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The programme aims at equipping secondary school science teachers with the knowledge and techniques to apply information technology in developing STEAM educational activities as well as learners' activities in scientific investigation. The acquired knowledge will be useful for experimental design which combines information technology and laboratory facilities in secondary schools. Examples include the use of computer simulation software to conduct experiments in physics, chemistry and biology, the application of 3D printers and 3D visualisation hardware and software to visualise chemical and biological molecules, the use of appropriate hardware such as digital data-loggers and cameras to facilitate activities in scientific inquiry. The programme will benefit science teachers in secondary schools, including teachers of Physics, Chemistry and Biology in senior secondary level, as well as Science teachers in junior secondary level.
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香 港 社 郎 中 心 學 報 z o a -《o a t s z o a - O O E B 』 O E 『 蓋 一 第十卷 、fQIU'ID'eJ l'en 教育骨 EduçetiQnI B\J ea~ 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 第十卷 Volume 10 出 版 : 香港教師中心 地 址 : 香港 九龍 九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓 W106 室 出版年份 : 2011 年 Publisher : Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address : W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing : 2011 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 香港教師中心(教師中心)是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建議 而於 1989 年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓, 並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境,使他們更能團結一致,發揮專 業精神。此外,教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會,推動課程發展, 鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法,協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念,並配合教師興 趣,組織各項社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設,也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中心 的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會(諮管會)、一個常務委員會(常委會) 和六個工作小組,負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組成, 其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出,35 位由教師提名及選出,另外兩位由教育局常任秘書 長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政架構,與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會的 主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任,其他成員包括 10 位由諮管會提名 及選出的諮管會委員及兩位教育局代表。 六個工作小組包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍 小組和推廣小組,負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。 教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內,交通便捷,毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站,另有多 條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備,內有多媒體寬頻上網電腦、時事及消閒雜誌、 閱報室和專題展板等,歡迎各位教師親臨使用本中心的服務。 詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁:www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 香港教師中心 i The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from educational organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of multi-media plus broadband workstations, leisure magazines, reading area and display-boards. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please browse our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ii 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 顧問團(Board of Advisors) Allan B I Bernardo De La Salle University Janet Draper Hong Kong Baptist University Lee Wing On National Institute of Education Singapore Allan Luke Queensland University of Technology Colin Marsh Curtin University of Technology Jongho Shin Seoul National University Jennifer Sumsion Charles Sturt University Tan Eng Thye Janson National Institute of Education Singapore 王嘉毅 西北師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物,內 容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及海外 的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚園、小 學、中學及大專院校,而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁(www.edb.gov.hk/hktc)閱覽《學 報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov. hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. iii 編輯委員會(Editorial Committee) 主編(Chief Editors) 容萬城(2010 年 4 月 1 日至 7 月 2 日) 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 簡加言(2010 年 10 月 11 日起) 福建中學(小西灣) 副主編(Vice-chief Editors) 胡少偉 香港教育學院 葉建源 香港教師會 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 委員(Members) 何景安 香港學科教育研究學會 李子建 香港教育學院 胡 飄 香港浸會大學 郭禮賢 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 雷其昌 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 趙淑媚 漢華中學 張永明 香港考試及評核局 梁湘明 香港中文大學 莫家豪 香港教育學院 陳建強 香港城市大學 陳嘉琪 教育局 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 馮施鈺珩 香港公開大學 葉 瀾 華東師範大學 潘慧玲 國立台灣師範大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 盧乃桂 香港中文大學 顧明遠 北京師範大學 iv 主編序 今期《香港教師中心學報》的主題是「資訊科技教育及電子學習」,得到多位學者及 教師就是次主題提交了相當寶貴的研究文章,具體回應資訊科技帶來的教學議題,再加上 特邀稿文合共十三篇,令《學報》更為豐富。 經評審後,第一部分共收錄了四篇專題文章,內容包括:電子學習為學校教育帶來的 機遇、行動研究失敗因由的探究、建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台、探討教 師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機。香港作為中西文化薈萃,資訊科技發展的地區, 電子學習融入學習的平台是不可或缺的。本期收錄這四篇專題文章,正正為前線教師提供 了相當寶貴的思考及研究資料,能促進學與教的效能。 第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章共有六篇,內容包括:於大專院校推行促進學習 的評估、促進學習的評估在中國語文科實行、學校情境中的教師實踐知識、在教育改革中 校園微觀政治行為的探究、社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分、引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因 素。這部分的研究集中探討理論與政策施行。學校是社會的縮影,把學校變成一個實踐知 識的場地是需要的磨練,教師可以藉此了解、掌握學生的學習情況,並隨時調整施教方法。 教師在實踐與理論之間須取得相當且充分的理解。這部分的研究,為教師提供了相當豐富 的資料,若能仔細閱讀,相信必能有所獲益。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享,共有三篇文章。內容包括:分享推行閱讀策略的經 驗、以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法、人道教室的實踐經驗。這部分的經驗分享都是很寶貴 的,因為前線教師是實幹型的,他們重視教學質量、重視教學效果,並常常因應學生需要 調整教學法。所以,他們的現身說法最有說服力,最難能可貴。2010 年「學生能力國際評 估計畫」(PISA),研究全球六十五個國家或地區的十五歲學生於閱讀素養方面的能力, 香港在閱讀方面排行第四。這很值得我們驕傲,特別是前線教師過去所作出的貢獻。因此, 這部分的經驗分享值得我們細讀。 最後,我想到《學報》能順利出版,評審員功不可沒,當中包括丁偉教授、何麗霞女 士、李子建教授、李偉雄先生、杜家慶先生、林偉業先生、侯傑泰教授、胡少偉博士、區 永佳先生、梁恩榮博士、莫慕貞教授、郭禮賢博士、陳聖根博士、黃瑞琛博士、黃鳳意女 士、楊沛銘博士、葉建源先生、雷其昌先生、廖佩莉博士及蔡若蓮博士。在此我謹代表《學 報》編輯委員會再一次表達我們衷心的謝意! 《香港教師中心學報》主編 簡加言 二零一一年十二月 v 目錄 Contents 一、 主題:資訊科技教育及電子學習 1 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 ............................................1 江紹祥 2 What’s wrong when it goes wrong? ...........................................9 Kay Cheng SOH 3 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 ...............................21 羅劍輝 4 從教育心理學到課堂實踐:教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 ...........27 梅志文、洪潔雯 二、 理論及政策評論 1 Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong ..................................................35 CHENG Mei Seung Catherine 2 「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 ...............................45 廖佩莉 3 學校情境中的教師實踐知識——敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 .............51 陸靜塵、李子建 4 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 .....................................61 陳幸仁、范慶鐘 5 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分:以倫敦市博物館為例 .....................75 葉王蓓 6 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 .................................................83 陳小梅、黃潔儀 三、 教育實踐與經驗分享 1 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 .................................................93 胡少偉、李少鶴、劉可欣 2 以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 ............................................101 許玉麟 3 香港生命教育的分享:人道教室的實踐經驗 ................................107 杜家慶、胡少偉 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 1 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 Opportunities of e-Learning in school education 江紹祥 香港教育學院數學與資訊科技學系 摘要 學校教育在未來的一段時間將會繼續以教科書為中心,教師仍然會以課本教授現行的正規課程,在課室的 單向教授仍然也是佔據主導的教學模式。但是由電子資源和電子通訊衍生的電子學習環境,將衝擊現時的 學校教育。本文旨在從空間和時間兩個導向討論電子學習環境為學校教育帶來的種種機遇。 關鍵詞 電子學習,電子學習資源,電子學習環境 Abstract School education would continually rely on textbooks for its formal curriculum teaching, while the dominant teaching model would still be teacher-centred in near future. E-Learning, however, could generate a new learning environment and bring fundamental change to school education. Such a powerful e-Learning environment, constructed by e-resources and e-communication, would challenge current schooling. This study aims to thoroughly discuss the possibilities of e-Learning in school education, its temporal and spatial aspects. Keywords e-Learning, e-Learning resources, e-Learning environment 2 引言 早期的電子學習泛指遙距的網上學習,是指 學習者經由網際網絡遠距離取得教學者於網站所 提供的教材,進行一種有系統的學習(Garrison & Anderson, 2003)。遙距學習為學習者打破空 間的限制,方便他們取得教學資源及聯繫教師和 同學。商業世界的電子學習是高效的職業培訓手 段,它將傳統的時間、地點、內容預定的學習改 造成為及時的、個人化的學習(Koechlin & Allan, 2010)。學校教育的電子學習涵蓋上述兩種電子 學習模式的優勢,能為學校教育帶來種種機遇。 隨著資訊科技在教育領域的廣泛應用,人們 最初認為學校將不再有存在的必要。然而學校並 沒有因為資訊科技教育的普及而消失,相反它所 擔當的教學角色顯得日益重要。因為學校不單是 傳遞知識的地方,更是培育能力和道德價值觀的 場所。 學校教育雖然在未來一段時間仍需繼續以教 科書為中心教授現行的正規課程,教師在課室內 的單向教授仍然是佔據主導位置的教學模式。 但是受惠於電子資源和電子通訊兩方面的廣泛 應用,電子學習將衝擊現時學校教育的教學模 式,從而衍生出一個嶄新的學習環境(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra, 2003; Siemens, 2005)。 電子學習環境:資源與通訊 教科書是傳統學校教育中最重要的學習資 源。學校課程的教授和學習,主要以教科書為中 心,於封閉的課室內開展。電子學習環境為學校 提供了豐富的學習資源,包括數碼化的教材、學 習網站、網絡課程、新聞資訊、認知工具等。這 些資源可網羅古今,涵蓋數千年前的歷史文獻至 即日發生的時事新聞。曾經需要親身前往特定歷 史檔案館才能取得的文獻,現在通過網絡就可獲 取數碼版本。此類數碼化的資源不單有文字,還 有圖像、音訊、視訊甚至三維模擬動畫等多樣形 式。電子教材亦不再局限於專門為學校教育配備 的教材,教師可以自行搜集合適的電子資源進 行 教 學 設 計(Wong, Clarke, Lodge, & Shephard, 2007)。這些獨立於教科書之外的電子學習資源, 信息量龐大,且方便隨時存取,為學生提供了一 個豐富的學習資源庫(Smeets, 2005),學生因 而可根據需要隨時自主地運用這些學習資源。 學者指出電子學習提供多樣的電子通訊媒 介(Wahlstedt, Pekkola, & Niemelä, 2008), 包 括 小 型 筆 記 型 電 腦(Barak, Lipson, & Lerman, 2006)、 流 動 電 腦 裝 置(Margolis, Nussbaum, Rodriguez, & Rosas, 2006; Patten, Arnedillo- Sanchez, & Tangney, 2006)、網絡媒介教學系統 (López, 2010)、課室管理系統等。多元的電子 通訊模式正逐步打破教師一人教授,學生集體聽 課的單一模式,為學生主動參與、積極思考創造 條件,亦為合作學習提供物質條件。教師可透過 電子通訊為學生轉播投射電子教材;學生和學生 之間亦可利用電子通訊分享資源與學習成果;教 室還可以流動裝置佈置成為流動科技支援的教 室,由兩名或多名學生組成一組,小組成員可根 據需要利用無綫網絡自主探究或合作討論網上 學習資源。由於流動裝置輕巧、便攜性高,學 生能夠手持流動裝置於課室自由走動,向其他 組展示小組成果,實現跨組分享資源(Dawson, 2010)。教師亦可以轉播投射個別小組的成果供 全班討論。相比教師單向的講授,電子通訊介入 的學習為學生營造一個自主探究、合作學習的環 境,能讓學生專心投入課堂學習,從多角度反覆 討論學習課題,從而使他們有更多機會深入學習 相關課題(Nuutinen, Sutinen, Botha, & Kommers, 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 3 2010)。 電子學習環境:空間與時間 教科書在電子學習環境中仍然是重要的教學 資源,但是電子資源卻極大地豐富了教學的選 擇。傳統教科書將知識點以單元形式集結成冊, 教師所要教授的知識點全部集中於課本,而電子 教材則可被拆分為獨立的單元或知識點,方便教 師在教學中靈活搭配使用。除了專門為學校教育 配備的電子教材,教師亦可自行進行精心的教學 設計,搜集合適的電子資源組織成為優質的教材 (Wong et al., 2007)。 教室可採用電子通訊媒介方便教師學生及同 學之間的溝通。這樣的課室不再是一個封閉的空 間,教師和學生雖然身在課室,但可以透過電子 通訊和外界聯繫,取得教科書以外的資源。電子 學習環境可以為學生營造一個合作的社群環境 (Nuutinen et al., 2010),學生即使在放學後及 放假的日子遇到學習問題,仍可以向同學及可信 任的人請教,不會陷入百思不得其解的困境。 由此可見,電子學習環境的教學資源和學習 的溝通模式將會在學習的空間上得到極大的拓 展。一方面,電子資源擺脫了傳統教科書必須集 結成冊的限制。專門為學校教育配備的電子教材 可以是以單元形式或圍繞知識點「集合」的材料, 亦可是「分散」於不同載體的材料。另一方面, 電子通訊則從空間上將學習由學校教室延展到校 外,於地理同一的傳播模式基礎上,增添了地理 非同一的新傳播模式,使學習不再受地理位置局 限。因此,無論是學習資源存放的空間或是教師 和學生進行教學的溝通模式都不再受空間的限 制:學校教育的學習資源不再必須集中於同一載 體;學生不再必須在同一空間內進行學習。 傳統的教科書印刷成本昂貴,一經出版多不 再變動,即使改版也往往需要幾年時間,因而經 常會出現教材不合時宜的問題。製作電子資源不 需要印刷成本,故更新成本低,可以頻密更新, 甚至實時更新。 傳統課室基本以教師的單向授課為主,並以 課堂時間為限,課堂時間完結授課便結束。由於 教師一心著眼於有限的課堂時間完成教學工作, 與學生交流時間便相對較少。電子通訊可將學習 時間由固定的課堂時間拓展成為富彈性的學習時 間,學生不單於課堂可向教師請教,亦可於課後 向同學及可信任的人請教,繼續深入討論課題。 由此可見,電子資源可打破傳統教科書因未 能及時改版而不合時宜的困局,讓學習資源擁有 相對穩定和及時更新的靈活特質。電子學習資源 既可以是相對穩定,輔助學生理解抽象知識點的 材料;也可以是及時更新、緊貼社會發展的素材。 而多元的電子通訊方式則豐富了原本課堂上教師 和學生面對面的交流模式,將學習溝通模式由課 堂時間延伸到課外時間。電子通訊擁有從同步通 訊到非同步通訊的彈性,方便學生隨時溝通交 流。因此,無論是教學資源的更新或是教師學生 的溝通模式都不再受時間的限制:教學資源不再 難於改版;教學時間不再局限於課堂時間。 電子學習環境提供的學習資源及多元溝通 方式能為學校教育變革提供良好的基礎,使學 習於時空的雙重維度得到延展,增加學與教的 種種可能(Looi, Seow, Zhang, So, Chen, & Wong, 2010)。 電子學習資源帶來的教學機遇 電子學習將會為學校教育帶來根本轉變,增 加教與學的彈性。其中,電子學習資源為教與學 帶來四個可行的發展方向。學校教育主要以經典 知識點為學習基礎。這些知識點經過前人不斷總 4 結得出,可能近數十年甚至數百年也不曾改變。 然而由於經過長時間的累積沉澱,此類經典知識 往往較為抽象,易造成學生理解的困難。學者研 究顯示認知工具能透過具體可操控的教學設計輔 助認知過程(Coffey, 2005; Ware, 2004),減少認 知負荷(Sweller & Chandler, 1994),幫助學生 理解抽象的概念(Wheeler, Yeomans, & Wheeler, 2008)。例如學生可親手操控專門為學習分數設 計的認知工具,藉著具體的圖形理解抽象的分數 概念。雖然開發認知工具需耗費較多時間和人力 資源,但是一旦設計定型,便基本不受時間因素 影響,可反覆使用讓學生受惠。因此,教師應該 多利用時間去尋找此類優質電子教材施教。教師 當然亦可尋找技術支援,與開發教材的組織合作 開發類似的教學資源。 雖然學校教育仍然以教授經典知識點為教學 目標,但讓學生掌握學科知識已經不再是其唯一 的教育功能。學校教育越來越注重學習能力的培 育,因此與現實社會緊密結合,並有助發展學生 學習能力的教材亦顯得十分重要。教師應該多尋 找及時更新的電子資源支援這些教學的需求。例 如香港部分報章專門為通識科開設學習網站。教 師可於發生馬尼拉人質事件的翌日在這些網站找 到相關教材,與學生探討及分析事件,激發學生 積極參與,從而營造一個良好的探究學習環境。 此類教材旨在訓練學生分析真實的社會議題, 協助學生發展獨立思考的能力,學習如何學習 (National Research Council, 1996)。 除了專門為學校教育配備的電子教材,教師 亦可自行進行教學設計,將優質的電子資源整理 或改動成教材。其中,教師可特別留意一些公共 機構的網站,如博物館、圖書館、公共廣播公司 等。這些資料雖不會緊貼社會熱點頻繁更新,但 此類資源種類繁多,且由專業機構提供,品質和 可信度高,能為學生提供一個龐大的學習資源 庫,滿足他們不同的學習需要。教師可以針對此 類教材進行多樣的教學設計。例如教師可以在博 物館網站搜集具歷史意義的圖片、錄音及錄像作 為課堂演示的教材,豐富教學內容;教師亦可將 一些搜集得到的相關文字資料編輯成為教材供學 生研習;教師當然亦可以設計一些相關的專題研 習讓學生探究。 教師還可將及時更新的電子資源如新聞網 站、博客和論壇的素材組織成有價值的教材。雖 然教師組織此類教材時往往需要在短時間完成大 量整理工作,頗費精力,但這恰恰是教師的專業 表現。教師親自搜集組織及時更新的教材,不單 施教時更能得心應手,而且這些教學資源緊貼 日常生活,可讓教師運用真實的例子推動學生 學習本科知識。例如教師可在現時廣受歡迎的 YouTube 網站搜尋以英語錄製的數碼影片,選取 適當的素材組織成英語教材或根據課題需要設計 與影片相關的工作紙供學生練習。教師還可以讓 學生自行結合課題搜集合適的影片學習相關的語 文課題。 電子通訊帶來的多元教學方式 電子學習環境為學校教育帶來的轉變還在於 它能提供豐富的電子通訊方式,這些電子通訊 方式為教與學帶來四個可行的發展方向。電子 學習環境可以為教師節省教學的時間,提高教 學效率。即使教師只是應用簡單的電子簡報進 行教學,已能夠節省他們在黑板重複板書的時 間。教師如果能夠於課堂運用課室管理系統施 教,則能更便捷地開展教學活動。教師透過系統 不但可更具效率地向全班學生派發及開啟工作 紙,更可隨時轉播投射某項教學內容及學生學 習成果(Bottge, Rueda, Kwon, Grant, & LaRoque, 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 5 2009)。因此,教師只要適當地在教室運用電子 通訊已經可以使傳統教室成為高效率的教室。 教師若能配合良好的教學設計,則可進一步 運用電子通訊把高效教室經營成為一個利於互動 學習的環境。教師透過如課室管理系統的轉播功 能便可促進跨組討論和全班討論。通過轉播,一 些表現較佳的小組可以向其他小組展示其成果, 其他小組的學生可從中汲取這些小組的長處改進 自己的觀點(Jermann & Dillenbourg, 2008)。相 比教師的單向講授,互動討論能讓學生更加專 心課堂學習,深入思考課題,發展思考及溝通 能 力(Alexander, 1999; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999)。合作學習需要學生一起分享及討論學習 資料,電子學習環境提供無線網絡讓小組成員分 工上網查找資料,亦方便他們整合小組研習成 果。因此,電子通訊環境可增加傳統教室成為互 動教室的機會,只要教師樂於為學生設計互動的 學習情境,加上利用電子通訊,傳統教室便能轉 變成充滿互動學習機會的學習環境。 兼顧學生的學習差異是學校教育的核心工作 之 一(Bearne, 1996; Kerry & Kerry, 1997; Wang, 1990)。然而教師無法在有限的課堂時間內照顧 每一個學生,且如果學校想要兼顧到所有學生的 學習差異,則可能需要花費高昂的教育成本,這 不是一般學校所能承擔。學校教育因此必須尋找 校外的支援。線上課程的形式雖然與傳統課堂學 習相似,所有學生都在同一時間接受同一教師的 授課,但卻免除教師和學生舟車勞頓之苦,節省 教學成本。此類課程可以針對不同學生群體的需 要開班授課,因材施教,照顧學生學習能力和學 習興趣的差異。成功的線上課程往往可因顯著的 教學成效而聲名遠播,使學生願意重新安排自己 的生活程序以將就課程時間。因此,電子通訊環 境提供開辦線上課程的空間,此類課程可填補學 校教育不足之處。教師可以協助及鼓勵學生報讀 此類課程,處理尖子與能力稍遜學生的學習差異 問題。 學校教育之所以需要利用電子通訊延伸到課 堂之外,還在於課堂教學時間太緊迫,無論是教 師教學還是分組討論,都不能提供足夠的時間和 空間讓學生思考、深入討論、充分理解乃至完全 學會應用所學知識。電子通訊可以彌補這方面的 不足,讓學生實現隨時隨地的彈性學習。例如學 校可以提供一個網上討論平台,方便學生隨時隨 地登入平台發表言論或獲取資訊。學生亦可以尋 找適合及可以信任的網絡平台或社交群體,和同 學及其他值得信賴的人溝通交流,從而獲得更多 的支援以協助思考及解決學習問題(Nuutinen et al., 2010)。同學更可利用種種網上資源建立相 關的電子討論平台,針對特定課題或知識點進行 討論及分享資訊。因此,電子通訊使學習者能 夠隨時隨地向同學或是可以信任及願意提供幫 助的人士請教,不再受地理位置或時間的局限 (Nuutinen el al., 2010)。學生不會因為課堂時 間不足而欠缺討論及思考的空間,他們可以充 分思考學習內容,深入交流討論,不斷反思學 習,從而達到深化學習的目的(Branon & Essex, 2001)。因此,電子通訊環境能提供條件促進超 越教室的深入學習。 結論 電子資源和電子通訊衍生的電子學習環境, 將衝擊現時的教學模式,為學校教育發展帶來種 種機會。電子學習環境中的學習資源及學習溝通 模式多樣靈活,能更好地配合個別學生的學習需 要。教師在電子學習環境不再單單是知識的傳遞 者,他們更是課程組織者,學習引導者以及資訊 素養的領航員。教師可尋找及組織電子教材進行 6 參考文獻 Alexander, J. 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Computers & Education, 51, 279-296. 教學工作,亦可引導學生進行同樣的工作並利用 電子通訊促進學生的溝通能力。他們還可以因應 學生的學習差異指導學生註冊相應的網絡課程, 填補學校教育的不足。 學 者 提 出 二 十 一 世 紀 教 育 目 標 的 兩 個 導 向:終生學習導向和連接導向(Law, Pelgrum, & Plomp, 2008)。終生學習導向是指學生需要擁 有終生學習能力,發展學生分析、評鑑、綜合、 批判思維及解難思維的高階思維能力。連接導向 是指學生需要具備與周遭的同學和專家連接的能 力,根據需要隨時與同學和可以信任的人溝通以 獲取解決學習難題的種種途徑。本文討論了電子 學習為學校教育帶來的機遇,也探討了學校教育 可考慮的電子學習框架。未來學界在推動校本電 子學習以邁向二十一世紀的教育目標時,應進一 步探討如何在課堂中通過電子學習環境有效實踐 探究學習和合作學習,藉此發展學生在終生學習 導向和連接導向的能力。這需要校方有遠見地制 訂校本電子學習計劃、教師積極地參與相關的專 業培訓活動,及家長緊密地配合校方發展學生的 資訊素養。 電子學習為學校教育帶來的機遇 7 Jonassen, D. H., Howland, J., Moore, J., & Marra, R. M. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology: A constructivist perspective (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Kerry, T., & Kerry, A. (1997). 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 9 What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 行動研究若不成功,原因何在? Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Action research, school-based curriculum innovations, and school improvement projects shared the common element of action taken by teachers to improve the students’ learning and the schools’ performance. Even with very careful planning and implementation, success cannot be guaranteed. When a project does not work out as expected, something has gone wrong. But, what is it? This paper discusses three main types of failures causing nil or negative results: theory failure, design failures, and treatment failures. Examples are given to illustrate these. While expecting success, teacher-researchers also need to be psychologically prepared for non-success and learn from honest failures. Keywords school-based curriculum innovation, school improvement, theory failure, design failure, treatment failure 摘要 行動研究、校本課程改革及學校改善計劃的共同特點是,教師採取措施以改進學生的學習和學校的績效, 即使謹慎設計和認真推行,也不能保證一定成功。研究計劃如果未能得到預期效果,在哪些方面有差錯? 本文探討無效果或相反效果的三個可能原因,即理論失當、設計失當和處理失當,並舉例說明。教師進行 行動研究,當然預期成功,但也必須有心理準備,去面對不成功的計劃,並且從誠實的失誤中有所學得。 關鍵詞 校本課程改革,學校改善計劃,理論失當,設計失當,處理失當 10 The call for teachers to be engaged in classroom-based act ion research for professional development has always been sounded. It is most convincing when it comes from a practising teacher. Of late, Bijal Damani, an 11th and 12th grade teacher in Rajkot (India) who has received numerous honours including the 2009 ASCD Outstanding Young Educator Award, shares the thought (Damani, 2011) about teacher research, thus: As teachers, we are always thinking about what we can do to reach out and engage students in our classes. And haven’t we been experimenting by changing the way we give homework, grouping students differently, changing the classroom layout, or introducing some game or technology to see its effect on students learning? We have been doing these things for years – informally, maybe, but this is still a type of research. Like Damani, conscientious teachers are in a continuous process of trying to improve their teaching with the view to improve students’ learning in terms of achievement, behaviour, and attitudes. Such efforts are generally referred to as classroom-based action research (AR). It has variedly been called school-based curriculum innovations (SCI) when the projects try out alternative instruction in a subject, and school improvement project (SI) when the aim is a school-wide improvement in academic performance and beyond. In this paper, the three terms (AR, SCI, and SI) are used interchangeably, since the common element is action taken by teachers for improvement in the students individually and the school as a whole. For such efforts, we naturally expect positive results since there are usually careful planning and implementation. However, as Murphy’s Law suggests, “Anything that may go wrong will go wrong,” nil and negative results may unexpectedly occur. As an aside, in scientific and medical research, nil and negative results far out- number successful ones. It took 277 failed trials to successfully clone Dolly (Failed Experiments, n.d.), and the wonder drug penicillin (Bellis, n.d.) was discovered because experiments with certain fungus did not work. We are oblivious to failed experiments mainly for two reasons. First, successful projects get publicized a lot because of their implications for our sociological, psychological, and physical well-being. Secondly, “failed” projects do not get published in learned journals; for every published successful project, there are numerous well-designed “failed” ones. This creates the file drawer problem or publication bias (Sridharan & Freenland, 2009) which has only been recognized in the recent years as detrimental to proper understanding of the phenomenon researched on. This has led to the publication of learned journals, trying to rectify the situation, such as the Journal of Failed Experiments, Journal of Articles in Support of Null Hypothesis, Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine, Journal of Failed Crystallization Experiments, Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results, Journal of Failed Studies, Journal of Negative Results in Speech and Audio Sciences, etc. These are not What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 11 meant to encourage complacency but to develop in the relevant research community intellectual integrity and to prepare the mind to learn from honest failures. For instance, the Journal of Negative Results (2010) explicates the purpose of its publication, thus, The primary intention of Journal of Negative Results is to provide an online- medium for the publication of peer- reviewed, sound scientific work in ecology and evolut ionary biology that may otherwise remain unknown. In recent years, the trend has been to publish only studies with “significant” results and to ignore studies that seem uneventful. This may lead to a biased, perhaps untrue, representation of what exists in nature. By counter-balancing such selective reporting, JNR aims to expand the capacity for formulating generalizations (p.1). In AR/SCI/SI projects, nil and negative results may come in two forms. First, the expected improvement fails to show up: the project students do not score higher than the comparison students do; even if there is a difference in favour of the project students, the effect size may be too small that it can be considered as trivial or null (Cohen, 1988; Soh, 2008). Secondly (and worse), the comparison students score higher than the project students do, contrary to expectation. It is, therefore, wise to evaluate the possibility of nil and negative results by looking up meta-analysis before embarking on a AR project (Hattie, 2009; Soh, 2010) This is shown by a surprising negative mean difference and a corresponding negative effect size. This reversal is termed Type III Error. By the way, there is another definition of Type III Error of getting the right answer for the wrong question (Wuensch, 2005). Nil and negative results appear basically for two main reasons: (1) theory failure, and (2) implementation failures (which are sub-divided as design failures and treatment failures in ensuring discussion). These “failure” concepts help us take a critical and honest look at projects which do not work. Because any research entails a long process of many related actions, foreseen problems might have been prevented early enough, but those unforeseen can only be recognized when after the event post hoc. Hence, we are always wiser after the event and need be aware of Murphy’s Law “Anything that may go wrong will go wrong!” 1. Theory Failure We may begin our AR projects with some popular theories (e.g., Experiential Learning, Habits of Mind, Multiple Intell igences, Philosophy for Children, Problem-Based Learning, Inquiry-Based Learning, Socrates Questioning, Understanding by Design, Whole- Brain Learning, etc.) These theories may guide designing and planning and enable forecasting probable outcomes. Everything looks so proper (rationally) and rosy (emotionally) before the project starts. But, the end may be a different story. So, what’s wrong when it goes wrong? An education theory (often borrows, adapts, or applies psychological or sociological theories) integrates a set of variables and explicates their inter-connectedness in a 12 generalizable pattern. It enables understanding, guides instruction, and allows predictions. For example, constructivism (or more accurately, constructionism), attributed to the Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (Gray, n.d.), posits that students acquire knowledge and meaning from interaction between their new experiences and existing ideas, in contrast with the conventional view that people learn knowledge and meaning in a pre-digested form from their teachers. When we subscribe to this theory, we will arrange the learning environments for our students with the belief and hope that learning takes place by itself. We may also begin with just some simpler ideas (e.g., individualized instruction, reduced class size, integrated curriculum, peer tutoring, etc.) An educational idea is a mini-theory functioning just like a grand theory but on a much circumscribed scale with less variables and simpler inter-connectedness, for example, the conventional wisdom that practice makes perfect. When we believe in this, we will emphasize in our teaching a lot of routine drills and practice with the expectation that more practice leads to better test performance. There is no doubt of the usefulness of grand theories and pet ideas. They encapsulate variables in a compact form, maybe drawn as a diagram or stated in a few sentences as a mental model. They facilitate thinking that guides instruction. However, their very nature of abstraction can become a cause of problems for AR projects, for the simple reason that a theory applies to all relevant situations but may not fit tightly anyone of them. A theory or idea may include the critical variables but surely not all relevant variables that may modify its prediction; this is where they go wrong. Thus, constructivist teaching (there is an obvious contradiction to put the two words together!) may not deliver what it promises because of uncontrolled variables not considered when planning or implementing an AR project. For instance, if the learning tasks are far above the students’ current abilities or if the students lack the relevant background, that is, beyond their current zones of proximal development (Coffey, n.d.), or their concepts of learning is “to be told” and teaching is “to tell”, then they will not be able to benefit from constructivist teaching as expected. For another instance, practice may not make perfect because too much drills tire the students out and learning becomes a chore so boring to them that they do not pay intention and hence do not learn. If it is true that one size does not fit all, theories and ideas related to education and instruction definitely do not. The reason is simple: such theories and ideas, as alluded to earlier, just do not take into account all relevant variables which modify the relationships among the variables. Such moderating variables can cause a project to go wrong. There is in fact a very large corpus of aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) studies showing the effect of a third variable impinging on the relationship between two variables being investigated. For example, McInerney, McInerney, & Marsh (1997) compared the effects of self-questioning as a meta-cognitive strategy on students in cooperative learning versus teaching groups when learning computer competencies. They What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 13 found the outcomes varying with the students’ initial computer competency and anxiety level. For another example, a teacher may have initially a pet idea of modeling in mathematics problem-solving and only later finds it effective for a certain kind of students but not another kind in terms of left- or right-dominance of the brain. Here, the learning effectiveness depends on the interaction between the problem-solving strategy and the students’ aptitudes (i.e., brain dominance). It cannot be over-emphasized that the purpose of AR projects is not to verify the validity of some theories or ideas to prove them right or show them wrong; that is the purview of academic researchers (i.e. Master’s degree and PhD candidates, and post-doctoral scholars) and not of the practice-oriented teacher-researchers. It may be useful to based AR projects on some relevant theories or ideas, using them as a short- cut to avoid blind trial-and-error but doing this is not to test the theory or idea, much less to lend the projects awe of significance. Thus, when a project goes wrong, it could be that the theory or idea does not apply; the theory is wrong or irrelevant. To prevent this from happening, careful reading of the theory is necessary. Quoting big names and citing complex models do not lend a project its importance. Admiration and enthusiasm need be consciously controlled when considering the adaptation of grand theories. Likewise, pet ideas need be critically reviewed before they are used as the conceptual base of AR projects. When negative results occur unexpectedly, accept the results and learn about them. Review the theory or revise the idea and try again with due modifications. Take this as a process of professional growth and institutional learning. 2. Design Failures These are one types of implementation failure. They have to do with how the AR projects were designed in terms of the number of students involved, the kind of students involved, and whether the groups were equivalent to begin with. 2.1 Small Group Sizes AR projects usually involved intact classes and hence have limited group sizes due to practical constraints in the school context. Small group sizes mean low statistical power – the ability of a statistical test to detect a group difference when it exists. For instance, a project class of 36 students and a comparison class of 40 give a total of 76. In this case, with an expected effect size of 0.5 and a p-value of 0.05, the power is only 0.7. This is short of the conventional 0.8. Thus, if a nil result is obtained, it could well be due to the small group sizes and not that the alternative did not work; a Type II error. To rectify, or better still to prevent this from happening, increase the group sizes to a total of around 100. With the same expected effect size and the same p-value, this group size gives the statistical test a power of 0.8 and the design will be sufficiently powerful to detect a difference, if the alternative is really more effective. There are many power calculators on the Internet to assist teacher-researchers to decide on group sizes for their AR projects, for instance the one by Daniel Soper (2004-2011). When a project returns with unexpected 14 outcome showing the comparison group out- performs the project group, the negative results might have been caused by teacher differences in, say, ability, teaching style, or teacher-student rapport (ruling out the possibility of a John Henry Effect to be discussed later). Even if the same teacher teaches both the project and the comparison groups, there is no guarantee that she will teach the two classes exactly as planned; this is just humanly impossible. Thus, for AR projects, we just have to live with this inevitable confounder and see the project outcome in its proper perspective by taking into consideration the teacher factor. This may sound pessimistic and somewhat unscientific but, as is true of many things in real life, we have to take the rough with the smooth. 2.2 Learner Aptitudes The term aptitude here does not mean special ability (or talent, propensity) but just student characteristics that interact with learning to produce differential outcomes, in the sense as used in aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI). In other words, a particular student characteristic may bias him toward a certain kind of learning to produce a certain kind of outcome. For example, Mills (1993) reported a study that compared academically talented students and a group of same-age peers of mixed ability and found them differed on four Myers-Briggs Type Indicators dimensions, namely, introversion- extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving). It stands to reasons that such personality differences will influence the ways the two groups of students learn. In AR projects, nil and negative results may occur when student aptitudes are not taken into account, because pooling the scores of students with different aptitudes masks the differential effects. Worse, when there is over- balance of one aptitude than the other in the project design, nil and negative results may obtain. Such reversals of the expected outcomes are examples of the Simpson’s Paradox often found in educational and social research. An interesting and educative example from medicine is cited by Julious & Mullee (1994). They cited a study of the outcomes of two different kidney stones operation procedures. When only the procedures (analogous to two approaches of instruction) were compared, one was found to be more success than the other. But, when the data was analyzed separately for patients with different stone diameters (analogous to student aptitude), the direction of effectiveness was reversed. For AR projects, the differences in performance due to different student aptitudes can be uncovered by analyzing the test scores separately for different aptitude groups. And, doing this is obviously a good practice as a routine in data analysis. A more subtle phenomenon which is more difficult to discern is the use of extreme groups. For instance, a group of low ability students learned through games and outdoor activities while another group of similar ability learned through teacher-centred lessons. Contrary to expectation, the comparison group scored higher on a posttest, although the project students found the lessons more interesting. The project students actively involved in games and outdoor activities might have been distracted from the learning tasks and this What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 15 mode of learning was foreign to them, whereas the comparison students learned in a more controlled environment using their habitual way of learning with much repeated examples and practice of the concepts to be learned. In this case, learner aptitude had an influence on the project outcome, unexpectedly. 2.3 Non-equivalent Groups In the school context, randomization of students to form the project and the comparison groups is normally not practised as doing so will cause inconvenience or even discipline problems. If the school groups students by tracking or streaming, the intact classes involved in an AR projects are likely to be non- equivalent in relevant ability at the beginning. When the project and the comparison groups are non-equivalent and when the pretest is also used as the posttest, the data is usually analyzed by gain-score analysis. Assume that the project group was a weaker group (on pretest) and was given the alternative teaching to help them, while the stronger comparison group continued with the usual or regular teaching. The surprise may be a negative gain (Figure 1). Figure 1. Negative Gain for non-equivalent groups As shown in Figure 1, the negative gain (and therefore the negative effect size) simply indicates that the project group has gained (Gain P) less than has the comparison group (Gain C). This suggests that the alternative teaching is less effectiveness for the weaker project groups than the regular teaching is for the comparison group. To generalize, this cautions the teacher- researchers that not all methods (alternatives) are equally effective for all kind of students (i.e., the ATI problem). Simply put, one size does not fit all! 3. Treatment Failures These are the second sets of possible reasons why a project fails and have more to do with implementation than project design, though related. They include low intensity of the alternative, insufficient time for the treatment to become effective, improper control of the comparison group, in adequate measuring tools, and teachers as a confounding factor. 3.1 Insufficient Dosage, Short Duration In as sense, these are two sides of a coin. Insufficient dosage refers to the low intensity of treatment, just like that in medicine. An alternative teaching may not be sufficiently strong and distinct from the current teaching to produce the desired project effect. For example, two cloze-like worksheets were used to improve Secondary Four students’ writing of qualitative analysis repots. Even if the idea is theoretically viable, two short exercises are most unlikely to change the level of report-writing skills in which requires specific expression and register. Likewise, one field-trip is not 16 likely to change the students’ ways of thinking and learning in science, geography, or history although it may influence their interests due perhaps to novelty effect. In short, when students are introduced to alternative teaching, it has to be intensive enough to take effect as the habits of learning the students have may just go against the alternative. Short duration is related to the dosage problem, especially when AR projects tend to have short time frames. Certain things need only a short time to change, but others need more, again just like that in medicine. Changing language habits not only requires sufficient dosage (exposure and practice) but also sufficiently long time because the alternative or new language habits need to be reinforced and consolidated to counter-act against negative influences of past habits. Such student behaviours as punctuality, politeness, self- regulation, etc. are in the same vein. Too short a duration may lead to nil results (and Type II error). Unfortunately, it is difficult to advise teacher-researchers on this problem, because there are so many different types of learning and different influencing factors which require different dosages. However, Bloom’s taxonomies may be helpful here (Overbaugh, n.d.). Generally, the more specific learning is, the weaker dosage is required. For instance, learning simple factual knowledge need little time and less repetition, but learning to think critical requires lots of examples and practice. Thus, all other things being equal (but, they never are), higher-order thinking such as synthesis, analysis, and evaluation need stronger dosage and longer time to learn effectively. 3.2 Contamination This refers to lack of proper control of the comparison condition. AR projects are usually implemented with both the project and the comparison group in the same school. Teachers teaching the comparison classes are supposed to teach them in the usual manner. But, there is no way these teachers can be kept in the dark and they are fully aware of the project intents. It is natural for them to unintentionally use some of the alternative activities or materials meant for the project groups. Worse still, control teachers may become worried since their classes are supposed to show up poorer at the end of the projects. This puts them in a defensive position and they may feel that their students are unfairly short-changed. This may motivate them to use the alternative teaching or even try harder to make the comparison students look good. This is the well-known John Henry Effect where by comparison railroad workers worked extra hard to out-perform the experimental group to maintain their egos and keep their jobs (Father Goof, 2008). The same may happen in the school. Even if the comparison students are “borrowed” from collaborating schools, it may be contaminated by their own projects which used different approaches but have similar goals. 3.3 Inadequate Measurement Whether project effects are detected depends very much on the measurement of the criterion. If tests (broadly speaking to include attitude scales and observation schedules) are What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 17 not sensitive enough to detect group differences, project effects are under-estimated, leading to nil results. For example, a mathematics test is so easy that the project and the comparison groups both obtain high means showing little or no difference. The ceiling effect prevents the group difference to be detected. Or, the project aims to enhance high-order thinking but the test is heavily loaded with low-level items measuring recall without tapping on the thinking abilities. As AR projects tend to be short in duration covering only limited scope of content (and behaviour or feelings), nil results may occur because of inadequate measuring tools being used. Validity is “the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted” (Cherry, n.d.). It is obvious then that a test comprises mainly items testing recall of knowledge does not measure the student’s ability in higher-order thinking; the test scores just do not represent what they are supposed to show. Thus, it is critical for teacher-researchers to ensure the validity of the test scores if the project outcomes are to be trustworthy. 3.4 Teacher Confounder It is a truism that teachers are the most critical factor in AR projects because they are the very people who translate theories and ideas into actions that may influence student learning. It is also a truism that teachers have their personalities and abilities that determine their teaching styles when interacting with their students. Therefore, it is doubtful whether there are indeed teacher-free approaches and methods. This being the case, in the AR context, it is almost impossible to keep teacher factors under control. There simply are not sufficient teachers to be assigned to a large number of classes so that teacher effect can be evaluated as an independent variable. In fact, in the long history of educational research, there is hardly any large-scale project which had teachers randomized to rule out teachers as a confounding factor; Project Star (Tennessee’s K-3 Class Size Study, 2009) is a rare exception. Closing Note We have never planned to get negative results but they do happen for various reasons. When they happen, the most rational thing to do is not to hide them, but to accept them and try to figure out why. This is not only a question of intellectual honesty but because negative results have lessons to learn. It is with this spirit that many new “failures” journals listed earlier were initiated to publish well-design research which produces nil or negative results. This is not to encourage a culture of failure but to learn from honest failures. Such efforts are to cope with the file drawer problem or publication bias which arises from the common practice of publishing only studies with positive results and ignore those with nil or negative ones. Perhaps, we in education also need a Journal of Projects with Negative Results so that we can learn from both successes and failures in our effort to improve the students and the schools through action research. 18 References Bellis, M. (n.d.). The history of penicillin. Inventors. Retrieved from http://inventors.about.com/od/ pstartinventions/a/Penicillin.htm Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is validity? About.com Guide, Psychology. Retrieved from http://psychology. about.com/od/researchmethods/f/validity.htm Coffey, H. (n.d.). Zone of proximal development. Learn NC. Retrieved from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/ pages/5075 Cohen, J, (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Damani, B. (2011). Action research: A self-directed approach to professional development. Educational Leadership, 53(7). Failed Experiments (n.d.). Oracle think quest. Retrieved from http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/01880/ failed_experiments.htm Father Goof (2008). John Henry vs. the bicycle. For Father Only. Retrieved from http://forfathersonly. blogspot.com/2008/07/in-one-of-many-statistics-courses-ive.html Gray, A. (n.d.). Constructivist teaching and learning. SSTA Research Centre Report #97-07. Journal of Negative Results (2010), 7(1), 1. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London, England: Routledge. Julious, S. A., & Mullee, M. A. (1994). Confounding and Simpson’s paradox. British Medical Journal, 309, 1480. McInerney, V., McInerney, D. M., & Marsh, H. W. (1997). Effects of metacognitive strategy training within a cooperative group learning context on computer achievement and anxiety: An aptitude– treatment interaction study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 9(4), 686-695. doi: 10.1037/0022- 0663.89.4.686 Mills, C. J. (1993). Personality, learning style and cognitive style profiles of mathematically talented students. European Journal for High Ability, 4, 70-85. Overbaugh, R. C. (n.d.). Bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved from http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/ blooms_taxonomy.htm Project Star: Tennessee’s K-3 Class Size Study (2009). HEROS, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.heros- inc.org/star.htm Soh, K. C. (2008). Effect size: What does it do for educational action researchers? North Star, 1(1), 63-70. Soh, K. C. (2010). What are the chances of success for my project? And, what if it was already done? Using meta-analyzed effect sizes to inform project decision-making. Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 13-25. Soper, D. (2004-2011). Statistics Calculators, Version 2.0. Retrieved from http://www.danielsoper.com/ statcalc/ What’s wrong when it goes wrong? 19 Sridharan, L., & Greenland, P. (2009). Editorial policies and publication bias: The important of negative studies. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(11), 1022-1023. Wuensch, K. L. (2005). Controlling for type III errors. Retrieved from http://core.ecu.edu/psyc/ wuenschk/stathelp/Type_III.htm Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 21 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 Knowledge repository as an on-line platform for knowledge sharing among secondary school teachers in Hong Kong 羅劍輝 北京師範大學珠海分校 摘要 過去數十年持續的資訊科技革新,引發出強調以運用知識和創新為比併工具的新經濟年代。教育當局將社 會各界對勞動力的期望,迅速反映到教育改革的政策上。今日的老師,作為學生學習的推動者,經常承受 很大的工作壓力,使不少現職教師感到教學困難。假若不同中學相關學科的教師把他們工作上的知識,在 網上建構一個知識庫,與其他相關學科的教師分享,不單相互增加對學科的認識,亦可減少彼此重複的工 作,讓相關的老師有更多的時間空間來提升學習的素質和效果。 關鍵詞 知識庫,知識分享,網上平台 Abstract The sustained advancement of information technology in the last decades initiated a new economic era, which emphasizes the application of knowledge and innovation as strategic tools for competition. The Ministry of Education reflected societal expectation on human workforce in educational reform policies. When teachers play the role of students’ learning facilitator nowadays, they are confronted with high working pressure that makes the teachers difficult to handle their daily teaching routine. In case if secondary school teachers of the same subject from various schools work collaboratively to build a knowledge repository to share with others, it can benefit teachers with enriched subject knowledge and reduce the duplication of effort of each other. It also gives them more time to uphold the quality and effectiveness of learning. 22 Keywords knowledge repository, knowledge sharing, on-line platform 前言:知識型經濟年代 香港第二任行政長官曾蔭權於二零零九至二 零一零年度的《施政報告》(香港特別行政區政 府,2010)中提及,香港是一個成熟和開放的資 本主義市場經濟體。在面對全球化競爭時,它必 須時刻提升自己的競爭力,走向高增值的知識型 經濟,維持領先優勢,創造更多優質工作機會。 「知識型經濟」這個名詞源自於經濟合作與發展 組 織(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development)於一九九六年提出的著重使用知 識的新經濟模式。由於全球化、資訊科技及其他 科學的蓬勃發展,加快了知識的創新和更替,這 些改變使各機構和組織體會到知識在競爭中所扮 演的角色越來越重要(Jacobson, 2006),企業正 面對以知識為主導的激烈競爭。 在知識型經濟時代,新知識取代舊知識的 步伐將不斷加快(羅劍輝,2011),知識和科技 的創新和學習成為社會的主流價值(王佑菁, 2009)。而全球化及現代化又產生更多新的知識, 反之舊有知識的價值則不斷下降。因此,在知識 型經濟時代,企業、個人必需加強學習能力,終 身學習,增加知識在組織的流通性,從而不斷提 升知識水平(Bollinger & Smith, 2001; Frappaolo, 2002; Hislop, 2003; Rowley, 2000; Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross & Smith, 1994)。 香港的教育改革 教育與社會是不可分割的,教育與社會發展 具有共生共存的關係(王佑菁,2009)。當社會 朝向知識型經濟發展時,學校教育亦需要作出配 合而改變:由於社會與經濟環境的快速變遷,社 會需要學習型組織和適應力強的工作團隊,為了 應付社會對人才的需求,學校需要新的課程內容 和教學方法(王如哲,2000)。在經濟模式的急 劇改變下,為使香港在國際的競爭中保持優勢, 教育當局重新檢視本港的教育制度、課程編制和 內容等。它積極推動香港教育改革政策,強調終 身學習、提升全面的教育質素、激勵性的學習環 境、和多元化學習等等,以增進學生的溝通能力, 創意思維和批判思考,以配合社會將來的需要 (Education Commission, 2000)。 鄭燕祥分析教育改革經歷了三次浪潮:第一 次在七十年代追求學校的內在效能;第二次在 九十年代追求學校的市場效能;第三次在目前追 求教育的新願景、終身學習、創造力、多元化的 學習、全球網絡化及運用資訊技術等特點(Cheng, 2005)。但終身學習和多元化的學習等都需要學 校和教師的積極配合和推行,教育改革使以往決 策集中在政府的模式改為學校自主管理(Lam, 2005),即是學校的管理層擁有更自主的權力(李 曉康、葉建源,2005),採取行動以改善學生學 習的成果。而終身學習的概念使學校的角色有所 改變,學生畢業後投入社會只是終身學習的另一 階段(鄭志強,2010)。 一直以來,師資培訓的工作是交由香港的大 學負責的,培養教師擁有豐富的專門知識、崇高 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 23 的品德和勤奮的精神等。教師從培訓課程畢業 後,便從個人的教學工作經驗中繼續學習。教育 改革對教師的教學表現和能力的要求亦大大提升 (Linde, 2000),教師單單依賴個人的學習和教 學工作經驗是不足以應付教育改革對教師的要求 (Wu, Ng, & Law, 2011)。傳統上教師是知識的 傳遞者,但當前在知識型經濟的情況下,教師的 角色已經成為終身學習的前線推動者(王如哲, 2002),需要扮演協作者和互相學習的角色,使 教師的能力提升以面對課程變動和社會對教與學 果效的要求。現在資訊科技的發達,現職教師可 以利用網絡溝通的方便,學會善用資訊與溝通科 技,建立分享知識的網上平台和分享專業知識的 社群,推動互相合作和共同學習。 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知 識的網上平台 傳統的學校模式並不足以配合社會根本上的 改變,教師需要有能力教育學生以幫助學生適應 變化中的環境(Lieberman, 2005)。現今的學校 需要提供以多元與彈性的學習方式,這些方式涉 及模擬遊戲、實地探訪、從實際經歷學習、安排 學生參與研討會、探訪或展覽會、推廣課堂互動, 教師需要靈活運用不同的方式、策略和活動,以 配合學生的學習風格。教師透過選擇適當的教學 法,如分組討論、個案研究、辯論、角色扮演和 專題作業,幫助學生掌握學會學習的方法。 建構網上知識庫是加強教師能力和實現教育 改革在學校推行的有效工具,而同時亦可以提供 教師本身的專業發展和滿足學校的組織學習需 要。網上知識庫的建立和運用是一種學校組織文 化的改變,但人往往不願意接受改變,因此必須 令教師了解建構網上知識庫和教師之間分享知識 的原因和它的急切性,使他們認識到這項改變聯 系學校的組織目標和社會需要,對教師的教學和 學生的學習成果亦有正面的影響。 教師們可以通過網上溝通平台討論新高中課 程改革對他們教學的影響,他們需要怎樣配合改 變,他們應該怎樣教授才能使學生達到新高中課 程改革的目標和要求等等,從而令到教師之間對 新高中課程改革有更清晰的了解。教師們亦可以 通過網上平台分享一些個人的成功教學經歷,例 如教師成功帶領學生參與校際比賽和活動等,或 成功運用一些教學技巧使學生更容易理解一些概 念和理論。教師們可以在網上平台上載一些從專 題研討會所學到的知識,甚至把自已的反思、體 驗和教學心得等通過網上平台與其他教師分享, 以提升教師的專門知識和技能。教師亦可以在網 上平台要求其他教師的協助和合作一起工作,例 如共同製造教學資源和學生學習表現的評審工具 等。 鑒於以上的討論,研究者認為建構知識庫作 為中學教師分享知識的網上平台具有以下四方面 的好處: 首先是教師通過分享知識加強對學科的認 識,自然更具信心在課堂中講解和教授有關的學 科知識,對教與學的果效有所提升。 其次是教師透過網上平台的相互溝通得知課 程的變化,能夠及早作出準備和配合。 第三,知識庫有助提升教師教學上的專門知 識,使教師面對日常教學的挑戰,通過學習其他 教師的教學心得,有效改善教學的過程。 第四,教師通過分享知識的網上平台,互相 分享課堂設計、教學及活動材料、工作紙、學生 評核工具等,有助教師紓緩日常的工作量和工作 壓力。 24 網上知識庫對新高中課程推行的 幫助 教育改革使教師的日常工作包括教學和其他 行政上的工作大增(譚彩鳳,2006),但學校及 社會各界對教師的工作表現卻有所要求,因此有 需要尋找能令教師一方面紓緩工作壓力,又能同 時提升教師對學科的認識和教學專業知識的平 台。知識型經濟社會注重知識的分享和擴散,教 師需要與其他教師分享專業知識和工作經驗,積 極推動教師的專業發展以維持和發展個人的專業 能力,並經由教師之間建立的學習社群,來互相 分享專業知識和進行知識的創造,營造自主的、 革新的、分享知識的社群。這情況尤以新高中課 程中的通識科為甚。通識科是新高中課程中的必 修科目。因為通識科的課程範圍特別廣闊,而教 師本身的學科知識和教育專業訓練皆以專門學科 為主,因此並非單一教師便能夠有足夠的知識來 教授整個通識科(霍秉坤,2007),教師以團隊 的方式來教授通識科有助得到更好的效果。但假 若整個教師團隊對部份通識科的課程範圍未能有 充分的認識和了解,這樣對學生學習相關的課程 範圍時較難有足夠的理解。當然教師有責任重新 學習以完成教學任務,但日常工作的飽和卻令教 師感到教學困難(徐國棟,2010)。 而新高中課程改革需要教師們以團隊合作 的方式以加強教與學的效果,在不同的科目中 引 入 其 他 學 習 體 驗 和 活 動 等 元 素(Education Commission, 2004)。 以 商 業、 會 計 與 財 務 概 論為例,現在的學校正積極參與各類活動和比 賽,例如每年匯豐銀行舉辦的少年財務理財師 大 賽(Young Financial Planners Competition) 和 香港教育學院舉辦的少年企業家大比拼(Teen Entrepreneurs Competition),每年皆得到很多學 校的支持和參與(Wu, Chan, Tan, Soh, Cheung & Law, 2009)。當然此等活動對學生的成長和對 商業的知識的體會有正面的好處,但同時亦使教 師的工作壓力有所增加。學生參加此類活動要進 行資料搜集和其他行動等,而往往需要在課餘時 間進行,所涉及的知識亦較廣泛,因此教師適宜 以團隊合作的方式於網上協助學生參與和進行活 動。此舉使教師有較彈性的時間和安排,亦可鼓 勵不同知識才能的教師作出貢獻。 結語 知識型經濟帶來契機和挑戰,建構以專業知 識和資訊科技為核心的競爭年代,人們需要不斷 學習以更新和創造新的知識,以配合快速變遷的 社會需要。而學校教育的目標之一,在於為社會 培育發展所需要的人才。學校是學生開發潛能的 地方,學校教育必須與時並進,配合資訊科技的 發展,增進教師教學的效能和提高學生學習的效 果。 教師之間的分享知識是其中一個可行的方案 以提升教師的專業能力,而最終提升學校對學生 的教育服務的水平。假若不同學校相關學科的中 學教師,把他們工作上的知識,例如課堂設計、 教學及活動材料、工作紙、學生評核工具和教學 心得等在網上建構知識庫,與其他相關學科的教 師分享,不單相互間增加對學科內容的認識和變 化,亦可以減少彼此互相重複的工作量,使到相 關的老師有更多的時間和空間來提升學生學習的 素質和效果。 建構知識庫作為中學教師分享知識的網上平台 25 參考文獻 王如哲(2000)。〈知識管理與學校教育革新〉。《教育研究集刊》,第 45 期,35-56。 王如哲(2002)。〈知識經濟時代的學校行政新方向〉。《南投文教》,第 17 期,10-15。 王佑菁(2009)。〈發現知識的力量:知識經濟社會的學校革新〉。《教育研究與發展期刊》,第 5 期,第 3 卷, 95-111。 李曉康、葉建源(2005)。〈香港教育改革的經驗〉。《教育曙光:香港教師會學報》,第 51 期,9-22。 香港特別行政區政府(2010)。《二零零九至二零一零年施政報告:群策創新天》。香港:香港特別行政 區政府。 徐國棟(2010)。〈課程領導與學校發展:回顧與展望〉。《教育曙光:香港教師會學報》,第 58 期,第 2 卷,83-92。 鄭志強(2010)。〈完善學校策略發展規劃〉。《教育曙光:香港教師會學報》,第 58 期,第 1 卷,16- 21。 霍秉坤(2007)。〈香港通識教育科的理念與實施:社會層面與學校層面之間〉。《教育曙光:香港教師 會學報》,第 55 期,第 2 卷,104-121。 羅劍輝(2011)。〈知識型經濟〉。萬穎恩(編),《香港商業經濟 58 詞》(頁 196-198)。香港:匯智出版。 譚彩鳳(2006)。〈校本課程政策透視:中文教師的觀點與實踐〉。《教育曙光:香港教師會學報》,第 53 期, 57-67。 Bollinger, A. 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Sustaining school network leadership through project work and action research initiatives in Hong Kong education reform. Paper presented at the 2009 American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting. San Diego, USA. Wu, W. Y., Ng, L. F. Y., & Law, E. K. F. (2011). Building organizational learning and knowledge management: Web-based project work and action research initiatives in Hong Kong Educational Reform. Paper presented at the 2011 e-CASE and e-TECH International Conference. Tokyo, Japan. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 27 從教育心理學到課堂實踐: 教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 Implementing theories in educational psychology in teaching and learning: How teachers facilitate students’ learning motivation through the use of e-learning 梅志文、洪潔雯 匯知中學 摘要 本研究集中分析前線教師應如何利用電子學習提升學生的學習動機,並在英國語文科及通識教育科進行實 踐,以協助同工了解研究員制訂電子學習課程方向。本研究提出的電子學習課程應從學生心理層面出發, 透過課堂實踐,證明從「心」出發的課程可提高學生的內部動機。 關鍵詞 電子學習,學習動機,教學實踐 Abstract This paper focuses on analyzing students’ learning motivation from psychological perspective and how teachers can apply psychological theories to use information technology (IT) to facilitate students’ learning motivation. Action research has been done on two subjects – English and Liberal Studies about how psychological theories are used to design e-learning lessons and to show how students’ learning motivation is boosted through the use of IT. The observation indicates that the students of both subjects have intrinsic motivation to learn when teachers are using a variety of IT teaching strategies. 28 甲、引言 近年學界興起電子學習一詞,無論是課本、 家課、自學系統還是野外考察所用的工具均被電 子化。不少學者對資訊科技使用於教育上持正面 的態度(Pachler, 1999; Rosas, et al., 2003),認為 有了資訊及通訊科技,學習能事半功倍。在英國, Ofsted(2002)在其研究報告中建議學校建立課 室以外有系統的電子學習以提高同學對資訊及通 訊科技的經驗。在香港,教育局(前稱教育統籌 局)由 1998 至今已提出三個資訊科技教育計劃。 2010 年,政府更撥備六千八百萬元進行「學校電 子學習試驗計劃」、為教育界提供資源引入電子 學習。 根據「課本及電子學習資源發展」專責小組 (教育局,2009)報告,電子學習有三個主要元 素,分別是: 1. 電子工具; 2. 電子學習資源;及 3. 電子學習課程。 本研究將會從心理學的理論層面出發,加上 前線教師的課堂實踐,分析如何利用電子學習元 素促進學生學習動機。 乙、背景 本港教育界早於八十年代便引入電腦課程。 新一代的年青人從小開始已經接觸電腦,他們被 稱為「數碼原居民(Digital Native)」(Prensky, 2001; Prensky, 2010) 或「 迷 戀 螢 幕 的 一 代 (Screenager)」(Rushkoff, 1997)。 根 據 香 港 政府統計處(2010)的資訊科技在住戶的普及程 度資料顯示,家中有個人電腦的住戶佔全港住戶 75.8%;而香港家庭使用寬頻上網的普及程度在 2010 年 11 月更達 82.3%(數碼 21,2011)。加 上,電腦科技發展迅速,現時的家用電腦已配備 高速的處理器和高容量記憶體,適合作多媒體播 放。由此可見,電腦及互聯網在香港有高度的普 及性,可為運用多媒體作電子學習提供有利的條 件。 現時教育界在電子學習的步伐,已由硬件添 置、網絡架設及教師培訓漸漸步向學生層面。不 少學校已經向出版社購入電子課本,使用網上學 習平台、甚至與軟件公司洽商教育套件的開發。 不過,由於教育工作者與技術人員或商界人士的 專業範疇不同,他們一般未能了解前線教師的真 正需要,電子學習未能有效地發揮其效能。 丙、教師面對的困難與挑戰 在推行電子學習的過程中,遇到困難是必然 的。根據過往的經驗以及同工的分享,困難大致 有以下三方面: 一、 軟硬件配置未能有效配合──這是前線教 育工作者最常遇見的問題。不少同工都經 驗過新教材與電腦未能配合,最常見的是 電腦權限問題、瀏覽器未被更新、或是須 要安裝外掛程序,嚴重的可能是校園網絡 未能負荷成百上千的學生登入。這些情況 Keywords e-learning, learning motivation, theory in practice 從教育心理學到課堂實踐: 教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 29 的確並非罕見,老師如不是有兩手準備, 確對課堂有實際影響。 二、 家長、教師及學校對電子學習的發展方向 未能同步──電子學習的成效,早有學術 研究支持(Pachler, 1999),因此教育局及 學校管理者都提倡使用;不過,現時大眾 對電子學習的態度依然較為保守。Rosas et al.(2003)亦在其研究中指出,推動電子 學習的初期,家長及教師的阻力是是不容 忽視的。因為他們在未見到成效前,會擔 心學生沉迷電子世界而非真正透過資訊科 技學習。 三、 電子學習方法未能提高學習興趣及成效 ──香港教育界現時最普及的電子學習方 案,相信是兩個語文科的網上自學系統。 不少中、小學早已將其納入課程,多給予 同學聽、說、讀、寫之自學練習,並可照 顧學習差異。它們牽涉的人力資源少、內 容豐富、亦設有獎勵計劃,如同學認真學 習,本科知識定必有所彼益。可是,現實 情況卻不一定盡如人意,以下是一些對電 子學習不感興趣的學生回饋: 「使用網上練習必須懂得使用搜尋器。你 看,網上許多人在分享答案呢!」(學生 A) 「在這平台,每道問題有三次機會作答。 只要依次序答三次,就可得出正確答案。 只要用最短時間完成習作,我便可利用更 多時間上網了。」(學生 B) 綜觀上述三大困難,首兩種情況只要藉著溝 通,問題隨即迎刃而解。現時電子學習的發展尚 在起步階段,不少服務供應商為了市場佔有率和 學校教師的支持,紛紛推出可減輕老師工作量、 備有龐大問題庫及教學資源的電子化教材。這些 資源只是由印刷本轉化成電子版,加上行為主義 提出的系統性獎勵包裝,就期望學生能有興趣地 自主學習似乎有點牽強。以上兩位學生的回饋確 實值得我們反思:現有的電子學習模式希望融入 學生的網絡世界,但這些產品對他們來說卻是入 侵者。要令電子學習變得有意義,我們必須了解 學生心理、對症下藥,才能提高其學習動機。 丁、本研究提出的學術理論 一、有意識學習 Mayer(2002)提倡有意識學習(meaningful learning)而非背誦型學習(rote learning)。因為 在背誦型學習模式中,學生只能夠利用重複練習 的既有知識來解決問題;而在有意識學習模式中, 學生不僅記起知識,而且能夠把既有知識轉化到 不同的處境上以解決問題。這是建構主議所倡議 的學習模式:學生應主動探索及發現問題,不被 動地從老師吸收知識。 二、學習動機 動機(motivation)是指人類為維持所引起 的活動或行為,並促使該活動或行為持續發展的 內在心理歷程(Baron, 1998; Murphy & Alexander, 2000; Pintrich, 2000; Schunk, 2000)。動機是教學 過程中一個重要的元素。喜愛學習的學生可以在 任何事物中探究學習,但要確定課堂中所有學生 能享受學習的過程,教師則須引起同學對教授課 題的學習動機。 三、內部動機 內部動機(intrinsic motivation)的意思是人 30 們在學習過程中因對學習本身的興趣而引起的 動機。這種動機由於是內在的,因此不需要外 加誘因,活動本身就是最大的原動力(Husman & Lens, 1999)。 反 之, 外 部 動 機(extrinsic motivation)是指由外部因素所引起的學習動機。 人們不是對學習本身感到興趣,而是對學習結果 或其獎勵因素而產生動力(Brophy, 1998)。 四、五大基本需要 香港青年協會(2010)曾分析青少年對網絡 熱愛的原因。其中,有兩項很值得我們推行電子 學習時注意的,就是青少年在網絡世界能確立 自我身份、滿足社交需要。另一方面,就是虛 擬世界為他們帶來的成功感。心理學家 Glasser (1998)曾經說明,人生每一行為都是為滿足五 大需要,當中包括:生存、歸屬感、權力及成就 感、自主、樂趣。其中權力及成就感就是一重要 因素。套用內部動機理論,青少年迷戀上網,因 為網絡世界本身就可以令他們得到滿足,他們樂 於享受當中的過程。 五、身份認同 現實社會,青少年在成長過程中容易迷失自 我、陷入「身份危機」;但在電子世界,這一群 數碼原居民卻很容易得到朋輩認同、脫離孩童的 身份(Erikson, 1963)。因此,不少家長均發現 自己子女很喜愛連接上互聯網、特別是對社交網 站和實時通訊工具的狂熱。而電子遊戲軟件更是 他們得到認同、權力及成功感的一個重要途徑。 六、思考方法 創造力和知識管理理論提出兩種思考方法 ──垂直和橫向的思考。傳統學習著重垂直思 考,將知識分門別類在腦袋中貯存。至於橫向的 思考方式,就是在幾個不同垂直的類別之間遊 走,獲得解決問題的方法。根據 Renzulli(1977) 的三合充實模式,高層次的問題研究就正須要學 生利用橫向的思考方式,自我發現問題、並進行 探索、研究,最後解決問題。 戊、電子學習的實踐 是次課程實踐分別在英國語文科及通識教育 科兩個科目中進行。 一、英國語文科 學生對不同的科目有不同程度的學習動機。 一些課程本身就是同學興趣,老師無須外加任何 動力,同學就有足夠的內部動機輕易應付學習所 需。不過,傳統的學習模式的確難以令時下學生 有效地學習。特別對成績稍遜的學生來說,學習 第二語言是既難掌握、又沒趣味的苦差事。因此 本行動研究就嘗試利用電子學習方式重燃學生的 內在動機去學習。 在英國語文科的學習中,詞彙的學習佔有一 定重要性。根據 Nation(2001)的詞彙學習理論, 學生學習第二語言的步驟分別是: 1. 發現(noticing); 2. 記憶(retrieving);及 3. 使用(generating)。 本節以學習人體面部特徵詞彙為例子。傳統 學習模式,老師會先教授學生詞彙的串法及意 義,再以默寫的方式讓學生對詞彙有深入記憶, 最後利用測驗或作文等評估方式以了解學生對詞 彙的使用情況。 由於傳統學習模式未能有效讓學生學習有關 詞彙,因此研究員嘗試利用一些電子教材套,以 拼圖方式協助同學記憶。結果,電子教材套不單 讓文字變成可視化,而且有助提升學生在課堂上 的學習動機及參與程度。不過,這類被定義為「電 從教育心理學到課堂實踐: 教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 31 子學習資源」(教育局,2009)的學習套件始終 未能激發學生的內部動機、使他們享受學習過程 並自主地學習。 有見及此,研究員開始從學生的內部動機著 手、了解同學平日在網絡遊戲中的喜好。當發現 同學們會在網上遊戲網站進行罪犯拼圖遊戲後 1, 就開始準備以罪犯拼圖方式為主導的電子學習課 程。 「『電子學習課程』強調個人化,重視親 身經歷,讓學生自主地運用不同的電子學 習資源,掌握資訊,並於網上學習,在積 累學習經驗之餘,亦突破時間和空間的限 制。」教育局(2009) 根據 Guthrie & Cox(2001),同學在課堂上 的真實經歷能大幅提高學生在課堂上對有關課題 的內部動機和學習興趣。因此,老師先在課堂上 介紹一套網上應用軟件「Ultimate FlashFace」2 並 播放一段會話錄音,模擬現實生活警察為證人錄 取口供的過程,學生就可以使用電子工具拼貼犯 人圖像。由於軟件屬免費網上軟件,因此課堂以 外同學也可以利用自學。 出乎意料地,同學完成課堂的練習後,竟然 互相拼貼對方的容貌。由此,證明了有關的工作 激起了同學們的內部動機、讓他們自主學習。是 次英語詞彙學習對同學們來說變得有意義,記憶 過程更有趣,亦可以藉社會實況真實使用。 二、通識教育科 通識教育科強調探究式學習、議題為本的施 教方法(胡少偉等,2007)。因此,問題的發現 和討論顯得特別重要。本節將集中討論一班修讀 預科程度通識教育課程的同學在其學習過程中, 因電子學習而帶來的轉變。 研究員在課程初段以傳統課堂方法為學生預 備課程資料:以工作紙形式教授相關的概念,再 進行分組討論。期望學生可以藉此進行腦力激 盪、互相刺激思考方向,加強他們的分析能力、 最後能集思廣益地處理問題。 經過一段時間的觀察,發現學生在分組討論 的表現未有提升。相反,學生討論的內容表面, 只是一再重複工作紙的資料,未有深層次的發現 及互相刺激思考情況發生。於是,研究員在課堂 中加入不少視像資料,嘗試以刺激情緒的視像、 真實的事例和清晰的因果關係和結構以引起學 生的學習思維(Bergin, 1999; Jetton & Alexander, 2001; Schraw, Flowerday, & Lehman, 2001; Wade, 2001)。果然,新一代的年青人大多以故事形成 吸收資料,相同的內容如果以視像片段播放, 有助同學們使用橫向思考、將幾個不同的已有 概念貫穿,成為新論點(Simonton, 1990; Maier, 1931)。 不過,以上教學僅提供學生基本研究方法的 訓練,根本未達到培養學生自學的能力,更遑論 學生達至成為一個問題的發現者、探索者和解決 者(Renzulli, 1977)。於是,研究員與同工建立 一網上平台 3,通過 Web2.0 方式,讓學生在平台 1 網址:http://www.flashgame.com.hk/ha3om-game.html 2 網址:http://flashface.ctapt.de/ 3 網址:http://www.libered.info/ 32 參考文獻 胡少偉、容萬城、徐慧旋、梁燕冰、黃炳文、楊沛銘、賴柏生(2007)。〈實踐通識教育科的挑戰:一個 調查研究的分享〉。《香港教師中心學報》,第六卷,47-53。 香港青年協會(2010)。《「做個智 net 的」使用者資料冊》。香港:香港青年協會。 香港政府統計處(2010)。《有關資訊科技的使用情況和普及程度的住戶統計調查》。香港:香港政府統計處。 教育局(2009)。《課本及電子學習資源發展專責小組報告》。香港:教育局。 數碼 21(2011)。〈評估資訊及通訊科技的長遠發展〉。取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/digital21/chi/statistics/ stat.html Baron, R. 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Educational Psychologist, 34(2), 113-125. 上讀取資訊、留言並進行網上實時討論,利用電 腦提高同學對學習的內部動機(Lepper, 1985)。 由於討論在網上進行,學生可以在討論過程中, 同時在網絡中尋找資料,加強了橫向的聯繫。透 過同學之間超連結的互換,資訊吸收更豐富,學 習亦變得有趣。 最後,由於流動通訊器材與社交網站的日漸 普及,為要將課堂融入同學的生活之中。研究員 將學習平台轉移到學生更常接觸的社交網站中。 這樣不但令工作變得簡單,而且學生在問題的發 現上有顯著進步。慢慢地,這一群青年人在社交 網站中分享和討論社會問題。有時,朋友中的一 個「讚好」也會激發大家思考和討論。研究員認 為這種融入在他們世界中的學習模式,比硬加於 他們身上的入侵方式來得有意思,值得同工思 考。 己、結語 電子學習無論在理論層面或在前線運作上均 證明可提升學生學習動機。不過,推行電子學習 的方式有多種,要令電子學習變得有意義,教師 就必先要了解學生的心理。如果勉強將學習過程 電子化,一方面大大增加前線同工的工作量;另 一方面,也可能令學習進度不增反減。 本研究認為若要成功推動電子學習,不一定 要投放大量資源購入或外聘服務編寫學習軟件。 反而,前線教師可根據其經驗及學生的回饋,運 用坊間現有資源製作成電子學習課程。這樣的教 材才是最適切學生學習需要的配套。 電子學習其實離不開教與學,運用資訊科技 只是當中一個手段。教師只管專注其教學工作, 用心設計合適其學生的電子學習課程,事就這樣 成了。 從教育心理學到課堂實踐: 教師如何利用電子學習促進學生學習動機 33 Jetton, T. L., & Alexander, P. A. (2001). Interest assessment and the content area literacy environment: Challenges for research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 303-318. Lepper, M. R. (1985). Microcomputers in education: Motivational and social issues. American Psychologist, 40, 1-18. Maier, N. R. (1931). Reasoning in humans: II. The solution of a problem and its appearance in consciousness. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 12, 181-194. Mayer, R. (2002). Rote versus meaningful learning. Theory in Practice, 41(4), 226-232. Murphy, J. P., & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivation exploration of motivation technology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 3-53. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ofsted. (2002). ICT in schools: Effect of government initiatives. London: Office for Standards in Education. Pachler, N. (1999). Theories of learning and ICT. In M. Leask & N. Pachler (Eds.), Learning to teach using ICT in the secondary school, London, Routledge. Pintrich, P. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 544-555. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5). NCB University Press. Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching Digital Natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin. Renzulli, J. (1977). The enrichment triad model: A guide for developing defensible programs for the gifted. Mansfield Centre, CT: Creative Learning Press. Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., & Flores, P., et al. (2003). Beyond nintendo: Design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers and Education, 40(1), 71-94. Rushkoff, D. (1997). Children of Chaos. London: HarperCollins. Schraw, G., Flowerday, T., & Lehman, S. (2001). Increasing situation interest in the classroom. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 211-224. Schunk, D. (2000). Learning theories (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Simonton, D. K. (1990). Scientific genius: A Psychology of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wade, S. E. (2001). Research on importance and interest: Implications for curriculum development and future research. Educational Psychology Review, 13(3), 243-261. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 35 Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 於大專院校推行促進學習的評估 CHENG Mei Seung Catherine PolyU Hong Kong Community College Abstract This article, intended for teachers of Hong Kong Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) who are interested in Assessment for Learning (AfL), discusses the main AfL strategies by consulting some of the available literature. This paper also gives concrete examples and points to note when teachers integrate these strategies specifically in the context of daily classroom practices in Hong Kong HEIs. Finally, in the latter part of this article, some obstacles that could hinder AfL development in HEI classrooms are also discussed. It is hoped that this article, might, in a small way, help teachers who want to re-examine and improve on their own teaching methods. Consequently, students would benefit in their own learning. Keywords assessment for learning, teaching strategies in higher education, higher education in Hong Kong 摘要 本文專為對促進學習評估(AfL)有興趣的大專院校教師而設,內容包括評估方式分析,在香港實踐 AfL 所 遇到的困難等。本文希望藉著各項解說,幫助教師反思,以及改進自己的教學模式,使學生從學習中有所 得著。 關鍵詞 促進學習的評估,高等教育的教學策略,香港高等教育 36 1. Introduction In Hong Kong, colleges, insti tutes, universities, and other HEIs are inclined to either evaluate learning by Assessment of Learning (AoL), through one-off examinations, or by Assessment for Learning (AfL), through an on-going process during the semester in which quality feedback is given to students on how to improve on their work. More development of AfL in Hong Kong HEIs is to be expected, following the global trend to change the nature of assessment as part of teaching and learning (Brown, 2004). In keeping with this transition, the new Hong Kong 4-year undergraduate curriculum will be launched in 2012. Formerly, the higher educational policy favoured the elite. Soon, the new education policy will favour the masses. This transition implies that students who previously had few opportunities to receive higher education can now also have access to Hong Kong HEIs. The varying academic levels of performance of the first cohort of students in 2012 will necessitate a call for change in teaching methodologies. This change will involve less direct knowledge transmission to a more student-focused approach that can effectively lead students to achieve the expected learning outcomes (Rust, 2002). AfL, in this regard, may be a panacea for schools to enhance teaching and learning in the classroom. This article begins by expounding on the potential of AfL and some of the features of AfL strategies through a review of some of the available literature. Following these explanations, examples of research studies as well as the author’s personal experience in the classroom illustrate how to integrate AfL into daily classrooms practices. Hopefully, by sharing these examples, teachers who are curious about AfL will become more aware of the importance of consistently collecting learning evidence and giving constructive comments to students so that the latter can take more responsibility for their own learning with greater motivation. 2. Integrating Assessment for Learning in Hong Kong HEIs This section looks at some major AfL strategies, including effective questioning, providing constructive feedback, sharing Learning Objectives (LOs) and Assessment Criteria (AC) with students, and finally, self- reflection and peer review (Black et al., 1998, 2002). Examples are shown on how teachers can apply these strategies to transition learning into the realm of the student’s own personal responsibility for acquiring skills and knowledge (Harris, 2007). By this means, the teacher devolves power to students in their own learning (Glover & Thomas, 1999). 2.1 Sharing Learning Objectives and Assessment Criteria with Students Sharing LOs and ACs with students is a fundamental principle of AfL. Thanks to the adoption of the educational policy “Outcome- Based Education (OBE)”, the sharing of LOs and AC with students, as part of the requirements of OBE, has become the norm in Hong Kong schools. In most Hong Kong HEIs, at the beginning of the semester, students are provided with a teaching plan, which includes Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 37 a list of LOs and expected outcomes, as well as the criteria for each assessment task. Such practices are highly appraised by many scholars since LOs are what students are expected to do during the course. With clear ideas about what is expected of them, students should therefore be more focused on their learning, and should also have a better understanding of their own performance (Black and Wiliam, 1999; Sadler, 1989). Consequently, they would be more likely to achieve the expected outcomes (Harris, 2007). Students need to apply these criteria to their own work and to understand what these objectives mean. Therefore, ARG (2002) made an additional suggestion that teachers could discuss the objectives and criteria with students using terms that they could understand, so that learners could become aware of “how” to do it and “what” to do for each assessment. ARG added that in some cases, teachers’ might allow students to play a part in deciding on goals and identifying criteria for assessing progress, or even develop Student-initiated Criteria (SiC). It is believed that through the process of formulating SiC, students’ awareness of the assessment criteria would be enhanced, and therefore students could adjust their methods of learning and achieve these outcomes accordingly. 2.2 Effective Questioning and Giving Constructive Feedback Effective questioning on both the teacher’s and the students’ part as well as giving constructive feedback to students and to the teacher, is a second fundamental principle of AfL. On one hand, questioning students is a strategy commonly used by teachers in classrooms as a tool to check students’ current state of understanding on an issue (James, 2006). On the other hand, responses to students’ answers, often termed as feedback, is also essential in promoting learning. In fact, questions and feedback are often indispensable, since questions are considered to be “effective” only if answering them requires different levels of cognitive thinking (Sachdeva, 1996). Giving constructive feedback, no matter whether to solicit answers from students’, to answer students’ questions, to respond to students’ answers to questions, or to comment on students’ work, is considered to be equally important in enhancing learning, as it helps students better understand their progress. They can especially recognize their advancement in how and why they have achieved a goal, as well as what they would require to improve their progress (Sadler, 1989). In other words, constructive feedback helps students to identify what steps they should take in order to achieve the learning goals. Harris (2007) also offers a similar view: to be effective, feedback needs to help students identify the action necessary to close the gap between their current level of knowledge or ability and their desired level. M o r e o v e r , c r e a t i n g a f a v o r a b l e environment for conducting questions and feedback in, is equally important. The small- class sessions in Hong Kong HEIs, in this regard, could be an ideal place to facilitate questions and answers. These sessions, which are usually in many forms – tutorials, seminars, workshops – permits the teacher to allow 38 more time for each student when answering the questions he or she has been asked. For example, in the Community College at which the author works, many group presentations are given in tutorial sessions. After the students have completed their presentations in groups, they need to lead a discussion with the whole class. The audience is encouraged to discuss each presenter ’s performance, by raising questions and giving feedback to the presenters in order to review the issues that have been discussed in the presentation, to challenge the ideas brought forth by the student presenters, or to constructively criticize the presenters’ performance. The teacher, on the other hand, has changed roles, from a traditional question- raiser to a facilitator who continuously checks if the questions raised by the audience are appropriate, and if the words they used, the embedded concepts, and the meanings implied are conducive to learning. From what the author has observed, both the student presenters and their audiences tend to be very energetic in raising questions, answering questions, and giving and receiving feedback. The reason for such a response is partly due to the small class size in which the student audience has many opportunities to raise questions. Yet, as a reminder for teachers, educators need to be cautious when raising questions or giving feedback. For example, as stated by Sachdeva (1996) and Black (Black, et al., 2002), teachers need to allow more time before students respond to questions, since the so-called “wait time”, is very critical to learning. This delay allows students enough time to organize their thoughts or discuss the matter with their group before they respond to the questions (Ibid.). Similarly, Harris (2007) reminded teachers that the nature of their feedback should stress the positive aspects rather than any failure, because the purpose of feedback should be to foster motivation. Black and Wiliam (1998) further pointed out even if feedback is positive, students’ learning motivation could also be damaged when the feedback is accompanied with grades, since grades could pressure students into comparing themselves with others. In Hong Kong, this phenomenon of comparison is often a problem for most HEI teachers because Hong Kong is a highly competitive place where higher academic places are scarce. Nonetheless, grades are needed for select purposes, which would directly affect whether the students can successfully be promoted to a higher level. In order to minimize the negative motivational effects brought by comparison between students (Black & Wiliam, 1998), in Hong Kong some HEIs tend to offer comment-only feedback (marking) to students on their performance in a particular task. Students are only informed about their final grades after they have finished all assessment tasks in the semester. In other HEIs, the teacher gives marks on each assessed task, and does not tell students what weighting the marks have toward the final grade. At the end of the semester, the teacher works out a “mark-to- grade” table which determines the specific mark range system that falls into a particular grade level. Again, students are only informed of their final grade at the end of the semester when all learning activities in that course are completed. Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 39 2.3 Self-Reflection and Peer Review Self-reflection and peer review are a third important element of AfL. Many forms of self- assessment exist, and self-reflection is one of the common ways that has been adopted by HEI teachers. Some teachers may ask students to chronicle their self-reflections in their portfolios. One example comes from a case study done by Klenowski (Klenowski et al., 2006): he and his colleagues asked students to keep their reflective journals in a portfolio. At the end of the semester, most student participants agreed that a portfolio helped them to structure their learning by putting order into their thoughts which were previously chaotic or confused. Furthermore, this exercise allowed them to identify gaps in their thinking. Another research was done a t the University of Hong Kong by Tang and Biggs (1998) in which students in the third year of the four-year part-time evening Bachelor of Education programme were asked to submit a portfolio which provided evidence on how they could progressively meet the assessment criteria. They were required to keep a journal in order to record critical learning related incidents, and subsequently reflect upon them. At the end of the unit, most students were positive about the use of portfolios. Quotes included: “It (the PA) really works!”; “Now I do not see the portfolio as an assignment to be handed in. It’s rather a powerful learning tool for the learner himself.”; “What (we are expected) to prepare for the portfolio undoubtedly provides me a chance to reflect on my daily teaching.” Alternatively, peers could also be a source to provide feedback on student work which could, in turn, also help greatly in the development of students’ cognitive thinking. Vygotsky refers to peer review as the “zone of proximal development (ZPD)”: ZPD denotes “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem- solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p.202). Based on Vygotsky’s idea (Vvgotsky, 1978, p.202), the author has done a simple collaborative activity in her Community College. Students were asked to upload their writing task to the CMS for peer review one week before they submitted it to the teacher. Special training on how to review an article had been given in advance. After a one week peer review period, the author noticed that the language used in students’ work was more proficient, had been carefully proofread, and more precise vocabulary was used. In fact, the author also noticed that students tended to more easily accept feedback from their peers rather than from the teacher. Sadler (1989) believes that with careful planning, peer review can make students become more proactive in their learning, which is an essential element of genuine learning. 3. Further Elaboration: Obstacles and Challenges With the implementation of OBE, the use of tutorial sessions or other discussion sessions, and the availability of electronic resources, the impression seems to be that Hong Kong HEIs are attempting to implement AfL in the 40 classroom. However, in reality, the author feels that there are still many obstacles in carrying out the above strategies. 3.1 C h a l l e n g e N u m b e r 1 – G r a d e Distribution: A Bell Curve in Hong Kong HEIs? Firstly, the ACs shared might not be an effective one to enhance students’ learning. ACs are the rules of the game. Explanations of these rules are therefore be necessary; players can’t win a game if they don’t know the rules of the game. However, this strategy could be challenging to HEI teachers since students’ performances are sometimes difficult to predict. Designing a rubric that fits all situations is a difficult task, not to mention that different teachers might have different standards in marking. Therefore, what teachers could do is to share general standards with students rather than precise ones. Next, teachers might adjust the rubric after the assessment. This is quite common among HEIs, especially in assessment involving a massive number of students. As individual teachers might have variation in interpreting the rubric, discussion meetings are normally arranged to finalize the marks distributed to all small tasks in an assessment. The last reason has to do with the distribution of grades: for selective purposes, what is considered to be an abnormal distribution of students’ grades, such as a large number of distinctions in one class, is seldom accepted in institutions. In this light, sharing ACs with students in the beginning of the semester does not seem practical because their grades may be modified even if they successfully meet the ACs. 3.2 Challenge Number 2 – Pure AfL and an AfL / AoL Mix Secondly, there are often two major parts in assessing students’ performance in a HEI course, namely “coursework” and “examinations”. The former is comprised of several (usually four to five) assessment tasks during the semester, while the latter is a one-off examination which is usually organized at the end of the term. Some teachers may not notice that tasks designed in the coursework, such as an objective test, group projects, students’ presentations, might not be interrelated with each other. In other words, what students learnt from Task A may not be possible for them to use in task B. A negative result of such a disassociation may be that students are prevented from identifying any necessary actions for further improvement. As already mentioned, most Hong Kong HEIs are using coursework and examination assessment systems in order to assess student performance. Under the “coursework-and- examination” mode, different weightings are assigned to different assignment tasks of a particular subject so as to reflect their respective importance. The overall performance is obtained by calculating the weighting of each coursework and examination with little place for holistic judgment. The method of “weighted averages”, however, is neither formative nor summative. Harlen and James (1997) argue that the blurring of the lines between using AfL and AoL together in the same course negates the value of AfL. For example, a students’ achievement of the learning outcomes of a particular task cannot be reflected directly in the overall measurement of Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 41 performance through the final grade. 3.3 Challenge Number 3 – Time Stops for No Teacher An additional important consideration is time. How useful the teacher’s feedback is, largely, depends on how deep the teacher knows the students. Such an understanding usually takes time. In reality, teachers not knowing enough about their pupils is one of the common inhibiting factors in successfully implementing AfL (Black & Wiliam, 1999). Most HEIs courses last for one semester, which is about 13-15 weeks – a rather short period of time for observing and understanding a student, not to mention making a judgment on what the student should do to improve his or her learning. The use of electronic systems in this regard is also considered to be a new cutting- edge channel for teachers to understand their students’ ability. For example, the Course Management System (CMS), which is widely adopted in Hong Kong HEIs, possesses many interactive tools that help the teacher collect students’ assignments more systematically. This system also allows the teacher to understand his or her students from different aspects such as through their postings on the forum, or their activity log. Besides CMS, the use of the electronic portfolio (ePortfolio) is another alternative. In the College where the author works, a 2-year Quality Enhancement Grant Scheme project named “Implementation of an Open Source ePortfolio for Sub-degree Students” was awarded to provide Post Secondary School students with interactive online tools to showcase their accomplishments during their studies in the College. This system also helps teachers to understand their students’ work better since the teachers can refer to tasks students completed during the previous semester. In the past decade, local universities, such as the University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and the City University of Hong Kong, have developed their own ePortfolio systems to enhance teaching and learning. 3.4 Challenge Number 4 – All for One, and One for All Finally, the acceptance of AfL by all the stake players in an HEI is crucial to the success implementation of AfL. Currently, most Hong Kong HEI students have received at least 5 years of secondary schooling. Their education was generally traditional – examination and textbook oriented. This orientation has been reinforced by the conservative views on the part of their parents. Students, parents or even teachers may believe that exam-based education is successful in formal secondary schooling via summative techniques, so not many of them know about or are interested in knowing about the nature of AfL. At the same time, many teachers, students and even parents are legitimately concerned about the validity and reliability of self- and peer-assessment. If AfL is going to succeed, teachers would have to break established traditional classroom habits (Harris, 2007) which would imply a change of mentality in the whole institution: such a transition could not be done by individual effort. Therefore, for AfL to be successful overall, strong support 42 from management is absolutely necessary. Additionally, time would be required to support and nurture the commitment of the participants. 3.5 Challenge Number 5: More Time Again Please For some Hong Kong HEI teachers, AfL may be a rather new concept and they may not have the time, the skills, nor the support to give formative feedback to students. As Black et al. (2002) point out, assessment can be regarded as formative only if the evaluation leads to concrete actions by teachers and/or students, which improve student learning and teaching. However, an extra hurdle to overcome is the common practice for Hong Kong HEIs to have regular subject rotation amongst teachers. Teachers in charge of a course may be different every year and sometimes they will only be informed of what course they will teach 2 weeks before the start of the term. Early preparation is therefore almost impossible. Without good preparation, flexibility in teaching methods is difficult to implement, an element which is obviously necessary in AfL. 4. Conclusion This article has given a brief explanation of some AfL strategies for teachers who are interested in re-examining their teaching practices and improving on their teaching methodology. In AfL, s tudents have to understand the learning object ives and assessment criteria and are encouraged to express their views. They are helped hereby articulating these views with their peers in a secure and open learning environment. While questioning is used in AfL to examine students’ learning states, on-going constructive feedback, which is based on development and learning needs, is also given by both teachers and students to assist learning progress whenever possible. Self- and peer-assessment are also crucial in AfL to create a progressive learning environment because of the autonomy learners can subsequently develop. The use of the ePortfolio was also suggested, so that learning evidence could be collected more systematically so as to allow students, teachers, or other educational leaders to monitor their students’ strengths and needs in order to track and assist in their progress. F ina l ly, there are some hurdles to overcome in the implementation of AfL in the context of the Hong Kong HEI classrooms. Firstly, the correlation of different assessment tasks may not be stressed. Students might find it difficult in making use of the experience they have learnt from a previous task and applying that knowledge to the next task. Secondly, most HEIs tend to assess students’ performance by a “weighted average” system, which can hardly show their progressive improvement in the course. Also, since students, parents, and even teachers have grown up under the culture of intensive examinations or testing, they might be skeptical about the power of AfL to be able to enhance teaching and learning. Last but not least, the subject rotation or other administrative practices in HEIs might affect the degree to which the teacher is able to devolve responsibility to the students due to preparation time constraints, which would in turn constrain the preparation of the course. Integrating assessment for learning in the classrooms of higher education institutions in Hong Kong 43 Acknowledgement The author wishes to acknowledge the Quality Enhancement Grant Scheme that has funded a project named “Implementation of an Open Source ePortfolio for Sub-degree Students”. This article is one of the subsidized deliverables of this project. Special thanks goes out to Mr Peck Dale John William. Without his generous help and thought provoking ideas, this article would not have been as fruitful. References ARG (Assessment Reform Group). (2002). Testing, motivation and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Faculty of Education. 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Cancer Education, Spring, 11(1), 17-24. Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18, 119-44. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 45 「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 Suggestions on the implementation of assessment for learning in Chinese Language 廖佩莉 香港教育學院 摘要 「促進學習的評估」是近年來教育改革的熱門話題,並在香港實行多年,可是現時仍有很多教師未能充分 掌握其理念。本文先解說「促進學習的評估」理念和其在中國語文科的重要性,最後提出促進中國語文學 習評估的一些建議,希望藉此啓發教師思考如何改善日常的教學和評估,以促進學生的學習,從而優化語 文教學的效能。 關鍵詞 促進學習的評估,中國語文科教學,教師專業發展 Abstract Assessment for learning is a very hot issue in Hong Kong educational reform and it has been implemented in schools for years. However, not many teachers understand the concept of assessment for learning. This article first explains the concept of ‘assessment for learning’, and its importance in learning Chinese Language. Suggestions are made at the end. It is hoped that it can motivate teachers to think and reflect so as to improve teaching. Keywords assessment for learning, Chinese Language teaching, professional development of teachers 46 甲、引言 「促進學習的評估」是近年教育改革的重點。 根據香港課程發展議會(2002)《基礎教育課程 指引─各盡所能 ‧ 發展所長(小一至中三)》 所指的「促進學習的評估」是教師在學與教過程 中,找出和診斷學生在學習上遇到的困難,進而 提供有效的回饋,使學生改善他們的學習 1。「促 進學習的評估」是結合教學與評估,以促進學生 學習,是現時評估改革的趨勢。但可惜的是,在 最近的一項研究(廖佩莉,2009),發現只有少 數教師(10.5%)表示他們認為能掌握「促進學 習的評估」的理念,可見很多教師對「促進學習 的評估」的理念還未十分理解。本文先解說「促 進學習的評估」的理念和分析它在中國語文科的 重要性,然後提出促進中國語文學習評估的一些 建議,希望藉此啓發教師思考如何改善教學和評 估的方法,以促進學生的學習,從而優化語文教 學的效能。 乙、促進學習的評估 過往的評估主要是測量、診斷、評定和篩選 學生的能力,但「促進學習的評估」強調的是: 善用評估所得的資料幫助學生學習和提高他們的 學習效能。從宏觀課程規畫的角度而言,「促進 學習的評估」的策略是教師必須先釐訂教學計 畫,然後在教學的過程中監控學生的學習。要 了解學生學了什麽,教師必須將評估學生的學 習成果記錄下來。目的除了是用來診斷學生的 學習成果外,更重要的是提供評估數據給教師 加以分析,修訂課程,促進學生的學習(Sutton, 1995)。 從微觀的角度而言,教師可在總結性測考和 日常課堂活動中評估學生的表現,從而改善自己 的教學;學生能從評估活動中促進學習,他們可 監控自己和評估別人的學習,甚至可自訂下一個 學習目標。一般傳統的紙筆評估,通常在教師教 完書後給學生進行測試,是教師告訴學生哪些是 正確,哪些是錯誤。這類評估活動是一種集中式 的評估(focused assessment),它的目的是在於 測查某能力或成就水平(Paris & Ayres, 2001)。 但是這種評估並沒有讓學生反思或評估自己學習 的態度和成果。「促進學習的評估」是學生可參 與評估活動,這種活動是日常教學和學習的過 程,能促進學生的思考,批評自己甚至他人的學 習。學生能思考如何評價自己和他人的學習效果 是一個有意義和高層次的學習過程,也能培養他 們終身自學的能力。因此「促進學習的評估」 是培養學生日後養成終身學習的習慣(Sutton, 1995)。它不單是指評估活動可幫助提升學生的 學習能力,而且也可改善他們的學習動機、態度 和情感反應。 丙、「促進學習的評估」在中國 語文科的重要性 「促進學習的評估」是透過評估活動幫助學 生學習。評估活動主要可分為兩類:總結性評估 和進展性評估。總結性評估大多是用紙筆測考來 評估學生的能力;進展性評估是在日常課堂活動 中分析學生表現作評估。這兩類評估在中國語文 科均能達致促進學生學習的作用。 一、「促進學習的評估」能幫助提升學生 的語文能力 傳統總結性評估是用紙筆測考來評估學生的 能力,教師能根據測考的結果,總結自己的教學 成效,並改善自己的教學,從而幫助提升學生的 語文能力。在總結性評估中,很多家長和學生所 關心是測考後是否合格或是取得什麼成績,下次 「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 47 的測考應要怎樣改善才能取得佳績。無可否認, 傳統測考可以給學生一種推動力,能幫助他們重 溫和鞏固所學,是促進學習的其中一種評估方 法,能提升學生的語文能力。至於進展性評估是 注重學生平日的學習表現,教師給予他們明確的 回饋,使他們了解自己的表現,明白自己的優點 和需要改善的地方。例如學生在課堂上運用口頭 作句,教師可即時給予口頭回饋,指出可怎樣將 句子寫得更充實,所用形容詞是否得當等,這些 回饋有助學生學習。中文科教師也會運用書面回 饋(評語)來幫助提升學生的寫作能力。 二、「促進學習的評估」能培養學生的反 思能力 「促進學習的評估」的深層意義是培養學生 日後養成學習的習慣,這種習慣的養成,主要是 學生能反思所學。「促進學習的評估」強調的是 多元化評估,在日常教學活動中,讓學生有自我 評價(自評)和同儕相互評價(互評)的機會。 在自評和互評中,給學生經歷一個自我反省的過 程,經歷一個總結經驗的過程,經歷一個自我提 升的過程,這些過程是學習語文的重要元素。例 如學生作了一篇記敍文,他們能從教師的回饋、 自評和互評活動中,明白用什麽準則來評量一篇 優秀的記敘文。當他們閱讀或再寫一篇記敘文 時,他們便能反思所學,懂得運用學過的準則來 批評自己和別人的作品。因此,教師給予學生的 回饋,自評和互評活動在日常課堂是非常重要 的,「促進學習的評估」是日常教學的一部分。 丁、對中國語文科「促進學習的 評估」的建議 早在 2001 年,課程發展議會(2001)《學 會學習──課程發展路向》文件中指出:「評估 是學習與教學循環的一部分,而不是附著於教學 階段之後。」(頁 72)課程、教法、評估是應互 相配合的,才能達致促進學習的效能。究竟如何 在小學中國語文科實行這些理念?以下是一些可 行的建議: 一、根據課程的目的,設計「寓學習於評 估」的活動 從課程發展議會(2004)《中國語文課程指 引(小一至小六)》和香港課程發展議會(2008) 《小學中國語文建議學習重點》文件所見,中國 語文科課程發展有兩個重要目的:一是注重培養 學生運用語文能力,即讀寫聽說的能力;基本 要求小學生能聽得清楚,說得明白,讀能理解, 寫能表達。二是強調學生語文的素養和個人的素 養。語文的素養是培養學生學習語文的良好習 慣、興趣和主動自學的能力;個人素養是指培養 學生的品德情意。 就培養學生運用語文能力而言,教學可多設 計有關讀、寫、聽、說的語文小組活動。在小組 中,師生間的互動和學生間的互動機會增多了, 教師便能有更多時間和空間細心觀察學生表現, 記錄和收集學生的顯証,從而評估個別學生的表 現。例如:教師設計說話活動,要求學生分組進 行角色扮演,目的是要他們說話能做到發音正 確,吐字清晰,並能運用適當語調表達話語。教 師必須根據目的,制訂簡單的「觀察表」評估學 生的表現。在學生分組準備時,教師可參加其中 的組別,細心留意學生表現,若學生發音不標準, 便要即時糾正。為了避免對學生造成壓力,每次 的觀察,教師都不用預先通知學生,也不用計分, 「觀察表」純粹是一種記錄,幫助教師了解學生 的學習而已。到每組學生表演時,教師就每組的 表現加以評分和提供回饋。 就培養學生的語文素養而言,要培養學生養 48 成學習語文的良好習慣、興趣和主動自學的能 力,並不是只靠教師的講授而能達致的。教師宜 多配合課程的目的,因應學生的興趣和能力,多 加入培養學生自學的機會,例如在課室設置「閱 讀閣」和「自學中心」。「閱讀閣」是擺放每個 單元教學後的申延閱讀的篇章和書籍,讓學生閱 讀,並作個人閱讀記錄;「自學中心」是擺放教 師預先設計與單元教學內容相關的語文遊戲,例 如「找部首」,「語詞接龍」等,讓學生選擇喜 歡的遊戲進行自學和核對預先準備的答案,並作 記錄。若他們遇到困難,可請教同學和老師。教 師從他們的閱讀紀錄和自學紀錄中,可深入了解 他們對閱讀的興趣和評估他們的自學能力。讓學 生從活動中學習,正好給教師從學生活動中觀察 和評估他們的機會。 二、進展性評估和總結性評估並重 很多家長都認為要幫助子女在校內和校外取 得高分的成績。香港教育制度一向重視總結性評 估,側重考試和測驗。當家長和學校均看重校內 測考和公開試的同時,教師不妨考慮以下兩個問 題:進展性評估有何重要性?它和總結性評估有 什麼關係? 進展性評估是指學生在學習過程中的評估, 例如教師對學生的觀察,學生平時的習作表現 等。Stiggins(2008)認為評估過程與學生的學習 動機有密切關係。當學生能在學習過程中明白自 己的不足和成功之處,並得到家長、老師和同儕 的鼓勵和意見,並對他們的學習有所期望,這些 激勵,能引發他們自我努力學習的動機。進展性 評估的重要性在於讓學生清楚自己學習過程的成 效,他們在進展性評估中對自己有所期望。當學 生有了期望,便能引起他們學習的動機。進展性 評估大多是以日常學習活動為主,Paris & Ayres (2001)認為日常學習活動比平時考試成績更重 要,因為這些評估活動,能充分反映學生自己的 努力程度和學習質量的真實表現。對教師而言, 他們可運用學生在進展性評估中的表現,反思自 己教學的成效。 進展性評估和總結性評估的關係是非常密切 的。進展性評估主要目的是提供學生和教師回饋 而不單是評鑑其學習效益(Brown, 1994)。總 結性評估主要是評估學生在某學習階段的學習成 效,以總結他們學習成果。所以,學生要在總結 性評估取得佳績,他們必須在進展性評估中明白 自己在學習過程中的表現,而知所改善和有所期 望。進展性評估能幫助學生在總結性評估中的表 現。教師觀察學生在日常「寓學習於評估」活動 的表現,注重他們在學習過程中的進展性評估, 無形中幫助提升他們總結性評估的成績。此外, 當學生在總結性評估表現失準或因事未能參加總 結性評估,教師便可參考學生在進展性評估的表 現。進展性評估和總結性評估是相輔相成的。 三、多元化評估的準則必須明示學生 多元化評估是指不單是教師評估學生,而且 可以是家長對子女學習表現的評估,學生自評和 同儕互評。要有效實行學生自評和同儕互評活 動,教師必先釐訂評估的準則,他們可考慮校內 學生的程度,校本課程的規畫,更要緊的是參考 《全港性基本能力》和《小學中國語文建議學習 重點》各學習階段的要求。評估的準則是有客觀 要求,準則應簡單易明。教師可考慮自己製訂這 準則或是與學生一起商討,他們必須向學生清說 明評估準則和加以舉例。教師不但可用這準則評 估學生,而且可將準則製訂學生自評和互評表, 讓學生進行自評和互評活動。從評估準則和多元 化的自評和互評中,學生能對自己的努力程度、 「促進學習的評估」在中國語文科實行之我見 49 學習態度和學習成效進行反思。學生學會了該如 何評估自己的表現,找出哪些是正確的,哪些是 錯誤的。這種評估方式與教師主導的評定學生哪 是對哪些是錯,是兩種截然不同的評估方式。 四、為學生提供及時、清楚、易懂的鼓勵 性回饋 近 年 課 程 發 展 議 會 與 香 港 考 試 評 核 局 (2007)《中國語文教育學習領域──中國語文 課程及評估指引》的文件中強調優質的回饋,才 能有效促進學習,對學生發揮正面激勵的作用。 教師應為學生提供及時、清楚、易懂的鼓勵性回 饋。例如某學生朗讀課文很出色,很多教師都會 說:「很好」。但若是提升回饋的素質,教師可 以清楚說出學生朗讀得怎樣好,例如是「讀得很 投入,聲線充足,能運用輕重音,表現很出色」。 教師所說的除了是表揚和鼓勵這位學生外,同時 也明確地對其他學生提出清楚的要求,具體顯示 了怎樣才是表現出色的朗讀。在日常課堂中給予 學生提供及時、清楚、易懂的鼓勵性回饋,學生 便能即時改進和反思所學,這比起教師只在總結 性評估時才給與學生分數來得更有意義。 五、教師由傳統評估的執行者轉變為強調 評估為促進學生學習的探索者 要落實「促進學習的評估」的理念,教師在 評估體系中的角色是要改變的:由傳統的總結性 評估的執行者轉變成有效、可行的評估工具的探 索者和實驗者(李靜,2006)。在傳統的課室教 學中,教師教完書後,才評估學生,他們通常把 對學生的評估放在最後,為他們的習作和測驗打 分。但在「促進學習的評估」的教學中,教師再 不單是評估的執行者,他們更要從日常課堂活動 中觀察和探索學生所學,分析學生的表現。更進 取的做法是:教師應是學生進行自主評估的指導 者。教師可考慮多設計學生進行自主學習的活 動,並指導和探索他們怎樣反思和評估其成效。 總言之,語文教師的角色應由評估學生學習表現 的執行者轉變為強調評估是為促進學生學習的探 索者。 六、全面制訂語文學習評估的計畫 一般來說,教師在學期初會制訂教學計畫, 設計進度表。教師可考慮在教學計畫中加入評估 計畫。現時的評估項目只附屬在教學計畫,並不 詳細。教師宜在評估計畫中列明總結性評估和進 展性評估的目標,教師須對學生在特定時期的學 習作整體的評估,教師也可互相商量進展性評估 的目的、評估的方式(例如自評和互評等)和評 估次數等。以下是教師在設計評估計畫時要注意 的事項: (1) 教師要學生清楚單元要學些什麽? (2) 單元有什麼活動?學習的過程是怎樣? (3) 教師怎樣運用多元化的評估活動? (4) 總結性評估與進展性評估怎樣緊扣一 起? (5) 評估準則釐訂了嗎? (6) 評估後有提供回饋嗎? (7) 教師應如何改善教學和修訂課程? 在學期開始時,教師制訂評估計畫須注意檢 視過去一學年學生在學習階段是否能達到目標。 如果大部分學生都不能達到目標,教師須在課程 和評估設計上彌補不足。 同時教師在設計評估計畫時,應留意學生在 各學習階段學習重點的銜接性。評估計畫與課程 規畫是不能分割的,評估應能反映課程規畫時所 照顧的學習階段的銜接。教師必須能注意級與 級、學習階段與階段之間的課程目標和重點的遞 進性,從而釐訂評估重點和評估整体的規畫,幫 50 參考文獻 李靜(2006)。〈建設語言自主評估材料 提高語言自主學習能力〉。《外語界》,第 113 期,60-72。 香港課程發展議會(2001)。《學會學習──課程發展路向》。香港:政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會(2002)。《基礎教育課程指引──各盡所能 ‧ 發展所長(小一至小六)》。香港:政 府印務局。 香港課程發展議會(2004)。《中國語文課程指引(小一至小六)》。香港:政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會(2008)。《小學中國語文建議學習重點》。香港:政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局(2007)。《中國語文教育學習領域──中國語文課程及評估指引(中 四至中六)》。香港:香港政府。 廖佩莉(2009)。〈促進學習評估:中學中國語文科教師對此認識有多少?〉。《中國語文通訊》,第 八十七/八十八期,14-25。 Brown, K. W. (1994). Meaning and consequences. British Educational Research Journal, 22, 537-548. Paris, S. G., & Ayres, L. R. (2001)《培養反思力》,袁坤(譯)。北京:中國輕工業出版社。(原著出版年 1994)。 Stiggins, R. (2008). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson Prentice Hall. Sutton, R. (1995). Assessment for learning. England: RS Publications. 助學生學習。以小學中國語文科為例,教師應參 考香港課程發展議會(2008)《小學中國語文建 議學習重點》清楚列明各學習階段對學生語文的 要求。例如在第一個學習階段(小一至小三)的 閱讀範疇中要求學生辨識簡單的敘述手法,如順 敘、倒敘;在第二個學習階段(小四至小六)則 期望學生認識不同性質的表達方法,如描寫、抒 情、說明、議論。至於閱讀方法,第一個學習階 段的學生要掌握精讀、默讀、朗讀(配合感情, 有自信地朗讀優美的文字);第二個學習階段的 學生則要懂得運用略讀、瀏覽、主題閱讀法、找 出關鍵語句等。有關寫作方面,第一個學習階段 的學生要懂得解說日常用品的使用步驟即可;第 二個學習階段的學生則要懂得運用比較、舉例、 分類來寫說明文。教師應以香港課程發展議會 (2008)《小學中國語文建議學習重點》為藍本, 多考慮學生能力和興趣,由淺入深,以螺旋式全 面規畫學習和評估重點。 戊、結語 要實踐「促進學習的評估」的理念,教師必 須有效制訂整体的評估規畫,進行多元化和進展 性評估,提供回饋,促進學習。值得關注的是, 教師對傳統教學和評估的信念如果不改變,那麽 是較難實踐「促進學習的評估」的理念。筆者期 望教師要明白自己在評估角色的轉變。同時教育 當局和大專院校可因應教師的需要,多舉辦分享 會和培訓課程。有了足夠的支援,教師對實踐「促 進學習的評估」的理念便會更具信心。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 51 學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 Teachers’ practical knowledge in school settings: From the perspectives of narrative inquiry and ethnography methodology 陸靜塵 華東師範大學學前與特殊教育學院 李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 本研究整理了教師實踐知識理論的源頭,提出以敍事探究(narrative inquiry)作為研究方法的角度對學校中 教師的實踐知識的變化作出整體分析;同時從人類學民族志(ethnography)研究方法的視角,對比日常情 境中專業人士的實踐知識與學校情境中教師的實踐知識。這兩個研究方法的角度令教師實踐知識的研究有 新的發展。 關鍵詞 教師實踐知識,敍事探究,民族志研究方法 Abstract Following the research tradition on teachers’ practical knowledge, this study examined it from the perspectives of methodology on narrative inquiry and ethnography. Some new opinions were formed to understand teachers’ practical knowledge and the implementation of the research methods above. Based on literature review, the nature of teachers’ practical knowledge in school context was discussed. Some opinions were offered to conduct the implementation of the two research approaches above. 52 Keywords teachers’ practical knowledge, narrative inquiry, ethnography methodology 甲、前言 正如有的學者所研究的那樣,中小學教師日 常的職業狀態是,除了教育學生的責任外,還負 有承擔學校系統本身的運作、與學校系統之外其 他部門或機構的聯繫和配合問題,這就使得教師 的日常工作變得很複雜,具體表現為:「雜亂而 片段化」,教育教學活動之間缺乏連帶性和一致 性。第二,帶著「強烈的情境依賴」,教師對於 自身或他人的專業活動的理解,相當依賴於教師 所處的情境(學科組、教研組、年級組、班級和 學校)以及自身的背景,諸如學校經歷、受訓經 歷等,這樣教師的專業活動就會很大程度上受到 這些情境以及過去經歷的影響,往往會表現出按 「習慣做法」為行事原則。第三,教師的工作還 是有強烈的行動導向。在教育變革面前,往往會 希望改革的宣導者直接加以詳細說明「如何行 動」(王建軍,2004)。這種觀點給我們關注與 研究教師職業狀態提供了實踐的視角。 因此,有研究者提出,在實施課程改革等大 規模的教育改革中,不但要考慮教育理論,還要 考慮教師的校本知識以及他們對服務對象——學 生的理解,尤其是他們在職業生涯中逐漸獲得的 專業知識。因此,「在教師的專業知識中,他們 在職業生涯中逐漸形成的這些知識就是最重要 的」,「就需要知道教師的這些思想信念和認 識,也就是教師知識」,「在任何特定的教育改 革中,我們都必須認識到教師知識所起的作用」 (Meijer, Verloop, & Beijaard, 2002;溫魯普、范 德瑞爾與梅爾,2008)。 而替森(Thiessen, 2000)在討論教師教育研 究的取向時也指出,對於「專業知識」的研究最 有前景。這種研究把教師的教學活動看作是一種 知識的工作,強調要把實踐性知識(包括日常規 範、程式和方法)與命題性知識(基於學科的理 論和概念、教學原則、特定的規定)並列起來使 用。 基於教師知識在專業形成和發展中的基礎地 位以及教師工作的行動本質,本文提出對於學校 中教師的實踐知識(practical knowledge)的研究, 並試圖從敍事探究(narrative inquiry)和人類學 民族志(ethnography)研究方法的角度,來考察 學校情境中教師實踐知識。 乙、開展教師實踐知識研究的價值 學校教育是教師與學生的共同活動所組成的 主要部分。作為成熟的發展一方的教師在傳遞社 會價值、實現發展中的個體學生的社會化更是起 著其他教育管理者、教育政策制定者以及教育理 論研究者無法具備的獨特作用。因此教師的教育 水平,或者近年來社會越來越關注的教師專業水 平更顯出其重要的地位。而衡量一個行業的專業 水平,該行業從業者的專業知識則是前提和基 礎。不少有識之士從上世紀七八十年代開始關注 教師知識,包括教師實踐知識的研究。這裏,對 這一研究領域做簡要的回顧。 本領域的研究主要有兩種價值取向,其一, 學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 53 從事基礎教育的教師這一行業是否是一門專業、 其行業從業者是否是專業工作者的爭論中,教師 這個職業的專業性一直受到質疑:因為它沒有特 有的專業知識和技能。過去很長時間裏面不少人 甚至認為只要具有一定識字能力的人都可以來做 小學教師。也有的人承認教師的行業需要教育經 驗,但是它不需要具備學術知識。於是有些研究 者就將對研究教師的研究重點由專業知識或技術 轉移到「教師所知」(what teachers know)而不 是學術知識(academic knowledge)上來,劃定 為教師用來開展學校教育活動的信念、洞察力和 行為習慣等。他們發現他們的研究物件—教師 所知與哲學家們對於實踐知識特點的論述不謀而 合—都具有時間性和情景性、強調個人特點和 行動取向性。但是這些內容中可能成為教師實踐 知識(teachers practical knowledge)的理由及其 範圍還頗受爭議(Sharon & Robert, 1986)。因此 有必要對教師知識和教師實踐知識進行研究和分 析。這是教師知識、教師實踐知識研究的價值取 向之一。其二,教師知識中的教師實踐知識作為 教師得以開展其職業行為的一種行動知識或者經 驗,其所包含的內容和影響因素有哪些,相互關 係如何,它們的實際運作過程又是如何,等等。 這些問題的探究也有利於人們深入瞭解教師知 識、乃至教師實踐知識這一存在。從上面這兩個 方面來看,教師實踐知識都是值得研究的。 丙、教師實踐知識研究的理論起源 「實踐知識」研究的開創者是芝加哥大學 的 科 學 教 育 研 究 者 施 瓦 布(Schwab, 1969), 他 提 出 了「 實 踐 樣 式 」(the practical) 名 詞, 並認為「實踐樣式」的特徵是「協商的藝術」 (art of deliberation)與「折衷的藝術」(art of eclectic),以用來分別表示從多元觀點深入思考 一件事物的技法和做出實際決策時綜合多樣的理 論與方法的技法。他提醒大家,課程的開發與實 踐受到行為科學的「理論樣式」所支配,教師在 實際課堂中形成的「實踐樣式」的聲音瀕臨死亡。 因此,開始了教師實踐知識的研究和「救亡」實 踐行動。 出於對教師知識是不是一種知識,乃至由此 造成的教師職業是不是一項專業的懷疑和證實 的爭論,上世紀 70 年代開始逐漸出現了一些有 關教師知識的研究,試圖揭示這種開始並不為世 人所重視的知識的產生、構成、發展和在教學活 動中的用途。有人將教師教育的不足歸咎於教學 中技術文化的缺乏,強調如果沒有知識為基礎的 話,那麼教師教育就無法傳遞相關的專業知識 (Lortie, 1975)。也有學者認為,之所以缺乏實 踐知識的溝通形式是因為職業的各自為陣造成 的。因為教師和自己的同事之間存在隔離現象, 很少有機會說清楚和比較各自的教育心得。這 樣就會造成教師有關教育的知識的缺乏和轉變 (Sarason, 1982)。教師實踐知識缺乏的另一個 原因,有學者(例如 Huberman, 1983)歸因於教 師出於對課堂裏學生的要求不斷被迫做出回應, 從而更多的是依賴直覺和即時反應而不是理論思 維所致。但是值得注意的是,上述對於教師知識、 教師實踐知識的研究有值得商榷之處,比如:教 師知識並非簡單的傳授過程,所以教師獲得知識 並非只有自上而下的傳授一途;教師的職業特點 的確有很多的時間在獨立執教,但是通過教育培 訓、師徒帶教、非正式場合的交流溝通,乃至正 式的教師教研活動都可以使得教師的實踐經驗、 實踐知識得以在同伴之間傳遞、改進;另外,教 師的確有很多場合需要依據直覺、即時反應來做 出判斷,但是這與教育環境的複雜、多變、不穩 定有著直接的關係。因此,有必要更深入地瞭解 54 教師工作的特點、教師工作所處環境的特殊性, 這樣才能更好地理解教師知識、包括教師實踐知 識的產生、傳遞和變化的過程與特點,更好地理 解教師專業發展的特點。可見,需要使用更合適 的方法來研究教師的知識,尤其是植根於日常教 育活動中的教師實踐知識。 一、教師實踐知識研究中的代表人物和觀 點簡介 研 究 教 師 知 識 時 由 於 對 知 識 定 義 的 不 同 哲 學 理 解, 存 在 著 重 視 科 學 知 識(scientific knowledge)而輕視來自實踐的、個人的知識的 現象。理由是科學知識更客觀可靠,並超越了具 體課堂生活的細節、教師的個人傾向以及教師經 驗無法避免的局限。教師只會解決一些特殊性的 問題而對於普適性的教育問題的解決則會束手無 策。教師會用類似講故事的方式來描述自己的教 學活動,而不大會應用些理論來解釋自己的教 學。這些描述充滿了教師自己個性化的經驗。因 此,人們覺得,普適性的理論不拘泥於具體的時 間空間,所以顯得更好(Schwab, 1959)。不過, 這種認識是有失偏頗的。不能因為教師的實踐知 識產生與應用於實踐情景,並與之緊密相連,就 認為它無足輕重;就因為它與科學知識不相同, 就 降 低 了 它 的 價 值。 實 際 上, 正 如 Buchmann 所 言, 實 踐 知 識 與 科 學 知 識 有 著 不 同 的 存 在 目的,它的目的是為了形成智慧的行動(wise action),而不是對於事物的普遍理解。智慧行 動的目的以及實際的教學情境可以為描述教師 識知(what teachers know)、教師教育知識的獲 得與使用提供恰當的術語(Buchmann, 1983)。 Elbaz 與 Lampert 的有關研究很好地證明了這個 觀點。 在 Elbaz 對一位高中英語教師的研究(Elbaz, 1983)中,她採用案例研究的方法,通過與研究 對象訪談,提出了教師用於教學的實踐知識可以 分為五種類型、三個層次。類型包括:關於自我 的知識、關於教學環境的知識、學科的知識、課 程開發的知識和教學的知識;三個層次是,實踐 的規則、實踐的原則以及有關教育教學實踐的總 體形象(image)。 Lampert 的研究關注教師個人知識(personal knowledge)。她把教師個人知識界定為,教師 對於自己的認知、教師的價值取向以及不局限於 紙筆測驗的對於學生的瞭解。她的這一概念強調 要兼顧教師的價值取向、學生的想法、課程的要 求這三方面(Lampert, 1984)。 加 拿 大 學 者 Clandinin 與 Connelly 則 提 出 教 師 個 人 實 踐 知 識(personal practical knowledge),把這種知識描述為存在於以往的經 驗、現時的教育情境和未來的計畫與行為中,貫 穿于教師的整個實踐過程中。在這樣的場景中, 教師通過敍述探究(narrative inquiry),以講故 事的形式來解釋與建構個人的以及與社會的互動 的 經 驗(Connelly & Clandinin, 1990)。 具 體 涵 義為(Connelly & Clandinin, 1999): 這一概念可以讓我們在談論教師是知識 廣泛的識知者時用來理解他們的經驗。 個人實踐知識蘊藏在教師過去的經驗、現 時的頭腦和身體動作以及將來的計畫和行 動中。人們可以在教師的實踐中發現個人 實踐知識。它對於所有教師來說都是一 種出於應對當前情境中的緊急情況而重 構過去、調整未來的意向的特有方式。 (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988, p.25) 荷 蘭 學 者 貝 加 德(Beijaard)、 威 魯 普 (Verloop)與梅耶(Meijer)及其合作者的大量 學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 55 研究不再拘泥於教師實踐知識本身的研究,而是 把研究視野擴展到具體的學科教學、教師評價、 新手教師和經驗教師的比較等方面(姜美玲, 2008)。他們認為教師實踐知識是教師素質的核 心,決定和指引著教師在實踐中的行動。他們還 認為,教師實踐知識不是理論知識與科學知識的 對立面,而是包含大量的理論性知識,並在教學 理論和教學實踐之間發揮著媒介功能(Beijaard & Verloop, 1996)。 中國學者陳向明則提出,教師的知識可以分 為兩部分,「理論性知識」和「實踐性知識」, 並在比較多位學者有關教師實踐性知識的不同提 法和定義後,她提出教師的「實踐性知識」的定 義,並分析了教師實踐知識的構成部分和存在狀 態(陳向明,2003)。在此基礎上,她初步認為, 遠離教師實踐的「宏大理論」對於教師指導價值 不大,教師需要的是能夠貼近自己教育教學實踐 的、教師自身的理論,這種理論可以叫做教師的 「實踐理論」。這種理論內生自教師的行動,來 自於教師的個人經驗;一般處於內隱的狀態,不 被教師自己所明確意識到,具有特殊性和個人化 傾向,但也可以運用於廣泛的場景,並類推到類 似的情境(陳向明,2008)。 從上面的簡要回顧可見,首先,教師實踐知 識與我們熟知的教師在課堂裏所教的學科知識即 所謂「學科知識」(content knowledge)有著很 大的不同,其所涉及到的是教師在開展教育教學 活動的過程中,隱藏在其教學行為背後的價值 觀、教育經驗、甚至對於職業和學生的感情等等 的知識部分,其複雜程度、與教育情景的緊密聯 繫程度、個人性、經驗性都要遠遠地超過明確的 學科教學知識。第二,教師實踐知識的研究領域 也逐漸從對教師個體經驗的研究擴展到對於教 師、學生、師範生等對象,學科課程與教學、教 師評價等教育實踐領域。第三,研究方法也由單 一的案例研究擴展到敍事研究、量化研究以及多 種研究方法並用。 我們以學校情境中教師實踐知識的發生與發 展的過程為視角,初步提出我們對於這種知識的 基本認識:第一,教師實踐知識存在的目的,是 解決學校教育中的實際問題,滿足教師和學校其 他主體在教育活動中的需求。第二,教師實踐知 識的形成,來自學校教育與社會情境中的問題和 需求的有效解決,並得到同行(包括同伴和業內 權威人士)、社會人士的肯定與承認。第三,這 種知識存在的形式,是個人和群體在日常教育活 動中形成的經驗、應對策略、價值觀、理論與智 慧。第四,存在的時空,以教師個人的職業空間 為主,涉及其他公共空間中;時間上歷經過去現 在和未來,具有時間脈絡上的繼承性、延續性。 二、在教師實踐知識的研究中,值得注意的 是研究方法多元化對於本領域研究的促 進作用 上述對於教師實踐知識的初步釐清,既可 以增加我們對於這一概念的理解,同時也給我 們在研究方法選擇上的啟發:對於這一區別於 學科知識或者科學知識的質的知識(qualitative knowledge)的研究,應該採用質的研究方法作 為新增的研究方法,才能更深入、準確地認識 和理解這一知識類型。從傳統的哲學思辨的方 法, 到 採 用 質 性 研 究 方 法(qualitative research methods),如調查、訪談、觀察等,一直到近 年來跨學科研究方法的使用,如逐漸採用敍事探 究(narrative inquiry)、人類學的田野研究方法, 乃 至 教 育 民 族 志(ethnography in education) 的 方法、以及多種研究方法的混合使用等等。尤其 是人類學的民族志方法的使用,使得人們對於知 識與行動之間的關係、知識的個別化性質、個體 56 行動對於活動知識的形成的促進作用等,從而發 現了以往自然科學研究方法所未曾解釋的人類知 識的個別化、經驗性以及與情境緊密聯繫著的特 點。這樣的研究方法,對於教師實踐知識的研究, 有效地揭示教師個人知識中的特點和性質也起到 了明顯的研究效果。 丁、從敍事探究作為研究方法的 角度對教師實踐知識的認識 受到施瓦布(Schwab)「實踐性」思想以 及杜威(Dewey)經驗理論以及波蘭尼關於「個 人知識」概念(Polanyi, 1958)的深刻影響,上 世紀 80 年代以來,施瓦布的弟子之一、加拿大 學 者 Connelly 與 Clandinin 開 始 了 有 關「 教 師 個人實踐知識」的研究,他們「撇開外部理論 而轉向那些對實踐起決定作用的隱性的、密切 的、經驗的、個人的知識特性」(許世靜、康納 利,2008)。他們及其合作者在杜威(Dewey, 1938)、 施 瓦 布(Schwab, 1970)、Gauthier (1963)以及其他人的經驗主義認識論的影響下, 逐漸產生了將教師理解為認識者(knower)的研 究興趣,他們認為教師是自身的認識者、自身所 處情境的認識者、兒童的認識者、學科的認識者、 教學的認識者與學習的認識者。 Connelly 與 Clandinin(1999) 發 現, 教 師 因自己所認為的應然的課程,與其應政策要求所 設計的課程之間不一致而感到困擾。也有教師 掙扎在「被要求」與「自己相信應該做」的課 程之間。可見教師的教學「更大程度上取決於 他們個人所知道的知識」,教師的知識(teacher knowledge)比為教師設定的知識(knowledge for teachers)更重要(許世靜、康納利,2008)。作 為研究現象的敍事探究,關注教師的個人知識, 首創了教師「個人實踐知識」這一概念。這種知 識來自經驗,與教師的個人教育教學實踐的場景 中習得,而這種場景和教師所處的社會環境、學 校文化環境緊密相連的,教師實踐知識產生於這 一教師工作的特殊環境的,稱之為「專業知識景 觀 」(professional knowledge landscape)。 另 一 方面,敍事探究作為思維的方式和教育研究的方 法的時候,它是與「生活空間」這一概念的密切 相連的,首先作為一個「時間的連續體」,考察 期間的學校、教師和課程等教育要素的時候,必 須注意到該事物是發展變化的,現時的表現源自 過去、流向未來的。教師的實踐知識亦是有其發 展、變化的來由、表現和未來的發展方向的。通 過敍述的方式可以瞭解到教師知識的流動變化的 線索。第二,生活空間又是「個人——社會的連 續體」。生活期間的教師的個人與社會環境相互 作用影響的,教師的知識不僅是教師個人的習得 的,而且也是在與社會環境中的機構、人、制度 等的影響下逐漸發展起來的。因此,研究教師的 實踐知識就必須要關注教師所處的學校、家長、 學生和社會帶來的影響。這就意味著敍事探究不 能只是考慮個人維度,而且還要關注教師所處的 環境帶來的影響。 在社會發生變化的時候,比如教育政策的改 革、新的課程的實施推行等時候,教師的實踐知 識就會受到不同程度的影響,同時還要注意時間 的維度帶來的影響。第三,敍事探究存在其中的 生活空間第三個維度是「地點」。教師在不同的 地點擔任的角色、所起的作用各不相同,比如教 室中、辦公室、社區、家中等等,其所接觸的人 和事皆不同,所要求其所充當的社會角色各不相 同,承擔的社會作用亦是大相徑庭。以教師的實 踐知識的發展來看,隨著情境的變化,尤其是作 為學校機構的運作基礎的迴圈週期(cycles), 如年度、節假日、班級活動的迴圈等,以及由這 學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 57 些時間安排作用到教師身上帶來的教師對其職業 行為帶來高低起伏的節奏感受(rhythms)也都各 不 相 同(Connelly & Clandinin, 1999)。 這 些 迴 圈週期會觸及教師個人實踐知識在道德、美感和 情感方面造成的影響,這些迴圈週期會帶來在空 間和時間上的不同邊界(borders)。如果說空間 上的邊界用肉眼尚能辨別的話,那麼在時間上帶 來的邊界則是主要體現在人的頭腦和作息時間表 上,由於其與教師日常從事的學校教育的節奏感 緊密相連,所以要改變起來,難度可想而知。 學者 Cuban(1995)在考察了教師所處的 學校環境後,採用了「學校教育的語法」(the grammar of schooling)一詞來形容其穩定的特性, 與克蘭迪甯(Clandinin)及康納利(Connelly) 提出的包括教師個人實踐知識在內的專業知識景 觀(professional knowledge landscape)的特點之 一,在學校教育中存在的「迴圈」(cycles)和「節 奏」(rhythm)概念的研究不謀而合!他認為, 學校中的實踐活動,諸如按年齡招生、班級授課、 分學科傳授知識等等,與語法在語言使用中起到 的結構作用一樣,是學校運行結構的基本組成方 式。而這種學校的基本運行結構一旦確定下來, 教師們就能夠按部就班地開展自身的工作,有計 劃有步驟地應對來自學校董事會、校長以及家長 們的期望的壓力。久而久之,教師與學生一樣習 慣於這種結構和次序(正如學校知識景觀中的 「迴圈」與「節奏」),並且很難再去適應別的了。 這種結構和次序的確和語言中的文法一樣重要和 難以輕易改變的,甚至習以為常而熟視無睹了。 因此,教師在這樣的環境中產生的知識(教師實 踐知識),既具有穩定性、同時又帶有很強的情 境性特點,同時由於又與具體的學校教育方式、 學校管理方式、具體的人事安排、學生的特點、 學生家長的要求等等因素緊密聯繫在一起,而變 得十分複雜。 戊、人類學民族志的研究方法 對於教師實踐知識研究的啟 發—行業知識的實際應用 (knowledge at work)的角度 人類學家 Scribner 在一家乳品製造廠進行了 幾項實地研究(Scribner, 1985),目的是研究行 動是怎樣指導知識的習得和知識的組織。他們 選擇了乳製品作為研究的範疇(domain)。他們 比較了五組人員在乳製品方面的知識。其中三組 是該乳製品廠裏的工作人員,分別是文職人員、 倉庫裝貨員和送貨司機。文員只是負責處理一些 貨品的符號形式(symbolic representations),而 裝貨員和司機則必須接觸貨品的表像和實際的貨 品。但是兩者的工作環境有所不同。他們除了對 人員的工作環境進行現場的考察之外,還對五類 人員的有關產品知識進行了測驗,諸如說出產品 的名稱、種類、大小等。一項結果顯示,研究者 發現倉庫裝貨員的對於貨品分類,有 1/3 的情況 下他們是以貨品的位置來區分產品的,而且他們 是唯一採用位置分類的工作人員。原因就在於, 他們一般每天晚上都要花約 8 小時在貨品的尋找 和整理上,所以知道不同貨品的位置對他們來說 十分重要。還有個結果是,倉庫裝貨員和送貨司 機還會採用貨品大小作為分類的辦法,而文職人 員則很少用此分類。這裏研究者發現,對於同樣 的知識範疇(如乳製品),不同組別的工作人員 會因為在功能上與該知識範疇的關係而有所不 同。 那麼,是什麼因素影響了知識的挑選和組織 呢?研究表明,線索一,是所碰到的對象出現的 形式:是表像的還是實際的;線索二,是有關人 58 們的行動目的,就是希望自己做到什麼。對象的 某些屬性對於目的的達成非常重要,例如貨品的 位置對於倉庫裝貨員而言。這樣在他們思考事物 的組織時,那些重要的屬性就會發揮重要的作 用。在此基礎上,研究者就提出,知識和行動相 互之間的關係問題。於是,研究者又前往乳類製 品廠的倉庫,更仔細的觀察產品裝卸的工作;又 通過相關的現場測試等方法,發現乳製品廠內與 工作相關的知識很複雜,這些知識取決於行動的 形式,以及對行動形式的調控。這裏,社會知識 (比如乳製品的名稱)與個人知識雖然不同,但 不是對立的。因為在這裏社會知識是用來組織乳 品廠的物質環境和符號形式,而個別員工會有創 意地運用這些社會知識使得工作更符合人類(包 括自己)的需要。證明社會知識在這裏和個人行 動相互促進並良好地組織在一起的。 從上述研究例子中,我們可以得知兩點啟發: 第一,人類學民族志研究方法的優勢在於,可以 深入人類活動(包括教師日常教育教學)的現場, 通過實際的觀察、測驗、談話等方式,瞭解到其 他研究方法無法得到的資訊;這對於我們用此方 法來揭示教師實踐知識很有方法上的啟發;其二, 就上述研究結論本身,使我們認識到,教師在學 校中的個人實踐知識和社會關於教育的知識之間 是可以相互影響和促進的。他們可以嘗試提出有 關的研究假設,開展基於人類學民族志角度的教 師實踐知識研究。 民族志研究方法在教育中的運用,以其獨特 的研究價值而受到教育研究者的重視。Janesick 提出了在課程研究領域適合民族志方法研究的八 類問題以及這種研究方法的特點。這八類問題 (Janesick, 1991)是:(1)有關課程等的質的 問題;(2)有關課程及其組成的意義和理解的 問題;(3)關於課程的社會語言學方面的問題; (4)有關整個系統的問題,如,教室、學校、 學區等方面的;(5)與課程的政治、經濟、社 會心理學等角度相關的問題;(6)與隱蔽課程 相關的問題;(7)與課程的社會情境相關的問題; (8)與教學和課程相關的教師內隱理論(implicit theories)方面的問題。同時,民族志研究還具有 以下一些特點:整體性視野、注重環境或社會中 的內在關係、聚焦於對某個社會環境的理解而非 預測、要求研究者置身於研究環境中、要求研究 者重視實地研究和之後的資料分析、要求研究者 不斷提高行為觀察和訪談的技術與能力。 綜上所述,這種研究方法對於教師實踐知識 研究的在方法上的啟示是:(1)對於教師實踐 知識的研究,研究者要首先拋開所有的理論和實 踐假設,來到教師開展教育活動的現場進行實地 研究;(2)要具有完整和聯繫的眼光去觀察和 分析教師實踐知識,比如從教師實際工作的教 室、學校和社區乃至社會的大環境來考察和分析 教師在課堂內外的教學與教育行為,當然包括知 識;(3)研究中要關注教師的內隱理論(implicit theories)的存在和外在表現。尤其是非明確語 言的表達方式,如隱喻、教具、學具的使用等; (4)在避免盲目套用和驗證現成理論和共識的 前提下,注重通過觀察、訪談、現場記錄等的分 析,獲得對於教師在具體社會(包括教育)情境 (social context)中對於實踐知識的應用、選擇、 改進等行為的深入理解,而不是預測和盲目的由 此及彼的「遷移」與「借鑒」。(5)應用該研 究方法,其研究問題雖然是教師實踐知識,但是 考察的視野不僅僅局限在以往常用的神經生理 學、認知心理學以及教育學等範疇,而是可以推 廣到社會、經濟、種族等,來考察期間存在的內 在聯繫。 學校情境中的教師實踐知識— 敍事探究和民族志研究方法的視角 59 參考文獻 王建軍(2004)。《課程變革與教師專業發展》。成都:四川教育出版社。 姜美玲(2008)。《教師實踐性知識研究》。上海:華東師範大學出版社。 許世靜、康納利(2008)。〈敍事探究與教師發展〉。《北京大學教育評論》,第 6 卷,第 1 期,51-69。 陳向明(2003)。〈實踐性知識:教師專業發展的知識基礎〉。《北京大學教育評論》,1(1),104- 112。 陳向明(2008)。〈理論在教師專業發展中的作用〉。《北京大學教育評論》,6(1),39-50。 溫魯普、范德瑞爾、梅爾(2008)。〈教師知識和教學的知識基礎〉。《北京大學教育評論》,第 6 卷,第 1 期, 21-38。 Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (1996). Assessing teachers’ practical knowledge. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 22(3), 275-286. Buchmann, M. (1983). Argument and conversation as discourse models of language use. (Occasional Paper No. 68). East Lansing: Michigan State University, Institute for Research on Teaching. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners: Narrative of experience. New York: Teachers College Press. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher. 19(5), 2-14. 己、總結 通過上述對於教師實踐知識的理論來源、不 同理論背景的概念述評以及引入敍述探究和民族 志的兩種研究方法作為方法角度的分析,使得我 們對於教師實踐知識本身及其研究方法有了進一 步的認識:由於教師實踐知識所包含的內容與教 師的實踐環境緊密相連、教師實踐知識的產生來 自于教師自身與周圍人群、社會環境的互動、教 師實踐知識又具有時間空間上的連續性、同時受 到學校教育穩定持續的影響,所以在研究這一複 雜、多元的對象時,必須使用多種研究方法,而 敍述探究與民族志的方法的引入,正是一種研究 方法上的彌補和充實。而前一種方法在對於研究 對象時空與發展的注重、後一種方法在對於研究 對象現狀的深度考察和個體意義的理解等方面的 優勢互補,使得兩者在對於教師實踐知識的研究 上,具有天然的聯繫,更有利於研究者開展這方 面的教育研究。 值得注意的是,教師實踐知識的發展變化過 程中,有三個要素尤其值得我們關注。首先是教 師的認知活動,這種活動是教師多年來逐步形成 的,形成了教育(教學)信念後,改變不容易。 第二,教師的教育(教學)信念很多情況下並不 明確,抑或是處於緘默狀態,甚至教師本人可能 也不知道這些知識是如何影響自己的教育行為 的。第三,很多研究指出,知識和信念在解釋新 的經驗或者選擇新知識過程中具有過濾作用,這 是符合心理學中「知覺的選擇性」這一原則的。 這三種現象的存在,給我們研究教師的學習或者 教育行為的改變提供了實踐或理論的依據。而從 敍事探究和人類學民族志的研究方法出發,應用 其理論框架和具體研究方法,對於我們分析與認 識教師實踐知識及其在教育改革中的作用,起到 了重要的支持作用。 60 Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (Eds.). (1999). Shaping a professional identity: Stories of educational practice. NY: Teachers College Press. Cuban, L. (1995). Why the grammar of schooling persists. In D. Tyack & L. Cuban (Eds.), Tinkering toward Utopia: A century of public school reform (pp.85-109). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (8th printing, 2001). Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. Elbaz, F. (1983). Teacher thinking: A study of practical knowledge. London: Croom Helm. Gauthier, D. P. (1963). Practical reasoning: The structure and foundation of prudential and moral arguments and their exemplifications in discourse. London: Oxford University Press. Huberman, M. (1983). Recipe for busy kitchens: A situational analysis of routine knowledge use in schools. Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, 4. Janesick, V. J. (1991). Ethnographic inquiry: Understanding culture and experience. In E. C. Short (Ed.), Forms of curriculum inquiry (pp.101-119). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Lampert, M. (1984). Teaching about thinking and thinking about teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16(1), 1-18. Lortie, D. (1975). School teacher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Meijer, P., Verloop N., & Beijaard, D. (2002). Multi-method triangulation in a qualitative study on teachers’ practical knowledge: An attempt to increase internal validity. Quality & Quantity, 36(2), 145-167. Polanyi. (1958). Personal knowledge. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Sarason, S. B. (1982). The culture of the school and the problem of change (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Schwab, J. (1959). The “impossible” role of the teacher in progressive education. The School Review, 67(2), 139-159. Schwab, J. (1969). The practical: A language for curriculum. School Review, 78(1), 1-24. Scribner, S. (1985). Knowledge at work. In R. McComick & C. Paecher (Eds.), Learning and Knowledge. Buckingham: The Open University. 1999. Sharon, F., & Robert, E. F. (1986). The culture of teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Thiessen, D. (2000). A skillful start to a teaching career: A matter of developing impactful behaviors, reflective practices, or professional knowledge? International Journal of Education Research, 33(5), 515-537. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 61 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 Exploring micropolitical behavior in schools in educational reform 陳幸仁 台灣國立中正大學課程研究所暨師資培育中心 范慶鐘 台灣南投縣廣英國民小學 摘要 本文旨在探究台灣歷經一連串教育改革,校園生態使利害關係人趨向多元與競爭的權力關係。近來微觀政 治學觀點受到重視,其聚焦於探討利害關係人間如何運用權力,以保護自身的利益。本文首先提出學校微 觀政治運作相關理論,其次探討學校微觀政治學的面向與核心概念,再就學校微觀政治運作面臨的問題, 分析校園微觀政治行為,主要指出學校的權力、利益、政策活動乃是校園微觀政治行為的主要核心。最後, 提出校園微觀政治行為的具體策略來回應上述面臨的問題,希望能增進對校園微觀政治行為的瞭解與認識。 關鍵詞 教育改革,微觀政治行為,學校微觀政治 Abstract Under the circumstance of a series of educational reforms in Taiwan, the power ecology within the school is inclining to multiple and competitive relations among shareholders. Recently, scholars pay attention to the notion of micropolitics, which focuses on how shareholders exert power in order to protect their interest. First, this article proposes some theories as the base of micropolitics. Second, it discusses some dimensions and primary conceptions of micropolitics. Third, it addresses several problematic aspects regarding school micropolitics in which power, interest and policy activity become central foci. Finally, this article suggests some strategies to cope with problematic aspects regarding school micropolitics. 62 甲、前言 台灣推行教育改革多年以來,造成學校生態 的轉變,包括行政決策、集體協商、社區互動、 課程設計與教學過程都呈現多元的參與及競爭的 互動關係,學校場景中上演著人事職務角力、政 治力介入、資源分配、尖峰對話、利益交換、權 力運作、衝突處理等政治性的運作現象,這些變 革過程中所產生的對話與論辯、乃至分裂與對 立,再再突顯學校系統作為政治實體的表現。微 觀政治學觀點可以在系統的任何階層中應用於每 個單位團體,在教育方面被談到的對象經常是學 校,這些政治行為發展和其他權力運作與衝突處 理,已經重新燃起對學校內多面向權力和政治的 興趣(Malen, 1995)。 近年來,由於社會大眾對教育改革的日漸重 視,以及官方與民間團體對教育改革的著力亦 深,使得傳統校園的行政運作產生不同於以往的 改變,有部分在以往校園中被無意遺忘或刻意忽 略的觀點與課題,隨著教育改革理念的普及,而 漸漸受到討論與重視。微觀政治學觀點陳述了明 顯與隱含的過程,期望透過個人與團體在組織的 立即環境中,獲得與運用權力來提昇並且保護他 們的利益(Blase, 1991)。由於教育改革的盛行, 為學校校園注入了許多參與的力量,隨著這些參 與而來的,便是與政治運作相關的各種議題,在 教育的運作上,學校已不能再以政治中立的藉口 來忽視在學校運作的過程中,政治力的作用與 所造成的影響。台灣近年來推動各項教育改革, 各界紛紛描繪著學校改革進步之圖像,但在此同 時,學校的生態也在決策、行政、課程、教學現 場的互動中產生變化,政府官員、行政人員、教 師、家長、學者時有交手,對於教育政策有著不 同解讀與策略,由於角色立場互異,這種互動歷 程展現出一種共同追求教育秩序所建構出的權力 關係,在這些追求秩序的運作策略上,常常衍生 出個人和團體的權力運作,基於維護利益的努 力,往往形成衝突、資源分配及許多私人及公共 的協議、決定、價值折衝等現象,儼然為學校微 觀政治學的體現開啟一視窗。 本文的目的,從教育改革中探究學校微觀政 治運作相關理論、學校微觀政治學的面向與核心 概念、學校微觀政治的概念、學校微觀政治運作 面臨的問題,分析校園微觀政治行為,提示這些 存在於學校間的權力、利益、政策活動,並提出 校園微觀政治行為的具體策略,希望能增進對校 園微觀政治行為的瞭解與認識。 乙、學校微觀政治運作相關理論 教育與政治的關係,即是這些觀點與課題中 逐漸浮上檯面的一項,愈來愈多教育研究者開始 注意到教育情境脈絡中,政治對教育所帶來的衝 擊與影響,在教育中的政治問題,也以積極面對 的處理方式取代過去迴避的心態。田培林(1988) 曾指出:教育與政治型態的關係,極端複雜;教 育的政治功能在於培養政治領導人才與滋育民主 政治所必備的意識型態,由此可見,教育與政治 Keywords educational reform, micropolitical behavior, school micropolitics 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 63 是具有密不可分的關係。我們可以說,在教育情 境脈絡中,沒有一件事是完全(或純粹)政治的, 但是每一件事卻都或多或少與政治有關。如同 Kakabadse & Parker(1990)曾指出:組織內所 發生的所有行為都屬於政治行為。由此可知,學 校組織的運作中,無處不是政治。學校必然會具 有政治的特性(schools are inevitably political); 學校必然的政治本質起源於學校教育的脈絡與社 會化。Lindle(1999)指出學校是最能影響家庭 及社區中私人現實的公共機構,儘管個人與學校 的接觸增加,但由於對學校教育需求的增加與競 爭,使得學校環境更加的政治化。 隨著民主潮流之發展,各種政治活動已經擴 散成為人與人之間的互動關係,不同組織也都逐 漸發展出特有的政治型態,對於政治的定義多 已朝向廣義的社會關係,而不限於國家事務, 即使是教育組織也在各種文獻中展現其本質上 (intrinsically)的政治特性,許多學者更發現, 學校的運作雖然傾向行政模式,但仍然充滿各式 的權力關係及衝突管理,學校儼然是一個政治 系統(Blase, 1991; Bloom & Willett, 1991; Malen, 1995)。 Baldridge(1989)在討論學校政治運作的研 究中,提出分析學校微觀政治運作的三個理論, 包括:衝突理論(conflict theory)、社區權力理 論(community power theory)、 利 益 團 體 理 論 (interest group theory),這三個角度直接構成了 學校的政治互動關係,以下對這三個理論予以說 明: 一、衝突理論 衝突理論強調社會系統深受不同權力及利 益、信念之影響而造成分立甚至對立,這不同分 立的團體相互競爭、造成衝突,並且從衝突當中 獲得利益,這種衝突鬥爭,也就是造成變革的基 礎(Ball, 1987)。衝突理論應用在學校中,著重 在檢視學校變革的面向而非安定的面向,並非企 圖尋找共同的價值,而是體察不同團體的多元取 向,不僅強調共識形成過程的競爭關係,更重視 衝突的動力學及未形成共識的緣由,除了談系統 的整體統合,也強調就系統中不同的壓力團體所 扮演之競爭關係中,尋究權力變遷的歷程。總之, 衝突理論提供了觀察學校衝突面向的角度。 二、社區權力理論 學校社區中不同團體對決策的影響是社區權 力理論的關注重點,社區權力理論強調教育版圖 將因社區權力運作的影響而有所重新劃分,對 於學校的權力關係有相當重要的啟示:(1)社 區權力理論對政治系統權力本質之研究,提供了 學校中權力分佈的分析觀點,像學校中存在有何 種權力、如何運用及形成影響等,這些問題透過 社區權力理論的分析,有助於釐清學校權力結 構。(2)政治領域中利益團體的互動關係之各 種理論與實徵性研究,有助於瞭解與學校相關 的內部及外部利益團體之關係,社區權力理論 主張應對於學校利益團體更進一步理解。(3) 社區權力理論強調目標設定活動(goal-setting activities),有別於以往對於學校組織運作較少 關心目標之選定,而較重視手段—目標關聯來達 成組織績效的取向不同,社區權力理論提示學校 主事者,分析組織不同目標之間的競爭與變革, 並從競爭中確立應有的目標。 三、利益團體理論 所謂利益團體係指具有共同態度的群體,是 通過影響決策而向其他群體提出一定的利益要求 或某種聲明的組織。學校的政治系統離不開利益 團體的運作,包括內部團體的影響、外部團體的 64 影響、以及所引起之衝突與競爭、不同價值對衝 突的影響、利益團體對學校設定目標活動歷程的 影響等,都是學校政治學必須關注的問題。 綜合而言,透過衝突理論、社區權力理論、 利益團體理論三個角度描繪學校主要政治關係, 學校很容易掌握各種變革互動的面向,透過這些 角度,提供學校政治運作更清楚的權力關係分析 以及妥適的衝突認識與處理。 丙、學校微觀政治學的互動關係 面向與核心概念 一、學校微觀政治學的互動關係面向 政治象徵廣義的互動關係,這種廣義的互動 關係放在學校微觀政治學的脈絡中可以區分出以 下幾個面向: 1. 政府與學校 學校與其所受轄屬的主管教育行政機關一向 關係密切,這種關係從行政學角度看來,是行政 事務推展的必然結果,從政治學來看,則顯得複 雜多變,包括課程決定、教育改革等由上而下政 策及法規的支配、控制、監督,及由下而上的反 應、回饋、感受等,並進而衍生合作、對立、懷 疑、信任等不同型態的互動關係,或是責任歸屬 移轉變化等,都是政治學所欲探討的對象。 2. 社區與學校 Corbert(1991)分析社區對學校的影響指出, 社區是對學校發散外部影響的主要來源之一,包 括家長、地方人士、民意代表、地方機構、團體 等都會對學校提出期望,並展現對學校決策的影 響力;越是強而有力並組織化的社區力量,對學 校的影響力便越大,這些可能的關係包括合作、 防衛、和諧、衝突、冷漠、熱情等,這種多樣化 的關係對學校的影響,正逐漸擴大當中。 3. 學校決策過程 在民主風潮及行政複雜度之影響下,促使決 策越來越重視多元參與的集體智慧之行使,傳統 決策模式已不再適用,取而代之的是公眾人物、 社區代表、家長、教師、行政人員、校長等共組 決策社群的方式來磋商共識之模式,雖然一般研 究均認為經過民主程序之結果較具可行性,但決 策的民主過程可能必須花費更多精力在取得共 識,並且可能產生更多無法掌握的變數。 4. 學校日常人際關係 日常生活或教學行政互動中,教師與教師、 或教師與其它校園人物之關係相當多元(Blase & Anderson, 1995),其可能關係包括和善、支持、 忠貞或是對立、衝突、對抗、嫉妒、懷疑等,各 種傾向或態度均有可能產生,校園日常生活衍然 便為一種社會關係的縮影,這些雖然只是校園中 的日常表現,但其實對於校風及行政與教學推展 均有極大的影響。 5. 教室互動 不論新教育社會學或政治學,近來均關注於 教學歷程的互動關係,教室中權力關係對教師與 學生所造成不平等的地位,一向致使教學成為一 種控制及評價的不均衡關係,在講求民主多元的 時代中備受檢討,並逐漸轉向對學生主體性的重 視及建構式活動的設計,在這當中,師生在教室 內如何互動,並具有何種權力關係,也是學校政 治學關心的重點。 二、 學校微觀政治學的核心概念 學校政治學的主要概念是以權力(power)、 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 65 利益(interest)、政策(policy)為核心。首先, 權力是探討學校群體在政治層面的組成型態與環 境的整體關係,分析學校體制的互動與變化歷 程,尤其是權力的運作;其次,利益是討論社會 關係中政治運作的中介元素及其包含的價值、意 識型態等;第三,政策則是談政治行為及其與環 境互動所衍生的策略及所造成的結果,如決策、 政治謀略等。其三者說明如下: 1. 權力 權力的概念包括權威(authority)(組織中 心,較少變化的權力)與影響力(influence)(更 強而有力的社會權力),權力是一種影響力的發 揮,權力的運作即是一群人(或一個人)對其他 人具有影響力的程度。許籐繼(2001)將學者對 權力的定義歸納為二類:(1)將權力視為能力 或力量:權力即是在社會關係內實現個人意志的 能力、社會交往中,權力主體支配客體的權力與 能力、採取決定行動的合法性潛在能力、參與並 實現決策的能力、一種影響力;(2)將權力視 為一種關係:權力為一種相互作用控制關係、作 用的交易關係與手段。 Foucault(1978)提出微觀權力或稱為權力 的微觀政治(the micropolitics of power),將權 力視是無所不在(omnipresent)、但又看不見整 體(invisible),它在每個實點、每個空間都作 用著,權力無所不在,不是因為權力擁抱所有東 西,而是因為世界上所有的東西皆自權力而來。 Foucault 認為,權力隨時都可能在任何微細的地 方產生,觀察權力必須始於微血管,而非心臟, 他並形容道:權力是無所不在;不是因為它包含 所有的事物,而是因為它來自各處……不是制 度,不是結構,也不是財產權,它是我們在複雜 策略情境中所給的一個稱號(Foucault, 1978)。 因此,觀察學校權力關係往往是多元而動態的, 可能在顯著的場景發現,也可能微而不顯。 權力的運作和獲得是政治學的核心主軸,在 學校中,權力存在於職權的相對關係中,包含各 式各樣策略運作下的活動或表現,學校政治學的 探討均相當關注權力的不同面貌,例如行動者的 角色、運用的策略及其在正式與非正式情境中類 似微妙的、隱藏的關係(Malen, 1995),這樣的 過程往往印證,只要有社會互動關係,就會有權 力的現象存在。但雖然所有社會現象都存在著權 力的可能性,但權力也必須在施與受的對象之間 發生互動關係時才會產生,同樣地,學校活動的 權力關係在互動產生時,才會開始運作,這一套 關係網絡筆者認為有幾個基本前提:其一,要有 權力的主體和對象;其二,要有權力構成的關係; 其三,要有一個權力競爭的場域,而且越是在多 元開放的民主體制中越會刺激權力競爭,尤其當 學校變革,其權力關係複雜、權力主體和對象眾 多、競爭場域開放,最易產生權力不斷生成、消 長與重組分配的變化。 權力並非一成不變,也不盡然是單一中心, 更非靜態的。每一個權力運作的機制都有其自己 的歷史或軌跡,也有其場域及樣態,可能是區域 或局部的,也可能是對抗或激烈的,並且在行使 中動態消長演化。Popkewitz(1991)亦強調:誰 掌握了權力,誰就擁有主導的力量。當權力發生 作用,許多伴隨權力的利益便會浮現,並且透過 不同形式展現影響力。所以,權力是一種生產性 (productive)的運作,包括生產利益或揭露利 益,並且權力的生產性也將重新建構權力,尤其 藉由利益競爭及政策論述來流通和再生產權力的 情形,更是分析權力時的重要面向,這種形成新 利益,並且生產另一批權力的歷程,就是權力帶 動學校利益競奪的不斷歷史。 66 2. 利益 學校中的利益可能表彰某種思維傾向,也可 能是志趣、偏好、價值、態度的整體呈現,除個 體的願望表達,也包含團體的共同偏好。一般而 言,學校中的利益團體並不像社會上的利益團體 那麼具有鮮明的組織與訴求,因為學校到處標榜 提升教育品質的宗旨,往往模糊了次級團體的利 益訴求,所以利益大多在學校有所變革時才較易 浮現(張德銳,1994)。 事實上,在愈是多元參與愈能代表政治進步 的政治邏輯下,學校已經走向開放多元利益競 爭的局面,尋求在多元參與中取得更多支持與 信任。由於利益來自於訴求或態度價值傾向, 而這種傾向往往在變遷或變革的環境中最易浮 現,並且透過權力的運作來爭取支持(張德銳, 1994)。決策的過程越是廣泛參與,利益便越是 多元化,這種透過多元參與讓不同利益團體的訴 求進入政策論辯的方式,相當於在刺激隱性的利 益白熱化,而且越是在變動幅度大的情境中其活 化的空間越大。 當這些具有共同態度的群體展現利益傾向, 對於決策必然會主張某種要求或聲明,他們會分 別藉由團體力量訴求於思想信念或價值利潤、或 爭取專業聲望(洪福財,1995)。除了利益的浮 現之外,最值得觀察的是伴隨利益而來的權力競 爭,多元參與必然形成權力間的多元互動,尤其 在權力背後隱藏的利益,不斷讓權力作用更加激 烈化,而政策的形成,就是在這種權力互動下進 行磋商與妥協。這對傳統以來,一向以行政科層 體制運作的學校而言,具有一定的威脅感,但這 種多元複雜的利益團體及其運作,不但是當代學 校決策過程所面臨最大的考驗,也已經是不可避 免的挑戰。 利益團體表態並付諸行動追求認同之後, 為完成思維傾向的志趣,或訴諸某種信念來爭 取認同,合法化是必然的一個過程(張佳琳, 2002),這種政治邏輯中有關利益合法化的歷程 同樣在學校中發生。再者,多元利益參與學校各 項決策,讓每一位參與者背後所持有的利益在互 動過程中競爭,某些強勢利益則在權力的互動中 得到正當化的地位,這種利益的分殊與多元網絡 中,能夠真正發聲並取得正當性的,與主事者的 偏好、參與者權力關係、決策類型及影響性有關, 這個利益折衝的循環歷程便是:利益訴求→權力 競爭→政策形成→行動方案→滿足利益→權力重 組,這種循環,就是學校政治學的運作歷程。 3. 政策 政策是指為解決問題或實現理想,經由政治 過程所產出的方針、原則策略及措施。以往在行 政學領域,相當重視作決定的程序,在政治學上, 則聚焦在政治運作的權力,學校決策場域一方 面是行政運作的活動,同時也是政治角力的歷程 (秦夢群,1997),因此,學校決策不但是一種 分配價值的決定與行動,政策形成也代表對某種 利益的承諾。 政策形成歷程一般而言有兩種取向:其一 是 民 粹 主 義(populist) 取 向; 另 一 種 是 專 業 菁 英 主 義(professional elite) 取 向( 張 佳 琳, 2002)。大眾主義傾向於擴大代表的多樣性,而 專業精英主義取向則強調專業人士的主導。如前 所述,當今學校強調多元參與,這種多元取向 下的政策形成歷程,包括組成決策社群(policy community)、決定方向、制定計畫及執行策略, 然後加以執行、建立回饋管道,這當中充滿了價 值的磋商,而政策結果也是由一定程序所建構起 對價值分配的同意,在參與過程的開放互動下所 得到的同意結果,往往以具有利益之優先性者取 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 67 代成為共同利益。 價值問題經過納入政策議程之程序後,尚需 要一個合法化(policy legalization)的過程才能 稱為正式的政策(張佳琳,2002)。所謂政策合 法化是指經政策規劃上升為法律或獲得合法地位 的過程;法制的合法化是政策的重要條件,也是 賦予利益穩定性、連續性、權威性和有效性的保 證。所以,除了消極要求政策的適法性之外,利 益團體也往往要求透過法制化的策略來確保利益 的實踐。 丁、學校政治運作面臨的問題與 因應策略 就政治的一般特徵而言:政治是政府的藝術、 政治是公共事務、政治是妥協與共識、政治是權 力與資源的分配、政治即衝突、政治衝突是團體 衝突(Ranney, 1992; Heywood, 1999)。雖然學校 已經朝向政治型態發展,但這並非意味著學校政 治學必然是樂觀可期,事實上有很多問題正是學 校政治學所必須面對的挑戰,面對複雜、競爭的 需求,長期的資源短缺,不清楚的技術,不確定 的支持和牽涉到價值理念的議題,學校面臨困難 及分裂不合的分配選擇(Malen, 1995);如同在 其它政體裡,學校的行動者管理內部的衝突,並 且透過各式各樣的政治過程和權力的運作方法, 在各種領域中做分配的決定(Malen, 1995)。本 文針對學校政治運作面臨的問題與因應策略,提 出以下的看法: 一、政治中立面臨的問題與因應策略 學校校園中所具有的政治特性,長久以來被 刻意的隱藏及忽視,以過分單純或簡化的心態來 處理學校中與政治有關的事務,此種表面上政治 中立的作法,看似合理而義正辭嚴,然而仔細思 索,學校中的事務的確與政治脫離不了關係。 政治中立理念的興起,乃是政黨政治成熟 後,必然衍生的人事行政規範,其與政黨政治間, 始終保持著密不可分的關係(蔡璧煌,2008)。 一般而言,學校的行政具有連續性及專業性的特 徵,故應強調穩定和效率。所以,學校行政系統 必須保持政治中立的立場,才能避免受到政爭的 干擾,落實行政不隨政權更迭而永續存在目的。 或許有人會提出質疑,認為依據台灣教育基 本法第六條的規定:教育應本中立原則。學校不 得為特定政治團體或宗教信仰從事宣傳,主管教 育行政機關及學校亦不得強迫學校行政人員、教 師及學生參加任何政治團體或宗教活動。因此, 學校是必須抱持政治中立的原則,不應論及政治; 儘管如此,此條文所規範的是學校應避免淪為只 是為政治服務的工具。但是,綜觀學校中組織的 運作,例如:校長的遴選、教職員的遴聘、民意 代表的關說、人事的遴聘、選舉要求教育人員支 持表態等,卻無可避免地會受到政治行為的影 響。 上述政治中立雖在實務上呈現若干問題,然 教育人員所需發展的因應策略,乃應採取高道德 標準,以良心為行事的準據,嚴守政治中立,不 偏某一政黨或政治團體,不受利益團體影響,或 圖謀個人私利,且不受價值理念影響,並且重視 公共利益、公平正義、弱勢關懷、自主性等論述, 強調在利益多元化及各勢力競爭、權力運作下, 應以公共利益為行政裁量的考量。學校遴聘人員 及執行政策時,應本公平一致的標準,對任何個 人、團體或黨派均一視同仁;並且透過法制規範、 價值觀培養、行政政倫理要求、溝通橋樑建立、 迴避利益團體關說、教育訓練等方式來規範學校 成員的政治行為;同時明文規定教職員工的任免 和考核,均屬學校教評會與考核委員會之權責, 68 避免政治性的干預,從制度面、運作面及宣導面 同時著手,確保校園行政中立的落實。 二、政治教育面臨的問題與因應策略 凌渝郎(1994)認為:學校是接受正式教育 之場所……在學校除了學習其他知識外,對國家 之認同、政府之組織功能、政治理念等均會教到。 在現代普及教育原則下,當幼童進入學校後, 第一感受的是所有家庭之特殊地位已不存在,並 發現自己只是群體中的一份子而已,需像其他人 一樣遵守學校的校規,使未來社會的成員養成社 會順從的習慣,也是準備學生將來進入社會能養 成適應環境的好公民。由此可知,透過教育情境 中所包含的政治性活動與作為,能讓學生在校園 中學習民主政治的思想,以為未來民主社會作準 備。校園中經常可見此類之政治教育活動,如學 生自治活動、民主精神教育以及過去的愛國教育 (演講、壁報比賽)等。 此外,政府希望透過教育的內容,來培育人 民的政治素養與政治傾向,正如田培林(1988) 所言:人民教育程度的高低及所受的內容,都與 民主政治密切相關。在這個層面上,提升教育程 度與加強政治教育成為達成此目標的主要工作。 在教育的內容中,政治問題會出現在課程教材的 內容之中,此類課程重點在於企圖藉由課程的編 排,使得學生直接或間接地學習到執政政府所欲 傳達與培育的政治思想;或者企圖透過在課程中 刻意隱藏部分的歷史與政治的事件,以達到控制 思想的目的。此類之課程包括與政治有關的潛在 課程或隱藏課程,如:昔日課本中有關政府領導 者的民族英雄偶像塑造(魚兒逆流而上的故事)、 課本中對二二八事件的隱藏、吳鳳事件的族群爭 議以及教師在課堂上談論選舉事件或對候選人及 政黨進行批判等不當政治行為等,這些都會使學 生在政治教育的學習上,蒙上泛政治化的意識型 態,並且受到不同政黨的政治立場干擾,並非真 正落實政治教育的素養。 為了因應上述政治教育面臨的若干問題,教 育人員應發展的因應策略,可以就四方面來說明: 第一,就課程教材中的政治教育而言,在設計與 規劃時,應該避免意識型態與政治立場的干擾, 在政治教育課程內容的設計與安排上,應補充有 關政治運作、政治參與、分享決策等內容;第二, 在政治教育技能方面,應適切的將智力技能、民 主法治教育、議事規程等編入課程;第三,在政 治教育知識方面,應融入遵守法律與規則的現代 法治精神;第四,在態度、價值方面,應強調國 家集體意識、認同感的愛國心等合理政治信念。 因此,在校園的課程教材內容設計與規劃上,不 可忽視或否認政治影響力的存在,同時嚴格要求 教師保持政治中立的原則,並鼓勵成員不斷進德 修業,提升課程設計的專業知能。 三、尋求變革面臨的問題與因應策略 改革必然引發價值衝突、權力重組及政策變 動等挑戰,在一般學校改革的現場,處處可見競 爭、合作等不同關係,不論是策略性合作關係, 甚至採取對立衝突的對抗,都挑戰著學校主事者 應變危機之能力(秦夢群,1997)。 近年來,接踵而來相關教育法令或規定,包 括師資培育法、教師法、修訂國民教育法、教育 基本法、國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要等,逐年 陸續公佈。同時,因為配合法令規定及鬆綁開放 的教育改革訴求,於是校園裡出現了傳統行政科 層之外的正式次級組織,例如家長會、教師會、 教師評審委員會、學校課程發展委員會等。也出 現過去所沒有的新措施,包括校長遴選、校務會 議法制化、教科書開放選購等,均致使學校性質 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 69 與功能激烈轉變,校園生態也產生巨大變化。 此外,九年一貫課程政策,彈性的教學時 數、學校本位課程、學習領域取代學科教學、協 同教學取代教室王國、配合能力指標概念的教學 活動設計等,挑戰舊有學校教學觀念。學校課程 發展委員會和各學習領域小組,也動搖校園傳統 權力結構,震撼昔日寧靜保守校園,解構傳統的 學校組織文化。檢視目前這一波教育改革,在教 育政策及相關法令規定上,一方面賦予學校本位 管理的自主權,另一方面增進家長與教師學校事 務決策的參與權,加上學校組織鬆散結合及雙重 系統的特性,致使學校裡處處充滿次級團體、與 個人需求、和角色扮演上的衝突,以及決策權力 爭奪的人際互動與競爭,從微觀政治學觀點,學 校是在持續的競爭衝突中革新和進步。然而,今 日對教育改革的期望日增,使得學校更加的政治 化,且與其所在社區的關係益形密切(林靜茹, 1993)。就從事學校微觀政治行為者而言,他們 透過運用其權力與影響力,以及對衝突的掌握與 解決,來取得其欲得之利益與目的。 因應上述學校組織尋求變革所面臨的若干問 題,教育人員應發展的因應策略,可以思考幾個 方向來努力。其一,學校在尋求變革方面,必須 透過團隊運作機制,鼓勵教師協同合作;其二, 善用社區人力與資源,提高學校革新的成效;設 立家長參與校務管道,改善學校與家長互動關 係;其三,同時要積極倡導校園倫理,改善學校 組織文化,促進學校成員間人際關係的和諧,提 高成員工作滿意度和對學校凝聚力,以增進學校 革新動力,提高革新成效。其四,學校革新政策 或方案的制定與推動,必須設置保護條款,適度 保障成員的既有利益,提供符合成員期望的獎 勵,適時提供技術諮商與協助解決問題;其五, 學校必須透過論述平臺,建構公開平等的對話機 制,讓每位成員均可自由表達意見,以改進學校 成員溝通互動之團體歷程,增進成員服務士氣 及其對學校革新的擁有感和參與感,以提高學 校革新動力和效果。最終目的乃透過彰權賦能 (empowerment),在分享的權力運作中,促進 學校人員對話論述與合作協調之動態交互作用, 增進教師自主性,促進教師成長,使之具有革新 的能力、機會和意願,主動涉入革新規劃,加速 學校革新推動。 四、行政決策面臨的問題與因應策略 決策是行政歷程的中心所在,決策更是任何 行政運作成敗的重要關鍵(吳清基,1989);學 者秦夢群(1997)亦指出,在時代的民主潮流下, 不同團體對行政決策具有相當程度的影響,教育 組織的各方力量參與決策之制定已勢不可擋。而 政治決策模式(political decision making),乃在 解決具有高度爭議性問題,邀請各方利益團體進 行談判,經折衝後做出各方雖不滿意,但可以接 受的決策。 隨著教育改革如火如荼的施行,教育鬆綁正 是教育改革的重點之一,在校園民主化的發展趨 勢下,參與校務、分享決策以追求優質之教育績 效,在校園權力結構丕變之際,已成為學校政治 運作的重要模式,學校內外有著許多不同價值與 目標的團體,在學校經營自主權的下放及教師專 業自主權的保障,家長校務參與權的倡議,再再 顯示學校自主經營決策權範圍之擴大,不同利益 團體已經合法化進入校園行政決策的核心,如學 校校務會議已是國民中小學教師參與之最高權力 機制;教評會已是學校人事進用唯一管道;家長 會更是影響學校行政決策的強大力量,例如台灣 高雄市之〈高雄市國民中小學校務會議實施要 點〉,明定校務會議置代表十七至五十一人,其 70 中家長會代表,其人數不得少於代表總額三分之 一(陳幸仁,2008a)。 因應上述學校行政決策所面臨的若干問題, 教育人員應發展的因應策略,可以從教師參與決 策和家長參與決策這兩個方向來著眼。其一,教 師對學校行政決策滿意度攸關學校團隊組織發 展,基此教師應落實專業學習,追求教師終身成 長,進而對學校行政決策能有較深入瞭解,同時 學習參與、分享創見、放下成見、捐棄偏見,調 整觀念、拿出行動,為校務發展及行政施為,參 與決策,貢獻心力,提供有利、有益之校務意見, 以提昇決策品質及深度,進而達成教育目標。 其二,教育人員應體認家長是學校教育重要 合夥人,也是學生學習成長的重要他人,學校教 育沒有家庭教育的配合常是事倍功半,而且學校 教育資源來自社區,家長之人力、物力、財力是 學校重要支柱。學校行政決策與家長有利害關 係,且其具備決策內容的專門知識時,務必邀請 家長參與決策,透過共同決策所訂定的法令與規 章更具有客觀代表性,於執行時才不致於意見分 歧、導致衝突。故此學校應提供家長參與機會及 角色行為轉化,以促進雙方瞭解,進而辦好學校 教育,在決策歷程中,融合溝通說服、教育成長 和價值統合之策略,透過對話、論述和辯證,進 行批判實踐知識,凝聚成員共識,增進成員對行 政決策的認同感,而且在決策歷程中每一個成員 都有相同的參與表達意見機會,都平等發出聲音 影響決策形成。 五、學校組織權力運作面臨的問題與因應 策略 學校組織的權力運作的確與政治關係密切, 亦即學校權力的運作即是政治行為的運作,也就 是微觀政治行為的表現(謝文全,1987)。權力 乃是行政領導運作要素之一,領導是藉著影響 力,引導組織成員的努力方向使彼此同心協力齊 赴目標的歷程。學校校園中關於權力運作方面的 微觀政治行為問題,可從以下論述來加以分析探 究。 學校組織的內部與外部,包括許多的個人、 組織與團體,這些個人與團體組織共同分享校園 的權力,共同構成學校權力的結構(張明輝, 1999)。學校中的權力結構,在個人方面包括: 校長、教師、個別家長及民意代表等;組織與團 體方面包括:教師會、家長會、教評會、校務會 議、社區人士,以及校園中的各種派系團體與利 益團體等,這些權力結構彼此之間的關係與互 動,即是一種微觀政治的表現,也影響學校的運 作模式、行政決策與發展方向。陳幸仁(2008b) 曾以一所小學教師會為個案研究,研究發現顯示 教師會能強化教師與行政人員協商權力,但也發 生教師會幹部與行政人員的利益衝突。 近年來,由於教育改革的實施,如:教師會 與教評會的成立、家長會地位的提升、校長遴選 制度、學校本位管理的實施等,使得校園中的權 力,產生了變化,權力開始重新組合、建構,而 如此之權力重組的過程、重組的結果及重組的影 響等,便成為組織中政治角力之所在。學校組織 中的微觀政治行為,部份表現於組織中權力的運 作,由於學校組織中權力的運作,使得政治行為 問題得以在其中找到著力點。今日,教育儼然成 為社區與政府、老師、家長與學校行政人員間更 加公然競爭的領域,學校更加明顯地成為這些競 爭的政治競技場,無論是在學校的內部社群(校 長、行政人員、教師與學生)之中,或在學校與 外部社群(家長、社區人士、民意代表、教育行 政機關)之間,均存在著此種政治權力運作的關 係。 因應上述學校權力運作所面臨的若干問題, 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 71 教育人員應發展的因應策略,首先必須洞悉當前 革新學校權力運作的趨勢,此可由歐用生(1999) 的論述中進一步獲得體認:新的規範是改變權力 分配的方式,由階層的、集中的權威結構,朝向 分權的、包容和民主的結構。經由權力的重新分 配和分權,階層結構日漸扁平化,每一個參與者 都有發言的空間,都可自由的、積極的表達自己 的想法;每一個學校都有獨自的權力基礎、權力 關係,和明顯的、隱含的權力表現方式。因此, 更具體的因應作法,乃配合教師法、國民教育法 及家長參與教育辦法的實施,校務行政運作應力 求民主公開的行政作業程序,開放參與透明化, 落實學校本位管理的理想,讓教師家長甚至學生 都能貢獻心力,並重視集體議決的機能,追求共 同領導的機制,促進校園民主化,以合作互助取 代監督制衡的理想體制,這樣才能落實學校生命 共同體的理念。 此外,近年來校園民主已逐漸在各級學校形 成風氣,學校組織從單純的學校行政組織轉化成 為學校部門、教師會和家長會等邊三角形的組織 架構,校長、教師和家長在學校中的角色及其互 動關係,都產生變化(張明輝,1999)。因此, 尊重教師專業自主與家長參與教育是時勢所趨, 賦權以提高教學品質,爭取家長對學校教育的支 持,適時調整傳統權力集中化運作的模式,共塑 學校生命共同體的理念,並且以學生的學習與發 展為最後依歸,三者彼此合作,結成教育夥伴關 係,分享決策權力,分擔教育責任,做推動校務 的有力支柱,正是教育改革成敗的重要關鍵。 六、學校組織衝突處理面臨的問題與因應 策略 學校組織中的微觀政治行為,除表現在權力 的運作外,尚會出現在組織衝突的處理與管理 上。依據 Robbins(1974)的研究,任何組織都 存在人際、群際的互動,既然有互動就可能帶來 衝突。由此可見,人際間的接觸,隨著時代的改 變而日趨頻繁,而社會民主化的腳步,也促使衝 突的頻率愈來愈高。 校園衝突係指學校成員或團體間,因目標、 認知、情緒和行為之不同,而產生矛盾對立的互 動歷程。微觀政治中關於衝突的概念,包括將衝 突視為持續地不協調(disharmony),以及將衝 突視為組織功能失調(dysfunction)的證據。因 此,如何正確看待衝突的形成,進而予以化解, 甚至使衝突轉變為合作,是現代人必須學習的課 題。以下針對校園中衝突處理的微觀政治行為問 題,提出如下的看法: 學校內的資源及利益有限,相對地並非所有 的個人與團體均能獲得其認為應獲得的資源或 利益,因而彼此之間便會產生衝突(蔡進雄, 1997)。關於資源的衝突,大致而言來自於兩個 方面:其一為資源之不足、其二為資源分配不均。 不足的資源必定引起爭奪,爭奪則必產生衝突; 再者不論資源是否充足,只要資源分配不均,集 中於少數個人或團體時,未握有資源的個人或團 體也會起而爭之,衝突必定隨之產生。因此,學 校中資源或利益衝突的處理為學校微觀政治問題 之焦點,究竟誰是擁有者及誰是受影響者,也就 是說哪些個人或團體是資源的強勢者,哪些是資 源的弱勢者,而強勢者與弱勢者產生如何之衝 突,以及衝突如何獲得解決等。 此外,學校組織中的權力結構頗為複雜,這 些結構彼此之間的互動關係構成了學校組織的網 絡(張明輝,1999)。由於學校組織互動網絡的 多樣,使得彼此之間的人際或角色衝突便屢見不 鮮,學校組織中的個人與團體,在與其他個人和 團體接觸互動時,難免會產生摩擦,而其在面對 其他個人或團體時,對自己所應扮演的角色,也 72 會產生自我角色衝突的狀況。學校中重要的人際 關係網絡包括:學校與社區、派系團體間(教師 間)、教師與家長、校長與教師、校長與家長、 教師與教師會、教師會與家長會、教師與學生、 校長與民意代表、校長與地方人士等。在探討學 校微觀政治時,我們所關心的焦點在於學校組織 的各個結構,彼此之間有哪些人際衝突與角色衝 突。例如:近年教師會及家長會等團體的快迅篡 升,在不同的理念間,或多或少爆發與以往截然 不同的衝突類型或規模,因此學校行政人員在面 對以及處理衝突上,遭受空前的考驗。 再者,在學校教育情境中,另有一類的衝突 來自於意見與文化的差異,亦即因為不同的個人 或團體間的價值觀與文化背景之不同,使得彼此 所持的立場與所提的意見有分歧,進而產生意見 上的衝突(張鐸嚴,1985)。例如:九年一貫的 推行、導護的執行,因每個人所站的角度不同, 而有不同的意見,如果學校未妥善處理,往往造 成行政與教師意見相左。 綜合言之,學校情境中充滿了政治性的問 題,因此學校被稱為政治的競技場,這對過去研 究學校教育的學者而言是不可能的、是不正確 的,過去的學者忽略了學校教育的政治面,並將 這個層面的議題視為學校的黑暗面,因此刻意不 去碰觸此類的問題。然而,此種刻意迴避的態度 並沒有為學校教育帶來福祉,由於此種鴕鳥心 態,使得從事學校教育工作者習於忽略學校情境 中微觀政治行為的問題,而以過度理想化的觀點 來看學校中的事務,因而使得理論與實務產生落 差。 此外,學校中不論是強調辯證的、策略的、 衝突的、意識型態的面向,或和諧、友善、合作 之面向,都會運用權力和資源的分配作為管理衝 突的策略,其中資源、服務、獎賞、持分的分配 都是重要的手段(Malen, 1995),面臨變革, 與其隱蔽權力關係,或只在討論過程談一些安全 議題,不如正視權力關係的影響力與對衝突之處 理,並透過結合資源、服務、獎賞、持分等策略, 營造參與式的民主管理機制,使政策推動在一種 合法權力運作的過程中,達成社區共治的功能。 由此可見,從學校微觀政治學探究校園權力運作 與衝突處理有其必要性與價值的。 因應上述學校組織衝突所面臨的若干問題, 教育人員應發展的因應策略,首先必須有正確的 觀念,看待衝突並非全然都對組織有害,學校衝 突發生即代表學校的運作存在某些問題,應積極 尋求解決之道,以維護學校有效的運作與發展。 學校中各種活動及功能都是經由成員彼此間的互 動而產生,平日應培養和諧開放的學校氣氛,安 排各種正式與非正式的活動,來增進學校成員間 的交流,瞭解和友誼,減少成員之間因為溝通不 良所產生的誤解和隔闔,有時修正組織結構、妥 善分派人員職務與工作,可以預防衝突的發生。 當衝突發生時做出適當的處理,瞭解衝突發生的 真正原因,透過直接對談、坦誠溝通及綜合雙方 意見,共同尋求解決的途徑。 其次,行政人員平時則應多主動關懷教師, 協助教師解決困難,在正式的關係中不忘非正式 關係的維持,在倡導情境中應從旁關懷,在工作 導向中兼顧關係導向的並行運作,教師發牢騷或 埋怨時,能以開放的心胸傾聽教師的心聲,並藉 此反省檢討,以減少與教師之間的疏離感。同時, 行政人員應加強和教師與家長之間的溝通,利用 各種溝通管道和媒介來增進彼此之間的瞭解,並 對於教師與家長的質疑進行充分的解釋,避免因 不必要的誤會和隔閡而引起衝突,並把握溝通的 各項心理、社會基礎,給予教師與家長充分的機 會表達個人意見。學校的各種資訊,無論是教育 在教育改革中校園微觀政治行為的探究 73 參考文獻 田培林(1988)。《教育學新論》。台北:文景。 吳清基(1989)。《教育與行政》。台北:師大書苑。 林靜茹(1993)。〈國民中學長人際衝突管理及其相關因素之研究〉。《國立高雄師範大學教育研究所碩 士論文》。台北。 洪福財(1995)。〈學校組織衝突成因及其因應策略〉。《教育資料文摘》,214,171-190。 凌渝郎(1994)。《政治學》。初版。台北:三民。 秦夢群(1997)。《教育行政──理論部分》。台北:五南。 張佳琳(2002)。《課程改革:政治社會學取向》。台北:師大書苑。 張明輝(1999)。《學校教育與行政革新研究》。台北:師大書苑。 張德銳(1994)。《教育行政研究》。台北:五南。 張鐸嚴(1985)。〈國民小學教師與行政人員間衝突管理之研究〉。《國立台灣師範大學教育研究所碩士 論文》。台北。 政策或行政命令的轉達、學校行事之訊息以及與 教師權益息息相關的人事法規,均應掌握時效, 讓教師能充分的瞭解。 此外,非正式組織是正式組織的一些成員, 由於工作、興趣、利益、情誼等關係,彼此發生 互動互助,產生感情與認同而自然結合成的團體 (謝文全,1987),其對成員的影響力,有時遠 大於正式組織。因此,運用非正式組織,凝聚同 仁情感;倘若學校中各處室間或老師間產生衝突 時,亦可妥善運用非正式組織,將可使衝突減輕 至最低程度。 最後,學校另應建立一套公平並能為教師與 行政人員所共同接受的衝突管理辦法或原則,根 據這個辦法或原則來解決教師和行政人員的衝 突,一方面可以減少校園衝突的發生,同時也因 辦法或原則的確立,而增加衝突管理的效率。此 外,學校資源含人力(如教師、職員、工友、家 長、義工等)、物力(如教學運動器材和設備、 圖書等)及財力(經費),合理均等的分配給各 處室或教職員工,使其能有效分享與運用資源, 不致於為有限資源而產生不必要的競爭衝突。 戊、結語 為釐清這些學校政治行為,以及尋究學校政 治學的主要發展脈絡,本文從學校微觀政治學探 究校園微觀政治行為,透過相關的研究文獻分析 學校微觀政治學的核心概念,提供對學校政治行 為的觀察角度與不同課題之思考。這些對於學校 微觀政治的概念認知,有助於分析學校環境中許 多複雜的變革、議題、資源、利益、決策等困難 和問題,賦予學校運作更積極的態度和具體的策 略,並且提示學校應透過政治的剖析強化專業處 理的可能性,而非尋求逃避之途。也正由於如此, 學校應該有更為開放的機制對相關因素加以衡平 考量、妥適安置,除了校內之關係,也必須就社 會各領域的影響力量進行檢視,妥善運用介入的 勢力,對滲透於學校間的不同利益進行溝通與轉 化,重塑學校文化及行政運作模式,進而將多元 力量轉變成為協助學校革新成功的資源。 74 許籐繼(2001)。《學校組織權力重建》。台北:五南。 陳幸仁(2008a)。〈家長參與校務決策之微觀政治分析〉。《國民教育研究學報》,21,91-114。 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 75 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分: 以倫敦市博物館為例 Redistribution of rights and responsibilities in utilizing citizenship education resources in the community: The case of Museum of London 葉王蓓 華東師範大學政治學系 摘要 在課程分權的背景下,如何有效開發、使用社區中的課程資源,已經成為當下倍受關注的話題。本文通過 介紹倫敦市博物館配合國家公民教育課程計畫,製作相關課程資源的嘗試,指出社區公民教育資源開發的 過程中,涉及權利、責任的重新劃分:首先,課程分權並不意味必定減少中央力量的影響。適當的中央介入, 可以轉變博物館的傳統角色,協調不同的部門,從而發掘緊密聯繫學校教學、公平分配的課程資源。其次, 課程分權不僅意味學校,也包括社區獲得更多權利。博物館可以成為課程決策者,根據其強調寓教於樂的 學習傳統,為學生提供真實、做中學的公民教育課程。另外,社區組織與學校合作,協助教師教學的全過程, 能更進一步確保學生使用社區教育資源的成效。 關鍵詞 社區教育資源,公民教育,權利與責任,倫敦市博物館 Abstract How to effectively explore, utilize educational resources in the community, is a major concern against the curriculum decentralization context. This article uses the experience of Museum of London, argues that linking community resources to schools involves the redistribution of rights and responsibilities. Firstly, curriculum decentralization doesn’t mean excluding the state. State can change museums’ traditional role, co-ordinate the other institutions, thus explore educational resources closely relevant 76 to school curricula and ensure the resource distribution equity. Secondly, curriculum decentralization doesn’t mean decentralizing power to schools alone but also to the community. The museum can work as an active curriculum maker. Based on its “edutainment” learning tradition, the museum plays a key role in developing citizenship education curricula featured with play and learning. Besides, collaboration between museum and school teachers can further enhance students’ learning outcomes. Keywords educational resource in community, citizenship education, right and responsibility, Museum of London 引言 近 30 年來,跟隨世界教育改革的趨勢,課 程分權(curriculum decentralization)成為亞洲國 家、地區教育改革的重要措施(Mok, 2003)。 這一全球趨勢背後的理念認為:課程分權可以增 加學校和當地社區、商界等的聯繫,從而更有 效地提高地方課程資源的利用率。然而有趣的 是,在亞洲國家,尋找、開發、使用社區課程資 源,卻被視為課程分權遇到的最大的困難之一 (International Bureau of Education, 2005)。 在 日漸強調參與社區的公民教育課程中,這一困難 顯得更為突出。眾多社區公民教育資源,比如博 物館、圖書館、文化中心、中國內地的愛國主義 教育基地等,在課程分權背景下並沒有被善加利 用,有的還出現越來越少學生光顧的情況。究其 原因,一方面是博物館等社區資源與學校改革脫 節,以致於學生不能從參觀中學習,學校則僅僅 把參觀作為一種調劑的方式(Chee, 2003);另 外一方面,博物館等社區資源沒有更新展出方 式、形式,不能吸引學生。內地愛國主義教育基 地的展覽方式甚至被批評為呆板的「玻璃 + 櫥窗」 (林建芳,2003)。 這與亞洲地區長期集權的傳統有關。教育分 權,是相對比較新的現象。至今,許多學校、教 師仍在努力適應課程分權帶來的角色變化。而教 育系統之外,社區如何分享權利與承擔責任,更 缺少深入探討(Björk, 2006)。雖然,也有學者 注意到社區在提供教育資源方面的重要性,並建 議學校社區化、社區學校化、以及社區資源整合 (袁國明,2001)。近來的研究,也有介紹社區 資源開發的經驗(見吳國志,2010)。但是,如 King & Guerra(2005)的研究指出:亞洲地區分 權不完整,一些國家僅僅把教育財政責任、提供 教育服務的責任下放,卻並沒有給地方、學校提 供相應的權威和資源,也無法保證教育資源分配 的公平性;同時,分權僅僅把權力劃分給不同層 級政府、部門、學校,卻缺少相互間的合作,引 起很多混亂和困惑。 就這一問題,本文以倫敦市博物館製作的中 學公民教育課程資源 1 為例,並分析相關線上課 程資源、倫敦市博物館年度報告及倫敦市博物館 學校事務協調處提供的中學回饋問卷數據等材 料。本研究試圖指出,分權背景下社區課程資源 開發的議題,其實涉及政府、學校、社區之間權 利與責任的重新劃分。而倫敦市博物館的例子, 為我們開發、使用社區公民教育資源提供三點經 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分: 以倫敦市博物館為例 77 驗:第一,課程分權並不一定意味減少中央力量 的參與。由於英國政府政策的引導和支援,博物 館進行服務角色的轉化,從而提高了社區課程資 源的可親近性、針對性、和公平性。第二,社區 課程資源開發的主體,未必一定是學校教師,社 區也可以直接開發課程。倫敦市博物館借助於它 本身的優勢,為學生提供真實、在做中學的公民 教育學習機會。第三,學校與社區之間不僅需要 分工,更需要合作,才可以加強學生學習社區教 育資源的學習效果。 政府介入:發掘、引導和公平分 配博物館公民教育資源 自文藝復興以來,西方的博物館逐漸成為 國家文化的代表,培育國民身份認同的重要機 構(Macdonald, 2003)。作為世界上最大的城市 博物館,倫敦市博物館由三個分館組成,藏有 兩百多萬件藏品,跨越了一百萬年歷史。無疑 是社區中,能為學校提供豐富公民教育資源的 機構。然而,早在上個世紀 20 年代,英國學者 就發現,優秀博物館資源很少為學校教學所用 的 問 題(Shann, 1920)。 根 據 Hooper-Greenhill (2007)對英格蘭博物館和學校的研究,博物館 的主要參觀人群是受過良好教育的中上層白人社 會。而博物館更偏重根據權威,如博物館員、學 者、專家的判斷決定博物館的發展方向(Eliean Hooper-Greenhill, 1999)。到上個世紀末,David Anderson(1997)在《共同福利》報告指出,仍 然有半數以上英國博物館沒有開設和學校學習相 關的項目。這些,都影響了博物館在支持學校公 民教育上積極的表現。 為了引導博物館資源為學校公民教育服務, 首先,英國政府通過制定政策,一方面轉變博物 館權威的傳統文化,促成其由關注物品(object- oriented)向關注觀眾需要(audience-oriented) 的 轉 變。 英 國 政 府 在 其 文 化 政 策 中 重 新 定 義 「博物館」指出,博物館是「關於物品,為了 人 民 」(Department for Culture Media and Sport, 2000)。並對博物館提供的公眾服務品質,進行 評估。另一方面,明確提出博物館要服務學校教 育的要求。國家課程裡提出博物館要考慮如何滿 足孩子、教師與國家的需要。尤其要致力於公民 教育:促進社會和文化的融合。其次,英國政府 通過財政支持和協調不同部門的合作,保證博物 館課程資源能夠針對性地服務學校教學、確保教 育資源配置的公平。 倫 敦 市 博 物 館 在 政 府 博 物 館、 圖 書 館、 檔 案 館 評 議 會(MLA) 的「 文 藝 復 興 」 計 畫 (Renaissance Programme)資助下,根據國家課 程計畫規定的科目和年級編制學習手冊、建立線 上學習資源庫。線上資源庫中 59 個資源(資源 庫總共 73 個文件)與學校公民教育《公民》、《個 人、社會、經濟和健康教育》課程相關。製作這 些學校學習資源的開銷占博物館 2009-2010 年度 開銷的 15% 左右 (Museum of London, 2010)。 在關注公平性上,倫敦市博物館為特殊需要的學 生和學校提供專門的課程資源,也可以親自到學 校提供服務。並且,盡力降低學校參觀博物館的 1 本文所分析的材料為《倫敦市博物館 ‧ 倫敦市博物館(碼頭區)中學學習項目 2010-2011》 (Learning Programme for Secondary Schools 2010-11, Museum of London, Museum of Docklands)。 78 費用:倫敦市的學校參觀、使用倫敦市博物館開 發的課程資源、服務全部免費。倫敦市交通部門, 為參觀博物館的學校提供免費乘坐巴士、地鐵 的服務。另外,倫敦市博物館 2009 年建立核心 學習中心,確保學校使用教學設備方面的基本公 平。參觀的學校在博物館內都有充分的空間、設 備學習博物館開發的課程資源:提供設有舞臺的 大劇院,保證角色扮演等教學活動的空間;提供 多樣的電子教學設備,並支持電子相機、攝像機、 手持遊戲機、ipod 和手機使用博物館開發的教育 資源。 博物館開發公民教育資源:另一 種學習體驗 同樣作為學習、文化機構,博物館與學校提 供的學習體驗相當不同。博物館內的學習自由、 立體、複雜、真實與豐富。學校教師使用的課堂 教學方法,被認為不能適應博物館的學習,甚至 還可能阻礙博物館內的學習(Olson, 1999)。近 30 年來的研究指出,博物館的學習,不同於簡 單、單向、線性的學習模式,代表另外一種學習 模式的視角,比如建構主義、多元智能理論、社 會 文 化 的 視 角(Falk, 2004)。Hooper-Greenhill (2007)用「寓教於樂」(edutainment)這個詞 語來總結博物館的學習體驗。 倫敦市博物館開發的公民教育課程資源,圍 繞中學公民教育課程計畫的關鍵概念:民主與正 義、責任與權利、多元與統一,成為有教養、負 責任、能採取行動的公民,發揮了博物館學習模 式的優勢。 一方面,提供逼真的學習環境。Griffin & Symington(1997)指出,越來越多的博物館採用 多樣的媒體和方式陳列展品引起參觀者的興趣。 倫敦市博物館採用了三維空間設計、真實復 原、多媒體等方式,呈現展品。比如,《倫敦市 博物館,倫敦市博物館(碼頭區)中學學習項目 2010-2011》這麼介紹倫敦市博物館(碼頭區) 「1840-1850 年倫敦水手小鎮」的陳列: 走進黑色的巷子探險,那裡有維多利亞街 頭一樣的燈光、聲音、甚至氣味!路過異 國情調的百貨商店、雜貨店、和水手的寓 所。然後,我們再去三個水手酒吧小坐 (p.6)。 倫敦市博物館在介紹歷史人物、事件方面, 則常常讓職員扮演某些角色,在表演的過程中和 學生互動、對話,並讓學生在這個過程裡進行批 判思考。在《婦女參政論權者》這一教程裡,博 物館職員扮演歷史人物 Kitty Marion2,通過互動 戲劇表演,告訴學生婦女參政論權者絕食、罷工, 被強迫進食的事情,以及她本人為何爭取婦女選 舉權。學生則可以向扮演者提問,討論選舉權在 民主進程,以及選舉過程中的意義。 另一方面,倫敦市博物館採用杜威「在做中 學」的思路組織教學活動。通過豐富多樣的教學 方法,讓學生在玩的過程裡學習、實踐公民教育 的知識、技巧、態度。館內學習不僅僅局限於介 紹知識的活動:博物館職員的介紹、博物館內參 觀。館內學習更強調學習的過程,更多的採用如 2 20 世紀初,參加激婦女參政運動的一名女演員。 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分: 以倫敦市博物館為例 79 下教學活動:舞蹈、戲劇、表演、寫作工作坊、 辯論、演講、展品接觸。通過不同教學方法之間 的互相配合,給學生提供互動、自主的學習體驗。 例如,在《我是一個倫敦人嗎?》該教程裡, 為了幫助學生瞭解公民教育的概念:民主與公正、 認同與多元,首先通過印度舞蹈的工作坊,引發 學生思考,是什麼因素,將多元的倫敦社區聯繫 起來,並創造了跨文化的表演藝術?接著,開始 創意寫作工作坊,學生反思他們自身文化是如何 影響他們生活的地方。然後,館內參觀會帶領學 生關注,自羅馬人入侵時代以來,倫敦人從何而 來,由什麼人構成,以及如何變化? 教師、博物館合作:社區公民教 育學習的鞏固與發展 一直以來,學校和博物館合作有限影響博物 館學習的成效。學校、教師在發掘博物館學習資 源時,缺少專業知識、時間來準備學習材料,常 常把博物館的參觀活動視為學校學習的調節,以 致博物館參觀對學習正式課程的幫助並不直接。 博物館則很少吸收學校教師參與博物館課程資 源的開發,以致缺少聯繫學生以往的知識、經 驗,以及跟進學習之後的評估,降低了學習效果 (Griffin, 2004)。 倫敦市博物館的學習項目,吸引大量學校 參觀。學校學生成為該館的主要參觀人群。以 2009-2010 年 的 資料 為 例, 來 館內 參 加 正式 學 習項目的學生有 64,286 人,比上一個年度增加 160%。參加線上學習項目的學生有 18,292 人, 比上一個年度增長 47%。 倫敦市博物館為學校教師準備豐富的教學輔 助資源。針對課前、館內活動、課後學習,為學 校教師提供這些形式的資源:互動板書設計、館 內活動單、跟進活動和謎語、線上活動等。通過 提供充足的教師教學輔助資源,更好的引導學生 館內學習和跟進評估學習效果。 以《ASBO》( 反 社 會 行 為 令 Anti-Social Behaviour Orders)這一教程的教師資料為例。 它包括 5 個部分。首先介紹教程與學校課程的掛 鉤 , 從而確保學生學習過程的連續性,在接受博 物館學習的時候,具有一些基本知識;其次,說 明博物館內活動要求;接著向教師介紹 ASBO 的 背景知識(頒發、管理的範圍)、與經常用以管 理未成年人的 ABC(可接受行為協議 Acceptable Behaviour Contracts)的區別、以及自中世紀以來 反社會行為的處理方式;最後兩個部分,分別介 紹了 5 種課前、課後準備與活動,活動包括了: 學生討論、角色扮演、社會調查、辯論、分析報 紙報導、自發宣傳、研究城市和郊區反社會行為 的異同。 倫敦市博物館也為教師提供教師網路。4 年 來,已經有 1,000 多名教師參加。參與的教師可 以收到博物館教育的更新資訊、獲得預定博物館 參觀服務的優先權、倫敦市博物館書店的 9 折優 惠、參加博物館相關課程資源開發的機會等。 在使用博物館課程資源之後,倫敦市博物館 向學校教師分發調查問卷,細緻瞭解教師的意見 和跟進學生的學習情況。調查問卷主要涉及四個 方面的調查,瞭解教師準備工作的情況、博物館 提供的服務與支援品質、博物館提供的學習項目 品質、學生的學習成果。根據 2009-2010 年度倫 敦市博物館收集的教師問卷,學校參與了 43 個 博物館開設的學習項目,其中與公民教育直接相 關的項目共計 14 個。學校參觀這些項目的總次 數為 141 次,其中,參觀與公民教育相關的項目 共計 86 次。教師的回答如表一所示: 80 表一顯示,回答問卷的教師中,超過半數事 先參觀博物館瞭解學習項目、瀏覽博物館網頁獲 取資訊、開展博物館建議的學習活動。絕大多數 回答問卷的教師,對博物館提供的支援服務表示 滿意。 另外,關於項目品質和學生學習成果的問題 也顯示了博物館課程資源關注的重點:關注聯繫 學生以往的知識、經驗,重視學生知識、能力的 培養。回答問卷的教師,對博物館關注的各個方 面給出很高的評價。除了博物館資源促進學生和 同學合作的問題,19.0% 的教師反對之外,其餘 所有問題,都得到超過 96.0% 的教師認同。尤其 是對博物館開發的課程資源在發展學生對相關科 目的知識和理解,引起學生的好奇心和求知欲方 面,回答的教師全部表示滿意。 結語 在課程分權和公民教育課程日趨強調開發社 區教育資源的背景下,從何、如何發掘優秀教育 資源,以及如何使之為學校公民教育所用?倫敦 市博物館提供了一個可供比較、思考的例子。 一方面,倫敦市博物館展示了博物館在服務 學校公民教育方面的優點:博物館公民教育主題 圍繞現實議題組織歷史材料,能夠加深學生對當 代社會現實的瞭解和思考;博物館公民教育過程 立體、真實,使用多元化教學策略,充滿樂趣, 為學生提供完整的「知、情、意、行」體驗;博 物館公民教育資源的豐富,可以為公民教育提供 在學校無法提供的場景、物品和環境;博物館館 員的素養,可以為學校教師進行公民教育提供充 分的、跨學科的支援。回到亞洲國家、地區的 公民教育,博物館和學校公民教育的結合也越 問題 是/同意 否/不同意 教師 準備 工作 是否事先參觀博物館瞭解學習項目? 51.3% 48.7% 是否事先瀏覽博物館網站,獲取相關資訊? 53.6% 46.4% 是否事先開展博物館教師資源建議的學習活動? 56.3% 43.7% 服務 與支援 教學輔助資源能否滿足教師需要? 85.8% 3.3% 在參觀之前,教師能否獲得足夠的協助? 96.0% 4.0% 在參觀的過程中,教師能否獲得足夠的協助? 96.4% 3.6% 項目 品質 是否滿足學生需要? 99.4% 0.6% 項目能否滿足學生多元學習能力的需要? 98.1% 1.9% 是否吸引學生積極參加? 99.4% 0.6% 學生的學習效果是否能夠得到認可和評估? 98.1% 1.9% 參加的教師是否會向其他老師推薦這個項目? 99.4% 0.6% 學習 成果 能否引起學生的興趣? 99.4% 0.6% 能否發展了學生對相關科目的知識和理解? 100.0% 0.0% 能否引起學生的好奇心和求知欲? 100.0% 0.0% 能否鼓勵學生發揮創新性和想像力? 98.7% 1.3% 能否鼓勵學生調查和提問? 98.1% 1.9% 能否鼓勵學生從不同的角度思考問題? 98.0% 2.0% 能否鼓勵學生聯繫過去和現在? 97.4% 2.6% 是否鼓勵學生和同學合作? 81.0% 19.0% 是否鼓勵學生反思自己的學習? 96.5% 3.5% 學生是否喜歡這個學習項目? 99.4% 0.6% 教師能否從項目中學習? 96.2% 3.8% 表一 2009-2010 年倫敦市博物館中學項目學習調查問卷情況 社區公民教育資源開發的權責劃分: 以倫敦市博物館為例 81 鳴謝 感謝倫敦市博物館學校事務協調處 Caroline Perry 為本文提供相關資訊,幫助很大,並感謝三位匿名審查者 的費心審查,提供許多寶貴意見。 參考文獻 吳國志(2010)。〈新形勢、新機遇:廉署德育資源製作經驗分享〉。《香港教師中心學報》,第 9 卷, 47-52。 林建芳(2003)。〈愛國主義教育基地在清冷中吶喊〉。2011 年 8 月 1 日,取自 http://news.sina.com.cn/ c/2003-11-21/10591164498s.shtml。 袁國明(2001)。〈主題教學發展與特色〉。載袁國明、蔡鳳詩(編),《開放教室:學會學習跨學科主題教學》 (頁 7-11)。香港:佛教茂峰法師紀念中學。 陳雪雲(2010)。〈博物館是世界公民終身學習的場域〉。《博物館學季刊》,第 24 卷,第 4 期,5-17。 謝妙思、劉仲嚴(2011)。〈從博物館劇場學習理論探討香港歷史博物館的發展方向〉。《博物館學季刊》 第 25 卷,第 2 期,19-41。 Anderson, D. (1997). A common wealth: Museums in the learning age. London: DNH. 來越重要(陳雪雲,2010;謝妙思、劉仲嚴, 2011)。比如香港自 1997 年回歸以來,由一個 後殖民地城市成為中國的特別行政區,其公民、 公民教育都發生了很多轉變,通過結合博物館和 公民教育,將有助於幫助學生認識香港的歷史、 形成國民身份認同。但是,需要注意的是,社區 公民教育資源,並不僅僅局限於博物館。更何況, 亞洲地區有不同於西方國家的博物館傳統:亞洲 人較少光顧博物館,博物館的數量比較少,博物 館分佈並不均勻,很多分佈在發達的城市等等。 這些都給學校公民教育利用博物館資源帶來困 難。 另一方面,本文以倫敦市博物館為例子,分 析社區公民教育課程資源開發中,政府、學校和 社區之間分工合作的經驗。這些分析,對當下亞 洲課程分權背景下,更好的開發、使用各類社區 教育、文化資源(如公園、博物館、圖書館、大 眾傳媒、社區組織、民間團體等)可以提供經驗。 發揮社區公民教育資源的最大功效,不僅需 要確保課程資源的品質,更取決於當時、當下各 種社會團體、個人的合作與分工,並形成穩定的 合作機制:第一,即使在課程權力下放的情況下, 中央力量在社區資源開發的過程中,也扮演重要 的 角 色。 如 Fullan & Watson(2010) 所 言, 課 程分權在長足上看,缺點在於沒有對中央給予足 夠的重視,缺少協調,中央和地方彼此需要。適 當的中央力量,由於其廣闊的視野、政策、協調 能力,可以在社區中發掘、引導、保證教育資源 及其分配公平。第二,除了課程權利下放給學校 之外,社區層面獲得更多課程決定權也是課程分 權的一個重要方面。而社區在公民教育資源開發 中,也可以成為積極主動的課程決策者。發揮自 身優勢。第三,社區和學校、教師的合作,則保 證社區教育資源能和學生以往學習經驗聯繫、最 大可能的發揮社區內學習對學生各種能力培養的 幫助,從而確保社區學習資源的成效。 82 Björk, C. (2006). Introduction. In C. Björk (Ed.), Educational Decentralization: Asia Experiences and Conceptual Contributions (pp.1-8). Netherlands: Springer. Chee, M. F. (2003). Training teachers for the effective use of museums. International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research, 3(2), 10-16. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. (2000). Centres for social change: Museums, galleries and archives for all. Falk, J. (2004). The director’s cut: Toward an improved understanding of learning from museums. Science Education, 88(Suppl. 1), S83-96. Fullan, M., & Watson, N. (2010). School-based management: Reconceptualizing to improve learning outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 11(4), 453-473. Griffin, J. (2004). Research on students and museums: Looking more closely at the students in school groups. Science Education, 88(Suppl. 1), S59-70. Griffin, J., & Symington, D. (1997). Moving from task-oriented to learning-oriented strategies on school excursions to museums. Science Education, 81(6), 736-779. Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1999). The educational role of museum. London: Routledge. Hooper-Greenhill, E. (2007). Museum and education: Purpose, pedagogy, performance. New York: Routledge. International Bureau of Education. (2005). Building the capacities of curriculum specialists for education reform. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/Curriculum/Rpack/ decentralization.htm King, E. M., & Guerra, S. C. (2005). Education reforms in East Asia: Policy, process and impact. East Asia decentralizes: Making local government work (pp.179-208). Washington, D. C.: The World Bank. Macdonald, S. J. (2003). Museums, national, postnational and transcultural identities. Museum and Society, 1(1), 1-16. Mok, K. H. (2003). Centralization and decentralization: changing governance in education. In K. H. Mok (Ed.), Centralization and decentralization: Educational reforms and changing governance in Chinese societies (pp.2-18). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. Museum of London. (2010). Museum of London: Annual review. London. Olson, J. K. (1999). A qualitatice analysis of the field trip experience: A formal trip in an informal setting. Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Annual Meeting. Shann, E. W. (1920). Museum in education. Nature, 106, 344-345. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 83 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 Factors affecting child depressive mood 陳小梅、黃潔儀 香港教育學院 摘要 本研究目的在調查香港高小學生受抑鬱情緒困擾的狀況,並探究歸因型態、解難策略、自尊感和朋輩關係 與兒童抑鬱情緒的關係。共有 326 名兒童參與,數據以自填問卷方式收集。結果顯示,若以西方標準作分 界點,約 20.9% 參與本研究的兒童受到抑鬱情緒困擾,百分率遠高於其他地方。結果亦顯示負面歸因型態 和內化解難策略都會引致兒童產生抑鬱情緒。相反,若兒童有較高自尊感,較好的朋輩關係,或於遇到社 交問題時會尋求他人支援,他們都較少感受到抑鬱情緒。 關鍵詞 抑鬱情緒困擾,歸因型態,解難策略 Abstract The present study aimed to examine the prevalence of depressive mood among senior primary school children. Data were collected from 326 children with self-reported questionnaires. Participants completed the Children Depression Inventory (CDI), Children’s Attributional Styles Questionnaire-Revised, Self- report Coping Scale for Elementary School Children, Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale and five items measuring perceived peer relationship. Based on the cutting point adopted in the West (CDI ≥20), 20.9% of the sample suffered from depressive symptoms. Regression analyses results indicate that negative attributional style and internalizing coping strategy predicted depressive mood. Children with higher self- esteem, better peer relationship and those adopted seeking social support strategy were less vulnerable to depressive symptoms. Keywords depressive symptoms, attributional style, coping strategies 84 甲、文獻回顧 當兒童年事漸長,開始與外面的世界接觸漸 多,經歷難過、失落、悲傷、沮喪等負面情緒是 在所難免。然而研究卻發現抑鬱徵狀在兒童及青 少年頗為普遍(Poli, Sbrana, Marcheschi, & Masi, 2003; Tepper et al., 2008)。於香港進行的兩個研 究指出有大約百份之二十就讀於高小及初中的學 生受抑鬱情緒困擾(Chan, 1995; 1997)。在香港 成長,高小是一個充滿挑戰的階段。在學業上, 升上小四後,學童要開始為升中呈分試戰鬥;在 心理成長方面,他們要學習處理朋輩間的衝突及 青春期帶來的困擾。 兒童之抑鬱情緒不容忽視,研究指出抑鬱情 緒影響兒童在校內的適應,例如社交能力及學 業成績,亦與行為問題有關(Fauber, Forehand, Long, Burke, & Faust, 1987; Shah & Morgan, 1996)。此外,研究亦發現曾受抑鬱情緒影響的 兒童及青少年,於成年後有較大可能社交能力較 低,自尊感較低,出現情緒及行為問題,或甚 有精神病病徵(Aronen & Soininen, 2000; Devine, Kempton, & Forehand, 1994)。 本研究之目的有二:暸解香港高小學生受抑 鬱情緒困擾的情況,以及研究抑鬱情緒與兒童的 歸因型態及解難策略的關係。在此,抑鬱情緒指 於某一段時間之內,兒童感到憂愁、不開心或有 自殺的念頭(Petersen et al., 1993),而並非指經 臨牀診斷之抑鬱病。 乙、抑鬱情緒與歸因型態 受抑鬱情緒困擾的人一般有一套「負面的思 維模式」(Beck, 1967)。他們對自己、對世界 及對將來都有一套負面的看法,戴著這副「負面 的眼鏡」,他們把所有正面事情都濾掉了,只看 到事情不好的、不如意的一面。他們的思想傾向 自我貶低和自我挑剔,然後再把這套負面看法投 射到對將來的看法,因而對前景也抱有悲觀、消 極的態度。 「 習 得 無 助 」 理 論(reformulated theory of learned helplessness; Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978)認為這套「負面的思維模式」與 個體的歸因型態有關。心理學家温納(Weiner, 1986)指出,每一個人,包括兒童,都會對一 些 發 生 在 自 己 身 上 的 事 情 作 出 解 釋(Weiner, 1986),而這些用以解釋的因素一般可以以內在 / 外在,穩定 / 不穩定,及特定 / 總體性三個向度 作分類。例如「今天我跟李小明打招呼,他卻擦 身而過,眼往前望,沒有理會我」,兒童可解釋 作「我永遠都不會受同學接納」或「只因他被我 身後的同學吸引了,所以沒有留意我」。前者屬 內在(我不受同學接納),穩定(永遠都不會受 同學接納,而並非一次性)及總體性(我整個人 而非某一方面不受同學接納)因素。相反,後者 屬外在(他被我身後的同學吸引了),不穩定(下 一次他不一定會被其他同學吸引)及特定性(這 不會在其他情況下發生)因素。 內在因素指一些關乎兒童本身之因素,如性 格特質、努力與否、能力高低等,而運氣或那位 同學沒禮貌等,則屬於關乎其他人之外在因素。 同時,努力和運氣可歸類為不穩定的因素,而性 格特質、能力等則為穩定因素,因其在一段時間 內不易或不會改變。至於特定因素則是指一些只 影響某一方面或某一情況的因素,而總體性因素 是指一些會影響多方面或多種情況的因素。 若兒童將一些負面或失敗的事情歸因於穩定 或總體性因素,兒童便會相信這些因素在短期內 不會消失(穩定),甚而會帶來其他負面事情 (總體性)。在這種情况下,兒童容易產生「無 力感」,即對發生在自己身上的負面事情感到無 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 85 能為力,不受控制,亦即是「習得無助」的現象。 此外,若兒童將發生在自己身上的負面或失敗事 情用內在因素解釋,如因為我懶惰,我記性差, 我口齒不清,則其自尊感會受創。令到兒童自我 貶低,對自己有一套負面的看法,這套看法成為 他的自我觀後,他便有可能自我挑剔,只看到自 己的缺點,看不見自己的優點,或甚凡事都被演 繹為自己的缺點,人就不可能快樂起來了。 因此將負面事情歸因於內在、穩定及總體性 因素可稱之為負面歸因型態。相反,將正面事情 以內在、穩定及總體性的因素來解釋便是正面歸 因型態,可增強兒童之能力感和自尊感。 「習得無助」理論指出負面歸因型態引致 兒童相信好的事情一定不會發生在自己身上, 或負面的事情絕對是避無可避,加上自責傾向 引致的負面自我觀,兒童便會感受到絕望的情 緒。而研究結果亦支持負面歸因型態乃引致抑鬱 情緒風險的其中一個因素(Hankin & Abramson, 2002; Rowe, Maughan, & Eley, 2006; Sanjuan & Magallares, 2009)。 丙、解難策略與抑鬱情緒 當兒童認為負面或失敗的事情乃是由穩定及 總體性因素引致,他們便會相信這些因素會繼續 在類似甚至其他情况下影響他們,結果,他們 預期失敗,因而採用逃避或情緒發洩等策略來 應付,而較少用直接解決問題或尋求他人支援 等 方 法 解 決(Mclean, Strongman, & Neha, 2007; Wright, Banerjee, Hock, Rieffe, & Novin, 2010), 負面情緒及問題都得不到解決,引致抑鬱。 而某些解難策略本身亦可能引致抑鬱情緒出 現。當兒童遇到困難而感到憂愁、焦慮時,若果 他們採用的解難策略會令這些負面情緒延長或加 劇的話,抑鬱情緒便可能產生。換而言之,內化 (internalization,即把負面情緒收藏起來)、外 化(externalization,即以不當行為來解決)或逃 避等策略,都有可能引致抑鬱。在一項研究中, 外化策略,例如大叫、對人說難聽的話或指責別 人等都會令情緒升温及引致精神健康問題包括 抑 鬱(Suldo, Shaunessy, & Hardesty, 2008; Tolan, Gorman-Smith, Henry, Chung, & Hunt, 2002)。 另一研究亦發現逃避策略與抑鬱有關(Seiffge- Krenke & Klessinger, 2000)。 跟據以上討論,兒童之歸因型態、自尊感及 解難策略都可能是引致抑鬱情緒的因素,因此本 研究會探討這幾個變項對抑鬱情緒的預測能力。 此外,因朋輩關係亦與青少年之情緒問題有關 (Murbery & Bru, 2004),故本研究亦探討朋輩 關係對抑鬱情緒的預測能力。 丁、研究方法 一、資料收集方法及樣本人數 數據乃透過自填問卷方式收集。樣本屬方 便性樣本(convenient sample),研究員透過取 得四間小學校長同意,親自於課室內向學童派 發問卷。共 326 學童參與是次研究,其中包括 160 名男童及 166 名女童,其年齡分佈為兩名八 歲(0.6%),20 名 九 歲(6.1%),109 名 十 歲 (33.4%),109 名十一歲(33.4%),67 名十二 歲(20.6%),17 名 十 三 歲(33.4%) 和 兩 名 十四歲(0.6%)兒童。 二、量度工具 • 兒童之抑鬱情緒:以兒童抑鬱量表(Chinese version of the Child Depression Inventory; Kovacs, 2008)量度,此問卷共有 27 題, 量度兒童在最近兩週之抑鬱情緒。於是次 研究,此量表之信度為 0.86。 86 • 兒 童 之 歸 因 型 態: 以 兒 童 歸 因 型 態 問 卷(Children’s Attributional Styles Questionnaire-Revised; Thompson, Kaslow, Weiss, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998)量度,此 問卷共有 24 題,量度兒童對 12 種正面事 情及 12 種負面事情的歸因。 • 兒童之解難策略:以小學生解難策略量表 (Self-reported Coping Scale developed for elementary school children; Causey & Dubow, 1992)量度兒童遇到社交衝突時採取直接 解 決 問 題 策 略(problem solving)、 尋 求 他人支援策略(seeking social support)、 外 化 策 略(externalization)、 內 化 策 略 (internalization)及疏離策略(distancing) 的傾向,共 20 題。於是次研究,此量表之 信度為 0.73。 • 兒童之自尊感:以自尊感量表(Self-esteem Scale; Rosenberg, 1965)量度,此問卷共有 10 題。於是次研究,此量表之信度為 0.63。 第五題(「我覺得我沒有甚麼值得引以為 榮」)及第八題(「我希望我能夠更看重 自己」)與整份量表的相關係數很低,可 能是因為這兩條的意思對小學生的經驗來 說,較難理解,故此把此兩題剔除,餘下 八題之信度為 0.83。 • 朋輩關係:研究員為本研究設計了 5 題問 題量度兒童於校內與朋輩的關係。於是次 研究,此量表之信度為 0.74。 戊、研究結果 一、抑鬱情緒 兒童抑鬱量表共有 27 題,兒童最低可得 0 分,最高可得 54 分;得分愈高表示抑鬱情緒愈 強。量表之原創者 Kovacs(2008)建議以 20 分 為分界點,得 20 分或以上之兒童可被界定為受 抑鬱情緒困擾並應得到專業幫助,而於西方及 內地研究所得(Chen, Rubin, & Li, 1995; Kovacs, 2008),若以 20 分為分界點,約有 10% 的兒童 及青少年可被界定為受抑鬱情緒困擾;但若以此 分界點計算,則 20.9% 參與本研究的兒童受到抑 鬱情緒困擾,百分率遠高於西方之 10%(Kovacs, 2008)。 跟 據 於 香 港 進 行 之 研 究 所 得(Chan, 1995; 1997),亦顯示約有 20% 的兒童及青少年 受抑鬱情緒困擾。 二、歸因型態 於兒童歸因型態問卷,兒童最低可得零分, 最高可得 12 分,中位數為 6 分,得分愈高顯示 兒童愈傾向採取正/負面歸因型態。於正面歸因 型態,得 6 分或以下者,共 187 人(58.7%), 顯示他們遇到正面事情時亦較少以內在、穩定及 總體性因素解釋,其中有 23 位兒童更低至 3 分 或以下。而得 7 分或以上者有 128 人(41.3%), 此等兒童較傾向採取正面歸因型態。 結果亦顯示有 44 位兒童(13.9%)傾向採取 負面歸因型態,即得 7 分或以上;大部分兒童都 得 6 分或以下(271 人;86%)。 三、自尊感 自尊感量表之平均分最高可達 4 分而最低 則為 1 分,中位數為 2.5 分,得分愈高顯示兒 童之自尊感愈高。於本研究中,得 2.5 分或以 下之兒童共有 116 人(36.1%),即此等兒童之 自尊感不高,而得分於中位數以上者有 205 人 (63.9%)。 四、朋輩關係 此部分之平均得於為 3.17,高於中位數,顯 示兒童覺得自己與班中同學之關係頗佳。 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 87 表一 抑鬱量表、歸因型態、及解難策略之平均值、標準差和 t-test 結果 高危組別 (N = 52) 無症狀組別 (N = 274) 變項 M SD M SD t 抑鬱情緒 27.35 4.24 12.30 5.44 歸因型態 正面─總體性 1.79 1.13 1.86 .91 0.33 正面─內在 2.60 .73 2.31 .89 1.86 正面─穩定 1.48 1.13 2.03 1.08 3.28** 負面─總體性 1.69 1.29 .63 .85 -7.45*** 負面─內在 2.06 1.11 2.05 .97 -1.83 負面─穩定 2.23 1.10 1.57 1.14 -3.82*** 解難策略 直接解決問題 2.27 .70 2.70 .68 4.15*** 尋求他人支援 1.89 .83 2.65 .80 6.24*** 外化策略 2.25 .83 1.81 .62 -4.34** 內化策略 2.60 .73 2.08 .63 -5.23*** 疏離策略 2.11 .80 2.20 .62 1.09 ** p < 0.01% *** p < 0.001% 六、影響兒童抑鬱情緒之因素 本 研 究 採 用 迴 歸 分 析 法(regression analysis)來探討影響兒童抑鬱情緒之因素。結果 五、高危組別與無症狀組別 於本研究以 CDI 之平均值加一個標準差作分 界點(即約 23),有 23 位男童及 29 女童(即總 參與人數的 16%)被界定為受抑鬱情緒困擾,再 以 t-test 探討這 52 位兒童(以下稱為高危組別) 與得分少於 23 分的兒童(以下稱為無症狀組別) 於歸因型態和解難策略兩變項之分別(見表一)。 顯示負面歸因型態、內化策略、尋求他人援助策 略、自尊感及朋輩關係皆為重要影響因素,共能 解釋兒童抑鬱情緒 62% 的變化(見表二)。 88 己、討論 本研究目的為普查於本港就讀小四至小六的 兒童受抑鬱情緒困擾的情况,並探討與抑鬱情緒 相關之因素。結果顯示,於這個群體當中,約有 16% 至 21% 的兒童受抑鬱情緒困擾。 若把兒童分為高危組別(於抑鬱量表得分 高於 23)與無症狀組別(於抑鬱量表得分低於 23)比較,發現高危組別遇到正面事情時,較不 會用穩定因素解釋,即他們不會肯定正面事情會 在一段時間內再發生,但當遇到負面或失敗的事 情時,他們卻較傾向以總體性和穩定性因素解 釋,即他們會相信那些帶來失敗的因素不會在短 期內消失,並會影響他們在其他事情上的表現或 成敗,換而言之,他們傾向預期失敗或負面事情 會發生。 除此之外,在遇到社交問題時,高危組別較 無症狀組別多用內化策略(internalization,即把 負面情緒收藏起來)、外化策略(externalization, 即以不當行為來解決)來解決,而相反,無症狀 組別卻較高危組別多用直接解決問題及尋求他人 支援兩種策略來解決。 至於引致抑鬱情緒的因素,迴歸分析結果顯 示負面歸因型態和內化策略都會引致兒童產生抑 鬱情緒。相反,若兒童有較高自尊感,較好的朋 輩關係,或於遇到社交問題時會尋求他人支援, 他們都較少感受到抑鬱情緒。 總結來說,自尊感是影響力最大的因素,然 而自尊感可能受負面歸因型態影響。當兒童每遇 到失敗或負面事情時便認為是自己內在的因素引 致,那麽他們很自然會覺自卑。此外當他們相信 那些帶來失敗的因素在可見的未來不會消失,並 會影響他們在其他事情上的表現,他們便容易有 無助感,預期負面事情無可避免將發生在他們身 上。而對自己有負面看法,對將來悲觀消極正是 抑鬱症的特徵。 表二 影響兒童抑鬱情緒之因素迴歸分析法結果 B SE B β R² 第一模式 .02 性別 .83 .86 .06 年齡 .07 .41 .01 同性兄弟姊妹之數目 .23 .52 .02 異性兄弟姊妹之數目 1.13 .53 .12* 第二模式 .62*** 性別 .45 .55 .03 年齡 .33 .25 .05 同性兄弟姊妹之數目 .14 .33 .02 異性兄弟姊妹之數目 .62 .33 .07 正歸因型態 -1.1 1.81 -.02 負歸因型態 7.27 1.6 .17*** 自尊感 -5.00 .53 -.41*** 直接解決問題 .76 .48 .07 外化策略 .78 .46 .07 內化策略 2.65 .48 .24*** 尋求他人支援策略 -1.81 .39 -.20*** 疏離策略 -.10 .43 -.01 朋輩關係 -2.40 .54 -.17*** * p < 0.05%; *** p < 0.001% 引致兒童抑鬱情緒的因素 89 除自尊感外,內化策略和尋求他人支援策略 亦對抑鬱情緒有重要影響。內化策略是把負面情 緒收藏起來,覺得自己很慘,很可憐,躲起來哭 一場,而外化策略則是以不當行為來解決問題, 例如對人喝駡、甚至打人或破壞物件。當兒童與 人交往時遇到挫敗,因而感到難過、忿怒或委屈 時,這兩種策略都不能紓緩他們的情緒,反而加 強他們的負面情緒,引致抑鬱。(很多人都不知 道兒童和青少年的抑鬱徵狀除感到難過悲傷外, 亦可能是激動、易怒。)更甚者,這兩種策略都 會令他們與朋輩的關係變差。而本研究結果就正 正顯示了尋求他人支援策略,即遇困難時,愈願 意尋求家人、老師或朋友的支援,和良好朋輩關 係與抑鬱情緒有反向關係。如此說來,這些引致 抑鬱情緒的因素,互相亦有相連關係。 庚、啟示 跟據本研究的結果,本港的小四至小六學生 有大約有 16% 至 20% 受抑鬱情緒困擾,情况不 容忽視。若要預防兒童免受抑鬱情緒影響,首要 幫助他們建立正面歸因型態以增強其自信心和自 尊感,避免陷入負面歸因型態的自我貶低陷阱。 要做到這一點,家長和老師除了要多稱讚,多欣 賞外,還要「讚得其所,欣賞有道」,兒童才能 建立正面歸因型態。空泛的讚賞不能令兒童相信 他們的成就是一些他們能掌握的因素帶來的,因 此成人稱讚兒童時,應清晰指出所讚賞的是孩子 的那些行為及這些行為與孩子的成就有何關係, 例如「你剛才在全班面前做的口頭報告十分清 晰,剛才要不是你鼓起勇氣為你的小組做報告, 同學還不知道你表達能力那麽高,你做得很好」, 鼓起勇氣嘗試是一些內在、可控制、穩定及總體 性的因素。若老師說「幸好組員讓你加入他們的 小組,要不然你就入不了組,不知怎麽辦了!」, 老師就是著眼於運氣或他人的意願,一個外在、 不受控制、不穩定及一次性的因素。 同樣,當兒童遇到不如意的事情,成人除了 盡量不要歸咎於一些穩定的內在因素(如:你真 是天生害羞得很)或總體性因素(如:你這個人 凡事都不小心)外,還應盡量令兒童相信那些引 致失敗的因素是他可以控制的,那麽便可避免兒 童形成習得無助感。例如兒童要在全班面前說話 便感到膽怯,老師不能光叫他不要害怕,而是要 跟據兒童的能力作出一些可行的建議,讓他去 試。 除歸因型態及自尊感外,研究結果亦顯示兒 童的解難能力和朋輩支持亦很重要,故老師們應 多注意時常「形單影隻」的學生,為社交能力較 低及很少朋交的學生開設小組訓練他們的社交解 難能力。 參考文獻 Abramson, L. 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Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 93 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 Experience of promoting reading strategies 胡少偉 香港教育學院 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 劉可欣 聖公會油塘基顯小學 摘要 培育學生閱讀是課程改革的一個重點,不少學校配合政府推行課程改革,在校內以圖書課和課外閱讀去培 育學生閱讀,使香港學生的閱讀表現有所提高;但毋庸置疑的是,閱讀也是語文科內讀寫聽說的其中一個 範疇,故要進一步提高學生的閱讀表現,語文科老師也應承擔份內之責。此文的重點是分享一所小學在中 文科推行學生閱讀策略的經驗,從小四學生後測自評中,引證了相關教學的成效。故此,希望更多小學語 文教師能在小四學生的閱讀學習中時發展思維能力。 關鍵詞 香港學生閱讀,閱讀策略,小學中國語文教學 Abstract One of the main focuses of curriculum reform is to foster students to read. Reading lessons and extracurricular reading are ways that schools use to help improving students’ reading ability. No doubt that reading is one of the areas in language subjects, Chinese Language teachers play an important role to improve students’ reading performance. The focus of this article is to share the experience of a primary school promoting students to read. From the self-evaluation of P.4 students, they think their abilities in reading strategies is improved. It is hoped that more language teachers of primary school can develop students’ thinking skills during learning of reading in primary four. 94 香港小學生閱讀的發展 培育學生的閱讀是香港課程改革的一個重 點,課程發展議會(2002)訂定的七個學習宗旨 內,便將「使學生養成獨立閱讀的習慣」列為其 中一個學習宗旨,該議會亦於 2001 年把「從閱 讀中學習」列為課程改革的四個關鍵項目之一。 經過幾年來努力地推動學生閱讀後,香港學生 的閱讀表現有明顯的進展,2006 年全球學生閱 讀能力進展研究(PIRLS),發現香港小四學生 的閱讀能力在四十五個參與地區中,從 2001 年 排名第十四位躍升至第二位。而在 2006 年學生 能力國際評估計劃(PISA)內,香港學生閱讀 能力從 2003 年排名第十位躍升至名列第三位; 在 2009 年的國際評估排名中雖退至第四位,其 原因之一是上海首次參加,而令人滿意的是香港 學生的閱讀表現明顯較前兩期優勝(星島日報, 2010.12.08)。從這些學生閱讀能力的國際評比 報告中,反映香港學生在過去幾年間有較佳的閱 讀表現;而為了分享學校推動閱覽策略的成功經 驗,教育局於 2011 年 4 月的閱覽薈萃中,邀請 了大學和十多所學校就跨課程閱讀、教學語言和 閱讀、非華語學生閱讀、校本評核與閱覽,以及 網上閱讀等不同課題,分享他們多年來致力推動 閱覽的成功經驗(謝凌潔貞,2011)。 回顧香港本土有關小學生閱讀的文獻,發現 在過去幾年間,不少學校配合政府推行課程改 革,在校內展開不少校本閱讀活動,「學校先由 圖書課和閱讀報紙做起,進而推展至其他與閱讀 相關的學習領域和共通能力,閱讀課程內容推行 會以科目為本,當中包括課內及課外閱讀」(黃 雪盈,2008,頁 321)。同時,亦發現有小學通 過校長伴讀計劃去營造學生的閱讀風氣,有關文 章指出藉著校長分享閱讀知識及感受和教授學生 閱讀技巧與分析故事,可促進學生分享閱讀的經 驗(廖玉英、胡家偉等,2004,頁 37)。這兩篇 文章反映了自課改推行後,不少香港小學以圖書 課和課外閱讀去培養學生閱讀,使香港學生的閱 讀表現有所提高;但毋庸置疑的是,閱讀也是語 文科內讀寫聽說的其中一個範疇,因此要進一步 改善和提高學生的閱讀表現,語文科教師應承擔 份內之責。此文的重點是分享一所小學在中文科 推展培育四年級學生閱讀策略的經驗,從而令小 學語文教師更關注培育學生在學習閱讀時的思維 發展。 小學中國語文科的閱讀與思維 閱讀是學習如何從書面文字中提取資訊的方 法,在《中國大百科全書》指「從語文心理角度 說,閱讀活動是從看的語言向說出的語言過程; 在這個過程中,不是機械地原文說出來,而是通 過內部語言,用自己的話來理解改造原文的句 子、段落,從而把原文思想變成自己的思想。」 可見閱讀這個學習過程,既與語文科學習有關, 也涉及了閱讀者的思維發展,美國閱讀學家施道 弗在他的《閱讀——一個思維過程》中明確指出 「閱讀的本質是思維;閱讀與思維是密不可分的, Keywords reading of Hong Kong students, reading strategy, Chinese Language teaching in primary schools 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 95 閱讀過程是人的大腦在思考的過程。所以閱讀時 必須把閱讀與思考有機地結合起來,任何把閱讀 與思考分割開來的做法都是反科學的,都是違背 閱讀規律的,是決不會取得好的閱讀效果的」(薛 智主編,2001,頁 124)。 西方學者 Oakhill 及 Garnham 指出,「富閱 讀技巧的讀者在閱讀的過程中至少須完成:眼動 與注視、字詞辨識、句子處理、句意和文意處理、 推論、連貫篇章、建立文章結構、賞析文章整體 目的等多項認知活動」(謝錫金主編,2006,頁 20)。這些閱讀的認知活動不少是與學習者的思 考有關,故要有效提高學生的閱讀表現,應同時 兼顧學生的思維發展,在最新的中國語文科的課 程指引中,明確了中國語文教育學習領域的學習 內容,除了基本的讀寫聽說外,還有思維的內容。 在課程指引中也指出思維是語文的泉源,在理解 語言(聽、讀)和語言表達(說、寫)的過程 中,思維是必要成分;因此,教育局提出中國語 文科的教學必須結合思維能力培養,並明確在小 學中國語文科思維範疇的學習目標是(教育局, 2004): • 培養批判性、創造性思考能力和解決問 題的能力; • 培養良好的思維素質; • 掌握一般應用於聽說讀寫的思維方法。 閱讀策略的培育 有關培養學生的思維發展,曾有香港小學利 用行動研究去推動學生的閱讀,劉美群等(2008) 在分享中指出,「教師透過引領思維教學法及分 段提問的教學策略進行閱讀教學,藉以刺激學生 閱讀和思維技能」(頁 165)。這個案引證了有 小學教育工作者同時關注培育學生的閱讀與思 維。然而,正如在 2001 的全球學生閱讀能力進 展研究,梁長城、黃瑞珍(2004)指出:「大部 分香港學生能夠掌握較基礎的閱讀能力,能夠理 解文章的表層意思;可是,在處理較高層的閱讀 能力時,小四學生表現則差強人意。其中『解釋 篇章及發表意見』及『仔細閱讀、評估內容、語 言和文章的要點』的成績最差;顯示當時的小四 學生對於比較、推斷、應用資料,以及評估、評 論、解釋資料等能力較差」(頁 42)。可見在這 個研究中,香港小四學生在這個世紀初閱讀能力 的表現仍不大理想,尤其是與思維發展有關的能 力更需改善。 柯華葳(2006)指出「一般而言,學生若在 四年級還未掌握閱讀的能力,包括識字還不能自 動化,沒有猜字策略或說不出所讀的全文大意, 便需要進行補救教學」(頁 79)。這是國際教育 界重視小四學生的閱讀能力的重要觀點,若一位 小四學生在閱讀表現欠佳,將影響了這個學生的 整體學習表現。而要改善一位小四學生的閱讀表 現,就必須提升他在閱讀中的思維,但可惜的是 「大部份學生沒有受過閱讀策略的訓練,他們沒 有足夠的能力去判別採用那些閱讀策略來解讀不 同性質的閱讀材料」(王國強,2008,頁 13)。 教授學生閱讀策略是一個有助建立和提升小四學 生閱讀能力的方法;有效的閱讀策略能幫助學生 建構知識,建構主義著重由學生主動建構知識的 重要,教師培育學生的閱讀策略,能使學生日後 自行主動建構知識。在《小學中國語文建議學習 重點(試用)》內(見下表一)清楚指出學生要 在小四到小六階段,要因應不同的讀材,運用適 當的閱讀方法。 96 表二 2009 年中文科各級閱讀策略學習重點 年級組別 重點學習的閱讀策略 通過運用學習策略而得到的能力 一至三年級 1. 以圖會意 2. 推斷詞意 3. 順序法 4. 文章四要素 5. 六何法 6. 概念圖 1. 複述 2. 解釋 3. 重整 四至六年級 1. 推斷詞意 2. 六何法 3. 概念圖 4. 中心句 5. 撮寫 6. 歸納段意及主旨 1. 解釋 2. 重整 3. 伸展 4. 評鑑 5. 創意 校本閱讀策略教學的設計 有關校本閱讀的經驗,有本土研究曾以知識 管理的取向去分析一所小學推行校本閱讀成功的 原因,發現「該校除明確要全校參與閱讀及在時 間表、場地和資源提供支援外,亦掌握發展性閱 讀的方法及懂得集中學生閱讀教材的方法」(胡 少偉、金國強,2009,頁 97)。參考這個個案, 本文將分享一所小學推行閱讀策略教學計劃的經 驗。聖公會油塘基顯小學重視培育學生的閱讀, 深信良好的閱讀策略是提升學習效能的重要元 素,多年來在圖書課試行閱讀策略的教學試驗; 在 2009 至 2010 學年,該校配合校本課程的發展 及加強學生的閱讀能力,在中文科引入了圖書課 閱讀策略計劃,編寫一套校本的中文科閱讀策略 課程;該校中文科同工參考學者祝新華(2005) 有關閱讀認知能力層次,有步驟地進行閱讀策略 的教學活動。這個校本課程計劃將六級學生分成 兩個階段(見上表二),明確寫出一至三年級和 四至六年級學生需學習哪些閱讀策略,這些閱讀 策略有些是與課程發展議會所建議的相近。同 時,該校各級中文科教師會配合中文課的課文去 設計培育學生閱覽策略的工作紙,並結集成一本 學生閱讀策略小冊子。 閱讀是讀者理解篇章,獲取「篇章意義」 的認知過程,流程如下: • 用眼睛看字詞 表一 小學掌握閱讀策略的學習重點內容 學習重點 第一學習階段 第二學習階段 掌握閱讀策略 • 聯繫生活經驗及已有知識以理解閱讀材料 • 因應不同的閱讀材料,採取適當的 閱讀方法,如精讀、默讀、朗讀 (配合情感,有自信地朗讀優美的 文字) • 因應不同的閱讀材料,運用適當的 閱讀方法,如略讀、瀏讀、主題閱 讀法、找出關鍵語句 • 利用各種途徑資源(如插圖、互聯網、工具書、圖書館、博物館)以幫助閱 讀 (課程發展議會編訂,2008,頁 10) 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 97 • 用已有知識解釋字詞 • 將字詞的意義組成一個整體的意思 • 刪除不重要,得出一個最重要的意思 (中心句或主旨) • 記憶篇章的意思 (摘自聖公會油塘基顯小學學生閱讀策略 小冊子,2009) 上文是該校中文科教師透過閱讀小冊子提供 的閱讀定義,當中向學生清晰交代的流程的步 驟,這有助學生檢視和監控自己在閱讀的參與情 況;正如簡馨瑩、曾文慧、陳凱築(2005)指出「從 觀察孩子的閱讀歷程中,發現大部分的孩子的困 難在於他們不會使用、不知道要不要使用,以及 不知道何時該如何監控自己的閱讀與學習歷程」 (頁 36)。而這個校本閱讀策略的行動研究計 劃於 2009 至 2010 學年推行,其研究對象針對小 四同學;在推行閱讀策略教學前,學校中文科於 2009 年九月份向全級小四學生發生一份前測問 卷,讓學生對能運用閱讀策略作一個初步自評。 而為了檢視這個閱讀策略教學計劃的成效,全校 的小四學生於 2010 年 6 月又進行一次後測自評 調查。而為了深入了解閱讀策略計劃推行的情 況,研究員曾與計劃負責主任進行一次質性的深 度訪談,以了解推行校本閱讀策略計劃的細節, 從而探討這個計劃的成效及作出檢視。下文是該 主任對四年級學生閱讀策略教學安排的描述: 「我們學校的閱讀策略是一至六年級,分 兩階段實行。四年級基本上已懂四素句、 時序,和簡單概括的課文或文章內容意思 的能力;在四年班我們主要深化他們懂得 用概念圖去分析文章的結構。」(中文科 主任) 閱讀策略教學的推行 「我們教的時候著重他們自己去看文章, 不單是講解文章說什麼,更會提問學生在 故事中目的是學到什麼呢?啟發了什麼 呢?對主角有何評價,他做對或錯呢?訓 練他們獨立思維。」(中文科主任) 當研究員追問閱讀策略教學與一般中文教學 的不同時,這位中文科主任作出了上述的回應, 表明在施行閱讀策略教學時會注重發展學生的思 維,這個理念與台灣學者的觀點相近,「如果他 們不了解學習的內容,沒有理解這些知識裡的意 涵,不知何去運用這些知識,這些記憶依舊是一 個個單獨存在的記憶單位,並沒有形成思考的網 路」(王秀園,2006,頁 195)。至於,在分析 四年級閱讀策略的學習重點與初小的不同時,該 主任指出新增的閱讀策略學習重點有撮寫、中心 句、歸納段意和主旨,但也會同時深化部分初小 已學的閱讀策略學習重點。而為了讓學生不時檢 視自己對閱讀策略的掌握情況,該校在學生的閱 讀策略小冊子內列明了「有效讀書要訣」的十個 守則,供學生參考。 1. 在固定的時間和場所進行閱讀。 2. 以獨立學習的精神讀書。 3. 一切學習需做筆記,至少記下重點。 4. 克服不利環境。 5. 佈置良好的讀書環境。 6. 精讀之前,全部先略讀(瀏覽)一遍。 7. 加快閱讀速度。 8. 讀完立即背誦要點。 9. 遇有不明白的,要請教別人或查字典。 10. 多看不同的課外書,增加自己的知識。 下表三是該校 2009 至 2010 年度小四學生自 98 評閱讀策略的運用情況,在 2009 年 9 月的前測 中,全校小四學生對一至三年級重點學習的六 個閱讀策略有較高百分比的回應,分別有 28.2% – 38.5% 的同學表示自己能掌握:六何法、文章 四要素、順序法、以圖會意、推斷詞意和概念 圖。在討論中文科閱讀策略時,吳鳳平、林偉業 (2009)認為「運用閱讀策略的目的主要有兩個: 令讀者成為積極、投入、主動的讀者,而非被動 的接受;令閱讀成為有意義的經驗,而非任由閱 讀材料的內容主導。」也就是說,向學生提供閱 表三 小四學生自評閱讀策略的運用 閱讀策略 能運用這策略 (前測) 能運用這策略 (後測) 增值 增幅 文章四要素 36.4% 49.5% 13.1% 36.0% 推斷詞意 28.2% 36.7% 8.5% 30.1% 六何法 38.5% 50.0% 11.5% 29.9% 概念圖 28.2% 36.1% 7.9% 28.0% 順序法 32.3% 41.1% 8.3% 25.7% 歸納段意及主旨 26.7% 30.2% 3.5% 13.1% 中心句 26.2% 27.2% 1.0% 3.8% 以圖會意 28.7% 29.2% 0.5% 1.7% 撮寫 21.5% 20.8% -0.7% -3.3% 實踐個案的成效 「教了方法後,學生看課外書時遇到不懂 的詞語也會利用上文下理去推敲,以至明 白,很少會覺得難和看不明白的書,他們 懂得運用這方法掌握閱讀。」(中文科主 任) 經過閱讀策略教學後,中文科主任發現小四 學生在閱讀課外書時有較強的理解能力;正如洪 蘭(2003)認為「閱讀時,我們會主動搜索訊息, 遇到語意不明、模稜兩可的詞彙,我們眼睛會立 刻回歸到前面讀過的句子,尋找文意脈絡解讀這 個雙意詞在文中真正的含意;閱讀時,我們的大 腦其實在不斷地進行深層分析」(頁 73)。事 實上,閱讀與思考是同步進行的,學生在思考中 理解讀材的含義,使學生明白閱讀文字的意義, 這才是深層的閱讀。「在閱讀活動中,『理解』 是閱讀主體心理運行過程中缺之不可的階段性因 素;因為如果缺乏或者沒有這種『理解』,也就 不可能有深入的文章閱讀」(曹明海、宮梅娟, 1998,頁 68-69)。 「寫作也有進步,腦圖(概念圖)讓學生 自由去想主題和分類,就會較有系統。較 之前什麼都不做好一點,學生會針對內容 去寫。」(中文科主任) 讀策略可令學生主動閱讀和有意義地去閱讀讀 材。經歷了閱讀策略的學習之後,該校小四級學 生在文章四要素、推斷詞意、六何法、概念圖和 順序法等五個閱讀策略有較大的增幅;當中推斷 詞意、六何法和概念圖皆是四至六年級重點學習 的首三個閱讀策略。這反映了該校中文科四年級 閱讀策略教學,使部份學生感到能掌握一些具體 的閱讀策略,以促進學生的思維發展和提高其閱 讀表現。 分享推行閱讀策略的經驗 99 正如該中文科主任在訪談中的分享,經過閱 讀策略的教學後,學生不單在課外閱讀時表現得 較佳,在中文科的寫作表現也有進步;尤其是學 生學習了概念圖的閱讀策略後,將這能力遷移於 寫作方面,從而提高了學生寫作的組織。與此同 時,該主任亦指出學生在中文科評估中也表現出 能掌握這些閱讀策略。綜合學生在上述三方面的 表現,可以看到該校中文科閱讀策略的教學,一 定程度上是能提升學生的閱讀、思考和寫作能力 的。 「教和評估是有關連的,教了這些閱讀策 略後,在考試中會考查學生的運用;考試 反映他們是可以的。」(中文科主任) 經驗與反思 「我們在上下學期都各有一次檢討,會檢 討閱讀策略有哪方面要修訂,及也會問各 級核心小組成員究竟有沒有需要修訂之處; 又或在共同備課時就某一篇或問哪一篇文 章設計不理想,需要修改的。」(中文科 主任) 為了優化這個校本閱讀策略的教學細節,該 校中文科教師設立了一個檢討機制,在科務會議 內和共同備課時,會就各級校本閱讀教學的教材 作出檢討和修改。這顯示了該校中文科教師掌握 了行動學習方法,正如辛列有(2008)歸納一個 本土行動學習經驗時指出「學員把心中所要解決 的問題,用行動學習來實踐。在實施經歷階段中, 用分析或觀察之法來檢視當中有沒有改善的方 法,再重新整理及修訂新的目標,然後再驗證計 劃的成效;過程中,教師的反思能力會漸漸敏銳, 而實踐的能力亦會逐漸上升」(頁 128-129)。 內地學者王潔、顧冷沅(2007)亦指出:「實踐 智慧是緘默的,隱含於實踐過程之中,更多地與 個體的思想和行動過程保持著一種共生關係」 (頁 15-16)。教師透過對實踐行動的研究和學 習,可有效反思校本計劃的推行,並豐富了個人 的專業智慧。 易凌峰、楊向誼(2006)指出「知識管理的 目的是建立自己的知識系統架構,讓教師有效地 保存在教育過程所獲的知識,不讓有價值的經驗 流失;同時,亦有效地將隱性知識在反思的基礎 上,轉化為可以共享的、系統的教育知識」(頁 101)。本文嘗試運用外顯內隱知識的理念,剖 析一所小學的校本閱讀策略推行的情況,看到在 該校中文科引入閱讀策略教學後,有助促進學生 在閱讀過程中思考,令近半小四學生掌握六何法 和文章四要素等閱讀策略;同時該校教師亦發現 學生在課外閱讀、寫作和測考評估中也提昇了表 現。正如上文柯華葳認為小四學生能否獨立閱 讀,對其日後的學習成效有很大的影響,故在小 四中文科引入閱讀策略的教學,有助培育學生主 動地理解閱讀教材,並促進其思維發展和寫作表 現。這個校本經驗的分享,值得關心學生閱讀的 其他香港小學作參考。但不能不說的是,這篇文 章有一點的不足,就是未有適時地與相關學生進 行質性訪談;假若能在文內加入學生的親身感受 作驗證,這個可得到更佳的說服力。 參考文獻 王秀園(2006)。《學習大革命:善用腦子讀好書》。臺北:基督教宇宙光全人關懷機構。 王國強(2008)。《閱讀推廣指導手冊》。澳門:澳門圖書館暨資訊管理協會。 100 王潔、顧泠沅(2007)。《行動教育:教師在職學習的範式革新》。上海:華東師範大學出版社。 吳鳳平、林偉業(2009)。《中文閱讀能力──認讀、理解、策略》。香港:香港大學教育學院在職教師 教育計劃。 辛列有(2008)。〈反思「優化中層管理」計劃的成效〉。載余煊(主編),《學校的領導與變革:中層 人員的挑戰》(頁 114-130)。香港:中華基督教會香港區會。 易凌峰、楊向誼(主編)(2006)。《知識管理與學校發展》。天津:天津教育出版社。 星島日報(2010.12.8)。〈港生數理閱讀 上海首參加評估奪三個第一〉。 柯華葳(2006)。《教出閱讀力》。臺北:天下雜誌。 洪蘭(2003)。〈活動大腦,激發創作力〉。載齊若蘭、游常山、李雪麗等,《閱讀新一代知識革命》(頁 72-76)。臺北:天下雜誌。 胡少偉、金國強(2009)。〈提昇學生閱讀的校本經驗〉,載《教育曙光》,第 57 卷,第 2 期,91-98。 祝新華(2005)。《能力發展導向的語文評估與教學總論》。新加坡:中外翻譯書社。 教育局(2004)。《中國語文課程指引(小一至小六)(2004)》。取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/ TC/Content_4314/chapter2.pdf。 曹明海、宮梅娟(1998)。《理解與建構──語文閱讀活動論》。青島:青島海洋大學出版社。 梁長城、黃瑞珍(2004)。《閱讀研究與教學的新路向》。香港:香港閱讀學會。 黃雪盈(2008)。〈從學生的角度評析校本閱讀課程的成效〉。載霍秉坤等(主編),《課程與教學:研 究與實踐的旅程》(頁 320-332)。重慶:重慶大學出版社。 聖公會油塘基顯小學(2009)。《中文科(2009-2010)閱讀策略小冊子》。香港:聖公會油塘基顯小學。 廖玉英、胡家偉等(2004)。〈校長午間伴讀:策略與成效之行動研究〉。《教學行動研究報告匯編》。香港: 香港教師中心。 劉美群等(2008)。〈以閱引思、以思帶讀〉。《香港教師中心學報》,第 6 卷,161-170。 課程發展議會(2002)。《基礎課程指引:各盡所能、發揮所長(小一至中三)》。香港:課程發展議會。 課程發展議會(編訂)(2008)。《小學中國語文建議學習重點(試用)》。香港:教育局。 薛智(主編)(2001)。《青年讀書技巧訓練教程》。北京:中國青年出版社。 謝凌潔貞(2011)。〈教育局舉辦「閱讀薈萃」讓學校分享推動閱讀策略(附圖)〉。2011 年 8 月 12 日, 取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201104/16/P201104150092.htm。 謝錫金(主編)(2006)。《兒童閱讀能力進展:香港與國際比較》,(第二次印刷)。香港:香港大學出版社。 簡馨瑩、曾文慧、陳凱築(2005)。《閱讀悅有趣》。臺北:幼獅文化事業。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 101 以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 Learning Chinese language through the drama learning in 5 quick steps 許玉麟 東華三院呂潤財紀念中學 摘要 筆者身兼中文科及戲劇科老師,以本文總結多年戲劇教學經驗。針對新高中課程之中英文語文科的單元課 程,提出即興式的戲劇教學,以五個步驟,並輔以布袋戲形式,來讓學生於短期內掌握基本戲劇聲藝訓練, 及體驗戲劇表演的樂趣,同時保留語文教學的效果。本文是經驗的探討而非學理的專著,文中的重點是建 構一套教學流程和課程規劃,而非形體演戲技巧訓練。 關鍵詞 戲劇教學法,布袋戲,新高中課程 Abstract This article is the summary of the drama teaching experience of the author. In order to face the New Senior Secondary curriculum of drama teaching module in language subjects, the author applies the 5 quick steps and puppet play to teach the drama and keep the learning effect of language teaching. The main theme of the article is to set up the teaching plan instead of performance skill training in language teaching. Keywords drama in education, puppet play, New Senior Secondary Curriculum 102 甲、導言 隨著近年教學內容多元化發展,戲劇教學在 香港學校教育已經非常普遍,並獲得肯定,而中 文科運用戲劇教學亦獲支持(許明輝、舒志義, 2010)1。中英文語文科運用戲劇教學法,現已 成為正規課程一部分。(香港課程發展議會, 2002)部分學校甚至專門設置戲劇教育為獨立科 目(許明輝、舒志義,2010)。戲劇教學獨立成 科的話,自然有一套課程規劃,教學效果容易達 成。但是如果是某科或者某課其中一個教學內容 的話,加插戲劇教學法,往往礙於學生一般戲劇 訓練基礎薄弱,膽怯害羞等因素,使戲劇教學大 打折扣。新高中課程之中英文語文科,都提倡以 戲劇教學為獨立單元。針對 22 小時的單元課程 (課程發展處中國語文教育組,2007),本文筆 者以中文科兼戲劇科老師的身分,總結多年戲劇 教學經驗,在任教語文科單元之時,重點著眼在 中文教學果效,以短期即興式的戲劇教學,提出 速成教學及布袋戲訓練,利用五個步驟及布袋戲 來讓學生於短期內掌握基本戲劇訓練,體驗演出 樂趣,同時不超出語文教學的範疇,包括說話、 閱讀及寫作範疇,以此提升語文教學的效果。所 以,本文是經驗的探討而非理論的專著,文中教 學理念的重點是建構一套教學流程,應用於短期 語文及戲劇教學活動。 乙、理念建構 戲 劇 教 學 的 應 用, 一 般 可 分 為 戲 劇 課 程 (Drama curriculum) 及 戲 劇 教 學 法(Drama in education / Drama as methods)( 許 明 輝、 舒 志 義,2010)。如果是戲劇課程,學生是學習演戲。 如果只是戲劇教學法,學生是通過戲劇形式來學 習。無論如何,兩者或多或少都要求教與學雙方 掌握戲劇表演的技巧形式。 但是,掌握演戲技巧,談何容易?學校任教 的老師又有多大信心教授戲劇技巧呢?戲劇課程 及戲劇教學法兩者,除非是正式戲劇教育課,又 往往互相混淆。以新高中課程之中文科為例,當 中的戲劇選修單元,如果演戲技巧成份居多,是 否喧賓奪主呢?太多的表演技巧訓練,變成戲劇 職業訓練,與語文科教學有何相關(課程發展處 中國語文教育組,2007)?簡略而言,現時學校 推行戲劇教學,主要面對四個問題: 第一是課程太緊迫。 第二是學校老師自認培訓太短或經驗不足。 第三是學生投入問題。(許明輝、舒志義, 2010)2 第四是分不清戲劇課程及戲劇教學法。 1 參許明輝、舒志義《香港學校戲劇教育:成果的研究與評鑒》(2010),〈校長對戲劇學習效能的意見〉(142 頁)、 〈比較教師和校長對戲劇學習效能的看法〉(178-179 頁)。研究報告指出戲劇學習對科目的學習效能,依次由高 至低的次序,最高是中文科,同意及十分同意的百分比:教師是 90.8%,校長是 99.3%。第二位是英文科:教師是 85.2%,校長是 94.9%。第三位是藝術:教師是 83.8%,校長是 95.6%。第四位是人文教育:教師是 83.0%,校長是 93.4%。第五是體育:教師是 39.4%,校長是 51.5%。第六位是科技:教師是 35.2%,校長是 50.0%。第七位是科學: 教師是 31.2%,校長是 38.3%。最後是數學(排第八位):教師是 24.8%,校長是 29.5%。 2 參許明輝、舒志義《香港學校戲劇教育:成果的研究與評鑒》(2010),〈教師對在學校實施戲劇教學法的限制之 觀點〉(218 頁)。研究報告列出 11 種意見,依次由大至小的次序是:課程太緊迫;每班人數太多;教室空間不夠; 教師經驗不足;不夠時間備課;秩序難於控制;學校支援不足;不適用於某些學科;教案或實踐示例不足;不適用 於某些學生;學生不願意參與。 以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 103 回應上述各問題,除非是正式戲劇課程,筆 者不贊成混淆學科課堂,所以不應讓正常語文課 堂被戲劇課程取代,語文科應保證語文課堂本身 的訓練,在教授戲劇單元時候,要發揮戲劇教學 法的特點。 針對上述四個問題,筆者現在提出的戲劇速 成五部曲,以短期課程為考慮,並繞過戲劇技巧 訓練這一關,以課程規劃代替技巧訓練,同時讓 並無戲劇教學經驗的語文老師亦可以勝任,解決 上文所提及的各個問題。 推行戲劇速成五部曲,以布袋戲教學作為演 出途徑,特點是避開戲劇演藝訓練,保留語文科 的說話、閱讀與寫作的重點,同時亦可以讓學生 享受演出的過程。以布袋戲代替真人粉墨登場, 解決學生能力不足,膽怯害羞,師資不足的困難, 但保留了戲劇教學的演出部分,為學生提供展示 學習成果的機會。推行布袋戲,亦須訓練學生聲 音說話的運用,還有訓練學生創作劇本,這些訓 練都需要配合校本的語文課程作出規劃、安排。 戲劇速成五部曲的課程理念是著重循序漸進的學 習過程,由個人基礎出發,推演至小組合作;由 簡單的朗讀聲藝訓練,進階至綜合表演。此理念 著重學生去經歷一次完整的演出訓練過程,所以 是重視學生學習過程的課程規劃,而非針對學生 表演技巧,不著重演戲技巧。戲劇速成五部曲教 學步驟,簡述如下: • 第一步是以「朗讀」訓練學生個人基本 演藝能力; • 第二步是透過「對話」方式訓練學生雙 人對戲劇表演的基本概念; • 第三步以「廣播劇」或「朗讀劇場」訓 練學生小組演出; • 第四步以「布袋戲」作真人粉墨登場前 的整體演出練習; • 第五步,如果一切條件成熟,可讓學生 作真人表演,使學生有真實演出經驗。 施行本課程,可以配合微格教學法,運用現 代電子攝錄器材,拍攝學生表現,在時間許可下, 即時放映學生的活動錄影片段,檢視課堂表現, 是學生掌握課堂表現,老師作適當回饋。 本課程理念以五部曲促成教學為前提。目標 是讓學生輕鬆地經歷一次完整的戲劇訓練過程, 而不失語文教學效果。本課程適用於新高中課程 之語文科單元,如果是其他年級,只要時間許可, 亦可適用,另外亦適合其他短期課程或工作坊。 全套運用課堂時間約為 12 課時,老師仍然有充 足的時間教授與戲劇表演相關的語文知識和能 力。至於舞台功架,並非本文討論範圍。 丙、實踐應用—速成教學五部曲 以下是五部曲的具體教學內容。 第一階段:個人基本聲藝訓練─個人朗讀 第一階段目的是令學生開金口,訓練膽量, 並且讓學生明白戲劇作為傳遞訊息的藝術表演, 說話的清晰表達是非常重要。從語文教學角度, 此階段收說話訓練之效。本階段,教師以朗讀訓 練為主,教材方面,如果是高中的學生,公開試 一分鐘朗讀是最佳的配合訓練。如想增加趣味, 可用繞口令作為教材,因其趣味性,可減少學生 的抗拒說話的阻力教學。過程是老師先預備若干 繞口令作品,可以有不同程度及長度以適合不同 學生,並逐步增加挑戰難度,口語方言不拘,正 宗普通話的繞口令短句亦可,目的是寓訓練於樂 趣中。此階段需時不可過長,學生逐一朗讀,循 環往復,每次宜以一分鐘為限,全程約為 1 小時。 如果學生平常的朗讀訓練很好,可以跳過本階 段。 104 第二階段:雙人合作訓練─二人對話 此階段目的是圍讀訓練的前奏,讓學生學習 處理戲劇對白的聲情表達及相互協作。此階段仍 是以說話訓練為重點,與前一階段不同的,此階 段是訓練同學應對,而不再是單人朗讀。本階段 以兩人一組,自由組合,教材可選用過往學校朗 誦節內之二人對話比賽之材料,現成方便。如果 來得及,還可以為學生報名參加朗誦節的比賽, 增加演出經驗。老師派發教材後,即時練習,然 後逐組表演及計分。此階段需時不用過長,全程 約為 1 至 1.5 小時。 第三階段:小組合作訓練─圍讀及廣播 劇演出 此階段目的是訓練學生以小組作聲藝演出。 以四至六人為一組,可以自由組合,人數視乎老 師所選定的劇本角色數目。老師宜選定劇本教 材,以免學生不知如何尋找劇本。劇本教材方面, 如老師能夠取得電台廣播劇本,就是最理想的做 法,否則須自行尋找。筆者建議可以選用丁西林 3 的獨幕劇作,因內容幽默、諷刺味道強,適合時 下青年的口味。老師指導學生圍讀排練,然後分 組演出,每組演出時間為 10 分鐘內。此階段需 時約為 1.5 小時。此階段宜錄音,可作為評分及 事後檢討之用。 除 了 圍 讀 訓 練, 亦 可 以 選 用 朗 讀 劇 場 (Interpreters Theatre / Reader’s Theatre)作訓練, 以朗讀方式作角色扮演來進行訓練。此階段之語 文訓練,除了說話訓練,已經包含閱讀能力的訓 練,學生會透過閱讀劇本,加強閱讀能力。 第四階段:演出熱身─布袋戲 布袋戲訓練的優點是突破學生在真人演出時 的抗拒心理,訓練學生編寫劇本,並啟導舞台工 作概念。排演布袋劇是因為部分學生不慣於人前 表演,所以借用布偶,讓學生實習,打破在人前 表演的恐懼感,增加學生表演慾望及積極性。 布袋戲的學生組合,以四至六人為一組,可 以自由組合。小組人數不宜過多,以免小組內部 分歧多而失效。 布袋戲的劇本,可以借用現成既有之材料, 也可以由學生自行嘗試編寫。 如果由學生編寫劇本,趣味性較強,一般學 生亦有能力去編寫,只要老師明白不作過分要 求,學生可以自行編出合理劇本情節。不過,為 免學生不知如何入手編寫劇本,老師可以先提供 一小片段情節,或者一個特定情境,然後讓學生 改編、續寫等等。老師亦可以讓學生以抽籤形 式,抽取情節卡(當然是老師預先準備妥當), 由此組合不同情節。學生編寫劇本的程序,先給 予每人 3 分鐘自定一個小故事片段。然後合為兩 人一組,給予 5 分鐘,商量如何合併兩人不同的 故事。然後再將兩人小組合為四至六人的大組, 再給予 5 分鐘,商量合併為一個故事,如果學生 人數再多,步驟如此類推。劇本大綱選定後,讓 各組派代表彙報,老師作簡單修正,然後老師協 助學生編排角色及分配角色。之後,就故事內容, 學生先撰寫簡單的故事版(story board),從中 找出需要對話之處,及決定對話的內容。初步解 決劇本大綱,由每一學生自行編寫自己的對話。 因為這是布袋戲,基本上全場均要求對話交代情 3 丁西林(1893—1974),中國現代戲劇史上專門寫喜劇的劇作家,內容諷刺時弊。他的作品《三塊錢國幣》,是部 分中文科教科書輔導選材之一。 以戲劇五部曲學習中文速成法 105 節,所以學生可以盡量發揮圍讀訓練所得。每一 齣劇,限時 10 分鐘為佳。 至於布偶及舞台佈局,由學生自行設計及製 作。布偶方面,簡單的可以使用紙碟當布偶面孔, 以紙袋造成布偶身體。布偶造型由學生自行設 計,更可以發揮學生視覺藝術的天分。材料是日 常接觸得到的顏料及物品,紙袋等物料可於超級 市場或文具店購買,價錢便宜,同時鼓勵使用環 保物科,十元八塊已經可以足夠全班之用。音響 配樂,亦可以由學生自定,或者由老師提供若干 樂曲,再由學生選取播放。而舞台佈置,由於學 校一般不會預先製作一大座布偶劇舞台,所以表 演時,根本無什麼舞台可言,只是將一張長枱翻 過來,當作舞台即可,因此,暫時不需什麼佈景 或燈光效果,如果學生就此簡陋情況下仍有創意 發揮,應當鼓勵他們嘗試。 當學生一切準備就緒,先讓學生綵排練習, 然後才正式演出。此階段前後需時約為 4 小時。 編寫及製作布偶時間約為 2 小時,表演約為 2 小 時(8 組計算)。至於攝錄是必需的,既增加學 生積極性,亦方便評分及作事後檢討。此外,由 於學生已編好故事劇本,老師應該要求各組交出 一份完整的劇本文稿,並作為評分之一部分,老 師可以借此教導學生編寫劇本。學生完成布袋戲 的演出,基本上已經經歷了一次戲劇演出,從中 了解演出流程,同時,亦訓練了學生的說話、創 作故事和編寫劇本的能力。 第五階段:真人表演 此階段目的是訓練學生親身演出。學生承接 表演布偶劇之餘興,鼓勵學生真人粉墨登場。當 然,如果學生的表現不濟,或者紀律失控,老師 可於上一階段完結,停止本課程。事實上,學生 於布袋戲階段已經訓練了說話、創作和編寫劇本 的能力,本階段是「錦上添花」的階段,所以老 師應視乎實際情況而行。老師進行此階段活動, 須有戲劇教學方面的經驗,如果老師並無信心, 就不要勉強進行此階段的活動。 學生作真人表演,是上一階段的延續。老師 可以就地取材,以布袋戲的演出,改為真人表演。 學生因有布袋戲演出的經驗,改為自己親身演 出,可以駕輕就熟,而抗拒的反應自然會下降。 時間安排,基本上與表演布袋戲的安排相同,唯 老師應給予學生綵排時間,並作一些簡單的形體 演出指導。此階段對老師的要求,其實是超出語 文老師的能力,進而是戲劇教學的範疇,老師如 進行此階段活動,宜有戲劇教學方面的經驗,此 點是老師不可不知的。 在此補充,此階段之演出可以訓練學生的共 通協作、解難創意的能力,對於建立自信,學習 自我管理亦有幫助。但前提是學生享受戲劇表 演,並掌握基礎的形體表演技巧,否則教師應考 慮實情況,決定是否繼續。以筆者經驗,學生未 經系統正式形體演技訓練,難於短期內克服表演 的心理困難,或者根本不明白戲劇表演的基本要 求,效果往往令人失望,老師應視乎情況決定是 否應該繼續。 丁、總結 以上教學,以速成為重點,強調語文的培育 而非形體演技訓練,亦初步照顧學生參與戲劇教 育的成功感,明白演戲的流程。當然,此時的訓 練不足以讓學生作正式演出,而上述的過程,亦 無涉及任何技巧訓練,只不過是讓學生參與而 已,既是經歷了演出,亦同時訓練了學生在說、 讀與寫方面的能力,包括閱讀、朗讀、說話及戲 本創作。至於正式的戲劇技巧訓練,可以留待與 學生檢討後,使學生明白技巧訓練的重要,先建 立興趣,然後轉介參加正式的戲劇訓練班。由於 106 參考文獻 香港課程發展議會(2002)。《藝術教育學習領域課程指引(小一至中三)》。香港:教育統籌局。 許明輝、舒志義(2010)。《香港學校戲劇教育:成果的研究與評鑒》。香港:香港教育戲場論壇。 課程發展處中國語文教育組(2007)。《中國語文課程及評估指引(中四至中六)》。香港:教育統籌局。 本文介紹的教學內容是速成為主,全程需時約為 12 小時課堂,如果應用於新高中課程之語文科單 元,仍可餘下 10 多教學小時,老師可以因應情 況,自行調節或加插不同的內容,又或者借學生 的創作劇本,引導學生閱讀名家劇本,回到語文 教學。上文內容,是筆者經驗的初步總結。於實 踐上,從觀察所得,並以學生所呈交之劇本質量 比較,學生參與布袋戲製作及演出,學生積極投 入性,和呈交劇本的準時程度來看,效果明顯比 演技訓練而演出的較佳。當然,這裡提到的所謂 「較佳」,只不過是指學生的積極性,至於質素 方面,正式的演技訓練與速成即興的學習,不能 相提並論。然而,學生參與布袋戲的活動,確實 可以放下親身演出的包袱,投入程度較佳,學習 效能自然較高。另一方面,此課程對老師的能力 要求,仍然在於語文教學的能力,而非戲劇教學 的能力,仍然不超出語文教師的能力範疇。本文 討論以經驗分享為主,非學理上的討論,具體處 理,因學生而異,篇幅所限,未能詳盡之處,特 別是學理探究部分,歡迎指教。 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》, Vol. 10 © The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 2011 107 香港生命教育的分享:人道教室的實踐經驗 Sharing in Hong Kong’s life education: Practical experience in humanity classroom 杜家慶 佛教榮茵學校 胡少偉 香港教育學院 摘要 生命教育與中國哲學和傳統文化息息相關,兩岸近年同時重視在學校推行生命教育,香港也有不少學校推 行生命教育,以促進學生德育的成長。這篇文章在華人重視生命教育的環境中,分享一所香港佛教小學推 行生命教育的實踐經驗。這所小學利用香港紅十字會引入的國際人道法教材,結合家長義工的參與,以活 動小組形式讓小六學生學習人道精神;剖析這個生命教育案例的成功經歷,相信可供推動生命教育學校同 工作參考。 關鍵詞 生命教育,香港小學德育,人道教室 Abstract Life education is closely related to Chinese philosophy and traditional culture. In the recent years, Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan both pay more attention to implement life education in schools in order to promote moral development of students. This article would analyze a practical experience of a Buddhist primary school in implementing life education in Hong Kong. The school used the international humanity teaching materials introduced by the Hong Kong Red Cross combining with the participation of parent volunteer to nurture students to learn humanity with activities in groups. The anatomy of this case study of successful experience could work as a reference for colleagues who wish to promote life education in schools. 108 Keywords life education, moral education in Hong Kong primary schools, humanity classroom 華人社會的生命教育 「中國哲學不止於對宇宙人生的思辨,而是 與人生方向、敦品礪行等相關,講求生命與知識 相貫通,是一門生命的學問」(鄧立光,2008, 頁 15)。在《學問的生命與生命的學問》一書, 傅偉勳(1994)指出「中國文化的核心是生命的 學問;由真實生命之覺醒,向外開出建立事業與 追求知識之理想,向內滲透此等理想之真實本 源,使理想真成」(頁 50)。內地儒學大師郭齊 勇(2008)亦指出「生即創造、創新,這是中國 哲學的主題;中國文化是尊生、重生、創造日新 的文化」(頁 9)。從這幾位華人學者的分析, 生命教育與中國傳統哲學文化息息相關;與此同 時,兩岸三地社會近年亦重視在學校推行生命教 育。 在台灣,張淑美(2006)指出「生命教育大 約是 1998 年間由省政府教育廳陳英豪廳長提出; 其後,教育部曾志朗部長於 1999 年宣佈為生命 教育年,大力推動生命教育,規劃實施從國小到 大學十六年一貫的生命教育」。在台灣教育部於 2009 年公佈的生命教育課程課綱中,勾劃了生 命教育內容有七大主題:哲學與人生、道德思考 與抉擇、生命與科技倫理、性愛與婚姻倫理、生 死關懷、宗教與人生、人格統整與靈性發展。而 據台灣教育部生命教育資訊網,生命教育涵蓋的 內容既深且廣,「從人出生來到這世上,到最後 走完生命歷程、面對死亡議題;只要在生與死這 兩點間,如何找到自己的價值定位、如何與他人 相處、如何尊重關懷有情萬物、如何安身立命並 找到方法,都屬於生命教育的範疇」(教育部, 2009)。可見台灣生命教育的內涵十分豐富。 上海是一個近年積極推行生命教育的大城 市,上海市於 2009 年 3 月正式頒發了《上海市 中小學生生命教育指導綱要(徵求意見稿)》, 明確提出推行生命教育是上海市中小學教師的職 責;正如馮建軍等(2007)指出:「傳授知識 是教師工作的重要環節,但傳授知識本身不是 目的,知識只具有工具價值,它只是生命發展 的工具,教育的目的是促進生命的發展」(頁 232)。有關生命教育的重要性,李忠紅(2008) 認為「人之為人,人之高於動物的地方就在於人 不僅追求活著,而且還追求有意義的活著,正是 意義決定了人的存在、生活、發展方向,體現了 生命的價值和人的尊嚴」(頁 24)。因此「中小 學非常有必要開設並有效實施生命教育課程,讓 教育回歸其本真——遵循生命發展的原則,依據 生命發展的動力,促成中小學生的生命與生命的 交流」(謝藝泉,2009)。 生命教育在香港的發展 在香港,生命教育的起動始於上個世紀,據 張素玲和巴兆成(2007)認為「天水圍十八鄉鄉 事委員會公益中學於 1996 年便在校內推行生命 教育課程的探索;其後,香港天主教教育委員會、 香港浸會大學、香港教育學院等教育機構開發出 了一些與生命教育有關的教材」。文林出版在這 香港生命教育的分享:人道教室的實踐經驗 109 個世紀亦曾出版了初中生命教育課程《生命是一 棵雜果樹》和小學生命成長課程《成長列車》; 一位有參與小學課程的教師分享認為「在這條漫 長路上有許多的體會,觀察到若要幫助學生在生 命教育上有進深的學習,最重要就是幫助小朋友 明白自我解決問題之道及培養他們尊重別人的品 格」(廖睿詩,2007,頁 28)。另一方面,有一 批教育界人士於 2007 年籌組了「香港生命教育 基金會」,以推廣及促使公眾特別是青少年珍惜 自己、尊重他人和周遭萬物的生命。 課程發展處德育和公民教育組提出以認識生 命、愛惜生命、尊重生命和探索生命四個學習層 次去培育學生的德育和公民教育;2010 年,課 程發展議會(2010)更編制了一個「初中科生活 與社會」課程,促進香港初中學生生命教育的培 育。有本土學者則以說故事形式去分享三所港深 小學推行生命教育的實踐經驗,發現「香港教會 小學在校本課程內強調生命教育的宗教元素,深 圳小學透過語文課讓學生深入理解生與死,大埔 那間小學則以全方位學習去讓學生的生命活得出 色」(胡少偉,2010)。正如在該所大埔小學任 教教師葉億兆、楊可琪(2008)的分享:「學校 推行生命教育的其中一個目的,是希望透過課堂 內外的課程及活動,幫助學生從小建立正確的人 生觀,愛人愛己,尊重他人,讓愛與關懷成為校 內各人溝通的潤滑劑」。而今年獲取行政長官卓 越教學獎的馬鞍山循道衛理小學,則以「六年 一貫」原則設計校本生命教育課程(曾愛芳, 2011.7.8)。可見不少小學推行生命教育以促進 學生的成長;而以個案形式分享學校生命教育的 推行,則有助促進學校推行生命教育的交流和累 積有效經驗。這篇文章的重心是在華人社會重視 生命教育的大環境中,分享一所香港佛教小學推 行生命教育的實踐經驗。這所小學利用香港紅十 字會引入的國際人道法教材,結合家長義工的參 與,以活動小組形式讓一群小六學生學習人道精 神;期望透過剖析這個生命教育案例的成功經歷, 可供本土有志推動生命教育小學同工作參考。 人道教室生命學堂 香港紅十字會自 2002 年開始在香港推行一 套人道教室活動,以不同的活動模式,為該會的 青少年會員、公眾人士及中、小學生提供體驗式 探索活動,以加強參加者理解「保護生命、關懷 傷困、維護尊嚴」和「戰爭也有規限」的核心價 值。人道教室活動是參照紅十字國際委員會於 2001 年推出的探索人道法教材為藍本,這套教材 曾在約二十個國家進行實驗教學,証明能對不同 背景或文化的青少年產生正面果效,現時全球已 有近百國家和地區同時推行。香港紅十字會現時 所推行的課程,是由曾經參與日內瓦、澳洲、澳 門及上海培訓的負責人進行調適的。這個「人道 教室、生命學堂」教育計劃曾於 2005 年獲得明 報「生命教育傑出教案表揚計劃」內小學組傑出 教案殊榮;香港紅十字會於 2007 年獲得公益金 資助,在 2007 至 2010 年間向三十所學校推展全 期十二節的「人道教室、生命學堂」計劃。這個 課程計劃各課節內容可見下表一: 110 表一 「人道教室、生命學堂」的課節內容 主題 內容 1. 人道教室 向學生簡介課堂內容、探索生命及人類尊嚴的重要 2. 戰火人間 讓學生探索戰爭的不同看法及對人類社會的影響 3. 戰爭的代價 讓學生探索戰爭對不同人所造成的傷害 4. 戰爭也有規限 讓學生知悉即使戰爭發生也應保護無辜者的生命 5. 童兵 探討童兵這個問題所帶來嚴重的後果 6. 地雷 探討地雷這個問題對人類所帶來的嚴重後果 7. 連鎖反應 讓學生探索少數人破壞誠信的嚴重後果 8. 維護公益 透過國際人道法庭探索應如何對破壞誠信的人做出回應 9. 置身事外 讓學生以旁觀者的角度探索可以對事件產生的果效 10. 危機中見關懷 讓學生探索戰爭對人類帶來的禍害及人道救援的重要 11. 凝聚人道力量 讓學生思考對保護生命及人類尊嚴可以做出的貢獻 12. 生命學堂 與學生總結及評估課程 何謂人道主義?根據《美國哲學百科》指出: 「凡是承認人的價值或尊嚴,以人為萬物尺度, 或以人性、人的限度、人的利益為主題的所有哲 學,都被稱作人道主義」(杜麗燕,2005,頁 20)。在「人道教室、生命學堂」的教育課程中, 香港紅十字會以較為新鮮的戰爭作主題,透過以 旁觀者、參與者及受害者不同角度,讓參與計劃 學生的探討當生命及人類尊嚴不受尊重時會帶來 的後果。這套課程以體驗式活動為主,學生可透 過多媒體視聽教材、角色扮演、個案討論及處境 遊戲等教學活動,增強學生以人道角度去分析事 件的能力及建立尊重生命及人類尊嚴的價值。正 如郝明工(2005)認為人道主義的主要原則是: 「相信人類是一個統一體,在我們每個人之外再 不會發現任何人;強調人的尊嚴;強調人發展自 身和完善自身的能力;強調理性、客觀性與和平」 (頁 3-4)。人道主義的一個原則是要理解到人 類尊嚴的重要,而這套「人道教室、生命學堂」 課程的其中一個核心價值是「生命尊嚴」,讓學 生從學習中認識到生命寶貴和人性尊嚴的正面價 值。 校本人道教室的推行 佛教榮茵學校於 2003 學年便推行這個「人 道教室、生命學堂」的課程。為了深入了解該校 推行這個生命教育的校本經驗,研究員除了搜集 相關的文獻和資料外,於 2010 年底與負責這計 劃的中層主任作焦點訪談。該負責教師在回想計 劃時指出在計劃的起動時,香港紅十字會要求全 校所有教師參與培訓,知道人道教室的意義並認 同計劃的理念後,接著培訓家長導師,然後才正 式在校內推行人道教室的課程。這套教材的核心 價值,正如內地學者朱文奇(2006)在《國際人 道語文選》中指出「從一開始,人道法就沒有要 求消滅戰爭的禍害,而是將目標確定在盡可能減 輕戰爭不必要的殘酷性這點上;不管在平時還是 戰時,國際法必須確保對所有人作最低限度的保 護及人道待遇」(頁 3-4)。這套課程計劃的理 念並不是提倡反對戰爭,而是向學生推廣「在戰 爭中要有人道精神」的價值。 在推行這個「人道教室、生命學堂」的課程 時,佛教榮茵學校按校本情況,設計了一節海防 戰爭探索之旅。在這課節中,學校會安排參與學 生參觀海防博物館,除了參觀覽展館內與戰爭相 關的內容之外,負責教師還會按紅十字會強調體 驗式學習的要求,讓學生透過搶軍旗、救傷兵和 香港生命教育的分享:人道教室的實踐經驗 111 地雷陣等活動,去認識戰爭是會奪去生命、救傷 兵不分敵我和地雷對人類生命的威脅等三個人道 精神的價值。香港紅十字會在小冊中指出:「戰 爭必須設有規限,至少要禁止或限制使用過分殘 忍的武器或作戰方式;更要保護未參與或不再參 與敵對行動的人員,例如:平民、醫務人員、受 傷的戰鬥員及戰俘」(香港紅十字會青年及義工 事務部,2008,頁 7);而救傷員活動就是讓學 生明白保護傷者生命是彰顯人道精神的行為,下 文是負責教師的分享: 當中有三個活動,一個是救傷兵,是兩軍 對壘,有些同學扮演傷兵,會看他們怎樣 去救人和救人的方式,發現當中有些只救 自己的人,而有一些會救其他人。我們之 後會做分享,為何你會救這個人?又或為 何看見他人坐在路邊受傷也不理?希望帶 出從人道立場。戰爭當中雖然大家對壘, 但當有人受傷時,救人應是不分你我的。 (教師分享) 在這個戰爭遺址的海防博物館內,學生除了 以模擬遊戲去體會戰爭中人類所受到的傷害外, 亦可透過歷史的遺跡、圖片、錄影片段回到過去, 就戰爭產生對人類的影響作出反思;在過程中很 多學生明白到「停止戰爭,減少紛爭」的訊息。 另一個參觀活動,教師和家長義工會帶領參與課 程的小六學生到柴灣軍人墳場。台灣學者楊慕慈 (2003)認為:「9-12 歲孩子比年齡較小的孩 子對死亡有較激烈的情感表達,且感受到無助與 無力」(7 章,頁 18)。正如負責教師在下文分 享中指出,小六生在參觀柴灣軍人墳場的過程, 看到來自不同國籍的軍人曾經為保衛香港而戰, 有些陣亡戰士的年紀更與他們是相若的,這觸動 了學生,亦使他們感受到「人的生命是不可重複 的、不可讓渡的、是會死的」(鄭曉江,2009, 頁 15),從而亦激發他們有一份珍惜自己生命的 情感,也會為自己能活命而懂得感恩。 那裡是紀念軍人的墳場,瞭解當時香港戰 爭原來有很多不同國籍的軍人陣亡,有些 很小,十多歲就死了,讓他們感受一下, 然後作反思。(教師分享) 生命學堂的實踐 人道法庭看完片段後,模擬做軍事法庭, 審判軍官是否有罪?為何要下令炸平民、 攻擊平民?於是就分辯方和控方去判斷, 看那方的理據較多,他們分析得很好的, 小朋友原來有另一種角度去分析。(教師 分享) 佛教榮茵學校在實踐「人道教室、生命學堂」 時,還有一個有特色的體驗活動就是人道法庭。 負責教師分享時指出在人道法庭的課節中,學生 首先觀看一段與軍人有關的錄影片段,然後被分 派扮演為軍事法庭法官、控方律師、辯方律師和 陪審員等不同角色,並就有關軍人是否合乎國際 人道法作出訴訟和裁決。在這個模擬角色的學習 活動中,最重要的不是在於學生對國際人道法的 詮釋是否得宜,而是他們在活動中有機會就人道 精神的價值作深入的思考和討論。林思伶(2007) 在分享台灣經驗時提出:「針對學生知、情、意、 行的平衡訓練,促其養成反省覺察生命現象和快 樂學習的態度,正是生命教育所強調的目標」(頁 83)。與此同時,在這個校本生命教育的課程中, 教師還安排小六生寫一篇軍人日記,讓他們想像 自己是一位軍人,去撰寫一篇與軍旅生活有關的 112 日記;這個活動可讓學生整理他在生命學堂學習 歷程的感受。郭志丕(2001)牧師早年的分享曾 指出:「生命教育不是單向的教導,而是生命的 分享」;這個寫軍人日記的學習活動,正正是一 個讓學生分享對生命看法的好機會。 在下文訪談的分享,負責教師指出這個生命 學堂課程推行成功的其中一個重要因素,是引入 社會力量和家長義工的參與。香港紅十字會負責 人除了派義工協助學校和家長落實這個「人道教 室、生命學堂」的課程活動外,亦十分重視學生 家長的參與。為了培訓家長成為人道教室的義務 導師,學校和香港紅十字會「為家長導師提供 4 次培訓課程,讓家長導師了解每次學習活動的分 工及指引,並在培訓中即時分享及檢討」(佛教 榮茵學校(上午校),2006,頁 164),這使家 長義工了解每課節活動的人道訊息,其作用不單 建立了家長做導師的自信,亦可令家長對學習內 容有共鳴,並能在家中與子女進行親子溝通,深 化子女在生命學堂的學習。在香港紅十字會的研 究報告,整體家長義工的評價與佛教榮茵家長是 一致的;「根據導師的回應,家長的評價都十分 正面;有帶領活動的家長義工都認為活動課題 富有意義,更有學校家教會主動提出願意支付 3,000 元的參加費用」(香港紅十字會,2010, 頁 13)。 初時是按紅十字會的做法,每節 1 小時 30 分在星期六的多元智能堂做,當時紅十字 會有較多的支援,每次有數位義工來帶著 老師與家長一起帶;這個方式很成功,家 長慢慢地投入,每 1-2 次活動後開會,家 長有很多的意見。(教師分享) 學習人道與生命教育 當年人道教室開始時,剛巧是海嘯,看到 紅十字會在當地幫助尋人;學生會回來與 我說看到紅十字會在當地幫忙;因為上了 這個課程,令他們知道紅十字會的工作, 不只於捐錢、捐血、救人,原來還有其他 工作可以做。這會引發他們日後對義工工 作較為熱心呢!(教師分享) 從負責教師在上文的真情分享,可以看到 「人道教室、生命學堂」對參與學生的影響。經 歷了一連串體驗式學習活動,參加者不斷學習人 道精神的核心價值和思考與人類生命有關的問 題,這亦使參與學生對香港紅十字會的服務有較 多關注,並促使他們較熱心地參與義務工作,實 踐人道精神。正如林繼偉(2004)認為「諾丁 的關懷倫理學著重人性中關懷的情意力量,使 人的關懷情意成為實現社會正義的人性動力」 (頁 145)。在這個校本生命教育的學習歷程, 學生的關懷情意得到孕育,並轉化成為關愛別人 和社會的行動,這體現出學生的生命力量。「人 道行動是人類愛心的體現,只有發端於人的道德 自覺,才顯出其真正的價值」(陳明(主編), 1996,頁 305);可見,在課程被觸動的學生能 自覺地產生多些對別人的愛心和利他的行為,在 生命中活現人道精神的核心價值。 梁志援(2008)在《和孩子一起學習生命教 育》一書中寫出「這種對生命的領悟,並不是與 生俱來的本能,必須經過適當的指引和教導」; 在這個「人道教室、生命學堂」課程計劃,「讓 參加者透過體驗活動,探索個案的內容,作出 討論,反思生命的意義,以及尊嚴對人的重要 性」(香港紅十字會青年及義工事務部,2008, 頁 5),有效地指導和培育學生對生命教育的認 識和理解。從下文負責教師的訪談,發現竟然有 參與學生在畢業後還會提及這個課程,這反映出 香港生命教育的分享:人道教室的實踐經驗 113 學生因學習了「生命與尊嚴」的人道核心價值, 而內化了要減少對他人的暴力行為。從孫效智 (2004)的分析「生命教育以知行合一為目標, 而知行之間具相互為用性:深刻的力行能帶來深 刻的真知,而深刻的真知又能推動人進一步身體 力行」(頁 15);看來這個強調體驗學習活動 的課程,是能令一些學生深刻地了解人道精神核 心價值的機會,並將其學習成效溶入自己的生命 中,改變了這些學生日後的行為。 有些學生畢業後來信提及或回來傾談時, 說以前也喜歡用暴力,因參加了這課程, 現時懂得顧及他人感受。(教育分享) 啟示 內地學者金生鈜(2007)提倡「學校和教師 有必須推進生命教育,在理解生命的基礎上引導 生命的自我發展,促進生命的精彩和輝煌」(頁 34)。佛教榮茵學校在推行「人道教室、生命學 堂」的課程計劃中,確實令到一些參與學生認識 到人道精神,透過海防戰爭探索之旅、參觀軍人 墳場、人道法庭的角色扮演和寫軍人日記等多元 學習活動,學生深刻認識了「戰爭也有規限」、 「生命與尊嚴」和「保護生命、關懷傷困、維護 尊嚴」等三個核心價值;從而懂得珍惜生命、參 與義工和反暴力。「生命是無價的,人死不能復 生,所以每個人都應熱愛生命,把生命看成人間 至愛、不放棄、不割捨、不偷生,完整的保護生 命」(詹棟樑,2004,頁 231);在與負責教師 的分享中,了解到學生在這個強調體驗和反思的 校本課程中對生命意義有深刻的學習。 與此同時,這個參照紅十字國際委員會人道 法的校本生命教育成功之處,是能發揮家長義工 的力量,不單把家長培訓成生命學堂的義務導 師,並藉此創造話題讓家長和子女一起去探討生 命課題,活化了兩代人生命的碰撞。正如鈕則誠 (2008)指出:「華人的生命教育要教的是中國 生命學問,而非西方科學與哲學知識以及宗教信 仰。」作為有華人特色的生命教育案例,這個校 本課程不單沒有宗教色彩,並提高了學生對人道 精神核心價值的認知,更能影響一些學生的行 為,體現生命教育的成效,值得有志推動生命教 育的其他學校同工作參考。此外,不得不提的是, 若能在個案中加入一些曾參與課程的學生作親身 分享,將使這篇外顯校本隱性知識的文章更具說 服力。最後,這個在全球有近百國家和地區同時 推行的「人道教室、生命學堂」課程計劃,究竟 這個課程在非華人地區是否也對學員產生相若的 成效,這是值得關注生命教育學者作進一步研究 的。 參考文獻 朱文奇(2006)。《國際人道法文選》。北京:法律出版社。 佛教榮茵學校(上午校)(2006)。〈海防戰爭探索之旅〉。《談【美德】‧ 論【價值】》德育教材手冊(頁 164-166)。香港:教育統籌局、明報。 李忠紅(2008)。〈關注生命教育的超越路向與超越意識〉。載《思想政治教育》(2008.06),23-25。 杜麗燕(2005)。《人性的曙光──希臘人道主義探源》。北京:華夏出版社。 林思伶(2007)。〈華人社會生命教育的發展──臺灣經驗〉。載黃素君(編),《「華人社會的教育發展」 學術研討會專題演講集》。澳門:澳門大學教育學院。 114 林繼偉(2004)。〈社會正義與社會關懷〉。《生命教育之理論與實踐》(頁 137-152)。台北:心理出版社。 金生鈜(2007)。〈現代教育的生命關懷〉。載劉鉄芳(主編),《現代生命的生命關懷》(頁 32-36),上海: 華東師範大學出版社。 胡少偉(2010)。〈港深小學教師說學校生命教育的故事〉。載黃素君(編),《2009 年華人社會的教育 發展系統研討會「教師說故事 ‧ 說教師的故事」論文集》(頁 196-210)。澳門:澳門大學教育學院。 香港紅十字會(2010)。《「人道教室、生命學堂」2007-2010 研究報告》。香港:香港紅十字會。 香港紅十字會青年及義工事務部(2008)。《人道教室、生命學堂》。香港:香港紅十字會。 孫效智(2004)。〈導讀〉。《歌詠生命旋律──九年一貫生命教育教案》(頁 8-12)。台北:幼獅文化事業。 郝明工(2005)。《人道主義與二十世紀的中國文論》。北京:中國社會科學出版社。 張素玲、巴兆成等(主編)(2007)。《生命教育》。山東:中國石油大學出版社。 張淑美(2006)。〈生死教育〉。載林綺雲(主編),《實用生死學》(第 2 章,頁 8-40)。台中:華格那企業。 教育部(2009)。《輔導教師參考手冊》。2011 年 6 月 1 日,取自 http://life.cpshs.hcc.edu.tw/ezcatfiles/b001/ img/img/02.pdf。 梁志援(2008)。《和孩子一起學習生命教育》。台北:稻田出版。 郭志丕(2001)。〈引領孩子尋索生命的價值〉。載《親親孩子親親書──領孩子尋索生命的價值》(頁 11)。香港:宗教教育中心。 郭齊勇(2008)。《中國哲學智慧的探索》。北京:中華書局。 陳明(主編)(1996)。《中國傳統文化中的人道主義》。北京:華夏出版社。 傅偉勳(1994)。《學問的生命與生命的學問》。臺北:正中書局。 曾愛芳(2011.7.8)。〈馬鞍山循道衛理 生命教育「六年一貫」〉。《星島日報》,F01 版。 鈕則誠(2008)。〈從台灣生命教育到華人生命教育〉。載黃旭、張文質(主編),《生命教育》(頁 23- 30)。福州:福建教育出版社。 馮建軍等(2007)。《生命化教育》。北京:教育科學出版社。 楊慕慈(2003)。《生命教育》。台灣:禾楓書局。 葉億兆、楊可琪(2008)。〈深化關愛校園文化〉。《教師中心傳真》,第 68 期。 詹棟樑(2004)。《生命教育》。台北:師大書苑。 廖睿詩(2007)。〈陪伴孩子在生活中實踐:生命教育的喜樂〉。《生命教育通訊》,第 14 期,8-9。 課程發展議會(2010)。《生活與社會課程(中一至中三)第二次諮詢稿》。香港:課程發展議會。瀏覽日期: 2011 年 6 月 1 日,取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_3241/L&S_2nd_chi.pdf。 鄧立光(2008)。《中國哲學與文化復興詮論》。上海:上海古籍出版社。 鄭曉江(2009)。〈通過生命教育構建現代生死觀的核心價值〉。《中小學心理健康教育》,141。北京: 開明出版社。 謝藝泉(2009)。〈中小學生命教育課程體系建構的思考〉。《時代教育》,11-12,135-136。 116 徵集論文 我們歡迎教育界同工投稿,內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主,課題可包括: • 課程的設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創新的教學法設計理念、實施模式和評估方法 • 創意教學 • 家長教育 • 校本教職員培訓,包括教師入職培訓及輔導 • 校本管理 • 學生支援及學校風氣,包括輔導及諮詢 • 學生培訓 • 教育改革評議 • 比較教育 • 高等教育 • 幼兒教育 • 特殊教育 • 美術教育 • 音樂教育 • 教育史 Call for Papers We invite submission of papers on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. It could cover aspects such as: • Curriculum design, implementation and evaluation • Design, implementation and evaluation of innovative pedagogy • Creative teaching • Parent education • School-based staff development, including teacher induction and mentoring • School-based management • Student support and school ethos, including guidance and counselling • Student development • Critique on education reform • Comparative education • Higher education • Early childhood education • Special education • Fine arts education • Music education • History of education 117 稿 例(修訂於 2011 年 12 月) (一 ) 原稿請清楚列印在A4紙上。題目、作者姓名、所屬機構及通訊方法(如郵寄地址、電話、電郵) 請另頁列明。所投稿件概不退還作者,作者應保留一份原稿,以防遺失。 (二 ) 中、英文稿件兼收。稿件字數以不少於 3,500 字及不超過 7,000 字為限。 (三 ) 文稿請附中、英文題目,中、英文摘要(中文以 200 字為限,英文則約 150 字),以及中、英 文關鍵詞 3 至 5 個。 (四 ) 所有稿件均須經過評審,需時約半年。凡經採納之稿件,當於下一或二期刊出。編者得對來稿 稍予修改或請作者自行修改,或不予採用。稿件一經定稿,請勿在校對時再作修改或增刪。 (五 ) 各文稿之言責概由作者自負,其觀點並不代表香港教師中心之立場。 (六 ) 來稿之格式及附註,請遵守美國心理學協會編製之《出版手冊》(2006 年,第 6 版)指引。中 文格式請參考本期文稿。 (七 ) 每年截稿日期為十一月三十日。稿件及有關通訊請送交:香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局 九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室香港教師中心 《香港教師中心學報》編輯委員會收。(電 郵:info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) (八 ) 《學報》版權屬香港教師中心所有,非得許可,不得轉載任何圖表或 300 字以上之文字。 (九 ) 所有稿件在評審期間,不得同時送交其他學報評審或刊登。 Notes for Contributors (revised in December 2011) 1. Manuscripts should be clearly printed on A4 size paper, with the title, author’s name, affiliation and correspondence (i.e. postal address, tel. no., email) on a separate cover page. All copies will not be returned to authors. Authors should keep a copy of their manuscripts to guard against loss. 2. Language can be in English or Chinese. The length of submitted manuscripts should be 3,500 to 7,000 words. 3. All articles should be accompanied with an English title, a Chinese title, an English abstract (around 150 words), a Chinese abstract (not more than 200 words) and 3 to 5 keywords in English and Chinese. 4. All submissions will go through the anonymous review that usually takes about 6 months. Accepted manuscripts are normally published in the next issue or the issue after next. The Editors reserve the right to make any necessary changes in the articles, or request the contributors to do so, or reject the articles submitted. Once the final version of the articles has been accepted, contributors are requested not to make further changes during the proof-reading stage. 5. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect position of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. 6. Manuscripts submitted should conform to the style laid down in Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2006). For articles in Chinese, please refer to the format used in this current issue. 7. Deadline for submission of articles is November 30 of each year. Manuscripts and correspondence should be sent to the Editorial Committee of the HKTC Journal at the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, W106, 1/F, EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. (Email address: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) 8. All copyrights belong to the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. No graphics, tables or passages of more than 300 words can be reproduced without prior permission. 9. A paper once submitted under review by this Journal shall not be submitted to another journals for review or publication. 118 徵募審稿員 我們誠邀教師、校長及教育界同工加入成為本學報的審稿員。有興趣參與有關工作的同工,請 以電郵(info@hktc.edb.gov.hk)或傳真(2565 0741)提交下列資料,以供聯絡。如有任何查詢, 歡迎致電 3698 3698 與本中心職員聯絡。 姓名: 任職學校/機構: 聯絡電話: 電郵地址: 興趣範圍: Invitation for Reviewers We invite teachers, principals and fellow education workers to join us as reviewers. If you are interested in reviewing journal papers, please submit the following information by email (info@hktc.edb.gov.hk) or by fax (2565 0741) to us. Should you have any enquiries, please contact us at 3698 3698. Name: School / Institution: Contact Tel. Number: Email: Field of Interest: (博士 /先生 /女士) (Dr / Mr / Ms) 香港教師中心 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre 地址: 香港九龍九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心 西座一樓 W106 室 Address: Room W106, 1/F, West Block Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon Hong Kong 電話 / Telephone: (852) 3698 3698 傳真 / Fax: (852) 2565 0741 電郵 / Email: info@hktc.edb.gov.hk 網址 / Website: www.edb.gov.hk/hktc
Category: Documents
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K 8071_hkTecher_cover_1112_op.pdf 1 11/12/13 下午6:50 i 香港教師中心 香港教師中心(教師中心)是根據 1984年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建 議而於 1989年正式成立的。教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培 訓,並為他們提供一個富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境,使他們更能團結一致, 發揮專業精神。此外,教師中心亦致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會,推動課 程發展,鼓勵教師設計及試用新教材和教學法,協助發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念,並 配合教師興趣,組織各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設,也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師中 心的管理工作。這管理架構包括一個諮詢管理委員會(諮管會)、一個常務委員會(常 委會)和六個工作小組,負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72名委員組 成,其中 35位由教育團體提名及選出,35位由教師提名及選出,另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構,與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委會 的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任,其他成員包括 10位由諮管會 提名及選出的諮管會委員,以及兩位教育局代表。 各工作小組負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作,包括專業發展小組、出版小組、活動 小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。各小組的成員均是諮管會的委員。 教師中心位於教育局九龍塘教育服務中心內,交通便捷,毗鄰港鐵九龍塘站,另有 多條巴士及小巴專線可直達。中心設施齊備,內有電腦服務、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩 區及專題展板等。同時,教育局九龍塘教育服務中心設有演講廳和多用途會議室,供教 師中心舉辦各類會議、講座及工作坊等活動。歡迎各位教師使用教師中心的服務。 詳情請瀏覽本中心的網頁:www.edb.gov.hk/hktc。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (the Centre) was formally established in 1989 in accordance with a recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. The Centre aims to promote continuous professional development and enrichment among teachers, and to foster among them a greater sense of unity and professionalism in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of the Centre include the provision of opportunities for teachers to meet and exchange ideas and share experiences; the promotion of curriculum development; the development and trying out of new teaching aids and approaches; the dissemination of news and ideas concerning education; and the organisation of social, cultural and recreational activities for teachers. The Centre has a three-tier management structure to help plan and run its activities - an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub- committees. They are responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total membership of 72. These include 35 members nominated by and elected from education organisations, 35 members nominated by and elected from teachers, and 2 members appointed by Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC is the executive sub-structure of the AMC. It is concerned with the day-to- day functioning of the Centre and the running of its activities. The SC comprises the AMC Chairperson and 2 Vice Chairpersons, 10 other members elected by and from the AMC and the 2 representatives from Education Bureau (EDB). The six Sub-committees are working groups responsible for specific areas of work of the Centre. They include Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion. Members of the sub-committees are also members of the AMC. Access to the Centre is convenient for the visitors. The Centre is located inside the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre which is in the vicinity of the MTR Kowloon Tong Station. Besides, it can be reached by buses or minibuses. It provides a number of workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corner, resting area and display-boards, etc. Moreover, multi-purpose meeting rooms and conference rooms for organising seminars, workshops and meetings are available at the EDB Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre. Teachers are welcome to use the facilities of the Centre. For more details, please visit our website at www.edb.gov.hk/hktc. 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物, 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港及 海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各幼稚 園、小學、中學及大專院校,而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁(www.edb.gov.hk/hktc) 閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團(Board of Advisors) Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan B I BERNARDO University of Macau Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University Jennifer SUMSION Charles Sturt University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁 鋼 華東師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 李榮安 新加坡國立教育學院 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 iii 張國華 香港公開大學 梁湘明 香港中文大學 莫家豪 香港教育學院 陳建強 香港城市大學 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 葉蔭榮 教育局 靳玉樂 西南大學 潘慧玲 淡江大學 鄧廣威 香港公開大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育學院 顧明遠 北京師範大學 編輯委員會(Editorial Committee) 主編(Chief Editor) 簡加言 路德會西門英才中學 副主編(Vice-chief Editors) 胡少偉 香港教育學院 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 趙淑媚 香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學 委員(Members) 何景安 香港學科教育研究學會 李子建 香港教育學院 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 李宏峯 保良局羅傑承(一九八三)中學 梁兆棠 香港資助小學校長會 郭禮賢 香港華人基督教聯會真道書院 葉建源 香港教育專業人員協會 雷其昌 羅定邦中學 iv v 主編序 《香港教師中心學報》是一份教育研究及教師專業教學的分享刊物。過去得到很多 學者及教師的支持,使學報能順利出版,今期也不例外。本期主題「新高中學制 ─ 學生 發展、教師發展、學校發展」,同樣得到各方熱心教育人士提供寶貴的研究及分享文章, 連同特邀稿文,本期共選刊了十二篇。 經評審後,第一部分共收錄了六篇專題文章,內容包括:2012年香港中學文憑通識 教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序、新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核、新 高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究、通識教育科的現況及前瞻、新高中視覺藝術科考評 制度對課程潛在的影響、應用學習之反思與檢討。內容非常豐富,這些研究都是從資料 數據及課程實踐中得到的經驗分享,且特別針對過去實施了新高中課程後的檢視與反思, 實在很值得同行參考及研究。 第二部分是關於理論及政策評論,共有三篇文章,內容包括:測試分數可信程度研 究、臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究、新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革。這部分的內容看 來硬資料較多,但寶貴的是從不同角度看基礎教育正是我們要研究的範圍。香港正在研 究十五年免費教育的課題,對學前教育的探討同樣是香港教育制度的熱門課題,這部分 的研究對一直關注學前教育的前線工作者尤為寶貴。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享,共有三篇文章。內容包括:教師對通識教育科文 憑試與高階思維能力培育關係認知的探求、在香港推行國民教育的討論、教師如何在校 本課程中引入口述歷史教學。這部分是前線教師的實踐分享,一直都很受教師歡迎,因 為教學講的是實戰,是具體操作,並檢視成效。因此,很受教師歡迎。 最後,要衷心感謝為學報擔任評審的專家們。學報能順利出版,評審員的功勞不可 少,我在這兒非常感謝尹紹賢先生、何世昌先生、何景安先生、李子建教授、李宏峯先生、 李偉雄先生、李國毅先生、周蘿茜女士、侯傑泰教授、胡少偉博士、胡志偉博士、英汝 興教授、袁達榮先生、曹錫光博士、梁兆棠先生、梁志鏘博士、梁炳華博士、梁偉傑先生、 梁雪梅女士、郭禮賢博士、黃素蘭博士、楊沛銘博士、楊思賢博士、葉建源先生、雷其 昌先生、趙淑媚博士、盧兆興教授、戴繼志先生、魏國珍女士、羅天佑博士及羅慧燕博士。 我謹代表學報編輯委員會表達我們真誠的謝意。 《香港教師中心學報》主編 簡加言 二零一三年十二月 目錄 Contents 一、主題:新高中學制-學生發展、教師發展、學校發展 1. Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination ......................................................... 1 FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze 2. Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong ...................... 21 S Y MAK Barley 3. Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study....................................... 49 YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man 4. 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 ............................................................................. 89 林德成、李子建 5. 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 ............................................... 101 陳國棟 6. 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 ........................................................................... 115 梁亦華 二、理論及政策評論 1. How much can we trust test scores? ...................................................................... 131 Kay Cheng SOH v 2. 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 ............................................................... 151 何慧群、永井正武 3. 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 ........................................................................... 169 胡少偉 三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. An inquiry of teachers’perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong ............ 183 LEUNG Lai Sim 2. 也要還國民教育一個公道 ................................................................................... 217 倪紹強 3. 在教學法與社會實踐之間: ..................................................................................... 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? ................................................... 223 朱耀光 1 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination FUNG Tze Ho & TONG Chong Sze Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority Abstract Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. Standards-referenced reporting (SRR) is adopted to report candidate performance, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5). Some LS teachers expressed doubts after the announcement of the grading results of the 2012 HKDSE LS subject. To address these concerns, this paper aims at reviewing the essence of marking and grading procedures for the 2012 HKDSE LS Examination. It is expected that the public could have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority after having a clear and overall picture about the whole procedure. Keywords Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination, Liberal Studies, standards- referenced reporting, marking and grading 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all candidates attending the 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) Examination. In the HKDSE Examination, every subject adopts standards-referenced reporting (SRR) to report candidates’ assessment results. In SRR, candidates’ assessment results are reported, in terms of levels (from 1 to 5) with reference to explicit and fixed standards of performance stipulated as a set of level descriptors for a given subject. SRR has been adopted in Chinese Language and English Language of the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) since 2007. Some LS teachers raised concerns after the announcement of the LS grading results in the 2012 HKDSE Examination. One of the controversial points is that 2 the percentage of LS candidates obtaining Level 2 or above amounts to some 90%, which may seem to be “unreasonably” high. In this regard, this paper aims at explaining the essence of marking and grading procedures of LS. It is expected that the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority after having knowledge about the marking and grading procedures. In the following, the relevant marking and grading procedures of LS, and the related research studies and results will be highlighted. First, the LS assessment framework will be outlined. Secondly, marking arrangement for examination papers of LS will be mentioned; especially on the measures ensuring the reliability and validity in the marking process. Thirdly, moderation process of school raw marks on SBA will be studied, which aims at ensuring fairness and across-school comparability. After discussing marking process of exam papers and moderation process of SBA raw marks, the grading process, which is an essential part to determine the cut scores for various performance levels, will be examined. 2. Assessment framework of LS There are two components in the assessment of LS, namely: (i) Public Examination, and (ii) School-based Assessment. In the component of Public Examination, there are two papers – Paper 1 and Paper 2. The Public Examination component amounts to 80% of the total (Paper 1: 50% and Paper 2: 30%), and the SBA component amounts to the rest, that is 20%. Paper 1 consists of data-response questions, all of which have to be answered. Data- response questions aim to assess abilities such as identification, application and analysis of given data. The data define the scope and reflect the complexity or controversial nature of the issues involved; and such kind of questions also reflects the cross-modular nature of the curriculum. Paper 2 consists of three extended-response questions. Candidates are required to answer one question only. Extended-response questions with data as stimulus information provide a wider context for candidates to demonstrate various high-order skills, such as drawing critically on relevant experience, creative thinking, and communicating in a systematic manner. In addition to attending the public examination, each candidate of LS is required to complete an Independent Enquiry Study (IES) on a selected social issue, which is adopted as the mode of SBA in LS. The IES extends over a certain period of time and requires students to demonstrate various skills, such as data gathering, and analysis and presentation of findings. The IES is divided into three stages. The first is a preparatory 3 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination stage during which a candidate formulates the project title, specifies the objectives, considers suitable method(s), decides on the mode of presentation, plans for the enquiry and collects feedback from his/her classmates on the project plan. The second stage mainly involves data collection and organization. The third stage is the completion of the product which includes analysis and evaluation of data, conclusions on the results of the enquiry and a reflection on the enquiry process. 3. Marking arrangement 3.1 Marker training The HKDSE LS examination consists of open-ended questions focusing on the enquiry of current social issues in accordance with the nature of the subject. There was a worry that the number of qualified markers may not be sufficient for the subject, as LS is a new core subject for all candidates of HKDSE Examination. Therefore, the Authority conducted three rounds of marker training sessions in the year 2010-2011. During the first round (from October to December 2010), a total of 10 sessions were completed, and 569 teachers participated. The second round comprising 9 sessions, was conducted from January to February 2011 and 538 teachers participated. The third round was between June and October 2011 and 594 teachers participated in 9 training sessions. Each training session comprised a 3-hour markers’ meeting and post-meeting individual marking at the Assessment Centre. The training aimed to: • allow teachers to experience the marking process, including the markers’ meeting and the marking standardization process; • provide opportunities for teachers to better understand the marking criteria and the standards of HKDSE LS; • prepare teachers to be HKDSE LS markers and Assistant Examiners (AEs); • familiarise teachers with the Onscreen Marking (OSM) system; • collect marking statistics of teacher participants to facilitate the selection of markers for the live examination. During the markers’ meeting, participants were briefed of the marking criteria, standards and marking guidelines, illustrated by authentic performance in the sample scripts. Participants trial-marked some sample scripts. The scripts were then discussed in group meetings led by AEs who were experienced LS markers. Through the group discussions, with group size kept at 15 at most, participants aligned their marking standards and further clarified the marking criteria. After the markers’ meeting, participants marked 15 scripts of Papers 1 and 2 respectively on their own at the Assessment Centre. The marks of these scripts had been standardised by experienced markers in a previous exercise. Marking statistics, comparing 4 the characteristics of marks awarded by participants with that by experienced markers, were computed and sent back to participants as feedback. Marking statistics on the following aspects were discerned. • Mean of Mark Discrepancies: This is the average of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers. • Standard Deviation of Mark Discrepancies: This is the variation of the discrepancies between the marks awarded by the participant and that of experienced markers reflecting the marking consistency; i.e., the lower the figure, the higher the consistency of marking performance. • Difference between the Mark Range of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This shows the degree of discrimination relative to that of experienced markers. • Correlation between Marks of the Participant and that of Experienced Markers: This indicates the degree of agreement between the marks awarded by the participant and those awarded by experienced markers, in terms of the rank order. In the first round, amongst the 569 participants (681 enrolled) of the training, 383 joined the individual marking after the markers’ meeting. In the second round, out of the 538 participants (606 enrolled), 394 joined the individual marking. During the last round of training, 542 out of the 594 participants (660 enrolled) completed the individual marking. Therefore, a total of 1,319 teachers participated in both the markers’ meeting and individual marking. The following tables show the overall picture of marking statistics for the participants of individual marking in different rounds: Table 1a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 1) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 1.83 1.93 1.91 1.89 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.36 2.39 2.40 2.39 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers -0.37 -0.46 -0.42 -0.42 Correlation between marks of the participant and that of experienced markers 0.84 0.84 0.81 0.83 5 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination Table 1b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 1) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies between 4 marks and -4 marks(a) 97.65 96.95 97.35 97.32 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies less than 2 marks(b) 19.84 18.27 18.71 18.94 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks(c) 94.78 93.65 94.90 94.44 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7(d) 97.13 96.45 96.03 96.54 Notes: (a) 4 marks were determined as the thresholds for mean of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (b) 2 marks were determined as the thresholds for standard deviation of mark discrepancies by considering the need of third marking, and corresponding resources available and time constraints. (c) Provided that the variations of marks assigned are identical between two markers, it can be shown that the difference in mark range being greater than 4 is rare, with chance being equal to some 0.15. (d) As a rule of thumb, in general correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 is regarded as high. Table 2a: The averages of the statistical measures on marking performance of the participants of individual marking (Paper 2) Statistical measure on marking performance (Max mark approx. = 20 ) 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancies 0.88 0.90 1.15 1.00 Standard deviation of mark discrepancies 2.48 2.47 2.41 2.45 Difference between the mark range of the participant and that of experienced markers 1.37 1.24 1.22 1.27 Correlation between marks of the participants and that of experienced markers 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.73 6 Table 2b: The percentages of the participants of individual marking fulfilling certain criteria (Paper 2) Criterion 1st round 2nd round 3rd round Overall Mean of mark discrepancy between 4 marks and -4 marks 96.87 96.70 96.98 96.85 Standard deviation of mark discrepancy less than 2 marks 18.54 18.02 20.42 18.99 Difference between the mark ranges within ± 4 marks 89.56 88.32 88.66 88.85 Correlation greater than or equal to 0.7 65.27 69.29 72.21 68.92 For Paper 1, the averages in Table 1a displayed similar patterns in all the three rounds. The means of mark discrepancies were well within the “acceptable” level; i.e., below 4 marks. The mark ranges of the participants were just slightly smaller than that of the experienced markers, with an average for all participants being equal to -0.42 marks. The correlation was high with the overall figure being equal to 0.83. However, the averages of the standard deviations of mark discrepancies throughout these rounds were quite large; i.e., greater than 2 marks. From Table 2a, it was observed that the performance of the participants in Paper 2 was quite similar to that in Paper 1, with good performance on average in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies, mark range and correlation, but slight under-performance for the item of standard deviation of mark discrepancies. The mean of mark discrepancies for Paper 2 was much closer to zero, though the correlation was lower than that in Paper 1. From Tables 1b and 2b, an overwhelming majority performed satisfactorily in terms of the mean of mark discrepancies and mark range. The majority awarded marks that correlated well with that of the experienced markers, though the percentage of participants performing well in this aspect was much higher in Paper 1. For Paper 2, the percentage of participants with acceptable performance in terms of correlation and standard deviation of mark discrepancies had a slight increase from the first to the third Round. Based on these marking statistics, the percentage of discrepancy marking for Papers 1 and Paper 2 was (roughly) estimated to be around 20% for the live examination, which would be taken into consideration for manpower arrangement. In a nutshell, a total of 28 training sessions were conducted in 2011-2012. A total of 1,319 teachers experienced the whole marking process and were familiarised with the OSM system. To facilitate the selection of markers, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been employed to derive an integrated marking performance indicator based on the four marking statistics so as to maximise the discrimination power. In addition 7 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination to the marking statistics, other factors, such as previous marking experiences, would be considered when selecting markers for the live examination of LS. A large majority of these participants performed satisfactorily with reference to a number of marking statistics; especially on the mean of mark discrepancies, difference between the mark ranges and correlation. This indicated that they were able to grasp the marking criteria and adopt the marking standard reasonably close to our experienced markers. On the other hand, there was room for improvement in the consistency of marking performance of these participants. In addition, 23 experienced LS teachers served as facilitators in group meetings and gained experience as AEs. 3.2 Markers’ meeting and onscreen marking Immediately after the completion of the LS public examination, the marking process was started. Markers’ meetings with recruited markers were arranged in order to standardise the marking criteria and standards. Before the markers’ meetings, a representative sample of candidate scripts was selected and marked by the Chief Examiner and a group experienced senior AEs whereby the consensus on marking standards and marking criteria were arrived at through professional discussion. Some of these standardised scripts were used for marking standardization, training and qualifying purposes. After the markers’ meetings, markers then marked another set of standardised scripts which were used for testing whether they could grasp the marking standards and marking criteria properly so as to obtain the markers’ qualification. Only those qualified markers would be allowed to mark scripts of the live examination. In addition to manual procedures for ensuring marking quality, the Authority adopts innovative and advanced technologies to enhance the marking performance. In 2005, the Authority received funding from the government to modernise its information technology infrastructure, and to introduce OSM to improve the security, quality, reliability and efficiency of marking. The marking procedures with the use of OSM are outlined below: • Examinations for candidates conducted; • Examination scripts collected; • Examination scripts scanned and images saved; • Images of answers distributed to markers for viewing and marking via secure intranet system at designated Assessment Centres; • Marks at question level and annotations by markers captured by the onscreen marking system. For security reasons, marking is conducted at designated Assessment Centres. The primary function of these Assessment Centres is to facilitate onscreen marking of public examinations but they will also be used for the delivery and marking of a wide range of examinations and assessments, such as the Territory-wide System Assessment and a 8 variety of computer-based examinations. Moreover, facilities will be available for the training of examiners, markers, teachers and other assessment staff. The advantages of using OSM include the following aspects: • Security: Secure storage of scanned images of scripts, and elimination of the physical movement of massive scripts; • Marking: Real-time monitoring of marking consistency and quality control of marking, and flexible allocation of questions to markers; • Efficiency: More efficient and flexible script management processes, and higher efficiency in mark calculation; • Accuracy: Reduction of errors arising from mark entries, and elimination of errors associated with manual mark calculation and recording processes; • Data Availability: More detailed analysis of candidates’ performance, and more information on responses to individual questions and better feedback regarding candidates’ performance. In view of all the aspects mentioned above, OSM is considered as a better alternative to the conventional paper-based marking (PBM). Concerning marking quality, with the use of OSM a marker’s performance could be continuously monitored by comparing his/her marks awarded on standardised scripts with that of experienced markers. Thus, marking problems identified could be rectified at an early stage. Besides, it also facilitates the sample checking conducted by AEs on certain scripts of each marker. The Authority first introduced OSM in the 2007 HKCEE English writing paper. Afterwards, OSM was being implemented gradually in marking exam scripts for a number of subjects. To ensure that there is no adverse effect of OSM on the marking performance, the Authority has initiated a number of studies with tertiary institutes comparing OSM with PBM. A study (Coniam, 2009a, 2009b) examined English language essay scripts selected from the 2007 HKCEE English Language Paper 1B (Writing). To compare OSM with PBM, 30 markers, who had good rater statistics, were arranged to remark on paper 100 scripts, which they had marked onscreen nine months before. After the remarking, they were requested to complete a questionnaire in order to collect feedback on the exercise. From the questionnaire data, it was suggested that technologically, raters had no problems with OSM. Attitudinal differences surfaced, however, between new raters who had solely rated on screen as against experienced raters who had solely adopted PBM in their previous experiences. New raters felt that having to travel to a special marking centre was less of an inconvenience than did old raters. New raters, additionally, expressed a preference to mark on screen rather than on paper. The statistical analysis of remarking data was conducted from two perspectives. The first involved classical measurement statistics. Correlations between the two forms of rating and the amount of discrepancy scripts (where a third rating was required) suggested 9 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination that no bias existed favouring either form of marking. Secondly, using multi-faceted Rasch measurement (MFRM), a five-faceted design was employed, modeling raters, test takers, input prompt materials, rating scales, and, especially, the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit. For the method of marking - the major facet for investigation, the corresponding logit values of both methods were very close to zero. Therefore the hypothesis that the methods of marking (OSM and PBM) did not interfere scores awarded by markers was accepted. There is another study (Coniam, 2010) which has similar objectives as the first one; but the subject concerned is Advanced Supplementary Level (ASL) Liberal Studies. The study involved 14 markers who had previously marked ASL Liberal Studies scripts on screen in the 2009 Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination. In the study, the 14 markers remarked on paper a number of the scripts that they had marked on screen in the 2009 examination. Using multi-faceted Rasch analysis, a five-faceted design was employed to model markers, test takers, input questions, rating scales and the marking medium. Results showed that all factors generally exhibited good data fit and suggested that the scores from OSM could be considered as reliable as those obtained from PBM. 3.3 Double marking arrangement With regard to marking reliability, one of the public concerns is that there may be a considerable degree of variability when marking open-ended questions of LS. In this regard, the Authority has decided to adopt double marking in LS public examination. Any LS question of a candidate will be primarily marked by two markers. In case that prominent discrepancy occurs between the two markers’ marks, third marking (i.e., discrepancy marking) will be undertaken. The average of the closest pair of marks1 will be taken as the final mark of the question concerned. Fourth marking may be involved, if necessary, to settle down any controversies. Due to the use of OSM, which facilitates immediate distribution of scripts and flexible allocation of questions, double marking could be conducted on question basis. The four questions in Papers 1 and 2 attempted by a candidate in the public examination of LS will be marked by at least eight markers. Such an arrangement eliminates the chance that a candidate’s assessment result will be dominated by a single marker who may be too harsh or too lenient. The Authority had undertaken a study (HKEAA, 2011a) to examine the impact when adopting double marking in the LS questions. In the study, four data-response questions and four extended-response questions, and the corresponding marking guidelines were prepared in both Chinese and English. The full mark of each of these questions was more or less 20. These questions were attempted by some 1,300 students from 15 schools _______________ 1 In OSM, the sum of the closest pair of marks is compiled instead for the sake of computational convenience. This, in fact, implies that the full mark of a question is doubled. 10 covering a wide spectrum of performance levels. The student responses were marked by 18 markers using double marking (with discrepancy marking). Each student attempted one data-response question and one extended-response question, resulting totally 2,530 responses. For these 2,530 student responses, double marking was conducted. The corresponding statistics on marking discrepancies are shown below. Table 3: Distribution of discrepancies in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 413 16% 16% 1 749 30% 46% 2 592 23% 69% 3 368 15% 84% 4 226 9% 93% 5 100 4% 97% 6 51 2% 99% 7 20 1% 100% 8 9 0% 100% 9 1 0% 100% 10 1 0% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - Some 16% of total responses, which had differences greater than three, required discrepancy marking. In general, third marking was already sufficient to ensure that the differences between the closest pairs of marks were less than or equal to three marks. There were only a small proportion of responses that required fourth marking. The corresponding distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking is tabulated below. Table 4: Distribution of discrepancies after discrepancy marking in the study on double marking Abs Diff Count Percent Cumulative percent 0 510 20% 20% 1 911 36% 56% 2 724 29% 85% 3 385 15% 100% ALL 2,530 100% - 11 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination The closest pair of marks of a response was used for calculating the average, which was the final mark of the response. Provided that the “true” performance of a response did fall in between the closest pairs of marks, the difference between the final mark assigned and the “true” performance would be less than 1.5 marks; i.e., less than 10% of the full mark of the question concerned. The correlation between the marks in the closest pairs (retained after conducting double marking with discrepancy marking) was found to be equal to some 0.8. This reflected a high level of marking reliability. In 2012 public examination of LS, it is found that the percentage of responses that requires discrepancy marking further decreases. It may be due to the fact that previous professional development courses and the targeted marker training sessions have familiarised school teachers with the marking criteria and standards of HKDSE LS. 4. SBA Moderation Process 4.1 The reasons of moderation SBA is a salient feature of the HKDSE Examination. SBA refers to assessments administered in schools and marked by the students’ own teachers. SBA in LS requires each student to carry out an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). The IES provides a valuable opportunity for students to independently carry out a focused enquiry into a contemporary issue of interest, and to present their views, ideas, findings, evaluations and personal reflections. After receiving the raw SBA marks from schools, the Authority has to undertake the SBA moderation process. The main reason for carrying out moderation is to ensure the consistency of assessment standards across schools. Teachers know their students well and thus are best placed to judge their students’ relative performance. However, they could not be aware of the standards of performance across all schools. Therefore, teachers in some schools may be harsher or more lenient in their judgment than teachers in other schools. Mark ranges of scores awarded in various schools may also be different from each other. To resolve these problems, the Authority employs appropriate methods for “moderating” the raw SBA scores submitted by different schools to achieve the following: • The comparability of SBA results across schools in order to ensure fairness for individual students and schools; • The quality, reliability and validity of SBA results; • Provision of useful feedback to schools for improving practice; • In LS, the SBA moderation is conducted using statistical moderation based on examination results and supplemented with sample review. 12 4.2 Statistical moderation Statistical moderation is particularly appropriate in situations where there is another measure available that can reflect SBA performance level. Typically this other measure will be students’ performance in the public examination of that subject. An advantage of the method is that it can be carried out efficiently and impartially within a reasonable amount of time and resources. The key assumption is that the overall performance in the public examination of students in a school can properly reflect the SBA performance level of the same group of students. Generally speaking, this is a valid assumption in the context of many academic subjects in public examinations. In the moderation process, the adjustments are applied only to school average and spread of raw SBA scores of students with reference to their public examination scores in the same school. Therefore, the ranking of students within a school remains unchanged after moderation. The school averages of examination scores are used to determine the corresponding performance levels on SBA, taking within-school correlations between students’ raw SBA scores and examination scores into consideration (HKEAA, 2010). 4.3 Sample review Some of the objectives of the SBA cannot be precisely assessed in the public examination due to different requirements. Moreover, students in SBA would possibly gain significant improvement under teachers’ supervision due to the efficacy of assessment for learning. If only schools’ public examination scores are used to adjust students’ raw SBA scores, for some schools the statistical moderated results may not fully reflect the students’ actual performance in the SBA; i.e., there may be some outlier schools whose statistically moderated scores differ greatly from the performance level demonstrated by students’ SBA work. Therefore, for 2012 HKDSE LS, each school was required to submit six samples of students’ work for reassessment which was conducted by a group of external assessors appointed by the Authority. The samples were chosen by the Authority using stratified random sampling. Students in each school were divided into a number of strata based on their raw SBA scores. Therefore, in each stratum the performance level of students on SBA should be similar with each other. Some students’ work was then randomly chosen from each stratum. The stratified sampling method could ensure that a fairly small sample of students’ work could adequately represent the full range of SBA performance of each school. For schools where only a few students were studying a particular subject, the work of all students had to be submitted. All the LS samples were then reassessed with reference to the previous standardised exemplars and a set of stipulated assessment criteria. If prominent discrepancies between external assessors’ scores and raw scores were observed, discrepancy marking would be conducted. It was observed that the discrepancy marking percentage was about 20% in 2012. The correlation between raw scores and results based on external assessment 13 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination amounted to 0.8. This reflected that the marking standards of school teachers were generally in line with that based on external assessment. With regard to possible sampling variations, the ratio of school average of raw SBA scores to sample average of raw SBA scores was examined for each school. The distribution of these ratios of 523 schools is shown below. Figure 1: Distribution of ratios of school means of raw SBA scores to sample means of raw SBA scores The 5% percentile of the distribution was 0.94 and the 95% percentile was 1.06. It implied that sample raw means were very close to school raw means for most schools. In addition, it should be noted that the mean mark of sampled students’ work from external assessment of a school would be adjusted upwards when sample raw mean was less than school raw mean; and vice versa. With such adjustments, it was expected that the sampling variations would be further reduced. To further enhance the reliability of the estimations of means and spreads of SBA scores of schools based on external assessment, Bayesian hierarchical modeling was employed so as to share information across different schools. The model is briefly described below. 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 14 Let Yi (a vector) be the marks based on external assessment of a school i; i.e., Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni. The number of students in the school is ni. The Bayesian hierarchical model is set up as follows: Yi,1, Yi,2,Yi,3,...,Yi,ni ~ Normal(θi, σi 2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., there are m schools) θi ~ Normal(μ, τ2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all θi are sampled from a super-population) 1/σi 2 ~ Gamma(v0/2, v0σ0 2/2) for i = 1,…,m (i.e., all σi 2 are sampled from a super-population) The model is graphically displayed in the figure below. Figure 2: The structure of Bayesian hierarchical modeling showing relationship between data observed and parameters involved In Bayesian analysis, the parameters: μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2 are treated as random variables. To conduct the Bayesian estimation, some non-informative priors p(μ), p(τ2), p(v0), p(σ0 2) are set up respectively for μ, τ2, v0, and σ0 2. Based on such a model, information could be shared across schools when estimating θi and σi 2. For schools with small sample sizes and/or extreme empirical values, the estimates of θi and σi 2 will be pulled towards the corresponding overall estimates (μ and σ0 2). In general, algorithms using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method are deployed for estimation in Bayesian hierarchical modeling. It is well known that such a hierarchical model could reduce the estimation error (Berger, 1993; Hoff, 2010; Gelman et. al., 2003) in different applications. In addition, a simulation study has been undertaken to gauge the magnitude 0.85 0 0.90 0.95 Ratio: School Raw Mean/Sample Raw Mean Comparison of School Raw Mean with Sample Raw Mean 20 40 60 80 10 0 12 0 14 0 Fr eq ue nc y 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 v0σ0 2 μ, τ2 θ1 θ2 θm-1 θm Y1 Y2 Ym-1 Ym θ1 2 θ2 2 σ 2 m-1 σ 2 m 15 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination of gain in accuracy when applying the model in the specific setting for SBA moderation (Fung, 2011). It is found that the total Mean Squared Error (MSE) in the estimation of school means could be reduced by some 30% using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, as compared with the one simply using sample means. After consolidating the sample review result of a school, it was compared with the corresponding result from statistical moderation. Due to possible variations incurred in the sampling and remarking process, an appropriate tolerance limit was set when comparing the two results. If the difference was within the tolerance limit, the statistical moderation result would be adopted as the school performance level on SBA. If the difference exceeded the tolerance limit, appropriate adjustments would be made to the statistical moderation result with reference to the sample review result in order to determine the school performance level on SBA. It is worth mentioning that in LS, the SBA marks of a student is divided into two parts, namely: (i) Task and (ii) Process. Only marks on the Task of a student will be moderated according to the procedures mentioned above. Marks on Process which includes students’ effort in the IES will not be subject to moderation, as students’ performance in this part may not be prominently associated with the examination results. Schools are expected to award the Process marks in accordance with the stipulated criteria. The Authority imposes quality control measures to ensure the fairness and reliability of the assessment on Process, which include monitoring by District Coordinators (DCs), providing feedback to schools and follow-up of any irregularities identified. In 2012, it is observed that the mean of Process marks submitted by all schools is quite appropriate (i.e., not too high or too low) and the spread is reasonable. The moderated Task marks are then combined with the un-moderated Process marks to form the total SBA score for inclusion in the subject result. For the Task component, in 2012 53.3% of schools fall into the “within the expected range” category2, while the marks of 21.5% of schools are higher than expected, and 25.1% lower than expected. Moreover, among the schools with marks higher or lower than expected, the majority only deviate slightly from the expected3. Thus, in 2012 the majority of schools falls into the “within the expected range” or “slightly higher/lower than expected” categories. It is supposed that teachers in these schools do have a good understanding about the marking standards. _______________ 2 Based on the difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks (D), a school is in the category of “within the expected range” when 0 ≤ D < 3 with full mark = 50. 3 The difference between the means of the moderated and raw Task marks is greater than or equal to 3 and less than 6 with full mark = 50. 16 5. Grading process based on professional expertise Under SRR, a set of draft descriptors has been developed for each subject to describe how a candidate typically performs at a given level. The main purpose of grading is to determine the minimum score needed for a candidate to attain a given level. This minimum score is known as the cut score. The HKDSE grading procedures include a series of tasks (HKEAA, 2011b) that begins before the actual marking of scripts. For any given subject, a panel of expert judges, which comprises the subject manager(s), the chief examiner(s) and selected assistant examiner(s) or markers from the individual components, is responsible for conducting the series of grading tasks, including: (i) sample script selection, (ii) marking standardization, (iii) post-marking exercise, and (iv) panel of judges grading meeting. After the 2012 public examination of LS, some samples that could illustrate performance particularly well in relation to the level descriptors were selected. After script selection, the panel discussed the scores to be awarded to discrete points in the sample scripts. These marked scripts were used as standardisation scripts for marking. After the completion of marking and moderation of SBA scores, the panel considered the selected written examination exemplars and SBA samples with reference to the level descriptors, and the previous released samples. The objective of the discussion was to make provisional grading recommendations (including preliminary cut score ranges) on each examination paper and SBA component through expert judgment based on samples of performance. In the panel judges grading meeting, panel members re-considered the level descriptors, question requirements, marking guidelines and a number of representative samples as well as a range of recommended cut scores for each level. Panel judges exchanged their views led by the Chief Examiner. With a number of rounds of discussions, they finally agreed on preliminary cut scores for each paper and SBA component, and for the subject. In determining the cut scores, consideration was made to the actual performance of candidates in relation to • the level descriptors; • performance samples from the HKDSE SRR Information Packages (HKEAA, 2009); • marked live scripts selected; • feedback from markers on the level of difficulty of each particular examination paper; • performance statistics of current papers and SBA component. 17 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination During this meeting, the panel of judges investigated the impact of amending the cut scores for each examination paper on subject grade distributions. Finally, the panel of judges decided on their recommendations for the cut scores for LS. A senior management team led by the Secretary General of the Authority reviewed and decided on the cut scores based on the recommendations made by the panel of LS, and submitted the cut scores from the panel of LS to the Public Examinations Board (PEB) for further discussion and endorsement. In 2012, after discussion in PEB it was endorsed that the recommendations made by the panel of LS were strictly followed without any adjustments. The cut scores for Level 5** and Level 5* were set with reference to the percentage in mark distribution so that Level 5** was awarded to the highest-achieving 10% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates and Level 5* was awarded to the next highest- achieving 30% (approximately) of Level 5 candidates. 6. Conclusions In this paper4, it is highlighted that the Authority has taken stringent measures to ensure the quality of marking and grading procedures adopted in HKDSE Examination of LS. Relevant researches were conducted to examine the impacts of the new measures as far as possible. It is expected that after having an overall picture of the marking and grading procedures, the public will have more confidence in the attainment levels conferred by the Authority. Currently, the Authority is now collecting opinions and feedback from various stakeholders on the assessment framework of LS in order to strive for further improvement in the future. References Berger, J. O. (1993). Statistical decision theory and Bayesian analysis (2nd ed.). Springer. Coniam, D. (2009a). Validating onscreen marking in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(3), 423-431. Coniam, D. (2009b). Examining negative attitudes towards onscreen marking in Hong Kong. CUHK Education Journal, 37(1-2), 71-87. _______________ 4 To facilitate the access to the content by the public, the paper is also available from the website of the Authority. 18 Coniam, D. (2010). Markers’ perceptions regarding the onscreen marking of Liberal Studies in the Hong Kong public examination system. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(3), 249- 271. Fung, T. H. (2011, July). Simulation study on the use of hierarchical Bayesian modeling in expert judgment for SBA Moderation. Paper presented at the 76th Annual and the 17th International Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Hong Kong. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., & Rubin, D. B. (2003). Bayesian data analysis (2nd ed.). London: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Hoff, P. D. (2010). A first course in Bayesian statistical methods (1st ed.). Springer. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2009). Liberal Studies: Standards-referenced reporting information package. Further information available from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/resources/publications/list_of_publications/hkdse_srr_pub/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2010). Moderation of school- based assessment scores in the HKDSE booklet. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu. hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011a). Study in double marking of Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Liberal Studies practice questions’ answer scripts. Retrieved from: http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/ research/ Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA). (2011b). Grading procedures and standards-referenced reporting in the HKDSE examination. Retrieved from: http:// www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/Resources/leaflets/ 19 Marking and grading procedures for 2012 HKDSE Liberal Studies examination 2012年香港中學文憑通識教育科考試的閱卷與評級程序 馮子豪、唐創時 香港考試及評核局 摘要 2012年香港中學文憑考試的考生必須修讀通識教育科。香港中學文憑考試採用水平 參照模式匯報考生的表現,將考生表現分為各等級(1至 5)。部份通識科教師對 通識科考試評級結果表示疑慮。有見及此,本文回顧通識科考試的閱卷與評級程序, 期望當大眾認識相關的程序後,將對考評局所發的資歷更具信心。 關鍵字 香港中學文憑考試,通識教育科,水平參照模式匯報,閱卷與評級 21 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong S Y MAK Barley Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract School-based assessment (SBA) is a form of formative assessment involving feedbacks and appraisals to students based on their school-based projects; it enables students to identify and improve on their areas of weakness and teachers to adjust their teaching strategies accordingly (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2005). SBA is still a relatively new concept for most senior secondary school subjects in Hong Kong – yet it is now heavily incorporated into Hong Kong’s New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum since the introduction of the New Academic Structure (NAS) in 2009. SBA has spawned numerous debates on its efficacy in Hong Kong and worldwide. This study gives an overview of the current issues related to SBA in Hong Kong through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders by utilizing territory-wide data of 91 secondary schools in Hong Kong from the most recent NSS Curriculum Study conducted in 2011-12. Keywords school-based assessment (SBA), formative assessment, New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum, curriculum reform, Hong Kong education 22 1. Introduction 1.1 The current Hong Kong education system and school-based assessment In light of the rising competitiveness of the global environment, the Hong Kong’s education sector recognizes its need to strengthen Hong Kong students’ adaptability, creativity, independent thinking and life-long learning capabilities, which were limited by the traditional education system that restrained students from maximizing their potential. As a result, the New Academic Structure (NAS) was introduced in 2009 as one of the most ambitious education reforms in Hong Kong’s education history. The NAS reduced the number of secondary school years from 7 to 6, and increased the number of tertiary education years from 3 to 4: Hong Kong students are now required to study three years in junior secondary school, three years in senior secondary school, and four years in the tertiary education sector – a “3-3-4” education system. Under this configuration, the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum was implemented as the framework for governing the content of the senior secondary school years (Secondary 4 to 6). As opposed to the traditional senior secondary school curriculum, NSS involved a number of major changes, which consisted of designating Liberal Studies as one of the four core subjects, the introduction of the elective subject system, as well as an emphasis on Other Learning Experiences (OLE) – to name but a few. Major changes have also taken place in the assessment environment for senior secondary school students: the current education system has now shifted from a two- fold public examination system – the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) and Advanced Levels (AL) in Secondary 5 and Secondary 7 respectively to a single public examination, the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) in Secondary 6. Meanwhile, as both an assessment and reviewing tool for teachers and students, school-based assessment (SBA) was incorporated and is now playing a pivotal role in giving greater emphasis to formative assessment (as opposed to summative assessment) in the NSS Curriculum. Notwithstanding its great potential in realizing the aims and virtues of the NAS, SBA poses great challenges and complexities in its application. In this paper, the progress of the implementation of SBA in the Hong Kong context will be reviewed and discussed through the eyes of administrators and teaching stakeholders. 1.2 The implementation of SBA in the NSS curriculum In Hong Kong, SBA is an assessment administered in schools as part of the learning and teaching process, with senior secondary students being assessed by their subject teachers (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a). In total, it accounts for 20% of the students’ overall HKDSE Examination result. From 2012, SBA was incorporated in 12 subjects including Chinese Language, English Language, Liberal 23 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Studies, Chinese History, History, Biology, , Physics, Science, Information & Communication Technology, Design & Applied Technology, and Visual Arts. According to the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) (2013b), SBA will be extended gradually to other subjects starting from the 2014 HKDSE Examination, as indicated in Table 1 below: Table 1: Implementation Timetable (HKEAA, 2013b) Year of Exam Subjects - Chinese Language - English Language - Liberal Studies - Chinese History - Design & Applied Technology - History - Information & Communication Technology - Visual Arts - Biology - - Physics - Science - Chinese Literature - Economics - Ethics & Religious Studies - Geography - Health Management & Social Care - Technology & Living - Tourism & Hospitality Studies - Literature in English - Music 2012 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2013 Implementation Partial implementation (laboratory work) Defer implementation 2014 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2015 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2016 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2017 Implementation Implementation Defer implementation 2018 Implementation Implementation Optional trial 2019 Implementation Implementation Implementation The intention of HKEAA is to slowly incorporate SBA in most subjects (not implemented in Mathematics and Business, Accounting & Financial Studies while practical examination is implemented for Physical Education instead), in a progressive and gradual manner year on year, while reviews, research and public consultations are simultaneously ongoing as adjustments are expected during the implementation process. Due to the demanding nature of SBA (as explained in the previous section), HKEAA has responded with a list of streamlining measures in order to alleviate the current situation and to provide room for the future implementation of SBA in other subjects. These streamlining measures are as follows: 24 1) The SBA of Chinese Language and Liberal Studies will be “streamlined” (i.e. the reduction of the number of tasks, assessments and mark submissions in the SBA of subjects) in the 2013 HKDSE Examination; 2) For the 9 deferred subjects where SBA was originally scheduled to be implemented between 2014 and 2016, full implementation will be postponed to the 2019 HKDSE Examination, with optional school trials to be conducted in 2018. (HKEAA, 2013b) To better understand the needs of the education sector, HKEAA, the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Education Bureau (EDB) are working in close collaboration to gauge the views of schools, curriculum development and subject experts, as well as independent education institutions in the streamlining proposals since October 2011. These proposals include streamlining the SBA of the 9 subjects that are scheduled in the 2014 HKDSE Examination, advancing SBA streamlining in Chinese Language to the 2013 cohort and adopting interim measures for Liberal Studies, and postponing the implementation of SBA of the 9 deferred subjects to the 2019 HKDSE Examination (HKEAA, 2013b). 1.3 Why school-based assessment? SBA is by no means a new assessment tool; it is widely accepted and comprehensively implemented in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Canada and South Africa. SBA is regarded as a tool to more accurately reveal the true ability of the student, reduce the limiting effects of “exam fright”, and to increase the confidence of students as they have already learnt and brought to practice the examination contents and skills during the conduct of their SBA projects. In addition to this, students can also feel less anxious as they have already achieved a certain percentage of the final mark prior to their final exam (Kerr-Phillips, 2007). SBA is similarly viewed in Hong Kong as an integral component of teaching and learning, which made feedback and comprehensive appraisals possible, thus allowing both teachers and students to identify the latter’s strengths and weaknesses for the purpose of continual improvements and confidence building (HKEAA, 2012b). In addition, SBA is also proven to have positive effects on students’ public oral examination and better absentee rate than students from schools that do not submit SBA marks (Lee, 2009). Yet SBA is not without its problems and controversies. As indicated by a report published by the Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union (PTU) in 2013, workload brought upon by SBA is overwhelming for both teachers and students. For the student, the demand for SBA is high in terms of its quality and quantity, sometimes exceeding that of a student’s ability (may even include tertiary education level contents). In addition, the heavy workload derived from SBA often incur extra lesson time, therefore limits students 25 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong from partaking in extracurricular activities. On the other hand, teachers are similarly affected by hosting the extra lessons, and marking the vast amount of students’ SBA work. Furthermore, the PTU report suggested that the inadequate proportion of SBA that makes up the final mark will ultimately be “unfairly” adjusted by the public paper examination, regardless of how well the student did in the former. In light of the above, some teachers have even suggested that SBA may negatively affect the quality of learning and teaching as a whole in Hong Kong (Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union, 2013). Echoing these negative views, the sheer amount of workload of SBA has led to another major issue in other countries – plagiarism; it is tempting for students to copy work off the internet in order to save time amidst a tight schedule and demanding workload, thus incurring further workload for teachers in cross-checking references. Not only are the students tempted to play outside the rules, teachers are also reported to have meddled with the grey areas of the SBA grading system in order to achieve better grades for their students. Even without the deliberate intention of providing lenient markings, teachers call for a more standardized grading system for SBA across subjects in view of the “appalling partiality” in this aspect (Kerr-Philips, 2007). On an extreme note, Michael Gove, the Minister of Education in England remarked at the London Festival of Education in 2012, when questioned on the efficacy of SBA, “if education can’t be externally assessed, it’s play”, thus his recent initiatives to downplay the role of SBA enhance summative assessments in the UK (Downs, 2012). In spite of the downside of SBA, it is still, no doubt, a tool to diversify the traditionally summative assessment tools (i.e. public paper examinations); it gives formative assessment a larger role for achieving continuous reviews on teaching practices, and sustainable improvement on the holistic learning and teaching environment. This paper will seek to provide an insight to the voices of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in order to provide an overview of the extent of success and acceptance of the implementation of SBA in Hong Kong’s NSS Curriculum. 2. Background of the study In 2011, the EDB of Hong Kong Special Administration Region commissioned the Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) of the Faculty of Education of The Chinese University of Hong Kong to undertake a major research project entitled New Senior Secondary Curriculum Implementation Study 2011 to reveal the progress made from implementing NSS. The study aimed at investigating various aspects of the NSS in 6 major themes, namely “Curriculum Planning”, “Learning and Teaching”, “Assessment”, “Managing Change”, “the Impact on Senior Secondary School Students”, and “Ongoing Needs and Concerns”. This paper will report on the findings related to SBA, a major theme under “Assessment”. 26 3. Methodology The NSS study selected 105 schools out of a pool of 447 secondary schools in Hong Kong by a stratified random sampling technique based on an objective indicator of student achievement (Group 1 are schools with the highest average student achievement, Group 2 the next highest and Group 3 is the lowest). In the end, 91 out of the 105 schools responded to the request to participate in the survey, thus spawning a high response rate of about 87%. The questionnaires were developed to gauge the views of the implementation of NSS from 6 different stakeholders; including School heads or deputy heads (SH), Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH), Secondary 6, 4 and 3 teachers (T6, T4 and T3), as well as Secondary 6, 4 and 3 students (S6, S4 and S3). The questionnaires were sent to the 91 schools and were administered by the schools’ personnel. The completed questionnaires were then returned by post between December 2011 and February 2012. The distribution of the returned questionnaires among the stakeholders is listed in Table 2 below: Table 2: Number of questionnaires returned from different stakeholders Stakeholders Sampling Number of questionnaires SH The school heads or deputy heads 86 KH All Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads 515 T6 Teachers teaching Secondary 6** 838 T4 Teachers teaching Secondary 4** 527 T3 At least 8 teachers teaching Secondary 3 (one per KLA) 378 S6 All Secondary 6 students 4,614 S4 All Secondary 4 students 5,888 S3 At least two classes of Secondary 3 students from each school 2,751 * For subjects comprising a compulsory part and elective modules, teachers who teach only elective modules are not required to complete the questionnaire. ** Some of the teachers placed themselves as T4 and T6, thus the data were counted for both stakeholders. SBA was a major theme under “Assessment” and since this paper seeks to identify the extent of how well SBA is incorporated into the administrative and teaching processes of the NSS Curriculum, this paper has drawn data only from the administrative and teaching stakeholders’ (SH, KH, T6, T4 and T3) views on SBA therein. The contents of the questions on SBA were similar but tailored to each stakeholder (Appendix).The questions on SBA were grouped into 4 major components designed to answer the research questions presented in the following table: 27 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Table 3: SBA components and research questions SBA research questions: To what extent… SBA component Views derived from: 1) Has SBA been successfully incorporated into the schools? (understanding and knowledge, scheduling and formulating support measures) 1) The implementation of SBA in schools SH, KH, T6 and T4 2) Has the grading of SBA been subjected to fairness and consistency, and the criteria be transparent to students? 2) The grading of SBA T6, T4 and T3 3) How confident were the teachers in implementing SBA? 3) The confidence of teachers in implementing SBA T6, T4 and T3 4) How useful has SBA been as a tool in generating useful feedback for the continual improvement of students’ learning? 4) The effectiveness of SBA T6, T4 and T3 The results and analysis section will be presented by bar charts in order to aid readers in visualizing the obtained data that are attached in the annexes of this study. 4. Results and analysis The incorporation of SBA into the senior high school curriculum is a relatively new one for most subjects and requires understanding and adaptability on the part of the schools and teachers in this period of transition. The procedures adopted by schools to ensure an effective implementation of SBA, knowledge transfer of SBA (i.e. from school to teachers and from teachers to students) and the support provided to the teachers by the schools are inextricable factors determining the success of the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. In this light, this section will look at the perception of the administrative and teaching stakeholders – SH, KH, T6 and T4 – to gauge the extent of assimilation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum in terms of the above aspects. A 6-point Likert scale was used to gauge the attitudes of stakeholders running from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The latter 3 points were used to calculate positive responses i.e. “slightly agree”, “agree”, “strongly agree”. Since the implementation of SBA is a new feature in the NAS, any positive responses are deemed significant, thus “slightly agree” is incorporated in the reporting of positive results. 4.1 Procedures adopted by schools to ensure effective implementation of SBA According to Figure 1 below, SH have responded with very high agreement levels 28 in items (in descending order): “The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (SH: 94.1%), “The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing)” (SH: 92.9%), “The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation” (SH: 88.2%). Figure 1: Procedures to ensure effective implementation of SBA by SH While the majority of the schools have implemented procedures and regulations for the effective implementation of SBA on a wider scale, they have also demonstrated micro management planning by assigning working groups and coordinators to manage smaller items among subjects. 4.2 SBA knowledge transfer The implementation of SBA can never be successful without the proper guidance provided to the teachers by HKEAA and their respective schools. Thus HKEAA has pledged to provide detailed guidelines, assessment criteria and exemplars to schools and teachers to ensure consistency in SBA grading, and as well as the provision of professional training and district coordinators to support schools and teachers to successfully implement SBA in the NSS curriculum (HKEAA, 2013a). In light of this, the acquiring and transferring of SBA information among stakeholders (i.e. from schools to teachers and from teachers to students) will be looked at. In this section, “SBA knowledge transfer” refers to both the acquiring and transferring of SBA information (e.g. assessment criteria, SBA weighting, number of SBA tasks, etc.) among stakeholders. According to the responses from SH, shown in Figure 2 below, the findings provided positive evidence of the schools having enabled the knowledge transfer of SBA information to other stakeholders in secondary schools. High agreement levels were 29 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong found in the items (in descending order): “Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (SH: 100.0%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (SH: 95.3%), “Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (SH: 95.3%), and “The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results” (SH: 89.4%). Figure 2: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by SH Similarly, KH have responded with highly positive feedback on the transfer of SBA knowledge among teachers and students. In descending order: “Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors” (KH: 93.8%) was rated highest, followed by “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects” (KH: 91.1%), and “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (KH: 87.7%), as indicated in Figure 3 below: 30 Figure 3: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by KH By the same token, T6 responded with highly positive feedback in the following items, in descending order “I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T6: 93.6%), and “I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T6: 84.7%), as indicated in Figure 4 below: Figure 4: SBA knowledge transfer viewed by T6 According to SH as well as KH, their teachers have demonstrated a clear knowledge in understanding the contents of SBA (e.g. how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools) and have taken up a dual role as both a facilitator and an assessor. With such knowledge, teachers were able to help students in resolving their queries on SBA-related matters, guide them through the assessment requirements and methods in their respective SBA subjects, and explain to them the complementary nature of written 31 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong examinations and SBA in the public assessment. T6 on the other hand, have provided the same positive findings at the teaching level. 4.3 SBA support provided to teachers This section looks at the perceived support implemented and received by the administrative and teaching stakeholders in regard to the implementation of SBA. According to Figure 5 below, SH felt that “the school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (SH: 95.2%) and that “the school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (SH: 88.3%). Meanwhile, KH have responded with similar high levels of agreement to item “My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (KH: 87.1%), but relatively lower in “Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year” (KH: 68.5%). On the other hand, although more than half of T6 and T4 have responded with positive feedback to item “My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA” (T6: 61.9%, T4: 63.3%), a significant 40% have responded otherwise. Figure 5: SBA support viewed by SH, KH, T6 and T4 It is noteworthy to highlight the significant differences on the level of perceived school support provided for the teachers among SH and the teaching stakeholders (T6 and T4) – although SH may feel that they have provided enough, the frontline teachers may still feel more support is needed as the workload from SBA is high. The findings reveal 32 that KH should also collaborate more with KH from other subjects so as to devise SBA schedules in avoiding the overloading of work. 4.4 The grading of SBA In light of the autonomy given to teachers in grading their students’ SBA works, standardization is a crucial factor in determining fairness and minimizing discrepancies in students’ marks among both teachers and between schools, thus allowing a more accurate and better reflection on the quality of the students’ works accordingly. The information on the marking requirements of SBA works is essential to students, therefore such knowledge must be readily transferable and transparent. This section will look at the extent to which KH have ensured fairness in SBA grading at their schools and whether they and T6 have made SBA knowledge transferable to students. The findings revealed that the vast majority of Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) have taken into consideration and have ensured that there is reliability and fairness in SBA results. They adopted different measures as follows (in descending order): “My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers” (KH: 95.4%), “My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA” (KH: 93.9%), “Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (KH: 85.6%), and “Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools” (KH: 81.1%), Figure 6 below: Figure 6: The grading of SBA viewed by KH 33 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong On the other hand, T6 have revealed their efforts in handling SBA queries (in descending order): “I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results” (T6: 86.3%) and “I have clearly explained to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T6: 81.6%), as indicated in Figure 7 below: Figure 7: The grading of SBA viewed by T6 It is a discernible fact that the grading of SBA is viewed by both KH and T6 to have been ensured in its fairness; mechanisms were in place to ensure objectivity and consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. Meanwhile, schools’ procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results have been clearly explained to the students, suggesting that students were provided with and were knowledgeable about obtaining information on their SBA results. Furthermore, it is noteworthy to mention that the majority of KH perceived their teachers to have understood how HKEAA would moderate SBA scores across different schools, and that the majority of T6 have made the marking criteria available to their students at their respective schools. 4.5 The effectiveness of SBA One of the intended functions of SBA is to enable teachers to provide feedback and comprehensive appraisals to students, thus allowing students to understand and improve on their areas of weakness. In addition to this, SBA can allow students to demonstrate their strengths - that are often neglected in traditional public examinations (e.g. presentation skills). This section looks at the extent to which feedback and the demonstration of students’ alternative skills are enabled by the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum. As indicated by Figure 8 below, only around 50%-65% of stakeholders (T6, T4 and T3) agreed about the perceived benefits of SBA: “SBA enables students / me to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses” (*T6: 57.0%, T4: 57.9%), “SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations” (*T6: 56.9%, T4: 59.2%), and “I support School-based Assessment 34 (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently” (*T6: 45.7%, T4: 49.7%, T3: 65.5%). Figure 8: SBA feedback for learning viewed by T6, T4, and T3 The opinions of the teachers varied in the use of SBA as a feedback tool for students – while about 65% of T3 felt that SBA enabled them to provide useful feedback for students on a frequent basis, half of T4 and more than half of T6 felt otherwise. The use of SBA in enabling students in better understanding their own strengths and weaknesses and as a means to demonstrate their ability in areas not assessed in public examinations were rated relatively more positively by T6 and T4, despite a significant portion (about 40%) of them feeling that SBA could not do so. Although a significant portion of teachers were able to improve the learning and teaching environment by effectively implementing SBA, the results revealed that there are factors hindering some teachers from doing so. As a preliminary observation, these factors may include the overburdening of workload derived from SBA that prevented teachers from having the needed time to provide feedback for their students. 4.6 The confidence of teachers teaching Secondary 4 and the extent of success in implementing SBA by teachers teaching Secondary 6 Teachers’ confidence in implementing SBA can reveal their knowledge and understanding of SBA in bringing it to fruition; likewise, the lack in such confidence may also suggest their concerns in the implementation process. The scales of T4 (confidence scale) and T6 (agreement scale) are different due to their respective nature - of the lack of 35 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong experience in implementing SBA for T4, as opposed to the experienced T6. The findings suggested that the majority of T4 were comfortable in implementing SBA related tasks, as revealed by the high ratings in the following items (in descending order): “clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject” (T4: 80.4%), “clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment” (T4: 78.5%), “design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning” (T4: 77.4%), and “clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school” (T4: 74.2%). It is noted that the item “handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T4: 59.1%) was rated relatively lower than the above, indicating that about 40% of T4 were not confident with their handling of workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 9 below: Figure 9: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T4 Meanwhile, the majority of T6 agreed to the items (in descending order): “I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning” (T6: 77.8%), and “So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly” (T6: 68.7%). However, less than 50% of T6 agreed with the item “I can handle the workload brought about by SBA” (T6: 45.8%), suggesting they are facing difficulties in handling workload derived from SBA, as indicated in Figure 10 below: 36 Figure 10: Teachers’ confidence in SBA implementation viewed by T6 This section has suggested that the majority of T4 have confidence in designing effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning, were able to implement SBA smoothly, and have clearly explained to students the contemporary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment as well as how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in their schools. In addition, T6 have revealed that they have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning and were able to implement SBA smoothly. On the down side, workload derived from SBA was troubling T4, as indicated by their relatively lower confidence in handling this aspect. By the same token, more than half of T6 have revealed their inability in handling workload derived from SBA. 5. Discussion The data reveal that the implementation of SBA in the NSS Curriculum has been a successful endeavor by both Government and the education sector at the administrative and teaching levels; at the administrative level, the majority of the major players - i.e. SH as well as KH of the education sector revealed that they have fully incorporated SBA into their schools; support measures were provided for teachers in the implementation of SBA, whereby working group and coordinators were designated to help teachers coordinate their subjects, and measures were employed to ensure fairness, objectivity and consistency in grading SBA works. Meanwhile on the teaching level (T6, T4 and T3), teachers were well aware of their dual role in SBA (as facilitators of student learning and as assessors), whereby both teachers and students were also well informed of its contents, marking procedures (both by HKEAA and the school), and related information made readily available and transparent 37 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong at times of need. It is encouraging to see that the learning and teaching environment of the students was enhanced through the designing of effective SBA tasks. Notwithstanding the above positive views from the major stakeholders, the implementation of SBA was met by perceptions of its overwhelming workload. Despite the schools’ effort in scheduling subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year, a significant portion of T4 were skeptical of their ability to handle SBA workload whilst more than half of T6 from the sample felt that they were unable to handle the vast amount of work derived from SBA. As a general observation still yet to be tested in future studies, SBA workload might be the cause for the limited use of SBA for producing feedback for identifying strengths and weaknesses in students, thus helping them in their learning progress. To realize the goal of “learning and teaching with assessment” through the implementation of SBA (HKEAA, 2013a), teachers should undergo professional training in understanding the curriculum’s learning goals and related criteria so as to place further emphasis in producing assessment feedbacks for students – as the streamlining of SBA should provide more time for teachers to do so. And as suggested by Harlen (2004), the development of an assessment community is essential for allowing a constructive and positive discussion on SBA, in which different intra- and inter-school stakeholders among various geographical settings can contribute to this community. These discussion topics may include the distribution of resources, intra- and inter-school moderation standardization, teacher assessment, and ongoing professional trainings etc., so as to promote quality assurance for SBA. 6. Conclusion To maximize the benefits derived from the implementation of SBA, both the education sector and the Government bodies must identify the causes for the limited use of SBA in producing feedback and appraisals for the holistic development of students’ learning profiles. The immense amount of SBA workload felt by the teachers cannot be neglected, thus HKEAA, CDC, EDB and as well as the education sector have worked hand in hand in improving this aspect of the NSS Curriculum, as seen by the recent streamlining measures in SBA subjects. The education sector has yet to experience these measures and studies are required in the future to identify the effectiveness therein. As many believe in the high potential of what SBA can bring to the learning and teaching environment, an effective implementation of SBA in terms of its scheduling, standardization in grading, information flow and the overall support for both schools and teachers are inextricable components to the welfare and effective incorporation of SBA into the NSS Curriculum – in all of which the Hong Kong education sector has 38 demonstrated its professionalism in accomplishing these and its commitment to rising to new challenges. Acknowledgements The research reported in this study was supported by a grant from the EDB, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the EDB. References Downs, J. (2012). If it can’t be externally assessed, it’s play, Gove’s message to teachers. Retrieved from http://www.localschoolsnetwork.org.uk/2012/11/if-it-cant-be-externally- assessed-its-play-goves-message-to-teachers/ Harlen, W. (2004). Can assessment by teachers be a dependable option for summative purposes? Paper presented at General Teaching Council for England Conference, 29 November, 2004, London. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012a). Definition of school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/SBA/HKDSE/Eng_ DVD/sba_definition.html Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012b). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education examination: Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013a). Booklet on HKDSE examination - Information on school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www. hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/Leaflets/SBA_ pamphlet_E_web.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013b). Subject information on SBA. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/SBA/sba_hkdse/SBA_timetable.html Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union. (2013).〈新高中問卷調查結果發布(2013)〉. Retrieved from http://www.hkptu.org/8896 39 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong Kerr-Phillips, F. (2007, August). School-based assessment: The need, the reality, the future: A perspective from the independent examinations board of South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.iaea.info/documents/paper_1162d20227.pdf Lee, W. W. C. (2009). The beneficial wash-back of the school-based assessment component on the speaking performance of students. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 8, 18-29. Retrieved from http://edb.org.hk/HKTC/download/journal/j8/(5)HKTCJ08-Article1-2.pdf Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Retrieved from http://www.oecd. org/education/school/34990905.pdf 40 Questionnaire for School Heads / Deputy Heads (SH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear School Heads / Deputy Heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the school’s internal assessment. 2. The school provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. Appendix 41 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe curriculum implementation in your school since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 5. Teachers clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 6. The school has designated a working group / coordinator to coordinate the implementation of SBA among subjects (e.g. the amount of tasks, timing). 7. The school has devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 8. The school has established appropriate procedures and regulations for conducting SBA to facilitate its effective implementation. 9. The school has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. The school has formulated procedures to handle students’ queries on SBA results. 42 Questionnaire for Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads (KH) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear Key Learning Area coordinators and subject panel heads, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e School-based Assessment (SBA) 1. SBA has become an integral part of the internal assessment in my KLA/subject. 2. My KLA/subject panel provides teachers with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. Teachers on my panel fully understand their dual role in SBA – as facilitators of student learning and as assessors. 43 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree that the items below describe how your KLA / subject panel implements learning and teaching strategies since the 2009/10 school year? St ro ng ly di sa gr ee D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly di sa gr ee Sl ig ht ly ag re e A gr ee St ro ng ly ag re e 4. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 5. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of their respective subjects. 6. Teachers on my panel have clearly explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 7. Teachers on my panel clearly understand how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores across different schools. 8. Working together with other KLA coordinators / subject panel heads, we have devised an SBA schedule for all subjects so as to avoid overloading students and teachers at some specific time of the year. 9. My KLA/subject panel has put in place a mechanism to ensure objectivity and fairness in SBA. 10. My KLA/subject panel introduces measures to ensure consistency in assessment criteria among teachers. 44 Questionnaire for Teachers Teaching S4 (T4) and S6 (T6) New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum Implementation Study 2011* *This section is extracted from the NSS questionnaire for the purpose of this paper. Dear teachers, The Education Bureau (EDB) has commissioned The Chinese University of Hong Kong to conduct the Study on the Implementation of the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum. As part of the Study, we would like to collect your views which would provide information for the EDB to strengthen school support and improve the effectiveness of implementation. Please be assured that the questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential and anonymous. All collected information will be used exclusively for evaluating the implementation of the NSS curriculum, and no reference will be made to any individual information. Thank you. Centre for Enhancing English Learning and Teaching (CEELT) Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong ________________________________________________________________________ To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee School-based Assessment (SBA) [Items 1-4 are applicable to all S4 teachers except for Mathematics teachers] [Items 1-11 are only applicable to S6 teachers who are mainly teaching the subjects that SBA will be implemented in 2012] 1. I support School- based Assessment (SBA) because it enables me to give feedback to students frequently. 45 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 2. My school provides me with adequate support in the implementation of SBA. 3. SBA enables students to demonstrate their ability in areas which cannot be assessed in public examinations. 4. SBA enables students to have a better understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses. 5. I have designed effective SBA tasks to facilitate student learning. 6. I have clearly explained to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 46 To what extent do you agree with the following descriptions? (Please focus on the S4 / S6 subject you are mainly teaching this school year.) For T4 only For T6 only St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee St ro ng ly d is ag re e D is ag re e Sl ig ht ly d is ag re e Sl ig ht ly a gr ee A gr ee St ro ng ly a gr ee 7. I have clearly explained to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 8. I have already explained to students the school’s procedures of handling students’ queries on SBA results. 9. I have clearly explained to students how the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) moderates the SBA scores in my school. 10. I can handle the workload brought about by SBA. 11. So far I have been able to implement SBA smoothly. 47 Perspectives of school-based assessment in the NSS curriculum through the eyes of the administrative and teaching stakeholders in Hong Kong For T4 only When I teach S5 in the coming school year, I am confident that I can… H ig hl y no t c on fid en t N ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly n ot c on fid en t Sl ig ht ly c on fid en t C on fid en t H ig hl y co nfi de nt 12. design effective SBA tasks to improve student learning. 13. clearly explain to students the complementary nature of written examinations and SBA in the public assessment. 14. clearly explain to students the assessment requirements and methods in the SBA of my subject. 15. clearly explain to students how the HKEAA moderates the SBA scores in my school. 16. handle the workload brought about by SBA. 48 香港新高中課程下學校管理及教學人員眼中的校本評核 麥陳淑賢 香港中文大學教育學院 課程與教學學系 摘要 校本評核為進展性評估模式之一,透過回饋及評估學生專題研習的表現,讓學生了 解自己的弱項並加以改善,亦幫助教師調整教學策略(OECD, 2005)。校本評核就 大部份高中科目而言仍屬新概念,然而自 2009年推行新學制以來,校本評核已納 入新高中課程;其成效在香港、以致世界各地均備受爭議。本研究引用 2011-12年 度新高中課程實施調查研究數據(涵蓋 91所香港中學),探討學校管理及教學人 員對校本評核的觀點。 關鍵詞 校本評核,進展性評估,新高中課程,課程改革,香港教育 49 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study YEUNG Pui Ming, LEE Wang Fung, WONG Kam Yiu & WONG Ping Man Educational Research Sub-committee, Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Abstract Students in Hong Kong show a widening range of learning abilities in secondary school as shown, for instance, by their performance in the Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination which was introduced in 2012 together with the 3-year New Senior Secondary (NSS) curriculum. This study examines how far their diverse learning needs have been catered for. Information was collected from the heads of core subjects from a large variety of schools through an online questionnaire survey. Findings include that catering for learning diversity is beset by problems such as resource shortage, the infrequent use of enquiry-oriented teaching methods and independent learning strategies as well as weaknesses in assessment arrangements in spite of considerable progress in extending learning opportunities outside the classroom. Concerted efforts must be taken by teachers, school heads and the government to improve the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in such ways that students irrespective of learning ability can benefit. Ways to rectify the situation include the reduction of teacher workload and provision of additional manpower, continuous curriculum review with far more teacher input, production of handy and up-to-date material resources, modification of teaching approaches and reforming of the examination so that it can really help to enhance learning rather than just its measurement. Keywords learning diversity, New Senior Secondary curriculum, Diploma in Secondary Education examination, questionnaire survey, teaching strategies 50 Introduction Primary school graduates in Hong Kong seeking admission to public-sector secondary education are allocated to three academic bands according to their scores in internal examinations and their schools’ overall performance in the preceding three years (Education Bureau [EDB], 2011). Within the same band, however, considerable differences in learning ability do exist. Differences in the mastery of knowledge are likely to widen both within and between groups as more subjects have to be studied in junior secondary school. They are becoming more obvious in the senior secondary from 2009 onwards because of the requirement for all students to complete a 3-year NSS curriculum instead of the 2-year Certificate of Education (CE) course. The more academic nature of senior schooling for all and the implementation of the policies of “catering for diversities” and “integrating disabled and low ability children in an inclusive environment” in a majority of schools (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005) are the reasons that are responsible. Teachers have to devote more attention to helping the more able develop further and the increasing numbers of below-average students to do well in the DSE examination (e.g. Chan, 2010), which by nature is more demanding than its predecessor in format, subject content and learning skills. Now that the first two cycles of the DSE examination are over and the trend of learning diversity is clear. Only 37.7% and 34.5% of the candidates in 2012 and 2013 could meet the university requirements of level 3 in Chinese and English and level 2 in Mathematics and Liberal Studies (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [HKEAA], 2012a, 2013). The respective proportions of students who could attain passes (at level 2) in these core subjects were 79.2%, 79.3%, 79.7% and 90.8% in 2012 and 80.3%, 78.1%, 80.7% and 88.0% in 2013 (HKEAA, 2012a, 2013). Given the substantial variations in performance, finding how far the diverse learning needs of NSS students have been catered for becomes imperative. This study is an attempt to do so with respect to resource provision, teaching and learning strategies and continuous assessment practices. The case with the core subjects is examined because students have to pass in all of them (and at least in one elective subject) before they are considered as having completed their secondary education successfully. Review of literature Diversity in learning ability In the literature, learning diversity is generally taken as the presence of variations in learning ability among students receiving the same type of education (Ackerman, Kyllonen & Roberts, 1999; Wu, Tu, Wu, Le & Reynolds, 2012). Its occurrence in the realm of academic knowledge is considered a function of both innate, inherited traits and everyday educational experience (e.g. Biggs & Moore, 1993; James, 2006; Jonassen & Grabowski, 51 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study 2011). The latter is probably more important than the former as it can be improved through the use of appropriate teaching strategies that are supported by well endowed resources and stimulating learning activities (Means, Chelemer & Knapp, 1991; Tomlinson, 2001). With their extensive classroom experience and understanding of students’ strengths and weaknesses, teachers are in the best position to reduce learning diversity (Chappuis, 2009), for instance, by giving individual attention to the weaker ones and helping students analyse practice papers from the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) two months ahead of the first DSE examination in late March 2012. Coping with learning diversity To begin with, teachers faced with the daunting problems of meeting varying needs and paces of learning in the same classroom do require support from a wide variety of school and community resources (Curriculum Development Council, 2009). Besides the hardware and software resources available in classrooms, schools should have additional manpower and plans to cater for the enrichment needs of higher achievers (such as stargazing and learning the elements of astronomy in physics, and debating in language subjects) and help the less capable ones to catch up (such as in the solution of simultaneous equations in mathematics). Even if resources are readily available, one size cannot fit all. To cater for learning diversity, writers have identified a variety of teaching skills that are required besides those suitable for the average student. For weaker ones, teachers for instance could make significant adaptations to classroom programmes, curriculum content, teaching and learning processes and even provide tailored plans that can help them rekindle their interest and confidence (e.g. Winebrenner, 1996; Westwood, 2008). For the talented and gifted then, a mastery of acceleration (e.g. offering guidance to the most able promoted to a higher class level or more advanced group), curriculum compacting (e.g. cutting out unnecessary drills and organising appropriate extension work instead), expert grouping (e.g. helping the more able ones develop further insights on a research topic), cluster grouping (e.g. providing specialised programmes at a central point for high-ability students from different schools) and mentoring (i.e. enabling capable students to learn after outside experts) and other appropriate methods are useful for helping them to learn faster and at more advanced levels than the average (Biggs & Moore, 1993; Winebrenner, 1992; Goodhew, 2009). Language teachers were called on to understand students’ personal stories before setting out to teach for instance (McDaniel, 2010). In a related context, Roland (2010) invited them to consider differentiated teaching as serving a buffet that could meet the criteria of variety, quality, balance and attractiveness for students at various ability levels. As Tomlinson (2001) has summarised, teachers should plan and teach with respect to student readiness, interest and needs. Even if their learning needs are well catered for, 52 students may obtain widely different scores in tests and examinations of the same scope and format. Although it is neither easy to close this performance gap nor simply to narrow it down, teachers should at least help all to score higher than what they are used to have (c.f. the aim of the United States No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2001) (Wiliam, 2006). Assessment has a key role here for helping the more able maximise their potential and the less able to make up for lost grounds (Chappuis, 2009). The role of assessment on checking learning diversity Testing students on a broad range of aspects (e.g. listening, speaking, reading and writing in language subjects) and at higher frequencies is considered an effective way of helping teachers understand better how much has been learnt by everyone and the improvements that are needed individually and by each ability group (Berry, 2008). Instead of concentrating on written work, teachers can identify with students more aspects or forms for assessment, such as skills in model-making, recording and video production as well as the delivery of oral presentations (Davies, Herbst & Reynolds, 2011). If appropriate feedback is given and due action is taken, assessment of learning that simply measures how much students have learnt can be changed into assessment for learning that helps everyone (Black & Wiliam, 2006a) to improve (albeit not necessarily at the same pace) and the more able to learn beyond the confines of the lesson (c.f. Black & Wiliam, 2006b). The lesson that can be learnt from the literature is that assessing students in a wider range of format not only could measure diverse learning abilities more effectively but also could encourage those who are otherwise lagging in one aspect or another to develop their potential further instead of giving up altogether. Methodology and instruments A multi-stage process was followed to determine how the teachers of core NSS subjects had been coping with learning diversity and preparing students for the public examination. The methodology and instruments used were developed by the researchers in early 2011. The consensus reached thereby about the scope of data needed was used to develop a framework for investigation and focus-group discussions in June with representatives from relevant subject organisations on the membership list of the Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre. Questionnaires for teachers were designed and refined according to the results. Respondents were asked about their personal and school backgrounds, resource provision, use of teaching strategies and the arrangements for helping students to do better in the curriculum and examination. Unlike those for the three other subjects, the one for Mathematics asked how learning would be affected by the absence of school- based assessment (SBA) as stipulated for the foreseeable future. Versions in Chinese and English were administered to the teachers of Mathematics and Liberal Studies because their subjects could be studied and examined in one of the two languages. 53 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Data collection began with a series of pilot tests and further amendments in early 2012. A covering letter was sent in mid-April to secondary schools offering NSS curriculum (N=514) to explain the aim of the study and invite the heads of the core subjects to complete the survey through a hyperlink to the website HYPERLINK “http:// www.my3q.com” www.my3q.com within three weeks. Responses from the six groups of subject heads concerned (including those of Mathematics and Liberal Studies teaching in English or Chinese) were uploaded onto Microsoft Excel files and processed with the Statistics for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program (Stern, 2010; Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner & Barrett, 2011). The specific functions that were run included FREQUENCIES and DESCRIPTIVES for identifying general patterns and the mean, minima, maxima and standard deviation values of responses, CROSSTABS for determining whether pairs of variables were related, and CORRELATE for assessing the strength and direction of relationships (Muijs, 2011). Results School, student and teacher backgrounds Respondents to the questionnaire survey varied substantially in numbers across subjects, from 63 (out of 514) teachers each of English and Chinese to 90 (out of 514) teachers of Mathematics teaching in either language. All of them had long teaching experiences of 11 years or more. Unlike the others, Liberal Studies teachers had fewer than five years in their subject as it was only an elective offered in about 25% of schools at the Advanced Supplementary level before 2009. Training could be considered sufficient overall as the numbers of teachers who had taken the respective curriculum and assessment courses (e.g. 7.7 in Liberal Studies (EMI) on average) were greater than the numbers of student groups concerned (5.6). Most of them were teaching in co-educational aided schools sponsored by a variety of religious, welfare and community organisations (cf. Table 1). Students completing the NSS curriculum in 2011-12 had been allocated to their classes mostly by their performance in Chinese, English and Mathematics in Form 3 in the academic year 2008-09. The majority of schools were running five classes of Form 4 to Form 6 for this first NSS cohort. However, the mean number of groups in each school was about six in the case of Liberal Studies because of the availability of a government grant to employ one additional teacher for facilitating teaching in smaller classes. 54 Table 1: Responses about background information English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. School by type of sponsorship 1 = Aided; 2 = Government; 3 = Direct subsidy scheme Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. School by the sex of students 1 = Boys; 2 = Girls; 3 = Co-educational Mode = 3 N = 59 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 Mode =3 3. Overall teaching experience 1 = 0 – 5 years; 2 = 6 – 10 years 3 = 11 –15 years; 4 = 16 – 20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.2 Mode = 5 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 2.7 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 4. Teaching experience in this subject 1 = 0-5 years; 2 = 6-10 years 3 = 11-15 years; 4 = 16-20 years 5 = 21 years or more Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.0 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 1.7 Mode =1 Mean = 0.9 Mode = 1 5. No. of years with Liberal Studies at the Advanced Supplementary Level N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. Mean = 4.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 6. Mean no. of classes (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) Mean =3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 Mean = 3.9 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 4.3 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 4 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode =5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.7 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 4.4 Mode = 5 7. Mean no. of groups (a) Form 4 (2009-10) (b) Form 5 (2010-11) (c) Form 6 (2011-12) 4.7 4.7 4.6 N = 59 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.9 4.9 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.6 8. Streaming of F3 students into F4 by 1 = Overall rank; 2 = Performance in Chin., Eng. & Maths.; 3 = other criteria Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 9. Mean no. of Form 6 teachers this year Mean no. of Form 6 students this year Mean no. of Form 6 classes this year Mean no. of Form 6 groups this year 5.1 156 5.0 5.0 N = 59 4.7 157 4.8 5.1 1.8 167 5.0 4.9 1.8 167 4.6 4.8 5.1 153 4.7 5.7 5.1 149 4.5 5.6 10. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic curriculum course in this subject Mean = 8.5 Mode = 4 N = 58 Mean = 8.1 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 5.7 Mode = 6 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 11. No. of teachers who had already taken the basic assessment course in this subject Mean = 7.5 Mode = 5 N = 57 Mean = 7.8 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 6.5 Mode = 5 Mean = 7.6 Mode = 8 Mean = 7.7 Mode = 6 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. 55 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Provision of educational resources In spite of the need to minimize learning diversity in the core subjects, most of the schools had provided extra resources on an equal-sharing basis (cf. mode = 1 across row 1; mode = 3 across row 2, Table 2). The use of extra teachers, multimedia or other teaching materials and outside service support was less frequent than the deployment of teaching assistants (as in the cases of Chinese Language, Liberal Studies (CMI) and Liberal Studies (EMI); see row 4(b)) presumably because of funding constraints. Table 2: Responses about the provision of educational resources English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has your school provided extra resources to the subject to cater for learning diversity? 1 = Yes; 2 = No Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 2. The extra resources are 1 = provided to weaker students only 2 = provided to top students only 3 = equally shared among all students N = 52 Mode = 3 N = 39 Mode = 3 N = 27 Mode = 3 Mode = 3 N = 41 Mode = 3 N = 12 Mode = 3 3. No. of types of other resources provided to the subject Mean = 1.5 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.8 Mode = 1 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 0.7 Mode = 0 Mean = 1.3 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.1 Mode = 1 4. Types of other resources provided to the subject (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (a) Extra teachers (b) Extra teaching assistants (c) Extra multimedia or other teaching materials (d) Outside service support Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. Teaching and learning strategies The most common activities held recently to enhance teaching quality were drama, opera and movie shows for the two language subjects, writing contests for EMI Liberal Studies and visits for Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies (row 1, Table 3). Liberal Studies teachers and Mathematics teachers had organised study trips or visits since Secondary 5 more often than others (row 2). More students who were weaker in English Language and EMI Liberal Studies had benefitted from these enhancement activities (row 3) than students who were weaker in Mathematics (both through EMI and CMI). 56 Table 3: Responses about enrichment activities in teaching English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Most recent type of activity held to enhance the teaching of the subject Drama / opera / movie N = 31 Drama / opera / movie N = 7 Visit N = 6 Museum visit N = 37 Visit Writing course 2. How often has your panel organised trips or visits since F5 to enhance the teaching of the subject? 1 = Very often; 2 = Often; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Occasionally; 5 = Rarely or none N = 62 Mean = 4.3 N = 57 Mean = 4.0 N = 42 Mean = 1.5 N = 41 Mean = 1.4 N = 62 Mean = 3.6 N = 62 Mean = 1.1 3. Have the trips or visits helped the weaker students to enhance their learning? (5 = Very much so; 1 = Not at all) Mean = 3.1 Mode = 5 N = 59 Mean = 2.6 Mode = 3 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 1.7 Mode = 1 Mean = 3.0 Mode = 3 Mean = 3.3 Mode = 5 The implementation of the NSS curriculum has led to the use of new strategies (row 1, Table 4). CMI Liberal Studies teachers recorded the use of much more strategies than other teachers (e.g. 2.1 vs. 1.1 each by English Language and Chinese Language teachers; row 2). Amongst the range of recommendations by the EDB (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007a, 2007b, 2007c & 2007d), team teaching was the most widely employed one while peer lesson preparation, project learning and small group teaching methods were used at similarly lower frequencies (row 3). All teachers except those of Liberal Studies in EMI schools reported the use of strategies to cope with individual differences within their subjects (row 5). For this purpose, strategies like curriculum tailoring and tutorials were practised at similarly higher frequencies than the others. Cooperative learning was the least widely used overall especially in the case with Chinese Language (row 5). More new strategies (2.2) were employed in CMI Liberal Studies than in other subjects and in EMI Liberal Studies (0.8) in particular (row 6). Meanwhile, the NSS curriculum has succeeded in extending the focus of study from textbooks to other materials in Liberal Studies (CMI and EMI) much more than in other subjects. It had much less effect on Mathematics (CMI and EMI) in this regard (row 7) as well as on time-tabling across all subjects (row 9). Learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered to greater extents in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other core subjects (row 8). 57 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Table 4: Use of new strategies by teachers English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 1. Has the NSS curriculum led to new strategies for teaching this subject in the school? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 2. Mean number of new strategies employed 1.1 1.1 0.6 N = 42 0.5 2.1 0.0 3. What are these new strategies? (a) Team teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (b) Peer lesson preparation (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (c) Project learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (d) Small group teaching (1 = Yes; 2 = No) (e) Others (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1.2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 N = 42 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 4. Are there teaching strategies to cope with individual differences in the subject? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 5. What are these strategies for coping with individual differences in the subject? (a) Streaming (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 N = 43 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (b) Tailor-made curricula (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (c) Co-operative learning (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 (d) Tutorials (1 = Yes; 2 = No; 0 = Non-response) Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 Mode = 0 Mode = 2 Mode = 0 (e) Others Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 6. Mean number of teaching strategies for individual differences 1.7 N = 59 1.4 1.2 N = 43 1.3 2.2 0.8 7. Has the NSS curriculum led to a shift in focus from textbooks to other materials? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 1 58 English Language Total = 63 Chinese Language Total = 63 Mathe- matics (CMI) Total = 46 Mathe- matics (EMI) Total = 44 Liberal Studies (CMI) Total = 53 Liberal Studies (EMI) Total = 15 8. Has the NSS curriculum encouraged your students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom? (1 = Yes; 2 = No) Mode = 1 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 1 Mode = 2 9. Has the NSS curriculum led to flexible time-tabling arrangements in your subject? (1 = Yes, 2 = No) Mode = 2 N = 59 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 Mode = 2 The number of teachers with a valid reply to each item is given by the number N for the subject concerned unless stated otherwise. The following pairs of statistically significant relationships between teaching strategies and resource provision are worthy of investigation (Appendix 1): (a) The frequency of organising trips or visits to enhance the teaching of the subject was significantly related to and even dependent on (i) the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students if Liberal Studies was taught in English (item 1), and (ii) the number of types or resources provided in the case of the students of English, EMI Liberal Studies and EMI Mathematics (item 2). Significant relationships between pairs of variables warranting further analysis were also found in the following (Appendix 2): (b) The number of new strategies for teaching the subject was (i) significantly related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 3), and (ii) significantly related to the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the case of English Language (item 4). (c) The number of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was (i) significantly related to the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of English Language (item 5), and (ii) significantly related to or even dependent on the number of other types of resources provided by the school in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and CMI Liberal Studies (item 6). 59 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study (d) In the case of English Language, whether the NSS curriculum could lead to the use of new teaching strategies was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 8). (e) In the case of EMI Liberal Studies, (i) whether the NSS curriculum could bring a shift in focus from textbooks to other forms of learning and teaching materials was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 9), and (ii) whether the NSS curriculum could encourage EMI Liberal Studies students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity among students (item 10). (f) The use of teaching strategies to cope with individual differences was related to or even dependent on the receipt of extra resources to cater for learning diversity in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (item 11). (g) Whether the NSS curriculum could encourage students to learn beyond the confines of the classroom was significantly related to or even dependent on the shift in focus from textbooks to other materials in the cases of English Language, EMI Liberal Studies and CMI Mathematics (item 12). Continuous assessment A hallmark of the first two cycles of the NSS curriculum (2009-12 and 2012-13) is the requirement for students of English, Chinese and Liberal Studies to be assessed six times internally in prescribed areas through their second and final years of senior schooling and their scores sent to HKEAA prior to the start of the written examinations. The two most common forms of this school-based assessment (SBA) exercise were project work and internal tests. Mathematics does not have any SBA requirement although continuous assessment is still encouraged (CDC & HKEAA, 2007e, 2007f). A majority of teachers had taken courses offered by the EDB or other professional training institutes on updating their knowledge of the related assessment frameworks (row 15, Table 5). Their rating about the easiness and fairness of SBA was due to (i) similarity in the difficulty of assessment for all students and (iv) the marking of assignments by different teachers (rows 5 and 6). Teachers of English and CMI Liberal Studies also attributed their ratings to (ii) the dependence of student training on their relative performance, (iii) streaming of students by academic level and (iv) teaching of classes/ students by the same teacher. Teachers except those of EMI Liberal Studies reported a lack of preparation materials for students (row 2). The mean number of supporting items named 60 by teachers ranged from 1.5 in Chinese Language to 2.2 in CMI Liberal Studies only (row 3). Materials provided by the EDB, HKEAA and other organisations were used more often than others. In terms of usefulness then, reference exercises ranked highest among English, EMI Mathematics and EMI Liberal Studies teachers (row 4). Sample papers were regarded as more useful than others for preparing students to take the examinations in Chinese Language, CMI Mathematics and CMI Liberal Studies. SBA for English, Chinese and Liberal Studies was generally considered by teachers as a fair but difficult procedure for their students (row 6 and row 5). This trend was especially noticeable in the case of CMI Liberal Studies (with the mean value equal to 3.9). The large amount of time needed was the main reason for making it a problem in Chinese Language and Liberal Studies (row 16). The assessment of listening, reading, writing, speaking and integrated skills in English Language was considered a challenge (row 12) for students. 61 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 1. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f co m pl ex ity to w ar ds th e da ily a ss es sm en t in y ou r s ub je ct a t t he N SS le ve l? 1 = m uc h le ss c om pl ic at ed ; 5 = m uc h m or e co m pl ic at ed M od e = 4 N = 6 0 M od e = 4 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 4 M od e = 4 2. A re th er e en ou gh su pp or t m at er ia ls fo r st ud en ts in p re pa rin g fo r t he ir H K D SE ex am ? (1 = e no ug h; 2 = n ot e no ug h) M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 2 M od e = 1 3. W ha t a re th os e su pp or t m at er ia ls ? (1 = us ed ; 2 = n ot u se d) M ea n N = 5 9 M ea n M ea n N = 4 2 M ea n M ea n M ea n Sa m pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 55 0. 6 R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 0. 5 0. 4 1. 5( N = 4 4) 0. 5 0. 58 0. 7 Sc ho ol -b as ed m at er ia ls 0. 6 0. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 0. 8 0. 70 0. 8 R ef er en ce b oo ks 0. 6 0. 6 1. 6( N = 4 4) 0. 6 0. 72 1. 0 O th er m at er ia ls su pp lie d by E D B 0. 6 0. 6 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 0. 75 1. 1 M at er ia ls p ro vi de d by o th er b od ie s 0. 8 0. 8 1. 9( N = 4 4) 0. 9 1. 04 1. 1 M ea n no . o f t yp es o f s up po rti ng m at er ia ls u se d 1. 6 1. 5 1. 8( N = 4 4) 1. 6 2. 2 1. 9 4. W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g m at er ia ls o r pr og ra m m es is m os t u se fu l f or p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e H K D SE e xa m ? (“ us ef ul ” in th e qu es tio nn ai re s f or te ac he rs o f C hi ne se L an gu ag e, C M I Li be ra l S tu di es a nd C M I M at he m at ic s) 1 = S am pl e ex am in at io n pa pe r 2 = R ef er en ce e xe rc is es 3 = R ef er en ce b oo ks 4 = T ea ch er tr ai ni ng fr om E D B 5 = O th er s M ea n no . o f u se fu l m at er ia ls fo r p re pa rin g st ud en ts to ta ke th e D SE N = 6 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N = 5 9 1. 0 1. 1 1. 4 1. 5 1. 8 2. 4 N = 4 4 1. 5 1. 6 2. 0 2. 0 2. 0 1. 5 N = 4 3 M ea n = 1. 5 N = 5 3 1. 1 1. 1 1. 4 1. 6 1. 8 2. 3 M ea n = 1. 9 62 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 5. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e ea si ne ss o f im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed a ss es sm en t fo r y ou r s tu de nt s? ( 1 = ve ry e as y; 5 = v er y di ffi cu lt) M ea n = 3. 5 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 6 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 9 M ea n = 2. 4 6. H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e fa irn es s o f cu rr en t s ch oo l-b as ed a ss es sm en t pr oc ed ur es fo r s tu de nt s i n yo ur sc ho ol ? ( 1 = ex tre m el y un fa ir; 5 = e xt re m el y fa ir) M ea n = 3. 1 N = 5 9 M ea n = 3. 5 N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M ea n = 3. 2 7. T he re as on s f or th e ab ov e ra tin g ar e (a ) 1= Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s ta ilo r-m ad e. 2 = Th e di ffi cu lty o f a ss es sm en t i s th e sa m e am on g al l s tu de nt s M od e = 2 N = 5 9 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 (b ) 1 = T he tr ai ni ng fo r s tu de nt s i s t he sa m e. 2 = Th e tra in in g fo r s tu de nt s i s de pe nd en t o n th ei r r el at iv e pe rf or m an ce . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 (c ) 1 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y th ei r ac ad em ic le ve l. 2 = St ud en ts a re st re am ed b y an ot he r cr ite rio n. M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 8 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (d ) 1 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y di ffe re nt te ac he rs . 2 = C la ss es /s tu de nt s a re ta ug ht b y th e sa m e te ac he rs . M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 (e ) 1 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by o ne te ac he r. 2 = S tu de nt s’ w or k is m ar ke d by di ffe re nt te ac he rs . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . M od e = 2 M od e = 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 63 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 8. W ha t k in d of c on tin uo us a ss es sm en ts h as yo ur sc ho ol p ro vi de d? (a ) U ni fo rm te st s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) A ss es sm en t o f c la ss w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 4 1. 5 N .A . N .A . (c ) R eg ul ar q ui zz es (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 2 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (d ) Pr oj ec t w or k (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 9 N .A . N .A . (e ) O nl in e as se ss m en t ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 1. 9 1. 8 N .A . N .A . (f ) O th er s ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . 2. 0 2. 1 N .A . N .A . 9. Is th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k cl ea r en ou gh ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M od e = 1 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 10 . C an th e as se ss m en t f ra m ew or k en ha nc e le ar ni ng ? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n = 1. 1 M od e = 1 M ea n = 1. 2 M od e = 1 N .A . N .A . 11 . Th e pu bl ic e xa m in at io n as se ss es a bi lit ie s in L is te ni ng , R ea di ng , W rit in g, S pe ak in g an d In te gr at ed S ki lls . H as y ou r s ch oo l pr ov id ed e xt ra tr ai ni ng o pp or tu ni tie s f or te ac he rs to u pd at e th ei r u nd er st an di ng o f th e ne w a ss es sm en t f ra m ew or k in th es e ar ea s? (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) M od e = 1 M od e = 2 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 12 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra nk th e di ffi cu lty o f SB A in y ou r s ub je ct ? (1 = m os t d iffi cu lt; 5 = le as t d iffi cu lt) (a ) Li st en in g (b ) R ea di ng (c ) W rit in g (d ) Sp ea ki ng (e ) In te gr at ed S ki lls M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 M od e = 3 N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . 13 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e pr es su re on te ac he rs fr om th e sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t o f I nd ep en de nt E nq ui ry St ud ie s ( IE S) ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 4. 5 M od e = 5 M ea n = 4. 4 M od e = 5 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 64 En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 14 . H ow w ou ld y ou ra te th e le ve l o f di ffi cu lty o f s et tin g in te rn al e xa m in at io n qu es tio ns ? N .A . N .A . N .A . N .A . M ea n = 3. 5 M od e = 3 M ea n = 3. 4 M od e = 3 15 . H ow m an y pe rc en t o f t ea ch er s i n yo ur pa ne l h ad a lre ad y ta ke n th e as se ss m en t- re la te d tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s? 1 = 0 -2 5% ; 2 = 2 6- 50 % ; 3 = 51 -7 5% ; 4 = 7 6- 10 0% M od e = 4 M od e = 4 N .A . N .A . M od e = 3 M od e = 4 16 . W hi ch o f t he fo llo w in g is th e m os t im po rta nt re as on fo r m ak in g SB A di ffi cu lt? 1 = La ck o f s up po rt fu nd in g 2 = La ck o f s up pl em en ta ry re fe re nc e fo r te ac he rs 3 = La ck o f t ra in in g fo r t ea ch er s 4 = D iv er si fie d ab ili tie s o f s tu de nt s 5 = H ig h de m an d on st ud en ts 6 = La rg e am ou nt o f t im e ne ed ed M od e = 1 M od e = 6 N .A . N .A . M od e = 6 M od e = 6 17 . W ha t a re th e ad va nt ag es o f n o SB A o n te ac he rs a nd st ud en ts o f t hi s s ub je ct ? (a ) Th er e is m or e fle xi bi lit y in cu rr ic ul um p la nn in g. (1 = Y es , 2 = N o) N .A . N .A . M ea n 1. 4 M ea n 1. 2 N .A . N .A . (b ) S tu de nt s’ pr es su re c an b e re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 1 (c ) T ea ch er s h av e m or e tim e to p ro vi de su ita bl e tra in in g fo r d iff er en t st ud en ts . ( 1 = Ye s; 2 = N o) 1. 3 1. 2 (d ) T ea ch er s’ da ily w or kl oa d ca n be re du ce d. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 1 1. 2 (e ) T he sc ho ol c an im pl em en t b et te r- fo cu ss ed su pp or t t ow ar ds p re pa ra tio n fo r t he p ub lic e xa m in at io n. (1 = Y es ; 2 = N o) 1. 2 2 1. 3 2 T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 65 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study En gl is h La ng ua ge N = 6 3 C hi ne se La ng ua ge N = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) N = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) N = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) N = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) N = 1 5 18 . N o. o f a dv an ta ge s o f n o SB A in th is su bj ec t N .A . N .A . 3. 9 4 N .A . N .A . 19 . M ea n no . o f c om m en ts p er te ac he r ab ou t t he N SS c ur ric ul um a nd D SE ex am in at io n N = 2 6 4. 5 N = 5 9 2. 7 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 1 0 2. 6 N = 2 4 4. 2 N = 6 4. 8 T he n um be r of te ac he rs w ith a v al id r ep ly to e ac h ite m is g iv en b y th e nu m be r N f or th e su bj ec t c on ce rn ed u nl es s st at ed o th er w is e. T ab le 5 : R es po ns es a bo ut c on tin uo us a ss es sm en t ( co nt in ue d) 66 Teachers of Mathematics need not administer SBA in their subject. They could name four advantages for this arrangement, with the reduction in teacher workload and reduction in pressure on students being the two most common (row 18, Table 5). English and EMI Liberal Studies gave far more negative comments about SBA. Statistically significant relationships warranting further investigation were found as follows (Appendix 3): (a) The degree of easiness in implementing school-based assessment was related to and dependent on complexity in daily procedures in the cases of English Language, Chinese Language and EMI Liberal Studies. In the case of CMI Liberal Studies, the relationship was significant but the former variable was not dependent on the latter (item 13). (b) The degree of fairness for implementing school-based assessment in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on complexity in the assessment process (item 14). (c) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Listening (item 15) and Speaking (item 18) in English Language was dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (d) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Reading (item 16) and Writing (row 17) in English Language was related to but not dependent on complexity in daily assessment. (e) The degree of difficulty in implementing the SBA of Speaking in English Language was related to but not dependent on the proportion of teachers who had taken the assessment-related courses offered by EDB or other professional training institutes (item 28). (f) The pressure on teachers from the SBA of Independent Enquiry Studies projects in EMI Liberal Studies was dependent on the proportion of teachers trained in assessment (item 30). Discussion School, student and teacher backgrounds Although no sampling has been made to invite teachers for participation in this study, the profiles of schools and teachers’ experience obtained are generally compatible with official statistics. Similarities can also be found in the mean number of Form 4 and Form 6 teachers, students, classes and groups, the criteria for streaming Form 3 students into Form 4, and the numbers of teachers who had completed the subject-based curriculum and assessment courses. In the light of these trends, the questionnaire replies can be taken as 67 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study representative of the views of NSS teachers although allowance should be taken for those of the non-respondents. Provision of educational resources Teachers’ responses suggest that educational resources are often insufficient especially if additional manpower is concerned and marked learning diversity does exist in the class. The situation is especially critical in the first few years of the NSS curriculum which emphasises the use of new teaching approaches, coverage of academic content at greater depth and breadth and the implementation of school-based assessments in a majority of subjects. The EDB had offered a teacher professional preparation grant and a curriculum migration grant to all schools but they were to be shared by all subjects. Special resources have been provided in Liberal Studies in view of the numerous controversial issues for in-depth analysis and the need for providing guidance on the completion of an Independent Enquiry Study (IES). However, no similar manpower or hardware support is available to other core subjects probably because they have long existed in the curriculum. This situation is hardly satisfactory in view of the intensive preparations needed for SBA in Chinese and English and the higher demands for students in Mathematics when compared with those of the CE examination that has been replaced. More efforts are certainly required for helping students master basic academic skills (e.g. communication, application and computation), more advanced problem-solving techniques and higher-order questions. Teaching and learning strategies Teachers in general have taken steps to cater for learning diversity in the classes through the use of appropriate teaching strategies without sufficient support in spite of the importance given to educational resources by writers in the literature section. Questionnaire responses revealed that drama, opera and movie shows, writing contests and visits were often used for enhancing teaching quality and facilitating in-depth learning. This trend could be beneficial to students who were weaker in writing as well as students who were weaker in oral presentations as both groups were given more opportunities to learn how to express themselves and interact with others in a variety of real-life situations. Whilst team teaching was often used in the classroom, peer lesson preparation was used at much lower frequencies. This finding is surprising in view of the close relationship between these two strategies. However, it might be a reflection of the need to be pragmatic when teachers had little interaction time inside the staff room amidst a heavy workload, or that cooperation among them had long been running smooth. On average, the use of strategies which emphasized class discussion, debate and other forms of collaborative learning in the core subjects with the advent of the NSS curriculum and the DSE examination was still limited. 68 To cope with learning diversity amongst students, teachers were often making more use of curriculum tailoring and tutorials than streaming and cooperative learning procedures possibly because of the lower degree of organisation and monitoring needed. Mathematics teachers (CMI and EMI) were the less frequent users of new strategies overall and for coping with individual differences in particular. The facts that school-based assessment was not required in their subject unlike the cases with English, Chinese and Liberal Studies and that individual differences were less marked here might be the reasons for this trend. Because of its issues-based nature, Liberal Studies is a subject which requires the interpretation and analysis of news and commentaries available in a variety of publications and electronic media (Deng 2009). Many teachers had accordingly changed the focus of study from textbooks to other materials to greater extents than their colleagues. In a similar vein, learning beyond the confines of the classroom was fostered more in English and CMI Liberal Studies than in the other subjects probably because of the higher priority accorded to learning directly from other peoples (like visitors from other countries), local community figures (like legislative councillors) and various organisations (such as news firms and environmental groups). Meanwhile, teachers of CMI Liberal Studies were the more frequent users of these new strategies than their colleagues in EMI schools probably because of the need to spend more time on teaching in English and worries about students’ ability to discuss controversial issues with insight in a second language. It is difficult for teachers to organise visits, overseas tours or other out-of-campus activities for their NSS students during school days in view of the disruption to the other classes and difficulties in finding appropriate substitute teachers. The urge to complete the syllabus and allow sufficient time for revision work before the mock examination could make the problem worse. Teachers also need more time to analyse past exam and sample papers with students and assess how far the goals of learning and assessment laid down in the curriculum and assessment guides for the subjects have been achieved. The impact of the NSS curriculum on the flexibility of time-tabling arrangements was minimal after all for these reasons because teachers have to spend more time on identifying the gaps and modifying their teaching and assessment strategies accordingly. Meanwhile, an increasing range of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities has been organised for NSS students in many schools in recent years. To improve their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is a useful step in this direction. Study tours should be also improved so that students can participate in at least one during their senior years and thereby get more diversified learning experiences irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. 69 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Continuous assessment The majority of teachers, especially those of English Language, Chinese Language and Liberal Studies, were concerned about the lack of preparation materials for continuous assessments as well as the written examination. These feelings were understandable given that they were not too familiar with the new curriculum and students who would otherwise be siphoned off by the Certificate of Education system could now proceed to Form 6 and face the more demanding DSE examination. In many cases, the only materials that could be relied upon were the sample questions released in early 2010 and the exercises first available in September 2011. Many teachers could not well estimate the number of marks required for getting a pass or any other specified grade and thereby decide on how and how much to teach and assess. Even after the release of practice papers in January 2012, their worries about marking standards and the amount of preparation needed had not been much allayed, as could be inferred from a press statement issued by the HKEAA (2012b). English, Chinese and Liberal Studies are the subjects which require school-based assessments. The teachers concerned in general felt that the notion of SBA was fair because the validity and reliability of assessment could be enhanced if more aspects of learning (say, oral presentation besides writing skills) were considered and especially if marking and moderation for all classes were done by two or more teachers. They were in agreement with the view in the literature that wider-ranging assessments could encourage weaker students to learn and give due consideration to their overall abilities. However, in spite of holding such a consensus, they considered SBA difficult to implement effectively even after completing the courses run or commissioned by the HKEAA. More focussed training and workshop programmes are surely needed so that teachers can help students of diverse abilities to overcome the challenges presented by overly broad and challenging subject content and skills especially in aspects of assessment in which students have insufficient confidence (such as in the oral section of the English Language examination; cf. HKEAA, 2010). Mathematics teachers were more relaxed in their responses about continuous assessment probably because of the absence of an SBA requirement. However, they still gave many negative comments (about 2.6 per person) such as concern about time shortage, calls for the establishment of modules M1 and M2 as a separate subject and dissent with the introduction of SBA to their subject agenda. Teachers of English Language and Liberal Studies (EMI) were more vociferous. Together they gave an average of 4.5 to 4.8 comments which described SBA as too time-consuming, tedious, dysfunctional for promoting critical and analytical thinking, too demanding on medium- and lower-ability students, and creating too much workload for teachers and panel heads. Teachers overall were not receptive of SBA at least in its present format. Many of their calls were a mix of downscaling and outright abolition, ridiculing the official description of SBA as a normal part of the curriculum rather than an add-on process (CDC & HKEAA, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2007d, 2007e, 2007f) in the course of teaching and learning. 70 Suggestions Student-oriented teaching, independent learning and continuous assessment are the three new features of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination that could help weaker students to perform better and even narrow their gap with the more capable. The first two can facilitate the mastery of enquiry skills while the last can motivate students to study harder at all times and provide a basis for teachers to modify their approaches whenever warranted. Unfortunately, students in face of heavy workload may easily lose sight of what the focus of the curriculum is. The assessment burden may become so great that teachers cannot spend enough time on everyday curriculum planning and the upgrading of teaching quality. This study overall does suggest that learning diversity at the NSS level has not been well catered for hitherto, like what Lam (2008) has observed of three student communities in a mainstream Hong Kong school. A multi-faceted approach is needed for redressing the weaknesses and ensuring the successful implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination. For overburdened teachers, the provision of additional manpower is essential because only by then could they spend more time on catering for learning diversities. To enhance the quality of teaching and student interaction during the lesson, the numbers of students should be reduced to a maximum of 30 in the more capable classes and 20 in the less able. Reducing the size of less able classes can give more opportunities to teachers finding the difficulties which their students are facing and the ways needed for addressing them. Streaming procedures that create a balance of abilities with the more able accounting for a high proportion (say, 40% to 50%) in the class should be practised if its possible benefits on students (Glass, 2002) are found to be greater than strict ability grouping procedures. Unduly difficult subject matter, wide coverage of content and skills and a lack of time for revision and self-reflection may encourage teachers to hang onto didactic approaches, students to follow the steps of others indiscriminately if only to play safe, and continuous assessment to become a means for widening the ability gap instead of otherwise. To prevent these undesirable trends from appearing, on-going reviews for the tailoring of subject content and reshaping of examination procedures are needed especially with dynamic curricula like Liberal Studies. To ensure that all students irrespective of ability can benefit, this exercise should be accompanied by efforts for widening and deepening the extent of teacher inputs and competence than what the EDB and HKEAA (Fung, Tang & Chan, 2011) have been doing so far. Many teachers have attributed resource shortage as an obstacle to the implementation of the NSS curriculum. The EDB should coordinate the production of suitable materials by universities, government departments, Quality Education Fund, Hong Kong Education 71 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study City and relevant subject organisations after conducting school surveys at regular intervals. Instead of providing teachers with CD-ROMs and other items that may become quickly outdated, they should give priority to the establishment and updating of websites especially on new subject content, recommended teaching-learning approaches and the use of assessment procedures for the enhancement of learning. Such materials should focus on independent enquiry so that even students of medium or lower ability can learn to identify subject matter of personal interest and investigate issues in a systematic manner. Offering suggestions for the purchase and production of resources that can meet the learning needs of individual classes and students is another essential step forward. The introduction of an equitable system that cares for lower-ability students and less well-endowed schools is also helpful for minimising learning diversity, as what the case with schools in Victoria, Australia has shown (Beeson, 2013). Teaching approaches that neglect the ability and needs of mixed-ability classes can be stumbling blocks for improving the effectiveness of learning. Teachers can help the more capable ones explore into complicated areas and advanced concepts and master the skills for independent enquiry by using reflective and application-oriented approaches such as brainstorming, report writing, interviews and debates. Encouraging these students to join enrichment programmes offered by the universities and the Academy for Gifted Education is useful in this regard. Such programmes can be made more valuable by listening carefully to teachers’ views and increasing the number of students who are served. As for the weaker ones, priority should be given to approaches which can help them analyse knowledge and clarify misconceptions, such as group tutorials, tailor-made exercises, simulation games and role plays (e.g. Dowson 2007; Hue 2007). Meanwhile, cartoons and other forms of drawing are particular problems since they can be viewed from different angles like the witch and the beauty scenario. Guidance for students here should focus on the interpretation and comparison of alternative views through a variety of interactive teaching-learning activities. Recent years have also seen sharp increases in the organisation of educational performances, talks, shows, writing contests, visits, study trips and other extra-curricular learning activities for NSS students in many schools. To enhance their effectiveness, these activities should be streamlined and integrated with curriculum topics both in terms of timing and subject matter. Making use of the facilities in public libraries, museums, universities and government departments is useful for this purpose. The organisation of study tours should be improved so that everyone can participate and get more diversified learning experiences in at least one of them during senior school irrespective of academic ability and the degree of family support available. Opportunities for giving detailed insights on oral and written responses in exercises, tests and examinations are often seriously limited because of heavy workload and tight 72 teaching schedules. Teachers in every subject need more training on giving feedback and directions for improvement to students at different ability levels with respect to both the compulsory and extension sections in the curriculum. It is the obligation of the EDB to provide more enrichment courses and encourage teachers to conduct action research into learning diversity within their classes. Organisations like the Quality Education Fund and Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre can help by running award schemes and school authorities may reduce the size or number of classes that the teachers concerned have to teach. Staff development programmes which focus on the sharing of experience with mixed ability classes should also be run to enhance collaboration within the same schools and/or with other schools under similar situations. If only for alleviating the problem of time shortage, EDB and HKEAA should also restructure and tailor the curriculum to include only the essential content and cancel one of the compulsory modules in all popular subjects. Incidentally, holding the written examinations for the core and elective subjects in late April from the third cycle onwards instead of in late March in the first two can also provide more time for enquiry-oriented learning and teaching and the preparation of high-quality projects for school-based assessment. Running supplementary lessons in the post-examination periods in Form 4 and Form 5 is another possibility because teachers would be more relaxed then and students could have more time for learning at greater depth and reflect on their own examination performance during the subsequent summer vacation. As highlighted by Berry (2006) about the role of assessment strategies for teaching and learning, continuous assessment is another area of the curriculum where critical review is needed at regular intervals. To strike a balance between breadth and depth, the EDB and HKEAA should consider the inclusion of SBA in the core subjects only as an elective and make it compulsory for students wishing to obtain higher grades and/or gain access to government-subsidised degree courses in local universities. Like the case of offering a higher grade for English Language students who opt for the more difficult paper in Reading than the easier one, this practice can give advanced students more drive to learn as well as appropriate leeway to who are less able or who are only be seeking a pass grade. As for Mathematics, students should be allowed to study module 1 or module 2 as a separate subject (say, called Further Mathematics) instead of just as an extension of the compulsory part. This arrangement is congruent with the views of questionnaire respondents as well as international practice, such as that in England where Level 5 in DSE Mathematics (Extension) is taken as comparable to Grade A in Mathematics at the GCE Advanced Level (HKEAA, 2012c). It gives more motivation to gifted students to study challenging subject matter (if only for enhancing their chances of admission to science and engineering courses at local and overseas universities), and alleviates the 73 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study burden on the less capable ones in studying a module that is far too advanced. It also reduces the workload of teachers, who can then concentrate on helping the more able to achieve even higher and provide a firm basis for realising their potential in the study of the subject. Their colleagues not teaching Further Mathematics can meanwhile devote themselves to remedial and example classes with those who are less prepared. More workshops should be run to enhance the teaching of compulsory topics in view of the great variations in learning ability involved. Conclusion The New Academic Structure along with the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in Hong Kong has been introduced for good purposes, such as enabling more students to learn at depth before leaving for work, vocational training or proceeding to tertiary education. It seeks to reduce the examination orientation of secondary education and promotes more student-centred, enquiry-based and reflective practices of learning and teaching in schools and classrooms (Quong, 2011). Society as a whole can benefit in the long term as the educational level, creativity and critical thinking ability of the younger generation are raised. Unfortunately, the implementation of New Academic Structure has generated a series of controversies and heated debate both in the educational sector and the general public, ranging from its desirability and date of first implementation at the start, to the worth and content of Liberal Studies as a core NSS subject and the acceptability of DSE qualifications to local and overseas universities. Based on the results and discussion above, it can be concluded that the implementation of the NSS curriculum and DSE examination in the four core subjects has so far not taken sufficient care of the needs of both the more able and less able. Providing adequate resource support, enhancing a paradigm shift about the nature of school learning, improving the quality of teacher training and conducting critical reviews of both subject matter and assessment methods from time to time are all needed for rectifying the situation and thereby raising the standards of all students even if the ability gap cannot be narrowed down substantially. Continuous monitoring and review of the situation for each of the core and elective major subjects are needed so that more definite and insightful conclusions about the catering of learning diversity can be drawn and more effective solutions can be identified. 74 References Ackerman P., Kyllonen, P. C., & Roberts, R. D. (Eds.) (1999). Learning and individual differences: Process, trait, and content determinants. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Beeson, G. (2013). Students with additional needs. In P. 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Curriculum and assessment guide: Mathematics. 75 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2007f). Curriculum and assessment guide: Mathematics (in Chinese). Curriculum Development Council. (2009). Senior secondary curriculum guide - The future is now: From vision to realisation (Secondary 4-6) - Booklet 7: Catering for learning diversity - excellence for all in senior secondary education. Hong Kong. Davies, A., Herbst, S., & Reynolds, B. P. (2011). Leading the way to assessment for learning: A practical guide. Bloomington IN: Solution Tree Press. Deng, Z. Y. (2009). The formation of a school subject and the nature of curriculum content: An analysis of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41(5), 585-604. Dowson, C. R. (2007). Developing inclusive schools in Hong Kong. In S. N. Phillipson (Ed.), Learning diversity in the Chinese classroom: Contexts and practice for students with special needs (pp. 399-430). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Education and Manpower Bureau. (2005). Whole-school approach to integrated education. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/special/support/index.html Education Bureau. (2011). Information leaflet on the secondary school places allocation system 2010/2012 cycle. Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/ Content_1579/leaflet_sspa1012 (e).pdf Fung, Y., Tang, T., & Chan, C. W. (2011). Learning and teaching Liberal Studies: Theory and practice. Hong Kong: Open University of Hong Kong Press. Glass, G. V. (2002). Grouping students for instruction. In A. Molnar (Ed.), School reform proposals: The research evidence (pp. 95-112). Greenwich, Conn.: Information Age Publishing. Goodhew, G. (2009). Meeting the needs of gifted and talented students. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2010). Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education examination (2013): English language school-based assessment teachers’ handbook. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/SBA/HKDSE/ SBAhand book-2013-ENG-311210.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012a). Press release: 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) examination. Retrieved from http://www. hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/PR/20120719_HKDSE_Results_ENG_FULL.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012b). Press release: Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education examination streamlining of school-based assessment. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/PR/PR_20120214_eng.pdf 76 Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2012c). Press release: HKDSE level 5** awarded with UCAS tariff points. Retrieved form http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/ MainNews/PR_20121218_eng.pdf Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2013). Press release: 2013 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) examination. Retrieved form http://www. hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/Media/PR/20130714_HKDSE_Results_ENG_FULL.pdf Hue, M. T. (2007). Classroom management for children with diverse learning needs. In S. N. Phillipson (Ed.), Learning diversity in the Chinese classroom: Contexts and practice for students with special needs (pp. 459-486). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. James, M. (2006). Assessment, teaching and theories of learning. In J. Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and learning: An introduction (pp. 47-60). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Jonassen, D. H., & Grabowski, B. (2011). Handbook of individual differences, learning, and instruction (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Lam, B. H. (2008). The issue of diversity in the Hong Kong school curriculum: Student communities in a mainstream school. Studies in Education, 5(1-2), 118-140. McDaniel, K. S. (2010). Every student has a story: Students with special needs and English language learners in the secondary classroom. In R. Stone (Ed.), More best practices for high school classrooms (pp. 17-20). Thousand Oaks CA: Corwin. Means, B., Chelemer, C., & Knapp, M. (Eds.) (1991). Teaching advanced skills to at-risk learners: Views from research and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bess. Morgan, G. A., Leech, N., Gloeckner, G. W., & Barrett, K. C. (2011). IBM SPSS for introductory statistics. New York: Routledge. Muijs, D. (2011). Doing quantitative research in education (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Quong, T. (2011, March). An analysis of educational reform at the school level in Hong Kong. Paper submitted to the Asia Roundtable organised by the Hong Kong Institute of Education and the Asia Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change, Bangkok. Retrieved from http://www.ied.edu.hk/apclc/roundtable2011/paper/Quong.pdf Roland, C. (2010). Buffet-style teaching: Reviewing and re-teaching. In R. Stone (Ed.), More best practices for high school classrooms (pp. 21-28). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Stern, D. (2010). A visual approach to SPSS for Windows: A guide to SPSS 17.0 (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Pearson. 77 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about learning difficulties. Victoria: Australian Council for Educational Research Press. Wiliam, D. (2006). Assessment for learning: Why no profile in the US. In J. Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and learning: An introduction (pp. 169-183). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Winebrenner, S. (1992). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom: Strategies every teacher can use to meet the needs of the gifted and talented. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Press. Winebrenner, S. (1996). Teaching kids with learning difficulties in the regular classroom: Strategies every teacher can use to meet the needs of the gifted and talented. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Press. Wu, R., Tu, Y. W., Wu, R., Le, Q., & Reynolds, B. (2012). Student diversity in the classroom: Focus on students’ diverse learning progress. International Journal of Innovative Interdisciplinary Research, 1(2), 142-150. 78 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es A pp en di x 1 79 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 1. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 20 9 si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 22 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 6 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 46 7 si g. 0 .8 72 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 14 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 7 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 13 7 si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 05 7 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 87 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 83 3 si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 40 8 m od er at e; , si g. 0 .3 61 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 39 8 si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0. 21 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 63 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 10 .0 * si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 C ra m er ’s V 0. 57 7* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 2. N o. o f t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed Fr eq ue nc y of or ga ni si ng tr ip s o r vi si ts to e nh an ce th e te ac hi ng o f t he su bj ec t Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 33 3* w ea k; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 00 4 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 74 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 16 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 11 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1. 0 Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 68 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 31 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 1 .0 ** Ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 3. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t T- te st 2 .5 05 * df 6 1 si g. 0 .0 15 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .7 1, m od er at e; T- te st -1 .3 8 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 73 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d -0 .3 8, m od es t; T- te st 1 .9 72 df 4 4 si g. 0 .0 55 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .5 9, m od er at e; T- te st -0 .6 4 df 6 si g. 0 .5 46 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 4, m od es t; T- te st 1 .4 12 df 5 1 si g. 0 .1 64 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 3, m od es t; T- te st -0 .7 52 df 1 0 si g. 0 .4 7 > 0. 05 C oh en ’s d 0 .9 5, m od er at e; 4. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f n ew te ac hi ng st ra te gi es fo r t he su bj ec t Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 55 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 10 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r -0 .3 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 36 *< 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 66 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 5. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es T- te st 3 .8 69 ** df 2 4. 84 6 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .0 9, st ro ng e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 86 df 5 6 si g. 0 .1 71 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d - 0. 38 , m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .3 78 df 4 4 si g. 0 .1 75 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .4 1, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 0 .2 84 df 7 si g. 0 .7 85 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .1 9, w ea k ef fe ct T- te st 1 .0 53 df 5 1 si g. 0 .2 97 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 0 .3 3, m od es t e ffe ct T- te st 1 .6 02 df 1 2 si g. 0 .1 35 > 0 .0 5 C oh en ’s d 1 .1 4, st ro ng e ffe ct 6. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol N o. o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .5 42 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0. 00 1 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 68 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 4 < 0. 05 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .2 49 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 32 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0 .3 2* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 07 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n’ s r 0. 44 9 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 93 > 0 .0 5 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 7. N o. o f ot he r t yp es of re so ur ce s pr ov id ed b y th e sc ho ol H el pf ul ne ss o f tri ps /v is its fo r w ea ke r s tu de nt s to e nh an ce le ar ni ng Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 94 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 28 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 10 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 48 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 27 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .2 36 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 13 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 82 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 9 > 0. 05 8. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um le ad in g to th e us e of n ew st ra te gi es fo r t ea ch in g th e su bj ec t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 80 5* si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 52 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 05 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 37 9 si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 39 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 80 8* si g. = 0 .0 5 Ph i / C ra m er ’s V 0. 28 8* m od es t; si g. = 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 14 .4 07 si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 77 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 18 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 41 1 si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 16 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 35 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 2 0. 15 si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 45 ve ry m uc h st ro ng er ; C ra m er ’s V 0. 88 ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 25 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut t he pr ov is io n of e du ca ti on al r es ou rc es ( co nt in ue d) 80 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 M at he m at ic s (C M I) To ta l = 4 6 M at he m at ic s (E M I) To ta l = 4 4 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 9. R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um br in gi ng a sh ift in fo cu s f ro m te xt bo ok s t o ot he r fo rm s o f l ea rn in g an d te ac hi ng m at er ia ls Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 00 1 si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 04 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 75 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 5. 00 8 si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 91 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 82 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 97 1 si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 24 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 0. 84 2 si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 26 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 59 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i- sq ua re 17 .4 * si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 77 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 02 < 0. 05 10 . R ec ei pt o f ex tra re so ur ce s t o ca te r f or le ar ni ng di ve rs ity a m on g st ud en ts N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 93 2 si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 22 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 34 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 27 si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 3 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 75 3 si g. 0 .3 85 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 85 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 51 5 si g. 0 .4 73 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .0 99 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 73 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 16 .0 00 * si g. 0 .0 03 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 33 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 03 < 0 .0 5 11 . R ec ei pt of e xt ra re so ur ce s to c at er fo r le ar ni ng d iv er si ty am on g st ud en ts U se o f t ea ch in g st ra te gi es to c op e w ith in di vi du al di ffe re nc es Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 15 9 si g. 0 .2 8 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 37 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 01 si g. 0 .8 2 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 80 7 si g. 0 .0 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 47 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 94 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2. 67 9 si g. 0 .2 62 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 27 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 62 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0. 04 0* * si g. 0. 00 00 <0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .0 27 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 94 3 si g. 0 .6 84 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .5 13 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 84 > 0 .0 5 12 . N SS cu rr ic ul um le ad in g to a sh ift in fo cu s fr om te xt bo ok s t o ot he r m at er ia ls N SS c ur ric ul um en co ur ag in g st ud en ts to le ar n be yo nd th e co nfi ne s o f t he cl as sr oo m Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5. 37 7* si g. 0 .0 2 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 92 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 20 <0 .0 5* Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7. 62 3 si g. 0 .0 06 < 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 59 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 10 8* si g. 0 .0 43 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 99 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 91 8 si g. 0 .3 83 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .2 77 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1. 12 2 si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 45 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 9 > 0. 05 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .5 63 * si g. 0 .0 04 < 0. 05 Ph i 1 .0 19 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 04 < 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut te ac hi ng a nd le ar ni ng s tr at eg ie s A pp en di x 2 81 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 13 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Ea si ne ss in im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 51 * si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 46 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 51 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 41 1* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 78 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 1. 59 3 si g. 0 .0 01 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 60 5* * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 8 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 46 5* * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .4 29 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 01 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 5. 27 8 si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0. 53 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 35 5* m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 09 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 30 * m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .0 42 * si g. 0 .0 50 Ph i 1 .1 84 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 56 * st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 3 < 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .5 1* st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 23 < 0 .0 5 14 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t Fa irn es s i n im pl em en tin g sc ho ol -b as ed as se ss m en t Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 78 9 si g. 0 .0 67 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 7 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 92 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 32 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 12 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 6. 80 7 si g. 0 .3 2 > 0. 05 ; Ph i 0 .5 34 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 32 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 19 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 21 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 94 1 si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 05 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 39 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 16 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 00 14 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 10 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 21 .4 59 * si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .1 96 * ve ry st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 44 < 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 43 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 79 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 27 * w ea k; si g. 0 .0 43 < 0 .0 5 15 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 1. 81 8 si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 33 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 66 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 29 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 19 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 75 ** m od es t; si g. 0 .0 10 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 10 8 si g. 0 .5 40 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 88 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 08 5 w ea k; si g. 0 .5 19 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t A pp en di x 3 82 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 16 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .9 16 si g. 0 .4 33 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 06 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 33 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 27 8* w ea k; s ig . 0 .0 28 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .2 57 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 17 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .5 10 si g. 0 .3 69 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .3 32 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 69 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 00 7 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 61 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 06 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 57 > 0. 05 / / 17 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 74 si g. 0 .2 33 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 83 * m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 25 5* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 16 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .0 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 00 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 41 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 88 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 33 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 63 > 0 .0 5 / / 18 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 2. 20 3 si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 4 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 58 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .3 98 ** m od er at e; s ig . 0 .0 01 K en da ll’ s t au -b -.3 70 ** m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 00 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .0 1 si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 68 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 32 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 01 w ea k; s ig . 0. 44 8 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 92 w ea k; si g. 0 .4 01 > 0 .0 5 / / 19 . C om pl ex ity in da ily a ss es sm en t D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4 .4 26 si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 19 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 18 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 42 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 72 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 26 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .7 12 si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 07 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 12 6 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 41 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 17 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 05 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 83 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 20 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .0 49 si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 20 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 84 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 75 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 7 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0. 17 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 92 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .8 31 si g. 0 .6 60 > 0. 05 Ph i 0 .1 19 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 60 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 21 m od er at e; si g. 0 .8 76 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 20 w ea k; si g. 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 / / 21 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de rs ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .7 76 si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .1 76 8 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 2 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 03 8 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .7 4 > 0. 05 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .3 71 m od er at e; si g. 0 .6 20 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 56 si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 25 2 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 89 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .2 07 st ro ng ; s ig . 0 .1 16 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .1 97 m od er at e; si g. 0 .0 95 > 0 .0 5 / / 22 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .4 30 si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 51 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 98 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .3 65 si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 Ph i/C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 52 m od es t; si g. 0 .5 05 > 0 .0 5 / / 23 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 66 si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 06 m od es t; si g. 0 .4 46 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 3 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 84 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 85 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 24 . P ro vi si on of e xt ra te ac he r tra in in g fo r up da tin g th ei r un de r-s ta nd in g of th e ne w a ss es sm en t fr am ew or k D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 1 .5 20 si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V - 0. 15 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 78 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .6 63 si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .2 12 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 64 > 0 .0 5 / / 25 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f L is te ni ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 5 .1 50 si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 86 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 65 m od es t; si g. 0 .8 21 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 14 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 72 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 10 5 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 42 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 02 si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 02 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 C ra m er ’s V 0 .1 43 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 62 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 35 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 07 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 28 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 46 > 0 .0 5 / / 26 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f R ea di ng Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 8 .9 22 si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 76 m od er at e; si g. 0 .4 45 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 31 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 08 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s ta u- b -0 .1 23 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 83 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .7 28 si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 38 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 47 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 11 w ea k; si g. 0 .9 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b -0 .0 11 w ea k; s ig . 0 .9 25 > 0 .0 5 / / 27 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f W rit in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 9 .4 99 si g. 0 .3 93 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 20 9 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 99 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 19 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 70 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3 .7 70 si g. 0 .4 38 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .4 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 64 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .0 39 w ea k; si g. 0 .7 45 > 0 .0 5 / / Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 28 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f S pe ak in g Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 0 .9 10 si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .4 16 m od er at e; si g. 0 .2 82 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o - 0. 28 4* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 24 < 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 26 6* m od es t; si g. 0 .0 06 < 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 2 .4 31 si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 03 m od es t; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 38 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 98 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b 0 .1 32 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 87 > 0 .0 5 / / 29 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs ta ke n th e as se ss m en t-r el at ed tra in in g of fe re d by E D B o r o th er pr of es si on al tr ai ni ng in st itu te s D iffi cu lty in im pl em en tin g th e SB A o f I nt eg ra te d Sk ill s Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 6 .2 61 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 15 m od er at e; si g. 0 .7 13 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 81 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 57 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 16 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 23 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 4. 52 6 m od er at e; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0. 27 7 m od es t; si g. 0 .3 39 > 0 .0 4 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .1 46 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 69 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll’ s t au -b - 0. 14 0 m od es t; si g. 0 .2 38 > 0 .0 5 / / 30 . P ro po rti on o f te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Pr es su re o n te ac he rs du e to th e SB A o f In de pe nd en t E nq ui ry St ud ie s p ro je ct s / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 7 .7 67 s ig . 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .3 83 m od er at e; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 23 1 m od es t; si g. 0 .0 96 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 22 3 m od es t; si g. 0 .1 01 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 15 .9 56 * si g. 0 .0 14 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .0 31 v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .1 4 > 0. 05 Sp ea rm an rh o 0. 06 7 ve ry w ea k; si g. 0 .8 13 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 05 w ea k; s ig . 0 .8 65 > 0 .0 5 C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 86 Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te C R O SS T A B S, t -t es ts a nd C O R R E L A T E f or t ea ch er s’ r es po ns es a bo ut co nt in uo us a ss es sm en t (c on ti nu ed ) 87 Learning diversity at the NSS level: A preliminary study Va ria bl e 1 (I nd ep en de nt ) Va ria bl e 2 (D ep en de nt ) En gl is h La ng ua ge To ta l = 6 3 C hi ne se L an gu ag e To ta l = 6 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (C M I) To ta l = 5 3 Li be ra l S tu di es (E M I) To ta l = 1 5 Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze Te st st at ./ ef fe ct si ze 31 . Pr op or tio n of te ac he rs tr ai ne d in as se ss m en t Le ve l o f d iffi cu lty in se tti ng in te rn al ex am in at io n qu es tio ns / / Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 3. 48 si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Ph i 0 .2 56 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 46 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o -0 .0 58 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 82 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b -0 .5 4 st ro ng ; si g. 0 .6 57 > 0 .0 5 Pe ar so n ch i-s qu ar e 22 .3 55 * si g. 0 .0 08 < 0 .0 5 Ph i 1 .2 21 * v er y st ro ng ; si g. 0 .0 08 > 0 .0 5 Sp ea rm an rh o 0 .1 33 w ea k; si g. 0 .6 36 > 0 .0 5 K en da ll ta u- b 0. 11 4 m od es t; si g. 0 .7 04 > 0 .0 5 * si gn ifi ca nt a t t he 0 .0 5 le ve l ** s ig ni fic an t a t t he 0 .0 01 le ve l de gr ee o f co rr el at io n – de sc ri be d as s tr on g / m od es t / w ea k w he re a pp ro pr ia te 新高中課程程度的學習差異初步研究 楊沛銘、李宏峯、黃金耀、黃炳文 香港教師中心教育研究小組 摘要 香港學生到了中學階段出現不斷擴大的學習能力差異,情況在與三年制新高中課程 同時推行的 2012年首屆中學文憑試表現得相當明顯。本研究審視學校如何照顧不 同學習能力學生需要的情況,所需資料是透過多間學校的四個核心科目科主任填寫 網上問卷獲得。研究發現包括了資源短缺,使用探究性教學法和自發性學習策略的 頻率偏低,在學習機會伸延到課室外取得相當進展,以及評核安排上有不少缺點。 教師、校長和政府必須協力合作,使用有效方法改善新高中課程和中學文憑試的推 行,使不同學習能力的學生都能獲益。改善情況的方法包括減輕教師工作量,提供 額外人手,有更多教師投入的持續性課程評估,製作適時的物質資源,改變教學法, 以及改革考試以便促進學習而非只是量度。 關鍵詞 學習差異,新高中課程,中學文憑試,網上問卷,教學策略 89 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 林德成、李子建 香港教育學院 摘要 本文從三種不同課程實施的取向,討論通識教育科的現況和發展。在課程實施的過 程中,學校和教師偏向以相互調適取向實施通識教育科課程,並以不同的單元設計 和教學方式進行,當中發現種種挑戰。本文建議,未來的課程實施宜邁向創生取向 (或稱締造取向)。 關鍵詞 通識教育,課程實施,課程發展 甲丶緣起及研究方法 時光飛逝,轉眼間曾掀起香港教育界激烈討論的通識教育科(下稱通識科),已推 行了三年,第一屆通識科的公開考試結果也已揭曉,初步衍生了一些成功的經驗,也察 覺到一些挑戰,是時候為它把把脈,以檢視其現狀,總結其經驗,思考其未來。 作為新生科目的通識科,能否取得持續的成功和發展,達到預期的效果,有賴於課 程之實施模式及策略的恰當選擇。因此為通識科「把脈」,是包括釐清其課程實施的理 論脈絡,亦同時需要檢視該科現今施行的狀況資料,方可得出具有啓發性的結論,冀有 利其將來之課程發展。本文除了筆者之課程理論探討,亦着重引用質化及量化資料及數 據之分析。量化資料是參考兩個民間大型通識科之現況調查(其一為 2012年,香港教 育專業人員協會(教協)、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查,調查對象 90 包括 647名通識科老師及 2,806名學生,內容主要涉及他 /她們對通識科之教與學的觀 感。另一為教協從 2010至 2013連續四年都有做的通識科老師觀感調查,平均每年皆有 800份有效問卷)。至於質化資料方面,主要來自筆者分別訪談兩位資深通識科專家暨 老師專業培訓員 ─ 陳岡博士及黃志堅先生。訪談以非結構形式進行,環繞着兩位對現 今通識科現況之個人觀感,及探討兩位對通識科前境作專家之闡析及建議。下文首先從 課程實施理論層次分析通識科現今之實施狀況,並作出專業之建議,望能導引通識科走 上較理想的發展蹊徑。再從量化結合質化之研究分析結果,找出通識科現今推行情況之 強弱項,並以專業意見提出強項之鞏固及弱點之修訂建議,目的亦是作出前瞻性之改善 建議。 乙丶課程實施模式之檢視 所謂課程實施,即將課程現狀導向所欲的學習結果,也就是將課程計劃付諸行動的 過程。就算再完善的課程設計,若不能得到教師的理解與接納,並將其在課堂中付諸實 施,都始終是「文本」而已(黃政傑,1994)。 一般而言,課程實施有三種模式(忠實模式、調適模式及創生模式)(李子建、黃 顯華,1996;鍾啓泉,2005),以下筆者先對這三種模式作一簡單分析,為通識科的課 程實施現狀的剖析提供理論的參照。 (1) 忠實取向(fidelity orientation)的課程實施,是指課程實施為忠實地執行課程計 劃的過程。因此,在這種取向下,課程成功與否,其標準在於最終實施之課程 與預定課程計劃的落差程度。實施的課程愈接近預定的課程方案,則愈為忠實, 也愈成功。反之,若與預定的課程計劃差距愈大,則愈不忠實,效果愈差。這 種取向強調的是預定計劃之優越性及重要性,負責實施的教師則被視為教學「技 工」,應忠實地執行課程專家所制定的各項細節。可以說,這種取向沒有給予 老師任何修訂或彈性調適課程的空間。忠實取向若走到極端的地方,可能變成 課程當局為了切實執行一己的課程觀,而設計一種「防老師」(teacher-proof) 的課程,要老師鉅細無遺的執行課程指引每項細節,因此損害老師的課程專業 地位。另外一種不利學生學習之情況,就是老師礙於形勢,往往把不適當的 課程硬套在學生頭上,或是奉行一種「陽奉陰違」式的「表面課程」(surface 91 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 curriculum)(Bussis, Chittenden & Amarel, 1976),俱大大損害學生學習利益。 (2) 相互調適取向(mutual adaptation orientation)是人們認識到「忠實取向」之限 制及缺憾而衍生的一種較符合現今教育脈絡及現代思潮的課程實施模式。在這 種實施模式下,教師作為課程實施者,會考慮中央頒布下來的課程應如何在其 課室裡實踐,或作出調整,以適應其課室情境的特殊需要。這意味着老師身為 課堂之課程實施者,總是在因應各種具體實踐情境而調整既定的課程方案,以 適應學生的特殊需要。因此,調適模式要求教師充分發揮自己的實踐智慧,對 中央課程、學校情境及學生之需要進行綜合考慮,以塑造有效的校本 /班本課 程。顯然,這種課程實施模式,對老師的專業要求很高。老師既要能充分理解 中央課程之關鍵概念、核心技能及態度,又要清楚其學生之學習能力、需要及 特性,才能剪裁一套能平衡中央及校本需要的課程。 (3) 創生取向(或稱締造取向)(curriculum enactment orientation)下的課程實施, 則是師生在具體的課堂情境中共同合作、創造新教育經驗的過程。因此,根據 這種取向,真正課程並不是在實施之前便預定下來,它是因應情境、人物而衍 生出來的,有着解放教育理性之功用。此種課程可能完全脫離中央課程而出現 為一種師生共塑的實驗性質的課程。 通識科課程作為一門文理綜合的科目,是由「自我與個人成長」、「社會文化」及 「科學、科技與環境」三個學習範疇組成,強調跨學科思維技能的「獨立專題探究」(課 程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2007)。其在學校和課堂層面的實施則涉及單元的規 劃、教學人員(及團隊)的組構、教師運用各教學方法和評估方式的變化、學生在「獨 立專題研究」的參與和學習,以及課程與公開考試的配合等不同環節,情況頗為多元化 和複雜。因此有效的實施,必然要求教師作為「課程主人」,因應自己所處的教學情境 對課程進行調適。因此,忠實取向的課程實施並不適用。 另一方面,現有的通識科中央課程指引在課程目標和內容架構上給出了頗為明確的 指引,同時亦為教師詮釋、修訂和剪裁課程提供了空間,即是說,中央的課程政策乃鼓 勵教師採取調適的課程實施取向 ─ 也就是鼓勵各學校因應其學校特色、學生程度、通 識科老師的課程知能及覺知,設計一個平衡中央通識科要求及個別學校師生需要的調適 課程。 92 然而,正如上文所說,課程調適對老師的課程知能及課程覺醒均要求甚高,缺乏 相應經驗的教師難免遇到困阻。因此,就較理想的情況而言,部份學者如林德成(Lam, 2007)認為通識科的推行宜以全校課程發展取向(whole-school curriculum development approach)較一個教師合作團隊的 2至 3位教師的組合為佳。這是由於少數教師的協作 可能會導致「小圈子」合作,而通識科以外的教師可能會採取「隔岸觀火」的態度看待 通識科,學科間將會出現競爭的情況。 林德成(Lam, 2007)根據過往目標為本課程和香港躍進學校計劃(Lee, 2006)的 經驗,認為若通識科以全校取向推行,能產生校內不同教師在視野上的融合(fusion of horizons)(Gadamer, 1975),對學生和教師在議題上不同的見解能產生良性的互動和對 話,理性地探討對方觀點上可能存在的誤解與偏見。這種不斷互動而衍生話語融合的方 式在某種程度上符合創生或締造取向精神。這種全校課程發展取向,要求學校重視「互 動」、「溝通」和「決策」,「創造課程發展空間」,令學校成員能「集思廣益」、「建 立共享目標和信念」(Lam, 2007, p.52-56)。將這些條件及氛圍轉化成可操作性的學校 課程舉措,就是可以看成通識科(尤其是「獨立專題探究」一環)是一師生共同塑造之 通識探究旅程,學校是成功形塑為一所「思考的學校」(a thinking school),內裡孕育 多元聲音、多元批判、多元視界及多元締造之環境,有締造意識及能力之老師及學生可 跨越現今通識科之藩籬,互相支持砥礪下探索一面又一面之新的視界。這種情境氛圍正 正是通識科老師從現今之「調適取向」,慢慢邁向真正「創生或締造取向」之必經過程, 也標誌着「創生或締造取向」之可欲性(desirability)及可行性(possibility)。 朱嘉穎(2009)亦有類似看法。她從教師專業發展理念研究香港某大學開設有關通 識教育課程發展與教學的碩士課程學員的看法,部份結果顯示(頁 64-65):「教師在 實踐理念的過程中,需要對所處的教學情境作出分析和判斷,並根據這些判斷對所採用 的理念作出適切的調適⋯⋯雖然,來自不同學校的不同教師對同一理念的解讀會因為個 人經驗和情境脈絡的不同而出現差異⋯⋯在彼此的分享和交流中,學員們增進了個人對 相關理念的認識和理解。更為重要的是,在一個有相同目標的學習共同體中,學員們找 到了志同道合的同行者,即使面對困惑,教師情感上的負擔也得到略微的釋放」。因此, 無論在校內或校外,如果個別或少數教師能超越校內「學科」藩籬,以開放互動的心態 建立校內及校外的「學習社群或共同體」,這有助於締造老師們對通識科的精神更接近 理解,就算不能建立完全一致的看法,至少「和而不同」,尊重對方多元的觀點。 93 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 易言之,就通識科的課程實施來說,傳統理論中所強調的相互調適取向是必要的, 然而當前更為重要的是鼓勵一種全校課程發展取向,建構師生及師師的學習社群,為學 校邁向創生取向的課程實施創造充足的條件和寬鬆的環境。 丙丶課程實施的問題與反思 探討通識科課程實施這課題,讓我們首先從課程的單元規劃來看,吳家傑、李子建、 楊秀珠(2009)根據他們所支援的學校經驗,認為單元規劃策略大致可分為三大類型。 第一類為六個單元鋪排,獨立地施教,然後以跨單元方式補習,偏向「科目本質」的立 場,較強調「獨特專有」的取向。第二類為六個單元鋪排,不過先讓學生認識不同單元 的相關概念,假定六個單元有相若的深度,偏向「單元本質」的立場和「兼容等同」的 取向。第三類是把六個單元再細分為 7至 12個主題,再按同一單元不同主題的深淺、 學生學習的需要作調動,較偏向「順序本質」和多元化的取向(吳家傑、李子建、楊秀珠, 2009,頁 71)。這些策略反映出不同學校及教師對通識科課程的單元規劃具有多元化的 現象,究竟哪些策略較配合學生的需要和促進學生學習成果,仍有待進一步研究。 另一方面,通識科課程及評估指引中強調通識科的教學應達到三方面的效果,即所 謂的 ABC,Awareness、Broadening及 Critical / Creative thinking。 社會事宜的「察覺」(Awareness)是指學生對社會、國家以至國際大事產生興趣, 對自己身為社會公民的身份、權利及義務之覺醒。觀乎現狀,這方面通識科的課程實施, 似乎頗有成效,如愈來愈多的中學生參與公共社會活動(如社會示威),且其中個別領 頭者的表現令人刮目相看。但這些現象是否確實為通識科學習之結果,尚需實證研究加 以證實。許寶強亦有撰文,促各界更謹慎看待通識科之公開考試成績與近年來青年人參 與社運激增之微妙關係(許實強,2012)。 至於 Broadening所指的「擴闊知識及視界」則似乎並未「到位」,而且遭到教師 與學生之批判,認為課程覆蓋面太廣,令教與學均見困難。Critical / Creative thinking, 即批判 /創意思考。現階段學生在這方面的表現亦有待加強。有報章報導,網上討論區 發現年青人容易墮入簡單「二分法」謬誤,採取非黑即白及「不支持 XXX」等於「反 對 XXX」等角度看待事物。總體來說,年青人較前更關注社會政治事宜,但其視野及 批判思維,尚有改善空間。當然,這種觀察亦須取得實證證據,立論方能成效。 94 2012年度首屆文憑試結果出爐,通識科考獲二級程度的考生達 90%之高。從數據 來看,通識科的課程實施似乎是成功的,然而對課程實施者 ─ 教師的問卷調查卻顯 示,當前的通識科課程實施中尚有不少問題,亟需我們關注和回應。 有關通識科的實施情況,上文所說共做了兩個大型調查研究。現將兩個調查之重要 發現歸納如下: 2012年之教協、香港通識教育教師聯會及嶺南大學做的問卷調查發現,老師認為 通識科發展的首六個主要困難和挑戰,依次是:(1)要照顧太多學生、(2)學生水平 不足以應付課程、(3)學生對課程內容不感興趣、(4)教育當局的考評指引不清晰、 (5)缺乏好的教材,及(6)教育當局課程指引不清晰等。學生方面,所面對的主要困 難和挑戰,包括:(1)課程內容太廣和缺乏焦點、(2)老師的相關知識及支援不足、 (3)通識的考核方法令學生難以捉摸其評分標準、(4)學習通識變成了背誦術語等的 考試技巧、(5)沉悶、(6)工作量太多,及(7)難度過高等等(頁 14)。另外,一 些重要的調查數據亦列舉如下: 1. 超過一半學生(55%)對獨立專題探究最不感興趣,有超過六成教師及五成學 生認為需要删除; 2. 有四成教師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時,是馬虎了事;甚至有約三成教 師及學生認為學生做獨立專題探究時,有弄虛作假情況; 3. 約六成教師和接近五成學生認為,通識科內容太多; 4. 接近一半教師不滿負責通識科和考評官員的專業水平,課程指引之清晰度,及 教學支援。 2012年教協所做的調查結果則顯示,連續四年通識科老師認為任教該科的最大之 四個困難,分別為:(1)照顧學生學習差異、(2)準備 /更新課程教材、(3)處理 獨立專題探究、(4)教授學生批判、反思和獨立思考能力,其中「照顧學生學習差異」 一項連續四年居於首位。 該調查有另一個令人感興趣的發現,有超過三成老師對帶領學生進行「獨立專題探 究」的信心在 5分或以下,為第二個最沒信心項目(第一個為教授「現代中國」)。而 且平均每位老師須帶領 35.7學生進行「獨立專題探究」,甚至有 18%老師竟是帶領 50 95 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 人之鉅! 另外,有關修改課程建議方面,大多老師認為須「減少課程內容」(69%)、「删 減單元數目」(60%),或「將部份單元轉為選修」(57%)。 上述兩個調查結果跟質化訪談結果有頗大共同點(質化訪談是筆者圍繞着「你認為 現今通識科的現況及困難為何?」及「你對你所指出的困難有何改善建議?」兩大課題, 向兩位專家作一非結構式訪問)。問卷調查歸納出來的結果大致是(1)每班學生太多, 以致學習差異大、(2)學習範圍太深太闊,而且課程及考評的指引不清晰,以致老師 被迫「過度教學」(over-teaching)、(3)師生都對「獨立專題探究」感棘手,及(4) 老師對提升學生之批判思維及獨立思考能力欠信心。訪談結果也歸納出三點,指出目前 通識科教師最關注的問題分別是「過度教學」、課程指引中的目標轉化欠清晰及「獨立 專題探究」定位失衡。三者亦互為影響。「學習差異大」問題涉及學校資源及教育局的 「小班教學」措施,短期內也未見解決之契機,故此,本文暫不贅言。而對於提升學生 之批判思維一項,將於下文闡析。現集中分析其餘三個議題如下: 一、「過度教學」及改善建議 通識科之所以會導致「過度教學」,是因為六個單元對大多數老師和學生來說太闊 太深,老師們都因為憂慮公開考試要求很高、範圍很廣,而選擇多教一些內容,力求寧 濫莫缺,以保障考試成績。當然,這也與課程指引不夠具體清晰有關。例如在「科學、 科技與公共衛生」單元中,課程指引建議可探討下列課題及副題: 公共衛生與社會發展的關係,如: - 用於公共衛生服務的資源及資源分配情況 - 文化、制度及經濟等因素對生活模式的影響 - 教育對公共衛生的影響 (課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2007,頁 38) 上述第一個副題所包含的教學範圍較清晰具體,學生及老師能清楚知道哪些知識概 念跟此是相關的。但另外兩個副題所觸及之範圍則過於廣泛而至模糊不清,師生不知從 何入手。最近香港通識教育教師聯會做了一個中期通識科課程檢討,針對這「過度教學」 96 問題,作了三個「瘦身方案」建議,同時亦作出一忠告 ─「若删剪太多,則可能有損 通識作為必修科所需的闊度,宜小心平衡」(香港通識教育教師聯會,2013),值得各 界熱心通識科發展人士深思。 二、課程目標轉化不清晰 課程目標轉化對教與學的影響,固然與課程目標本身的闡述有關,但現時香港學校 教育中的考試的「倒流效應」(washback effect)(Wall, 1997)亦是問題的癥結之一。 因為,相對於課程目標指引,公開考試的形式和內容似乎更直接影響着教師對課程的規 畫、教學和校內評估的設計。如兩位訪談學者反映,教師希望評分標準能作較長期之穩 定化,及現行之「標準參照評核模式」(standard-referencing assessment)能更公開和清 晰,並且提供更多的答題範本(sample scripts),以便於他們因應評估標準來準備教學。 有關方面應對課程目標的轉化加以更為具體的說明,以幫助教師對教學的重點有更 清晰的理解與把握,但另一方面,持份者也應警惕這種「為測驗而教學」(teaching for the test)的課程實施行為,避免通識科老師為了應付公開考核之廣度,而犧性教學上之 深度,喪失了通識科獨有之意義及貢獻。(註:根據最新發表的《通識教育科課程與評 估資源套 ─ 釐清課程、評估有方》文件(香港特別行政區政府教育局、香港考試及評 核局,2013),內裡羅列不少各單元的學與教重點及建議探究例子,均切合實際教學目 標和學生需要,可消弭上文所批評之「課程目標不清晰」之弊)。 三、「獨立專題探究」之落差 「獨立專題探究」(Independent Enquiry Study, IES)定位失衡是另一較為突出的 問題。根據香港課程發展議會,通識科的獨立專題探究,「容許學生在獨立專題探究部 份選擇適合自己的興趣和志向的課題進行探究」(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局, 2007,頁 7)。IES是通識科學習重要的一環,其設計旨在提供一種自主學習的經歷, 讓學生負起學習的主要責任,並發揮自我管理能力,以進行自訂主題的探究研習。「而 教師的責任是幫助學生達到他們的學習目標,隨着學習者的能力增強,教師的輔助應該 逐漸減退,以便將學習的控制權逐步轉移到學生身上」(頁 81)。因此通識科的獨立專 題探究,如果實施得宜,可逐步邁向前文所說之創生或締造取向的課程實施理想。 然而教協及通識教師聯會的調查卻發現獨立專題探究中的「弄虛作假」情況不少。 97 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 能力不逮的學生做來叫苦連天,教師的教導、監督及批改也吃力不討好。原因是教師很 多時候將其視為學術研究,以致會操練學生統計方法、問卷調查及訪談技巧,而非一種 自主探究的學習活動,結果令學與教束手縛腳,效果不彰。 筆者建議撥亂反正,減低現在因公開考試而要求高度標準化的評估要求。考評局應 多下放權力予學校更好設計獨立專題探究,使之與校本評估作無縫式結合,為教師恢復 獨立專題探究本來面貌 ─ 探究為主的學習活動 ─ 提供空間。香港通識教育教師聯 會的中期報告也有檢討「獨立專題探究」之存廢,亦提出若果取消獨立專題探究,則「學 生[會]失去一個甚有學習意義的學習活動」,其言亦堪咀嚼。 丁丶課程未來發展之前瞻 對於以上問題的解決,通識科教師作為課程實施者亦有自己的觀點和建議。香港教 育專業人員協會教育研究部(2012)的調查結果顯示,教師認為下列九項措施是解決通 識科問題最有效益的措施(2010及 2011年前九名的排序相同):(1)小班教學、(2) 增加通識常額教席、(3)更多專科資源、(4)增撥學習差異資源、(5)暫緩自評外評、 (6)轉為選修選考、(7)只評合格或不合格、(8)評審通識教科書,及(9)提供更 多到校支援(頁 34)。除了增撥人手和資源外,教師也期望在「獨立專題研究」和「課 程範圍」方面有所改善。需要強調的是外部的資源、環境與評核固然是影響課程實施效 果的重要且必要之因素,但通識科要真正邁向「創生或締造」的課程實施取向,更為重 要的是教師之間、師生之間應視通識科為一持續性之教與學成效之探索旅程,不可輕言 放棄。通識科出現問題的成因頗為複雜,可能是學生之獨立思考及批判思維能力不彰, 也可能是老師的教學效能有待強化或批判思維及意識不高。後者構成了重要的教師課程 知能及意識需再提升和探究之課題。這兩方面之提升都會有助老師課程績效,不容輕視。 要做到這種多元視域交流,以達致「視域的融合」,課程發展處、學校課程領導階層、 大學師訓機構及通識科教師學會組織,皆可多舉行全校老師專業對話、同儕對話、學者 老師對話、邀請外界講者、及師生對話等活動。藉着這些對話及視界交流才能令老師⋯⋯ 能正視自己的角色與生活,願意從新的觀點、運用新的思維,來重新檢視過 往「視為當然」的課程實務與「習焉不察」的教學實踐,才可能有所覺醒 98 (awakening),才可能激發「課程意識」(curricular consciousness)、促進「教 學覺知」(pedagogical awareness)⋯⋯(甄曉蘭,2003,頁 72) 有了這些「課程意識」及「教學覺知」,老師便會「知道」和「明白」更多,並能 建立一個多面向的知識庫,及擁有專業覺知精神,知所批判,及知所捍衛。只有這樣的 老師及其產生的多元批判情境脈絡,才能教導出有獨立理性及批判思維的下一代。也只 有這樣的學校課程氛圍才能產生真正的「課程共識」,乃至「視域的融合」,實現通識 科課程的「創生或締造」課程觀(白雲霞,2003,頁 60;李子建,2010,頁 14;Lam, 2007)。 因此日後通識科的發展,除了考慮小班教學及增加常額通識科老師外,大學、教師 教育機構、課程發展處及通識科老師學會,應多重視協力挑起提升老師課程知能及意識 責任;共同形塑一全港性的專業對話及視界交流平台,俾能讓通識科老師對不同聲音和 經驗多見、多聞、多思考、多交流,從以重構其課程觀及教學實踐。至於各學校之領導 層及課程領導亦宜配合這一大環境之對話交流氣氛,多做一些相應的教師發展工作。容 萬城(2005)指出三種專業教師發展模式皆適合通識科老師,分別為知識與技能發展、 自我理解及生態轉變 1(Hargreaves & Fullan, 1992;李子建,2002,2005)。筆者認為其 中之「自我理解」模式似適合本文所指之建構校本對話及視界交流氛圍。若能成功建構 及持續發展,及過渡至「生態轉變」模式,必能形塑全校學與教之多元化及批判思維模 式,令老師及學生得益,也令通識科獨有的學科貢獻得以彰顯。 鳴謝 本文承蒙資深通識科專才及老師培訓專家黃志堅先生及陳崗博士給予寶貴意見,令 內容充實及有實質可貴的論證及啓示,在此謹表謝忱。 _______________ 1 第一種知識與技能發展模式主要是培養老師反思和行動研究、團體學習、溝通和解難能力;第二種自我理解模 式多培養教師的反思、鼓勵老師與他人分享知識和收集資訊,藉以建構共同目的、願景;第三種生態轉變模式 乃重視團隊工作、教師學習的自主性,並透過建立互信而合作的變化、促進集體學習和學習社群的建立。 99 香港通識教育科的現況及前瞻 參考文獻 白雲霞(2003)。《學校本位課程發展理論、模式》。台北:高等教育出版社。 朱嘉穎(2009)。〈教師專業發展理念的剖析 ─ 以香港通識教育科為例〉。《教育學 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M., Chittenden, E. A., & Amarel, M. (1976). Beyond surface curriculum: an interview study of teachers’ understanding. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. Gadamer, Hans-George. (1975). Truth and Method. London: Sheed and Ward. Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. G. (1992). Introduction. In A. Hargreaves & M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding Teacher Development (pp. 1-19). UK/New York: Cassell/Teachers College Press. Lam, J. T. S. (2007). Fusion of horizons: Implications for a hermeneutical learning community approach of implementing liberal studies in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(1), 39-61. Lee, J. C. K. (2006). Hong Kong: Accelerated Schools for Quality Education Project (ASQEP) experiences. In J. C. K. Lee & M. Williams (Eds.), School improvement: International perspectives (pp. 159-174). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Wall, D. (1997). Impact and washback in language testing. In C. Clapham & D. Corson (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education (Vol. 7: Language testing and assessment) (pp. 291-302). Bosten: Kluwer. The present and the future possibilities of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong LAM Tak Shing John & LEE Chi Kin John The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract This paper discusses the status and development of Liberal Studies from three different orientations of curriculum implementation. It is argued that schools and teachers tend to adopt a mutual adaptation orientation to implement the Liberal Studies curriculum with varying modes of module design as well as teaching and learning. Challenges are identified during curriculum implementation. It is proposed that it may be desirable to move towards a curriculum enactment orientation in future implementation. Keywords Liberal Studies, curriculum implementation, curriculum development 101 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程 潛在的影響 陳國棟 播道書院、香港美術教育協會 摘要 本文嘗試以「考評制度」及所引伸的現象,檢視視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式會否對 視覺藝術教育課程帶來影響。當中發現考評制度中四個面向,有可能對課程帶來影 響,分別為:(1)作品集呈交方法;(2)藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法;(3) 文字在評核中佔據的角色;(4)藝術評賞的考核安排。考評制度成效的關注層面, 並非只就學生成績的個人層次作判斷,而是檢視整個「考評制度的機制」,並須瞭 解學生學習成果是否達到預期設定的目標。 關鍵詞 考評制度,成就描述,藝術評賞 甲、前言 從最新有關「新高中視覺藝術科」(以下簡稱:視藝科)文憑試的教師意見調查顯 示,不少教師認為新高中課程推展後,並不認同視藝科於任教的學校發展前景更為理想 (視藝教育關注核心小組,2013)。另一方面,在以往七年改革期間,有學者藉課堂觀察、 訪問及抽樣調查研究,發現教師及學生基本上認同視藝科改革的方向;學者更指出「改 革能重現視覺藝術教育的本質價值」(黃素蘭,2011)。兩者的意見為何出現如此大的 分野?及至首屆文憑試視藝科成績揭曉,達至 5級或以上的僅有 6.1%。不少民間團體自 102 發進行研究、發表文章,以及舉行研討會,以不同持份者的角色作出回應。前線教師普 遍認為評核的準則、考核範圍及作品集的呈分方式等均是爭議所在。教育作為糾結複雜 的場域,要探討教育的現象,必須有一個切入點進行分析(吳毓瑩、吳麗君,2002)。 本文嘗試以「評估制度」檢視新高中視覺藝術科文憑試評分模式,對視覺藝術教育本質 所帶來潛在的影響。 乙、 考評改革回應時代轉變 全球化資訊泛濫,全世界都在尋找「學習」的新典範。Greeno, Collins & Resnick (1996)將認知與學習的不同觀念整理為三種主要觀點:(1)行為實徵觀點(The Behaviorist / Empiricist View);(2)認知理性觀點(The Cognitive / Rationalist View);(3) 情境社會歷史觀點(The Situative / Pragmatics-Sociohistoric View)。行為實徵觀點的評 量方式傾向以量化的觀點評量學習的成果,貼近傳統的紙筆測驗的方式;認知理性觀點 評量學生能否掌握學科的普遍性原則,以及其運用策略解決問題的能力;情境社會歷史 觀點強調學生主動的探索及參與的歷程(吳毓瑩,1998)。就當代藝術趨勢以言,後現 代藝術重視創作與情境的關聯性。現代學習理論強調學生應作為積極建構意義的參與 者,符合藝術創作强調自主性規律的特色。源於世界的知識,應是學生學習與評量的原 點(陳素櫻,1997)。學生除了展示知識,更重要是在真實情境中建構知識,並展現創 意及解難的能力。傳統考核偏重於知識的陳述,忽略建構知識歷程的重要性(林素微, 1998)。過往,香港高級程度會考仍側重素描等技巧性的評核,未能提升學生文化素養、 創意思維及自學能力等,視藝科校本評核採用能展現學生創作情境觀點的「作品集」, 作為實作評量的工具,讓人期望能彌補以往的不足。 丙、 實作評量 ─ 何謂「真實評量」中的「真實」需要? 早於 90年代始,檔案評量模式為美國不同州的學校所採用(江雪齡,1998)。從 教與學的角度,檔案評量有助教師可定時就學生的表現作出回饋,為學生作出整理、反 思及修正,達至持續改進及學習歷程(鄭麗玉,2005)。特別是藝術課程更應讓學生呈 現多元性的藝術表現,每個獨立的個體均有機會建構不同審美觀念、創作思維及各種媒 材的運用能力(陳育淳,2005)。不同學者以不同專稱表達這些新評量模式,如「卷宗 評量」(吳毓瑩,1998);「學習歷程檔案法」(歐滄和,1998)及「近檔案評量」(李 坤崇,1999)等。 103 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 不同持份者對課程中哪些是最需要「真實」評量的內容持不同的觀點。Wiggins (1990)指出教師編排教些甚麼,學生便學習甚麼,最後就只評量甚麼,這是對實作評 量錯誤的理解。也有學者指出若教師的教學目標旨在訓練學生應付公開考試,這種評量 也有人認為是真實評量的方式(吳毓瑩,1997)。筆者認為這同樣是錯誤的觀念,這種 評量方式只能回應「考試情境」的要求,並未重視當今社會情境歷史的因素。另外,有 學者指出核心能力可以是學生畢業後所能展現出來的能力(劉維琪,2010)。這種見解 較為貼近情境社會歷史觀點。 學者強調當代課程改革的成功,必須在社會的脈絡中進行(吳毓瑩,1997)。若評 量的目標朝向世界的真實評量方式,「課程」、「評量」與「真實應用」或「真實生活」 應互相緊扣,課程內容應可應用於真實世界,或有相關連繫的事物(Linn, 1995),如 以往 60年代以現代主義及形式主義的觀念,進行創作及藝術評賞。但當今後現代主流 藝術觀如概念藝術、媒體藝術、環境美學、生態美學及視覺文化都講求與創作情境的緊 密聯繫,視藝科的「課程與評量」設計必須顧及這些因素。 考評局十分強調考評世界的公認性,導致評分準則傾斜於量化及僵化的性質,為了 滿足考評「公認性」的「真實」需求,會否成為考評中最核心的目標?會否因而減低視 藝科本質的展現?甚麼是新高中文憑試「真實」的評量目標,並導引出正確的考評或課 程?這是學者對課程改革的深度觀察及爭論焦點。 丁、 持份者對考評改革的疑慮 台灣高中公開考試被戲稱為「一刀斃命」的高風險評量;而多元評量的教育改革, 也被負面地稱為「凌遲致死」(吳毓瑩、吳麗君,2002)。就本土情境而言,學者及教 師一方面認同改革的精神,另一方面對考評的方式極為疑慮。產生這種矛盾現象可歸納 為四種不同的意見:(1)作品集呈交的方法影響評分;(2)依據「成就描述」的藝術 評賞評核方法;(3)文字在評核中佔據過重的角色;(4)藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相 連的考核及評分安排。 一、作品集呈交方法影響評分效度 就視藝科而言,創作的檔案是展現個人藝術能力的最簡易的途徑。Valencia & Calfee提出檔案可以分為三種模式:展示型檔案(showcase portfolio)、文件型檔案 104 (documentation portfolio)及評鑑型檔案(evaluation portfolio)(鄒慧英,2000)。當 中評鑑型檔案屬於標準化的型式,主要功能與傳統客觀式測驗有相近的地方,檔案評分 的範圍已經事先決定,學生主導權相對較低。考評局採用的屬評鑑型檔案,因學生需回 應評分的量度準則,創作的思維受到限制,但學生仍有空間主導整個創作歷程,而爭議 點在作品集呈交方法所引伸的問題。 Mehrens(1992)建議在考慮採用實作評量的效度時,應從是否藉評量方法或工具 量度正確的領域、測驗內涵取樣是否適切、如何推論等問題方面考慮。大部份老師不 介意負擔額外的工作,但「作品集的定義及頁數的爭議」引起極大的討論(黃素蘭, 2011)。有誤傳作品集「越多及越大就越好」。相反,也有學者認為整理作品能有助清 晰及簡潔展現作品集表現,如篩選、整理、表達及分享等能力,都值得學習(黃素蘭, 2011)。也有不少教師支持將整件學生作品集呈交給考評局,作為檢驗學生校本評核的 證據。在討論有關校本評核評分方法的研討會中,有教育局代表曾提出「不准整理作品 集」,以及所有探索應在工作簿內進行的要求。有教師推測,這是為了避免學生有作弊 的現象而作出的安排。 考評局要求學生每一件作品集選取 12頁作代表(或 24頁縮印為 12頁),作品集 要求不可被編輯。最終,每一位學生將超過 100頁以上的作品集濃縮至 12頁,並且以 不超過 15 Mb的 PDF檔案呈交。這「並不連貫」的作品集選頁,如 Benjamin所言,作 為失去氛圍「壓縮影像」的印刷品(Benjamin,譯 2006),未知能否保持評量的效度。 考評局所舉辦的工作坊提出被選取 12頁的作品集,需展示「緊密發展性」的創作意念。 有教師認為 12頁的數量並未能反映學生最有價值的歷程,也很難反映彼此之間的關聯 性。老師反映「作品集只交數頁,又不能整理,根本不能顯現學生作品的過程」;「完 全不認同用以調分的 12+5頁『作品集』無須經過整理,調分員也能審核考生在創作過 程中的各種能力表現⋯⋯調分員可能未能全面評核學生的能力,會產生不公平的現象」; 「作品集應整本評核,甚至派員到校評審學生作品,如 IB課程一般⋯⋯」(《香港美 術教育期刊》,2013a)。盧雪梅(1998)指出「不能為了運用上的方便或簡單的理由, 把評量的層面給窄化或偏狹,評量者應配合教學目標選擇和其目的相合的評量方式和工 具,以落實多元化的評量」。 筆者最擔心為了容易獲取成績,「緊密發展性的創作意念作品集」的呈交要求,無 105 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 形誘導老師以「樣式化」的創作歷程指導學生,影響課程的本意。有老師認為「學習公 式化,用套路答題」(童傑,2013.4.29)。學生為了獲取高分數,最終仍是以「應試」 的態度去創作。老師只按照評分準則要求的四個重點教學,而學生於作品集中公式地進 行記錄及創作。創作思維應該是提升和多元的,並非一定以線性的邏輯推演主題,創造 力的意識也可以是擴散性、跳躍性及其他的可能性。學者從大量有關創造力的研究中仍 找不出一種必然的定律,只能找出表現創造力的不同特質。筆者擔心學生最終並未享有 真正創作的自主權,而自主性正正是創造新事物的創作者必須擁有的條件。筆者也懷疑 學生因只能呈交濃縮後的 PDF檔案,對創作中強調色彩、線條或調子細緻性風格的同 學不利,因檔案未能重現原貌,影響審核員(moderator)對作品判斷,進而影響分數。 課程改革期望學生能提升「後設認知」,進而「終身學習」,如 Dutt-Donter & Gilman (1998)認為「學生能自我反思及有系統的闡述其信念價值」,最終學生能「學會學習」, 但現在的安排是否能達到視藝科課程改革的目標及原意? 二、藝術評賞依據「成就描述」的評核方法 實作評量雖能配合當代的教育情境,若運用於升學考試的性質,仍面對不少挑戰。 Mehrens(1992)認為實作評量要達至信度,評分者間的一致性、評分歷程的客觀性、 考核內部的一致性,評分者的選擇和訓練、明確的評分規範,以及定期檢視評分者的表 現等都是重要的元素。 視藝科有別於其他文憑試科目,視藝科較貼近當代文化的動向,學生跟隨當今藝術 創作及評賞的模式,形成他們勇於以多樣性的藝術形式以表現他們的想法。課程也同樣 趨向多樣化及動態化,並比其他科目為多。現今藝術評賞安排在文憑試中進行,文憑試 要求學生在 45分鐘的時限內,從五組(每組兩張)不同時代、國家或風格的相關主題 作品中,選出一組進行評賞,這安排引起極大爭議。藝術評賞主要要求學生以「成就描 述」中四個評分準則作為評論方向。而四個評分準則是於中小學課程中,採用了 20多 年費爾德曼(Feldman)的評賞模式(簡稱費曼模式)為依歸。費曼模式建構於現代主 義中形式主義的美學觀,而主張形式主義的學者認為觀者能單以作品所採用的藝術形 式,就能詮釋作品所要表現的訊息。此外,在「成就描述」中傾向依據量化性質的評核 方法(陳國棟,2012)。 筆者及一般前線教師都十分認同藝術評賞在藝術教育的必要性及重要性。爭議點在 106 於現今藝術評賞評核方式,未能回應當代藝術的發展之餘,也錯誤引導學生可隨意解讀 作品的態度。當代作品重視創作情境,作品形式或表達手法有可能因應創作情境,表示 出簡約及只隱藏單一訊息,而重點在於創作者要藉作品反映或諷刺哪一個社會的面貌, 將作品形式與作品相關背景兩者相連,才能學習到當代藝術評賞的精神,當中並不能單 單以量化方式評估藝術評賞的質量。 此外,筆者認為考評要在 45分鐘內完成過於困難,更嚴重的是在沒有賞評考核範 圍及沒有提供任何背景的情況下,學生無從稽考,但為了獲取分數,只好胡亂推敲,最 終以看圖作文的方式完成評賞。不少老師也同樣有相同的見解:「學生不可能對每一位 藝術家有所認識,如果強迫學生去評賞,最後只會做成一個『吹水』局面。(《香港美 術教育期刊》,2013b)。此外,也有老師認為「無明確範圍是其一,古今中外的作品 甚至廣告,也可以出題,學生難以準備好古今中外所有藝術家的師承脈絡才去應考。」 老師不諱言「學生有時只能看圖作文『吹水』」(童傑,2013.4.29)。學生也認為:「評 賞筆試『只能靠估』,猶如『看圖作文』,對自己是否正確解讀創作原意並無把握」(梁 子健,2012.1.11)。學者更嚴肅地指出:「更災難的是考生還要根據這個『吹水』的答 案,延伸其意念至創作卷中,因此其答題的取向將直接影響考生藝術創作的取態⋯⋯『胡 亂虛應』成為高中視藝的創作主流。」(黎明海,2013.5.9) 明確的評分準則也可能引導了學生詮釋作品思維的方向,最終只以單一評賞結構方 式進行,謝絕了學生運用其他評賞模式的可能性。教師為了針對考試要求,自然同樣依 從這種由四個步驟組成的評論結構編寫評賞課程。評賞課程的設計最終難逃單一化的命 運,考評雖然能達至信度的要求,但學生評賞寫作的方式,與後現代詮釋藝術的方法發 展背道而馳。筆者認為藝術評賞的評核應安排在校本評核中進行,此舉有助學生就被評 賞的藝術品,尋找更豐富作品的情境資料,進入更深度的詮釋。新的藝術觀念,應以新 的思維作出回應。本人曾參與由考評局舉辦有關評分員的工作坊,老師即場以考評局提 供的評分準則為一些學生評賞評論進行評分,目的是看看老師能否掌握以費曼模式為原 則的評分規則要求,在場一位老師提出考評局解讀費曼模式的方式,與她從台灣學者所 寫的論述及大學時所學習的有所不同。工作坊講員提出評分員必須以考評局提出的評核 準則作為依據,經一番議論後,老師最後憤而離場。從上述的事件反映考評局在評分方 式的培訓中無形左右了教師對藝術評賞的觀念,教師為了教導學生獲取分數,自然依據 評分準則作為課程編制的重點,評賞課程設計呈模式化,最終局限了學生的視野及發揮。 107 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 有關當局未能就考評信度的要求與當代藝術評賞課程發展作出合理的協調,考評信度凌 駕當代課程的發展。前國際藝術教育協會會長 Boughton(2005)認為後現代思潮挑戰藝 術在教育的觀念。視藝科的評量需顧及質性與量性兩方面,才能明確指出教師對學生表 現對藝術評賞的觀念的期待與正確的學習方向(史美瑤,2012;李坤崇,2006)。 三、文字在評核中佔據過重的角色 藝術評賞是首次安排在視藝科公開評核之中,文字在視藝科從未佔據如此重要的角 色。多元評估沿於多元智慧的觀念,旨在證明不同的人擁有不同的智慧,單一智力的測 驗未能反映人擁有不同能力的全貌。教育系統應從單一方向,以文字為主導的方向轉向 多元性的考核。」Garcia & Pearson(1994)指出:「傳統評量的題目往往代表著主流文 化及社會中高階層的價值觀,不利於來自弱勢文化及社會低階層的學生。故在此強調多 元文化的時代,這種不公平的傳統評量已受到了強烈的批評」。教協籌委梁德賢認為: 「弱勢學生最差是文字描述,他們愛創作但寫作及組織能力不一定強,結果只能有兩種 選擇:一是背誦,一是放棄。」(教協報記者,2011)。教育局(2011)強調公開考試 應「能有效、公平和客觀反映課程宗旨、構架、本科價值和學生能力」。文字正正並非 本科價值的目標,過量的文字要求扼殺有潛質的學生的直覺、創意及想像力的發揮。教 師認為:「評考模式對語文能力偏低的學生不公平,評賞部份應接受多元的評核方式, 如口頭匯報」(《香港美術教育期刊》,2013a)。 Boughton指出:「評核法的原意是給予學生機會,展示他們(學生)在美術創作 途上的歷時性(performance over time)及抒發作品背後的理論架構、哲學或個人反省」 (朱穎琪,1999)。若從另一個角度觀察,作品集的歷程是協助學生提升「後設認知」 的能力,也是檢視學生在創作層面中「後設認知」的表現能力。筆者認為「後設認知」 並非單靠文字表達,若老師或審核員能從學生完整的作品集中,觀察到無論在媒介、創 作手法、藝術情境不同方面作為參考,藉視覺性的探索中,瞭解學生如何經歷「接納、 變遷、解脫、到超越」的創作過程(蔡明哲,2006),文字只是擔當輔助的角色。 筆者發現老師未能將「視覺語言」及「文字」於視藝科課程擔當的角色,作出合理 的安排。一方面,老師應以擴展學生「視覺創作能力」、「視覺表達能力」及「視覺素 養能力」為己任。不少老師安排時間教導學生如何撰寫作品集及藝術評賞,課程中安排 創作能力的訓練相應減少。筆者從文憑試擔當監考員發現,不少學生創作及繪畫能力欠 108 佳。此外,從探討新高中會議中,任教大專的教師也表示現今的學生不懂繪畫。作為以 「視覺思維」為核心的科目,若學生將時間過量放在「文字」的要求,因而影響了創作 的質量,這是值得進一步的反思。 四、藝術創作與藝術評賞緊扣相連的考核及評分安排 以往藝術科的公開考試以技巧為主,學生只以「畫室模式化」的繪畫方式面對考試, 而未能反映後現代藝術發展的特色,就是重視情境及社會的意識。「當今『後現代社會 學』不再把個人主觀認知和外在的社會群體認知全然二分,藝術的創作和表達成為不全 然是個人對社會的反映,也受制於整個社會價值取向。」(陳秋瑾,1999)。 文憑試藝術創作部份佔總分 40%,評分準則分為五部份:(1)媒材及技法的選擇 和運用,(2)視覺元素及設計原理的選擇和運用,(3)創作與評賞的關係,(4)創 意與想像力及(5)主題傳意各佔 18%。新高中視藝考試中藝術創作必須與藝術評賞緊 扣相連,評賞在沒有考核的範圍下,學生並不容易確定作品的社會及文化等背景,若創 作建基於這不確定的第一因,學生如何延伸評賞作品文化及社會的維度,以及將個人的 情感及想像納入為創作的元素?學生只能以猜測的態度進行創作,在不確定的第一因 下,如何適當地運用其他評分項目如:視覺元素、設計原理、創意與想像力,而達至主 題傳意的效果呢? 從分析發現,影響分數的並非單單「創作與評賞的關係」一項,而是不同評分準則 之間彼此串聯。當學生於「創作與評賞的關係」掌握得不理想時,其他評分部份也會受 到干擾。史美瑤(2012)認為採用評估表格須注意,若相關成就描述的文字過於公式化, 學生只會依照所訂出的規格來創作,因而抑制了學生的創造力。曾有學者以「素描」創 作為例,探討他們的創作及評賞背後的傾向,結果發現大部份的學生是以「具有共識」 (獲取高分的公式)態度及目標去進行創作或鑑賞;只有極少數學生能嘗試挑戰共識, 以另一種合理的角度或方式呈現答案(陳秋瑾,1997)。若「創作與評賞的關係」成為 他們創作的主要條件,他們將也會按照「具有共識」的態度進行創作,就是學生只能將 意念放在被評賞的作品,學生可能瞭解作品的意念,或只能是建基於懷疑之中,而非在 情境之上。學生的創意未能獲得自由和自主的思想空間。學生在作品集中要把自己的創 作硬性規定與藝術品評賞有聯繫,實在限制了學生的創意及發揮。 109 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 戊、 總結 一般人認為學生的學習與滿意程度均由老師負起全部的責任。這種歸因的邏輯令教 師承受不公平的看法。學者對這現象提出警告和呼籲,實作評量的推展並不能單建立在 信念上,而是要建立在實際的證據上(Linn, Bake & Dunbar, 1991)。這次大規模的教 育改革,評量成效的關注層面,並非只是學生成績的個人層次;檢視「評量的機制」, 檢視學生的學習成果是否達成預期設定的目標?如何進行改善或修正也應作為考量之一 (劉維琪,2010)。香港連續三年被選為全球化指數排名榜首,學者提出「情境社會歷 史觀點」最能回應當今全球化的社會情境。在當代藝術的觀念中,藝術創作重視創作者 個人經驗與情境互動為主,藝術評賞則重視藝術品的客觀情境,然而,文憑試的要求卻 剛剛相反。考評制度出現扭曲的現象,但教師為了讓學生獲取分數,只好以「應試模式」 編寫校本課程,故考評制度具有對視藝科課程潛在的影響性,干擾教師課程設計方向, 以下提出四方面作出回應: 1. Educational Testing Service(1990)的報告指出,重新設計實作評量的方案相對 現有測驗模式昂貴十倍以上。以實作評量(作品集)作為考核,必須考慮有否 足夠的經費持續運作這系統。考評局應提升運作的經費,來確保調分員能清晰 及完整地了解學生作品集的歷程及質量。 2. 依據現代主義費曼模式所建構的「成就描述」已經過時,應建立一種能回應當 代藝術文化的藝術評賞評分框架,讓學生能脫離單一的評賞模式,擴展學生的 視覺素養,而藝術評賞應安排於校本評核中進行。 3. 文字在評核中應只擔當輔助角色。考評局應提供正確的範例,並釐清視覺表達 及創作能力才是中學階段課程的核心。 4. 藝術評賞與創作的必然聯繫,只會扼殺學生的創意及創作的自主性,必須廢除。 兆基創意書院校監黃英琦指出,「藝術科目在舊制下雖是冷門,但現時是『令冷 門的更冷門』」;「我曾見過有學生很有興趣和天分,也因為考試而放棄藝術,令人感 到很殘酷」(童傑,2013.4.29)。視藝科考評及課程的「真實」需要是甚麼?是「以制 度為本」的運作考量?還是「以人為本」?還是為「香港創意人才培育」為主要考量? 2012年台灣舉行的「SGHC全球化人力資本高峰會」,提出兩項重要的觀念:「如何避 110 免扼殺創意的事件發生」及「瞭解如何創造更有創意的人力」(Haren,2012)。「如 何避免扼殺創意的事件發生」是兩屆視藝科文憑試後,值得進一步探討的重要議題。 參考文獻 《香港美術教育期刊》(2013a)。〈前線教師對新高中視藝科文憑試回應〉。2013年 第 1期,6-7。 《香港美術教育期刊》(2013b)。〈學生李家豪心聲〉。2013年第 1期,8。 史美瑤(2012)。〈提升學生學習成效:評估表格(Rubrics)的設計與運用〉,《評鑑 雙月刊》,第 40期,39-41。 朱穎琪(1999)。〈訪問包頓教授(Professor Doug Boughton)〉。《香港美術教育期刊》, 1999年第 3期,8。 江雪齡(1998)。〈檔案評量法〉。《中等教育》,49(4),79-84。 吳毓瑩(1997)。〈評量的蛻變與突破 — 從哲學思潮與效度理論思考起〉。《現代教 育論壇蛻變與突破:紙筆及另類評量的理念與實務》,2,189-203。 吳毓瑩(1998)。〈我看、我畫、我說、我演、我想、我是誰啊?卷宗評量之概念、理論、 與應用〉。《教育資料與研究》,20,13-17。 吳毓瑩、吳麗君(2002)。〈從比較教育的取向討論測驗評量在教育銜接中之意涵 — 一個可能的研究途徑〉。《國立臺北師範學院學報》。第 15卷,313-316。 李坤崇(1999)。《多元化教學評量》。臺北:心理出版社。 李坤崇(2006)。《教學評量》。臺北:心理出版社。 林素微(1998)。〈實作評量在數學教學上的應用〉。載臺南師院測驗發展中心(彙編), 《國小教學評量的反省與前瞻》(頁 89-105)。臺南市:臺南師院。 教育局(2011):〈問與答 — 新高中視覺藝術科課程〉,2012年 11月 13日,取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/curriculum-development/kla/arts-edu/q-and-a/nss-qa.html。 教協報記者(2011)。〈新高中視覺藝術科 — 培育創意人才?扼殺學生興趣 — 教 育工作者談視藝科課程與考核的嚴重謬誤〉。2012年 11月 13日,取自 http://www. hkptu.org/ptu/director/pubdep/ptunews/590/m01a.htm。 梁子健(2012.1.11)。〈文憑試視藝考生要靠估 評賞罕見當代作品 艾未未「兩腳桌」 也列題〉。《星島日報》,A06版。 111 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 陳育淳(2005)。〈大家一起寫情書 — 談視覺藝術教育的形成性評量〉。《美育雙月 刊》,第 146期,59-69。 陳秋瑾(1997)。〈臺北市立師範學院美勞教育系學生「素描」概念的探討〉。《臺北 市立師範學院學報》,28,399-418。 陳秋瑾(1999)。〈視覺藝術與哲學觀〉。《現代教育論壇:視覺藝術與哲學觀》,5, 203-208。 陳素櫻(1997)。〈回歸評量的本質談開放教育中的評量〉。載鄧運林(編),《開放 教育多元評量》(頁 19-27)。高雄:高雄復文。 陳國棟(2012)。〈以約翰.霍金斯(John Hawkins)「創意生態學」反思藝術教育的 生態兩難困境〉。《香港美術教育期刊》,第 2期,27-30。 童傑(2013.4.29)。〈視藝科負擔重師生叫苦 連夜趕報告掀起退修潮〉。《星島日報》, A13版。 視藝教育關注核心小組(2013)。〈九成視藝科教師對高中視藝科失信心 教育局及考 評局必須對課程及考評機制作出具體改革〉。《香港美術教育期刊》,2013年第 1 期,15。 黃素蘭(2011)。〈高中視藝科考試改革的風波〉。《香港美術教育期刊》,2011年第 1期,7-10。 鄒慧英(2000)。〈多元化的檔案評量〉。《國教之友》,52(1),16-23。 劉維琪(2010)。〈推動學生學習成果評量的機制〉。《評鑑雙月刊》,第 26期,6-7。 歐滄和(1998)。〈談學習歷程檔案法的點點滴滴〉。《教育資料與研究》,第 4期, 28-30。 蔡明哲(2006)。〈全球化與中國文人水墨畫的藝術界域問題 — 民族主義的張大千和 沒有主義的高行健〉。《哲學與文化》,第 33卷第 10期,115-132。 鄭麗玉(2005)。《教育心理學精要》。臺北:考用出版社。 黎明海(2013.5.9)。〈新高中視藝教育喪鐘再響〉。《星島日報》,F05版。 盧雪梅(1998)。〈實作評量的應許、難題和挑戰〉。《教育資料與研究》,第 20期, 1-5。 Benjamin, W.(2006)。《機械復制時代的藝術》,李偉、郭東(譯)。重慶:重慶出版社。 (原著出版年:1935) Boughton, D.(2005)。〈大夏講壇 20講:美國北伊利諾大學道.柏頓教授談「國際藝 術教育評價的現狀及發展趨勢」〉。《大夏人文》,2006年第 1期,44-45。 112 Dutt-Donter, K., & Gilman, D. A. (1998). Students react to portfolio assessment. Contemporary Education, 69, 159-65. Educational Testing Service. (1990). Helping America raise educational standards for the 21st century. Annual report. Princeton, NJ: Author. Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Assessment and diversity. In L. Darling-Hammand (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, 20, 337-391. Greeno, J. G., Collins, A. M., & Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Haren, F.(2012)。〈人才發展也要創意激發〉。SGHC 2012全球化人力資本高峰會議。 Linn, R. L. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice- Hall. Linn, R. L., Baker, E. L., & Dunbar, S. B. (1991). Complex, performance-based assessment: Expectations and validation criteria. Educational Researcher, 20(8), 15-21. Mehren, W. A. (1992). Using performance assessment for accountability purposes. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 11(1), 3-20. Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. (ERIC Digest). Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED328611) 113 新高中視覺藝術科考評制度對課程潛在的影響 Potential impact of the assessment structure of the NSS Visual Arts on the curriculum CHAN Kwok Tung Evangel College, Hong Kong Society for Education in Art Abstract This article tries to link up the discussion on the topic of “the assessment structure” and “the outcome phenomenon” to evaluate and reflect the impact caused by NSS Visual Arts public examination. In the process of investigation, there are 4 aspects in the assessment structure of NSS Visual Arts Education public examination which are liable to influence the NSS Visual Arts Curriculum. They are classified as follows: 1. The ways of submitting students’ portfolios 2. The assessment ways of “rubrics” 3. The role of “Statement and Words” in the assessment 4. The assessment arrangement of “Art Appreciation” In summary, the evaluation of the complete assessment structure and the cognition of how students can achieve their learning targets should be the core items of detecting the true effect and result of the NSS Visual Arts Assessment Structure. Keywords assessment structure, rubrics, art appreciation 115 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 梁亦華 香港中文大學教育學院博士生 摘要 應用學習是香港新高中新設的組成部分,修讀學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選 擇,透過實際操作來掌握不同技能,其設計體現了「學生中心」、「體驗學習」、 「共通能力」等教改目標,然而文獻對有關課程教師之專業感知卻少有探討。為此, 本文通過實證研究搜集了第一手資料,彌補相關研究缺口,以助學界檢討與反思。 本文屬質性研究,筆者邀得八名應用學習科目教師參與,環繞課程設計、成效評估、 推行困難等作深度訪談,結果顯示教師普遍認同應用學習能激發學生學習動機,滿 足就業及職業導向的升學需要,而課程局限則在於財政資源、人手調撥及行政安排 等三方面。 關鍵詞 新高中課程,應用學習,職業導向課程 甲、背景 2005年,教育統籌局(現教育局)發佈《高中及高等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未 來的行動方案》文件,正式確立新高中課程的定位與功能。作為面向未來的教育規劃, 文件中提出了不少創新的課程改革,例如通識教育科被列為升讀大學的必修科、各式校 本評核、以及開設多達二十門選修科供高中生選讀。選修學科中,應用學習(Applied Learning, ApL)的課程可說是最能體現新高中精神的學科之一。由於應用學習下的學習 116 範疇極為彈性,學生能根據本身之性向與能力自由選擇,透過實際操作來掌握不同技能, 正正回應了教改提出「學生為中心」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等範式 轉移的新教學模式(教育統籌局,2005)。 教育局課程文件之設計希望迎合社會與學生所需,然而任何教育政策亦需要前線教 育工作者的配合。正如著名學者 Andy Hargreaves所言,任何學校變革政策與實踐中, 教師也是改革理念與學生學習改進的關鍵(Hargreaves, 1994, p.7),只有教師認同政策 的積極意義,才能發揮政策的效用。故此,如要檢討新高中應用學習之實際功效,了解 新高中教師之專業感知必不可少。那麼在政府與公眾的影響下,接觸學生及統籌課程的 前線教師對應用學習又抱有甚麼看法?鑑於新高中課程推出時間不多,相關議題的檢討 仍未算全面,故此筆者希望通過是次研究,為應用學習的討論提供前線教師之真實意見, 以作學界檢討與反思之用。 乙、文獻回顧 一、應用學習的定位與目標 應用學習課程是新高中課程的新設選修科目之一,與其他新高中學科不同的是,其 方向並非以升學作唯一目標。應用學習之設立可視為對 2005年的教改文件《高中及高 等教育新學制 ─ 投資香港未來的行動方案》的回應,其目的是讓學生「透過真實情境, 讓學生從應用和實踐中學習有關的知識和理論,從而培養他們的共通能力。」(教育統 籌局,2006,頁 1)。2009年的《應用學習課程及評估指引(高中課程)》則進一步, 把課程目標擴展至協助學生「探討和了解就業及終身學習的取向」(課程發展議會與香 港考試及評核局,2009,頁 1)。明顯地,應用學習配合着 2005年教改文件所提倡,「學 生為中心的教學模式」、「體驗式學習」及「發展學生共通能力」等教改目標,亦希望 為學生提供主流升學以外的機會。 課程設置方面,應用學習共有六個學習範疇,分別為(1)創意學習;(2)媒體及 傳意;(3)商業、管理及法律;(4)服務;(5)應用科學;和(6)工程及生產(課 程發展處,2010,頁 27)。學生最多可選修兩門,每門課程的總課時為 180小時。截至 2013/14年度,共有三十七門課程獲教育局官方認可(見附錄)。可見,應用學習的學 習範疇範圍頗廣泛,與就業市場亦有密切關係。 117 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 教與學方面,考慮到一般學校未必能對職業導向學科有相應支援,教育局建議學校 以兩種模式推行應用學習,包括︰ (1) 課程主要於課程提供機構的場地進行,並由該機構的導師教授。學校須按 課程提供機構的時間表,主要安排學生於星期三及星期六外出上課; (2) 課程主要於學校進行,並由學校教師聯同課程提供機構的導師一起負責課 堂的安排。學校須與課程提供機構訂定施行細節,包括如何分配教學工作 量、調配場地及設施、提供課堂支援等。 (課程發展處,2010,頁 5、7) 《教育局通函第 14/2013號》則對課程提供機構及學校的關係進一步說明︰ 推行應用學習的學校,可考慮利用課程提供機構提供的指引和支援,先讓校 內教師承擔較多的教學工作,繼而演變為由課程提供機構授權學校開辦課程, 但授課及評核部分的內部質素保證,則仍然由課程提供機構負責。 (教育局,2013,頁 3) 評核方面,應用學習的評核由課程提供機構進行,卻不是以五個等級指標顯示學生 成績,只設「達標」(Attained)和「達標並表現優異」(Attained with Distinction)兩級。 「達標並表現優異」者等同於甲類科目的第 3級或以上(課程發展議會、香港考試及評 核局,2009)。評核雖由課程提供機構負責,然而最終評級將由香港考試及評核局參考 評核準則和成就標準來調整(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2009)。 從上可見,學校與教師在應用學習的角色與傳統學科極為不同。教師雖參與程設計 與編排,卻不主導教學與評核事宜,更多是作為聯絡橋樑,擔任協調者,以至行管理者 的輔助角色。然而,如何確保教師對課程提供機構的教學成效與評估有足夠信任,讓兩 者合作無間?官方文件卻少有提及。 二、職業導向課程的不同觀點 應用學習雖有升學功能,但它幫助學生銜接勞工市場的目標亦是顯而易見。《應用 學習課程及評估指引(高中課程)》中表示,應用學習的前身為職業導向教育,學習內 118 容與「廣闊的專業和職業領域相關連」,以「加深(學生)對各行各業的認識。藉着了 解專業領域內的知識、技能和職場要求,學生得以訂立就業的方向」為目標(課程發展 議會、香港考試及評核局,2009,1.2-1.4)。一般而言,職業導向課程的學生成本較文 法中學的高,可是社會、教育學者及家長對職業導向的畢業生並不特別關注,甚至抱有 負面看法。不少教育社會學的學者認為,這是因為職業導向課程的社會地位,以及職業 導向社會教化功能與一般課程不同所致。 社會地位方面,Fisher(1967)聚焦於職業教育的歷史脈絡,指出它源於中世紀的 手工培訓,其時手工培訓經常被視作讓罪犯補救過失和罪過的方法之一,故此手工培訓 多與罪犯改造相關聯。澳洲學者 Phillip Hughes則着眼於制度與文化,指出中國自有科 舉以來便實施精英教育,教育機會只對少數官僚或富裕階層有限開放。由於教育普及率 長期極低,致使中國社會形成鄙薄勞動,輕視實踐的傳統文化觀(Hughes, 2005);相 對而言,美國社會學家 Collins(1998)則聚焦於職業教育的社會地位流動功能。Collins 認為學生不能以手工勞動培訓提高社會地位,融入、以至帶領中產階級文化,是職業教 育注定不及文法中學受歡迎的主因。綜上可見,雖然各派學者對職業教育有不同見解, 但三者均認同社會對職業教育的偏見一直存在,並延續至今。乃至現時放棄文法中學, 接受職業導向課程者,不論就讀甚麼科目,行動本身已有負面標籤(Hughes, 2005), 這亦成為中學發展職業教育的一大障礙。 除了社會與文化原因外,教育界對職業導向課程的教育及社會教化功能亦頗有異 議,如 Rury便指出不少傳統教育領導者對職業教育存在敵意,皆因他們認為職業教育 破壞教育的社會化功能及培養公民的理想,忽略傳播社會與道德責任(Rury, 1991)。 而更重要的是,以實務而非知識為主的課程會影響他們領導教育發展的地位,故此他們 傾向優化傳統教育,或發展共通能力為主的博雅教育(Liberal Art Education),而反對 在與傳統課程不相關的科目上進行無用的訓練(Cremin, 1961; Rury, 1991);前線教師 方面,部份教師亦質疑職業教育的教學成效。例如黎萬紅及盧乃桂在 1997至 2000年間 於內地進行的質性研究顯示,不少教師認為職業教育畢業生所掌握的技能不足以應付瞬 間萬變的社會發展,而基礎能力不足又會影響他們終身學習,故他們對職業教育抱懷疑 態度(黎萬紅、盧乃桂,2003)。 雖然社會與教育界對職業教育不盡支持,但 Collins(1998)則認為,職業教育在 119 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 僱主心目中始終有其價值存在。一般學校系統強調角色學習、出席紀錄,以及大量教育 學生的效率原則,升學是按年齡,而非學習成績為標準,而考試往往抽離現實,未能回 應僱主需要,為社會提供合適人才。相對地,職業教育結合理論與實踐,正正能補足這 方面主流學制之不足。 綜上可見,官方、公眾、僱主、教育界等持份者對職業教育的立場不盡相同。鑑於 過去文獻對職業教育多着重宏觀社會分析,少有針對應用學習前線教師的個人感知,為 此,筆者希望透過本研究,了解前線應用學習教師對此課程的看法、課程推行的挑戰及 建議。 丙、研究方法 為了令本研究更為聚焦,本研究將環繞以下問題進行討論︰ (1)應用學習對修讀學生有何影響? (2)教師如何看待應用學習的升學功能? (3)教師如何看待應用學習的就業功能? (4)教師推行應用學習時面對甚麼困難? 本研究屬半結構性訪談(semi-structured interview)。Bogdan & Bilken(2007)指 出半結構性題目雖未讓受訪者完全主導過程,卻能讓研究者與受訪者雙方更聚焦於研究 議題之上,又能提供空間予受訪者自由地表達個人想法和經驗。為此,本訪談以上述四 條問題為引導,並緊隨着與受訪者個人認知及教學經驗相關的開放性問題,用以了解受 訪者感受,並在議題聚焦與受訪者主導間作一平衡。此外,本研究亦輔以與應用學習之 相關報導作比較分析,以期與訪談結果互相印證,確保資料與研究結果之效度。 本研究邀請了八名任教新高中課程,曾帶領應用學習一年或以上的教師作深度訪 談,其中任教於第一組別學校者有兩位、第二及第三組別學校者各有三位。由於應用學 習由 2010/11學年推行至今仍不滿三年,故本研究未有資深教師作比較。本研究採用便 利取樣法(convenience sampling),根據受訪者的可行性和意願來邀請研究對象。部份 學者認為選擇便利取樣的研究者無法確保受訪者的代表性,選取對象亦受到研究者個人 偏見影響(Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012),然而對比其他取樣方法,便利抽樣能保證研 究者和受訪者之間有較佳的關係與信任,有助取得更深層資訊,這對揭露一些涉及個人 120 真實想法、或須對學校政策或措施作批判性建議等的質性研究議題最為合適(Gravetter & Lori-Ann, 2012; Maxwell, 2005)。 基於研究道德之考慮,本文將以代號「教師 A至 H」代替受訪教師的身份,以作 闡述。信度方面,本研究的目的並非找出所有教師的共同觀點,而是希望透過新高中教 師之質性訪談,為新高中應用學習的議題提供藉得討論的可能性,供未來的課程設計者 參考及優化課程之用。基於便利取樣法所限,本研究的發現與討論不能推論至所有教師, 而只能反映部份教師根據自身經驗所歸納的個人觀感。 丁、結果與討論 總體而言,本研究的受訪教師均肯定應用學習的積極作用,然而在不同學校脈絡 中,教師對應用學習的看法卻稍有不同,亦提出了前線教師所面對的不同挑戰。綜合而 言,教師意見可循(1)學習動機方面;(2)升學方面;以及(3)就業方面以作探討。 一、學習動機方面 由於選修應用學習的學生根據各自興趣、性向及能力選取與其相符的課程,其學習 動機被假設會較一般課程為高(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局,2009)。本研究的 訪談亦印證了這點︰ 「⋯⋯應用學習的考核不是評分和評級,而是項目能否完成⋯⋯參加 ApL的 學生更有滿足感,以往上課漫無目的,現在卻很清楚自己方向,因為能學到 「實際的東西」,好像怎樣梳出某種髮型,怎樣因應不同場合來控制化妝深 淺(度)等,這些都可以在生活中應用出來。」(教師 B) 「⋯⋯有些學生為了自己的(珠寶)設計廢寢忘餐,假期仍經常回到視藝室 找參考書。」(教師 D) 「⋯⋯修讀了 ApL的學生現在上課沒那麼害羞了。因為他們在校外實習時經常 與不同人等合作,也要向客戶展示成果⋯⋯他們的自信和表達能力都增加了, 思考更靈活⋯⋯」(教師 F) 本研究中,受訪教師普遍認同應用學習能有效激發學生的學習動機,主要原因在於 它的學習內容具體而貼近學生生活,在現實中有應用機會;其次則為學習與考核形式的 121 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 改變,培養了學生溝通、協作、解難、自我管理等重要的共通能力,而該些應用學習科 目培養出來的能力,亦反過來幫助學生投入學校日常課堂,形成良性循環。 應用學習除了提升學生學習動機及共通能力外,某程度上亦能舒緩師生緊張關係。 教師 C在訪談中表示︰ 「⋯⋯以往不喜歡讀書的學生,等到十五歲便能離開學校找工作了。可是自 教育局推行十二年免費教育後,這些學生被迫『困』在學校至十七八歲。對 他們而言,應用學習既滿足他們的興趣,又能減少教師處理主流課程中學生 個別差異的困擾,這是教師與學生的雙贏模式。」(教師 C) 教師 C視應用學習為學生提供了非主流學習機會,是解決「課堂學習差異」的方 法之一。儘管此觀點以教師為中心,亦非應用學習的設立原意,但它卻從側面證明,應 用學習對其他學科學習,以及建立積極的課堂氣氛有着正面作用。 二、升學方面 課程發展處對應用學習的升學安排着墨不多,只着學校建立「升學及就業輔導支援 機制」,以及「為學生提供充足的資訊及指引」(課程發展處,2010,頁 10)。考評局 助理總經理(評核發展)傅德華進一步表示,若應用學習的選修科目,與大學選修科或 與專門行業有關,如時裝設計等,相信會獲優先考慮(《星島日報》,2010.8.13)。然而, 考評局的答覆,似乎未能釋除家長與學界疑慮,畢竟官方文件中學校只擔當提供資訊的 輔助角色。社會普遍認為應用學習的評級過於模糊,亦未必有助於升學。例如有家長曾 表示,應用學習的評級由舉辦課程機構負責,並無劃一標準,未必公平客觀,更難獲海 外機構承認(《東方日報》,2010.8.13)。部份教師更直接把選讀應用學習科目人數不足, 歸咎於它的評級無助於升學。例如,教評會副主席許為天便表示應用學習未受學界與社 會認可,因現時八大院校大部分只視應用學習成績為額外參考資料,其成績既沒列入資 歷架構,亦不算作大學學分,令學生「兩頭不是岸」(《東方日報》,2011.1.17)。 相對於社會各界的質疑,本研究的受訪者基本上亦持相似意見,例如,教師 A在 訪談中對應用學習的升學效能便不表樂觀︰ 「⋯⋯既選讀 ApL,就不要太在意是否廣泛認受,因為有能力修讀學術科目 122 的都不會選它,你不會為了興趣,放棄物理去讀美容化妝吧⋯⋯倒是毅進課 程把 ApL視作(香港中學文憑)合格科目之一。」(教師 A) 教師 E及 F亦認為應用學習對主流升學幫助不大︰ 「⋯⋯大學是計算等級的。升讀大學的話,以往操練舊試卷主導的傳統學科 才是正途。有部份大學甚至說只有考生在其他學科成績相若時才考慮 ApL成 績。既是這樣,我怎樣鼓勵學生修讀 ApL呢?」(教師 E) 「⋯⋯升大學都是看實力,我比你高一分,ApL零分我也贏了。」(教師 F) 雖然不算很明顯,但教師 A對選修應用學習的學生頗有偏見,頗有「職業教育屬 能力低下者修讀」的負面標籤,而受訪者亦普遍認為應用學習未必有助學生入讀大學。 可是,如果修讀學生的升學目標並非主流大學,教師的態度便較為開放︰ 「⋯⋯我會鼓勵跟不上主流課程的學生修讀美容、化妝等 ApL課程⋯⋯那邊 的升學機會比會考更高。」(教師 A) 「⋯⋯ApL有酒店管理等科目,為學生提供基礎理論與實踐經驗,對他們銜 接讀毅進及其他專上學院的課程很有幫助。」(教師 E) 從上可見,教師們認為選修應用學習課程並非缺少升學機會,如學生以專上學院的 副學士、高級文憑等職業導向課程為目標,則其升學機會比修讀傳統學科者更高。此外 與一般社會印象不同的是,雖然應用學習課程的成績評估由舉辦課程機構負責,但受訪 教師未有質疑校外評估的準確性,亦普遍肯定應用學習的教育效能。 三、就業方面 應用學習課程之職業導向色彩極為濃厚。誠如課程發展處所言︰「每個應用學習課 程均建基於不同行業或工業,以反映香港在社會、經濟和科技需求等方面的發展及環球 趨勢」(課程發展處,2010,頁 6)。學校實施時,除了職業相關的導引課程外,課程 發展處亦鼓勵學校安排職業講座、探訪活動及與職業相關的學習經歷,以幫助新高中畢 業生銜接就業市場。 然而,由於新高中學制推行不久,僱主對修讀應用學習課程的學生信心未算充足。 例如有酒店業僱主便表示,與修讀職業訓練局酒店課程的學生比較,會優先考慮職訓局 123 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 的學生,因為該些課程較實用,而文憑試的評級制度則顯得混亂,僱主難以從主觀性甚 高的評級了解畢業生水平(《明報》,2010.8.13)。可是本研究的訪談發現,不少教師 均肯定了修讀應用學習科目的就業價值︰ 「有曾任教的學生對我說,她往某連鎖化妝品店見工時,一輪面試後便獲聘 了。因為她在 ApL中受過美容訓練,面試時比其他未受訓練的求職者更有信 心,又具備相關知識基礎。」(教師 B) 「⋯⋯我們有修讀珠寶設計的學生⋯⋯她之前讀書是很差的,畢業後不但在 藝墟設立攤位,更成立網店售賣自己設計的首飾,總算有一技之長。」(教 師 F) 由此可見,受訪教師認為曾修讀應用學習課程的學生憑藉在學時期的工作經驗,面 試時比其他求職者更有信心,有助他們銜接就業市場或自行創業。不過,部份教師則表 示能力稍遜學生選修兩門應用學習科目,課業負擔可能過重,如專注於其中一門,通曉 一技之長可能較佳。 另外值得注意的是,訪談者亦談及應用學習課程偏重職業導向的隱憂: 「大部份(學生選擇的)應用學習課程,不是航空,就是酒店、多媒體⋯⋯ 如果經濟環境一變,他們能不能靠這一技之長生活呢?」(教師 G) 儘管應用學習以提供多元化課程為目的(課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局, 2009,2.1),可是職業導向課程始終受到市場,即僱主需求與學生興趣所主導而集中於 某些項目,如航空工程、酒店服務等。長此下去,確實有可能逐漸集中於單一類別的課 程範疇,有違課程多元化的初衷。而本研究中教師的憂慮,亦呼應了文獻回顧部份內地 教師對職業教育畢業生的適應能力之懷疑。 戊、學校推動應用學習之挑戰 儘管本研究的受訪教師在不同程度上均肯定應用學習對學生的正面影響,然而他們 亦指出了推行應用學習時學校與教師所面對的困難。如上所言,職業導向的應用學習課 程所需資源比一般課程較多,故此學校資源問題一直是社會與教育界的共同關注焦點。 124 財政資源方面,教評會副主席許為天在應用學習推出之初,便指出教育局只資助 學校 75%費用並不足夠(《東方日報》,2011.1.17),教育局隨後於〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉承諾給予每校首十名選修生全額資助,其後每名學生津貼額為平均課程費 用的 75%(上限 8,330元)。然而學校或因資源所限而限制部份課程人數,令一些學生 未能完全根據性向與興趣選科就讀。 相對社會人士的關注焦點,教師之着眼點較多聚焦於人力資源及課時運用之上︰ 「⋯⋯新高中課程又有 IES(獨立專題探究),又有 OLE(其他學習經歷), 全都是必修,而我們這些負責應用學習課程的教師都是兼教的,又要準備課 程,又要聯絡校外機構,又要商討合作細節。這麼多行政事項,我們哪有時 間精力處理?」(教師 E) 「⋯⋯我們根本沒有時間完成課程,經常要學生星期六,甚至長假期回來額 外補課,可是應用學習的學生卻都在星期六上課,很難為他們安排第二次補 課⋯⋯」(教師 D) 「⋯⋯大部份(高中)老師都去了操練past paper⋯⋯(新高中)課程時間緊迫, 學校會先處理學術科目,其他興趣性的發展,相對容易放手。」(教師 H) 從上可見,時間與人力資源是教師發展應用學習的兩大局限。新高中所面對的公開 考試壓力和其他課程改革所帶來的工作量,往往令相關教師無力兼顧應用學習課程的統 籌發展,而選修學生在核心課程的學習進度亦可能受到影響。至於校方投放多少人力資 源於應用學習課程,很大程度上視乎學校領導對課程的重視程度,教師角色頗為被動。 己、總結 本研究發現,新高中教師普遍認為應用學習有助學生就業及提升學習動機。教師對 應用學習的升學功能略有保留,可是如升學目標並非主流大學,而是職業為導向的專上 課程,則教師認為應用學習有助學生銜接專上教育。 對學校與教師而言,推行應用學習的主要局限在於財政資源、人手調撥及課程安排 三方面︰(1)有限的財政資助局限了部份應用學習課程的收生人數;(2)應用學習為 新高中教師帶來不少非教學的行政工作,加重高中教師壓力;(3)部份應用課程須與 125 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 校外機構合作,未必能遷就學校的主流課程進度或補課安排,降低了教師調節課程進度 的靈活程度。 總括而言,本研究的受訪教師均認同應用學習對學生學習動機、升學、就業等方面 有正面影響。雖然課程實施時受到資源和人手等方面所局限,然而這些並不影響應用學 習通過學生為本學習模式,促進學生性向多元發展的積極意義。然而,為了更好地達成 應用學習之目標,減少學校與教師承受的壓力,筆者認為教育局可循四方面優化應用學 習之實施︰(1)教育方面,局方宜給予學校更充裕的財政及人力資源,讓教師享有更 大的空間專注於應用學習之課程設計,並加強校外聯繫;(2)升學方面,局方宜向大 專院校加強推廣,介紹應用學習的課程特色,以及應用學習評核的信效度,以利選修學 生將來的升學銜接;(3)社會方面,局方宜加強推廣應用學習課程之宗旨、角色及實 施情況,提升課程認受性,釋除學生、家長及社會各界對應用學習的疑慮;(4)局方 可扮演學校與企業間的橋樑角色,擴大兩者的合作空間,增加選修的職業導向範疇,以 配合學生的多元興趣與學習需要。 參考文獻 《明報》(2010.8.13)。〈文憑試應用科簡介 家長潑冷水 憂評分主觀影響認受〉。A34版。 《東方日報》(2010.8.13)。〈中學文憑試認受性存疑〉。A06版。 《東方日報》(2011.1.17)。〈「應用學習」認受性低〉。A25版。 《星島日報》(2010.8.13)。〈家長憂「應用學習」海外認受性〉。F02版。 教育統籌局(2005)。《高中及高等教育新學制︰第一階段諮詢報告》。香港︰教育統籌局。 教育統籌局(2006)。《應用學習(職業導向教育)小冊子》。2012年 11月 26日,取自 http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_5159/pam_cos_c.pdf。 教育局(2013)。〈教育局通函第 14/2013 號〉。2013 年 7 月 28 日,取自 http:// applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf。 課程發展處(2010)。《高中應用學習課程》。香港︰教育局課程發展處應用學習組。 課程發展議會、香港考試及評核局(編)(2009)。《應用學習課程及評估指引(高中課 程)》。香港︰政府物流服務署。 126 黎萬紅、盧乃桂(2003)。〈教師對職業教育的看法 ─上海市及深圳市發展經驗的比較〉。 《教育發展研究》,第 10卷,44-49。 Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson / Allyn and Bacon. Collins, R. (1998). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. New York: Academic Press. Cremin, L. A. (1961). The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876-1957. New York: Knopf. Fisher, B. M. (1967). Industrial education: American ideals and institutions. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. Gravetter, F. J., & Lori-Ann, B. F. (2012). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth. Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times: Teachers’ work and culture in the postmodern age. London: Cassell. Hughes, P. (2005). Why access to TVET for all is essential if education for all is to be achieved. Prospects, 35(3), 253-267. Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Rury, J. L. (1991). Transformation in Perspective: Lawrence Cremin’s Transformation of the School. History of Education Quarterly, 31(1), 66-76. 127 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 - 6 - 高中應用學習課程(2013-15學年) Senior Secondary Applied Learning Courses (2013-15 Cohort) 課程一覽表 Course List 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 創意學習 Creative Studies 1. 設計學 Design Studies 643 形象設計 Image Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 639 創新產品設計 Innovative Product Design VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 628 珠寶藝術與設計 Jewellery Arts and Design HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 2. 媒體藝術 Media Arts 649 商業漫畫設計 Commercial Comic Art OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 646 多媒體科藝 Multimedia Entertainment Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 3. 表演藝術 Performing Arts 617 戲劇藝術入門 Introduction to Theatre Arts HKAPA 中文 Chinese 14,300 599 舞出新機-舞蹈藝術 Taking a Chance on Dance HKAPA 中文 Chinese 15,600 媒體及傳意 Media and Communication 4. 電影、電視與 廣播學 Films, TV and Broadcasting Studies 609 電影及錄像 Film and Video Studies VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 650 電視資訊節目製作 TV Infotainment Production HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,600 5. 媒體製作與公共 關係 Media Production and Public Relations 661 公關及廣告 Public Relations and Advertising CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 651 電台主持與節目製作 Radio Host and Programme Production OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 商業、管理及 法律 Business, Management and Law 6. 商業學 Business Studies 663 應用商業研究 Applied Business Research HKIT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 8,500 595 國際商貿市場拓展 Marketing in Global Trade CityU (SCOPE) 中文 Chinese 11,500 664 實用電腦會計 Practical Computerised Accounting HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 597 認識金融服務 Understanding Financial Services OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 7. 顧客服務管理 Clientele Management 652 採購及營銷 Purchasing and Merchandising VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,500 653 零售管理 Retail Management HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,900 8. 法律學 Legal Studies 654 認識香港法律 Understanding Hong Kong Law HKCT 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,000 服務 Services 9. 款待服務 Hospitality Services 611 酒店服務營運# Hospitality Services in Practice# CityU (SCOPE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 615 酒店營運# Hotel Operations# VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 616 西式食品製作 Western Cuisine VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 10. 項目管理 Event Management 655 項目策劃及運作 Events Planning and Operation HKCT 中文 Chinese 10,100 11. 個人及社區服務 Personal and Community Services 665 幼兒教育 Child Care and Education VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 610 美容學基礎 Fundamental Cosmetology CCHES 中文 Chinese 10,330 附件一 附錄 應用學習的六大範疇及其選修課程表列(2013/15) 128 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康 護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文(普通話) Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構-授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 香港演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 香港浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 香港專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Technology HKIT 香港科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Technology HKU(SPACE) 香港大學專業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南大學持續進修學院 Lingnan Institute of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生,將獲教育局及學 校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 - 7 - 學習範疇 Area of Studies 課程組別 Course Cluster 科目代碼 Subject Code 課程 註一 Course NOTE 1 課程提供機構- 授課機構 註二 Course Provider - Course Deliverer NOTE 2 教學語言 Medium of Instruction 課程費用 註三 Course Fee NOTE 3 (HK$) 應用科學 Applied Science 12. 醫療科學及健康 護理 Medical Science and Health Care 592 中醫藥學基礎 Foundation in Chinese Medicine HKU (SPACE) 中文(普通話) Chinese (Putonghua) 13,000 656 基礎健康護理# Fundamental Health Care# OUHK (LiPACE) 中文 Chinese 10,500 618 健康護理實務# Health Care Practice# CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,130 660 醫務化驗科學 Medical Laboratory Science HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 13. 心理學 Psychology 662 應用心理學# Applied Psychology# LIFE 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,000 666 探索心理學# Exploring Psychology# HKBU (SCE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,500 14. 運動 Sports 627 運動科學及體適能 Exercise Science and Health Fitness HKBU (SCE) 中文 Chinese 16,500 工程及生產 Engineering and Production 15. 土木及機械工程 Civil and Mechanical Engineering 624 汽車科技 Automotive Technology CCHES 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,500 659 環境工程 Environmental Engineering HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 12,500 16. 資訊工程 Information Engineering 667 流動及網上程式開發 Mobile and Online Apps Development HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 17. 服務工程 Services Engineering 640 航空學 Aviation Studies HKU (SPACE) 中文或英文 Chinese or English 13,000 657 屋宇設施工程 Building Facilities Engineering VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 11,300 658 電子產品設計實務 Electronic Product Design in Action VTC 中文或英文 Chinese or English 10,100 註一 NOTE 1 學生在同一個課程組別內只可修讀一科有「#」的課程。 For courses marked with “#”, only ONE course in the course cluster could be taken by students. 註二 NOTE 2 課程提供機構-授課機構 Course Provider - Course Deliverer CCHES 明愛社區及高等教育服務 Caritas Community & Higher Education Service CityU(SCOPE) 香港城市大學專業進修學院 School of Continuing and Professional Education, City University of Hong Kong HKAPA 演藝學院 The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts HKBU(SCE) 浸會大學持續教育學院 School of Continuing Education, Hong Kong Baptist University HKCT 專業進修學校 Hong Kong College of Tech ology I 科技專上書院 Hong Kong Institute of Techn logy HKU(SPACE) 大學 業進修學院 School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong LIFE 嶺南 持續 Lingnan Institut of Further Education OUHK(LiPACE) 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong VTC 職業訓練局 Vocational Training Council 註三 NOTE 3 所有在資助中學、官立中學、按位津貼中學、直接資助計劃的中學及設有高中班級的特殊學校修讀由課程發展議會所建議之高中課程的學生,將獲教育局及學 校全數資助課程費用。 All students in aided, government and caput secondary schools, as well as secondary schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and special schools with senior secondary classes following the senior secondary curriculum recommended by the Curriculum Development Council will be fully subsidised by the Education Bureau and schools to take Applied Learning courses. 附件三 (資料來源 : http://applications.edb.gov.hk/circular/upload/EDBCM/EDBCM13014C.pdf 〈教育局通函第 14/2013號〉頁 6-7) 129 新高中應用學習之反思與檢討 Review of Applied Learning in NSS curriculum LEUNG Yick Wah Doctoral student of the Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract Applied Learning (ApL) is a new component of the NSS curriculum, which responded to the paradigm shift of “student-oriented”, “experiential learning” and “development of generic skills” in the education reform. In ApL, students can choose their elective subjects according to their own interest and equip with different vocational skills through block practice. However, there is no comprehensive study on the teachers’ perception of ApL implementation. This empirical study, therefore, is intended to fill this research gap and can serve as a platform for further discussion. This study adopts a qualitative approach. The data was collected from the in-depth interview with eight ApL teachers, which focused on the teachers’ perception of curriculum design, effectiveness evaluation and challenges faced in ApL implementation. The findings revealed that the teachers agree the ApL curriculum can boost the student motivation and prepare students for further study in vocational training or for future employment. Nevertheless, the three main challenges encountered including insufficient financial resource, lacking manpower deployment and complex curriculum administrative arrangement limited the effectiveness of ApL implementation. Keywords NSS curriculum, Applied Learning, vocational education 131 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 How much can we trust test scores? Kay Cheng SOH Singapore Abstract Assessment plays a critical role in students’ lives. Due to the relative nature of educational measures, test results may be highly fallible and cannot be treated as if they are error-free. This paper illustrates several ways in which test scores can be misinterpreted thus leading to no small consequences on students, and how to get around them. Keywords assessment, examination, interpretation of test scores, score transformation, score reliability “The reliability of our national assessments is simply not good enough to warrant the trust that is placed in them. And one day, people are going to find this out.” The above quote from Dylan Wiliam (2000) comments on the British examination systems. Hong Kong and Singapore, both being ex-colonies, have inherited some elements of the British education system with much emphasis on examinations. Added to this is the historical influence of the Chinese imperial selection examination and the culture of valuing education as a mean to social upward mobility. A question that can be asked is whether Wiliam’s comment applies to Hong Kong and Singapore, or even East Asian nations like Japan, Korea, and Taiwan where much emphasis and a lot of premium have been placed on test scores, especially for administrative purposes such as selection, channeling, and certification. Naturally, test scores are taken very seriously by school administrators, teachers, and parents alike because employers and the public are doing the same. The questions arising from this situation are: Are we too serious about test scores? Should we not take them with a pinch of salt? With these questions in mind, this paper tries to put examination and test scores in the 132 current context of teaching and assessment. It also suggests six axioms following which teachers can more appropriately interpret test scores and use them more cautiously to help in guiding students’ learning. Assessment of and for learning In recent years, there has been much discussion on assessment of learning versus assessment for learning. The two approaches to assessment have different purposes, function, and procedures (Australian Education Services, n.d.). The emphasis on assessment for learning is a fairly new phenomenon in education as compared with the traditional focus on assessment of learning. Assessments often yield results test scores or grades which are supposed to indicate students’ learning – both achievement and difficulties. Information encoded in test scores tells about students’ learning after instruction is summative in nature. When scores are used for making decisions which have long-ranging effects on the students’ future educational opportunities, they are said to be high-stakes in nature. In this sense, this is assessment of learning which is by tradition almost the only purpose of examinations. Assessment is summative and retrospective, and is a measure of the product of learning. It can also provide information about the students’ learning as a process. When looked at this way, the information tells where learning has taken place and where corrective instruction by teachers and further efforts by students are needed. Through this latter practice of assessment for learning, assessment outcomes are used diagnostically and dynamically to guide further instruction and learning. Its nature is therefore formative and forward- looking. Although distinction can be made between summative assessment (of learning) and formative assessment (for learning), the fact is that from gathering assessment data to using the data is a long process and its impact can take a long time to actualize (Figure 1). Take for example, students are assessed by teachers using assessment tools such as tests, rubrics, projects, etc. Assessment outcomes are encoded and recorded as scores, marks, ratings, grades, descriptions, and work samples and labeled with descriptors such as excellenct, good, etc. by teachers using some conceptual tools (e.g., average, passing marks, acceptable grades). Some of the decisions are formative and useful for guiding further instruction and learning. Others are summative and associated with high-stakes “standards” for channeling, streaming, or tracking – basically, grouping pupils for further instruction. This long process (Figure 1) may happen within a year, as in school-based examinations for re-organizing students at the next higher class level. It may continue for a few years, as in the cases of the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in Singapore or Diploma in Secondary Education (DSE) examination in Hong Kong. It does 133 How much can we trust test scores? not really matter whether one or more years are needed, as the process and its effects on pupils are similar or even the same. Figure 1: From assessment to consequences Test scores are used for decision-making. First, assessment of learning is high- stakes in nature and has long-term, irreversible consequences. Secondly, assessment for learning is for facilitating learning. In between the gathering of assessment outcomes and decision-making, there are several intervening steps. If the conceptual tools are not available to test score users (i.e. teachers, school administrators, curriculum developers) and the interpretation is improper, decisions will be irrelevant or even misleading. These mean a waste of resources in terms of time and efforts of both teachers and students. Test scores therefore should be cautiously interpreted, and statistical concepts are important assessment tools for this purpose. If learning is seen as a continuous, long journey through the educational highway from primary school to university, then end-of-year school examinations and end-of-stage examinations (such as the PSLE or the DSE examination) are used not only retrospectively to sum up what has taken place but can also act predictors and guides for further learning. In a broader sense, the dual function of assessment can break down the distinction between formative and summative assessments. One can go even further to doubt whether assessment at the end of each school year and each schooling stage is really summative or formative. With these concerns in mind, the six axioms are proposed below for enhancing the proper interpretation and use of assessment outcomes: 1. A score standing alone has no meaning. 2. Same scores may have different meanings. 3. A small difference makes no difference. 4. Weights may be non-functioning. 5. Assessors may be unreliable. 6. When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible. 134 Axiom no. 1: A score standing alone has no meaning When Albert scores 75 for his English assessment, what does this mean? Several interpretations readily come to mind: 1. He is far above the passing mark of 50; he has done well. 2. He is far below the perfect mark of 100; he has done poorly. The same mark leads to two different views because of two different expectations. If more information is available, interpretations will change: 3. The class mean is 75; Albert is average. 4. Albert’s score is 30 marks higher than the class’s lowest score of 45; well done. 5. Albert’s score is 5 marks lower than the class’s highest score of 80; could have done better. If the teacher has set a criterion score of, say, 70 (based on some reasonable grounds or past experience), then: 6. Albert has passed the test. What can we conclude from the above? A score standing alone has no fixed meanings; its meaning is dependent on reference to other relevant information. The first two interpretations made with reference to subjective expectations (of the teacher, Albert himself or his parents) are arbitrary in nature and hence should be avoided. The next three interpretations are made with reference to how his classmates performed in the same test. This is known as norm-referenced interpretation. The sixth interpretation is made with reference to a pre-set cut-score (which preferably has an empirical basis); it is a criterion- referenced interpretation and is the basis for the development of a very large number of standardized tests, especially in the USA. Standardized tests A standardized test (say, of Mathematics) has to go through many steps to develop such as: (1) identifying the instructional objectives, that is, mathematical knowledge and competencies to be assessed; (2) writing items for the identified objectives; (3) trialling the items with a large group of students for whom the test is meant; (4) conducting item- analysis to assess the efficacies of the trialed items; (4) selecting items which have been found to work well; (5) collecting data from another large group of students for whom the test is meant; (6) using the data to compile test norms (tables showing scores and the numbers of students getting each score); (7) releasing the finalised version; and (8) revising the test after, say, five years. These steps are not only time-consuming and labour-intensive but also require the collaboration of content specialists and assessment 135 How much can we trust test scores? experts, and of course teachers and students. No wonder test development has become a gigantic business in the USA dominated by a few organizations (e.g., the Educational Testing Service in Princeton). For a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of standardized testing, see Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? (ProCon.org, n.d.). If Albert has taken a standardized test of Mathematics, his score is compared with the very large group of students whose scores were used to compile the test norm. Then, his score may get him an equivalent T-score (a kind of standard score). And, what does this T-score mean? Why should we use it? Standard scores A T-score is a kind of standardized score peculiar to educational assessment. It is peculiar because of the relative nature of scores obtained by using educational measures as contrasted with physical measures (e.g., weight, height). Take Albert’s score of 75 for example. It is not a fixed quantity of a fixed quality like his weight and height for which there are standard instruments such as a weighing machine or a standard ruler. Albert’s score is relative (to the normation group) although such scores are always mistakenly seen as absolute. For a fuller explanation of what standard scores are, see Transformed scores – Standard scores (Mypage, n.d.). Let’s say the test taken by Albert is a 100-word spelling test. He gets 75 because he can spell three-quarters of the words correctly. This looks fine until he takes another spelling test consisting of 100 easier words. In this case, he may get 85, 95, or even 100. The converse is also true if the words are more difficult. In short, Albert’s score will vary with the tests (words) used to assess his spelling ability. Because of this, a different way of indexing Albert’s spelling ability is to compare him with other students who have taken the same test and interpret his score according to where he stands among the peers. Thus, instead of just saying how good he is in terms of the number of words he spells correctly, we can know how much better or worse his performance is when compared with the norm (documented as the norm table). This is where the T-score becomes helpful. When a standardized test is developed, the norm group of students has different scores, some very low, others very high, and most somewhere in between. For these scores, a mean (average) can be calculated as the “centre”. Since not all students get the same score, there is a need to describe how widely spread from the mean the scores are. For this, standard deviation (SD) is calculated. If the group mean is 67, then, Albert deviates from the mean by +8 and the SD of the scores happens to be 8, then, his score is one SD above the mean. This gives him a z-score of 1.00; z-score is another kind of standard score that will be explained later. Z-scores may take negative values and have decimals and so are inconvenient for 136 recording purposes. How to explain to parents that their children get negative scores (owing the teacher some marks?) is a major challenge. Besides, for different sets of test scores, standard deviations (SDs) are not the same. To overcome these problems, measurement experts come up with the bright idea of T-scores. From z-scores to T-scores The T-scores form a scale with a mean of 50 and a SD of 10. This is a scale universally agreed upon and used by measurement experts and so all tests can then have their original scores converted to it. An added advantage of using T-scores is that all scores from different tests can be considered “comparable”. If the set of English Language scores (including Albert’s 75) has a mean of 67 and a SD of 8, then Albert’s 75 is now converted according to the formula to a T-score of 60 (i.e., T-score = 50+10*(Score - Mean)/SD = 50+10*(75 - 60)/8) = 60). Aha! Have we not short-changed Albert by giving him a T-score of 60 which looks lower than his original raw score of 75? No. The conversion of original scores (those given by the test) to T-scores is like converting SGD or HKD to USD, using the appropriate currency exchange rate. The face value has changed but the buying power remains the same. So, Albert has not been short-changed. In this case, his T-score of 60 has placed him one SD above the mean of 50 and, according to the normal distribution (Figure 2), he is better than 84% of students in his class (i.e., 50% below the mean and 34% between the mean and one SD above it). Another way is to say that he stands at the 84th percentile and belongs to the top 16% of the students. So, by comparing with his peers, Albert has done pretty well (Figure 2). Figure 2: The normal distribution curve Thus, as you must have suspected by now, converting original scores to T-scores in actuality can change the basis of comparison and hence the interpretation of test results. As pointed out above, if Albert’s score of 75 for spelling test represents correctly spelling three-quarters of the 100 words, his score will be different when the words in the test change. But then, we argue. The idea is that Albert’s spelling ability at the time of testing is a fixed quality and should not vary with the test used and the same should go for his 137 How much can we trust test scores? peers – their ability should not change with different tests. However, we know that this is not true when different tests are used. By using T-scores, we can assess Albert in terms of his relative position (percentile) among his peers. When a more difficult spelling list is used, all pupils should get lower scores than previously, but their positions relative to one another should logically remain unchanged. This is an assumed advantage of using T-scores instead of the original raw scores. Axiom no. 2: Same scores may have different meanings The above examples show clearly that the use of raw scores can lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretations for the simple reason that the same raw scores from different tests may not have the same meanings when they are interpreted with different references. A few more fictitious but realistic cases should interest you. Performance comparison Albert has scored 75 in both Social Studies and Science. In which test has he done better? Since the marks are the same for the two subjects, Albert has done equally well in both subjects. Hold on! As pointed out earlier, this will be true if and only if both tests have the same mean and the same SD – a most unlikely situation. Thus, unless the scores are converted to the T-scale, we cannot be so sure; 75 for Social Studies may turn out to be a better score because it has placed Albert on a higher percentile, and the converse is also possible. In short, two scores from two different tests do not necessarily mean the same performance level; they need to be standardized (scaled) before comparison can be made valid. Are you puzzled? Dollars, cents and scores A money example will help to make this clear. The first three columns in Table 1 show the numbers of “dollars” that Albert’s father and uncle have. When we say they are equally rich (or poor) with 100 dollars, we are assuming that the monies in the four pockets are in the same currency. However, if monies in the left pockets are USD and they are converted to SGD (at a rate of 1.35), adding these to the SGD’s in the right pockets shows that Albert’s father is richer than his uncle. The same principle goes for the comparison of scores. Table 1: The values of monies Before conversion After conversion Pocket Father Uncle Currency Father Uncle Left (USD) 80 20 SGD 108 27 Right (SGD) 20 80 SGD 20 80 Total 100 100 Total 128 107 138 This is a reminder that two scores for two different tests cannot be directly compared because they represent different performance levels. Before comparing them, they have to be converted to the same scale (e.g., the T-scale) first. Axiom no. 3: A small difference makes no difference Sometimes (or rather often) we see people insisting that a small difference is a difference. For example, a teacher marking a composition with the mark range of 30 insists that an essay is worth 22.5, not 22 or 23! Another example can be about a student who has failed because he could only get 48, two marks short of the passing mark 50. Yet another example, one school celebrates because it scores half a percent more passes and gets one rank higher than its rival school. Are all these small differences real? All scores have error! We need to realize and keep reminding ourselves that all assessment scores have errors. Such errors are not what we normally called mistakes but are fluctuations due to sampling. They are, technically, measurement errors (Johnson, Dulaney & Banks, 2005). When we set test questions in any subject or any topic within a chosen subject, we are taking a sample of many theoretically possible ones (the universal of possible items). We then use these sampled items to test the students’ knowledge or competencies. If we set another test, students’ scores will change (remember Albert’s spelling test). If we test a group of students using even the same test on different days, their scores will also change. And, if we ask different teachers to mark the same set of compositions, even using the same marking scheme, the scores will also be different. Errors (fluctuation) in assessment are inevitable because of the sampling processes in constructing test questions and marking students’ responses to open-ended questions. There are basically two types of such errors: the random and the systematic (Changing Minds, 2012). Random errors have to do with chance. For example, a set of compositions are marked by one teacher on two days. Because she is in good health on the first and is ill on the second, she is likely to give higher scores to those compositions marked on the first day and lower scores to those on the second day (or, possibly, the other way round). If the teacher is aware of this inconsistency, she can double-mark the compositions a second time. If she then take the average of the two marks for each paper, the inconsistency is likely to cancel out. There are other conditions that lead to fluctuations which will cancel out in the long run. (Unfortunately, she may never do this and so students whose compositions are marked more strictly can only blame themselves for bad luck.). The common practice of double or triple marking and taking the average in large-scale examinations is to minimize such fluctuations which may affect score reliability. It is more appropriate for the marking of open-ended questions which involve students writing 139 How much can we trust test scores? their own answers, such as composition for Languages or essay-type questions in Social Studies, Literature, and even Science. Individual teachers have different expectations and marking habits influenced by their experience and personality. A teacher who has been teaching high-ability students naturally uses her experience with such students as a yardstick when marking compositions. She may also be, at the same time, a strict marker habitually giving lower marks. Thus, when marking a set of compositions, with her experience and personality combined, she will consistently (though unconsciously) give lower marks than what the compositions should deserve. This may give rise to systematic errors. Some of the teachers were so confident about their marking that they awarded half-a-mark! And, how important is the half-mark? Read this: “Do you know what is the importance of half a mark? It determines whether you pass or fail. It determines whether your report book is going to have all blue or a “one” or “two” red marks among the blues. This is called “pass” or “fail”, and how many subjects you pass or fail, it is going to determine whether you get promoted to the next level. This is all the olden days...” (Peace, 2008) For a set of answer sheets to be marked with a computer, one or more errors may occur such as in the coding of answer keys. If “c” is coded for the correct answer when it should be “b”, all students who have answered the miscoded items correctly will earn fewer marks than they deserve. Conversely, those answering wrongly may get a mark higher if they (lucky them) happen to choose “c” (the wrongly coded option). Such errors are also systematic because they do not cancel out in the long run. This type of errors adversely affects the score validity in that the scores do not accurately reflect students’ true ability. Due to such errors, measurement experts consider an observed score (the score a student gets after assessment) as consisting of two parts: the true score (which can truly represent student’s ability which the test is trying to estimate) and error score (the part of the observed score due to random errors as described above). It is not possible to measure students’ true scores directly. Knowing that there are fluctuations contributing to random errors, test developers take pains to minimize them through careful and multiple marking as well as by controlling the testing conditions. The argument is that by minimizing the errors, observed scores will reflect true scores more accurately (Trochim, 2006). There are several ways of evaluating score reliability. American experience shows that teacher-made tests generally have score reliability values of around 0.7 meaning that tests constructed by teachers yield scores which are about 70% trustworthy. This suggests 140 that teachers should not be dogmatic about the marks they give and definitely not about small differences! A score is not a point! In view of the errors which cannot be totally eliminated, measurement experts advise that a score should not be seen as a fixed point on a scale but as one possible point or a number of points within a specified range on the scale. This takes us to the concept of standard error of measurement (SEM). Let us say that the Chinese Language test has a SD=3 (which is rather small) and its score reliability in terms of Cronbach’s alpha is 0.7. The SEM should be 1.6 according to the formula SEM=SD*√(1 – r), where r is the reliability coefficient, alpha. Then, we ask ourselves how much confidence we want to have when reporting a score for this test. Let us be not too ambitious but choose to be 95% confident in making a statement about a student’s performance. Now, according to the normal curve, a 95% confidence level requires that we allow for an error (fluctuation) of 1.96 SEM (or rounded to 2 in SEM). Then, a score on this test will fluctuate with an error of ±2*SEM or ±3.2 (or rounded as 3). In Albert’s case, instead of seeing his score as a fixed point of 75, we should think of his score (for whatever subject) as falling between 72 (=75-3) and 78 (=75+3) in 95% of the times. This so-called band-interpretation of test scores is in contrast with the point- interpretation. Of course, band-interpretation makes administrative decisions (pass/fail, select/reject) more complicated and inconvenient. However, it is desirable for two reasons. First, it takes due cognizance of the fact that tests scores are fallible and hence should not be taken dogmatically. Secondly, when making important decisions on students, test scores should not be the only criterion; other information needs be considered, too. Misplaced confidence of spurious precision In view of the measurement errors (fluctuation) due to the sampling of subject content, student’s testing behaviour, and teacher’s marking habits, a small difference between two scores should not be taken too seriously. For example, a difference between 48 and 50 can well be due to measurement error. In other words, if 48 comes from the same English Language test taken by Albert with a SEM of 3, at the 95% confidence level this score will fall with the range from 45 to 51. Had the student taken the same test again and again, he will get between 45 to 51 marks. Since this mark range includes the passing mark 50, he should be passed. This example shows how confidence may be misplaced in small mark difference leading to erroneous decisions. The emphasis on a small, immaterial mark difference is called spurious precision, that is, a precision which is not really important or meaningful. Spurious precision may seem to be a spurious issue, but the consequences of basing important decisions on spurious difference may have long-lasting undesirable 141 How much can we trust test scores? consequences for students and the nation (in terms of manpower loss). As the author of How to lie with statistics, Huff (1954), says, “A difference is a difference only if it makes a difference.” As a corollary, it is a conceptual sin to make a spurious difference a difference in order to make it a difference. Is banding the solution? Perhaps it is the awareness of such problems of measurement error and spurious precision that has led to the use of banding, that is, grouping students within a specified mark range and giving them the same label (band). This is a partial solution but not a perfect medicine. Table 2 show the bands obtained by two pupils. Combining the bands, Albert has performed better than Bob has. After all, canceling out A-A and B-B, Albert is left with an A but Bob a B. Let’s assume that band B is for scores ranging from 60 to 84, and band A is for score 85 and above. It may just happen that the A’s Albert gets are the beginning scores of band A and his B is from the low end of band B. And, Bob gets the beginning score of band A just like Albert, but his B is from the top end of band B. Then, in terms of actual scores, Bob scores better than Albert and not the other way round. This example is given here only for illustration, but it does not mean this cannot happen. Table 2: Scores and bands of two students Subject Bands Scores Albert Bob Albert Bob EL A A 85 (A) 85(A) MT A B 85 (A) 84(B) Math B B 70 (B) 84(B) Overall (2A+1B) > (1A+2B) 240 < 253 So, is banding the solution? As the assessment expert Wiliam (2000) says, “A cure that is probably worse than the disease.” What can we do, then? Not much. One partial solution is to have more bands each with a shorter mark range. The logical extreme extension of this is to have too many bands and then we are back to square one. So, be cautious. Axiom no. 4: Weights may be non-functioning Every examination paper will consist of more than one part for assessing one specific item of knowledge or competency. A simple example is the case of a Language paper which has a written component and an oral component. Of course, the written component always comprises several different sub-sections such as vocabulary, grammar, 142 comprehension, etc. For the sake of illustration, just say it has only the written and oral parts. Usually, different parts of an examination are given different predetermined weights, for example, 80% for the written components and 20% for the oral component, to reflect their relative importance. The hidden message is, for this example, to let students (and their teachers and parents) know that oral language is important though not as important as the written part; the implication is not to neglect oral language since it is also to be assessed. The message is loud and clear. What is the effect in terms of final results? It is a well-known fact that test scores with a wider spread (SD) have more influence if they are summed for an indication of overall performance. Table 3 is a typical example taken from a Language examination. Table 3: Weights of components and scores in a Language examination Written (80%) Oral (20%) Total Albert 75 (1) 10 (3) 85 (1) Bob 70 (2) 12 (2) 82 (2) Calvin 65 (3) 15 (1) 80 (3) As can be seen, for the writing component, Albert is the best and Calvin is the worst, with Bob in between them. For the oral component, the orders are just the reversed. When the scores for the two components are added, the totals will rank Albert first, Bob second, and Calvin third. Thus, the final ranks are the same as the ranks for the writing component, and the oral component has no influence. This happens because the written component has a much wider range (a larger SD if calculated) than the oral component has. This will happen also when scores for different tests are added. Table 4 shows the performance levels in English and Mathematics of a class and the scores obtained by three pupils. The scores for the two tests are added and the totals are used to rank the students, Albert ranked first and so is better than Bob ranked second who in turn is better than third-ranking Calvin. The rank-orders are the same as those for English. Note that the SD of scores in English is double that of Mathematics. In this case, Mathematics (with a much smaller SD) plays no role in deciding who is better. Table 4: Weights for different subjects Subject Mean (SD) Albert Bob Calvin English 70.0 (4.00) 75 (1) 65 (2) 60 (3) Mathematics 65.0 (2.00) 59 (3) 62 (2) 61 (1) Total - 134 (1) 127 (2) 121 (3) 143 How much can we trust test scores? More complex situations So far, for simple illustration, we have been using examples involving two tests or two components. Things are more complex in reality. In Table 5, the raw scores obtained by Albert and Bob for four subjects suggest that they are equally good, both having a total of 270. If there is a scholarship or other award, they are equally qualified. However, as subjects have different means and SDs, simple summated scores are misleading. The totals for T-scores are different. Now, it is clear that Albert (with Total=199) is a more deserving candidate than Bob (with Total=193), if the difference of four T-scores is considered important enough. Table 5: Raw and T-scores of two students Subject Mean (SD) Original score T-score Albert Bob Albert Bob EL 70.0 (4.00) 75 70 63 50 MT 65.0 (8.00) 70 75 56 63 Math 70.0 (5.00) 65 60 40 30 SC 65.0 (5.00) 60 65 40 50 Total - 270 270 199 193 T-score transformation is employed for the PSLE in Singapore to solve the problem of unequal means and SDs among subject tests. The same problem exists when raw scores for school-based examinations are summed as indicators of the overall performance level. With computing facilities readily available, this problem can be solved by adopting the same approach what is done for the PSLE. Does summing up scores make sense? It is a common practice that different assessments taken throughout a year are given different weights to indicate their relative importance. A typical situation is that shown in the Table 6 where the two term assessments are given a weight of 15% each, the mid-year assessment 30%, and the end-of-year assessment 40%. Table 6: Weights for different assessments Term 1 Mid-year Term 2 End-year Average Marks 72 68 74 78 73.5 Weight 15% 30% 15% 40% 100% The problem of different means and SDs when original scores are summed for an overall performance indicator (total) will still happen. This means, in spite of the different intended weights, components having larger SDs will be more powerful in the final total, 144 rending those with small SDs non-functioning. Besides this persistent problem, there is also a conceptual issue. In this example, the four assessments are not mutually exclusive since some content tested earlier in Term 1 will be tested again later. Those tested for the mid-year may also be tested in year-end examination paper again. Such over-lap means that some content are over-tested or double-counted and getting double weight or more. Is this desirable? Furthermore, the four assessments are conducted at different points of the year and at different points a student has different achievement levels. When scores are added (even after weighting) and an average is derived at, does the average really show where the student is at the end of a year’s learning? If not, where is the more accurate indicator? Imagine that you are driving from Singapore to Penang (or from Hong Kong to Shanghai) and have to stop at three different places. Every time you stop, you record the distance covered. When you reach the destination, you calculate the average of the distances and say “on average, I have driven xyz kilometres from X to Y.” How will this sound to your friend? The message is that average does not always make sense. Stopping at different cities to record the distance covered is analogous to formative assessment, while recording the total distance traveled is analogous to summative assessment. It appears that the practice described above for finding end-of-year averages is a mix-up of these two different approaches to assessment. Things are a little bit more complicated than this. It is readily appreciated that some subjects are developmental in nature while others are cumulative. For cumulative subjects (perhaps, science subjects for which topics are discrete), adding marks obtain from different tests for an overall indication may make sense. On the other hand, for developmental subjects (such as the languages), what a student is able to do at the end of a year indicates the cumulative effect of learning; and, therefore, adding and averaging marks obtain from assessments taken over a year may not make sense. This is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and future research. Axiom no. 5: Assessors may be unreliable So far, our discussion has focused on scores and students, as if these are the only sources of misinterpretation. The fact is, teachers who mark the papers can also be a source of error, especially where open-ended questions are concerned. This is a century- old problem and is still around. If you think that this will only occur in the marking of compositions, you will be surprised that it can happen in the marking of Mathematics paper as well, as early research shows. 145 How much can we trust test scores? A concrete example of this problem is how a group of experienced teachers marked one and the same answer to a question on vitamins (Science!). The question asks candidates to name four vitamins and their common sources and to tell for each whether it can be stored in the body and whether it can be destroyed by heat. An answer to this question was photo-copied and 43 experienced teachers marked this one answer independently. They were to indicate whether it was a poor, weak, average, good or excellent answer. Also, they were to award a mark within the range of zero to 30 with the passing mark of 15 (By Singapore convention, 50% is a passing mark. What about Hong Kong?). The marks and grades given by the teachers are shown in Table 7. Table 7: Grades and marks awarded by teachers to the same answer Marks No. of grades given Pass / Failure given by teachersWeak Average Good 22-22.5 - 3 6 No. of passes = 41 20-21 - 9 6 18-19 - 10 - 15-17 1 6 - 42-14 1 1 - No. of failures = 2 Total 2 29 12 43 Median 14.5 18.5 21.5 - Range 5 10.5 2.5 - No teachers considered the answer as poor or excellent. Two teachers considered it as weak, 29 as average, and 12 as good – all for the one and the same answer to an essay- type question on a factual topic! Even within each grade, for instance “average”, the marks given varied as much as 10.5, again for the one and the same answer. Of the 43 teachers, two teachers failed it and 41 passed it. If this happens with just one answer, imagine what may happen when a paper consists of several open-ended questions. In this case, it may not be an exaggeration that whether a student passes or fails depends more on his luck or rather on who marks his answers. Earlier on, it was suggested that the teacher’s experience, marking habit, and personality play a role in inconsistency in marking. The 43 teachers were asked which schools they came from. There seems to be a relation (correlation) between the school type and the marks awarded. Teachers who came from the so-called good schools tended to give lower marks, and vice versa. This is perfectly understandable since teachers will (unconsciously or subconsciously) use the kind of answers they have been marking as a reference for marking this particular answer. In this example, the teachers’ personalities were not studied. Teachers’ idiosyncrasy in marking is obviously a topic worthy of further discussion and research. 146 Perhaps, the awareness of such a problem has led to assessment experts to come up with suggestions such as the use of model answers, marking schemes (the old fashion name for assessment rubrics), product sample scale, post-marking moderation, statistical scaling, etc. These may help to reduce the size of the problem but none is a perfect solution, and one wonders if there ever will be one. Again, the best advice is to be cautious. Axiom no. 6: When interpreting test scores, be humble and flexible At this point, it is good to take stock of what has been discussed so far. Traditionally, assessment results in terms of scores and grades are used to sum up student’s learning up to a point in time. This is assessment of learning. In recent years, assessment for learning gets a lot of attention. This is using assessment results to guide and direct further learning of the students. The two approaches have different purposes and different data are required. However, the reality is that, the same assessment results are used for both purposes, retrospectively as well as prospectively. Whichever approach is emphasized, the same process is involved: from collecting data by testing, through analyzing data to gain information about learning, and then to making decisions on instruction and on the students’ future development. Irrespective of the time span, such decisions have long-lasting consequences to the students and all around them – their teachers, school administrators, parents, and even the nation. Hence, assessment is a very serious business and deserves to be done well. Nonetheless, problems arise because of the relative nature of educational assessment which yields data that can be interpreted in a variety of ways, as contrasted with the case physical measurements such as weight and height that fixedly quantify fixed quality. Therefore, assessment results need contexts for them to be meaningfully interpreted. This peculiar nature of educational measurement gives rise to the problems relating to the following conditions: 1. Educational measures are relative and highly fallible. 2. Educational measures are samples which have measurement errors (fluctuations). 3. Weighting to reflect relative importance of sub-tests may or may not work. 4. Summing up scores of subtests or a few tests may be misleading. 5. Marking of open-ended responses are always unreliable. 6. Spurious precision of small difference is more often imagined rather than real. Each of these causes conceptual and technical problems that need be solved but perfect solutions are not available. All that can be done is to minimize the severity of misinterpretation as much as the teachers’ assessment competence allows. Conceptual 147 How much can we trust test scores? and technical problems are separate issues though always related. Technical problems are easier to handle. They can be solved to a large extent by learning relevant statistical techniques to treat the assessment data properly, if there is the will. Conceptual problems are more difficult. They not only call for a will to change but also require re-orientation through the melting of long-held erroneous ideas and crystallization of new shapes. This has been found to be difficult in education. Before the time comes, the only advice that can be given is for assessment data consumers (teachers, counselors, and school administrators) to be flexible and humble when interpreting them and using them. Conclusion There is no denial that test scores play a very important role in teaching and learning. For this one reason, they should be appropriately interpreted and used for the benefits of the teachers and their students. Misinterpretation leads to misinformation which in turn leads to misdirection and wrong actions. Valid interpretation of test scores requires some understanding of the basic statistical concepts involved as illustrated in this paper. Uncertainty in interpretations and the uses of test scores are not totally inherent in scores but, to a large part, in ours. Seen in this light, perhaps the title of this article should have been “How much can we trust our interpretations of test scores?”. As teachers, we assess students and thereby create test scores (and grades), but then as little Alice says in the Wonderland, “An author doesn’t necessarily understand the meaning of his own story better than anyone else.” Notes This paper is application oriented and written for practising teachers in this connection. Instead of following the traditional style of citing articles to support the arguments, readable and interesting websites are listed in the Reference list for those who wish to pursue the issues further in-depth. 148 References Australian Education Services. (n.d.). Key questions: What is assessment for learning? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.assessmentforlearning.edu.au/professional_ learning/intro_to_afl/introduction_key_questions.html Changing Minds. (2012). Measurement error. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// changing minds.org/explanations/research/measurement/measurement_error.htm Huff, D. (1954). How to lie with statistics. London: Norton. Johnson, S., Dulaney, C., & Banks, K. (February 2005). Measurement error. For good measure. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.wcpss.net/evaluation-research/ reports/2000/mment_error.pdf Mypage. (n.d.). Transformed scores – Standard scores. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://mypages.valdosta.edu/mwhatley/3900/standardized.pdf Peace. (2008). Science exam paper. In Kids World. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http:// totallykidsworld.blogspot.sg/search/label/how reliable is the school teacher ProCon.org. (n.d.). Is the use of standardized tests improving education in America? Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://standardizedtests.procon.org/ Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). True score theory. In Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved August 15, 2012, from: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/truescor.php Wiliam, D. (2000). The meanings and consequences of educational assessments. Critical Quarterly, 42(1), 105-127. http://www.aaia.org.uk/pdf/2001DYLANPAPER2.PDF 149 How much can we trust test scores? 測試分數可信程度如何? 蘇啟禎 新加坡 摘要 學業測試結果,對學生有重大的影響。由於教育測量的相對性,測試得分可以有高 度的變動性,不可當作毫無誤差的資料。本文提出分數可能被錯誤解釋的幾個例子, 說明若錯誤解釋分數對學生可能產生的後果及如何避免。 關鍵字 測試,考試,分數的解釋,分數的換算,分數的信度 151 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 何慧群 國立臺中教育大學教育學系 永井正武 國立臺中教育大學教育測驗統計研究所 摘要 臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育目標之一是實踐教育正義,但是,後期中等教育適性 與分流不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大問題亟待受正視與解決。本文透過對照美 國、德國、法國國民教育體制,提出發展臺灣 12年國民基本教育的意見,旨在:(1) 倡導 12年國民基本教育是保障生存、創造生活幸福與生命意義的基礎工程,適性 與分流是教育手段;(2)指出 12年國民基本教育規劃採全納式與結構功能,前者 縱向銜接與橫向聯結,後者具階段性與功能化;(3)凸顯國中與國小階段教育是 12年國民基本教育基礎;(4)解釋 12年國民基本教育目標實踐繫於教師教育,與 (5)就 2014年臺灣實施 12年國民基本教育提出建議。 關鍵詞 12年國民基本教育,適性與分流,教育資源,全納式,教師教育 甲、前言 在知識經濟與創意經濟的時代,歐美工業發達國家、開發中國家如臺灣、南韓、印 152 度、紐澳,未開發國家如中國大陸、東南亞國家等在總體教育投資與推動教育革新是不 遺餘力的。另,在全球經濟競爭氛圍下,學校教育成為國家發展的基礎工具,國民教育 (National Education)、國民基本教育(National Basic Education)是打造國家政經發展 與社會和諧的基礎工程。 國民教育實施年限長短,反映國家綜合實力與社會現代化程度;而國民基本教育實 施年限延長採逐漸增加,多非「一步到位」。國民基本教育包含義務階段與非義務階段, 非義務階段教育呈現分化(differentiation)與歧異(diversity)態勢,二者合計12至13年, 前者年限是 9至 10年,後者年限是 3至 4年,教育結構計有 8+4、6+3、5+4、4+5、 4+2+3、9年一貫等。 綜觀臺灣國民教育發展與沿革,自 1968年實施九年義務教育至今,前期與後期中 等教育入學率近百分百,就學機會是供大於求,現階段後期中等教育問題是適性與分流 不足、城鄉與校際教育資源落差大,而「透過讀書改變命運」、「披星戴月只為進明星 學校」,卻又是莘莘學子寫照。基於教育正義與社會和諧,臺灣將於 2014 年實施後普 九之國民基本教育,統稱 12年國民基本教育。「他山之石,可以攻錯」,分析美、德、 法國等 12至 13年之國民教育體制,汲取國外經驗,冀以提出規劃 12年國民基本教育 參考。 乙、12年國民基本教育 綜觀全球教育發達國家之總體教育體制規劃,高中職以下教育年限約 12至 13年, 佔總教育時間四分之三,小學至後期中等教育具程序結構,包含初等教育與中等教育, 中等教育又分前期中等教育與後期中等教育。另,高中職以下教育辦學主體是國家,是 謂國民基本教育;分義務與非義務階段,是國家教育體制的基座,在整體教育發展上有 其重要性。 一、旨趣 12年國民基本教育旨趣,為學習者發展而言,奠基於以資質、性向、興趣、就業、 生涯與參與選擇取向之個性與有德行者(Humboldt, 1903);為社會運作而言,具共同性, 但又由多元與歧異個體組合的政治、經濟與文化團體;為全球網絡國家境遇而言,匯聚 多元與層級網狀的綜合力與具競爭的實力。 153 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 12年國民基本教育,其中 9至 10年義務教育指政府有義務運用公共資源來保障所 有適齡學童接受的教育,具強制、普遍與免費原則;3至 4年後期中等教育不具強制性, 旨在提供國民較優適應力、保障社會轉型人資需求與厚實國家競爭力。 1. 提升國民素質 在數位科技與傳播科技助益下,對於全球化與多元化新增要素之教育,歐美先進國 家由延伸國民教育年限、做為補強之道,期以一則提升國民素質,二則正視世代、年代 與時代交替,三則符應世界潮流變換,四則補強主體意識,以及新世紀價值觀,相關內 容如態度、溝通、合作、正義、判斷力、表現能力、自律⋯⋯以及跨文化與親近自然之 人文素養等。 2. 發展學術理性 〈莊子.養生主〉:「吾生也有涯,而知也無涯,以有涯隨無涯,殆已。」經驗、 知識、智慧藉教育結構化、目標性與效益性傳遞,以達到積累、傳承與創造新的文化與 文明的目的。 人特殊性主要彰顯於:「人是理性的動物」、「人是會思考的蘆葦」、「我思,故 我在」、「知識即力量」、「存在決定意識」等,Newman(1801-1890)主張教育旨在 培育理智人,理智教育(mental cultivation)是真實心智教育(real cultivation of mind) 的基礎(Ker, 2011)。發展學術理性,意旨藉經驗描述與理論說明、具體比喻與科學論 證、哲學思辨,習得邏輯性、系統性與批判性的理性推理與歸納,並據以運用於學習、 工作與生活。 自認知科學、情緒智商、統觀悟性獲得重視,人有理性、感性與悟性逐漸形成共識。 邏輯理性並非理性的全部,Newman以感覺、情感和行動要素補充其教育理念,完善其 自由心智的教育思想(陳小紅、于汝霜,2009)。Hayek(1899-1992)在《自由秩序原理》 書中指出,新經濟型態的知識需包涵:(1)理性知識的集合,如學科知識、專家知識、 有關特定事實的知識;(2)邏輯理性不及的因素,如文化、制度、集體意識;(3)非 理性因素如直觀、領悟等(Hayek,譯 1998)。 3. 培養謀生技能 Spencer(1820-1903)主張,教學是為「完滿生活做準備」,並責付科學知識指導 154 人的活動與訓練人的心智(Spencer,譯 1962)。自 20世紀 90年代以來,數位化資訊 與傳播科技催生全球關聯網絡化與國際化,人類文明期由生產取向之農業社會、經濟與 服務取向之工商業社會,邁入至今日之科技與創意取向之資訊化社會,對應不同社會之 謀生技能各有所重,相關信念與價值體現於思考邏輯、態度與行動、專業與倫理等。 二、理論基礎 19世紀末,國民教育旨趣是發展國家意識;20世紀,國民教育旨趣是民主素養與 經濟職能發展並重;21世紀初則是主體意識、社會正義與創意取向知識經濟,由啟蒙、 文明,以至服務全球化知識經濟發展,教育旨趣逐漸聚焦於資質、創意取向之人力資源 開發。 1. 人力資本 21世紀,網路帶動知識快速消長、知識經濟創意發展趨勢與現代化高人力資本需 求,投資教育與創造人力資源成為全球各國發展重點。鑑於高等教育社會經濟效益有目 共睹與現代高等教育(Modern University)之「海納百川」機能,後期中等教育應規劃 學術、專業與職業取向之分化教育。另,觀諸教育發達國家之總體教育規劃涵蓋國民教 育與高等教育,12至 13年國民基本教育是高等教育基礎工程,國民教育扎根與深耕程 度影響高等教育的發展;相對的,在百輈爭流與百花齊放下,高等教育責付國民教育規 劃路徑,致令二者關聯呈雙向互動與回饋。 2. 多元智能 Mill(1806-1873)在《論自由》書中指出,人得到最為多樣化的發展具有絕對且本 質的重要性(Mill,譯 2011)。後現代倡導主體性、開放社會多元化與創意經濟發展趨 勢,多元主義與多元智能理論從而成為教育多樣態與奇異發展另一支撐依據。 Intelligence,韋氏詞典定義為:「學習,理解,或應付陌生或困難環境的能力」, 學者或側重推理思辯能力,或側重行為功能(Sternberg & Detterman, 1986)。1983 年,Gardner提出多元智能理論(multiple intelligence theory),認為智能具領域特殊性 (domain-specific),智力是「在某種社會和文化環境的價值標準下,個體用以解決自 己遇到的真正難題或生產及創造出某種產品所需要的能力」,智力不是一種能力而是一 組能力,智力不是以整合的方式存在,而是以相互獨立的方式存在的(Gardner, 1983, 1999)。 155 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 綜合上述,運用詮釋結構模式(Interpretive Structural Modelling, ISM)(Warfield, 1976, 1982)於各要素關聯構造(見表一),要素以 C表徵之,可得階層結構圖示(見 圖一)與關聯結構(見附錄)。 表一 12年國民基本教育要素一覽表 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1. 12年國民教育 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 2. 義務教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3. 非義務教育 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. 現代化程度 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. 提升國民教育 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 6. 發展基礎學術 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 7. 培養基礎技能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 8. 夠人力資本 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 9. 多元智能 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10. 適性揚才 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 11. 政府權責 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 12. 教育正義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13. 教育品質 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 14. 教育專業 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 15. 後現代 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 16. 主體性 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17. 全球化經濟網絡 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. 多元主義 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 圖一 12年國民基本教育運用詮釋結構模式 156 丙、美、德、法國家之國民教育 美、德、法國家之國民教育涵蓋:國小初等教育旨在啟蒙學習者性向與潛能,採多 感官、感知性學習典範,摸索、試探、情境操作、「分享」與「表達」體驗是該階段的 學習原則;初中教育賦予試探、定向、興趣培養任務,學習範式加重理性認知、理解比重; 繼起高中職教育則定位於銜接高等教育階段之學術與專業教育之前置預備性教育,提供 基礎學術、專業或就業發展的「分化」教育,是初中階段「定向」後的進階教育。 一、共同性 歐美文化共同根基是希羅古文化與基督宗教,差異影響因素是自然地域與人文社 會,美國主實用主義與政治哲學,德國與法國則主理性主義與價值哲學。教育共同性如 以人為本、兼具目的與工具性。 1. 學生中心 Key(1849-1926) 在《兒童的世紀》書中,開啟學童本位的教育理念(Key,譯 1925),她主張以 Rousseau(1712-1778)自然教育原則改革教育,教師為兒童創造適 當的環境,讓兒童在活動中自由學習,而自然是喚起美感的天然環境,其中可孕育優美 的感情。 國民基本教育旨在開發人的理性、情意與悟性,教育理念如學生中心、適性原則、 與資質利基,教育實踐由理念意識、個性特質到實質能力,三者關聯結構是整體、個性 與能力,今之教育哲學主結果取向表現力、生存力及其素質,學習績效是新生成教育概 念。另,開放社會對於天賦能力和天生才能之境遇成就現象,國民教育發展多採由年限 延長、量擴充、機會均等,到其後適性適才與質的提升。 2. 存在哲學 存在哲學在教育上的意義:(1)正視生命存在、(2)厚實個己存在利基,以及 (3)認知共生必要性。12年國民基本教育是普通教育(general education),藉多元情 境與多元系統知識,以利(1)啟蒙、(2)扎根多元化個性與智能利基、(3)學習求生、 適應與精神滿足、(4)建構共同價值基礎、(5)認知社會發展及其特性,以及(6) 養成終身學習習性。 157 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 3. 優勢利基 優勢利基理念源自於企業界,視域分宏觀與微觀面,前者指在全球競爭氛圍與知識 經濟發展趨勢下,國家優勢生成奠基於與時俱進的經濟產業與優質人資;後者指個人生 存之道是培育具達爾文式之優質之操作力與執行力。就現實與實用主義而言,不論是個 人職識能發展,抑或是國家型塑綜合力,掌握、創造與善用利基蓄勢以待勢在必行。 面對創意取向職識能訴求與多元智能理念,初始教育利基生成是在「天生我才必有 用」、「珍惜所擁有的,不看自己沒有的」根基上,責付為期 12年國民基本教育目標性、 結構化與系統性開發潛能與能力。 二、歧異性 今昔教育價值觀變化大,由重文輕理、重理輕工、重理輕文,以至近日理工唯實、 人文唯名,前者直接助益國家經濟發展與社會文明,後者是實現前者的基本前提,祇是, 前者受到重視遠大於後者。 1. 階級性 後期中等教育具階級性,可以德國為代表,「從十九世紀四十年代起,資產階級在 政經重要性趨近貴族,兼營工商業的貴族也開始向資產階級轉化⋯⋯文實中學正是適應 這一轉化而出現的。」(王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉,1984a)事實上,教育階級性現象 屬全球性。 2. 學術性 後期中等教育具學術性可以法國為代表,拿破崙設立國立中學(Lycee)與市立中 學(College),二者是中等學校主要類型,屬預科教育;1852年,中學課程設計出現文、 實分科的做法,具實科性質學校於 1891年改稱現代中學,畢業生在學業程度和升學資 格上被視為是不足的(王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉,1984b)。 3. 實用性 後期中等教育具實用性可以美國為代表,就讀綜合中學人次比例達 98%(劉怡慧, 2000),屬通才教育與性向興趣取向;課程設計彈性與多元化,教學模式主啟思、參與 操作與合作學習。 158 丁、12年國民基本教育 12年國民基本教育既是教育工程,並且是社會工程,前者強調專業性,後者意指 功能性;涵蓋國小、初中與高中職三階段,其中國小與初中階段教育屬義務性,高中職 階段教育屬非強制性,但負有承上啟下作用,是國民義務教育與高等教育之中介。另, 國小教育根基不牢,影響初中教育深耕;初中教育是高中職教育多元定性定向發展之基 礎。 一、教育哲學 為臺灣而言,教育哲學觀虛實併陳,前者反映於教育理念與另類教育方案,後者體 現於升明星學校、進一流大學為教育目標。 1994年,「410教改遊行」訴求開啟國內適性教育思維與多元教學模式,美中不足 是未能正視學習者天生資質歧異、性向多樣態、學習意願個別差異、家庭與社會之南橘 北枳效應,以及不察生存識能發展模組與生變性,致令今昔教育生態與文化氛圍變化不 大:(1)教育改革侷限於問題解決、應變之需,權宜性方案、補強方案成為政策性方案; (2)教育形式主義模糊教育本質、教育無脈絡性淡化教育旨趣,進而型塑單向度的社 會與單向度的人(Marcuse,譯 1990);(3)知識應用性、工具性凌駕先驗理性旨趣、 理性演繹之意義性價值,以及(4)學習非為厚實人生幸福與探究宇宙真理之益,而成 了創造科技文明、滿足物質慾望之器。 可見未來,12年國民基本教育哲學亟待建構:首先,化解晉升好學校、最終進好 大學是教育唯一化意識;其次,凸顯理論、實務與實踐脫節乃是扭曲的教育;複次,責 付教育有厚實就業職識能、預視人生可能變化功能,最後,健全人格教育,倡導自我價 值認同與富社會責任感的國民。 二、義務教育 「求木之長,必固其根;欲流之遠,必浚其源。」根據聯合國教科文組織 1998年《世 界教育報告》顯示:義務教育平均年限為 8年,歐美發達國家平均年限為 10至 12年, 但免費教育則為 12至 13年(教育部,2003)。另,義務教育實施多分為二階段、三階段, 少有是為期 9至 10年一貫制的。 159 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 觀諸臺灣義務教育發展,1939年 10月 18日制定《義務教育實施要綱》,1943年 義務教育普及率 71%(維基百科,2012a);1947年頒訂《臺灣省學齡兒童強迫入學辨 法》,1975年國民小學入學率達 99%,1984年國民中學入學率是 99%。1967年 8月 17 日台統(一)義字第五零四零號命令公告:「茲為提高國民智能,充實戡亂建國力量⋯⋯ 國民教育之年限應延長為九年,自五十七學年度起先在臺灣及金門地區實施。」 依據教育部統計處 2010年統計資料顯示,15歲以上人口不識字率降低至 2.09%, 國小畢業生繼續就讀國中比率,1966年為 59.04%,1971年增至 80.85%,2009年達 99.73%(維基百科,2012b)。義務教育旨趣:國家意識、掃盲、經濟發展與現代化, 以及提升國民素質與厚實謀生職識能。 三、後期中等教育 面對知識經濟與全球化競爭的市場機制,後期中等教育「向上提升」是必然趨勢, 後期中等教育與高等教育發展不宜各自為政;相反的,正視二者關聯生成,而高等教育 是後期中等教育的「進階教育」,後期中等教育是高等教育先導性「預科教育」,經濟 利益是結合二者之利器。 依據教育基本法第十一條規定:「國民基本教育應視社會發展需要延長其年限。」 (教育部,2011)21世紀初,臺灣總體教育即已進入「普及化」階段,2014年即將實 施之 12年國民基本教育似是補正其政治程序罷了。 後期中等教育發展狀況:自 1986學年度後,國小學生進入國中比率已達 99%;國 中學生進入高中職,1991學年度是 86%、2003學年度是 95%,但是,國中畢業生就學 機會率是 107% (教育部,2001)。 12年國民基本教育自準備階段進入「勢在必行」歷程:1983年,教育部提出「試 辦延長以職業教育為主的國民教育」;1990年,行政院提出「國中畢業生自願就學高級 中等學校方案」;1993年,教育部提出「發展與改進國中技藝教育方案──邁向十年 國教目標」,2001年推動高中職社區化,2004年成立「推動 12年國民教育工作圈」, 2007年成立「12年國民基本教育工作小組」,並完成「12年國民基本教育規劃方案」(張 文昌,2011.11.17)。2009年 9月 4日,教育部公佈 12年國民基本教育先導計畫《擴大 160 高中職及五專免試入學實施方案》,並將於 2010至 2011學年宣導推動,2012學年擴大 辦理(教育部,2009)。 2010年 8月第 8次全國教育會議綜合座談上,行政院宣布「12年國教由坐而言進 入起而行階段」,繼而於 2011年元旦文告宣示教育邁入新紀元,並「啟動 12年國民基 本教育,分階段逐步實施,先從高職做起,預定 2014年高中職學生全面免學費、大部 分免試入學。」(中華民國總統府,2011) 《12年國教:超額比序》,凸顯 12年國民基本教育政策待釐清與公諸論證之,臺 灣國民教育問題不是時間、財政、政治性,而是教育專業,即後期中等教育未先釐清其 在高等教育與前期中等教育之功能,滋生疑慮是可預期的;相對的,其在定位之際,務 必面對後期中等教育已存問題,如各縣市「明星學校」外之他校功能不明、校際教育效 益良莠不齊、來自政府的教育投資明顯不足,如私中與國立高中比例是 0.79:1,私立 職高與公立高職比例是 0.7:1(教育部統計處,2012a),以及長期忽視城鄉教育落差 與學習者資質或素質問題等。 戊、結論與建議 21世紀,高等教育是推動國家永續發展,提升國家競爭力的關鍵要素。就教育體 制而言,高等教育位居金字塔型體制最上層,其下是中等教育之後期中等教育,二者層 級關聯不宜切割各自考量。另,為絕大多數學習者而言,後期中等教育需求屬性與學習 者資質、興趣與就業考量等因素有密切關係。 一、結論 「學校要變好,教育要改革;教育要改革,政策要出爐。」教育是促進社會進步的 原動力,臺灣將於 2014年實施 12年國民基本教育,就《12年國教 OK,但請別搞掉明 星高中》、《論十二年國教隱憂 ─ 有想過會有一個世代被犧牲嗎?》對政策質疑,凸 顯下列問題: 1. 系統思維不足 綜觀國民教育發展及其沿革,一則相關體制建置具階段性,二則採用專家取向之政 161 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 策評估與分析(Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1987)。12年國民基本教育政策規劃未 能:(1)採目標導向思維,針對 21世紀國際競爭態勢,以符應國家需求、社會轉型與 學習者生涯發展進行全盤性思考;(2)採既有現況取向思維,檢證數據予以分析與批判, 並據以進行實證取向之興革,以及(3)依據理論與實務互為印證關聯思維邏輯,進行 與時俱進之層級關聯、點滴累積(piecemeal educational engineering)之政策規劃。 2. 教育資源分配不均 一般而言,國民教育普及程度與品質凸顯政府關注教育力度與挹注經費財力,依據 教育部統計處(2012b)資料顯示,(1)後期中等教育基礎學術、專業與職業教育結構 呈傾斜狀態,其中,基礎學術教育「炙手可熱」;(2)公立學校教育多為升學軌,私 立學校教育多為職業軌,公私立學校學生數比例約 1:1;(3)教育資源多集中於都會 區與公立高中類別學校;(4)私立高職學生數大於公立高職學生數,前者又多為社會 弱勢族群,與(5)公私立學校正式教師生態結構差異大。 二、建議 德國、法國後期中等教育學校類型有其歷史淵源與對應之意識型態,美國另闢蹊徑 創建綜合中學,以消除教育階級分化現象。「他山之石,可以攻錯」,取長補短是原則, 專業判斷是準則,以及責付學習者之準參與決定選擇教育。 針對上述結論,提出如下應變之道,系統化思維體現於國民教育體制結構化,教育 資源問題改善,則以模組課程範式與較適教師教育補強。 1. 12年國民基本教育結構化 綜觀歐美總體教育體制包涵初等教育、中等教育與高等教育;現今學制是 6+3+3+4,其中高中職教育扮演承先啟後功能,上承高等教育,下接形式普同、實質多 元之基礎教育。21世紀是終身學習與學習型社會的紀元,未來 12年國民基本教育組織 呈現多樣態,如 6+6、5+4+3、4+8、4+4+4、4+5+3年制等,小學教育旨趣是基礎扎根、 習性養成,可用年限約 4至 5年;綜合中學教育旨趣是試探、定性與發展深耕(Meyer, 譯 1999),可用年限約 8/2+3+3年(見表二)。 臺灣於 1968年實施九年國民義務教育,至今已逾 40餘年,待實施之 12年國民基 162 本教育不是量的擴增,而是質的提升與效益產出。2014年施行之 12年國民基本教育旨 在:(1)解構「考試還是考試」現象,(2)效益地發展新生代潛能與個性,以及(3) 落實合時宜的教育本質。 表二 12年國民基本教育階段目標與權重一覽表 認知 情意 技能 總計 類別特色 小學 4 3 4 3 10 人境體驗教育 前期中教 5 2+3、0+5 4 3 3 10 共性基礎教育 後期中教 3 5 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 5 30 分流個殊教育 總計 12 12 10 9 11 10 10 8 9 11 90 多元化 資料來源:研究者自行設計 2. 實施模組課程範式 歐美後期中等教育主全方位,一則符應多元智能理論,二則提供社會發展需多元人 力資源,三則構造後現代主體意識與後工業社會多元主義;相對而言,臺灣形式是雙軌 制教育,實質是單一性,執行一名符其實的升學教育。 依據高級中學法第一條規定:「高級中學以陶冶青年身心,培養健全公民,奠定研 究學術或學習專門知能之預備為宗旨。」(教育部,2010a)職業學校法第一條規定:「職 業學校,依中華民國憲法第一百五十八條之規定,以教授青年職業智能,培養職業道德, 養成健全之基層技術人為宗旨。」(教育部,2010b)另,符應多元需求如學習者資質、 性向、興趣、就業與生涯規劃需求,後期中等教育規劃需橫向分化與縱向層級取向的教 育。 後期中等學校定位呈多樣化,辦學機制彈性化。首先,或就全國 15學區予以橫向 校際分工、重點或特色學校發展,或採校內橫向多元化與縱向層級化;其次,規劃菜單 式(menu-based)模組課程範式(paradigm of modular curriculum),據以提供學術發展、 專業發展、職業發展與就業準備取向之教育;最後,所謂明星學校,實為專長與特色學 校,依學區統籌規劃設置,數量有限,責付其成為學區之學習領域燈塔。 階段 目標與權重年限 163 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 課程設計需兼顧普通教育與技職教育間之橫向轉換與縱向銜接,模組課程範式(見 表三)是未來課程典範,其將知識類別分為基礎理論與應用知識二類,5大學習領域與 10個次領域,課程組織依據年級而變化,由單一領域到跨領域、系統知識結構到主題課 程;課程難度分基礎、進階、探究與榮譽課程(honors courses)四級。 模組課程範式旨在:(1)滿足就近入學而生成之多元需求;(2)因應社會快速變化, 同一時間學習與發展多元與多層級職識能成為必要,能力分組教學與開設必選修科目是 對應措施;(3)在網際網路社會,學習跨越教室邊界,另類學習成為常態,如自主學習、 機動學習、網路學習、群組學習等;(4)特色學校與重點學校 /班級成為少數,多為滿 足特殊需求,如數理長才、語文專業、藝術性向、科技設計等,以及(5)整合學區內 可用與有限教育資源,統籌規劃與綜合運用之。 表三 知識類別與領域、層級課程範式一覽表 層級 知識類別與領域 基礎 / 核心課程 進階 / 選必修課程 高階 / 選修課程 理 論 知 識 哲學與文學 單元 / 冊課程 單元 / 冊課程 主題課程 語言與文學 單元 / 冊課程 數學與物理 數學與自然科學 應 用 知 識 社會與經濟 經濟與政治 科技與生態 科技與資訊科技 藝術與戲劇 藝術與文創 資料來源:研究者自行設計 3. 正視教師教育 文明成就與進展非為事先設定,而是把握箇中機會,是以,執行無排他性的國民 基本教育,有一定的難度,但是,適性與原創性國民教育有其根本重要性。國民教育願 景實踐高素質教師教育不可或缺,教師素質對學生學習成效發揮關鍵影響(Hanushek & 164 Rivkin, 2004; Heck, 2007),從而高品質與全納式(inclusiveness)之國民教育教師教育 需一體規劃之。 符應數位化與教育工程複雜性,教師教育範式進行典範轉移: 首先,思維邏輯由線性思維模式轉化為層級網狀思維模式; 其次,教師教育橫向類別分為小學、中學與技職,縱向層級分為 4至 6年制小學、 2+3年制前期中等學校、3年制學術、3年制科技與 2或 3年制職業; 再次,3年制學術取向之教師教育承擔前期與後期中等學校教育,3年制科技取向 之教師教育強調其研究設計、探究與分析職識能; 複次,2或 3年制職業取向教師教育,一則符應社會產業結構、類別需求,其中 2 年制屬就業取向教育,3年制高職教育是二專與四技之先導性基礎教育;二則採情境認 知、操作教學,三則實施就業教育、專業基礎教育; 最後,教師教育新典範強調多領域系統知識與主題課程意識、多元化教學模式與統 觀探究識能,以及終身學習的行動力。 參考文獻 中華民國總統府(2011)。〈中華民國 100年開國紀念典禮暨元旦文告〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://www.president.gov.tw/Default.aspx?tabid=131&itemid=23185&rmid =514。 王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉(1984a)。《外國教育史 近代德國教育制度的發展》。北京: 北京師範大學出版社。 王天一、夏之蓮、朱美玉(1984b)。《外國教育史 法國資展階級革命前後教育制度 的發展》。北京:北京師範大學出版社。 張文昌(2011.11.17)。〈12年國教 難題待解 ─ 政策背景、問題分析與價值澄清〉。 《台灣立報》,教育版。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://www.lihpao.com/?action- viewnews-itemid-112825。 教育部(2001)。《中華民國教育統計》。台北:作者。 165 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 教育部(2003)。《十二年國教暨國教向下延伸 K教育計畫專案報告》。2012年 7月 15日,取自 http://www.edu.tw/content.aspx?site_content_sn=1317。 教育部(2009)。《擴大高中職及五專免試入學實施方案》。台北:中等教育司。 教育部(2010a)。〈高級中學法〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/ LawContent Details.aspx?id=FL008800&KeyWordHL=高級中學法。 教育部(2010b)。〈職業學校法〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/ LawContent Details.aspx?id=FL008701&KeyWordHL=職業學校法。 教育部(2011)。〈教育基本法〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/ LawContent Details.aspx?id=FL008468&KeyWordHL=教育基本法。 教育部統計處(2012a)。《歷年校數、教師、職員、班級、學生及畢業生數(39-100 學年度)》。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://www.edu.tw/statistics/content.aspx?site_ content_sn=8869。 教育部統計處(2012b)。《各級學校概況表(80-100學年度)》。2012年 7月 16日, 取自 http://www.edu.tw/statistics/content.aspx?site_content_sn=8869。 陳小紅、于汝霜(2009)。〈紐曼自由教育反思:理性人教育的價值與侷限性〉。《寧 波大學學報(教育科學版)》,第 31卷第 6期,1-4。 維基百科(2012a)。〈臺灣教育〉。2012年 7月 16日,取自 http://zh.wikipedia.org/ wiki/臺灣教育。 維基百科(2012b)。〈臺灣九年國民義務教育〉。2012年 7月 19日,取自 http:// zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 臺灣九年國民義務教育。 劉怡慧(2000)。〈我國試辦綜合高中政策執行之研究〉。國立政治大學教育研究所碩 士論文,未出版,台北。 Gardner, H. 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E.(1999)。《當代教育發展史:20世紀教育發展回顧》。李復新、馬小梅(譯)。 台北:桂冠。 Mill, J. S.(2011)。《論自由:兼論天才的產生》。吳文璋(譯)。台南:智仁勇。 Spencer, H.(1962)。《教育論》。胡毅(譯)。北京:人民教育出版社。 Sternberg, R. J., & Detterman, D. K. (1986). What is intelligence? Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Warfield, J. N. (1976). Societal systems: Planning, policy and complexity. New York: Wiley. Warfield, J. N. (1982). Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) group planning & problem solving methods in engineering. New York: Wiley. Worthen, B. R., Sanders, J. R., & Fitzpatrick, J. L. (1987). Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. 167 臺灣 12年國民基本教育體制研究 ─ 對照美國、德國、法國國民教育體制 附錄 1. C代表概念、 g代表關聯。 2.每一行代表概念與概念之關聯發展或概念與概念之關聯發展路徑。 3. 概念結構圖示整體概念之關聯結構,據以瞭解概念與概念關係性與邏輯性。 4. 圖一,可讀取有關國民教育、12年國民基本教育結構與後中教育關聯結構。 國民教育 C1gC2gC11gC13gC17 C1gC2gC11gC13gC18 12年國教結構 C1gC3gC12 C1gC3gC14gC18 C1gC2gC14gC17 C1gC2gC14gC16 12年國教目的關聯構造 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC4gC7gC8gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC4gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC4gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC4gC5gC15gC16 後中教育關聯構造 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC6gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC6gC8gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC18 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC13gC18 C1gC3gC5gC9gC10gC14gC16 C1gC3gC7gC9gC10gC14gC17 C1gC3gC5gC9gC1 168 Study on development of 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan - Referring to national education systems in USA, Germany and France Hui Chung HO Department of Education, National Taichung University of Education Masatake NAGAI Graduate Institute of Educational Measurement and Statistics, National Taichung University of Education Abstract One of the objectives of implementing 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan is to put educational justice into practice. However, actions are urgently needed to address the issues of the lack of adaptability and shunt in post-secondary education and the insufficiency between urban and inter-schools educational resources. This article compares the national education systems in USA, Germany and France with that of Taiwan and gives insight to the planning and development of the 12 years’ national basic education in Taiwan. The aims of this article are: (1) to initiate a difference-based adaptive education as basic educational engineering for driving a “good” and “meaningful” life; (2) to acknowledge systematic division of school education and system thinking of 12 years’ coherency and inclusiveness ; (3) to pinpoint that primary schools (including elementary) and junior high schools are the foundation of the 12 years’ national basic education; (4) to explain the importance of teachers’ education, and (5) to give recommendations for the 12 years’ national basic education policy to be implemented in Taiwan in 2014. Keywords 12 years’ national basic education, difference-based adaptive education, educational resources, inclusiveness, teachers’ education 169 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 胡少偉 香港教育學院 摘要 廿一世紀是資訊科技發達和知識爆炸的時代,在全球化情境中,各地政府推出不少 教育改革以促進教育的發展;教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月公佈了「香港教育制 度改革建議」,對教育發展目標和改革提出建議。這篇文章整理新世紀後香港基礎 教育的改革與發展,並就香港教改的成效作整體評論;除了十多年來所推行的教改 和課改外,本文亦會分析中小學和幼稚園的發展,以及論述期間香港教育所面對的 學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等變化。 關鍵詞 香港教育,基礎教育,教育改革,教育發展 一、前言 二十一世紀是知識爆炸的時代,隨着知識生命週期的縮短、世界空間因資訊科技而 縮減,越趨頻密的全球一體化經濟,使人類社會產生了很多變化。在這個變革的環境中, 各地教育部門紛紛推出教育改革,以促進當地教育的發展和更好地培育下一代。在世紀 轉接之間,香港教育界熱烈地進行了教育制度的檢討和教育改革的討論;經過了年多的 諮詢,教育統籌委員會於 2000年 9月向政府提交了《終身學習.全人學習 ─ 香港教育 制度改革建議》(教育統籌委員會,2000),提出了香港的教育改革的方向是「為學校、 教師及學生創造空間,讓學生可享有全面而均衡的學習機會,從而奠定終身學習的根基 170 及達致全人發展」(頁 i)。自此,香港教育改革正式啟動;十多年間,教統會先後發 表了四份「教育改革進展報告」,闡述教育改革七項重點工作的進展。香港特區政府除 推動這份教改報告書的建議外,亦就教育的其他方面發表了不少的政策,涉及中、小學 和幼稚園等教育階段,範圍包括學校管理、教師專業、語文教育和資訊科技教育等。可 見,香港在新世紀的教育改革是廣泛和全面的;當中,值得香港教育界高興的是「國際 權威顧問機構麥肯錫公司 2010年底發表報告,高度評價香港教育體系在國際上的表現, 並充分肯定香港教育發展的持續進步」(胡少偉,2012,頁 33)。這篇文章將整理新世 紀後香港基礎教育的改革與發展,內容除了分析教改和課改的推行外,同時也會綜合十 多年來中小學和幼稚園教育的主要發展,並論述同期相關的教育發展和就香港教改成效 作整體的評論。 二、 新世紀的教改藍圖 《學習的革命》指出「世界正飛速地經歷一場革命,這場革命將像以前文字、印刷 術和蒸汽機的發明那樣改變我們現在的生活;我們需要一場學習的革命,與技術、知識 和通訊爆炸相適應」(Jeannette & Gordon,1998,頁 8)。面對這場人類第三波革命, 教統會(2000)提出了教育改革的願景:建立終身學習的社會體系,普遍提升全體學生 的素質,建立多元化學校體系,塑造開發型的學習環境,確認德育在教育體系中的重要 使命,建設一個具國際性、具民族傳統及相容多元文化的教育體系(頁 4-5),並視這 次教改為一項長遠而全面的規劃,以使香港教育能追上時代的需要。在報告書中,教統 會批評過往香港的教育只培養少數的優秀人才,削弱了社會的公平,並表明改革方案旨 在形成新的競爭理念,塑造新的競爭機制,兼顧擇優與公平。為了避免「標籤效應影響 較低組別學生的士氣」(何景安,2009,頁 118),教統會將小學生升中派位組別由 5 個改為 3個,以減少因派位組別多而引起的不公平;其後,小學升中的自行分配學位的 比例,從 2007/08年度起提高至 30%,學生申請學校的數目亦由一所增至兩所,且不受 各區學校網所限制。這兩項教改措施使小六家長有較大的機會讓子女憑面試及校內成績 進入心儀學校;亦可見,香港教育改革的其中一個價值是為家長提供較多的擇校機會。 在上世紀末的教育檢討中,不少業界憂慮中小學教師工作繁重,未能有效地推行教 育改革;為了讓教師鬆綁,政府於2000年撥款為教師創造空間,讓中小學聘請教學助理、 文書人員,或者僱用外間服務,讓教師可專注教學和進行拔尖補底的工作。「有關建議 171 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 於 11月 17日獲立法會財務委員會通過,將預留作教育改革的 8億元中的 5億元發放給 中、小學,透過聘請額外人手或購買服務等方法,以減輕教師的工作量,提高教與學的 成效」(高國威、葉建源、張國華、黃炳文、梁潔茵,2004,頁 9)。2004年檢討報告 認為發展津貼普遍受到學校歡迎;在 2005/06年度,政府將學校發展津貼改為經常性的 撥款,並增撥有時限學校發展津貼,以協助教師應付校本評核和全港性系統評估推行初 期的工作,進一步減輕教師的工作量。透過新增公共財政以支持學校發展,讓教師可落 實教改工作,是香港特區政府推行教改的有效策略之一。 三、 課改的推展與中期成效 2001年發表的《學會學習 ─ 課程發展路向》報告書(課程發展議會,2001),參 考了國際 21世紀教育委員會於 1996年指出,「學會學習既可將其視為一種人生手段, 也可將其視為一種人生目的」(聯合國教科文組織總部,2001);並以「學會學習」為 香港課改文件名稱,暗喻學校教育不再是「學會知識」,學習態度和技能比學會內容更 為重要。香港當年課改計畫用 10年改革中、小學課程,為學生提供一個均衡的新課程, 並將當時所有學科統整為八個學習領域;課程發展議會亦提出在首五年內透過創造更多 空間、引發學習動機、落實推行四個關鍵專案、幫助學生掌握中英數基本能力和培養學 生共通能力等五方面重點工作去落實課程改革。「制度政策和學校行政管理的改革,假 如未能直接或間接促進教師、學校或制度層面的課程教學的設計和發展,這些改革都可 算是無的放矢」(黃顯華,2001,頁 21)。為配合課改的推行,《基礎教育課程指引 ─ 各盡所能.發揮所長》於 2002年出版,進一步展示落實課程改革的校本方法;尤其 是對四個關鍵專案的推行有詳細說明,使各校能順利推展德育及公民教育、從閱讀中學 習、專題研習和運用資訊科技進行互動學習。 在推行課改的同時,政府對評核學生的制度亦進行了改革;教育部門於 2001年委 託考試及評核局發展與推行中、英、數三科的基本能力評估。經試驗後,於 2004年首 次在小三進行全港性系統評估;至 2006年在小三、小六和中三級作全面施行,評估項 目分為中、英、數三科,主要是以筆試進行,還包括兩科語文的說話評估和中文視聽資 訊評估,以全面評估學生讀寫聽說的能力。這個評估結果和資料可讓公眾瞭解基礎教育 階段學生的中、英、數基本能力;學校亦可參考全港性系統評估的校本資料,調整三個 主科的教學策略,以改善教師教學的效能。與此同時,正如內地學者景源(2011)指, 172 港府「要求實現『對學習的評估』和『促進學習的評估』兩種評價範式的平衡,變革了 學校的評價文化和評價方式」(頁 17);鼓勵教師注意促進學習的評估,可使課堂教學 目標、學教過程和學生學習成果三者有一個更緊密的迴圈,從而優化課堂教學。 有關香港課改的成效,課改中期報告顯示「有超過 85%的受訪小學生和 75%的受 訪中學生認為老師普遍有『向我們提問、與我們討論、鼓勵我們發表意見』、『耐心聆 聽我們的發問及積極回答我們的問題』、『教我們用不同方法尋找資料,完成課業』, 以及『鼓勵我們自己尋找答案,解決問題』」(教育局,2008,頁 20)。時任課程發展 總監張國華於 2011年指出「學生在溝通能力、創造力及批判性思考能力上有明顯的進 步,在國民身份認同和承擔精神等價值觀和態度上均有正面的發展,並正發展成更加獨 立的學習者。」(鄭琰,2011,頁 10)。香港課改成效亦受到本地課程專家的肯定,香 港教育學院副校長李子建(2012a)認為「超過 90%的中小學校長認為學校能夠促進教 師共同備課、建立同伴觀課文化、提升校內的團隊文化和將學校作為一個學習社群」(頁 44);並指出學校領導層和中層管理人員的素質差別是影響校本課程的關鍵因素。 四、 幼稚園教育的發展與提高 在 2000年的報告書內,教統會期望政府和公眾認識幼稚園教育的重要性,並就有 關提高幼稚園教育專業水準方面提出各項明確的建議,反映了當時香港幼師資格相對較 低;而提高幼稚園教師和校長的資格是幼稚園教改的一個亮點。同時,教統會建議政府 要加強質素保證機制和改善小一入學制度,以防止幼稚園教育揠苗助長的風氣。隨着世 界幼稚園教育的發展趨勢,課程發展議會修訂了 1996年學前教育課程指引,新編訂的 《學前教育課程指引(2006)》申明幼稚園教育是終身學習和全人發展的基礎,重視以 「兒童為中心」的核心價值;在該課程架構下訂有四項幼兒發展目標:「身體」、「認 知和語言」、「情意和群性」及「美感」;這份 2006年的學前教育課程指引比舊課程 更為全面、具彈性及多元化,可讓幼兒建立良好的學習基礎、正面的價值觀及基本的能 力與技巧。 「學前教育學券計畫」是由 2007/08學年開始實施,一方面保留私立幼稚園靈活應 變的多元化特色,另一方面則推動學前教育界全面提升質素,步入更具效益和更專業化 的新紀元。在 2009/10年度參加學券計畫的幼稚園有 820間,幼稚園學生約 117,000名, 173 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 分別約佔總數的 85%。這計畫雖顯示政府對幼稚園教育的承擔有所增加,但政策推出後 卻受到不少業界的批評,「新政策推行至今已進入第三個學年,過程中衍生了不少爭駁, 除了上述提及的問題外,其他情況諸如教師人手短缺、流動、流失和工作壓力等,均對 幼稚園教育專業的整個生態發展造成嚴重影響」(袁慧筠,2010,頁 11)。立法會教育 事務委員會(2010)曾召開檢討學前教育學券計畫會議,並通過議案「促請政府即時成 立包括業界及家長代表的委員會,立即檢討幼稚園學費津助制度」。在議會和業界的強 力關注下,教育局提前檢討這個原定推行五年的計畫;經公開諮詢和檢討工作小組的討 論,教育統籌委員會於 2010年底公佈檢討報告,在提出 12個改善學券計畫建議的同時, 該小組亦總結了學券計畫的成果。然而,大部份香港幼稚園同工的心願是政府推行十五 年免費教育;為回應業界的訴求,政府終於 2013年成立專責委員會研究推行十五年免 費教育的可行性。 五、 香港小學教育的三大發展 香港小學教育在這十多年除了推行教改和課改的建議外,在推行全日制、落實小班 教學和優化人力資源等三方面也有明顯的發展。在回歸年,特首提出把全日制學生比率 提高;1998年的施政報告提出推行小學全日制長遠的目標,計畫於 2007/08學年開始全 面推行小學全日制,讓所有小學生都有機會入讀全日制學校。2003年《小學全日制優點 研究》指出全日制在多方面比半日制可取,包括:全日制學校可以為學生提供一個更理 想的學習環境和更多元化的學習活動;可紓緩緊迫的上課時間,學校能更靈活地安排課 程;可提供較充裕的時間去使學生得到較全面的照顧等。「至 2002/03學年,政府已達 到了六成的小學生接受全日制教育的中期目標;據政府統計處 2007年的統計報告顯示, 84.4%的受訪者同意或非常同意『由於學生有更多時間和老師、校長和其他同學溝通接 觸,因此全日制小學就能夠營造出一個更有生氣的學習環境』」(郭少棠,2008,頁 148)。 在新世紀後,香港小學教育的一個爭議課題是小班教學的推行。教育局於 2004/05 學年進行一項追蹤性的研究,目的為評估在香港實施小班教學的好處,及識別發揮小班 教學最佳成效的教學策略和支持措施;當年有 37所小學參與研究,並以每班學生人數 25人試行小班教學。其後,教統局於 2005年 9月又在收錄較多清貧學生的學校試行小 班教學。隨着因學生人口下降,小學業界要求小班教學訴求不斷增加,行政長官於 2007 174 年施政報告公佈由 2009/10學年起,於公營小學的小一班級開始,分階段實施小班教學, 並會逐年推展至 2014/15學年,涵蓋小一至小六所有班級。2009年 9月,小班教學在 65%的香港小學順利實施;當年,教育局撥款 2億 1千 8百萬元,為教師提供在職培訓 課程和為學校提供代課教師。隨着「小班教學研究」於 2009年發表,教育局再調撥 1 億元,為正在實施小班教學的學校提供為期一年的額外文憑教師職位。在 2010/11年度, 實施小班教學的小學有 318所,佔全港公營小學 69%。 香港小學課改得到不少的讚賞,成功原因之一是政府增加小學的人力資源。政府於 2002年 9月在小學增設課程統籌主任的職位,以支持小學制訂課程發展策略和推行課改 的工作;有見於小學課程統籌主任的貢獻,政府將這個原定五年的有限期職位轉為常額。 而為加強改善中英數三個主科的教學,政府於 2005/06年向小學提供資助專科教學津貼, 為期三年;期後考慮到教師不滿以合約形式聘用,教育統籌局由 2006/07學年起為學校 提供額外常額教席,取代這個專科教學津貼,這使全日制小學每班的教師比例由 1.4提 升至 1.5。於 2008/09學年教育局又在小學開設高級小學學位教師的職級,明確小學副校 長要協助校長處理下列四方面的工作:(1)課程發展與管理,學與教及學生評估;(2) 全校參與的關顧輔導與學生支持;(3)人力資源管理;(4)學校管理、評估及發展。 小學副校長職級編制化,除了吸引人才出任小學副校長外,也提高了小學行政人員的士 氣,有助提升小學教育的管理質素。 六、 中學教育的改革與轉變 香港中學教育的一個實踐性發展,是將實施近三十年的九年免費教育延長;特首在 2007年施政報告中宣佈將公營學校提供的免費教育延伸至高中階段,由 2008/09年度起 生效。十二年免費教育不單可減少低學歷青少年過早地投入就業市場,亦有利適齡學童 取得報讀進修專上教育的資格,有利他們持續進修終身學習。另一方面,因應學生人口 減少,教育局在 2006/07學年推出班級結構重整措施,為未達開辦三班要求的中學,提 供多項方案供相關學校申請繼續營辦高中,以減輕收生弱勢中學被殺的危機。吸收了早 前小學縮班殺校所帶來教師壓力和怨氣的痛苦經驗,教育局於 2010年 11月提出「自願 優化班級計畫」,讓部份學生自然地流進收生不足的學校;這不但保障弱勢中學不用殺 校,亦避免了能力較強的學生錯配下移。與此同時,政府將世紀初 40名學生的中一班 額逐步減少;教育局於 2009/10學年已將中一每班派位人數調低至 36人,在 2010/11及 175 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 2011/12學年再減至 34人。政府於 2012年底更提出二一一方案,使 2016年的中一學生 班額可減至 30名學生;這措施不單保留中學教師的人力資源,又可免日後中一學生人 數谷底回升時,引來另一次香港中學教育的動盪。 香港特區政府在新世紀最為慎重的教改政策是推行新高中學制。2000年教統會未 有決定進行高中學制改革,經過 2004年的諮詢後,特區政府於 2005年公佈 2009年推 行新高中學制。新高中課程為學生提供一個均衡和有深度的課程,高中生除了修讀四個 必修的科目,包括中、英、數及通識教育科外,亦可根據個人興趣、性向和能力,從不 同學習領域或應用學習的範疇中選讀兩個或三個科目;同時,高中生還可透過其他學習 經歷,獲得德育及公民教育、體藝等的體驗,以廣闊的知識基礎去準備未來升學及就業 的需要。「經過三輪諮詢後,2007年 3月,課程發展議會與香港考試及評核局聯合編訂 的高中課程 4個核心科目及 20個選修科目的課程及評估指引公佈;2009年 5月,課程 發展議會編訂的《高中課程指引:立足現在,創建未來(中四至中六)》,為學校準備 和實施新高中課程提供指導」(彭澤平、姚琳,2010,頁 23)。新高中學制的改革經歷 數年的諮詢和優化,其改革亦與教改藍圖主張培育學生「終身學習、全人發展」的方向 一致,可算是香港改革中一個持續深入又推行成功的政策實例。 高中學制改革除影響高中各科課程和教學外,亦使中學公開考試產生了相應的變 化;香港中學文憑考試取代了原有的兩個公開考試,並在各科引入校本評核和以水準參 照模式彙報學生的成績。「水準參照模式中,考生的表現被分為五個等級,沒有及格或 不及格的概念,每個等級附有一套等級描述。為了更準確地反映考生實際的語文水準, 考評局由 2007年起改用水準參照模式彙報考生的中國語文科和英國語文科的成績,考 生所得的成績,反映出本身的知識和技能水準,不受其他考生的表現影響」(付宜紅, 2011,頁 44)。而對中學教師影響最大的評核轉變是校本評核,校本評核本意是透過多 元化課業評核學生在不同方面的表現,讓教師可以作出適時的回饋,從而提高學生的學 習成效;但校本評核卻同時引來高中教師大量的評核工作,加上學生的學習時數不足, 在第一屆文憑試舉行之後,不少關心中學教師的教育團體,要求政府和考評局即時檢討 校本評核及不再按原計劃於 2016年全面在各科內推行校本評核。 回歸前,政府訂定一刀切強行母語教學,要求各中學在初中分流為以中文或英文 為教學語言,這政策備受各方的批評;當中最為詬病的是其所造成的標籤效應,把中文 176 中學定為二流中學。政府於 2005年曾成立工作小組深入探討這難題,並提出維持師生 和學校皆具備條件的情況下,讓中學以上落車機制去強化當時的母語教學政策;但這個 不為各方支持的方案,公佈後受到不少抨擊。有見及此,教育局提出微調初中教學語言 政策。「賦予學校更大的空間,使母語教學有持續平穩的發展;微調安排由 2010/11學 年的中一開始實施,學校會根據『學生為本、因材施教』的原則,採用不同模式的教學 語言安排,以加強校內的英語環境,並增加學生運用和接觸英語的機會。」(教育局, 2010,頁 7)。為支持中學落實這個影響深遠的微調措施,教育局於 2009年舉辦了 16 場制定全校語文政策工作坊,同時亦調撥 5億 9千萬元為改變教學語言的非語文科教師 提供在職培訓課程及代課老師。初中教學課程微調後,使不少中學在初中階段有一校兩 語文授課的情況,增加了初中教師的教學難度,但相信措施有助中學生提高英語能力; 然而,其最終成效是否物有所值,則需視乎日後學生表現才可論斷。 七、 香港基礎教育同期的發展 在這十多年教育變革的時期中,除了以上教改、課改和中小幼教育的發展外,香港 基礎教育同步亦有三個不能忽視的發展,包括面對學生人口下降挑戰、優化教師隊伍和 提倡學校自評文化;當中,最為震撼的是因學生人口的減少而帶來殺校的現象。政府審 計署於 2003年發表的第 41號報告書,批評教統局規劃失當,浪費了十多億港元資源, 並倡議減建 18所新校舍;加上學童人口的減少,小學面臨生源不足的困難,教統局於 2003年決定停辦小一收生不足的學校。在小一生源不足的情況下,有不少半日制小學合 二為一,;教統局亦於 2005年提出檢討建校計畫,將一些原已公佈的新建校舍停建。 而因殺校出現大量的小學超額教師,教統局於 2004年推出小學教師提早退休計畫,並 擴展至非殺校的小學教師;於 2005年受惠於特惠補償金計畫的教師有八百多名。據本 地學者分析「因收生不足而聯繫到學校關閉,在 2000至 2006年約有 110間小學被政府 所關閉」(Mok,2007,頁 201-202);縮班殺校對香港教育影響之廣,連台灣學者亦 有關注,「教師的超額造成教師流失率的升高,顯現少子化大大衝擊香港的教育體系」 (黃宗顯、劉健慧,2010,頁 173)。 在學校管理方面,新世紀後影響最大的政策是推動學校自評文化。質素保證視學組 在 2002年提出學校表現指標,既讓學校瞭解到外評人員評核的要求,也是開展自我評 估的參考。在 2003年,教育局推行「透過學校自我評估及校外評核促進學校發展及問 177 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 責」,推行這個新視學制度時正是中小學教師開始感受巨大教改壓力之際,因而引來各 方對計畫的質疑和顧慮。為此,教育局騁請國際學者就這機制進行專門的研究,並肯定 「外評在核實及支援自評,以促進學校持續改善方面」(教育局質素保證分部,2008, 頁 19)。在總結首輪外評經驗後,教育局修訂了表現指標,《2008年學校表現指標》 把原有的 14個範圍精簡為 8個,又把表現指標由 29個精簡為 23個,使學校更能聚焦 地檢視工作表現;教育局並在每個表現指標內設有一組要點問題,學校同工在撰寫發展 計畫、周年計畫和周年報告時可參考這些要點問題。香港這個學校評估制度受到上海專 家張民生的讚賞,「在對上一年規劃實施情況的評估報告裡,評價時像一條條列出來, 相應地有詳細的評價結果呈現;對一個組織來說就是既要具備規劃能力,還要具備自我 評價能力。」(沈祖芸、羅陽佳,2007,頁 17)。 香港教育另一個受好評的發展,是教師受訓率和學位率皆有升幅。中學教師的受 訓率由 2001/02年度的 87.9%,提高至 2007/08年度的 94.2%。「而小學教師的受訓 率由 2001至 2002年度的 90.8%提升至 2006至 2007年度的 94.6%;學位率更由 2001 至 2002年度的 49.6%增至 2006至 2007年度的 80.4%」(胡少偉,2009,頁 201)。 下表一顯示出香港中小學和幼稚園的師生比率在過去的改善情況,中小幼師生比例從 2000/01年度的 18.6、22.0和 11.8分別降至 2010/11年度的 15.2、15.2和 9.8;反映政 府十多年來積極增加學校教師人手的比例,為各級學生提供更佳的教育服務。2007年 10月特首曾蔭權更宣佈「分兩期增加公營小學及中學的學位教師比例,於 2008/09學年 將小學及中學學位教師比例分別增至 45%及 80%,並於 2009/10學年分別增至 50%至 85%」(香港特別行政區政府,2007,頁 45),這個措施改善了中小學教師的就業環境 和提高了教師的士氣。 表一 香港中小幼學校的學生與教師比率 學校類別 2000/01 2003/04 2006/07 2010/11 幼稚園 11.8 10.2 9.4 9.8 小學 22.0 19.5 17.6 15.2 中學 18.6 18.0 17.0 15.2 178 八、 香港基礎教育改革的評價 「麥肯錫公司發表《世界上最進步的學校制度如何做得更好》的報告,該報告考察 美國部份地區、英國、智利、香港、加拿大等二十個國家和地區的教育制度,結果發現 雖然二十個教育系統有不同的表現,但是卻有六個共同的干預策略:建立教師的教學技 能和校長的管理技能;評估學生;改進數據系統;透過政府文件和教育法規輔助改革; 修訂標準和課程;保證對教師和校長合適的薪酬結構。」(李子建,2012b,頁 9)。回 顧新世紀後香港教改的發展,可發現與上述六個策略相近的例證。從另一個角度剖析, 香港教育十多年來除了落實教改建議和有效地推動課改之外,亦在幼稚園教育的課程和 資助兩方面有所提高;在小學方面,全日制的推行、小班教學的實施和人力資源的優化 是三項較大的發展。至於中學方面,除了落實新高中學制和公開考試變革之外,十二年 免費教育和初中教學語言微調也是影響深遠的教育政策;與此同時,面對學生人口下降 的挑戰、優化教師隊伍和提倡學校自評文化等環節,亦是香港基礎教育在新世紀後不能 忽視的變化。 在教育變革的年代,香港教育界雖有不少怨氣,但學生成績進步卻也是公認的; 2006年全球學生閱讀能力進展研究顯示,在 45個參與地區中,香港小學四年級學生的 閱讀能力從 2001年排名第 14位躍升至第 2位。在學生能力國際評估亦發現,「與 2007 年比較,香港學生的數學排名保持在第三位,閱讀能力排名第四,科學第三;與前三期 研究結果比較,香港學生的三項能力的整體表現有進步,閱讀表現亦明顯比前兩次好」 (《星島日報》,2010.12.8)。2009年「香港學生的數碼閱讀能力在 19個國家和地區 中排名第五,逾九成港生的基本水準達到第二級或以上水準,高於 16個經濟合作與發 展組織成員國的平均百分比」(政府新聞處,2011)。簡言之,香港學生的閱讀能力於 教改和課改後在國際評比上有持續的提升。 若要分析推動香港基礎教育改革的動力,追求「提升教育質素」是香港教改、課改 和眾多相關政策的核心價值。當然優化派位機制、全面實施小學全日制、提供十二年免 費教育等政策則有追求「教育公平」的影子。至於增加小六家長擇校機會、進行幼稚園 教育學劵和因學生人口減少而帶來的競爭現象,則充滿了「教育市場化」的氣味。可見 上述三個核心價值主宰了十多年來香港教育的發展。而因文章篇幅所限,此文並沒有論 及香港的資訊科技教育、兩文三語政策、德育及國民教育、直資學校、教師專業發展、 179 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 校長領導、融合教育、非華語學童、跨境學童等環節的變化;這些教育政策的變化或多 或少也影響了香港基礎教育在新世紀的發展,並值得有興趣研究香港教育發展的學者去 深究。說到香港基礎教育改革的總體評價,教改「三頭馬車」之一程介明(2007)認為: 「教育改革是不會自動在民間通過市場運作產生的,是需要政府的強力干預才會出現和 成功的;從這個角度看,香港的教育改革,在這個不善於組織自己的社會裡面,能夠度 過這些風風雨雨,而基本能夠維持改革的核心價值,繼續向前,也說明香港有着無可估 量的生命力」(頁 14)。也就是說,香港新世紀後基礎教育改革有一定的成效,不能忽 視的原因是有效的中長規劃和持續地投入資源,這保證了香港教改在這十多年來穩定地 沿路前進。 參考文獻 《星島日報》(2010.12.8)。〈港生數理閱讀續居世界前列〉。取自 http://www.singtao. com/archive/fullstory.asp?andor=or&year1=2010&month1=12&day1=08&year2=2010& month2=12&day2=08&id=20101208g01。 付宜紅(2011)。〈攜手共進 ─ 從香港課程改革中我們能學到什麼〉。《基礎教育課 程》,第 4期,42-45。 何景安(2009)。《香港教育小百科》。香港:香港高齡教育工作者聯誼會。 李子建(2012a)。〈香港課程與學校改革:對學校領導的啟示〉。《中小學管理》,第1期, 43-45。 李子建(2012b)。〈國際及香港課程與學校改革的趨勢〉。《基礎教育課程》,第 4期, 9-10。 沈祖芸、羅陽佳(2007)。〈張民生:我在香港視學〉。《上海教育》,第 13期,15- 17。 政府新聞處(2011)〈國際研究顯示香港學生數碼閱讀能力名列前茅〉。2011年 6月 28日,取自 http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201106/28/P201106280258.htm。 胡少偉(2009)。《教育工作者評教育發展》。香港:香港教育圖書公司。 胡少偉(2012)。〈香港教育改革政策的經驗〉。《世界教育資訊》,第 1期,30-33。 香港特別行政區政府(2007)。〈二零零七至零八年施政報告施政綱領〉。2007年 10 月 10日,取自 http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr07-08/chinese/panels/0708agenda_c.pdf。 180 袁慧筠(2010)。〈香港幼兒教育的發展﹕市場模式與學券制〉。《香港幼兒學報》, 第 8期,11-16。 高國威、葉建源、張國華、黃炳文、梁潔茵(2004)。《「學校發展津貼」的運用:研 究報告》。香港:「運用『為教師創造空間而提供的額外撥款』」改進學校效能計畫。 教育局(2008)。《提升學校的學與教和改善學校生活的素質:給校長和教師的課程改 革中期報告》。香港:教育局。 教育局(2010)。《營造語境 實現願景 微調中學語言》。香港:教育局。 教育局質素保證分部(2008)。《校外評核效能研究》。香港:教育局。 教育事務委員會(2010)。《檢討學前教育學券計畫(立法會 CB(2)554/10-11(02) 號文件)》。香港:教育事務委員會。 教育統籌委員會(2000)。《終身學習.全人學習 ─ 香港教育制度改革建議》。香港: 教育統籌委員會。 郭少棠(2008)。《育才創新路:香港十年教育回望》。香港:教育局。 彭澤平、姚琳(2010)。〈香港新高中課程改革:背景、構架與經驗〉。《比較教育研 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C. ( 2007). Quality assurance and school monitoring in Hong Kong. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 6(3), 187-204. 181 新世紀後香港基礎教育的改革 Educational reform on the basic education of Hong Kong in new century Siu Wai WU The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract The 21st century is the era of advances in information technology and knowledge explosion. Under globalization, countries all over the world are undergoing reform in education system. The HKSAR government released the Reform Proposal for the Education System in Hong Kong in September 2000 and launched a comprehensive education reform in Hong Kong schools. This article is to review the education reform and curriculum reform in Hong Kong. It also addresses the significant development of kindergarten, primary and secondary education during this period. In the same time, the Government copes with the declining student population challenges, optimizing teachers’ forces and advocates of school self-evaluation. Finally, an overall comment on the effectiveness of the educational reform in Hong Kong will be given. Keywords Hong Kong education, basic education, educational reform, educational development 183 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, Volume 12 © Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre, 2013 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong LEUNG Lai Sim Creative Teachers Association, EdD student of the University of Bristol Abstract Through a questionnaire survey of 41 Liberal Studies (LS) teachers from 40 secondary schools and interviews with 12 of them, the researcher compared the teaching processes and strategies for nurturing students’ higher-order thinking (HOT). The study seeks to find out whether the LS implementation process is aligning with the aims of the curriculum. Result show that teachers have a strong tendency towards examination-oriented learning while acknowledging the focus on knowledge-based learning as the main difference of LS and its public assessment component from those of the traditional disciplines, the emphasis of the subject on the mastery of basic concepts and thinking skills and the need for the nurturing of HOT. There was widespread agreement with the operation of the public assessment design in the subject. The more experienced ones further agree that examination-oriented strategies are compatible with the development of HOT. Keywords higher-order thinking, Liberal Studies public assessment, mixed method design 1. Introduction Liberal Studies (LS) is a new core subject for all New Senior Secondary (NSS) students in Hong Kong from 2009 onwards. Its aims are to “broaden students’ knowledge 184 base and enhance their social awareness through the study of a wide range of issues”, “enable students to make connections across different fields of knowledge and to broaden their horizons” and “foster students’ capacity for life-long learning” (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority [CDC & HKEAA], 2007, p.1). The Education Bureau emphasizes that the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment should be well aligned (p.123-124). However, what are the views of teachers about the LS examinations in Hong Kong? What strategies do they use to help students learn effectively? Can the public assessment paper promote higher-order thinking (HOT) learning in LS? As the chairman of Creative Teachers Association and a researcher, the author conducted a study through a voluntary organization to find out teachers’ perception on the relationship between LS public assessment and the teaching and learning of HOT skills. Based on the findings, we outline the nature of LS and suggest some ideas for further research. 2. Literature review The education assessment system is regarded as important as the invention of the computer, steam engine and wheel (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). Its impact on human society is immense (Brown, Kennedy, Kerry, Fok, Chan & Yu, 2009; Cheng, 2010; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, Chan, Yu & Fok, 2006) as the behaviour of teachers, pupils and policy makers can be significantly affected. It even shapes the choices for human life in future (Broadfoot, 2007, p.159). The implementation of assessment, including both formative and summative procedures, can affect students’ performance deeply and how far the purposes of the curriculum are being fulfilled. Studying teachers’ attitude towards LS public examination, guidance of students as well as the teaching and learning pedagogy involved would help us reflect the implementation of aims of the LS curriculum. HOT is a rich concept that has attracted diverse interpretations by local and international academics (Yeung, 2012; Watkins, 2001; Wang & Wang 2011). Different scholars have different interpretations and understanding with different directions and perspectives (Fisher, 2001; Pithers & Soden, 2000; Gardner, 2006). “A basic rule for assessment of HOT skills is to use tasks that require use of knowledge and skill in new or novel situations.” (Nitko & Brookhart, 2011, p.223). “Higher order thinking occurs when a person takes new information and information stored in memory and interrelates and/ or rearranges and extends this information to achieve a purpose or find possible answers in perplexing situations” (Lewis & Smith, 1993, p.136). In general, students are thinking at a higher order if they can put forward a well-reasoned view with reference to relevant concepts, discuss an issue from various perspectives, and demonstrate analytical and argumentative skills in the process. Moreover, HOT is a disposition for a people to pursue the meanings and nature of 185 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong life. Socrates (470-399BC) claimed that, “Wisdom begins in wonder.” (cited Cooper, 2012). Dewey (1897) argued that education should not aim only at gaining content knowledge, but also at learning how to live. The purpose of education is the realization of one’s full potential and the ability to use those skills for the future life. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of LS teachers needs to be investigated (Zhao & Fok, 2012) in this context. For instance, active learning pedagogies play an important role in enhancing higher order cognitive skills among students (Madhuri, Kantamreddi & Prakash Goteti, 2012). While the goal of issue-enquiry in an authentic context is to promote HOT skills (Preus, 2012), learning through enquiry demands that students explain, analyse, give reasons or comment about them by “gap filling” (Bartlett, 1958). Questioning, issue-enquiry, interaction, learning communities and Independent Enquiry Study (IES) are encouraged as a result. Reflective thinking, integrative thinking and deep thinking can be encompassed into HOT too (Wang & Wang, 2011). Compared with memorization and looking for correct answers, HOT seeks to develop the potential of individuality such as critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving skills (Zohar & Dori, 2003). “Liberal Studies plays a unique role in the NSS curriculum by helping students to connect concepts and knowledge across different disciplines, to look at things from more than one single perspective, and to study issues not covered by any single discipline. It is more than just about developing thinking skills and positive values and attitudes. The nature of Liberal Studies is different from that of General Education or Liberal Education in universities. It is a curriculum organization that suits the curriculum contexts of Hong Kong and achieves the learning goals identified for senior secondary education.” (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005, p.6-7) What does HOT mean in LS specifically? According to the CDC & HKEAA (2007), teachers can infuse HOT into the LS curriculum and help student achieve the learning goals identified for senior secondary education such as “to develop multiple perspectives on perennial and contemporary issues in different contexts”, to “become an independent thinker”, “develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving skills, communication skills and information technology skills” (p.5). LS assessment is claimed to adopt authentic assessment with hot issues and news are taken as the basis of questioning (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2012). Unlike traditional examinations which emphasize knowledge reproduction abilities and low-level skills, complex thinking, personal opinions, ideas construction, and the elaboration of issues in contemporary contexts are demanded in the LS assessment. 186 The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) LS Seminar on Assessing Student Learning and the Assessment Framework for HKDSE LS 2014 (Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2013) highlighted the nature and development of LS assessment procedures and noted the value of using contemporary issues, problems or incidents in assessment questions. By drawing upon personal experiences and conducting issue-based enquiries, candidates can demonstrate their abilities in understanding and the application of knowledge. Based on the definitions of HOT from scholars, the government and the LS teachers’ perceptions of LS learning and meaning in this paper, the author discusses and interprets the research topic during the process. According to the above discussion and analyses, in order to help students meet the aims of the LS curriculum, HOT-based pedagogy is essential. The development of HOT skills is the core purpose of teaching and learning in LS. Teachers need PCK which is the unique knowledge of teachers (Zhao & Fok, 2012). How teachers understand the subject matter and internalise to create an effective mode of teaching will affect the realization of HOT skills learning. And how teachers understand the teaching content and knowledge to internalise individual teaching pedagogy and methodology to let students manage and understand HOT skills is crucial for knowing the implementation quality of the curriculum aims. Research is a process of investigation. With the interpretive approach, this study was carried out to reveal teachers’ perceptions. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and a self-completion questionnaire survey. The implementation of HOT in LS was analysed from teachers’ perspective and discussed with reference to the views of academics, curriculum developers and teachers. 3. Research Design This study aims at (1) identifying teachers’ perception of the use of HOT pedagogy and the public assessment component in LS, (2) explicating the link between the two, and (3) examining the challenge of nurturing HOT in LS after four years of implementation. The questionnaire survey and subsequent semi-structured interviews were designed with the following research questions in mind: 1. What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? 2. How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? 3. What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? 187 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong A single-phase triangulation design based on the Convergence Model of Creswell & Clark (2007, p.64) was used for collecting data (Figure 1). During a meeting1 of markers in a simulation mock examination orgranised by Hok Yau Club (2012) in November, 2012, 48 copies of questionnaires (Appendix 1) without recording teachers’ names were distributed to LS teacher who have attended Education Bureau LS training courses. Quantitative and qualitative methods were given the same degree of importance in seeking the answers to the research questions. Figure 1: Triangulation Design in this study in relation to the Convergence Model 4. Research result and analysis 41 copies were returned and an 85% return rate was achieved. 44% of the participants have taught LS for four years or more, 32% have taught for three years, the other 24% have just taught for one or two years. Qualitative data collection was conducted by inviting 12 randomly selected teachers to a 10-minute semi-structured interview in December 2012 when they returned the marked scripts to the club. 11 interviews could be completed in due course and the responses were transcribed and analyzed2. Information about the questionnaire respondents and interviewees is given in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1: Information about the respondents in the questionnaire survey Total no. of teachers 41 Gender Male: 56% Female: 44% Length of teaching LS 1 yr: 7% 2 yrs: 17% 3 yrs: 32% ≥ 4 yrs: 44% Teaching LS since 2011-12 Yes: 66% No: 34% Teaching LS since 2012-13 Yes: 63% No: 37% _______________ 1 In order to ensure that the LS public assessment exam marking process is fair, objective and reliable, a system of marking is established, where each of the markers only marks one exam question. Every exam question will be marked by two staff. 2 The full interviews recorded documents in Chinese can be accessed from www.cta.org.hk 188 Table 2: Information about the interviewees Interviewees T1 T2 T3 T4 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Gender M M F F F M F M M M M NSS LS teaching experience (year) 4 2 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 Investigative issue 1 - What strategies are used by Form 6 LS teachers to help students achieve better results in the HKDSE? From the statistics of the questionnaires (part 1) shown in Figure 2, except item 1b, the data showed that 92% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with using direct training of answering skills, examination-oriented practices, sample papers and current issues to help students achieve better in the HKDSE LS. Figure 2: Teachers’ views about teaching strategies Statistics from questionnaires (part 2) in Figure 3 also showed that, except for item 2c & 2d, 90% or above of the LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed that Sixth Form were more likely to use examination papers or sample questions to guide students for public assessment. Moreover, the issue-enquiry approach and current affairs discussion were preferred too. It showed that diversity teaching strategies or approaches were used for helping students obtain better results in public examinations. 189 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 3: Processes in the teaching of LS The strategies named by interviewees were well aligned with those named by the respondents in the questionnaires survey (Appendix 2). For instances, most teachers identified answering techniques as being very important for helping students perform better. Their responses focused on the training of answering techniques, use of sample questions for issue enquiry and application of constructivist concept to stimulate learning motivation and interest. For lower-ability students, one of the teachers would emphasise the memory of basic concepts and the needs for more practice. Authentic assessment is used for LS (Or, 2012). Students are asked to perform real- world tasks that demonstrate a meaningful application of knowledge and skills. Teachers adopt different strategies to help students answer questions about current issues. They are examination-oriented on the whole and have used a wide range of strategies and processes (Appendix 3a) because of the novelty of authentic assessment procedures. Investigative issue 2 - How far do the teachers think that HKDSE LS can help in developing HOT skills? Questionnaires (part 3) in Figure 4 showed that 95% of LS teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed “LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking.” 92% of them agreed “LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking.” More than 82.5% of teachers agreed, very much agreed or extremely agreed with items 3g, 3j and 3l. Nevertheless, 95% agreed that “It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning.” 190 Figure 4: Teachers’ opinions on LS (1) There were markedly different opinions on items 3b, 3e, 3f, 3h in part 3 between teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience and teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5: Teachers’ opinions on LS (2) A comparison was made between these two groups of teachers. More experienced teachers tended not to agree with statements like “Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other”, “Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results”, “Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result” and “Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation”. It reflected that more experienced teachers were more likely to accept examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy as being compatible with each other as shown in Figure 6. They were also in favour of the accumulation of factual knowledge and memorization of facts. However, almost half of the respondents held different opinions. Further research in these areas is desirable and needed. 191 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Figure 6: Opinions on examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy The interviews revealed three types of opinions on whether LS public assessment teaching strategy is compatible with the nurturing of HOT skills during interviews. Feedback from the first group of teachers reflected that public examinations would hinder the development of HOT. Students were too directed towards tools for examinations and depended on memorisation for exams. Sharing opposite views, some teachers believed that the present examination model was capable of assessing the mastery of analysis, evaluation and creative thinking. Students were required to demonstrate a mastery of thinking skills and present a sound discussion based on evidence. They could not meet the criteria by only remembering facts without conceptual linkage. If examinations focus on the application of thinking skills, students also need to start learning from thinking. Some teachers felt that examinations could help high-ability students to develop HOT abilities but not low-ability students. Others however thought some of the thinking skills questions were too instrumental and could not help to promote independent thinking and encourage students to show their care for their living environment. Backed with confidence and strong rationales, five teachers out of eleven agreed that HKDSE LS could help students develop HOT skills during the process of teaching and learning in the lesson. Four of them considered that there were two sides to a coin. Only two of them considered it was an obstacle to the development of students’ HOT (Appendix 3b). Investigative issue 3 - What kinds of teaching pedagogy are adopted to develop students’ HOT skills? HOT nurturing in LS can be interpreted as developing multiple perspectives on current issues, to become independent thinkers, and to develop a range of skills for life- long learning (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.5). In order to nurture HOT skills, 90% or more of teachers agreed, very much or extremely agreed with items 1f, 1g, 2a and 2b shown in Figure 7. The discussion of current issues, issue-enquiry and group enquiry are often used. 78% of teachers agreed with the need to help students learn through activities such as role- 192 play, debate, situational learning. 65.9% of them would use methods for the teaching of thinking skills, such as brain mapping and six thinking hats, etc. Figure 7: Teachers’ pedagogy for developing HOT skills During the process of interview, teachers were asked about strategies, approaches and effective models and methods to develop independent thinking skills, diverse perspectives and life-long learning attitudes. Most of the teachers considered concept learning very important. The processes of discussion, interaction, argumentation or role-play through issues, current affairs or sample questions to promote analytical and critical ability, multiple-dimensional perspectives and individual thinking ability were followed in the lessons. IES was considered to develop independent thinking skills. Moreover, one of the teachers implemented “LS is life”. It is a combination of school curriculum and life experiences that help students to learn. Another recognised that teacher could nurture higher levels of thinking and analytical ability as LS is an integrated subject. Another expressed that different frames of analysis could be applied in different issues for discussion. More teachers would make use of current affairs as the basis for exploring and constructing teaching and learning content. Also they would use the sample questions as the basis for discussion from different perspectives. Teachers’ responses could be roughly divided into three groups, namely the nurturing of life-long learning, development of multiple-dimensional perspectives and scaffolding for independent thinking as shown in Appendix 3c. 5. Discussion 5.1 Examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning Most of the interviewees with more experience in LS were in favour of examination- oriented mode of teaching and learning (Appendix 1: 1c-1f). Investigative issue 1 reflected that teachers still focus on the public examination requirement and assessment-spirited 193 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong strategies to guide students for learning. This trend is compatible with the findings in many studies (Berry, 2011, p.17, cited Morgan, 1996; Preece & Skinner, 1999; Shen, 2002) that summative test requirements tend to dominate the assessment practice of many teachers. It is exactly the same as Broadfoot’s worry that “the assessment tail nearly always wags the curriculum dog” (Broadfoot, 2007, p.8) as curriculum and assessment can never really be separated. The public examination is influential, high-stakes exercise because priority is often given to result (Chapman & Snyder, 2000; Fischer, Bol & Pribesh, 2011; Berry, 2011). As pinpointed in the curriculum and assessment guide, “The most important role of assessment is in promoting learning and monitoring students’ progress. However, in the senior secondary years, the functions of assessment for certification and selection come to the fore. Inevitably, these imply high-stakes uses of assessment, since the results are typically employed to make critical decisions about individuals that affect their future” (CDC & HKEAA, 2007, p.121). The research findings show that the examination-oriented modes of teaching and learning mode of LS are different from the traditional “pyramid assessment system” which Berry (2011) claimed would encourage students to learn factual content by rote and memorising the model answers. Investigation issue 2 found that experienced teachers such as T9 were more in agreement with the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategy. Similar finding of Zhao & Fok’s (2012), the PCK of experienced teachers (such as pedagogy for HOT teaching and learning) is significantly richer than that of novice teachers. Experienced teachers have firm and rational reasons to support the nurturing of HOT. Their views are more compatible with the emphasis of the curriculum reform which recognizes assessment is highlighted as the key for learning (Education Commission, 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 2002). As highlighted in the Senior Secondary Curriculum Guide, “assessment is an integral part of the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle.” (Curriculum Development Council, 2009, 4.2.1) and assessment policies have significant impact on supporting learning process. 5.2 Nature and development of HOT in LS assessment Over 82% of teachers in the questionnaire survey and 5 of the 11 in the interviews thought that the LS examination could help in developing HOT skills (Appendix 1: 3c, 3g, 3j, 3k, 3l and Appendix 3b: T4, T6, T8, T9, T10), and used a variety of strategies for this purpose (Appendix 3c). Most of them had a positive perception on the relationship between HOT nurturing and LS public assessment. They agreed that the LS public examination is greatly different from the traditional examination model in terms of mastery and understanding of concepts, investigation of issues, and perspectives of thinking strategies. Systematic steps on nurturing the learning process or whole school curriculum and the construction of similar thinking modes to stimulate learning were therefore encouraged (Appendix 3a: T7, T8, T9, T10 and Appendix 3c: T4, T6). 194 Actually, the blueprint of educational reform laid out in 2000 by Education Commission (2000) has led to the adoption of the policies of “Learning for life – learning through life” and “Learning to learn” The former emphasizes the building of life- long learning society while the latter (Curriculum Development Council, 2001) foster the development of independent learning (Kennedy, 2011). To realize these two aims, a paradigm shift and pedagogical changes by teachers are essential. However, in an examination-oriented city such as Hong Kong (Brown, et al., 2009; Marginson, 2010; Kennedy, et al., 2006), the format and nature of the high-stake public examination seem not conducive to such changes. Nevertheless, the issue-enquiry approach in LS encourages the learning of HOT skills for the 21st century (Pink, 2005). In order to improve assessment literacy, EDB, HKEAA, international and local experts should work together in changing the rules of the assessment game as shown in Figure 8. Double marking can improve the validity and reliability of assessment (Coniam, 2011). However, only by successfully infusing HOT into the learning and teaching process, can the aims of the LS curriculum be achieved in practice. Figure 8: The LS curriculum, pedagogy and assessment cycle 195 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong The issue-enquiry approach and emphasis on authentic assessment that encourage students to express themselves logically, to assess, discuss and judge various issues (Or, 2012) are the characteristics of the examination design for LS. Students have to master the new features of the assessment framework including IES for school-based assessment, the use of standards-referenced grading (for three data-response questions and one extended- response question) in the written examination. Instilling HOT during the teaching and learning process is essential because it can help them analyse sensitive issues (such as the June 4, 1989 crackdown and the filibuster campaign in the legislature) (South China Morning Post, 2013, April 17) that may appear in the examination. 5.3 Challenge for the implementation of HOT in LS Although changes to the examination can be valuable vehicles for shaping instructional practices, success is not assured (Chapman & Snyder, 2000) and its influence can be largely a perception phenomenon (p.462, cited Madaus & Kellaghan, 1993). Teachers are often unable to make the necessary changes in the classroom to improve students’ performance. Most of them accept drilling with reference to past examination papers and simulated exercises in spite of believing that memorisation of facts is ineffective and realising that teacher can cause a negative impact on candidates. Others have used diverse strategies, skills and processes (Appendix 3a) to nurture HOT abilities. although they were still holding the traditional concept of viewing learning as hierarchical from lower order cognitive skills to more complex ones. Resnick (1987) challenged the concept that “all individuals, not just elite, can become competent thinkers” (Zohar, Degani & Vaaknin, 2001; cited Resnick, 1987). Zohar’s research finds that teachers’ beliefs about low-ability (LA) students and thinking are related to their general theory of instruction. If teachers see their role as transmitting knowledge and covering the curriculum rather than guiding students in thinking and constructing knowledge, or seeing learning as hierarchical in terms of cognitive levels, they may think that HOT is not equally appropriate for LA and high-ability (HA) students. However, any students who can provide an explanation of an authentic issue or describe the key features of new data can be regarded as using HOT skills. Although the curriculum guide has accorded priority to authentic assessment and the issue-enquiry approach to learning aligns with these aims, discrepancies among the intended, the implemented and the assessed curriculum are obvious (Cheng, 2011, p.69). As a new subject, LS has to develop and search for its disciplined knowledge and PCK. There are still lots of unknown and gaps for discovery. Research about teachers’ perceptions on HOT in LS and their opinions on constraints and challenges is helpful for evaluating the implementation of the curriculum in future. 196 6. The limitations of the research Studies on the relationship between public assessment and HOT are rare, especially in regard to LS. This study is a pioneer attempt for learning teachers’ perceptions in these areas. In view of the limited source and number of participants (who might be supportive of the examinations), the reliability of the findings is limited. Broader and more in-depth evidence should have been collected with data about the impact of the examinations on students. The relatively short interviews lasting for 10 minutes each is also a limitation to understanding. All these concerns should be addressed in future studies in this area. 7. Conclusion This study has adopted a triangulation design based on the Convergence Model to identify teachers’ perceptions on public assessment and the use of HOT pedagogy in LS. Most of the teachers are examination-oriented although a wide range of strategies has been used to help students face the high-stake authentic assessment. The more experienced teachers thought that the examination-oriented and learning-oriented strategies were compatible with each other. And most of them had positive perception about the relationship between HOT nurturing and authentic assessment in LS. The LS examination is different from traditional examinations. Not knowing much about its requirements, it is natural for teachers to be more examination-oriented and accord high priority to the development of knowledge and the thinking skills. They have adopted different teaching strategies or HOT skills for helping students answer issue- based questions. However, this study has found that there are different interpretations of the meaning of HOT and there may be alternative or misconceptions about it especially in terms of pedagogy. Inquiry is necessary in this regard and the limitations in research design should be addressed in follow-up studies given the fact that LS is a core subject with the aims of enhancing life-long learning, multiple-dimensional perspectives, the scaffolding of knowledge and independent thinking. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to Hok Yau Club for providing a venue for conducting this research study, 41 LS teachers who participated in the questionnaire survey and 12 LS teachers who attended the interviews. 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Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 469-485. 200 LS Questionnaires for teachers 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,本學年,我運用以下教學策略: In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 34% 46% 20% 0% 0% 0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 7% 22% 49% 20% 0% 2% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計教學形式 與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 12.2% 56.1% 24.4% 7.3% 0% 0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計形成性評 估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 17.1% 56.1% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題 技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 37% 41% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 以時事議題作教學,增強學生高階思維 能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 17% 49% 34% 0% 0% 0% g. 參考坊間議題,讓學生分組探究討論, 以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 10% 46% 39% 5% 0% 0% Appendix 1 201 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,我認同中六學年透過以下教學過 程,以提升學生學業水平 : In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 12.2% 48.8% 29.3% 7.3% 2.4% 0% b. 課堂議題探究 Issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 12.2% 68.3% 17.1% 2.4% 0% 0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創 意解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 4.9% 31.7% 29.3% 24.4% 7.3% 2.4% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、 辯論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 2.4% 34.1% 41.5% 9.8% 9.8% 2.4% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 24% 54% 22% 0% 0% 0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 32% 51% 17% 0% 0% 0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 34.1% 39.0% 24.4% 2.4% 0% 0% 202 3. 就通識教育科,我有以下意見: My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時,協助學生應試策略較導引學生 探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 30% 35% 30% 5% 0% 0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別,不能 相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0% 32.5% 27.5% 27.5% 10.0% 2.5% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨 立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5% 33% 54% 5% 3% 0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學 生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 2.5% 27.5% 50.0% 20.0% 0% 0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示 思考方法的能力,記憶與背誦無助提 升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 2.5% 22.5% 47.5% 20.0% 7.5% 0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試 成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 5.0% 22.5% 32.5% 27.5% 12.5% 0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重 視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 5.0% 30.0% 52.5% 10.0% 2.5% 0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生 學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.0% 27.5% 45.0% 20.0% 2.5% 0% 203 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌 握,將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 10% 28% 38% 18% 3% 3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求 廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 7.5% 37.5% 37.5% 17.5% 0% 0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度 思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 10.0% 42.5% 42.5% 5.0% 0% 0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終 身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.0% 30.0% 47.5% 12.5% 2.5% 2.5% 204 Experienced and less experienced teachers’ responses comparisons 1. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,本學年,我運用以下教學策略: In order to allow students to obtain the Liberal Studies diploma test and get better results this year, I use the following teaching strategies: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 直接培訓學生答題技巧 Direct training of students’ answering skills 38.9%* 30.4%# 50.0% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 以直接教授形式替代學生建構學習過程 Alternative form of direct teaching for students to construct the learning process 11.1% 4.3% 22.2% 21.7% 55.6% 43.5% 11.1% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計教學形式 與學習內容 Modeled on the form of design teaching and learning content to the requirements of public examinations 16.7% 8.7% 61.1% 52.2% 22.2% 26.1% 0.0% 13.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% d. 以公開考試要求為藍本,設計形成性評 估策略 To the requirements of public examinations, designing formative assessment strategies 22.2% 13.0% 55.6% 56.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 採用模擬考卷及去年度考卷作應試答題 技巧的訓練 Adopting sample questions for examination as training for answering technique 50.0% 26.1% 33.3% 47.8% 16.7% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 以時事議題作教學,增強學生高階思維 能力的學習 Current issues for teaching and learning to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 16.7% 17.4% 33.3% 60.9% 50.0% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 參考坊間議題,讓學生分組探究討論, 以增強學生高階思維能力 Reference printing issues, so that students are grouped to explore and discuss, in order to enhance students’ higher order thinking skills 11.1% 8.7% 44.4% 47.8% 38.9% 39.1% 5.6% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience Appendix 2 205 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 2. 為了讓學生獲得通識教育科文憑試較佳成績,我認同中六學年透過以下教學過 程,以提升學生學業水平: In order for students to get better grades in the LS Diploma assessment test, I agree with the teaching process below, in order to enhance the academic level of students: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 課堂時事討論 The classroom current affairs discussion 16.7%* 8.7%# 44.4% 52.2% 27.8% 30.4% 11.1% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% b. 課堂議題探究 issue-enquiry approach during the lessons 22.2% 4.3% 55.6% 78.3% 22.2% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% c. 教授思維技巧。例如腦圖、六何法、創意 解難、六頂思考帽等 The teaching of thinking skills. Such as brain mapping, six Wherewith, creative problem solving, six thinking hats, etc. 5.6% 4.3% 38.9% 26.1% 16.7% 39.1% 33.3% 17.4% 5.6% 8.7% 0.0% 4.3% d. 讓學生從活動中學習。例如角色扮演、辯 論比賽、情景中學習等 Learning through activities such as role play, debate, situational learning 5.6% 0.0% 38.9% 30.4% 27.8% 52.2% 11.1% 8.7% 11.1% 8.7% 5.6% 0.0% e. 講解通識模擬試題範本 Explain how to answer the LS sample questions 33.3% 17.4% 44.4% 60.9% 22.2% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 協助運用通識試題示例答題策略 Assist in the use of the strategy of the LS sample questions 33.3% 30.4% 55.6% 47.8% 11.1% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% g. 增加練習模擬試題的次數 Increase the number of practice simulation sample questions 44.4% 26.1% 33.3% 43.5% 16.7% 30.4% 5.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 206 3. 就通識教育科,我有以下意見: My opinion to LS: Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree a. 中六時,協助學生應試策略較導引學生 探究學習更重要 It is more important to help Sixth Form students with test-taking strategies than guiding students to explore learning 41.2%* 21.7%# 35.3% 34.8% 23.5% 34.8% 0.0% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% b. 應試策略與學習策略有很大分別,不能 相容 Examination-oriented and learning- oriented strategy is not compatible with each other 0.0% 0.0% 29.4% 34.8% 17.6% 34.8% 47.1% 13.0% 5.9% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% c. 通識教育科文憑試能夠促進學生掌握獨 立思考能力 LS examination can help to develop students’ independent thinking 5.9% 4.5% 35.3% 31.8% 47.1% 59.1% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 4.5% 0.0% 0.0% d. 本科在學與教中採用的探究模式有助學 生在筆試考卷中獲得較佳的成績 The issue-enquiry approach of this subject in F.6 can help students in written examinations 0.0% 4.3% 11.8% 39.1% 70.6% 34.8% 17.6% 21.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% e. 筆試的重點在評估學生的理解和展示 思考方法的能力,記憶與背誦無助提 升成績Written examination can assess students’ comprehensive and thinking ability, memorization cannot help the examination result 0.0% 4.3% 5.9% 34.8% 47.1% 47.8% 29.4% 13.0% 17.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% f. 事實性資料的累積不一定有助學生筆試 成績的提升 Accumulation of factual knowledge cannot help students’ LS written examination results 11.8% 0.0% 11.8% 30.4% 23.5% 39.1% 35.3% 21.7% 17.6% 8.7% 0.0% 0.0% g. 通識科文憑試考卷設計有助促進師生重 視學習過程、包括生活反思與體驗 The design of LS examination can help teachers and students to put emphasis on the learning process including life reflection and experience sharing 11.8% 0.0% 23.5% 34.8% 47.1% 56.5% 11.8% 8.7% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% h. 認同通識教育科文憑考試有助促進學生 學習的動機 Recognizing LS examination can help raise students’ learning motivation 5.9% 4.3% 23.5% 30.4% 35.3% 52.2% 29.4% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 207 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Extre- mely agree Very much agree with Agree Slightly do not agree Disagree Strongly disagree i. 培訓學生答題技巧而非只著重知識的掌 握,將有助提升筆試的成績 Not only emphasis on knowledge acquirement but training answering technique which can help with the examination result 18.8% 4.3% 25.0% 30.4% 31.3% 43.5% 25.0% 13.0% 0.0% 4.3% 0.0% 4.3% j. 通識科文憑試筆試的要求有助學生追求 廣闊的知識基礎 LS examination can help students pursue broader basic knowledge 5.9% 8.7% 47.1% 30.4% 29.4% 43.5% 17.6% 17.4% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% k. 通識教育科文憑試能夠導引學生多角度 思考及批判思考能力 LS examination can direct students to think from more perspectives and to acquire critical thinking 11.8% 8.7% 41.2% 43.5% 35.3% 47.8% 11.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% l. 通識教育科文憑試有效促進學生掌握終 身學習的能力 LS examination can promote students’ ability in life-long learning 5.9% 4.3% 35.3% 26.1% 41.2% 52.2% 11.8% 13.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 4.3% Remarks: * Responses from teachers with 4 years or more of LS experience # Responses from teachers with 3 years or less of LS experience 208 (a) The responders’ teaching strategies and teaching process Teaching strategies of the LS teachers: to guide students to know how to master the skills of answering issue-based questions, more sample paper questions practices, recitation of basic and crucial concepts, demonstration and reconstruction issue-enquiry approach of hot issues and so on. The following are some of the teachers’ responses. T1. “It is the focus of answering techniques because it is very important in LS.” T4. “It is true to write one time in the white block, to teach them how to write ideas or opinion. To try one time, two times, three times, to teach them how to write arguments. This is two kinds of training. To enhance their knowledge and answering technique need to be done at the same time.” T6. “In teaching, teachers should make use of current affairs to stimulate students’ interest not just teaching knowledge from textbook. To a certain extent, teachers should teach students’ test-taking skills, e.g. compared this year’s questions to previous year’s to find out the difference. Therefore, teaching knowledge is important, teaching answering technique is also important. After the completion of the sixth form’s curriculum, to enable students to do a variety of different kinds of questions to practice is necessary.” T8. “Students need to revise this subject, but students may not apply what they have learnt… In fact, the volume of opportunities students do is not too much. That kind of practice for an exam was not enough. Students should take further steps to quote some materials and to explain based on their understanding ... If you want to be effective in a short period of time, it is necessary for exam-based repetitive exercises and to know more of the criteria of the marking system, to know how to score and how to get higher marks. Or even to memorise some key words which will help in getting higher marks.” T9. “Students expect teachers to give information a little faster, or have digested a good idea to give them. The questions will be more drills in class, even if not practicing the test questions, but also will give students test mode on certain issues due to some of the framework opinions. ... Students’ learning culture is to look up to authority, or look up a credible answer they think. If they believe, they will go back, will repeatedly learn. ... A lot when the concept is difficult to construct, for example, you want the students to grasp M-type society, or inter-generational poverty, such as the concept of the discipline, and I think the teachers explaining to students would be more effective.” Appendix 3 209 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Teachers often use the teaching process: T7. “To establish the foundation of skills will start from Form Four such as what perspective thinking skills are. What the concept of ‘to what extent’ is. More in depth issues, and focus on how to analyze, more discussion of the questions will be on Fifth Form. More examination-oriented training of exercises and practice across different units are in the sixth.” T8. “When I teach in Form Four and Form Five, I will focus on course content and subject matter first. Then I will associate different units together. I have not started to catch all the key words of the exam questions at the beginning. However, I will start to drill students on how to answer the exam questions at the end of Form Five. Both training exam techniques and to grasp the concept advocated by the LS are necessary. T9. “More time can be spent on the process of constructing knowledge in Form Four and Five. There may be a variety of activities to help them to master the issues. Significantly in Form six, more drilling in answering techniques is in class…” On certain issues due to test mode, teachers will give students some framework views for examination.” T10. “In fact, we have slowly infiltrated some skills from Form Four. And then constantly increase and strengthen. We do not deliberately teach skills to test when the exam is coming. Usually we have to teach skills.” T11. “Class seems to do an examination question together with students, but the class content or material is a very informative process. The case constructs the entire scene as in the examination. Students face and deal with all the materials or subject matter in the classroom. They need to think and make decisions during the thinking process. The whole lesson is to repeat or duplicate the exam process, but a higher degree of complexity.” T12. “Using one LS question to associate key concepts is the strategy. Start from the beginning to say the question, (teacher) writes the topic on the blackboard. Throughout the entire class it is around this topic. Even with the introduction of some information, tell the students to talk about some concept, or explain some of the examples it is all around this topic. Usually students can learn LS exam contents and strategies in lessons. Different topics with the most appropriate analytical framework to teach …” 210 (b) The responders’ opinions on whether LS subject’s examination-oriented teaching strategy and nurturing a higher level of thinking skills are both compatible Some teachers believe that the exam will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills, because: T1. “If the teacher puts too much emphasis on test taking skills, it will indeed be a bad influence. Will at least reduce the students’ interest in learning.” T2. “They do not ask how to think, just ask how the high scores will be achieved ... (teachers) made it clear that this test, students will read. ” T3. “There are candidates who recite and memorise exercises of the HKEAA practice volume and sample papers during the simulation exam.” Three teachers to a certain extent believe that the exams will be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T3. “I figured Liberal Studies for moderate or more students can improve their independent thinking, but moderate or less students’ learning is more narrowed.” T7. “There is a little paradox. Because I teach Band One students, they are more realistic. Without examination specifications to study and without proper fractions to promote them, their motivation will not be much. The exam really can compel the Band One students to pay attention to current events and to understand the social aspect. The exam can train students in multiple perspectives, but to truly be critical, there remain...” T11. “The exam needs ways of thinking…but it is a little tool in nature. If LS wants to cultivate the kind of independent thinking and hold onto the surrounding environment caring attitude, it is not necessarily encouraging. ... Conversely, exams do not help, if there is discussion of issues in depth during the lesson, it may help students to look at issues from different perspectives and in depth.” T12. “I think it is indeed stressed on exam skills ... they rely heavily on student expression. Indeed, it is not entirely linked to nurturing multiple perspectives and life-long learning ability, but I think it is helpful ...” 211 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Five teachers believe exams will not be obstacles to the development of students’ higher order thinking skills because: T4. “Students more now than before may be very utilitarian, but the test will still be able to give them a motive. Examination of the LS questions can help them to think about... For example one question with both for and against, they will ask if I only write the FOR side, how many marks can I get? If there is no exam to ask them to look at both sides, they may only answer the FOR side and they will not answer the AGAINST side. In order to fight for higher marks, they will think thoroughly. Therefore, exams can motivate them to learn more and learn in depth.” T6. “Thinking ladder of the Liberal Studies about the analysis, evaluation and creative thinking is higher-order thinking. Unlike the lower level which depends on copying or reciting to get answers. I think the standard of LS criteria is very high, but I think the students after a few years training, should do this.” T8. “Can really train students to think. However, most of the students’ language ability is weak, it needs a lot of time in this regard to improve. Sometimes students’ thinking is correct, but they do not know how to express it.” T9. “Part of the higher thinking skills is answering technique. If students can handle this well, they understand the questions and give answers clearly. Examination can test students’ level of higher thinking skills. They can fully understand thoroughly and give answers carefully. Nowadays, examination is more complicated to demand students’ higher level of thinking skills. It is not easy for them to take the easy route by ‘Catch the Road’ or recite answers. Fortunately, the exam mode is kind of complex, requiring candidates to have the skills of thinking, it is within the capacity, not in a short time you can develop. We do, the exam can reach the target of Liberal Studies.” T10. “When higher order thinking promotes multi-diversity with several angles, exams in LS in fact can obtain this. Because I’ve seen most of the candidates have in many ways analysed, even to the point of different stakeholders to answer. ... Because usually we apply discussion to explore, the public exam is to let you discuss and explore results written out. Taught through a consensus process in class, or with the examination as the strategy, there is not much gap.” 212 (c) Teachers’ experiences to develop students’ HOT skills Nurturing of life- long learning T3. “First, motivate students to read newspapers. There are some lively examples of real life from newspapers. Second, LS can also reflect the attitude of life, for example, a policy is feasible for young people. What impact? If there are such questions during examination, it is to help students to reflect on their own attitude to life, think about, and writing. It is the only way to improve.” T8. “We need to teach the basic concepts of LS. Of course, we need to direct students to discuss current affairs during the lesson to see how they give comments to the issues and associate the issues to the exam.” T2. “It is important to master the concepts. Use concepts to associate all the discussion. Explore different concepts via issue inquiry. Teach higher level of thinking skills from lower secondary form. “The most important is to be flexible. Do not be dragged by the discussion of current affairs, but direct by the conceptual discussion.” T4. “I feel higher level of thinking skills can be trained via discussion in depth during the lesson. We should let the students understand that issue. But how do they discuss? For example, if we know the causes of that issue, what is the impact of that issue? Detailed discussion should be the learning process during the lesson. There is a slogan at my school: LS is life. What they experience is LS. This subject matter may come from our living environment at any minute or even the current affairs from TV. We can get from anywhere and then fit into any single unit. If you can use Mind map, you can write anything which associates to the issue. This may be interesting.” T1. “LS cannot include all the training of how to think at school. It is mainly synthesis of all the subjects’ thinking methods.” 213 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong Development of multiple- dimensional perspectives T9. “Basically, I believe the small group discussion, cooperative learning. Good organised cooperative group work will help a lot, but it depends on the effort done by the teacher. If teachers only throw to the students to think about a topic, students may not grasp this. This may be worse than directly taught. I think if the teacher organizes well cooperative learning or group discussions, teachers design the various steps, guide, appropriate materials, I believe it can lead to the construction of knowledge. Students will enjoy the learning.” T7. “There must be debate and discussion during the lesson, but the interactive activities are more important among students. If we want to train thinking in different perspectives, different people should explore the same subject in different perspectives. Guidelines will be given to them to discuss, to question, to criticise different viewpoints in groups. Questioning whether their suggestions or opinions are reasonable. LS curriculum is broad and time is limited in each lesson. There is no need for every subject to issue inquiry. It may depend on the importance of hot issues and time to look for or collect more materials before or after lessons.” T12. “We always stressed to students at different angles to see one thing. The easiest is the same anti-possible angle, and then some other aspects, such as a macro: an economic point of view, the political point of view, the social point of view, the cultural perspective; microscopic: personal basic necessities the angle, the angle of the point of view of different stakeholders, government, individuals, society, or some groups. So if he mastered these analytical frameworks or is thinking on the answer, he would have compared easily rendered to his higher-order thinking ... so that students know the different analytical framework can be used in different issues, or the contrary, the same issues to do with a different analytical framework. If he mastered these analytical frameworks or method of thinking, his ability to think critically, he sees anything that goes with these analytical frameworks.” 214 Scaffolding for independent thinking T11. “Through habits of scaffolding method used to help students or colleagues familiarize the subject, first observed facts, gradually penetrated into the push to higher-order observation. .... If the lesson has started from issue-based discussion of different cases, students may have interest and learn actively. In some cases students may not be interested in hearing, or on their own initiative. If it is introduced by teachers, students may have wider views and think in depth.” T6. “Higher-order thinking skills need to be divided into different stages to achieve. To motivate students’ interest it should start in Form Four and try to stimulate their interest of this LS subject. And then they will be interested in watching news. Independent thinking skills should be learnt and taught through Independent enquiry study in Form Five. To promote students’ analytical and critical ability should happen in Sixth Form.” *All interview transcripts can be seen in Creative Teachers Association (CTA) Limited website: www.cta.org.hk 215 An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and Liberal Studies public assessment in Hong Kong 香港教師對通識教育科文憑試與高階思維能力培育 關係認知的探求 梁麗嬋 創意教師協會、布里斯托大學教育博士研究生 摘要 筆者以一組來自約 40所學校的通識教育科教師為研究對象,收回 41位教師的意見 調查問卷,以及透過訪問其中 12位教師,相互引證,從而探究現職通識教育科教 師在面對本科文憑試情景下,較多採用什麼教學過程與策略,以培育學生高階思維 能力,而課程的實施又是否與其課程目標一致。研究結果發現受訪教師有強烈的考 試導引傾向,然而,他們對通識教育科及其公開評核試本質的理解,卻有別於傳統 以學科知識為本,相反,教師較多認識到新推行的通識教育科課程評估較重視學生 基礎概念的掌握與及思維能力的運用。研究反映受訪教師大體認同通識教育科公開 評核試運作與及高階思維能力的培育,愈資深的教師愈認同通識科應試教學策略能 與高階思維能力相容。 關鍵詞 高階思維能力,通識教育科公開評核,混合方法設計 217 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 也要還國民教育一個公道 倪紹強 香港教育學院 摘要 香港因推行國民教育科而引起爭議。有反對者結合着中國大陸與香港之間的矛盾, 認為這是洗腦科目。儘管在推行國民教育科上有些保留和限制,支持者相信課程既 有助學生認識中國國情,也可免於洗腦之嫌。中國幅員廣大,歷史文化深厚,更與 香港緊密相連。不再政治冷感的香港人不能因追求民主而「去中國化」,也要還國 民教育一個公道。 關鍵詞 國民教育,洗腦教育,香港的政治生態,去中國化 導言 香港因推行國民教育科而掀起的風暴,計有於 2012年 7月中旬數萬人聚集,在街 頭示威,以及 9月佔領特區政府的總部等。期間特區政府一再作出讓步,最後擱置課程 指引。這場風暴可說是暫告一段落,但這並不意味問題已經解決。本文期望對一些現象 稍作分析和討論,並且對一些根本的概念予以較深入的考量。遺憾的是,國民教育彷彿 被妖魔化了,與洗腦教育差不多劃成等號,也是時候需要還國民教育一個公道了。 論爭與民意爆發的背景 在應否推行國民教育科的問題上,部分人反對設立國民教育科,認為這是洗腦科 218 目,會毒害香港青少年的思想;也有部分是支持者,因為課程有助學生認識中國國情, 還有是沉默的大多數。圍繞着國民教育科大抵有兩項核心的爭議:(1)香港應否設立 國民教育科?(2)國民教育是不是洗腦課程?當一些主流報章都以洗腦來形容國民教 育科後,這個說法便流行起來,令到不少香港人一聽見這科便與洗腦聯繫起來,以致爭 議的理據在輿論的平台上,從未得到清晰的疏理,這是十分可惜的。取而代之的是情緒 化的反應,又刺激着不少香港人對共產政權恐懼的潛意識(陳立諾,2012)。 香港回歸至今,在一國兩制政策之下,中國大陸與香港漸次融合,香港人的焦慮感 卻不斷累積。在陸港融合的大策略中,似乎不能夠有效改善香港人生活質素之餘,更加 間接地推高了生活成本。再加上不少人相信普遍存在的所謂地產霸權、貧富懸殊等等因 素,進一步開放自由行只令到香港人更加擔憂。就在這背景之下開展國民教育科,使到 不少香港人憂慮自身的價值觀和自由會隨之而消失。這些深層次矛盾一直未得以恰當處 理,就是這段日子以來民意爆發的背景(馬家豪,2012)。 對推行國民教育的保留和限制 有學者和前線教育工作者早已指出,要國民教育科獨立成科委實有一定的困難。因 為學校的上課日程早已排得滿滿,要騰出空間迎接國民教育科,殊不容易。況且,國民 教育科大抵與常識科、通識科、中史科和中文科等的一些內容互相重疊,這是不爭的事 實。有學者認為,德育及國民教育科在學理上根本就不行,推行國民教育也只應該在公 民教育的框架內進行。特區政府仍然堅持以國民教育命名,不單與國際教育主流的趨勢 脫軌,也令人擔心此科目只會聚焦在國家的層面,收窄了學生的視野(梁恩榮、盧恩臨, 2012.7.18)。課程指引其中一個缺失就是假設香港是一個同質的華人社會,對於非華裔 人士來說,國民教育根本不能培養他們對中國人身份的認同和歸屬感,似乎他們更需要 的是世界公民的視野(梁恩榮、鄧秀貞,2012.7.18)。這些都是成立的。 贊同國民教育的聲音 有學者認為香港人的公民身份是一個客觀事實,應該予以肯定。如果否定這一身份 則是逃避現實。反對國民教育科的人大抵是一種情緒化的反應。香港人有責任了解中國, 這樣才能推動中國的進步。根據《亞洲週刊》的報道,曾公開表示支持國民教育科的學 者,包括香港大學專業進修學院院長李焯芬、香港大學歷史學者陸人龍、嶺南大學教授 219 也要還國民教育一個公道 何𠘙生、中文大學教授郭少棠等(陳立諾,2012)。其他公開贊成國民教育的學者不多, 就筆者在報章上所見,計有香港大學的程介明教授和李輝博士兩位、香港教育學院的甘 國臻教授等。大抵有不少學者和其他社會人士是表支持的,但礙於敏感的政治形勢,也 不願高調的表態。 有人指出政府不能讓步,如果讓步,就只會變得寸步難行了,以後簡單如要建造一 座橋或修築一條路,也可能會遭遇到絕食抗議,政府只能每次讓步,結果就什麼都做不 了(陳立諾,2012)。這也解釋到政府遲遲才作出讓步的原因。 有學者指出,不少政治領袖都以提升公民對國家效忠的意識為己任(Dawson, Prewitt & Dawson, 1977; Ngai, 2005)。學者又相信,不少國家每當觸及自身歷史的時候, 都會加以美化、光榮化、甚或神話化。學者李輝(2012.9.16)指出,嚴格來說任何國家 的國民教育都是某程度的「洗腦」。然而,在傳媒發達和言論自由的香港,若要進行沉 悶而死板的學校教育,大抵難以達到洗腦的效果。學者甘國臻(2012.10.30)認為,當 局提出的課程指引,已凸顯出討論爭議性課題的重要性,並且告誡老師,不應在課堂上 迴避討論這些具爭議的問題。因為這才可於課堂上引發出一個生動及熱烈的討論,這樣 又怎算得是「洗腦」呢? 若仔細和持平地分析新科目提出的具體課程,新學科着重個人發展,以及建立心繫 國家、關懷中國歷史和成就的文化身份,內容亦可結合與《基本法》、民主、人權、法治、 國家象徵等有關內容的政治議題。這都與國際一貫做法相符,也不具爭議性。時至今日, 很難想像會有一個社會還可以不以積極裝備年輕人為己任,以配合未來社會的發展。學 校本身就是培育學生成為良好公民最適合的地方,社會也需要為他們提供這個學習機會 (甘國臻,2012.10.30)。 對於「會否身為一位中國人而自豪?」這個問題,是主觀和個人化的。然而,中國 有五千多年的歷史文化,乃四大文明古國之一。在九百六十多萬平方公里的土地上,共 有五十六個民族,豐富多姿。這個國家曾經有過光輝燦爛的文明、輝煌的歷史,乃是很 難在地球上其他的角落找到的。當然也有被列強欺凌、軍閥割據、抗戰和內戰等等的苦 難歲月。在中國歷史科早已不再是中學階段的必修科之後,我們很難期望年青人對中國 悠久的歷史有深入的了解。另一方面,一般香港人對中國的地理實在是一無所知的。在 220 1997年之前,香港作為英國人管治的殖民地,政治上固然與深圳河以北的政權割裂;在 教育課程上,殖民地政府刻意將中國的元素減到最少,比如中國歷史科會避開敏感的現 代史階段;地理科方面,中學生可能會研讀澳洲、美洲及歐洲的地理,但卻不會研習中 國的省份和相關的地理知識。 老一輩的香港人每當講述國家民族苦難之時,仍會眼泛淚光。新儒家的幾位大師如 錢穆、唐君毅、徐復觀等都曾在香港生活及講學,他們對近代中國的苦難有深刻的認識 與感受,對中華民族命運有一種強大的使命感,要肩負中華民族復興的重任,使中華文 化不至於花果飄零。香港從來都是中國人認識自己國家民族最有利的地方,因為有言論 自由,也不受制於國共兩黨鬥爭導致的扭曲(《亞洲週刊》,2012)。 具體來說,香港與中國大陸的關係越來越密切。而正在崛起的中國,其一舉一動時 刻影響着全世界,也影響着香港。而香港卻是中國的一部分,既是屬於「兩制」,也屬 於「一國」(程介明,2012.9.28)。 香港現在的政治生態 在九七回歸之前,香港人從來都是政治冷感的。又有人形容香港人是經濟動物 (Ngai, 2005;梁恩榮、倪紹強,2011)。由於是殖民地,國民身份模糊,有人形容香 港為「借來的地方、借來的時間」。然而,時移世易,香港的政治生態出現了結構性的 轉變,香港人很着意尋找和塑造自己的身份,果敢地為着不同的訴求和議題發聲,香港 人不再政治冷感了。某程度而言,這是一種進步。然而,不少香港人在尋找自己身份的 同時,漸漸對發生於中國的種種現象不滿或質疑起來。兩地的情況不同,價值觀是很有 差距的。其實,香港人在回歸前後,在文化上一直是認同中國的;但對不少人而言,回 歸後要與由共產黨主領的政權認同,確是有困難的。這當然與已習慣了中共管治的內地 人和新來港的同胞,有頗大的落差有關。筆者也對國內不少現象感到失望和憂心。近年 來,香港興起一些諸如「來生不做中國人」的論調,更有人認同殖民主義的崇拜,或者 在群眾集會時高舉英國的米字旗、殖民地的龍獅旗等。近年似乎有一種奇異的潛臺詞: 香港要民主,就要與中國大陸切割開來。將香港和中國大陸對立起來,認為香港的一切 都比中國大陸優越(《亞洲週刊》,2012)。這並不是理想的趨勢。 221 也要還國民教育一個公道 總結 有論者堅持只可以在公民教育的架構下推行國民教育,其實兩者也有相互重叠之 處,而兩者也不可偏廢。再者,切實推介國民教育的力度不足,語焉不詳,而整個討論 又受到過度政治化的氛圍所騎劫、傾向民粹的傳媒所誘導,實屬不幸。而整個論爭卻凸 顯了一系列的問題:香港人對自己身份的矛盾──既有濃厚的本土身份意識,卻要漸次 更牢固的體現國民身份的認同。而反對國民教育者要知道,許多沉默而不表態者,大抵 與他們對此課題是有不同見解的,更遑論身在國內的人士了。 不少人對反對國民教育的抗爭是表示支持的,也相信他們是出於良好意願(李展 華,2012.9.28)。但有學者卻認為,為了一本粗劣的國教手冊便抗拒國民教育科,進而 踏上疏離國家民族的道路,乃是純真的失誤(楊志剛,2012)。筆者很同意這個觀點: 香港要推動民主,但不能夠陷入「去中國化」的窠臼之中,香港不能贏得了民主,卻失 去了中國(邱立本,2012)。筆者不會執着定要設立獨立的國民教育科,也認同重振中 國歷史教育也可以是可行之法。然而,對中國國情如此陌生的莘莘學子,也實在需要更 多和更好的國民教育。其實政黨不等於政府,政府不等於國家。政黨和政府都可以更換, 國家卻是永存的。然而,不知怎的,反共輾轉變成了反華,複雜的議題却被簡單化;國 民教育就是不好;中國就是落後而腐敗的化身(《亞洲週刊》,2012)。但是,香港不 能像倒洗澡水的,把珍貴的祖國丟棄。也需要還國民教育一個公道。 參考文獻 《亞洲週刊》(2012)。〈香港人要尋回民間中國論述〉。第 26卷 37期,5。 甘國臻(2012.10.30)。〈我們應否摒棄國民教育?〉。《明報》,A32版。 李展華(2012.9.28)。〈放下敵我以港為家〉。《信報》,A24版。 李輝(2012.9.16)。〈不要把孩子和髒水一起潑掉!─ 德育及國民教育科的三方困局 及出路〉。《明報》,A29版。 邱立本(2012)。〈香港民主拒絕「綠營化」〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 42期,4。 馬家豪(2012)。〈香港國民教育風暴背後〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 37期,20-21。 222 梁恩榮、倪紹強(2011)。〈在全球化下的身分競逐〉,載梁恩榮、阮衛華,《公民教育, 香港再造!迎向新世代公民社會》(頁 180-191)。香港:印象文字及香港基督徒 學會。 梁恩榮、鄧秀貞(2012.7.18)。〈國民教育與少數族裔〉。《明報》,A36版。 梁恩榮、盧恩臨(2012.7.18)。〈在「公民教育」框架內的「國民教育」〉。《明報》, A30版。 陳立諾(2012)。〈反對廢除國民教育的學界聲音〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 37期, 22-23。 程介明(2012.9.28)。〈國民教育:宣傳與教育〉。《信報》,A17版。 楊志剛(2012)。〈香港人純真的失誤〉。《亞洲週刊》,第 26卷 37期,18。 Dawson, R. E., Prewitt, K., & Dawson, K. S. (1977). Political socialization (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Ngai, S. K. G. (2005). What kind of political socialization in secondary schools is needed in Hong Kong in the 21st century? (Doctoral Thesis). Hull: The University of Hull. Be fair to national education NGAI Siu Keung George The Hong Kong Institute of Education Abstract There has been a great debate concerning the implementation of the national education. Given there are gaps between the mainland and Hong Kong, the opponents claim that it is a kind of brainwashing education. Albeit that there are constraints and reservations for implementing national education, the supporters think that it is good to know more about China, and without being indoctrinated. China is such a great country, with rich historic cultures and being so closely related to Hong Kong. Hong Kong people, who are no longer apolitical now, should never abandon China, when striving for democracy. We should be fair to national education. Keywords national education, brainwashing education, political atmosphere of Hong Kong, desinicization 223 《香港教師中心學報》,第十二卷 © 香港教師中心,2013 在教學法與社會實踐之間:教師如何在 校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 朱耀光 基督教香港信義會心誠中學 摘要 近年,口述歷史開始受到香港中學教師的重視,口述歷史的社會意義亦使歷史教育 突破學科邊界,成為跨科目的專題研習方法。然而,教師要將口述歷史教學引入既 有的校本課程,面對多重的限制。本文將會以兩位嘗試推行口述歷史教學的教師角 度,分析學校的課程取向、教師的教育理念、實際的處境如何影響口述歷史教學的 實踐。 關鍵詞 歷史教育,口述歷史,課程取向 甲丶 研究背景 過去十年的課程改革壓縮了歷史科的生存空間,但校本課程發展的空間和彈性亦為 歷史教育帶來生氣和活力。就以筆者的經驗為例,從 2005年開始,筆者以「同心圓」 模式將學校的初中中國歷史科及歷史科統整為歷史與文化科。2009年開始引入口述歷史 研習,與初中學生一起進行粉嶺戲院及粉嶺農村的專題研習(朱耀光,2012)。筆者於 2012年 9月借調到教育局中學校本課程發展組,嘗試推動口述歷史教學,幫助教師將口 述歷史加入到校本課程。雖然香港教師開始重視以口述歷史為教學方法,但口述歷史教 學和校本課程發展的關係仍在摸索階段。究竟,口述歷史研習只是教學法的創新,還是 課程取向的轉變?口述歷史應該以專題研習的形式進行,還是融入課堂教學之中? 224 乙丶 口述歷史作為課程內容的回顧 扼要回顧口述歷史與中學歷史課程發展的關係,有助分析口述歷史對課程組織的影 響。歷史學一直被視為傳統的學科(discipline),歷史作為中學科目(school subject) 的發展亦受著歷史學術發展的影響(Stengel, 1997)。十九世紀以降,德國蘭克學派的 興起,令實證研究成為風尚,歷史研究亦務求「客觀」,追尋歷史事件的真實性成為歷 史學家皓首窮經的動力,中國史學家傅斯年便說過史學即史料學,史料搜集與考證成為 歷史研究的專業印記。經由歷史學者書寫 /生產的「客觀」歷史知識,成中學歷史教育 的學科內容。大多數歷史教師的任務,就是將「歷史知識」有效地轉遞給學生(吳翎君, 2004)。 然而,隨着教育理論的發展,以學科知識為本的歷史課程已受到嚴重的挑戰。例如, 受到皮亞傑的啟發,部份歷史教育學者相信兒童亦能透過故事發展歷史抽象思維,歷史 教育應該更強調抽象思維能力而非貌似客觀的歷史知識(吳翎君,2004)。湯普森(Paul Thompson)於 1978年出版的《過去的聲音》(The voice of the past: Oral history)更全 面挑戰以文獻研究主導的歷史學術研究。他開宗明義說,「所有歷史最終都視乎其社會 目的」。口述歷史,不單是歷史研究法的改變,更是歷史知識論的範式轉移。歷史知識 與社會意識密不可分,口述歷史令本來被遺忘的社群、或隱身在主流歷史論述的群體, 得到發聲的機會(Thompson, 1978;鍾寶賢,2000)。口述歷史始終以人為歷史的主體, 研究者透過提問、對話,以「交談說故事」(conversational narrative)的方法,取得歷 史資料,將不同的聲音、特別是文獻中沒有記錄的聲音放回過去的時空脈絡(嚴佳芳, 1995;楊祥銀,2004)。從上可見,歷史已不再是純粹的學術科目,口述歷史的出現, 已經預示了歷史學重回人文關懷和社會實踐的進路。 或許有人認為,口述歷史只是歷史學術界風波裡的茶杯,對中學歷史課程的影響有 限。不過,觀乎美國歷史教育的發展,從湯普森在《過去的聲音》為口述歷史教學打好 理論基礎之後,美國中學紛紛推動口述歷史研習開始,鄉村學校更積極以口述歷史推動 社區研習。就以狐火計劃(Foxfire)為例,口述歷史活動以燎原之勢,掀起歷史教育的 改革,多篇學生作品刊登於狐火學刊之內。美國歷史學者Neuenschwander(1976)預期, 口述歷史會在七十年代便會成為歷史教育的主流(頁 7)。雖然 Neuenschwander的預期 至今仍未實現,但口述歷史教學已經開始得到教育界的重視。香港歷史教育學者楊秀珠 225 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? (2002)研究 210位中學歷史科(準)教師及小學常識科(準)教師後,發現教師對香 港歷史的理解,很接近日常生活的歷史。她指出:「教師的歷史觀及本土史的觀念,直 接影響歷史教育的面貌,因為當我們鼓勵教師建立自己對本土歷史的看法時,亦同樣希 望學生開拓自己的歷史觀」(頁 41)。她鼓勵學生以口述歷史的方法,訪問自己的家人 關於日治時期香港的情況,又或者訪問父母,調查他們對六四的看法,她稱這種歷史教 學為學生的「聲音」。而「歷史教育工作者可以在私人與公眾、微觀與宏觀、主流與邊緣、 主觀與客觀、口述與文本、主幹與旁枝、常規與異數、平凡與出眾之間,去推展歷史想 像力的極限」(頁 55)。從此可見,關於口述歷史教學的討論,已經從學術界延伸至學 校的歷史教育中。 口述歷史教學不單帶動了歷史科的變革,也促使跨學科的研習。例如,美國社會科 (融合課程)便採用口述歷史,讓學生認識社區的地理位置及變遷,台灣的鄉土教育及 社區學習課程紛紛運用口述歷史方法進行教學活動(Dunaway & Baum, 1984;吳翎君, 2004;林慈淑,2007)。類似的口述歷史專題研習亦在香港出現,香港中華文化促進中 心從 2002年開始,便為教師及學生舉辦口述歷史工作坊,亦有以大澳、屏山和灣仔社 區為研究對象的口述歷史教育計劃。香港大學亞洲研究中心亦從 2001年開始推動「香 港口述歷史檔案計劃」,至 2006年開展「香港記憶」,其延伸部份即「記憶校園」, 協助師生以口述歷史方法整理學校歷史(王惠玲,2010;陳潔華,2004)。 丙丶 研究目的 關於口述歷史的優點和重要性,坊間已有大量文獻討論。不過,當教師接觸有 別於慣常使用的教學法時,若能展開課程的對話,尋找口述歷史教學與學校課程的關 係,最終不論教師是接受還是拒絕,都能體現校本課程的民主精神(鄭鈞傑、林智中, 2006)。對中學教師而言,口述歷史教學是教學法的創新,還是更根本的課程取向的轉 變?在學術理性(academic rationalism)為主流的學校課程中,教師又如何調適口述歷 史教學的社會取向,以配合校本課程的要求(Cheung, 2000;Cheung & Wong, 2002)? 為了探討以上的問題,筆者邀請了兩位即將開展口述歷史教學的教師參與是次研究。兩 位受訪教師,都是教育局中學校本課程發展組歷史科教師網絡成員,他們曾參與該網絡 舉辦的口述歷史教學分享和工作坊,並表示會在學校推行口述歷史教學。1 226 是次研究主要以半結構性訪談(semi-structured interview)了解兩位教師如何因應 校情將口述歷史教學加入校本課程。筆者於 2012年 10月開始就口述歷史的教學問題與 兩位教師討論,並分析與口述歷史相關的課程組織原則,兩位教師亦於 2012年 11月底 擬定口述歷史的教學安排。於是,筆者於 2012年 12月中分別訪問了兩位教師,訪談時 間約四十五分鐘,訪談錄音後由筆者轉譯為文字,再由兩位教師檢視訪談譯稿,給予回 饋。 教師甲是高中歷史科科主任,是一位未足三十歲的年青教師,在調景嶺一所直資中 學任教,學生多來自中等收入的家庭。他在外國的大學主修歷史,回港後以兼讀方式修 讀教育文憑,亦主修歷史。他有五年的教學年資,在這所學校任教第五年,他主要任教 高中歷史科及初中通識科。去年教育局課程發展處曾到訪他任教的學校,建議學校可增 加初中的歷史元素,所以他未來要負責將更多歷史科的課程內容加進初中通識科。近年, 他亦積極參與歷史教學的交流活動,先後參加了教育局資優教育組的人文教師網絡及中 學校本課程發展組的歷史教師網絡。 教師乙是資深教師,大學時主修體育,副修哲學,1999年入職時在小學任教中文、 數學、常識和體育科,亦曾於中學任教中文科和體育科。他曾修讀中文科的教育文憑、 中文系碩士和文化研究碩士課程。在 2009至 2011年期間,他辭去教席,參與土地保育 工作。2012年 9月得到天水圍一所津貼中學校長的邀請,成為半職教師,教授高中通識 科及初中歷史與文化科。由於該校的學生大部份屬於第三組別,教師透過不同的教學形 式提升學生的學習動機,包括成立耕種小組,讓學生在校園的農圃中實踐農務。 丁丶 發現與討論 一丶 教師普遍認同口述歷史教學的社會意義 Cheung & Wong(2002)的研究發現,香港教師的課程取向多元化,甚至出現強大 的張力,其中學術理性、思維過程、社會重構、人本主義及科技取向交替影響教師的課 程設計(頁 242)。在訪談過程中,筆者發現兩位教師對口述歷史都有充份的理解。教 _______________ 1 承蒙高級課程發展主任梁寶芬女士提供網絡活動資料及聯絡受訪教師。 227 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 師甲閱讀了很多外國、尤其是台灣的口述歷史文獻 2,而教師乙也讀過大量口述歷史著 作 3。他們並不會將口述歷史單單視為訓練學生歷史思維能力的方法,還很認同口述歷 史的社會意義。他們對口述歷史的理解,很接近 Cheung & Wong(2002)所指的社會重 構(social reconstruction)取向。教師甲希望學生藉著口述歷史研習了解調景嶺的過去, 並關注都市化對社區與社群的影響。他說: 「口述歷史有其對象,就是讓同學訪問當時人,那些是真真正正曾經發生在 社區的事情,在我們這個社會中發生,那些事情也可能是一些轉變。我們周 遭發生的生活,就是歷史。」 教師乙也希望學生藉着口述歷史研習,關注香港的農地及農業問題,並質疑政府為 發展而扼殺農業的政策。 然而,在深入的訪談中,筆者發現教師甲和教師乙的後設課程取向(meta- orientation)還有些微差異(Cheung & Wong, 2002)。雖然兩位教師都希望借助口述歷 史研習將學生的學習連繫到社會生活,但教師甲坦言,高中的歷史課程很着重考試和思 維能力,但歷史教育真正感動他的,是「讓學生在歷史科認識這個世界⋯⋯發現人類的 厲害之處。」台灣歷史學者林慈淑(2010)的《歷史,要教什麼?》說明了歷史教育在 學科知識、歷史思維能力和人文向度之間的張力,在公開考試、課程要求和時間限制之 下教師在課程內容上都必須有所取捨。所以,為了調解「思維能力」和「人文關懷」的 張力,教師甲只好在高中歷史課程的校本評核部份加入口述歷史教學,這種處理方式, 一方面可以配合課程要求,訓練學生搜集史料、整理史料的能力,又能在過程中培養學 生對社會的關懷。 教師乙的後設課程取向則較純粹,這與教師乙的背景息息相關。首先,教師乙具備 中、小學的教學經驗。Yeung & Lam(2007)指出,香港小學教師比中學更願意嘗試統 整不同的學科,他也直言: _______________ 2 教師甲在閒談間也時常分享台灣歷史學者張元老師對歷史教學的看法。 3 教師乙認為《又喊又笑:阿婆口述歷史》是口述歷史研究的典範。 228 「我並非歷史出身,我欠缺的只是知識,但我很清楚歷史的意義。⋯⋯其實 我並不關心學生是否在公開試取得好成績,我只想讓學生認識社區和自身的 關係。」 非歷史專科出身,令他免去不少學術的包袱。另外,他的學術背景亦很摻雜,語文 教育出身,後來兼讀文化研究碩士課程。 根據 Shriner, Schlee & Libler(2010)對不同學科教師的研究,發現語文教師比較願 意與其他學科的教師合作統整課程。這或許解釋了為何主修中國語言及文學的教師乙, 能夠專注於口述歷史的社會取向。他表示,在參加土地保育工作的時候,已進行兩次口 述歷史的研究,他認為「小歷史」也是一種文學修辭方法,以彌補「大歷史」的不足。 因此,不論任何科目,他都會在任教的高中的通識科和初中歷史與文化科加入口述歷史 研習,帶學生到上水的農村考察、與村民訪談,讓學生了解都市發展對香港農地帶來的 影響。 從上可見,口述歷史的課程取向充滿彈性,教師既可將口述歷史研習視為歷史能力 的培訓,亦可將口述歷史變為跨科的專題研習。歷史出身以及學科的要求,令教師甲不 斷在學術要求和社會取向之間摸索,而非歷史主修的教師乙則較無拘束地在不同的課程 推行口述歷史教學。不過,正如 Cheung(2000)所言,課程取向與課程實施之間仍有 一定的落差,教師甲和教師乙能否真正落實口述歷史的歷史思維培訓和社會關懷,仍有 待研究。 二丶 從口述歷史教學開始摸索跨學科合作的可能性 雖然筆者沒有以強度抽樣方式選擇訪談對象,但本研究的兩位參與教師都具有代表 性,教師甲的學校開辦初中通識科,而教師乙的學校開辦初中歷史與文化科,這些安排 大致參考了課程發展議會(2002)的建議: 1. 將個人、社會及人文學習領域內的學科,統整成綜合人文科 4,中國歷史科保持 獨立; _______________ 4 雖然教育局並不建議學校將初中的統整課程命名為「通識科」,但有部份學校為了與高中的課程銜接,仍把初 中的統整課程稱為通識科。 229 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 2. 以中國歷史為主軸,統整中國歷史科及歷史科為歷史與文化科,其他學科統整 為綜合人文科。 根據外國推行口述歷史的經驗,如果教師甲在初中通識科加入口述歷史教學,應更 能發揮口述歷史的社會實踐意義。另外,教師乙除了在高中通識科外,如何將初中的歷 史與文化科開展口述歷史課程? 教師甲雖然認同口述歷史的社會向度,但他認為在初中通識科中推行口述歷史比較 困難。他說: 「創校時初中通識科只為了銜接高中通識科,所以沒有很多人文學科的課程內 容,直至新高中開辦人文學科為選修科,才滲入人文學科的元素,我現在負責將 歷史的教材加入初中通識科。」 他更表示,初中通識科實際上是在不同的時段學習不同的學科內容,學科內容之間 並沒有連繫。運用 Tyler對課程統整的定義,這種組織方式只算是廣域課程,不同的學 科內容並未在共同的課程組織原則和關係(林智中、陳健生、張爽,2006)。教師甲表示, 初中通識科的香港單元是經濟科的同事負責,所以他未能在香港的單元加入口述歷史教 學。至於他負責編排的歷史內容,則是以順時序方式組織課程內容,主要教授古代文明 至工業革命的部份,也是口述歷史無法處理的時段。 至於教師乙任教學校的初中歷史與文化科,亦以順時序方式編排課程,但課程以中 國歷史為軸心,並以「思維能力」組織學科內容。這種課程組織大致參考了教育局課程 發展處(2007)提供歷史與文化科的課程綱要,「以中國歷史為主線,整合中國與世界 歷史與文化」。不過,這種強調思維能力的比較歷史課程,忽略了香港史內容,與教師 乙的社會重構課程取向有明顯的不同。教師乙如何處理在校本歷史與文化科加入口述歷 史教學呢?他說: 「我在每一個課題都會引入農業和食物議題,例如我在四大文明和中西方帝 國的課題中,都加入農業和食物的內容,從而建立學生的生活和知識的連繫, 而我在香港農村做的口述歷史便和農業和食物有關。」 230 雖然課程以思維能力作為組織學校內容,但教師乙卻以農業和食物重新演繹課程內 容,令課堂連繫至學生的日常生活,亦因此找到加入口述歷史教學的課程切入點。 本來,校本課程統整應能給予教師引入口述歷史教學的課程空間,不過,從兩位教 師的訪談得知,校本課程統整仍以學科主導(discipline-oriented)、思維能力和學術理 性取向,教師並不容易在課程規劃(planned curriculum)的層面參與統整工作,所以, 他們只能在課堂和個人層面將口述歷史加到課程之中,這亦限制了口述歷史的教學成 效。 三丶 以務實方式推動口述歷史教學 雖然課程統整未能即時為兩位教師提供實踐口述歷史的空間,但只要教師認同課程 理念,總能務實而漸進地帶來改變,正如 Park(2008)所言,關於課程統整的研究太集 中分析統整理想與現實的落差,卻未能肯定教師以務實方式(pragmatic approach)取得 統整的最大成效。 由於教師甲是歷史科主任,他可以自主編排歷史課程,將口述歷史研習用作校本評 核課業,增加口述歷史課程的認受性,他亦尋找教育局中學校本課程發展組的支援,以 取得外來的助力。至於初中通識科方面,他說: 「有歷史科訓練的同工較少,他們亦沒有接觸過口述歷史,我亦要自己去體 驗,及去思考課程發展配合在哪一個範疇。我不知道科組同事是否願意共同 開發。所以,我會以高中學生的口述歷史研習成果及專業支援換取同事的認 同。」 這種務實取向有別於由上而下的課程發展,教師先從實踐層面取得學習成果,然後 再以「調景嶺口述歷史研習」的成果建立同事間的課程對話,然後再探討「調景嶺社區」 能否成為初中課程的主題,這種由學習者開展的課程對話,才能落實課程統整的精神, 將由不同科目集合而成的廣域課程轉變為跨科課程(interdisciplinary curriculum)。 身為半職教師,教師乙明白自己在學校體制中的限制。教師乙一直表示會在高中通 識科引入口述歷史的研究方法,指導學生以香港農村與農業為題進行中學文憑試獨立專 題探究(Independent Enquiry Study)。然而,在本研究進行期間,教師乙告訴筆者,學 231 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 校已規定學生獨立專題探究的主題必須與「傳媒」和「教育」有關,所以他只能在任教 的通識學生中,挑選有修讀歷史科的學生進行口述歷史研習。那麼,原任的高中歷史科 教師會有何反應?教師乙表示: 「(歷史科同事)只關心做出來的功課能否用作歷史科校本評核,我其實不 介意工作量增多了,我帶學生到古洞進行口述歷史研習,只希望學生明白香 港農民的真實情感。」 他甚至取得校長的支持,邀請農夫到學校教授種植方法,並在學校開闢農圃,讓學 生比對口述歷史實習與農圃經驗的學習成果。其實,據筆者觀察,教師乙正以時間換取 課程空間,先改變學生對社區農業的看法和態度,落實社會實踐和關懷,再以學生的學 習經驗推課程變革,這是他以半職教師換回來的「優點」(即教擔及工作量較少)。 兩位教師的務實方式未必會以白紙黑字的方式記錄在(學校)課程文件,但學生的 學習成果卻成為了校本課程發展的關鍵,令校本課程改革不再停留於教學法的改變。 戊丶結論及反思 過去關於口述歷史的教學研究呈現兩極化的走向,歷史學者雖然肯定口述歷史的 社會意義,但他們仍視中學歷史課程為歷史學術研究的從屬,只從歷史思維的角度, 將口述歷史組織到中學歷史課程之中,忽視了口述歷史的社會向度課程取向(Stengel, 1997;林慈淑,2007);另一方面,鄉土學習和社區研習只將口述歷史教學視為帶有社 會向度的「課外活動」,卻忽視了學校課程的學術取向與口述歷史教學之間的張力。其 實,從是次的研究所見,從理解口述歷史的教學理念到課堂實踐,教師需要兼顧不同的 課程取向,有些是外在的,有些則是個人信念的,他們都希望取得更多同事及學生的認 同下,持續推動口述歷史教學。無視實際環境的限制可能為有心推動課程改革的教師帶 來更大的挫敗感,務實地因應學校處境而引入新的教學嘗試,反能帶來課程的對話,體 現校本課程發展的精神。 Marsh指出,「學校本位課程發展,是一種強調『參與』、『草根式民主』的課程 發展口號;是一種重視師生共享決定,共同建構學習經驗的教育哲學;也是一項需要 課程領導與組織變革的技巧」(李子建,2002,頁 113)可惜香港的校本課程改革仍是 232 單向的發展過程,由學校中層及管理層設計、再由分科討論執行,「中央 ─ 邊陲」 的課程發展模式並沒有改變。是次參與研究的教師從個人信念開始,因應教學進度、 學生回饋、同事的反應和社會變化修改口述歷史的課程設計,希望由學生的經驗課程 (experienced curriculum)找到突破點,帶動校本課程變革,這樣的校本課程發展才能 體現理念課程、計劃課程、執行課程和經驗課程之間的動態關係,亦會釋放更大的空間, 讓教師將口述歷史教學的社會取向融入校本課程。 參考文獻 王惠玲(2010)。〈補白、發聲、批判、傳承:香港口述歷史的實踐〉。《鄭洲大學學 報》,第 43卷第 4期。 朱耀光(2012)。〈口述歷史作為教學行動:尋找共同建構的初中香港歷史課程〉。論 文發表於台北、香港、廣州歷史教學研討會。台北:東吳大學歷史學系。 吳翎君(2004)。《歷史教學理論與實務》。台北:五南圖書。 林智中、陳健生、張爽(2006)。《課程組織》。北京:教育科學出版社。 李子建(2002)。《課程、教學與學校改革:新世紀的教育發展》。香港:中文大學出版社。 林慈淑(2007)。〈口述歷史在歷史教學上的應用?─ 一位大學教師的疑慮〉。台北: 發表於中研院台史所「第十一屆全國口述歷史工作會議」。 林慈淑(2010)。《歷史,要教什麼?─ 英美歷史教育的爭議》。台北:學生書局。 香港課程發展議會(2002)。《個人、社會及人文教育學習領域課程指引(小一至中 三)》。香港:政府印務局。 香港課程發展議會(2007)。《歷史科課程及評估指引(中四至中六)》。香港:政府 印務局。 教育局課程發展處(2007)。《歷史與文化科(中一至中三年級)》。取自 http://cd1. edb.hkedcity.net/cd/pshe/tc/history/New_History/about/about.html。 陳潔華(編)(2004)。《批判思考 創意教學:技巧和考察例子》。香港:香港大學 亞洲研究中心。 楊秀珠(2002)。〈尋找本土的故事:香港教師的歷史觀〉。《教育學報》,第30卷第二期, 41-62。 233 在教學法與社會實踐之間: 教師如何在校本課程中引入口述歷史教學? 楊祥銀(2004)。《口述史學》。台北:揚智出版。 鄭鈞傑、林智中(2006)。〈評「香港課程改革二○○一 ─《學會學習》」〉。載曾 榮光(編著),《廿一世紀教育藍圖?香港特區教育改革議論》(頁207-235)。香港: 香港中文大學。 鍾寶賢(2000)。〈「口述歷史」的社會意義〉。《當代史學》。取自 http://histweb. hkbu.edu.hk/contemporary/Jourvol3_3/jourvol3_3main.htm#3。 嚴佳芳(1995)。〈談「口述歷史」在高中歷史教學的運用〉。《建中學報》,第 1期, 99-103。 Cheung, D. (2000). Measuring teachers’ meta-orientations to curriculum: application of hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 68(2), 149-165. Cheung, D., & Wong, H. W. (2002). Measuring teacher beliefs about alternative curriculum designs. The Curriculum Journal, 13(2), 225-248. Dunaway, K., & Baum, W. K. (Eds.). (1984). Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology. Nashville, Tennessee: American Association for State and Local History. Neuenschwander, J. A. (1976). Oral history: As a teaching approach. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Park, M. (2008). Implementing curriculum integration: The experiences of Korean elementary teachers. Asia Pacific Education Review, 9(3), 308-319. Shriner, M., Schlee, B. M., & Libler, R. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and beliefs regarding curriculum integration. Australian Education Researcher, 37(1), 51-62. Stengel, B. S. (1997). “Academic discipline” and “school subject”: Contestable curricular concepts. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 29(5), 585-602. Thompson, P. (1978). The voice of the past: Oral history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yeung, S. S. Y., & Lam, C. C. (2007). Teachers’ conception of curriculum integration: A problem hindering its implementation in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 35(2), 109-144. 234 Between teaching method and social practice: How do teachers accommodate oral history to school-based curriculum? CHU Yiu Kwong Fanling Lutheran Secondary School Abstract Recently oral history has been widely accepted and adopted by secondary school teachers. Its social meaning also makes it easier for teachers to adopt oral history as an interdisciplinary method of project-based learning. However, teachers are confronted with many practical problems while accommodating oral history to school-based curriculum. In the perspectives of two secondary school teachers who intend to promote oral history in their own schools as examples, this article will analyze how teachers’ curriculum orientations, educational beliefs, and practical concerns influence the way of teaching oral history. Keywords History education, oral history, curriculum orientation
Category: Documents
Hong Kong Teachers Centre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十五卷 Volume Fifteen 第 十 五 卷 V olum e Fifteen 2016 V olum e Fifteen 2016 PMS2602C12mm PMS2602 Hong Kong Teachers C ntre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal H ong K ong Teachers C entre Journal 第十五卷 Volume Fifteen 第 十 五 卷 V olum e Fifteen 2016 V olum e Fifteen 2016 PMS2602C12mm PMS2602 第十五卷 Volume 15 出 版 :香港教師中心 地 址 :香港 九龍 九龍塘沙福道 19 號 教育局九龍塘教育服務中心西座一樓W106室 出版年份 :2016 年 Publisher :Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Address :W106, 1/F, Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre, 19 Suffolk Road, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong. Year of Publishing :2016 © 香港教師中心版權所有 Copyright by Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre ISSN 1682-8984 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal i 香港教師中心 香港教師中心(教師中心)是根據 1984 年教育統籌委員會《第一號報告書》的建 議,由 1987 年開始籌備,至 1989 年 6 月 10 日於北角百福道四號正式成立。為進一步 提升服務質素及切合發展需要,教師中心已於2006年遷往教育局九龍塘教育服務中心。 教師中心成立的目標是不斷促進教師的專業發展和在職培訓,並為他們提供一個 富鼓勵性、中立及沒有階級觀念的環境,使他們更能團結一致,發揮專業精神。教師 中心致力為教師提供互相切磋和交流經驗的機會,推動課程發展,鼓勵教師設計及試 用新教材和教學法,向業內人士、團體發放教育資訊和宣傳教育理念,並配合教師興 趣,組織各類社交與文娛活動。 教師中心不單為教師而設,也由教師管理。他們可以通過三層管理架構參與教師 中心的管理工作。這管理架構包括諮詢管理委員會(諮管會)、常務委員會(常委會) 和六個工作小組,負責教師中心的決策、監察和執行教師中心的不同工作及活動。 諮管會的工作主要是決定教師中心的策略和監察它的運作。諮管會由 72 名委員組 成,其中 35 位由教育團體提名及選出,35 位由教師提名及選出,另外兩位由教育局常 任秘書長委任。 常委會是諮管會的行政機構,與教師中心的日常運作和活動有密切的關係。常委 會的主席和兩位副主席由諮管會的主席和兩位副主席兼任,其他成員包括 10 位由諮管 會提名及選出的諮管會委員,以及兩位由教育局常任秘書長委任的代表。 常委會之下設有工作小組,負責教師中心內不同範疇的工作,包括專業發展小組、 出版小組、活動小組、教育研究小組、章程及會籍小組和推廣小組。 教師中心除了主辦各類型活動外,亦經常與本港教育團體合作,籌辦推動教育專 業的活動,並會因應需要,贊助這些團體舉辦活動,以及為有關活動提供所需的場地 和器材。教師中心內有電腦、消閒雜誌、議事區、休憩區及專題展板等,為教師提供 所需的服務。 ii Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre (HKTC) was formally established at 4 Pak Fuk Road in North Point on 10 June 1989 after two years’ preparation in accordance with the recommendation of the Education Commission Report No. 1 published in 1984. In order to enhance its service quality and to strengthen its development, HKTC was relocated to the Education Bureau Kowloon Tong Education Services Centre in 2006. HKTC aims to promote continuing professional development and training as well as to foster a greater sense of unity and professionalism among teachers in an encouraging, neutral and non-hierarchical environment. Specific objectives of HKTC include providing opportunities for teachers to interact and collaborate, promoting curriculum development, encouraging teachers to come up with innovative teaching aids and approaches, disseminating education-related news and ideas to education professionals and organisations as well as organising social and recreational activities to cater for the diverse needs and interests of teachers. HKTC was set up for and managed by teachers through a three-tier organisational structure, comprising an Advisory Management Committee (AMC), a Standing Committee (SC) and six Sub-committees, that is responsible for policy-making, monitoring and implementation of various duties and activities. The AMC is a policy-making and monitoring body with a total of 72 members, with 35 nominated and elected by education organisations, 35 nominated and elected by teachers as well as 2 appointed by the Permanent Secretary for Education. The SC, which serves as the executive arm of the AMC, handles the day-to-day functioning of HKTC and the running of activities. It is composed of the Chairperson and 2 Vice-chairpersons of the AMC, 10 elected AMC members and the 2 appointed representatives of the Permanent Secretary for Education. The six Sub-committees, namely Professional Development, Publication, Activities, Educational Research, Constitution & Membership and Promotion, are working groups under the SC and all are responsible for specific areas of work of HKTC. Apart from organising events and activities for teachers on its own, HKTC often joins hands with or, if necessary, subsidises various local education organisations to arrange activities that facilitate the continuing professional development of teachers on its well- equipped premises. HKTC contains PC workstations, leisure magazines, sharing corners, resting areas, display-boards, etc for teachers’ use. iii 香 港 教 師 中 心 學 報 Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal 《香港教師中心學報》(《學報》)乃香港教師中心一年一度出版的學術性刊物, 內容以教育研究、教育行動研究及教學經驗分享為主。《學報》的投稿者多來自本港 及海外的教師、師訓機構的導師、教育研究人員及學者。《學報》主要分發給本港各 幼稚園、小學、中學及大專院校,而公眾人士亦可到教師中心網頁(www.edb.gov.hk/ hktc/journal)閱覽《學報》電子版。 以下為《學報》之顧問及編輯委員名單。 The Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal (HKTC Journal) is an annual refereed publication of the HKTC. It publishes articles on areas pertaining to educational research, action research and teaching practice in schools. Our contributors include school teachers, teacher educators and academics researching on education from Hong Kong and other places. The HKTC Journal will be distributed to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and universities in Hong Kong. Its electronic version can also be accessed from the HKTC website (www.edb.gov.hk/hktc/journal). The advisors and editorial committee members are listed as follows. 顧問團(Board of Advisors) Stephen ANDREWS The University of Hong Kong Allan LUKE Queensland University of Technology Jongho SHIN Seoul National University TAN Eng Thye Jason National Institute of Education Singapore 丁 鋼 華東師範大學 李兆璋 香港浸會大學 李沙崙 教育局 李榮安 香港公開大學 侯傑泰 香港中文大學 唐創時 香港考試及評核局 張國華 香港公開大學 梁湘明 香港中文大學 iv 許添明 國家教育研究院 傅浩堅 香港浸會大學 潘慧玲 淡江大學 鄭燕祥 香港教育大學 鍾秉林 中國教育學會 編輯委員會(Editorial Committee) 主編(Chief Editor) 黃少玲 香港中學語文教育研究會 副主編(Vice-chief Editors) 胡少偉 香港教育大學 楊沛銘 香港地理學會 趙淑媚 香海正覺蓮社佛教梁植偉中學 委員(Members) 甘志強 港澳兒童教育國際協會 何瑞珠 香港中文大學教育學院 余綺華 香港道教聯合會圓玄學院石圍角小學 李子建 香港教育大學 李少鶴 香港初等教育研究學會 林偉業 香港大學教育學院 胡志偉 香港通識教育會 張慧真 香港浸會大學 v 主編序 Foreword 今期學報的主題為「學生成長與生涯規劃」,除了得到不少學者和教師就這個主 題應邀投稿外,也有其他熱心的教育同工提交寶貴的研究或分享文章。經過嚴謹的評 審後,共有十篇文章獲得通過並收錄於今期學報。 第一部分針對今期主題的文章共有四篇,內容包括:從家庭、學校與社區協作看 青少年的生涯規劃、以幼兒教育專業為例探討生涯規劃的迷思、香港教師看生涯規劃 教育老師的角色及其啟示及以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究。內容主要探索 現行生涯規劃教育的問題,作者們透過不同角度檢視生涯規劃教育的實況,並提出精 闢的分析、意見及建議。 第二部分關於理論及政策評論的文章,合共兩篇,內容包括:香港學校內課堂觀 課的回顧與前瞻及香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習。內容圍繞着與前線教師息息 相關的課堂觀課和與小學校長有關的專業培訓。作者透過政策及理論的分析,同樣從 現況作出了客觀的評論,提出了適切及具參考性的建議。 第三部分是教育實踐與經驗分享,有四篇文章。內容包括:中國某市小學教師對 教師教育課程的評估、以剪影法作校長培訓課程的專業支援、研究小學非華語學童以 第二語言學習中文的浸入式教學個案及如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力。透過作 者們的分析,我們可以了解不同教育理論在實踐上的成果,並提出過程中值得反思的 地方,為教育同工提供了寶貴的參考資料。 最後,要衷心感謝為今期學報擔任評審的教育同工,當中包括:王偉倫博士、甘 志強先生、何玉芬博士、何景安先生、何瑞珠教授、李子建教授、李展華先生、李隆 盛教授、林偉業博士、胡少偉博士、英汝興先生、袁國明先生、高寶玉博士、張慧真 博士、梁佩雲博士、梁雪梅女士、梁湘明教授、梁頌康博士、許玉麟先生、麥謝巧玲 博士、楊沛銘博士、趙淑媚博士、劉瑞珍女士、鄭婉玲女士、蕭錫錡教授、羅嘉怡博士、 關譽綱教授和嚴宇樂博士。學報能順利出版,實有賴眾多評審員於百忙中抽空幫助, 以專業的態度評審各篇文章。 《香港教師中心學報》主編 黃少玲 二零一六年十二月 目錄 Contents 香港教育中心 ....................................................................................................................i 香港教師中心學報 ..........................................................................................................iii 主編序 ...............................................................................................................................v 一、主題:學生成長與生涯規劃 1. 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 .........................................................1 何瑞珠 2. 探討生涯規劃的迷思:以幼兒教育專業為例 .......................................................17 區耀輝 3. 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 ...................................................27 李子建、秦偉燊 4. 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究 ...........................................................45 梁麗嬋、潘晨健、簡永東、婁聖軻 二、理論及政策評論 1. Lesson observation in Hong Kong schools - Review and prospects .........................67 Stephen Pui Ming YEUNG 2. 香港小學校長的培訓需要及專業學習 ...................................................................85 胡少偉、張勇邦、林碧珠、馮文正 三、教育實踐與經驗分享 1. 中國某市小學教師對教師教育課程的評估 .........................................................101 譚繼鏞、王婷婷 2. 超越校長培訓課程的專業支援:剪影法 ......................................................................................123 黃炳文、倪紹強 3. 浸入式教學的個案研究:小學非華語學童以第二語言學習中文 .....................137 廖佩莉 4. 如何運用合作學習提升學生聽說能力 .................................................................155 何潔瑩 徵集論文 稿例 徵募審稿員 1 《香港教師中心學報》,第十五卷 © 香港教師中心,2016 青少年的生涯規劃: 家庭、學校與社區協作 何瑞珠 香港中文大學教育學院 摘要 本文嘗試分析政府近年有關生涯規劃的主要政策及措施,再根據筆者近年三個有關 的實證研究,梳理出青年人在生涯規劃上具影響力的因素和分析可行的生涯介入措 施。研究指出不同家庭背景的學生在生涯規劃的裝備上條件十分懸殊,政府在協助 青年人作出生涯規劃上,尚未有充分照顧來自不同背景學生的差異。本文最後提出 對協助青少年作出適切的生涯規劃,尤其是來自弱勢社群者,家庭學校與社區協作 及由大學協調的商校合作是可行的出路。 關鍵詞 生涯規劃,家庭學校與社區協作,商校合作 引言 生涯規劃是一個探索及計劃人生的過程,生涯(career)是指各個連續發展的 生命階段的不同任務和角色。整全地規劃一生不同階段在不同空間(家庭、社區、 學校及工作場所)扮演不同角色(如兒童、學生、休閒者、公民、工作者、夫婦、 持家者、父母以及養老者)(Super, 1980, 1990)。就青少年階段的重要範疇,主要是 學習、工作、閒暇及課外活動、探索學習的目的及了解學習與就業的關係等。這規 劃過程要求人在其社會環境中按步驟積極實施所定的計劃(梁湘明,2005)。 2 世界各地採用很多不同的措施,以識別學生的性向及興趣,當中更常用各種性 向測試(例如香港採用的生涯地圖以評估學生的學習及事業興趣),作為探索自我 及計劃人生的起點。可是,在急促轉變的時代,學生的興趣、能力及社會上工作類 型,受到所在地的文化及經濟影響甚大。行業及個人亦隨時間而改變,個人的職業 或生涯發展受父母社經地位、個人能力及人格特質和際遇的影響極大。為彌補這種 性向測試的不足和缺陷,有學者提出學生在做生涯規劃時必須讓學生樹立生涯意識 (career awareness)以及擁有生涯探索(career exploration)經歷(Arrington, 2000)。 這些都能夠幫助學生在不同人生階段,瞭解自身能力與興趣,以及根據社會經濟環 境,了解職業所需的知識與技能,才能協助學生根據自身條件做出適切的生涯規劃。 青少年在生涯探索及發展中,相對於「內在」條件如能力、興趣、價值觀,「外 在」的先賦條件如性別及社會階層等同樣具決定性。原因是早於兒童階段,個體便 會按照其「性別角色」及「社經地位」,把與之不相稱的角色選擇排除在考慮之外。 如 Gottfredson(1996, 2002, 2005)的「限制及妥協理論(Theory of circumscription and compromise)」研究在生涯探索過程中,個人的先賦條件如何影響其「限制 (circumscription)」及「妥協(compromise)」的抉擇。這個理論提醒我們:踏入青 少年階段,個體更開始注視及展現其「內在」素質,從而在早前設限的角色範圍內 尋求最理想的選擇。然而,當經濟狀況、就業市場需求及社會文化氛圍等現實環境 因素與個人志向產生矛盾時,個體便會在理智上進行調整,逐漸將一個「可接受的 選擇」看成為一個「不錯的選擇」,亦即 Gottfredson所稱為「妥協」的過程。 但值得關注的是不同家庭背景的學生在生涯規劃的裝備上條件十分懸殊,從學 生的角度而言,怎樣的生涯規劃內涵才是受用的呢?政府在協助青年人作出生涯規 劃的政策上,有否照顧來自不同背景的學生的差異呢?為此本文嘗試以多元的取向 處理下列三個問題: 一、 根據政府協助青年人作生涯規劃的教育政策為切入點,分析政府近年來 有關生涯規劃的重要措施。 二、 根據筆者近年幾個有關的實證研究,梳理出青年人在生涯規劃上具影響 力的因素和分析可行的生涯介入。 3 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 三、 最後提出家庭學校與社區協作的可行方法,以裝備青少年作出適切的生 涯規劃。 研究方法 除了政策文獻分析之外,本研究以「香港青少年之追蹤研究(HKLSA)」的 2013年完成第一期及 2014年完成第二期的問卷調查數據,嘗試從 2,600多位受訪 的中學生的教育期望及背景資料,研究他們對升學和就業的準備及選擇,分析來自 不同社經背景的青少年在期望升讀專上教育課程的差異。有關社區協作研究方面, 筆者的研究團隊於 2013-2014年開展了另一項商校協作計劃,從香港一項名為「學 校起動計劃(Project WeCan)」的參與者中,收集了 3,800多位高中學生的數據, 探討參與升學就業活動與其掌握升學就業技巧的關係,相關背景資料詳見「結果及 討論」部分。 所有問卷題項均以中文編寫。問卷編製的流程如下:部份問題源自 PISA 2009 及 PISA 2012經由研究小組的會議討論研究的焦點和題目,然後邀請中學生對問卷 初稿進行預試,刪除提問內容不清或鑑別度不佳的題項。在從研究對象學生身上取 得數據後,以因素分析(factor analysis)測量各量表的建構效度(construct validity)1。 唯本文回應的三個主要問題的分析方法以描述分析為本。 圖一 研究架構 _______________ 1 分析各量表的建構效度(construct validity):經因素轉軸分析,從因素分數矩陣中依據量表中不同題項在某一特 定因素之負荷量大小來判斷題項歸屬的層面 4 結果及討論 1. 香港政府協助青年人作出生涯規劃政策及評析 2014年,香港政府首次於施政報告明確提出「協助青年人作出生涯規劃」(梁 振英,2014年 1月 15日,第 104條),「以更全面支援學校提供升學及就業輔導 服務,以及拓展生涯規劃」,提供「額外經常津貼,加強生涯規劃教育元素」,並 透過「商校合作計劃」以「加強對中學生籌劃未來升學與就業的輔導。」(同上, 第 105條)。其後政府發表的財政預算案進一步指出:「必須針對性地增強青少年 的生涯規劃、職業教育和培訓。」(曾俊華,2014年 2月 26日,第 104條)及「職 業訓練局⋯⋯以先導形式推行職業教育和就業支援計劃,結合有系統的學徒培訓和 清晰的晉升階梯⋯⋯。教育局會加強支援學校,深化和擴闊生涯規劃教育,讓學生 發揮所長。」(同上,第 106條)究竟這些津貼及計劃有何實質的成效?學生又有 否得益呢? 2015年,政府再次於施政報告提出:「教育局會在 2015/16學年起的 3年,強 化、深化和檢視該計劃(商校合作計劃)。」(梁振英,2015年 1月 14日,第 156條) 並將「成立 3億元的『青年發展基金』,資助現有計劃未能涵蓋的創新青年發展活 動。」(同上,第 160條)同年財政預算案進一步指出,政府正為零售界別「籌備『零 售業推廣計劃』,提升業界形象,吸引新人入行。」(曾俊華,2015年 2月 25日, 第 106條)並「會為青年人提供更多實習和交流機會,加深他們對實際工作環境的 體會和認識,擴闊視野,為投身職場作好準備。」(同上,第 111條),包括提供 各一億元給建造業(同上,第 107條)及金融業中的保險和資產財富管理兩個界別 (同上,第 109條)。雖然商校合作計劃備受重視而大量擴張,並已有超過 170個 機構曾參與「商校合作計劃」(同上,第 156條),但企業對學生及學習了解不足, 以致一般職場推介及參觀往往流於表面,商校合作中的學習元素,需要教育專業人 員仔細調適才能起教育作用。 2016年,政府最新一期的施政報告提出:「政府⋯⋯為優化高中課程的推行, 以及加強生涯規劃教育與相關輔導服務,由 2016/17學年起,學校可將現行的『高 中課程支援津貼』及『生涯規劃津貼』轉為常額教席,預計可提供額外約 1,000個 學位教師職位。」(梁振英,2016年 1月 13日,第 191條)。其中「生涯規劃津貼」 5 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 轉為常額教席是可取的,長遠來說有助增加更為穩定的生涯規劃的輔導人員。短期 而言,可能有助舒緩部份中學教席的收縮,但卻使有關津貼的靈活性減少,影響學 校資源調配,更重要的問題是對優化學生的生涯規劃又有何作用呢? 由上述三份近年的施政報告所見,政府已察覺在新高中學制實施後,生涯規劃 教育與相關輔導服務的重要性,亦在資源調配、活動推廣、教師培訓及企業合作上 展開不同的措施。現時絕大部份學生均能夠完成中學教育,但面對未來要為升讀大 專或就業作抉擇時,不少學生會為此感到徬徨。究竟甚麼措施才真正令學生對生涯 規劃有適切的裝備?實際上現時中學生是如何為生涯規劃作準備,怎樣的升就經歷 才真正令學生受用?究竟甚麼因素對生涯規劃具影響力呢?尤其是 Gottfredson所謂 具決定性的「外在」條件—家庭背景如何影響學生的生涯規劃呢? 2. 學生了解升學就業的途徑:實踐與受用 「香港青少年之追蹤研究(HKLSA)」的第二期研究於 2014年完成,調查訪 問了超過 100間學校,約 2,634位曾參加 PISA 2012的中學生,研究他們對升學和 就業的準備及選擇。結果顯示(表一),學生欲了解升學和就業的選擇,最主要的 途徑是與「重要他者(significant others)」傾談,當中包括朋友或同學(90%)、家 人或親戚(82%)、學校老師(72%)及自己有興趣從事的工作的人士(49%)。此 外,不少學生透過互聯網(85%)、大眾傳媒(65%)及參加升學及就業講座(77% 和 50%)獲取資訊,亦有六成學生曾參加大專院校的開放日。 然而,只有約三成學生曾參觀工作場所,原因可能是學校與企業的聯繫不足, 以致少有參觀活動提供。只有約一成學生曾參加與工作體驗有關的計劃,例如「學 校-企業夥伴計劃」(13%)及工作影子計劃(14%)等。也許主因是現時企業提供 的實習職位不多,造成只有極少數學生有機會體驗工作。 問卷亦要求學生從廿一項了解升學就業的途徑中,選出最有助於他們決策的三 項。表一結果顯示,學生視為最有用的首三項途徑分別是:「與學校老師個別或分 組傾談」(49%)、「與家人或親戚傾談」(42%)及「搜尋互聯網」(37%)。與職業相 關的體驗和企業參觀,一般被視為對學生準備升就有幫助,但問卷結果發現,只有 很少學生認為這些體驗和參觀是「最有幫助的三項」之一。原因會是與職業相關的 6 體驗局限在個別行業和職業,未必能配合所有學生的能力和興趣?還是實習機會不 足,學生難以期望從體驗、參觀中獲取資訊?其實認識不同行業能擴闊學生的眼界, 有助學生的生涯規劃更為全面。為此,企業、培訓機構及學校的協作及商校合作等 措施顯得更為重要。可是,來自不同背景的家長有不同條件,尤其是社經地位較低 的家長又如何影響學生升學就業的取向呢?現時尚未有具體的政策照顧這方面的差 異,以下需作深入探討。 表一 學生了解升學就業使用的途徑 學生了解升學就業曾使用的途徑 學生曾使用 的途徑 對學生最有幫 助的三項途徑 與朋友或同學傾談 90% 36% 搜尋互聯網 85% 37% 與家人或親戚傾談 82% 42% 參加升學講座 77% 35% 與學校老師個別或分組傾談 72% 49% 大眾傳媒(例如:報紙/電視/電台) 65% 12% 參加大專院校的開放日/導覽行程 60% 19% 進行學習及事業興趣評估(如生涯地圖) 52% 6% 參加就業講座 50% 10% 與自己有興趣從事的工作的人士傾談 49% 18% 參加入學面試工作坊 33% 8% 參觀工作場所 27% 3% 參加生涯規劃營 23% 2% 參加求職面試工作坊 22% 5% 參加大學課程體驗班/體驗營 20% 5% 參加「應用學習課程」(ApL)導引課程 20% 2% 使用「青年就業起點」等政府服務 16% 1% 參加工作影子計劃(工作體驗) 14% 4% 參加「學校-企業夥伴計劃」 13% 1% 參加學校與僱主合辦的課程 13% 2% 參加招聘會 12% 3% 7 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 2.1 家庭背景對學生升學的影響 筆者採用「香港青少年之追蹤研究」於 2013年完成第一期的問卷調查數據, 嘗試從 2,741位受訪的中學生的教育期望及背景資料,分析來自不同社經背景的青 少年在期望升讀專上教育課程的差異。以下從個人背景、父母教育程度及職業地位 方面,分析這些因素對青少年教育期望構成的影響。 表二顯示:超過 66%的受訪青少年期望升讀學士或以上的課程,其次為副學位 課程(14.7%),另有 6.2%期望升讀文憑或證書課程,由此可見香港有 88%高中 生(中四及中五)期望升讀專上教育課程,當中期望升讀學士或以上的課程由 2012 年的 51%升至 2013年的 66%,是明顯的升溫效應(heat-up)(王杰,2013);更值 得注意的是,有一成多(12.7%)的青少年在高中畢業後沒有升讀任何專上教育課 程的期望。 此外,期望升讀學士或以上課程的男生與女生差異並不顯著;但女生傾向期望 升讀副學位課程,其比例較男生高出 4.2%,在統計上有顯著差異。期望升讀學士或 以上課程的新移民(包括第一代及第二代移民)稍微比本地生多,但此差異在統計 上並不顯著。與來自雙親家庭的學生相比,期望升讀學士或以上課程的單親家庭學 童少了 7.1%,在統計上有顯著差異。由此可見,女生及來自單親家庭的學生在教育 期望上處於劣勢。 表二 受訪青少年的個人及家庭背景與青少年教育期望的分布 中六或以下 文憑 / 證書 高級文憑 / 副學士 學士或以上 整體受訪青少年 12.7% 6.2% 14.7% 66.3% 性別 女生 10.7% 7.7% 16.9% 64.7% 男生 14.6% 4.9% 12.7% 67.8% 移民身分 本地人 12.5% 6.0% 15.6% 65.9% 第二代移民 12.0% 5.5% 14.2% 68.3% 第一代移民 13.6% 8.9% 11.3% 66.2% 8 中六或以下 文憑 / 證書 高級文憑 / 副學士 學士或以上 家庭結構 單親家庭 14.0% 8.0% 17.3% 60.7% 雙親家庭 12.1% 5.8% 14.3% 67.8% 其他家庭類別 20.5% 2.3% 20.5% 56.8% 此外,分析亦發現父母教育程度及職業的影響亦十分顯著。就父母教育程度而 言,表三的數據顯示如果父母擁有學士或以上教育程度,其子女中約有九成期望升 讀學士或以上課程,與其他學歷父母比較,在統計上存有顯著差異。其次為具大專 學歷的父母,其子女中也有 80%期望升讀學士或以上課程。而具中三程度或以下學 歷的父母,其子女中只有約一半期望升讀學士或以上課程。在父母職業地位方面, 如父母具較高職業地位,其子女較期望升讀學士或以上課程;相反,父母從事較基 層行業,其子女的教育期望也較低,兩者在統計上亦存有顯著差異。整體來看,父 母擁有的教育程度及職業地位愈高,他們的子女追求較高教育程度的傾向較明顯。 表三 受訪青少年的父母教育程度及職業與青少年教育期望的分布 中六或以下 文憑 / 證書 高級文憑 / 副學士 學士或以上 父親教育程度 中三或以下 17.0% 8.7% 16.7% 57.6% 職業訓練 11.5% 6.5% 16.5% 65.5% 中五、中七、文憑 / 證書 10.4% 4.6% 13.1% 71.9% 大專(非學位) 9.5% 2.6% 6.0% 81.9% 學士或以上 2.9% 0.4% 5.8% 91.0% 母親教育程度 中三或以下 17.5% 8.3% 16.3% 57.9% 職業訓練 10.0% 6.9% 14.6% 68.4% 中五、中七、文憑 / 證書 10.3% 2.5% 13.2% 74.0% 大專(非學位) 4.1% 3.1% 12.2% 80.6% 學士或以上 3.0% 0.6% 6.5% 89.9% 父母職業地位 # 36.65 38.65 41.05 48.73 # 以平均數據顯示。 表二 受訪青少年的個人及家庭背景與青少年教育期望的分布(續) 9 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 2.2 家庭社經地位對優秀學生升學就業的影響 此外,分析亦發現父母教育程度及職業對學生職業期望的影響亦十分顯著,尤 其值得關注的是高能力的學生。若因為家境貧窮,使學習能力高的學生不敢期望將 來會從事各種專業工作,這對社會而言是人才的浪費。PISA 2009的研究中提供了 這方面的跨國數據,經濟合作與發展組織界定「高能力」學生為基礎能力達 4級或 以上。在 PISA 2009,香港共有 2,147名在閱讀方面高能力的學生,佔香港整體樣本 學生 44%。結果顯示,在參與 PISA的國家或地區中,韓國的高能力學生有 94%期 望升讀大學,而新加坡、紐西蘭和波蘭分別為 88%、74%和 72%,但香港高能力學 生中只有 64%期望升讀大學。 至於職業期望方面,在 PISA 2009及 2012,來自最上階層的香港學生分別有 60%及 66%期望從事專業工作,來自草根階層的只有 33%及 43%(圖二)。而進 一步分析 PISA 2012,香港高能力學生當中,來自最上階層的有 62%期望從事專業 工作,來自草根階層的只有 43%。由此可見在香港貧窮家庭成長的學生,儘管學習 能力高,但經濟上以至心理上的阻力,會影響他們對未來的期盼,甚至對將來升學 及就業的夢想與規劃。 圖二 學生期望從事專業職業與社經地位的關係 既然研究顯示家庭條件影響香港中學生的生涯規劃,那麼有甚麼途徑、方法或 措施可以協助不同背景的學生在升學就業規劃中作出明智抉擇,乃至幫助草根階層 10 擺脫背景因素所帶來的梗塞呢?政府近年重視的商校協作計劃又能否有效地幫助不 同背景的學生作出理想的升就抉擇呢? 3. 企業承擔對學生升學就業的影響 在商校合作的措施方面,教育局於 2014年 12月推出新的商校合作計劃網頁 (www.edb.gov.hk/bspp),為學校及商界伙伴提供新資訊及網上報名系統。在加強 商校合作計劃,邀請更多及不同類型的工商機構參與,目標是把商界伙伴的數目, 由 2014/15學年的 120個,增至 2017/18學年的 165個。(教育局,2015年 2月 9 日,第 18項)同時,研究在商校合作計劃下不同形式的活動,例如職場影子計劃、 導引課程、導師計劃及與校同行計劃等,並鼓勵學校將合作計劃活動融入學校課程 內⋯⋯又計劃把活動擴展至校長、教師和家長。(同上,第 19項)究竟不同的商校 合作計劃是否有效?成功個案當中的重要元素為何? 商校合作研究:成功個案 筆者的研究團隊於 2013-2014年開展了另一項商校協作計劃的調查研究,從香 港一項名為「學校起動計劃(Project WeCan)」的參與者中,收集了 3,800多位高中 學生的數據,探討參與升學就業活動與其掌握升學就業技巧的關係。結果顯示這些 來自不同家庭背景(包括出生地、家庭結構及社經地位等)的學生,從參與這項由 九倉集團轄下的商界機構提供的升就活動中,在掌握升學及就業技巧方面具有顯著 的進步。此項商校協作計劃由2011年開展,實證研究首次顯示這計劃提供的商界— 學校—大學三方協作活動,在短短三年已對學生的升就歷程和能力具正面的成效 (何瑞珠、姜培芝、楊鎮偉、李文浩,2015)。 是項研究把「學校起動計劃」所籌辦及提供的活動分為六大類:「參觀業務集 團旗下商業單位」、「出席各商業單位舉辦的公司活動」、「職業資訊或諮詢服務」、 「於各商業單位舉辦的活動中表演」、「升學資訊或諮詢服務」及「學長或導師計 劃」。 11 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 圖三 受訪學生參與「學校起動計劃」升就活動的情況 就總參與人數而言,在「學校起動計劃」中三成以上的學生曾參與「升學資訊 或諮詢服務」(32.7%)、「職業資訊或諮詢服務」(31.1%)、「參觀業務集團旗下商 業單位」(30.4%)的活動。若以參與次數來看(三次或以上),受訪學生傾向重覆參 與「升學資訊或諮詢服務」(4.9%),其次為「職業資訊或諮詢服務」(4.2%)及「於 各商業單位舉辦的活動中表演」(4.2%)(圖三)。 值得注意的是,這些由「學校起動計劃」所提供的升學或職業諮詢服務,有別 於一般校內提供的輔導資訊,它的特點在於提供多元的社會網絡及資源,由大學專 業支援單位提供意見,設計更能針對草根階層的弱勢學生的生涯發展需要,例如分 享環節會邀請與學生成長背景相似的現職員工,以其經驗分享有關如何面對求職申 請、規劃個人事業發展、評估工作市場的要求等,這些模範角色(role model)的經 驗之談能對參與學生起示範或啟發作用。至於「參觀業務集團旗下商業單位」更是 運用「集團」的資源及在商界的網絡優勢,針對在不同行業的職業環境實況,設計 有關的學習活動,參與學生獲派到「集團」屬下不同業務單位進行觀摩學習,所涵 蓋的行業包括物流、廣播、酒店、零售及物業管理等。這些活動讓學生認識該行業 的運作狀況及發展前景,從而擴闊學生對不同行業的眼界,有助他們及早規劃未來 人生。 12 此外,大學專業支援單位的參與能促進商校之間的溝通,調適雙方在合作過程 中可能出現的矛盾,例如學生的進步是經年累月的,不能如商業機構般每年結算業 績,商校合作的成效評估及歸因亦要審慎共商,因此「商業—大學—學校」協作 模式(Business-University-School BUS)有助調配資源及設計活動,尤其是照顧弱 勢群體的學校需要。在商業單位、大學及學校的共同努力下,應該可以令現行的「商 校合作」更為有效。 總結與啟示:「家校社區協作」與生涯規劃 今天互聯網資訊發達,要找尋升學及就業資訊十分方便。學校老師的輔導,再 加上政府、大專院校和企業的努力,為中學生提供豐富的升學及就業資訊和體驗機 會,期望令中學生找到理想的出路。然而,從學生或家長的角度出發,所有提供的 資訊、體驗和輔導,是否有實質的幫助呢? 本文嘗試綜合筆者近年的三個實證研究,探討家庭及個人因素對青少年升就期 望的影響。從學生的角度而言,本文提出家庭成員及校內師友是學生商討最多的對 象,亦是感到最受用的重要途徑。由此可見,家校合作在中學生的生涯規劃上十分 重要,雖然教育局指出:「在 2014年 5至 7月期間分別為公營中學逾 1,000名校長 及教師舉辦了 3場簡介會,以及跟家庭與學校合作事宜委員會、家長教師會聯會及 家長教師會委員會晤,向持份者解釋生涯規劃教育的政策目標及推行細節,並鼓勵 家長支持子女訂立個人及升學就業目標。」(教育局,2015年 2月 9日,第 16項) 可是,這些委員會及聯會的會晤,對前線老師及家長有何實質幫助呢? 筆者現正進行的跟進訪談顯示,弱勢學生的家庭雖然十分關心子女的前途,但 學生多表示家長未能給予適切的升學就業資訊,大部份均需要老師的個別支援及輔 導。儘管政府於 2016年提出:將「全數資助中學提供應用學習課程;延長『職業 教育和就業支援先導計劃』,以惠及多兩屆共 2,000名學生;以及支持主要的職業 專才教育機構舉辦大型技能比賽,選拔香港代表參與世界技能大賽等。」(梁振英, 2016年 1月 13日,第 196條)然而,這些措施顯然未能讓家庭及學校掌握職業導 向課程的定位。在升學導向的華人社會,以及政府所提倡的多元學習及多元出路的 真實前景下,家長與老師均需了解職業導向課程在升學上的銜接及就業上的對口數 據,以輔助學生作適切的選擇。 13 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 本文的數據更顯示:來自父母教育程度、職業階層及家庭結構等家庭因素及 學生性別,與學生升學就業期望或就業能力有顯著關係。父母教育程度偏低,職 業階層偏低,來自單親家庭及身為女生等因素,讓學生升就期望或升就能力更易 處於弱勢。這個現象反映了因缺乏家庭資源的弱勢學生,其父母背景和家庭資源可 能未必能提供適切的指導和支援,以致他們在掌握升就的能力較低。為此教育局 宜加強家校社區協作,仔細分析社區資源、教師培訓及家長教育上怎樣協調,以 回應不同背景的青少年在生涯規劃上的多元需要。從研究的角度而言,本文發現 的家長背景和家庭資源對青少年的升就前途的影響,與中外不少相關研究相近, 正如 Lareau(2003)在《不平等的童年》(Unequal Childhoods)一書中提出一個十年 的追蹤研究結果:家長社經背景透過兩種不同的親職模式—協商培育(concerted cultivation)及自然成長(natural growth),影響到孩子最終達至不同社經階層的成 人(adulthood),本文研究所及可見當前中學畢業生升就期望的社經分隔,在現時 種種生涯規劃的措施下,若能開展一個追蹤研究,結合量化與質化的證據,便可進 一步了解家庭學校及社區是如何塑造不同背景的青少年的生涯面貌。 研究也對學生在「商校協作」活動的參與作出分析,研究發現父母的社經地位 偏低者,在協助子女的升就決定和部署上有顯著的限制,可是弱勢的學生若能參與 仔細規劃的商界 /社區學習活動,將能豐富其升就資訊和體驗。由此可見,「商校 協作」的活動對提升弱勢學生的升就能力明顯發揮重要的影響力,而弱勢學生可透 過參與職業相關的活動,加強他們在升就路向的規劃和準備。可是,商協合作計劃 的成功必須根據學生的背景設計具學習經歷的活動,透過大學的協調,這些商界的 交流及體驗活動,才能配合學生的需要,讓學生能進一步確立對職業的興趣、認識 工作範疇和具備的資歷條件等,從而協助他們在升就選擇階段作出適切的過渡。 一般而言,教育體系可以通過正規和非正規的生涯介入(career intervention)幫 助學生進行生涯規劃。正規的生涯介入主要是以生涯規劃課程形式開展生涯教育, 生涯規劃課程以諮詢和指導的方法幫助學生實現自我察覺、生涯察覺,進行生涯規 劃和決策,如李子建、江浩民(2015)提出生涯規劃課程或計劃的實施方式,可包 括獨立的課節(例如班主任課 /輔導成長課)、校本課程 /計劃、跨科目及活動滲 透方式等;可是,在升學導向的華人社會,非正規模式生涯介入,包含校外的社區 活動及工作間經驗,可能是更適合的切入點,其中香港政策特別重視「商校協作」, 14 借助企業的資源開展工場參觀、實習等活動,能幫助學生進行生涯探索,形成升學 就業技能,為學生做出明智的生涯規劃和生涯決策提供前提條件。最後,哪些項目 切實有利於青年人作出就業的準備,仍有待持續多元的評估,其中學生的聲音尤其 重要。學生不能被規劃,學生必須是規劃自身人生的主體。 鳴謝 本文作者特此分別感謝香港研究資助局優配研究金(General Research Fund, GRF)資助「香港青少年追蹤研究」(A Longitudinal Study of Adolescents in Hong Kong: Transition from Secondary School, HKLSA)(編號:444412),以及「PISA 為 本學校改進計劃」研究(PISA-based School Improvement Project, PSIP)的支持。此 外,還要感謝 HKLSA 研究團隊對本文初稿提出的寶貴意見。本文內容只反映作者 意見,並不代表資助機構立場。 參考文獻 王杰(2013)。〈影響日本青少年學歷期待縱向變化的原因分析—東北地區某小城 市的調查結果〉。《中日教育論壇》,第 3期,46-55。 何瑞珠、姜培芝、楊鎮偉、李文浩(2015)。〈「商界—學校」協作:裝備香港弱 勢學生升學就業技能〉。《教育學報》,第 43(1)期,153-177。 李子建、江浩民(2015)。〈生涯規劃教育理論與實踐:邁向優質教育〉。《香港教師 中心學報》,第 14卷,89-106。 教育局(2015年 2月 9日)。〈推行生涯規劃教育的進展報告〉[立法會 CB(4) 457/14-15(04)號文件]。香港:立法會。 梁振英(2014年 1月 15日)。《二零一四年施政報告:讓有需要的得到支援,讓年 青的各展所長,讓香港得以發揮》。香港:香港特別行政區政府。 梁振英(2015年 1月 14日)。《二零一五年施政報告:重法治,掌機遇,作抉擇, 推進民主,發展經濟,改善民生》。香港:香港特別行政區政府。 梁振英(2016年 1月 13日)。《二零一六年施政報告:創新經濟,改善民生,促進 和諧,繁榮共享》。香港:香港特別行政區政府。 15 青少年的生涯規劃:家庭、學校與社區協作 梁湘明(2005)。〈生涯規劃:跨理論假設與實施策略〉。《亞洲輔導學報》,第 12(1 及 2)卷,79-93。 曾俊華(2014年2月26日)。《二零一四至一五財政年度—政府財政預算案》。 香港: 香港特別行政區政府。 曾俊華(2015年2月25日)。《二零一五至一六財政年度—政府財政預算案》。 香港: 香港特別行政區政府。 Arrington, K. (2000). Middle grades career planning programs. Journal of Career Development, 27(2), 103-109. Gottfredson, L. S. (1996). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development: Applying contemporary approaches to practice (3rd ed., pp. 179-232). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gottfredson, L. S. (2002). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self- creation. In D. Brown & Associate (Eds.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp. 85-148). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Applying Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise in career guidance and counseling. In S. D. Brown & R. T. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 71- 100). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: class, race, and family life. London, England: University of California Press Limited. Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282-298. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development (2nd ed., pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 16 Career and life planning: Home, school and community collaboration HO Sui Chu Esther Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Abstract This paper attempts to analyze the major policies and initiatives related to career and life planning implemented by the Government in recent years. Based on the findings of three related empirical studies conducted by the author, the significant factors affecting adolescents’ career and life planning are delineated and the feasible career intervention measures are examined. These studies have indicated that there is a wide gap in the capabilities of career and life planning among students from different family backgrounds; this is the variable that has not been catered adequately for by the Government. This paper concludes by suggesting that home-school-community collaboration, and business-school partnership coordinated by university professionals may be the promising gateways to assist adolescents, especially those from underprivileged families, to make appropriate career and life plans. Keywords career and life planning, home-school-community collaboration, business-school partnership 17 《香港教師中心學報》,第十五卷 © 香港教師中心,2016 探討生涯規劃的迷思: 以幼兒教育專業為例 區耀輝 香港公開大學李嘉誠專業進修學院 摘要 近年幼稚園教師成為香港年青人趨之若鶩的職業,大學的職前幼兒教育課程成為聯 招辦法中競爭最激烈的課程。然而修讀此科目的學生普遍對幼兒教育專業缺乏認 識,對選擇幼師作為終身職業並沒經過認真和審慎的考慮。本港幼稚園教師流失率 一直高企,教師團隊不穩定,直接影響幼兒教育的質素。教育當局近年積極推動在 高中階段推行生涯規劃教育,並調撥資源配合計劃的推行。生涯規劃教育是否能改 變年輕人對個人學業和事業發展的態度?本文將以幼兒教育專業為例作出探討。 關鍵詞 生涯規劃,幼兒教育,幼稚園教師 一、前言 隨著本地出生率回升,社會對學前教育越來越重視,政府亦加強對幼兒教育的 資源投放。學前教育工作成為現今不少年輕人的理想職業,近年「幼兒教育」一直 是大學聯合招生辦法中競爭最激烈的學科之一(劉家莉,2015;陳建平,2015)。 另一方面,統計數據卻顯示幼稚園教師的流失率一直偏高。根據教育局提供的數字, 18 2014/15年度幼稚園教師整體流失率達 9.2% 1。比較 2009/10和 2013/14年度的幼師 流失率,更發現數字是連年上升(見表一)(教育局,2015)。筆者在工作上與幼稚 園校長、職前幼師培訓課程在讀學生等有親身接觸。無論是投身幼兒教育行業的新 教師,還是接受幼師培訓的學生,他們中有不少人在作出選擇幼兒教育工作之前, 對幼兒教育專業只有片面和零碎的認識。當中較大問題是缺乏對幼兒教育工作的具 體體驗,以致在實習和實際工作中顯得無所適從,未能積極面對幼教工作的壓力和 困難,最終放棄學業或工作,造成人才流失和資源浪費。這種情況實非社會所樂見。 表一 本地幼稚園教師流失率(%) 2009/10 學年 2013/14 學年 2014/15 學年 幼兒教育證書課程或同等訓練(或以上) 4.8% 6.6% 7.2% 合格幼稚園教師或同等訓練 6.9% 13.4% 18.5% 合格助理幼稚園教師訓練 41.7% 30.8% 13.3% 未受訓練教師 29.7% 22.5% 31.5% 整體 6.8% 8.0% 9.2% 取自教育局〈統計資料:幼稚園教育〉 (2015年 12月 22日) 出現以上的情況,當中頗大的原因是學生在進修和擇業上掌握的資料不足,未 能深入分析個人狀況和相關專業是否配合。行政長官在 2014年施政報告中提出「加 強生涯規劃」的新措施,並調撥資源落實政策,有關做法是否能改變時下年輕人對 個人學業和事業發展的態度?現時推行的生涯規劃課程能否對症下藥,推動家庭、 學校以至整個社會的參與?本文將以幼兒教育專業為例作出探討。 二、「生涯規劃」與「生涯規劃」教育 1. 「生涯規劃」的意涵 根據教育局提供的定義,生涯規劃是指「一個深思熟慮的過程,讓人能整全地 規劃一生,包括生命中重要的範疇,如工作、學習、人際關係和閒暇。這過程也要 求人在其社會環境中按步驟積極地實施所定的計劃。」(教育局學校發展分部升學 _______________ 1 「流失教師」是指截至上一學年九月中,曾在本地幼稚園任教,但在截至有關學年九月中已不再在任何一所幼稚 園任教的教師(教育局〈統計資料:幼稚園教育〉)。 19 探討生涯規劃的迷思:以幼兒教育專業為例 及就業輔導組,2014,頁 5)。梁湘明綜合不同學者對「生涯規劃」的看法,指出生 涯規劃(Life and career planning)和就業輔導(Employment counselling)及事業輔導 (Career counselling)不同。「當事人問的首要問題,是與人生意義和目的有關的問 題。輔導員要幫助當事人探索人生和事業目標,建立職業志向,並在不同的生活場 所(例如辦公室、家庭、社區)和活動(例如工作、學習、休閒)中實踐這些目標。」 (梁湘明,2005,頁 81)(見圖一)。 圖一 生涯規劃的目標 取自梁湘明(2005),〈生涯規劃:跨理論假設與實施策略〉,頁 82。 由此可見,生涯規劃比一般學業、職業及事業輔導,有更寬闊和深入的關注層 面,對當事人的主動參與也有更高的要求。假設學生選擇以「幼稚園教師」為職 業,過去升學就業觀強調學生須了解幼稚園教師的工作性質、薪酬福利和發展空間 等層面,學生或須檢視個人性格與幼教工作的共同點,也須了解成為專業幼稚園教 師的學歷要求,從而選擇修讀合適的課程以取得認可資歷。然而,學生從「生涯規 20 劃」角度出發,更需要考慮自己的人生目標、如何分配和善用自己的時間,以致通 過學習和工作實現個人信念和理想,追求豐盛和有意義的人生。從這角度分析,學 生須思考自己對教育的信念,建立幼兒為本、尊重個體差異等的理念,下定決心從 事幼兒教育工作,不單視之為一份職業,更須具有強烈的使命感,把培育幼兒成長 作為實踐人生目標的終身事業。這樣便有更大動力投入相關的學習和工作,面對逆 境時也有信心克服困難和挑戰,達致成功。 2 「生涯規劃」教育 從 2014/15學年開始,教育局向每所合資格學校發放「生涯規劃津貼」,以常 規撥款方式進行。局方強調「有效的生涯規劃教育的要素是教師必須意識到作為『具 影響力的成年人』,他們扮演著指導學生認識自我的角色,以及隨時支援學生從認 識自我中肯定自我及發揮潛能。」,並期望計劃能通過一組教師的共同推動,鼓勵 「全校參與」(教育局,2014,頁 2)。 此外,民政事務局亦推出「青年生涯規劃活動資助計劃」,贊助非政府機構與 中學合作,推行活動以提升學生及家長 /教師對生涯規劃及多元出路的了解和認知 (民政事務局,2014)。 在具體內容方面,教育局「生涯規劃」教育框架,包括三大元素,分別是「自 我認識及發展」、「職業探索」和「生涯規劃與管理」三部分(香港輔導教師協會, 2013)。「自我認識及發展」部分主要讓學生反思個人背景、特質、興趣、理想專業 等方面,通過全面分析找到個人學業和事業發展的方向和目標。「職業探索」是指 通過具體的學習活動,在新學制「工作有關的體驗」的學習中,讓學生加強對各行 各業的認識,拉近學生對學習生活和職業生涯在認知和經驗上的距離。「生涯規劃 與管理」涉及具體的升學就業知識和技能,包括撰寫求職信、改善面試技巧和尋找 升學就業資料等能力(香港輔導教師協會,2013)。 三、政府推行「生涯規劃」的迷思 上面概述生涯規劃的意涵及生涯規劃教育的內容,筆者認為「生涯規劃」教育, 大致能涵蓋各個重要範疇,讓學生更認真和深入考慮個人性向和未來事業的關係, 21 探討生涯規劃的迷思:以幼兒教育專業為例 有助他們建立清晰發展目標。然而有幾方面仍須進一步思考,界定生涯規劃教育的 目標和內容,才能真正發揮「生涯規劃」教育的效果。有關分析如下: 1. 迷思一 教育局指出「生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導應涵蓋所有學生,不論其能力、志 向和就讀年級。」(教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組,2014,頁 11)。為什 麼當局只撥款予高中班級推行「生涯規劃」教育? 2. 迷思二 教育局提出「生涯規劃是一個深思熟慮的過程,讓人能整全地規劃一生,包括 生命中重要的範疇,如工作、學習、人際關係和閒暇。這過程也要求人在其社會環 境中按步驟積極地實施所定的計劃。」(教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組, 2014,頁 5)。「生涯規劃」教育的具體內容為什麼仍局限在升學就業層面,而非考 慮生命中各重要的範疇,如工作、學習、人際關係和閒暇等方面? 3. 迷思三 「為促進學生的生涯規劃 /事業發展,我們倡議學校全面策劃並推行生涯規劃 教育及升學就業輔導服務。因此,生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務不單是升學就 業輔導組的責任,服務應由學校領導帶領,升學就業輔導人員統籌和監察,並需要 班主任、科任教師和其他學校人員的支援。」(教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔 導組,2014,頁 12)。在生涯規劃教育中,教育及升學既然是主要範疇,相關的持 分者,如大專院校、各行各業的僱主等是否應有更大程度的參與,而非只是擔任支 援和合作的角色? 筆者從三方面提出了官方在推行生涯規劃教育上的迷思,下面會作更深入的探 討,並嘗試提出改善的建議。 22 四、問題討論和建議 1. 加強對不同級別「生涯規劃教育」的指引和支援 在教育局建議學校使用的六項切合本地中學情況的生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔 導原則中,其中一項是「生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導應涵蓋所有學生,不論其能 力、志向和就讀年級」(教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組,2014,頁 11)。 政府對學校推行「生涯規劃」教育的財政支持,卻只聚焦於高中班級(《教育局通 告第 6/2014號—生涯規劃津貼》:「由 2014/15學年起,為每所開辦高中班級的 公營學校提供一項額外的經常現金津貼,用以加強為學生提供的生涯規劃教育元 素。」。既然「生涯規劃教育」應涵蓋所有學生,在資源配套上便應該作出配合, 加強支援不同班級學生在生涯規劃上的學習,而非側重高中學生的需要。 以認識幼兒教育專業為例,除了高中學生,學校也可為初中學生安排參觀學前 機構、邀請專業幼兒教育工作者主持講座、安排初中學生擔任幼兒教育活動的義工 等。讓學生早些了解幼兒教育專業的性質和內涵,有足夠時間醞釀對幼教工作的興 趣,並在往後的學習階段中進一步認識幼教專業不同範疇的知識。 2. 強化「生涯規劃教育」的學習內容 教育局指出,「生涯規劃」並非單純的職業及升學輔導,而是「一個深思熟慮 的過程,讓人能整全地規劃一生,包括生命中重要的範疇⋯⋯」(教育局學校發展 分部升學及就業輔導組,2014) 但觀乎局方提供的「生涯規劃」學習框架,學習內容仍是頗側重於學生對升學、 就業知識和技能方面的掌握,未能真正觸及生命中的不同範疇。(如教育局提出「生 涯規劃」教育的三個元素:「自我認識及發展」、「職業探索」和「生涯規劃與管理」 三部分仍是強調配合高中學生在升學和就業上的需要) 筆者認為,既然政府對「生涯規劃教育」的定位包括生命中的不同範疇,在 學習內容上便不應局限在升學就業方面的相關資訊和技能。以幼兒教育專業為例, 學生須思考個人對教育信念的選擇,認同和擁護兒童為本的幼教價值觀等,相關的 23 探討生涯規劃的迷思:以幼兒教育專業為例 反思和理念形成非一促而蹴,更重要是由富幼教經驗的專業人士帶領討論和思考, 讓學生逐步形成堅實的教育信念,即使面對挑戰也能堅強面對而不輕言放棄。學者 靳艷玲、劉朝華認為,生涯規劃教學中應「滲透理想、信念的教育。使學生明確自 己的理想和信念⋯⋯滲透價值觀、人生觀教育,引導學生樹立正確的價值觀和人生 觀。」(靳艷玲、劉朝華,2012,頁 114)他們的意見很值得我們借鏡和參考。 3. 加強社會人士,特別是僱主和相關專業人士在「生涯規劃教育」上的角色 教育局指出「生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導不可能只是一位或少數教師的責 任,而是需要一組教師,能全校參與則更為理想。」(教育局,2014,頁2) ,又強調「在 規劃和提供生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務 /計劃方面,應與家長、教師、功能 小組、科組、學校領導、其他學校人員,以及非政府機構、工商界的僱主、進修機 構聯繫 /建立緊密的合作關係」(教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組,2014,頁 14),顯示有關當局已意識到社會的參與對推行生涯規劃教育的重要性。 然而筆者認為,社會人士,尤其是僱主和業內人士的參與,不應被動的停留在 受學校邀請而給予支援或配合的層次,在籌劃及推行的階段,學校更應與相關社會 人士及組織合作,共同商議推行針對不同專業的「生涯規劃教育」方案計劃。以幼 兒教育專業為例,一般中學教師對幼教生態系統缺乏認識,如能與幼兒教育專業 人士,如幼稚園校監、校董、校長和教師共同籌劃針對幼教專業的「生涯規劃教育」 學習活動,引入「案例教學」2等方法(郭鳳玲,2012,頁 178), 學生對幼兒教育 專業便可望有更深入的了解和認識,有助他們建立正確的教育信念,踏出成為專業 幼教工作者的第一步。 五、總結 社會對學前教育越來越關注,幼兒教育工作者的地位亦有所提高。隨着學券計 劃、免費幼稚園教育等政策的發展,政府亦增加資源推動學前教育,將有助進一步 _______________ 2 「案例教學」是一種通過模擬或重現現實生活中的一些場景,讓學生把自己納入案例場景,通過討論或研討來進 行學習的一種教學方法。案例教學法是職業生涯規劃常用的一種教學方法。教材每課都配置案例,這些案例具 有高度的模擬性、是學生理論聯繫實際的有效教學方法之一,是將書本理論知識轉化為現實能力的有效途徑(郭 鳳玲,2012,頁 178)。 24 提升幼兒教育工作者的專業地位,吸引更多年輕人從事幼教工作。教育是神聖的工 作,教師的操守和專業素養,對幼兒有直接的影響。近年大專院校的幼師培訓課程 炙手可熱,但幼師流失率卻連年上升,年輕人有否同時了解幼兒教育工作者面對的 困難,如資源不足、人手緊張、工作壓力沉重和發展機會不足等問題(〈人手改善 不大 監管工作增加 幼師工作量有望改善?〉,2015)才作出決定? 「生涯規劃」讓青年人有機會深入認識自己的性格和特質,從而在升學就業上 作出最適當的選擇,然而,生涯規劃實不只限於職業和就業輔導,而是「一個人或 組織的人生觀、價值觀和方法論,在個人或員工職業發展上的集中體現。」(齊振 彪,2011,頁 28)。「生涯規劃」也不只適合於某些年級的學生。筆者認為,政府 應在財政上支援學校不同年級的學生,並須加強生涯規劃教育框架的內容,令生涯 規劃「成為一項富有意義的工作,為學生帶來不一樣的人生。」 (吳克儉,2014)。 時下年青人多從功利和現實的角度計劃個人的前途,較少考慮自己的性格、個 人興趣和理想等因素而作決定,因此在升學和就業的取態上亦較為短視。「生涯規 劃」教育能引導年青人深入地自我反思,從而在規劃個人前途上作出客觀和理性的 決定,因此我們在提出批評的同時,也必須充分肯定其正面積極的意義。 參考文獻 〈人手改善不大 監管工作增加 幼師工作量有望改善?〉(2015,10月26日)。《教 協報》幼教版,650期,頁 1。 民政事務局(2014)。《青年生涯資助計劃》。香港:民政事務局。 吳克儉(2014,5月 11日)。〈局中人語:生涯規劃 掌握機遇〉。取自 http://www. edb.gov.hk/tc/about-edb/press/insiderperspective/insiderperspective20140511.html。 香港特別行政區政府(2014)。《二零一四年施政報告:讓有需要的得到支援,讓 年青的各展所長,讓香港得以發揮》,第 105段:加強生涯規劃。取自 http:// www.policyaddress.gov.hk/2014/chi/p105.html。 香港輔導教師協會(2013)。《新學制@生涯地圖》。香港:香港輔導教師協會。 25 探討生涯規劃的迷思:以幼兒教育專業為例 教育局(2014 , 5 月 9 日)。《教育局通告第 6/2014號—生涯規劃津貼》。香港: 教育局。 教育局(2015)。〈統計資料:幼稚園教育〉。2015年 12月 22日,取自 http://www. edb.gov.hk/tc/about-edb/publications-stat/figures/kg.html。 教育局學校發展分部升學及就業輔導組(2014)。《中學生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔 導指引》。香港:教育局。 梁湘明(2005)。〈生涯規劃:跨理論假設與實施策略〉。《亞洲輔導學報》,第12卷, 第 1及 2期,頁 79-93。 郭鳳玲(2012)。〈淺談職業生涯規劃課程教學〉。《新課程學習(社會綜合)》,第 12卷,頁 178。 陳建平(2015,12月 4日)。〈教院幼兒教育 聯招 118人爭 1學位〉。《蘋果日報》。 取自 http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/20151204/19398883。 靳艷玲、劉朝華(2012)。〈淺談如何發揮「職業生涯規劃」課程的德育功能〉。《教 育教學論壇》,第 9卷,頁 114。 齊振彪(2011)。〈生涯規劃為何「失靈」—論職業生涯的理論假設〉。《人力資源 管理》,第 6卷,頁 28-30。 劉家莉(2015,5月 22日)。〈聯招改選結束 教院幼教受捧〉。《大公報》,A13 教育版。取自 http://news.takungpao.com.hk/paper/q/2015/0522/3006773.html。 26 Explore the myth of life and career planning: Becoming an early childhood practitioner as an example AU Yiu Fai James Li Ka Shing Institute of Professional and Continuing Education, The Open University of Hong Kong Abstract In recent years, many young people in Hong Kong long for becoming kindergarten teachers. Pre-service training courses for kindergarten teachers is one of the most popular programmes in the JUPAS system. However, most of the students lack understanding of early childhood education and they have not given serious consideration before choosing teaching as their lifelong career. Over the years, the wastage rate of teachers in pre-primary institutions stays high, and the quality of early childhood education has been afflicted by the instability of the teaching force. The government has been actively promoting the implementation of “Life and Career Planning” education at the senior secondary level through the provision of enormous supporting resources. Can such measures successfully change young people’s attitude towards their personal and career development? This is the issue that this article attempts to explore and examine with respect to early childhood education. Keywords Life and career planning, early childhood education, kindergarten teachers 27 《香港教師中心學報》,第十五卷 © 香港教師中心,2016 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的 角色及其啟示 李子建、秦偉燊 香港教育大學 摘要 自從施政報告於 2014 提倡全面推行生涯規劃教育,生涯規劃教育成為高中教育的 一個嶄新領域。政府建議生涯規劃教育應以全校參與模式推行,老師則可以由升學 及就業輔導老師逐步過渡至生涯規劃教育老師,扮演協調者、指導者和輔導者的角 色。本文嘗試引用一項香港國際比較研究的部份數據,探討老師在生涯規劃教育的 角色,以及未來香港生涯規劃教育的發展方向。 關鍵詞 生涯規劃教育,生涯規劃教育老師,全校參與模式 香港生涯規劃教育推行的背景 面對全球化及社會日益複雜的環境,新一代的青年需要應對前所未有快速的資 訊科技發展及知識增長。加上香港是一個國際大都會,擁有優秀表現的教育系統, 可見是一個追求創新的自由經濟城市(Marsh & Lee, 2014)。在這種脈絡下,全球 化及知識型經濟下青年需要迎接不同的挑戰,生涯規劃教育的發展將有助培養香港 的青年成為創新型人才,提升個人競爭力(李子建、江浩民,2015,頁 94-95)。有 見及此,2014年施政報告中首次提及有意全面拓展生涯規劃教育,支援現時學校提 供的升學及就業輔導服務。政府建議在 2014/15學年增撥約 50萬的額外經常津貼, 28 _______________ 1 政府同時支援「商校合作計劃」的發展,鼓勵不同的社區組織和工商機構加強合作,協助學生從實習中吸收更 多職場經驗,加強中學生理解個人生涯的發展(香港特別行政區政府,2014)。2015年施政報告則提出持續 性的支援,推動社區組織和工商機構與學校建立完善的協作系統,驅使不同工商機構和組織及學校參與(香港 特別行政區政府,2015,頁 156)。2016年的施政報告中,甚至進一步投放資源,鼓勵更多合約教師變為常額 教師職位,兩年後再檢討學校的做法,支援生涯規劃教育與其他有關輔導服務的發展(香港特別行政區政府, 2016,頁 190-191)。 2 教育局的最新指引對生涯規劃教育有以下定義:「生涯規劃不但是一項持續和終身的過程,還可協助學生達成 人生不同階段目標。⋯⋯透過生涯規劃教育,培養學生獲得所需知識、技能及態度,連繫學生個人的學業 /事 業抱負發展,促成學生全人發展及終身學習的需要,為學生在需要時能夠作出正確的升學和就業選擇。」(教育 局,2014a,頁 4-5)。 大概相約於一名學位教師職級薪金予學校支援生涯規劃教育的發展,並在繼後的兩 年的施政報告中持續加強支援 1,顯示政府對生涯規劃教育的重視,有意將生涯規 劃教育成為未來教育發展的重心之一。 香港生涯規劃教育的源起,可追溯至《香港教育制度改革建議》中提倡學生應 該獲取更多與工作有關的經歷,為未來就業作好準備(教育統籌委員會,2000,頁 17-18)。 繼後則進一步將生涯規劃的理念初步提及於新高中課程之中(教育統籌局, 2006,頁 16)。直至 2015年,生涯規劃教育更進一步與職業教育結合,推動香港職 業專才教育的發展(推廣職業教育專責小組,2015,頁 12)。教育改革無疑為生涯 規劃的推行提供重要基礎,一方面希望學生認識自己的興趣和能力,另一方面可以 瞭解未來的職場世界,當中老師仍然最能影響學生的生涯規劃(香港大學民意研究 計劃,2015,頁 9)。 簡而言之,生涯規劃教育 2不能與事業發展完全切割,兩者是相輔相成。生涯 規劃除了觸及個人事業的發展路徑,當中亦包括了不同的生命範疇,例如人際網絡、 家庭、學習和工作等。生涯規劃強調生涯抉擇應該深思熟慮,方可令學生從整全 (holistic)的角度規劃自己的生涯方向(梁湘明,2005,頁 81)。 從教育局最新的文件顯示,現時生涯規劃教育整體成效令人滿意(立法會, 2015,頁 2-3)。超過八成的學校已融入生涯規劃教育的元素,顯示生涯規劃教育已 出現範式轉變。學校將採用全面的模式,推動生涯規劃教育,而並非再只屬於發放 升學就業資訊的場所(立法會,2015,頁 2-3)。在政府的支援下,生涯規劃教育發 展基礎漸趨穩固,局方並承諾會定期檢視業界需要,令香港的生涯規劃教育得以成 功。 29 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 生涯規劃教育的演變 香港推行生涯規劃教育之前,大多由升學及就業輔導組負責學生的生涯規劃, 但傳統上仍側重於升學歷程,對工作歷程的著墨及重視不多(楊家正、鄭立德, 2003,頁 41-42)。一般而言,升學及就業輔導主任的主要職責包括為學生安排個人 / 小組輔導和籌備不同有關升學及就業的活動等(教育署升學及輔導服務組,2002,頁 4)。不過,在全新的生涯規劃教育發展中,需要與升學就業輔導服務互相配合,提 供不同類型的服務。有關服務除了提升學生的能力,協助他們作出知情和負責任生 涯選擇外,還應加強技能的裝備,使學生能夠在職場中充份發揮個人的潛能,協助 學生適應從學校到職場的過渡,促使學生邁向豐盛人生(教育局,2014a,頁 11)。 在最新的架構下,升學及就業輔導服務將與生涯規劃教育融合,升學及就業輔 導組的角色將變成由整體學校策動。在校本原則下,整體架構將會由學校管理層統 籌,升學就業輔導老師、輔導老師,科任老師、班主任、其他學校人員和家長將會 擔當其餘諮詢和教育職責。學校需為升學就業輔導人員提供靈活度,鼓勵他們嘗試 作出角色或職責上的範式轉變,在此基礎下安排與工作經驗相關的活動,提供與之 前不同的全面生涯規劃教育及升學就業輔導服務(教育局,2014a,頁 15)。因此, 生涯規劃教育適宜考慮採用「全校參與」的模式,讓不同角色人士包括學校管理層、 班主任、科任老師和輔導老師等通力合作。「全校參與」模式是指從不同範疇的互 相配合,在校園政策、措施和文化三方面提升整體的教學效能(教育局,2014b, 頁 11)。這種模式不但有助加強教師之間的合作,也帶動學生得到廣闊的學習空間, 支援不同學生的實際需要(馮育意,2006)。生涯規劃教育在「全校參與」模式推 動下,輔導老師主要負責與班主任和其他校內人士協調,關注學生成長路途上的起 跌和轉折,協助規劃人生未來的路向,全面發展自己的潛能(香港輔導教師協會, 2014,頁 2-3)。 生涯規劃教育老師的角色 學生畢業後不論持續升學還是進入職場,兩者均屬於青少年人生的轉捩點 (Crites, 1969; Heinz, 2003)。可是有許多的學生未必有妥善的規劃,甚至並不瞭解 自己歷程需要作出甚麼決定。教師此時就要適當的引導學生,參與這方面的討論 30 _______________ 3 五大角色分別為升學及職業資訊主任(Career information officer)、教育者(Career educator)、輔導者(Career counsellor)、顧問(Career consultant)和協調者(Career coordinator)。 與規劃,作出個人生涯的抉擇。根據 Li(2007, p.7)的研究,香港的職業輔導老師 (Career teacher)可分為五大角色 3,但在生涯規劃教育推行之下,一位教師未必能 完全發揮所有功能。經作者重新整理,老師在生涯規劃教育中的角色亦出現範式轉 變,新的角色將變成協調者(Career coordinator)、指導者(Career facilitator)、和 輔導者(Career counsellor),老師理應不會只單一地扮演某一類角色。 協調者(Career coordinators)—提升學生參與生涯規劃教育的機會和個人能力 若要支援老師建立優良的校園環境,便應採取「全校參與方式」(whole school approach),建立屬於香港模式的學校輔導人員的專業分工和合作(鄭之灝,2006, 頁 121)。鑑於生涯規劃需要與各方協調,包括家長、老師、校長、僱主和其他公眾 人士,協調者的角色舉足輕重,因為一切制訂生涯規劃教育內容的安排,將全由協 調者一手包辦(徐光興,2006,頁 96-97)。身為經常與學生接觸的對象,老師需要 更新的升學和就業活動,以其專業的知識和學術經驗,協助學生對其生涯有進一步 的理解和規劃外,還要教授應用於職場的實務技能,務求學生的生涯規劃能夠滿足 整全的條件(周明蒨,2006,頁 216-218)。老師之間亦可安排不同的專業分享時段, 令所有老師最終對生涯規劃概念有基本的瞭解,共同幫助學生規劃人生。 指導者(Career facilitators)—經觀察後協助學生找出適合的自我特質與環境需求 指導者的角色是需要細心觀察每位學生的不同特質,發掘出學生的自我特質, 繼而提供適合學生的歷程方向,以便學生能夠將個人的生涯規劃逐步實踐(劉玉玲, 2007,頁 125-129)。在生涯規劃教育中,老師身為指導者便不應再只是教授知識。 老師應透過日常觀察學生所得,致力協助處於生涯探索階段的學生找出各自的人生 目標和取向。若要推動學生的生涯發展,老師便需引導學生察覺個人價值觀的不足, 擴闊學生的個人的眼界,拓展更寬闊的個人發展空間(吳芝儀,2000,頁 249)。 Super(1990)的事業發展理論中,青少年是從自我概念(self-concept)判斷個人的事 業選擇和發展,故每位青少年需要視乎個別的獨特質素以勝任不同類別的工作和職 業。既然個人事業探索需要在不同時段實踐,務必借助老師的協助建構自我概念, 31 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 故老師的指導角色不可或缺且非常關鍵,因為學生需要借老師的指導和分析不同的 生涯抉擇,從而作出關乎個人生涯的最終決定(葉至誠,2013,頁 154-163)。 輔導者(Career counsellors)—協助學生規劃自己的生涯 老師輔導工作一貫集中於處理學生個人性格、品德和情緒問題,較少觸及學生 個人生涯的發展。生涯規劃教育無疑使老師的輔導工作增添額外功夫,卻是一教學 相長的過程。透過與學生進行個人和小組輔導,不但提供機會讓老師與學生交流各 自對生涯的觀點,老師亦可從中分享個人過往的生涯經驗,啟導學生對生涯規劃的 視野(金樹人,2006,頁 79-82)。進一步而論,老師能夠在輔導的過程中,辨認出 學生的性格特徵及學生的職場興趣,引導學生嘗試發掘個人的優劣,尋找適合自己 的職業方向。因此,這個角色是眾多角色中最不可或缺,因為學生的生涯規劃可能 因時制宜變化,定期的輔導將有助老師緊貼學生的需要,發展出最適合學生的生涯 規劃(Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2012)。 研究方法 回顧香港生涯規劃教育的發展,生涯規劃教育始終處於起步階段,政府推行的 方針主要倚賴學校依據校本形式實踐。不過,有關做法是否最為恰當,教育界有不 同見解(〈誰明老師心:雞肋的生涯規劃津貼〉,2014;蔡若蓮,2016)。有見及此, 本研究團隊正在進行一項城市青年國際研究(International Study of City Youth)。作 為一項國際比較研究,城市青年國際研究致力了解世界上不同地方年輕人於學校及 學校以外地方的不同人生旅程、不同學校和課程會如何影響他們的人生體驗,特別 是了解世界不同城市的中四(或同等)學生有關他們完成中學課程後,對升學、就 業及畢業後生活的看法。 是次研究於 2013年 12月開始,為期 3年。總共訪問了超過 50所中學,超過 5,000名 15歲的本地中四學生有關他們對其個人畢業之後的選擇方向,以及其擇業 條件。之後,再邀請所有中學安排學生和老師參與焦點小組訪問,最終有 11間學 校答允參與,接受訪問邀請共有 22名老師(香港教育學院,2016)。本文從中再揀 選適合的 2間學校,9位老師的訪談意見作比較個案探討。在 2015年 3月起,研究 團隊到訪中學向老師進行焦點小組訪談。每所學校會邀請四至五位老師參與訪談, 32 其中包括一位副校長(專責學生發展)、一位升學及就業輔導(或生涯規劃教育) 主任、最少兩位升學及就業輔導(或生涯規劃教育)老師及一位專門處理生涯規劃 教育的導師(或助理)。透過與生涯規劃老師進行訪談,部份內容涉及理解現時學校 支援生涯規劃教育的情況,探討老師在生涯規劃教育的角色與對生涯規劃教育現況 的意見,以及前線老師安排和設計生涯規劃教育課程和活動時遇到的困難和挑戰。 寄望藉此建議老師在生涯規劃教育中可以扮演的角色,推動香港未來生涯規劃教育 的發展(訪談大綱請見附錄)。每次焦點小組訪談完成後,研究人員會將訪談錄音 謄寫成逐字稿。根據內容分析法,將上述老師在生涯規劃教育中角色的三大範疇進 行分類及分析,得出老師在現時教學實踐情況下的角色。以下的闡述將根據其中兩 間學校的實況作個案探討。 研究結果和討論 學校一是一所歷史悠久的學校,教學理念是針對貧苦失學的青少年提供接受教 育的機會。根據學校文件資料,2014-15學年共開設超過 20班,學生人數約 800人, 屬於第一批直接資助學校。學校二是一所成立大約 20年的學校,初期是一所職業 先修學校,及後才轉型為文法中學,以提供多元化學習機會為主要教學理念。根據 學校文件資料,2014-15學年共開設 20餘班,學生人數約 700人。表一總結了兩所 學校 9位老師數據經整理後結果: 表一 生涯規劃老師在生涯規劃教育中角色的三大範疇實踐內容 生涯規劃老師的角色 學校一 學校二 協調者 (Career coordinators) • 生涯規劃教育主任會與生 涯規劃老師協調,擬定不 同生涯規劃的課程和活動 內容。 • 生涯規劃主任邀請家長與 學生一同參與考察外國大 學,生涯規劃老師會負責 與家長聯絡解釋活動的細 節安排。 • 生涯規劃主任及老師主責 協調如何融合生涯規劃教 育概念至日常課程中。 • 生涯規劃組老師經協調後 一致同意在高中的課程加 入職業導向和課程選擇的 內容和更新升學及就業資 訊,讓學生認識不同的行 業。 33 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 表一 生涯規劃老師在生涯規劃教育中角色的三大範疇實踐內容(續) 生涯規劃老師的角色 學校一 學校二 • 生涯規劃老師會共同負責 安 排 與 工 作 有 關 的 經 驗 (CRE)的課節,是一門與 職業有關的課程。 • 生涯規劃老師安排和鼓勵學 生參與不同活動,共同監督 學生的營商體驗,提升學生 自信。 指導者 (Career facilitators) • 班主任與生涯規劃師一同處 理學生在生涯規劃的疑難, 具有互補作用。 • 高中學科老師會分享個人經 歷引導及鼓勵學生尋找適合 他們自己人生範疇的目標, 學生亦會因較為熟絡而主動 求助。 • 班主任在學生參加職場考察 後,會向學生指導其可行的 生涯規劃方向。 • 考察外國大學之後,班主任 和生涯規劃老師與家長和學 生共同商討學生的未來生涯 發展。 • 生涯規劃老師會提醒學生要 選讀一些自己有興趣的科 目,或從事自己有興趣的工 作。 • 高中學科老師致力發掘及維 持學生的學習興趣和科目興 趣。 • 生涯規劃老師會從不同的行 業人員分享中,鼓勵學生應 該對有興趣的行業多作清晰 瞭解,以及參與不同的職場 體驗活動和行業講座分享。 輔導者 (Career counsellors) • 經班主任建議和鼓勵,學生 會願意找生涯規劃師尋求輔 導。 • 學生向生涯規劃師要求協助 向家長解釋有關他們的生涯 抉擇。 • 高中學科老師、班主任及生 涯規劃師在學生有需要時, 會提供生涯輔導。 • 設 立 中 六 級 學 生 個 別 輔 導 計 劃(face-to-face counselling),高中學科老 師可以近距離圍繞升學和就 業問題和學生進行輔導,每 次 15 分鐘。 • 生涯規劃教育主任會為進行 輔導的老師提供指引,方便 高中和科任老師輔導學生。 • 高中學科老師因應學生的選 擇,在每個月各自進行一次 輔導,協助學生訂立生涯目 標,指引學生的實踐方向。 從訪談結果所得,兩間學校的老師在協調者角色的演繹上有所不同。學校一協 調的重任將落在生涯規劃主任及老師身上。生涯規劃主任會與生涯規劃老師協調, 34 擬定不同生涯規劃的課程和活動內容。主任亦會保持與家長聯絡和溝通,以家校合 作的模式推動生涯規劃,因為家長對於學生出國升學的抉擇影響力較大。生涯規劃 老師則提供支援,負責與家長聯絡解釋活動的細節安排。生涯規劃老師亦會共同負 責與工作有關的經驗(Career-related Experience, CRE)的課節,有系統地展示不同的 升學途徑,當中有本地和外國的升學資料,亦有分自資院校和資助院校。學校二的 生涯規劃主任及老師主責協調如何融合生涯規劃教育概念至日常課程中。生涯規劃 教育融入德育課程後,初中的課程內容會集中個人成長、面對前路如何作出抉擇和 認識自我優劣,高中的課程會加入職業導向和課程選擇方面,讓學生認識不同的行 業。一切生涯規劃的活動安排,均交由生涯規劃老師負責,監督學生的參與成效。 從中可見,學校一注重家長與學生之間的互動對學生生涯發展的關係,學校二則將 生涯規劃概念融入在課程和活動中,期望學生能夠觸類旁通。 根據訪談資料,學校一將由高中老師擔當學科前途的指導者,負責指導學生的 學業和就業前景發展,班主任則負責學生的自我成長發展階段。受訪老師表示,學 生的規劃方向採取務實角度,中四的時候對自己的前途較為模糊,中六時由於臨近 公開試,抉擇方向愈趨清晰。高中老師和班主任的作用,就是從旁觀察後,引導學 生在四方八面的資訊中,為自己的生涯抉擇訂下目標。在家校合作模式中,亦會由 生涯規劃老師、生涯規劃師和班主任一同為家長分憂,分析學生面對不同生涯抉擇 的影響,顯示生涯規劃老師、生涯規劃師和班主任除了需要面對學生的生涯疑問, 還有家長方面的疑問。學校二則由高中老師和生涯規劃老師擔當指導者,從發掘學 生的個人興趣為主要目標,指導學生作出最適合的抉擇。生涯規劃老師會提醒學生 要選讀一些自己有興趣的科目,或從事自己有興趣的工作。知識傳授方面,學校最 近一年曾邀請婚禮統籌師、寵物美容師、領犬員等社會上不同行業的從業員分享行 業背景和資訊,期望讓學生知道社會上的職業十分多元化。從不同的行業人員分享 中,生涯規劃老師和班主任會鼓勵學生應該對有興趣的行業多作清晰瞭解,以及參 與不同的職場體驗活動和行業講座分享,在生涯規劃老師和班主任的協助下規劃及 制訂最後的生涯抉擇。受訪老師表示,參加「學校起動計劃」後,整體學生的發展 漸趨成熟,生涯規劃老師和班主任能夠指導予參與學生需要注意地方,作為一寶貴 的工作和人生體驗。生涯規劃老師和班主任的指導者角色已不再局限於指導學生有 關職場的技能的重要性,還包括監察學生的身心得以健康發展。 35 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 從學校一的老師訪談中,透視了生涯規劃師擔當和家長學生之間的橋樑。在班 主任的建議和鼓勵下,學生會願意找生涯規劃師尋求輔導,甚至向生涯規劃師要求 協助向家長解釋有關他們的生涯抉擇,故師生之間的信任度對生涯輔導的成效和推 行有關鍵影響。學校的生涯規劃的課程方向是以達致學生全人發展為目標,全校參 與模式下老師一同擔當輔導者角色。這種全人發展的框架,全體老師的輔導角色非 常重要,因為將陪伴學生最重要的生涯發展階段。學校二的生涯輔導特色,是設立 中六級學生個別輔導計劃(face-to-face counselling),高中學科、生涯規劃主任和老 師可以近距離圍繞升學和就業問題和學生進行輔導,每次 15分鐘。老師輔導前, 生涯規劃主任會為進行輔導的老師提供指引,方便高中學科老師、生涯規劃主任和 老師輔導學生。高中學科老師因應學生的選擇,在每個月各自進行一次輔導,協助 學生訂立生涯目標,指引學生的實踐方向。受訪老師認為,每一位老師在學生的生 涯規劃中都擔當重任,故此生涯規劃不應只針對中六學生。除了生涯規劃老師,班 主任由於在中一至中六都負責同一班學生,在六年過程中不斷啓導學生成長和思考 人生,在他們不同的選擇中提供意見,儘管班主任的角色並不明顯,卻是不可或缺。 綜合訪談所得,老師在生涯規劃角色的最大挑戰,除了取消了 50萬的額外津 貼,主要是輔導者與協調者的角色難以有效執行。受訪老師明確指出,生涯輔導成 效其實需要多方面的配合才可成功。首先學生要願意尋求協助,其次老師要有額外 的時間為學生進行輔導,還要老師和學生的時間能夠互相遷就。然而,事與願違的 情況較為明顯,因為學生普遍積極性不足,減少學生接受輔導的機會,加上學生為 應付公開試需要溫習和補課,難以強迫學生接受輔導,使輔導成果可能事倍功半。 老師的工作量繁多,大多同時兼任不同的行政職位和工作,加上本身的教學工作, 對老師工作量而言是百上加斤,令老師分身不暇。由於各自時間未必能互相吻合, 老師只能在其餘閑時間主動多與學生交流,一同商討其生涯發展,對生涯輔導的實 踐及發展帶來負面影響。老師有心擔當學生的生涯輔導者,卻心有餘而力不足,故 專責處理生涯規劃的老師便顯得十分關鍵,因為專責的老師有助減輕其他老師於生 涯規劃教育中的工作量。 在協調者的角色當中,當中最大困難是要協調與事各方以全校參與的模式推動 生涯規劃教育。有生涯規劃主任表示,倘若想推行全新的生涯規劃項目,除了資源 36 上的限制,老師的配合是較為困難。由於現時老師的工作量已經非常繁重,往往不 願花太多時間推動新項目,亦不願意因應項目製訂相應的教材和工具。譬如推行個 別輔導時,有生涯輔導老師明言不熟悉具體的執行細節,生涯規劃主任便要為有關 老師準備輔導問題及範圍外,亦需要制訂生涯輔導指引和最新升學就業概覽的補充 資料供輔導老師參考,對生涯規劃主任是一種莫大的負擔。另外,生涯規劃老師往 往面對學生和家長對生涯抉擇意見分歧時,均處於一尷尬的狀態,有時難以達致面 面俱圓的效果。這時候,生涯規劃主任擔當協調角色時,便需盡力平衡各方面對生 涯規劃教育內容的期望,卻未必每次能達致雙贏的效果。同時,老師對於生涯規劃 教育內的分工可能持有不同的意見時,生涯規劃主任便擔當斡旋者的角色,令生涯 規劃主任有時出現「左右做人難」的狀況。 總結與啟示 從上述的研究和討論中,不但呈現職業輔導老師角色的範式轉變將如何有效推 動生涯規劃教育的發展,亦闡述學校支援生涯規劃教育的現況。因應現時的發展方 向,老師除需要協助學生開始個人的生涯規劃,還要致力與其專業發展融合而促使 生涯規劃教育邁向多元化和推動社區與學校的協作,老師的橋樑角色應是未來生涯 規劃教育發展的重點(何瑞珠、姜培芝、楊鎮偉、李文浩,2015)。隨著生涯規劃 教育鼓勵以校本的形式運作,容許學校彈性處理是否最明智的做法? 綜合老師訪談結果,本文嘗試建議老師於生涯規劃教育角色上的範式轉變,應 用於現時的教學實踐情況: 1. 生涯規劃主任和老師可加強協調者的角色:由於生涯規劃老師較為熟悉生涯 規劃教育的概念,他們亦是主要負責安排生涯規劃的課程和活動,因此,生 涯規劃主任和老師可嘗試協調各方的要求,調整各方的合理期望和工作內容。 譬如針對學生的需要提供升學和就業資訊外,亦能安排相關的工作實習和「就 業影子計劃」,增加學生接觸職場的體驗。生涯規劃主任和老師亦需要就生 涯規劃的課程和內容深入討論,制訂不同的工作計劃,達致合理的分工,協 調非生涯規劃組的老師的工作量,才有效達致全校參與的目標,吸引非生涯 規劃組的老師參與推行生涯規劃教育。當家長對學生生涯規劃有疑問,生涯 37 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 規劃主任和老師亦應嘗試擔當家長和學生之間的溝通橋樑,處理家長與學生 對生涯目標的分歧。 2. 高中學科和班主任可加強指導者的角色:由於班主任班務繁重,未必可全面 兼顧學生的生涯發展需要,故高中學科老師便能夠彌補當中不足。高中老師 由於熟悉學生的學科表現,在幫助學生選取合適的就讀科目將較為適當,可 為學生的個人生涯奠定良好基礎。並就其長期觀察所得,對學生的生涯進展 提供意見,甚至運用個人在個別學科的經驗,回應學生於升學或就業的提問。 譬如語文科的老師,可考慮教授撰寫履歷和求職信的技巧;歷史或地理科的 老師,則可從課程內容出發,透過介紹歷史的痕跡或現時全球化的發展,協 助學生發掘對個人生涯發展的觀點。相反,班主任的主要職責是觀察其所屬 班別學生的個人成長情況,在有需要時擔任勸說及關心的前線人員角色。因 此,推行生涯規劃教育後,班主任需要協力推行生涯輔導計劃,與負責升學 及就業輔導老師合作與學生一同籌備生涯規劃。 3. 全體老師可加強輔導者的角色:在全校參與的原則下,生涯規劃就不再局限 於由升學及就業輔導組和輔導組負責。故除繼續由升學及就業輔導組和輔導 組攜手籌辦綜合性的升學就業輔導計劃,協助學生瞭解個人於升學及就業發 展的需要外,全體老師均應考慮定期參與學生的生涯輔導,協助學生在個人 的生涯規劃中,滲透相關的元素,讓學生的生涯成長得到充份的指導。學校 亦可舉辦幫助學生了解個人生涯發展和生涯規劃技巧的活動,期望學生得以 認識自我優劣,在升學或就業方面作出正確的生涯抉擇。 參考英國經驗 4,香港以校本形式推行生涯規劃教育,應優先處理高中老師及 升學就業輔導老師的裝備,確保生涯規劃教育得以持續拓展。在生涯規劃教育的新 範式下,老師將會有多重的角色,而非再單一地引導學生學習及規劃。故此,老師 對生涯規劃概念的理解是否充份於教學,將與其專業發展息息相關。回顧現時的專 _______________ 4 英國於 2012年推行改革,將生涯教育和輔導重新納入於校本課程管理的範疇後,研究顯示成效亦遠較改革之前 欠佳。學校因預算、時間限制和人手不足,根本未能有效推行新模式的生涯教育和輔導(Youth Employment UK, 2015);僱主亦同意並非正規課程下,老師往往缺乏足夠支援與商界合作安排學生接受職場技巧的培訓和實習 機會,削弱學生個人的競爭力(Career Development Institute, 2015)。 38 業支援措施。除了 50萬的額外津貼及增加生涯規劃教育的培訓名額至 240名外, 其他的配套支援相應缺乏,加上培訓對老師帶來壓力,這將成生涯規劃教育未來發 展的一大挑戰(余卓希、李晉榮,2015)。長遠而言,如何嚮應政府要求由專業人 員主要處理生涯規劃的教育工作,達成分擔老師工作量的目標,將成未來討論重點 (香港輔導教師協會,2014)。 因應現時推行生涯規劃的情況,未來生涯規劃教育的發展方向應該集中深入 探討生涯規劃教育的理念,發揮「全校參與方式」和校本形式的優勢。加上大多 數老師未曾接受專門的生涯規劃教育的訓練,職業輔導老師的壓力也比一般老師 嚴重(袁文得、陳子康、劉兆瑛、于璐、陳茂釗、Gyshers、佘文基,2010;Yagi, 2008)。故此,採用「全校參與方式」有助增加各人在有關方面的交流,達致融合 式生涯規劃教育的目標,推動校本生涯規劃教育方向。校方管理層和老師需要協商 如何平衡生涯規劃教育和日常教學帶來的工作量失衡的問題,以推動老師成立校本 生涯規劃教育的「專業學習社群」,支援老師的持續專業發展方向,提升老師於生 涯規劃教育的專業水平(陳茂釗,2012,頁 10-12)。長遠而言,與事各方需探討老 師如何與專業人員合作,一同發展生涯規劃教育,甚至長遠考慮是否將生涯規劃教 育獨立成科,以及參考美國的做法培訓專業的生涯輔導教師,化解現時老師專業水 平的不足和工作量繁重未能兼顧生涯規劃教育的死結,促使學生從生涯規劃教育啟 迪個人的全人發展(吳芝儀,2005,頁 7-8)。 鳴謝 本文為「城市青年國際研究:香港部份」(International study of city youth)及香 港研究資助局優配研究金(General Research Fund)資助「為都市青年持續進修及 就業做好準備:一個涉及香港的國際研究」」(Preparing urban youth for further study and careers: an international study involving Hong Kong)(編號:HKIEd 843212)項目 的部分成果。同時,亦要鳴謝參與研究的所有學校,及當中 9位老師寶貴的經驗分 享,以及專業評審的意見反饋。 39 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 參考文獻 〈誰明老師心:雞肋的生涯規劃津貼〉(2014,6月 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Furlong (Ed.), Handbook of youth and young adulthood: New perspectives and agendas (pp. 3–13). Oxford, England: Routledge. Li, K. F. (2007). The roles of careers teachers in Hong Kong secondary schools. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Association of Careers Masters and Guidance Masters. Marsh, C., & Lee, J. C.K. (2014). Asia’s high performing education systems: The case of Hong Kong. In Marsh, C. & Lee, J. C.K. (Eds.), Asia’s high performing education systems: The case of Hong Kong (pp. 1-16). New York: Routledge. Niles, S. G., & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. A. (2012). Career development interventions in the 21st century. (4th ed.), Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development: Applying contemporary theories to practice (2nd ed., pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Yagi, D. T. (2008). Current developments in school counseling in Japan. Asian Journal of Counselling, 15(2), 141–155. Youth Employment UK (2015). Young people’s experience of careers education: A youth employment UK report. Retrieved from www.yeuk.org.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2015/01/YEUK-Careers-Education-Report-2015.pdf 42 附錄 教師焦點小組訪談問題(節錄與本文相關的問題) 1. 在甚麼程度上, 學校 /校內老師 /就業輔導老師 /父母 /同學或同輩,曾幫助 /曾給建議 /曾協助 你的學生為中學畢業後的升學和工作做準備? A. 在這方面,你曾做些甚麼? B. 貴校現有甚麼相關支援 /輔導 /課程 /活動? C. 還有甚麼額外的支援會對同學有所幫助?請列舉一些示例。 2. 學生在中四至中六級選擇『選修科目』時,受甚麼因素影響 ? 請具體解釋這 些因素為甚麼對他們尤其重要? 3. 你的學生有甚麼願望 /志趣? 4. 你認為你的學生會考慮 /喜歡甚麼樣的工作或受訓的機會?為甚麼?你覺得你 大部分的學生獲得專上教育的機會如何? 43 香港教師看生涯規劃教育老師的角色及其啟示 Teachers’ perspective on the role of career and life planning teachers: Implications for career and life planning education in Hong Kong LEE Chi Kin John & CHUN Wai Sun Derek The Education University of Hong Kong Abstract The recent introduction of Career and Life Planning Education (CLPE) around 2014 in Hong Kong has become an educational agenda in senior secondary schools. There are calls for the implementation of a whole-school approach and the gradual change of career teachers to career planning teachers who can assume the roles of career coordinators, career facilitators and career counsellors. In this paper, the roles of teachers in career and life planning education are explored with reference to data from an international project conducted in Hong Kong. The implications for future CLPE are also discussed. Keywords Career and life planning education, Career and life planning education teachers, whole- school approach 44 45 《香港教師中心學報》,第十五卷 © 香港教師中心,2016 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的 行動研究 梁麗嬋、潘晨健、簡永東、婁聖軻 創意教師協會 摘要 本研究採用了個體—環境配合(P-E fit)及生態系統理論,為高中生涯規劃設計了 跨科議題教材,並於通識科正規課堂試行。經歷了兩所中學四班高中學生的實踐, 研究結果顯示這套教材能有效提升學生對生涯規劃的認知,同時改善學生的情意態 度。學生能在互動參與的議題探究中掌握個人與社會生態系統的聯繫,有效讓他們 知己知彼,掌握個人能力、興趣與方向,並認知香港、中國與國際社會等全球化因 素對青少年職場發展的影響,為生涯規劃作反思性的準備。 關鍵詞 生涯規劃,議題為本探究,跨科思考,通識教育 甲、前言 為回應近年社會發展的需要,本港政府自 2014-2015學年起資助中學推行生涯 規劃教育,旨在鼓勵中學生為未來發展作出思考及規劃(香港特別行政區政府, 2014,頁105)。過去,坊間所推行的生涯規劃普遍著重以輔導、諮商心理學(Juntunen & Even, 2012)等領域導引學生掌握個人能力、興趣與方向,而較少從職場環境、多 元系統關係等互動方面作探討(Kang & Gottfredson, 2015)。學校多以非正規課程的 輔導方式向學生傳達生涯規劃的概念,學生未必能完整和靈活性地運用跨系統知識 46 為生涯的規劃作反思準備。基於上述的觀察,2014年本會研究和設計了一系列結合 生涯規劃及跨系統議題探究教材,於通識科正規課堂上試行。下文將以 2014-2015 年度於兩所中學四班高中學生的實踐及量化與質性的行動研究數據結果為基礎,反 思以跨系統議題作生涯規劃能否有助其生涯規劃的探求。 乙、文獻回顧 從議題探究到跨科思考 Nelson(1996)指出議題探究的教學模式始於二十世紀二十年代的美國。議題 探究早期主要應用在社會學的課程上,旨在透過選取一些具爭議性的社會議題為課 程的教學探究內容,要求學生分析及評論有關議題。教學的過程並不著重學生的最 終答案,反而學生如何處理及分析議題才是箇中的關鍵。議題探究重視學生自主建 構的推論過程,一改過往囫圇吞棗、不重批判思考的教學模式,從而培育具深思熟 慮及批判思考的公民。Nelson亦指出議題探究很大程度上建基於活動為本的教學模 式,因為議題往往與個人、人文、社會科學的世界密不可分,當中的知識總是存有 一定的模糊性(fuzziness)、視野性(perspectives)及建構性(constructionist)。Hahn (1996)指出議題探究是假設了知識並不是恆久不變,由於社會上的議題日新月異, 所以在建構知識的教學過程中,教師需要建立有利於學生探究的真實情境任務及問 題為本的設計(Audet & Jordan, 2005)。假如欠缺了這個學習情境,不管教學步驟有 多仔細,學習成效都會事倍功半。 要有效實踐議題探究,需要一個具探究性、開放討論和意見表達的班房環境。 議題探究必須建基於師生間互動的基礎(Acedo & Hughes, 2014),由教師規劃搭建 鷹架,讓學生從活動、交流、探究中掌握基本技能及知識,引發學生自主建構學習 的動機、信心與情緒。而且,實踐議題探究亦需要真實的議題情境,而情境本身往 往涉及不同的層面或系統,所以學生必須運用跨系統思考,才能宏觀地審視整個社 會生態環境,多角度地掌握議題的核心或爭議點。的確,世界與事物可視為由不同 系統組成,系統與系統之間存在相互依存與相互作用的多元關係(Senge, 1990)。 跨科思考是指由一個宏觀的角度出發,了解不同系統之間互為影響的關係及概念, 並掌握當中事物轉變與模型建構的過程與規律,以梳理和解決社會各項爭議(陶兆 47 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究 輝、劉遠章,2011)。個體—環境配合(Person-Environment [P-E] fit)理論(French, Rodgers, & Cobb, 1974)假設人們尋求或營造適合個人發揮的環境,人與環境越協 調便越有成就。那是雙向互動與不斷發展的個人塑造環境,環境亦同時塑建個人 (Rounds & Tracy, 1990)的歷程。個體與環境的吻合協調能提升滿足感、效能感、 熱誠等正面效果。布朗芬布倫納(Bronfenbrenner, 1979)的生態系統理論便認為個體 成長過程受著五個系統(微系統、中間系統、外系統、宏觀系統及時間系統)關聯 套疊所影響。那可理解為個體被家庭、朋輩、學校、社區、大眾傳播媒體、法律、 多元文化等方面包圍,互動感染,朋輩、社會、國家與國際社會等之不同系統與系 統之間互相依存與作用,長遠地影響個體於社會生態環境發展。生態系統理論展示 學生個體直接與間接地受生態環境強弱大小、短期與長期所影響。因此,個體的生 涯規劃內在受個人的體質與心態、能力、個性傾向、興趣、動機與價值觀等所影響, 外在則受上述由近至遠的家庭、學校、地區性與全球化等社會生態環境所影響。 何謂生涯規劃? 隨著不同年代社會的變化,生涯規劃的概念亦不斷更新。生涯規劃可以理解為 一個深思熟慮的過程,讓人能整全規劃一生,包括生命中一些重要範疇,如工作、 學習、人際關係(梁湘明、黃美微、李淑賢、林建榮,2002)。有效的生涯規劃是一 個刻意的過程,要求當事人反省和思考,了解自己,清楚自己處身的環境和限制, 排列優次,訂出目標,並以行動實踐(梁湘明,2005)。杜威主張從體驗中學習, 提供群組學習與自主學習的機會以助個人成長。維高斯基主張鷹架學習過程,拉近 學習者個人能力與潛在發展區的距離,以助學生生涯規劃。波普(Pope, 2015)更指 出當今已發達地區數碼時代的青年學生已進入追求自身自主生命設計需求的時代, 導師若能從旁透過小故事建構導入,敘事模式的角色認同重構,與及群組互動共構 心目中的生命場景,更能導引學子有效生涯的發展。時任輔導教師協會主席徐恩祖 (星島日報,2014)也指生涯規劃不僅是傳統上輔導學生升學及就業,更重要是引 領他們規劃人生。李子建和江浩民(2015)以立體圖展示學校生涯規劃教育的模式 可分三個度向及六個維度,並建議成為下一階段學校教育變革的重心之一。教育局 生涯規劃網頁提供自我認識與發展、事業探索、生涯規劃與管理三個元素,並提出 V PASS理念,強調價值觀、技能、態度、自我了解與多元途徑的規劃路徑(教育局, 2015)。 48 基於文獻閱讀與分析,本研究教材便以上述意念設計,並作研究試行。生涯規 劃的教學不單只是教授學生具體知識,認知自己所需,更包括學生對身處現今社會、 以至國家、世界的一種洞察力掌握。 丙、課程理念及構建 《通識教育科課程及評估指引(中四至中六)》以三大範疇與六大單元內容所 組成,涵蓋生態環境理論的五個系統,與個體生涯規劃的需要息息相關,其學習模 式採用議題探究,以此作為通識教育科課程內容及教學法的主要取向(課程發展議 會、香港考試及評核局,2007)。當中,課程指引內文提及「議題」之詞更多達 209 次,可謂本科的核心所在。 基於通識教育科的教學法、P-E fit理論與及生態系統理論,本課程教材結合生 涯規劃與議題探究,並運用宏觀的個人、社會、國家與世界系統關聯概念,以及微 觀的個人及人際關係單元,作為本教材的學理基礎(附錄一圖)。課程強調議題只 是一個導引學生深化思考,從多角度考慮問題的平台,導引性建構學習過程才是關 鍵。所以,課程著重學生如何由自身個人特質與周遭不同系統動態發展,產生職業 種類的要求與變化,預測與理解人力資源於 21世紀全球化、訊息化、多元化的影 響下,如何更有效建構其生涯規劃(Kolb, 1984)。由於學生生活在香港當下獨特的 地理、經濟、文化與政治環境,課程規劃者與導師需要探究處身高素質、高開放、 高競爭的多元職場系統環境下,其價值意識當如何調適配合。例如行行出狀元、自 我潛能發揮、生命意義探求、終身學習等動力追求。當中掌握個人與集體、微觀與 宏觀、小格局與大格局、歷史文化與脈絡等多元系統思維向度與素養將有助構建有 效的生涯規劃步驟,導引學生認識個人特質(知己)、客觀掌握外在世界與職場發 展變化(知彼)、懂得反思與抉擇,從而訂立目標與作出行動,追求自主人生。 學生是社會的未來,課程的目標在提昇學生的學習動機與趣味,同時提昇其思 維素質。生涯規劃重視個人成長、生活探求、認知境況、職業定向與價值追求(見 圖一)。透過認識理解、探索發現、想像創造、感覺評價與實踐應用的建構過程, 令學生達致學會生活、學會思考、學會應用與學會尊重,知己知彼,最終成為具理 性與方向、社會觸覺與識見的生涯規劃決策者。 49 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究 圖一 生涯規劃建構學習概念圖 教學策略上,本研究設計五個以生涯規劃為主題的議題(附錄一:教學設計大 綱),配合導引問題,建構活動包涵具體豐富的教材內容,利用自我反思活動表、 群組議題探究、角色扮演、故事實例、數據訊息分析、遊戲與模擬活動過程等,加 深學生對自身的認識及影響其職業發展的因素的理解,從而梳理自身職業志趣與發 展的取向。 課程規劃圍繞自我了解與外在社會、國家、全球人力資源與行業變化為學習重 點。甲校以「掌握個人生涯規劃是避免成為隱蔽青年的最佳良方?」;乙校以「掌 握個人生涯規劃有助社會上流的機會?」主導議題作為探究主軸,並配合五個支軸 議題。第一教節提供周哈里窗(Luft & Ingham, 1955)作自我反思及同學互評、個性 特質測試(Holland, 1997)以理解個人六大職業型格傾向、職業價值標購活動反思 自身價值傾向、以短片及簡報展示馬斯洛個人成長需要(Maslow, 1954),讓學生思 考個人能力、興趣與職業價值取向(知己)。第二至四教節透過生態系統理論鷹架 僱員與僱主求職角色扮演、資歷架構層階探究、內地升學論壇與模擬全球化下企業 代表爭議利潤份額分配討論等活動。第五教節則以一個冒險尋寶藏的題材作結,旨 在協助學生開始探索出路的不同可能,並作出抉擇及行動計劃,以完善整個生涯規 劃。 50 課程應用與拓展了廣為使用的 Holland生涯類型基本理論(1959, 1973),並 將本港的資歷架構(教育局,2016)具體概念與示例,緊扣思維能力發展 Bloom Taxonomy學理(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)的應用,加入與擴充了「通達」的人 才最高階次,以吻合 21世紀社會發展人才培育與發揮的需要。人力資源傾向與生 涯規劃價值標構設計上則參考麥肯錫的 T型管理人力資源概念,提出專才型、通才 型、務實型及消遙型的類別。課程的深度與廣度互為引證,要求施教者對課程的深 度掌握與靈活應用。課程採用的人力資源特質與思維層階參考應用布魯姆教育目標 修訂分類表(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)的理論再加以變化,以顯示職場客觀規 律的特點與變化(圖二)。 圖二 人力資源概念圖 丁、研究過程與方法 本研究採用量性與質性混合模式,利用學生前後測問卷作比對,輔以最終問卷 調查作學生學習觀感分析(附錄二)。在質性方面,研究員從旁觀察與訪問不同持 分者意見(包括學生、課程施教者、課程設計者、科任教師等),並加以整理分析, 作課程成效的驗證。 七級 通達 六級 創新 五級:判斷 四級:分析 三級:應用 二級:理解 一級:記憶 表 現 能 力 及 稀 缺 度 Bloom’s Taxonomy (Revised) Anderson & Krathwohl (2011) Modified by LEUNG Lai-sim (2014) (A)通才:通達人事的規率 變化,靈活承擔與決策 (B)專才:把握某領域高深 模型規律,原創性發揮 (C)務實拼搏者:樂於接 受指導,完成指標任務 (D)消遙人:沒有能力/意 願/需要從事職場工作 中 介 者 大量及 容易 替代 稀缺及 不容易 替代 51 以跨科議題探究建構生涯規劃的行動研究 研究問題: 以議題探究為本的生涯規劃能否有效導引學生作跨系統思考? 焦點問題: 1)學生能否掌握與生涯規劃相關的基本概念? 2)課程活動有助學生對生涯規劃課程有正面的回應? 3)參與設計與施教者對課程作有效反思與回應? 研究對象: 兩所本地中學共四班中四及中五級同學(可用問卷數量 n=116)參與本 次研究。學校以第三組別收生為主體,同屬一區邀請下自願參與。參與 學生主要來自精英班。其中中四級有 101人,中五級有 25人。平均年 齡 16歲(SD=1.34)。於香港和內地出生者各佔一半。 評估方式、指標與預期成效: 預期成效 評估指標 評估方式 學生能夠掌握生涯規劃 相關的基本概念 學生前後測有(p<.01) 數據上的進步 前測及後測問卷 參與學生對整體課程有 正面的回應 學生總結性評估問卷 平均值(M>3) 學生總結性回饋問卷 參與師生對課程有正面 的回應 正面口頭或文字回饋 訪問或問題回應 戊、研究結果及分析 前後測問卷分別在活動前和完成後填寫(見附錄三)。問卷分三部分(認知6條、 情意態度 8條、行為表現 3條)。問題評分以很不同意、略不同意、無意見、略為 同意和非常同意劃分,並以 1至 5分表示。Cronbach alpha信度測試顯示三部分有 良好信度(認知α=.79,情意態度α=.75,行為表現α=.82)。另外,總結性問卷有 10條問題,讓學生對課程作 1至 5分的評分。 下文將以SPSS(見表一及表二)及百分率(見附錄四)數據作相關分析的佐證, 藉以論證生涯規劃議題探究能否有效導引學生作跨系統思考。 52 表一