善的空間，學生甲 課堂的原因可能是由於學生本身的學習動機較弱，老師在安排教學活動時忽略了他。而 學生丙雖是自閉症的學生，但因能力相對較高，故在課堂安排上，教師無需建立極嚴謹 結構，因此，在教學流程和班房的區域方面均沒有太大改善。 反思 從三位不同能力的自閉症學生在不同課堂中觀察的記錄表中，見本校常用的「CRS 教學策略」較適合中等能力的學生。當教師運用能促進溝通、建立良好關係及有結構的 策略時，中等能力的自閉症學生能投入課堂的活動、完成教師所指派的工作、逐漸掌握 學習內容，間中更有主動學習。而從高能力的學生的情緒反應中看到，當課堂學習內容 能配合學生的能力及興趣，學生非常投入及表現興奮雀躍，十分渴望回應提問。 例子一：節錄老師與高能力的學生於體育堂中的對話內容： 老師問：今天會教大家跳啦啦隊舞，那一位同學想學習？ 吳同學：我好想參加，我要學習。 老師問：你可以跟著我跳嗎？ 吳同學：可以！可以！好想開始！ 相反，在較平淡及挑戰性不太高的學習活動中，雖然學生仍會按教師要求作示範及 協助其他同學，但當很快完成所指派的練習後，就靜坐著及臉部有呆滯的表情。 例子二：節錄老師與高能力的學生於視藝堂中的對話內容： 老師問：吳同學，你可以過來幫老師作示範嗎？ 吳同學：好！（回應時微笑） 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 287 教育研究報告匯編 老師問：唔該吳同學。 吳同學：不用客氣！（臉部有呆滯的表情） 綜觀來說，似乎對高能力的自閉症學生來說，「CRS 教學策略」提議的教學技巧並 非最能提升學習效能，而是教學內容及目標是否具挑戰性及配對學生的能力。 而能力稍 遜及在課堂中沒有出現明顯行為問題的自閉症學生，較常被忽略。從個別學生的課堂錄 影及記錄表中所見，無論是學生與教師或學生與學生之間的互動較少，平均一節課堂中 只有約一分鐘的互動。學生大多是靜坐等候。然而，雖然學生與教師缺少眼神接觸，但 卻願意跟從指示或邀請而進行學習，相信這是建基於平日已與教師建立了的良好關係。 總結 是次的研究發現常用的自閉症策略，例如社交故事、結構化教學法、分立嘗試教學法 等，未有在所觀察的課堂中有系統地出現。經「教研小組」討論分析後，建議學校宜有一 套有系統針對自閉症教學的政策及策略，避免出現「執藥式」的教學。這次行動研究歷時 5個月，透過錄影三位不同能力的自閉症學生在兩節不同的科目、不同的教師授課下的表 現，再由「教研小組」作出 CRS 觀課分析。雖然只有三名學生，但教研小組的同事需孜孜 不倦，在日常教學工作以外，日以繼夜反覆觀看課堂錄影，才能捕捉每一秒學生細微的表 情和反應變化；但礙於篇幅，未能在本篇文章將精華一一收錄，實為憾事。由於觀察的課 堂只是佔所有課堂的少數，數據有限，未必能全面反映所有課堂的整體狀況。「每 5分鐘 觀察 1分鐘」的觀察，也可能令很多的教學精華未能捕捉，以致流失。另外，我們只選取 了三名自閉症學生作為教學研究對象，所觀察到的教學策略較為狹窄，而且未必能概括其 他自閉症學生的學習進展和學習效能，亦是我們使用敘述性統計的限制。 最後，為什麼同學能尊敬及喜愛老師？為什麼同學能有興趣參與老師安排的課堂？ 除了老師悉心的安排之外，我們相信「CRS」三者策略性的互動及運用都能有助推動教學 的質素。讓學生體驗上課學習已是一件自然愉快之事，令學生也自然地喜歡上學去。國 內不同學者談到：「當鞋合腳時，腳就被忘記了。」若能做到學習內容是以學生的需要 作為中心去規劃，學生的學習行為便會達到一個忘我境界，因為學習已經成為了自然習 慣。盼望他們的學習，也可以進入此境界（郭思樂，2001；林格，2015）。「CRS」三者 策略性的互動及運用去推動教學並不是一些破舊立新的事情，而且是需要透過三者策略 性的互動，老師們不斷反思去優化教學，按照學生的能力而修正及運用。教師如果能夠 讓學生得到最合適的學習內容及環境，就可以有助提升自閉症學生的學習效能，這方法 也可以帶給教師專業發展的。 「CRS」三個基本的教學元素是一個基本框架去幫助老師檢視所進行的教學活動是 否具備促進學生學習的條件，並且發揮正面功用。利用「CRS」框架作教學溝通、關係及 結構的思考平台，反思班房的實況，進一步選取和加強的有效介入策略，是對提升教學 的重要元素之一（Wong et. al. 2014）。研究者在此繼續鼓勵其他教師們以學生的能力 及特性為本，使用「CRS 教學策略」，幫助自閉症學生能越過障礙，迎向未來。 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 288 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 王大延（譯）（1996）。《自閉症家長手冊》。台北：中華民國自閉症總會。 宋維村（編）（2000）。《自閉症學生輔導手冊》。臺南：國立台南師範學院。 李兆庭、周聿琨、黃健雲（2018）。〈返教師專業發展：探討提升中度智障學校的師生 溝通、關係及課堂結構的教學策略和應用成效〉。載楊沛銘（主編），《教育研究 報告匯編：教育研究獎勵計劃 16/17》（頁 61-182）。香港：香港教師中心。 林格（2015）。《回歸教本質》。北京：清華大學出版社。 林寶山（1993）。〈自閉症的特徵與鑑定〉。載於高雄自閉症協進會（主編），《星星 的孩子》，6-23。高雄：高雄自閉症協進會。 容家駒、李兆庭、黃健雲（2016）。〈返璞歸真回歸教學基本：與中度智障及自閉症譜 系障礙學童建立溝通、關係及結構化課堂規劃校本文化的歷程〉。《香港特殊教育 期刊》，第 18 期，14-32。 徐美蓮、薛秋子（2000）。《融合教育教學模式——以自閉症兒童融入普通 班為例》。 高雄：復文。 張正芬（1996）。〈自閉症診斷標準的演變〉。《特殊教育季刊》，第 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Drew, & M. L. Clifford (2006). Intellectual Disabilities Across the Lifespan (9th Edition). N.J.: Pearson. Schopler, E., Mesibov, G. B., & Hearsey, K. (1995). Structured teaching in the TEACCH system. In E. Schopler & G. B. Mesibov (Eds.), Learning and cognition in autism (pp. 243-268). New York: Plenum. Sprinthall, R.C.(2011). Basic Statistical Analysis (9th edition). Boston, MA: Pearson. Watson, L.R., Lord, C., Schaffer, B. and Schopler,E. (1989). Teaching Spontaneous Communication to Autistic and Developmentally Handicapped Children. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kurcharczyk, S., Brock, M. E., Plavnick, J. B., Fleury, V.P. & Schultz, T. R. (2014). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved on 20.12.2016 from http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/sites/autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/files/ imce/documents/2014-EBP-Report.pdf 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 289 教育研究報告匯編 附件一 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 290 教育研究報告匯編 附件二 教師專業發展：探討溝通（C）、關係（R）及結構（S）的教學策略對不同能力之 中度智障及自閉症學生的學習效能的影響 291 教育研究報告匯編 李兆庭 先生（Mr Li Siu-ting, Ken) 現為一所中度智障學校教師，在特殊教育共服務了九年。曾參予校內學與教、課程 發展及管理與組織等工作。於校內負責體育科、教育資訊組、資訊及通訊科技組等工作 致力提升及發展學生不同範疇之學習能力，亦在學校政策及領導方面，擔任教職發展組 組長、教育資訊組組長、體育組組長及政策規劃組副組長，負起策劃、推展及帶領的工 作，就著不同課組及學校的發展方向作出規劃。並於二零一五年於香港浸會大學完成教 育碩士課程（主修教育管理及領導）及擬任校長課程。 周聿琨 先生（Mr Chow Lut Kwan, Kenneth) 香港及澳洲註冊教育心理學家，曾任香港教育大學客席講師及香港大學心理學系培 訓導師，香港心理學會教育心理學部登記會員，持有墨爾本大學教育心理學碩士及香港 大學教育文憑 ( 特殊教育 )。周先生曾任職澳洲教育局教育心理學家一職，回港後，曾 擔任多間直資及政府資助中、小學及特殊學校教育心理學家，為有特殊教育需要 (SEN) 的學生，提供心理評估、個別輔導和小組訓練，尤擅長自閉症的評估及治療。 黃健雲 女士 (Ms Wong Kin-wan, Anissa) 現為一所中度智障學校教師，在特殊教育服務了二十多年。曾參予校內學與教及課 程發展工作，並自二零零三年開始參予兩所中度智障學校的聯校課程發展，並發展與課 程配合的個別化教育計劃 (IEP)。曾任校內自閉症教學組組長，致力提升自閉症學生的 學習能力和舒解他們的情緒問題。在學校政策及領導方面，曾擔任不同課組的組長，負 起策劃、推展及帶領的工作，其中包括教學組組長、宗教組組長、職業教育課組長、科 技與生活課組長、啟發潛能課組長及政策規劃組組長。就不同課組及學校的發展方向作 出規劃。 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 292 教育研究報告匯編 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中國 語文科 02/03 實境觀察可以豐富中一學生的寫作內容 張東前 用普通話教中文試驗計劃 羅旭生 04/05 利用「網絡評語批改法」批改作文的行動研究 陳淳泉 06/08 探討「香港家書寫作計劃」的成效 林志德 讚賞家長對學生學習中文科的成效有正面的影響 何裕昌、李伴培 09/10 提升閱讀及寫作能力的竅門 楊美鄰 10/11 校本讀寫支援課程對提升學生語文及 寫作能力的成效 冼景揚、呂永豪 11/12 推廣從閱讀中學習 黃晶榕、岑嘉慧、蔡麗如、 金卓麟、李麗彩、李韻儀、 黃思慧 13/14 以學習中華文化知識提升學生文言篇章閱讀能力 之研究——以法家思想的學與教為例 吳善揮、張鳳儀、陳月新 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 吳善揮 16/17 創意教學融入文言文教學課程之研究 吳善揮 17/18 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握「故事線策略」 的成效 黃家慧 17/18 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及 寫作能力成效研究 陳志堅、蔡仁桂、莊繞蔓、 曾笥湲、蔡淑榕 普通話科 08/09 關於筆者所在學校中二年級普通話朗讀存在的 問題及原因的行動研究 黃飛燕、王煒、應單君 09/10 研究從戲劇教育學習普通話常用慣用語的成效 謝麗敏 英國 語文科 02/03 Corrective Feedback and Learner Uptake CHEONG Ying Yue 03/04 本科英語詞匯知多些 莫迪明 An Investigation into the effects of an Appropriate Integrated English Curriculum (AIEC) on Student Motivation to Learning English for Students with the Same English Proficiency Level YUEN Lau Ching Emma 一、中學 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 293 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 英國 語文科 08/09 Reading Newspapers with Ease TSE Wing Chi, CHIU Suk Mei Eva, LEE Pui Wing 09/10 A Study of Using TV News as Authentic Materials to Enhance the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning of English Language in a CMI Boys School in Hong Kong WAI Wai Yeung Wilfred 10/11 Examining the Effectiveness of Adopting an Inductive Approach to the Teaching of English Grammar WONG Chi Ho Henry, WONG Mei Chu Evelyn, TANG Siu Lun Terence Peer Tutoring in Speaking CHIU Suk Mei Eva, WONG Pik Lo Morgan 11/12 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination LAM Kang Mei 12/13 Catering for Learner Diversity in English Language Classrooms with Differentiated Instructions and Collaborative Learning WUT Sau Wan Maria, LAU Pui Ting, KONG Yuen Fun, 14/15 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong CHAN Yau Wa To Know is Not to Use: the Gap Between Students’ Productive Vocabulary Knowledge and their Actual Use in Free Writing LI Kwun Hung Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Bronson HUI, Daniel FUNG 15/16 Promoting Journal Writing to Enhance Student's English Competence and Learning Motivation in a Secondary School in Hong Kong Selena T. C. TAM, Dr. Eva CHIU 16/17 Using Formative Assessment in a Senior Secondary Writing Classroom CHUI Yin Man Effective Strategies of Learner Management in EFL Reading among Chinese Pre-adolescents Dickson Y.L. LAM, Melissa P.M. LEE, S.M.CHOW, W.K.WONG, Orieta H.Y.WONG 17/18 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing CHAN Yiu Fai Fred, CHAN Ka Man 數學科 04/05 「」與「合班教學」的互助關係 何力生、沈珮雯 06/08 促進學習的評估—— 中一級數學科回饋之初步探究 蔡志傑 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 294 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 數學科 09/10 藉多元化教學法和校本課程提升學業成績稍遜 學生的數學態度和成績 胡大維 15/16 Student Learning and Engagement in Mathematics Flipped Classroom: An Action Research Study in Secondary School LO Chung Kwan 17/18 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、 學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 周志聰、何家豪、 翁志明 17/18 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及 “完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 阮啟崙、楊明揚、 孫福濤、黃俊邦 通識教育 06/08 「報章放大鏡」課節的影響和成效 謝麗敏 探討「文物通識保育大使計劃」的成效 林志德 通識教育科之跨學科課程：對提升學生從生活 觸覺發展到整全性知識之學習效能研究 鄺慧珊 09/10 The Effectiveness of Promoting Curriculum- suggested Positive Values in the NSS Liberal Studies Classrooms HUI Shing Man, LEE Sau Kuen 15/16 「自主學習」的校本實踐： 通識教育科的校本經驗實踐 程衛權 人文學科 05/06 透過協作學習，擴濶學生學習思維 鄭文瑛 09/10 In Motivating and Enhancing Student Learning: A Preliminary Exploration of an Evidence-based Practice of Brain-Based Learning (BBL) Intervention Strategies HUEN Mei Yiu Jenny, CHAN Wai Leung Ricky 中國 歷史科 05/06 利用思維訓練改進學生評價中國歷史人物的技巧 余雅麗 12/13 透過閱讀報告的提問提升學生的思維能力 梁惠珍 15/16 透過「關鍵字聯想法」開發非華語學生的 中國歷史教材 陳漢成 企業、 會計與 財務概 論科 02/03 年宵市場的價格彈性 鄺少權 15/16 電子學習在企業、會計與財務概論科的初探 李健廉、林築雅、 李志成 科學科 17/18 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? YU Ka Kit Steven 物理科 03/04 學習記錄簿 (Learning Logbook) 對提升 高中學生學習成效之行動研究 何樂天 05/06 利用創意解難活動教授熱傳導的推行及 對學習效能影響之研究 何俊恩 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 295 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 電腦科 04/05 中一級普通電腦科「協作教學方法」與 「傳統教學法」的比較 程德志 06/08 製作電腦遊戲之行動研究 何樂天 科技與 生活 12/13 應用 Big6 於群育學校科技與生活科教學以 提昇學生資訊素養認知層面能力 吳偉廉 合作學習 10/11 合作小組與互動對話的關係 梁惠珍 14/15 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育 行動研究 鄧耀南、黃麗燕、岑嘉慧、 盧顯珺、廖穎茹、黃潔萍 自主學習 05/06 探討學生備課對學習成效的有效性 何力生 學生成長 02/03 情緒健康推廣計劃 張豐、周淑敏、 芩秀慧 04/05 訓導合一：建立關愛文化的行動研究 朱蓓蕾 13/14 Investigating the Impact of “Big Brother Scheme” on both S.1 Students (mentees) and the Big Brothers (student mentors) LAU Pik Wa Josephine 價值教育 05/06 “From Lasallians with Love 2005” – Case Studies on How Well Students Respond to Service Learning Religious Education Department 08/09 D-task 提升學生個人品行計劃 李群慈 09/10 「心靈教育」對提升學生學習效能關係： 彩虹村天主教英文中學經驗分享 朱蓓蕾 升學及就 業教育 02/03 如何透過比賽提升學生積極投入工場實習 江鏡深 15/16 The Effectiveness of Strengthening Career and Life Planning Education through Individual Counselling HO Chun Yan 教師專業 發展 04/05 思維技巧的學與教——提升課堂教學素質 郭思穎、麥志成 11/12 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation LEE Chi Shing 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 296 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中國 語文科 02/03 研究校本小一中文科校本教材能提高學生的閱讀 能力的成效 李少娟、鄭美如、 李映卿、徐思敏、 鄒建珠、黃坤鳳、黃麗芬 透過演繹成語故事引發學生有效閱讀， 推動學生有效閱讀 劉燕玲 利用範文引路、資料搜集和辯論活動能否改善 小六學生寫作議論文的能力 胡嘉蓮、張文暉、 鄭永慈、梁志文 校長午間伴讀：策略與成效之行動研究 廖玉英、胡家偉、郭鳳儀 新來港學童在香港學習中國語文所面對的困難 姜婉珊 03/04 探討識字教學 姜婉珊 04/05 利用普通話教中文行動研究 陳慧雯 利用合作學習提升學生對中文字的深究及 培養自學能力 曾麗霞、余浩然 探討如何提高學生閱讀記敘文的能力 曾素華、杜敏瑞、姚潔玉 唱詠、誦讀及傳統教學比較測試 劉知行 06/08 運用「疑難為本教學法」進行「國民身份認同」 寫作 朱慧珍 校本演說課程對提高學生聽說能力的成效 莫慧梓、鄭玉蘭、 黃綺雯、朱偉林 利用合作學習提升學生對中國語文寫作的能力及 對文章評賞能力的培養 曾麗霞 08/09 校本演說課程對提高學生語言表達能力的成效 朱偉林、何志恆博士、 陳小敏、莫慧梓、 鄭玉蘭、吳麗琴 09/10 進行有效課堂提問以提升學生閱讀能力 陳佩儀 「探討校本課程設計——小組討論的學習成效」 研究報告 朱偉林、何志恆博士、 陳小敏、莫慧梓、 鄭玉蘭、吳麗琴 10/11 探討運用香港大學「知識建構論壇」實踐建構 主義改善學生中文學習的效能之研究 王旭 讀寫互動，分點特訓，高效練寫 張小娟、鄭凱雲、 麥佩欣、袁詠娟 利用評估提升小學中文科學習效能行動研究 歐惠珊、何志恆博士、 張壽洪博士、陳宇、 吳麗媚、姜曉霞、方潔雯、 伍偉奇、麥詠思、鄺志良、 甯美娟、羅少梅、陳少鵬 二、小學 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 297 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中國 語文科 13/14 透過閱讀理解策略提升二年級學生閱讀能力之 行動研究 林小玲、岑兆娟、 謝盛業 14/15 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的能力 研究 吳麗琴、李佩霞、 陳小敏、馬望寧、 何志恆博士 15/16 透過古詩文學習提升學生品德情意── 「孝道」水平的研究 卓燕玲、鄒立明、 黃敏祺、余念秀、 鄭婉婷、梁羽鳳、朱偉林 17/18 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及 自主閱讀的態度 劉佩義、易理斯 英國 語文科 02/03 初探閱讀英語新聞對學生英語閱讀能力和興趣的 影響 陳婉婷、鄧淑珍 A Web Quest-Festivals and Holidays in Hong Kong LO Hang Yi, WAN Oi Chi An Investigation of the Effects of the Co- operative Learning Approach on Pupils’ Motivation in English Language Reading Lesson Vanessa LO 03/04 Use of Poetry in a Local Primary School CHIANG Oi Kit Kezia 利用網上英語課程提升學生英語語文能力 陳玉清 04/05 Using Authentic Audio-visual Materials to Facilitate Hong Kong Students' English Language Learning (I love Sesame Street!) CHAN Yee Wah Eva, CHAN Yeung Ming Eve, CHAN Ki Yuen, FUNG Ting Sing, HO Chek Wah, CHUNG Sim Yu 05/06 電子默書有助提升小學生學習的自信度 （教學行動研究） 林漢堅、蔡楷俊、 馮立榮、黃金枝 08/09 如何幫助有學習困難的學生提升認讀和默寫 英文生字的能力 吳智英 10/11 Enhancing Teaching Professionalism in Teaching and Learning through Learning Study CHAN Yee Wah Eva, ZHANG Yue Feng Ellen, CHEUNG Kit Chun Shirley, LIU Chung Yan Joanna, WONG Chun Yin Grace, FUNG Tin Sing Patrick, CHOW Lo Kar Catherine, TAM Shu Bon James, MAK Kui Ying Miranda 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 298 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 英國 語文科 11/12 The Effectiveness of Using Songs Incorporated with Other Activities to Increase Students’ Motivation and Confidence to Speak English in an EFL Environment LAM Nga Kit Rachel 12/13 Using Mind Mapping as a Tool to Teach English Vocabulary for the Elementary Students Carol PUA, Dorothy LI, Cherie LUI, Shirley CHENG 數學科 03/04 解題教學—— 透過圖像思考策略提高學生解答應用題的能力 陳小冰 04/05 Relationship between Mathematics Academic Achievement, Gender Differences, the Learning of Mathematics Olympiad Problems and Students’ Attitude toward Mathematics WONG Chu 04/05 加强小四學生數學解題能力之行動研究初探 陳小燕 05/06 「探究式學習」在數學教學中的效能 黃家瑤 專題研習課程—— 對提升學生學習效能之成效研究 胡家偉 06/08 比較應用題的解難策略 曾麗文 利用自擬應用題目提升處理應用題的能力 邱可婷、李怡 09/10 探討數學科電子課程教學與學生科學習能力的 關係 石麗芬 11/12 學習單位分數的概念以強化分數概念及 分數大小比較的研究 楊詠盈、冼文標、 黃鳳珠、陳巧卿 12/13 引入直式教授小五生分數除法的新嘗試 李婉婷 運用資訊科技學習軟件來提升學生在數學上 空間感的行動研究 鄧佩玉 15/16 運用校本繪本故事加強學生學習異分母分數 大小比較的行動研究 張淑冰、楊詠盈、 冼文標、廖綺珊 16/17 通過立體打印筆協助學生學習幾何立體概念形象 的教學研究 陳廷軒、歐陽錦泉、 鄭美寶、廖嘉偉、謝基立 17/18 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的 效能的行動研究 麥桂英、徐智強、 黃錦杏、戴英傑 劉珈瑗、何諾衡、何澤華 17/18 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 林偉倫 常識科 16/17 利用「翻轉教室」推動學生的自主學習 鄭家寶、文家榮 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 299 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 閱讀 03/04 家校合作：對學生閱讀興趣及能力提升之 效能研究 胡家偉、郭鳳儀、 黎貴芳 如何投入各種資源，讓閱讀可以產生最佳的效能 黎銘賢 合作學習 04/05 How do Students Acquire Cooperative Learning through the Methodology of Service Learning HAU Sze Man Violet 06/08 透過合作學習提升小一學生創造能力 孟罡 11/12 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三 中、英、數科目，以改善學生的學習態度和成績 馮停珍 專題研習 02/03 如何提升學生搜集整理資料的能力， 以助推展專題研習 區永佳 03/04 怎樣推行專題研習才能令學生真正得益 何家慧、陳綺雯 透過專題研習的設計促進學生國民身份認同 區永佳 03/04 全校教師參與推行「專題研習」校本課程之 行動研究 劉燕玲 視覺 藝術科 02/03 美藝坊 黃麗芬、施永愛 08/09 統整二年級視覺藝術科進行「國民身份認同」 教學 朱慧珍 體育科 06/08 透過學生自我評估進行體育課並提高學生對 運動的興趣 余浩然 10/11 「電子體育課」有助提升小學生做運動的興趣 李嘉慧、林漢堅、 劉慧欣、吳俊輝 12/13 探討運用資訊科技器材教授體育科武術單元， 對評估及教學效能的影響 鄭頌霖、張軒、 葉治浩、廖綺珊、 沈劍威教授 音樂科 17/18 Pied Pipers: A Gamified Non-formal Curriculum Design Intended To Enhance Student Learning Motivation for the Recorder Li Yun Xuan Merak 生命教育 04/05 生命教育對提升小學生的積極正面生活態度之成 效研究 胡家偉 公民教育 02/03 應用多媒體於小學公民教育 陳玉清 教師專業 發展 03/04 校本協調活動的行動研究 胡少偉、陳培佳、馮家正 04/05 從行動研究看教學的關顧 胡少偉 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 300 教育研究報告匯編 三、幼稚園 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中文科 11/12 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 溫志倫 15/16 透過感覺統合訓練提升幼兒閱讀及書寫發展 樊淑葵 17/18 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 李杰雯、嚴淑霞、 劉嘉敏、江佩珊、何志恆 英文科 08/09 親子英語閱讀樂 王淑宜、陳偉珍、葉潔美、 林靜儀、張文菁 科學與 科技 11/12 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷思的概念轉變 黃晨芸 12/13 透過有趣的科學實驗遊戲以提升孩子的 「科學與科技」發展 劉佩珊、龔宇萍 14/15 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對空間概念 的認知與迷思 張曄、黎培莉、關珊 幼兒教育 05/06 以「說故事」提升幼兒自信 林志德、歐凱鑫 08/09 幼兒透過模仿學習對創意思維之影響 梁綺雯 透過合作遊戲提升兒童社交技巧 何明恩 生命教育 13/14 論證透過實施幼兒生命教育課以探討對提升 幼兒生命價值概念獲得之正向轉變 鄧玉霞、羅鳳嬋、 劉少娥、黃敏儀 大自然與 生活 17/18 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對 「空氣與風」的概念 溫志倫、陸矜兒、韓詠恩 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 301 教育研究報告匯編 四、特殊學校 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中文科 04/05 圖像組織教學策略對提高輕度智障學生在 語文科閱讀理解能力的成效研究 吳羅慧芬、朱佩雯、 杜家華、關家碧、 蘇笑芬、陳靜儀、周璜錩 05/06 弱能學校學生的書寫漢字評估 譚蘊華 09/10 運用多元智能理念提升輕度智障學生中文寫作 學習態度 周璜錩、羅吳慧芬、 朱佩雯、蕭耀宏、 張淑芬 活動教學 08/09 綠葉仙蹤——運用聲香園藝活動對嚴重智障學生 於課堂參與的成效 楊麗萍、林淑玫、 李文友、李應崇、 王超龍 自主學習 16/17 運用電子教學提升學生自主學習效能的行動研究 李兆庭、陳柏瑩 教師專業 發展 04/05 運用「密集互動」教學模式 (Intensive Interaction) 增進嚴重弱智學生的 課堂上專注學習和師生互動表現 許健文、廖淑儀、 鄭玉鶯、李珮珊 12/13 「覆誦提示」：提高中度自閉症學生的命名 郭思穎、沈佩雯、湯佩芳 16/17 教師專業發展：探討提升中度智障學校的師生 溝通、關係及課堂結構的教學策略和應用成效 李兆庭、周聿琨、 黃健雲 17/18 教師專業發展：探討溝通 (C)、關係 (R) 及結構 (S) 的教學策略對不同能力之中度智障及自閉症 學生的學習效能的影響 李兆庭、周聿琨、 黃健雲 302 教育研究報告匯編 教育研究獎勵計劃 香港教師中心教育研究小組於 2001 年開始推行教育研究獎勵計劃（獎勵計劃）， 目的在於鼓勵和支持前線教師進行教學行動研究及教育研究，加強自我反思能力和創造 力。獎勵計劃既鼓勵中、小學教師積極研究外，更希望幼兒教育的教師主動參與，推動 幼兒教育。 為鼓勵更多教師進行行動研究，獎勵計劃鼓勵教師自定研究主題，成功申請並在指 定時間內完成的研究計劃，經教育研究小組接納後，可獲獎勵金以資鼓勵。此外，獲教 育研究小組選為優秀的作品，將輯錄於《教育研究報告匯編》，作為教育界同工的交流 與分享之用。 有關研究獎勵計劃的詳情，教師可參閱香港教師中心網頁（http://www.edb.gov. hk/hktc），或致電 3698 3698 向本中心職員查詢。 教育研究獎勵計劃 303 教育研究報告匯編 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 （2018-2020 年度） 教育研究小組 召集人 ： 李少鶴先生 小組成員 ： 張慧真博士 鄧依萍女士 郭詠怡女士 劉餘權先生 羅方進先生 馬志聰先生 吳悅聰女士 潘詠詩女士 鄧怡勳博士 曾凱妍女士 黃永基先生 胡志偉博士 胡家偉先生（24.05.2019離任） 楊沛銘博士 葉漢雲先生 袁潔欣女士 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會（2018-2020 年度） 304 教育研究報告匯編 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 （2016-2018 年度） 教育研究小組 召集人 ： 李少鶴先生 小組成員 ： 張佩姍女士 張慧真博士 方耀輝先生 劉餘權先生 梁永鴻博士 盧巧藍女士 彭耀鈞先生 潘步釗博士 鄧怡勳博士 曾偉漢先生 楊沛銘博士 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會（2016-2018 年度） 305 教育研究報告匯編 編輯委員會 主編： 楊沛銘博士 委員： 張慧真博士 劉景騰博士 李少鶴先生 梁麗嬋博士 鄧怡勲博士 編輯委員會
Educational Research Award Scheme Reports Collections 18/19
Category: DocumentsDocuments Icon教育研究報告匯編 教育研究獎勵計劃 18/19 香港教師中心 地址： 九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 電話： 3698 3698 傳真： 2565 0741 電郵： info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址： www.edb.gov.hk/hktc 香港教師中心 教 育 研 究 報 告 匯 編 教 育 研 究 獎 勵 計 劃1 8 /1 9 香 港 教 師 中 心 創意教師協會 3 目錄 編者的話 5 中學 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 .................................................. 7 九龍塘學校（中學部） 孫政、方健鈞 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System ................ 31 WONG Sing Tsun Derek 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 ........................63 香港紅卍字會大埔卍慈中學 黃文禮、朱俊錕 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 ...................................................................87 明愛元朗陳震夏中學 吳善揮、黃綺筠、文德榮 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 .............................113 中華基督教會燕京書院 陳偉良、李家明 小學 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 ...................131 寶覺小學 賴嘉欣 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method ................................................... 153 Fukien Secondary School Affiliated School Daniel Chui & Alex Kwan 特殊學校 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning ................................ 175 Caritas Pelletier School Lucy M Rogers & CHAN Ka Ying 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 ............... 193 佛教普光學校 麥梓煬 5 教育研究報告匯編 編者的話 編者的話 香港教師中心《教育研究報告匯編》編輯委員會 ( 編委會 ) 收到參與 「教育研究獎勵計劃 2018/19」的研究報告達十五篇。編委會從中選出九 篇刊登於《教育研究報告匯編》。本年度的研究範圍相當廣泛，包括翻轉 教室、電子學習、創意教學、有效教學策略等與課程與教學發展相關的課 題。 整體來說，參與計劃的同工均按研究計劃設定的研究議題，先進行文 獻探究，再提出有理據支持的合適研究方法。他們將有關結果進行分析， 再作出結論和建議，最後以系統化的格式將研究心得表達出來。研究報告 反映他們在文獻比較和數據分析方面，都有相當深入和精闢的見解，對學 生的學習問題，以及教師持續改進教學策略都有詳盡的討論，並提出具體 可行的建議。 本人代表編委會感謝所有參與「教育研究獎勵計劃」的同工，在有限 的時間及經驗下，仍然全力以赴，成功完成整項研究計劃。他們為提升教 育質素所付出的努力，值得讚賞。我們深信輯錄在匯編的作品，均能夠為 課堂學習提供實際而深入的分析基礎，並闡釋當中行之有效的方法。讀者 可以多參考研究報告的建議，應用在日常教學工作，進一步優化教學的效 能。我們更希望這些報告能啟發同工就相關的課題，展開更多、更全面的 研究。本人亦謹此向《教育研究報告匯編》眾編輯委員致意，感謝他們在 百忙中抽空審閱各篇研究報告。 得到同工積極的參與和多方面的支持，本編委會定能持續推動教育研 究，鼓勵教師進行更深入和持續性的教育研究，不斷提升教學效能和質 素。他山之石，可以攻玉。期望各位讀者對《教育研究報告匯編》內的文 章提出意見，相互交流，集思廣益。 《教育研究報告匯編》主編 楊沛銘博士 2020 年 12 月 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 7 教育研究報告匯編 摘要 語常會早年實行「初中辯論教育計劃」，期望透過「融辯入教」令語 文教師掌握辯論要點及元素，增益教學。教育局亦編撰《融辯入教—應用 辯論輔助語文教學理論與實踐》一書，集結辯論教育的成功經驗，提供實 施「融辯入教」時的指引，足見辯論教育的重要性；惟學界多集中運用辯 論教育在中國語文科，對於在通識教育科的配合，著實較少。有見及此， 本研究旨在以辯論模式引入通識教育科，藉以探討「融辯入教」在通識教 育科實踐成效。 關鍵詞 辯論、立場、批判性思考、組織能力、學習興趣 緒論 通識教育科與思辯能力一向息息相關，星島日報行政總裁蕭世和在旗 下出版的「睇辯論學通識」指出，辯論和通識學習有著相輔相成的密切 關係（星島日報，2013）。通識教育科講求多角度及批判性思考，需要 學生擁有高階思維能力。而辯論活動可以有效地克服求同性、再生性、 「融辯入教」的校本實踐： 以辯論模式融入通識教育科 孫政、方健鈞 九龍塘學校（中學部） 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 8 教育研究報告匯編 呆滯性等思維弱點，是訓練批判性思維的極好方式（賈伯生、尹彥品， 2017）。 布 盧 姆 分 類 學（Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains） 將認知學習範疇分為幾個階段，而分析、評鑑及創造視為高層次的目標 （Forehand, 2011），正好對應通識教育科的高階學習目標。本校辯論 隊一向活躍於學界，曾取得不少全港大型辯論比賽殊榮，包括基本法盃冠 軍、星島辯論比賽亞軍及聯校中文辯論比賽亞軍等。有見及此，本研究期 望透過行動教育研究驗證辯論與通識的關係，將本校的強項融入學科中， 藉以提升同學在通識教育上的高階能力。 回顧本校學生在公開試通識科表現只屬中等，以 2017 年文憑試為 例，本校合格率 76.29%，而全港合格率則為 88.7%，與全港水平仍有距 離，顯示學生在學習方面有提升空間。在實際操作層面，同學在面對「立 場題」這類高階題型，更顯得困難，例如：立場題欠框架、組織力薄弱、 內容深度及廣度不足等。事實上，教育局一直關注辯論教育的發展，正如 前述提及語常會早於十多年前已開展初中融辯入教計劃，足以肯定其正面 作用。有見及此，本校於上一個三年計劃周期中（2015/16、2016/17、 2017/18）將辯論教育設定為關注事項之一，以「辯論」作為本校「亮點」， 藉以加強推動本校辯論教育模式，由過往以參與學界比賽為主，轉變為在 校內建立辯論風氣。而通過本次教育研究計劃，更令辯論教育模式走進課 堂，提升通識教育科的教與學效能。 本研究以中五級通識教育科施行「融辯入教」，透過課堂設計不同類 型及程度的活動。包括：個人短講、小組討論、高峰研討會、自由辯論及 正規辯論比賽。透過是次行動教育研究，預期學生能夠： 1. 增強思辯及組織能力； 2. 掌握「立場題」的處理； 3. 增強對通識教育科的信心。 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 9 教育研究報告匯編 研究問題 1. 是次行動教育研究在於探究辯論活動的訓練，在多大程度上有助同學於 通識教育科的表現？ 2. 教師在課堂上運用辯論模式，如何提升同學的思辯及組織能力？ 3. 在處理公開試「立場類」的題型，同學如何通過辯論方法，有效地提升 闡述及延伸觀點的能力？ 透過探究「辯論模式」與「通識教育科」的關係，改善和提升前線教 師的教學手法技巧，運用多元化教學策略，提高學生的學習效能。是次研 究計劃亦為有志研究「融辯入教」者提供更多校本經驗，方便進行另一次 的跟進研究。 文獻回顧 通識教育科的目的 通識教育科在 1992 年引入香港高級程度會考成為其中一科選修科。 其後，在 2009 年學制改革下，通識教育科成為必修科目。通識教育科的 課程內容集中以主題為主、議題為本的方式呈現，更可以貼合社會發展情 況，符合強調情境的學與教發展（課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局， 2007）。通識教育科課程可以令學生從不同單元之中學習知識、擴闊視 野，更令學生積極探討個人、社會、國家及全球日常生活問題（課程發展 議會、香港考試及評核局，2007）。通識科的課程設計和內容組織，也 培養學生的共通能力和多角度思維能力（霍秉坤、黃顯華，2011）。因 此，在課程設計以至考核時，都要求學生以不同持份者角度出發，從多角 度分析不同議題。通識教育科注重如何運用已有知識，對社會不同議題進 行多角度的分析，令學生擁有批判思考。這正好與布盧姆分類學（Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains）之中較高的三個層次配合。盧姆分類 學包含兩大組別、六個層次，以反映學習程度（Forehand, 2011）。當中 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 10 教育研究報告匯編 較高組別的層次包括：分析、評鑑及創造，而通識教育科正好達至「分析」 這個層次，甚至希望學生可以追求其他更高層次。 辯論可以訓練學生有批評性思考的技能、分析及整合技能（Zare & Othman, 2015）。這種技能正好可以從準備辯論的過程之中體現出來。 而賈伯生及尹彥品（2017）亦指出，辯論可以有效地克服求同性、再生性、 呆滯性等思維弱點，是訓練批判性思維的極好方式。這正是訓練學生思維 模式的良好方法。正如 Zare and Othman（2015）的研究結果亦指出， 在課堂之中加入辯論活動有助學生訓練批判性思考能力。可見，透過辯論 的訓練模式及課堂活動，能夠有效提升學生的思維能力，有助訓練學生批 判性思考。辯論的活動方式，正好有助學習政策分析，並能以不同的角度、 結果、以及持分者進行思考（Chikeleze, Johnson & Gibson, 2018），與 通識教育科以多角度思考為學習目標，不謀以合。再者，通識教育科亦牽 涉正反觀點論證，在答題中亦需要提出相反的觀點進行駁論。這一點正好 與辯論題目的反駁技巧相同。以辯論模式進行的課堂活動，能有助訓練學 生對其他觀點的反駁能力（Chikeleze et al., 2018）。由此可見，辯論模 式有助提升學生的批判性思考能力，與通識教育科的教學目標相同。 通識教育科要求學生能夠運用批判思考的方法，以應對及分析時下不 同議題。近年，這個說法不斷被外界懷疑。歐立賢（2012）認為通識教 育科屬於「正式課程」，有固有的課程框架和單元，難以在緊迫的時間下 一方面教授議題，一方面教授批判思考。然而，歐立賢（2012）亦在文 中提及，通識教育科需要有具體的計劃和教授方法才可以有效提升學生批 判性思考。由此可見，只要有正確和具體的教授方法，便可提升學生的批 判性思考能力。再者，對比傳統教學模式，將辯論融入教學的模式更能使 學生建立個人價值觀以及聆聽與接納他人的觀點（Johnson & Johnson, 1985）。加上，多份研究已證明辯論模式能有效提升學生的思考能力， 這正好與通識教育科的目標一致。當學生的思維能力上升時，可以藉此觀 察他們對通識教育科的掌握力和信心程度。因此，在此教育研究中，希望 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 11 教育研究報告匯編 可以透過實測以辯論模式教授通識教育科，以提升學生的多角度思考和批 判性思考能力。 研究方法 是次研究採用量化及質化研究的混合研究模式，期望能更全面反映 實際成效。首先，實驗組及對照組進行獨立樣本 t 檢定（independent sample t-test），用以檢測兩組在實驗前本身水平的差距。在前測問卷分 數比較中，實驗組的平均得分為 2.21 分，而對照組則為 2.38 分；而在上 學期段考部分，實驗組平均得分為 42 分，對照組則為 39 分。由此可見， 兩者差異不大，顯示同學在通識教育科的學習上，處於相若水平的起點之 上。其次，在量化研究中成效檢視部分，本研究運用量表（Scale）以前 測及後測的形式（paired sample t-test）量度實驗組別（以「融辯入教」 的方式施教予中五級某通識組）及利用對照組（控制組為另一組沒有施行 「融辯入教」的通識組）的研究方法，顯示「融辯入教」的教學模式在通 識教育科的成效。在深入分析部分，本研究會比較四份答卷的平均分，用 以量度其進步幅度。為加強量化研究的成效證明，是次研究最終會以紙筆 測試作為比較依歸。以上學期段考成績（實驗組及對照組：兩組水平相近， 以確保起點相若），再以實施研究計劃後（融辯入教）的下學期期考成績， 作為研究成果之比較。 至於質化研究方面，研究會以焦點小組的形式進行（6 位同學：3 位 來自實驗組、3 位來自本校辯論隊），目的在於深入瞭解同學對於「融辯 入教」的看法及其影響力。互動式訪談有利從多角度聽取意見，讓研究員 掌握較為深度的想法，以便日後在有需要時進行另一次的跟進研究。 本研究假設融辯入教能夠提升學生的思維及組織能力及融辯入教能夠 提升學生對通識教育科立場題的回應能力。 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 12 教育研究報告匯編 本人預期成果是正面的，後測的結果是實驗組優於對照組，說明此教 學介入是具有效果的，即顯示「融辯入教」的教學模式與通識教育的能力 掌握，兩者是呈現顯著的正向關係。期望研究結果可以為教師提供多元化 的教學策略，藉以提高同學的通識能力，為通識教育科注入新動力，裨益 教育界發展。 本校大部分同學屬第三組別學生，研究員以任教中五級通識組別能力 相若的兩組學生（即上述的選取方法）共 29 位學生作為研究對象，分為 「實驗組」和「控制組」，以檢視是次研究的成效。兩組學生在通識教育 科的能力相近，在邏輯思維、文章組織也偏弱。根據教師持續觀察所得， 同學以立場題回應能力最為薄弱，大多與其學習動機偏低有關；值得注意 的是，研究對象與研究者關係良好，願意聆聽教學指示，並完成課堂及課 後任務，為是次研究建立良好基礎。 在研究設計上，由量化及質化研究兩大部分組成。首先，融辯入教的 教學內容方面，本研究以 4 題公開試的議題作為實驗組的施教內容，包括： 「應否立法供養父母」（2012）、「應否立法禁止醫療上非必要的整形 外科手術」（2015）、「標準工時能否提升香港人的生活素質」（2015）、 「應否提供經濟誘因以支援電動車的發展」（2018），再配合含有辯論 元素的多元教學活動，包括：個人短講、小組討論、高峰研討會及模擬辯 論。 上述四種課堂活動均具備辯論元素，程度由淺入深，層層遞進。這是 考慮到並不是每位同學都具備辯論相關經驗，如一開始就直接以公開辯論 比賽的標準模式引入課堂，除未能達到預期研究效果外，更會影響同學參 與動機。再加上課時所限，遂採用上述模式，將辯論所需元素拆開，有利 研究活動在課堂順利進行。 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 13 教育研究報告匯編 1. 個 人 短 講 ： 同學即堂利用 2 分鐘進行演說，內容是針對公開試相關 議題的個人見解。教師給予指引相對簡單，同學只需表 達對議題立場及見解，正反均可，但需要具備 2 至 3 個 觀點，以支持其立場。此活動目的為培養同學，習慣對 不同議題有自己立場及思考當中支持或反對的原因。 2. 小 組 討 論 ： 同學 4 人一組進行 12 分鐘的討論，內容直接運用公開試 題目。教師在討論開始前會先分發電子教學設備予每位 同學，以便他們進行資料搜尋，尋找合適論據，藉以增 加論點之說服力。 3. 高峰研討會： 根據公開試議題，每位同學在課堂前會獲發一個持分者 身分，方便其在家中進行資料搜集。活動運用持分者作 為切入點，目的是讓同學代入角色，有利其培養組織論 點的能力。在研討會進行過程中，同學亦能運用換位思 考，嘗試理解其他持分者的想法及作出回應。教師則負 責扮演主持人角色，帶領同學思考每位論壇講者在論點 上的優缺點，著台下同學進行提問，藉以訓練同學在議 題上進行「駁論」。 4. 辯 論 比 賽 ： 同學預先被分成正反兩組，有一星期時間根據公開試議 題進行準備工作，包括資料搜集、撰寫稿件及與隊友們 進行討論及演練。在連堂時進行常規辯論比賽，讓同學 可以正式體驗辯論活動，增加其學習動機之餘，更能結 合前面數個星期所學的技巧，作為整個研究活動的總結。 在具體操作方面，研究以每題公開試通識議題為基礎，兩星期為一循 環。先以公開試議題進行前測，再配合上述不同辯論元素的教學活動。在 過程中，教師需要適時為學生進行點撥，傳授答題框架，觀察及鞏固其學 習進度。最後，研究以同一議題作為後測，藉以檢視成效。在評分準則方 面，每題總分由 8 分至 12 分不等，由兩位教師分別批改每位學生答卷及 取其中位數，在正式批改前亦會先進行評分會議，讓教師拿捏高、中、低 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 14 教育研究報告匯編 答卷的標準，達至共識以減低評卷差異。此研究部分，每題議題需要兩星 期，總數四題，共為期兩個月。在研究最後階段，則設有紙筆測試（即 下學期通識教育科的期考成績），以瞭解實驗組學生參與是次研究後， 其在通識教育科的能力是否產生變化；本研究亦有運用問卷調查，以量 表（Scale）形式於研究前及後供學生填寫，共收回 29 份，回收比率達 100%。問卷設有 10 題，主要圍繞學生對通識教育科的理解、邏輯思維 的能力及對回應立場題的信心。為避免「趨中現象」，量表採取四欄式選 項。問卷的內部一致性良好，其 Cronbach's alpha 系數值（α）為 0.84。 收集問卷後，研究員將使用 SPSS 電腦數據分析軟件進行整理及分析，集 中闡述兩組（實驗組及對照組）在前測及後測的平均分差異，以及各分項 的增長率百分比。 為進一步瞭解是次研究的成放，本研究設有質化方面的探討，研究設 計以半結構式的焦點訪談形式進行，當中的焦點問題包括： 1. 試用一個形容詞代表你對通識教育科的感覺？（跟進問題：為何會選用 此字詞？） 2. 你認為通識教育科是傾向困難還是容易？（跟進問題：困難在哪？容易 在哪？） 3. 經過運用辯論思維模式去學習通識，你認為有沒有作用？（跟進問題： 有或沒有背後原因。） 4. 若然有更多時間以辯論方式去分析議題，對你而言，在多大程度上有效 掌握回答立場題？（跟進問題：具體例子？） 研究員會根據研究對象的實際回答情況，調節問題及作出跟進，讓學 生自由表達的同時，亦不致於偏離研究主題。 正如前述提及，本研究包括量化及質化部分，量化部分包括 4 題公開 試題目、議題文章、問卷調查（量表）及紙筆測試（期考考試題目）；而 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 15 教育研究報告匯編 階段 時間 研究事項 籌備 2019 年 1 月 進行前測及收集同學段考成績 實施 2019 年 3 月至 4 月 於實驗組實施「融辯入教」的教學研究 2019 年 5 月 焦點小組 2019 年 6 月 進行後測及收集同學期考成績 評估與總結 2019 年 6 月 整理及進行數據分析 2019 年 7 月至 8 月 撰寫研究報告，以總結成果 結果 量化研究 首先，正如前述提及，在前測問卷分數比較中，實驗組的平均得分為 2.21 分，而對照組則為 2.38 分（t(27)=-1.03，p>.05）；而在上學期段 考部分，實驗組平均得分為 42 分，對照組則為 39 分。由此可見，兩組 差異不大，顯示同學在通識教育科的學習上，處於相若水平的起點之上。 其次，實驗組及對照組分別進行獨立樣本 t 檢定（independent sample t-test），用以檢測兩組在實驗前本身水平的差距，以下為測試結果： 組別 樣本數 (n) 平均數 (M) 標準差 (SD) 自由度 (df) t 值 (t) P 值 (p) 實驗組 11 2.21 .44 27 -1.03 0.31 對照組 18 2.38 .42 表 1 實驗組、對照組之前測問卷平均分比較 研究計劃進度 在質化部分則包括半結構訪談的預設問題。本研究符合研究道德要求，研 究人員先詢問被選組別學生的意願，全體學生均是自願參與研究工作及簽 署確認同意書，如在有需要的情況下，參與者亦可以隨時退出是次研究項 目。在研究進行之前，研究員亦預備「家長同意書」，確保其家長在知情 的情況下進行是次研究工作。至於在學習方面，對照組在接受教育上沒有 任何缺失，所有學生在研究中沒有風險。 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 16 教育研究報告匯編 根據獨立樣本 t 檢定，「實驗組」（M=2.21、SD=0.44）和「對照組」 （M=2.38、SD=0.42）在前測的成績並沒有任何顯著之分別（t(27)=-1.03， p>.05）；這就說明「實驗組」和「對照組」學生在通識教育科的能力相若。 議題答卷 在 施 行「 融 辯 入 教 」 的 兩 個 月 後， 根 據 成 對 樣 本 t 檢 定（paired sample t-test），4 條題目的 P 值均少於 0.01，而所有後測答卷的分數都 有顯著提升。 題目 樣本數 (n) 前測 後測 自由度 (df) t 值 (t) P 值 (p) 平均數 (M) 標準差 (SD) 平均數 (M) 標準差 (SD) 第一題 11 2.82 1.94 5.82 0.60 10 4.98 0.001 第二題 11 1.91 0.94 4.27 1.01 10 5.22 0.00 第三題 11 3.45 1.75 7.27 1.19 10 7.12 0.00 第四題 11 3.36 1.57 6.36 1.69 10 7.42 0.00 表 2 實驗組之前測及後測比較 paired sample t-test 再深入觀乎實驗組的表現在每一題的平均分亦有顯著提升： 議題 1 - 由 2.82 上升至 5.82 議題 2 - 由 1.91 上升至 4.27 議題 3 - 由 3.45 上升至 7.27 議題 4 - 由 3.36 上升至 6.36 從上述數據得知，實驗組同學在 4 題答卷表現均有大幅提升，這可能 與在辯論活動中逐漸掌握答題框架有關。 紙筆測試 另一方面，在紙筆測試中，研究以學期中段考及學期尾期考成績作為 比較。研究發現實驗組期考表現高於對照組，實驗組總平均分為 46 分， 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 17 教育研究報告匯編 表 3 實驗組、對照組之量表前測及後測比較 而對照組則為 40.6 分；在進步幅度方面，亦發現實驗組表現高於對照組， 實驗組平均得分由 42 分上升至 46 分，升幅為 9.52%，而對照組平均得 分則由 38.5 上升至 40.6 分，升幅為 5.45%。由此可見，同學掌握思辯、 組織能力後，對通識教育科整體表現均有所提升。 問卷調查 至於在研究前後的量表平均分比較上，實驗組升幅高於對照組。實驗 組平均分由 2.21 升至 2.64，差距為 0.43；而對照組則由 2.38 升至 2.62， 差距為 0.24。 問題 1：「我能夠掌握通識科的考核要求。」在實驗組增長百分比為 29.17%，而對照組為 19.05%。 問題 5：「我對自己在寫作組織力有信心。」在實驗組增長百分比為 20.83%，而對照組為 20.00%。 問 題 6：「 我 對 處 理 立 場 題 感 到 自 在。」 在 實 驗 組 增 長 百 分 比 為 11.54%，而對照組為 6.98%。 問題 10：「整體來說，我對通識科有信心。」在實驗組增長百分比為 17.39%，而對照組為 11.11%。 研究者相信同學對通識教育科中訓練要求，包括思辯能力及答題技 巧，在信心上均有所提升，尤其在立場題的回應上成效更為明顯。可是， 根據成對樣本 t 檢定（表 3），「實驗組」學生的平均得分在前測及後測 中沒有顯著的分別（t(10)=2.06，p>.05）。「對照組」學生的平均得分 在前測及後測中亦沒有任何顯著之改變（t(17)=1.46，p>.05）。 組別 樣本數 (n) 前測 後測 自由度 (df) t 值 (t) P 值 (p) 平均數 (M) 標準差 (SD) 平均數 (M) 標準差 (SD) 實驗組 11 2.21 0.44 2.64 0.61 10 2.06 0.067 對照組 18 2.38 0.42 2.62 0.55 17 1.46 0.162 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 18 教育研究報告匯編 質化研究 首先，是次參與焦點小組的學生也是來自中五級學生，對於學習通識 科已有一段時間。而他們對通識教育科的感覺一樣認為是比較複雜及煩 擾。當中原因在於他們認為通識教育科作答時需要書寫較長篇幅及需要多 角度去回答問題。在質化研究問題二中，要他們選擇通識教育科是「困難」 還是「容易」時，他們 6 位中有 5 位同學都選擇「困難」。即使通識教育 科的題目是日常生活中的議題和政策，他們也比較少用多角度的思維模式 去思考，亦未能運用概念化字詞進行歸納。因此，當他們真正面對題目時， 他們會傾向用個人思維模式進行作答，有時候未必能符合通識教育科的作 答要求。 「因為以前從未試過以多個不同的持份者角度看同一件事⋯⋯」 其次，在問題三中指出辯論與學習通識的關係時，大多數學生認為在 通識教育科之中加入辯論元素有助他們學習，原因在於辯論活動能夠提升 學生的學習動機。透過辯論活動和比賽的互動方式，能引起他們對學習通 識和議題上的興趣，令他們更容易做到換位思考。加上，在辯論的學習模 式下，學生需要做到正反思考、換位思考，需要從不同持分者的角度出發 作分析，而正反角度思考正是在立場題型中的必要技巧。而他們亦在訪問 中表示，以辯論模式教學有助提升他們正反思考的能力。 「讓我從辯論的過程中知道正反方的不同看法。」 「透過辯論的互動，會更有趣地學習通識。」 再者，當問到若然長期接觸辯論對作答立場題的影響時，所有受訪學 生都表示這種學習模式更能有效提升他們對作答通識試題的信心，並且可 以提升他們作答駁論部份的思考速度。原因在於辯論經常需要進行反駁， 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 19 教育研究報告匯編 並且需要在短時間內進行即時回應。這正好配合作答通識教育科題目時， 需要在緊密和有限的時間內進行審題和構思作答大綱。 「因辯論需要思考對方的立場後才能向對方作出提問，對於作答駁論 部分有所幫助。」 「因為在準備辯論比賽時，雙方都會假設對手所問的問題，從而構想 出反駁答案。這有助訓練同學在作答立場題時，快速構想反駁論點。」 加上，大多數學生都表示學習辯論有助他們更容易了解不同議題。不 論在廣度和深度上，辯論模式的訓練也能提升他們對議題的理解。在作答 通識卷中，以個人認知的例子正可有助提升答卷上的分數。況且，在廣納 議題的情況下，學生更容易準備及應對不同議題，有助他們在考核中回應 答卷。 「因為一條立場題需要大量例子、論點以及論據，因此辯論就能夠帶 給我更多不同範疇的例子⋯⋯」 「不必像以往要用背誦的方式溫習通識概念。」 教師觀察 是次研究其中一個目的是希望增強學生對通識教育科的信心，但這未 必能從問卷和答題之中完全反映出來。然而，同學對通識教育科的作答信 心和學習動機，就能從他們的課堂表現觀察到。例如，其中一位實驗組的 同學在實驗開初時參與的動機並不大。在課堂中，他只會跟從教師的說話 及指示學習，稍為被動。但在研究實驗期間，透過多元化的辯論課堂活動 及比賽，以這種學習方式介入，他變得更為主動。他會在辯論活動進行前， 主動搜尋相關議題資料，並就不同持分者的角度建構相關論點及以資料或 數據作為佐證。加上，他會比研究計劃開初時更願意進行反駁及回應，更 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 20 教育研究報告匯編 大膽地表達自身立場。可見，他比實驗前顯得更為積極，反映出「融辯入 教」是有利學習通識教育科。 總結及建議 從上述量化及質化的混合研究結果顯示，以「融辯入教」手法融入通 識教育科能產生正面果效。現將從基礎能力、高階思維及考試技巧三方面 分析，以針對性回應研究中的焦點問題。 首先，在基礎能力方面，研究主要集中提升思辯及組織力。「融辯入 教」透過多元化教學模式，從不同面向切入。例如在個人短講及小組討論 中，同學通過資料搜集及整理，歸納出支持或反對的立場，以至當中所包 含的理據及佐證，從而提升組織能力。從活動過程中，同學可以參考不同 學者的論證手法，模仿其構思觀點時的思維模式。 其次，在高階思維方面，是次研究以「立場題」作為基礎，透過「自 由辯論」及「模擬辯論賽」訓練同學高階思維，尤其在抉擇立場及構思觀 點方面，令同學逐漸養成代入持分者作思考的習慣。在辯論活動過程中， 同學能從辯論中尋找樂趣，例如研究人員留意到，同學在反駁對方觀點的 過程中，顯得特別雀躍及投入，此舉有助同學將來在處理立場題型時，較 容易掌握「駁論」的做法。事實上，高階思維的培養並非一朝一夕便成， 反需要長時間、潛移默化地培養及學習才可。 最後，在考試技巧方面，研究結果顯示有顯著提升。在四份答卷中， 後測的表現均比前測為佳，可能很大程度上與同學漸漸掌握答題框架與學 科要求有關。對於同學日後在公開試的表現，相信會有所幫助。另一方 面，近年學界推崇「翻轉課室」，由過往教師主導的單向模式，轉移至由 學生主導課堂的學習模式。當中講求學生的自律性，需要自主學習，在進 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 21 教育研究報告匯編 入課室前同學已先完成充分預習，將探究問題帶回課堂當中，再經由教師 點撥、回饋及總結。事實上，「融辯入教」模式與「翻轉課室」的理念不 謀而合地配合，從上述設計的課堂活動，可訓練學生的自主性。通過教師 觀察發現，多元化教學活動亦有助同學對學科產生興趣，從而提升其學習 動機。 總括而言，是次研究確實有不足之處，一些研究限制，例如實驗組的 樣本數太細，以致部份研究結果顯示有上升，惟不顯著。再者，在議題答 卷的前測及後測之中，題目是相同的。這個情況令學生二次作答，結果未 必可以百分百反映其對立場題的處理能力，有機會只反映學生對題目的熟 識程度。如日後有意研究此題目的研究者，可就上述的研究限制加以留意 及改善，相信會有利研究進行。 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 22 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 歐立賢（2012）。〈香港新高中通識教育科之批判思考能力培訓──從正式課程到空無 課程〉。《香港教師中心學報》，第十一期，165-171。 星島日報（2013 年 12 月 9 日）。〈《睇辯論學通識〉DVD 免費換領 >。取自 https:// std.stheadline.com/daily/article/detail/311769/%E6%97%A5%E5%A0%B1。 課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局（2007）。通識教育科課程及評估指引（中四至中六）。 香港：作者。 霍秉坤、黃顯華（2011）。〈香港新高中通識教育科課程制定的過程與性質〉。《課程 研究》，第六卷，第二期，31-61。 賈伯生、尹彥品（2017）。《8 種成功心態》。台灣：崧博出版事業有限公司。 Chikeleze, M., Johnson, I., & Gibson, T. (2018). Let's argue: using debate to teach critical thinking and communication skills to future leaders. Journal of Leadership Education, 17(2), 123-137. Forehand, M. (2011). Bloom’s taxonomy. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology, 41(4), 47-56. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1985). Classroom Conflict: Controversy Versus Debate in Learning Groups. American Educational Research Journal, 22(2), 237–256. Zare, P., & Othman, M. (2015). Students' perceptions toward using classroom debate to develop critical thinking and oral communication ability. Asian Social Science, 11(9), 158. 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 23 教育研究報告匯編 附件 1 研究量表樣本 九龍塘學校（中學部） 中五級通識教育科 教育研究問卷調查 請圈出所屬組別：LCF / WHM / LSC / TKM / SC 您好，學校現正進行有關通識科教學研究的調查。內容有關在通識科上使用不同的 教學手法能否對同學在通識答題中帶來成效。此問題卷調查只會作研究用途，研究報告 完成後，相關資料將會銷毀。如有疑問，可向孫政老師查詢，多謝合作！ 你在多大程度上同意以下說法？請以 ✔ 表示在右列的位置 說法 1 非常不同意 2 不同意 3 同意 4 非常同意 1. 我能夠掌握通識科的考核要求。 □ □ □ □ 2. 我對通識科概念有充分掌握。 □ □ □ □ 3. 我對日常時事背後概念有充分掌握。 □ □ □ □ 4. 我能充分掌握寫作長文的要求。 □ □ □ □ 5. 我對自己在寫作組織力有信心。 □ □ □ □ 6. 我對處理立場題感到自在。 □ □ □ □ 7. 我具備批判性思考。 □ □ □ □ 8. 能通過通識科令自己增加換位思考。 □ □ □ □ 9. 能通過通識科我對價值觀有所反思。 □ □ □ □ 10. 整體來說，我對通識科有信心。 □ □ □ □ ~ 問卷完 ~ 謝謝 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 24 教育研究報告匯編 附件 2 同學答卷 ( 前測及後測 ) 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 25 教育研究報告匯編 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 26 教育研究報告匯編 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 27 教育研究報告匯編 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 28 教育研究報告匯編 「融辯入教」的校本實踐：以辯論模式融入通識教育科 29 教育研究報告匯編 31 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Abstract With the widespread usage of e-learning software and applications nowadays, various learning management systems (LMS) have been developed to help teachers integrate different software and streamline the teaching and learning process. This paper focuses on the use of Microsoft Teams as an LMS in three junior secondary English classes in a local co-educational secondary school, evaluating its strengths and weaknesses, inferring pedagogical implications. Suggestions for the improvement of the LMS were made on the basis of the teacher- researcher’s field notes and an end-of-term student survey (n=54) that had used the System Usability Scale developed by Brooke (1986). It is found that Microsoft Teams is highly preferred due to its built- in chat system and multitude of functions in spite of ethical concerns about teacher-student communication. Another factor for the choice of this LMS may also be how widely it is used within the community, as increased usage also means increased familiarity with applications, hence reducing possible problems in application navigation. Overall, this study holds practical importance in terms of classroom pedagogy and school-based e-learning policies, and adds weight to those who support e-learning in language classrooms. Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System WONG Sing Tsun Derek 32 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Keywords Learning Management Systems (LMS), e-learning, Microsoft Teams, English language learning and teaching, technology Introduction With the wide range of e-learning tools available to language teachers, teachers may employ different tools in their classes to facilitate teaching and learning. Nonetheless, as these tools are produced by various organisations, teachers may end up jumping between different browsers and tabs. This may pose detrimental effects in lesson flow and the retrieval of lesson products. In response to the need to integrate such tools and streamline the teaching process, various learning management systems (LMS) have been developed. These include Google Classroom, Blackboard, Moodle, Schoology, amongst many others. While each LMS has its individual strengths and weaknesses, there is now a software called Microsoft Teams, which comes with Office 365 for Education and is freely available to students and teachers at schools all over the world. Microsoft Teams can be applied in not only classes, but also by professional learning communities, staff groups and other interest groups. Functioning as a hub for teamwork, Teams allows effective communication via its private and channel chat functions, collaboration using its built-in Office 365 apps and effective classroom management via its Assignments tab and Class Notebook functions (Microsoft, 2018). With its compatibility with other Microsoft and non-Microsoft e-learning tools, this holds particular importance for language teachers as vast opportunities are given for authentic exchanges between students. The following section provides an overview as well as some 33 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 potential uses of Microsoft Teams in English classrooms. Its strengths and weaknesses as an LMS are then examined, before inferences are drawn about its pedagogical implications and recommendations are made to overcome its weaknesses. Overall, this paper sheds light on how Microsoft Teams can be used in the lesson and how students perceive the use of the app and LMS in general. This has practical importance in terms of classroom pedagogy and school-based e-learning policies, and adds weight to those who support e-learning in the language classroom. Microsoft Teams Microsoft Teams can be downloaded as a desktop app via https:// products.office.com/en-us/microsoft-teams/group-chat-software or accessed via its web version. Teachers can use the ‘Join or Create a team’ function to create teams and invite students from the same school or organisation to join. Students or other guests can use a code generated under the ‘Manage Team’ tab to join the team (by clicking on the three dots next to the team name in the left column), but they have to log in using their registered Microsoft accounts to ensure security. Within each team, channels can be set up for specific members, or simply as an open channel that all can access. In the default Conversations and Files tabs, teachers and students can freely post, reply and add files to the team, which can then be accessed by other members. Posts are not limited to words and file attachments; stickers, memes, emojis and gifs can also be used. This allows highly authentic and lively interaction between students and teachers. The teacher can moderate posts and toggle authority in posting through the Manage Team tab. Students can revise or edit their posts according to teacher or peer feedback. With the large autonomy available to students, a low-stress environment for authentic language production is developed. 34 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Teams also supports live conferencing under the Conversations tab. Although only a maximum of four screens can be shown on the interface while the others are shown as reduced-size icons at the bottom of the screen, the live conference function can accommodate a maximum of 250 participants. This is particularly relevant in the case of online meetings and live lessons. Meanwhile, the Class Notebook tab can be used for storing and distributing class handouts, facilitating collaborative work, and marking students’ work. As every student has a personal notebook tab, the work can be organised as a student e-portfolio. This portfolio is accessible anytime by the teacher, and can effectively document students’ learning progress and growth over the school year. Teachers can also make use of the Assignments tab to create and distribute assignments and quizzes and provide personalised feedback. They can type in instructions for students to upload work, create worksheets for students to fill in and hand in using Office online, incorporate Microsoft Forms to create in-class quizzes, and/or make use of OneNote to provide e-worksheets. Its built-in “review” function allows teachers to mark students’ work via the interface itself. Assessment rubrics can also be totally customised to individual assignments for guiding learning, providing more holistic feedback and giving the teacher insights of students’ progress. Teams is also highly customisable to individual classes. Using the \"Add a tab\" function, teachers can add extra tabs, which will appear in the navigation bar beside the default tabs and are easily accessible by members. These additional tabs are not limited to Microsoft Apps, but allow links to other websites. This means that other common e-learning tools like name pickers, Kahoot, Nearpod, Poll Everywhere and Quizlet can also be incorporated into the team, meaning that Teams can function as the go-to hub in classes, hence streamlining lessons. The 35 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 authority to add tabs can be toggled in the ‘Manage Team’ settings. Furthermore, what differentiates Teams from other similar software is its unique instant messaging function. Through the chat function, teachers and students can communicate with each other in a self-regulated, low- stress environment that encourages interaction. As Teams has a mobile app, students and teachers are not limited to desktop computers but can communicate with one another anywhere. In terms of English language education, Microsoft Teams provides an interactive platform with a low- pressure environment. Students can safely demonstrate their learning, provide comments and use language authentically and spontaneously amongst peers. Literature review Blended learning is often seen as a learning solution that mixes varied delivery media (non-technology-supported materials in conjunction with online electronic multimedia materials), varied learning events (individual, self-paced and collective activities), and electronic performance support (instruction-based and knowledge management support) (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Graham, 2005). Various researchers have long shown how such blending of face-to-face traditional learning and online training makes knowledge acquisition and the whole learning experience more easily accepted than either one of the two (Colis & Moonen, 2001; Rovai & Jordan, 2004; Konstantinidis, Papadopoulos, Tsiatsos & Demetriadis, 2011). This is based on how the benefits of traditional face-to-face classroom education, i.e. the presence of (1) social interaction and ideas exchange through personal contact, (2) familiarity and (3) a communicative environment can be mixed with the benefits of online learning, which links with the interactive compatibility of Internet communication technology (Paraskakis, Konstantinidis, Bouras, Perakis, Pantelopoulos & Hatziapostolou, 2009; Garrison & Cleveland- Innes, 2003). 36 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 As cited in Konstantinidis et al. (2011), the advantages of blended learning include higher functionality and student time organisation, increased student-student and student-teacher interaction, higher flexibility in space and time, increased learning, decreased student dropouts and more personalised learning experience. Learning management systems Learning management systems (LMS), often used to support blended learning (Trasler, 2002), can be defined as “comprehensive, integrated software that supports the development, assessment, and administration of courses in a traditional face-to-face, blended, or online learning environments” (Wright, Hamilton, Mighty, Scharfe, Muirhead & Vail, 2014). They are largely synonymous with others like “course management systems”, “learning content management systems”, “virtual learning environments”, “virtual learning systems”, “learning portals”, or “e-learning platforms” (Wright et al., 2014). According to Weiss (2019), over 552 companies or developers currently offer LMS software. These include Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, Edmodo, Google Classroom. However, since each LMS offers a slightly different focus and has different strengths and weaknesses, it becomes crucial that teachers select one that best suits their needs. Selection of a learning management system As cited in Konstantinidis et al. (2011), the Learning Connections Project revealed that usability, reliability and support are the three most important issues to consider when selecting an LMS. The Instructional Technology Resource Centre of Idaho State University (2007) adds to this list with pedagogical value, financial concerns, support issues, assessment criteria, integration with IT services and long-term viability, etc. Various other researchers also suggested user-friendliness, ease 37 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 of system integration, cost of ownership, development and support, reliability and ease of implementation, etc. (Wyles & Udas, 2004; Moyle, 2007; Konstantinidis et al., 2011). Pappas (2018) suggested nine other selection criteria for LMS, namely customer experience (personalised service from the vendor), value for money, support services, pricing options, available features, software updates, track record, implementation time and maintenance. In the wider picture, researchers agree that there can be no such thing as the best LMS. Instead, the selection of LMS must depend on the context and circumstances of particular institutions or classrooms. Any form of evaluation of LMS should also be taken into similar considerations (Konstantinidis et al., 2011). School context In the school on which this paper is based, Microsoft OneNote is often used for document filing and dissemination of e-resources. E-learning is highly supported, and various teachers make use of a wide range of e-learning software such as Kahoot, Quizlet, and Polleverywhere. Teachers make use of a range of LMS, including Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams and Schoology. E-class is widely used as an e-management software in which e-notices are disseminated and e-class mails are viewed as the main mode of formal teacher-student interaction online. The integration of multiple e-learning tools under one single platform may benefit teaching and learning. Microsoft Teams can be a viable LMS that is used in the classroom under this assumption and so forms the basis of the present study. As there is yet no full published technological review of its use in schools, the aim of this study is to shed light on the benefits and drawbacks of using it in the language classroom. 38 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Function Methods of Use Team and Channel Creation One “Team” was created for each class. Private channels within each “Team” were created for heterogeneous groups to collaborate. Group members collaborated on various lesson tasks. Results were usually presented to the class or combined into a “class document” for reference by others in another channel. Conversation Tab This was mainly used for the dissemination of information and notices from the teacher, including the reminders for assessments and homework as well as photos of the classroom whiteboard. Students were encouraged to “reply” should they have any questions, just like what happened in a typical English classroom. Files Tab Video files were uploaded to the files tab by the teacher for students’ reference to support learning in the classroom. Collaborative work to be shared with the whole class was uploaded to specific files within the files tab, including Word or Excel Online documents in which students wrote or put together answers that they had done individually or in small groups. The final drafts of work completed by individual groups within their private channels were shared with the whole class. Class Notebook This was used as a filing cabinet, including mainly class tasks, extension tasks and answers. Individual pages were set as assignments and linked together via the “assignments” tab. The purpose was to create a portfolio for students to document their learning so that they could review their learning progress and past materials. Research methods Use of Microsoft Teams in the classroom Microsoft Teams has features including but not limited to team and channel creation, tab creation, class notebook, online assignments and chat function. These are used in the teacher-researcher’s classroom in the following ways (see Table 1). All communication between the teacher-researcher and students is done in English in order to provide an extra platform for students to be exposed to and make use of the language even beyond the classroom context. 39 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Table 1 The use of Microsoft Teams in the teacher-researcher's classroom. Function Methods of Use Assignments Tab Assignments were given as homework using students’ tablet. These included essays for process writing (which require multiple revisions) and other optional tasks. Multimedia extension files (e.g. links to supplementary videos, documents, websites) were also embedded into assignments that required them. Custom rubrics were created to support marking: one following the writing rubrics (content / language / organisation) and another a formative set of rubrics (work completed vs. work incomplete). In-class quizzes were given occasionally using Microsoft Forms and embedded to Teams via the Assignments Tab. Marking was done immediately and the marked quiz was subsequently returned to students. Optional (Extra) Tabs Multiple tabs were created to support daily teaching. Throughout the year, a link to a name picker and a discussion forum created using Microsoft SharePoint were available for easy access. In collaborative sessions, links to Word Online documents were also created so that students could easily access what their classmates had produced as they presented their work. Chat Function This was mainly used as a convenient tool for students to contact the teacher should they encounter any problems including but not limited to homework issues, clarification of lesson concepts. It was also used after assessments as an informal channel for mark announcement and checking. Some students also used the platform to ask for extra feedback on assignments or assessments. Research Questions This paper seeks to answer three major research questions in investigating the use of Microsoft Teams in English classes from both the students’ and teacher-researcher’s perspectives: 1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Microsoft Teams in terms of teaching and learning in English classes? This question was investigated by analysing the responses from students through an end-of-term survey triangulated with the teacher-researcher’s fieldnotes on the usage of Microsoft Teams as an LMS. 40 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 2. What are the pedagogical implications arising from the strengths and weaknesses of Microsoft Teams? The implications were investigated by elaborating on the findings of the preceding question, aiming to find linkages between the language classroom context and identified strengths and weaknesses. 3. How can Microsoft Teams be further improved to promote usability in classroom settings? This question was answered by referring to the weaknesses identified through the survey and the teacher- researcher’s fieldnotes. Concrete suggestions were then given on how the application could be improved. The study sample was taken from one co-educational secondary school in Hong Kong. A total of 56 students aged from 11 to 15 from three classes taught by the teacher-researcher participated, i.e. 17 from Form 1, 20 from Form 2 and 19 from Form 3. They all had prior exposure to Microsoft Teams and used an array of e-learning tools, more notably OneNote across different subject areas. Data collection and analysis A mixed-method approach following the concurrent Quan + Qual MMR design proposed by Ivankova (2015) was used in this study. Quantitative data from student surveys and qualitative data from the teacher-researcher’s perspective were combined to answer the research questions (Creswell, 2003). Equal weighting was given to both sources as they were complementary of each other (Morse, 1991). Combining and comparing or synthesising evidence from different sources can often give a more comprehensive answer or explanation to research questions (Ivankova & Greer, 2015). 41 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Students were asked to complete a 5-section survey after the answer scripts of the end-of-year exam had been graded and returned. In this way they could draw on their full one-year experience with Microsoft Teams without worries about possible bias from the teacher- researcher. Section 1 comprised 10 five-point Likert scale (Strongly agree (5), Strongly disagree (1) questions (Appendix 1) from the SUS (System Usability Scale) questionnaire developed by Brooke (1986) to evaluate the usability of systems, which was hereby defined as the quality of the user’s experience and the goal of which was to “effectively and efficiently satisfy the end user”. As its internal consistency has been found to be above .90, SUS is a reliable questionnaire (Lewis & Sauro, 2009). Section 2 included 11 5-point Likert scale questions (Extremely useful (5), Extremely not useful (1) in evaluating 11 functions / uses of Microsoft Teams, including uses for the “conversations” (4 questions), “files” (2 questions), “Class Notebook (OneNote)” (1 question), “Assignments” (1 question), “Quizzes” (1 question), “Chat function” (2 questions) and one open-ended question to elicit feedback on any of these features. Section 3 asked for a comparison of learning experience with Microsoft Teams with other learning management systems that students might have used earlier. One of the questions asked students which LMS they had used before. Another asked about comparing their experience between Teams and other LMS. The third one asked students whether their experience might have differed should all teachers use Teams, thereby eliminating possible error that the difference in perceptions towards Teams might have been due to lower popularity of use. The final section asked participants to fill in a table about the strengths and 42 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 weaknesses of Microsoft Teams. This open-ended question aimed at concluding students’ views as a whole while informing possible areas for improvement for the app. Multiple methods of analysis were used in order to gain a holistic image of the perception of Microsoft Teams from the perspective of students. The SUS scale used in section 1 of the survey was analysed by converting its raw score into percentiles to show how Teams compared with other technologies or software in the database, in which the average score on the normal curve was 68 and the 73rd percentile required an SUS of 75 (Sauro, 2018a). The descriptive statistics in section 2 were analysed to find each item’s mean and standard deviation and help to inform possible areas for improvement. Data gained from the open-ended questions in sections 3 and 4 was analysed and coded qualitatively to find frequency in key words. The teacher-researcher completed fieldnotes throughout the school year. Students’ feedback was elicited informally right after the corresponding lesson tasks and recorded under the name of the function used and the purpose of usage (the same as the items under section 2 of the student survey), immediate response and reflection and future or alternative uses. Entries to these fieldnotes were further categorised under headings (sub-themes) based on content. These coded themes were subsequently cross analysed with the coded materials as identified in section 2 of the student survey results. When collecting data, the principles of informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality were carefully observed (Yanow & Schwartz-Shea, 2006; Eisner, 1998). Participants were also informed of the purpose of the study, and their anonymity was preserved in this paper by using codes (samples 1 to 54) as pseudonyms. 43 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Results and discussion Responses for the survey and sample coded responses from students and teacher-researcher’s fieldnotes are given in Appendix 2. The findings showed an overall positive perception towards Microsoft Teams used as a learning management system in the classroom from both the learning and teaching perspectives. The following discusses and reflects on these results based on the three research questions of this study. With reference to the first research question, a high SUS score was noted here (average = 78.66, corresponding to the 80-84th percentile), thus shedding light on its usability (Sauro, 2018b). The chat function of Microsoft Teams facilitated easy and instantaneous communication between students and teachers, and was widely used throughout the year. As all exchanges were conducted in English, it provided an extra channel of exposure to the language outside the classroom. In turn, this gave teachers more opportunities to offer corrective feedback on students’ work even with respect to details like formality and tone, spelling mistakes as well as grammatical errors in word forms and vocabulary choice. Microsoft Teams allows extra tabs to be added to each team. Integration is not limited to Microsoft products. The fact that the assignment tab in Teams allows for further OneNote integration (distribution, completion and review marking of e-worksheets on OneNote) makes the teaching and learning process more streamlined and focused. In terms of the language classroom, this allows various apps from different sources to be integrated into one single platform. E-quiz applications like Kahoot! can be placed as a separate tab in Teams for easy access for students. In one particular lesson, a Word 44 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Online document was created so that different groups could combine the paragraphs that they had created into one complete story. The fact that an extra tab was added for this purpose meant that not only could students see what each other had done, but that piece of work could be documented for future retrieval. Team’s allowance for the integration of multiple functions in its system also has strong complications on the use of ICT in feedback, which will be further elaborated on in relation to the second research question. Microsoft Teams has a clear user interface that is visually appealing. Both the desktop application and mobile application interfaces have high user malleability (i.e. allowing for user customisation), which adds to readership and better visual perception. This may benefit English learning in the way that the subject will not seem so foreign to students. In spite of its wide range of benefits, Microsoft Teams does have its weaknesses. Students often find it inconvenient to use and navigate possibly because too many functions have been put together in one system. This limitation may be due to Teams’ current incompatibility with e-class, hence the lack of notifications to an e-class inbox. Google Classroom is more widely used in schools. Inconvenience in the use of Teams may have stemmed from this as students have to switch to another LMS in the lessons for another subject. With respect to the second research question, it can be noted that the introduction of learning management systems has given rise to new opportunities for learning and delivery beyond the classroom and provided a central resource bank for obtaining learning resources from the teacher. The findings of this study have yielded several pedagogical implications. One of these is that Microsoft Teams may be better than Google Classroom and Schoology in terms of its communicative 45 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 aspect. Given that students make use of English when talking to the teacher via the chat function, they can safely demonstrate their learning, provide comments and use language authentically and spontaneously amongst peers. Language learning can thus be developed beyond the boundaries of the traditional classroom. This echoes with the work of many researchers, especially in the use of Whatsapp in the classroom (see Hamad, 2017). From the perspective of the teacher, it is more convenient to contact students through an instant messaging application without sharing phone numbers. The wall between students and teachers can be broken down to facilitate the building of friendlier, less formal relationships. This is of particular importance in the classroom, especially in ESL/EFL contexts because the safer the learning environment is, the more likely the student is willing to talk and make use of English. Improvements in teacher-student relationships can definitely allow students to make use of the language in a more confident manner. Teachers however should still be careful when considering whether Microsoft Teams is the best LMS for their daily use, as this may raise possible ethical concerns when informal communication online beyond the school walls may not be preferable or allowed in some contexts. In other words, consideration must be given to whether students are ready to use such LMS. Strong measures have to be in place to protect both students and the teacher. Rules could be set up and enforced with respect to the time and context of teacher-student interactions. Another option is to seek assistance from IT administrators to disable the chat function in Microsoft Teams (student-student interactions and/or the chat function as a whole) although this means taking away a strong, rather unique feature of Microsoft Teams. Another core function of Microsoft Teams is its assignments tab, which integrates with Microsoft OneNote and caters for many 46 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 feedback methods. Teachers can simply read the assignments and/or give comments in a “comments box” in the review tab, or go in-depth and do detailed marking on each assignment. Teachers can also put in customised rubrics and provide customised feedback on individual pieces of homework. The fact that customised rubrics can be used is of particular significance to the classroom, as language teachers can then tailor their feedback on any particular aspect, such as grammar, vocabulary choice, sentence structures and content, to suit the needs of different classes A very recent update to the assignments function is its integration with Turnitin, a plagiarism check tool (https://www.turnitin.com/products/ feedback-studio/microsoft-teams-integration). This can bring more benefits to students' writing as multiple submissions or even custom assignments directed at individual students in a class are allowed. Students can see the difference between two or more pieces of assignments and become more aware of what makes a good piece of writing. Assignment feedback can also be given via the chat function. However, due to the difficulties in retrieving previous messages, students and teachers cannot make use of it very extensively. From the results, it appears that not many other teachers in the teacher-researcher’s school have used Microsoft Teams so far. This may have given rise to difficulties in navigation within the software and a tendency to miss notices and announcements. Should the LMS used be popular in school or if the whole school adopts only one LMS, students may find it more accessible and handy to use. With respect to the third research question, the following suggestions may make Microsoft Teams a more preferable LMS. 47 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 (a) Adding an option to “pin” announcements in the Conversations tab and chat windows In response to difficulties in retrieving messages under the conversations tab and private chat, a possible solution may be to allow for “pinning” of announcements in addition to the current “save” button. This is based on how “saved” posts can only be found if one actively clicks into the dedicated page in his/her profile page, while pinned posts and starred messages are always placed at a highly visible spot in the Team page. (b) Improving the “search” function in Conversations and chat Another way to improve information retrieval is to construct a better “search” function, for example, having one in the channel and another in chats. The current “search” function is integrated with the commands prompt and is not a full search (i.e. it only searches existing conversations and skips private chats). (c) Adding a “discussion forum” plugin to possible tabs The current way to bypass the lack of a real discussion forum is to link a Microsoft SharePoint website to Teams. However, given the possible extensive use of discussion forums in many disciplines and that simple chats within a conversations tab may not satisfy such needs, an additional “discussion forum” plugin may be more convenient for teachers and students, especially in terms of language learning. 48 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 (d) Adding possible adaptations for a more learner-oriented LMS Microsoft Teams focuses more on conversations and gives space for simple assignments to be handed in. The inclusion of a OneNote “library” and extra tabs can make it a stronger learning management system. A learning pathway can be built in the assignments function to cater better to student diversity by automatically assigning the next level of work based on performance in previous work. The current version of Microsoft Teams requires the teacher to intervene in this connection. However, if this process becomes automatic, students can pace their own learning and possibly gain more through increased involvement in their own learning. Conclusion This paper aims at shedding light on the practicality of using Microsoft Teams as a learning management system, and evaluates its strengths and weaknesses based on actual classroom usage. Based on these strengths and weaknesses, pedagogical implications were discussed together with suggestions on how the application could be further improved. Nonetheless, the validity of this study is limited in three ways: (a) Small sample size. This paper is based on a study sample of 56 students, which is too small for extrapolation to a wider population. The fact that this paper is only based on one subject in some classes may also contribute to possible errors about perceptions, as students have limited exposure and training with the application. Future research for getting a more holistic picture can be based on larger samples or on the use of Microsoft Teams as an LMS for all subjects. 49 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 (b) Lack of research-proven evaluative criteria for an LMS. This paper has made use of the SUS, which may not be fully applicable for evaluating LMS although it has been considered highly reliable by various other researchers. Furthermore, the original SUS by Brooke (1986) does not include a percentile range and hence may not be fully accurate. Future research studies should seek to develop an evaluative criteria for LMS that can be tailored for use by schools or even individual subject classes. (c) Possible bias and error. Although the student survey was conducted at the end of the school year, students' responses might still be subject to bias and error due to their relationship with the teacher- researcher. This can be seen in some samples in which the results tend towards extreme values. Recommendations for further research In addition to the above, this paper has only studied the use of Microsoft Teams as an LMS in English language classrooms. The application nevertheless has a much wider usage aimed at professional learning communities, staff and interest groups. Future researchers can look into an integrated view of Teams used as a school-wide LMS / e-management software. The present study has explored students’ and the teacher- researcher’s perceptions of Microsoft Teams based only on several functions. A number of other features are left unused such as the video conferencing option, inclusion of wikis and the group chat functions. Future studies should focus on case studies based on a more complete use of Microsoft Teams in classrooms of different disciplines or on a comprehensive technological review about the whole application. 50 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 While there is no perfect LMS, findings from the student survey and the teacher-researcher’s fieldnotes do show students have an overall positive response towards the use of Microsoft Teams. The various features in Teams make it a very flexible tool in the classroom, and provides opportunities for authentic communication through its highly-perceived chat features. While there is yet room for improvement in terms of application design, the effect of Teams on improving communication is marked. 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Sharpe. 54 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 1 Survey on students' perceptions about Microsoft Teams Throughout the school year, we have been using Microsoft Teams as a learning management system (LMS). This is aimed at integrating most, if not all e-learning tools into one platform for easier access and usage in the classroom for teaching and learning. This survey aims at eliciting your opinion on the usage of Microsoft Teams to help me evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Microsoft Teams as an LMS. Ultimately, a reflective essay (approx. 5000-8000 words) will be written as a final product. Please note that this survey is anonymous. This means that your name WILL NOT be recorded. Thank you for your participation! Mr. Derek Wong Section 1: Your Details Please CIRCLE the appropriate option(s) for Q1-4, and answer Q5 if your answer to Q4 is ‘yes’. 1. Gender: Male / Female 2. Class: 3. Have you downloaded the Microsoft Teams app onto your tablet and/or mobile phone? Yes; both / Yes; tablet only / Yes; phone only / No 4. Apart from English classes with me, have you used Microsoft Teams in other classes? Yes / No 5. If your answer to Q4 is “yes”, please state the subject and academic year in which you have used Microsoft Teams (e.g. “Chinese, 2018-2019”). 55 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Section 2: Overall Questions 6.Think about your experience with Microsoft Teams and the following statements. Tick the number that best fits your opinion. (5 = strongly agree; 1 = strongly disagree) Item 5 4 3 2 1 i. I think that I would like to use Microsoft Teams frequently. ii. I found Microsoft Teams unnecessarily complex. iii. (a) I thought Microsoft Teams was easy to use. (b) Based on your answer in 6(iii)(a), please elaborate on why you think it is easy / not easy to use: iv. I think that I need a technical person’s support to be able to use Microsoft Teams. v. I found the various functions in Microsoft Teams were well integrated. vi. I thought there was too much inconsistency in Microsoft Teams. vii. I would imagine that most people would learn to use Microsoft Teams very quickly. viii. I found Microsoft Teams very awkward to use. ix. I felt very confident using Microsoft Teams. x. I needed to learn a lot of things before I could get going with Microsoft Teams. Section 3 Individual Features 7.Rate the following features of Microsoft Teams based on your perception of their usefulness. Activity / Item / Feature Extremely not useful Not useful Neutral Useful Extremely Useful i. Conversations: Notices and announcements from the teacher ii. Conversations: Class discussions iii. Conversations: Student enquiries iv. Conversations: Notifications about assignments v. Files: Student-uploaded materials vi. Files: Teacher-uploaded materials vii. Class Notebook (OneNote) viii. Assignments ix. Quizzes x. Chat function: Assessment results xi. Chat function: Contacting the teacher 8. Any comments you may have based on any of the features above: 56 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Section 4: Comparison 8. Which of the following learning management systems have you used before? (Circle the appropriate answer(s)) Google Classroom / Schoology / Moodle / Canvas / Edmodo / Blackboard 9. Based on your answer above, how would you compare your experience of Microsoft Teams to that of other LMS? Why? (You can rank the LMS you have used according to your experience and provide your rationale) 10.Assuming that ALL teachers and school teams use Microsoft Teams, will your experience differ from how it is now? Why? Section 5: Overall Evaluation Strengths of Microsoft Teams Weaknesses of Microsoft Teams Section 6: Other Comments Write any other comments you may have based on the use of Microsoft Teams as an LMS below: References Brooke, J. (1986) SUS—A Quick and Dirty Usability Scale. Usability Evaluation in Industry, 189-194. Chin, J.P., Diehl, V.A., Norman, K.L. (1988) Development of an Instrument Measuring User Satisfaction of the Human-Computer Interface. ACM CHI'88 Proceedings, 213-218. 57 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 2 Question Mean Standard deviation 1. I think that I would like to use Microsoft Teams frequently. 3.81 0.67 2. I found Microsoft Teams unnecessarily complex. 2.09 0.80 3. I thought Microsoft Teams was easy to use. 4.35 0.51 4. I think that I need a technical person’s support to be able to use Microsoft Teams. 1.19 0.39 5. I found the various functions in Microsoft Teams were well integrated. 3.96 0.38 6. I thought there was too much inconsistency in Microsoft Teams. 2.09 0.80 7. I would imagine that most people would learn to use Microsoft Teams very quickly. 3.93 0.54 8. I found Microsoft Teams very awkward to use. 1.87 0.75 9. I felt very confident using Microsoft Teams. 4.26 0.64 10. I needed to learn a lot of things before I could get going with Microsoft Teams. 1.61 0.56 Overall SUS Score 78.66 6.83 Table 2A SUS scores to survey questions Item Mean Standard deviation Conversations: Notices and Announcements from Teacher 4.11 0.66 Conversations: Class Discussions 3.80 0.71 Conversations: Student enquiries 4.06 0.76 Conversations: Notifications of assignments 4.11 0.69 Files: Student-uploaded materials 3.91 0.73 Files: Teacher-uploaded materials 4.04 0.75 Class Notebook (OneNote) 4.09 0.87 Assignments 3.96 0.72 Quizzes 3.46 1.04 Chat function: Assessment results 3.98 0.88 Chat function: Contacting the teacher 4.33 0.75 Table 2B. Results for (Section 2) evaluation of features in Microsoft Teams Theme Sample references Chat function - instant communication; discussions (Sample 1) - can ask teachers questions whenever you come across difficulties (Sample 7) - Easy to contact teachers (Sample 8) - A good communication to the teachers; clear posted assignments (Sample 34) - easy communication with my teacher and classmates, is free, breaking time and geographical constraints (Sample 20) App features - Can tag people, Can reply to others directly, Can send emoji, Can see others' last online time (Sample 3) - Can do assignments and submit them (Sample 8) - Includes chat function, onenote, materials, assignments (Sample 16) - Space for file sharing, collaboration and announcement area (Sample 27) - Can easily view assignment and text the others (Sample 44) Notifications - can get notification when classmates ask questions or my question is answered (Sample 39) Ease of use - Clear instructions, Easy Usage, Properly managed pages (Sample 4) - Easy to understand (Sample 7) - A bit useful for the teacher to manage (Sample 20) - Easy instructions (Sample 38) 58 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Theme Sample references Integration with other products - Can access OneNote (Sample 10) - A concentration of all function (Sample 17) - Connected with many MS services. Lots of functions. Extensions available. (Sample 22) Appearance / visual appeal - Customised colour of background, many functions, many emojis (Sample 40) - Clear windows (Sample 50) Theme Sample references Complexity of system - hard to find different function (Sample 1) - Large amount of pages included, but low coverage of assistance (Sample 4) - Files may be hard to organise and find (Sample 10) - Because of its amount of function, sometime may got mixed up (Sample 17) Appearance - The layout (?) looks a bit messy (Sample 3) Low usage - Too little people use it (Sample 6) Loading time - Too slow and \"big\" in app size. Not easy to search past events/ assignments (Sample 22) - The speed of start the Teams app is too slow (Sample 39) App features - annoying and time-consuming to check older announcements (Sample 20) - repeat in items (onenote and files) (Sample 50) Lack of notifications - don't have notification tell us in e-class (Sample 33) - no notification to email (Sample 50) Table 2C Sample coded responses for (Section 4A) the strengths of Teams Table 2D Sample Coded responses for (Section 4B) weaknesses of Teams Name of function and purpose of usage Immediate student feedback Teacher-researcher’s reflection Conversations: Notices and Announcements from Teacher (+) - Clear interface. - Tagging function aids understanding of posts, especially when notices concern some particular students or groups. - D i f fe rent fon ts a l low c learer depiction of message. - Immediate push notification to phone (if mobile application is installed) and/or desktop. - Photos and emojis can be added for added visual appeal. (-) - Posts in the past cannot be easily retrieved. - No notification to E-class email. - Photos (e.g. notes on the whiteboard) can be taken through the Teams app, Office Lens or any other app, and posted immediately as a post in the conversations tab. - Email notifications could be sent from Teams. However, notifications can only be sent to Outlook emails. Outlook emails cannot be forwarded to other emails properly unless configuration is done by school IT administrators. - Notices and announcements can in fact be searched in the in-built search function, but this will require better labelling in the original post, e.g. labelling notices with a key word like [Notice] which students can use as a search word. 59 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Name of function and purpose of usage Immediate student feedback Teacher-researcher’s reflection Conversations: Class Discussions (+) - No need to go to another website for discussions. - Tagging function allows for more personalised responses and feedback. - “ R e p l i e s ” f u n c t i o n m a k e s discussions not too messy. - Emojis allow for greater room for elaboration and less formal discussions. (-) - There cannot be any further replies to existing replies. - Relatively difficult to retrieve previous posts by individuals (it is possible to search for all posts made by one person in some forums). - “Like” function for discussion posts and replies allow quick, easily quantifiable peer feedback. - No “forum” function in Teams – conversations tab, even if put in a separate channel within the same team, could be confusing. An alternate measure may be to set up a discussion forum on SharePoint and embed as a separate tab. - Relat ive ly d i f f icu l t to prov ide individualised feedback on replies apart from using the “chat” function as there cannot be repl ies on replies. Conversations: Student enquiries (+) - Quick teacher reply. - Can be seen by all students. - Immediate posting. (-) - May quickly disappear when multiple students are posting, unless the tag function is used. - Good measure to allow all students understand at once, though “tag class” function is required to prevent some students from missing out on important details (as only the owner of the post receives default reply notifications). Conversations: Notifications of assignments (+) - Saves time in class. (-) - Seems rather repetitive as there already is an “assignments” feature. - Serves as a good reminder for students, though this seems to be only useful for written (paper) assignments as assignments in the system give their own notifications (not as useful if e-worksheets are used). Files: Student-uploaded materials (+) - A l l s tuden ts can see f i l es contributed by each other and can freely edit documents if needed (e.g. by using Word Online). (-) - May appear to be quite messy if there is no naming system or if students do not follow a set naming system. - Unlimited file space, though careful organisation is required. - Makes it quicker to load OneNote (by only putting in a link to files and not uploading multimedia files on OneNote) - Differentiation between use of the files tab and class notebook (content library) function must be clearly mentioned to students (e.g. videos and extra resources in “files”, class- related materials in class notebook, etc.). Files: Teacher-uploaded materials (-) - Repetitive as there already is a Class Notebook with a similar function. 60 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Name of function and purpose of usage Immediate student feedback Teacher-researcher’s reflection Class Notebook (OneNote) (+) - OneNote can be accessed through Teams. - Integration of OneNote and Teams into one software reduces the need to have that many accounts at the same time. - C lass No tebook can be a lso accessed using the desktop app. (-) - Sometimes slow to load. - Teams plugin makes OneNote smaller in size. - It is relatively easy to set up OneNote using the Teams app. - Class Notebooks can be set up “using existing notebook”, reducing the need to manually copy and paste notebooks or set up from scratch. - Can be used to include e-worksheets that can be assigned, distributed and reviewed / marked using the “assignments” tab. Assignments (+) - Word documents uploaded by the teacher can be directly edited in Microsoft Word / Word Online for homework submission. - One-stop destination for homework resources and coursework. - Feedback can be directly made on the work that is done. - Notifications in feed. (-) - Difficult to keep a portfolio of work as marked work had to be downloaded and printed again. - May be confusing when there are both written assignments and online assignments. - Assignment list hard to understand at first. - Impossib le to hand in “group homework” as a team. - Possible to embed mult imedia resources (videos / documents / website links / etc.) for student reference for assignments. - Students are not limited to submitting word documents only – a lot of document formats are allowed in the file upload section for submission. - Font formatting options allowed in instructions, allowing for higher clarity. - Easy marking in the system. - Room for custom rubrics, hence a l lowing for more customised feedback and better learning for students. - Possible to set assignments for individual students (in the case of re-submissions). - May be better there are notifications for re-submitted / late assignments Quizzes (+) - Easy to keep a record of quizzes done. - Possible to review past quizzes and check answers. - Same window as other assignments, which makes it convenient to find (-) - May be hard to find previously done quizzes unless separately tagged - No folder system in assignments / quiz tab. - Manual “return” of grades is required. - Extra copy of previously-created form / quiz made for each Team, making it easier to track progress of individual classes but messier in the “Forms” list at the same time. - Possible to view and download one spreadsheet containing assignment and quiz grades for all students for easy reference. 61 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System 教育研究報告匯編 Name of function and purpose of usage Immediate student feedback Teacher-researcher’s reflection Chat function: Assessment results (+) - Immediate notification - Can contact teacher for feedback immediately. (-) - Hard to f ind prev ious posts / messages unless post was “saved”; may be better if this is done in another window. - “important” (marking a chat message as important) and “urgent” (sending notifications every 2 minutes for 20 minutes) functions are convenient. - Option to change availability status toggles notifications on / off. - Allows teachers to contact students and vice versa without providing actual phone numbers. - Possible duplication with emails – making it hard for students to differentiate formal and informal messages. - Direct informal communication using instant messaging with students may not be preferable / allowed in some contexts. Chat function: Contacting the teacher (+) - Very convenient, breaks geographical barriers. - Emoj is make messages more personalised. - Immediate notification and reply from teachers make it a lot more convenient. - Clear interface even on mobile devices. - I m p r o v e s t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t relationships if teacher allows for informal communication as well. *Others / overall reflection on Teams - More teachers seem to use other LMS compared to Microsoft Teams. - Useful, but quite complicated. - Takes some time to get used to due to its many functions. - Mobile app is well-developed. - Qu i te conven ien t overa l l , as everything is in one place. Easy to manage all classes in one go without jumping to many platforms. - Classroom instruction is made more streamlined as links can be put under the conversations tab (hence taking away the need of writing URLs on the board), and frequently- visited websites (e.g. Quizlet / Name pickers) can be embedded as extra tabs. Table 2E Summary of the teacher-researcher's fieldnotes 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 63 教育研究報告匯編 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機— 高中通識教育科的行動研究 黃文禮、朱俊錕 香港紅卍字會大埔卍慈中學 摘要 本研究為行動研究，希望了解「翻轉教室」如何影響學生學習通識教 育科的學習動機。於是次研究中，研究者進行了為期約5星期的行動研究， 收集了學習自我調節量表（SRQ-A）問卷前後測和訪談兩種數據。除了學 習動機的變化外，本論文同時就「翻轉教室」對學生心理需求的影響機制 進行歸納。研究顯示其中一班參與的中五學生的學習動機全面提升，並出 現整體動機內在化的現象；而另一班參與的中四學生的內在動機亦有所提 升，但整體動機內在化並不顯著。 關鍵詞 「翻轉教室」、通識教育科、學習動機、自我決定理論 緒論 不同學習動機令學生在學習上出現差異：內在動機高的學生課業表現 較佳、上課時投入討論；內在動機低的學生課業表現較遜色、上課時亦欠 自主和投入。筆者任教的學校專注於照顧學習差異、發掘不同能力學生的 潛能和亮點。因此，研究者希望實現翻轉教室，以騰空更多時間在課堂進 行更多深化學習的活動，提升學生內在動機。 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 64 教育研究報告匯編 從理論層面而言，學術界已有一定針對數理科翻轉教室的研究，然而 針對通識教育科的相關研究則寥寥可數。因此本研究希望補充現存研究較 少觸及的範圍，嘗試以行動研究的方式設計課堂、搜集經驗證據，以探討 翻轉教室在通識教育科的可應用性，並探討翻轉教室對學習動機的影響。 文獻探討 背景：新的教育目標—學會學習、學生為本 1970 年代資訊科技急劇發展，促使電腦和互聯網出現，推動近年社 會的資訊爆炸（Noyce & Hoff, 1981），進而影響學校教育。教育目標由 過去的教師教授，轉為提倡學生主動建構，而不少已發展地區亦希望讓學 生成為有熱誠和能力的終身學習者（OECD, 2003）。政策制訂者認為香 港學校必須轉型，以進行教育改革，要訓練新時代的下一代，讓下一代懂 得學會學習，與時並進。因此政府先後發表了《與時並進，善用資訊科技 學習的 5 年策略》（教育統籌局，1998）和《學會學習》（課程發展議會， 2000），以確立發展方針。 近年教育局（2015）更強調學校的教學應轉為學生為本，應「促進 學生善用⋯⋯資訊科技能力，提升他們的自主學習（頁 1）」，並提出多 項電子學習支援計劃，資助中小學更新硬件，以便推行更多資訊科技應用 （教育局，2014）。 隨著全球教育改革，不少教育者相信「資訊科技融入教學」是必不 可 少 的 趨 勢， 應 該 有 助 學 生 學 習（Jonassen, 1984; Jonassen, 1996; Kozma, 1994）。在 1990 年代，為識別教師於課堂中融入科技的程度， Moersch（1995）提出教師應用資訊科技程度可分為七層（p.44），並提 出高層階應用有助學習： 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 65 教育研究報告匯編 層級 描述 0. 未使用 以傳統教學媒體為主 1. 察覺 於課堂中操作電腦軟、硬件 2. 探索 以資訊科技補充傳統教學活動 3. 注入 學生運用軟件處理資料 4. 整合 讓學生針對課程主題或議題綜合運用資訊科技 5. 擴展 促使學生能主動利用資訊科技去解決課程外的問題 6. 精煉 促使學生能於日常生活中充分運用 同時學者就教學科技的角色和成效有很多探討和爭論。有學者認為 改進教學的關鍵不在科技，而在運用科技時運用了甚麼教學策略（Clark, 1994）；有學者指出多媒體應用更有助學生建構知識（Kozma,1994）； 有學者則認為科技容許教師角色出現轉移（Shift），由知識傳播者 （knowledge transmitter）變為學習的促進者（learning facilitator），增 加學習途徑（Newby, Stepich, Lehman & Russell, 2000）。 在科技對動機和學習表現上學術界並未有確實的結論，但各地政府 早已大力推廣資訊科技融入教學。不論是香港、內地還是台灣都流行著 增加資訊科技使用，各種工作坊有如雨後春筍不停湧現，教導老師使用 Google Classroom、Schoology、Apple TV 等電子教學軟硬件。為此， 有學者認為教師應要深思科技融入教學的原因，認為電子科技的應用應帶 來新的教學範式，而不應「為科技而科技，而忽略學習與教學的本質」， 並提出科技融入教學應基於以下五個目標：1. 吸引注意力、激發學習動機； 2. 教材容易更新；3. 支援新的教學方法；4. 促進自主學習；5. 培養學生 資訊時代所需之技能（沈中偉、黃國禎，2012）。 經過教育界同工多年探索，越來越多同工提高資訊科技應用層級，並 有不少採用「翻轉教室」（Flipped Classroom）的教學模式，讓學生綜 合運用資訊科技。以下將簡述是次研究的相關重要概念：「翻轉教室」和 「學習動機」。 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 66 教育研究報告匯編 翻轉教室是指把傳統教學講學和作業兩個成份倒轉的教學模式：上課 時學生協同合作學習，以學習理解和問題解決等高層次能力，而在預習時 則掌握較基礎的知識（Acedo, 2013）。 在實證研究中，在香港和新加坡也有個案研究指翻轉教室能提升通識 教育科批判思考（Critical Thinking）（Kong, 2015）和有助數學學習表 現（Fulton, 2012），而有研究者認為翻轉教室以「課前預習、課堂上討 論交流」的教學策略，打破了傳統上課聽講的教學模式，並能在學習中文 科時照顧學生的不同學習需要（Chen, 2014）。相反，從學生訪談得知， 翻轉教室不一定成功，教師在實踐翻轉教室不一定理想，也各有成功和失 敗的例子（郝永崴，2016）。 自我決定理論（Self-determination theory, SDT） 認為，人類具有 三種基本心理需求，分別是「自主感需求（need for autonomy）」、 「能力感需求（need for competency）」以及「歸屬感需求（need for relatedness）」（Deci & Ryan, 1985）。如下圖所示，當基本需求獲得 滿足，而個體身處於良好社會脈絡，動機內化功能被發揮後，自決動力 （Self-determination motive）會形成，學習者較容易有興趣繼續學習（葉 炳煙，2013）。 能力感 自決動力 自主感 歸屬感 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 67 教育研究報告匯編 Deci & Ryan（1985）認為傳統外在和內在動機分類方法過於簡化，無 法解釋人類的動機和行為，並提出外在動機和內在動機是處於一連續體的 兩端（見下表），而自主持續學習依靠的是高內在傾向動機。Ryan & Deci （2000）更解釋在其理論中可按動機的內在程度的高低劃分為五級，即是 外部調節（External regulation）、內攝調節（Introjected regulation）、認 同調節（Identified regulation）、整合調節（Integrated regulation）和內在 動機（Intrinsic motivation），而且動機之間可以轉換。 傾向 動機種類 描述 內在 外在 內在動機 自發性地進行行為，而行為帶來的是內在的享受 （在學校場境，涉及外間要求，與「整合調節」相似） 整合調節 不是自發性地去學習參與，但很願意去做出一些行為， 並非常認同背後的價值觀。 認同調節 認為行為是重要的，不是因義務或壓力所造成的；認同 及內化行為背後的部分價值，因而選擇表現相關行為， 能夠了解其後的方向與目標。 內攝調節 行為是為了獲得榮耀，又或避免內疚或焦慮。 外部調節 行為是為了酬賞或順從規範而發生，不是自我決定或選 擇。 研究方法 筆者任教的學校於高中實行能力分組，不同組別的教材和教學方法並 不相同，筆者認為能力較強的班別較適合試行翻轉教室。因此，是次研究 對象是筆者任教班級的一班中四和中五級學生，分別為 20 人和 23 人。 進行行動研究的時間為 2019 年 4 月下旬至 6 月上旬，共 5 個星期。在行 動研究前後，參與學生都會填寫前後測問卷，以了解其轉變。在行動研究 完結後，會按其問卷結果（翻轉教室效果明顯和不明顯），根據立意抽樣 （purposeful sampling）方法進行抽樣，成立聚焦小組訪談中四級和中五 級學生（見附件 2）。 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 68 教育研究報告匯編 是次行動研究進行的教學單元是中四級的「今日香港」及中五級的「公 共衛生」。於是次研究中，教師將選擇學生有能力在 20 分鐘內理解的概 念及議題背景供學生於課堂前預習自學，並設有自學鼓勵機制，促使學生 在課堂前預習，學習一些較為基礎的知識，以騰空課堂更多時間進行更多 深化學習的活動。 中四級 中五級 教學課題 1. 身份認同的建立、體現及其影響因素 a. 香港居民 b. 國民 c. 世界公民 2. 多元身份間的矛盾和衝突 1. 醫學科技概論 2. 醫學美容與法規 3. 基因與科技與道德 4. 器官捐贈與社會制度 5. 抗生素與宣傳教育 6. 藥物名冊與資源分配 7. 藥物專利權 教學 設計模式 於是次教學中，研究員以手機及平板電腦應用程式 Loilonote（有 關 Loilonote 功能簡介，請參閱附件 4）為預習及教學平台。教學 流程如下： 1. 提供短片及各種資料，在上課前讓學生於 Loilonote 中回答 3 條 預習題目，學生可用電子方式完成，又或手寫後以圖檔方式上 傳。上課前教師會核對，以檢視預習成效。 2. 在課堂中教師直接講述部分掌握較差的知識點。 3. 視乎課題的深度，上課簡短講述一部分較深的知識內容。 4. 學生以異質小組的方式進行分析及討論，並回答一些重要問題。 在過程中，給予平板電腦和各種資料讓學生尋找和整理資訊。 5. 學生以電子方式紀錄其分析結果和評論，以便所有學生閱讀， 並在課堂表達其學習成果。 6. 學生回家完成鞏固練習。 研究工具簡述 本研究會同時收集量化和質化資料進行分析，並探討翻轉教室教學模 式如何影響學習通識教育科的學習動機，並分析當中的影響機制。 在量性研究數據方面，主要分析框架是 Deci & Ryan（1985）所建立 的自主理論。研究者在實施教學方案前後，會派發 Ryan & Connell（1989） 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 69 教育研究報告匯編 研究概念框架 課堂__ 「翻轉教室」 教學模式 研究欲分析的 影響機制 回應 心理需求 學習動機 影響 自主感 能力感 歸屬感 內部動機 認同調節 內攝調節 外在動機 內在 外在 學生__ 透過質化研究 透過量化研究 1 按量表研發者和其他學者的使用方法，相對自主指數 (RAI) = 內部動機 ×2 + 認同調節－內攝調 節－外部調節 ×2 建立的 Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire（SRQ-A） 的中文翻譯 版本（見附件 1）。此問卷的信度和效度一向為學者所信賴，曾於華人地區 和歐美地區廣泛應用。 在設計上，問卷問題可分為四類，分別量度學生的外部調節、內攝調 節、認同調節和內部動機等四種動機，並同時可計算出一個相對自主指數 （Relative Autonomous Index，RAI）1。數據可用以分析學生的動機模式 有否變化，在學習上有否達到更高的自主性。 在質性研究方面，研究員將組織及整理原始數據，然後閱讀所有已整 理的數據及編碼。編碼完成後，數據會被分類成不同主題及描述（theme and descriptions），繼而對研究發現的現象進行質性敘述，最後基於自主 理論就質性與量性研究兩方面的結果進行三角檢證（Triangulation），歸 納研究結論。 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 70 教育研究報告匯編 結果與討論 在五個星期行動研究中，中四參與班別全班共有 20 人，交回前後測 問卷學生數目是 17 人；中五參與班別全班共有 23 人，交回前後測問卷 學生數目是 20 人。是次研究中，如表 1 及表 2 所示，所收集的 SRQ-A 問卷中各分量表的 Cronbach α 系數普遍高於 0.6，反映前後測問卷數據 可靠。 量表項目 前測 Cronbach α 系數 後測 Cronbach α 系數 內部動機 .79 .86 認同調節 .67 .77 內攝調節 .63 .84 外部調節 .68 .61 表 1 中四 SRQ-A 的信度（n=17） 量表項目 前測 Cronbach α 系數 後測 Cronbach α 系數 內部動機 .88 .84 認同調節 .79 .91 內攝調節 .88 .86 外部調節 .79 .86 表 2 中五 SRQ-A 的信度（n=20） 結果 1：「翻轉教室」令中五級學生學習動機內在化 在確定問卷數據可靠後，筆者利用成對 t- 檢定分析上述 SRQ-A 的前 後測結果。如表 3 所示，行動研究前的量表總指數 RAI（相對自主指數） （M=-11.2，SD=8.24）與行動研究後的指數（M=-7.35，SD=8.89）相比， 在統計學上有顯著的增長，其 t（19）=1.98，p< .05。 中五學生的「內部動機」和「認同調節」在統計學上有顯著的增長， 而「內攝調節」和「外部調節」則未有統計學上顯著變化。上述結果反映 行動研究所採用的翻轉教室教學模式對學生的學習動機是有正面的影響， 學生學習動機有明顯的改善及內在化的現象。 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 71 教育研究報告匯編 行動研究前 行動研究後 M SD n M SD n t df 相對自主指數 （RAI） -11.2 8.24 20 -7.35 8.89 20 1.98* 19 內部動機 12.95 3.76 20 16.10 4.01 20 3.60*** 19 認同調節 16.35 4.61 20 17.75 4.88 20 2.33** 19 內攝調節 15.5 4.10 20 16.60 4.96 20 1.58 19 外部調節 19.00 3.88 20 20.35 1.58 20 1.47 19 * p < .05；** p < .01；***p<.001 表 3 中五 SRQ-A 各分項量表的描述性統計及成對 t 檢定結果 * p < .05 表 4 中四 SRQ-A 各分項量表的描述性統計及成對 t 檢定結果 結果 2：「翻轉教室」令中四級學生內在動機提升，但整體動機內在化並 不顯著 如表 4 所示，行動研究前的總指數 RAI（M=-17.82，SD=11.12）與 行動研究後的指數（M=-16.41，SD=11.73）相比，在統計學上沒有顯著 改變。 在各項子量表中，只有中四學生的「內部動機」有顯著的增長，其 t （16）=1.98，p< .05。而「內攝調節」、「外部調節」和「認同調節」 則未有統計學上顯著的變化。 上述結果反映行動研究所採用的翻轉教室教學模式能提升中四級學生 的內在動機，但整體上對提升學生的學習自主性和促使其學習動機內在化 並不顯著。 行動研究前 行動研究後 M SD n M SD n t df 相對自主指數 （RAI） -17.82 11.12 17 -16.41 11.73 17 0.50 16 內部動機 13.00 4.11 17 15.41 4.82 17 1.99* 16 認同調節 17.35 3.69 17 19.29 3.65 17 1.56 16 內攝調節 17.88 3.98 17 19.94 5.24 17 1.67 16 外部調節 21.65 4.30 17 23.29 3.90 17 1.35 16 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 72 教育研究報告匯編 討論 1：「翻轉教室」令中五級學生學習動機內在化的可能原因 按上文的數據分析，中五的研究對象在使用翻轉教室教學方式後學生 的相對自主指數（RAI）、內部動機及認同調節三者有明顯的上升，反映 研究對象的學習動機出現內在化的情況。下文將以三角檢定的方式嘗試討 論上述現象出現的原因。 在質性研究的部份，學生透過聚焦小組訪談表達了他們對翻轉教室的 觀感、以及從主觀視角出發分享翻轉教室在學習上為他們帶來的轉變（見 附件 3）。下文將使用自我決定動機理論（SDT）作為理論基礎，將學生 的學習動機根據學生個人的心理需要分為自主性、能力感和歸屬感三個 面向，繼而從個別面向提出分析學習動機內在化的可能原因（江瑞菁， 2011）。 學習時空與方式的「自主感」 根據 Keller（2008），提升學生在學習過程中所控制的內容能順應提 升學生的自主感，當學生感到有決定的機會，自主感就會提升。而按江瑞 菁（2011）的歸納，為學生提供選擇機會能歸類為提高自主感的環境要 素之一。本研究所採用的平板電腦程式 Loilonote，是其中一種近年新設 計的學習管理平台和互動學習程式，無論在作答形式、作答量、作答時間 等方面皆為學生提供頗大的自由度。從學生角度，這的確能為學生提供個 人化學習自主空間，而在預習的時候更易找到樂趣，繼而令學習動機出現 內在化的轉向： 在網上平台上，我們可以隨心地將我們希望表達的東西用自己方式完 成。我認為用這個方式學習成果是屬於自己的，因為能用自己方式完成預 習令我感到更有意義⋯⋯有些同學更會在預習中尋找樂趣，加入一些表情 符號或是貼圖，令我們更想重溫預習內容。（同學 B） 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 73 教育研究報告匯編 平日做預習和課堂練習要花不少功夫，也很花時間，每次做都令我感 到心力交瘁，那裡會有時間加入有趣的元素呢？相反，我們現在可以自由 地在卡片上用點列的方式簡潔地表達我們的學習成果、也可以用圖畫或腦 圖來表達，令我們更有心機去做。（同學 C） 我認為可以用智能電話做預習是非常好，因為拿著手機做令我感覺上 與平時用手機上網並無分別，我沒有被迫「做功課」的感覺。（同學 E） 此外，有學生也指出網上平台及智能手機程式能讓學生更容易以較方 便及多元的方式完成預習和課堂練習，未有一種被強逼和要做功課的負面 感覺，能有效地回應他在學習上的困難，令他在上課時更具動力。 我「聽」、「講」是沒問題的，但「寫」真是最難。「寫」跟不上， 令我很難專注地「聽」，兼顧不了，最後索性放棄寫，只是聽課，但有時 忘記找同學或老師抄回討論內容，令我回家又會不記得。以往的模式令我 完全無動力學習。現在的上課模式令我可以一邊用語音輸入做練習，一邊 看著其他同學的答案進行思考，我認為比較好。（同學 C） 有一些語文能力較弱的學生回饋指完成預習和課堂練習對他們而言再 不是因壓力而完成，因為資訊科技令學生可以以語音輸入大量文字，而學 習時集中在思考上，令學習對其轉為一個具內在享受的任務。同時根據問 卷結果，學生的內部動機及認同調節皆有所提升。由此看來，相對以往一 式一樣的工作紙，網上平台所提供的自由度和選擇令學生做預習和完成課 堂任務漸漸成為他們自發進行的行為。 與同儕更緊密了解所帶來的「能力感」 除了自主感以外，能力感也是人類基本心理需求之一。在資訊科技融 入教學的脈絡中，與傳統學習不同，當翻較教室使用網上學習平台能為學 生提供更多獨立地表達個人想法的渠道，學生就能在學習過程中感受個人 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 74 教育研究報告匯編 能力的展現、以及更容易感知同儕或師長對其能力的肯定，繼而提升能力 感（江瑞菁，2011）。在訪談中，有部份學生提及上述狀況： Loilonote 令我們可以隨時隨地看到同學的答案，以致我們可以參考別 人提出的意見、並和自己的答案對比一下。有時當我發現我的答案比其他 同學詳盡、或看見其他同學在 Loilonote 打開堂課作為參考，我的感覺都 很良好。（同學 B） 也有學生的能力感來自翻轉教室為學習提供的彈性，翻轉教室使用的 網上平台讓學生可以隨時觀看教師的示例和同學的答案，以致學生能夠以 較舒適的步伐進行課後思考，不用害怕自己在課堂上學習的落後，進而提 升學生的自信心和動機。 過去我無可能將所有同學觀點都抄下來，下課後當我想回看時又會漸 漸忘記內容，最後我索性不進行課後思考。當我使用 iPad 後，我就可以 隨時思考，令我更願意學習。久而久之，我對通識科就自然更有信心。（同 學 G） 然而，能力感的展現未必局限於學科知識上。本研究所採用的翻轉教 室教學方式需要學生以小組形式完成部份任務，有同學表示他們在進行課 堂協作學習時也能從幫助同學的過程獲得滿足感。 有時候我討論時也要幫同學處理他們的平板電腦，因為很多課堂任務 其實都靠小組組員分工合作而成，雖然會提高我的工作量，但幫助同學一 同完成任務也令我上堂更加投入。（同學 A） 突破時空限制學習群體的「歸屬感」 根據自我決定動機理論的描述，歸屬感源自個人與他人之間的情感連 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 75 教育研究報告匯編 結，當中的核心元素包括理解、接納、支持等，一旦情感連結出現，就能 滿足個人心理需要（Ryan & Deci, 2000）。根據鄒等的分析，使用資訊 科技平台進行學習時採用同步與非同步學習環境並行的模式—混成學習 （Blended learning）能增加師生相互接觸的機會，繼而增強學生對學習 環境的認同感及內在動機（鄒景平、陳旻萃、陳欣舜、蕭涵云、張淑萍、 蔡德祿、廖致凱，2003）。從質性研究分析可見，是次選用的翻轉教室 Loilonote 平台為學生提供了跨地域、跨時空、跨平台的交流程式，能有 效提升學生的學習意欲。有學生即使缺席課堂，也會在課堂時間打開應用 程式嘗試進行學習，希望參與班上的討論和完成課堂任務，反映學生對課 堂具有歸屬感。 我和同學認為預習很有用，因此我們大部份的同學都願意做，甚至我 們有同學即使當天因事缺席，也會在課堂打開智能電話看上課時在做什 麼。而且我們很多時都很好奇希望看看同學的功課和課堂練習上寫了什 麼。（同學 B） 根據訪談分析，翻轉教室教學方式能推動學生建立同儕間的學習社 群，有學生指出，採用翻轉教室教學方式要求學生在家中進行基礎預習， 除了令課堂內的討論時間增加外、也令討論的模式有所改變，加強了小組 「小團體」的建立。 在以往的課堂，全班問答的時間比較多，但往往只有幾位同學參與。 現在更多小組討論了，而每組只有四到五位同學，因此我的發言機會較 多。雖然我這樣好像被迫發言，但當人數少的時候大家都需要負一些責 任，分工合作，所以我認為自己在課堂上的投入程度都以往多（高），學 習氣氛也不錯。（同學 A） 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 76 教育研究報告匯編 討論 2：「翻轉教室」對中四和中五級的效果有明顯差異的原因 如上述部分所述，中五級的翻轉教室效果較中四級為佳原因可能相當 多元，其一原因是中四和中五學生有特質上差異。以下，將從前測問卷加 以分析： 行動研究前 級別 n M SD T 相對自主指數（RAI） 中五 20 -11.20 8.24 2.08* 中四 17 -17.82 11.12 內部動機 中五 20 12.95 3.76 -0.04 中四 17 13.00 4.11 認同調節 中五 20 16.35 4.61 -0.72 中四 17 17.35 3.69 內攝調節 中五 20 15.45 4.10 -1.82 中四 17 17.88 3.98 外部調節 中五 20 19.00 3.88 -1.97* 中四 17 21.65 4.30 表 5 中四 SRQ-A 各分項量表的描述性統計及成對 t 檢定結果* p < .05 從表 5 可以看出中四和中五學生在行動研究前的 RAI 和外部調節得 分有顯著的差異：中五學生的指數（M=-11.20，SD=8.24）顯著地高於 中 四 學 生 的 指 數（M=-17.82，SD=8.24）（T=2.08,p<.05）； 中 五 學 生的外部調節得分（M=19.00，SD=3.88）顯著地低於中四學生的得分 （M=21.65，SD=4.30） （T=-1.97，p<.05） 。而在內部動機、認同調 節和內攝調節的則未達顯著差異。 上述結果反映研究所採用的翻轉教室教學模式在中四級效果較不顯著 的原因是中四學生的起點較低，本來的學習自主性較低，而學習動機又明 顯則重外在動機，依靠酬賞，又或是遵守學校就交功課的規範。 這可能顯示學生如果學習偏向被動，或因考評制度所限，未能接受資 訊科技融入教學的模式，又或過於重視酬賞和守規，可能不利翻轉教室有 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 77 教育研究報告匯編 效推行。有部份學生在訪談中表達出對資訊科技融入教學的不認同和疑 慮，上述取態皆會阻礙翻轉教室的推行，不利內在動機的發展。 我個人認為通識科就是要多寫字才會有進步，在考試時也只能寫⋯⋯ 網上平台令我缺乏安全感。⋯⋯透過寫字我才能將內容記在腦海中。（同 學 D） 同時，學生資訊科技能力及資訊素養也可能影響翻轉教室推行的有效 性。這類同學普遍不善使用相關的應用程式，又或在過去已建立不良的電 腦使用方式，無法在翻轉教室的學習保持專注。 在不熟習 Loilonote 的情況下，初時我會跟不上老師期望的節奏。（同 學 G） 做預習的時候有時會彈出一些信息，很多時候我都會按捺不住離開 Loilonote 去瀏覽那些網頁⋯⋯一方面令我分心、另一方面會拖慢我的進 度⋯⋯ （同學 E） 結論與建議 於是次研究中，翻轉教室令參與的中五學生學習動機全面提升，並出 現整體動機內在化的現象，而另一班參與的中四學生的內在動機稍有提 升，但整體動機內在化並不顯著，其原因可能是對翻轉教室的負面取態、 資訊科技能力不足、或其學習動機側重外在動機，建議可在下一循環行動 研究進一步探討和收集更多數據，以強化中四學生的學習。從上文分析結 果，於下表歸納實踐翻轉教室以令學生動機內在化的成功要素如下，及就 此提出一些教學建議： 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 78 教育研究報告匯編 向度 受訪學生指出的成功要素 實踐翻轉教室教學建議 自主感 1. 作答形式、作答量、作 答時間等方面皆為學生 提供頗大的自由度 2. 科技能協助學生解決學 習困難 1. 不宜只使用多項選擇和短答題的網站預習 平台，宜採用開放性較高的平板電腦和跨 平台應用程式，並該平台應容許學生有較 高的創作性 2. 採用的平台宜容許多元輸入，如：鍵盤輸 入、語音轉換、繪畫輸入等，以照顧有學 習障礙的學生 能力感 1. 提供學習彈性，學生能 夠以較舒適的步伐學習 2. 感受個人能力的展現、 以及獲得同儕或師長對 其能力的肯定 1. 使用的平台需要可存放大量各種學生習作 和學習材料 2. 平台界面宜直觀化，不宜太過於繁瑣 3. 學生完成課業，在批改後，宜存於雲端， 讓學生可以互相參閱和學習 聯繫感 1. 討論時間增加，增強小 組的協作 1. 課堂模式增加討論，要確保課堂討論有 效，採用的平台宜有即時上傳和即時批改 功能，令學生知悉各組員的進度和了解自 己貢獻十分重要 限制及展望 本研究雖然採集相當的證據發現學生經歷翻轉教學後不同種類學習動 機的轉變、以及其內在化的程度，然而基於現實處境所影響，仍然面對不 少限制。首先，由於教師在學校的主要任務是教導學生和處理學校各種職 務，在行動研究時必需要考慮對原來教學工作的影響和學校分班制度，同 一級中各班的課程和教學法都有所不同。故此，是次研究實在難以在同一 級中安排實驗組和控制組，亦當然造成一定的缺撼。 其次，本研究的研究範圍為一所文法中學的兩班學生，總人數為 43 人。由於受訪者的學習過程受多個因素所影響，因此研究受限於規模和校 情限制，只收集了訪談、問卷等一手資料，未有進一步收集學生的電子器 材狀況，資訊科技的水平等其他變項，以致未能完全一致地解釋或應用在 其他處境中。未來的研究可嘗試在不同課堂再進行同一行動研究，以求增 加樣本數目及探討翻轉教學推動學習動機內在化的效度，更可比較翻轉教 室對學習動機高低程度不同學生的影響。 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 79 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 江瑞菁（2011）。〈自我決定數位學習環境的環境要素之初探〉。《人文暨社會科學期刊》 第 7 卷第 2 期，67-75。 沈中偉、黃國禎（2012）。《科技與學習：理論與實務（第四版）》。台北：心理出版社。 教育局（2014）。《電子學習學校支援計劃》。香港：香港教育局。取自 http://www. edb.gov.hk/tc/edu-system/primary-secondary/applicable-to-primary-secondary/it- in-edu/supportscheme/index.html。 教育局（2015）。《第四個資訊科技教育策略報告》。香港：作者。 教育統籌局（1998）。《與時並進，善用資訊科技學習的 5 年策略》。香港：香港特別 行政區政府。 課程發展議會（2000）。《學會學習─課程發展路向》。香港：作者。 郝永崴（2016）。〈翻轉教室：談學生看法〉。《教育脈動》，第 1 期。取自 http:// u.camdemy.com/filedownload/21171/f739d2456ad9633448a212564a79b8e0/%E 7%BF%BB%E8%BD%89%E6%95%99%E5%AE%A4%EF%BC%9A%E8%AB%87 %E5%AD%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%9C%8B%E6%B3%95.pdf。 葉炳煙（2013）。〈學習動機定義與相關理論之研究〉。《屏東教大體育期刊》，第 2 期， 67-75。 鄒景平、陳旻萃、陳欣舜、蕭涵云、張淑萍、蔡德祿、廖致凱（2003）。《數位學習最 佳指引》。台北：資策會教育訓練處。 Acedo, M. 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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 749-761. 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 81 教育研究報告匯編 附件 1 前後測問卷 在這個問卷裏，需要請你回答一些問題。這些問題是有關於你對學習通識教育科的 看法。每個學生都有不同的看法。這些問題沒有對或錯的答案。 填寫指示：請回答下列問題，並於對應的空格內 ✓，以表示你的填寫選項。 第一部分： 問題： 為什麼我要做通識教育科的家課 ? 1 我就是 這樣想 2 我有點 這樣想 3 我不太 這樣想 4 我完全不是 這樣想 1. 因為我希望老師認為我是好學生 2. 因為如果我不做的話會被處罰 3. 因為做功課是頗有趣的 4. 因為如果我不做的話，我會對自己感 到不高興 5. 因為我想要學好這個科目 6. 因為做功課是我應該做的事 7. 因為我喜歡做功課 8. 因為做功課對我自己來說很重要 第二部分： 問題： 為甚麼我要做通識教育科的堂課？ 1 我就是 這樣想 2 我有點 這樣想 3 我不太 這樣想 4 我完全不是 這樣想 9. 因為這樣老師就不會罵我了 10. 因為我希望老師認為我是好學生 11. 因為我想要學習新知識 12. 因為如果我不做的話，我會覺得很丟臉 13. 因為做起來很有趣 14. 因為那是規定要做的事 15. 因為我喜歡做堂課 16. 因為做堂課對我自己來說是重要的 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 82 教育研究報告匯編 第三部分： 第四部分： 問題： 於通識教育科課堂上，為什麼我會嘗試回答較艱深 的問題？ 1 我就是 這樣想 2 我有點 這樣想 3 我不太 這樣想 4 我完全 不是 這樣想 17. 因為我希望其他同學覺得我是聰明的 18. 因為如果我不嘗試的話，我會覺得很丟臉 19. 因為我喜歡嘗試回答較艱深的問題 20. 因為嘗試回答較艱深的問題是我應該做的事 21. 因為我想知道自己是對還是錯的 22. 因為回答較艱深的問題頗有趣的 23. 因為回答較艱深的問題對我自己來說是重要的 24. 因為我希望老師會稱讚我 問題： 為甚麼我嘗試在通識教育科課堂上 表現得好 ? 1 我就是 這樣想 2 我有點 這樣想 3 我不太 這樣想 4 我完全 不是 這樣想 25. 因為上通識教育科表現良好是我應該做的事 26. 這樣老師會認為我是好學生 27. 因為我喜歡上通識教育科的課堂 28. 因為如果我不表現好的話會被處罰 29. 因為如果我表現不好的話，我會對自己感到 不高興 30. 因為上通識教育科表現良好對我自己來說是 重要的 31. 因為如果我表現好，我會為自己而驕傲 32. 因為如果我表現好，我可能會得到獎勵 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 83 教育研究報告匯編 附件 2 聚焦小組訪談受訪學生資料 研究員根據 SRQ-A 問卷結果，以立意抽樣方式從母群邀請受訪學生加入聚焦小組，繼而 進行半結構式訪談。研究員共從母群邀請 10 位學生進行訪談，當中有 8 位應邀參與， 他們的資料詳見下表： 編碼 （按姓氏排序） 性別 班別 ^ 個案類型 #*（根據 SRQ-A 問卷結果） 主流個案 特別個案 A 女 中五 A 組  B 女 中五 A 組  C 男 中五 A 組  D 男 中四 A 組  E 女 中四 A 組  F 男 中五 A 組  G 女 中四 A 組  H 男 中四 A 組  ^ 研究員任教的學校於高中核心科目實行能力分組模式上課，A 組指能力較強的班別。 # 中四主流個案：內在動機提升；中四特別個案：內在動機並無提升 * 中五主流個案：內在動機提升及學習動機呈內在化；中四特別個案：內在動機並無提升 或學習動機並無呈內在化 附件 3 半結構式聚焦小組訪談問題 1. 過去幾個星期的教學方法與以往有什麼不同？ 2. 上述的不同對你和同學是好，還是不好？原因是甚麼？ 3. 你對現時的「翻轉教室」教學方法有什麼意見？ 4. 你喜歡現時的預習方式嗎？原因是？ 5. 你認為「翻轉教室」對你在通識科的學習有什麼影響？ 6. 你認為使用「翻轉教室」的教學方式會令你更想讀通識科嗎？為什麼？ 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 84 教育研究報告匯編 附件 4 Loilonote School 功能簡介 Loilonote School 是一個可以在 iOS(iPhone, iPad)、Windows、Android、Chromebook 等多種平台使用，讓學生可在課堂上使用共同學習，也在家中可以以平板、手機和電腦 輕鬆使用 LoiloNote 進行預習和完成課業。以下為主要的 9 大功能： 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—高中通識教育科的行動研究 85 教育研究報告匯編 附件 5 教學課節設計及學生表現示例 課題：健康資訊與保健品 議題現況 預習 在預習材料中有文字資料「保健品市場資訊」和「廣告策略」，以 及一段著名保健品廣告片，讓學生了解現時香港保健品有巨大的市 場，並存在監管困難。以下是通過 Loilonote 發放的學生預習課業 節錄： 上課分析及 討論 在上課初段，老師會要求學生運用預習所學進行分析。是次課節是 利用預習所學的「廣告策略」分析另一廣告片的效果，以達重溫預 習內容和進深學習的效果。同時可以分享不同學生的學習成果。 在上課中後段，老師會提出一條核心問題，製造認知衝突，引發學 生的好奇心。以此次課題為例，學生已了解保健品市場和監管效 果。老師會發問「政府責任是保護市民的消費權益和健康。但在保 健產品上，政府卻未能有效規管廣告和欠準確的健康資訊發放。政 府是否不負責任？困難到底是甚麼？」直接點出議題核心「政府的 責任」與「媒體監管的困難」。在討論中，學生會初步猜想及告知 全班同學可能的答案，其後，老師會要求學生以小組方式消化筆記 的資料，加以討論和組織其答案，並上傳 Loilonote 與全班分享。 鞏固及 遷移階段 在下課後，可視乎學生的能力和表現，發放學習鞏固及遷移的課 業。於是次課堂，大部分學生分析和討論表現佳。因此，老師給予 較困難的遷移練習，題目問及香港在預防境外疾病傳入有何困難， 並按學生的能力和動機會經網上平台發放不同的個別化提示，如下 圖的課堂內容撮要，甚至是一個示範段落。 87 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 吳善揮、黃綺筠、文德榮 明愛元朗陳震夏中學 摘要 一直以來，香港學生都視文言文學習為畏途，不但對之失去學習動機 及興趣，而且更出現「從學習中逃走」的情況。有見及此，本研究以初中 一年級學生為研究對象，嘗試以史傳文學作為教學材料，並配以一系列的 教學活動，以圖提升學生對文言文的學習興趣，以及文言文的閱讀理解能 力。結果發現，透過以敍事性較強的史傳文學為文言文的教學材料，學生 能夠從中培養出對文言文的學習興趣，同時亦改變他們過往馬虎應對的學 習態度，使到他們更能夠從課堂學習中受益，進而提升文言文的閱讀理解 能力。 關鍵詞 史傳文學、文言文教學、閱讀能力、學習興趣 引言 文言文向來也是語文教師的教學難點，這是因為學生大都認為文言文 艱深，且內容乏味沒趣，同時在現代社會裡也難有應用機會，因此他們對 文言文學習普遍存有負面的態度（高麗峰，2007）。另外，文言文教學 88 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 由「文字」、「文學」、「文本」及「文化」四大元素所組成，可是大部 分教師都只集中教授文章的內容分析，以及如何翻譯文本。這不但使教學 內容變得極為沉悶，更使學生未能夠體悟文言文作品的思想之美（馬華 冠、湯海明，2019）。另一方面，在現行的考評機制中，考試內容大多 以字、詞、句的背誦為主，缺乏考核學生高階思維的開放題，致使學生對 文言文生吞活剝、為考試而死記硬背，最終大大降低學生對文言文的學習 興趣（游晗，2017）。楊志剛（2014）的研究發現，教與學策略、學生 文言基礎能力、教師文言素養、文言文的教學內容、學生對文言文的學習 動機，以及課外輔助教學活動，都成為影響文言文教學成效的五大因素。 因此，教師在設計文言文教學課程時，必須把以上因素納入考量之中。由 此可見，雖然文言文教學具有很多不同的難點，但是只要教師能夠改變刻 板的教學方法，並針對學生的學習興趣而設計教學內容，那麼學生便會願 意學習文言文。 事實上，文言文蘊含豐富的中國歷史及文化元素。它不但是中華民族 的文化瑰寶，更承傳了我國的民族精神（何麗君，2014）。因此，文言 文教學具有極為重要的價值──向學生弘揚我國傳統的文化精神。同時， 只要教師施教得宜，那麼學生便能夠擴闊自身的素養及胸懷，並掌握到多 元的價值觀及人文主義的精神（王強，2018）。此外，學生也能夠從文 言文學習的過程中，獲得內心的愉悅、美感體驗，以及積極的生活態度。 這都能夠加強對學生人格的薰陶（張譽上，2018）。由此可見，文言文 學習能夠有助加強莘莘學子對國家文化的認識，從而對國家產生認同感。 而最重要的，就是文言文教學能夠建構學生的人格美德，以及培養他們的 美感及胸懷。因此，中文科教師必須重視文言文教學，以讓學生能夠從中 受益。 回到教育現場，筆者在實施文言文教學時也同樣面對著學生低學習動 機的困難。因此，筆者便嘗試以史傳文學作為教材，並以說故事的形式教 89 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 授他們文言文。同時，筆者為每一課配以不同的多媒體教材，以提升初中 學生學習文言文的興趣，以及解讀文言文的能力。而本文旨在分享當中的 施教成果，並以量性及質性的資料來論證當中的實施成效。 文獻回顧 現時，香港文言文教學有著不同的難點，包括：學生較少閱讀文言篇 章，致使語文基礎知識不足；文言文字詞比較艱深，造成學生的閱讀障礙， 使他們不容易理解文言文的中心思想；學生未能掌握文言文的閱讀理解策 略，致使未能夠掌握文言文的中心大意（李詠達，2014）。同時，學生 普遍對文言文學習的興趣不大，只為了應考公開考試而閱讀文言篇章（蔡 卓慧，2012）。在教育現場，教師對文言教學都感到非常困惑。這是因 為香港學生所接觸的文本都是以白話文所寫成。若老師貿然要求學生理解 文言句式、詞彙等，他們自然較難掌握，再加上文言文所記之事均年代久 遠，而且多記述古人的行事及心態，多都與學生的生活經驗脫節，使他們 難以體悟出當中的情思感受。在這樣的情況下，學生自然把文言文學習視 為畏途（廖佩莉，2015）。另外，在現行應試教育為本的社會，教師也 以字詞或句式為教學重點，使到文言文學習變得枯燥乏味。學生學習文言 文的動機亦會變得低下（吳善揮，2018）。基於上述情況，學生自然對 文言文學習失去興趣，並視文言文為學習困難。在這前提下，他們自然會 出現畏難、避難的心態，結果造成學生的文言文閱讀素養及表現下降。部 分學生甚至因而於公開考試中放棄作答文言篇章的題目（劉潔玲、谷屹 欣，2017）。由此可見，文言文脫離學生的生活經驗、內容艱深難明和 教師教學不得其法等因素，最終導致學生失去學習文言文的興趣，並出現 「從學習中逃走」的問題。 史傳文學是繼承古代神話發展而來。經過不斷的醞釀及發展，史傳文 學孕育出後來的小說，可謂是中國敍事文學的基石（吳廣義，2002）。 90 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 追源溯始，《尚書》、《春秋》、《左傳》、《史記》等史學經典作品可 說是文史兼涵、史傳文學的源頭（何彬，2008）。所謂史傳文學，就是 指兼具歷史及文學價值的史書作品。以司馬遷的《史記》為例，當中的 內容以文學佈局的手法記述西漢以前的歷史。而魯迅也曾給其相當的美譽 ──史家之絕唱、文學之翹楚（王成軍、朱瑩，2017）。史傳文學的出 現，形成富有特色的中國文學敍事傳統，箇中特色包括：以「揚善貶惡」 為目標、滿足尚奇的需要和以實錄為敍事原則（倪愛珍，2014）。另外， 史傳文學的作品基本上由人物、事情、時間、地點、事情的經過，以及人 物之間的關係所組成，並以歷史人物為主角（楊闊，2019）。由此可見， 史傳文學是以歷史事實為本，並以文學手法寫成的文本，包含完整的故事 情節及內容，是中國文學史上獨特的文學體裁。 史傳文學能夠讓學生從文言文的學習過程中培養出正確的品德情意， 符合中國語文科的教學目標。除了提升語文素養外，增進學生對中華文化 的認識和建構學生的品德情意也屬中文科重要的課程目標（香港課程發展 議會、香港考試及評核局，2015）。史傳文學的內容一般皆以文臣武將 為主角。他們大多因德行和貢獻國家而名留青史，並且獲得後世讚頌。透 過閱讀史傳文學的作品，學生便能藉著人物的英雄事蹟而建立正確的價 值觀，以及應有的品德情意。這都有助建構學生的文化素養（于貴紅， 2016）。譬如透過《廉頗藺相如列傳》的人物行為，學生可以從藺相如 身上學到「先國家之急而後私仇」的精神，同時也可以理解到凡事應以和 為貴的美德；學生藉著閱讀《荊軻刺秦王》一文，學會「天下興亡，匹夫 有責」、「以天下為己任」的國民精神；教師藉著教授《蘇武傳》，引導 學生可以明白「忠君愛國」的意義等（司正權，2015）。由是觀之，史 傳文學有助提升學生對中國優秀文化的認識，並使他們從中建構正確的品 德情意，符合中文科課程的實施目標。 史傳文學能夠提升學生對文言文的學習興趣。敍事性文言篇章的議論 部分較少、篇幅較短、語言精練、具有典型人物及事跡。這都滿足了學生 91 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 畏難的心理，讓他們較容易接受相關的教學，並對之產生更濃厚的學習興 趣，而最重要的，就是學生能夠更容易地代入相關的角色，使到他們更容 易地理解相關的內容思想（寧西林、史杰，2018）。吳善揮（2017）的 研究發現，大部分學生都較喜歡閱讀以故事形式寫成的文言篇章作品，而 教師以說故事的形式展開文言篇章教學，不但能夠提升學生的學習興趣， 而且可以提升學生的文言文理解能力。事實上，若教師在教授文言文時能 夠為學生講授一些歷史故事，那麼學生對文言文的學習興趣必能有所提升 （王連海，2014）。由此可見，史傳文學蘊含不同有趣的歷史故事，而 且內容都較淺白易明。只要教師能夠按照課程的教學目標，選用一些優 秀的史傳文學作品為教材，那麼學生對文言文的學習興趣必定能夠有所提 升。 史傳文學的體裁為記敍文，當中以敍述該人物的歷史故事為主軸，藉 此塑造他們的性格特質，以寄寓對該人物的褒貶。這都有助學生更容易理 解文言文的內容。以《史記》為例，作者司馬遷在寫作每一篇單篇作品時， 都會先由介紹指定人物開始，然後再開始敍述其生平事蹟，其後再就「太 史公曰」對人物的功過進行評論（肖文，2008）。事實上，這種形式不 但有助學生明白史家的取材與寫作立意的關係，而且更能夠引起學生反思 當中所寄寓的道理。陳秀花（2019a）亦認為史傳文學能夠讓學生藉著具 體的歷史事件對照現今社會及日常生活，使他們能夠從中有所反思，進而 明白文言文的現實意義及價值。同時，陳秀花（2019b）亦指出史傳文學 提供多個切入點，啟發學生思考文本觀點，包括：立意、思想及語言，這 都有助增加學生文言文的理解能力。而外國的研究亦發現，以故事為語文 學習的文本能夠有效地提升學生的閱讀動機及理解能力（Kao, Tsai, Liu, & Yang, 2016）。由是觀之，史傳文學以歷史人物為主軸，以不同的故事 來突出所寫人物的性格特質，並從中寄寓了哲理思想和對人物的褒貶。這 種以講故事的敍述方法不但增加了學生閱讀文言文的動機，更能提升他們 對文章背後深層意義的推敲及理解。 92 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究方法及計劃進度 研究假設 （1）史傳文學融入文言文教學能夠提升學生對文言文的學習興趣。 （2）史傳文學融入文言文教學能夠提升學生對文言文的理解能力。 研究對象 筆者以 94 名中一級任教學生為研究對象，以了解他們在參與是次教 學研究課程後的改變。其中，45 名學生為「實驗組」、49 名學生為「對 照組」。兩組學生的語文能力相若，以確保研究具有良好信度。兩組學生 的中文科成績都未達應有的標準，尤以文言文理解能力特別薄弱。筆者也 發現他們厭惡文言文，不但認為枯燥乏味，而且亦無實際用處。每在學校 考試之中，他們都放棄作答與文言文相關的題目。雖然他們能力薄弱，可 是都願意按照筆者的指示完成學習任務。同時，他們與筆者之間亦存有良 性的互動，為本次研究的開展奠下良好之基石。 研究設計 「實驗組」及「對照組」共接受 28 節（每節課為時約 35 分鐘）的文 言文教學課程，整個研究歷時 2 個月。以下為「實驗組」及「對照組」的 教學內容、教學方法及教學流程： 筆者在「實驗組」實施史傳文學融入文言文教學之課程。首先，在文 言篇章方面，本次課程以《三國志》作為教學課程的主要內容，當中選取 了有關曹操、曹植、諸葛亮、呂布和關羽的片段（節錄）作教學之用，研 究者深信學生對以上三國時代的人物都有著基礎認識，故此他們能夠容易 理解文章。在教學設計方面，研究者在教授每一篇文言作品（節錄）時， 都會輔以不同的教學活動，以提升學生的學習興趣，包括：短片欣賞、聆 聽歌曲和師生討論。另外，每一篇文言作品的教學重點，都會涵蓋以下部 93 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 分：歸納主旨、內容探究和文言知識。同時，在正式施教時，研究者會教 授學生有關中國傳統文化的忠義精神、儒家的政治思想及三國時代的歷史 背景，以使他們能夠對篇章的內容有基礎的知識。在教學流程方面，（1） 學生參與紙筆評估（前測），以使研究者掌握「實驗組」學生文言文的閱 讀理解能力水平。（2）研究者會以教師直接講授的方式，教授學生本課 程的先導知識。（3）研究者教授相關的文言篇章並進行課堂活動。（4） 學生填寫反思日誌。（5）研究者為學生安排作業，以鞏固他們所學的知 識。（6）學生參與紙筆評估（後測），以及填寫總結問卷。由於本次課 程合共教授 5 篇文言篇章作品，因此步驟（3）至（5）會重覆 5 次。 另外，筆者在「對照組」實施遊記文學融入文言文教學之課程。當中 的教學流程與「實驗組」大致相同。惟在教學篇章選用方面，研究會以遊 記為主要體裁，當中包括：《記承天寺夜遊》、《岳陽樓記》（節錄）、《湖 心亭看雪》、《始得西山宴遊記》（節錄），以及《小石潭記》。當中，「對 照組」的教學流程如下：（1）學生參與紙筆評估（前測）；（2）教授學 生課程的先導知識（閱讀文言篇章之基本方法）；（3）教授學生 5 篇指 定的文言篇章作品；（4）學生參與紙筆評估（後測），以及填寫總結問卷。 課節 教學目標 選用篇章 教學內容 1-4 ‧理解中國傳統文化精神 ──忠義； ‧認識儒家的政治主張； ‧了解三國的歷史背景。 N/A ‧教授先導知識 儒家政治思想、中國傳統 文化精神──忠義，以及 三國時代的歷史背景。 5-9 ‧分析人物的性格特質； ‧掌握文言句式：判斷句。 《三國志‧ 曹操》（節錄） ‧預習： 聆聽林俊傑《曹操》並完 成相關任務。 ‧篇章教學 ‧師生討論 ‧填寫反思日誌 94 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 1 課程內容大綱 課節 教學目標 選用篇章 教學內容 10-14 ‧分析人物性格特質； ‧掌握待人處事的正確態 度； ‧學習文言文語譯方法： 增補法。 《三國志‧ 曹植》（節錄） ‧預習： 觀看短片以認識 「七步成詩」的故事。 ‧篇章教學 ‧師生討論 ‧填寫反思日誌 15-19 ‧分析人物性格特質； ‧掌握待人處事的態度； ‧學習文言文語譯方法： 保留法。 《三國志‧ 諸葛亮》（節錄） ‧預習： 觀看短片以認識 「諸葛亮草船借箭」的故事。 ‧篇章教學 ‧師生討論 ‧填寫反思日誌 20-24 ‧分析人物性格特質； ‧掌握待人處事的態度； ‧學習文言文語譯方法： 調換法。 《三國志‧ 呂布》（節錄） ‧預習： 觀看短片以認識 「呂布刺殺董卓」的故事。 ‧篇章教學 ‧師生討論 ‧填寫反思日誌 25-28 ‧分析人物性格特質； ‧掌握待人處事的態度； ‧ 學 習 文 言 文 指 示 代 詞 （之、其）。 《三國志‧ 關羽》（節錄） ‧預習： 觀看短片以認識 「桃園結義」及「刮骨療法」 的故事。 ‧篇章教學 ‧師生討論 ‧填寫反思日誌 95 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究工具 研究者設計了總結問卷，以了解學生對於是次教學課程的評價。問卷 以李克特量表方式進行設計（1 分：非常不同意、2 分：不同意、3 分：一般、 4 分：同意、5 分：非常同意），當中環繞學生的學習興趣而設，共有 10 題。在設計問卷時，研究者曾與具豐富中文科教學經驗的教師進行討論， 在完成題目設計後再交付具教育研究經驗的教師進行審閱，以確保問題清 晰並易於理解。在課程結束後，研究者便派發問卷給「實驗組」及「對照 組」的學生填寫，當中收回 94 份問卷，回收率為 100%。在回收所有已 派出的問卷後，研究者便把所有數據輸入電腦之中，並以 SPSS 26.0（統 計產品與服務解決方案）進行分析，以了解「史傳文學融入文言文教學之 課程」及「遊記文學融入文言文教學之課程」對於學生學習文言文之興趣 有何影響。 研究者設置紙筆評估，以了解「實驗組」及「對照組」學生在完成 相關課程後，能否提升自身的文言文理解能力。為了提升紙筆評估的信 度，研究者採取以下的做法：（1）在設計紙筆評估時，研究者曾就評估 的內容及方式，與具豐富中文科教學經驗的教師進行討論；（2）前測及 後測的題型完全相同；（3）前測及後測的評估時間皆為 35 分鐘；（4） 在進行批改前，研究者與研究群的教師進行評分標準的討論，並由一位教 師進行統一批改，以確保評改的一致性。在完成前測及後測的數據收集 後，研究者便以 SPSS 26.0（統計產品與服務解決方案）的 Independent Samples T-test 和 Paired Samples T-test 進行分析，以了解學生在完成 課程後有否提升到文言文理解能力。 為了更深入了解學生對本次研究之教學成效，研究者採用了反思日 誌。當中，研究者以隨機抽樣的方式，抽取了 6 位「實驗組」學生（2 名 中文科成績優秀、2 名中文科成績普通、2 名中文科成績稍遜）的反思日 96 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 表 3 顯示，「對照組」學生未能夠透過遊記文學融入文言文教學課程， 建構出對文言文的學習興趣（各題的平均值都低於 3 分）。 項目 平均值 標準差 我喜歡閱讀遊記文學。 1.94 0.75 是次課程提升了我參與文言文課堂討論的動機。 1.96 0.89 是次課程提升了我對文言文的學習興趣。 2.16 0.97 是次課程提升了我對文言文之學習意願。 2.08 0.81 我喜愛以遊記文學作為學習文言文的材料。 1.92 0.81 遊記文學課程改變了我對文言文「沉悶」的印象。 1.92 0.81 遊記文學課程改變了我對文言文「艱深」的印象。 1.92 0.81 遊記文學課程改變了我對文言文「沒用」的印象。 1.92 0.81 我希望在未來能夠再次學習遊記文學。 1.76 0.80 是次課程提升了我完成課業的意願。 2 0.87 表 3 文言文學習興趣之題目（對照組） 項目 平均值 標準差 我喜歡閱讀史傳文學。 4.04 0.47 是次課程提升了我參與文言文課堂討論的動機。 4.16 0.37 是次課程提升了我對文言文的學習興趣。 4.24 0.86 是次課程提升了我對文言文之學習意願。 4.04 0.47 我喜愛以史傳文學作為學習文言文的材料。 4.02 0.78 史傳文學課程改變了我對文言文「沉悶」的印象。 4.09 0.76 史傳文學課程改變了我對文言文「艱深」的印象。 4.13 0.81 史傳文學課程改變了我對文言文「沒用」的印象。 4.22 0.60 我希望在未來能夠再次學習史傳文學。 4.49 0.51 是次課程提升了我完成課業的意願。 4.62 0.49 誌進行分析。為了維護學生的隱私，研究者將以（P1、P2、P3、P4、 P5、P6）作為學生的代號，以便進行分析。 研究結果及分析 問卷調查 表 2 顯示，「實驗組」學生都能夠透過史傳文學融入文言文教學課程， 建構出對文言文的學習興趣（各題的平均值在 4 分以上）。 表 2 文言文學習興趣之題目（實驗組） 97 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 紙筆評估 綜合而言，在是次課程結束後，「實驗組」學生的文言文閱讀理解能 力能夠得到提升，以下為測試結果： 學生數目 平均差 顯著性 顯著性 ( 雙尾 ) A–B 94 -.02222 .494 .950 注：A 為實驗組，B 為控制組。*p<.05、**p<.01、***p<.001。 注：A 為實驗組，B 為控制組。***p<.001。 測試滿分：20 分 測試滿分：20 分 表 4 實驗組、控制組的前測成績比較 表 5 實驗組、控制組的前測及後測成績比較 根據 Independent Samples T-Test，「實驗組」(M=6.98、SD=1.70) 和「控制組」(M=7.00、SD=1.72) 在前測的成績並沒有任何顯著之分別， 而 p>.0 5(p=.950)；這就是說「實驗組」和「對照組」學生的文言文閱讀 理解能力相約。 Independent Samples T-Test Paired Samples T-Test 平均數 學生數目 標準差 平均數的標準誤 t 值 A ( 前測 – 後測 ) -2.9555 45 .95240 .14198 -20.817*** B ( 前測 – 後測 ) .12245 49 .52570 .07510 1.630 根據 Paired Samples T-test，「實驗組」學生的平均得分有顯著上升 (M=9.93、SD=1.84)，而 p<.001(p=.000)；而「控制組」學生的平均得 分則沒有任何顯著改變 (M=6.88、SD=1.65)，而 p >.05(p=.110)。這說 明史傳文學融入文言文教學之課程能夠提升學生之文言文閱讀理解能力。 綜觀「實驗組」學生的後測答卷內容，他們都能夠善用課堂所教授的 語譯方法，嘗試為指定的文言句子進行語譯，雖然表現未算令人非常滿 意，可是相對從前毫無章法、胡亂語譯的表現，已是取得很大的進步。另 外，解釋指示代詞是他們表現最好的部分，這或許與史傳文學的體裁特色 98 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 相關──包含很多不同的指示代詞。在學習時，學生都經常會在《三國 志》之中閱讀到不同的指示代詞，而筆者也會時常為他們進行解釋，久而 久之，他們便能夠學懂如何分辨並解釋文言文中的指示代詞。 反思日誌 反思日誌內容都能夠反映出「實驗組」學生認同是次課程的教學成效。 以下將從兩個面向進行分析，包括：教學內容及教學活動。 教學內容 這次史傳文學融入文言文教學之課程能夠提升學生學習文言文興趣的 原因在於：學生對相關內容有先備知識，以及用字相對淺白。這都有助學 生減低閱讀困難，並減少他們對文言文的厭惡感，進而提升他們對文言文 的學習興趣。 「今天，老師教我們《三國志》文言文時，我對於當中的人物都有些 認識，所以在閱讀時困難會比較少，所以也會嘗試去看看今天所教的文言 文。」（P1） 「上課時，老師教我們認識呂布，我在小學時便有看過有關他的電視 劇，故此對他有一些認識，所以老師講述那篇文言文時，我很容易便明白 到當中的內容，並因此而專心地聽下去。」（P4） 「《三國志》的用字比較淺白，我會比較容易理解當中的內容⋯⋯所 以我會願意學習文言文。」（P5） 另外，部分學生指出文言文篇章以故事的形式呈現，使他們能夠更容 易掌握當中的內容，進而提升他們學習文言文的興趣。 99 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 「在課堂裡，老師用講故事的形式教導我們《三國志》的歷史故事， 我覺得真的很有趣，非常符合我比較喜歡聽故事的特質⋯⋯而且我會比較 容易掌握文言文的內容。」（P3） 「《三國志》都是故事來，有人物、事件、地點，這都能夠讓我更容 易知道那篇文言文在說什麼，因為只要運用六何法，就能把它解構出來 了⋯⋯由於比較容易閱讀，所以我自然也會願意看看。」（P6） 此外，學生都在反思日誌之中，指出他們認同這些文言文所帶出的訊 息或價值，所以便更願意去學習不同的文言文內容。 「老師教我們不要學曹植的哥哥那樣迫害自己的弟弟，因為那是滅絕 人性的。所謂血濃於水，我們又怎能以這樣殘酷的方式去迫害自己的兄弟 呢⋯⋯我很認同我們應該多學這些篇章，以做一個更好的人。」（P5） 「我覺得呂布忘恩負義，多次出賣知遇自己的人，真是非常不對。現 在，老師以這篇文言文教導我們做人不應口蜜腹劍和不應忘恩負義，我真 的非常認同，而且在閱讀的時候，我便更專心看看那個故事在說什麼，去 了解呂布所有所做的壞事。」（P6） 教學活動 從反思日誌的內容來看，學生都認為老師所實施的教學活動，包括： 華語流行曲賞析、短片欣賞，都有助他們掌握文言文的內容，進而提升他 們對文言文的學習興趣。 「今天，老師播了林俊傑的歌曲，真的很好聽，也幫助到我認識曹操 這個人，在看文言文時會沒有這麼難。」（P2） 100 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 「老師播放了曹植七步成詩的短片，從中我了解到曹植被兄長迫害的 感受⋯⋯而且也能幫助到我去看那篇文言文，而且課堂也會生動很多。」 （P5） 「我看了老師所播放的影片後，再去學習有關呂布那篇文言文，我發 現呂布真的很差⋯⋯影片能夠使我更容易去閱讀文言文⋯⋯比以前會願意 去閱讀那些文言文。」（P6） 總結及建議 史傳文學融入文言文教學之課程能夠提升學生對文言文的學習興趣。 首先，史傳文學以故事敍述的方式作呈現，使到學生能夠更容易掌握當中 的內容。在「取易捨難」的心態下，學生自然會提升閱讀相關文言文的學 習興趣。另外，基於史家撰寫史書的紀實要求，史傳文學的用語一般都較 為精鍊和淺白，務求做到敍事客觀的目標。因此，這次研究以史傳文學作 為教學材料。作為讀者的學生自然亦會容易掌握箇中內容，也提升他們閱 讀相關文言篇章的興趣及動機。再者，史傳文學蘊含著史家對不同歷史人 物的褒貶，發揮了揚善抑惡的書寫精神。而學生對當中所宣揚的價值有所 認同，自然亦會對之有所好感，並且願意閱讀當中的論述。 史傳文學融入文言文教學之課程能夠提升學生的文言文理解能力。首 先，一切的教學都只有在滿足學習興趣的情況下才能夠取得成功。因此， 正如研究者在上段所言，史傳文學所具備的特質能夠滿足學生的學習興 趣。而在這樣的基礎下，學生亦自然會願意閱讀相關的文言文篇章，以及 更積極地參與相關課堂活動。在良性循環下，他們的文言文理解能力亦自 然能夠得到提升。另外，研究者所選用的史傳文學作品《三國志》內容（當 中所節錄的人物片段部分），都為學生耳熟能詳的故事。他們也會經常從 101 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 不同的影視作品之中接觸得到。因此，他們自然備閱讀相關文言文篇章的 先備知識，自然也能夠更容易理解當中的內容。在建構成功的經驗後，他 們亦會大大增加閱讀文言文信心，最終有助他們提升文言文的理解能力。 綜合本研究的結果及經驗，研究者提出以下的建議，以供後續研究者 作為參考： 第一，本次研究所採用的史傳文學作品能夠提升學生學習文言文的興 趣，因此後續研究者可參考其他史傳文學作品，諸如：《左傳》、《史記》、 《漢書》及《資治通鑑》等，繼而進行不同主題的文言文教學，以了解其 他史傳文學作品能否產生同等的教學效果。 第二，本次研究採用講故事的形式來教授文言文，使到學生提升了學 習文言文的興趣。因此，後續研究者可以嘗試以講故事的方式，來教授不 同種類的文言文，以增加學生對學習文言文的專注度及興趣，例如：教師 可選取中國古代的寓言故事，又或歷史故事作為文言文教學的主軸，以吸 引學生學習文言文。 第三，本次研究所採用的歌曲及短片都能夠配合教學內容，一方面加 深學生對該篇文言文的印象，另一方面透過圖像化的過程使文言文的內容 變得生動有趣。因此，研究者建議後續研究者選用一些能夠容易地在坊間 之中尋找相關視頻的文言篇章，以增加學生對文言文的學習興趣。 第四，基於教學時間所限，以及教學者之便利，本次教學只以《三國 志》為唯一的教學材料，未能夠採用多元的史傳文學篇章作為教學材料。 因此，研究者建議後續研究者可以採用不同年代的史傳文學文本作為教學 材料，以對照混合多元作品的教學方式與只採用單一史傳文學作品作教 材，兩者教學成效有何不同。 102 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 于貴紅（2016）。〈因體定教：史傳文教學的四個維度〉。《語文教學與研究（大眾版）》， 第 10 期，78-79。 王成軍、朱瑩（2017）。〈歷史·小說·寓言·史傳文學——論司馬遷《史記》之文類 歸屬〉。《現代傳記研究》，第 2 期，27-36。 王強（2018）。〈基於“核心素養”下的語文核心素養教學研究——以文言文教學為例〉。 《銅陵職業技術學院學報》，第 3 期，77-80。 王連海（2014）。〈初中文言文有效教學策略探討〉。《吉林省教育學院學報》，第 30 卷， 第 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Y. M., Tsai, C. C., Liu, C. Y., & Yang, C. H. (2016). The effects of high/low interactive electronic storybooks on elementary school students’ reading motivation, story comprehension and chromatics concepts. Computers & Education, 100, 56- 70. 104 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 《三國志 ˙ 曹操》（節錄）單元教材 105 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 106 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 107 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 108 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 109 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 110 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 111 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 教育研究報告匯編 113 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生 數學學習的行動研究 陳偉良、李家明 中華基督教會燕京書院 摘要 由於智能電話及平板電腦的持續普及，現時不少教師會利用流動應用 程式輔助學生學習。然而，市面上的流動應用程式的設計大多未能完全配 合某一群特定同學的需要。幸好現時開發流動應用程式的軟件已十分方便 易用，令對資訊科技略有認識的老師有能力製作校本流動應用程式。本行 動研究探討一個由老師自行製作的流動應用程式對幫助中一學生在學習數 學科「坐標簡介」一課的效能。研究結果顯示有關程式對幫助學生掌握坐 標的基礎概念有顯著成效。 關鍵詞 流動應用程式、平面直角坐標、建構主義 前言 中華基督教會燕京書院是一所位於青衣區的津貼中學，以招收第二組 別的學生為主。學生的學習能力差異頗大，老師經常需要使用不同的教學 策略輔助學生學習。參考過往幾年的學生成績，發現近年入讀中一級學生 的數學能力有下降的趨勢，對任教數學科的老師造成很大的挑戰。中一級 的數學老師表示，數學科中的「坐標簡介」一課對於中一的學生來說，有 114 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 一定的學習難度。當中兩個重要知識點︰包括 (1) 從已知坐標找出該點位 置的方法及 (2) 從已知點位置求出其坐標的方法，有不少學生未能透徹掌 握，容易將 X 坐標與 Y 坐標混淆，令他們在學習一些以直角坐標為基礎 的課題時遇到困難。老師們亦指出傳統的教學方法及練習未能有效協助 學生克服相關學習難點，他們期望利用電子學習方法幫助學生攻克學習難 點，因此曾嘗試尋找適當的流動應用程式，在課堂上輔助學生學習。可是 在搜尋適當的流動應用程式過程中，老師發現市面上用於輔助學習「坐標 簡介」的流動應用程式，大多未能配合學生的實際需要，對照顧學生的學 習差異亦有不足。幸好現時已有不少簡單易用的軟件工具，能讓對電腦編 程有一定認識的老師自行開發教學用的流動應用程式，以「度身訂造」的 方式進行製作，以彌補坊間流動應用程式的不足。本研究的其中一名研究 員，本身亦為中一級數學及電腦科教師，為探討校本開發的流動應用程式 對輔助學生學習是否有效，該研究員自行製作了一個「坐標簡介流動應用 程式」。考慮到安裝和發佈的方便程度，程式以 Android 流動應用程式發 佈。此流動應用程式會讓學生透過自行探索的方式，掌握上述在「坐標簡 介」一課中的其中兩個重要知識點。本研究透過比較一班以流動應用程式 輔助學習和另一班以傳統方式學習的同學的表現，探討校本開發的流動應 用程式對學生學習「坐標簡介」是否有幫助。 文獻探討 數學是科學之母，亦經常應用於我們的日常生活中。然而，許多學生 在學習數學的過程中總是遇到各式各樣的困難，令他們對此科目提不起興 趣。對中一學生而言，他們要應付由小學過渡至中學的學習模式轉變，加 上數學科部分課題涉及一些嶄新的概念，令他們（尤其一些能力稍遜的同 學）在學習過程中倍感吃力。研究員在教學過程中發現利用傳統的講授再 加鞏固練習的方法，未能有效地令同學掌握學習重點。以「坐標簡介」一 課為例，同學們即使進行反覆操練，在掌握當中兩個重要知識點︰從已知 點的坐標找出該點的方法及從已知點求出其坐標的方法，依然未能透徹。 115 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 不少同學經常將 X 坐標與 Y 坐標混淆，在作答時似是隨機給出 X 坐標和 Y 坐標的值（李莉，2017）。研究員希望找出方法協助學生解決有關學習 「坐標簡介」的疑難。在探討過不同的文獻後，研究員決定自行開發基於 建構主義設計的 Android 流動應用程式來輔助學生學習。 建構主義隱含的理論是學生透過「親身直接參與」的方法去完成學習 過程。他們由「實踐中學習」，而非依賴別人「告訴他們」會發生什麼事。 學生自己不受干擾地去推斷、發現及下結論（DeVries, Zan, Hildebrandt, Edmiaston & Sales, 2002）。研究員在設計流動應用程式時，希望學生 可透過該程式自行探索並掌握從已知點的坐標找出該點的方法及從已知點 求出其坐標這兩個「坐標簡介」的學習重點。研究結果亦顯示（Chang & Yang, 2016; Zhang, Trussell, Gallegos & Asam, 2015），學生利用流動 應用程式輔助學習，能有效地進行自學，並能加強他們的學習興趣及改善 成績。研究亦顯示，利用流動應用程式配合智能手機或平板電腦進行互動 學習，最能配合年輕學生的自然學習方式，因為他們最喜愛以實體接觸及 不計較犯錯地重覆試驗的方式來學習（Highfield & Goodwin, 2013）。 另一方面，雖然坊間有不少輔助數學學習的流動應用程式，但很多 情況下，由老師自行開發的流動應用程式，更能配合學生們的需要，因 為這些流動應用程式在設計時已考慮到有關老師的教學目標和學生學習 的需要，在使用時更能發揮程式中的各個功能（The Learning and Skills Improvement Service, 2009）。以往老師自行開發流動應用程式會面對 不少技術上的困難，以致除了少數對電腦編程較有掌握的老師外，一般老 師難以製作適合學生使用的流動應用程式。但隨著軟件技術的進步及網路 上各種資源的普及化，現時對編程稍有認識的老師已能輕鬆地自行製作流 動應用程式，尤其在製作 Android 的流動應用程式方面，得益於 Android 操作系統的開源性質（Hsu, Rice & Dawley, 2012）。 116 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究設計及過程 是次研究是以前測、後測、學生問卷、學生訪談、老師訪談及觀課來 收集資料，接著進行分析和反思。參加是次研究的學生共兩班，並分為實 驗組及控制組。1B 班（30 人）為實驗組，在教學過程中使用了研究員自 行開發的「坐標簡介流動應用程式」（以下簡稱流動應用程式）輔助教學， 1C 班（30 人）為控制組，在教學過程中使用傳統的課本練習和工作紙進 行教學。由於中一 B、C 及 D 班的同學並無按能力分班，因此實驗組和控 制組同學的學習能力大致相若，選取這兩班同學進行研究能更清晰反映流 動應用程式對促進學生學習是否有效。 教學流程如下︰ (1) 實驗組和控制組的老師均按照課本內容進行傳統 授課；(2) 兩組同學參與前測，以便老師了解學生對課題的初步掌握程度； (3) 老師利用流動應用程式輔助實驗組的同學進行學習，而控制組的老師 則使用課本練習及工作紙輔助學生學習；(4) 兩組同學參與後測，讓研究 員了解利用流動應用程式輔助實驗組的同學是否能提升他們的學習效能； (5) 實驗組同學填寫問卷。 前測和後測均設有 8 條題目，題型相若。由於學生在鞏固練習後才進 行後測，因此後測題目設計成難度較前測略高，以便能更準確反映學生的 學習成效。前測和後測的題目都經過同級老師審擬，以確保內容符合學生 的程度和測試的需要。在利用流動應用程式輔助學生學習時，老師會在課 堂即時派發預裝了流動應用程式的平板電腦，程式的使用方法已在程式的 版面上顯示，除協助同學解決技術困難外，老師在過程中盡量避免指導同 學作答，同學需要在使用程式的過程中，自行領略並學懂有關課題的學習 重點。 117 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 圖一 學生使用坐標流動應用程式輔助學習 圖二 學生透過與程式的互動掌握直角 坐標系統的學習重點 圖六 程式中亦包含線上測驗以便學生 檢視學習成效 圖三 坐標流動應用程式中引導學生了解 坐標表示方法的版面 圖四 拖放坐標的數字到適當軸上以顯示對應的點 圖五 觸摸點的位置顯示對應的坐標 118 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究結果及分析 量性數據分析 整體而言，實驗組的成績在使用流動應用程式輔助學習後有所進步。 以 8 分為滿分，成績（平均分）由前測的 4.23 提升到後測的 5.27，進步 超過 1 分。而控制組的成績，同樣以 8 分為滿分，由 4.3 提升到 4.8，進 步 0.5 分。以成對樣本 t 檢定（Paired Sample t-test）分析前後測的成績 表現，實驗組的前後測比較，t 值為 -2.84，p 值為 0.008（<0.05），達 到統計學上的適度顯著度。另一方面，控制組的前後測比較，t 值為 -1.81， p 值為 0.086（>0.05），未達到統計學上的適度顯著度。所以，使用流 動應用程式輔助對學生的學習有顯著成效。 組別 人數 測試 平均分 標準差 t 值 p 值 實驗組 30 前測 4.23 1.52 -2.84 0.008 30 後測 5.27 1.23 控制組 30 前測 4.3 0.86 -1.81 0.086 30 後測 4.8 1.11 表 1 實驗組及控制組前後測成績表現分析 實驗組學生成績進步的原因分析 是次研究顯示使用流動應用程式輔助學習「坐標簡介」此一課題能改 善學生的學習效果。然而，為何流動應用程式能協助學生更好地學習有關 課題？ Drigas 和 Pappas 檢視了多個數學學習應用程式（當中包括針對 不同學習階段的流動應用程式），他們發現流動應用程式的互動性，令學 生更享受學習過程，從而激勵學生更積極學習，有效改善他們的數學能力 （Drigas & Pappas, 2015）。Calder 和 Murphy 的研究亦指出數學流動 應用程式能激發學生的學習動機及強化學生的參與。再者，流動應用程式 協助創建數學問題的多種表示形式，有助加強學生的數學思維。將數學問 題投射在手機 / 平板電腦的屏幕上有助學生使用多種工具進行學習，同時 利用文字 / 數字表達和記錄思維，令學生可在一個能自行控制及感覺安全 的環境中，獲得新的學習體驗（Calder & Murphy, 2017）。此外，德克 119 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 薩斯大學阿爾帕索分校的研究顯示，透過數學流動應用程式的自訂學習進 度、即時回饋及將複雜過程分拆為簡單步驟等特性，對學生提供了有效的 學習支援，尤其對於後進的學生成效更為顯著（Zhang et al., 2015）。而 是次研究中所用流動應用程式，正正包含了上述的各種特性。 學生觀感 在教學單元結束後，研究員對實驗組的同學進行問卷調查（附件 1）， 收集他們對流動應用程式的意見。根據問卷調查結果（附件 2），在大部 分項目中均有接近或超過四分三的同學表示同意或十分同意，顯示同學對 使用流動應用程式輔助學習的反應正面。在是否能掌握流動應用程式的使 用方面，有 75% 的同學表示能輕鬆駕馭該程式，可見程式能配合同學的 學習能力。此外，有 73% 的同學表示程式能協助他們掌握課題的概念。 認為利用程式輔助學習較工作紙有趣的同學達 79%，認為利用程式輔助 學習較工作紙有效的有 71%，表示利用程式輔助學習的課堂是有效率的 亦達 73%，因此可判定程式能有效輔助學生學習。有 78% 的同學表示希 望可在更多數學課題上使用老師自製的流動應用程式輔助學習，程式對誘 發同學對學習的興趣亦見成效。然而，祇有 68% 的同學認為老師自製的 流動應用程式較網上現成的流動應用程式更符合他們的學習需要，因此程 式本身應該尚有不少改進空間。較為令研究員意外的是祇有不足一半的同 學表示願意在家中使用老師自製的流動用程式輔助學習數學。為了更深入 了解箇中原因，研究員亦對部分實驗組的同學進行了訪談。 研究員隨機抽出了十位實驗組的同學進行訪談，更深入地詢問他們對 流動應用程式的觀感。同學們大都反應正面，他們認為流動應用程式的互 動性，令他們的學習過程較傳統工作紙來得有趣，而流動應用程式的即時 回饋功能，使他們能快速摸索出正確解決問題的方法，較傳統的學習方法 來得輕鬆。此外，學生指出由於流動應用程式可安裝於智能電話中，而他 們每天都有不少時間接觸智能電話，因此使用流動應用程式協助學習對他 120 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 們來說是頗為方便的。另一方面，有同學指出，由於他們每天已長時間接 觸智能電話，如果在複習課題時仍繼續使用智能電話，家長有可能誤會自 己沉迷使用手機。同時，亦有受訪學生指出在使用流動應用程式，有時會 不清楚某些功能的使用方法，因此有老師或資訊科技技術員協助下使用， 會較為輕鬆，如果在家中自行使用程式進行學習，遇有技術問題時會難以 解決，影響學習成效。上述意見或多或少解釋了為何在問卷調查中衹有不 足一半的同學表示願意在家中使用老師自製的流動用程式輔助學習。在訪 談中同學們亦對流動應用程式提出了一些意見，當中同學們最不滿意的是 程式的反應時間，由於程式中包含大量互動練習，程式的反應速度不足會 影響流暢度，令同學產生負面的觀感。此外，有同學表示自己所用的智能 電話運行 iOS 系統，未能安裝 Android 流動應用程式，無法使用有關程式 在家中學習。最後，亦有同學指出程式的版面較為單調，相較坊間的流動 應用程式顯得缺乏吸引力，會在一定程度上降低學生學習的興趣。 觀課發現 研究員觀察了老師使用流動應用程式輔助教學的課堂。同學們在課堂 中的表現理想，大部分同學能很快掌握到如何使用有關程式。有小部分同 學在過程中請求老師或資訊科技技術員的協助，但當中絕大部分都祇是要 求幫忙解決技術上的問題（如無線網絡連接或平板電腦配置的問題），而 非解決數學概念上的困難。觀察所得，幾乎所同學都能透過反覆嘗試，逐 漸掌握到課題中的學習重點。此外，大部分同學在課堂中都積極使用程式 學習，他們似乎對這種學習模式感覺很有趣。 老師觀感 研究員亦對負責編寫流動應用程式和使用該程式施教的老師（即另一 位研究員）進行了訪問，老師對學生利用該程式輔助學習的效果感到滿 意。受訪老師表示使用流動應用程式輔助學習後，學生混淆 X 坐標和 Y 坐標的情況有明顯改善，並估計較以往多了 30% 同學能正確運用直角坐 121 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 標系統。當詢問老師在創作程式的過程中有何困難時，老師表示一開始對 怎樣設計程式才能幫助到學生並沒有頭緒，前後共創作了 6 個版本，並向 其他同級任教老師收集意見，不斷改良，始能完成可供課堂使用的版本。 另一方面，由於用來製作流動應用程式的軟件存在一些缺陷，在製作過程 中造成障礙，幸好得資訊科技技術員協助，終能克服技術困難。因此，雖 然現時製作流動應用程式的軟件已相當成熟，老師依然強烈建議有意自行 創作教學流動應用程式的同工事先聯絡資訊科技技術員或精通編程的老 師，以便必要時可尋求協助。 在問及老師有否察覺同學們在使用流動應用程式的過程中有甚麼困難 時，老師表示他留意到某些同學並沒有看清楚程式版面上的指引就開始作 答題目，因而需要較長時間始能完成程式內的所有練習。老師亦發覺那些 沒有看清楚指引的同學（約佔整體同學的 40%），測驗成績普遍較有看 清楚指引的同學略低。縱然如此，這些沒有看清楚指示的同學，依然能透 過反覆嘗試，掌握到學習重點。 另一方面，老師亦注意到學生在一些測試他們對數學專用名詞的認識 的題目上表現較差。究其原因，老師認為學生在使用程式時，就像平日玩 手機遊戲一樣，主要透過圖像感觀與程式進行互動，對一些文字資訊不太 留意，以致在作答時未能給出正確的數學詞彙。 未來發展 研究員亦有在訪問過程中問及老師對運用校本流動應用程式輔助教學 的未來發展計劃，老師指出他希望日後修改程式使它能接駁數據庫，並將 學生在使用程式過程中的表現（如作答所耗用的時間、所得分數等）記錄 下來，讓任教老師進行數據分析，從而了解學生的學習進度和差異，以便 制定更有效的教學策略。 122 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 另一方面，針對學生未有看清楚程式版面上的指引就開始作答題目的 問題，老師建議可在程式中加入簡短語音指引，並在語音播放完畢後始能 開始作答題目。老師亦建議在程式版面適當位置加入彈出式說明，方便學 生在使用程式遇到問題時，不用每次找老師詢問，令學生們在家中亦能有 信心使用程式協助學習。 基於是次計劃的成功，老師期望日後能製作更多的校本流動應用程 式，輔助學生學習，初步構思中的課題包括角的分類、數線概念等。另一 方面，老師亦準備延伸流動應用程式的功能，加入在直角坐標系統中計算 距離和面積的部分。初步設計將程式分為三個不同難度的部分，第一部分 保留現時設計，第二部分將難度提高，加入直角坐標系統中兩點（在同一 水平或垂直線上）距離的計算（圖七）。第三部分難度最高，同學須計算 直角坐標系統中簡單平面圖形的面積（圖八）。在每個部分程式均會自動 核對輸入的答案。有關程式目前尚在製作階段，期望可在下一學年使用。 圖七 計算兩點距離的介面設計 （學生須正確輸入 A 和 B 的坐標 才能激活距離的輸入框） 圖八 計算圖形面積的介面設計 （學生須正確輸入 AB 和 AC 的距離 才可輸入面積答案） 最後，老師希望能將自己製作流動應用程式的經驗與其他科目分享， 令更多同學受惠。老師表示不同科目都能使用流動應用程式輔助學生學 習，祇要老師們有熱誠和創意，就能創作出有用的流動應用程式。 123 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 總結 根據研究結果，老師在「坐標簡介」這個課題上使用自行研發的流動 應用程式輔助教學，確實取得一定成效。學生的測驗成績、問卷回應及專 訪均顯示流動應用程式對學生在有關課題的學習上產生正面的作用。而從 老師專訪中可得知，雖然流動應用程式的開發需要老師付出一定努力，但 祇要老師有熱誠，加上一些對編程有認識的人士的幫助，要開發出適合學 生使用的流動應用程式並沒有太大難度。然而，要推廣使用校本流動應用 程式輔助學習，仍要面對一些困難。由於資源所限，老師自行設計的流動 應用程式，其版面吸引程度難以與商業開發的程式相比，可能減低學生使 用的興趣。另一方面，學生家長可能對這種學習模式未能充分理解，以致 有機會不積極支持子女利用此種模式學習。教育工作者需要與家長多加溝 通，令家長們明白這類學習模式的好處。總括而言，老師利用自行開發流 動應用程式輔助學生學習的經驗具參考價值，但由於是次研究祇集中於中 一數學課程中的一個課題，涵蓋面未夠廣泛，未來可將研究範圍伸延到更 多的數學課題上，甚至在其他學科上進行研究，以確立有關學習模式的實 用性。 124 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 李 莉（2017）。《 八 年 級 數 學 上 冊 知 識 點： 坐 標 簡 介 》。 取 自 https://m.5ykj.com/ Health/ba/145832.htm。 Calder, N., & Murphy, C. (2017). Enhancing teaching and learning of primary mathematics through the use of apps. Wellington, New Zealand TLRI. Chang, R. C., & Yang, C. Y. (2016). Developing a mobile app for game-based learning in middle school mathematics course. International Conference on Applied System Innovation (ICASI), 1-2. DeVries, R., Zan, B., Hildebrandt, C., Edmiaston, R., & Sales, C. (2002). Developing constructivist early childhood curriculum: Practical principles and activities. New York: Teachers College Press. Drigas, A. S. & Pappas, M. A. (2015). A review of mobile learning applications for mathematics. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 9(3), 18-23. Highfield, K., & Goodwin, K. (2013). Apps for mathematics learning: A review of 'educational' apps from the iTunes App Store. In V. Steinle, L. Ball, & C. Bardini (Eds.), Mathematics education: Yesterday, today and tomorrow : Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, 378-385. Adelaide: MERGA. Hsu, Y. C., Rice, K., & Dawley, L. (2012). Empowering educators with Google's Android App Inventor: An online workshop in mobile app design. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(1), 1-5. The Learning and Skills Improvement Service. (2009). Richard Huish College action research project - The development of interactive teaching packages in physics/ mathematics. Retrieved from https://www.stem.org.uk/elibrary/resource/26042. Zhang, M., Trussell, R. P., Gallegos, B., & Asam, R. R. (2015). Using math apps for improving student learning: An exploratory study in an inclusive fourth grade classroom. TechTrends, 59(2), 32-39. 125 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 1 學生問卷 題目 非常 同意 同意 中立 不同意 非常 不同意 1. 我能輕鬆掌握《坐標 App》的使用方 法。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 2. 《坐標 App》有助我更易掌握相關課題 的概念。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 3. 我認為使用《坐標 App》輔助學習較使 用工作紙有趣。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 4. 我認為使用《坐標 App》輔助學習較使 用工作紙更有成效。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 5. 利用《坐標 App》輔助學習的課堂是有 效率的。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 6. 我願意在家中使用老師自製的流動用程 式輔助學習數學。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 7. 我希望在更多數學課題上可使用老師自 製的流動應用程式輔助學習。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ 8. 老師自製的流動應用程式較網上現成的 流動應用程式更符合我的學習需要。 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ *「坐標簡介流動應用程式」在學生問卷中簡稱為《坐標 App》 126 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 2 學生問卷結果 我能輕鬆掌握《坐標 App》的使用方法 127 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 我認為使用《坐標 App》輔助學習較使用工作紙有趣 《坐標 App》有助我更易掌握相關課題的概念 128 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 我認為使用《坐標 App》輔助學習較使用工作紙更有成效 利用《坐標 App》輔助學習的課堂是有效率的 129 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 我願意在家中使用老師自製的流動用程式輔助學習數學 我希望在更多數學課題上可使用老師自製的流動應用程式輔助學習 130 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 老師自製的流動應用程式較網上現成的流動應用程式更符合我的學習需要 131 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 摘要 本研究旨在透過系統化的「摘要教學策略」及老師的小步子教學指導， 逐步提升非華語學生的中文閱讀理解能力，從而提升教學成效。研究結果 發現，清晰的摘要教學步驟，是提升非華語學生閱讀理解能力的踏腳石； 同時，鷹架模式及培養非華語學生後設認知能力，也是改善他們閱讀能力 的關鍵點。 關鍵詞 摘要教學、閱讀理解、非華語學生 緒論 閱讀，是語文學習的重要環節之一。透過閱讀，學生可學習各類知識， 所以閱讀能力的強弱便直接影響學生的學習效率（張姎媜，2010）。誠言， 閱讀對學生的語文發展十分重要，尤其對非華語學生的中文學習更為重 要。根據叢鐵華、岑紹基、祁永華（2012）指出，培養非華語學生的閱 讀能力在第二語言教學中佔有重要地位，但非華語學生面對著很大的閱讀 困難，他們在理解字詞意思、語法等方面較弱，以致影響閱讀理解及綜合 語文能力。又根據柯華葳、幸曼玲、陵怡琮、辜玉旻（2010）指出，讀 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生 中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 賴嘉欣 寶覺小學 132 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 者的認字技能達到自動化後，可以有較多的注意力用於理解。換句話說， 若非華語學生能理解文字、掌握字義時，老師便應提升學生的閱讀層次， 讓學生掌握閱讀策略，提升理解能力。 本人以任教的一所學校為研究例子，學校九成以上都是非華語學生， 學生的學習差異很大。為了有效照顧學習多樣性，學校便於高年級（五至 六）推行分組教學政策，亦即把每級兩班學生，按上年度的中文科總成績 分為高、中、低三組，高、低組別人數約 15 人，其餘便是中能力組別的 學生。本人研究的對象是五、六年級高能力組別的學生，每組分別有學生 15 人，共 30 人。學生的中文程度良好，學習動機很高。從日常教學觀察 及考試表現所見，他們能掌握課文字詞理解，亦能運用字詞寫出意思較通 順的句子。他們亦有良好的聽說能力，能聽懂廣東話，又能運用簡單的廣 東話來表達意思。因此，老師在中文課堂上都運用全中文（廣東話）來教 學，亦要求學生儘量運用中文來回答問題。 此外，從去年的中文成績分析中發現，這兩組學生都未能在閱讀理解 部分上取得良好的成績，尤其他們不懂得在文章各段中找出重要訊息，這 可反映他們未能掌握閱讀策略，以致影響閱讀表現。同時，本校的老師過 往沒有一套完整或有系統的閱讀教學策略來教授學生閱讀技巧，他們較集 中在識字及句式教學上，反而忽略了讀文（閱讀理解）教學，從而影響了 學生的閱讀技巧及理解文章的能力。這亦正回應羅嘉怡（1997）指出， 本港的閱讀教學很少有系統地指導學生使用有效的閱讀策略，學生大多 以自己的方法來學習。又國內外許多學者指出，做摘要對小學生而言是 個困難的工作，但少有教師真正教導學生如何摘取大意（Brown & Day, 1983）。要提升非華語學生的閱讀理解能力，運用恰切的閱讀策略是有必 要的。 不少文獻研究指出，摘要教學能有效提升學生的閱讀理解能力（林建 平，1995；陳文安，2006）。但綜合過往不同學者的研究，本人發現較少 133 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 學者探討運用摘要教學對提升第二語言學習者的閱讀能力研究。因此，今 次的行動研究是有價值和意義的，本人會利用本校小學五、六年級高能力 組別的學生作為研究對象，並以摘要教學來改善非華語學生的閱讀理解能 力，期望能從中取得一些教學啟示。 文獻探討 要提升學生的閱讀理解能力，便應先讓他們掌握閱讀策略。Brown and Day（1983）認為「摘要」是一種很重要的閱讀技巧，它可以幫助讀 者找出文章重要的訊息及釐清文章中的意義和要旨。根據 Weinstein and Mayer（1986）指出，摘要是讀者在閱讀過程中嘗試縮減並組織內容後 的產品，也是新舊訊息相互連結與整合的過程。又 Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick and Kurita（1989）認為摘要是指讀者在短時間內 讀出一篇文章的主要意思，掌握重點，並以最精簡文字呈現出來。綜合以 上的看法，本人認為摘要是反映讀者的閱讀能力，若讀者能運用合適的摘 要策略，便能把文章的精要或重點，用自己的文字寫下來。 閱讀理解是閱讀認知過程，根據 Gagne（1985）、Pressley（2000） 指出，閱讀理解分為兩個層面：「文義理解」及「推論理解」。前者是 屬於閱讀歷程中一個較低層次，只着重字詞的解碼（decoding）和字面 理解（literal comprehension）。後者是較高層次的歷程，亦即推論理解 （inferential comprehension）及理解監控，強調在句子與句子之間、段 落和段落之間，及整篇文章的理解。換句話說，讀者要先有良好的語文知 識和掌握良好的閱讀策略，才能產生理解。 過往許多學者（Gajria & Salvia, 1992；Malone & Mastropieri, 1992） 研究指出，若學生透過摘要教學學會做摘要，閱讀理解會有所提升。 Mayer（1996） 曾 提 出「 選 擇 — 組 織 — 統 整 」（selecting-organizing- integrating, SOI）的理論，即讀者在理解過程中會經過選擇、組織及統整 134 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 三個歷程。讀者需先找出文章的重要訊息，然後加以組織，再綜合文章的 意思。那就是說，若學生能懂得選擇文章的重點，並加以統整，他們的閱 讀能力便能提升至「推論理解」層面。 過往許多學者都指出，影響學生成功摘要有著許多背景因素。蘇宜芬 （2004）指出，學生本身的閱讀能力、文章結構及對文章主題具備豐富 的先備知識與經驗，都有助閱讀時產生推論。又吳佩蓁（2012）認為閱 讀能力好的讀者，懂得運用摘要策略，將注意力放在重要的訊息上，就能 加深記憶增進理解。綜合以上的看法，本人認為學生需要先對文章內容十 分理解，包括字義、句與句之間的關係，待有了基本的語文知識後，才能 進入摘要層面。 過往許多學者對「摘要」的原則，都提出不同的意見或指出不同的步 驟，最有名的是 Brown and Day（1983）提出的六個步驟： 1. 刪除不需要及瑣碎的資料。 2. 刪除雖重要但重複的資料。 3. 用概括性的名詞或事件代替一連串的細項或動作。 4. 用概括性的動作代替一連串次要的動作。 5. 選擇主題句。 6. 創造自己的主題句。 又 Radev, Hovy and Mckeown（2002）提出四個原則： 1. 節錄（extraction）：確認文本中重要材料的過程。 2. 提取（abstraction）：用新的文字去詮譯的過程。 3. 融合（fusion）：整合段落的過程。 4. 壓縮（compression）：將不重要的材料刪減的過程。 135 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 除了以上學者外，國內外也有學者提出與上述相類近的原則，步驟也 有詳盡或簡單（Anderson and Hidi, 1989；林建平，1997）。但本人綜 合 Brown and Day 及 Radev, Hovy and Mckeown 所提出的步驟加以分 析，發現兩個方法都包含「選擇」重要訊息、「刪去」不重要的材料及「綜 合」或「創造」主題句，而三者也是摘要的關鍵點。由此可見，摘要教學 必需具備以上三個元素，才能有效協助學生找出文章的重要訊息。 在少數族裔中，如：巴基斯坦、尼泊爾、印尼、菲律賓等南亞裔人士， 他們的孩子通常入讀公營的學校，這些在本地學校讀書的南亞裔孩子，香 港教育局稱為“非華語”（Non Chinese Speaking，簡稱 NCS）學生（關 之英，2012）。「大部分非華語學生的中文水平不足，認識的中文字詞 數量太少，他們沒有能力去了解內容大意，換言之，就是學生閱讀的最基 本能力『字詞解碼』未能過關」（林偉業、李浚龍，2012，頁 37）。也 就是說，非華語學生的閱讀能力普遍較弱。但根據張群英、李潔芳、叢鐵 華、岑紹基（2012）指出，非華語學生若能掌握認知策略，如：找出關 鍵字、利用上下文情景等來理解文章，也可以改善學生的閱讀能力，提升 學習效能。因此，摘要教學是一種學習策略，若老師能讓學生掌握摘要模 式，他們也能改善閱讀能力。綜合以上的理論，本人會試行利用摘要教學 改善非華語學生的閱讀理解能力，期望能從過程中取得一些發現。 研究方法 為了提升研究的信度及效度，研究會從量性及質性來收集資料，包括 閱讀理解前後測（附件 1 及 2）、教學材料（附件 3 及 4）及問卷調查（附 件 5）。 閱讀理解前後測（附件 1 及 2） 為了提升研究的信度，及有效檢視學生能否透過摘要教學來改善閱讀 理解能力，研究所採用的前後測驗卷，均取自「中國語文校內評估工具（非 136 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 華語學生適用）」第二學習階段的閱讀卷。教育局已在第二學習階段設計 了 12 份閱讀卷，其中六份是 2015 年前推出，深淺程度相近，篇章內容 及提問模式也是相近，這可提升研究的信度。同時，本人所研究的對象是 本人任教的五、六年級高能力的學生，由於他們的閱讀程度較相近，故利 用第二學習階段來評估他們，可更有效檢視他們能否達致此階段的水平。 經過檢視後，本人選取了兩份閱讀示例卷作為學生的前後測，分別是第二 學習階段閱讀示例六（前測）及示例三（後測）（2015 年前推出），因 為學習內容是學生的已有知識，這可解決他們在字詞理解上的難點。而每 份卷的文章體裁都是記敘文，這正符合今次研究的教學篇章體裁。再者， 研究所涉及的摘要教學，只在於段旨層面。因此，本人把原有兩份卷的其 中一條提問文章主旨的問題，修改為提問段旨（見附件 1、2 第 3 及 8 題）， 這可更有效評估學生的學習成效。 教學篇章（課堂上進行）（附件 3） 研究所採用的教學篇章，正是本校的校本課程，亦是本人負責編寫的 非華語中文科校本課程。本人分別以五年級單元二「生活趣事」及六年級 單元二「我的學習態度」作為研究的教學材料。兩個單元各有三篇精要教 學篇章，分別是第四至六課，文體都是屬於記敘文，文章內容及結構均較 明確。綜合過往學者在摘要教學上所設計的步驟，本人會稍加優化，設計 一個適合非華語學生學習的摘要策略，名為「摘要策略四步曲（4C）」， 包括﹕ A. 上下要細看（提醒學生先仔細閱讀該段的內容大意（read Carefully） B. 分句（把一段文字分拆成不同部分（Cut the paragraph into different sentences） C. 圈出重要句子 / 字詞（Circle the key words/sentences） D. 綜合該段的意思（Conclude） 在摘要教學過程中，老師會引導學生掌握以上步驟，從而找出各段的 段旨。 137 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 研究過程 為了提升本研究的效度及信度，研究分三個階段進行，包括實施前準 備、教學實施及完成研究後的活動。整個研究約進行半年： 實施前（一月至三月）-- 預備閱讀理解前後測（一月進行） 為提高研究的信度及效度，本人會以「中國語文校內評估工具（非華 語學生適用）」第二學習階段的閱讀示例六（前測）及示例三（後測） （2015 年前推出），作為研究的評估材料。本人在五、六年級各選取一 個單元作為研究教材，每個單元各有三篇精讀課文。學生每星期有七節中 文課，每節 40 分鐘。若只是集中在閱讀摘要教學層面，每星期學生大約 運用兩至三個課節進行。為了更有效跟進學生在摘要教學上的學習歷程， 本人特意配合兩組的課文，各設計了三份閱讀教材，當中學生需要展示如 何運用恰當的摘要步驟來找出段旨。 教學實施（步驟）（四月至五月） 本人選用五、六年級單元二的三篇精讀文章來進行研究。 配合課文設計閱讀教材（課後進行）（附件 4） 除了課堂教學外，本人也會透過學生的課業來檢視他們在摘要教學上 的學習歷程。因此，本人特意配合兩組的課文，各設計了三份閱讀教材， 當中學生須運用老師所教授的「摘要策略四步曲（4C）」來找出各段段意。 問卷調查（附件 5） 為了更有效檢視摘要教學如何影響非華語學生的閱讀能力發展，本人 會在完成單元教學後，向學生發問卷。當中主要探討非華語學生對哪個摘 要步驟感到困難，又他們認為摘要策略能否有效協助他們理解文章，以致 改善他們對閱讀的態度，從而更有效優化摘要教學策略。 138 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 模仿期（兩組均是教授第四課：約 7 節） ‧ 老師會先用約兩至三個課節，讓學生掌握課文字詞理解及字詞運用。 ‧ 然後再利用約兩至三個課節，透過提問引導學生思考每段所表達的重 要訊息，並由老師示範如何利用「摘要策略四步曲（4C）」來找出段意。 透過例子，聚焦講解如何運用摘要策略（約 3 節） ‧ 為讓學生對摘要策略（「圈出重要句子」及「綜合」）有更深入的了解， 老師會特別再用 3 個課節，抽取學生在上學期所學的記敘文文章，讓 學生先掌握「圈出重點句子」的方法，然後再講述運用「綜合」的方法。 ‧ 老師會示範如何找段落的重點字 / 句，經過 4 至 5 個例子後，老師開始 讓學生自行找出重點句。 ‧ 「綜合」的教學方法同上。 試行期（兩組均是教授第五課：約 7 節） ‧ 老師於分析文章內容大意時，會以提問來引導學生思考每段所表達的 重要訊息。 ‧ 這時老師會抽取其中一段，示範如何運用「摘要策略四步曲（4C）」 來找出段意，然後再引導學生自行完成其他段意。每完成一段，老師 會和學生一同檢視。 強化期（兩組均是教授第六課：約 7 節） ‧ 當學生對「摘要策略四步曲（4C）」有一定的認識後，老師於分析文 章內容大意時，會以提問來引導學生思考每段所表達的重要訊息。 ‧ 這時，老師會著學生自行運用 4C 來找出段意。每完成一段，老師會和 學生一同檢視。 完成整個研究後的活動（6 月至 7 月） 1. 安排學生完成閱讀理解後測、問卷。 2. 分析學生的閱讀教材，從中反映他們在閱讀理解能力上的表現。 139 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 結果與討論 學生前後測成績分析 P.5 高能力 組別學生 閱讀理解 前測 總分 8 分 閱讀理解 後測 總分 8 分 進步 百分率 P.6 高能力 組別學生 閱讀理解 前測 總分 8 分 閱讀理解 後測 總分 8 分 進步 百分率 學生 5a 3 4_ 12.5% 學生 6a 2 4_ 25% 學生 5b 0 3_ 37.5% 學生 6b 4 6_ 25% 學生 5c 2 6_ 50% 學生 6c 4 6_ 25% 學生 5d 3 5_ 25% 學生 6d 3 4_ 12.5% 學生 5e 6 8_ 25% 學生 6e 5 7_ 25% 學生 5f 6 4 -25% 學生 6f 3 4_ 12.5% 學生 5g 4 5_ 12.5% 學生 6g 5 6_ 12.5% 學生 5h 3 4_ 12.5% 學生 6h 1 2_ 12.5% 學生 5i 1 2_ 12.5% 學生 6i 2 3_ 12.5% 學生 5j 5 6_ 12.5% 學生 6j 4 5_ 12.5% 學生 5k 1 5_ 50% 學生 6k 5 7_ 25% 學生 5l 3 4_ 12.5% 學生 6l 3 5_ 25% 學生 5m 7 8_ 12.5% 學生 6m 5 7_ 25% 學生 5n 2 5_ 37.5% 學生 6n 2 4_ 25% 學生 5o 5 7_ 25% 學生 6o 4 6_ 25% 表示合格、X_ 表示後測進步 表 1 P.5 及 P.6 30 位高能力組別學生的閱讀理解前後測成績分析及進步百分率 前後測的總分都是 8 分，若根據教育局的說法，答對總分的一半便是 達標（分數 4 分或多於 4 分）。根據表一，從前測閱讀卷的成績中所見， 30位學生中只有14位學生取得合格的成績。透過本人檢視學生的前測卷， 發現大部分學生都未能掌握閱讀技巧，例如：在文章中「選取」合適的句 子；學生亦沒有意識在每題的題目上，圈出問題的重點字。再從後測的成 績來看，約有 96.7% （29 位）的學生在後測中有進步，當中有 26 位（八 成以上）學生取得合格成績，能達致第二學習階段水平，更有 4 位五年級 學生的進步比例是超過 3 成，六年級學生的進步比例則較平均，只進步了 一至兩分。這可反映五年級學生的學習表現較六年級學生佳，大部分學生 140 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 都能運用摘要策略理解各段的要點。此外，透過本人再仔細檢閱學生的後 測卷，發現有八成以上的學生都能運用恰當的閱讀策略，例如：他們會自 覺地在篇章上「分句」及「圈出」恰當的字句，又大部分學生都能在各個 問題上，圈出重點字。這可反映若老師能有系統地運用「摘要策略」教學， 讓學生在課堂上逐步應用相關策略，學生的閱讀能力便有所提升。 P.5 高能力 組別學生 前測 後測 進步 百分率 P.6 高能力 組別學生 前測 後測 進步 百分率 Q3 1 分 Q8 1 分 Q3 1 分 Q8 1 分 Q3 1 分 Q8 1 分 Q3 1 分 Q8 1 分 學生 5a 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6a 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 5b 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6b 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 5c 0 0 1_ 1 100% 學生 6c 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 5d 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6d 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 5e 1 1 1 1 0% 學生 6e 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 5f 1 0 0 0 0% 學生 6f 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 5g 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6g 1 1 1 1 0% 學生 5h 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6h 0 0 0 0 0% 學生 5i 0 0 0 0 0% 學生 6i 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 5j 1 1 1 1 0% 學生 6j 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 5k 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6k 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 5l 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 6l 0 1 1_ 0 0% 學生 5m 1 1 1_ 1 0% 學生 6m 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 5n 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 6n 0 0 1_ 0 50% 學生 5o 0 1 1_ 1 50% 學生 6o 0 1 1_ 1 50% 表示合格、X_ 表示後測進步、表示在後測中沒有進步 表 2 P.5 及 P.6 30 位高能力組別學生理解「段意」問題的前後測成績分析及進步百分率 根據表二，學生理解前測「段意」問題（Q3 及 Q8）」方面，只有 46.7% 學生能答對最少一題題目，當中第 3 題，只有 5 位學生能綜合段 落意思。至於後測方面，90% 學生能答對最少一題題目，尤見第 3 題， 學生能運用摘要策略找出該段的重點字，從而較易找出段意。第 8 題亦有 46.7% 學生能綜合段落意思。這可反映摘要教學策略對非華語學生在篇章 的理解產生正面的學習作用，能有效輔助他們理解文章，找出各段要點。 141 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 問卷結果分析 我能掌握「摘要策略」 能 / 同意 1. 我能說出「摘要策略」的步驟﹕ 步驟一﹕上下要細看 步驟二﹕分句 步驟三﹕圈出重要句子 步驟四﹕綜合該段的意思 100% 2. 我認為以下步驟中，「最困難」的一項是﹕ 步驟一﹕上下要細看 / 步驟二﹕分句 / 步驟三﹕圈出重要句子 27% 步驟四﹕綜合該段的意思 73% 3. 透過老師的示範，能讓我掌握「摘要策略」。 90% 我對「摘要策略」的看法 非常 同意 同意 不同意 非常 不同意 1. 閱讀時，我知道如何找出各段的重點句。 57% 43% / / 2. 閱讀時，我知道要圈出重要句子。 90% 10% / / 3. 閱讀時，我能運用「摘要策略」理解文章內 容意思。 90% 10% / / 4. 往後日子，我會繼續運用「摘要策略」來理 解文章內容意思。 90% 10% / / 表 3 P.5 及 P.6 30 位高能力組別學生回答「摘要教學策略」問卷的統計結果 根據表三的統計結果，所有學生均能說出摘要策略步驟，這可反映本 人所設計的「摘要策略四步曲（4C）」能有效加強學生記憶，讓學生易 於實踐。但在運用摘要策略時，73% 學生表示運用「綜合」的方式來找 出段落的訊息是最困難的。 至於學生對運用摘要策略的看法方面，所有學生同意摘要策略能有效 幫助他們閱讀，認為這個方法很有趣和有用，又能幫他們學好中文。同時， 透過老師的小步子教學示範，能有效協助學生掌握「摘要策略」，讓他們 有方向性地理解文章意思。因此，所有學生表示往後仍會繼續運用這個方 法來找出各段的重要訊息。 142 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 反思及建議 清晰的摘要教學步驟，是提升非華語學生閱讀理解能力的踏腳石 摘要步驟清晰及明確，是非華語學生掌握閱讀策略的成功關鍵之一。 本研究特意把摘要策略簡化為四個步驟，並名為 4C，目的是希望透過有 趣的口號，提升非華語學生的學習動機，加強記憶。此外，在每次進入摘 要教學前，本人均要求學生大聲說出摘要步驟（4C），以提醒他們按步 驟找出各段的意思。從觀察所見，當本人說出 4C 時，他們已能說出 4C 的步驟，並有效地實踐出來。這可反映摘要步驟清晰，是提升非華語學生 閱讀理解能力的踏腳石。 「鷹架」模式對非華語學生掌握閱讀策略的影響 本人發現「鷹架」模式是影響非華語學生掌握閱讀策略的關鍵點。為 讓非華語學生掌握摘要策略，本人特意在第四課進行閱讀教學時，先向學 生示範如何運用摘要步驟找出各段的重點。待學生有了初步的認識後，本 人再運用三個課節，選取學生於上學期學過的記敘文文章，集中教授「選 取」及「綜合」的摘要策略，讓學生對摘要策略有更深入的了解。如是 者，在其後的每個教學篇章，老師的教學角色逐步減少，學生的主導漸 漸增加。學生在大量訊息輸入下，慢慢掌握摘要策略。透過小步子的教學 方法，非華語學生才能掌握學習重點。根據國外許多學者的教學研究結果 顯示（Gajria & Salvia, 1992；Hare & Borchardt, 1984），「當教師將摘 要策略分解成有系統的步驟，並在教學過程中提供適當鷹架逐步教導摘要 步驟，的確可以將成熟讀者所採用的摘要程序成功地轉移給高年級學生， 不僅能使學生具備運用摘要策略所需要的知識，更能有效改善摘要品質」 （陸怡琮，2011，頁 108）。此外，根據關之英（2010）研究發現，若 老師在中文課堂提供合適的鷹架時，非華語學生便能有興趣地學習，並學 得有效。因此，鷹架教學對非華語學生來說是十分重要的，若老師能為學 生提供足夠的輸入，學生便能有正面的輸出。 143 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 良好的語文基礎知識，是讓非華語學生掌握摘要策略的重要元素 從問卷結果所見，73% 學生認為「綜合」是摘要策略中最困難的地方， 這正可回應表二，學生在理解「段意」問題的前後測成績分析中，超過九 成學生能答對後測第 3 題，他們能運用摘要策略中的「圈出 / 選取」來找 出段落要點。惟第 8 題只有四成半的學生能運用「綜合」來找出段落意思。 這可反映出「綜合」策略是非華語學生在閱讀過程中遇到最大的難點。 「綜合」是閱讀理解中較高層次的表現，若學生掌握「綜合」技巧， 便可反映他們有良好的閱讀理解能力。根據 Kintsch and van Dijk（1978） 及 Williams（1988）提出的閱讀歷程理論，認為摘取主要概念是理解歷程 中的重要成分。讀者在了解字詞、句子意義後，便要抽取所有的主要概念， 將之整合為一個統整的理解表徵。這個表徵正是讀者進一步推論文本內容 的重要基礎，亦是反映學生閱讀理解能力的關鍵。 因此，從以上非華語學生的閱讀成績來看，他們雖然能逐步掌握摘要 策略，但仍有部分學生在綜合能力方面仍需繼續加強。這正可反映綜合能 力與學生的語文基礎有很大的關係，若學生有良好的語文基礎知識，他們 便有較好的綜合理解能力。今次所研究的 30 位非華語學生，他們雖然是 本校中文成績較好的學生，但仍需繼續加強中文基礎知識。因此，本人會 再配合其他教學方法，如字詞推義、繪圖教學等，逐步強化非華語學生的 閱讀理解能力。 培養非華語學生的後設認知能力（metacognition） 後設認知是指個人對自己認知歷程之「覺知」與「控制」的能力， 亦即是指自己能運用已有知識，控制自己的認知策略的能力（楊榮昌， 2002）。今次的行動研究，本人發現培養非華語學生的後設認知能力， 144 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 總結 總的來說，運用摘要策略能有效提升非華語學生的閱讀理解能力。只 要老師在教學過程中，展示清晰的摘要步驟，並建立鷹架的教學模式，學 生便能逐步掌握閱讀技巧。但最重要的是，老師應努力提升非華語學生的 中文基礎能力，不應只把教學目標定在字詞或句式教學層面上，而應找辦 法提升非華語學生的閱讀能力，這樣他們才能有良好的中文學習表現。 第三段 ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 檢視摘要步驟﹕ 1. 上下要細看 ( ) 2. 分句 ( ) 3. 圈出重點句 ( ) 4. 綜合 ( ) 圖 1 摘要檢視表 是提升閱讀能力的重要元素。為了讓非華語學生時刻檢視自己的學習進 展，本人特意在每課的閱讀教材上，加上「摘要檢視表」（見圖 1），要 求學生自我檢視所運用的摘要步驟是否恰當。這樣除了可培養學生的自學 習慣外，亦可以透過自我監控方式，進一步強化學生對摘要策略的運用。 若學生未能找到該段的意思，他們可以重新再運用摘要步驟，思考整個段 落的意思，以提升學生的閱讀理解能力。因此，本人會繼續運用「摘要檢 視表」，並配合合作學習方式，讓學生從討論過程中，培養自我監控的良 好自學習慣，期望學生能把摘要策略逐步內化，轉化為他們恆常的閱讀模 式。 145 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 參考文獻 吳佩蓁（2012）。融入鷹架式提問之摘要策略教學對國小四年級閱讀理解及摘要能力的 影響（未出版之碩士論文）。國立中正大學教育學研究所，嘉義縣。 林建平（1995）。〈國小學童的閱讀動機、理解策略與閱讀成就之相關研究〉。《台北 市立師範學院學報》，第 26 期，267-297。 林建平（1997）。《學習輔導：理論與實務》。台北市：五南。 林偉業、李浚龍（2012）。〈分層閱讀教學：分層教材運用個案〉。載謝錫金、祁永華、 岑紹基（主編），《非華語學生的中文學與教：課程、教材、教法與評估》，頁 37- 46。香港：香港大學出版社。 柯華葳、幸曼玲、陵怡琮、辜玉旻（2010）。《閱讀理解策略教學手冊》。台北市：台 灣教育部。 陳文安（2006）。國小學生摘要策略之教學研究—以六年級為例（未出版之碩士論文）。 國立屏東教育大學教育心理與輔導系，屏東市。 張姎媜（2010）。相互教學法融入多媒體閱讀教學活動對國小三年級學童閱讀能力之影 響。國立嘉義大學教育科技研究所碩士論文。 陸怡琮（2011）。〈摘要策略教學對提升國小五年級學童摘要能力與閱讀理解的成效〉。 《教育科學研究期刊》，第 56 卷 3 期，91-118。 張群英、李潔芳、叢鐵華、岑紹基（2012）。〈新近到港少數族裔學生學習中文的案例〉。 載叢鐵華、岑紹基、祁永華、張群英（合編），《香港少數族裔學生學習中文的研究： 理念、挑戰與實踐》，頁 159-181。香港：香港大學出版社。 楊榮昌（2002）。《相互教學法對國小五年級學童閱讀理解、後設認知及閱讀動機之影 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Identifying main ideas: A basic aspect of reading comprehension. Topics in Language Disorders, 8(3), 1-13. 147 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 1 摘要教學策略—閱讀理解前測 中國語文校內評估工具 第二學習階段 閱讀 ( 系列六 ) (2015 年前推出 ) 閱讀文字，回答以下的問題。(8 分 ) 今天，老師帶我們到香港科學館參觀一個有關食物的展覽。老師說展覽十分有趣， 所以我們都很期待這次參觀。 到了會場後，我們禁不住「嘩」的一聲叫了出來，因為會場佈置得非常漂亮，而且 有很多「會動的食物」，原來它們是一些食物造型的機械人，每個都像人一般高，手和 腳都會動，十分可愛。 我們都急不及待地抱着它們拍照，老師看到我們這麼興奮，便立即對我們說︰「這 次參觀的目的，是希望增加同學們對食物的知識，你們不要把這裏當成遊樂場，不要到 處亂跑，也不能大聲叫。」老師說完後，便讓我們自由參觀了。 同學們有的去和機械人拍照，有的去看展覽板，有的去玩有關食物知識的遊戲，而 我就先和同學去看有關食物營養的短片。時間不知不覺地過去，我們終於要離開了。 這個展覽不單有趣，而且十分有意思，我們在玩遊戲和參觀的過程中學了不少有關 食物的知識呢！ 詞語填充 1. 聖誕節快到了，班上的同學買了汽球、彩帶和掛飾，打算 __________ 課室，迎接聖 誕節的來臨。 短答題 2. 在文中找出老師形容這次展覽的一個詞語。 ______________________________ *3. 文中的第四段主要描述 ______________________________ 。 4. 文中第二段提到的「會動的食物」是指甚麼？ ___________________________________________________。 148 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 選擇題 5.「我」參觀的食物展覽在哪裏舉行？ □ A 香港太空館 □ B 香港科學館 □ C 中央圖書館 □ D 香港文化博物館 6. 為甚麼「我們」一到會場便「嘩」的一聲叫起來？ 因為「我們」看到 □ A 很多玩具。 □ B 害怕的東西。 □ C 會場很漂亮。 □ D 很多美味的小吃。 7. 以下哪一項是老師提醒我們的事？ □ A 不能在場內亂跑 □ B 不能在場內進食 □ C 不能在場內拍照 □ D 不能在場內參觀 *8. 文中第五段主要說甚麼？ ___________________________________________________ 附件 2 摘要教學策略—閱讀理解後測 中國語文校內評估工具 第二學習階段 閱讀 ( 示列三 ) (2015 年前推出 ) 閱讀文字，回答以下的問題。(8 分 ) 今天是學校旅行，目的地是香港公園，同學們都很興奮。香港公園裏栽種了不少植 物，還飼養了很多雀鳥，很值得參觀。 我們先到温室，那裏好像森林一樣，長滿高大的樹木。老師說香港公園的温室是東 南亞最大的，裏面有控制環境的設備，自動調節出適合植物生長的氣候環境。 接着，我們到「觀鳥園」觀賞小鳥。當中有很多我們從來沒見過的小鳥，羽毛顏色 都很鮮艷，美麗極了！牠們一起拍翼飛翔的畫面，十分壯觀。 參觀過「觀鳥園」，我們便到「鳥瞰角」遊玩。「鳥瞰角」是一座很高的塔，設有 觀景台。我們走到觀景台俯瞰整個香港公園，居高臨下，欣賞美麗的景色，其後又閉上 眼睛，感受陣陣微風，真舒暢呢！ 最後，我們在「鳥瞰角」拍團體照，留下美好的回憶。這次旅行，真令人難忘！ 温室：greenhouse 149 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 詞語填充 1. 他認真學習的態度，值得同學們 __________ 和學習。 短答題 2. 文中哪個詞語形容「我們」到香港公園的心情 ? ______________________________ *3. 文中的第二段主要介紹 ______________________________ 。 4. 第三段用「十分壯觀」來形容甚麼？ ___________________________________________________。 選擇題 5. 文中第一段指香港公園值得參觀是因為 □ A 老師說香港公園值得參觀。 □ B 香港公園裏有温室。 □ C 香港公園有很多植物和雀鳥。 □ D 同學們都很興奮。 6. 為甚麼走進温室，就好像走進森林一樣？ □ A 因為「我們」真的走進森林。 □ B 因為温室裏長滿高大的樹木。 □ C 因為香港公園的温室是東南亞最大的。 □ D 因為温室有設備調節出適合植物生長的氣候環境。 7. 為甚麼「我們」閉上眼睛？ □ A 因為「我們」走到「鳥瞰角」。 □ B 因為風太大了。 □ C 因為「我們」想感受清涼的微風。 □ D 因為「鳥瞰角」很高，令人害怕。 *8. 文中的第五段主要描述 □ A 「我們」拍了很多照片。 □ B 在「鳥瞰角」拍照很快樂。 □ C 到達「鳥瞰角」，「我們」都累了。 □ D 遊覽香港公園令「我們」留下難忘的回憶。 完 150 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 3 五年級第六課舉隅 第六課 砌模型 力高在今次考試中取得優異的成績，爸爸為了鼓勵他，就送給他一盒模型。 模型盒上印有一幅郊外的風景畫﹕那裏有一幢古樸的樓房，有一個牧羊場，場上有 一隻隻白如雪的小綿羊，還有一座座青翠的高山。力高想﹕這模型難不倒我吧 ! 星期天，力高花了一個上午，砌來砌去也沒法砌好，模型好像在故意為難他。爸爸 說﹕「要不要我幫忙 ?」力高急忙回答﹕「不要。」他按着說明書的指示，再仔細地研 究一番。突然，他大聲說﹕「啊 ! 原來是這裏出了錯 !」於是，他再重新地拼砌。 經過一天的努力，終於在天黑前，他把模型砌好了 ! 力高很興奮，立即請爸爸來看﹕ 「爸爸，我成功啦 ! 這盒模型難不倒我 ! 假如我下次考試有進步，可不可以獎勵我一盒 更大、更複雜的模型呢 ?」 附件 4 配合課文教材設計的閱讀教材舉隅 五年級第六課—砌模型 ( 精讀 ) 老師會著學生自行運用 4C 來找出段意。每完成一段，老師會和學生一同檢視。 甲 . 理解課文大意 步驟一﹕逐段閱讀，由老師的提問下，掌握課文新詞的形、音及義。 步驟二﹕由老師的提問下，回答下列問題，把問題的關鍵字圈起來。 例 . 為甚麼 力高會有一盒模型？ 因為他 _________________________________________ 1. 以下哪項不是模型盒上有的東西？ ○ a. 綿羊。 ○ b. 牧羊場。 ○ c. 高山。 ○ d. 樓房。 ○ e. 森林。 2. 力高最初認為這盒模型對他來說是怎樣？ ○ a. 砌模型很困難。 ○ b. 砌模型並不困難。 ○ c. 砌模型很好玩。 ○ d. 砌模型並不簡單。 3. 根據第二段描述模型盒上的景物，試把它們畫下來。 151 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 4. 爸爸看見力高未能把模型砌好，他原本想怎樣做？ _______________________________________________ 5. 力高是怎樣解決問題的？ ○ a. 他再仔細研究說明書的指示。 ○ b. 他再問爸爸。 ○ c. 他再看盒上的圖畫。 ○ d. 他再思考。 6. 力高最後有沒有害怕砌模型？你從何得知？ 有 / 沒有。_______________________________________ 乙 . 找出課文段旨 一 . 在第二至四段中，運用「閱讀我 有法」的策略來找出段旨，並在 ( ) 內 出你找段旨的方法。NLR(3.1)1 閱讀我有法 4C 1. 仔細閱讀  2. 劃分句子  3. 圈出重要句 / 重點字  4. 綜合 第二段 _____________________________________ 檢視摘要步驟﹕ 1. 上下要細看 ( ) 2. 分句 ( ) 3. 圈出重點句 ( ) 4. 綜合 ( ) 第三段 _____________________________________ 檢視摘要步驟﹕ 1. 上下要細看 ( ) 2. 分句 ( ) 3. 圈出重點句 ( ) 4. 綜合 ( ) 第四段 _____________________________________ 檢視摘要步驟﹕ 1. 上下要細看 ( ) 2. 分句 ( ) 3. 圈出重點句 ( ) 4. 綜合 ( ) 152 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 教育研究報告匯編 附件 5 教學回饋問卷結果 摘要教學策略 教學回饋問卷調查 姓名﹕ ___________________ 班別 :P.____ 日期﹕ ____________________ 請你就本學段的中文科學習情況提供意見，在適當的□內打 ，所有資料只作參考及檢 討之用。 一 . 我能掌握「摘要策略」 1. 我要找出每段的段意時，步驟應是怎樣，請在‧內填上 1-4，1 是最先，4 是最後。 綜合該段的意思□ 圈出重要句子□ 分句□ 上下要細看□ 2. 我認為以下步驟中，「最困難」的一項是﹕ 上下要細看□ 圈出重要句子□ 分句□ 綜合該段的意思□ 3. 透過老師的示範，能讓我掌握「摘要策略」。 能□ 不能□ 二 . 我對「摘要策略」的看法﹕ 1. 閱讀時，我知道如何找出各段的重點句。 非常同意□ 同意□ 不同意□ 非常不同意□ 2. 閱讀時，我知道要圈出重要句子。 非常同意□ 同意□ 不同意□ 非常不同意□ 3. 閱讀時，我能運用「摘要策略」理解文章意思。 非常同意□ 同意□ 不同意□ 非常不同意□ 4. 往後日子，我會繼續運用「摘要策略」來理解文章內容意思。 非常同意□ 同意□ 不同意□ 非常不同意□ 謝謝你的問卷 153 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Abstract This article reports on the development of problem-solving competence through learning and applying the bar model method in mathematics lessons. The aims are to find out to what extent (a) the bar model method can help students improve their performance in solving mathematical word problems; and (b) the bar model method can affect students’ attitude towards problem-solving in mathematics. A series of lessons were designed to equip students with skills on the bar model method. A questionnaire survey was conducted, followed by face-to- face interviews. Both performance and attitude towards solving word problems were found to have improved with the use of the bar model method. Suggestions including lesson design and further study were discussed. Keywords bar model method, problem solving, students’ attitude, mathematical word problems Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method Daniel Chui & Alex Kwan Fukien Secondary School Affiliated School 154 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Introduction Educators believe that the purpose of mathematics education is problem solving, which is one of the most important competences for 21st century education (CDC, 2000; NCTM, 2000). Research found that students encountered different levels of difficulties in understanding word problems (Ng & Lee, 2009) and how the quantities relate to each other, using mathematical symbols to represent knowns and unknowns, and in choosing suitable strategies to handle word problems (Kho, Yeo & Fan, 2014). The bar model method is a well-developed tool helping students to solve structurally complex mathematical problems in this context (Kho et al., 2014) developed by the Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore, Ministry of Education in the 1980s (Kho, Yeo & Lim, 2009). Interest in its nature and use has been growing worldwide since Singaporean students have been achieving outstanding results in both PISA and TIMSS (Kho et al., 2014). Enhancing students’ problem solving competence by using the bar model method in solving mathematical word problems is one of the subject concerns in the authors’ school. Teachers have been trained and given a handbook developed by the mathematics department in the 2017/18 school year. A series of systemically scaffolding worksheets for Primary 1 to 6 students were designed for use in the 2018/19 school year. This study aims to find out to what extent (a) can applying the bar model method improve students’ performance in solving mathematical word problems; and (b) can the bar model method affect students’ attitude towards problem solving in mathematics. 155 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Literature Review The bar model method is an innovative tool with the aim of minimising the difficulties that students face when attempting word problems in mathematics (Kho et al., 2009). A study showed that the bar model method is an effective strategy in this connection (Morin, Watson, Hester & Raver, 2017). Charles, Lester & O’Daffer (1987) recognised problem-solving as a complex form of intellectual activity, and argued that it is because of this complexity \"you should develop a good understanding of the nature of problem solving and various evaluation techniques associated with it before you attempt to set up your own evaluation program” (p.4). In this connection, students may follow the four fundamental procedures for problem solving - \"Understand, Plan, Work out, and Look back\" - developed by Polya in 1945. Methodology This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods in data collection in view of the perceived benefits involved (Bryman, 1984). A Primary four class (n=24) was selected from 5 Primary four classes with similar background in terms of numbers of students, abilities and learning diversity. The concepts and skills of using the bar model method in solving mathematical word problems were introduced to the selected students in a series of lessons. Students’ performance scores were collected afterwards. They were asked to describe their attitude towards problem-solving using the Attitude Inventory Item questionnaire. Six students in the class were selected to participate in face-to-face interviews. 156 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 The lessons were designed to guide students to (a) identify the relation between quantities in the word problems; (b) draw bars to show the relation of the quantities explicitly; and (c) translate word problems into symbols. Students were asked to do self-checking and peer- checking of these three concepts and skills in every lesson. Through these cognitive thinking processes of self-directed learning, they were expected to be able to solve word problems by using the bar model method. A case study approach was adopted to investigate the effectiveness of students’ development on their problem solving competence through learning and applying the bar model method. The two research questions were as follows: 1. To what extent can applying the bar model method improve students’ performance in solving mathematical word problems? 2. To what extent can learning the bar model method affect students’ attitude towards problem solving in mathematics? A series of lessons (Table 1) were designed to equip students with a mastery of the bar model drawing skills, and to develop their problem-solving skills through the use of the bar model method. The worksheets (Appendix 2) provided space for students to draw the bar models, give their answers in horizontal form and perform self-checking and peer-checking. The design of bar models and the corresponding word problems was based on textbooks and reference books (Yeap, 2010). During the designed lessons, bar model rulers and school-based rulers were provided to students (Figure 1) to help them draw bars of required lengths and sizes and thereby facilitate their cognitive thinking processes. Possible unfairness suffered by the other students who were not involved in this study was minimised by giving them exercises and examples so that they could also benefit from this study. 157 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Table 1 Summary of the lessons for developing students' bar model drawing skills Lesson Type of bar model Objective Example 1 Multiplicative comparison models Multiplications (Self-checking) There are 12 camps in the campsite. There are 24 beds in each camp. How many beds are there in the campsite? 2 Before-after models Divisions (Self-checking) 93 pupils are divided into 18 groups equally on Fun Day. The remaining pupils join the last group. How many pupils are there in the last group? 3 Comparison models involving addition and division Mixed- operations (Peer-checking) There are 28 cans of milk tea in each box. There are 7 fewer cans of milk tea than green tea in each box. A convenience store buys 280 cans of green tea. How many boxes of green tea does the store get? 4 Comparison models involving subtraction and division Mixed- operations (Peer-checking) Mary has 100 apples. Mary has 10 apples more than Peter. Peter will share his apples with 8 of his friends. How many apple(s) will Peter have finally? 5 Comparison models involving multiplication and division Mixed- operations (Peer-checking) The price of 4 bags of cookies was $256. Now it is on sale under a promotion of “buy 3 get 1 free”. If Peter wants to buy 4 bags of cookies, how much should he pay? Figure 1 The bar model rulers and school-based rulers used during the lessons 158 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Findings and analysis Marks were given and used to analyse the learning effectiveness of the use of bar model method from lesson 3 to lesson 5. Table 2 summarised students' performance in the worksheets. Marks were given with respect to whether a correct bar model with all essential elements had been drawn, whether the horizontal form had been correctly set up, and if the answer was correct. Worksheet (3rd lesson) Worksheet (4th lesson) Worksheet (5th lesson) No. of students 23 (1 absentee) 24 24 Mean 64.13% 79.17% 93.75% SD 25.35% 25.69% 10.83% Table 2 Students' performance in the in-class worksheets Significant improvements in the mean value of marks could be found from the 3rd lesson onwards. This improving trend indicated that the students were getting more and more familiar with the use of the bar model method (Figures 2 to 4) and could use the method more and more systematically. A considerable reduction in the standard deviation could be observed in the marks for the worksheet in the 5th lesson, suggesting that fewer extreme cases occurred and that most of the students could reach a high standard in the use of the bar model. Figure 2 Student's work sample from lesson 3 Figure 3 Student's work sample from lesson 4 Figure 4 Student's work sample from lesson 5 159 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Another aim of this study is to investigate the impact of using the bar model on students’ attitude towards problem solving in mathematics. For this purpose, a true-false questionnaire was given to the selected students. The questions focused on students’ action, attitude and self- confidence in mathematics. Table 3 to 5 summarised the answers to these questions. Question number Questions True False 1 I will put down any answer just to finish a problem. 47.8% 52.2% 2 I will try almost any problem. 87% 13% 3 I will work a long time on a problem. 43.5% 56.5% 4 I need someone to help me work on problems. 52.2% 47.8% 5 I will keep working on a problem until I get it right. 82.6% 17.4% Table 3 Responses to the questions on students' action Responses to question 2 and 5 indicated that most of the students (>80%) would keep working on a question until an answer was obtained. This reflected that they became more willing to solve questions after learning the bar model method. The pattern of responses to question 4 however showed that more than 60% of them thought that they needed help when they worked on problems. This reflected that they needed more facilitation on using the new tools. On the other hand, responses to question 1 suggested that the majority of the students would not spend a long time on a question and would just write down any answer (which might not be correct) to a question in order to finish it. As they were still target (exam-) oriented, more effort would still be needed to build a mathematical mind set. 160 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Question number Questions True False 1 It is no fun to try to solve problems. 30.4% 69.6% 2 When I do not get the right answer right away, I give up. 30.4% 69.6% 3 I like to try hard problems. 82.6% 17.4% 4 There are some problems I will just not try. 43.5% 56.5% 5 I do not like to try problems that are hard to understand. 39.1% 60.9% 6 I like to try to solve problems. 78.3% 21.7% 7 I give up on problems right away. 43.5% 56.5% Table 4 Responses to the questions on students' attitude Question 3 and 6 showed that most of the students (about 80%) liked to try to solve hard problems. This reflected a positive attitude towards mathematics problem solving in the beginning stage. Students would not turn away at once when they faced mathematics problems. The responses to question 4 and 7 also indicated they would not give up right away. This pattern was in contrary to the responses to question 3 and 6. Further research is needed to achieve a more accurate conclusion. Question number Questions True False 1 My ideas about how to solve problems are not as good as other students’ ideas. 82.6% 17.4% 2 I can only do problems everyone else can do. 52.2% 47.8% 3 I am sure I can solve most problems. 91.3% 8.7% 4 I can solve most hard problems. 65.2% 34.8% 5 Most problems are too hard for me to solve. 47.8% 52.2% 6 I am a good problem solver. 47.8% 52.2% Table 5 Responses to the questions on students' self-confidence 161 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 As indicated in the responses to question 1, most of the students (>80%) thought that they were not confident in the ideas that they had used. More than half of them (>50%) thought that they were not better than others (question 2). Responses to question 3 and 4 nevertheless suggested that most of them were sure they could solve all the problems (>90%) including the more difficult ones (>60%). After learning the skills of the bar model, they became more confident in themselves. In the follow-up interviews, six students were asked to describe their feelings on the use of the bar model during the study (Table 6). The aims were to find out what was the most impressive or important effect of the bar model. Questions 1. Before using bar model, did you find it hard to set up the horizontal from of the word problem? Why? 2. Can you describe the method you used to solve the word problem, before you learn the bar model method? 3. Which method do you think is better? Why? 4. Do you think that the bar model is helpful when you analyse the word problems? Why? 5. Do you think bar model give you more confidence in solving word problems? Why? Table 6 Teacher-student interview questions For question 1, 4 out of 6 students said that setting up the horizontal form was hard, as there was a lot of information given in the questions. It was difficult to find the linkage between the information given, and thus they could not translate them to the mathematical language (the horizontal form). Only 2 out of 6 students said that setting up the horizontal form was easy as they had attempted some similar questions before. They found it difficult to handle some unfamiliar problems and to describe the word problems using the mathematical language. 162 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 With respect to question 2, all the students mentioned “read the keywords”. This indicated that they had already learnt the method to handle word problems in earlier stages. However, together with their responses to question one, the traditional “keyword” method did not appear sufficient for them to solve unfamiliar word problems. The missing link would be that they could not find the relations among the keywords and did not know how to solve the problems mathematically. For question 3 and 4, all of the students agreed that the bar model method was useful, reflected by some of the comments made by the students as follows: Student A: It (the bar model) provides a way to visually describe the contents. It is easier to change the contents into mathematical language. It can also show the relationship of the information easily. Student B: It helps to show the relationship of numbers by letting me see it. Student C: If the question is complicated or not familiar, the bar model is helpful. It can help me to break down questions, visualise and find the relationships among the numbers. Student D: It helps me to visualise the whole questions so that I can find the relationships among the numbers more easily. Student E: It helps me to understand and analyse the problem. Student F: With the bars (used in the bar model method), it is much easier to understand the relationships as it visualises the relationships. 163 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 In their responses, most of them mentioned “visualising or finding relationships”. This pattern was in agreement with the responses to question 1 and 2. The main function of the bar model is to help students find the missing link when they need to analyse the word problems or find relationships among quantities in a question by helping them to visualise the contents with the use of simple bars. For question 5, all the students agreed that the bar model method increased their confidence in solving word problems. The followings are some of the students’ comments: Student A: The bar model helps me to understand the content more easily and it helps me to describe the relations among the contents. Student B: Every time I use the bar model method (in handling difficult problems or checking), the correct answer can be found. Student C: It (the bar model method) can help to break down the content in the question, visualising and finding the relationships among the numbers. Student D: It (the bar model method) can help to break down the content in the question and make the questions easier to understand. Student E: It (the bar model) can help me to break down and analyse the question. Student F: It (the bar model) makes the question easier to understand. It also helps to break down a complicated question. 164 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 As most of the students mentioned, using the bar model helps to break down questions into smaller pieces. This makes the question easier to be understood and hence increases students’ confidence. Also, as student B mentioned, after using this model, there will be a higher chance to get the correct answer. This could raise students’ willingness to use the bar model method again during the word problem-solving process. Conclusions and Limitation This study aims to find out the effectiveness of enhancing students’ problem solving competence through solving word problems with the bar model method and to find out the attitude of primary students towards problem solving after learning the bar model method. According to the interview and the attitude survey, the majority of the students had positive attitude towards solving word problems. It is believed that the bar model method should be carried on as a tool to help students to analyse word problems. In response to students’ concerns, in the future use of the bar model method, teachers should pay more attention to how the bar model method can help to break down complicated questions into pieces. This breaking down effect should be shown in a more explicit way such as numbering the steps when drawing the bars. Proper tools should also be provided to students (such as the specially designed rulers used in this study) to show the abstract relationship among numbers. As the bar model method is a tool to help students to find the relationships among the quantities in the word problems, when teaching the bar model method, the types of bar models should be standardised in order to help students to generalise relationships. 165 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Secondly, from the data in Table 2, students’ marks were on an upward trend, denoting continuous improvement, so repeated practice of using the bar model method is recommended. This helps students to be familiar with the use of bar model and form a habit to use the bar model method as an effective tool to analyse and solve word problems. Using bar model is an important step to complete the missing link, helping them to find the relations among key words and to translate the situation into the mathematical language. Furthermore, the interviewed students ment ioned some characteristics of the bar model method, such as visualising the problem or breaking down complicated questions into pieces. These could help them by enhancing their confidence in solving word problems. Further investigation should be done in order to find out the effectiveness of different elements of the bar model, so that effectiveness of the bar model method and teaching and learning can be improved. In this research, only one class of students was involved. A larger scale study should be conducted in the future with more classes or forms so that the representativeness of the findings can be improved. Further improvements in research could be achieved if the study was conducted for a longer period of time in a spiral model. Pedagogy or curriculum for bar model method could be formulated and evaluated continuously and regularly. In addition, tracing of students’ results can be useful in finding out the long term effects of the bar model method on students. In this study, short-term spiral teaching was conducted to enhance students’ habit or performance, but tracing students’ habit or attitude towards problem 166 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 solving should also be carried out in order to find out if the habit of using the bar model method as a tool has been formed. By comparing the results, it is expected that long term effects of the bar model method can be observed. A more systematic guideline on using the bar model method should also be introduced. Students' performance in each single step of drawing bar models should be investigated in order to have an in-depth study on the effectiveness of the bar model method. This aims to enhance the structure of the bar model and to improve the effectiveness. Reflection As a teacher, it is our mission to provide ways for students to learn. Beside knowledge, effective ways to learn should also be taught to students in order to mitigate possible difficulties. This will help to increase students’ learning motivation. This is the reason why we introduced the bar model method to our students. From the results, both qualitative and quantitative, we believe that the bar model method is a good way for students to learn how to solve mathematical word problems. The fact that students’ learning motivation and results were improved has given the researchers confidence in providing new learning skills to our students, and to extend the scale of the study. A positive result can be expected even when the bar model method is taught to other students of similar background. On the other hand, regarding the limitation of the research, as only Primary 4 students were involved in the research, whether the method can be effectively mastered by students of higher or lower levels is 167 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 not clear. Furthermore, students in this research reported that the bar model method helped them by enabling them to visualise the questions. However, further research would be needed to investigate whether the method is equally useful to students with different learning styles. Despite the unanswered questions, students in the research generally agreed that the bar model method was a powerful tool so it is hoped that the strengths of the method can be further investigated and more properties of the method can be discovered to further facilitate students’ learning. 168 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 References Bryman, A. (1984). The debate about quantitative and qualitative research: A question of method or epistemology? British Journal of Sociology, 35(1), 75-92. Charles, R., Lester, F., & O’Daffer, P. (1987). How to evaluate progress in problem solving. Reston, VA: NCTM. Curriculum Development Council (CDC) (2000). Mathematics curriculum guide (P1-P6). HKSAR: The Education Department. Kho, T. H., Yeo, S. M., & Fan, L. (2014). Model method in Singapore primary mathematics textbooks. International Conference on Mathematics Textbook Research and Development 2014, 29-31 July 2014, University of Southampton, UK. Kho, T. H., Yeo, S. M. & Lim, J. (2009). The Singapore Model Method for Learning Mathematics. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education. Morin, L. L., Watson, S. M. R., Hester, P. & Raver, S. (2017). The use of a bar model drawing to teach word problem solving to students with mathematics difficulties. Learning Disability Quarterly, 40(2), 91-104. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Ng S.W., & Lee K. (2009). The model method: Singapore children’s tool for representing and solving algebraic word problems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 40(3), 282 -313. Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press. Yeap B. H. (2010). Teaching to Mastery-Bar Modeling A Problem-solving Tool. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education. 169 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 1 Attitude Inventory Item Pretend your class has been given some math story problems to solve. Mark true or false depending on how the statement describes you. There are no right or wrong answers for this part. 1. I will put down any answer just to finish a problem. 2. It is no fun to try to solve problems. 3. I will try almost any problem. 4. When I do not get the right answer right away I give up. 5. I like to try hard problems. 6. My ideas about how to solve problems are not as good as other students’ ideas. 7. I can only do problems everyone else can do. 8. I will not stop working on a problem until I get an answer. 9. I am sure I can solve most problems. 10. I will work a long time on a problem. 11. I am better than many students at solving problems. 12. I need someone to help me work on problems. 13. I can solve most hard problems. 14. There are some problems I will just not try. 15. I do not like to try problems that are hard to understand. 16. I will keep working on a problem until I get it right. 17. I like to try to solve problems. 18. I give up on problems right away. 19. Most problems are too hard for me to solve. 20. I am a good problem solver. Appendix 2 Students' worksheets Fukien Secondary School Affiliated School P4 Revision – Mixed Operation 1 (With bar model) Example: 1.Mary has 100 apples. Peter has 8 apples more than Mary. Peter will share his apples with 8 of his friends. How many apple(s) will Peter have finally? Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: 170 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Exercise: 1.Ada has $230 and has $30 less than Ken. Ken uses his money to buy 4 toys at the same price. How much is each of the toys? Example 2 2.Zoe has 58 green apples and 62 red apples. If she puts the apples into bags of 6, how many bags of apples will she have? Exercise: 2. A school has 340 boy students and 320 girl students. If the school arranges the students into 30 classes and each class has the same number of students, how many students are there in one class? Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: 171 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Fukien Secondary School Affiliated School P4 Revision – Mixed Operation 2 (With bar model) Example: 1.Mary has 100 apples. Mary has 10 apples more than Peter. Peter will share his apples with 8 of his friends. How many apple(s) will Peter have finally? Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Exercise: 1.Karry has $276 and has $54 more than Paul. Paul uses his money to buy 6 CDs at the same price. How much is each CD? Example 2 2.The original price of a bag of cookies is $125. Now it is on sale and has a discount of $20. Peter and his 2 friends buy one bag of cookies and share the price equally. How much should Peter pay? 172 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Exercise: 2.Mary’s weekly salary was $650 last week. If her weekly salary is reduced by $60 and she worked for 5 days this week, what is her daily salary this week? Fukien Secondary School Affiliated School P4 Revision – Mixed Operation 3 (With bar model) Name:___________ Class:_______( ) Date:____________ Example: 1.The price of 4 bags of cookies was $256 originally. Now it is on sale and promoted at “buy 3 get 1 free”. If Peter wants to buy 4 bags of cookies now, how much should he pay? Exercise: 1.A book store is on sale and all the books are sold at the same price. Ada used $207 to buy 9 books. If Kate wants to buy 5 books, how much should she pay? Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: 173 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method 教育研究報告匯編 Example 2 2.There are 650 mL of soya milk in a carton. Dad pours 3 cartons of soya milk into cups of 75 mL. How many cups of soya milk are there? Exercise: 2.Mum poured 600 mL of orange juice into 4 cups equally. Jack and Kitty drank 3 cups. How many millilitres of orange juice did they drink altogether? Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: Bar model: Checking of bar model: 1. Length is related to the number □ 2.Unknown shown □ 3.Show relationships between items □ Answer: 175 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Abstract This action research study examined the use of constructive play in a special school (School for Social Development) classroom teaching with students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) which is characterised by inattentiveness, hyperactivity and impulsiveness. Students with ADHD often have struggle with a normal classroom setting and end up with poor academic achievement. While introducing play into English lessons in this study, students’ classroom behaviour was observed and recorded. Improvement in classroom engagement and the reduction of inattentive and rule-breaking behaviour were noted. This study could provide a deeper insight into an alternative way of teaching students with ADHD. Keywords special education, school for social development, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, play, adolescents Introduction As a school for social development, Caritas Pelletier School is devoted to assisting students from Primary 5 to Secondary 3 who exhibit Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play- based Learning Lucy M Rogers & CHAN Ka Ying Caritas Pelletier School 176 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 significant emotional and behavioural difficulties. Along with the upward trend of students having special education needs (SENs), there is an increasing number of students diagnosed with ADHD in mainstream schools. Students with ADHD often have poor academic engagement and low work productivity. This results in poor educational outcomes and difficulties in classroom management. In this academic year, Secondary 1 students in our school had to learn to pay attention and stay seated during English lessons. In collaboration with the Principal, native-speaking English teacher (NET) and speech therapist (ST), an action research project was formulated to study how far the use of structured play could help to increase motivation and reduce inattentive behaviour. Students were given more freedom to move inside the classroom, fiddle constructively and be more creative. Literature review ADHD is a neurological disorder that affects an individual’s daily functioning. Students with ADHD are often poor in executive functioning and tend to be inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). They usually have a short attention span, difficulties in remaining seated and concentrating on tasks during lessons. Research has shown that they generally exhibit poorer academic achievement and educational outcomes when compared with normal peers probably because of their lesser degree of academic engagement and productivity (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003). Longitudinal studies have shown that these problems could persist to adolescence and adulthood (Loe & Feldman, 2007). Researchers have carried out numerous systematic classroom observations on students with ADHD. An observation code was devised 177 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 and students’ behaviour within the lesson was recorded. These students did demonstrate high rates of off-task and disruptive behaviour in the classroom, including fidgeting, verbal aggressiveness and gross motor activity (Junod, DuPaul, Jitendra, Volpe, & Cleary, 2006). Off-task behaviour lowered students’ opportunities to respond to academic tasks within lessons. Their academic performance and motivation in learning were therefore negatively affected. Traditional teaching strategies for students with ADHD tend to focus on environmental modification, medical care as well as behavioural intervention (Loe & Feldman, 2007). Medical treatment is used to alleviate core symptoms like inattentiveness. Research showed that academic productivity such as the amount of homework completion and scores on worksheets could be improved by medical treatment (Evans, Pelham, Smith, Bukstein, Gnagy, Greiner, Altenderfer & Baron-Myak, 2001). Environmental modification aims to help students manage ADHD. Through providing a more structured task and developing a routine, students would participate more positively within the lesson. However, recent theorists such as Dietze and Kashin (2011) see the child not as a passive receiver of knowledge but as actively involved in making meaning with knowledge. Play is not just about releasing energy, but can be used to acquire new skills and develop new ideas. A deeper exposition of this theory is found in Lev Vygotsky’s theory where children are seen as capable of learning social and cultural concepts through their daily living experience. They can use past learning experiences to develop and build new learning experiences at a slightly higher level (Barzegary & Zamini, 2011). Play is an essential element of children’s daily living experience. While Vygotsky mainly focused on younger children, Scheu and Xu (2014) stated that “if Vygotsky is correct in his assertion that play is done for developmental purposes, then, play must affect the development of adolescents as well, even though this play is different in presentation from that of early childhood” (p. 246). 178 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Play is clearly beneficial in the classroom. However, the link between play and ADHD during adolescence is still at the early stages of investigation. The use of psychostimulants (medicines for treating ADHD) is becoming widespread in recent years. However, little is really known about the effect on growing brains. Panksepp (2007) postulated that the increase in ADHD might have been due to the lack of opportunities for pre-school children to engage in play especially those taking psychostimulants. He stated that “The idea that intensive social play interventions, throughout early childhood, may alleviate ADHD symptoms remains to be evaluated’ (pp. 57-66). More research is certainly needed to know if play is a useful tool for teachers who have ADHD students in their classroom and if it is beneficial for these students as that proceed onto adolescence. Methodology The purpose of this study was to answer the following research questions: 1. How does play-based learning affect students’ motivation and participation in the lesson? 2. Can play-based learning reduce students’ inattentive behaviour during the lesson? The subjects of this study were secondary 1 students. There were 3 students with different levels of English competency in class. Student A has been diagnosed with ADHD and is regularly medicated. She exhibited significant difficulty in concentrating for long periods of time. Student B had the highest English proficiency. However, she struggled to stay seated and she was easily distracted by others. She had many attributes of an ADHD student but was not diagnosed as such. Student 179 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 C was diagnosed with marginal intelligence and had low English proficiency. The major researchers in this study were the NET and ST. As the learning objective was to enhance student’s skills in writing a fictional story and oral narration skills, the ST was actively involved in designing the series of English lesson (Appendix 1) with the NET and in devising the data collection method for the current study. Lego characters and technology were used to create an original story (Appendix 2) in digital form in accordance with the learning objective for the target unit. Students had to design a range of characters, discuss character traits and formulate a plot besides combining the characters with background photos obtained from the internet. The scenes were photographed using an iPad and put into Shadow Puppet, a movie making app. Students were able to explicate their original story using the same iPad app. The hands-on inquiry-based learning outl ined above was designed to give students a desire to explore, solve problems and build knowledge. Constructive play helps to build tenacity, flexibility and persistence which can be areas of difficulty for ADHD students. Furthermore, the shared activity could provide social opportunities to work on co-operation, responsibility and contribution. The NET and ST defined constructive play as giving students the tools and skills to create something new within the boundaries of the traditional classroom. Some classroom rules had to be stretched to allow play to occur. A series of eight lessons on the techniques of writing a good story and story genres were jointly designed by the NET and ST. Table 1 illustrates the overview of lesson contents. An example of a detailed lesson overview can be found in Appendix 1. The series of English 180 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Date Lesson Content 2018.10.15 1 Identifying different story genre, vocabulary & organization 2018.10.16 2 Story writing – character and setting of story 2018.10.18 3 Story writing –story’s plot 2018.10.19 4 Story writing –story’s plot Searching for background pictures for the story 2018.10.22 5 Taking photos of different scenes 2018.10.23 6 Taking scene photos (day 2) and converting to movie 2018.10.29 7 Narrating story over movie (voiceover) 2018.10.30 8 Voice over (day 2) and reflection Table 1 Lesson overview lessons objectives was broken down into different small learning objectives to help students with poor executive functioning, who were then taught step by step on how to identify common story genres, settings, characters and components of a narrative. Cross-curricular collaboration with Liberal Studies (LS) teachers had also taken place prior to the beginning of the project. As a LS news assignment, students were introduced and familiarised with the news about the Thai cave rescue. The same piece of news was also introduced in the English lesson where students were required to identify components of a non-fiction narrative. Once students were equipped with the knowledge of story writing components the project began. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected throughout the project. Qualitative data included teachers’ reflection. The NET and ST met regularly to discuss the sessions and any modification needed for the coming sessions. Early on, English language teachers were also invited to observe and give feedback. Quantitative data was collected through behavioural observations, adapted from Behavior Observations of Students in Schools (BOSS) (Shapiro, 2004). Example of modified behaviour checklist can be found in Appendix 3. Students’ level of engagement, off-task behaviour and classroom rule-breaking behaviour were coded and recorded across lessons, both in the amount of time and frequency of occurrence. For 181 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 on-task behaviour, students’ level of engagement was categorised into actively engaged and passively engaged (Volpe, DiPerna, Hintze, & Shapiro, 2005). Examples of actively engaged behaviour include reading aloud, completing assignments and writing in a journal. Passively engaged behaviour refers to the time which student is passively attending to the lesson, including the time listening to teachers and classmates and looking at the blackboard during the lesson. Level of engagement was scored with time sampling. Behaviour was scored every two minutes. Off-task behaviour was categorised into off-task/motor, off-task/ verbal and off-task/passive (Shapiro, 2004). Off-task motor behaviour refers to motor activity that is not related to the academic task. Off-task verbal behaviour refers to utterance that is not related to the academic task such as singing and chatting with peers. An example of off-task passive behaviour is looking out the window daydreaming. All off-task behaviour was marked whenever it occurred within the lessons. The baseline data taken before and during the project were compared to provide a final analysis of behaviour across lessons. Results The Lego project ended in October 2018. Upon the completion of the project, all students were able to identify and name the key components of a fictional narrative. They were also able to design a story with a clear setting, initiating event, action, consequence and ending. With assistance from NET and ST, a complete and grammatical story script was formed. Students were not interested in writing the story as it was seen as a boring task, so they verbally shared the story and the NET wrote the story on the board. This gave an opportunity to correct grammar and for students to visually see the story develop. It also gave an opportunity for the ST to work on social skills. They had learned how to express opinions with appropriate manners during 182 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 discussions. As students became excited about the story, they moved from their desks close to the board to be part of the action. They all wanted their contribution to the story to be heard. In a regular classroom, students would not be allowed the freedom to walk to the board without a teacher’s direction. During the project, students could ‘act out’ their character as they were speaking. The story script can be found in Appendix 2. As students became more interested in the story, they were happy to sit for a longer period of time. Planning for moving around during the lesson became less important. Students’ behaviour was observed before and during the project. Figure 1 shows the overall frequency of off-task/motor behaviour across lessons. An analysis of the overall data highlights that when regular lessons took place (baseline 1 & 2), off-task/motor behaviour was unacceptably high. Students’ off-task motor behaviour included wandering in the classroom, leaving the classroom without permission, sitting inappropriately. Figure 1 Overall frequency of off-task motor behaviour observed prior to and during the project As interest in the project grew, students tended to stay focused, and readily offered ideas about how the story should develop until day 6 and 8 when everything changed. Those students who had not completed the previous day's work needed to continue on or even redo some weak sections of voice-over or taking o f background photos (Figure 2). Quite quickly there was a rise in inattention and walking around the classroom as students became frustrated at having to repeat 183 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 2 Example of background photo overlaid with Lego tasks. An interesting observation is that the quality of work was much higher on days where students had to redo tasks; however, students were not interested in a ‘quality’ product and therefore not motivated to try harder. The lack of motivation led to the increase in undesirable behaviour. Many external factors such as parents breaking up or a fighting with a friend can influence behaviour in the classroom However, in this case, there were no known external reasons for the spike in poor behaviour other than that they were not interested in repeating tasks. Off-task verbal behaviour followed a similar pattern as off-task motor behaviour. Figure 3 shows the overall frequency of off-task/verbal behaviour across lessons. Bad language and gossip decreased more noticeably when students found the lesson more practical. Furthermore, the quality of classwork improved when they were working in a group as opposed to sitting in rows in the classroom. On day 6 and 8 during repetition in the lesson, students started to complain, roll their eyes and become inattentive. Some foul language could be heard again. Figure 3 Overall frequency of off-task verbal behaviour observed prior to and during the implementation of the project 184 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Looking more critically at Student A (ADHD and medicated), a similar pattern could be seen. There were much fewer cases of rule- breaking behaviour like shouting, tapping, singing, wandering or playing with others (Figure 4) once the project started, although student A was well known for enjoying physical movement, going from one activity to the next, sticking up posters on the back wall and moving to the group table. Day 3 and 5 were creative days; inventing a story with Lego characters and taking photos with an iPad where she showed a great deal of engagement. When she became more concentrated, her fine motor skills improved even though she was noticeably more interested in finishing the task than in the quality of output. She became noticeably restless again as soon as the repetition of tasks was required in the lessons on days 6 and 8. The NET and ST had to put in a lot of time to help her refocus. This was the first year she had to be separated with her sisters. She was valued for giving the ST time to work on social communication skills in a small manageable group and from a teaching perspective. Overall, this project was beneficial for student A as more could be known about her learning style in due course. Student B had great ideas. She was a vibrant, amusing girl and was happy to push the boundaries when it came to discipline issues. She had many attributes aligned with an ADHD student but was not diagnosed as such. She was more socially mature than student A and could be reasoned with when there was a problem. Like student A, she disliked repetition. The use of constructive play where she could use her imagination and act out her character worked well for this student. An example of this happened when she was asked what food the princess would eat at her birthday party, she suggested goat sandwich and chocolate pizza. One final interesting but unexpected result surfaced in the study. The non-ADHD student C became disengaged as the project 185 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Figure 4 Comparison of students' active engagement time in class progressed. This student liked routines and did not enjoy constant moving, noise and structured ‘play’ confronting. When compared with the others, student C’s engagement within the lesson started to decline as shown by the dotted line (Figure 5). On days 6 and 8, she slept through 80 percent of the lesson time and hence could not score anything on those two days. Other than quantitative data on students’ level of engagement and behaviour, qualitative data was collected through constant reflection during the project. After every lesson, the NET and ST collaboratively evaluated the lesson flow and students’ performance. Amendments in the next lesson plan would be subsequently made. Through constant reflection, the researchers were able to identify strategies that were useful in enhancing students' performance. A detailed example of reflection could be found in Appendix 1. One of the examples of enhancement of classroom teaching was the inclusion of PowerPoint slides to provide additional visual cues. The researchers discovered that although students enjoyed a variety of tasks during the lesson, they seemed to have difficulties in grasping the big picture. They could not connect different parts of the project and understand the importance of each small task. Other than weak executive functioning, ADHD students are also characterised by a lack of coherence in behaviour. Taking into account of this weakness, the 186 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 NET and ST decided to provide additional visual cues with PowerPoint, listing the lesson objectives and tasks to be finished within the lesson. The visual schedule provided was effective in showing the project’s progress. The use of PowerPoint also increased students’ engagement and attention at the beginning of each lesson. Classroom routine was gradually developed as the project progressed. In addition to continuous reflection during the project, the English panel teacher and Principal were invited to observe the lesson and give feedback. The lesson observation was carried out on day 2 when students were creating their Lego characters and the story’s setting. Both of them gave positive feedback on the lesson design. Students’ engagement within the class was clearly higher with creative tasks and having physical movement as they went from activity to activity in different areas of the classroom. Discussion Through the continuous observation and data collection, students’ level of engagement and behaviour improved with the practical work as long as the lesson moved quickly with a lot of variety and not too much direct teaching. Students were creative in their approach, sharing new skills and had the chance to use conversational English in a more authentic manner. The speech therapist - teacher combination worked well as both were able to work seamlessly in the relaxed classroom. The ‘play’ aspect gave students a reason to be fiddling and moving. The colorful Lego pieces provided something constructive to touch and feel so students’ hands were busy. The relaxed learning style also gave the teacher and ST more observation time to critically analyse students as they were engaged, rather than needing the usual constant attention. 187 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Student A often needed instructions being explained individually as she had not fully comprehended a given task when explained to the class. She did not want to do the task so she asked for help even if unnecessary. She simply wanted the answers so as to quickly get the job done. If she did not fully understand the task, she became disruptive and frustrated and gave up quickly. During the baseline lessons, student A was very disruptive both physically and verbally which resulted in a negative classroom atmosphere. Teachers often did not have enough time to help everyone needing assistance. Constructive play allowed students to get quickly occupied with tasks and hence gave the NET more time to focus on areas that really needed attention. The student with significant ADHD symptoms was struggling to learn had clearly improved in all areas throughout the project period. However, the one student who was not suffering from ADHD became restless subsequently and would have preferred a structured lesson. On reflection, the programme could be shortened. As the year progressed and more students were admitted to Secondary 1, an attempt was made to implement the project again. However, the original students were not interested in repeating the process; this again highlights that repetition is unpalatable to many students. As current research is showing, play is definitely useful in the classroom, even at the secondary level but it needs to be used sparingly as it does not suit all types of students. Conclusion and recommendation Play-based learning was effective in increasing ADHD students’ motivation and participation in lessons. Inattentive behaviour was reduced during the project. However, students’ behaviour worsened again later. This infers that educators need to constantly review their way of teaching and the special needs of students. It would also be helpful if 188 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 students were trained in primary school to work independently so more student centred lessons could be designed. There is no doubt that play theory was successful for a period of time in this particular instance but the researchers acknowledged the sample size was too small to say conclusively that this would work in a bigger classroom. The researchers were also conflicted about breaking many standard classroom rules such as letting students move freely or call out. A key part of rehabilitation in this school is to prepare them to return to mainstream schools where they will need to follow standard rules. As the first action research project carried out in Caritas Pelletier School, teachers and the speech therapists became more familiar with students and how to have deeper insight into their special needs. With careful observation, it is not difficult to see ADHD students struggling not only in the classroom but also in other school activities such as sitting through a long assembly. Through sharing the results with other staff, it is hoped that teaching can be continuously enhanced to help students with ADHD. 189 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author. Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Barzegary, L., & Zamini, S. (2011). The effect of play therapy on children with ADHD. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 2216-2218. Dietze, B., & Kashin, D. (2011). Playing and learning in early childhood education. Canada: Pearson Canada. DuPaul, G. J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strategies (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford. Evans, S. W., Pelham, W. E., Smith, B. H., Bukstein, O., Gnagy, E. M., Greiner, A. R., Altenderfer, L. & Baron-Myak, C. (2001). Dose-response effects of methylphenidate on ecologically valid measures of academic performance and classroom behavior in adolescents with ADHD. Experimental Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 163– 175. Junod, R. E. V., DuPaul, G. J., Jitendra, A. K., Volpe, R. J., & Cleary, K. S. (2006). Classroom observations of students with and without ADHD: Differences across types of engagement. Journal of School Psychology, 44(2), 87-104. Loe, I. M., & Feldman, H. M. (2007). Academic and educational outcomes of children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(6), 643-654. Panksepp, J. (2007). Can PLAY diminish ADHD and facilitate the construction of the social brain? Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,16 (2), 57-66. Scheu, I., & Xu, Y. (2014). Expanding Froebel’s garden: The effect of play on adolescents’ cognitive development. International Journal of Adolescence & Youth, 19(2), 245-261. Shapiro, E. S. (2004). Academic skills problems workbook (rev.). New York: The Guilford Press. Volpe, R. J., DiPerna, J. C., Hintze, J. M., & Shapiro, E. S. (2005). Observing students in classroom settings: A review of seven coding schemes. School Psychology Review, 34(4), 454. 190 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 明愛培立學校 2018 - 2019 年度 言語治療服務 協作教學計劃及檢表 Appendix 1 Example of lesson plan 科目：English 級別 / 班別：S1A 日期：2018.10.15 教學範疇：story writing 負責職員 : Ms. Rogers, 陳姑娘 協助老師：/ 教學目標 教學活動 教材 成效 / 檢討 / 備註 □ To identify different themes of stories □ Introducing character and setting □ Think of elements that can be found in different types of s tor ies (e.g. detective story, romance, animation or vampire) Pictures showing different types of settings XXX slept for ten minutes at the beginning of lesson. O the r c lassmates were engaged in the lesson and were able to answer the questions raised by teachers. I n g e n e r a l , X X X h a d increased participation when compared to the sessions before. □ To identify different story elements and sequence □Example of news (Thailand footbal l team) wi l l be given and students will be required to place the inc idents in to correct o r d e r a n d i d e n t i f y common story grammar □ Further practice with other stories □ They will be asked to sort the story out and stick them on blackboard and back of the classroom in correct order Pictures showing d i f ferent par t o f story Collaboration with LS subject was useful as it helped giving background knowledge to students. Students were able to recall details of the news and could easily categorize the different story grammar element. The lesson could be improved by introducing a clearer visual schedule to help student identify lesson main objective. PowerPoint can be used to enhance students’ focus within lesson. 191 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 2 Playscript Characters Princess Isabella Prince Winson Policewoman Coco The guard dog (non-speaking) Cally the clown Skeleton Hunter (non-speaking) Scene 1: Outside in front of the palace Isabella: Hello, I’m Princess Isabella. I live in this palace. It has one hundred bedrooms and twenty bathrooms, a ballroom for dancing, a swimming pool and a hairdresser so I always look beautiful. Scene 2: In the palace kitchen Winson: Hi, I’m prince Winson. It’s Princess Isabella’s birthday and she’s asked me to make a cake. I love cooking. We are having a birthday party on her luxury boat. She has asked me to make goat sandwich, chicken wings and her favorite, can you guess? It’s chocolate pizza, delicious.” How old do you think the princess will be today?” (Winson shows a birthday cake with the number 16) Scene 3: On the police boat Policewoman: Here is the luxury boat where the Princess will have her sixteenth birthday. I hope there are no bad people. I am Coco the princess’ policewoman. I have my dog to help me. Scene 4: On the Prince’s luxury boat Isabella: Oh what a lovely party, all my friends are here. Look at Cally the Clown, he’s very funny. Let’s dance and have fun. (scary sfx – we see the skeleton climb onto the boat) (skeleton fights with the princess) Skeleton: Give me your crown or I will kill you. Isabella: Oh (screams), help me! (skeleton takes the crown) Clown: Look hunter is helping the Princess. I will throw a ball at the skeleton. Skeleton: Grrr. (angry) You can’t kill me. I will come back and get your crown princess. Scene 5: Inside the palace ballroom Isabella: Thank you everyone for saving me. I would like to give Hunter a medal and some money for saving me. Everyone:(Everyone claps and cheers) Hurray! The End 192 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning 教育研究報告匯編 Appendix 3 Example of behavioural checklist Behaviour observation form Student’s name: ________________ Special Educational Needs: ________________ Date of lesson: _________________ Time: ________________ Teacher: _________________ Lesson’s objective: ____________________________ Remarks: _____________________________________________________________ Legend: (AE) Actively engaged in task (PE) Passively engaged in task (OTM) Off-task/motor (OTV) Off-task/verbal (OTP) Off-task/passive (RB) Rule-breaking behaviour Time (mins) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 AE PE OTM OTV OTP RB Time (mins.) 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 AE PE OTM OTV OTP RB 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 193 教育研究報告匯編 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升 中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力 之教學研究 麥梓煬 佛教普光學校 摘要 對於智障學生而言，理解字詞意思的學習過程往往較為遲緩。與此同 時，他們亦較依賴以實物及圖像的輔助學習語文字詞。而日趨成熟的虛擬 實境（virtual reality）及擴增實境（augmented reality）技術正具有將圖 像及物件具體化活現眼前的特色。故此是次研究希望探討以虛擬及擴增實 境技術導入語文教學，能否有效提升智障學生對於課文字詞的理解能力及 引發學習動機，同時亦會從質性觀察中探討在實踐相關教學方式時需注意 的地方。 研究以校內七位中度智障的學生為目標對象，結果指出這些資訊科技 技術能普遍地引起學生對相關課題的學習興趣，在前後測的閱讀理解表現 上，亦以加入了虛擬及擴增實境教學的學生進步較大。此外，研究員也留 意到課室的設置及活動區域的劃分等能夠減低在實行此類教學時的潛在危 險。整體而言，研究反映出虛擬及擴增實境導入課堂當中是有其意義的。 關鍵詞 中度智障、虛擬實境、擴增實境、閱讀理解 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 194 教育研究報告匯編 引言 對於中度智障學生的語文學習而言，字詞的理解向來都是難點之一， 他們在理解字詞意思上的學習過程往往較為遲緩。傳統上，此類學生的語 文學習較常以展示實物，輔以圖卡及字卡的認讀為主（陸莉、黃玉枝、林 秀錦、朱慧娟，2000），而裘素菊（2004）亦指出現場觀察及呈現實物 等亦是慣常用於語文教學的方法。 筆者在任教中國語文科的過程當中，發現對於學生的語文學習而言， 上述的教學工具雖有一定的效用，但是未必能夠引起部分學生的學習動 機；另一方面，部分抽象的詞彙亦較難以圖卡或實物表達，而一些與講授 課文相關的場景也難以在課室內具體呈現。凡此種種均會對學生的學習成 效造成一定影響。 面對上述困難，課程發展議會（2011a）為智障學生編訂的《中國語 文課程補充指引》提及了多樣化的學習方式在學生的語文學習上往往扮演 著重要的角色，當中亦提及資訊科技對教學的重要性。面對現今科技發達 迅速，一些具有將圖像及物件具體化活現眼前的特色之技術如擴增實境 （AR）及虛擬實境（VR）之應用亦日益頻繁。因此，筆者期望以這些科 技為切入點，並藉著是次研究，嘗試將它們融入中度智障學生的語文科教 學當中，並探討它們能否促進學生的學習動機及改善他們的學習成效。 研究目的 基於上述的研究動機，是次行動研究會以校內小學四年級的兩班中度 智障學生為對象，並從學生的閱讀範疇方面著手，在其中一班別內的識詞 教學中嘗試加入擴增實境及虛擬實境的元素，從而期望能對下列問題作出 解答： 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 195 教育研究報告匯編 （1） 以虛擬及擴增實境技術教授中文科，能否提升中度智障學生的 字詞理解能力並引發學生的學習動機？ （2） 對中度智障學生而言，實行虛擬及擴增實境教學時有甚麼需要 注意的地方？ 文獻回顧 中度智障所指的是智商程度（IQ）介乎約 35-50 的人士，在學生特質 方面，他們除了學習進度會較一般學生緩慢外，專注力亦較弱，容易被周 遭事物所分心。此外，基於資訊類化及應用上能力的限制，學生亦會較難 對抽象及邏輯相關的思維進行理解（香港教育大學特殊學習需要與融合教 育中心，2017）。引申至中國語文閱讀範疇的學習困難上，黃秀霜（1999） 指出了閱讀理解包含了識字及理解兩大部分，當中識字為理解字詞的基 礎。而在理解字詞的階段，謝錫金、張張慧儀、羅嘉怡、呂慧蓮（2008） 進一步指出基於智障學生的工作記憶容量有限，他們在處理文字訊息上的 能力亦會受限，對於與抽象概念及聯想相關的內容特別難以掌握。 若將探討對象細化至中度智障學生的語文學習上，盧家宜、孫淑柔 （2006）在其針對臺灣國小中度智障學生的研究中，亦同樣指出此類學 生於學習抽象詞彙上的困難。不過與此同時，學者亦強調若此類學生能夠 在能力發展時期接受系統化的閱讀能力訓練及學習，仍是有可能習得較為 複雜的閱讀能力（林千惠、何素華，1997）。而在教學方法上，如文首 所言，結合視覺提示如圖卡的教學法是常用於引導中度智障學生閱讀學 習的方式之一（林雲龍、李天佑，2002）。另一方面，鄧秀芸、楊熾康 （2003）等學者則指出在視覺提示的基礎下，若能夠加入字詞發聲的語 音元素，對於學生的詞彙閱讀及辨識學習會更為有效。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 196 教育研究報告匯編 作為小結，不同的學術文獻對於中度智障學生在閱讀上的學習障礙及 相應教學法均有所探究。學習障礙方面，主要在於學生對於類化及抽象概 念較難理解、專注力較弱以及與處理文字訊息相關的工作記憶的容量較 小。而就著這些特質，在教學法方面學者多提倡以視覺提示的方式，並加 入語音輔助，對學生形成刺激並以之促進他們的學習。 擴增實境亦稱為增強實境，其主要概念在於以現實環境的景物為 基礎，藉由程式的演算及電子裝置，產生相應的虛擬物件（Azuma, 1997）。具體例子如現今的一些手機應用程式，能夠辨識相機正在拍攝 的人臉或景物，透過運算而產生相關的物件，例如在辨識人的嘴巴後，程 式能夠在周圍產生虛擬的鬍子；或是在偵測到文字之後產生相應的物件或 圖像。在技術層面上，上述的擴增實境技術亦為現今最常用的一類，稱之 為無標記式擴增實境，其主要特色在於無須為圖案加上特定的邊框，在辨 認到特定的自然圖案後，能夠彈出預先設定的相應圖案，也就是所謂的 「擴增實境」（Hsieh & Lin, 2017）。 在擴增實境技術的教學應用上，學者指出它能夠應用於協助表達一些 較抽象，或是較難單以圖片所表達的事物（Hsieh & Lin, 2017），例如在 學習人體結構時，運用相關應用程式並掃描特定的心臟圖案，畫面便可呈 現出可供旋轉的心臟模型。除此之外，擴增實境的技術亦可應用於其他範 疇或年紀較輕之學生的學習上，例如幼稚園學生的顏色與形狀學習（許一 珍，2015）；以及讓初小學生藉由掃描國旗認識不同國家的文化（謝惠菁、 徐雪芩、林憶如，2018）。 由此可見，擴增實境功能不但能夠應用於娛樂用途上，如將一些有趣 的圖案展現於特定物件上；在教學方面，它亦能用於協助表達一些較難單 以圖像表達的概念，或是較為抽象的事物。與擴增實境相近，虛擬實境技 術亦與現實景物相關。它的原理是經過電腦程式的處理，將實際環境的景 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 197 教育研究報告匯編 物以模擬的形式投射在特定的虛擬實境裝置（如 VR 眼鏡）內。換言之， 佩戴著相關 VR 裝置的使用者，能夠觀看當中所呈現的不同景物，雖然它 們看似真實，但其實都只是由電腦程式所模擬出來。 基於這種技術能夠打破時間及地方的隔閡，將各式各樣的影像呈現出 來，一些博物館會將此技術運用其中（吳紹群，2018）。例如位於臺南 市的一所博物館，便嘗試運用虛擬實境技術建構其博物館之旅。使用者可 於網頁選擇希望觀看的展廳，並可透過瀏覽器借助此技術及 VR 眼鏡以全 景模式閱覽展品。 而在教學層面上，虛擬實境技術亦能夠打破傳統課堂的掣肘，讓教師 將學生帶出課室，將課本中的平面圖片以具體的方式呈現出來（張訓， 2018）。在實際教學上，前線教育工作者亦嘗試將之應用於不同科目當 中，如以社會學科為例，在教授與文化名勝相關的課題上能夠用以展示各 地名勝（鄭雅尹，2019）；或是在藝術相關科目當中用以取代書本上的 圖片，立體地呈現展品（曾靖越，2018）。總括而言，上述的文獻對於 這次研究是有所啟發的。首先，與智障學生語文教學相關的文獻明確指出 了基於工作記憶所限，詞彙的學習對於此類學生而言並不容易，而將內容 具體化，例如視覺及聽覺提示等均是現時用以促進他們學習的其中一些教 學策略。 而擴增及虛擬實境技術，正正呼應了上述的教學策略，它們兩者均具 有將事物具體化的特點，如擴增實境能夠從現實的物件及圖像出發，透過 電子裝置掃描後呈現出互動的物件、形狀甚至聲效；虛擬實境則能夠打破 空間的限制，利用裝置讓學生親歷其境地感受平常老師難以帶進班房的事 物。因此，研究希望從這兩種技術作為切入點，探討它們能否為筆者所任 教的學生之語文學習帶來突破。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 198 教育研究報告匯編 研究對象及方法 在研究對象上，是次研究會以學校內兩班小學四年級的中度智障班之 學生為研究對象，而為了令數據更易於比較，研究會選取兩個班別內中國 語文科閱讀範疇能力層級相約，均為「融通計劃」的學習進程架構上，中 國語文科的閱讀範疇處於 A6 級水平的學生。當中實驗組（研究員所任教 的班別）共四位，而對照組（另一位語文教師所任教的班別）則有三位， 合計七位學生作為對象。之所以選取這群學生為研究對象，除了是基於可 比性的考量外，亦因為此層級的學生之閱讀能力表現具體描述為： （1） 能辨認帶有常用字詞的圖片 （2） 能識別及選出少量常見的詞彙 反映出處於此閱讀能力層級的學生應能具備基本的閱讀能力，與能力 層級較低的學生相比，較少會以缺乏意識或隨意選擇的方式閱讀及對問題 作出回應，故較能夠確保研究的信度。 在研究方法上，是次研究會以量化及質性研究並行的方式進行，在量 化研究方面，會以研究員所任教的班別之學生為實驗組，嘗試加入虛擬及 擴增實境技術至語文課當中；而另一班學生則為控制組，以傳統方式學習 相同的課題。在教學課題開始的前後，研究員會利用所開發具數據紀錄功 能的平板電腦應用程式，利用前後測的方式比較這兩群學生的語文理解能 力增長；在質性研究方面，學者指出學生的態勢語，即動作、表情及姿 勢等能夠反映學生是否投入課堂活動當中（郭德俊、劉海燕、王振宏， 2012），反映出質性觀察能夠為檢視教學提供證據，基於研究對象的學 生之語文表達程度均十分有限，故此研究員會以質性方式，探討在加入擴 增實境及虛擬實境的元素後，學生的學習動機會否有所提升，以及由此觀 察在實施此類教學時須注意的地方。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 199 教育研究報告匯編 研究過程及設計 研究過程方面，研究員首先從教學中識別出學生於閱讀範疇上的學習 困難，在參閱相關文獻並結合現今科技潮流後，確立以探討導入資訊科技 （擴增及虛擬實境）能否改善學生的字詞理解能力為研究的主軸，並開始 從學習內容當中擷取合適的課題並製作相關教材。及後在實行階段時，研 究員亦運用前後測獲取學生對課文重點字詞理解表現之數據，檢視實驗組 與對照組學生的表現差別；同時配合課堂質性觀察，探討融入新的教學元 素後，學生的學習動機有否因而提升，以及在導入擴增和虛擬實境時需要 注意的地方。在研究設計上，能夠分為課題的選取、相關教材的製作以及 質性及量化數據的收集等，下文將逐一析述： 課題的選取、教材製作及課堂設計 如前所述，一些相對抽象的概念以及與聯想相關的字詞，對於智障學 生而言較難掌握，因此他們多會依賴實際具體的經歷鞏固對字詞的記憶。 而擴增及虛擬實境技術正正有讓事物更為具體呈現的特色。就此，是次研 究選取了兩篇課文為目標題材（課文全文可見附件 1），首篇名為《多彩 的賀卡》，聚焦於顏色與景物的關係，如以太陽形容紅色的賀卡，大海形 容藍色的賀卡等，對於學生而言，文章內容相對抽象，對於學生理解有著 一定的困難；而次篇文章為《親子運動會》，基於學校隔年才會舉行一次 為期一日的運動會，學生於戶外運動場進行活動及比賽的經驗較少，對學 生來說這種體驗相對陌生，故此研究員亦選取了這篇文章為目標篇章，希 望學生能夠從新教材中對運動會獲得更深刻的體驗，從而促進他們對課文 字詞的理解。 而在教材設計方面的理念，主要根據文獻回顧部分所歸納的語文學習 困難而建構，首先在虛擬實境（VR）教材製作上，為了呼應智障學生視 覺型的學習特色，研究員主要擷取了與教學課題相關的全景圖片及影片， 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 200 教育研究報告匯編 圖 1 學生選擇希望觀看的虛擬實境影像畫面 圖 2 學生能按選擇，觀看相應的 虛擬實境全境影像 加以剪裁及選取並製作成教學材料，而基於虛擬實境所能夠給予的沉浸式 學習體驗，研究員主要以之作為引起新課題的工具。以《親子運動會》一 課為例，研究員選取了數段與運動會相關的全景圖片或影片，讓學生自主 選擇當中會感到興趣的部分，在利用流動裝置掃描旁邊的二維碼並將之裝 上 VR 眼鏡及佩戴後，學生便能夠在內裡觀看到相關影像。 而在擴增實境（AR）的教材製作方面，為了回應學者指出視覺及聽覺 之輸入對於學生識別詞彙的效用，同時避免過大的轉變令學生難以適從， 因此是次研究運用了學生一貫所使用的字卡及圖卡為基礎，嘗試透過應用 程式 HP Reveal 插入與之相關的圖像、動畫並輔以字詞的發音，就著課文 的重點字詞製作教材。引申至課堂設計上，基於目標研究學生多為自閉症 學生，強調生活技能培養及活動程序化理念的結構化教學法對於他們來說 是重要的一環（麥依華、鄧麗儀、李頌詩、張威文、任淑玲、黃依琦、余 嘉琪，2013）。故此在課堂設計上，研究保留了課節原有的音樂椅及自 學層架訓練等環節，而主要在「上課」的環節上作出調整。引入方面，在 講授主題課題前，除了常規課堂中展示與之相關的圖片外，研究員亦加入 了虛擬實境體驗的環節，嘗試引發學生對課題的興趣，如於下圖所顯示的 《親子運動會》引入環節當中，學生可從數張相關的圖片中，選擇自己所 感興趣的一項，老師在掃描上方的二維碼後，便能夠在 VR 眼鏡中播放相 關的實景影像，透過虛擬實境影像協助學生「走出課室」，投入到平常較 少機會能去到的運動場當中。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 201 教育研究報告匯編 至於在課堂主體內容方面，本研究嘗試從常用於學生閱讀教學的圖卡 及詞卡出發，嘗試將擴增實境的科技融入當中，在具體實行上，研究員運 用了擴增實境導入軟件 HP Reveal 製作相關教材，在將相關圖片、影片及 字詞發音與圖或詞卡配對以後，當手持電子裝置掃描詞卡後，畫面便會彈 出相應的影片，圖片及詞語發音；相對地，當掃描圖卡後，透過相關技術， 畫面亦會彈出相應的詞語及發音。實際課堂應用如下圖所示，學生以電子 裝置的相機掃描相關卡片後，便會顯示相關的多媒體資訊： 圖 3 《多彩的賀卡》擴增實境教學活動的畫面 圖 4 《親子運動會》一課中，學生運用擴增 實境技術作課文生詞學習的情況 由於研究員事前已將相應會彈出的資訊輸入至程式內，故此如圖所 示，在《多彩的賀卡》一課當中，由於內容牽涉到顏色與物件的關係，因 此學生在掃描紅色的賀卡後，會彈出太陽的圖像；而在《親子運動會》一 課當中，當學生手持裝置掃描「運動會」的圖卡並被擴增實境識別後，會 同時彈出相應的運動會詞卡，及播放詞語的發音；相對地，當學生掃描「比 賽」的詞卡後，程式亦會相應彈出及播放進行比賽的畫面與聲音。 研究數據收集 研究數據收集上，在質性觀察方面，基於學生對於新的教學模式需時 適應，故此在首篇文章《多彩的賀卡》的教學中，研究員會根據研究目標 進行相關觀察，探討新教學模式能否引起他們的學習動機及檢視實行時的 困難，對當中的不足之處進行改善，並於教授次篇文章時持續觀察及檢視 學生的學習情況。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 202 教育研究報告匯編 圖 7 學生以電子工具進行前後測的情況 圖 5 個人資料輸入畫面 圖 6 完成作答後，會顯示相關數據 在量化數據收集上，主要會於教授次篇課文《親子運動會》時，在學 生較為適應新上課模式時進行。基於研究希望探討學生在課堂加入新的教 學模式後，字詞理解能力的變化與接受傳統教學後有否差異，故此會於課 堂前後分別為實驗組及對照組的學生進行前測及後測以考察學生的閱讀能 力變化，為了讓數據更為準確，前後測均會分別於同一個上課天的同一課 節內進行，而研究員亦會與任教對照組的老師進行協調，確保於前後測進 行時的教學進度一致。 而在數據收集工具方面，在質性觀察上，基於是次研究的對象為中度 智障學生，他們的口語及書寫能力均有限，故此主要以研究員的隨堂觀 察，輔以拍攝配合質性描述為主；而在量化數據上，為了能較有效及客觀 地收取學生的閱讀能力數據，研究員將日常用於考察學生的圖卡選擇題型 電子化，並以手機應用程式開發了一個電子測試工具，並配合學生的閱讀 能力層級，以四選一的題型製作題目，學生在觀看附帶圖片的課文重點詞 語後，須於下方選擇出一張同樣是表達題目詞語的圖片。而在數據收集類 型上，如下列圖片所示，系統則會先收集學生姓名，測試類別（前試或後 測），再於測試期間記錄每道題目的對錯及總答題時間以便進行後續數據 分析。（具體測試程式內容亦可見附件 2）： 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 203 教育研究報告匯編 研究進度表 是次研究的進度及相關規劃如下表所示： 研究結果及分析質性觀察 呼應研究目標，是次研究的質性觀察主要聚焦於虛擬及擴增實境教學 在對於中度智障學生上，實行時有否需要注意的地方及此教學法能否引發 學生的學習動機。首先，在教學時需注意的地方上，研究員於首篇課文運 用虛擬實境引入課題時，曾面對一個難題，那就是如何得知學生在眼鏡內 是否觀看著相關的景物，抑或只是無意識地戴著眼鏡旋轉？故此，為了得 悉學生有否在佩戴裝置時聚焦觀看圖像，研究老師嘗試於次篇課文運用虛 擬實境教學時，安裝螢幕投射裝置並將眼鏡內所顯示的影像投映出來，如 下圖所示： 圖 8 及 9 學生佩戴虛擬實境裝置及螢幕投射相關畫面的情況 日期 階段 進度 2019 年 1 - 3 月 規劃 ．探討虛擬及擴增實境的技術在教學上的應用及進行相關語文教 材的編寫 ．選定相關研究對象學生、課題並與任教對照組的語文老師協調 教學進度 ．開發收集前後測數據的應用程式 2019 年 4 - 5 月 實踐 先後於《多彩的賀卡》及《親子運動會》兩篇課文中試行融入虛 擬及擴增實境（每課約 6- 8 節，為時約三星期） 進行前後測，收集相關研究數據 2019 年 6 - 8 月 反思 分析研究數據並撰寫研究報告 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 204 教育研究報告匯編 另外，從課堂質性觀察中，亦發現了研究學生在進行虛擬實境活動時 的安全問題，基於感覺統合的關係，部分學生的平衡力較弱，若站著觀看 比較容易有跌倒的危險，因此，在檢討後，研究員嘗試配合結構化教學法 對教室環境設置的著重，在課室中央位置劃定虛擬實境活動區，並讓學生 坐著觀看相關影像： 圖 10 優化教學前，學生站立著 佩戴虛擬實境裝置 圖 11 優化教學後，學生於特定區域 以虛擬實境裝置進行學習 而在擴增實境教學方面，研究員起初曾嘗試讓學生手持平板電腦掃描 相關的圖片及詞卡，但從過程中觀察到部分學生之肌能較弱，而且較難以 適當的手勢手持電子裝置，因此在修訂教學時，嘗試以體積較小的智能電 話作為工具讓學生掃描，並執手協助有需要的學生進行相關活動。 另一方面，在學習動機方面，如前所述，研究指出態勢語，即動作， 表情及姿勢能夠反映學生是否具有學習動機及投入課堂當中（郭德俊、劉 海燕、王振宏，2012）。亦有學者指出主動參與學習活動正是學習動機 的一種行為反映（楊碧桃，2002）。研究員根據上述理論，並配合課堂 中的質性觀察，認為與傳統教學模式相比，虛擬及擴增實境活動能夠提升 學生的動機。首先，在動作方面，學生對於 VR 眼鏡均感到十分好奇，研 究員所任教的實驗組學生都願意自行戴上眼鏡及觀看，亦有部分學生會於 課節結尾之活動時間，主動拿起或觸碰眼鏡，表示希望再次觀看影像；而 在表情及動作方面，課堂觀察中顯示了學生願意主動拿起智能電話掃描圖 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 205 教育研究報告匯編 圖 12 及圖 13 學生以虛擬及擴增實境裝置專注地進行學習 量化數據方面 是次研究所評估的範疇，屬於課程發展議會（2011b）出版，為智障 學生而設的中國語文科學習大綱「閱讀能力」下之「理解詞語」一項，當 中建議教師能夠以圖字配對的形式為學生進行相關能力評估。而參與研究 的兩組學生於校內亦多以此種模式進行評估和練習，對此已有一定的認 識。因此，考慮到評估工具的有效性以及學生熟習程度兩方面，研究員選 擇了以此形式製作評估工具收集與學生理解詞語能力相關的量化數據；另 一方面，在收集的量化數據方面，除了包括答題是否正確外，學者亦指出 了在此類評測系統當中加入答題時間能夠提供更準確的結果，答題時間的 長短往往與學生的信心呈反比的關係（黃國禎，2008）。因此，研究員 所開發的評估系統亦會收集答題時間的數據。 在評估內容方面，是次研究主要以第二篇課文《親子運動會》之課文 重點詞語為考查目標，以上文所提及的四選一題型以測試學生能否理解這 些字詞，當中所涉及的字詞共五個，分別為「運動場」、「參加」、「比 賽」、「加油」及「頒獎」，兩次測試當中的題目均是相同的。而實驗組 及對照組的前後測結果如下： 表 1 前測成績 組別 平均正確題數　（最高為五題） 平均答題時間（秒） 實驗組 2 53 對照組 3.6 38 卡並專心觀看及在佩戴 VR 眼鏡時表現興奮並張嘴大笑等行為（見下圖）， 這些行為均反映了以上的教學方法能夠引發起學生的學習動機，並主動啟 動相關學習。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 206 教育研究報告匯編 比較兩組學生在前後測之變化，發現實驗組的學生在當中進步了 2.75 分（即增加了 137.5%），而對照組的學生則進步了 1 分（即增加了 27%）；在平均答題時間方面實驗組與對照組學生於後測中的答題時間分 別縮短了 24 秒及 16 秒，即分別縮短了 45.2% 及 42.1%。整體而言，研 究結果顯示以兩種教學方法教授學生生詞，均能夠令學生理解課文字詞的 能力有所增長。研究數據同時顯示接受以虛擬及擴增實境融入常規教學的 學生在正確答題題數及平均答題時間上有較大的改善，反映閱讀能力進步 較大。 表 2 後測成績 兩組學生所進行的前測數據顯示，實驗組和對照組的學生在五道題當 中分別平均答對了 2 題及 3.6 題，而平均作答時間分別為 53 及 38 秒，反 映雖在校內評核當中，兩組學生之閱讀能力層級相同，但在實際的前測當 中，實驗組學生的表現較為遜色，平均答題亦需時較久。 在《親子運動會》一課教授完畢後，研究員亦於同一日之同一課節為 學生進行後測，後測數據反映出實驗組學生及對照組學生在五道題目中分 別答對了 4.75 題及 4.6 題，而平均作答時間方面，分別為 29 及 22 秒， 反映了在答對題數上，實驗組學生略較對照組為高，而在答題時間上，則 以對照組的答題時間較短。 表 3 兩次測試成績比較 組別 平均正確題數　（最高為五題） 平均答題時間（秒） 實驗組 4.75 29 對照組 4.6 22 組別 正確題數變化 平均答題時間變化 實驗組 +2.75 （+137.5%） -24 （-45.2%） 對照組 +1 （+27%） -16 （-42.1%） 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 207 教育研究報告匯編 参考書目 吳紹群（2018）。〈科技元素應用於博物館館校合作活動之研究：以線上影音 , 虛擬實 境以及 3D 列印之整合運用為例〉。《博物館學季刊》，第 32 卷，85-111。 林千惠、何素華（1997）。〈國中啟智班新生功能性讀寫能力評估研究〉。《嘉義師院 學報》，第 11 卷，426-452。 林 雲 龍、 李 天 佑（2002）。〈 刺 激 褪 除 導 向 詞 彙 辨 識 學 習 系 統 對 中 度 智 能 障 礙 學 童 學 習 成 效 之 研 究 〉( 碩 士 論 文 )。 取 自 http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/ handle/20.500.12235/92633。 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Hu Li Za Zhi, 64(6), 12-18. 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 209 教育研究報告匯編 附件 1 《多彩的賀卡》及《親子運動會》全文 ＊重點詞語以底線標示 《多彩的賀卡》 森林送給我綠色的賀卡，祝願我像樹苗一樣茁壯成長。 藍天送給我白色的賀卡，呼喚我變成一隻飛翔的白鴿。 大海送給我藍色的賀卡，囑咐我揚起風帆探索大海。 太陽送給我紅色的賀卡，告訴我要珍惜現在、創造未來。 《親子運動會》 學校舉行親子運動會，我的爸爸媽媽都來參加。 爸爸和我參加「二人三足」比賽，媽媽就和我們加油打氣。 最後，我們得到了第一名。頒獎時，我高興得跳起來。 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 210 教育研究報告匯編 附件 2 電子測試工具內容（節錄） ．主頁 ．資料輸入頁 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 211 教育研究報告匯編 ．測試結果及記錄儲存頁面示意圖 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 212 教育研究報告匯編 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中國 語文科 02/03 實境觀察可以豐富中一學生的寫作內容 張東前 用普通話教中文試驗計劃 羅旭生 04/05 利用「網絡評語批改法」批改作文的行動研究 陳淳泉 06/08 探討「香港家書寫作計劃」的成效 林志德 讚賞家長對學生學習中文科的成效有正面的影響 何裕昌、李伴培 09/10 提升閱讀及寫作能力的竅門 楊美鄰 10/11 校本讀寫支援課程對提升學生語文及 寫作能力的成效 冼景揚、呂永豪 11/12 推廣從閱讀中學習 黃晶榕、岑嘉慧、蔡麗如、 金卓麟、李麗彩、李韻儀、 黃思慧 13/14 以學習中華文化知識提升學生文言篇章閱讀能力 之研究——以法家思想的學與教為例 吳善揮、張鳳儀、陳月新 14/15 朗讀劇場融入初中文言文教學之研究 吳善揮 16/17 創意教學融入文言文教學課程之研究 吳善揮 17/18 繪本教學對初中非華語學生掌握 「故事線策略」的成效 黃家慧 運用虛擬實境寫作教學提升初中學生學習動機及 寫作能力成效研究 陳志堅、蔡仁桂、莊繞蔓、 曾笥湲、蔡淑榕 18/19 史傳文學融入文言文教學之研究 吳善揮、黃綺筠、文德榮 普通話科 08/09 關於筆者所在學校中二年級普通話朗讀存在的 問題及原因的行動研究 黃飛燕、王　煒、應單君 09/10 研究從戲劇教育學習普通話常用慣用語的成效 謝麗敏 英國 語文科 02/03 Corrective Feedback and Learner Uptake CHEONG Ying Yue 03/04 本科英語詞匯知多些 莫迪明 An Invest igat ion into the ef fects of an Appropriate Integrated English Curriculum (AIEC) on Student Motivation to Learning English for Students with the Same English Proficiency Level YUEN Lau Ching Emma 一、中學 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 213 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 英國 語文科 08/09 Reading Newspapers with Ease TSE Wing Chi, CHIU Suk Mei Eva, LEE Pui Wing 09/10 A Study of Using TV News as Authentic Materials to Enhance the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning of English Language in a CMI Boys School in Hong Kong WAI Wai Yeung Wilfred 10/11 Examining the Effectiveness of Adopting an Inductive Approach to the Teaching of English Grammar WONG Chi Ho Henry, WONG Mei Chu Evelyn, TANG Siu Lun Terence Peer Tutoring in Speaking CHIU Suk Mei Eva, WONG Pik Lo Morgan 11/12 The Use of Process Writing to Prepare Senior Secondary Two Students for their HKDSE Writing Examination LAM Kang Mei 12/13 Catering for Learner Diversity in English Language Classrooms with Differentiated Instructions and Collaborative Learning WUT Sau Wan Maria, LAU Pui Ting, KONG Yuen Fun, CHAN Yau Wa 14/15 Teacher as the Change Agent: Implementation and Impact of a Learner-centered Approach in Teaching Argumentative Essays to Senior Secondary ESL Learners in Hong Kong LI Kwun Hung To Know is Not to Use: the Gap Between Students’ Productive Vocabulary Knowledge and their Actual Use in Free Writing Bronson HUI, Daniel FUNG Using Written Corrective Feedback to Improve Writing Accuracy of Junior Secondary Students Selena T. C. TAM, Dr. Eva CHIU 15/16 Promoting Journal Writing to Enhance Student's English Competence and Learning Motivation in a Secondary School in Hong Kong CHUI Yin Man 16/17 Using Formative Assessment in a Senior Secondary Writing Classroom Selena T. C. TAM, Sanda W. N. HO Effective Strategies of Learner Management in EFL Reading among Chinese Pre-adolescents Dickson Y.L. LAM, Melissa P.M. LEE, S.M.CHOW, W.K.WONG, Orieta H.Y.WONG 17/18 Using Procure to Improve Students' Performance in English Writing CHAN Yiu Fai Fred, CHAN Ka Man 18/19 Supporting E-learning in Junior Secondary English Classes: A Reflection about Microsoft Teams as a Learning Management System WONG Sing Tsun, Derek 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 214 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 數學科 04/05 「」與「合班教學」的互助關係 何力生、沈珮雯 06/08 促進學習的評估—— 中一級數學科回饋之初步探究 蔡志傑 09/10 藉多元化教學法和校本課程提升學業成績稍遜 學生的數學態度和成績 胡大維 15/16 Student Learn ing and Engagement in Mathematics Flipped Classroom: An Action Research Study in Secondary School LO Chung Kwan 17/18 透過自主學習模式提升學生課堂參與、 學習動機及學生成績的教育研究 周志聰、何家豪、 翁志明 數學實驗教學（實驗教學法於“平方差公式”及 “完全平方公式”課題教學的成效探究） 阮啟崙、楊明揚、 孫福濤、黃俊邦 18/19 透過校本流動應用程式強化中一學生數學學習的 行動研究 李家明、陳偉良 通識教育 06/08 「報章放大鏡」課節的影響和成效 謝麗敏 探討「文物通識保育大使計劃」的成效 林志德 通識教育科之跨學科課程：對提升學生從 生活觸覺發展到整全性知識之學習效能研究 鄺慧珊 09/10 The Effectiveness of Promoting Curriculum- suggested Positive Values in the NSS Liberal Studies Classrooms HUI Shing Man, LEE Sau Kuen 15/16 「自主學習」的校本實踐： 通識教育科的校本經驗實踐 程衛權 18/19 「融辯入教」的校本實踐： 以辯論模式融入通識教育科 孫　政、方健鈞 「翻轉教室」如何影響學習動機—— 高中通識教育科的行動研究 黃文禮、朱俊錕 人文學科 05/06 透過協作學習，擴濶學生學習思維 鄭文瑛 09/10 In Motivating and Enhancing Student Learning: A Preliminary Exploration of an Evidence- based Practice of Brain-Based Learning (BBL) Intervention Strategies HUEN Mei Yiu Jenny, CHAN Wai Leung Ricky 中國 歷史科 05/06 利用思維訓練改進學生評價中國歷史人物的技巧 余雅麗 12/13 透過閱讀報告的提問提升學生的思維能力 梁惠珍 15/16 透過「關鍵字聯想法」開發非華語學生的 中國歷史教材 陳漢成 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 215 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 企業、 會計與 財務概 論科 02/03 年宵市場的價格彈性 鄺少權 15/16 電子學習在企業、會計與財務概論科的初探 李健廉、林築雅、李志成 科學科 17/18 Does learning at the submicroscopic level support the understanding of conservation of mass at the macroscopic level? YU Ka Kit Steven 物理科 03/04 學習記錄簿（Learning Logbook）對提升 高中學生學習成效之行動研究 何樂天 05/06 利用創意解難活動教授熱傳導的推行及 對學習效能影響之研究 何俊恩 電腦科 04/05 中一級普通電腦科「協作教學方法」與 「傳統教學法」的比較 程德志 06/08 製作電腦遊戲之行動研究 何樂天 科技與 生活 12/13 應用 Big6 於群育學校科技與生活科教學以 提昇學生資訊素養認知層面能力 吳偉廉 合作學習 10/11 合作小組與互動對話的關係 梁惠珍 14/15 透過合作學習提升中一級學生課堂參與的教育 行動研究 鄧耀南、黃麗燕、岑嘉慧、 盧顯珺、廖穎茹、黃潔萍 自主學習 05/06 探討學生備課對學習成效的有效性 何力生 學生成長 02/03 情緒健康推廣計劃 張　豐、周淑敏、芩秀慧 04/05 訓導合一：建立關愛文化的行動研究 朱蓓蕾 13/14 Investigating the Impact of \"Big Brother Scheme\" on both S.1 Students (mentees) and the Big Brothers (student mentors) LAU Pik Wa Josephine 價值教育 05/06 \"From Lasallians with Love 2005\" – Case Studies on How Well Students Respond to Service Learning Religious Education Department 08/09 D-task 提升學生個人品行計劃 李群慈 09/10 「心靈教育」對提升學生學習效能關係： 彩虹村天主教英文中學經驗分享 朱蓓蕾 升學及就 業教育 02/03 如何透過比賽提升學生積極投入工場實習 江鏡深 15/16 The Effectiveness of Strengthening Career and Life Planning Education through Individual Counselling HO Chun Yan 教師專業 發展 04/05 思維技巧的學與教——提升課堂教學素質 郭思穎、麥志成 11/12 Improving Teaching through Classroom Observation LEE Chi Shing 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 216 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中國 語文科 02/03 研究校本小一中文科校本教材能提高學生的 閱讀能力的成效 李少娟、鄭美如、 李映卿、徐思敏、 鄒建珠、黃坤鳳、黃麗芬 透過演繹成語故事引發學生有效閱讀， 推動學生有效閱讀 劉燕玲 利用範文引路、資料搜集和辯論活動能否 改善小六學生寫作議論文的能力 胡嘉蓮、張文暉、 鄭永慈、梁志文 校長午間伴讀：策略與成效之行動研究 廖玉英、胡家偉、郭鳳儀 新來港學童在香港學習中國語文所面對的困難 姜婉珊 03/04 探討識字教學 姜婉珊 04/05 利用普通話教中文行動研究 陳慧雯 利用合作學習提升學生對中文字的深究及 培養自學能力 曾麗霞、余浩然 探討如何提高學生閱讀記敘文的能力 曾素華、杜敏瑞、姚潔玉 唱詠、誦讀及傳統教學比較測試 劉知行 06/08 運用「疑難為本教學法」進行「國民身份認同」 寫作 朱慧珍 校本演說課程對提高學生聽說能力的成效 莫慧梓、鄭玉蘭、 黃綺雯、朱偉林 利用合作學習提升學生對中國語文寫作的能力及 對文章評賞能力的培養 曾麗霞 08/09 校本演說課程對提高學生語言表達能力的成效 朱偉林、何志恆博士、 陳小敏、莫慧梓、 鄭玉蘭、吳麗琴 09/10 進行有效課堂提問以提升學生閱讀能力 陳佩儀 「探討校本課程設計——小組討論的學習成效」 研究報告 朱偉林、何志恆博士、 陳小敏、莫慧梓、 鄭玉蘭、吳麗琴 10/11 探討運用香港大學「知識建構論壇」實踐建構 主義改善學生中文學習的效能之研究 王　旭 讀寫互動，分點特訓，高效練寫 張小娟、鄭凱雲、 麥佩欣、袁詠娟 利用評估提升小學中文科學習效能行動研究 歐惠珊、何志恆博士、 張壽洪博士、陳　宇、 吳麗媚、姜曉霞、方潔雯、 伍偉奇、麥詠思、鄺志良、 甯美娟、羅少梅、陳少鵬 二、小學 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 217 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中國 語文科 13/14 透過閱讀理解策略提升二年級學生閱讀能力之 行動研究 林小玲、岑兆娟、 謝盛業 14/15 透過電子教學平台提升學生辨析修辭手法的 能力研究 吳麗琴、李佩霞、陳小敏、 馬望寧、何志恆博士 15/16 透過古詩文學習提升學生品德情意── 「孝道」水平的研究 卓燕玲、鄒立明、黃敏祺、 余念秀、鄭婉婷、梁羽鳳、 朱偉林 17/18 從群文閱讀教學去提升學生高層次思維閱讀以及 自主閱讀的態度 劉佩義、易理斯 18/19 運用摘要教學策略提升非華語學生 中文閱讀理解能力之行動研究 賴嘉欣 英國 語文科 02/03 初探閱讀英語新聞對學生英語閱讀能力和 興趣的影響 陳婉婷、鄧淑珍 A Web Quest-Festivals and Holidays in Hong Kong LO Hang Yi, WAN Oi Chi An Investigation of the Effects of the Co- operative Learning Approach on Pupils' Motivation in English Language Reading Lesson Vanessa LO 03/04 Use of Poetry in a Local Primary School CHIANG Oi Kit Kezia 利用網上英語課程提升學生英語語文能力 陳玉清 04/05 Using Authentic Audio-visual Materials to Facilitate Hong Kong Students' English Language Learning (I love Sesame Street!) CHAN Yee Wah Eva, CHAN Yeung Ming Eve, CHAN Ki Yuen, FUNG Ting Sing, HO Chek Wah, CHUNG Sim Yu 05/06 電子默書有助提升小學生學習的自信度 （教學行動研究） 林漢堅、蔡楷俊、 馮立榮、黃金枝 08/09 如何幫助有學習困難的學生提升認讀和 默寫英文生字的能力 吳智英 10/11 Enhancing Teaching Professional ism in Teaching and Learning through Learning Study CHAN Yee Wah Eva, ZHANG Yue Feng Ellen, CHEUNG Kit Chun Shirley, LIU Chung Yan Joanna, WONG Chun Yin Grace, FUNG Tin Sing Patrick, CHOW Lo Kar Catherine, TAM Shu Bon James, MAK Kui Ying Miranda 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 218 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 英國 語文科 11/12 The Effectiveness of Using Songs Incorporated with Other Activities to Increase Students' Motivation and Confidence to Speak English in an EFL Environment LAM Nga Kit Rachel 12/13 Using Mind Mapping as a Tool to Teach English Vocabulary for the Elementary Students Carol PUA, Dorothy LI, Cherie LUI, Shirley CHENG 數學科 03/04 解題教學——透過圖像思考策略提高學生解答 應用題的能力 陳小冰 04/05 Relationship between Mathematics Academic Achievement, Gender Di f ferences, the Learning of Mathematics Olympiad Problems and Students' Attitude toward Mathematics WONG Chu 04/05 加强小四學生數學解題能力之行動研究初探 陳小燕 05/06 「探究式學習」在數學教學中的效能 黃家瑤 專題研習課程——對提升學生學習效能之 成效研究 胡家偉 06/08 比較應用題的解難策略 曾麗文 利用自擬應用題目提升處理應用題的能力 邱可婷、李　怡 09/10 探討數學科電子課程教學與學生科學習能力的 關係 石麗芬 11/12 學習單位分數的概念以強化分數概念及 分數大小比較的研究 楊詠盈、冼文標、 黃鳳珠、陳巧卿 12/13 引入直式教授小五生分數除法的新嘗試 李婉婷 運用資訊科技學習軟件來提升學生在數學上 空間感的行動研究 鄧佩玉 15/16 運用校本繪本故事加強學生學習異分母分數大小 比較的行動研究 張淑冰、楊詠盈、 冼文標、廖綺珊 16/17 通過立體打印筆協助學生學習幾何立體概念形象 的教學研究 陳廷軒、歐陽錦泉、 鄭美寶、廖嘉偉、謝基立 17/18 探討運用電子學習資源來提升學生學習分數的 效能的行動研究 麥桂英、徐智強、 黃錦杏、戴英傑 劉珈瑗、何諾衡、何澤華 「時間線」應用於「時間」教學實踐 林偉倫 18/19 Reflection on a Lesson Study for Enhancing Students' Problem Solving Competence through the Bar Model Method Daniel Chui & Alex Kwan 常識科 16/17 利用「翻轉教室」推動學生的自主學習 鄭家寶、文家榮 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 219 教育研究報告匯編 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 閱讀 03/04 家校合作：對學生閱讀興趣及能力提升之 效能研究 胡家偉、郭鳳儀、 黎貴芳 如何投入各種資源，讓閱讀可以產生最佳的效能 黎銘賢 合作學習 04/05 How do Students Acquire Cooperat ive Learning through the Methodology of Service Learning HAU Sze Man Violet 06/08 透過合作學習提升小一學生創造能力 孟　罡 11/12 探討應用「合作學習」教學策略於小二及小三 中、英、數科目，以改善學生的學習態度和成績 馮停珍 專題研習 02/03 如何提升學生搜集整理資料的能力， 以助推展專題研習 區永佳 03/04 怎樣推行專題研習才能令學生真正得益 何家慧、陳綺雯 透過專題研習的設計促進學生國民身份認同 區永佳 03/04 全校教師參與推行「專題研習」校本課程之 行動研究 劉燕玲 視覺 藝術科 02/03 美藝坊 黃麗芬、施永愛 08/09 統整二年級視覺藝術科進行「國民身份認同」 教學 朱慧珍 體育科 06/08 透過學生自我評估進行體育課並提高學生對 運動的興趣 余浩然 10/11 「電子體育課」有助提升小學生做運動的興趣 李嘉慧、林漢堅、 劉慧欣、吳俊輝 12/13 探討運用資訊科技器材教授體育科武術單元， 對評估及教學效能的影響 鄭頌霖、張　軒、 葉治浩、廖綺珊、 沈劍威教授 音樂科 17/18 Pied Pipers: A Gamified Non-formal Curriculum Design Intended To Enhance Student Learning Motivation for the Recorder Li Yun Xuan Merak 生命教育 04/05 生命教育對提升小學生的積極正面生活態度之 成效研究 胡家偉 公民教育 02/03 應用多媒體於小學公民教育 陳玉清 教師專業 發展 03/04 校本協調活動的行動研究 胡少偉、陳培佳、馮家正 04/05 從行動研究看教學的關顧 胡少偉 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 220 教育研究報告匯編 三、幼稚園 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中文科 11/12 透過情景教學法提升幼兒運用代名詞的能力 溫志倫 15/16 透過感覺統合訓練提升幼兒閱讀及書寫發展 樊淑葵 17/18 透過「多感官學習法」改善幼兒粵語發音研究 李杰雯、嚴淑霞、 劉嘉敏、江佩珊、 何志恆 英文科 08/09 親子英語閱讀樂 王淑宜、陳偉珍、 葉潔美、林靜儀、 張文菁 科學與 科技 11/12 四至五歲兒童對地球地心吸力迷思的概念轉變 黃晨芸 12/13 透過有趣的科學實驗遊戲以提升孩子的 「科學與科技」發展 劉佩珊、龔宇萍 14/15 三至四歲幼兒在積木主題建構活動中對 空間概念的認知與迷思 張　曄、黎培莉、 關　珊 幼兒教育 05/06 以「說故事」提升幼兒自信 林志德、歐凱鑫 08/09 幼兒透過模仿學習對創意思維之影響 梁綺雯 透過合作遊戲提升兒童社交技巧 何明恩 生命教育 13/14 論證透過實施幼兒生命教育課以探討對 提升幼兒生命價值概念獲得之正向轉變 鄧玉霞、羅鳳嬋、 劉少娥、黃敏儀 大自然與 生活 17/18 透過體驗及操作式教學，提升幼兒對 「空氣與風」的概念 溫志倫、陸矜兒、韓詠恩 《教育研究報告匯編》歷年回顧 221 教育研究報告匯編 四、特殊學校 範圍 年份 教育研究報告名稱 研究員 中文科 04/05 圖像組織教學策略對提高輕度智障學生在語文科 閱讀理解能力的成效研究 吳羅慧芬、朱佩雯、 杜家華、關家碧、 蘇笑芬、陳靜儀、 周璜錩 05/06 弱能學校學生的書寫漢字評估 譚蘊華 09/10 運用多元智能理念提升輕度智障學生中文寫作 學習態度 周璜錩、羅吳慧芬、 朱佩雯、蕭耀宏、 張淑芬 18/19 透過虛擬及擴增實境教學提升中度智障學生 字詞閱讀理解能力之教學研究 麥梓煬 活動教學 08/09 綠葉仙蹤——運用聲香園藝活動對嚴重智障學生 於課堂參與的成效 楊麗萍、林淑玫、 李文友、李應崇、 王超龍 18/19 Motivating Learning and Increasing Participation in a School for Social Development through Play-based Learning Lucy M ROGERS & CHAN Ka Ying 自主學習 16/17 運用電子教學提升學生自主學習效能的行動研究 李兆庭、陳柏瑩 教師專業 發展 04/05 運用「密集互動」教學模式（Intensive Interaction） 增進嚴重弱智學生的課堂上專注學習和師生互動 表現 許健文、廖淑儀、 鄭玉鶯、李珮珊 12/13 「覆誦提示」：提高中度自閉症學生的命名 郭思穎、沈佩雯、 湯佩芳 16/17 教師專業發展：探討提升中度智障學校的師生 溝通、關係及課堂結構的教學策略和應用成效 李兆庭、周聿琨、 黃健雲 17/18 教師專業發展：探討溝通 (C)、關係 (R) 及結構 (S) 的教學策略對不同能力之中度智障及自閉症學生 的學習效能的影響 李兆庭、周聿琨、 黃健雲 222 教育研究報告匯編 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會 （2018-2020 年度） 教育研究小組 召集人 ： 李少鶴教授 小組成員 ： 張慧真博士 鄧依萍女士 郭詠怡女士 劉餘權先生 羅方進先生 馬志聰先生 吳悅聰女士 潘詠詩女士 鄧怡勳博士 曾凱妍女士 黃永基先生（8.6.2019 離任） 胡志偉博士 胡家偉先生（24.5.2019 離任） 楊沛銘博士 葉漢雲先生 袁潔欣女士 香港教師中心諮詢管理委員會（2018-2020 年度） 223 教育研究報告匯編 編輯委員會 主編： 楊沛銘博士 委員： 張慧真博士 李少鶴教授 梁麗嬋博士 馬志聰先生 編輯委員會
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